Учебник

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МОСКОВСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ

имени М.В. Ломоносова
Факультет глобальных процессов
О.Ю. Корниенко
Глобальные политические проблемы
Профессиональный английский язык
Учебное пособие и практикум
O.Yu. Kornienko
Global Political Issues
(English for Professional Communication)
Аннотация учебника:
Учебное пособие «Глобальные политические тренды» представляет собой результат многолетних
исследований и апробировано на факультете глобальных процессов с 2010 г. Пособие разработано в
соответствии с ОС МГУ имени М.В. Ломоносова и включает в себя 8 модулей. Обучение строится по
принципу проработки материала в рамках важных политических тем, каждая из которых выделена в
отдельный модуль, который состоит из вступительных теоретических сведений по изучаемой проблематике
и практикума. Практикум включает тексты трех кейсов и упражнения по чтению, проработке профильной
лексики, аудированию и письму, на основе которых, затем, материал выводится в речь, что способствует
развитию профессиональных коммуникативных компетенций. Пособие охватывает следующие
политические проблемы: роль и место неправительственных организаций в движении альтерглобализма;
важность использования инструментария «мягкой силы» в глобализирующемся мире; разнообразие
дипломатических подходов в современном мире; угроза терроризма и самые опасные террористические
организации; необходимость политических переговоров и достижения консенсуса; опасность
постановочных «цветных» революций и роль политтехнологий; современное состояние подходов к
разоружению и контролю за гонкой вооружений; особенности войн и конфликтов в глобальном мире.
Особый акцент переносится на повышение коммуникативной компетенции студентов в ситуации
будущего профессионального общения, а также на развитие практических навыков анализа международных
проблем с применением адаптированного для политического анализа метода кейсов. Обучение строится с
привлечением методовHarvardBusinessSchoolкейс–анализа и SWOT-анализа. Структура подачи кейсов
способствует развитию основных компетенции не только в аудитории, но также посредством заданий по
прослушиванию, чтению, анализу дополнительных материалов самостоятельно. Завершением каждого
кейса является его письменный анализ, что способствует максимальной интеграции языковых,
аналитических и коммуникативных навыков.
Пособие предназначено для студентов старших курсов, а также всех интересующихся проблемами
международных отношений и глобалистики.
The manual abstract:

The training manual and workshop “Global political issues” summarizes a great volume of methodological
work which has been done at the faculty of Global Studies. The tutorial has been passing approbation at the faculty
since 2010. The manual has been developed and structured in accordance with MSU teaching standards. The
training manual and workshop includes 8 modules, comprising the most topical issues. Each topical issue constitutes
a separate module which includes introductory theoretical issues and a workshop. The workshop section consists of
three cases and supplementary exercises, handling lexical issues, reading skills exercises, listening and writing
assignments. This is a foundation for creating speech competencies in the sphere of professional communications.
The manual handles the following political issues: alter globalism and non-governmental organizations; importance
of developing “soft power tools” in global environment; diversity of diplomatic instruments in modern world;
terrorism and most important terrorist organizations; importance of political negotiations and political consensus;
the role of political technologies and “color” revolutions; present state of arms control and disarmament in modern
world; specific features of wars and conflicts in global world.
Particular emphasis is shifted to promoting students’ competences in situations of simulated professional
communication and to the development of practical skills in handling international issues with the help of the
Harvard Business School analyses and the SWOT analysis, which have been adapted to handling political cases. The
organization of educational process helps to develop the competences not only in the classroom but also at home
thanks to the system of assignments aimed at at-home listening, reading, and critical thinking materials. Each case
ends with a writing task, thus integrating linguistic, analytical and communicative competences.
The textbook will be of interest for elder students and post-graduates, majoring in international relations
and globalistics. Besides, the book is intended for anyone interested in politics.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Module 1: Alter–globalism and alter–globalization actors: Non-governmental
organizations (4 – 27)
Module 2: Soft power in global world (28-58)
Module 3: Diplomacy (59-85)
Module 4: Counter-terrorism struggle (86-108)
Module 5: Political negotiations and political consensus (109-126)
Module 6: Colored revolutions in modern world (127 – 163)
Module 7: Arms Control and Disarmament (164 -190)
Module 8: Wars and conflicts in global environment (191 – 219)
Literature and Internet sources

Module 1
ALTER-GLOBALISATION ACTORS: NON-

GOVERMENTAL ORGANISATIONS
1. DISCUSSION SECTION
Brainstorming:
1) International NGOs; 2) global economy as turbo-capitalism; 3) anti-war movement; 4)
nationalist opposition against globalization; 5) pacifist and anti-imperialist traditions; 6)
anti-WEF slogan “Growth is madness”; 7) anti-globalization demonstrations
Comment on the following citations:

1. Imperialism or globalization – I don’t
care what it’s called to hate it (Bill Ayers)
2. We should open our eyes, see what's
in front of us, and act. (Bill Ayers)
3. We cannot wait for governments to
do it all. Globalization operates on Internet
time. Governments tend to be slow
moving by nature, because they have to
build political support for every step. (Kofi
Annan)
4. We live in an era of globalization and
the era of the woman. Never in the history of the world have women been more in control of
their destiny. (Oscar de la Renta)
5. In Globalization 1.0, which began around 1492, the world went from size large to size
medium. In Globalization 2.0, the era that introduced us to multinational companies, it went
from size medium to size small. And then around 2000 came Globalization 3.0, in which the
world went from being small to tiny. (Thomas Friedman)
6. Public protests against globalization - protests that occur by and large in the prosperous
West - denounce free trade and the mobility of capital as instruments of exploitation and
oppression. (Thomas Woods)
7. Where globalization means, as it so often does, that the rich and powerful now have new
means to further enrich and empower themselves at the cost of the poorer and weaker, we have a
responsibility to protest in the name of universal freedom. (Nelson Mandela)
8. One day there will be no borders, no boundaries, no flags and no countries and the only
passport will be the heart – Carlos Santana
9. In the cabaret of globalization, the state shows itself as a table dancer that strips off
everything until it is left with only the minimum indispensable garments: the repressive force. –
Subcomandante Marcos
10. The church was an international institution long before globalization.” – Shane Claiborne
11. “Today, the rich are the haves and the poor are the have-nots. Tomorrow, the rich will be
the have-food and the poor will be the have-not food. – Bill Gaede
12. Globalization is a form of artificial intelligence. – Erol Ozan
13. Unfortunately, what anti-human trafficking NGOs [non-governmental organizations]

really do is instead quite damaging: they normalize existent labor opportunities for women, no
matter how low the pay, dangerous the conditions, or abusive an environment they foster. And
they shame women who reject such jobs. – Anne Elizabeth Moore
14. Mankind willfully changing the global electromagnetic radiation environment has created
what I expect will become known as the man-made evolution era. – Steven Magee
2. INTRODUCTORY NOTES: HISTORY OF ALTER-GLOBALISM

The alter-globalist movement represents an important reflection of the contemporary
world which came about in the 1980’s as the result of a process of questioning and protest, and
gave birth to the idea that “Another World is Possible”. The alter-globalist movement aims at
promoting human values such as environmental and climate protection, economic justice,
environmental and climate protection [5], economic justice, labor protection, protection of
indigenous cultures and human rights [16].
Alter-globalism movement basically has three main forms: 1) mass protest actions (from
Seattle to Genoa and Barcelona); 2) day-to-day activity of NGOs (mainly, the ones that signed
the Charter of Principles of the World Social Forum) and 3) social institutional forums (starting
with the forum in January 2001 in Porto Alegre, Brazil), universal as well as continental.
Recently, the world has witnessed the emergence of another form of alter-globalism: interstate
blocs, such as BRICS, UNASUR, AU etc., which actively oppose the dramatic effects of the
neoliberal globalization.
A Brief History of the Alter-Globalization Movement [9]

1) The 1990s: The Formation of a Worldwide Movement
The short history of the alter-globalization movement can be divided into four periods.
The first one, in the mid-1990s, reflected a proliferation of local and national protests against
neoliberal policies, in every region of the world. During this period the movement was
essentially organized, on the one hand, around international campaigns (such as the one against
third world debt), and networks and meetings of intellectual activists, NGOs and counter-
summits ; and on the other hand, on the basis of massive popular protests at the local and
national levels, as in the “water wars” in Bolivia, and farmers’ protests all over Asia. They all
denounced the growing influence of the World Trade Organization, the burden of third world
debt, and the power of the multinationals. Small farmers movements were particularly active. In
1993, they founded the global network Via Campesina, which today boasts 200 million members
across the world. Indigenous movements, anti-privatization campaigns (notably in South Africa),
the World March of Women, progressive intellectual networks, libertarian activists, young
“alter-activists”, and NGO’s all contributed to the rise of a lively and diverse movement.
They set up networks that have played a fundamental role in the movement, such as
ATTAC, Global Trade Watch, the Transnational Institute, Focus on the Global South, and
Jubilee South. This period also featured the proliferation of “counter-summits” around the edges
of the big meetings of international organizations. The alter-globalization protests in Seattle in
1999 and the collapse of the WTO summit there had great symbolic significance, and reflected
the central message of alternative globalization: “ordinary citizens” can have an impact even at
the highest level of international decision making.
2) 2001-2005: Social Forums Become the Heart of the Movement
These actors all came together at the first World Social Forum at Porto Alegre (Brazil) in
January 2001, marking the beginning of a new phase. Over the next five years, hundreds of
social forums were organized at the local, national, continental and global levels. In contrast to
the counter-summits with their central focus on opposition to one particular international
organization, these Social Forums are geared up to encouraging exchanges among activists from
different parts of the world about the alternatives that they are implementing. The first European
Social Forum, in Florence (2002: uniting 50,000 people) and the World Social Forums in
Mumbai (2004: 120,000 people) and Porto Alegre (2005: 170,000 people) are some of the
greatest success stories of alternative globalization.
In spite of predictions made by many intellectuals, the alter-globalization movement did
not decline after September 11th 2001; in fact, in the years since then it has had its greatest
popular successes, and has had a significant impact on public opinion and the media. Between
2002 and 2004, opposition to the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq was a major component of the
movement.
3) 2006-2010: A New Geography
After 2005, the audiences and outcomes of most alter-globalization meetings have
considerably diminished. While they demonstrated the movement’s ability to expand
geographically and to include Africa, the “polycentric” World Social Forums of 2006 (held in
Bamako, Caracas and Karachi) and the Forums of 2009 (Nairobi) and 2011 (Dakar) were all
disappointing. There was a significant decline in the number of participants (between 15,000 and
50,000 for each), and the inclusion of popular organizations often met more complications. It
was also in this period that some networks that had been very active either disappeared (like
Barcelona’s “Movimiento de Resistencia Global”, which disbanded). However, during this time
the movement was successful in at least three ways: geographical extension into regions
considered to be symbolic or strategic (Africa, the United States, and the Arab world),
convergences on environmental issues, and delegitimization of the Washington Consensus [13,
14].
Firstly, Social Forum dynamics has extended into regions deemed to be symbolic or
strategic. But it is in the Arab world that social forums have especially proliferated. For example,
no fewer than seven international forums were organized there in October and November 2010.
Moreover, the participation of 130,000 people in the World Social Forum at Belém in 2009 has
shown the undeniable success of the alter-globalization movement in Latin America, where a
number of progressive regimes remain in power.
The economic and financial crisis that began in 2007 delegitimized neoliberal ideology.
A series of negotiations for trade liberalization at the WTO were failures: Seattle (1999), Cancun
(2003), Hong Kong (2005) and Geneva (2008). Latin American governments buried the
proposed Free Trade Area of the Americas during the continental summit of 2005, and set up a
“Bank of the South” to replace the World Bank in the region. Alter-globalization perspectives
seemed to be confirmed by the crisis, and their discourse had a new resonance. However, a few
years later, the tax havens are still active, the IMF budget has tripled, and since 2010, traders’
bonuses have set new records.
4) Since 2011: A New Generation
Between 2005 and 2010, the region with the largest number of international social forums
was the Arab world. In 2011 a global wave of movements came out of this region, denouncing
austerity policies and reminding us that it was not the excesses of the welfare state but those of
finance that caused the crisis. Going beyond the economic crisis, outraged, “indignant” protesters
and “Occupy” movements have denounced the crisis of democracy. For these protesters and the
Occupy activists, democracy is above all a practice. The heart of their camps and little local
assemblies was experimentation with direct democracy, participative and horizontal, in debates
and in the processes and the organization of daily life.
Networks of committed experts try to influence certain European policies, and pursue the
long task of educating people about complex issues. Demonstrations against austerity are
increasing in Europe, but although the movements have been coordinated at the continental or
global level for a decade, demonstrations against austerity do continue but they remain mostly
organized at the national level [4].
Becoming Actors in the Global Age
The 2013 World Social Form gathered some 30.000 activists in Tunis, March 26th-30th
[10]. Although the number of participants was well short of the records set by the recent Forums
held in Brazil (170,000 people in 2005, and 130,000 in 2009), attracting tens of thousands of
Tunisian and international activists shows that the WSFs remain appealing events in various
regions of the world. The 2013 Forum aimed to encourage exchanges between progressive
citizens from every continent and progressive activists involved in the Arab spring. Alter-
globalisation provides practical examples of how people across the world go about promoting
social, political and economic transformation in the communities that they experience as relevant
to their lives. At the heart of Pleyers’ analysis lies a categorization of alter-globalisation actors
into two main strands, namely actors of ‘the way of subjectivity’ and actors of ‘the way of
reason”, originated in the Francophone world and highlights alterglobalisers’ shared ambition to
construct alternatives to dominant forms of globalization.
3. WORKSHOP: CASE-STUDY SECTION
Case 1: Zapatismo
The Zapatistas presented themselves to the world on January 1, 1994, though the roots of
the rebellion can be traced back 500 years to the European invasion of the Americas. During
those five centuries, indigenous communities lost control of historic lands and were often forced
into various forms of slavery and/or virtual slavery. Many rebellions occurred during this period,
making the Zapatista uprising part of a long history of guerrilla movement, struggle and
resistance. By the late 20th century, indigenous communities in Chiapas lived on the most
marginal and isolated lands in the state. High levels of poverty and lack of health care and
education plagued the communities. The Zapatista uprising was a direct result of these
conditions [3].
The Zapatista movement finds its modern roots in the historical context of the last half of
the 20th century. Mexico's "dirty war" turned many young people away from establishment
politics and toward open rebellion. This was particularly true of the Fuerzas de Liberacion
Nacional (FLN) and several Maoist groups that sent cadre to work in indigenous communities in
southern Mexico. Simultaneously, the Catholic church was involved in a social awakening
inspired by the "preferential option for the poor" of the Vatican II conference. Indigenous
deacons under the direction of Bishop Samuel Ruiz spread a gospel rooted in a combination of
Catholicism and indigenous beliefs. But most of all, the rebellion came out of the indigenous
communities themselves. Tired of generations of abuse, mired in a crisis that combined land
shortages with lack of economic opportunities, and seeing no political resolution, indigenous
communities organized the Ejercito Zapatista de Liberacion Nacional (EZLN) in the mid 1980s.
In 1992, President Carlos Salinas de Gortari modified Article 27 of the constitution,
ending Mexico's historic commitment to land reform. Article 27 was the legal foundation for
distribution of community-owned lands called ejidos. Reform of Article 27 was the most
important of several hundred changes in constitutional and civil law made by Mexico at the
insistence of the United States in anticipation of the signing of NAFTA. The process of "de-
territorialization" forced millions of campesinos to enter the industrial workforce, providing
cheap labor for the rapidly growing maquiladora sector. The modification of Article 27 was a
collective slap in the face to indigenous communities throughout Mexico.
The results are now history. On Juanary 1, 1994, the same day NAFTA took effect,
thousands of armed Zapatistas took over major population centers and perhaps 500 ranches in
Chiapas - to the surprise of the army, the ruling class and the international community. In many
ways, the Zapatistas were rebelling against the neoliberal model enshrined in NAFTA, the IMF's
Adjustment Programs and federal policies that threatened the very survival of 25 million
campesinos. Fighting lasted less than two weeks, and under pressure from civil society, the
government agreed to a ceasefire on January 12. This began a series of on-again, off-again talks
that ultimately culminated in the signing of the San Andres Accords in 1996. These historic
accords, which dealt with autonomy and indigenous rights, were envisioned as the first element
in a series of agreements that would eventually lead to a just and comprehensive peace.
In 2003 Juntas of Good Government were introduced - extra-constitutional governing
structures that carry out all the functions of local and regional constitutional governments.
Members of the Juntas are selected in community assemblies for terms of one year. The make-up
of the juntas rotates every week, with representatives from different communities filling the role.
The Juntas govern under the mandate "mandar obedeciendo" (lead by obeying). They represent
an experiment in devolution of power to the community level, and they are rapidly gaining the
reputation among Zapatista and non-Zapatista communities alike for honest and transparent
government.
The concept of autonomy is central to Zapatismo. Autonomy is understood as building a
world in which all worlds have a place. It means respect for traditions and customs (usos y
costumbres) with decentralization of power to the community level. A central element in the
Zapatista concept of autonomy is the rejection of the "mal gobierno" (bad government), and this
includes rejecting financial assistance from the government. However, the Zapatistas are
adamant and patriotic about being Mexican, and have no desire to form an independent state.
The Zapatista project is constructed on three foundations: education, health care and
collective development. The education system centers around the training of indigenous
education promoters who teach primary school in their native languages as well as Spanish.
Some of these promoters run an international language school that offers classes in Spanish and
Tzotzil. They charge students the equivalent of three days minimum wage for a week of classes
plus room and board, with the funds used to support the teacher training program. Likewise, the
health care system is centered around the training of indigenous health care promoters who
practice a combination of western medicine and traditional healing. Regional clinics are situated
in the Juntas of Good Government, while local clinics provide preventive and emergency care.
Economic development is built collectively using the cooperative model. Today the most
important coops are found in coffee production and artisanry. Mut Vitz is the largest Zapatista
coffee cooperative. Located in the highlands region of San Juan de la Libertad, it includes 600
families from 26 communities. Founded in 1997, Mut Vitz produces high-grade, organic, shade-
grown coffee, much of which is sold in the fair trade market. The Mexico Solidarity Network
works with a women's artisan cooperatives in the highlands region - Mujeres por la Dignidad.
Decisions in the coops are made by the members and income is distributed equitably.
Zapatismo does not pretend to be a model for anyone, but it has been an inspiration for
millions of people around the world. While the concrete implementation of autonomy, collective
organizing, self-government, and “mandar obedeciendo” are grounded in local cultures unique to
Chiapas, the Zapatista movement offers inspiration for millions of people around the world who
are building their own local alternatives to neoliberalism.
1 Understanding the case
a. Recommended presentations:
1. European invasion of the Americas: the Fate of Mexico
2. The system of the five Aguasealientes versus Juntas of Good Government
3. The concept of autonomy
4. NAFTA for Mexico: pros and cons
5. The role of the Catholic church in Mexico
6. The tragedy of “de-territorialization” for ejidos
7. Mexico’s “dirty war”
8. The peculiarities of Mexico’s economic development
9. Zapotista women
b. Read the case and answer the questions:

1. What was the fate of indigenous communities?
2. In what way was the Catholic Church involved into the emergence of new
movements?
3. Why did President Carlos Salinas de Gortari modify Article 27 of the Constitution?
4. What was the greatest surprise for the army and the international community?
5. How did it happen that the San Andres Accords were signed?
6. What role do communities play in the governance of the country?
7. How is “the concept of “autonomy” understood by the members of Zapatismo
movement?
8. What are the three foundations of the Zapatista project?
9. Can you illustrate the cooperative model by some examples?
2 Vocabulary section
Give your interpretation of the notions and find the sentences in the text to
illustrate the usage of the active vocabulary. :
The Zapatista cause, alter-globalism, anti-global struggle, indigenous communities,
slavery/virtual slavery, to create a spaces, guerrilla forces, indigenous people, to sign the
NAFTA agreement, rebellion, ecological crisis, sources of income, indigenous communities,
Mexico's "dirty war”, Maoist groups, the Catholic church, the "preferential option for the poor",
indigenous deacons, to spread a gospel, tired of generations of abuse, land shortages, EZLN,
ethnic identities, political discourses, ejidos, constitutional and civil law, "de-territorialization",
millions of campesinos, rapidly growing maquiladora sector, the neoliberal model, genocidal
war, to ask for participation, dictators, independence, enshrined in NAFTA, independence,
democratic (country), to threaten the very survival, justice, on-again, off-again talks, historic
accords, comprehensive peace, fair trade market , Juntas of Good Government were to be
selected for terms of one year, the make-up of the juntas, lead by obeying, the concept of
autonomy, decentralization of power to the community level, adamant and patriotic, three
foundations, the cooperative model, indigenous education promoters, artisanry, indigenous
health care promoters, traditional healing.
Fill in the gaps

The term “Zapatistas” broadly refers to the group of people participating in the (1) …………..
……………………………… struggle for democracy and land reform in Mexico. Its goal is (2)
……………………………. a space for the “democratization of democracy”. The EZLN (3)…
…………..forces, in cooperation with (4)…………………..peoples, incited a rebellion in San
Cristobal de las Casas on January 1, 1994. Though the (5) ……………………….of NAFTA is
generally agreed to be the most direct catalyst for the (6)……………………., additional
significant factors include “a combination of (7)…………………………. crisis, lack of
available productive (8)……………………………., the drying up of nonagricultural sources of
(9)……………………………, the political and religious reorganization of indigenous (10)…..
……………………since the 1960s, and the re-articulation of (11) ethnic identities with
emancipatory political (12)…………………………..
Subcomandante Marcos, the most prominent of the EZLN leadership, described the Zapatista
(13)……………………………… in the following declaration:
We, the men and women of the EZLN, full and free are conscious that the war that we have
declared is a last resort, but also a just one. The (14)…………………………have been applying
an undeclared (15)…………………………………..war against our people for many years.
Therefore we ask for your (16)………………………………. in and support of this plan that
struggles for work, (17)……………………………, food, (18)………………………………,
education, independence, freedom, democracy, (19)…………………………………….., and peace.
We declare that we will not stop fighting until the basic demands of our people have been met by
forming a government of our country that is free and (20)………………………………[7]
genocidal, participation, to create, indigenous, signing, rebellion, communities, ethnic,
discourses, anti-globalization, guerrilla, cause, dictators, housing, healthcare, ecological,
land, income, justice, democratic
3 Listening section
Alberto Rodriguez produced a short film about the main events in Zapatista movements
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=supBzFHSTt4). He gives some facts about the origin of the
Zapatismo movement, the development of the guerilla rebellion, the demands that the rebels put
forward, the women’s involvement, its allies and global movement. Special attention is paid to
the demands of the rebels’ embracement of technologies.
1. Watch the film and write down the events according to the following chronology:
The beginning of the 1900-s

1983
1988
1992
1994, January (outward impact)
1994, January (inner problems)
1994, June
1996
1997
1999
2000
Watch the film for the second time and write down the main demands that the rebels put
forward. Give your own comments on the importance of these demands. Try to find similarities
in other anti-global movements ( Cuban revolution)
4 Written Assignments
Case development
Cases can be analyzed with the help of the SWOT analyses. A SWOT analysis is a
structured method used to evaluate the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats involved
in a projects. It involves specifying the objective of the project and identifying the internal and
external factors that are favorable and unfavorable to achieve that objective. The analysis
belongs, mainly, to economic matters, but can be useful in evaluating projects and organizations
because it outlines the strategic fit of the issue. According to Albert Humphrey [11], the
economist from the Stanford Research Institute who coined the abbreviation, inward and
outward environments are equally important
 Strengths: characteristics of the business or project that give it an advantage over others.
 Weaknesses: characteristics that place the business or project at a disadvantage relative to
others.
 Opportunities: elements that the business or project could exploit to its advantage.
 Threats: elements in the environment that could cause trouble for the business or project.
SWOT analysis aims to identify the key internal and external factors seen as important to
achieving an objective. SWOT analysis groups key pieces of information into two main
categories:
internal factors– strengths and weaknesses internal to the organization
external factors– opportunities and threats presented by the environment external to the
organization
Analysis may view the internal factors as strengths or as weaknesses depending upon
their effect on the organization's objectives. What may represent strengths with respect to one
objective may be weaknesses (distractions, competition) for another objective.
The external factors may include macroeconomic matters, technological change,
legislation, political situation, environmental issues and socio-cultural changes. The results are
often presented in the form of a table or a matrix.
The usefulness of SWOT analysis is not limited to profit-seeking organizations. SWOT
analysis may be used in any decision-making situation when a desired end-state (objective) is
defined. Examples include: non-profit organizations, governmental units, and individuals.

SWOT analysis may also be used in creating a recommendation during a survey.
Develop the case of Zapatista movement for the year 2014, taking into account inward
and outward factors. Use the SWOT table. Suggest your recommendations.
STRENTHES WEAKNESSES
OPPORTUNITIES THREATS
Case 2: Battle in Seattle

In 1999, the World Trade Organization decided to hold global capitalism’s board meeting
in Seattle, WA [2]. Most Americans had never heard of the WTO before, but savvy organizers
decided that they would team up and act like a movement for a change. Radicals and liberals
agreed early on that a healthy inside/outside strategy was called for. A critical mass of activists
began organizing, recruiting and training together to attempt a many-thousands-strong blockade
of the WTO ministerial. We believed that if we could achieve the tactical victory of a mass
shutdown of the WTO’s coming-out party, it would strengthen the hands of everyone working
against corporate globalization.
Scores of affinity groups organized themselves into thirteen “clusters” and through a
highly functional (and democratic) spokes-council, hammered out a plan to capture the key
intersections around the Seattle Convention Center in a massive nonviolent blockade. And so, in
the predawn darkness of November 30, 5,000 direct actionists marched through the streets of
Seattle toward their targets. Each individual action had its own logic and narrative. Each would
have stood on its own as extraordinary. When connected together, they became unstoppable.
The action frame we chose was carnival-protest, equal parts communicative and
concrete. Outside the stodgy corporate meeting, a giant dance party broke out, complete with
marching bands, dancers, theater troupes, giant puppets, radical cheerleaders, a phalanx of 300
turtles and even Christmas carolers. Thousands of folks joined together (with hands and chains)
around key entrances and intersections, preventing delegates from entering (that was the
instrumental part). It could have looked threatening, but with all the celebratory art and
solidarity, we looked beautiful and human doing it. Our theme was “Another World Is Possible”
and we were living it out.
By morning, 5,000 more folks, inspired by the audacity and courage of these artful
actions, had spontaneously joined the human wall around the WTO. Teamsters and turtles were
literally dancing together in the streets. A few hours later, as the Seattle police unleashed a
torrent of tear gas and pepper spray to crack the blockade, 50,000 labor marchers defied their
own marshals and reinforced us with a sea of humanity. The biggest business meeting on Earth
had been shut down, a tactical victory most thought impossible. And the rest, as they say, is
history. The impact of Seattle was enormous. It launched the global justice movement in the
Global North. It showed that a people’s victory against global capital was possible. It created a
teachable moment — for the public, on the WTO and the dark side of corporate globalization,
and also for the movement, showcasing direct and mass action tactics and a carnivalesque
sensibility that are still influential today.
We had a great democratic process that let us hammer out agreements on both actions and
messaging frameworks that thousands of people signed onto. We picked the fight early and
framed it well. We planned for nine months. We started the media story months in advance. On
the day of the event, we surprised everyone, even ourselves.
Key Tactic at work: Blockade
The shut-down of the WTO blended both soft and hard blockade technologies. Of the
thousands who participated, all but a few hundred simply joined hands and stood shoulder to
shoulder with their comrades to prevent delegates from getting through. However, several
hundred people used lock-boxes, chains, barrels, and other hard blockade technology to hold key
intersections where we knew our people power would be lightest. With art and costumes and
good cheer, we made these gear-intensive technical “lockdowns” look beautiful, not scary.
Think narratively
When 50,000 lefties take the streets to confront corporate power, you’re going to get
50,000 different critiques. To try to unify all that message diversity, we designed a “framing
action.” The day before the big protest, four climbers dropped a massive banner 300 feet above
Seattle’s main commuter highway that framed the action as a choice between democracy and the
WTO. The photo of the banner went global on the day of the mass action, summing up in stark
and simplest terms what Battle in Seattle was all about.
One no, many yesses
Whether your YES! was the freedom to keep making the Roquefort cheese that your
great grandfather made or to continue living in an ancient rainforest unpoisoned by Big Oil or to
keep your good union job and not have it outsourced to a sweatshop, you shared a NO! with
billions of others. This “unity in diversity” was present on the streets with Teamsters and Turtles
linking arms, and in the “movement of movements” that organized the protest.
Use your radical fringe to shift the Overton window
Before the WTO uprising in Seattle, relatively few people in the Global North questioned
the process of corporate globalization and so-called “free” trade. Seattle jolted the entire Overton
window sharply to the left. Fair trade and other alternatives moved out of the fringe. The idea
that militant mass action could stop corporate globalization in its tracks became not only
thinkable, but popular. Every major summit between Seattle and 9/11 was met with mass protest.
1. Understanding the case
Recommended presentations:
1. WTO’s headquarters in Seattle
2. The role of trade-unions in organizing the battle in Seattle
3. The confrontation between Bill Clinton’s supporters and the developing countries.
4. (The newspapers, in reporting the Battle in Seattle, focused on the demonstrations in
the streets, which were but a symptom of the underlying division in the meeting hall)
5. History of the linkage of trade to human rights and labor rights [17]
6. Basic labor rights and free trade agreements [12]
7. “Teach-ins” as rebels’ method (used during the Seattle battle)
8. The essence of a “framing action”
9. The Overton window
10. Political and social framing and public discourse
Read the case and answer these questions

1. What was the background of the mass-protests in Seattle?
2. What type of strategy was called for?
3. Why the affinity groups organizes themselves into “clusters”
4. Where and when did the rebels march?
5. What was characteristic of this “carnival-protest”?
6. How many people participated in the mass-protest?
7. Why did this protest work?
8. What were the tactic methods of the protest?
9. How did the protests shift the window of political discourse?
2. Vocabulary section
1. Give your interpretation of the notions and illustrate them by the
sentences from the text:
Pro-democracy, beneficial, mainstream media, right-wing protectionists, misconception,
standards of living, promote peace, corporate influence, structural adjustment policies,
benefit from international trade, urge to continue, increase frustrations with, an inclusive
body, savvy organizers, to team up, a healthy inside/outside strategy to begin recruiting, a
many-thousands-strong blockade, a mass shutdown of the WTO’s coming-out party, scores
of affinity groups , to capture the key intersections around, nonviolent blockade, own
narrative, to become unstoppable, carnival-protest, a giant dance party, theater troupes, giant
puppets, radical cheerleaders, Christmas carolers, celebratory art, inspired by audacity, to
spontaneously join the human wall, teamsters and turtles, to unleash a torrent of tear gas,
pepper spray, a teachable moment, to hammer out agreements, to blend both soft and hard
blockade technologies, to stand shoulder to shoulder, to use lock-boxes, chains, barrels, to
design a “framing action”, unpoisoned by Big Oil, a radical fridge.
2. Fill in the gaps

Most Protestors Were Not Against International Trade
Most people were (1)……………………………….activists protesting at the dangerous
unfairness at the current model of free trade [11], while agreed that international trade is (2)…..
……………………to everyone, if it is fair. Instead, the (3)……………………………………..
preferred to distort the protesters’ concerns saying that they were all anti-trade etc and
concentrated mainly on the motives of the (4)………………………………………………….
from industrialized nations.
This (5)………………………………..that all who are against the current system of the WTO
must automatically be against international trade etc is unfounded; the issue at Seattle was about
protesting the current rules and implementations of these ideas. Most will agree that international
trade will be beneficial and help developing countries raise their (6)…………………………….
Many will also agree that international trade can (7)……………………………………through
internationally agreed standards or rules of that trade, helping reduce the likelihood of tragedies
such as World War I and II which arose through trade battles between the former imperial
countries, whose greed got the better of them.
However, that then doesn't mean that any form of international trade is acceptable without
any thought! Protestors are concerned at the corporate drive in international trade where national
safety standards, laws and rules are often deemed as barriers to trade and a largely unelected set
of WTO officials can make these decisions. Criticism is also towards the (8)………………
…………….……… on the way the actual rules of trade are made (and what the rules are), as
corporations are not democratic and yet the rules that they are pushing forth via the WTO affect
everyone. Coupled with the IMF and World Bank (9)…………………………………….policies
making developed countries dependent upon industrialized countries, this is a concern as the
beneficiaries of global trade in its current form is seriously skewed.
Both developing and developed nations could (10)……………………………..from
international trade. However, currently only the developed nations have really benefited (and
that has also been at the cost of rise in poverty in their own nations). This has meant that those
who have benefited (including enormous global media conglomerates) (11)…………………..
the same formula to continue—after all, if it works for you, why change it? As developing
countries have been (12)……………………………… their (13)……………………………with
the WTO, many are alternatively suggesting that the UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on
Trade And Development) would be a far more (14)………………………………… and
democratic a body to house global trade issues.
mainstream media, right-wing protectionists, frustrations, inclusive, pro-democracy, beneficial,
corporate influence, structural adjustment, misconception, standards of living, promote peace,
benefit, urge, increasing
3. Listening Section
The channel “Democracy now” produced a short film about the main events in Seattle to
mark the 10th anniversary of the protests (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YPiqvAnhiNQ).
They analyze some facts about the emergence of Seattle mass-protest, the development of
the movement worldwide, the demands that the rebels put forward. Special attention is paid to
the demands of the protesters in connection with forthcoming Copenhagen climate talks. Watch
the film and handle the following assignments:
Fill in the gaps:

Battle of Seattle 10 years Later
JUAN GONZALEZ: Yes, it’s been ten years since the infamous Battle of Seattle. On November
30th, 1999, tens of thousands of activists from across the country and around the world prevented
delegates from (1)……………………………………. by forming a human chain around the
Seattle convention center and shutting down the city’s downtown. Police responded by firing (2)
…………………… and (3) …………………..into the mostly peaceful crowd. The protests
resulted in (4)……………………… and in the eventual collapse of the talks, as well as the
resignation of Seattle’s police chief. It was a watershed moment for the movement against
corporate globalization, and “Democracy Now!” was there broadcasting live.
AMY GOODMAN: Today, on this tenth anniversary of the historic protest in Seattle, we’re
joined by three guests. On the phone, Norm Stamper — yes, the former police chief of Seattle and
author of Breaking Rank: A Top Cop’s Exposé of the Dark Side of American Policing.
We’re also joined by longtime activist David Solnit. He’s joining us from San Francisco, though
he was in Seattle. He was one of the Direct Action Network organizers in Seattle ten years ago and
co-author, with his sister Rebecca Solnit, of The Battle of the Story of the Battle of Seattle,
published by AK Press, out this week.
Also, Ananda Tan joins us, the North America (5)………………………………………..for

