-

. .

2003
 517(075.8)
1673-1

. . , . 1.
: . / . . -. -
, 2001. 112 .

1@- -
,

.

. .

c
, 2003


.................................................... 8
0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
0.0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
, , . .
. . -
.
0.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
. -
; ; ;
. . -
. . -
. . -
. ; -
. ;
. .
.
.
0.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
; . -
; ; -
; . -
. , , -
. .
; .
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
. -
. .
. -
.
(). . ()
, -
. -
. ; -
. -
; -
.

3
 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
.
1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
. -
. (-
). "". -
. . () ; -
. -
. 1/ns .
. . -
.
. ; ;
. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
; ;
. e.
. -
.
2. ............................... 35
2.1. lim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
-
. . -
. . -
. -
(). (). -
(). -
, .
. .
2.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
; -
.
3. ........................ 45
3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
. -
. -
. .
. -
. .

4
 3.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
.
. -
. .
3.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

xn n x. .
; loga . sin arcsin;
cos arccos; tan arctan .
4. ........... 51
4.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
; .
. ; -
.
; -
.
. . -
. -
. .
( ). -
. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
. -
. ; -
; .
; .
.
4.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
. -
. -
.
4.3. . . . . . . . . . 65
. -
. -
. . -
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
-
. -

5
 ; . -
. " " .
- . . -
.
- .
4.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
( ). -
. . -
.
; .
.
5.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
( ); ;
- (-). -
. .
. -
(). .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
. -
. -
. eq .
5.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
. . -
. -
. .
. ;
-; .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
- ; ; -
; .
-. .
6. - . . . . . . 98
m
R . () -
; ; -
. .

6
 , , -
, . ;
. ;
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
. .
. -
.
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

7


, - -
.
-
:
1. -

.
2. , -
.
"" -
, .

, -
.
.
-
- .

- .. , -
-
.
. .
-
.

8
 0.

0.0.
,
. ().
().
, , -
, -
. -
, -
. ,
, , . .
.
X = Y := X Y. ":=" "
() ", " " . .
a < b := a b.
a b := a b.
x M := x M.
x, y, z S := x, y, z S.
A B := A B.
! X X X.
V W , -
:
V W := V W := V W ;
V W := (V W ) (W V ) := V ,
W := V () W ;
V W ;
V W ;
eV := V ;
x M V := () x M -
V ;
x S V := () x S, -
V .
:
? ,
x2 + y 2 .
, , -
.
.

9
 , -
, , , ,
, -
, (),
. , ,
()
. ,
M,
. -
, M.
:
0, 1, 2, . . . ;
= 3, 1415 . . . ;
:= ;
N := := {0, 1, 2, . . . };
R := ;
R+ := ;
Q := .
-
x, y, z, t, . . . , X, Y, . . .
, -
,
. ,
ax2 + bx + c, , a, b, c , x
.
.
{a, b, c, . . . } := , , -
.
! x S, {x} S, x 6= {x}.
{x M : W } := (, x -
M, W ).
(x, y) := ( x y, x -
, y ).
X Y := X Y.
A B := A B.
S \ T := {s S : s / T } := S T.
X Y := {(x, y) : x X, y Y } := X
Y.
. X -
y ,

10
 X Y. ,

X Y x X x Y.

(.) . -
M.
.

X = Y (X Y Y X).

(.)
:
, ,
. , ":="
n
P P
"=" , k k .
k=0

0.1.
R :
1) + ;
2) ;
3) .
:
1) x y
x + y := x y;
2) x y
x y := x y;
3) x y , -
x y.
-
( ).
, -
. , "
" .
. -
.
z z 0 := 1, z 1 := z, . . . , z n := zz n1 , . . . .
n n! (
"n-") 1, . . . , n. :
0! := 1, 1! := 1, . . . , n! := ((n 1)!) n.

11
 -
, "" " -
", R := R{, }
. , x x R. -
R :
+ , + (), ,
0, 0, 0 , 0 ().
1 1
, , = = 0.
x R sign x, -
:

1 , x > 0
sign x = 0 , x = 0 .
1 , x < 0

( ) x R -
|x| := x sign x. x, y, R, |x y|
x y.
, x R a b,
a x b, a x b. , -
a, b R, a b [a, b].
]a, b[ := [a, b] \ {a, b} ,
[a, b[:= [a, b] \ {b} ]a, b] := [a, b] \ {a} -
.
<, , a b a < b.
T R ,
x y [x, y],
. , -
.
, u R S R
(), u S, u s s S. -
, h R S R (),
S h, s h s S.
S R , -
u, h R, u S h.
h R S R,
h , S
.
u R S R,
u , S
.

12
 .
.
S sup S (supremum), -
inf S (infimum).
, h = sup S 1)S h 2) r R,
S ,
h r. 2
: r R (S r h r).
0. inf[a b] = a, sup[a b] = b.
1. A B R sup A sup B, inf A inf B.
2. sup N = .
3. > 0 n,
0 < 1/n < . : > 0 n N | 0 < 1/n < .
4. T , inf T , sup T
.
5. inf S sup S?
6. inf =? sup =?
7.
, , .
: -
S .
J u = inf S. 0 S 6= , u R+ , ,
u + 1 > u = inf S. S m,
u m < u + 1. , m
S. , , . S
k, u k < m < u + 1. , 0 < m k < 1,
. . m k . ! I
. 1.
.
2. . 0 < x < y < ,
n, nx y < (n + 1)x.
3. -
.
. -
n W (n) -
:
a) W (0) ;
b) n N W (n + 1)
W (n).
W (n) n N.

13
 J S n,
W (n) . , S . -
, . S . -
m. , W (0)
. m 1 , , -
. , m 1 < m m 1 / S.
, W (m 1) , ,
W (m). m / S. m = min S S. I
. n
x, y
n
X
(x + y)n = Cnk xk y nk ,
k=0

n!
Cnk = k!(nk)! = n(n1)...(nk+1)
k! . Cnk -
. nk .

.
M ,
, .
J I M ai
, bi .
A , B -

T . := sup A, := inf B
X := I M. ,
IM
X = [, ].
I, J M , aI J . -
, bJ A
bJ J M, .. B ,
, .
, [, ] X. [, ], I M
ai bi , ,
, i M.
X [, ] -
. I
. -
.
"".

]0, 1] ]0, 1/2] . . . ]0, 1/n]

14
 .
S R diam S :=
:= sup{|x y| : x, y S}.
. 1. S R diam S < .
2. a < b, diam ]a, b[= b a.
p R
]p , p + [, > 0.
- p. (
) ]r < ]
( [ < r[).
U R p R,
.
, ]a, b[ ]r, ] -
,
"" .
p R -
N (p).
R.
0. .
1. -
.
2. , , -
.
3. p R
.
4. -
.
0.2.
, f X Y ,
f : X Y, x X
(, , . .) y = f (x)
Y . : x X
(, , . .) y = f (x) Y .
X Y ,
X Y .
, -
:
1) f : X Y ;
2) f X Y ;

15
 3) f X Y ;
4) f Y - X;
5) x X ! y = f (x) Y (! := ).
f : X Y .
1. X () -
f Dom f (Domain).
2. Y -
f .
3. f (x) x
f f x. ,
f x f (x) x f (x), x 7 f (x).
f (x) f |x
fx .
4. S f (S),
S X, . .
f (S) := {f (x) Y : x SX}. f (X)
f.
-
, . . f (X) 6= Y. f (X) -
f,
Y.
5. y f
f 1 (y) := {x X : y = f (x)}.
6. T f
f 1 (T ) := {x X : f (x) T }.
7. f := {(x, y) X Y : x X, y = f (x)}
() f.
f, :
1) Dom f ;
2) ;
3) y = f (x), . . ,
f (x) x Dom f.
, cos : R R cos : R [1, 1]
.
, -
, -
"f : X Y " " f ", "-
f (x)", " y = f (x)". x
X = Dom f.

16
 x , -
Dom f .
x X.
f (x). , x
y .
: A B
f : X Y , A X, B Y (x) = f (x) x A.
: A B f : A B. f : A Y
f |A . -
f : A B f : S T, ,
f : X Y .
f : X Y :
f = const, f (p) = f (q) p, q X;
, ;
"", f (X) = Y ;
, ;
, Y = X f (x) = x x X. -
X -
idX .
. 1. sign x [, 0[.
2. cos : R R .
3. cos : [0, ] R , .
4. cos : R [1, 1] , .
5. cos : [0, ] [1, 1] .
6. .
.
N0 := , N1 := {1}, N2 := {1, 2}, . . . , Nk := {1, . . . , k}, . . . .
M S , (-
) : Nk S. k (-
) S.
. 1. -
.
2. -
() .
f : X Y g : T U -
g f, :
Dom g f := {x X : f (x) T };

17
g f |x := g(f (x)) x Dom g f ;
g f U .
.
1. : h (g f ) = (h g) f.
2. f : X Y idY f = f idX = f.
f : X Y ,
g : Y X, g f = idX f g = idY . -
g f
f 1 .
f 1 -
f.
f 1 , f .
.
f : X Y , .
:
sin : [ 2 , 2 ] [1, 1],
cos : [0, ] [1, 1],
tan : ] 2 , 2 [ R,
2x : R ]0, [.
arcsin, arccos, arctan, log2 .
. 1. M X Y
f : X Y x X ! y Y | (x, y) M.
2. f : X Y : X Y
Y X, (x, y) = (y, x),
f (f ),
g : Y X. f g .

18
 1.
1.1.
S
x : M S, M Z. n M
xn , x(n), n- -
.
, -
x : {k, k + 1, k + 2, . . . } S, k N, "-
xk , xk+1 , . . . , xn , . . . " " xn ",
n .
. ,
xn ( ) a R n, -
, xn a |n xn a,
n
U a m N,
n m xn U.
U N (a) m N | n m xn U.
a xn
n lim xn .
n
"n " , ,
, , .
. xn a xn b,
a = b.
J U V a b -
. , -
m1 m2 , xn U n m1 xn V
n m2 . n - ,
T m1 m2 , -
n = max(m1 , m2 ). xn U V. ,
a b , , a = b,
R -
. I
xn ( -
), m, n N m < n
xm xn (xm > xn ).
. -
.
-
.

19
 .

.
J xn X := {x0 , x1 ,
. . . , xn , . . . }. , h = sup X
.
h = , xn = h n N xn h.
h > U h.
U [r < h]. r < h = sup X,
m N, r < xm .
xn . n m xm xn h ,
, xn [r, h] U.
xn , -
inf X . I
n N (n) (-
, xn U ). , (n) n,
, (n) n,
: (n) |n ((n))n , m,
n, m, (n),
. .
m N | n m (n).

(n)|n .
(n) , , =, .., -
n .
. 0. (n) -
n N, (n) |n .
1. (2n > 109 ) |n . m N, ,
?
2. xn = yn xn a, yn a.
n
3. xn a U N (a) xn U.
n
(). xn yn
, xn a, yn b.
1) a < b, xn < yn |n ;
2) xn yn |n , a b.
J 1) a < b c - ]a < b[. -
U := [, c[ V :=]c, ] a
b . xn a, yn b,
m1 , m2 , xn U n m1 , yn V n m2 .

20
, n max(m1 , m2 )
xn < yn , .. xn < yn .
n
2) xn yn n, m1 . ,
b < a. 1) yn < xn |n , . .
m2 , yn < xn n m2 . ,
m := max(m1 , m2 )
xm ym ym < xm . ! , a b. I
. R xn , -
, , . . (c R | |xn | < c n N).
().

xn , un , vn , (xn [un , vn ])n

lim un = lim vn = a. a = lim xn .
J U a V -
(,
), U.
, ,
m1 , m2 , m3 , :
1) xn [un , vn ] n m1 ;
2) un V n m2 ;
3) vn V n m3 .
, n max(m1 , m2 , m3 )
. ,
V, n xn [un , vn ] V U. I
(). xn
.
1) xn a R > 0 |xn a| |n ;
2) xn t R t xn ;
n
3) xn t R (xn t)n .
J 1) , xn a R > 0 (
). U := [a, a+
+] a,
(xn U )n . (|xn a| )n .
, > 0 -
|xn a| |n , U N (a) (U -
a). > 0, U := [a
, a + ] U. , (xn U )n . -
, xn U U. U
n
a, xn a.

21
 2) , xn t R.
Vt := [t, ] , xn Vt . -
n
xn t.
n
, t R -
xn t. U
n
. t R, Vt :=]t, ] U.
, xn Vt U.
n
U , xn .
3) . I
. -
< .
. 1. xn a R |xn a| 0.
2. xn a, |xn | |a|.
.
: xn a, yn b a+b , xn +yn
a + b. ( : -
.)
J a, b R > 0. ,

|xn + yn (a + b)| |xn a| + |yn b| + .
n 2 2
xn + yn a + b.
, b = , a > . t R c ] , a[.
xn a, yn , xn > c
n
yn > t c. , xn + yn > c + (t c) , , xn + yn
n n
= a + b.
a = , b < . I
(). -
-
: xn , yn
, xn yn 0.
.
: xn a, yn b -
a b , xn yn a b. ( :
.)
J a, b R, |xn yn ab| = |(xn a)yn + a(yn b)|
(|xn a||yn | + |a||yn b|) 0 ( ?).
n
|xn yn ab| 0 , , xn yn ab.