Incinerator Alternatives. He led a group of (6)……………………………………………..to the
protest in Seattle in 1999. Both David Solnit and Ananda Tan are part of the Mobilization for
Climate Justice Coalition that’s organizing demonstrations and (7)……………………………….
………… in nine cities across the country today on this tenth anniversary.
DAVID SOLNIT: Ten years ago was amazing. We had (8)………………………………………
organized through the Direct Action Network who decided to shut down what we considered the
most undemocratic institution on the planet, the WTO, marching out 7:00 a.m., pre-dawn, (9)
………………………………………..around the city. And what was amazing is that within a few
hours, the people of Seattle spontaneously joined us, so that very soon you were linking arms, (10)
……………………………………….. out of the WTO, and shutting it down with people who had
never been involved in any organization before, and then backed up by the People’s Assembly, by
organized labor breaking through the AFL security folks and joining us. And so, by the end of the
afternoon, they had to — by midday, they had to cancel activities.
And then, the sad part was the Seattle police, by 10:00 a.m., opened fire with chemical weapons,
tear gas, concussion grenades, (11)…………………………………... But people held tight,
shutting it down from dawn to dusk. And at the same time, there were actions across the planet.
The longshore workers had shut down every port up and down the West Coast.
JUAN GONZALEZ: And David Solnit, I remember very well, as if it was yesterday, being both
out in the streets covering your protest, and with Democracy Now!, but then going back inside to
the convention center as the delegates didn’t know what to do. They were totally stunned, because
they couldn’t get enough people inside even to get a meeting together. And so it dragged on for
hours and hours with many of the delegates just standing around trying to figure out what to do.
The impact of the surprise of this on both the governments of many countries in the world as well
as the organizers of the WTO, could you talk about that?
DAVID SOLNIT: Well, the action itself wasn’t a surprise. It was very public that thousands of
people were going to try and nonviolently shut down the World Trade Organization. I think what
the surprise to the world was — and we’re in a very similar moment this week in the lead-up to
Copenhagen — is that Americans broke ranks from their government and actually (12)………..
…………………………..democracy, for human rights, and for the things we need in our lives.
And that was the surprise.
AMY GOODMAN:Ananda Tan, talk about the organizing you did ten years ago and the
significance of the workers out on the streets in Seattle?
ANANDA TAN: Well, Amy, ten years ago was sort of (13) …………………………. of a
decade of organizing for us in western Canada. It was really a combination of various movements
recognizing that (14)……………………………………… over our forests and our forest-
dependent communities was really leading to the destruction of community health and stability.
And I worked mainly with the forest worker organizing, and there’s a few hundred of us who
joined the Canadian Labor Congress and other trade unionists from around North America on the
streets. And for us, it was really a first realization, or a wide realization, that our cause to prevent
corporations from robbing our forests and our communities ( 15)……………………………..to
the fight of peasants from India and fisherfolk around the world who are trying to protect their
natural resources, peasants trying to protect their seeds. And so, it was really a coming together of
various movements.
For us, coming down to Seattle, we came down with a slogan of fighting the Global Free Logging
Agreement, which is what we call the multilateral agreement on investments that was a key
component of the WTO. And we realized that our fight was linked to those of, you know, sort of
communities, millions of people around the world. And it was — perhaps my only regret is that we
weren’t able to sustain it back in — returning to Canada, but we did remain inspired by the fact
that many of our allies around the world were eventually able to force the derailment of key
provisions like the agreement on agriculture and, well, really, a lot of the major components of the
Doha round. So, yes, it was —-
AMY GOODMAN: And as we move into this ten years later, Ananda, as we move forward, the
Copenhagen climate talks about to take place, how would you say the organizing from ten years
ago is translating into what’s happening today?
ANANDA TAN: Well, Amy, I think what we saw in Seattle was a combination of a broad
dialogue in civil society. I was part of an alliance called the Labor-Environmental Alliance, and it
was the first time forest workers and environmental groups and indigenous activists got together to
realize and recognize a common cause. With the (16)……………………………….., I think we’ve
learned from a lot of our lessons in various resource-based fights and come forward to realize that
the fights of communities here in North America, fighting climate-destructive and (17)………….
………………………… industries, is linked to the fights of communities facing toxins in their
backyards, that are communities that are really being hit hard by the economic crisis here in North
America. Their cause is linked to the cause of African farmers and Asian farmers who are running
into serious limits to their productivity on their farms due to the climate crisis. And so, we have a
much bigger canvas. We have an opportunity to tackle the same corporations who were trying to
liberalize international trade and their access to community resources around the world and are
now trying to do the same, using this opportunity of the climate crisis to create markets for trading
in carbon derivatives and using their existing control of energy resources to really finance their
development agenda in the third world.
So I think we’re at a place where, once again, we’re faced with turning out massive numbers of
people on the streets to (18) ……………………………..the corporate interference with
international climate policy talks, but also here in the US, I think it’s critical, being in the country
with the most amount of climate -— that’s producing the most climate pollution, but also
ostensibly owes the most amount of carbon reparations or climate debt to communities around the
world, for people to step out and start challenging these corporations that are housed here in this
country, the major oil and gas companies and the banks that finance them, and all the carbon
traders that are trying to make deals in this new derivatives market, to stop their interference —-
JUAN GONZALEZ:Ananda, if I can interrupt you for a second -—
ANANDA TAN:— with a fair, just global agreement.
JUAN GONZALEZ: I’d like to get David Solnit to talk a little bit about the battle that ensued
over controlling the story, or the story of what happened in Seattle, the press coverage and then the
movie that was done afterwards. David, if you could talk about your efforts and the subsequent
battle over the story?
DAVID SOLNIT: Well, the story of shutting down the World Trade Organization and joining
with people around the world and delegates from developing countries inside to derail the talks,
that story is one that tells that people, when we take action and organize together, we have power,
and we can make change. And that’s a story that’s terrifying to elites. So, since Seattle, they’ve
attempted to subvert that story, to paint with a negative brush the tens of thousands of us in the
streets of Seattle.
And you’ll see before any mobilization, in places like Pittsburgh a few months ago, flat-out lies
about what happened, you know, saying that the tear gas and rubber bullets was in response to
something rather than being used against unarmed, (19)………………………………………….
And so, this kind of a disinformation campaign has been used very widely to try and scare people
away from the one way that we actually have power, which is when we organize and (20)…….
…………………………………., as we’re going to be doing today in cities across the United
States around the new WTO, which is the corporate control of carbon trading.
AMY GOODMAN:And, of course, we’ll be heading to Copenhagen, Democracy Now!, in force,
to cover Copenhagen for the two weeks of the Copenhagen climate talks. We’ll be broadcasting
live there starting next Monday. David Solnit, thanks for being with us.”The Battle of the Story of
the Battle of Seattle” is your new book, along with your sister Rebecca. We’re sorry we couldn’t
get the former police chief on, Norm Stamper. We’ll talk to him soon. And thanks to Ananda Lee
Tan, North America coordinator for the Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives.
rubber bullets, armored vehicles, stood up for, 600 arrests, coordinator for the Global Alliance,
climate-polluting, challenge, 4,000 Canadian workers, civil disobedience, several thousand people,
setting up blockades, keeping delegates, a culmination, attending the global trade talks, tear gas,
was linked, climate crisis, the corporate rule, non-violent protesters, take direct action
4. Written assignment: Case analysis

Imagine that you are involved into conservationists movement and want to use best
practices to organize protests against MTC. Develop the case of the battle in Seattle 1999 from
the point of view of its applicability to modern environment. Take into account inward and
outward factors and modern global trends. Use the SWOT table. Suggest your
recommendations.
Case 3: ATTAC
Originally called "Action for a Tobin Tax to Assist the Citizen" [1, 8], ATTAC was a
single-issue movement demanding the introduction of the so-called Tobin tax [6, 15] on currency
speculation. Attac was originally founded to promote the Tobin tax by the Keynesian economist
James Tobin. Tobin himself has accused Attac for misusing his name and said that he has
nothing in common with Attac and is a supporter of free trade- "everything that these movements
are attacking. ATTAC now devotes itself to a wide range of issues related to globalization,
monitoring the decisions of the WTO, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD) and the IMF.
At the founding, ATTAC had specific statutory objectives based on the promotion of the
Tobin tax: it aims to produce and communicate information, and to promote and carry out
activities of all kinds for the recapture, by the citizens, of the power that the financial sector has
on all aspects of political, economic, social and cultural life throughout the world. Such means
include the taxation of transactions in foreign exchange markets (Tobin tax).
ATTAC claims not to an anti-globalization movement, but it criticizes the neoliberal
ideology that it sees as dominating economic globalization. It supports globalization policies that
they characterize as sustainable and socially just. One of ATTAC's slogans is "The World is not
for sale", denouncing the "merchandisation" of society. Another slogan is "Another world is
possible" pointing to an alternative globalization where people and not profit is in focus.
ATTAC functions on a principle of decentralization: local associations organize
meetings, conferences, and compose documents that become counter-arguments to the perceived
neoliberal discourse. ATTAC aims to formalize the possibility of an alternative to the neoliberal
society. ATTAC aspires to be a movement of popular education. The organization expanded
very rapidly into the rest of the world with an ATTAC network around an international charter
set up in 1999. Today, the association is active in some 40 countries, with over a thousand local
groups and hundreds of organizations supporting the network.
A founding organization of alter-globalization
In 1999, ATTAC was present in Seattle during the demonstrations that led to the failure
of the WTO negotiations. It was one of the organizations that initiated the first World Social
Forum in Porto Allegre in 2001. Over the past 10 years, it has participated in counter summits
and demonstrations against the G8, the G20, the WTO, and the war in Iraq. It also mobilized,
along with the alter-globalization movement, to demand true climate justice at the UN climate
summit in Copenhagen.
They think that the preservation of our planet cannot be attained through technological
progress and the commercialisation of natural resources, but that it requires a radical redefinition
of economic development away from productivism and consumerism. This implies that the
common goods of humanity (health care, education, water, climate, biodiversity,...) must be
given an international status that insures their protection, and that their preservation must be
based on devoted financing through global taxes. Attac is committed to several campaigns at
international level:
1. Close down the casino economy
Disarm the markets! When Attac was founded in 1998, this slogan evolved against the
background of the financial crash in East Asia. At present, the wealthy of the world are in the
middle of a crisis, which is the heaviest since the Great Depression in 1929. This crisis has a
systematic character: The structure and the mechanisms of that system themselves are now being
questioned. The neoliberal Globalization and the fictitious idea of self-regulating markets is
failing. The only results one can expect from piecemeal (re)regulations and the short term crisis
management, are a salvation of the neo-liberal course and that it will take us by the hand and
lead us into future disasters. The response to this crisis demands an exit to neoliberalism and to
put an end to the influence that the financial economy has on society. ATTAC demands:
 A refusal to the socialization of the losses and to the privatization of the profits
 Speculators pays principles
 Strengthening of a public and cooperative banking sector
 A revision of the international monetary and financial system within a global reform by
the United Nations
 Taxations of all kinds of financial transfers including currency transactions - A
progressive taxation of capital income
 To close down tax heavens
 To put an end to all destabilising and unsustainable instruments of the financial system
2. Say no to the attack on social and democratic rights in Europe!
The financial crisis has caused a substantial increase in public debt. Instead of sending
the bill to the banking and financial services industry, European governments and the European
Commission plan to make ordinary citizens pay: workers, families, young people - people like
you! The euro crisis has become the occasion to set up a neoliberal "economic governance"
which will impose austerity measures in the different European countries for the next years. At
the same time, the European Commission will be given enormous power to implement
burdensome financial sanctions on countries which do not adopt such painful measures.
There are though many alternatives to this neoliberal austerity package - such as the
introduction of a financial transaction tax, or the regulation of financial markets.
3 Fiscal and economic union
Under the pressure of the crisis, the powerful are pushing through their murky "reform"
measures at a rapid pace. The logic is always the same: Reduce debts through cuts in social
services and privatisation, raise competitiveness through wage cuts and eliminate workers rights.
The consequences: A deep recession, further aggravating the economic crisis. In southern
Europe the 'Troika' of the ECB, EU Commission, and the IMF dictate one so called
Memorandum (austerity package) after another. The reality is a devastating social crisis. And
"coincidentally" our democracies are being hollowed out: highly indebted countries are forced to
transfer their sovereignty from their elected parliaments to the EU. Every day, the technocrats of
the EU Commission and the ECB gain yet more power for themselves.
Can things get even worse, after all the reform packages so far that have established a
neo-liberal, anti-democratic politics throughout Europe? Yes they can. In the European Council
the introduction of a fiscal and economic union is being prepared right now. The diktat of
austerity, through which Greece, Spain and Portugal suffer right now, will be institutionalized on
the European level. Or as the European Commission President Barroso put it: A quiet revolution
has been taking place.
4. What does the fiscal and economic union mean?
 All Eurozone countries will be required to conclude treaties with the European
Commission, in which they will be obliged to carry out so-called "structural reforms";
 A communal budget of the Eurozone countries will be created in order to deal
with "structural weaknesses";
 The budget monitoring will become stricter, for example through the right of Veto
of the Monetary Affairs Commissioner on national budgets.
Should these measures be carried out, then the pressure on wages and social entitlements
will be permanently cemented, because neoliberal policies will be enshrined in treaties. What is
meant by "structural reforms" and the “clearing away of structural weaknesses" is nothing more
than the clearing away of the welfare state, repression of wages, sabotage of the public sector,
deregulation, and privatisation. Social rights and democracy are under fire together.
It is not yet too late to hold back this fiscal and economic union! The process is only yet
at the beginning. Resistance is forming in many European countries; for the summit in March a
Europe-wide day of action will take place. The European policy of austerity will never be able to
overcome the crisis. It serves only to redistribute the costs to the citizens, creating a Europe for
banks, corporations and the super-rich against the interests of the people of Europe.
We demand a repeal of the austerity measures of the last years, the abolition of illegal and
illegitimate debts, strict regulation and control of financial markets as well as a European
coordinated capital levy. Moreover, we demand a thorough democratisation of the EU and the
comprehensive participation of the European Parliament in all legislative processes of the EU.
5. For a Europe-wide coordinated levy on wealth

A constantly increasing disparity of wealth is an intrinsic aspect of capitalism. Therefore,
strong political correctives to create a fairer distribution are necessary. This applies even more in
the currently dominant form of capitalism driven by financial markets, since here the disparity in
the distribution of prosperity has been growing especially rapidly.
The nature of the crisis
As this polarization of the distribution of wealth grows, so does the amount of capital circulating
around the world in search of profitable investment opportunities. It became less and less
possible to exploit this capital profitably in the productive economy.
The increasing dominance of the financial markets has allowed gigantic profits – and also
losses – to be made within seconds. Thus the system is becoming more and more unstable. More
and more speculative bubbles developed, which must burst sooner or later. Such a burst was the
beginning of the current crises dynamic. Since the productive economy and the financial sector
are closely interwoven, the global economic crisis was a logical next step. The economic crisis,
and the gigantic, spectacular actions to save the banks, in turn imposed such a burden on public
and private budgets that government debt soared. Sovereign debts have increased as direct
consequence of the bail-outs and of the economic slow-down induced by this chaotic situation.
While public indebtedness is increasing, private wealth continues to grow in value, even
in the context of the crisis. The accelerated accumulation of private assets and the associated rise
in wealth inequality is a major determinant of the global crisis, and it is also continuing in the
midst of the crisis. This is the first reason why the burden of the crisis must be shouldered by
reducing extreme concentrations of wealth, and not by brutal orgies of spending cuts, as the
dominant policy for dealing with the crisis demands. The adequate tool for doing that is the
implementation of a strong one-off wealth levy which is followed by permanent wealth taxation.
A second reason is that the policy of cuts prescribed makes matters even worse. Countries
such as Greece and Portugal are being "economized" to death. A third reason is that it is
completely unacceptable for the costs of the crisis to be imposed mainly on those who had
nothing to do with creating it. After speculation with huge assets has plunged the world into a
crisis, in Europe, especially in the Southern and Eastern European countries, social-welfare
systems are being destroyed, public property sold off for a pittance, and the people bled dry –
ignoring their democratic rights in order to do so.
Outline of a European wide coordinated wealth levy
In imposing a wealth levy, we want to base it on all private assets, both financial and
physical assets. This levy on assets must be progressively graduated. Therefore, the excessive
rates of growth of wealth concentration upwards could be met by a graduation starting at a 20%
levy on assets, and ranging up to 80%.
That only the very rich are burdened and that small and medium-sized firms do not have
financing difficulties, an allowance of one million euros for private assets and two million euros
for operating assets should be made. In order to prevent liquidity problems of companies and
new turbulence on financial markets, payment periods of ten years should be granted for the levy
where it is necessary. An important aspect is that the levy should get implemented European-
wide. The crisis is a European problem, not one of single countries. What is done with the
revenue is a matter of democratic decision-making. In general, it is necessary to generate the
means to overcome the crisis, to finance public expenditure (e.g. investment in education, social
security, public investment, ecological transformation) and to reduce the power of financial
markets by reducing the circulating capital by a re-distribution to the public sphere.
1. James Tobin and his proposals
2. OECD: objectives and role in global environment
3. “Merchandisation” of society
4. World Social Forum in Porto Allegre in 2001 and ATTAC
5. UN climate summit in Copenhagen and ATTAC
6. The casino economy.
7. Neoliberalism movement.
8. The “Troika” dictate.
9. Coordinated wealth levy.
Read the case and answer the questions:

1. What do OECD, IMF and WTO promote?
2. What is implied by Tobin tax?
3. Where is ATTAC active?
4. What does the principle of “decentralization” entail?
5. When did the slogan “close down the casino economy” appear?
6. What are alternatives to austerity measures?
7. Why does private wealth continue to grow in value?
8. Why are social-welfare systems being destroyed?
9. What should be done to prevent turbulence on financial markets?
1. Give your interpretation of the notions and illustrate them by using the
notion in the sentences from the text:
To disarm the markets, to promote the Tobin tax, an ATTAC network, the WTO negotiations,
counter summits, alter-globalization movement, an emancipatory movement, neo-liberal
globalization, worldwide solidarity, to guarantee rights, preservation of our planet , a radical
redefinition, productivism and consumerism, to insure protection, global taxes, a single-issue
movement, tax on currency speculation, to monitor the decisions of the WTO, OECD, statutory
objectives, the recapture of the power, taxation of transactions in foreign exchange markets,
"merchandisation" of society, "Another world is possible", a principle ofdecentralisation, to
compose documents, to formalize the possibility of an alternative, to demand true climate
justice, at the UN climate summit in Copenhagen, to insure the common goods protection, the
casino economy, the fictitious idea, an exit to neoliberalism, the privatization of the profits,
speculators pays principles, progressive taxation of capital income, tax heavens, To impose
austerity measures, to implement burdensome financial sanctions, murky "reform" measures,
raise competitiveness through wage cuts, the 'Troika', technocrats of the EU Commission and
the ECB, a fiscal union, so-called "structural reforms", the right of Veto on national budgets, to
be enshrined in treaties, to be under fire, to redistribute the costs to the citizens, a European
coordinated capital levy, the disparity in the distribution of prosperity, gigantic profits, to grow
in value, the accelerated accumulation of private assets, brutal orgies of spending cuts,
implementation of a strong one-off wealth levy, to be "economized" to death, to plunge the
world into a crisis, to be sold off for a pittance, to be bled dry.
2. Fill in the gaps:

ATTAC was founded in France in December 1998 after the publication in the Monde
Diplomatique of an editorial entitled ‘Désarmer les marchés’ (Disarm the markets) that launched
the notion of creating an association to promote the T………………t……..(1).
The organization e……………………..(2) very rapidly into the rest of the world , being active
in some 40 countries, with over a thousand local groups and hundreds of organizations
supporting the …n……………………………….(3).
In 1999, ATTAC was present in Seattle during the demonstrations that led to the failure of the
WTO n………………………………..(4). It was one of the organizations that initiated the first
World Social Forum in Porto Allegre in 2001. Over the past 10 years, it has participated in
c…………s…………………………(5) and demonstrations against the G8, the G20, the WTO,
and the war in Iraq... It also mobilized, along with the a………-g……………………(6)…
movement, to demand true climate justice at the UN climate summit in Copenhagen.
The alter-globalization movement is an e……………(7). movement that opposes n……-
l…………………g……….. (8). Its activists are c……………………..….(9) that access to basic
needs for all and the emancipation of humankind cannot be brought about by global economic
competition and free markets but can only result from pooling worldwide solidarity and global
financing to g………………(10) these rights. They also think that the p………………… ……
(11) of our planet cannot be attained through technological progress and the c……….
………………(12) of natural resources, but that it requires a radical r………………………(13)
of economic development away from productivism and c…………………….…(14). This
implies that the common goods of humanity (health care, education, water, climate,
biodiversity,...) must be given an international status that i…………………..(15) their
protection, and that their preservation must be based on devoted financing through
g……………………….t…………(16).
emancipator, expanded, network, redefinition, global taxes, negotiation, counter summits,

Tobin tax, neo-liberal globalization, convinced, consumerism, insures, guarantee, preservation,
commercialization, alter-globalization
3. Listening section
Giving his view on the 'Tobin' tax that Brazil has introduced and India's take on it’ Ajay Shah, a
professor at NIPFP said that the micro-economic interventions that India is using are not present
in Brazil. (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RUgwY17r_YA ). Watch the film and mark the
sentences as true (T) or false (F):
1) Tobin tax is no more in fashion in economic circles.

2) Brazil is introducing the Tobin tax in the nearest future
3) Brazil exercises a very high degree of state control in financial markets.
4) What is really important for Brazilian regulatorsis its regular microeconomic interventions
5) India loves central planning in economic and financial spheres.
6) Chili has found the Tobin tax very successful for their economy
7) Macroeconomic instruments are less important for Brazilian economy than the capital control
8) Currency appreciation is not possible in Brazil as they don’t do central planning
9) Tobin tax is a good way to curb macroeconomic intervention.
10) Asian economies and China have never intervened in the foreign exchange market.
Render the information of the film and suggest your opinion.
4. Written assignments: Case analysis
Many NGO and movements have a short-term existence as often become ineffective and
corrupted. ATTAC was involved into a scandal. In the year 2008 Attac Switzerland was hit by
a scandal which was later called Nestlégate by the local media. Between the years 2003 and
2005, the Swiss multinational food and beverage company Nestle, engaged the external Security
company Securitas AG, to spy on the Swiss Attac branch. Nestlé started the monitoring, when
Attac Switzerland decided to work on a critical book about Nestlé. It was the first call and the
organization must now critically analyze its potentials. Do it with the help of the SWOT table.
Suggest your recommendations.

Bibliography:
1. Association for the Taxation of Financial Transactions and for Citizen’s Action URL:
http://wikivisually.com/wiki/ATTAC; Moberg D. On the ATTAC: A new European
alternative to globalization//These Times magazine, May 2001
2. Battle in Seattle. A toolbox for revolution, URL: http://beautifultrouble.org/case/battle-
in-seattle/; What democracy looks like (documentary film). Big Noise Films, 2000 URL:
http://www.bignoisefilms.com/films/features/100-whatdemocracylookslike
3. Brief Historical Background to the Zapatista Movement//Hemispheric Institute, URL:
http://hemisphericinstitute.org/hemi/en/su10-tourism/item/879-su10-brief-historical-
background-zapatista-movement
4. Buttel F. Some Observations on the Anti-Globalization Movement// Australian Journal of
Social Issues, 2016, pp 95-108
5. Climate change//Wikipedia, URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change
6. Conway E. Joseph Stiglitz calls for Tobin tax on all financial trading transactions//The
Telegraph, 5.10.2009;
7. First Declaration of the Lacandon Jungle//Wikisource, URL:
https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/First_Declaration_of_the_Lacadon_Jungle
(датаобращения: 12.02.2018)
8. Moberg D. On the ATTAC: A new European alternative to globalization//These Times
magazine, May 2001
9. Pleyers Geoffrey, « A Brief History of the Alter-Globalization Movement », Books and
Ideas, 20 June 2013. URL : http://www.booksandideas.net/A-Brief-History-of-the-
Alter.html
10. Pleyers Geoffrey Alter-Globalization: Becoming Actors in the Global Age//Alter
globalization Helsinki Review vol. 2, issue 2, September 2011, pp 70-71
11. Shah A. WTO Protests in Seattle, 1999//Global Issues, URL:
http://www.globalissues.org/article/46/wto-protests-in-seattle-1999
12. Summers Clyde, THE BATTLE IN SEATTLE: FREE TRADE, LABOR RIGHTS, AND
SOCIETAL VALUES, URL:
https://www.law.upenn.edu/journals/jil/articles/volume22/issue1/Summers22U.Pa.J.Int
%27lEcon.L.61%282001%29.pdf
13. The new Washington consensus// http://bruegel.org/2016/06/the-new-washington-
consensus/;
14. The Washington consensus//Encyclopaedia Britannica, URL:
https://global.britannica.com/topic/Washington-consensus (дата обращения:
23.03.2017)
15. Tobin tax//Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobin_tax(дата обращения:
12.05.2018)
16. Tsing A., “Indigenous Voice” //Indigenous Experience Today, Oxford: Berg Publisher,
2007
17. Virginia A. Leary, Workers' Rights and International Trade: The Social Clause, (GATT,
ILO, NAFTA, U.S. Laws) //2 FAIR TRADE AND HARMONIZATION 177 (Lagdish
Bhagwati & Robert E. Hudec eds., 1997)
Videos
1. A short film about the main events in Seattle to mark the 10th anniversary of the protests by the
channel “Democracy now” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YPiqvAnhiNQ
2. 'Tobin' tax that Brazil has introduced and India's take on it’ by Ajay
Shahhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RUgwY17r_YA
3. The main events in Zapatista movement by Alberto Rodriguez
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=supBzFHSTt4
4. What democracy looks like (documentary film). Big Noise Films, 2000URL:
http://www.bignoisefilms.com/films/features/100-whatdemocracylookslike
MODULE 2
SOFT POWER IN GLOBAL WORLD
Brainstorming:
1) Sticks and carrots; 2) the British Council; 3) Confucian institute; 4) The Alliance
Française; 5) soft power factors; 6) hard power versus soft power 7) smart power; 8)
Rossotrudnichestvo (Federal Agency for the Commonwealth of Independent States,
Compatriots Living Abroad and International Humanitarian Cooperation); 9) national
civilization peculiarities and soft power
Comment on the citations:
1. “No two countries that
both had McDonald's had fought
a war against each other since
each got its McDonald's”
(Thomas Friedman)
2. In the cabaret of
globalization, the state shows
itself as a table dancer that strips
off everything until it is left with
only the minimum indispensable
garments: the repressive force.”
(Subcomandante Marcos)
3. “Globalization by the
way of McDonald’s and KFC
has captured the hearts, the
minds, and from what I can see
through the window, the growing
bellies of the folks here.”
(Raquel Cepeda)
4. Globalization is not just about changing relations between the ‘inside’ of the nation-state
and the ‘outside’ of the international system. It cuts across received categories, creating myriad
multilayered intersections, overlapping playing fields, and actors skilled at working across these
boundaries. People are at once rooted and rootless, local producers and global consumers,
threatened in their identities yet continually remaking those identities.” (Philip G. Cerny)
5. “Globalization means standardization. The very rich and the very poor must want the
same things, but only the rich can have them.” (Arundhati Roy)
6. “Globalization 3.0 makes it possible for so many more people to plug in and play, and
you are going to see every color of the human Rainbow take part.” (Thomas L. Friedmann)
7. “My concern is not whether God is on our side; my greatest concern is to be on God's
side, for God is always right.” - Abraham Lincoln
1
https://yandex.ru/images/search?img_url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ey.com%2FMedia%2FvwLUExtFile%2FRapid-
growth_markets_softpowerindex_spring_2012%2F%2524FILE%2Fglobal_image.jpg&text=soft%20power
%20pictures&noreask=1&pos=4&lr=213&rpt=simage
8. Politics is the art of looking for trouble, finding it everywhere, diagnosing it incorrectly
and applying the wrong remedies.” - Groucho Marx
9. All war is a symptom of man's failure as a thinking animal.” – John Steinbeck
10. “The greatest and most powerful revolutions often start very quietly, hidden in the
shadows. Remember that.” – Richelle Mead
11. Everything changes as you move through three stages of awareness: first, that beliefs are
the result of conditions; second, that beliefs are the cause of conditions; and third, that
beliefs are themselves conditions. – Eric Micha’el Leventhal
12. “Those leaders who fail, lack the capability to resonate their idea & thoughts” – Aayush
Jain
2. INTRODUCTORY NOTES: JOSEPH NYE AND SOFT POWER

The term “soft power” was coined by a famous American political scientist Joseph S. Nye. He
was born in 1937, received education in Princeton and Oxford Universities, and supported his
Ph. D thesis in Harvard University. He is a former Dean of the John F. Kennedy School of
Government at Harvard University and still holds the position of University Distinguished
Service Professor at Harvard University. Joseph S. Nye was a co-founder of the international
relations theory: neoliberalism, which was developed in the book Power and Interdependence in
1977. He also developed (together with Keohane) the concepts of asymmetrical and complex
interdependence. More recently, he pioneered the theory of soft power. His notion of "smart
power" became popular as it was actively used by members of the Clinton Administration and
the Obama Administration.
The Historiography of Soft Power
In contemporary diplomacy and IR, the concept of soft power is widely accepted [13]. However,
soft power existed long before it was put forward as a concept within the framework of IR. Thus,
Spain emerged as a centre of civilizational diffusion in the 17th century with the elite group in
France fully embracing Spain fashion and generally Cervantes novels in particular. The concept
of soft power was introduced to the international relations literature by Joseph Nye in the early
1990s. The concept developed through three books: “Bound to Lead”, (1990), “The Paradox of
the American Power” (2002), “Soft Power” (2004).
It all began during the 1980s, when declinist theories had strength and popularity in mainstream
IR debates. Nye criticized declinist theories and in the process he first articulated the concept of
soft power. Nye defines soft power as the ability to make others want what you want. In this
sense, soft power is the opposite of hard power, the ability to make others do what you want.
Soft power, which Nye also calls co-optive or indirect power, rests on the attraction a set of ideas
exerts, or on the capacity to set political agendas that shape the preferences of others, related to
intangible resources like culture, ideologies and institutions. In 2002, Nye identifies a complex
three-dimensional chess game: military (USA), economic (EU, USA and Japan) and
transnational where a diversity of state and non-state agents coexist and the debate over
polarities is meaningless
Soft Power Matters!
Soft power has become increasingly important and three factors contribute to its popularity:
1.The appearance of nuclear weapons and the horror of using them made states rethink the use of
military power in current international relations. The idea of physically occupying a country and
ruling over it seems more difficult than ever. In terms of costs, the economic & cultural means of
achieving what a country wants seems to be more effective and viable than coercive actions.
2. The second factor is the popularization of advanced education, which creates a conducive
ground for the spread of soft power. Also, with worldwide democratization movement and
relaxation of political systems, empowered domestic audiences transform their visions into
political reality, forcing states to conform to its norms. Promotion of advanced education,
increasing educated people, loosening of social structures all help for the pen to be mightier than
the sword
3. The third factor is the strong, penetrating power of information and knowledge, particular in
the Information Revolution Age. Information and knowledge undoubtedly flow more easily and
quickly than guns, and people’s way of thinking and acting are ultimately influenced by the
information and knowledge to which they have access. It is tough to fight coercive intervention
and trade sanctions, but harder still to prevent the spread and penetration of public information
In this context, global television and Internet are two most effective means used to promote ideas
and norms BBC, CNN, DW, Al-Jazeera and CCTV International Channel are the big boys in the
current global media order.
Joseph Nye concentrates on the positive attractive aspects of soft power as a foreign policy tool.
He believes that soft power is primarily an issue of domestic politics – determining a country’s
future direction – and only secondarily about international politics. Domestic politics is tied to
foreign relations through this distinction: a positive, civilized inside takes shape only when it is
distinguished from a negative outside. This process policies what counts as ‘Chinese’, or
‘Russian’ or ‘Bangladesh’ in a way that simultaneously creates imagined Others: ‘America’,
‘Japan’, ‘India’, ‘Pakistan’, ‘the West’ and so on. Soft power is also relevant to the enhancement
of regime legitimacy
Nye’s claims, that soft power is based on attractiveness and seduction. Thus, soft power now
encompasses a wide array of instruments including: multilateral diplomacy; foreign aid;
developmental assistance, the provision of international public goods; the exportation of
democracy; nation-building including the kitchen sink (military power)
Aware of the benefits of a sophisticated soft-power portfolio [2], Chinese leaders are aiming to
deepen relationships with all regions of the world, particularly the developing nations of Africa,
the Americas, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia. Beijing uses a variety of tools to increase its
influence in the developing world that include economic incentives and military cooperation;
however, traditional soft power has also become a growing piece of how China acquires its
influence. Although the nature of China’s relationships with the regions explored in this volume
is largely economic, Beijing has also sought to strengthen these relationships by promoting
regional economic integration and security mechanisms, emphasizing the role of the United
Nations, participating in humanitarian missions, providing concessionary loans and debt relief,
increasing cultural and academic exchange programs, and engaging local communities through
skilled diplomats.
A good illustration of soft power approach is demonstrated by China. It practices an omni-
directional friendship policy that emphasizes the importance of state sovereignty and
noninterference with the objective of securing stable, sustainable access to resources and opening
new export markets to fuel its economy.
The tools of China’s soft power can be classified into at least five groups: investment,
humanitarian aid, exchange programs, diplomacy, and participation in multilateral institutions.
Why sport matters

Research by Kings College in London into major sporting events [1] has found that their
popularity provides a powerful means of showcasing a nation’s achievements and values and its
ability to manage major projects. The London 2012 Olympics and Paralympics – which was
watched by more than 50% of the world’s population –– generated a substantial boost in
international interest in the UK through the impressive medal haul and Danny Boyle’s dazzling
opening ceremony. Results from research in eleven strategically important countries for UK
foreign policy and trade showed that on average 36% of people stated that the Games had made
the UK more attractive as a place to study or do business, and 35 % were more likely to visit the
UK. The events also facilitated broader cultural programs, such as the Cultural Olympiad and
the ‘UK Now’ program in China (the biggest ever celebration of UK arts and culture in that
country).
Sport can build camaraderie between people who might otherwise never meet, be they
competitors in sports tournaments, international visitors or young people discussing the latest
game. It brings people from diverse countries and back-grounds together. Community sporting
programs can also be immensely powerful in supporting development and promoting the UK’s
influence. They give hope, inspiration and life skills to young people across the world.
Premier Skills is a partnership between the English Premier League and the British Council to
train football coaches. In eight years it has reached some 500,000 people across 25 countries. It
has become a tool for international development, promoting inclusion, rights, role models and
people-to-people engagement, as well as tackling specific issues like violence against girls.
Programs of this type also help the UK be seen as a dynamic country and to build future long
term economic opportunities, e.g. via training provision, promotion and the marketing of UK
sports industry services. Recent research also showed evidence that sport promoted inclusion,
diversity, community cohesion and women’s rights. For example, the London 2012 Olympic
legacy program ‘International Inspiration’, run by the British Council with UNICEF, UK Sport
and the Youth Sport Trust, trained girls around the world as peer leaders to help change attitudes
towards gender equality through sports events.
Contemporary Art as a Soft Power
Soft power uses cultural and artistic appeal, ethical values and foreign policies in order to
convince people to join a particular side or cause [3]. This term is now also used as a tool to
change or influence public opinion through less transparent channels, as well as to lobby through
powerful political and non-political entities. As Nye said it himself, “credibility is the scarcest
resource” in today’s Information Age.
We live in a time of historic, global wealth inequality and increasing political turbulence. We see
the antisocial effects of this in the use of debt to brutally repress democracies in Greece, Spain,
and Portugal; in the rise of Donald Trump’s brand of white supremacy in the US; and in the use
of racist, anti-immigrant rhetoric to convince the British people to vote to exit the EU. It is no
coincidence that art that is deemed “important” by 1% of the wealthiest people who control half
the world’s wealth. It feels, at times, as if Western Civilization, as we have known it, is
unraveling into the dark muddle it found itself in 100 years ago. What are artists to do? [6] One
of the best examples we could possibly give would be the clumsy rise of China as a cultural
ambassador in the 21st century, and the game of back-and-forth that the country plays with
freedom of expression against indigenous artists such as Ai WeiWei. While the public sector
makes a habit of institutionalising art through commissioning, purchasing and promoting it, it
also gives it a strong educational character, using it to impose or maintain certain values and
even social trends. Thus validating the art industry as an official form of expression is also
recognised as a type of soft power.
Contemporary art has played a key role in the widespread social campaigns against antiquated
and bigoted mentalities that continue to somehow shape our society in the 21st century. It
mirrors today’s culture and society and it has the power to further shape the minds of younger
generations to come. While art collectors and galleries thrive from the business of buying and
selling works that typically don’t fit within a specific style or current, millennials follow it and
absorb its underlying messages of tolerance and peace, both equally precious and highly valued
today.
His stencil-based graffiti art constantly evokes his political activism. The satirical street art and
subversive epigrams are now present on walls and bridges in major cities all over the world, and
they evoke the very things we’ve all come to love and hate at the same time, as a global society –
greed, power, the addiction of technology, corruption and intolerance to name but a few. A
brilliant representative of this trend is Banksy. His usually dismal or humorous imagery is often
combined with slogans and speaks against war, against capitalism or against the establishment.
The world loves a rebellious spirit, and Banksy doesn’t fall short. His art is a pure example of
soft power, down to its very core. Contemporary art now incorporates digital mediums and has
managed to blur the line between reality and fiction, with the help of surprising installations
displayed in otherwise regular locations i.e. supermarkets, parks and the very streets we walk
through every day. And that’s where the soft power stems from: messages and ideas are no
longer confined to the walls and glass boxes of museums, they’re out in the open for everyone to
see and they speak to more than just art aficionados
Contemporary art does not persuade – it draws attention and challenges people to think
for themselves.
Today, art is not just a tool of creative expression; it is also a powerful social and even political
platform that stands up to the establishment. It doesn’t lie, it doesn’t coerce and it doesn’t use
aggressive techniques to get people on its side. It’s the very core of the “soft power” concept,
and it’s no wonder that more and more countries appeal to its sincere charms in order to open
new channels of communication with communities that have otherwise shunned them.
We need a visual language that speaks to the hearts and minds of people and less theoretics that
dehumanize and patronize. We need more satirical parades like Krewe Du Vieux in New
Orleans. No market, no institutional power, no media can stop the soft power of art. All graffiti
is seen, at least for a little while. Artists are a stronger force than the systems in which they
operate. Art finds a way. Artists can lead the change.
Soft power is currently a major arena for confrontation among countries [4]. India is progressing
in Afghanistan on the strength of its soft power capacities, including Bollywood movies, and has
taken over other countries, especially those whose troops are present in Afghanistan. China is
trying to present the world with a better model of economic development and a peaceful image
by banking on teachings of Confucius in order to attract countries which are fed-up with other
international powers. The United States is currying favor with Muslims and is trying to mend its
marred image in Muslims’ mind by giving the go-ahead for the construction of a new mosque
close to Ground Zero in New York, producing films which depict Washington as protector of
Muslims against foreign powers (such as Salt which is currently on screens), and through
presidential addresses like the one Obama delivered in Cairo. South Korea is promoting its
famous brands and makes families take, at least, one of its products into their homes while
spending time to watch Korean soap operas which bring Korea’s history and traditions to their
television screens.
Iran’s foreign policy approaches in the past years have proven that Tehran is also well aware of
high importance of soft power. A recent report by the American Enterprise Institute on Iran’s
soft power advances in Africa is an example to the point. The report admits that Iran has been
pursuing subtle goals in Africa in the past decade. It has pointed to measures taken by the
Islamic Republic of Iran in Nigeria, Mali, Niger, Mauritania, Senegal, Ivory Coast, Guinea,
Guinea-Bissau, Ghana, Sierra Leone, and Gambia calling them manifestations of Iran’s new soft
power approach while warning the American officials that they should do something to curb
Iran’s flourishing influence in Africa. Iran’s spiritual and economic clout in Iraq as well as
essential steps taken in Afghanistan attest to Tehran’s intent to make the most of its soft power
capacities. Of course, as I previously pointed out in another article, Iran’s Untapped Soft Power
Potentials (1) , we have still a long way to go in view of our immense soft power potentials.
Power of the cinema
Perhaps one of the most powerful examples of soft power in action is the US film business.
Hollywood may be reluctant to get too close to Washington: it was notably burned by the
communist purges of the 50s under Senator Joseph McCarthy. But the movies made on the west
coast depict an American view of the world which can be powerfully attractive to others. The
success of soft power heavily depends on the actor's reputation within the international
community, as well as the flow of information between actors.
Technology front
A new source of US soft power has come from the recent innovations in technology, many of
which have emerged from Silicon Valley in California.
Millions of people want a smartphone or access to Google. “Made in America” is a brand to be
trusted in the field of innovative technologies. American laboratories and universities become
ambitious destinations for talented scientists.
Social media has given a voice to ordinary people and has been co-opted into fuelling
revolutions and uprisings, even if the aims do not always chime with "American" values. An
often overlooked essential aspect of soft power is that different parts of populations are attracted
or repelled by different things, ideas, images, or prospects. Soft power is hampered when
policies, culture, or values repel others instead of attracting them.
Soft power is an important indicator of the changes in the status of the country. The most
reputable agencies are involved into assessing the soft power influence of the countries:
Portland’s “The Soft Power 30”, Monocle’s “Soft Power Servey”, Elcano’s “Global Presence
Report”.
The Decline of America's Soft Power
Anti-Americanism has increased in recent years, and the United States' soft power -- its
ability to attract others by the legitimacy of U.S. policies and the values that underlie them -- is
in decline as a result [10]. According to Gallup International polls, pluralities in 29 countries say
that Washington's policies have had a negative effect on their view of the United States. It is true
that the United States' sheer size and association with disruptive modernity make some
resentment unavoidable today. But wise policies can reduce the antagonisms that these realities
engender. Indeed, that is what Washington achieved after World War II: it used soft-power
resources to draw others into a system of alliances and institutions that has lasted for 60 years.
The Cold War was won with a strategy of containment that used soft power along with hard
power….
With the end of the Cold War, soft power seemed expendable, and Americans became
more interested in saving money than in investing in soft power. Now it is time to reassess the
political approaches. The development of effective public diplomacy must include strategies for
the short, medium, and long terms. In the short term, the United States will have to become more
agile in responding to and explaining current events. A new broadcasting unit such as Radio
Sawa, which intersperses news with popular music, is a step in the right direction, but Americans
must also learn to work more effectively with Arab media outlets such as Al Jazeera.
In the medium term, U.S. policymakers will have to develop a few key strategic themes
in order to better explain U.S. policies and "brand" the United States as a democratic nation. The
charge that U.S. policies are indifferent to the destruction of Muslim lives, for example, can be
countered by pointing to U.S. interventions in Bosnia and Kosovo that saved Muslim lives, and
to assistance to Muslim countries for fostering development and combating aids. As Assistant
Secretary of State for Near Eastern Affairs William Burns has pointed out, democratic change
must be embedded in "a wider positive agenda for the region, alongside rebuilding Iraq,
achieving the president's two-state vision for Israelis and Palestinians, and modernizing Arab
economies."
Most important will be a long-term strategy, built around cultural and educational
exchanges, to develop a richer, more open civil society in Middle Eastern countries. To this end,
the most effective spokespeople are not Americans but indigenous surrogates who understand
American virtues and faults. Corporations, foundations, universities, and other nongovernmental
organizations -- as well as governments -- can all help promote the development of open civil
society. Corporations can offer technology to modernize educational systems. Universities can
establish more exchange programs for students and faculty. Foundations can support institutions
of American studies and programs to enhance the professionalism of journalists. Governments
can support the teaching of English and finance student exchanges.
3. CASE STUDY SECTION

Case 1: SOFT POWER OF FRANCE
France’s opportunity to make ‘soft power’ relevant
French President Jacques Chirac and Dominique de Villepin, his minister of foreign affairs,
have embarked on an ambitious mission: to move France quickly back onto the international
scene as a major player. Chirac, the embodiment of political survival, and de Villepin, the new
elegant and dynamic figurehead at the Quai d’Orsay, are in an unique situation: no major
national election in sight for five years, a high standing among leaders of continental Europe and
a growing dissatisfaction with Britain for Tony Blair’s blind “ Bushism.” They are offered a
historic opportunity with the formidable disillusion that the American leadership and its narrow-
minded response to the Sept. 11 tragedy have instilled across the world.
They can turn an organization seen more as an echo chamber of its own sense of cultural
irrelevance and fragility into a powerful vortex of new ideas, concrete proposals and inspiring
projects. De Villepin, 48, a Moroccan-born and world-smart passionate advocate of the French
“grandeur,” has moved rapidly into high gear since taking office in May. De Villepin brought to
the federal capital the credibility of a French government that has played its role in the “war on
terrorism” and has decided in favor of a sharp increase in military spending. According to de
Villepin, response to the global threat of terrorism cannot be confined to stronger security
measures and preventive strategies which rely on war as the ultimate cure. In India in early
August, he identified four principles which should be at the heart of international relations, but
which can also be used as a handy toolbox for crisis management, as they derive from universal
values which have stood the test of time and history. He suggested that “the need for respect, the
spirit of dialogue, the sense of responsibility, and the spirit of cooperation” are the cornerstones
of human civilization.
Chirac and de Villepin, without mentioning the word, have accurately sensed that the time
is ripe to put into motion their “French vision. Chirac has been talking about creating a “CNN a
la Francaise” for months. Existing media outlets with a global reach are not enough: The French
news agency AFP has been suffering for years from a lack of creative management, television
channel TV5 doesn’t have the visibility of CNN or the BBC, and French global radio RFI has yet
to establish worldwide the radio journalism which worked so well in Africa and the Middle East.
It offers a perfect setting for the cultural diversity, historical and political gravitas, economic and
technological potential, and formidable energy of the Francophone world. The aim is to bring
existing media organizations around the Francophone world into a global partnership, dynamic
and results-oriented, which could compete on the internet and on TV screens with the American
and British giants.
Some facts about France
In spite of its size (only 1% of the population of the world), France maintains the largest
diplomatic network of all countries with 152 embassies worldwide (twice the budget of Foreign
Office). With troops under UN or NATO command, France is very active in several peace-
keeping operations (Afghanistan, Ivory Coast, Chad, Lebanon, to name a few, plus Mali on her
own) ; to maintain her international ambitions, France has the 5th military budget in the world
(in 2011 : USA 711 billion Euros, China 143, Russia 71,9, UK 62,7, France 62,5, Japan 59,3,
India 48,8, Saudi Arabia 48,5, Germany 46,7, Brazil 35,4) .
Very often France is more visible than her size or her actions would seem to merit. For
instance, in 2008 before the Olympic Games in Beijing, there were demonstrations all over the
world for the liberty in Tibet, including in France. The Chinese government was very upset and
punished ..... France by removal from travel guides, freeze on most ongoing negotiations,
"spontaneous" popular demonstrations in front of French department stores in China, etc... Why?
America is too big and can retaliate, Germany is too necessary for her exports, Sweden is too
small, etc... By slapping France, the Chinese got the best cost / efficiency ratio. In 2003, many
countries opposed the US war on Iraq but State Secretary Rice said : "Forgive Germany, forget
Russia, punish France". They started campaign against the "cheese eating surrender monkeys"
There is no doubt that most of the French people overestimate the power and the influence of
France but there is no doubt either that most Americans under-estimate France!
In spite of her wealth but given her size France cannot compete with super-powers like the
USA or even China. But the country has other factors of power and knows how to use them: her
image, her history, her language, her culture. However, the loss of preeminence is a real
frustration and contributes to the low national mood. Their language is very important for the
French and Francophonia is one of the key-elements of soft-power
Historical roots
In Europe France is a rich country (therefore: temping for her aggressive neighbors) with a
large population (therefore: naturally aggressive herself) with no protection on most of her
borders (no ocean, no desert, no mountains); for the French diplomacy, historical roots include :
1. Islam: France has always had an "Arab policy ": already in the 16th century, to
counterbalance European continental rivals, Renaissance King François the First had an alliance
with the Sultan of Constantinople. To challenge Britain, France has always sought a "special
relationship" with Mediterranean countries (making Germany very upset).
2.Language: countries where French is an official language have a particularly close relationship
with France (Quebec, Belgium, Lebanon, West Africa, Syria,... ).
3.Germany: against the German threat, France has developed relations with Russia, in addition
to her old traditional alliance with Poland and a constant pro-Serbian policy
4.England: against her traditional enemy, Britain, France has developed alliances with Scotland
("the Auld Alliance" signed in 1295 : until 1903, all Scots could automatically claim French
nationality!) and with the USA (yes indeed!) during the Revolutionary War
5.Africa: a special cooperation with African countries is extremely important for France (some
call it "neo-colonialism", including those who would like to replace France by their own country)
6.The Ocean or the Continent? Whereas UK's answer is "the Ocean" and Germany's answer is
"the Continent", the French policy has always balanced between them. This explains some
unexpected shifts in her policy (Russian policy, colonial policy, relations with the USA, rivalry
or alliance with UK or Germany, etc..).
7.French schools abroad are a key element of soft power. France maintains over 450
elementary, middle and high schools in 133 different countries; they have over 250,000 students
(1/3 French, only). They give education, the French way. They generally enjoy an excellent
reputation, but some critics say that they are ghettos for the wealthiest. They are very much in
demand in Asia and according to a survey in the USA (2013), American parents appreciate some
traits of the French educational system like " being very demanding on children” and "teaching
being analytical and critical”. There are 9 of them in the USA .
8.The Alliance Française [13] network (1071 chapters in 138 countries, 440,000 students), the
145 French cultural centers and the 430 " lycées Français " (French High School) are the most
important instruments of the French cultural policy worldwide and of the "Francophonie".
9.Economic assistance also plays a great role in soft power promotion. The VIE program
("Volontaire International en Entreprise "), is composed of young graduate students who work an
average of 17 months in the foreign subsidiary of a French company or in the Economic
Department of a French Embassy: 41% in Europe, 22% in Asia, 15% in North America, 12%
in Africa, 6% in Latin America, 4% in Middle East.
10.With bureaus in 165 countries and dispatches in 6 languages, Agence France Presse is one of
the four international news agencies with AP and Bloomberg (USA) and Reuters (UK).
11.The French economy is very open to the world: 80% of the profit of the 40 largest French
corporations (listed on the CAC 40) come from outside France. The French Public Aid for
Development is approximately 3 times bigger as a % of GNP than the American's
12.University soft power in the Middle East creates a basis of academic excellence and
biculturalism. Historically, university soft power has been limited first by proselytizing and later
by unpopular American and French foreign policies. These universities have previously
undescribed reverse university soft power in the West on behalf of the Middle East: advocating
Middle East interests and raising moral, political and financial support for education, healthcare
and development in the region.
13.France has since the 1880s pursued national soft power through the Université Saint-Joseph
de Beyrouth. University soft power has been furthered by state financial and academic assistance
to academic excellence, while too close association with the state has threatened university soft
power. The universities have contributed to the national soft power of France concerning milieu
goals of attraction to education, language and liberal norms among elites. The universities have
not contributed to national soft power regarding acceptance of unpopular foreign policies in the
Middle East, which was also not a university or government goal.
14. French plans to develop activities in five aspects of soft power: the promotion of culture and
language; cooperation in education, science and technology; the development of business
relations; public diplomacy; and international assistance.
15. Fostering collaborations and partnerships between creative industries and companies is
of great importance. The Comité Colbert is a good example to follow: by gathering all the
luxury industry, one of its goal is to spread the French savoir-faire all around the world. For
instance, the organisation produced a semantics piece translating French values into Chinese
ideograms in order to help the French firms setting up in China.
16.Incorporating local strategies Local cultural competitiveness is growing over the years. In
the Euro-region Öresund, «the Splab environments» gather innovative organisations in order to
work together and share their creative experiences. Francophone cities should adopt this creative
scope to foster their development – 28 of them house 1 million inhabitants.
17.The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF), known informally and more
commonly as Francophonie is an international organization representing countries and regions
where French is the first or customary language; and/or where a significant proportion of the
population are French speakers; and/or where there is a notable affiliation with French culture.
The organization comprises 57 member states and governments, three associate members and
twenty observers. It comprises a network of private and public organizations promoting special
ties among all France's colonial ambitions with other nations in its history. It functions similar to
the Common Wealth
18.The Agency of the Francophonie is the main operator of the cultural, scientific, technical,
economic and legal cooperation programs decided at the Francophonie Summits. The agency
contributes to the development of French and to the promotion of the diverse languages and
cultures of its members, encouraging mutual understanding between them and the Francophonie.
19.The four missions drawn by the Summit of the Francophonie are: promoting French language
and cultural and linguistic diversity; promoting peace, democracy and human rights; supporting
education, training, higher education and scientific research; expand cooperation for sustainable
development.
20.France’s diplomatic service pursues two policies designed to promote the French language
and Francophony, key vectors of soft power, involving over 500 expatriate staff and a budget of
some €600 million: a) bilateral policy that aims to consolidate the position of the French
language beyond our borders through cooperation with local authorities to develop the role of
French in their education systems (advocating the teaching of at least two modern languages,
teacher training, developing bilingual education, etc.) and direct action through teaching
provided by France’s cultural and educational networks; b) a multilateral policy that aims to
unite French-speaking countries into a political community.
Nevertheless, France continues to lose its political status to Great Britain. For example, all
the means to win the 2012 Olympics organization have been set up by France but Great Britain
won the pot. As the French gambled on a quintessentially French application, the British
benefited from international supports, Nelson Mandela, first in line. The French promotional
video used Paris’ charm whereas the English one focused on the sport inside the city, with and
dedicated to Londoners. It begins with a South-African kid living in a township dreaming of
running in London in 2012. The end emphases the benefits gained by sport for young people.
1) Understanding the case
1. Francophonie structure
2. Role of De Villepin in promoting soft power of France.
3. Most influential mass media sources in France
4. Military might of France.
5. The colonial history of France
6. The countries where French is an official language
7. France’s alliances against Britain
8. Cooperation with African countries: "neo-colonialism" approach
9. Université Saint-Joseph de Beyrouth
10. The mission of the Francophonie Summits of promoting French cultural and
linguistic diversity: current state
Answer the following questions;

1. Why did President Chirac plan to establish a “CNN a la Francaise”?
2. What were the main traits of Villepin’s policy?
3. Why did Chirac and Villepin promote “French vision”?
4. How important is France in global political environment?
5. How did China punish France for its position during the Olympic Games in Beijing in 2008?
6. How does the loss of preeminence contribute to the French society?
7. What did France use the "Arab policy " for?
8. What relations and alliances did France develop to counterbalance the German threat?
9. What role do French schools play abroad to promote French soft power?
10. In what forms does France provide economic assistance in order to promote its soft power
diplomacy?
11. Why do the French try to spread the French “savoir-faire”all around the world?
Interpret the words and word-combinations and find the sentences in the text to illustrate their
usage:
To offer a perfect setting for, sustainable development, a multilateral policy, to benefit from
international supports, formidable energy of the Francophone world, peace-keeping operations ,
to punish France by removal, embark on, a growing dissatisfaction with, formidable
disillusion, cultural irrelevance and fragility, "Arab policy ", a constant pro-Serbian policy, the
Revolutionary War, "neo-colonialism", passionate advocate of the French “grandeur,” to move
rapidly into high gear, a handy toolbox for crisis management, the cornerstones of human
civilization, French vision, to be able to retaliate, "cheese eating surrender monkeys",
proselytizing, advocating Middle East interests, milieu goals of attraction to education, public
diplomacy, to foster collaborations, luxury industry, to spread the French savoir-faire all around
the world, to overestimate the power, the loss of preeminence, to balance between, shifts in
policy, to be ghettos for the wealthiest, to appreciate traits , to be very demanding on children,
the French Public Aid for Development, «the Splab environments», customary language; to
promote cultural and linguistic diversity
Fill in the gaps in the text:

“I believe that nothing separates people more than their sense of humour”
There is nothing more universal than the sense of humor [14] . What makes Americans
laugh will probably be different to what makes the French, Chinese, or Canadians …(1)
………………… . French humor has its own specificity. Each country has its own humour
connected to its own culture, its own codes. Would it be possible that an American, a British and
a French laugh about the same jokes? The world famous Marcel Marceau and Charlie Chaplin
used mime, a form of…(2) ……………………… , based on gestures and this form could be
universally understood. But what happens when humour uses words, playing on words,
sometimes untranslatable in another language, or culturally meaningless in another culture?
What can we say about the French sense of humor? It seems that it is not fully understood
or appreciated outside of …(3) ……………………………... One of the reasons may be that we
love the language and a large part of the humor is based on it, which makes it difficult for non-
French speakers to understand. As a French person, I will be honest and acknowledge that
France is known for gastronomy, fashion, luxury … but surely not for a strong sense of humor!
Dramas, …(4) …………………………….., debates, food, are definitely more associated to
France than humor. Let’s be honest, we are somehow jealous of British humor that allows people
to be intelligent and fun at the same time.
If you think of England, among different things, its dry sense of humor using …(5) ………
…………………. and self-derision comes up as an obvious humor base. Humor is by definition
an Anglo-Saxon concept, the equivalent in French of esprit,…(6)………………. (prank) and
humeur (a state of mind, or mood), but certainly not humor. What makes the French laugh then?
We adore sophisticated wit, the well-turned phrase qui tue (a killer sentence), the finely-tuned
jeu de mots (play on words) but also the broadest farce, the silliest… (7) …………………….,
the most basic and brutal satire.
French humour can be described by the Anglo-Saxon as “derision” and consists in …(8)
…………………………. someone else’s weak point or naïve attitude. In Le Diner de cons,
Pierre Brochant, a Parisian publisher, attends a weekly “idiots’ dinner”, where guests, who are
modish, …(9) …………………………. Parisian businessmen, must bring along an “idiot” who
the other guests can ridicule. At the end of the dinner, the evening’s “champion idiot” is selected.
However, French humour is not just always witty, it can also be quite often under the belt and
fairly straightforward known as l’esprit Gaulois. We could describe l’Esprit Gaulois as a
peculiar form of coarse humor, often referring to sex with a tone rather …(10) ………………
……….., crude and realistic. L’Esprit Gaulois is a very old inheritage going back to a …(11)…..
…………………...
Satirical humour : a tradition which dates back to the French Revolution

Satirical humor is another specific aspect of our culture. It can also be quite …(12) …….
……………………… with the government and very critical towards the different symbols of
institutions and powers. Les Guignols de l’info, a puppet show mocking the French politicians
known for its …(13)………………………………., has appeared on France’s Canal+ channel
since 1988. It is now closely tied to another popular Canal+ offering, a political talk show Le
Grand Journal. This TV show is a perfect illustration of our taste for a subversive and …(14)….
……………………………of humor.
Before TV, the press through cartoons was already involved in satire. Mocking religion and
rulers in…(15) …………………………date back to the Revolution when King Louis XVI and
Marie Antoinette were favourite targets of cartoonists, who drew the king as a pig and his spouse
as a serpent. The clergy were also pilloried in printed comic strips. But press cartoons really…
(16)……………………………. in the 19th century. Later in the late 1960’s, among others
magazines and weekly newspapers (Hara kiri, le Canard Enchaîné) the satirical Charlie Hebdo
created in 1969, continued that spirit; bold, …(17)…………………………….., irreverent with
criticism of politicians, cultural practices, and practically every major religion. It was not only
political and religious satire but also social critique, from ecology to economy and finance.
After the Charlie Hebdo’s ….(18) …………………………… in January 2015, only part of
the newspapers in France and around Europe ran the cover showing the Prophet Muhammad
with a tear on his cheek and holding a Je Suis Charlie. Some of the biggest media platforms in
the world chose not to show the cover in….(19) ………………………. Despite the fact that all
media are all concerned by the freedom of speech, our taste for satire cartoons can embarrass
other cultures especially when religion is involved. Is it maybe more a question of the
definition….of (20) …………………………? Proof maybe that humor is definitely cultural and
not that easy to export.
Absurdity, chuckle, its coverage, prominent, stinging form, non-speaking humor, French
borders, sharp satire, downright rude, audacious, romanticism, farce, medieval tradition,
massacre, slapstick, ferocious and irreverent, cartoons, mocking, take off (took off), blasphemy
i. Listening section
There's more to France than simply the land between Spain and Germany. While this certainly
the largest and most recognizable part of the country, there are also less well-known parts of the
country, in all corners of the world, from the Caribbean, to South America, to the Indian Ocean
and beyond. Watch the film (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LQ-mwO30_68) and handle
the following questions:
1. What is the “mission statement” of the French Republic?
2. What type of territorial division is characteristic of Metropolitan France?
3. Where are the other 5 regions of France situated?
4. How did it happen that these 5 regions joined the French Republic?
5. What is the currency of the above mentioned and what is their EU status?
6. What does the term “oversees collectivities” imply?
7. Why is French Polynesia quit unique?
8. What is the history of the transition from the colonial status to collectivity status of Saint
Martinique and Saint Barthelemy?
9. Why did “New France” decide to remain under French control?
10. What is the status of Oceania?

11. What region has the status of a “special collectivity”?
12. What are the French Southern and the Antarctic territories referred to by France as a
“territorial collectivity”?
Render the information given in the video.
4.Written assignments: Case analysis
France spends a lot on its soft power promotion. Nevertheless, its cultural and
civilizational influence in the world is diminishing. It urgently needs to restructure its soft power
approach. Assess strong and weak issues of the French soft power. Do it with the help of the
SWOT table.
Case 2 INDIA: SOFT POWER

Pluralistic Democracy
There will be a great deal of talk about India’s soft power over the next few days.
Prime Minister Narendra Modi [5], who will address the United Nations General Assembly
on Friday, is likely to bring up the subject in several of his 35 engagements in New York and
Washington. It is a subject close to Modi’s heart: He talked about it long before he became
India’s leader, arguing that soft power can be harnessed to build “Brand India” and benefit
the country.
What is soft power? It is often no more than a brilliant idea. The oldest example of
India’s soft power I can think of is Buddhism, a philosophy—and eventually a faith—
articulated by Gautama Siddhartha over 2,500 years ago, which then spread across Asia. Soft
power can also be projected by hard objects: To the Romans, expensive Indian spices and
fabrics conjured up images of a land of wealth and luxury.
In the modern era, the most powerful expression of Indian soft power was, again, a
galvanizing idea: Mahatma Gandhi’s notion of nonviolent resistance to colonial rule captured
the world’s imagination and inspired others who struggled against oppression, from Martin
Luther King Jr. and Nelson Mandela to Lech Walesa and Aung San Suu Kyi.
In the 1950s, it was Jawaharlal Nehru’s turn to burnish India’s international image
with an idea of his own: non-alignment. Working with other Third World leaders (the
expression ‘developing world’ had not yet been coined) like Egypt’s Gamal Nasser and
Indonesia’s Sukarno, Nehru argued that countries needn’t take sides in the Cold War between
the US and the Soviet Union—the geopolitical equivalent of the Buddha’s “Middle Path,” if
you will. It was too utopian to last long, but while it did, India basked in the attention.
Around the same time, Indian cinema began to attract fans across the world,
especially in Africa, the Middle East and Eastern Europe. In 1957, ‘Mother India’ became an
international hit, one of the first not produced in the US or Europe. Actor-director Raj
Kapoor was mobbed on the streets of Moscow, his brother Shammi became a throb in
Baghdad. (In 2003, when three Indian truck drivers were kidnapped in southern Iraq, a tribal
sheikh offered to arrange their release—if he gota phone call from his favorite Indian actress
from the 1960s, Asha Parekh.) In the 1970s, Bollywood superstar Amitabh Bachchan
demonstrated the same cross-border appeal.
In British and American cinema, India would for decades be stereotyped as an exotic
place—home of Sabu, “The Elephant Boy”, or the backdrop for a TV series about the British
Raj. India occasionally featured in the Western cultural scene, in the form of Ravi Shankar
and his sitars or an assortment of Hindu godmen offering spiritual sustenance, usually in
exchange for very earthly remuneration. The bundi, or sleeveless Nehru coat, that Modi has
made his signature look, also enjoyed a brief moment in the fashion scene.
The next expression of Indian soft power was likely invented in Britain: chicken tikka
masala. The spicy-sauced dish quickly (and inexplicably) became the national dish of
multicultural UK. Indian restaurants sprang up all over the country, and soon around the
world. In the US, people who couldn’t place the country on a map could taste India—and
presumably, make a dash for the restrooms. India also began to crop up more frequently in
the Western cultural scene, perhaps most memorably in the form of the Simpsons character
Apu Nahaseemapetilon, owner of the Kwik-E-Mart.
But even as the Simpsons was becoming a hit show, a global scare was about to have
a dramatic impact on India’s image in the world. It was called the Millennium Bug, or the
Y2K Problem—the notion that a glitch in software code would bring every computer in the
world to a halt at midnight on Dec 31, 1999. Starting in the late 1980s, tens of thousands of
Indian engineers and programmers fanned across the world (and especially in the US) to kill
the bug and save the world.
Suddenly, Indians were being seen as problem-solvers, technically skilled and
reliable. When 2000 came and went without the global shutdown, the world began to
outsource other problems to India. Call centers (“Hello, this is Charlie. How can I help you
with your insurance needs today?”) exposed more and more people to Indians—and to
occasionally impenetrable Indian accents. Business process outsoucing, or BPO, now brings
India $21 billion in annual revenues.
In the American cultural zeitgeist, meanwhile, Indians have been popping up
everywhere: Mindy Kaling in”The Mindy Project”, Archie Panjabi in “The Good Wife”,and
Kunal Nayyar in “Big Bang Theory”are only a few examples. And notice how the roles have
changed—Mindy plays a doctor, Panjabi an investigator, and Nayyar’s Raj Koothrappali is
an astrophysicist. That’s a long, long way from Sabu and Apu.
Other expressions of Indian soft power now abound: Bikram yoga, Bollywood
dancercise gyms, cricket’s Indian Premier League. And here’s what they have in common:
The Indian government had virtually nothing to do with their success. It’s no coincidence that
the one instrument of Indian soft power that was actively promoted by government—non-
alignment—is now a sad shadow of the original conception.
During Prime Minister Tony Abbott’s recent visit to India, he was asked to justify
Australia’s signing of a deal to sell uranium to the country. In response, the Prime Minister said,
“India threatens no one” and “is the friend to many.” This was no mere diplomatic nicety, but a
carefully chosen answer based on India’s international image.
Non-proliferation Record
The U.S., with its Indo-U.S. nuclear deal, accorded India special treatment in nuclear
cooperation. The deal provided benefits usually reserved for Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)
signatories. Washington justified cooperation with India by highlighting Delhi’s impeccable non-
proliferation record. This cooperation was not merely driven by these states’ strategic
relationships with the U.S. Russia has long cooperated with India on nuclear technology. Even
China, as a member of the NSG, did not oppose the group’s decision on India. Today, India is
the only known nuclear weapons state that is not part of the NPT but is still permitted to engage
in nuclear commerce globally.
Since independence, the country has been viewed as a neutral and harmless power by
most foreign audiences, particularly in Africa, the Middle East, South America and Southeast
Asia. This is in part due to its prominent role in the Non-Aligned movement. South Asian states
also do not see India as a threat in the way that many of Russia or China’s neighbors view those
powers. Even long-time nemesis Pakistan is unlikely to have been as adventurous in its dealings
with its much larger and more powerful neighbor had it not had firsthand experience of Delhi’s
restraint – even before Islamabad had nuclear capability.
So what is behind India’s benign image? In part, it is self-created. For 60-plus years Delhi
has favored cultivating the impression of a non-violent India. This is particularly clear in the
realm of nuclear posture. Despite having tested weapons in 1974 and 1998 and being a non-
signatory to the NPT and Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, India has been one of the most vocal
advocates for global disarmament. It has arguably been the most passionate anti-nuclear
campaigner amongst the world’s nine known or suspected nuclear weapons states, with one of
the world’s most notable pleas for global disarmament made by Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi at
the U.N. in 1988. Delhi sought to avoid labels of hypocrisy by positioning itself as the “reluctant
nuclear power.” India argued that the bomb was a last resort in a world of threatening nuclear
states who make no pledges to refrain from first strikes and the use of nukes against non-nuclear
states. Somewhat legitimately, Indian leaders asserted that the country’s nuclear weapons could
act as bargaining chips to support its global disarmament agenda.
This preciously guarded national image is not merely a strategic ploy to increase India’s
soft power. Policymakers wish the country to be seen as non-violent, pluralistic and tolerant,
because India genuinely holds these values. Within the nuclear realm the influence of non-
violence is seen through the foot-dragging in relation to integrating nuclear weapons into
military strategy and in relation to serial production of weapons. A further sign of this influence
is the long public debate before going nuclear – a rarity amongst nuclear powers.
Restrained Conduct
When it came to humanitarian intervention, over the last 25 years India’s opposition or
support was directly related to the level of intrastate violence entailed in intervening. This was
true regardless of who was intervening in whom, for what reason, and whether there were
strategic gains in it for Delhi. This included interventions in Iraq, Libya and Syria. India’s
opposition to intervention was compounded by its pluralistic worldview, with acceptance of all
regime types. It would seem that India’s values of non-violence, pluralism and tolerance stem
from the independence era, when the country’s foreign policy and modern identity was crafted.
Mahatma Gandhi made India’s independence movement synonymous with non-violence.
This is possible because the values that help guide Indian foreign policy and underpin its
image are rooted deep in the country’s cultural history. These values attained dominance during
the formative stage of Indian civilization – the period between the Vedic era and medieval times
- when the greatest empires arose. India and China are the only modern great powers that have
held a largely continuous culture for several millennia. Ancient India’s cultural connection to its
present-day manifestation is far stronger than ancient Greek, Roman or Anglo-Celtic culture is to
present-day Western states, or the ancient Middle Eastern civilizations are to today’s Arab world.
Rare Characteristics
India’s soft power has rare characteristics when compared with the other great powers of
the emerging multipolar world: U.S., China, Russia, Japan and Europe (as a unified entity). Its
relatively neutral, non-threatening image will make India a uniquely attractive great-power
partner for countries looking to hedge against future fallout between the U.S. and China, and not
wanting to antagonize either superpower. Having itself suffered from oppressive rule, seen
terrible violence, and the devastating effects of force and curbing of freedom, India does not seek
an image of a formidable, militarized, aggressive power in the world. Somewhere deep down, it
also knows it is neither sustainable nor true to the core of what the Indian subcontinent has
formed on throughout history. Instead, it understands that soft power lasts longer and gives better
results. In ruling hearts and minds, it chooses the former. Under Prime Minister Modi, India is
set on strengthening a floundering economy and developing a robust foreign policy. Although
India may be disadvantaged geographically, the country has an opportunity to exploit what both
China and Russia lack – the ability to charm through cultural links, aid and genuine trust.
“Connecting the Dots”
India’s history with Central Asia goes back to 1526 when a defeated Babur in exile set
forth from Kabul to India to lay the foundations for the great Mughal Empire that lasted for over
300 years. Fast-forward to the 21st century and India’s Connect Central Asia policy aims build
vital connections politically and culturally that will translate into a broad-based commercial
relationship. Modi’s visit to Tajikistan in September may also see India become a full member of
the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, a counterbalance to NATO. Permanent members of the
SCO currently include Russia, China, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan.
Although a large recipient of foreign aid itself, India is also a developing aid donor for
neighboring countries. Providing aid garners respect and legitimacy and a have versus have-not
reputation in the eyes of the international community. Although the majority of aid has stayed
within regional confines, over the last few years Africa has been a notable recipient of Indian aid
providing benefit in the form relationships with African oil producing countries. This investment
has paid dividends as Africa accounted for 16 percent, and second largest source of crude oil for
India in 2013.
Winning the Graveyard of Empires
Whether the U.S. ever decides to pull out of Afghanistan, one thing remains certain – no
occupying power has ever been able to exert control over Afghanistan through military force.
Referred to as “The Graveyard of Empires,” Afghanistan is also the gateway to Central Asia, and
a highly strategic asset. While Pakistan’s strategy of maintaining influence in Afghanistan
through Taliban mercenaries has made more enemies than friends, India understands that
winning Afghanistan means winning the hearts and minds of Afghanis themselves.
As a result, India has invested more than $2 billion in Afghan infrastructure, including
highways and hospitals and rural electricity projects. India is also helping the Afghan
government rebuild its law enforcement, judiciary and diplomatic services. Reconstruction
projects aside, being able to export culture is a sign of true soft power and Bollywood is no
exception. The popularity of Indian cinema in Afghanistan is undeniable and is so pervasive that
according to a 2007 Wikileaks cable, the U.S. asked India to send its Bollywood stars to
Afghanistan to “help bring attention to social issues.”
The Chabahar Advantage
The Modi government is looking to accelerate the construction of the Chabahar port in
Iran that the two countries agreed to in 2003. The port would promote greater ties between Iran
and India with planned connections to Afghanistan and Central Asia by both road and railway.
Turning Chahabar into a reality will allow India to overcome its geographical disadvantage and
compete directly with the China/Pakistan Gwadar port designed to turn Pakistan into a regional
hub and provide China with access to the Persian Gulf. Chabahar might have a slight advantage
given that Gwadar is based in volatile Pakistani Baluchistan. With the West now warming up to
Iran, India’s $300 million investment might have a greater possibility of paying off now than it
did in the past. This in combination with an Iran-Oman-India gas pipeline that could bring 31
cubic meters of gas to India per day, India could potentially pose a threat to Chinese interests.
1. Buddhism as factor № 1 in Indian soft power image.
2. Ancient history: Best background for Indian soft power.
3. Indian cuisine and Indian medicine
4. The history of tolerance on the territory of Hindustan
5. Talented Indian people and British Raj
6. Indian engineers and programmers fanned across the world (Bangalore).
7. India – the heart of outsourcing (Indians seen as problem-solvers)
8. Rich Indian history.
9. Bollywood: soft power in developing countries and lower income countries
10. Strategic interests: expansion throughout the Indo-Pacific and beyond