22
 , b = , a > 0. t R c ]0, a[.
xn a, yn , xn > c yn > ct .
n n
, xn yn > c ct = t , , xn yn = ab.
n
. I
. -
: xn a 6= 0, xn 6= 0 |n
1 1
xn a . ( : -
.)
J c ]0, |a|[. |xn | |a|, |xn | > c.
n
, xn
n, ax1n .
|a| < ,
 1 1  1
= |a xn | 0

xn a |axn |

n

.
|a| = , ]0, [ |xn | > 1/ ,
n
, |1/xn | < . I
n

xn
(xnk | k N), (nk | k N)
, .
. -
.
J xnk - -
xn , a = lim xn U N (a). xn a|n ,
n
m, xn U n m. nk |k ,
j, nk m k j. ,
xnk U k j , , a = lim xnk . I
k
a R
xn , a xnk -
xn .
.
xn
, -
, R -
.
J n N Xn := {xn , xn+1 , . . . }=(n-

23
) vn := sup Xn . Xn Xn+1 , -
vn h R.
h = , xn vn h, xn h. -
, h -
.
h > , uk < h,
h k . uk < h vk = sup Xk , uk -
Xk k N
xnk Xk , unk < h nk k. xnk h |k ,
. . h xn .
, a - -
xnk . xnk Xnk , xnk vnk k N.
, a lim vnk = h. I
k


.
R -
.
() -
xn R ()
lim xn ( lim xn )
n n
lim sup xn (lim inf xn ).
n n
. 1. lim sup xn = inf{c R : (xn c)n }.
n
2. xn R
, lim inf xn = lim sup xn . lim xn = lim inf xn .
. xn R -
( R) ,
:

> 0 m N  (k, l N (l k m |xk xl | ))


( > 0 m, -
k l, m,
|xk xl | .)
J , xn a R, > 0.
|xn a| 2 , . . m N | n m |xn a| 2 .
n

|xk xl | |xk a| + |a xl | 2 + 2 k, l m.

24
 , xn -
. -
xnk , a R.
> 0 m , |xi xj | i, j m.
nk |k , z, nk m
k z. n m k z
|xnk xn | . xnk a,
k
|a xn | . , a R, xn , R.
n m,
xn a R. I
n
,
, diam Xm , Xm = {xm , xm+1 , . . . }.
:
diam Xm 0
n

( xn ). -
, , -
.

.
.
,
. ,
, ,
> 0 |n n | < .
n
( ) -
[] := { : }.
R
, -
. x y -
. x y
x + y = [ + ] x y := [ ]. , ,
x y, x y,
n n n N.
. 0.
, .. , .
1. + , . .
x y x, y R.

25
 2. (R, +, , )
, 0.2.

1.2.
. , -
, f (x) = ax . -
, -
, . .
X
ax = q0 + q1 x + . . . + qn xn + . . . = qn xn .
n0

( , ,
.)
, a0 = 1, a1 = a, a2x = ax ax

X
X
X X
i xi j xj = n xn , n = i j ,
i0 j0 n0 i+j=n

-
qnP
:
qn = a, qn 2n =
P
q0 = 1, qi qj .
n0 i+j=n
, , -
:
(q1 )n X (q1 )n
q0 = 1, qn = , = a.
n! n!
n0

, -
:
1. ?
2. ?
3. q0 , q1 ,
P
, ax = qn xn ?
n0
, -
. -
.
2 3 P xn
(1) ex = 1 + x + x2! + x3! + . . . = n! x R,
n0

26
 1
P
e := n! = 1 + 1 + 1/2! + 1/3! + . . . .
n0
2 4
(2) cos x = 1 x2! + x4! . . . x R.
3 5
(3) sin x = x x3! + x5! . . . x R.
3 5
(4) arctan x = x x3 + x5 . . . x [1, 1].
, 4 = 1 31 + 15 . . . .
2 3
(5) .. ln(1 + x) = x x2 + x3 . . . x ] 1, 1]
(6) :
(1 + x)s = 1 + sx + s(s1)
2! x +
2 s(s1)(s2) 3
3! x + . . . x ] 1, 1[, s 0,
x [1, 1], s N, x R.
, -
(, -
), ""
"".

: " = (n | nP N)", " n ", " n ",
" 0 + 1 + . . . ", " n ".
n0
k
P
k () = n k- ,
n=0
k k- . k ()
k , -
:

P P P
n , n , n .
n=0 n0 nN
P
" n=0 n " ,
.
. (n 0) ,
, .
J
. I
, ,
.
. -
: , n 0.
P n
J s = k := lim n (). n = n () n1 ()
kN
s s = 0. I
. 1. (z n | n N) -

27
 . P ,
|z| < 1. z n = (1 z)1 .
n0
J z n , z n 0 , , |z| < 1.
|z| < 1,
k
X 1 z k+1 1
zn = .I
n=0
1 z k 1 z

1 1 1
2. 1 + 2 + 3 +...+ n + . . . ,
n1 0 |n .
J
n
X 1 X1 1 1 1 1 1  1 1
= 1+ + + + +. . .+ +. . .+ n1 +. . .+ n
k k 2 3 4 5 8 2 +1 2
k=1 k=1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1+ + + + + ... + + ... + n + ... + n =
2 4 4 8 8 2 2
1 2 4 2n1 n
=1+ + + + ... + n n N. I
2 4 8 2 2

.
3. 1 + 21s + . . . + n1s + . . . < , s > 1.
n
1 n+1
P
J n := ks nj := 2 1. ,
k=1
nj . (?)
1 1 1 1  1 1
:nj = 1 + + + + . . . + + . . . + + . . . +
2s 3s 4s 7s 2ns nsj
1 1 1 1  1 1 
1+ s
+ s + s + . . . + s + . . . + ns + . . . + ns =
2 2 4 4 2 2
2 4  2n 
= 1 + s + s + . . . + ns =
2 4 2
 1   1 2  1 n X
1
= 1+ s1 + s1 +. . .+ s1 (21s )k = < . I
2 2 2 1 21s
k=0
P s
. n s -
n1
(s).

28
 4. x , -
,
x . P P
5. , | Pn| |n |. P P
6. , (n +n ) = n + n
, R.
.
,
l
X
> 0 m N | k, l N (l k m | n | ).
n=k

J -
. I
. -
, (|n | n )n , . :
, , .
J

P . I
|n | < ,
(). -
.
. p , p -
< 1, n |n | . n |n | 1,
n n
.
J n -
Cn ,
. I
. , -
< 1, ||n+1
n|
|
. ||n+1
n|
|
1,
n n
.
J -
m, ||n+1 n|
|
n m.
n |n+1 | |n | . . . nm |m | = cn .
.

. I
. 1. .
?

29
 2.
p
lim sup n |n | < 1,
n
lim sup ||n+1
n|
|
< 1.
n
3. n := n(ln1n)s , -
s > 1. (:
.)
4. Csn := s(s1)...(sn+1)
n!
a) , s 0,
b) , s < 1
c) , , s ] 1, 0[.
5. ||n1
n|
n
P
| |n | < , -
n n1 n
.
. ( .) -
, < 1, ||n1
n|
| 1 n1 n ln

n.
n
|n |
|n1 | 1 n1 n ln
1
P
n , |n | = .
n
. un ,
, u0 u1 + u2 . . . ,
X
(1)k uk [un , un+1 ].
kn

n
(1)k uk . [0, s0 ] [s0 , s1 ] [s1 , s2 , ] . . . .
P
J sn :=
k=0
, Sn := {sn , sn+1 , . . . } [sn1 , sn ]
diam Sn |sn sn1 | = |un | 0, .. sn -
s R, -
. , s -
. , s [s0 , s1 ] = [u0 , u0 u1 ] [u0 , 0]. I
-
.
. uk . . . ul 0,
vk , . . . , vl
l
X j
X
| un vn | uk h, h := sup{| vn | : j {k, . . . , l}}.
n=k n=k

j
P
J j {k, . . . , l} sj = vn . ,
n=k

30
 , sk1 = 0.

|uk vk + . . . + ul vl | = |uk (sk sk1 ) + . . . + ul (sl sl1 )| =

= |(uk uk+1 )sk + . . . + (ul1 ul )sl1 + ul sl |

(|uk uk+1 | + . . . + |ul1 ul | + |ul |)h =
= (uk uk+1 + . . . + ul1 ul + ul )h = uk h. I
. un
, , -
vn , un vn -
.
J
j
P
un vn . > 0. j N sj = vn
n0
h , |sn | < h n N.
un , m,

0 un 2h n m.
j
P
l k > m. | vn | = |sj sk1 | 2h
n=k
l
P
j k, | un vn | uk 2h . I
n=k
.
:

X j
X
| un vn | uk sup{| vn | : j k}.
nk n=k

n1
. an = (1)n , cn (t) = cosnnt
sn (t) = sinnnt , (t ]0, [), , .
PJ 1) ,
|n | = .
2) , cos nt sin nt -
. .
t R z(t) = cos t + i sin t C.
, , z(0) = 1, z(t) = z(t)
z(t + u) = z(t)z(u) ( ).
-
, cos t = Re z(t) = (

31
z(t)), sin t = Im z(t) = ( z(t)). -
: (z(t))n = z(nt), 1 = z(t)z(t) = z(t)z(t) = |z(t)|2 = cos2 t + sin2 t,
cos 2t = cos2 t sin2 t.
z := z(t), t ]0, 2[. z 6= 1

k k  z(1 z k ) 
X X 2
| z(nt)| = | zn| =   .
 
n=1 n=1
1 z |1 z|
k k k
2
P P P
, | cos nt| = | Re z(nt)| |1z| | sin nt| =
n=1 n=1 n=1
k
2
P
= | Im z(nt)| |1z| k > 0.
n=1
cosnnt sinnnt
t ]0, 2[.
3) t ]0, [. , cn (t) sn (t)
, ,
X cos2 nt X sin2 nt
= = ,
n n
n1 n1
2 2
| cos | cos , |sin| sin . ,
X cos2 nt X sin2 nt X1
+ = = .
n
n n
n n
n

, .
cos2 ntsin2 nt = cos 2nt, cosn2nt . 2) ,
P . I
( . (1)n+1 /n = ln 2. ,
n1

P sin nt , ,
t
n = 2 t ]0, 2[.)
n1

. x [0, 1], :
k
 X x2n  |x|2k+2
 cos x (1)n  ,

n=0
(2n)! (2k + 2)!

k
 X x2n+1  |x|2k+3
sin x (1)n  ,

(2n + 1)! (2k + 3)!

n=0

32
 k
 X x2n+1  |x|2k+3
 arctan x (1)n  ,

n=0
2n + 1 2k + 3
k
 X xn  xk+1
 ln(1 + x) (1)n1  .
 
n=1
n k+1

. = (i |
i N) ,
 = (j | j N) ,
P
= (k := i j  k N)

i+j=k
X X  X 
k = i j .
k0 i0 j0

. ( )
.
J ,
 X  X  X 
zn :=  i j k 
 
in j0 kn

.
n
X X 
An = |i |, Bn =  j ,
 
i>n j>n

Cn = sup{Bn , Bn+1 , . . . }, [n/2] := max{k N : k n/2}

, an , Bn , Cn ,
[n/2] .
X X
k = i j =
kn i+jn
X X X X
= i j = i j ,
in jni in jni
X X X X 
zn =  i j i j  =
 
in j0 in jni
X X X   X X 
= i j j  =  i j 
   
in j0 jni in j>ni

33
 X  X  X X
|i |  j  = |i |Bni = |i |Bni +
 
in j>ni in i[n/2]
n
X X n
X
+ |i |Bni |i |C[n/2] + |i |C0
i=[n/2]+1 i[n/2] i>[n/2]

(A0 C[n/2] + A[n/2] C0 ) 0

n
. I
(1)n
"". n = n = n+1
n N.
, , ,
, .

n
1. . zn! | n N -

z R. ,
P
zn
z R n! , exp z. -
n0
exp 1 e . 3.3
ax a , exp x = ex .
1) : exp(x+y) = (exp x)(exp y)
x, y.
J -
( 0.1). I
2) exp x x
.
J x > 0, exp x > 1. 1 = exp 0 = exp(x x) =
= (exp x)(exp(x)), exp x > 0 x R.
x < y, exp(y x) > 1, exp x < (exp x) exp(y x) =
= exp y. I
2. :
n
 X z j  |z|n+1 n + 2 |z|
 exp z  , < 1.

j=0
j! (n + 1)! n + 1 k+2

3. e .
P e = p/q, p, q N. n N
J ,
rn = n!q(e 1/j!) . , rn 1
jn
n N.
2
, rn n!q (k+1)! 0. ! I
n
1873 . , e , . .
.

34
 . 0. e = 2, 718281828459045 . . . .
k, k- -

P j! e?
1. = 10 = 0, 1100010 . . . -
j0
. .
. A(x)
P j! s,
A() = 0, xn := 10 B(x) , A(x) = (x
jn
)B(x) ( ). |xn | 2 10(n+1)
1 10n!s |A(xn )| = |xn ||B(xn )| 0. !
n n

2. , zn
z C |zn z| 0.
a) :
xn + iyn a + ib xn a yn b.

b)
,
,
 n   .
z 
, n!  n N -
z C. , z C
, exp z, -
ez .

eix = cos x + i sin x ( ).
2.
, 3 6 S, T, . . . , Z -
R, "" -
" f : X Y ",
.
2.1. lim.
, p R -
S p S, V p
S, . .
V N (p) V S 6= .

35
 S S -
.
. 0. S
, . . S S.
1. N. ]a < b[ = [a, b]. Q = R. = .
2. S T S T .
3. :
1) p S;
2) sn S,
p;
3) V N (p) p S V .
, p -
S. : S = N, p = ; S
, p S.
. ,
f (x) a R x, p -
S, f (x) a |xp|S f (x) a,
xp|S

U N (a) V N (p)  x S V f (x) U.


a f (x) x, -
p S, lim f (x).
xp|S
. ( 1.1.)
, . .
xn a |n xn a |n|N .
. f (x) a |xp|S
f (x) b |xp|S , a = b.
J U V a b -
. , -
W1 W2 p, : 1) f (x) U x S W1
2) f (x) V x S W2 .
p S, -
W := W1 W2 S. x
. 1) 2) f (x) U V.
, a b ,
, a = b. I
, f ( )
S, x, y S, x < y,

36
f (x) f (y) (f (x) > f (y)).
. , (-
) S.
.
. f
S,
p / S, x p|S. :
1) f S S < p, f (x) sup f (S);
xp|S
2) f S S < p, f (x) inf f (S);
xp|S
3) f S p < S, f (x) sup f (S);
xp|S
4) f S p < S, f (x) inf f (S).
xp|S
J 1) h = sup f (S).
h = , f (x) = h x S f (x) h.
h > U h.
U ]r < h].
r < h = sup f (S), s S, r < f (s).
V =]s, ]. s < p, V p.
f (x) S. x S V
r < f (s) f (x) h , , f (x) [r, h] U, ...
2) - 4) . I
x M -
(x). M
Dom . -
M
Mt := {x M : (x) } Mf := {x M : (x) }. -
"(x) x Z" ,
Z Mt .
, (x) x,
p S, ((x))xp|S (x) |xp|S ,
p V, (x) x S V.
S
p. x p|S
, (x).
. 0. (x)
x S, (x) |xp|S .
1. (x)
n (n) |n ( 1.1.), (n) |n|N .