11. India: development of atomic technologies and nuclear weapons
Answer the questions:

1. When did India start implementing its diplomatic position of neutrality, the so-called
geopolitical equivalent of the Buddha’s “Middle Path”?
2. What is the Indian idea of the “middle Path” to burnish India’s international image?
3. What are the new expressions of Indian soft power in global environment, in phisycal
culture and sport?
4. How does India implement the following approach “India threatens no one” and “is
the friend to many”?
5. Why has this country been viewed as a neutral and harmless power by most foreign
audiences, particularly in Africa, the Middle East, South America and Southeast
Asia?
6. For how many years has Delhi favored cultivating the impression of a non-violent
India, including the realm of nuclear posture?
7. What are India’s rare characteristics?
8. What does India’s Connect Central Asia policy aim to achieve?
9. How does India plan to develop a broad-based commercial relationship?
10. How can India use Chahabar to overcome its geographical disadvantage and compete
directly with the China/Pakistan Gwadar port?
Interpret the words and word-combinations and use them in the sentences from the text:
to capture the world’s imagination, non-alignment, the Buddha’s “Middle Path”, a tribal
sheikh, earthly remuneration, the realm of nuclear posture, to avoid labels of hypocrisy, a
strategic ploy, the level of intrastate violence, to underpin India’s image, to hedge against
future fallout between the U.S. and China, the bundi, bring up the subject, to be projected by
hard objects, a land of wealth and luxury, to make a dash for the restrooms, to crop up more
frequently in the Western cultural scene, the problem-solvers, BPO, to be disadvantaged
geographically, connecting the dots, a counterbalance to NATO, “The Graveyard of
Empires”, a highly strategic asset, in annual revenues, Bikram yoga, Bollywood dancercise
gyms, cricket’s Indian Premier League, Non-Proliferation Treaty signatories, impeccable
record, to engage in nuclear commerce, long-time nemesis, a floundering economy, a robust
foreign policy, Taliban mercenaries, access to the Persian Gulf, volatile Pakistani
Baluchistan
Gap filling
Ideas for peace [12]
India’s economic successes can also be a great soft power asset. India demonstrates that a
developing country can grow rapidly without a Chinese or East Asian top-down and …(1) …
…………………………... However, the big weakness lies in the …(2)…………………………………
and distributional injustices, as well as the corruption, that the Indian system generates. The
continuing extreme poverty in rural and urban areas, appalling conditions for workers, …(3) …
…………………………., poor treatment of women, widespread caste discrimination, and

general lack of public hygiene all affect the way that outsiders perceive India despite its economic
successes. India’s rapid economic growth, moreover, has not been accompanied by effective urban
planning and infrastructure development. For instance, Indian road builders seem not to
understand the need for proper footpaths and …(4) ……………………………………………..
Another major weakness is the control of pollution and waste. Indian schools should provide
compulsory education on hygiene and …(5) …………………………………….., and clean
lavatories need to be setup in all urban and rural centers.
Diplomatic Solutions
Diplomacy has two key dimensions that can be soft power assets. The first encompasses
the actual diplomatic practices and policies carried out by governmental representatives through
their activism in global institutional forums and foreign capitals. The second dimension is …(6)..
…………………………………., which relies on the distribution of information and cultural
programs overseas aimed at improving a country’s image and prestige. Such diplomacy can help …
(7) ……………………………………………………..or propaganda stemming from opponents,
prejudices, and ignorance. In this sense, diplomacy is a tool for(8) ……………………………. A
caveat is that public diplomacy, if used over-zealously, can become sheer propaganda, which other
countries will resent. India’s global diplomacy and engagement have shown increased confidence
and pragmatism. If present trends persist, India may within a few decades overtake other
countries, except for China and the United States, in…(9) ………………………………………..
A major weakness of India’s public diplomacy is the attitude and behavioral dispositions of
the country’s political and bureaucratic elite and how they are perceived abroad. To capitalize on public
diplomacy efforts, a nation needs articulate and ..(10) …………………………………………..
India’s political class does not have an effective public presence or the ability to speak well to a
global audience. This goes for the Indian bureaucracy and diplomatic corps as well. India needs
to pay attention to developing spokespeople with the qualities necessary for selling the country’s
soft power assets abroad. India also needs to use its talent within corporations along with
journalists, scholars, artists, and writers to bring its soft power assets to the world’s attention.
Globally influential opinion leaders, scholars, and artists from other countries can help
accomplish it. Some might be brought to India for visits and …(11)…………………………….,
as the US does.
Knowledge is power
Knowledge, especially scientific knowledge, has both hard and soft power values. To fully
harness this asset, India needs …(12) …………………….research-intensive universities and
open up its educational institutions for international students and foreign scholarly
collaborations. The biggest ambassadors of American soft power have been the thousands of
foreign students who have studied in the United States since the 1940s. They carry American
ideals of freedom and entrepreneurship back to their home countries and …(13) …………………
……………… India has many teaching institutions, some of high quality, but many seem… (14)
…. …………………………. The nation needs to build educational institutions of higher learning
that meet world standards, develop …(15) ……………………………………….and
publications, and produce innovative ideas in key disciplines. Social sciences such
as international relations and economics should receive higher prominence in India, as they do
in China. Such universities could attract top talent, especially from the Indian Diaspora, which is
untapped now.
crosswalks for pedestrians, public diplomacy, mercantile economic model, waste disposal, counter
negative stereotypes, enhancing soft power, rampant inequalities, gross economic terms, to lag
behind exchange programs, persistent child labor, into the global arena, media-savvy spokespeople,
to set up, cutting-edge research
Listening section
In the past ten years, India's role has shifted in world. India has an increased influence in
world affairs and regional politics. Its economy is rapidly expanding and it is the largest
democracy, based on population, to move the most amount of people out of abject poverty. India
has struggled with mixed perceptions, dangling between the idea that India is tainted by poverty
and a perception that India is ambitious and emerging. This film looks at New Delhi, as a
microcosm of what India aspires to be, a place where there are centuries of history and
diplomatic engagement. Furthermore, this paper focuses on New Delhi as the seat of diplomacy
discusses its role in the development of India's strategy towards public diplomacy. Analyzing
India's evolution of diplomacy is vital for the fields of International Relations and
Communication. More importantly, researching the Indian architecture for diplomacy and public
diplomacy may provide learning points of strategic development for the Indian Ministry of
External Affairs, the Indian Foreign Service, and other states developing public diplomacy
strategies. Watch the film https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D93bnCWQmG0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D93bnCWQmG0 and mark the statements as true or false:
1. India can boast of Pulitzer prize-winning authors, famous actors, entrepreneurs and other
public figures
2. Bollywood has become an outstanding marketing force with 89 films a year.
3. However, Bollywood diplomacy doesn’t contribute to the promotion of cultural values of
Indian people
4. Bollywood has become popular in Pakistan due to a huge DVD market, satellite TV
market
5. Algerian public was so captivated by Indian literature that they wanted to get inside the
Indian Embassy.
6. Soap operas have no potential of helping further Indian strategic and geopolitical
interests.
7. India has become democratized through an intensive usage of Facebook, YouTube and
intelligence technologies
8. India develops its infrastructure diplomacy, Dheli being of of such role models.
9. India hasn’t made any progress in the last 5-10 years and will not enjoy it in the next 5
years
10. India’s main point is its religion, Buddhism, which is the faith of the majority of Indian
people
11. You’ll never see Sikhs, Muslims, Christians, Buddhists praying together
12. Only 38 % of Indians are Buddhists
13. Sport diplomacy has yet a long way to go
14. Manchester United is now worth over 1 bln USD
15. 19th Commonwealth Games were held in Indian and lots of allegations of
misappropriation of funds were published by mass media
India has done a lot to promote its soft power, but people in many countries still believe it
being a very dirty, uncivilized, retarded country. Some people even think it remaining a British
colony, which can boast about its ancient tourist attractions, but no more than that. Assess strong
and weak issues of the Indian soft power. Do it with the help of the SWOT table.
Suggest your recommendations for promotion of Indian soft power
Case 3: China’s Soft Power.
Chinese economy is now № 2 in the world. China’s influence in Asia has increased
remarkably over the past decade. This can account for various China threat theories and the
argument of China Rising in academic narratives. Analysis and debates concerning China’s rise
is focused almost entirely on the economic and military aspects of its growing power. Yet soft
power is increasingly recognized as the essential components of Great Power status. Some
scholars point out that besides increase in its steaming economic growth and military
strengthening, the reinforcing of China’s soft power has been crucial in expanding the country’s
regional influence. During the last decade, not only have Chinese media and scholars
increasingly paid more attention to the development and wielding of China’s soft power, but also
Beijing has adopted more and more soft power-based foreign policies.
Practically everything which is being undertaken by China is criticized in Western mass
media, Mr. J.S. Nye being the main opponent of Chinese economic and political steps. Handle
the article [8, 9] and scrutinize the information. Which issues contradict the reality as we know
it?
To catch up, its politics must unleash the many talents of its civil society.
I was recently invited to lecture at several Chinese universities about "soft power"—the
ability to get what one wants by attraction and persuasion rather than coercion or payment. Since
the 1990s, thousands of essays and articles have been published in China on the topic, and the
lectures drew large crowds.
Over the past decade, China's economic and military might has grown impressively. This
has frightened its neighbors into looking for allies to balance China's increase in hard power. But
if a country can also increase its soft power of attraction, its neighbors feel less need to balance
its power. For example, Canada and Mexico do not seek alliances with China to balance U.S.
power the way Asian countries seek a U.S. presence to balance China.
In 2007, understanding this, President Hu Jintao told the 17th Congress of the Chinese
Communist Party that China needed to invest more in its soft power resources. That's a smart
power strategy, but Beijing is having difficulty implementing it.
China is spending billions of dollars to increase its soft power. Its aid programs to Africa
and Latin America are not limited by the institutional or human rights concerns that constrain
Western aid. The Chinese style emphasizes high-profile gestures, such as building stadiums.
Meanwhile, the elaborately staged 2008 Beijing Olympics enhanced China's reputation abroad,
and the 2010 Shanghai Expo attracted more than 70 million visitors.
China has also created several hundred Confucius Institutes around the world to teach its
language and culture. The enrollment of foreign students in China increased to 240,000 last year
from just 36,000 a decade ago, and China Radio International now broadcasts in English around
the clock. In 2009-10, Beijing invested $8.9 billion in external publicity work, including 24-hour
cable news channels.
But for all its efforts, China has had a limited return on its investment. A recent BBC poll
shows that opinions of China's influence are positive in much of Africa and Latin America, but
predominantly negative in the United States, everywhere in Europe, as well as in India, Japan
and South Korea.
Great powers try to use culture and narrative to create soft power that promotes their
national interests, but it's not an easy sell when the message is inconsistent with their domestic
realities. As I told the university students, in an Information Age in which credibility is the
scarcest resource, the best propaganda is “not propaganda”.
The 2008 Olympics was a success abroad, but shortly afterward China's domestic
crackdown on human rights activists undercut its soft-power gains. The Shanghai Expo was also
a great success, but it was followed by the jailing of Nobel Peace Laureate Liu Xiaobo. His
empty chair at the Oslo ceremony was a powerful symbol. And for all the efforts to turn Xinhua
and China Central Television into competitors for CNN and the BBC, there is little international
audience for brittle propaganda.
Now, in the aftermath of the Middle East revolutions, China is clamping down on the
Internet and jailing human rights lawyers, once again torpedoing its soft-power campaign. No
amount of propaganda can hide the fact that blind human rights attorney Chen Guangcheng
recently sought refuge in the U.S. Embassy in Beijing. Rather than celebrate the heroes of today
in civil society, the arts and the private sector, the Communist Party has taken to promoting the
greatness of Chinese culture in general and the historical significance of the Middle Kingdom.
Pang Zhongying, a former Chinese diplomat who teaches at Renmin University, says this
reflects "a poverty of thought" in China today. When Zhang Yimou, the acclaimed director, was
asked why his films were always set in the past, he replied that films about contemporary China
would be "neutered by the censors."
I read the students a recent statement by Ai Weiwei, the acclaimed Chinese artist who's
suffered from state harassment. He warned that censorship is undermining creativity. "It's putting
this nation behind in the world's competition in the coming decades. You can't create generations
just to labor at electronics manufacturer, Foxconn. Everyone wants an iPhone but it would be
impossible to design an iPhone in China because it's not a product; it's an understanding of
human nature."
Slight waves of nervous laughter swept through the audience when I mentioned Ai
Weiwei's name. But from their questions, it seemed that some students agreed with his view that
it's not possible for Chinese leaders "to control the Internet unless they shut it off—and they can't
live with the consequences of that."
After I finished speaking, a party official told the students that the Chinese approach to
soft power should focus on culture, not politics. I hope, this changes. The development of soft
power need not be a zero-sum game. If Chinese soft power increases in the U.S. and vice versa,
it will help make conflict less likely.
All countries can gain from finding attraction in each other’s' cultures. But for China to
succeed in this, its politics must unleash the talents of its civil society
Notes: Nye rightly doubts whether all of China’s soft-power investments are paying off.
However, we should not be too quick to write off China as an attractive force in global affairs
simply because Beijing has fired a few blanks. In fact, Chinese soft power does exist. You just
have to look for it in the right places.
The basics of soft power
What Nye first hit upon in his seminal article Soft Power [9, 10] is the fact “that there is
more to international power than plain coercion – that hard power has a flipside, a passive form
of power whereby others gladly do what you want, without your having to twist their arm”. Tidy
definitions of soft power like “cultural diplomacy” or “national marketing” don’t seem to capture
it, and maybe no single phrase can. Instead, it may be better to consider soft power’s essential
features:
1. Soft power is the result of being liked, respected, trusted, or admired. It’s a kind of
magnetism: countries are attractive when they have it, and repellent when they don’t.
2.Soft power is all in the mind, unlike hard power, which is all about tangible assets.
Country A possesses soft power if people in Country B have positive ideas about it – if they
regard Country A as likeable, respectable, trustworthy or admirable. Since likeability is all in the
eye of the beholder, no country can acquire soft power directly, or force people or states to like
it. But a state can make itself more likeable and more comprehensible through its behavior.
3. Context is king. Soft power only accrues when the conditions are right. Efforts to
make yourself more likeable may succeed in one country and fail in another, as dictated by the
many cultural, political and historical factors in play
The power balance discourse
It is often interpreted that China seeks to shape the region’s emerging political-institutional
contours and to encourage movement toward an “East Asian Community” in order to balance the
declining influence of the Unite States. They think that China is using its soft tools to balance the
influence of outside player, especially, the US. As they argued, China appears to be using its soft
power to incrementally push Japan, Taiwan, and even the Unite States out of regional influence.
The second is the regional hegemony discourse. This school of thought mainly argue that
China’s soft power is uniform to its grand strategy. In Asia, it means to seek for the leadership and the
dominant role, holding its regional hegemony. China is no longer a “clumsy elephant” to its Southeast
neighbors, but an “agile dragon” in the quest for restoring its regional hegemony. Soft power is
imperative to play a hegemonic leadership role in shaping policies in the region. China is determined
to demonstrate its commitment to a peaceful foreign policy as an important contributor to its further
economic development and regional leadership.
The third is image-building discourse. In recent years, the perception of the China threat, along
with China’s series of domestic dilemmas became the main obstacles for China to project its national
image. Hence, many scholars think that China call for a good world image through its soft power
diplomacy.
The fourth is the discourse of reducing China threat and legitimatizing China rising. Chinese
strategists have become aware that China’s economic and military rise has been perceived as a threat
by the external world, especially those with significant strategic interest in Asia. Then, these scholars
explain, “China hopes that, through soft power, it can achieve its most important goals, which are, at a
regional and global level, to mitigate the “China threat theory”, earn the understanding of the
international community, and garner support for China’s peaceful development.”
The fifth is hard power limits discourse. This school of thoughts claims that at present, China
possesses few, if any, forward-deployed military forces in Southeast and South Asia. Hard power
resources alone would be insufficient for China to reach the level of a global power. China’s capacity
to shape events in this region (Asia) through coercion or military-to-military contacts remains limited.
In this situation, soft power will serve as an alternative.
The sixth is geopolitics discourse. This school states that China’s fundamental interests lie in
Asia. This makes China place more weights in this area. They think China used soft power diplomacy
in Asia region in order to allay suspicions in Asian countries what wary of its great power ambitions
and foster perceptions that the nation’s return to the nautical arena.
The finally is the national interests-oriented discourse. It is commonly believed that Beijing is
trying to convince the world of its peaceful intentions, secure the resources it needs to continue its
soaring economic growth, and isolate Taiwan. It must be served to the national interests and the basic
goals of China’s foreign policy which is to “preserve China’s independence, sovereignty and territorial
integrity,” and “to create a favorable international environment for China’s reform opening up and
modernization construction.”
Certainly, these discourses can explain China’s intentions with its soft power in Asia. Also,
based on these discussions, a number of observers see China’s soft power is rising in Asia and other
part of the world.
Conventional Interpretations
The concept of soft power is initially coined by Professor Joseph S. Nye, but why this foreign
concept has become so salient in the Chinese discourse. In the 1990s, since the term come into surface,
the discussion of soft power on the question of what soft power is and how it should be defined in the
Chinese context sprung up. Soft power becomes a heated topic in China’s academic circle and served
as a frequently talked word in some official articles or speeches. The main reason is that Nye’s
theoretical framework seems to answer some fundamental questions faced by contemporary China.
First, China wants to be a great power so that it has to ask the question of what makes for a great
power. Meanwhile, Nye’s theory was introduced into China as the country was undertaking an in-
depth investigation into the rise and fall of great nations, seeking not only to escape the fate of the
Soviet Union but to transform China into great power. Nye’s framework informed the Chinese of the
component of a great power.
Second, China has to participate in international competition which includes the soft power
competition. China has not been alone in embracing the notion of soft power. In East Asia, the same
has been true of the scholarly and policy communities of Taiwan, Japan and Korea. What’s more, in
the globalization era, to materialize the national power relies upon the use of soft power. Third,
China’s rapid growth generated suspicions and concerns around the world especially its Asia
neighbors. Hard means can only worsen the situation. Forth, the concept of soft power is of
compatibility with Chinese traditions and culture. The theory resonates with traditional Chinese
concept; for example, Confucianism extols a king who relies on moral force not physical force,
believing that the kingly way [wangdao] will triumph over the hegemony’s way [badao]. All of the
aforementioned suggest the reasons of the sizable audiences of soft power in China.

1. Confucian philosophy as the basis of Chinese national values
2. The history of the Chinese language: Changes in the language introduced in the 80s
3. Chinese post-colonial history: bad legacy
4. Mao Zedong: political portrait and his role in the country’s development
5. Hu Jintao and soft power development
6. The role of the communist party in the development of Chinese People’s Republic
7. The role of China on the territory of Latin America
8. The role of China on the territory of Africa
9. Chinese investments as the source of Chinese soft power in developing countries.
10. Attractiveness of Chinese culture
11. The Confucian Institute in promoting the Chinese language
12. Sport as a factor of China’s softy power promotion
13. Innovative technologies and the Chinese soft power
14. The military might of China
15. Job off-shoring as a locomotive of Chinese soft power image

1. What are the most important trends of shaping the China’s image in the world over the
past decade?
2. When has China’s economic and military might grown impressively?
3. How much does China spend to increase its soft power?
4. Why does China invest a lot of money into educational networks and publicity?
5. Why didn’t the 2008 Olympics help to promote the Chinese soft power image?
6. What are the basics of soft power according to the author of the article?
7. Why does China seek to encourage movement toward an “East Asian Community”?
8. What is the second element of the power balance discourse to diminish influence of the
Unite States? How is it called?
9. What is the main obstacle for projecting Chinese national image?
10. Who perceives China’s economic and military rise as a threat?

11. What do the 5th and the 6th arguments entail?
12. What does Beijing try to convince the world of?
2.Vocabulary section
Interpret the word and word-combinations and use them in the sentences from the text:
initially coined, plain coercion, to have a flipside, to be repellent, tangible assets, to come into
surface, to undertake an in-depth investigation, the scholarly and policy communities, to
materialize the national power, compatibility with Chinese traditions, Confucianism, moral
force, badao, the aforementioned reasons, academic narratives, to seek alliances with, a smart
power strategy, limited by the institutional or human rights, the enrollment of foreign students,
a limited return on investment, domestic crackdown on human rights activists, brittle
propaganda, to mitigate the “China threat theory”, to garner support for, forward-deployed
military forces, military-to-military contacts, to clamp down on the Internet, to jail human rights
lawyers, "neutered by the censors", state harassment, to undermine creativity, Great Power
status, soft power-based foreign policies, to contradict the reality, to shut Internet off, emerging
political-institutional contours, an “East Asian Community”, an outside player, hegemony
discourse, domestic dilemmas, the main obstacles for projecting image, to allay suspicions, to
foster perceptions, soaring economic growth
Fill in the gaps:

Foreign Aid as “Soft Power”
In recent years, China has become…(1) …………………………. and investor in
developing countries, especially in Africa [7]. According to a Congressional Research Service
report, China’s aid to Africa, Latin America and Southeast Asia increased from less than $1
billion in 2002 to an estimated $25 billion in 2007. In addition to aid to Africa, China is
beginning …(2) to …………………………………… to African countries, sending volunteers
to Africa and offering scholarships to African students.
Although the numbers are impressive in and of themselves, it could be the opportunity to
provide a different kind of support …(3)………………………………………that could be most
significant. It’s worth mentioning that there is “a Brazilian way” of engaging in …(4)………..
…………………, based on the social programs that have been successful in Brazil. Providing
AIDS treatment to the poor and conditional cash transfer programs like Bolsa Familia are
examples.
China, Brazil and India don’t have clear definitions of what constitutes foreign aid or
systems for tracking various disbursements or investments that would fit such a definition.
Their emergence as aid donors is very welcome in that can help disrupt …(5)…………………
……………………………………. and relationships. But there is still a need for …(6) ………
…………………………to provide citizens of both recipient countries (and these new donor
countries) the information they need to hold aid providers to account.
Many international NGOs were founded and grew as a result of moral and financial
support mobilized in the west – both from private individuals, foundations and corporations and
from …(7)…………………………………………………….. Are these NGOs well positioned
to adapt to the major economic and geopolitical shifts that are occurring globally? And how are
they coming to terms with what these shifts imply for their own roles and relevance? Last week
state-owned China Railway Construction Corp. (CRCC) signed …(8) ………………………
……….. with Nigeria to build an 870-mile coastal railroad from Lagos to Calabar, two of the
West African nation’s leading cities. The price tag:%12 billion. That makes it the largest single
overseas engineering contract awarded to any Chinese company, according to state-run …(9) …
…………………………...
Beijing hopes many more deals will follow. In recent months, Chinese leaders on
overseas missions have often bragged of the country’s prowess in building railroads, including
… (10)…………………………………. In May, Li Keqiang made his first diplomatic trip as
China’s premier to Africa, visiting Ethiopia, Nigeria, Angola, and Kenya. At the headquarters of
the African Union in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, he said he envisioned a bright future for the
continent when African capitals would be connected by high-speed rail. And China, he added,
according to Xinhua, could “help make this …(11)…………………………………….”
In early November, a consortium of Chinese companies won a $ 3.7 billion contract to
build a bullet train in Mexico; that contract was canceled a few days later due to …(12) ……
…………………………… on the Mexican side. But the aborted deal is still a sign of … (13)
……………………………………… for China’s rail technology.
Nor are rail deals limited to developing nations: In October, Boston’s transit authority
signed a % 567 million contract with China’s CNR Corp. to build 284 …(14)…………………..
In addition to stimulating domestic manufacturing demand for …(15)………………….
…………………………. exports, China’s leaders hope the flurry of railway deals will have soft
power benefits as well. The Nigerian railroad will be “a mutually beneficial project,” as CRCC
Chairman Meng Fengchao told Xinhua. He pledged to hire at least several thousand workers
from Nigeria; in the past, Chinese companies have been criticized for bringing in Chinese
workers to complete large engineering projects, thus denying work opportunities to local
populations.
subway cars, western government donor agencies, a major donor, a lucrative contract, cancel
debt, overseas demand , dream come true, for development processes, Xinhua newswire,
suspected corruption, foreign aid provision, high-speed bullet trains, traditional donor-recipient
identities, more transparency, steel and rail equipment
The following film (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ih7Y2Fj8GZ8, dated
19.04.2016) is an insight into the issue of china’s soft power. It was screened by the Center for
Strategic & International Studies, the NGO which has developed practical solutions to the
world’s greatest challenges for over 51 years.
Watch the film for the first time and fill in the gaps:
1. China began …(1) …………………………………in soft power in the early 1990s, but it didn’t
really take hold until …(2)…………………………...
2. The interest was reflecting the mood within China at the time when the country was beginning to
move from being …(3) ……………………………….. to a global power.
3. To some extent it reflected the desire …(4) …………………………………..the influence of
Western soft power in the form of film, food, music to promulgate its own values in the society.
4. China has …(5) ………………………………………, the first part being the development of the
content.
5. The other one was oriented to developing a harmonized society via such ideas as the so-called …
(6)………………………….. and culture.
6. China tried to promote …(7) ………………………………… such as Shammi phones.
7. The 3d part of the strategy is developing of …(8)……………………………………… of soft
power by active involvement of mass media resources and it is already cost China …(9)………
……………………………………...
8. To propagate its soft power China increases a network of …(10) ………………………………
… and …(11)……………………………. all over the world.
9. There is a pretty clear divide in most countries between soft power and (12) public ……………
……………… , which is quite an organic way within a society, but it doesn’t work in China.
10. There is no such organic division in China as its government just wants to …(13)………………
…………
11. Chinese …(14)………………………. holds a certain amount of attraction for the countries of
Asia, Latin America and Africa but it doesn’t contribute to soft power image as it doesn’t shape
an organic sense…(15) …………………………….. and development of ideas.
12. China is quite successful in …(16) ………………………………….. in Confucian Institutes but
it is not successful in promoting the Chinese soft power as the Chinese reality doesn’t allow
them to be …(17) ……………………………………..
Watch the film for the second time and render the main information, using the expressions
from the film. Your comments on the issue are welcome
China pays a lot of attention to its soft power image. Nevertheless, it has mainly the
image of a covert hard power state. Assess strong and weak issues of Chinese soft power. Do it
with the help of the SWOT table.
Bibliography and reference sources:
1. Dubber J., Worne J. Playing the Game: The soft power of Sport// British Council, URL:
https://www.britishcouncil.org/organisation/policy-insight-research/insight/playing-
game-soft-power-sport (1.06.2018)
2. Chinese Soft Power//Myweb.Rollinsedu,
https://myweb.rollins.edu/tlairson/china/chisoftpower.pdf ( 26.04.2018)
3. Coshamie Contemporary art as a Soft Power,
28.05.2016http://coshamie.com/contemporary-art-as-a-soft-power/
4. Difference between soft power and hard power.//Difference between.com, 13.03.2015,
URL http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-hard-power-and-vs-soft-
power/(1.06.2018)
5. Ghosh B. From the Buddha to Bollywood to BPOs: A brief history of India’s soft
power//QUARZ, 25.09.2017, URL: https://qz.com/271585/from-the-buddha-to-
bollywood-to-bpos-a-brief-history-of-indias-soft-power/ (16.06.2018)
6. Kadaur R. The Soft Power of Art//Essays, URL: http://hyperallergic.com/343227/the-
soft-power-of-art/ (19.06.2018)
7. Lum T., Fisher H., Gomes-Granger J. China’s Foreign Aid Activities in Africa, Latin
America and Southeast Asia//Congressional Research Service 2009
8. Nye Joseph.S. China’s Soft Power Deficit //Wall Street Journal, 8.05.2012
9. Nye Joseph S. Soft Power: The Means to Success in Modern Politics Public Affairs, 2005
– 130 pp.
10. Nye J S. The Decline of America's Soft Power \Foreign Affairs Journal, May\June 2004 issue
124. Pp 124-126
11. Paul T.V. Indian Soft Power in a Globalizing World//Current History, 03. 2014, pp 157 -
162
12. The French and the World//Understanding France, 2.06.2018, URL:
http://www.understandfrance.org/French/FrenchAndWorld.html
13. Zaman Dr. Three factors contribute to popularity of “Soft Power”//Defenders of the
Nation, 1.09.2016 http://www.army.lk/news/three-factors-contribute-popularity-soft-
power-dr-zaman ( 12.06.2018)
14. Zeldin Th. I believe that nothing separates people more than their sense of humour//
French shared values, URL: http://www.understandfrance.org/French/Attitudes3.html
Videos
1. A short film about well-known parts of France and less known ones: the Caribbean, South
America, Indian Ocean and beyond, URL:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LQ-mwO30_68
2. A short film about the Indian Ministry of External Affairs, the Indian Foreign Service, and
other states developing public diplomacy strategies, URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=D93bnCWQmG0
3. This
short film https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ih7Y2Fj8GZ8 is an insight into the issue of
China’s soft power.
Module 3
Diplomacy: from ancient time up to date
Brainstorming
1) Diplomatic tools; 2) diplomacy versus soft power; 3) origin of diplomatic skills; 4)
famous diplomats; 5) a portrait of an ideal diplomat; 6) the aims and targets of diplomatic
activity; 7) new forms of diplomacy; 8) diplomatic services; 9) consular services; foreign
ministry officials.
Comment on the following citations:

1. Diplomacy is the art of saying
"nice doggie" until you can find a rock. -
Wynn Catlin
2. Diplomacy is the art of letting
someone else have your way. - Daniele
Vare
3. A diplomat is a person who can
tell you to go to hell in such a way that
you actually look forward to the trip. -
Caskie Stinett
4. Diplomats are useful only in fair
weather. As soon as it rains they drown
in every drop. - Charles de Gaulle
5. Diplomacy is to do and say the nastiest thing in the nicest way. - Bisaac Goldberg
6. When a diplomat says yes he means perhaps; when he says perhaps he means no; when he
says no he is no diplomat. - from Berliner Tagblatt
7. A diplomat's life is made up of three ingredients: Protocol, Geritol, and alcohol.- Adlai E.
Stevenson
8. The Seven Social Sins are: Wealth without work. Pleasure without conscience. Knowledge
without character. Commerce without morality. Science without humanity. Worship without
sacrifice. Politics without principle. – Frederick Lewis Donaldson
9. A Foreign Secretary is forever poised between the cliché and the indiscretion.- H. MacMillan
10. An ambassador is an honest man sent to lie abroad for the commonwealth - Henry Wotton
11. In archaeology you uncover the unknown. In diplomacy you cover the known. - T. Pickering
12. Diplomacy is the business of handling a porcupine without disturbing the quills. -Unknown
author
13. I must acknowledge, once and for all, that the purpose of diplomacy is to prolong a crisis. -
Mr. Spock. From Star Trek
2. INTRODUCTORY NOTES
“Si vis pacem, para bellum”, said Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus, a writer who lived in
the Later Roman Empire. These five Latin words simply mean ‘If you want peace, prepare for
war’. While the quote seems to suggest a paradox it has been proven time and again. Wars have
often been fought to reduce tensions among powers. But it has also simultaneously been
understood that war is not a viable option to come to terms with another power.
It deals with too much loss for one to bear over and over again. Hence, many believed that
there are indeed more peaceful ways of handling matters with warring factions. It seemed
appropriate to hold discussions with a representative of the other party who would negotiate the
terms on behalf of his king. Thus the practice of diplomacy was generated but it assumed
different meanings with the passage of time.
Greek Diplomacy
Diplomacy can be traced back to the Greek city-states, who were continually at war owing
to their geographical barriers [3]. The geography of Greece is of a mountainous and hence of a
discontinuous nature which paved the way for small city-states and Greece a conglomeration of
small city-states. The practice of diplomacy was indeed necessitated but was very different from
how we know it today. There were certain individuals who held the post of an emissary but the
function of an emissary is of a very limited nature. During a war, communication between the
two kings was primarily through the emissaries. The function of the emissaries included
intimating the other ruler that they were allowed to collect the bodies of the soldiers and bury
them. An emissary was only a messenger. The function of a modern-day diplomat can be loosely
compared to that of a Greek proxenos. A proxenos had to be an influential individual who
enjoyed cordial relations with both the parties who were at odds. Proxenos were usually
privileged members of the society who by some means was acquainted with both parties. As the
practice goes, the proxenos would host a gathering at his own expense. The purpose of this
gathering would be to encourage both parties to communicate with each other and sincerely
attempt to sort out their differences. The proxenos would act as the mediator between the two
parties. Since it was a very individual-oriented task it was a hereditary affair. The proxenos was
awarded honorary titles for his diplomatic services to the state.
However, Greek diplomacy had a number of anomalies, which makes it different from
modern diplomatic practice. Firstly, the credibility of a diplomat largely depended on his oratory
skills which he was expected to deliver in public. Secondly, the exchange of gifts was not an
acceptable practice. This was taken as a form of bribery. Finally, the diplomats did not enjoy
immunity. Hence, they were often subject to arbitrary treatment by the recipient ruler, especially
during wartime. Both Athens and Sparta executed the envoys that were sent by Darius I.
Roman Diplomacy
The Roman Republic was a contemporary of the Greek civilization. The Roman republic
was rather a republic or respublica. The use of diplomacy was mostly for legal and commercial
purposes. Trade relations within provinces were maintained through diplomatic means. The
Romans did not stand much store by the practice of diplomacy for administering purposes.
Instead they invested heavily in their military capabilities and were renowned for their military
expertise. However, this does not indicate that the Romans did not make use of diplomacy at all
in administration. The role of the Senate transformed with the nature of the state of Rome. While
Rome was a republic, the Senate was the decision-making body but when it became an empire,
the Senate was reduced to an advisory body. Legatus, basically diplomatic representatives, were
appointed by the Senate from amongst themselves. The legatus had to report to the Senate about
the proceedings that took place.
It is also peculiar that despite having diplomatic abilities, the Senators were often not
treated as diplomatic representatives. The spontaneous need for an envoy was mostly fulfilled by
military commanders and provincial governors who were present on the spot. The fall of the
Roman Empire is essentially taken to have occurred in 476 C.E. The reasons were, first of all,
the overwhelming reliance of the Romans on their military strength led to a ‘colonial’ approach
in its ruling of its provinces. Secondly, the decline of the powers of the Senate also centralized
power in the hands of the monarch. Thus this declining military capability was inherited by
the Eastern Roman Empire, more widely known as the Byzantine Empire.
Byzantine Diplomacy
The Romans, like the Greeks, lacked an institutional structure of diplomatic practice. There
is a shift in this ad hoc nature of diplomatic practice with the rise of the Byzantine Empire. This
shift is very conspicuous since the longevity of the Byzantine Empire cannot be attributed to its
military strength, unlike the Western Roman Empire. It was something much more subtle, like
the rampant practice of diplomatic efforts. The Eastern Roman Empire inherited the weak
military capability after the decline of the Western Roman Empire and was simultaneously
surrounded by several neighbors. Byzantium did not enjoy a hegemonic influence in the region
and hence was bound to maintain relations with its neighbors through other means than coercion.
The Byzantines had several means of achieving success in establishing diplomatic relations. The
first means was by awe and sublime. The goal was to impress the visiting envoy representing
the neighboring state with the display of “absolute superiority, luxury, wealth”.
Byzantium was surrounded by powerful entities like the Ottomans, the Seljuks, the
Persians and the Arabs who had now largely become followers of the Islamic religion and also
there was a constant threat that there would be a rise of a Western power that would threaten to
replace the void created by the decline of the Western Roman Empire. Hence, they sought other
means of appeasement. The practice of bribery was exploited to the maximum by Byzantium.
They could not afford to make it look like a bribe which would cause them to lose their
credibility. Hence, it was always in the form of a) tributes or b) a large part of the stock of trade
that these bribes were given.
The position of the kingdom also played a major role in providing Byzantium with enough
wealth to carry out such expensive practices. Byzantium was located in the heart of the financial
hub which made for an extremely strategic location. In addition to that, the emperor did not
regard it as bribery since this investment would only ensure the safety of the empire and its
citizens. If the first two methods failed to achieve the goals they meant to achieve, it was now
sought through the means of matrimonial alliances. The use of this practice was done very
sparingly but it increased when the treasury was declining.
The final method of diplomacy was the policy of dividing the neighbors and pitting them
against each other. To serve this purpose effectively, the practice of gathering information was a
crucial part of the Byzantine administration. Hence, there is an evident importance of
intelligence in the diplomatic arena. Dignitaries of Byzantium were not only meant to represent
their empire but also gather enough information for their emperor to use when every other means
failed. They had a separate wing called the Skrinion Barbaron that served as the bureau for
foreign relations that was responsible for gathering of intelligence. It could be considered one of
the first intelligence agencies of the world.
Inducing hostile relations between foreign states was a means of stalling which would get
the Byzantines more time to deter war, if not completely take it off the table. Hence, the
aforementioned methods of diplomacy contributed to the longevity of the Byzantine Empire till
the fall of Constantinople in 1453 to the Ottoman Turks. Hence, the diplomatic effort of the
Byzantines was the dominant practice. It was further developed by the Italian city-states during
the period of Renaissance in the following century.
Diplomacy within the Italian City-States
With the decline of the Byzantine Empire, there was a rising threat of the Ottomans to the
West. Italian city-states that were hitherto fighting amongst each other now sought collective
security in alliance with each other owing to the external threat that they commonly faced. On
the other side was the Valois dynasty that had managed to unite France and was seeking to
extend its territory by attacking Italy. The Italian city-states were not very well-endowed when it
came to military capabilities. It was much weaker than its Ottoman counterpart who had a
standing army at its disposal. Hence, these threats compelled the Italian city-states to strengthen
ties through diplomatic means. There was the introduction of the practice of resident diplomats.
Representatives from different city-state were stationed in the monarch’s court at the capital.
Shuhei Kurizaki in his book ‘When Diplomacy Works’[5] calls the resident ambassadors as “fire
alarms”. The need for a resident ambassador was to alarm the monarch back in his city-state that
the monarch at whose capital he is stationed has defected from the treaty. So now there were
permanent embassies and resident ambassadors which institutionalized diplomatic practice in the
northern parts of Italy. By the time the Thirty Years War broke out, entire Europe had
adopted the system of permanent embassies and resident ambassadors.
Diplomatic Practice in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries
The absence of peaceful conditions in the western part of Europe in the 16th century can be
largely attributed to the division of that hemisphere of the continent into small kingdoms. These
kingdoms constantly sought power to ensure the maintenance of their position in the regional
politics. Polity was intertwined with religion to a great extent. One major war that this period
witnessed was the outbreak of the Thirty Years War that begun in 1618 and ended in 1648.These
constant outbreaks of war called for intensification of the diplomatic practice. Hence, during the
16th and 17th centuries, there were further improvements in the field of diplomacy. More and
more states were now becoming independent and sovereign and following the European system
had established permanent embassies and resident ambassadors. Hence, a need was felt to
establish a kind of diplomatic immunity to spare ambassadors from arbitrary treatment by the
recipient monarchs.
The Thirty Years War came to an end with the signing of the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648.
It recognized the sovereignty of each state or principality and hence, prohibited the interference
of external powers in domestic affairs. Secondly, the treaty provided the basis for the clear
distinction and demarcation of a state’s political affairs from its religious ones. The treaty of
Westphalia ensured that the clergy never saw the return of its erstwhile influential position in the
affairs of the state. Hence, the diplomatic system now was based on two principles: firstly, all
states were sovereign and secondly, all states were equal to each other.
Following the devastation caused by the Napoleonic wars, European powers decided to
pursue peace by the means of diplomacy rather than by waging wars. This was the purpose of the
Congress of Vienna, which was followed by a series of other congresses, the so called “Concert
of Europe’. This was an attempt to establish a balance of power in the region and it did turn out
to be a fairly successful one till 1914. At the same time colonization of African and Asian
regions by European powers takes place. In this, the relation is defined between the colonizer
and the colonized and since both parties are not equal to each other, the scope of diplomacy is
very limited. The colonizing masters subdued and exploited their colonies. This subordination
nullified the scope of diplomacy in their relation.
Departure from Traditional Diplomacy
World War I is frequently viewed as the watershed between “old” diplomacy with its
emphasis on elitism, secrecy, bilateral agreements, and the importance of the embassy, and
“modern” diplomacy with its emphasis on competency, openness, multilateral agreements, and
personal conduct of affairs. After the outbreak of the First World War, it was taken to be a defeat
of diplomatic efforts. However, no state, either war or peace, is ever in perpetual continuum.
Hence, there is a rise in diplomatic efforts with the end of the First World War.
The need for a new form of diplomacy was driven by a few changes in the society. The
first and foremost reason would be the increasing influence of democratic ideals. The spread of
democracy was on the rise and this called for a more transparent system of diplomacy. This was
followed by the deepening of economic relations. Even after Germany was levied with a burden
of reparations, the USA continued to trade with all nations to avoid the allegations of taking
sides in European politics. Hence, the higher the economic stakes, the lesser the chances of war
between those states.
The League of Nations
The League of Nations was established to fulfill certain criteria. However, with its
establishment it was also observed that there were more benefits to a multilateral diplomatic
organization and other elements that proved beneficial to its working. Firstly, the advancement in
science and technology led to faster travel of information and people and establishing contacts
was now faster than ever. Besides, the leaders of the nation-states realized that issues of global
concern were not possible to solve by the means of bilateral efforts but by multilateral means.
Multilateral diplomacy served as a good forum for smaller nations.
Cold War Diplomacy
The Second World War saw the advent of nuclear weaponry and its devastating effects.
However, immediately after the Second World War, the Cold War between the USA and the
USSR ensued. The concept of nuclear diplomacy prevailed throughout, from 1945 to till the
demise of the Soviet Union in 1991. This led the two blocs to constantly monitor each other’s
moves and attempt to stay ahead of the other. The fear of a nuclear war was felt by the
international community.
Crisis diplomacy was an emergent form of wartime diplomacy. The best example of such
diplomacy was the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The de-escalation process required a hotline
that was established for the leaders of both blocs to communicate and sort their misconceptions
regarding each other’s moves and plans. Summit diplomacy was another form that emerged
during this time. This kind of diplomacy involved the leader of a nation visiting the leader of
another nation to be followed by a series of meetings to discuss the issues that were on the list of
agenda. Modern Diplomacy is closely connected with the establishment of the United Nations in 1945
However, due to the Cold War waging between the USA and the USSR, the UN was often very
limited in its working. Veto power was exercised extensively against each other. Economic
relations between nation-states have proved effective in deescalating tensions. Therefore, the
economic aspect of a nation also plays a major role in state-based diplomacy. There emerged the
public diplomacy and the Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s recent visit to several
countries is a perfect example of the involvement of heads of governments in furthering public
diplomacy. In the past few decades, an increased involvement of the news media has been
noticed. It has also brought matters to the forefront, to the public.
Recently, with the internet and social networking websites becoming a household
phenomenon, e-diplomacy has come into effect, multi-track diplomacy, ping-pong diplomacy,
soft-power diplomacy have most topical . E-Diplomacy though today, the Internet poses the
main challenges for diplomacy. Diplo focuses on three aspect of an interplay between Internet
and diplomacy: Internet driven-changes of environment in which diplomacy is conducted;
emergence of new topics on diplomatic agenda (Internet governance); and use of a new Internet
tools in the practice of diplomacy (e.g. social media). Cumulatively the Internet is having a
profound effect on the two cornerstones of diplomacy, information and communication. E-
diplomacy project addresses impact of the Internet on diplomacy through research, courses
(online and in situ), policy discussions and publications.
Since the end of the 21st century there emerged new forms of diplomacy, one of them being
the Pong Diplomacy. For example, from the early years of the People's Republic of China,
sports had played an important role in diplomacy, often incorporating the slogan "Friendship
First, Competition Second". When China received a report that the U.S. Table Tennis Team
hoped to get invited to visit China, Mao Zedong after some hesitation decided to invite them. It
was reported that Mao Zedong said, "This Zhuang Zedong not only plays table tennis well, but is
good at foreign affairs, and he has a mind for politics." April 10, 1971, when nine American
players, four officials, and two spouses came to the Chinese mainland and marked a new era of
Chinese-American relations .
Cowboy diplomacy is a term used by critics to describe the resolution of international
conflicts through brash risk-taking, intimidation [4], military deployment, or a combination of
such tactics. The US press attributed the term to describe US President Theodore Roosevelt’s
foreign policies: "Speak softly and carry a big stick”. Citizen diplomacy means that average
citizens can act as representatives of a cause or country, if "official" or governmental interactions
are inappropriate. Deference – another new form - is the idea that people should recognize and
submit to the authority of their superiors. It implies that it would be deemed acceptable for your
boss to tell you what to do, but unacceptable for you to tell your boss what to do. Leader-to-
Leader and Summitry Diplomacy [9] was spawned by modern transportation and
communications. National leaders regularly hold bilateral or multilateral summit conferences,
and foreign ministers and other ranking diplomats jet between countries, conducting “shuttle
diplomacy.” This entails several advantages. The first is that leaders can sometimes make
dramatic breakthroughs. Second, rapid diplomacy can help dispel false information and
stereotypes. Multi-track diplomacy- another form-is a conceptual way to view the process of
international peacemaking as a living system. It looks at the web of interconnected activities,
individuals, institutions, communities that operate together for a common goal: a world at peace.
Shuttle diplomacy is the action of an outside party in serving as an intermediary between
(or among) principals in a dispute, without direct principal-to-principal contact. The term was
first applied to describe the efforts of US Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger, beginning
November 5, 1973, which facilitated the cessation of hostilities following the Yom Kippur War.
Another instance took place between Russia and Georgia in 2008. Preventive diplomacy is
action to prevent disputes from arising between parties, to prevent existing disputes from
escalating into conflicts and to limit the spread of the latter when they occur. Soft power
diplomacy is the cultivation of relationships, respect, or even admiration from others in order to
gain influence, as opposed to more coercive approaches. Economic diplomacy is the use of
foreign aid or other types of economic policy as a means to achieve a diplomatic agenda.
Counter insurgency diplomacy was deployed by diplomats to civil-military stabilization efforts
in Iraq and Afghanistan, employs diplomats at tactical and operational levels, outside traditional
embassy environments and often alongside military or peacekeeping forces. Gunboat
diplomacy is the use of conspicuous displays of military strength as a means of intimidation in
order to influence others. This was the case of North Korea incident.
3. WORKSHOP: CASE-STUDY SECTION

The history of diplomacy knows lots of examples when political leaders, institutions and
governments affected the international relations trying to violate the law and dominate in their
political pursuits. You are welcome to develop the cases, using the Harvard scheme of case
development. The analysis format should include: summary, problem, issues, options,
recommendations, plan of action.
Case 1: Watergate and other scandals (the case of multi-track policy)

Nixon was inaugurated as president on January 20, 1969. In his inaugural address, which
received almost uniformly positive reviews, Nixon remarked that "the greatest honor history can
bestow is the title of peacemaker” [2]. He spoke about turning partisan politics into a new age of
unity. His presidential carrier was marked by some important achievements. Nixon laid the
groundwork for his overture to China even before he became president. He was the first
American president to visit China and the visit ushered in a new era of Sino-American relations.
Fearing the possibility of a Sino-American alliance, the Soviet Union yielded to pressure for
détente with the United States which is also a great achievement of his. Nixon and Brezhnev met
twice, the second one being in Yalta, where they discussed a proposed mutual defense pact,
détente, and MIRVs. While he considered proposing a comprehensive test-ban treaty, Nixon felt
he would not have time as president to complete it.
When Nixon took office, about 300 American soldiers were dying each week in Vietnam,
and the war was broadly unpopular in the United States, with violent protests against the ongoing
war. After years of fighting, the Paris Peace Accords were signed at the beginning of 1973. The
agreement implemented a cease fire and allowed for the withdrawal of remaining American
troops. As part of the Nixon Doctrine that the U.S. would avoid direct combat assistance to
allies, instead giving them assistance to defend themselves, the U.S. greatly increased arms sales
to the Middle East—particularly Israel, Iran and Saudi Arabia—during the Nixon administration.
His resignation marked a drastic turn in foreign policy of the USA.
Renominated with Agnew in 1972, Nixon defeated his Democratic challenger, liberal
Sen. George S. McGovern, in one of the largest landslide victories in the history of American
presidential elections: 46.7 million to 28.9 million in the popular vote and 520 to 17 in the
electoral vote. Despite his resounding victory, Nixon would soon be forced to resign in disgrace
in the worst political scandal in United States history. The Watergate scandal stemmed from
illegal activities by Nixon and his aides related to the burglary and wiretapping of the national
headquarters of the Democratic Party at the Watergate office complex in Washington, D.C. The
five men involved in the burglary, who were hired by the Republican Party’s Committee to Re-
elect the President, were arrested and charged on June 17, 1972. In the days following the
arrests, Nixon secretly directed the White House counsel, John Daen, to oversee a cover-up to
conceal the administration’s involvement. Nixon also obstructed the Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI) in its inquiry and authorized secret cash payments to the Watergate burglars
in an effort to prevent them from implicating the administration [12].
Several major newspapers investigated the possible involvement of the White House in the
burglary. Leading the pack was ”The Washington Post” and its two hungry newshounds, Carl
Berbstein and Bob Woodward, whose stories were based largely on information from an
unnamed source called “Deep Throat.” The mysterious Deep Throat – W. Mark Felt, a top-
ranking FBI official at the time of the investigation, revealed himself as the informant in 2005.
In February 1973 a special Senate committee—the Select Committee on Presidential
Campaign Activities, chaired by Sen. Sam Ervin—was established to look into the Watergate
affair. In televised committee hearings, Dean accused the president of involvement in the cover-
up, and others testified to illegal activities by the administration and the campaign staff,
including the use of federal agencies to harass Nixon’s perceived enemies (many of whose
names appeared on an “enemies list” of prominent politicians, journalists, entertainers,
academics, and others) and acts of politically inspired espionage by a special White House
investigative unit, known as the “plumbers” because they investigated news leaks.
In July the committee learned that in 1969 Nixon had installed a recording system in the
White House and that all the president’s conversations in the Oval Office had been recorded.
When the tapes were subpoenaed by Archibald Cox, the special prosecutor appointed to
investigate the Watergate affair, Nixon refused to comply, offering to provide summary
transcripts instead. Cox rejected the offer. Then, in a series of episodes that came to be known as
the Saturday Night Massacre, Nixon ordered Attorney General Elliot Richardson to fire Cox, and
Richardson resigned rather than comply. Nixon then fired Richardson’s assistant, William
Ruckelshaus, when he too refused to fire Cox. Cox was finally removed by Solicitor General
Robert Bork, though a federal district court subsequently ruled the action illegal.
Another special prosecutor, Leon Jaworski, promised that he would not fire him without
congressional consent. After protesting in a news conference that “I am not a crook,” Nixon
released seven of the nine tapes requested by Cox, one of which contained a suspicious gap of 18
and one-half minutes. Although damning, the tapes did not contain the “smoking gun” that
would prove that the president himself ordered the break-in or attempted to obstruct justice.
Jaworski later subpoenaed 64 tapes that Nixon continued to withhold on grounds of “executive
privilege,” and in July 1974 the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that Nixon’s claims of
executive privilege were invalid. By that time the House Judiciary Committee had already voted
to recommend three articles of impeachment, relating to obstruction of justice, abuse of power,
and failure to comply with congressional subpoenas. On August 5, in compliance with the
Supreme Court’s ruling, Nixon submitted transcripts of a conversation taped on June 23, 1972, in
which he discussed a plan to use the Central Intelligence Agency to block the FBI’s investigation
of the Watergate break-in. The smoking gun had finally been found.
House and conviction in the Senate, Nixon announced his resignation on the evening of
August 8, 1974, effective at noon the next day. He was succeeded by General Ford, whom he
had appointed vice president in 1973 after Agnew resigned his office amid charges of having
committed bribery, extortion, and tax evasion during his tenure as governor of Maryland. Nixon
was pardoned by President Ford on September 8, 1974.
1. Richard Nixon, the 37th President
2. Relations of US with China in the 70s
3. The aftereffects of the Vietnamese war and Nixon government
4. Republicans in the 70s: bipartisan system of US
5. Democratic role in the Watergate scandal
6. Mass media involvement into the Watergate scandal
7. CIA versus FBI
8. W. Mark Felt, a top-ranking FBI official
9. US – Russian relations: Nixon’s role
10. All the presidents’ men (filmed in 1976: https://my-hit.org/film/11706/ )

1. What was Nixon’s greatest ambition in international relations?
2. When did Nixon take office?
3. What was the USA involved into?
4. How many soldiers were dying every week?
5. What are the most remarkable successes of the 37th President of the USA?
6. What practice of political processes monitoring in the white House played a cruel joke
with Nixon and his team?
7. When was the Special Committee established to look into the Watergate scandal?
8. What did Nixon undertake to hush up the scandal?
9. When did President Nixon step down and why?
10. What happened with Nixon after his resignation?
Interpret the words and word-combinations, using the sentences from the text:
inaugurated, the title of peacemaker, partisan politics, to lay the groundwork, overture to China,
to usher in a new era, to yield to pressure for deténte, a proposed mutual defense pact, détente,
and MIRVs, a comprehensive test-ban treaty, to implement a cease fire, direct combat assistance
to allies, to defeat a Democratic challenger, to obstruct the FBI, authorized secret cash
payments to the Watergate burglars, to prevent somebody from implicating the administration,
hungry newshounds, to reveal himself as the informant, to look into the Watergate affair, to
testify to illegal activities, to harass Nixon’s perceived enemies, politically inspired espionage, to
be known as the “plumbers” , to install a recording system, to be subpoenaed by the special
prosecutor, to refuse to comply, to provide summary transcripts , the Solicitor General, to rule
the action illegal, to be a crook, not to contain the “smoking gun”, to withhold on grounds of
“executive privilege,” the largest landslide victory, to be forced to resign in disgrace, to
encompass allegations of crimes, the break-in, to be involved in burglary, to oversee a cover-
up, the House Judiciary Committee, to recommend articles of impeachment, obstruction of
justice, abuse of power, and failure to comply with congressional subpoenas, to be pardoned
Fill in the gaps:

Watergate history
Early in the morning of June 17, 1972, ……………………………. (1) were arrested inside the
office of the Democratic National Committee, located in the Watergate building in Washington,
D.C. This was no ordinary robbery: ………………………..…(2) were connected to President
Richard Nixon’s reelection campaign, and they had been caught while attempting…………
………………………. (3) and steal secret documents. While historians are not sure whether
Nixon knew about the Watergate …………………………………..(4) before it happened, he
took steps to cover it up afterwards, raising ………………………………(5) for the burglars,
trying to stop the Federal Bureau of Investigation from investigating the crime, …………….
………………………..(6) and firing uncooperative staff members. In August 1974, after his role
in the Watergate conspiracy had finally………………………….(7), the president resigned. His
successor, Gerald Ford, immediately pardoned Nixon for all the crimes he “committed or may
have committed” while in office. Although Nixon was never prosecuted, the Watergate scandal
changed American politics forever, leading many Americans to question their leadership and
think more critically about the presidency[8].
Did You Know?
Young Washington Post reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein deserve a good deal of the
credit for uncovering the details of the Watergate scandal. Much of their information came from
… ………………………………………….(8) they called Deep Throat, who in 2005 was
revealed to be W. Mark Felt, a former associate director of the FBI.
According to him, the wiretaps failed to work properly, however, so on June 17 the group had to
return to the Watergate building. As the prowlers were preparing to break into the office with a
new microphone, a security guard noticed that they had taped the building’s locks. The guard
called the police, who arrived just in time ……………………..…(9) the spies ………………….
It was not immediately clear that the burglars were connected to the president, though suspicions
were raised when detectives found copies of the reelection committee’s White House phone
number among the burglars’ belongings. In August, Nixon gave a speech in which he swore that
his White House staff was not involved in …………………(10). Most voters believed him, and
in November the president was ………………………………………..(11).
It later came to light that Nixon was not being truthful. A few days after the break-in, for
instance, he arranged to provide hundreds of thousands of dollar in“hush money” to the
burglars. Then, he and his aides hatched a plan to instruct the Central Intelligence Agency to
impede the FBI’s investigation of the crime. This was a more serious crime than the break-in: It
was an abuse of presidential power and a …………………………………………………..(12).
Meanwhile, seven conspirators were indicted on charges related to the Watergate affair. At the
urging of Nixon’s aides, five pleaded guilty and avoided trial; the other two were convicted in
January 1973.
By that time, a growing handful of people—including Washington Post reporters Bob
Woodward and Carl Bernstein, trial judge John J. Sirica and members of a Senate investigating
committee—had begun to suspect that there was ………………………………………(14) afoot.
At the same time, some of the conspirators began …………………………………………….(14)
of the cover-up. Some of Nixon’s aides, including White House counsel John Dean, …
………………………………………….…(15) about the president’s crimes; they also testified
that Nixon had secretly taped every conversation that took place in the Oval Office. If
prosecutors could get their hands on those tapes, they would have proof of the president’s guilt.
Nixon struggled to protect the tapes during the summer and fall of 1973.
testified before a grand jury, to crack under the pressure, to wiretap phones, espionage operation,
an anonymous whistleblower, to catch smb. red-handed, the break-in, reelected in a landslide,
deliberate obstruction of justice, hush money, destroying evidence, come to light, several
burglars, the prowlers, a larger scheme
Watergate scandal, interlocking political scandals of the administration of US President

Richard M. Nixon that were revealed following the arrest of five burglars at Democratic National
Committee (DNC) headquarters in the Watergate office-apartment-hotel complex in
Washington, D.C., on June 17, 1972. On August 9, 1974, facing likely impeachment for his role
in covering up the scandal, Nixon became the only U.S. president to resign.
Watch the film (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IHnmriyXYeg) and write down the
information from the film which refers to the following dates and people:
The Pentagon Papers
Administration from
Truman to Johnson
The Nixon
administration
John Ehrlichman
Howard Hunt
Gordon Lidely
1972
CRP
John Mitchell
Democratic National
Committee headquarters
17th of July, 1972
5 intruders
FBI
Bob Haldeman
A Republican Party aid

20th of June 1972
Bob Woodward and Carl

Bernstein
Deep Throat
2005
Mark Felt
September 1972
November 1972
April 1973
Richard Kleindienst
John Dean
Mid 1973
Sam Ervin
Archibald Cox
November 1973
Watergate seven
July 1974
8th of August 1974
Gerald Ford
Render the information of the video and express your opinion about the matter
4. Written assignment: Case development (Harvard Business School

format)
INTRODUCTORY NOTES
A case study is a description of some situation. The analysis of a case can be thought of
as the business equivalent of medical ‘second opinion’. Originally, the case-method started in
medical school, with the summary equivalent to a diagnosis. Then the method was adopted by
law schools, finally by business schools when Harvard Business School started in 1905. It has
then been spread through lots of schools and colleges in the U.S.
In medicine, an individual may seek a doctor because of some concern about how the
body or mind is operating. The doctor compiles a preliminary problem statement called case
history. The case history is a combination of a patient’s response to certain questions about his
or her symptoms, general history (was it there in your family?), and life circumstances (for
example, working conditions). Additionally, other data, both general and problem-related, are
collected about the patient’s state during the examination – pulse rate, blood pressure, etc.
From the sense of this case history, the doctor attempts to reach a diagnosis, or statement
of patient’s problem. Further, the treatment is specified, which is some course of action felt
likely to remove or at least make the problem less burning. In case analysis the same pattern is
applied for solving a problem, for reaching a diagnosis or statement of problem of a sick
institution, or company. A case study approach presumes that we proceed as outsiders through
the material of the case and then after having analyzed it, we become consultants of the
institution, company or situation in focus.
Format of Case-Analysis:
1. SUMMARY
5-6 sentences presenting a cross-section of the situation
2. THE PROBLEM
(one 7-9 –word sentence, not a question or a phrase)
3. CAST OF CHARACTERS
A People B Institutions
4. CHRONOLOGY
(reverse – from ‘today’ to yesterday and further back to the past events)
5. ISSUES
(conflicting points, sources of conflict both inside and outside the company)
6. OPTIONS – MORE THAN 1, NOT LESS THAN 3, AND FOR EACH:
a. advantages
b. disadvantages
7. RECOMMENDATIONS
a. Stating the course of action
b. Reasoning and Rationale
8. PLAN OF ACTION (OPTIONAL)
step one
step two …etc.
Handle the case for American public, using a multi-track diplomacy approaches (the public
was in favor of Nixon’s peace-keeping policy). You can use the following video to get some
ideas for the case development (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t-NGmn8JgqM). Start
with summary, problem statement and issues. Work in pairs and teams of 3-5 people is welcome.
Develop the case in a written form.
Case 2 : Yugoslavia and the Failure of Preventative Diplomacy

Western nations have long recognized the nationalist tensions within Yugoslavia. During
the Cold War era, the West saw Yugoslavia as an ally in preventing Soviet expansion. For this
reason, western diplomatic efforts maintained a sharp focus on maintaining a unified Yugoslavia.
Under Tito's rule, nationalist tendencies were repressed and unity maintained.
As expected, those nationalist tensions resurfaced with Tito's death in 1980. Croatian,
Muslim and Serbian factions began to agitate for secession. By this time the Cold War was
ending, and western priorities were changing. While the western nations still wanted a unified
Yugoslavia, they were also increasingly concerned with promoting democratization and
economic reforms. Western nations perceived these goals as compatible. Democracy, it was
thought, would "redress human rights, alleviate ethnic tensions, and keep the country united."
Ironically, democratic and economic reforms appear to have fueled the conflict. Economic
reforms resulted in short-term hardships. The frustration and dissatisfaction caused by economic
hardships was in turn exploited by faction leaders and used to fuel nationalistic fervor.
Democratic reforms allowed the widespread electoral victory of candidates running on extremist
nationalist platforms.
By 1990, the breakup of Yugoslavia seemed inevitable. In December 1990 Slovenia voted
to secede at the end of June 1991, unless some confederacy agreement could be reached in the
interim. Western nations still hoped that open warfare could be avoided, and a negotiated
separation achieved. Unfortunately, western diplomatic efforts to prevent war failed.
Most probably, western preventative diplomacy failed in Yugoslavia for two main reasons.
First, the western nations did not project clear goals for Yugoslavia. The West's message was
ambiguous, and this ambiguity "stemmed from the West's definition of goals in terms of broad
values, some of which were contradictory in the context of time and place." In the current
Yugoslavian context, democratization was allowing people to vote to secede, and break up the
nation. Maintaining Yugoslavian unity required repressing nationalist views, which would be
both anti-democratic and would likely entail further violations of human rights.
Second, western diplomatic effort lacked credible leverage. Western nations attempted to
enforce their goals via economic incentives and threats. Economic incentives were practically the
only tool available at the time. However, economic pressure was not effective. Withholding
economic assistance contributed to the popular frustrations which were in turn exploited to fuel
nationalist sentiments. The ambiguity of western goals made it unclear under what conditions aid
would be given or withheld. The credibility of economic threats was further undermined by
political divisions within the European community. And finally, economic punishments or
rewards were not well attuned to the psychology of the nationalist leaders. The factions were
primarily concerned with issues of physical security and group identity. Economic prosperity
was of only secondary concern. According to some analysts there were two reasons why the
western nations did not attempt mediation of the conflict. One, mediation would have implied
tacit acceptance of Croatia and Slovenia as sovereign powers. Two, mediation would have
constituted interference in the internal affairs of a sovereign state. Moreover, Touval [11] argues
that even had it been attempted, mediation would have likely been unsuccessful. Neutral, non-
intrusive mediation would have simply been perceived as further western equivocation and
ambiguity, hence encouraging the various sides to intensify their positions. Directed mediation in
which the mediating party suggests a settlement relies on credible threats and promises. However
the West at that time lacked credible, effective leverage.
Lessons for Preventative Diplomacy
Touval, the French scholar, draws five lessons for future attempts at preventative
diplomacy from the Yugoslavian case. First, the international community must prioritize its
goals. By demanding both democratization and unity, the West presented Yugoslavia with a
confusing and contradictory mandate. The West's demands would have been clearer had they
ranked the importance of these goals.
Second, the international community should avoid presenting vague, equivocal or
ambiguous goals. They should have refrained from reciting broad values and instead define in
concrete terms what they expect from the disputants. Generally it is easier to generate
international agreement on basic values than on specific proposals. However, goals must be clear
to be credible.
The Yugoslavian case also shows that economic threats and incentives are likely to be
ineffective in cases of ethnic conflict. Group identity, historic grievances, and physical security
issues tend to overshadow economic concerns in such situations. Economic incentives have little
relevance to the disputants' concerns, and so produce little leverage.
The Yugoslavian conflict reveals an even more basic lesson about timing. Besides, one
should keep in mind that ethnic conflicts are an exception to the conventional wisdom, which
says that conflicts are easier to prevent than end. Unlike many other types of conflict, in ethnic
conflicts the participants tend to become fully committed to their positions very early on. What is
worse is that early preventive interventions are likely to be launched at a highly inauspicious
moment after the parties have committed themselves to their goals, but before they have reached
a hurting stalemate that might dispose them to rethink their policies.
Finally, Touval notes that nations are often unwilling to commit themselves, their
resources, and possibly their citizen's lives to preventing foreign conflicts. Yet without such
commitment, diplomatic threats and incentives lack force and credibility. For preventive
diplomacy to be effective, it must be backed by the strong commitment of the intervening
nations.
1. Understanding the case:
1. Political portrait of Bros Tito.
2. Specific political course of Yugoslavia during the Cold War era: between capitalist and
socialist blocks.
3. Economic reforms that resulted in “short-term” hardships?
4. The place of Yugoslavia as viewed by western politicians.
5. Diplomats that were actively interfering into Yugoslavian matters.
6. The stages of Yugoslavia collapse.
7. Types of mediation. Best practices of mediation.
8. The main demands that the West tried to impose.
9. Economic and political situation in federal parts of Yugoslavia.
10. Historical roots of conflicts on the territory of the Balkan peninsular: ethnic and
religious issues
11. Historical roots of conflicts on the territory of the Balkan peninsular: group identity,
historic grievances, physical security, economic concerns

1. What was the situation in Yugoslavia after Tito’s death?
2. What policy (concerning Yugoslavia) did the Western nations pursue after the Cold War?
3. When did the breakup of Yugoslavia begin?