37
 2. |x| 109 . ex > x100 |x|R .
x0|R
3. :
f (x) a U N (a) f (x) U.
xp|S xp|S

f (x) a, lim (x) |xp|S , x p|S

xp|S xp|S
:
x p, , S = (Dom f ) \ {p}
S = (Dom ) \ {p};
x % p, S =] , p[ Dom f S =] , p[ Dom ;
x & p, S =]p, [ Dom f S =]p, [ Dom .
, ex = 0, lim x2 = , lim sign x = 1, x2 < x.
x x0 x%0 x&0
S = N,
n, k, i, j, x, y . . . ,, n |N
n .
,
p|S , ,
p S.
(). f
g , f (x) a |xp|S , g(x) b |xp|S .
1) a < b, f (x) < g(x);
xp|S
2) f (x) g(x), a b.
xp|S
J 1) a < b c - ]a < b[. -
U := [, c[ V :=]c, ]
a b . f (x) a, g(x) b,
W1 W2 p,
a) f (x) U x S W1 ,
b) g(x) V x S W2 .
x S W1 W2 a)
b), f (x) < c < g(x). ,
x W1 W2 p -
f (x) < g(x).
2) f (x) g(x) -
xp|S
W1 p, f (x) g(x) x S W1 . ,
b < a. 1), g(x) < f (x) |xp|S , . .
W2 , g(x) < f (x) x S W2 . p
S, W := W1 W2

38
 q S.
f (q) g(q) g(q) < f (q). ! ,
a b. I
().
f, u v ,

f (x) [u(x), v(x)], lim u(x) = a = lim v(x),

xp|S xp|S xp|S

a = lim f (x).
xp|S
J U a V -
, U (,
).
, , -
W1 , W2 , W3 p, :
1) f (x) [u(x), v(x)], x S W1 ;
2) u(x) V x S W2 ;
3) v(x) V x S W3 .
W := W1 W2 W3 . 1) 3) -
x S W . -
V x S W
f (x) [u(x), v(x)] V U. , f (x) U,
xp|S
W p. I
sin x
: 1.
x x0
J O , A, B ,
AB x < /2, C oA,
[O, a] [B, C] . OBA,
OBA OBC , , sin2 x , x2 ,
tan x
2 . x [0, /2[ sin x < x < tan x.
2
1 cos x = 1 2 sin2 ( x2 ) > 1 x2 1,
x0
cos x 1.
x0
sin x
1 x > cos x 1.
x0
. I
(). -
f : X R :
1) f (x) a R > 0 |f (x) a| |f (x) a| 0;
xp|S xp|S xp|S

39
2) f (x) |xp|S t R t f (x);
xp|S
3) f (x) |xp|S t R f (x) t.
xp|S
J
. -
< . 1) , f (x) a R, > 0. -
U := [a , a + ]
a, f (x) U .
xp|S
|f (x) a| .
xp|S
, > 0 -
|f (x) a| , U N (a). a R,
xp|S
> 0, U := [a , a + ] U.
, f (x) U U, ...
xp|S
2) , f (x) t R.
Vt := [t, ] ,
(f (x) Vt ). f (x) t.
xp|S xp|S
, t R -
f (x) t. U -
xp|S
t R ,
Vt :=]t, ] U. , f (x) Vt U,
xp|S
...
3) . I
. 1. f (x) a, |f (x)| |a|.
xp|S xp|S
2. f (x) x p|S,
x p|S, . .

c R | |f (x)| < c.
xp|S

(, tan u u 0.)
.
: f (x) a, g(x) b a + b ,
xp|S xp|S
f (x) + g(x) a + b.
xp|S
J a, b R > 0. |f (x) a| < /2
xp|S

40
|g(x) b| < /2. ,
xp|S

|f (x) + g(x) (a + b)| |f (x) a| + |g(x) b| + .
xp|S 2 2

f (x) + g(x) a + b.
, b = , a > . t R c ] , a[.
f (x) a, g(x) , f (x) > c,
xp|S
g(x) > t c. , f (x) + g(x) > c + t c , ,
xp|S xp|S
f (x) + g(x) = a + b.
a = , b < . I
.

: x p|S f (x) ,
g(x) , f (x)g(x) 0.
xp|S
.
: f (x) a, g(x) b
xp|S xp|S
ab , f (x)g(x) ab.
xp|S
J a, b R, f (x)g(x)ab = (f (x)a)g(x)+a(g(x)b) 0
xp|S
( ?). f (x)g(x) ab.
, b = , a > 0. t R c ]0, a[.
f (x) a, g(x) ,
f (x) > c g(x) > ct . , f (x)g(x) > c ct = t , -
xp|S xp|S xp|S
,
f (x)g(x) = ab.
. I
.
: f (x) a 6= 0,
xp|S
1
a1 .
f (x) xp|S

J c ]0, |a|[. |f (x)| |a|, |f (x)| >

xp|S
1 1 1
c. , |f (x)| < c, . . f (x)
xp|S
x p|S.

41
 |a| < ,
 1 1  1
= |a f (x)| 0

f (x) a |af (x)|

xp|S

.
, |a| = , > 0.
|f (x)| > 1 | f (x)
1 1
| < . , f (x) 0 = 1/a. I
xp|S xp|S

().
f : X Y : X Z
: Z Y (f = ), (x) q, (z) a.
xp|S zq|Z
f (x) a.
xp|S
J U a.
(z) a, q V,
zq|Z
() (z) U z V Z.
(x) q, (X) Z, p
xp|S
W, x S W (x) V f (x) Z, . .
f (x) V Z. () x V S
f (x) = ((x)) U. I
. 0. -
.
1. x p|S z q|Z  -

x p z q. : (x) = x sin x1 
x X =]0, [, (z) = sign z z Z = [0, [, Y = R, p = q = a = 0,
(x) 0, (z) 0, f (x) := ((x))
x0 z0
x 0.
. f (x)
x, p S Dom f,
, sn S, p,
f (sn ) ( ).
sn
lim f (sn ) = lim f (x).
n xp|S
J , f (x) a |xp|S . sn -
S, p := -
, U a.
V p, f (V S) U, -
m, sn V S n m. ,
f (sn ) U n.

42
 , . sn
- a = lim f (sn ). ,
n
a = lim f (tn ) tn . -
n
s0 , t0 , . . . , sk , tk , . . .
n- rn . rn
f (rn ) , , -
f (r2n ) = f (sn ) f (r2n+1 ) = f (tn ) .
, f (x) a. U N (a).
xp|S
V p, f (x) U
x V S. , , , . .
V p t V S, f (t)
U.
V0 . . . Vn . . . -
p, p
Vn ( -
). n
tn Vn S, f (tn )
/ U. ,
tn S f (tn ) a. , f (tn ) U. -
xp|S
, f (tn )
/ U n N. . I
. 0. -
.
1. f , T, p T.
f (x) a f (x) a f (x) a.
xp x&p x%p
2. 1 (x), . . . , k (x), (x) ,
a) i (x)|xp|S i{1 . . . , k}
b) x, i (x),
(x). |xp|S .
( " "
. ?)
3. -
?
2.2.
, f (x) -
g(x) x, p S,
f (x) = o(g(x)), > 0
xp|S
|f (x)| |g(x)|. -
xp|S

43
 , f (x) - g(x) x p|S.
, f (x) - g(x) x, -
p S, f (x) = O(g(x)),
xp|S
C R, |f (x) | C|g(x)|.
xp|S
, f (x) g(x)
x, p S, f (x) g(x),
xp|S
f (x) g(x) = o(g(x)).
xp|S
. 1. k < n, xn = o(xk ), xk = o(xn );
x0 x
xn = o(ex ),
x
2. g(x) 6= 0.
xp|S

f (x)
f (x) = o(g(x)) 0;
g(x)
f (x)
1;
f (x) g(x)
g(x)
f (x) f (x)
f (x) = O(g(x)) = O(1)
g(x) g(x)
x p|S.
, , = o, = O,
x p|S, .
(x).

1) f (x) g(x) (x),
xp|S
1 x p|S, f (x) = (x)g(x).
xp|S
J . f g. x f (x)/g(x)
, (x) = f (x)/g(x), , , (x) = 1.
, 1.
> 0 V p,
x V S |f (x) g(x)| |g(x)|. x V S , -
f /g ,
 f (x) g(x) 
|(x) 1| =   .
 
g(x)
x , |(x) 1| = 0 .

44
 . , , 1),
|f g| = | 1||g| = (g). I
xp|S xp|S
2) , -
: f f ; f g g f ; f g h f h;
3) f1 g1 f2 g2 f1 f2 g1 g2 ;
4) f g a f a
.
1. f = o(g) f = O(g). f g f = O(g).
2. (f = o(g), g = O(h)) f = o(h).
3. (f = O(g), g = o(h)) f = o(h).
4. (f1 = o(g1 ), f2 = O(g2 )) f1 f2 = o(g1 g2 ).
5. (f1 = o(g1 ), f2 = o(g2 )) f1 + f2 = o(|g1 | + |g2 |).
6. x 0 P (x)
, x .
7. ex (+ . . . + x7 /7!) x8 /8! .
x0
8. cos x (1 x2 /2) x4 /4! .
x0
9. sin x (x x3 /3!) x5 /5! .
x0
10. ln(1 + x) (x x2 /2) x3 /3 .
x0
11. arctan x (x x3 /3) x5 /5 .
x0

3.

3.1.
, f : X Y p X,
f (x) f (p). f : X Y ,
xp|X
X.
,
.
f : X Y p X ,
 
U N (f (p)) V N (p) | x X V f (x) U
( ).
, , -
:

f (V X) U, V X f 1 (U ).

45
 .
f : X Y p X, g : S Z
f (p) S Y, g f
p.
J g f
X0 := {x X | f (x) S} = f 1 (S).
U N (g(f (p))). g f (p). -
V f (p), g(s) U s V S.
f p.
W p, f (x) V x W X. ,
x W X0 f (x) V S g(f (x)) U, ... I
0. idX : X X -
.
1. ( ) .
2. :
f, g : X R p X, f + g
f g .
3. 1/f p, f
f (p) 6= 0.
4. , . . ,
, .
5. :
f, u, v : X R , f (x) [u(x), v(x)], u(p) = v(p)
u v p, f
p.
6. :
f, g : X R p X f (p) < g(x), f (x) < g(x)
p, . . V N (p) | f (x) < g(x)x V X.
7. :
f : X Y p X ,
p V, f : V X Y
p.
8. : f : X Y -
p X ,
xn X, p, -
. f (xn ) f (p)
.
9. . f,
X, p X
u(x) := inf{f (t) : t [p, x] h(x) := sup{f (t) : t [p, x]

46
 . h u
f (x) = x sin x1 , f (0) = 0, p = 0.
3.2.
.
-
: f : [a, b] R , -
p, q [a, b], f (p) f (x) f (q)
x [a, b].
J s = sup f ([a, b]) un -
] , s[, s. un < s, -
xn [a, b], f (xn ) [un , s[.
xn -
xnk , q [a, b]. -
?
f , f (xnk f (q). f (xnk [unk , s]
k
unk s, f (xnk ) s. f (q) = s.
k k
f
. I
. -
.
. , , -
,

.
. -
f : [a, b] R , f 1 (z)
z [f (a), f (b)] , , -
.
J f 1 , -
, a b f (a) f (b).
z [f (a), f (b)] Mz := {x [a, b] : f (x) z} s := sup Mz .
a Mz b, s [a, b]. Mz ,
xn Mz , s. f
, f (xn ) f (s). f (xn ) z,
n
f (s) z.
, f (s) z. , s = b. ,
s < b. ]s, b] Mz ,
f (t) > z t ]s, b[.
f tn ,

47
 s, f (s) = lim f (tn ) z.
n
, f (s) = z, . . s f 1 (z), s = max f 1 (z),
f (t) > z t ]s, b].
f 1 (z)
. I
.
, .
.
T R f -
.
J , f
x, y T,
.
, f ()
x1 < x2 < x3 T,
() x1 < x2 .
, , , f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) > f (x3 ).
f 1 (z)
z ]max(f (x1 ), f (x3 )), f (x2 )[
]x1 , x2 [ ]x2 , x3 [.
f.
, f (-
) t1 < t2 < t3 < t4 ,
() t1 < t2 . , f
, . I
().
f : T R T ,
A) f (T ) ,
T ;
B) f : T f (T ) ;
C) g : f (T ) T
.
J , T .
A) X := f (T )
. f T,
t T T
, f (t)
X. .
B) f : T X = f (T ) , . .
, , ( 0.2).

48
 g := f 1 : X T .
C) , g . -
, p X. U -
q = g(p).

V p, V X g 1 (U ).
, q T. -
U S T, q. -
A V := f (S) , ,
p. V X, f g
, V X = V = f (S) = g 1 (S) g 1 (U ).
, q T,
q = min T. U [q < r].
A f ([q < r]) = [f (q) < f (r)]. V := [ <
f (r)] V p.
f g ,
V X = [p < f (r)] = f ([q < r]) = g 1 ([q < r]) g 1 (U ). I
" "
. :
(x) = x3 : Q Q ( );

(x) = 3 x3 : [0, 3] Q Q ( ).
3.3.