4. Why did the western preventive diplomacy fail in Yugoslavia (as viewed by the West)?
5. What is implied by “diplomatic effort that lacked credible leverage”?
6. Why did the Western nations refrain from active/direct mediation?
7. How many lessons can be drawn from the case? Give your own comments.
8. Why does the author claim that Yugoslavian conflict reveals basic lesson about timing?
9. What is more important: economic concerns or identities?
10. What is meant by prioritizing the goals by the international community?
Interpret the words and word-combinations and the find the sentences in the text to
illustrate them:
the nationalist tensions, an ambiguous message, in terms of broad values, contradictory in the
context of time and place, to repress nationalist views, to entail further violations of human
rights, to lacked credible leverage, to agitate for secession, to promote democratization, to
perceive something as compatible, to redress human rights, to alleviate ethnic tensions, to fuel
the conflict, short-term hardships, the frustration and dissatisfaction, to be exploited by faction
leaders, to seem inevitable, to be reached in the interim, economic prosperity, to be of secondary
concern, to attempt mediation of the conflict, to imply tacit acceptance of Slovenia as a
sovereign power, internal affairs, directed mediation, a settlement relying on credible threats
and promises, an ally in preventing Soviet expansion, to maintain a sharp focus on, to be
resurfaced with Tito's death, Croatian factions, western preventative, to project clear goals for, to
enforce goals via economic incentives, to withhold economic assistance, the ambiguity of
western goals, economic punishments or rewards, to be primarily concerned with issues of
group identity
GAP-FILLING: Read the text and fill in the gaps:

Who is Responsible for War Crimes: mediators or criminals?
President Milosevic at the Rambouillet talks had refused …(1)……………………inside
Yugoslavia. The demonization of Slobodan Milsovic by so-called "Progressives" has served over
the years …(2)……………………………..of the NATO bombings [1]. It has also provided
credibility to "a war crimes tribunal" under the jurisidiction of those who committed extensive
war crimes in the name of …(3)……………………………….. Ethnic Albanians have not been
spared by…(4)……………..… …….. Killing ethnic Albanians in Kosovo is said to be
"inevitable" in carrying out a "humanitarian operation on behalf of ethnic Albanians". In addition
to the impacts of the… (5) ……………………..between the KLA and the Yugoslav Armed
Forces, the bombings and the resulting …(6) ………………………………in Kosovo have been
more devastating than in the rest of Yugoslavia.
Presented as a humanitarian mission, the evidence amply confirms that NATO's brutal air raids
of towns and villages in Kosovo have triggered the …(7)……………………………. Those who
have fled their homes to refugee camps in Macedonia and Albania have nothing to return to,
nothing to look forward to... An entire country has been destroyed, its civilian industry and
public infrastructure transformed …(8)…………………... Bridges, power plants, schools and
hospitals are displayed as "legitimate military targets" selected by NATO's Combined Air
Operations Centre in Vicenza, Italy and carefully "validated prior to the pilot launching his
strike."
With the …(9)……………………… still ongoing, the Alliance is intent on inflicting as much
damage on the Yugoslav economy (including Kosovo) as possible prior to reaching …
(10……………………….. "peace initiative" which will empower them to send in ground troops.
Public "disapproval" of NATO bombings is immediately dismissed as "Serb propaganda". Those
who speak out against NATO are branded as "apologists of Milosevic". While most anti-War
critics in NATO countries are not defenders of the Milosevic regime, they are nonetheless
expected to be "balanced" in their arguments. Whereas President Milosevic and four members of
his government …(11) …………………….by the Hague International Criminal Tribunal for
organising a policy of "ethnic cleansing" in Kosovo, the news media failed to mention that
several parallel law suits were launched at …(12)…………………….., accusing NATO leaders
of "crimes against humanity." It is also worth mentioning that the UK government (whose Prime
Minister Tony Blair is among the list of accused in one of the parallel law suits) has provided
The Hague Tribunal with "intelligence on the situation within Kosovo" since the beginning of
the bombings. Part of this … (13) …………………………was relayed by the KLA with which
British Foreign Secretary Robin Cook has been in frequent contact.
The list of crimes allegedly committed by NATO leaders includes: "willful killing, willfully
causing great suffering or serious injury to body or health, extensive …(14)…………………
……..…………….,... employment of poisonous weapons [implying…(15) …………………….
…………………or other weapons to cause unnecessary suffering, wanton destruction of cities,
towns, or villages, or devastation not justified by military necessity,... "
the NATO air raids, ground war, radioactive fall-out, a G8 brokered, were indicted, the Hague
Tribunal, stationing of NATO troops, to uphold the legitimacy, social justice, exodus of
refugees, radioactive fall-out, into rubble, diplomatic shuttle, intelligence material, destruction
of property
On December 6, the East-West Institute and the European Parliament hosted the first Global
Conference on Preventive Action. The conference was, in large part, focused on a specific
question: how can we raise the political will to support conflict prevention?
"In the 1990's, twice as many wars started around the world as the 1980s, meaning if preventive
action was being practiced in this period, it had no effect," said Andrew Mack, Director of the
Human Security Report. Mack concluded that that public spending on and coordination of
preventive action has been inadequate, particularly in the United Nations, are the main causes for
this. Watch the film (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jeAuVaolt0g) and mark the statements
as true or false:
1. The Human Security Report project staff works on trends in armed conflicts.
2. The preventive diplomacy has nothing to do with settling conflicts.
3. It’s important for people to realize that other people are living and working in many
countries of the world.
4. There should be 50 times increase of funding from UN on preventive diplomacy.
5. UN Preventive diplomacy department needs a small group of people with common

sense and a pretty clear idea about what should be done to resolve conflicts.
6. Developing countries have long been concerned about any form of external
intervention which is regarded by them as a threat to their sovereignty.
7. It’s extremely difficult to coordinate this sort of activity as there are too many people in
diplomatic missions.
8. UN Secretary General himself acknowledged that their department of foreign affairs
doesn’t have time for preventive efforts
9. There have appeared 15 new appointments to the department working in the field of
preventive diplomacy, which is good, but the people are not qualified to do the job.
10. Preventive diplomacy doesn’t work as often it hasn’t been tried.
11. Besides, governments are reluctant to invite mediators and do it only in case of
prolonged wars or conflicts
12. At present preventive diplomacy receives money, lots of money
13. At the moment they dream about 18 missions with 50 people which will require less
than a $30 mln.
14. In case of peacekeeping campaigns the budget increases up to half a billion dollars,
while defense makes up to 1,5 trln dollars.
15. If you stop a conflict you will spend a huge amount of money.
4. Written assignment: Case study development
Take into consideration the lessons mentioned above and suggest the EU the approach to
avoid radical ways of settling the Yugoslavian conflict, using the Harvard business-school
format. Start with summary, problem statement, issues and one-two options. Work in pairs to
develop the case in a written form.
Case 3: Iran and the United States (cultural diplomacy)
Few nations have relationships as troubled as Iran and the US. Today, whether it comes to
international terrorism, nuclear proliferation, fossil fuels, the United Nations or the Middle East
Peace Process, there are few global issues where the strained relation between the US and Iran
are not clearly felt. As a result, there are few instances where cultural diplomacy is more
desperately needed. In this regard, it has become absolutely vital to arrive at a clear
understanding of the relations between these two nations.
Introductory notes: Iranian and US Relations
The US and Iran severed official diplomatic relations following the turmoil of the 1979
Islamic Revolution in Iran and currently have no official relations [6]. However, it was not
always so. Ambassador exchanges began in the mid-1800s and during the Second World War
ties were cemented as Iran collaborated with the Allies allowing the transportation of war
material through Iran to the beleaguered Russians in the Caucasus region. As the Cold War
Developed, US Iranian ties depended; the US sought further Iranian cooperation in containing
communism in Asia while on Iran received military and economic support and enjoyed Western
technological assistance in exploiting its oil wealth. At this time, cultural, military, economic and
political relations ran deep. Yet, it was precisely in this context that US-Iranian relations grew
then ultimately withered.
The Iranian perspective.
Iran could be considered a fiercely anti-American nation. Antagonism to the US occupies a
central role in the daily political, and in many cases, the social fabric of Iran. This animosity has
its sources in previous decades and revolves around two main themes; opposition to US intrusion
into domestic Iranian affairs and what Iran considers to be US aggression.
The CIA/UK orchestrated coup that removed Iranian Prime Minister Mohammed
Mossadeq in 1953 is one example of US interference in Iranian affairs. Additionally, Iran
accuses the US of fostering rebellion in Iran through funding and support of antigovernment
groups in Iran. The Free Life Party of Kurdistan (Kurdish) and the Jundallah (Balochi) are two
militant nationalist movements that Iran has long charged the United States with funding.
In addition, Iran charges that the US has played a role in the demonstrations against the
2010 Presidential elections in Iran. Military aggression is another issue that lies at the top of
Iran’s list of grievances. During the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) most of the world’s nations
supported moderate Iraq against radical Iran. Yet Iran resents the US support of Iran’s enemy
during this war in particular. Specifically, Iran continues to carry a grudge over the US supplying
Iraq with the chemical weapons it used during the war.
Adding fuel to the fire, in July of 1988, US guided missile Cruiser the USS Vincennes on
station in the Persian Gulf mistakenly shot down Iranian Airlines flight 655 killing 290. The US
maintains the downing was a case of mistaken identity with the Iranians considering it a
deliberate act of war and another example of US aggression. A final major sticking point is the
economic sanctions that the US has placed on Iran. Starting under the Carter administration, the
US has steadily increased its sanctions regime in place. These sanctions prohibit the transfer of
much-needed military and petroleum technology as well as prohibiting US companies and
individuals from investing in or doing business with Iranian nationals and companies.
In short, in Iranian political thought, anti-American sentiments run deep. The list of
grievances is long; foreign intervention, coups, military aggression, support of Iraq and not to
mention a perceived political disrespect for the Iran itself and accusations of American attempts
of global hegemony. Recently a senior Iranian diplomat summed up the Iranian view, “Our
biggest problem with the U.S. is its arrogance. The United States thinks itself the commander in
chief of the entire world and thinks it has the right to dictate to everyone what to do and how to
act. That's arrogant and disrespectful. We reject this.” These are the major issues that lie at the
center of Iranian and US relations.
The American Perspective Despite the cooperation of the 40s, 50s and 60s, it was the
overthrow of the US Embassy in Tehran in 1979 and the subsequent 444-day hostage crisis
which severed American and Iranian relations. However, according to the United States, tensions
with Iran are perpetuated by Iran’s current conduct rather than events that occurred 30 years ago.
Today it’s Iran’s nuclear program and support for international terrorism, which the US
considers to be one of the major the obstacles to the resumption of US-Iran relations.
Currently, Iran’s nuclear program might be the single greatest impediment to the
resumption of US-Iranian relations. According to the US, Iran has been developing a clandestine
nuclear weapons program under the guise of an effort to acquire atomic energy. Iran contends
that their program is peaceful. Nevertheless, the US sites a series of inconsistencies and failure to
meet AEIA requirements. This case is currently being played out. Iran’s alleged support for
international terrorism is another major point of contention. According to the US Department of
State, the government of Iran is a Designated State Sponsor of Terrorism. This means that Iran
provides support for groups who target civilians for political goals.
For the most part, this support amounts to the arming, funding, training, or providing
sanctuary to those groups. The United States alleges that Iran supports terrorism primarily
through its proxies, two well-known ones being Hezbollah and Hamas. Inside Iran there is the
Iranian Revolutionary Guards Corp (IRGC) which the US also is considering labeling a terrorist
organization do to its provision of terrorist training and support to groups active in areas such as
Georgia, Chechnya, the Balkans and the wider Middle East.
Furthermore, the United States charges Iran with supporting groups that have committed
terrorist attacks upon the US specifically. Two such cases are; the April 1983, bombing of a US
Embassy in Beirut with a loss of over 60 lives and the October 1983, suicide bombing of a US
Marine barracks in Beirut with a loss of 299 lives. The US believes Iran to be responsible for
planning and coordination these attacks and civil cases have been brought against Iran.
In American eyes, Iran’s support for international terrorism, its nuclear weapons program
and its vitriolic anti-Western policy creates a ‘perfect storm’ which the US simply cannot ignore.
As the open military clashes of the 1980s subsided each side entrenched themselves and a type
of Cold War developed. As a result, Iranian and American relations are difficult to outline as
they did not follow a linear path. Often disagreements ran parallel to breakthroughs.
Additionally, on both sides, regular changes in Presidents and global issues have left both
nations with a somewhat incoherent strategy to each other. However, as the Twentieth Century
closed each nation seemed to be sending out feelers in order to gauge the chances of a re-
establishment of relations on their own terms.
Khatami, Clinton and Bush
The 1990s saw a slight thawing of relations between the two nations. This was possible
largely in part due to the election of Mohamed Khatami in 1996. Viewed by many as a moderate
reformer, Khatami made peace overtures to the United States. For example, in an interview with
CNN’s Christianne Amanpour, Khatami proposed cultural exchanges between the US and Iran
hoping to the ‘crack the wall of mistrust’.
The United States accepted this offer and the two nations began hosting athletic-based
cultural exchanges beginning in 1996. Around the same time, the US also lifted some of the
sanctions on Iran and US Secretary of State Madeline Albright invited Iranian diplomats to
‘draw up a road map to normalized relations’. As the cultural exchanges continued, Albright
publicly described the US’s role in the 1953 coup as ‘regrettable’. In 2005, Khatami ran for
election but lost to Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.
Amadinejad and Bush
Anyone familiar with the Presidencies of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and George W. Bush
will not be surprised to learn that US-Iranian relations did not improve markedly during their
terms in office. Perhaps the first indication of this trend was Bush’s now infamous Axis of Evil
speech that he gave in 2002 while Khatami was still President of Iran. During this speech Bush
directly identified Iran, due to its support of terrorism and nuclear ambitions, as being a clear
threat to international security, labeling them a member of an ‘axis of evil’. As strange as it
might seem, the 2003 US invasion of Iraq actually brought the US and Iran closer. On some
level, it has obligated the US to recognize (perhaps tacitly) that Iran is a regional power and
ultimate success in Iraq or Afghanistan will only be achieved with Iranian cooperation.
In April of 2003, at the outset of the war with Iraq, Iran approached the United States with
what is now known as the “Grand Bargain”. This offer was officially presented through the
Swiss Embassy in Tehran which represents US interests in Iran. Iran sought; a lifting of the
crippling US sanctions, diplomatic recognition of Iran, discontinuation of the US funding of
domestic Iranian opposition groups and an end to the US policy of regime change in Iran. In
return, Iran offered to accept a two-state solution regarding Israel and Palestine, to reduce the
funding of what the US considered terrorist organizations, pledged cooperation with the US in
Iraq and Afghanistan and finally offered to enter into a Persian Gulf security agreement which,
in theory, would have voluntarily brought an end to Iran’s nuclear program.
The diplomats involved met and the US believed the offer to be sincere. They then passed
a report on to Colin Powell, the Secretary of State, who agreed the offer was significant but
rejected it as “a non-starter”. The Hawks in the Whitehouse ignored the offer as they felt it made
no real concessions on the issues the US deemed significant. It is therefore surprising that in
May of 2006, Iranian president Amadinejad again sent a letter to US President George W. Bush
suggesting a meeting where both could discuss Iran’s nuclear program. In September of the
same year, Ahmadinejad challenged Bush to a debate at the United Nations. Both offers were
considered publicity stunts and as they, again, made no clear concessions on the necessary
issues, were rejected by the US. White house representative quipped, “No, there will be no steel-
cage grudge match between Bush and Ahmadinejad.” At the end of the Bush administration
relations remained hostile.
To many people the 2008 election of Barak Obama to the United States Presidency
signaled a shift in American foreign policy. Obama declared meeting and negotiating with Iran
as one of his campaign platforms, but from the American perspective, the names might have
changed but the game has not. In light of the long past and repeated, albeit half-hearted,
attempts to establish a dialogue one must ask why these two nations have remained so hostile. In
the case of Iran it is a matter of path dependency and ambiguity. For the US it’s a matter of not
backing down and surrendering a powerful position. In both cases, a lack of trust is a central
theme.
Further, the internal mechanisms of the Iranian government means that foreign policy
goals are always subordinate to domestic political wrangling. Iran has, on many occasions,
provided list of grievances requiring apologies such as the 1953 coup, the Vincennes incident
and the Iran Iraq War. However, as mentioned, the US has on occasion already publicly
apologized, expressed regret or provided compensation for such incidents. For example, in 1996
a 61.8 million dollar settlement was reached under the International Court of Justice regarding
the Iran Air tragedy yet Iran still demands an apology and reparations.
Making matters more complicated, the Iranian government often objects to matters that
have little bearing on international relations. For example, in the Hollywood film The Wrestler
an actor portraying a professional wrestler destroys an Iranian flag during a show. The Iranian
government has objected to this calling it ‘psychological warfare’, a somewhat odd accusation
considering the government sponsored anti-American propaganda that permeates much of
Iranian society.
This idiosyncratic approach to foreign policy seems to be a legitimate, perhaps contrived,
obstacle to an effective dialogue between the two nations. On the other hand, the United States
seems to be asking a great deal from Iran with very few guarantees. The Islamic Regime has
sensibly framed the nuclear issue as a national issue, in short, linking a nuclear program to
national sovereignty. If the US is expecting Iran to surrender its nuclear program, it might be
waiting a long time. Should Iran surrender its nuclear program, what guarantees do they have
that such a move will be reciprocated? To solve this dilemma the US should, and is, seek
sanctions in the United Nations.
However, between the citizens of each nation, feelings are far less belligerent. Recent
polls show that 50% of Americans support establishing a dialogue with Iran while slightly more
Iranians, 61%, support negotiations without preconditions. A further 73% of Americans supports
the use of diplomacy to solve issues with Iran. Therefore, one must ask, “What are the real
stumbling blocks to renewed relations?” The gravest problem between Iran and the West is this
issue of distrust between the two sides. It would appear then that the political leaders and
diplomats have too far entrenched themselves in their respective positions to allow for the
flexibility required. Athletes, artists and students do not have these limitations and would
represent the ideal cultural ambassadors.
In this regard, the cultural exchanges have borne fruit, such as the case of Iranian
basketball player Hamed Ehadadi. Since joining the NBA, Ehadadi has served as a cultural
ambassador, even meeting and shaking hands with an Israeli NBA player Omri Casspi. Another
example is the frequent Greco-wrestling exchanges between Iran and the US that were also
begun during the Clinton-Khatami period. These exchanges have gone a long way in simply
establishing a dialogue upon which to foster understanding. During the exchanges, both Iranians
and Americans take advantage of the off-mat time to meet their foreign counterparts and learn
more about each other’s respective cultures.
Yet athletics aren’t the only thing that can unite Iranians and Americans. In March of 2010,
an American film delegation of actors and producers visited their Iranian counterparts. The visit
was not without controversy, as Ahmadinejad’s cultural advisor demanded the delegation first
apologize for negative depictions on Iran in American movies. Regardless, Hollywood Producer
Sidney Ganis described the focus of his trip to Iran as communicating with fellow filmmakers..to
meet, talk to, express, visit with, understand the problems of Iranian filmmakers, and express to
them universal problems of filmmaking and generally exchange ideas
At the same time, the US perpetuates the conflict simply because it can. As the world’s last
superpower, there is little that Iran can do to compel the US’s behavior. Leadership in the US
seems to take the position that the responsibility to make the first move rests solely on Iran [6, 7]
2
. Obama’s ‘unclenched fist’ can become a good example of cultural policy and governments
will only succeed to institutionalize disagreements.
1. Geographical and geopolitical situation of Iran
2. Racial and religious structure of Iranian society
3. Iranian Shahs: historical approach
4. Causes of the Islamic Revolution in Iran
2
http://www.culturaldiplomacy.org/pdf/case-studies/cs-martinmilinski.pdf
5. The history of diplomatic relations between Great Britain and Iran

6. Iran during the WW II: diplomatic relations of Iran, US, USSR
7. The political and social situation in Iran at the end of the 1970s
8. Iran’s economy at the end of the 1970s
9. Iranian economy at the time of sanctions
10. Iran and terrorist organizations: Hezbollah and Hamas
11. The Iranian Revolutionary Guards Corp (IRGC): provision of terrorist training and
support to groups active in areas such as Georgia, Chechnya, the Balkans and the wider
Middle East
12. Political portrait of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad: Mahmoud Ahmedinejad vs George W.
Bush
13. The Iranian government’s objections to US ‘psychological warfare’: essence and forms
14. The religious system of Iranian society: from Khomeini to Khamenei
Answer the following questions:

1. What is meant by “troubled relations between US and Iran”?
2. Why did Iran carry a grudge over the US during the Iran-Iraq Wars?
3. When did the US start increasing economic sanctions against Iran?
4. What is the list of grievances of the Iranian side?
5. When and why did the hostage crisis occur?
6. What is the major obstacle to the resumption of US-Iran relations?
7. When did the US and Iran see a slight thawing of relations between the nations?
8. Why did President Bush label Iran an “axis of evil”?
9. What offer did the Whitehouse hawks ignore?
10. How did the US policy towards Iran change when Barak Obama came to power?
11. What are the feelings between the citizens of the nations?
12. How many citizens in the two countries support the use of diplomacy to solve issues
(without preconditions)?
13. Who served as a cultural ambassador between US and Iran? What was his mission?
14. What is implied by the “off-mat time” which allowed to learn more about each other’s
respective cultures?
2. Vocabulary section:
Interpret the words and word-combinations and illustrate them by sentences from the text:
The Middle East Peace Process, to create a ‘perfect storm’, to run parallel to
breakthroughs, an incoherent strategy, to make peace overtures to the US, the “Grand Bargain”,
a lifting of the crippling US sanctions, beleaguered Russians, to run deep, ultimately withered,
US intrusion into domestic Iranian affairs, the Free Life Party of Kurdistan (Kurdish), the
Jundallah (Balochi), Iran’s list of grievances, to carry a grudge over, to shoot down Iranian
Airlines flight 655, a case of mistaken identity, a major sticking point, there strained relation,
ambassador exchanges, collaborated with the Allies, to run deep, the commander in chief of the
entire world, the overthrow of the US Embassy in Tehran, to acquire atomic energy,
inconsistencies and failure to meet AEIA requirements, to be subordinate to domestic political
wrangling, to have little bearing on international relations, the idiosyncratic approach, to
surrender its nuclear program, less belligerent, to support negotiations without preconditions, to
foster understanding, to take advantage of the off-mat time, to perpetuate the conflict, providing
sanctuary, suicide bombing of a US Marine barracks, “a non-starter”, to signal a shift in
American foreign policy, half-hearted attempts, ambiguity, unclenched fist.
Gap-filling
Everyone believed Khomeini's promises
Thirty-five years ago, Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Iran …………..(1) . The mood of the
Iranian people at the time was incredibly euphoric. Everyone was filled with hope for a better
life[12]. The Islamic Revolution was essentially ………………………………………….….(2),
and its motto was originally "Freedom and independence!" The call for an "Islamic Republic"
only came along as a third demand in the final months.
The resentment towards the shah and the ruling elite had ………………………………….…(3)
over many years. It wasn't the poverty that was prevalent in large parts of the country; it was two
other things that came together: firstly, Iran had become a financially important country as a
result of its …………………………….(4). As a result, a ………………………………….(5)
had emerged, and that middle class was demanding a political say. That was the actual engine of
the revolution. The first protests were launched by the middle class, by civil servants, by teachers
and students, writers and lawyers. That's why the most important slogan was "Freedom!" and the
second most important slogan was "Independence!" because Iran had become highly dependent
on the USA. That dependence was also a motive for rebellion.
The second most important reason was that the Islamic community was well organised.
Khomeini managed to make more than 100,000 …………………………………….(6) in Iran
into party cadre, the mosques into party headquarters and the faithful into his foot soldiers. That
was how Khomeini became the undisputed leader of the revolution within a matter of months,
and everyone believed his promises that Iran would soon be a paradise on earth.
The shah was overthrown, and a referendum on the new Islamic constitution for Iran was held
only two months after Khomeini's return, on 30/31 March 1979 . A liberal politician, Mehdi
Bazargan, was made……………………………(7) of government. Bazargan had religious
tendencies but these tendencies were liberal. He was part of the enlightened movement in Iran.
The first question put to the people in a referendum – "Islamic Republic: yes or no?" – was an
attempt to push it through, legally but also in a very deceitful manner. Voting "No" would mean
you were in favour of retaining the regime that had been overthrown, i.e. the monarchy, and 90
per cent of Iranians were against that. But what did a "Yes" vote mean? No one knew what an
"Islamic Republic" was supposed to be. Even those who proposed it – Khomeini and his
followers – hadn't given any explanations as to what they meant by the term. People thought:
"Yes, a republic is a good thing, that's what we want. And Islam? All right, we're a Muslim
country." No one said back then that the goal was ………………………………………(8) of the
country.
Later the first attack was made on the press, against the newspaper "Ayandegan". It was a highly
respected newspaper at the time; most of its journalists were liberal, left-wing and progressive. It
had begun to make democratic demands in an attempt to prevent Iran from developing into a
completely Islamic country. Khomeini didn't yet dare …………………………………….…(9);
he merely said that he no longer read it. In response, the newspaper was published the next day
with absolutely blank pages. It was its biggest ever print run. But the editorial offices were still
raided all the same. Then there were attacks on bookshops and publishers. The intellectuals, the
cultural institutions that were looking for a free society and not a constricted one like an Islamic
state, were now being targeted. The direction in which things were moving was now becoming
………………………………….…(10). Within the first year, developments had …………
……………….……..(11). At that stage, it was still not clear which side would gain the upper
hand: the Left, the liberals and the democrats were also very strong. The decision came with the
Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988), when, encouraged by the West, Saddam Hussein attacked Iran. As
Khomeini said, that was "a gift from Heaven", because it meant that all opposition could……..
…………………………… (12) with reference to the external enemy, because hundreds of
thousands could be sent to the front line, and because that largely ……………………
…………….………..(13), which was already a major problem at the time. Above all, however,
the Islamists were able to impose the ideology of martyrdom, of dying for the fatherland. The
war decided the direction in which Iran was going to develop.
Khomeini himself didn't believe that he would come to power. You can tell by his speeches in
Paris. When he held his first speech in Iran, it already sounded very different. Firstly, he
envisaged an Islamic community spanning the entire Islamic world. Secondly, he wanted ………
…………………….….…(14) all culture and life in Iran. In actual fact, the Islamic Revolution
was also a cultural revolution. The shah had attempted to westernize Iran. But that didn't mean
freedom and democracy, only mass consumption and superficiality. The fact that Iran gave up its
own culture for that didn't just anger the Islamists – everyone was against it. That's why
Khomeini found a breeding ground that was ripe for cultural change. People were ready for it.
Khomeini's cultural struggle initially targeted ………………………………………………(15),
but it then continued between the secular forces and the Islamists. That struggle continues to this
day.
wiped out unemployment, to islamify, the country's westernization, from exile, large middle
class, a total islamisation, to ban the newspaper, increasingly apparent, split the nation in two, an
anti-dictatorial revolution, built up, be liquidated, clergymen, interim head, oil revenues
Watch a brief history of Iran - America's relations and the facts that have led to the
political gridlock (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q_AHJQiMxIw). Match the dates with
the information (some years were remarkable for several events):
1951
1952
1953
1953
1964
1978
1978
1979
1979
1979
1982-1988
1989
1999
2003-2005-
2007
Render the information of the film
4.Written assignment: case-study development

Iran-US relations are important not only for the countries but for the whole world, that is
why UN and neighboring states are concerned about the matter. Think about the steps that the
world community can and must undertake to ease the tensions. Handle the case on the basis of
Harvard format, using a multi-track diplomacy approach.
1) Chossudovsky M. NATO's War of Aggression in Yugoslavia: Who are the War

Criminals?/Global Research, URL:
http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Yugoslavia/NATO_Yugo_War_Criminals.html
2) Chu V. The 10 Worst Diplomatic Faux Pas by Famous Politicians//Listverse 25.11.2013,
URL: http://listverse.com/2013/11/25/the-10-worst-diplomatic-faux-pas-by-famous-
politicians/
3) Ghosh K. The Evolution of Diplomacy: from Classical to Modern, URL:
https://www.academia.edu/11002933/The_Evolution_of_Diplomacy_From_Classical_to
_Modern
4) Intimidation//Wikipedia, URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intimidation (13.05.2018)
5) Kurizaki Sh. When Diplomacy Works, URL: http://www.f.waseda.jp/kurizaki/book.html
(13.05. 2018)
6) Latschan Th. Everyone believed Khomeini’s promises//Interview with Iran expert
Bahman Nirumand, Deutche Welle 2014, URL https://en.qantara.de/content/interview-
with-iran-expert-bahman-nirumand-everyone-believed-khomeinis-promises
7) Milinski M. Case Study: Iran and the United States, URL:
http://www.culturaldiplomacy.org/pdf/case-studies/cs-martinmilinski.pdf
8) Perlstein R. Watergate scandal//Global Britannica, 10.06.2018, URL:
https://global.britannica.com/event/Watergate-Scandal (2-.06.2018)
9) Ringer, Robert J. To Be or Not to Be Intimidated?: That Is the Question. M Evans & Co
Inc, 2004 – 134 pp.
10) Rousseau R From Ancient Greek Diplomacy to Modern Summitry//The Diplomatic
Courier, September 20, 2011
11) Touval S., "Case Study: Lessons of Preventative Diplomacy in Yugoslavia,"
in Managing Global Chaos, eds. Chester Crocker, Fen Hampson and Pamela Aall,
(Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1996) pp. 403-418
12) Watergate Scandal//History, URL: http://www.history.com/topics/watergate

(19.06.2018)
Videos
1. Film version of the Watergate scandal “All the presidents’ men”, filmed in 1976, URL:
https://my-hit.org/film/11706/
2. A clip about the Watergate scandal, interlocking political scandals of the administration
of US President Richard M.Nixon, URL:https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=IHnmriyXYeg
3. A film screened by the East-West Institute and the European Parliament which hosted the
first Global Conference on Preventive Action, and devoted to the events in Yugoslavia in
the 1990-s. URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jeAuVaolt0g)
4. A brief history of Iran and America's relations and the facts that have led to the political
gridlock, URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q_AHJQiMxIw
5. Case development ideas, URL:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t-NGmn8JgqM
Module 4
COUNTER-TERRORISM GLOBAL ISSUES
Brainstorming
1) Types of terrorism; 2) religious terrorism; 3) left-wing terrorism; 4) right-wing terrorism;
5) Al-Qaeda; 6) Taliban; 7) cyber-terrorism; 8) 9/11; 9) fighting terrorism; 10) terrorism
of the past; 11) notorious terrorist acts
Comment on the following:
1. With guns you can kill
terrorists, with education
you can kill terrorism. -
Malala Yousafzai
2. There is no moral
difference between a Stealth
bomber and a suicide
bomber. They both kill
innocent people for political
reasons. - Tony Benn
3. When you used violence
to achieve "peace"; what did
you achieve ? -Suppressed
3 violence! - Aniekee Ezekiel
4. The old law of an eye for an eye didn’t make them blind to the fact that another man’s terrorist
wasn’t their freedom fighter. -Assad Almohammad
5. Terrorists are like zebras; those having more white stripes than black are good terrorists, those
with more black stripes than white are bad ones. - Shahid H.Raja
6. Placing religious beliefs above law is a great recipe for destruction of entire human race. -
Ketan Waghmare
7. The greatest domestic terrorists in the USA are either working for the corporate government or
are funding it. - Steven Magee
8. For every terrorist we kill, there’s another boy waiting to step forward and pick up the stone or
the gun. They’re like shark’s teeth: break one and another will rise in it’s place. - Daniel Silva 9.
First oppression is made into an excuse for terrorism, and then terrorism is made into an excuse
for oppression. - Michael Walzer
10. Everyone’s worried about stopping terrorism. Well, there’s really an easy way: Stop
participating in it. - Noam Chomsky
11. Day after day, the globalization of terrorism becomes more evident. This is the one of the
biggest challenges we are facing. We must stand with the innocent people around the world who
are suffering or have lost their loved ones as a result of terrorism. - Widad Akreyi
2. INTRODUCTORY NOTES: TERRORISM AND GLOBALIZATION
3
https://yandex.ru/images/search?img_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.askideas.com%2Fmedia%2F32%2FStand-
United-Against-Terrorism-Anti-Terrorism-Day.jpg&text=terrorism
%20pictures&noreask=1&pos=23&lr=213&rpt=simage
Globalization has turned terrorism from a regional phenomenon into a global one.
Globalization, to some extent, is responsible for terrorism and the new, global technologies are
widely exploited by terrorists. Terrorism can be determined as acts of violence by sub-state
groups targeted at political change. It is very often a weapon of the weak, who can succeed if
their motivations are perceived as legitimate by a wider audience. According to Audrey Kurth
Cronin [3], there four types of terrorist organizations currently operating around the world. They
can be categorized by their source of motivation into left-wing terrorists, right-wing terrorists,
ethno- nationalist\separatist terrorists, and religious or “sacred” terrorists. Left-wing terrorism
was intertwined with Communism movement, right-wing terrorism drew its inspiration from
Fascism, nationalist/separatist terrorism resulted from decolonization after the Second World,
“sacred” terrorism is the scourge of our time, replacing former transnational Marxist-Leninist
groups. Trends in terrorism after the Cold War include greater casualties, increasing
sophistication, suicide attacks, and are mostly targeting American citizens, symbols, and
imposed values. Terrorism has roots in religion, culture, economy, globalization.
By many Muslim people violence is the only method of preserving traditions, values
against a cultural tsunami of Western way of life and Western materialism. Many other people
see economic aspects as crucial motivating factor in the use of violence. The West forms the
global North which dominates world economic and fiscal policies and is unfavorable to the
underdeveloped countries. Little opportunity to obtain wealth locally develops into a sense of
alienation among Muslim males and affects their decision to turn to violence globally.
New religious terrorism or global Jihad is a reaction to the perceived oppression of Muslims
worldwide and the spiritual bankruptcy of the West. The jihadists believe that by rejecting
Western beliefs Muslim people can preserve their spiritual purity by rebelling and they view the
rulers of such countries as Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Iraq as apostates who have compromised their
values in pursuit of power and income.
Terrorist groups always seek sympathy and support within national boundaries as well as
abroad. The expansion of Internet service providers has empowered terrorists with possibility to
post tracks on or send messages even if jihadist terrorists’ physical presence is removed through
imprisonment or death. They have their own Websites and actively use sophisticated
propaganda materials. The increased capabilities of portable personal electronics give terrorists
mobility advantages.
State leaders disagree on how best to deal with the current form of global terrorist violence.
Some of them view it as a problem in which there can be no negotiation. They believe that it is
important to pool resources together in a coalition of willing. One possible solution is to develop
a global counter-terrorism network of information exchange. The US has uses not once unarmed
and armed Global Hawk, Predator and Reaper drones to conduct surveillance and strikes against
terrorist targets. Other leaders are less comfortable with the concept of war against terrorism.
They prefer “law enforcement methods” which entails upholding the rule of law, police
enforcement, maintaining the moral high ground, preserving democratic principles, preventing
the establishment of martial law.
Lots of states and people agree that terrorism is best dealt with inside state borders and
through cooperative international law enforcement efforts to arrest the suspects and provide them
with due process. Another important approach is involvement of NGOs, webmasters, members
of blogs into the counter-terrorism struggle. The present moment puts forward a necessity to get
rid of terrorists. Locating and identifying terrorists is a tedious and time-consuming process. It
requires collecting, assessing, analyzing information from a range of sources and information
technologies are very useful in this process. Some states are sure that killing or capturing
individual terrorists does little to halt the spread of terrorists’ movements. However, such state as
US and Israel often adhere to such methods (Zawahiri, Osama bin Laden)
How to Combat Terrorism
Combating terrorism is no easy task and it is something that cannot be done over night. It
will be a long struggle that could be quite dangerous. One of the first things to do is to find out
all of the methods that these terrorists use and understand their strategies. How do they attack us?
In what ways have they been most successful? If we can find out all of the ways they may attack,
it will be much easier to set up defenses and stop them before they harm any innocent people.
Once you know where they will attack, you can begin setting up procedures to stop them.
One of the most obvious rules is to simply have security scout the area for anything unusual. At
an airport, for example, security guards should be constantly patrolling the area and if they notice
anything strange, they should check it out. There should be some sort of system to check bags for
harmful items and of course a metal detector. Some sort of smaller system should be placed in
any type of area that terrorist are known to attack, not just airports. It should not have to be as
extensive as airport security, but there should be a scanner that checks for explosives or harmful
items.
One of the greatest tools that can be used to combat terrorism is to simply get citizens
involved and make sure they understand how important it is to report anything that is out of
place. This is especially true at airports because they have been successful before and many other
terrorist attempts have been stopped. Having the citizens get involved is one of the most
powerful ways to combat terrorism. It can give the authorities thousands of eyes and ears to
watch for suspicious behavior. Terrorism is something that can be stopped. When an terrible act
occurs, it is important that the act does not go unpunished. If the terrorist believe that they can
successfully attack us and escape without harm, they will become more bold and dangerous. It is
important to stop them quickly. It can be done as long as everyone comes together and does their
part to ensure the country’s safety.
Most effective ways of fighting terrorism
Among the most effective counter-terrorism methods recently developed and used in the
world, are deradicalization educational programs employing former terrorist leaders, detection
and elimination of sources of material and financial support of terroristic groups, international
cooperation and exchange of data concerning terroristic groups and individual terrorists,
development of internal and international law-enforcement techniques of combating and
preventing terroristic acts, information campaigns among the population concerning how to
behave and what to do in case of terroristic menace[5].
Effective countering of terrorism is possible, but this effectivity requires certain efforts and
expenses on implementing measures listed above. International cooperation in aspects of data
exchange, counter-terroristic activity in the media and Internet, and cooperative trainings of
counter-terroristic squads of different countries. Future anti-terrorism efforts should be focused
primarily on measures for early detection and preliminary neutralization of terroristic forces.
Main danger of most religious terrorist groups and organizations is their unshakable faith
and conviction for their means are justified by the “noble purpose” of liberation of their nation or
holy war against those who do not share their religious beliefs. This conviction may provide very
strong motivations for terroristic actions and even self-destructing acts of suicide bombers.
But these radical beliefs are not necessary shared by the most part of terrorists countrymen,
who aren’t sharing religious fanaticism or ideological devotion of radicals. Regular people want
to live in peace and safety regardless of their beliefs. And the tactics of terrorism, though may be
very effective in short-run periods, in the long-run conditions, especially when faced with no
diversified international counter efforts, will lead only to exhaustion of the nation and gradual
rejection of terrorists by the society.
3 CASE-STUDY SET
Case 1 Ukrainian Insurgent Army

The Ukrainian Insurgent Army was a large and well organized Ukrainian nationalist
military army that engaged in a series of guerrilla conflicts during World War II against the
Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, and both Underground and Communist Poland. They claimed
that they fought against Nazi Germany but in reality hadn’t committed a single military raid
against the Nazis. The group was the military wing of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists
— Bandera faction (the OUN-B), originally formed in Volyn (northwestern Ukraine) in the
spring and summer of 1943. Its official date of creation is October 14.Violence and terrorism
were accepted as a political tool against foreign as well as home enemies of their cause, which
was to be achieved by a national revolution led by a dictatorship that would drive out the
occupying powers and set up a government representing all regions and social groups.
UPA’s Structure
UPA's command structure overlapped with that of the underground nationalist political
party, the OUN, in a sophisticated centralized network. The UPA was responsible for military
operations while the OUN was in charge of administrative duties; each had its own chain of
command. The six main departments were military, political, security service, mobilization,
supply, and the Ukrainian Red Cross. The General Staff, formed at the end of 1943 consisted of
operations, intelligence, training, logistics, personnel and political education departments. UPA's
largest units, Kurins, consisting of 500-700 soldiers were equivalent to battalions in a regular
army, and its smallest units, Riys with 8-10 soldiers, were equivalent to squads and occasionally
three or more Kurins would unite and form a Zahin or Brigade.
In November 1943, the UPA adopted a new structure, creating a Main Military
Headquarters and three areas (group) commands: UPA-West, UPA-North and UPA-South. Three
military schools for low-level command staff were also established. In terms of UPA soldiers'
social background, 60% were peasants of low to moderate means, 20-25% were from the
working class (primarily from the rural lumber and food industries), and 15% members of the
intelligentsia (students, urban professionals). The latter group provided a large portion of the
UPA's military trainers and officer corps.With respect to the origins of UPA's members, sixty
percent were from Galicia and 30% from Volyn and Polesia.
The number of UPA fighters varied. A German Abwehr report from November 1943
estimated that the UPA had 20,000 soldiers; other estimates at that time placed the number at
40,000. By the summer of 1944, estimates of UPA membership varied from 25-30 thousand
fighters up to 100,000 or even 200,000 soldiers.
Armaments
Initially, the UPA used the weapons collected from the battlefields of 1939 and 1941. Later
they bought weapons from peasants and individual soldiers, or captured them in combat. Some
light weapons were also brought by deserting Ukrainian auxiliary policemen. For the most part,
the UPA used light infantry weapons of Soviet and, to a lesser extent, German origin (for which
ammunition was less readily obtainable). By end of World War II in Europe the NKVD had
captured 45 artillery pieces (45 and 76.2 mm calibers) and 423 mortars from the UPA.
Germany and UPA
In a Memorandum from August 14, 1941 the OUN (B) proposed to the Germans, to create a
Ukrainian Army “which will join the German Аrmy ... until the latter will win” (preferable
translation: "which will unite with the German Army ... until our final victory"), in exchange for
German recognition of an allied Ukrainian independent state.
In early 1944 UPA forces in several Western regions engaged in cooperation with the
German Wehrmacht, Waffen SS, SiPo and SD. In a top secret memorandum, General-Major
Brigadefuhrer Brenner wrote in mid-1944 to SS-Obergruppenführer General Hans Prutzmann,
the highest ranking German SS officer in Ukraine, that “The UPA has halted all attacks on units
of the German army. The UPA systematically sends agents, mainly young women, into enemy-
occupied territory, and the results of the intelligence are communicated to Department 1c of the
[German] Army Group” on the southern Front. By the autumn of 1944, the German press was
full of praise for UPA for their anti-Bolshevik successes, referring to the UPA fighters as
"Ukrainian fighters for freedom" After the front had passed, by the end of 1944 the Germans
supplied OUN/UPA by air with arms and equipment. There even existed, in the region of Ivano-
Frankivsk, a small landing strip for German transport planes. Some German personnel trained to
conduct terrorist and intelligence activities behind Soviet lines, as well as some OUN-B leaders,
were also transported through this channel.
Ethnic cleansing of Poles in Volhynia and Galicia
Beginning in 1943, the UPA adopted a policy of massacring and expelling the Polish
population of Volhynia and Eastern Galicia. The ethnic cleansing operation against the ethnic
Polish population began on a large scale in March of that year and lasted until the end of 1944
[8].The methods used by the Ukrainian nationalists in both Galicia and Volyn consisted of
killing all Poles in the villages, then pillaging the villages and burning them to the ground.
Victims, regardless of age or gender, were routinely tortured to death.
A popular slogan during the period was "Poles beyond the San". Ukrainian peasants
sometime joined the UPA in the violence, and large bands of armed marauders, unaffiliated with
the UPA, brutalized civilians. Because of this, the total number of Poles murdered specifically by
UPA is unknown. Estimates of the Polish deaths in Volhynia are over 80,000. The number of
UPA victims in Volhynia, Galicia and current Poland combined ranges from 120,000 to 200,000.
After Galicia had been taken over by the Red Army, many units of UPA abandoned the anti-
Polish course of action and some even began cooperating with local Polish anti-communist
resistance against the Soviets and the NKVD.
Spring 1945- late 1946
After Germany surrendered in May 1945, the Soviet authorities turned their attention to
insurgencies taking place in Ukraine and the Baltics[11]. Combat units were re-organised and
special forces were sent in. One of the major complications that arose was the local support the
UPA had from the population. Areas of UPA activity were depopulated. The estimates on
numbers deported vary; officially Soviet archives state that between 1944 and 1952 a total of
182,543 people were deported.
The UPA responded to the Soviet methods by unleashing their own terror against Soviet
activists, suspected collaborators and their families. In a typical incident in Lviv region, in front
of horrified villagers, UPA troops gouged out the eyes of two entire families suspected of
reporting on insurgent movements to Soviet authorities, before hacking their bodies to pieces.
Due to public outrage concerning these violent punitive acts, the UPA stopped the practice of
killing the families of collaborators by mid-1945. Other victims of the UPA included Soviet
activists sent to Galicia from other parts of the Soviet Union; heads of village Soviets, those
sheltering or feeding Red Army personnel, and even people turning food in to collective farms.
The effect of such terrorist acts was such that people refused to take posts as village heads, and
until the late 1940s villages chose single men with no dependants as their leaders.
The first success of the Soviet authorities came in early 1946 in the Carpathians, which were
blockaded from January 11 until April 10. The UPA operating there ceased to exist as a combat
unit. The continuous heavy casualties elsewhere forced the UPA to split into small units
consisting of 100 soldiers. Many of the troops demobilized and returned home, when the Soviet
Union offered three amnesties during 1947-1948.
End of UPA resistance
The turning point in the struggle against the UPA came in 1947, when the Soviets
established an intelligence gathering network within the UPA and shifted the focus of their
actions from mass terror to infiltration and espionage. After 1947 the UPA's activity began to
subside. The Soviet authorities tried to win over the local population by making significant
economic investment in Western Ukraine, and by setting up rapid reaction groups in many
regions to combat the UPA. According to one retired MVD major, "By 1948 ideologically we
had the support of most of the population."
Prominent people killed by UPA insurgents during the anti-Soviet struggle included
Metropolitan Oleksiy (Hromadsky) of the Ukrainian Autonomous Orthodox Church, killed while
travelling in a German convoy, and pro-Soviet writer Yaroslav Halan.
UPA today
On January 10, 2008 President of UkraineViktor Yushchenko submitted a draft law "On the
official Status of Fighters for Ukraine’s Independence in 20s–90s of the 20th century". Under the
draft, persons who took part in political, guerrilla, underground and combat activities for the
freedom and independence of Ukraine from 1920-1990 shall be recognized as war veterans.
To commemorate National Unity Day, on January 22, 2010 President Yushchenko awarded
Stepan Bandera the Hero of Ukraine honor posthumously. A district administrative court in
Donetsk, Ukraine cancelled on April 2, 2010, the presidential decree granting the Hero of
Ukraine title to Bandera. Lawyer Vladimir Olentsevych argued in a lawsuit that the title of Hero
of Ukraine is the highest state award which is granted exclusively to citizens of Ukraine.
Bandera was not a Ukrainian citizen, as he was killed in emigration in 1959 before the 1991 Act
of Declaration of Independence of Ukraine.
On January 16, 2012 the Higher Administrative Court of Ukraine upheld the Presidential
decree of January 28, 2010 "About recognition of OUN members and soldiers of the Ukrainian
Insurgent Army as participants in struggle for independence of Ukraine" after it was challenged
by the leader of the Progressive Socialist Party of Ukraine, Nataliya Vitrenko, recognizing the
UPA as war combatants. On 15 May 2015 President Petro Poroshenko signed a bill into law
that provides "public recognition to anyone who fought for Ukrainian independence in the 20th
century", including Ukrainian Insurgent Army combatants.
1. Territorial disputes of the West Ukrainian regions.
2. Social-economic situation in Galicia, Volyn and Polesia before, during and after the
WWII.
3. Historical roots of confrontation between Ukraine and Poland.
4. Most outrageous crimes of Bandera supporters.
5. Stepan Bandera: Traitor-hero of Western Ukrain
6. Vasyl Ivakhiv, Dmytro Klyachkivsky, Roman Shukhevych and Vasyl Kuk: Abwer
military units of Ukrainian Nightingale Battalion Group and Special Group Roland
7. USSR effective tactics to stop the activity of UPA combat activity.
8. Victor Yushchenko: Role in glorification of Ukrainian Insurgent Army
9. Modern followers of Bandera and Shukhevych
10. Role of Ukrainian nationalism in Maidan massacre

1. Who and what were the units of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army fighting against?
2. When was the organization created?
3. What type of units were Kurins, Riys and Zahins?
4. What was a new structure of the UPA, adopted in November 1943?
5. What was the social background of UPA fighters?
6. How many fighters were among the members of the UPA?
7. Where did the UPA get weapons?
8. Why did the UPA halt all attacks on units of the German army?
9. When did the UPA adopt a policy of massacring and expelling the Polish population of
Volhynia and Eastern Galicia?
10. What was an approximate number of UPA victims in Volhynia, Galicia and current
Poland?
11. Why did the UPA change its tactics in May 1945?
12. How did the UPA respond to the Soviet methods of combating UPA terrorism?
13. When did the first success of the Soviet authorities come?
14. What played an important role in reviving Ukrainian fascism at the beginning of the
2000s?
Interpret the following words and word-combinations and find the sentences in the text to
illustrate their usage:
Not to commit a single military raid, ethnic cleansing operation, pillaging the villages,
burning villages to the ground, to be routinely tortured to death, to begin to subside, significant
economic investment, rapid reaction groups, to submit a draft law, to be recognized as war
veterans, to argue in a lawsuit, to be killed in emigration, to uphold the Presidential decree,
"Poles beyond the San", to abandon the anti-Polish course of action, special forces, major
complications, numbers of the deported, to unleash their own terror, suspected collaborators,
Bandera faction, to drive out the occupying powers, underground nationalist political party,
own chain of command, intelligence departments, ammunition, artillery pieces, mortars from
the UPA, engaged in cooperation with the German Wehrmacht, to halt all attacks on, anti-
Bolshevik successes, a small landing strip for German transport planes, a policy of massacring,
to be equivalent to battalions in a regular army, equivalent to squads, peasants of low to
moderate means, deserting Ukrainian auxiliary policemen, to hack bodies to pieces, public
outrage, violent punitive acts, to shelter Red Army personnel, the Carpathians, continuous heavy
casualties, to offer amnesties, an intelligence gathering network, infiltration and espionage, to
provide public recognition.
Read the text and fill in the gaps using the expressions from under the line:
There is a lack of consensus among historians about the involvement of the UPA in ………
…………....…(1) of Western Ukraine's Jews [12]. Numerous accounts ascribe to the UPA a role
in the killing of Ukrainian Jews under the German occupation. Other historians, however, do
not…………………………………(2) that the UPA was involved in anti-Jewish massacres.
While …………………………..(3) did not play a significant role in Ukrainian politics, the far
right groups were antisemitic like other nationalist and ……………………………………...(4)
in Europe. German documents of the period give the impression that Ukrainian ultranationalists
were indifferent to ……………………………………(5); they would either kill them or help
them, whichever was more appropriate for their political goals. According to specialist John Paul
Himka, OUN militias were responsible for……………………………………………...(6) in
Lviv and western Ukraine in 1941 that claimed thousands of Jewish lives. The OUN had earlier
repudiated pogroms but changed its stand when the Germans, with whom the OUN …………..
……………………………(7), demanded participation in them. Recently…………………
……………………..(8) have shown that the OUN was most likely not strongly involved in anti-
Jewish activities in 1941.
The OUN ………………………………….(9) of infiltrating the German police in order to
obtain weapons and training for its fighters. In this role they helped the Germans to implement
the Final Solution. The OUN police working for them played a crucial supporting role in the
liquidation of 200,000 Jews in Volhynia in the second half of 1942, although in isolated cases
Ukrainian policemen also helped Jews to escape. Most of these police ……………………..(10)
in the following spring and joined UPA.
Jews played an important role in the Soviet partisan movement in Volhynia and participated in
its actions. In 1944, the OUN formally "rejected racial and ethnic exclusivity". Nevertheless,
Jews hiding from the Germans with Poles in Polish villages were often killed by UPA along with
their ………………………………….(11), although in at least one case they were spared as the
Poles were murdered. One Ukrainian historian has claimed that almost every UPA unit
included………………………………………...(12). One well-known claimed example of
Jewish participation in UPA was most likely a hoax, according to sources including Friedman.
According to this report, Stella Krenzbach, the daughter of …………………………(13) and a
Zionist, joined the UPA as a nurse and ………………………………………..(14). She is alleged
to have written, "I attribute the fact that I am alive today and devoting all the strength of my
thirty-eight years to a free Israel only to God and the Ukrainian Insurgent Army. I became a
member of the heroic UPA on 7 November 1943. In our group I counted twelve Jews, eight of
whom were doctors." Later Friedman concluded that Krenzbach was ……………..
……………………. ...(15), as the only data about her was published in an OUN paper. No one
knew of such an employee at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs where she supposedly worked after
the war. Supporters of the UPA argue that the relationship between the UPA and Western
Ukraine's Jews was complex and not one-sided
anti-semitism, Jewish support personnel, a rabbi, far right movements, sought an alliance, the
massacre, support the claims, intelligence agent, declassified documents, pursued a policy,
deserted, Polish saviors, the plight of the Jews, a wave of pogroms, a fictional character
Watch the video (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kFAOfYQ7130) and correlate the
numbers and names with the facts:
1. Summer of 1941 -leader of a militarized wing of the Ukrainian nationalists,

2. Bandera doctrine -was notoriously famous for looting, racketeering, kidnapping,
-the Ukraine has the right to wider territory, up to the Caspian
3. May 2013
Sea,
4. 150 000 Poles -awaited for horrid fate,
5. 4000 Jews -proclaimed to be missioned with ethnic cleansing,
-one of the most blood-curdling crime associated with the
6. 10 most anti-Semite
name of Bandera,
activists -fascists invaded the territory of Ukraine,
7. The Volynskaya -called for struggle against Russians, Jews, and other evil,
-the slogan emphasizing the national point, when only
massacre
Ukrainians can take administrative positions,
8. Stepan Bandera -were tortured and killed within few days in summer 1941,
9. Ukrainian Robin Hood -Oleg Tyagnibok was named among the 10,
10. Banderas today -use an unstable political situation in Ukraine and revive the
fascism ideology,
11. Dmitry Yarosh -grandson of Bandera’s fighters, fights against the Jews,
12. Ethnic Ukrainians communists,
13. Millions of young people -the place where Muzychko killed Russian soldiers,
-the place where Muzichko dismissed the attorney of the city,
14. Rovno
-the place where Muzichko demonstrated an outrageous
15. Alexander Muzychko behavior at the session of the city administration,
16. Oleg Tyagnibok -the World Jewish Congress demanded to stop the activity of
the Freedom Party,
17. Sashko Beliy
-Alexander Muzichko,
18. Chechnya -are gathered under the banner of Stepan Bandera
4. Written assignment: case development

UIA (UPA) has gone through the period of complete oblivion and then was revived in new
political environment. This is a pro-fascist organization which presents a great threat to Europe.
Think about possible ways of handling the situation. Suggest options, which can be beneficial for
Ukraine, Donbas, Russia, Poland and other European countries. Work in pairs and prepare your
case analysis (Harvard Business School format) in a written form.
Case 2: Irish Republicans
The history of Irish Republican terrorism is closely connected with the issue of scenario of
concessions and funding [6]. The government offered a series of political concessions and
compromises to persuade Sinn Fein and the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA or
Provisionals) to abandon armed struggle. Further, when the Provisionals accepted some of these
concessions, militant dissidents from within the Republican movement broke off, forming the
Continuity IRA and Real IRA (CIRA and RIRA, respectively), and continued to engage in terror.
The extreme violence of the RIRA’ s bombing of Omagh and the fact that the violence of some
of its failed attacks would have exceeded any prior terrorist action during the Irish Troubles
suggest that the splinter groups were willing to engage in more extreme terror than that
considered productive by the PIRA, as predicted by the increased-militantism argument.
However, successful counter-terror and lack of access to resources has prevented the militants
from increasing the level of violence. The Troubles in Northern Ireland have involved many
splits within the Irish Republican movement.
The first of these splits occurred in 1986. The Provisionals decided to allow Sinn Fein,
their political wing, to run in Parliamentary elections. Some in the PIRA viewed this decision as
an unacceptable compromise. They responded by creating a small, more militant organization
named the Continuity IRA (CIRA). The CIRA, however, did not engage in its first act of terror
until 1996, when it was part of an internal Irish Republican disagreement that led to the breaking
of a cease-fire signed in 1994. In 1998 the Real IRA (RIRA) was formed as a response to the
Provisionals’ acceptance of the framework established in the Good Friday Peace Accords. The
RIRA, CIRA, and the nationalist Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) were unwilling to
accept power sharing and the other compromises inherent in the peace process. Starting in 1998
the RIRA began a terror campaign in Northern Ireland and Great Britain in an attempt to
undermine the peace process and replace the PIRA as the primary militant organization of the
Republican struggle to gain independence.
Among the most spectacular attacks carried out by the RIRA were a missile attack on
Britain’ s MI6 intelligence agency, an assault on the Ebrington Barracks in Derry that could have
killed 20 soldiers but for a faulty fuse in the bomb, a car bombing of a crowded local rail station,
and a bomb attack on the BBC. The most devastating act of terrorism was the infamous Bombing
of Omagh on August 15, 1998. In this attack the RIRA planted a car bomb in a busy town center
packed with shoppers. The blast killed 29 and injured over 200 others. While it seems that a
bungled attempt to warn authorities so as to avoid the massive death toll occurred, the size of the
bomb (500 lbs.) would have nonetheless caused massive damage. The Provisionals and other
Republican organizations roundly criticized the Omagh bombing.
From 1998 through 2001, the RIRA and CIRA carried out at least 80 attacks, though
some of these were minor incidents. However, they failed more than they succeeded, largely due
to effective counter-terror measures that were taken after the Good Friday Accords and the
Omagh bombing. These efforts were aided by the wide spread rejection of the RIRA following
Omagh. While it is disputed whether the PIRA passed on intelligence to the police in order to
undermine the RIRA it is known that the PIRA undertook its own crackdown against extremist
factions within the Republican movement. Indeed, the Provisionals threatened RIRA and CIRA
members with execution if they did not respect PIRA ceasefires. In February and March of 1998
the police prevented five major bombings, including a 1300 lb. bomb that was found planted in
Dudalk. These and other examples of effective counter-terrorism demonstrate the police’ s
success in infiltrating extremist Republican terrorist cells. It has been estimated that the police
foil over 80% of planned RIRA attacks.
Despite the efforts of radical splinter groups, Republican violence did not surge following
the Good Friday Accords. While the Bombing of Omagh was the worst single incident of Irish
Republican terror in 30 years, the death tolls have not risen to the levels achieved in the 1970s,
or even the years leading up to earlier agreements in the 1980s.
Unlike Palestinian and Basque violence the death tolls from Irish Republican violence did
not rise following the Good Friday Accords. While the moderate Republicans and the
government did not achieve complete eradication of the extremist cells, counter-terrorism was
quite successful. Indeed, if the estimate quoted above that the police thwarted 80% of RIRA
attacks is correct, then the level of terrorism that would have been achieved in the absence of
counter-terrorism following the Good Friday Accords would have been extraordinarily high.
Hence, the low levels of terrorist violence are not evidence of the absence of increased
militantism, but rather are the result of the increased success at counterterrorism that the
theoretical argument suggests may be one of the driving forces behind the decision by
governments to make concessions in the first place.
The second factor that can lead to a decrease in terrorist violence following a deal
between moderate terrorists and the government is a lack of funds for the extremists. The IRA
has typically financed itself in three ways: legitimate businesses, crime, and donations from the
diaspora. The RIRA and CIRA had only limited access to any of these. The legitimate business
activities of the PIRA remain in its control. The IRA’ s criminal activities have included
extortion, protection rackets, kidnapping for ransom, and, according to some, drug trafficking.
Because the Provisionals did not disarm following the Good Friday agreement, there is
no reason to believe that they have lost control over their criminal fundraising activities. Indeed,
following the 1994 ceasefire some forms of PIRA violence associated with their non-political
criminal activity, such as beatings and arson, even increased. While the RIRA and CIRA have
engaged in their own criminal activities, they have not been able to take over the PIRA’s
criminal empire.
Donations from the Irish diaspora community in the United States for Republican
extremists are funneled primarily through the organization NORAID [7]. Some radicals in the
United States, most prominently Martin Calvin, a former director of NORAID continue to
support the radical splinter groups. However, by and large the American Irish community is
interested in concessions from the British government and supportive of the framework for peace
proposed by former Senator George Mitchell. Consequently, the CIRA and RIRA have been
unable to attract significant support from the Provisional’s fundraising network, leaving them to
raise money through bank robbery and smuggling.
Among the anecdotal evidence of the RIRA’ s lack of funds is that a former full-time
PIRA bomb maker who joined the RIRA is now working a day job, only building bombs in his
spare time. Increased militantism, effective counter-terrorism, and lack of resources combine to
produce relatively small extremist organizations that are able to achieve only limited success in
perpetrating acts of terror despite their desire to carry out more radical missions. The difference
in outcomes from the ETA and Palestinian cases is explained by the type of funding
opportunities available to the extremists and the success of counter-terrorism measures following
the deal with the moderates.
Recommended presentations
1. Outstanding leaders of IRA
2. Social and economic situation in Northern Ireland
3. Economic ties with England
4. Religious confrontation in the context of distorted identity
5. Role and influence of Irish Diaspora
6. Historical roots of the long-standing conflict
7. The most spectacular attacks carried out by the RIRA
8. Subdivisions of IRA: RIRA, PIRA and CIRA
9. Fund-raising network of IRA
Read the case and answer the questions

1. What did the government suggest to finish armed struggle?
2. What are the main divisions in IRA?
3. When did the first splits within the Irish Republican movement occur?
4. Which of the subdivisions in the movement represent the political wing: CIRA, PIRA,
Sinn Fein, RIRA, INLA?
5. What were the most spectacular attacks carried out by RIRA?
6. How many attacks did the movement carry out in the period of 1998 – 2001?
7. What was the first factor that resulted in the decrease of the violence?
8. Where did IRA receive its funding from?
9. What criminal activities brought additional funding to the movement?
10. When did PIRA non-political criminal violence increase?
Find the sentences in the text to illustrate the meaning of the following units:
To match the predictions, militant dissidents, the splinter groups, the political wing, the
Continuity IRA (CIRA), Sinn Fein, the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA or
Provisionals), to foil attacks, kidnapping for ransom, drug trafficking, criminal fundraising
activities, beatings and arson, the moderate Republicans, increased militantism, to make
concessions, a missile attack on MI6 intelligence agency, protection rackets, funneled donations,
an assault on the Ebrington Barracks, a faulty fuse in the bomb, a bomb attack on the BBC, most
devastating act of terrorism, the infamous Bombing of Omagh, a bungled attempt, the wide
spread rejection of the RIRA, to infiltrate extremist Republican terrorist cells, the Good Friday
Peace Accords, compromises inherent in the peace process, in the first place, donations from the
Diaspora, extortion, bank robbery and smuggling
Read the text and fill in the gaps;

The Origins of the Name Irish Republican Army Or IRA
Back in 2011 I wrote a short piece on the history of the terms of IRA [10] . Most people believe
it to be ………………………………………..(1), from Ireland naturally enough.
………………….….(2) its origins date back to the latter half of the 1800s and the United States
of America. To the surprise of some readers many of these appearances …………………….
………….(3) publications from the mid-1800s when the name was used by ………………..….
………………………..4)of the Fenian Brotherhood of America, a revolutionary movement
founded around 1858 in the industrial cities of the north-eastern United States. This was the
Irish-American sister-organization of …………………………………(5) Irish Republican
Brotherhood.
That Irish Republican Army came to …………………………………..(6) in the 19th century
with several attempted invasions of ……………………………………(7) Canada between the
years 1866 and 1871. The objective ……………………………………..(8) was the
establishment of an …………………………………..(9) on the North America continent by
exploiting the simmering post-Civil War tensions between Washington and London. Though the
strategy failed ………………………………………..(10) the abbreviation “IRA” was soon
added to the lexicon of Irish and international politics.
The title of the IRA faded from organisational use until the 1916 Revolution when it was revived
again as the Army of the Irish Republic or Irish Republican Army, this time by the Provisional
Government of the Irish Republic. After 1916, as the revolution progressed, all these
organisations retained ………………………………………(11) while the largest, the Irish
Volunteers, quickly became …………………………….(12) synonymous with the name Irish
Republican Army.
During Ireland’s Civil War of 1922-1923 the title of “Irish Republican Army” became
………………………………..(13) with the majority Anti-Treaty IRA forces, while …………
…………………...(14) in the Pro-Treaty IRA became the Irish National Army (INA). In the
1930s, when the defeated Republicans of the Civil War ……………………………………(15)
again and many of the Anti-Treaty IRA volunteers joined and rose to positions of rank in the
INA, it became, in English, simply the Irish Army.
In fact, indelibly associated, the Ireland-based, global prominence, the military wing, a
th
20 century creation, rose to power, dated to, the abbreviation, British-administered, of the
expeditions, Irish Republic in Exile, their separate structures, the sole one, the break-away
minority
The Downing Street mortar attack was carried out by the Provisional Irish Republican Army
(IRA) on 10 Downing Street, London, the British Prime Minister John Major's official residence.
The 7 February 1991 attack, an assassination attempt on Major and his War Cabinet who were
meeting to discuss the Gulf War, was originally planned to target Major's predecessor Margaret
Thatcher. Two shells overshot Downing Street and failed to explode, and one shell exploded in
the rear garden of 10 Downing Street. No members of the cabinet were injured, though four
other people received minor injuries, including two police officers. Major condemned the
assassination attempt, stating "democracies cannot be intimidated by terrorism". Watch the film
and fill in the gaps ( https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TwCmQACV3qg):
1. At the time of explosion the Prime minister was …………………….(1) with his War
Cabinet
2. The mortar fire was from the van …………………………..(2) the defense ministry.
3. There have been no reports about …………………………. (3) and the officials have
been sealed off the area.
4. Mr. Burton, one of the BBC engineers, heard ………………………………………(4) at
the time he was working, one of them being (5) in the garden of Downing street # 10.
5. He also saw ……………………………………………..(6) that hadn’t gone off but
started ………………………….(7).
6. The attackers’ van was missing part …………………………….. (8) which suggested
that the mortar……………………….. (9).
7. There was a ……………………………………………..(10) in the street at the time and
very few people around # 10.
8. There was some ………………………………………(11) to #10 from the shell that
exploded in the garden.
9. The whole area was …………………………..(12)
10. Paul Beaver from Defense Weekly stated that it was a rocket attack, using ……………
…………………...(13) bombs.
11. The journalists remembered that seven years ago a bomb exploded near ……………
……………..…………. . (14) in a Brighton Hotel.
12. The cabinet has just arrived at # 10 to discuss the developments in the ………………
……………………. (15)
13. The reverberations …………………………..( 16) the Cabinet room windows
14. Two men were seen running away………………………………….. (17) the explosions.
15. According to the Prime minister, the aim was ……………………………….. (18) the
democratic system of the government.
16. The establishment denied …………………………………….(19) with terrorists from
Iraq and said that …………………………….(20) was fully responsible for the attack.
Give your opinion about the situation with IRA activity
4 Written assignment: Case development
Collect all the information, using additional video material about terrorist acts committed by IRA
Bombing in Manchester, (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GFpvfz8Ls4Y) and develop the
case for the British establishment according to the Harvard Business School format
CASE 3: Political Terrorism: A Historical Case Study of the Italian Red