0. n . n .
fn (x) := xn : R R . n
, . n
, fn : R+ R.
fn
-
. n x x1/n
n- .
1. .
exp : R R . exp :
R ]0, [ . -
ln . ln -
.
2. .
-. a ]0, [
fa : R R,
:

49
 A) fa (1) = a ( ),
B) fa (x + y) = fa (x)fa (y) x, y R ( ).
fa , a -
. x ax .
J a ]0, [. x R fa (x) := exp(x ln a).
fa , A B.
g : R R - ,
A B. :
g(0) = 1, a = g(1 + 0) = a g(0);
g(x) = 1/g(x) x R;
n
g(m/n)
n = am m n,
g(m/n) = g(n (m/n)) = am .
, , -
A B, .
, g , -
, p .
- qn < p rn > p,
p. fa (qn ) = g(qn ) g(p) g(rn ) =
= fa (rn ). fa , fa (p) = lim fa (qn ) g(p)
lim fa (rn ) = fa (p). , g(p) = fa (p) p R. I
. 1. ex = exp(x).
P (x ln a)n
2. ax = ex ln a , , ax = n! . (
nN
1.2.)
ax : R ]0, [ a 6= 1 x
. loga -
a. loga .
3. cos arccos. cos : R R .
cos : [0, ] [1, 1] .
arccos . arccos
.
4. sin arcsin . sin : R R . -
sin : [/2, /2] [1, 1] .
arcsin . arcsin
.
5. tan arctan. tan : ]/2, /2[ R
. arctan .
.

50
 4.
4.1.
, f p -
f D(p), -
f (t)f
tp
(p)
, t,
t, p.
f p f 0 (p) Df (p). -
D(p) , p.
f ,
Dom f.
, f ,
Dom f 0 . , t Dom f 0
f 0 (t), f
df
f 0 , Df, dx . -
, f
, , f -
x. ,
d(x y) d(x y)
= 1, = 1.
dx dy
.
f (t) -
t. f (t)f tp
(p)

p t, t,
p, . . f 0 (p) ()
f p.
.
f : X R p . -
q X Lq R2 , -
(p, f (p)) (q, f (q)) f f.
lq (x) = f (p) + kq (x p),
kq = f (q)f
qp
(p)
Lq . q
p, kq f 0 (p) , , Lq -
K,
l(x) = f (p) + f 0 (p) (x p). -
f (p, f (p)).
. ,
-
.

51
 f [p < q],
f (x)f
xp
(p)
x, p
, f
0
p D+ f (p), f+ (p).
. 1. D f (p)
f p.
2. f p
,
-
D f (p) D+ f (p). Df (p) = D f (p) = D+ f (p).
. f -
p ,
-
A : R R,
f (x) = f (p) + A(x p) + (x), (x) = o(x p). (L1)
xp

A(x p) = Df (p) (x p).

J , f D(p). v R
A(v) := Df (p)v (x) := f (x) (f (p) + A(x p)).
(x) (p) f (x) f (p)
= Df (p) 0.
xp xp xp

f A : R R -
, (I). A ,
a R, v R
A(v) = av (a = A(1)). ,
f (x) (f (p) + a (x p)) = o(x p) , ,
xp

f (x) f (p) a (x p) + (x)

= a, . . Df (p) = a. I
xp xp xp

A, LI,
f p df (p). -
v R df (p) df (p)v
df (p)(v) df p
() v.
df (p)v = f 0 (p) v v R. (L2)
. 0. c : R R -
. p R

52
: Dc(p) = 0 R, dc(p) = 0-, . . dc(p)v = 0 v R.
1. A : R R -
. p R ,
.
"o-". : X R ,
p X. (x) = o((x p)k ), k N
xp
, (x) = (x)(x p)k ,
, p .
J . I
. f , p,
.
J f (x) = f (p) + Df (p)(x p) + (x), (x) = o((x p)). I
xp
. f g
p, f +g
p
D(f + g)(p) = Df (p) + Dg(p).
.
f g p, f g -
p
D(f g)(p) = Df (p)g(p) + f (p)Dg(p).
( , ,
D(f g) = Df Dg.)
J f, g D(p), Dom f g = Dom f Dom g
p.
"-" f g

f (x) = f (p) + Df (p)(x p) + (x)(x p),

g(x) = g(p) + Dg(p)(x p) + (x)(x p),
, p
.
f (x)g(x) = f (p)g(p) + (Df (p)g(p) + f (p)Dg(p)) + (x)(x p),
, p. -
. I
. f g
p g(p) 6= 0, f /g -

53
 p
 0 
f  f 0 g f g 0 
 =  .
g p g2 p

J g p |g(p)| > 0,
|g| > 0 (
( 3.1)) Dom g1 N(p).
g1 .

g 0 (p)
 
1 1 g(p) g(x)
(x p)1 = .
g(x) g(p) g(x)g(p)(x p) xp (g(p))2

f g1 . I
.
f p, g -
f (p), g f p

D(g f )(p) = Dg(f (p)) Df (p).

J 1. , Dom g f N (p). f
g p q = f (p), Dom f
Dom g p q .
g q,
p V,
f (V Domf ) Dom g. , V Dom f Dom g f
Dom g f p.
2. "-"
g g(y) = g(q)+Dg(q)(yq)+(y)(yq), ,
q . g(f (x)) =
g(f (p))+Dg(f (p))(f (x)f (p))+(f (x))(f (x)f (p)).
(f (x)) p ,
g(f (x)) g(f (p)) f (x) f (p)
= (dg(f (p))+(f (x))) Dg(f (p))Df (p). I
xp (x p) xp
.
f : ]a, b[]c, d[ g : ]c, d[]a, b[ , -
:
1) f p Df (p) 6= 0;
2) g q = f (p).
g q

54

1
Dg(q) = (Df (g(q))) .
J 1. Dom g q, -
.
2. f D(p),
f (x) = f (p) + a(x p) + (x)(x p), a = Df (p) ,
p .
y ]c, d[ f (g(y)) = y
y = q + a(g(y) g(q)) + (g(y))(g(y) g(q)).
a 6= 0, (g(y)) q
,
g(y) g(q) 1
= a1 = (Df (g(q)))1 . I
yq yq a (g(y)) yq

. 0.
.
1. , -
: f g -
p f D(p), g D(p), Dg(p) = Df (p), dg(p) = df (p).
2. :
f, u, v : X R , f (x) [u(x), v(x)], u, v D(p),
u(p) = v(p), u0 (p) = v 0 (p), f D(p) Df (p) = Dv(p).
3. 2) -
f,
.
4. f D(p), xn yn p -
, xn 6= yn n N. f (yynn)f (xn )
xn Df (p),
n
: 1) p [xn , yn ];
2) f p,
p. -
?
5. wn : R R 21n - ,
P
wn (x) = |x| x [2n , 2n ], w(x) = wn (x)
n0
x R. w , -
. .

55

1. x2 ex
x, x.
().
2. f (x) x
: (f (x))0 = g(x) dx
d
(f (x)) = g(x). ,

1 d x d x tx1
(ln x)0 = , (t ) = tx ln t, (t ) = .
x dx dt x+1
,
, x , -
, 5 -
x, t.
(f (x))0 = g(x),
: "-
(f (x))0 g(x) x Dom f 0 ",
"p Dom f 0 (f (x))0 |p = g(p)".
3. id : R R
id(x) = x x R, () x -
x, ..
R R. -
dx. R R,
, p R,
,
..
dx(p)(v) = v v R. (L3)

.
f x df (x) = f 0 (x)dx.
, p, f -
, df (p) = f 0 (p)dx.
J ,
, ,
df (p)(v) = f 0 (p)dx(p)(v) v R.
L2 L3. I
! p, -
, ,
f . dx

56
 x x
- R.
, df (x) = f 0 (x)dx x -
(t), t, -
(t),
df ((t)) = f 0 ((t))0 (t)dt,
f .

. 1) D+ f (p) > 0 (< 0),

]p < b[,

x ]p < b[ f (x) > f (p) (f (x) < f (p)).

2) D f (p) > 0 (< 0), ]a < p[,

x ]a < p[ f (x) < f (p) (f (x) > f (p)).

f (x)f (p)
J D f (p) > 0. xp D f (p) > 0, -
x%p

]a < p[, x ]a < p[ f (x)f
xp
(p)
> 0 , ,
f (x) f (p) < 0.
. I
, p ( ) -
f : X R, f (x) f (p) x X ( f (x) > f (p) x X \ {p}).
, p (
) f : X R, p -
U , p ( ) -
f : U X R. ,
,
.
.
.
( -
). p f, f
, Df (p) = 0.
J f D(p) Df (p) 6= 0, -
, p f.
I
. f -
[a < b]
f (a) = f (b), p ]a, b[, Df (p) = 0.

57
 J , [a, b]
p, q, f (p) f (x) f (q) x [a < b].
f (p) = f (q), f [a < b] , , Df = 0
]a < b[.
]a < b[ , ,
. I
.
f [a < b]
, ]a, b[
p, Df (p) = f (b)f
ba
(a)
.
J l(t) , R2 ,
(a, f (a)) (b, f (b)), .. l(t) = f (a)+
+ f (b)f
ba
(a)
(ta). (f l)
, , p ]a < b[, Df (p) Dl(p) = 0.
, Dl(p) = f (b)f ba
(a)
.I
: -
(p, f (p)) f ,
(a, f (a)) (b, f (b)). ?
f (b) f (a) f a b
f |ba .
,
f Df, f. -
Dom Df,
f . -
, ,
Df (x), , f x.

.
. g [a < b] R
b
Dg(t) 0 t , g a 0.
J x < y ]a < b[.
, g(x) g(y). g -
, g(a) = lim g(x) g(y) y ]a, b[.
x&a
g(a) lim g(y) = g(b). I
y%b
. f h
[a b] R |Df (t)| Dh(t) t [a, b], ,
, , |f |ba | h |ba .
J a0 = a < a1 < . . . < an = b

58
[a, b], |Df (t)| Dh(t)
t [a, b]\{a0 , . . . , an }.
Dh(t) Df (t) Dh(t). ak
g := h f [ak1 , ak ], , g  0.

ak1
b Pn ak b b
, g  = g 0. f a ha .
 
a k=0 ak1
b b
ha f a . I
.
1. .
.
,
.
. f -
T (-
) , , ,
, f ( -
) .
2. .
I. p ]a < b[, f
]a < b[, f 0 (t) < 0 t ]a, p[ f 0 (t) > 0 t ]p, b[, p
f.
: f (x) = sin |x|, p = 0.
II. f 0 (p) = 0, f 00 (p) > 0, p -
f.
. -
, -
.
3. .
- (, R2 .)
M ,
p, q [p, q], .
([p, q] := {x = p + t(q p) : t [0, 1]} ={x = 1 p + 2 q : 1 , 2 R+ ,
1 + 2 = 1}.)
p1 , . . . , pk -
1 p1 + . . . + k pk , 1 , . . . , k ,
1 + . . . + k = 1.
. (p, m), p , m R+ -
. ( )

59
 (p1 , m1 ), . . . , (pk , mk ) p := m1mp11+...+mk pk
+...+mk , . . -
1 p1 + . . . + k pk , j = mj /m, m = m1 + . . . + mk .
.
M , -

( ).
J ..
.
, M .. k 2
M. p1 . . . , pk+1 M 1 . . . , k+1 ,
1. Pp P -
(p1 , 1 ), . . . , (pk , k ) = i . i pi = p + k+1 pk+1
ik ik+1
M, p, pk+1 M + k+1 = 1. I
f : T R ,
Hf := {(x, y) R2 : x T, y f (x)} := ( f : T R)
R2 .
f T,
f .
. f T
,
f (1 x1 + . . . + k xk ) 1 f (x1 ) + . . . + k f (xk )
x1 , . . . , xk T
1 , . . . , k , 1 + . . . + k = 1.
J , f : T R .
x1 , . . . , xk T, (x1 , f (x1 )), . . . , (xk , f (xk )) -
Hf , P P ,
P -
i (xi , f (xi )) = ( i xi , i f (xi )) =: (x, y)
P
P Hf . , f (x) y,
. . f ( i xi ) i f (xi ).
, f
. (x1 , y1 ), . . . , (xk , yk ) P Hf , . .
, f (xi ) yi , P (x, y) = i (xi , yi ), 1 , . . . , k
, i = 1.
X X X
f (x) = f ( i xi ) i f (xi ) i yi = y.

, (x, y) Hf , . . Hf . I
. 1. -
f T

60
 , f T.
2. f T
, -
f T.
J 1. (a, y) (b, z) -
f, . . , f (a) y, f (b) z. a < b l(t) :=
y + zy
ba (t a) , ,
(a, y) (b, z). , ,
, f : [a, b]
R, . . f (t) l(t) t [a, b].
, g := f l [a < b].
f (a) y = l(a) f (b) z = l(b), g(a) 0 g(b) 0.
, p, g(p) > 0.
g|pa > 0 . , [a, p]
c, Dg(c) > 0 ( ).
Dg(t) > 0 t [p, b], Dg . ,
g(b) g(p) > 0 , g(b) 0. .
2. . I
.
a11 . . . akk 1 a1 + . . . + k ak
a1 , . . . , ak , 1 , . . . , k ,
1 + . . . + k = 1. ,
1
k
a1 ak a1 + . . . + ak )
k
( -
).
J ex .

a11 akk = e1 ln a1 ek ln ak = e1 ln a1 +...+k ln ak

1 eln a1 + . . . + k eln ak = 1 a1 + . . . + k ak . I

. f , T.
1. f T.
2. T f -
.
3. T D f D+ f , D f D+ f.
J T =]a < b[.

61
 p, q kp,q := f (q)f qp
(p)

lp,q (t) := f (p) + kp,q (t p). lp,q (t) , -
(p, f (p)) (q, f (q)), kp,q = (
) =( f [p, q]) = Dlp,q .
1. x y f (t) lx,y (t) [x, y] f (t) lx,y (t)
[x, y].
x < y < z T.
2. f (t) [lx,y (t), ly,z (t)] [x, z].
f y T
.
3. kx,y kx,z ky,z .
4. kx,y ky,z y
]x < b[, ]a < z[, .
5. lim ky,z = D f (z) lim kx,y = D+ f (x),
y%z y&x
6. D+ f (x) kx,z D f (z), x < z.
7. kx,y ky,z D f (y) ky,z D+ f (y) D f (y) D+ f (y).
: x < z, D f (x) D+ f (x) D f (z) D+ f (z). I
4. . f (x) g(x) -
T = [a, b[ R :
1) f (x) 0 g(x) 0, g(x) ;
xb|T xb|T xb|T
Df (x)
2) c Dg
Dg(x) xb|T 6= 0,
f (x)

g(x) xb|T c.
J Dg 6= 0 T,
g : T R . -
g Dg
T. , Dg > 0 a < b,
x % b.
A) , f (x) 0 g(x) 0.
f (b) = g(b) = 0. f g [a, b]
]a, b[.
a0 ) , fg 0. > 0
p [a, b[, |Df (t)| < Dg(t) t [p, b[. -
b
x ]p, b[ |f (x)| = |f x | <
b
< |g  | = |g(x)|. ,
x
f
> 0 p [p < b[ | x ]p, b[ |f (x)| < |g(x)| g 0.
Df Df cDg
a1 ) Dg c < , Dg 0.

62
 f cg
a0 ) g 0.
Df
a2 ) , z T,
Dg
Df > Dg > 0 [z, b[. fg 0 a0 ) -
, , , fg .
B) , g(x) .
b0 ) , Df Dg 0.
> 0 p T, t [p, b[ -
|df (t)| 2 Dg(t) - x
x [p, b[ : |f (x)| = |f (p) + f p |
x x
|f (p)|+|f  | |f (p)|+ g  = |f (p)| g(p)+ g(x). g ,
p 2 a 2 2
]p, b[ q, 2 g(x) |f (p)| 2 g(p)
x [q, b[. , ,
> 0 q [p < b[ | x ]q, b[ |f (x)| < |g(x)| fg 0.
f f
g c ]0, [ g A).
I

4.2.
f k -
k- Dk f :

D0 f := f, D1 f := D(D0 f ), . . . , Dk f := D(Dk1 f ).

, f p,
. k 2 ,
f k p f D k (p),
p, -
Df k1 p. f D k (p) k N,
, f
p, f D (p). f D k (x) x M,
f D k (M ) " f k
M ".
. 1. D 1 (X) D 2 (X) . . . D (X) = D (X).
T k
k>0
2. f D k (p) Dk1 f D(p). k 2.
3. f g k p,
f + g f g k p

a) Dk (f + g)(p) = Dk f (p) + Dk g(p),

63
 k
X
b) Dk (f g)(p) = Cki Di f (p)Dki g(p) ( ).
i=0

4. -
: f g p
g D k (p), f D k (p) Dk f (p) = Dk g(p).
.
f D k (p), g D k (f (p)), g f D k (p).
J , k = 1
. , -
k 1. f D k+1 (p)
g D k+1 (f (p)). Df Dg
p f (p) . Dom Df Dom Dg
. f
p, U p, -
x U Dom f f (x) Dom Dg. V := U Dom Df.
x V, f D(x) g D(f (x)). ,
x V g f



D(g f )|x = Dg(f (x)) Df (x) = ((Dg) f ) Df |x . ()

f, Df D k (p), Dg D k (f (p)), -
(Dg) f D k (p) , ,
((Dg) f ) Df k p,
D k (p).
() D(g f ) ((Dg) f ) Df -
V p D(g f ) D k (p) , ,
g f D k+1 (p).
-
k 1, , ,
k = . I

. f g ,
f D k (p), Df (p) 6= 0, k 2. g D k (q = f (p)).
J , Df (p) > 0. k 2, Df -
p , , Df > 0 T, -
p. , f
T. g X := f (T )
. -
, , x X

64
g Dg(x) = (Df (g(x)))1 ,
x X Dg|x = (Df g)|x ,
: R \ {0} R , (z) = z 1 .
, i {1, . . . , k 1} g
i q = f (p). Df D i (g(q))
D i (Df (p)), -
(Df g) i
q. Dg Df g X N (q),
Dg D i (q) , , g D i+1 (q). -
, g D i (q) i {1, . . . , k}.
, k 2,
, , k = . I
4.3.
. g
[p, q] t ]p, q[ -
t
c
|Dg(t)| c|t p|s , s > 1, |g  | s+1 |t p|s+1

p
t [p, q].
c
J h(x) := s+1 |x p|s+1 sign(q p). h : R R
, Dh(x) = c|x p|s x R \ p.
t t
t [p, q] |g  | |h |. I
 
p p
. f D k (p), -
, , A(x p) = a0 + . . . + ak (x p)k
, k, ,
f (x) = A(x p) + (x), (x) = o((x p)k ).
xp

j
aj = D j!
f (p)
j {0, . . . , k}.
ci z i = o(z k ), c0 = . . . = ck = 0.
P
J 1. C(z) =
i0 z0
/ , ci = 0 i < j k.
cj z j = C(z) ci z i = o(z j ). , cj = 0 j k. .
P
i>j z0

2. , D0 (p) = . . . = Dk (p) = 0,
k 1, (x) = o((x p)k ).
xp
/ > 0. Dk1 (p) = 0 D(Dk1 )(p) = 0,
k1
D (x) = o(|x p|) ( Dk1 ). -
xp

65
 T, |Dk1 (t)| |tp|1
t T.
, -
[p, x] T,

|D0 (x)| k! |x p|k , x [a, b].
(x) = D (x) = o(|x p|k ). .
0
xp
k
D j f (p)
p)j , Dj (p) = 0
P
3. (x) = f (x) j! (x
j=0
j {0, . . . , k}.
/ . .
. 1 , . 2 3
. I
k
D j f (p)
(x p)j k- -
P
j!
j=0
f (x) p,
D j f (p) j
j (x) := j! (x p) f p.
f / D (p), p f .
. 0 -
:
1 1
exp x, ln(1 + x), (1 + x)s , , .
1 + x 1 + x2
. -
f k + 1 [p, x] |Dk+1 f (t)| c
t [p, x],
k
X Dj f (p) c
|f (x) (x p)j | |x p|k+1 .
j=0
j! (k + 1)!

k
D j f (p)
p)j . D0 g(p) = . . . =
P
J g(x) = f (x) j! (x
j=0
= Dk g(p) = 0 |Dk+1 g(t)| = |D k+1
f (t)| c.
, -
g, :
c
|g(x)| (k+1)! |x p|k+1 . I
f g p f (x) g(x) = o((x p)k ),
xp|S
, f g p k.

66
 , k p
k- k.
P . 1. f
an (x p)n k. :
n0
a) k 0, f p f (p) = a0 ;
b) k 1, f D(p) Df (p) = a1 .
2. f (x) = x8 sin x8 , f (0) = 0. -
f 0 0 R? f -
0?

1. .
f (x) a + b(x p) + c(x p)k
k, c 6= 0, k 2. U p
f
(p, f (p)) R2 , g(x) = c(x p)k
, . .
sign(f (x) (a + b(x p)) = sign(c(x p)k ).
J f D(p), f (p) = a, Df (p) = b.
(p, f (p)) -
l(x) := a + b(x p). (x) := f (x)
(a + b(x p) + c(x p)k ). sign(f (x) l(x)) = sign(c(x p)k +
+(x)). (x) = o(|x p|k ), p -
xp
U, x U |(x)| < |c||x p|k , ,
sign(c(x p)k + (x)) = sign c(x p)k . I
. f ,
D1 f (p) = . . . = Dk1 f (p) = 0, Dk f (p) > 0.
, k , p -
f, k ,
f (x) < f (p), f (x) > f (p).
x%p x&p

2.
P zn :
(1) ez = n! z C;
n0
x2 x4
(2) cos x = 1 2! + 4! . . . x R;
3 5
(3) sin y = y y3! + y5! . . . y R;

67
 3 5
(4) arctan t = t t3 + t5 . . . t [1, 1];
2 3
(5) ln(1 + t) = t t2 + t3 . . . t ] 1, 1]
( .).

s(s 1) 2 s(s 1)(s 2) 3
(1 + z)s = 1 + sz + z + z + . . . z ] 1, 1[
2! 3!
.
J (1) z ez = exp z
( 3.3). .
(2) |Dn cos x| 1,

k
 X Dn cos(0) n  |x|k+1
 cos x x  0.

n=0
n! (k + 1)! k

.
(3) .
k 2n+1
(1)n t2n+1 .
P
4) g(t) := arctan t
n=0
 
k
 1 X   1
2 n 1 (t2 )k+1  t2k+2
|Dg(t)| =  (t ) = = t2k+2 .
 
 1 + t2 1 + t 2 1 + t 2 1 + t 2
  

n=0

, ,
|t|2k+3
|g(t)| 0 t [1, 1].
2k + 3 k
k n+1
(1)n tn+1 .
P
(5) t > 1 g(t) := ln(1 + t)
n=0

 1 k
X  |t|k+1
|Dg(t)| =  (t)n  = .
 
1 + t n=0 1+t
- u > 1. t > u -
k+1
|Dg(t)| |t|1+u . , -
, ,
|t|k+2
|g(t)| 0 t [u, 1].
(k + 2)(1 + u) k

68
 u ] 1, 0[,
|g(t)| 0 t [1, 1]. I
k

. eit = cos t + i sin t.

n
J zn := (it)
n! ,
 
zn , n 2N 0, n 2N
cn = , sn = .
0, n 2N + 1 zn , n 2N + 1
X X
eit = zn = (cn + sn ) =
nN nN
X X
= cn + sn = cos t + i sin t. I
nN nN

3. . -
(4) :
= 4(1 1/3 + 1/5 ... ).
, -
,
, -
k
P (1n
[sk , sk+1 ], sk := 4 2n+1 .
n=0

1 1
= 4 arctan arctan
4 5 239

k
 X t2n+1  |t|2k+3
 arctan t (1)n  .

n=0
2n + 1 2k + 3
 1 1 1 4 
,  16 + +  3 105 .

5 3 53 56 239
,
tan(/4 4 arctan 1/5) = 1/239.

: -
f p, -
. -
f (x) = exp(x2 ), f (0) = 0 :

69
 ,
0 R .
.
0. . j- -
f j + 1-
:
Dj Df (p)
 j+1 
D f (p)
(x p)j = D (x p)j+1 .
j! (j + 1)!
1. p Pf (x), -
k , A(x p) = aj (x p)j
j0
j
k, aj = D j!
f (p)
j {0, . . . , k}, . . k- -
f p A,
, k.
2. .
f, g A, B , f (x) A(x p) =
xp
= o((x p)k ) g(x) B(x p) = o((x p)k ),
xp xp

(f (x) + g(x)) (A(x p) + B(x p)) = o((x p)k ),

xp

(f (x) g(x)) (A(x p) B(x p)) = o((x p)k ).

xp

3. .
f (x) A(x p) p k 1,
g(y) B(y q) q = f (p)
k,
g(f (x)) B(A(x p) q) = o(|x p|k ).
xp

J "-" ,
f g f (x) = A(x p) + (x)|x p|k ,
g(y) = B(y q) + (y)|y q|k , (x) (y) ,
p q, , .
g(f (x)) B(A(x p) q) = B(f (x) f (p)) + (f (x))(f (x) f (p))k
B(A(x p) f (p)) = {B(y0 (x)) B(y1 (x))} + {(f (x))(f (x) f (p))k },
y0 (x) := f (x) f (p), y1 (x) := A(x p) f (p).
, , -
, o- |x p|k x p.

70
 1. DB B, -
, , ,
c, |DB(y)| c y Y := [1, 1].
, y0 , y1 Y
|B(y0 ) B(y1 )| c|y0 y1 |. -
y0 (x) y1 (x) p,
X, x X y0 (x), y1 (x) Y, , ,
|B(y0 (x)) B(y1 (x))| c|y0 (x) y1 (x)| = c|(x)|x p|k | = o(|x p|k ),
xp

p (p) = 0.
2. f A p
k 1, f
(f (x))|f (x) f (p)|k  f (x) f (p) k
= (f (x))  0 |Df (p)|k = 0. I
 
|x p|k xp

xp

. f (x) g(y)
,
B(A(xp)q) = p+(xp)+o(|xp|k ), A(B(yq)p) = q+(yq)+o(|yq|k ).
. 1. 0 arctan t,
(1 t)2 ((t + 1)(t + 2))1 ?
2. 0
:
1
tan x, arcsin x, arccos x, .
cos x

4.4.
1. , f p
k , D0 f (p) = ... = Dk1 f (p) = 0. ,
0
.
. 0. k
p , p
, k.
1. f D k (p) p k
,
f (x) = (x p)k g(x), g p.
, T f -
k ,

71
 p1 , . . . pn , f pi
ki , k1 + . . . + kn = k.
. T -
f k + 1 ,
k .
J , f
k + 1 p, Df p
k .
p1 < . . . < pn T k1 , . . . , kn
, f -
pi ki k1 + . . . + kn = k + 1. f (p1 ) = . . . =
f (pn ) = 0, , ,
t1 , . . . , tn1 , ti ]pi , pi+1 [ Df (ti ) = 0. Df
pi ki 1 ,
, Df T
k . I
2. p1 , . . . , pn T,
k1 , . . . , kn k = k1 + . . . + kn .
A(z) = a0 +. . .+ak1 z k1
f p1 , . . . , pn
k1 , . . . , kn , k 1
Dj A(pi ) = Dj f (pi ) i {1, . . . , n} j {0, . . . , ki 1}.
, k- f p -
p
k + 1.
.
A f -
p1 , . . . , pn k1 , . . . , kn .
f k T, x T

s
|f (x) A(x)| |(x p1 )k1 . . . (x pn )kn |,
k!
s = sup{|Dk f (t)| : t T }.

.
J x p1 , . . . , pn , f (x) A(x) = 0.
- x T \ {p1 , . . . , pn } -
gx (t) t T,

72
gx (t) = f (t) A(t) cx Q(t), Q(t) := (t p1 )k1 . . . (t pn )kn , cx
, f (x) A(x) cQ(x) = 0.
gx pi ki
x. , T
k + 1 . k
T , T
z, Dk gx (z) = 0.
A k 1, Q(t) tk ,

0 = Dk gx (z) = Dk f (z) ck!

Dk f (z)
c= .
k!

|Dk f (z)||Q(x)| s
|f (x) A(x)| = |cQ(x)| = |Q(x)|. I
k! k!
.
b

b1,0 , . . . , b1,k1 1

.........
bn,0 , . . . , bn,kn 1
, , A(x) = a0 . . . + ak1 xk1
k ,

Dj A(pi ) = bi,j i {1, . . . , n} j {0, . . . , ki 1}.

J A ,
a := (a0 , . . . , ak1 ) -

k1
X
al Dj xl p = bi,j , i {1, . . . , n}, j {0, . . . , ki 1}.

i
l=0

"", ,
, P ,

al Dj xl p = 0
i
.

73
 (a0 , . . . , ak1 ) .
A(x) := a0 + . . . + ak1 xk1 -

Dj A(pi ) = 0 i {1, . . . , n} j {0, . . . , ki 1}.

, A
p1 , . . . , pn k1 , . . . , kn .
|A(x)|
0 x R , , A
. I

5.

"-
" " f : X R,
X R ", () S R2 -
(S).
.
f
T = [a < b] R. p, t T
Mf (p, t) := {(x, y) R2 : x [p, t], y [0, f (x)]}.
.
. A(x) := (Mf (a, x))
T, A0 (p) f (p)
p .
J ,
, .
p, t T
u(p, t) := inf{f (x) : x [p, t]},
h(p, t) := sup{f (x) : x [p, t]},
U (p, t) = {(x, y) R2 : x [p, t], y [0, u(p, t)]} (, -
Mf (p, t)),
H(p, t) = {(x, y) R2 : x [p, t], y [0, h(p, t)]} (, -
Mf (p, t)).
U (p, t) H(p, t) u(p, t)|t p|
h(p, t)|t p| .
Mf (p, t)
(A(t) A(p)) sign(t p), x < y < z
T Mf (x, z) = Mf (x, y) + Mf (y, z).

74
 U (p, t) Mf (p, t) H(p, t), U (p, t) Mf (p, t)
H(p, t) , ,
A(t) A(p)
u(p, t) h(p, t).
tp
f ,
lim u(p, t) = f (p) = lim h(p, t)
tp tp

( 3.1). ,
A(t)A(p)
tp f (p). (?) , A -
xp
p T
p , A0 (p) = f (p). I
. F -
[a b] , F 0 (x) = f (x) x ]a, b[.
b
Mf (a, b) = F a .
J A F ,
. ,
b b
[a b] F a = Aa = Mf (a, b). I
Msin (0, ) = 2, sin = D cos .

5.1.
, F () -
f U, F 0 (x) = f (x) x U.
. 1) F -
f U, F + const -
f U.
2) F G f U, -
F G T U.
J . I
. sign 1 0
R \ {0}. , -
.
f
R -
f (x)dx. "F f

R U  "
F (x) = f (x) dxx U. R U = Dom f, x U
. "",

75
 x
.
.
. 
R
(1) |x| = sign x dxx R \ {0}.
(2) ez = ez dz.
R
 s+1
x
s 6= 1
(3) xs dx =
R
s+1 .
ln |x| s = 1
s
(4) xs ds = lnx x , x > 0, x 6= 1.
R

(3) (4) dx
, ,
x.
R dt
(5) 1+t 2 = arctan t.
R dt 1 

(6) 2 = arctan t
1+t t R \ {0}.
(5), (6) ,
arctan t + arctan t1 c ] , 0[,
]0, [ c+ . ?
, -
f T R -
.

A(x) := (Mf (p, x)) sign(x p), p, x T.

:
(f = max(f, 0) max(f, 0)), , ,
-
.
-
,
.
5.3.
R
f (x)dx -
f, " f -
R
" " () f (x) dx".

R
. F i (x) = fi (x)dx x U, i {1, . . . , n},
P RP 
i Fi (x) = i fi (x)dx x U 1 , . . . , n . -


76
: Z X  X Z
i fi (x) dx = i fi (x) dx.
R
f (x) dx
f ,
: R (x) (x)
, f (x) dx, -
(x) = (x) , (x) (x) = const -
, (x) (x).
. F 0 (x) = f (x)
0
G (x) = g(x) x U U
, :
Z Z
F (x)g(x) dx = F (x)G(x) f (x)G(x) dx,

U .
( 4.1) -

Z Z
F dG = F G G dF.

Z Z Z
(7) ex cos x dx = ex d sin x = ex sin x ex sin x dx =
Z Z
= ex sin x + ex d cos x = ex sin x + ex cos x ex cos x dx.

, 2 ex cos x dx = ex (sin x + cos x).

R
R 
. 1. F (x) = f (x) dxx X,
( ) x = (y)

Z Z
F ((y)) = f ((y)) d(y) = f ((y))0 (y)dy, y Y := 1 (X).


2. : Y X : RX Y  -
0 y Y,

R
 f ((y)) (y) dy = H(y)
f (x) dx = H((x))x X.
J -

77
 , , -
.
. I

dx : -
,
.
R s=sin t R
(cos t)2 dt = 21 (1 + cos 2t)dt =
R
. (8) 1 s2 ds =
p t=arcsin s 1
= 21 (t + sin t cos t = 12 (t + sin t 1 sin2 t = 2
2 (arcsin s + s 1 s ,
s ] 1, 1[.
R d(x2 +1) z=x2 +1 1 R dz
(9) (x2xdx 1
R
+1) s = 2 (x2 +1)s = 2 zs = ((3)).
R dx x
R x2 dx
(10) (x2 +1)s = (x2 +1)s + 2s (x2 +1)s+1 =
x
R dx R dx
= (x2 +1) s + 2s (x2 +1)s 2s (x2 +1)s+1 . -
:
2s 1
Z Z
dx dx x
2 s+1
= 2 s
+ .
(x + 1) 2s (x + 1) 2s(x + 1)s
2

.
. -
A(x)
B(x)
P (x) -
1 1 x
(xc) q , ((xa)2 +b2 )s ((xa)2 +b2 )s ,

c, a + ib B, a, b, c R, q s
, c a + ib, .
A B, P


x = a + bt
(5), (9) (10).
-
. . (. 1)
. . (. 2).

, (x)
U , , ,
, (x) 0 x U,
K, (x) x U \ K.

78
 ,
x U.
. 0) (x) x U, (x) 0 x U ;
1
1) D arcsin u = 1u 2
0 u [1, 1];
2) f (x) = |x| -
p R. Df (x) = sign x 0 x R.
F
(.) f U R, :
(C) U F ( -
);
(D) DF (x) = f (x) 0 x U.
. 1. R f (x) = sign x
, . F (x) = |x|.
1
2. s+1 xs+1 . xs -
[0, [ s > 1, s < 1 ]0, ].
(, r = 0, r < 0.)
1
3. arctan t . 1+t 2 R. (-

, arctan() = /2.)
4. : R R, (x) = 1,
x ]a < b[, (x) = 0, x ]a / < b[, .
[, ] ( -),
[a, b].
5. f . U,
. -
U. .
U U,
p U.
6. -
.
-
.

5.2.
, f ( )
[a, b] R f N [a, b],
.
.
f [a, b] F -
b
. F a

79
 F () a b -
Rb Rb Rb
f f (x) dx, f dx, f.
a a a
, . .
., .-
f .
x, ,
. ,
.
f N [a, b], , ()
Rb
f (x) dx,
a
Zb
b
f (x) dx = F a , (N-L)
a

F . f [a, b],
.

. f
[a < b] R. f 0, ,
Rb
, f dx = Mf (a, b). ,
a
XVII ., Mf (a, b) -
f (x) -
Rb
dx. f (x)dx.
R a
S, .
f
f + := max(f, 0) f := (f )+ .

Zb Zb Zb
f dt = +
f dt f dt.
a a a

I1 . : f1 , . . . , fn -
n
P
[a, b], c1 , . . . , cn f = ci fi
i=1

80

Zb n
X Zb
f dx = ci fi dx.
a i=1 a

Rb Ra
I2 . : f dx = f dx. ,
a b
,
.
Rb Rc Rc
I3 . : f dx + f dx = f dx. ,
a b a
- ,
.
I4 . : f h
Rb Rb
[a b], |f (x)| h(x) 0 x [a, b], | f dx| h dx. -
a a
Rb
, f |f | [a b], f
a
Rb
|f | .
a
I5 . : f, g N [a b] f g
Rb Rb
[a, b], f dx g dx.
a a
I6 . : f N [a, b]
Rb Rb
g(x) = f (x) 0 x [a, b], g N [a, b] g dx = f dx.
a a
Rb
I7 . |f | dx = 0, f (x) = 0 0 x [a, b].
a
J I1 . Fi - . fi -
[a, b] Ki ,
Sn
Fi0 (t) = fi (t) t [a, b] \ Ki . K := i=1 K i
n
0
P
F := ci Fi . F [a, b] F (t) = f (t)
i=1
t [a, b] \ K. , F . f [a, b]
f N [a, b],
Zb n n Zb
b X b X
f dx = F a = ci Fi a = ci fi dx.
a i=1 i=1 a

81
 I2 . .
I3 . , f [a, b] [b, c].
Rx
- I(x) := f (t) dt .
b
f . :
(C) , , -
X := [a, b] [b, c] -
a, b, c;
(D) I 0 (x) = f (x) 0 x X.
, I . f X, , -
c b c
, [a, c] X. , I a = I a + I b
-.
I4 . F H . f h [a, b]. -
|DF (x)| DH(x) x [a b],
b b
|F a | H a .
I5 . . 4), 0 h = g f.
I6 . F - . f, K
L , DF (x) = f (x) x
[a, b]\K, g(x) = f (x) x [a, b]\L. , DF (x) =
g(x) x [a, b] \ (K L). F
[a, b] , , . g.
-.
I7 . F . |f |. -
|f | 0, F -
b
[a, b]. F a = 0, F [a, b] , ,
0 = DF (x) = |f (x)| [a, b]. I
. f, h N [a, b], |f (x)| h(x) 0 x [a, b],
Rb Rb
| f dx| | h dx| a, b.
a a

. f
Rx
[a, b], I(x) := f (t) dt
a
1) [a, b];
2) DI(x) = f (x) x , -
f .
J 1. I .
f [a, b] .
2. p ]a, b[ f > 0.
f (t) f (p), U, p,
tp

82
 t |f (t) f (p)| < .
, x U \ {p} :
 x 
  Z 
 I(x) I(p)  1   

 xp f (p) =
 f (t)dt (x p)f (p) =
|x p| 


p
 x   x 
Z  Z 
1    1   
= (f (t) f (p))dt  dt = .
|x p| 

 |x p| 
  

p p

() f (p) = lim I(x)I(p)

xp = I 0 (p). I
xp
.
.
(). f g
, [a, b].
f g
Zb Zb
0
b
f (x)g (x)dx = f g a g(x)f 0 (x)dx
a a

,
. :
Zb Zb
b
f dg = f g a gdf.
a a

J . -
Rx
I(x) := f dg . f (x)g 0 (x)
a
[a, b]. K ,
x [a, b] \ K I 0 (x) = f (x)g 0 (x), f g
x. X
(f g)0 (x) I 0 (x) = g(x)f 0 (x). , f g I,
[a, b], .
gf 0 . -,
Zb Zb
g df = (f g I)|ba = f g|ba f dg. I
a a

83
 (). : [, ] [a, b]
, () = a, () = b 0 ( ) 6=
0 ], [.
Zb Z
f (x) dx = f (( ))0 ( ) d
a

, .
J g( ) := f (( ))0 ( ).
1) : -
, -
0 .
, .
F - . f [a, b], K -
, F 0 (x) = f (x) x [a, b] \ K, G = F .
G [, ]. ,
G0 ( ) = f (( ))0 ( ) = g( ) [, ] \ 1 (K).
, 1 (K) . , G
. g [, ], . .
,
Z Zb
 b
g( )d = G = F a = f (x)dx.
a

, . -
, -
, , -
: [a, b]
[, ] . 1)

Z Zb Zb
0
g( )d = g((x)) (x)dx = f (((x)))0 ((x)) 0 (x)dx =
a a

Zb
f (x) dx. I
a

84
 1. ().
U Rk
k (U ), k- k-
U. k = 1 k (U ) , k = 2 ,
k = 3 U.
U Rk . x R Ux :=
{(y1 , . . . , yk1 ) Rk1 : (x, y1 , . . . , yk1 ) U }. ,
U Rk
:
f (x) := k1 (Ux ) [a < b]
,

Zb
k (U ) = f (x)dx.
a

2. .
[p, x] f k + 1 ,

k Z0
X Dj f (p) j (x p)k+1
f (x) (x p) = Dk+1 f (x(t)) d(1 t)k+1 ,
j=0
j! (k + 1)!
1

x(t) = p + t(x p).

J k = 0. -
[p, x] f ,

Zx Z1
u=x(t)
f (x) f (p) = Df (u) du = Df (x(t))dx(t) =
p 0

Z1 Z0
= (x p) Df (x(t))dt = (x p) Df (x(t))d(1 t).
0 1

k1 Z0
X Dj f (p) (x p)k
f (x) (x p)j = Dk f (x(t))d(1 t)k . (Rk1 )
j=0
j! k!
1

85
 ,
Z0 Z0
k k k t=0
t)k t=1 (1 t)k d(Dk f (x(t))) =

D f (x(t)) d(1 t) = D f (x(t))(1
1 1

Z0
k
= D f (p) (1 t)k Dk+1 f (x(t))x0 (t)dt =
1

Z0
k xp
= D f (p) + Dk+1 f (x(t))d(1 t)k+1 .
k+1
1
-
(Rk1 ). I
3. . x ] 1, 1[,
X s(s 1) (s (n 1))
(1 + x)s = Csn xn , Csn := .
n!
nN

J f (x) := (1 + x)s . Dn f (x) = (1 + x)sn Csn n! ,

, f
p = 0. , -
, ,
0
k R R1
rk (x) := xk! Dk f (x(t))d(1 t)k = xk Csk k (1 + xt)sk (1 t)k1 dt -
1 0
k .
m , |s| m + 1.
|s|(|s| + 1) (|s| + k 1) (m + 1) (m + k) (m + k)!
|Csk | = =
k! k! m!k!
(k + 1) (m + k) (k + m)m
= .
m! m!
, x > 1, t > 0, 1 + xt > 1 t
 Z1  Z1  1 t k1
sk k1 
(1 + xt) (1 t) dt  = (1 + xt)s1 dt

1 + xt

0 0

Z1
(1 + xt)s1 dt := I(s).
0

86
 m
, |x| < 1, k > m, |rk (x)| |x|k (k+m)
m! kI(s)
m
2 m!
I(s) m+1
k |x|k 0. I
k
4. er . r = p/q, p, q
,
1
n (x) := (qx)n (p qx)n , n N, x R.
n!
. Di n (0) Di n (r) i, n N.
J i < n, Di n (0) = Di n (r) = 0.
i n. n (x)
1 X
n (x) = aj (qx)j ,
n!
j0

aj . ,
X qj i j X j!
Di n (x) = aj Dx = aj (qx)ji q i .
n! n!(j i)!
ji ji

j i n,
j! j! i! i!
= = Cji
n!(j i)! i! n!(j i)! n!
. i n Di n (0) Di n (r)
. I
1. , er = k/l, k, l N. n N -
Rr
In := l n (x)ex dx. , ,
0 r
P2n
In = l i=0 Di n (x)ex 0 . , In
n N. In > 0, ]0, r[
n (x)ex ( I7 ). -
, In 1 n N.
r
n R
s := sup{qx(pqx) : x [0, p/q]}. In sn! ex dx 0.
0 n
! , er / Q r Q \ {0}.
1873 . e.
2. , = r.
R
Jn := n (x) sin x dx , In , -
0
, Jn , n N
Jn 0. ! , (, 1766).
n

87
 1882 . , .

5.3.
, f -
X R, K, -
X \ K, .., -
f : X \ K R. , sign x ln |x| -
[, ], tan x
[n, n].
. f
T = [a, b] R
h, |f (t)| h(t) t T,
f T. :
, , .
J K ,
T, |f (t)| h(t) t T \ K, f : T \ K R .
t, x, y, z
T.
x y M (x, y) Sxy :
M (x, y) := {u N [x, y] : u(t) f (t) t [x, y] \ K}
Ry
Sxy := sup{ u : u M (x, y)}.
x
1. u, v N [x y] u(t) f (t) v(t) t [x y] \ K,
Ry Ry Ry Ry
u Sxy v. , (h) Sxy h |Sxy | < .
x x x x
2. x y z, Sxz = Sxy + Syz .
Rz Ry Rz
/ u M (x, z) u = u + u
x x y
Sxy + Syz . , Sxz Sxy + Syz .
. > 0.
Sxy Syz , u M (x, y)
Ry Rz
v M (y, z), u Sxy v Syz .
x y
w M (x, z) : w(t) = u(t), t [x, y[,
w(t) = v(t), t [y, z]. w M (x, z) (
Rz Ry Rz Ry Rz
?), Sxz w = w + w = u + v Sxy + Syz 2 > 0. .
x x y x y
x T F (x) := Sax .
3. F T.

88
 Ry Ry
/ . 2 1 , h Sxy = F (y) F (x) h, -
x x
Rx Rx
x < y, h F (x) F (y) h, x > y. ,
y y
Rx
|F (x) F (y)| | h dt| x, y. -
y
Rx
, | h dt| 0. ,
y xy
|F (x)F (y)| 0, . . F y T. .
xy
4. p T \ K, DF (p) = f (p).
/ > 0. f : T \ K R
p, U :=] < [, p,
f (p) < f (t) < f (p) + t U \ K.
, , [p, x]
x U. 1) 2) x ]p < x[

Zx Zx
(f (p) )dt Spx = F (x) F (p) (f (p) + )dt
p p

, ,
F (x) F (p)
f (p) f (p) + , . .
xp
 
 F (x) F (p) 
 f (p) x ]p < ].
 xp
F (x)F (p)
(), f (p) = lim xp = D+ F (p).
x&p
f (p) = D F (p). .
. 3 4, F . f
T. I
. -
.
J
, .
I
. -
f . T R, -
T -

89
. , T R
.
Rx
J a T. , I(x) := f dt
a
. f T.
C) , T, ,
, f -
. , I(x)
x T.
N-L, I
T, a, , , T.
D) p T \ K, K ,
T, f : T \ K R , > 0.
f (t) 0, U,
tp|T \K
p, |f (t) f (p)| < t U \ K. ,
x U \ {p} :
 x 
  Z 
 I(x) I(p)  1   

 xp f (p)=
 |x p|  f (t)dt (x p)f (p)=

 
p
 x   x 
Z  Z 
1    1   
= (f (t) f (p))dt
 dt = .
|x p| 

 |x p| 


p p

(), f (p) = lim I(x)I(p)

xp = I 0 (p). I
xp

, , ,
. -
[a, b] , -
Rb
f, f (x) dx -
a
( , . 3).
.
, f (x)
[a, b] R, f : [a, b]
R, f(x) = f (x) 0 x [a, b] . f(b) f(a)
x=b b
f (x)x=a f a , -
.  
. 0. et 0 = 1, arctan  = .

90
 1. F [a, b]
DF (x) = f (x) 0 x ]a, b[, f
[a, b] :
Zb b
f dx = F  = lim F (x) lim F (x).

a xb|[a,b] xa|[a,b]
a

2. -
.
f g , -
[a, b]. f g

Zb Zb
b
f dg = f g a g df
a a

,
.
, a < b.
Rb
. f dt
a
, f
Rx
[a < b[, I(x) := f (t) dt
a
x % b.
Zb Zx
f dt = lim f dt.
x%b
a a

J -
-.
I(x) z R, I,
x%b

I(x) = z, . -
= I(x) x [a < b[ I(b)
Rb
f [a, b] , , f N [a, b], f dt = I |b = z. a
a
I
,
Rb
" f [a, b]" " f (t) dt -
a

91
 Rb
" : " f (t) dt " ( -
a
" b" " b".)
Rb
. f dt (-
a
b) , f
[a, b[

  Z 
> 0 c [a, b[  , [c, b[  f dt .
  

( .)
Rx
J I(x) := f dt.
a
I(b), I(x) I(b), -
xp

> 0 c [a, b[, |I(x) I(b)| 2 x [c, b[.
, , [c, b[,
Z Z Z
| f| = | f f | = |I() I(b) + I(b) I()| .
a a

, -
, , xn [a, b[ , b.
, I(xn ) .
> 0 c T ,
R
| f | , [c, b[. xn b, xn [c, b[ n,

Rxl
m. |I(xk ) I(xl )| = | f|
xk
k l, m. , -
I(xn ) z R.
z = lim I(x). ,
x%b
, , f N [a, b]. I
. -
[a < b[ f -
[a, b]
h, f (x) (h(x)),
x%b
: = O, = o, . f N [a, b].

92
 J , ,
x % b.
f = O(h). ,
K R p [a, b[, |f (x)| K h(x)
x [p, b[.
> 0. h N [a, b], , ,
R
q [p, b[, | h| K , [q, b[.

R R
, , | f | | Kh| .

.
f = o(h), f = O(h). f h, f h = o(h). I
Rb
. u(t)v(t) dt,
a
u [a < b[,
Rx
| v(t) dt| s x [a, b[,
a

 Zb 
 u(t)v(t) dt su(a).
 

J
. -
, u [a, b[ -
.
Rx
J(x) := v dt. c [a, b[
a
Rc c Rc Rc
| uv dt| = |uJ  + (u0 )J dt| u(c)s + s (u0 ) dt =

a c a a a
= s(u(c) + (u)a ) = s u(a). c % b.
I
.
Rb
u(t)v(t)dt , [a < b[
a
1) u(t)v(t) ;
2) u(t), , t % b;
3) v .
J > 0. 3 , -
V v s R,

93
|V (x)| s x [a, b[.

2 c [a, b[, u(t) 2s t [c, b[.
1 [p < q] [c, b[ u(t)v(t)
Rx
, | v| = |V (x) V (p)| 2s x [p, q].
p
,
 Zq 
 uv dt u(p)2s .
 

. I
. f (x) := sinx x -
[0, ], |f | .
J [0, 1] f -
, [1, ] .

Zn n Zk n Zk
| sin t| X | sin t| X | sin t|
dt = dt > dt =
t t k
0 k=1(k1) k=1(k1)

n Z n
X | sin t| 2X1
= dt = .
k k n
k=1 0 k=1

| sinx x | R+
.
2
. |f (t)| sint t = 1cos
2t
2t

cos 2t 1
[1, ] 2t [1, ], 2t ,
|f | . I
R sin t
. 1 2 2
t dt 2 + . (: [0, ] =
0
= [0, 2 ] [ 2 , ].)
,
R sin x
x dx 2 .
0
, f [a, b],
|f | . -
[a, b], ,
, [a, b]. sinx x ,
[0, ].

94

1. - .
R
(x) := et tx1 dt.
0
1) (x) x > 0.
/ x > 0 [0, 1] et tx1 t -
tx1 , [1, ] -
c et/2 , c ,
x. .
2) (x+1) = x (x) ( ) (n+1) = n! n N.
x! := (x + 1).
. , -
, , -
, :
x
x
x! 2x.
x e

3) ex = o( (x)). (x) x1 .
x x0

3. .
. f -
[a b] % := (x0 , . . . , xk ; p1 , . . . , pk )
[a < b], . . ,
a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xk = b,
pi [xi1 , xi ] i {1, . . . , k}.

m(%) := max(|xi xi1 |  i {1, . . . , k}) -
Pk
%, (f, %) := f (pi ) (xi xi1 ) -
i=1
() f
%.
. f
[a, b], |Df (x)| c 0 x [a, b],

 Zb  c
 f (x) dx (f, %) m(%)(b a)
 
2
a

, , %n

95
 [a, b]
Zb
lim (f, %n ) = f (x) dx.
n
a

J f% , :
f% (t) = f (pi ), t [xi1 , xi [, i {1, . . . , k}. ,
Rb
f% = (f, %).
a

Zb Zb k Zxi
X
f (f, %) = (f f% ) = (f (t) f (pi ))dt.
a a 1 x
i1

i- , xi1 = q, pi = p, xi = r.

 Zr  Zr  Zp Zr 
 (f (t) f (p))dt c|t p| dt = c (p t) dt + (t p) dt =
 

q q q p

c c
= ((p q)2 + (r p)2 ) (r q)2 .
2 2
,

 Zb  cX c X c
 f (f, %) (xi xi1 )2 m(%) (xi xi1 ) = m(%)(ba). I
 
2 i 2 i
2
a

.
f,
%n
K, f .
f , -
%n [a b] -
(f, %n ) , -
, f [a, b].
.
f.
, f -
T, , f -
.

96
, ,
.
. f, -
[a < b] R, Kab (f ) := (f (a) + 4f ( a+b ba
2 ) + f (b)) 6 (
).
. P (x) 3 -
Rb
Kab (P ) = P (x) dx.
a
J a = h, b = h,
.
x = t + a+b
2 .I
. |D4 f (x)| c x [a b],
% := (a = x0 < . . . < xn = b) [a b]

 Zb Xn  c
f dx Kxxi1
i
(f ) (m(%))4 (b a).
 
2880

a i=1

J , n = 1, q := a+b ba
2 , h = 2 .
P (x) f (x)
a, q, b 1,2,1. |D4 f (x)| c,
4.3
x [a b]
c c
|f (x) P (x)| |x a||x q|2 |x b| = (x a)(x q)2 (b x).
4! 4!
P (a) = f (a), P (q) = f (q), P (b) = f (b), A
3,
 b   b   b 
Z  Z  Z Zb 
 f (x)dx Kab (f ) =  f (x)dx Kab (P ) =  f (x)dx P (x)dx =
     
     
     
a a a a
 b 
Z  Zb Zb
c x=t+q
(xa)(xq)2 (bx)dx =
 
=  (f (x) P (x))dx |f (x)P (x)|dx
  4!
a a a

Zh Zh
x=t+q c c
= (h + t)t2 (h t)dt = 2 (h2 t2 )t2 dt =
4! 4!
h 0
c 2 c c
= 2 h5 = (2h)5 = (b a)5 .
4! 15 2880 2880
97
 %, -

 b   x 
Z n   i 
X X Z
xi xi
  
 f (x)dx K xi1 (f )  f (x)dx K xi1 (f )
   

a i=1  
xi1

X c c X c
(xi xi1 )5 (m(%))4 (xi xi1 ) = (m(%))4 (ba). I
2880 2880 2880
. .
- -
T R, ,
f a, b T Sab f R,
0) Sab f = Sba f f a, b T,
1) Sac f = Sab f + Sbc f f a, b, c T,
2) f, g f (t) g(t) 0 t [a b], Sab f Sab g,
3) f = const [a b], Sab f = (b a)f (a),
4) f a T Sax f -
x T.
f ( )
Rb
[a, b] T Sab f = f (t)dt.
a

6. -
Rn
x = (x1 , . . . , xn ), xi R. -
, .
xi x i- () x.
x = (x1 , . . . , xn ), y = (y1 , . . . , yn ).
x + y := (x1 + y1 , . . . , xn + yn ) x y,
x := (x1 , . . . , xn ) x ,
Pn
hx, yi := xi yi x y,
p i=1
|x| := hx, xi x. |x y|
x y.
, hx, yi |x||y| ( ),
|x + y| |x| + |y|. |x| |y| |x y| ( ).
f : T Rn -.
-
(f1 , . . . , fn ), T. -

98
 fi t T i-
f (t). , f (t) = (f1 (t), . . . , fn (t)). fi -
i- () - f.
- -
. f : T Rn , -
T, , , -
().
"" "" f (t)
t, -
f (T ) () f.
. 0) f (t) = x Rn t T. f
(). f (T )
{x} Rn .
1. () f : R Rn , f (t) =
= p + tv, p, v Rn , ,
v f. v 6= 0,
, p v.
2. s(t) = reit : R C = R2 , r > 0,
s 0 C -
. -
r. s s
{(t, x, y, ) R3 : x = cos t, y = sin t}, . . -
v(t) = (t, cos t, sin t) : R R3 ( ).
. :
a(t) = teit : R+ C ( ),
l(t) = et+it : R C ( ),
c(t) = t + i + ieit : R C (),
k(t) = (1 + cos t)eit : R C ( ).
f = (f1 , . . . , fn ) : T Rn , T R, -
. , f (t) x Rn
t, p S, f (t) x, |f (t)
tp|S
x| 0.
tp|S
0.
f (t) x fi (t) xi i {1, . . . , n}.
tp|S tp|S

J (?) r -
P
: |fi (t) xi | |f (t) x| = |fj (t) xj |2 . I
j

99
 . -
, , , -
, , -
.
.
f : T Rn p T ,
fi : T R p.
.
f : T Rn t T ,
fi : T R t.
Df (t) = (Df1 (t), . . . , Dfn (t)) Rn ,
n
df (t) = (df1 (t), . . . , dfn (t)) : R R .
. -
f = (f1 , . . . , fn ) [a, b]
, fi [a, b].
Rb Rb Rb
f (t) dt = ( f1 (t) dt, . . . , fn (t) dt).
a a a
. - = (1 , 2 ) :
[a < b] R2 [a < b] -
, ]a, b[
s, D(s) |ba .
J :
b b
det(D(s), a ) = 0, (D(s), a ) (2 2)-,
t b
. (t) := det(a , a ), -
, [a < b]
,
b
D(t) := det(D(t), a ). , (a) = (b) = 0.
s ]a < b[, D(s) = 0. I
. 1. -
,
Rn -,
. , -
. . -

.
.
2. -,
-
.

100
 . u : [a b] R
K , t [a, b] \ K
]t, b] x, -
u(x) u(t). u(b) u(a).
J , u(a) < u(b). u(K) -
, ]u(a) < u(b)[\u(K) . z -
. K S := u1 (z) -
. S (
3.2.). t. -
u(t) = z < u(b), t = max S, t < b, ]t < b[ -
S.
, x ]t < b] u(t) < u(x). ,
]t < b[ x ,
, t [a, b] \ K, . I
. - f -
h [a b] |Df (t)| Dh(t)
t [a, b] , ,
b b
K, |f a | ha .
J T :=]a b[\K K -
.
1. , t T
|Df (t)| < Dh(t, ), . .
 
 f (x) f (t) 
lim   < lim h(x) h(t) .
xt x t  xt xt
( 2.1)
|f (x) f (t)| h(x) h(t)
< ,
|x t| xt xt
]t < b[ xt ,
|f (xt ) f (t)| < h(xt ) h(t). x x
x [a, b] u(x) := |f  | h . -
 
a a
t T
xt t xt xt xt
u(xt ) u(t) = |f  | | | h |f  | h < 0.
    
a a t t t
b b b
0 ua = u(b) = |f  | h .
 
a a
2. . > 0.
h (t) := h(t) + arctan(t). [a, b] |Df (t)| <

101
 b
Dh (t) t T. , . 1, |f  |

b b a

h  h + > 0. I
 
a a
. -
.

102

1. . () -
Rn . -
k
P
p0 , p1 , . . . , pk |pi pi1 |.
i=1
, : [a < b] Rn , -
= (t0 = a t1 . . . tk = b)
[a, b], pi = (ti ), i. ,
, .
. : [a b] Rn |0 |
Rb
[a, b], |0 (t)| dt.
a
J t, x, y, z [a, b]. -
x y : [x, y] Rn
Sxy , = (t0 . . . tk )
(| ) := ((t0 ), . . . , (tk )) l(| ).
1) x y z, Sxz = Sxy + Syz .
/ = (t0 . . . tk ) [x, z]
j , tj1 y tj . 0 := (t0 , . . . , tj1 , y)
00 := (y, tj , . . . , tk ). l(| ) l(| 0 ) + l(| 00 ) Sxy + Syz ,
, Sxz Sxy + Syz .
. 0 = (t00 . . . t0k )
= (t000 . . . t00l ) [x, y] [y, z]
00

:= (t00 , . . . , t0k , t000 , . . . , t00l ).

0 00
l(| ) + l(| ) l(| ) Sx . , Sxy + Syz Sxz . .
z

2) x y,

 Zy  Zy
  Sx |0 |.
0 y


x x

/ , |0 | -
[a, b] , , 0
,
, .
= (t0 . . . tk ) [x, y].

 Zy  y X
 0  = |x | |(ti ) (ti1 | = l(| ) =
 

x i

103
 Zy
 t 
 i 
X Z Zti
0
 X
= 
  | | = |0 |.
0

i  
ti1 i ti1 x

, Sxy ,
l(, ) -
. .
G(x) := Sax x [a, b].
3) G .
/ . 1 2 ,
 y   y 
Z  Z 
 0  |G(y) G(x)|  |0 |
   
    ()
   
x x

x, y.
, |G(y) G(x)| 0
yx
. , G
x [a, b]. .
4) G0 (t) = |0 (t)| 0 t [a, b].
/ F H -
0 |0 |, ; K ,
F 0 (t) = 0 (t) H 0 (t) = |0 (t)| t [a, b] \ K;
t0 . () -, ,
t 6= t0
 
 F (t) F (t0 )  G(t) G(t0 ) H(t) H(t0 )
  .
 t t0  t t0 t t0
|0 (t0 )| t t0 . -
, . ,
G0 (t0 ) = |0 (t0 )| t0 [a, b] \ K.
. 3 4 , G
Rb
|0 | |0 |dt = G(b) G(a) = Sab . I
a

2. . S -
M R2 (M ) zM [0, z]
() M 0 R2 .
z : T R2 - (),
T R. t, x T (z([t, x])), -
z([t, x]) z, -
xt , Axt .

104
 z z,
Ax
z(t) := lim |xt|
t
. (Dom z Dom z.)
xt
, z R2 = C -
z = %ei = % (cos + i sin ), % 0. (%, )
z (%
, ).
z : T R2
() : z(t) = %(t)ei(t) , % -
, -
.
. -
Ax
t T lim |xt| t
:= z(t),
xt
I. z = 12 %2 0 ;
II. z , z = 12 det(z, z 0 ) =
= 2 (xy 0 yx0 ). x y T,
1

z = x + iy.
J I. t T. x T :
u(x) = inf{%( ) : [t, x]};
h(x) = sup{%( ) : [t, x]};
Ux = [t,x] [0, u(x)ei( ) ];
S

Hx = [t,x] [0, h(x)ei( ) ].

S

( Ux Hx u(x)
h(x) (x) (t).)
Ux xt Hx , Ux Axt Hx . ,
|(x) (t)| < ,
(u(x))2 |(x) (t)| Axt (h(x))2 |(x) (t)|
.
2|x t| |x t| 2|x t|
% , ,
2
% 2(t) |0 (t)| x t
( 3.1) , ,
. , |0 | = 0 .
II. % = zei % -
. , det(z, z 0 ) = det(% ei , %0 ei + % ei i0 ) =
det(%ei , %0 ei ) + det(%ei , %ei i0 ) =
 
cos sin
= %2 0 det(ei , iei ) = %2 0 det = %2 0 = 2z. I
sin cos

105
 . T = [a b],
(b) (a) 2,
Zb
((z([a, b]))) = z(t) dt.
a

J 1. s t u
T. , (b) (a) 2, -
ts ut [0, z(t)], -
, . . Aus = Ats + Aut .
2. F (t) := Ata . . 1 , -
Ax
t, x T F (x)F xt
(t)
= |xt|
t
.
D+ F (t) = z(t) t [a, b[
D F (t) = z(t) t ]a, b].
, F
Rb
z [a, b] zdt = F |ba = Aba . I
a
. R2
(%, ) % r(), , r -
, 2.
Z
r2 ()
() = d.
2

(, M R2 (%, )
P(%, ), M = {z = %ei : P(%, )}.)
J = (z([, ])), z : [, ] C -
R
z(t) = r(t)eit . , 21 r2 (t) dt. I

. , :
c) ;
k) .
( z = det(z, z 0 ),
.)
3. . -
, .
R3 . ,
- ,

106
 , . . -
R3 ,
.
T R -
- , ,
x ,
w(x) R3 . w(x) x -
. w -
, .
, , : T ,
, . . , t
(t). , -
w a
b, Aw (; a, b).
:
1) Aw (; a, b) (a, b)
:
a, b, c T Aw (; a, c) = Aw (; a, b) + Aw (; b, c).
2) Aw (; t, u) = hw((t)), (u)(t)i+(u, t), (u, t) = o(ut).
ut
. : T
T,
1 2 a, b T
Zb
Aw (; a, b) = hw((t)), 0 (t)idt.
a

J F (t) := Aw (; a, t) (t) := hw((t)), 0 (t)i

t T. 1) 2) ,
F (u) F (t) Aw (; t, u)
= (t).
ut ut ut

, F
Rb
T dt = F (b). I
a

4. , , , -
. ,
, -
: ,

107
 A B
, A B,

. , -
A B.

. ,

.
. -
, , -
.
. - -
-
. ,
z m -
t w(t), w = mz 00 .
. Z
R2 , p = (0, 0) q = (x, 0), x 0,
z Z d > x.
(%, ) z = %ei Z

h
%= ,
1 cos
:= xd , h p
w .
J :
% + |z q| = d = h + |w q|,
|w q|2 = h2 + x2 , ( )
|z q|2 = %2 + x2 2%x cos , ( ). I
.
z : R R3 - (-
), , -
() .

z
z 00 = C 3 ,
|z|
C .
J Z := z(T )
, , -

108
 ,
z(t) . -
R2 = C z
z(t) = %(t)ei(t) . , %
1 1 cos 2 0
= , % = 2z = const.
% h
, ,
2z 4z 2
%0 = sin , %00 = 2 cos , 2%0 0 + %00 = 0.
h h%
,
z 00 = (%ei )00 = (%00 ei + 2%0 (ei )0 + %(ei )00 =
4z 2 4z 2
= (%00 (0 )2 %+i(%0 0 +%00 ))ei = (%00 (0 )2 %)ei = ( 2
cos 3 )ei =
h% %
4z 2 i z
= e = C 3 . I
h%2 |z|
. z m ,

mz 00 = mC |z|z 3 , , , -
cm
|z| 2.

1. .
S , -
() : M S, M N.
.
. 0.
, , ( 0.2.) .
1. .
2. S -
: N S.
3. N2 .
/ : N2 N,
(m, n) =
= (i, j) N2 , i + j < m + n + m =
= 21 (m + n)(m + n + 1) + m, . .

109
 4.
S .
/ S = Si , Si
iI
i I, I .
: N I i : N
Si | i I. (m, n)
(m, n) = (m) (n). , : N2 S
. .
5. Z Q .
6. I .
/ x : N I (-
), T0 - () ,
I \ {x0 }, T1 - ,
T0 \{x1 },..., Tn - ,
Tn1 \{xn },... .
( 0.1.) xn . , x
I . .
7. .
2. ()
5 6 "", -
"", "", ,
, -
6,
. -
5 6.
-
.
. 1. -
, f (x) = 1, x Q, f (x) = 0,
x
/ Q, R. ?
2. [0, 1] -
, .
3. -
, .

110

(Abel) 1802 - 1829.
, 287 - 212 ..
(Bezout) , 1730 - 83.
, 1822 - 1900.
(Bolzano) , 1781 - 1848.
(Weierstrass) , 1815 - 1897.
(Heine, 1821 - 1881.
(Hooke) , 1635 - 1703.
(DAlembert) , 1717 - 1783.
(Descartes) , 1596 - 1650.
(Dirichlet) , 1805 - 1859.
(Cavalieri) , 1598 - 1647.
(Kepler) , 1571 - 1630.
(Cauchy) , 1789 - 1857.
(Lagrange) , 1736 - 1813.
(Lambert) , 1728 - 1777.
(Leibniz) , 1646 - 1716.
, 1852 - 1939.
(Liouville) , 1809 - 1882.
(LHospital) , 1661 - 1704.
(Mercator) , . 1620 - 1687.
(Moivre) , 1667 - 1754.
(Newton) , 1643 - 1727.
(Riemann) , 1826 - 1866.
(Rolle) , 1652 - 1719.
, 1710 - 61.
(Stirling) , 1692 - 1770.
(Taylor) , 1685 - 1731.
(Fermat) , 1601 - 1665.
(Euler) , 1707 - 1783.
, 1822 - 1901.
(Young) , 1773 - 1829.

111


A B E Z H

I K M N oO

%P T X

112


1. .. -
. .: , 1990.
2. . . .: , 1964.
3. .. . .: , 1998.
. 1-2.
4. .. . .
- - , 2000. . 1, . 1-2.
5. . . .: , 1976.
6. .. -
. . I, III. .: - - .-. ., 1958-1960.
. 1-2.

113