Brigades
As the world's governments become increasingly engulfed in economic and political strife,
international leaders should step back and understand what historical realities enabled political
extremism to surface in particular regions of the world [9]. More important, these leaders need to
recognize what past governments did to counter these movements. Global communities are
currently witnessing a dynamic trend of populous uprisings that in some cases, like Greece and
the United States, have the potential to severely disrupt the activities of local governments.
Consequently, it behooves leaders to reflect upon historical precedence in order to avoid
repeating the same mistakes of our forefathers. Accordingly, the rise and fall of the Italian Red
Brigades represents a classic case study from which to understand the dynamics behind the
development of a political terrorist organization and its effects on society as a whole.
The Rise of Class Warfare in Italy
During the mid-1900s, the spread of Marxist Communism represented one of several forms
of social collectivism that rooted itself within the fabric of European societies. Between 1960
and 1980, governments across Europe witnessed and in some cases participated in several of
these types of political events. In Italy, for instance, worker and student movements rose to
prominence as center-left coalition government leaders "failed to bring promised reforms to
Italian society" that subsequently led to the "mass worker strikes of 1968–1970."
Furthermore, outdated and deteriorating university systems emboldened and in some
instances radicalized student behaviors against union and government officials creating the
necessary framework for future extremism. Inevitably, this caustic environment infused with the
spread of a 1920s style Marxist-Leninist ideology led to one of Italy's most prolifically violent
periods as student activist groups formed within Italy's workers' movement and subsequently
advocated violence as a means to pursue class warfare.
The development of these radical organizations predominately centered around the
perception that Communist organizations, like the Italian Communist Party (PCI) as well as
factory trade union officials had lost sight of the original ideals set forth in the initial Communist
movement. As government commitment to its people began to wane, so too did the people's
commitment to the Italian Government to preserve social order within the current political
framework. To further complicate matters, the prior de-Stalinization of the Soviet Union had
helped ease Cold War tensions between Western influences and European Communists. This
phenomenon provided Italian business owners the opportunity to mesh communist business
strategies with that of capitalist models. The rising tensions between factory workers and trade
union leaders, mixed with the growing discontent of frustrated and alienated university students,
eventually led to the formation of several ultra-left radical groups. One of these groups, the Red
Brigade, would leave its mark in history as one of Italy's most dominant and violent extremist
organizations the country had seen since World War II, and would prove as difficult to
eventually track down and dismantle.
Formation and Ideologies (1969–1972)
The Red Brigade, more commonly referred to in Italian as the Brigate Rosse (BR), was
officially formed on October 20, 1970 by University of Trento activist student Renato Curcio
along with his girlfriend Mara Cagol and his activist friend Alberto Franceschini. This ultra-
leftist group emerged from the rank and file of the 1960s worker and student protest movements
where they claimed support for the local trade unions in their fight against the right-wing
political bourgeoisie. The Red Brigade initially directed their efforts in the larger Italian cities of
Milan and Turin where they viewed themselves as offshoots of the Autonomia Operaia (AO)
extra-parliamentary movement [1].
Many of the early ideological goals of the leadership involved targeted attacks on "the
establishment" such as unionists, politicians, and businessmen. In late 1971, Red Brigade group
motivations forced a shift in its internal terrorist tactics from a tactical viewpoint to more of a
strategic approach as members evolved from the participation in the local destruction of union
leader's vehicles and factory equipment to broader attacks against union headquarters and
business offices. Inevitably, this tactical shift would also push the group's extremist operations
into the world of human targeting as brigade members claimed responsibility for the
organization's first kidnapping in March 1972 of factory foreman Sit Siemens.
Slowly the Red Brigade developed a reputation throughout Italy as one of the most solid and
consistent leftist ideological extremist groups in Europe. The Red Brigade, in essence, was
attempting to broaden its military and political platform along a more national framework by
attempting to legitimize its political and physical retribution tactics against the right wing.
Group Structure Development (1973–1974)
Red Brigade leaders consistently viewed themselves and their ideologies as the standard-
bearers of the Marxist-Leninist Communist movement. So, brigade leaders in 1974 developed
the Strategic Directorate (DS) that was responsible for establishing the Red Brigade's
organizational structure consisting of an Executive Committee, urban and regional divisions
(colonne), and brigade fronts (fronti). The initial structure of the BR was similar to the
organizational layout of an Army unit. For instance, the Strategic Directorate acted much like a
military command element in that it established protocols and guidelines for the entire
organization to follow. The Executive Committee, in turn, functioned as a headquarters staff
element by publishing the command guidelines and ensuring that the day-to-day operations of
the organization ran smoothly.
The Red Brigade "field unit" structure consisted of urban and regional divisions that were
designed to break down command and control of the organization along specific boundary lines.
Within each of the regions or urban commands (divisions), the BR further established "front"
elements that were responsible for defined duties like logistics, propaganda, and recruitment
activities. Each of these "front" elements and command divisions reported up a vertical chain of
command to the Executive Committee and eventually to the Strategic Directorate.
Group Doctrine Development (1974–1975)
Brigade leaders subsequently published their first doctrine "manifesto" in 1975 with the
development of the Resolution of Strategic Directorate (RDS) that helped define the
organization's goals and objectives. Strictly speaking, the RDS defined the group's goal as a
"concentrated strike against the heart of the State because the State is an imperialist collection of
multinational corporations."
The RDS doctrine also represented a major shift in the group's original ideology of
supporting local political activities of the broader worker's movement. The group manifesto
essentially realigned the Red Brigade organization into a more nationalistic militant movement
aligned against regional authorities as well as the Italian State. Unfortunately, this aggressive
militant approach bore more resemblance to an anarchist style organization than an emerging
political movement. The group's ensuing attacks and brutal tactics eventually chipped away at
their support base as many sympathizers felt increasingly isolated from the group's beliefs.
By late 1976 many of the original members, including Renalto Curcio and Alberto
Franceschini, were in police custody. Many speculated, including Curcio and Franceschini, that
their arrests were the result of alleged internal group turncoats, Mario Moretti and Giovanni
Senzani, who they believed worked for the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and
Italian Security Services. Furthermore, Mara Cagol, Renalto Curcio's wife and one of the
original founders, was subsequently killed by police during a struggle shortly after her arrest. All
this led to the eventual consolidation and development of the remaining BR members into a more
violent, well disciplined, and radicalized organization that would soon propel itself into the
Italian national spotlight.
Group Transition Period (1976–1984)
By 1976, terrorist activity in Italy had "expanded so rapidly that it overshadowed all other
West European countries." In some social corners this expansion of violence was primarily
viewed as the result of the United State's indirect involvement in anti-Communist destabilizing
operations.
Furthermore, the "shadow wars" being fought in the Italian cities between Cold War powers
were beginning to lead many locals to believe spurious rumors that the current government was
close to collapse. Fortunately for the Red Brigade, the ideological battle between social policies
enabled the group to expand its recruitment activities away from the working middle class areas
to the intellectual corridors of the regional universities. This fresh intellectual influence into the
ranks would eventually lead the Red Brigade's Strategic Directorate under the leadership of
Mario Moretti to declare in the spring of 1977 that its working class avant-garde was effectively
in place and that "the time had come to set up the Communist Combatant Party (PCC)" in order
to guide the working class to the next political level. Internal group strife during this
organizational realignment, however, had forced the Red Brigade to splinter into two factions,
the First Position and the Second Position.
The Beginning of the End (The Aldo Moro Episode)
At the time of Aldo Moro's kidnapping [2], the Red Brigade was not viewed as a national
threat to the Italian Government; rather, they were viewed as just another leftist terror
organization claiming to represent working class citizens. In fact, the reorganization that
followed rendered a smaller yet more potent radical group that was not afraid to escalate
violence to the next level. The result of this new violent approach was quickly seen on March 16,
1978 when Red Brigade members abducted Prime Minster Aldo Moro after ambushing his car,
killing his chauffer and five policemen. This attack ironically occurred as Moro made his way to
work in order to submit a plan that would have stabilized Italian politics by including the
Communists in the government for the first time in the nation's history.
The kidnapping did not represent the first time brigade members had targeted a person, yet
it represented the first instance that a high level government official had been abducted by a
leftist terror organization in Italy. This incident also gave the Red Brigade a national stage from
which the organization spent the next 55 days trying to convince the Christian Democrats to
accept the group's terms for exchanging Mr. Moro for ransom and the release of 16 brigade
members. The waiting game unfortunately ended when Red Brigade leader, Mario Moretti,
allegedly shot the Prime Minister 11 times killing him in the back seat of a car.
The assassination stunned the Italian population who adored Aldo Moro, and ultimately led
to the downfall of the group as popular support for the leftist cause began to wane. This violent
chapter in Italian history would eventually come to an end during the early 1980s; however, the
Red Brigade would test its militant capabilities one last time before the group would fade away.
The Dozier Kidnapping
On December 17, 1981, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Deputy Chief of Staff
General James Dozier was abducted from his Verona apartment by four Red Brigade members
posing as plumbers. The kidnapping of General Dozier represented both a tactical and a strategic
shift for the Red Brigade as it depicted the first time the group had targeted a foreign national.
Subsequent demands by the group included a condemnation of U.S. military forces along with
NATO, and further promoted the ideology of all European revolutionary forces joining in a fight
on an international scale. Brigade members quickly put General Dozier on trial and released a
188-page document that outlined the group's strategic goals. Fortunately, Italian police were able
to locate and rescue General Dozier 42 days after his capture. For Red Brigade members, this
episode represented the last successful major attack of their organization. Eventually, Red
Brigade members were either killed, arrested, or chose to quietly dissolve back into society to
attempt to reorganize the group. The ideologies of the original Red Brigade, however, did not
disappear as witnessed by the emergence of an offshoot organization in 1984 conveniently
named the New Red Brigade.
The New Red Brigade (1984)
The New Red Brigade, also known as the Communist Combatant Party (BR/PCC), surfaced
in 1984 following the demise of the original organization. The group's ultimate goals included,
"the destruction of democracy and the creation of a new society through armed militant action."
The New Red Brigade also extended its opposition to include Italy's foreign policies involving
NATO. Some of this opposition centered in the idea that Italy's Government was merely a
puppet state for external western powers. The new organization, however, did continue to
implement the tactical use of assassinations and terrorist bombings to create chaos in the local
Italian communities in order to demonstrate a lack of security by the government. The first
known instance of attacks by the BR/PCC took place in May of 1999 when group members
assassinated Italy's Labor Ministry Advisor Massimo D'Antona.
Additionally, in April 2001, the BR/PCC bombed the Institute for International Affairs in
Rome, an attack that, fortunately, did not kill anyone. The following year in March, group
members targeted and killed Labor Ministry Advisor Marco Biagi.
The Final Italian Response (2003)
The rise in extremist activity quickly heightened the concerns of the Italian public who
remembered the days when the original Red Brigade organization created havoc throughout the
country. The Italian authorities consequently decided to intensify and expand their
counterterrorism operations against the BR/PCC and its networks. These increased operations
included a robust media campaign coupled with increased funding for source payments. The new
Italian counterterrorism approach not only enabled the authorities to create an effective barrier
between the extremist group and the public, but also allowed police to infiltrate and breakdown
the BR/PCC network relatively quickly. In fact, a 2003 United States Congressional Issue Brief
indicated that the Italian rewards for information program was, "instrumental in Italy destroying
the Red Brigades."
The Italian Government demonstrated the capability and resolve to deal a severe blow to the
BR/PCC organization. The authorities effectively dismantled the group, and forced a decrease in
membership within the BR/PCC rank and file to a reported 20 members.
1. Economic situation in Italy at the beginning of the 60s – the 70s
2. Socio-political situation in Italy at the beginning of the 60s – the 70s
3. The role and influence of students’ unions and trade-unions in Italy at the beginning of
the 60s – the 70s
4. University of Trento activist students: Renato Curcio – political portrait
5. University of Trento activist students: Mara Cagol – political portrait
6. University of Trento activist students: Alberto Franceschini – political portrait
7. Financial sources of the Red Brigades
8. Spread of communist ideology in Europe after the WWII
9. Personality and role of Aldo Moro.
10. Mario Moretti and Giovanni Senzani: new doctrine or intelligence agencies’ informants

1. Why is the case of Red Brigades important for modern politicians?
2. When was the Marxist ideology popular in Europe and why?
3. Why did the commitment of the Italian people begin to wane?
4. What was the result of easing the Cold War tensions in Italy?
5. How did the Brigate Rosse start its activity?
6. What reputation did the Red Brigades develop throughout Italy? How did it all happen?
7. What was unusual about the structure of the organization?
8. When were the leaders of the group arrested and was was their fate?
9. What happened during 1976-1984?
10. What wasn’t taken into account by Brigate Rosse at the time of Aldo Moro kidnapping?
11. How did the ideology of the Red Brigades change under the leadership of Mario
Moretti?
12. What happened in 1981? Was it a great mistake to start terrorist activity internationally?
13. What type of an organization was the New Red Brigade?
Interpret the words/word combinations and find sentences in the text to illustrate them:
To become engulfed in, to rise to prominence, outdated and deteriorating university
systems, caustic environment, the most prolifically violent periods, to lose sight, the Strategic
Directorate, concentrated strike against, a major shift, group's ensuing attacks, alleged internal
group turncoats, in custody, to believe spurious rumors, to submit a plan, to allegedly shot smb.,
people's commitment to the Government, the prior de-Stalinization of the Soviet Union, to
mesh communist business strategies with, to track down and dismantle, to emerge from, tactical
shift, to push smb into smth., consistent leftist ideological extremist group, to legitimize its
retribution tactics, urban and regional divisions, a headquarters staff element, Red Brigade
"field unit" structure, to be abducted from, to step back, populous uprisings, to reflect upon
historical precedence, the spread of Marxist Communism, eventually, to quickly heighten the
concerns, to create havoc, a robust media campaign, coupled with, to demonstrate the resolve
Fill in the gaps in the text about the NATO roots of the red Brigades:
The Sphinx and the Gladiators: How Neo-Fascists Steered the Red Brigades
Former Senator and anti-terrorist expert Sergio Flamigni's latest book [4] reveals new evidence
that the Red Brigades terrorist group, which was responsible for …………………………….(1)
of Christian Democratic leader Aldo Moro in 1978, and other murderous acts, was directly
steered by Gladio-NATO circles. These circles ……………………………….(2) by the late
Edgardo Sogno, an agent of the Anglo-American intelligence and special operations network,
which was put together in Europe after World War II, by Allen Dulles, director of
…………………….(3).
Sogno was an aristocrat from Piedmont, a member of the P2 secret …………………………..(4)
who fought in the Spanish Civil War on the side of fascist dictator Francisco Franco. In 1943,
shortly before Mussolini's fall, Sogno went over to British Special Operations Executive head
McCaffery, under whose…………………………….. (5) he built a Stay Behind organization
called the "Franchi Brigade." McCaffery introduced him to OSS head Allen Dulles, who, when
Sogno was captured by the Wehrmacht, intervened personally with SS General Karl Wolff to
have Sogno ………………………………….(6). This occurred in the context of the Dulles-
Wolff negotiations, which gave birth to the famous "Ratline" rescue of former Nazi SS members,
and …………………………………….(7) into post-war NATO intelligence and special
operation forces.
In the postwar period, Sogno had a diplomatic career as …………………………...(8) and
ambassador in several countries, including Argentina, France, and the United States. He was a
close friend of NATO Secretary General Manlio Brosio. In 1950, Sogno began to build a …….
……………….(9) anti-communist organization called "Atlantici d'Italia," under the mandate of
Interior Minister Mario Scelba. In 1953, after attending a program on psychological warfare at
the NATO Defense College in Paris, Sogno built a public anti-communist organization called
"Pace e Libertà".
Sogno himself reports how in 1953, after attending a program on ……………………………
………….(10) at the NATO Defense College in Paris, he founded the organization "Pace e
Libertà" on the model of the French one, which was led by Jean Paul David and fascist…(11)
collaborationist Georges Albertini. Sogno then picks up his old contact with Allen Dulles, as he
describes it: "Dulles had been introduced to me by McCaffery during the war, in Lausanne.
Dulles was then head of the Office of Strategic Studies, responsible for U.S. ………………
………………….…(12) intelligence in Europe. . . Dulles calls Brosio who was Italian
Ambassador in Washington: `What does Sogno want?' `He did not say, but I believe he wants
money.' `Send him to me.'... Fifteen days later, Pizzoni, head of the Credito Italiano bank, calls
me up and tells me: `There is an envelope for you' . . . five or six millions, which then became
ten per month and kept coming until 1958, when Pace e Libertà was terminated."
Manlio Brosio, the Ambassador to Washington, became NATO Secretary General in 1964.
During …………………………………(13) at NATO, one of his secretaries participated with
Simioni at the founding meeting of the Red Brigades. As Franceschini reports, "Among those
who came to the meeting with Simioni, was one Sabina Longhi, whom Simioni introduced as his
secretary, adding that she was a collaborator of NATO Secretary General Manlio Brosio, as if to
say, we have……………………………………(14) too. The thing made me suspicious, but I
calmed down thinking that it was a joke. Instead, it was true." In fact, many years later, ……
……………………..(15) found out that Longhi had indeed been an aide to Brosio and had a
NATO security pass.
One of the most striking aspects of the Moro case is that Aldo Moro, during his 55-day ……..
…………………………(16), was interrogated by his kidnappers, and he revealed the existence
of Gladio, the Nato "Stay-Behind" network. However, those revelations, which were a ………
…………………….……(17) in the hands of a self-professed "revolutionary" organization, were
jealously ………………………………..(18) by Moretti and company! Moro's writings on
Gladio were discovered much later, in September 1990, one week after Prime Minister Giulio
Andreotti had revealed the existence of Gladio. Moretti's explanation ("We did not have the key
to interprete those revelations") is ridiculous. Those Moro revelations were fatal, and tilted the
balance in favor of the decision to kill him.
However, the death sentence against Moro had already been pronounced years ……………
………………………..(19). In a 1990 interview with a journalist from the weekly magazine
Panorama, Edgardo Sogno explains the oath taken in 1971 by the CRD organization: "We had
taken the commitment of hitting those Italian traitors who would make a government with the
communists. . . . we took the commitment to shoot against those who would make the
government with the communists." The journalist asks, "Did you say shoot, Ambassador,
shoot?" Sogno's answer, "Yes, shoot." End of the interview. And in 1976, during a visit to
Washington, Moro was personally threatened by Kissinger, who warned him that if he did not
drop his ……………………………………………..(20), he would come to a bad end.
The CIA, our infiltrators, paramilitary, kept secret, "national solidarity" policy, political
bombshell, their recruitment, intelligence, collaborationist, attaché, assassination, were headed,
Masonic lodge, psychological warfare, his mandate, prosecutors, captivity, in advance
3. Listening section:
Thirty years ago this month, the extreme left terrorist group, the Red Brigades murdered
former Italian prime minister Aldo Moro who they'd kidnapped and held for nearly two months.
Moro was the head of the Christian Democratic Party, which was moving towards a
parliamentary coalition with the Italian Communists, a move opposed by some in the far left and
which worried western power, particularly the US. Italy's interior minister at the time was
Francesco Cossiga, who took a hard line and refused to negotiate with the Red Brigades for
Moro's release. In an interview with Cossiga, EuroNews has tried to get at the truth of an
incredibly tangled tale involving allegations of CIA involvement and claims of vital clues sent
via a Ouija board. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o3DdvEKgtgM
Watch the film for the first time and tick the statements as true or false:
1. The cold war began in the late 1940’s
2. During the 1960’s students’ and workers’ movements spread all over the world
3. Red Brigades were established on October 1976 by two Trento University students:
Renato Curcio and Mara Cagol with active participation of Alberto Franceschini.
4. The Red Brigade started their activity in Milano and Rome, however, in the late 1980’s
they expanded to Turin and Venice.
5. Their goal was to strike the state do their multinational corporations connections and to
remove from NATO
6. In 1981 the Italian replicates split into two factions.

7. After the collapse of the USSR the Italian government began to intensify security
measures against global terrorism.
8. The Red Brigades saw new expansion of its activity in early 2000
9. Marxist theory was an important psychological factor in motivating and recruiting the
group.
10. According to K. Marx, false consciousness implies that people’s ideas are unconsciously
programmed into them by the terrorists
11. Human beings have tyrans-formative capacity and can reconstruct the state.
12. The shift between psychological manipulations and actual actions causes collisions.
13. The crash of the USSR demonstrated that science became an efficient and effective way
to accomplish political gains.
14. In 1970’s there were 687 group headings which claimed the paternity of 2,500 terrorist
attacks.
15. The attacks were on a daily schedule.
16. The members of the movement proclaimed that instead of starting a civil war they
highlighted the challenges to Italian government.
17. At first the Red brigadiers were involved into small acts of poisoning and robbery
attacking the offices of factories, publishing officers and the ones of political parties.
18. Then they started to abduct powerful executives to demonstrate their strength and to
create fear in the society.
19. They kidnapped 56 wealthy men and women in order to demand huge amounts of money.
20. In 1978 the climax of terrorist attacks peaked to lead to the abduction of Aldo Moro.
21. The next week they killed four politicians.
22. In 1980’s some 200 members of Red Brigades were jailed.
23. The end of “Euro-communism” was the result of many events.
24. Today, according to a majority of Italians, Berlusconi is to be blamed for the corrupt state
of the Italian media and politics.
25. The Democratic Party is an offset of the PDS and, in turn, of the PCI.
26. Today Italy holds many referendums which have a great impact on the Italian politics and
is supposed to demonstrate a political improvement from the days of the Red Brigades.
Watch the film for the second time and render the information of the film. Express your own
opinion about the influence of RB on the Italian society.
4 Written assignment: case development
Look through the information having been provided in the case and act as advisers to Aldo
Moro’s government to prevent terrorist attacks. Take into account political, economic, social
factors to suggest a way out of the situation when terrorists feel unaccountable for their deeds.

1) Bartalli R. Brigate Rosse and Moro Kidnappig: secrets and lies, URL:
http://www.robertobartali.it/english.htm
2) Crettez B., Deloche R. An economic analysis of the Aldo Moro’s kidnapping and
Assassination, 2008,
URL:https://editorialexpress.com/cgi-bin/conference/download.cgi?
db_name=WCGTS2007&paper_id=124
3) Cronin A., Ludes J. Attacking Terrorism: Elements of a Grand Strategy//Georgetown
University Press, 2015
4) Flamigni S. La Sfinge delle Brigate Rosse (abstracts), Milan: KAOS Edizioni, 2004,
URL: http://www.larouchepub.com/other/2005/3203_sphinx.html
5) Koeler D. Understanding Deradicalization. Methods, Tools and Programs for Countering
Violent Extremism, Roultledge Taylor and Francis Group N.Y. 2017, 329 pp
6) Mesquita E.B. Conciliation, Counter-Terrorism, and Patterns of Terrorist Violence:
Comparative Study of Five Cases, URL:
http://home.uchicago.edu/bdm/PDF/adverseterrorcases.pdf ( 11.04.2018)
7) Richey W. On the trail of US funds for IRA 14.01.1985//The Christian Science Monitor,
https://www.csmonitor.com/1985/0114/anor1.html (20.02.2018)
8) Siemaszko E. The July 1943 genocidal operations of OUN-UPA in Volhynia,
28.01.2018, URL:
https://web.archive.org/web/20160401045104/http://www.volhyniamassacre.eu/__data/
assets/pdf_file/0006/5199/The-July-1943-genocidal-operations-of-the-OUN-UPA-in-
Volhynia.pdf
9) Sundquist Victor H. "Political Terrorism: An Historical Case Study of the Italian Red
Brigades" Journal of Strategic Security Vol. III Iss. 3 (2010),
http://works.bepress.com/victor_sundquist/3/ (20.04.2018)
10) The Origins of the Name Irish Republican Army or Ira// IRISH NEWS AND
ANALYSIS, 27.09.2014, URL: https://ansionnachfionn.com/2014/09/27/the-origins-of-
the-name-irish-republican-army-or-ira/ (20.05.2018)
11) Ukrainian Insurgent Army//Fandom, 30.03.2016, URL:
http://speedydeletion.wikia.com/wiki/Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army (18.06.2018)
12) Ukrainian Insurgent Army//Wikipedia, URL:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army (13.06.2018)
Videos
1. Bandera doctrine and Ukrainian Insurgent Army (https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=kFAOfYQ7130)
2. The Downing Street mortar attack, carried out by the Provisional Irish Republican Army
(IRA) on 10 Downing Street, London, URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=TwCmQACV3qg
3. IRA Bombing in Manchester, (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GFpvfz8Ls4Y)
4. EuroNews getting at the truth of allegations of CIA involvement into Aldo Moro murder,
URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o3DdvEKgtgM
Module 5
POLITICAL NEGOTIATIONS AND POLITICAL
CONSENSUS
Brainstorming
1) Golden rules of negotiations; 2) personal traits of good negotiators; 3) bargaining and
negotiations; 4) main phases of negotiations; 5) possibility of political consensus; 6)
conflicts and compromises
Negotiations present one of the most important tactics in

diplomacy. Handle the following cites and give your
opinions about the issues:
1.… you don't get what you deserve, you get what you
negotiate. - Chester L. Karrass
2.. ..negotiations commonly follow a four step path:
preparation, information exchange, explicit bargaining, and
commitment. ...Negotiation is, in short, a kind of universal
dance with four stages or steps. And it works best when both
parties are experienced dancers." [11]
3. “A world without radio is a deaf world. A world without television is a blind world. A world
without telephone is a dumb world. A world without communication is indeed a crippled world.”
- Ernest A.Yeboah
4. Let us never negotiate out of fear. But let us never fear to negotiate. - J.F.Kennedy
5. As long as people are talking instead of fighting, nobody loses very much blood—unless he
happens to bite his tongue. - David Eddings
6. International peace negotiations need more value creation than value claiming. The more we
create value for peace and development, the easier it is going to be to claim value for nuclear
weapons free world. - Amit Ray
7. Willingness to meet halfway works well only if we are able to judge distance accurately. -
Faisal Khosa
8. Don't burn your bridges until you build better ones.” - Matshona Dhliwayo
9. Most people do not really want others to have freedom of speech, they just want others to be
given the freedom to say want they want to hear. - Mokokoma Mokhonoana
10. The unity of a great era is generally an illusion. - Harold Bloom
11. If you do not understand a man you cannot crush him. And if you do understand him, you
probably will not. - G.K.Chesterton
12. All civilizations have needed a stable basis of short term value. - Jay Weiser
2. INTRODUCTORY NOTES: POLITICAL NEGOTIATION

TECHNIQUES
Grassroots politics or lobbying isn’t always just about conflict [6] . Sometimes it’s about
negotiating and compromise. As Sun Tzu put it, “Better to take all under Heaven intact than to
fight”. If you can “win” without having to fight, expend resources, or potentially make enemies
that you might need as friends in the next fight, it’s always better.
There can be a lot of reasons to negotiate and compromise. From the reality that
“you’re going to lose” to “even if you win it will cost too much to fight it out”…or maybe you
just need to stall for time to fight later. However you arrive at the decision, you need to be just
as clear-eyed as to how to go about it as you would if you were starting a campaign.
Before you negotiate anything, make sure that you do your homework. What’s the
objective? What do you want or need? What represents a good deal? What could put you in a
better position to fight the next battle and make more progress in the future? What do the other
guys need, and why? What kind of pressure are they under to make a deal? What are your
strengths and weaknesses? What are theirs? Who needs to make a deal more? Decide what you
can afford to give up in order to get a good deal – and what you absolutely can’t negotiate.
Have a Plan
1. Don’t fly by the seat of your pants. Make sure that you have a reason for every
concession that you make…and that you get something in return for everything that you give up.
Otherwise, it’s not much of a compromise.
2. Negotiate From Strength. If you’re in a weak position, your best bet is to try to get
something that will either make you stronger next time, or buy more time to get stronger.
3. Never Go First. It’s a basic principle of negotiation that you should never be the
first one to name a price. Usually, that person loses. When you throw out the first offer, you’ve
given away some valuable information to the other side about how weak or strong you may be.
They will also know what you’re willing to give up…and then they’ll want more.
4. Shut Your Trap. Let the other side talk. You’ll learn more that way. Listen to what
they’re saying…and what they’re NOT saying. They might tip their hand. You’ll get a better
idea of what they really want or need.
5. Take Your Time. Don’t get in a hurry. Make the other side invest time. People
usually get impatient and want to “get it over with”…and then they mess up. Make sure that it’s
the other side, not you.
6. Have an Out. Always keep something in your pocket that’s your “out” if things
start to go the wrong way. Something you can blame it on when you have to call it off, without
damaging a relationship that you might need later.
7. Be Willing to Walk Away. If you seem too eager to make a deal, you’ll look
weak and they’ll take advantage of you. But if you go into a negotiation willing to just walk
away, it will show – and make your position look stronger.
8. It’s Not Personal, It’s Business. Stay focused on the deal and the moving
parts. Don’t let it get personal. In politics, the odds are that you may need to work with them
again in the future. Don’t be so pushy that the other guys feel trapped. Give them some room. As
Confucius put it, “Build a golden bridge of escape for your enemies”. Let them see the way out
that you want them to take. Remember, political negotiating and compromise are justmeans to an
end, the same as political conflict.
Just be sure that you know what defines a win that will help advance the “ends”.
The alternative to negotiations is confrontation which at some periods prevails in public
opinions over diplomatic settlement but these periods are of temporary duration [1]. After long
periods of confrontation there is always a need to settle the matter diplomatically. To really
understand how there can be a transition from military force to politics we need to understand
the nature of armed groups. Armed groups’ use of violence is often deeply ingrained.
Approaching this problem creatively, Clem McCartney posits three possible stances: a position
of militancy; a dual strategy in which force is the primary option but talks and ceasefires can be
used for tactical advantage; and a conflict transformation strategy. In influencing a transition to
the latter position, McCartney identifies elements on a notional weighing scale that might push a
group towards either militancy or conflict transformation.
When intermediaries and analysts think about armed conflict they often consider violence
an obstacle to a negotiated settlement and thus that one of the keys to unlocking a peace process
is the cessation of violence. Most armed groups have an analysis of their situation in which
armed action seems an inevitable, if unfortunate, component. However, the armed group is open
to tactical adjustments in its methods if it sees an opportunity and will manage its military
campaign to achieve the best advantage for itself. A ceasefire could give the opportunity for
regrouping militarily, presenting a more positive public image and so on. This kind of shift does
not imply a deeper change of orientation. But at some stage the military option will have to be
replaced by a negotiation process. Even if the military campaign is successful, a process for an
orderly handover of power is preferable and this requires some capacity to negotiate the end of
the war. So whether dealing with the state or armed groups we can distinguish three possible
positions:
 Militancy which believes that military force is the only option
 Dual strategy which still believes in the primacy of force but will use other
approaches for tactical advantage
 A conflict-transformation strategy
The question for the group is when a transition to a conflict transformation paradigm is
appropriate and whether it can manage that transition effectively. We can identify some of its
component elements and think of a set of weighing scales on one side of which are stacked a
series of elements tending towards militancy. They include: Lack of alternative option – council
of despair; Militant mindset; Commitment to the campaign; Avoidance of compromise; Control
of one's own destiny; Avoidance of splits. On the other side of the scales are other elements that
might tend towards a conflict transformation approach, including: Real opportunities for change;
Framework document on possible outcomes; Inherent weaknesses of the military option;
Legitimacy and recognition; Capacity to minimize risks and concerns; Guarantees and mutual
dependence; Third-party intermediaries.
In order to change direction, the group has to be satisfied that they will have tangible
benefits and real opportunities for change. They need to be able to show that more could be
gained from negotiations and dialogue than from the continuation of the struggle. They need
signs that there is space for alternative ways of relating to their opponents. The signs may be
small but must be enough to allow an internal debate to develop. For example the Irish
Republican movement was helped by the statement by the United Kingdom government that
they had no selfish or strategic interest in Northern Ireland and would leave if the people of
Northern Ireland asked them to leave. The Naga leadership in northeast India were helped by the
Indian government's statement that it recognised their special history.
It is not surprising that in preparing for talks the parties may be unduly optimistic in
looking for opportunities for change. For example, the armed group will often want some
agreement for the interim government of the areas they control and they will want to use these
arrangements to try to advance their legitimacy, while their opponents will resist conceding such
points as they will want to bargain over such recognition and safeguard their own interests. It
seems attractive to decide on interim arrangements before protracted negotiations start but
experience suggests that parties can only enter into negotiations when they have some idea of the
parameters of a settlement. A framework document outlining these parameters has often been an
effective element in bringing about a ceasefire and peace process.
A ceasefire is often demanded as a precondition for allowing militant groups to enter into
talks. In Sri Lanka the ceasefire in the conflict between the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
(LTTE) and the Sri Lankan government allowed direct talks to begin between the parties and
over time a number of states were willing to deal with the LTTE. An alternative scenario can
also be demonstrated from the Sri Lankan experience. One of the reasons the talks broke down
(though the ceasefire remains more or less intact) was the US government's refusal to allow the
LTTE to attend a donor meeting because it is still a proscribed organisation in the US.
A third-party intermediary may also provide guarantees in some situations, but this may
not be their most useful role in facilitating the shift from military action to political engagement.
Intermediaries can provide a framework for negotiations and invite the parties to take part. The
conflicting parties can then come together under the sponsorship of the intermediary rather than
one or other party being seen to be taking the lead. Problems of protocol and status can then be
avoided if a third party is willing to play an intermediary role. The Norwegian government has
played this role in relations between Israel and Palestine, in Sri Lanka and elsewhere. In the Sri
Lankan case they also tried to play the role of a guarantor and 'referee' and it has been argued
that in trying to fulfill the latter roles they made their task more difficult.
Rules of Collective Engagement and Negotiating Agreements in International Relations
Raw power, conflicting interests, and zero-sum territorial disputes motivate many
international conflicts, and the decision to negotiate is neither wise nor even moral when the
other side has ambitions for humiliation or annihilation [7]. No one believes that Roosevelt and
Churchill could have negotiated a win-win deal with Stalin at Yalta if they had had better
negotiation skills. But in cases that have the potential for mutual gain and realistic grounds for
trust, rules of engagement may help political actors achieve gains that exceed their anticipation
rewards from unilateral action. Negotiation myopia can become magnified in the international
setting because it is easier to take the perspective of others within one’s own culture.
In some situations, international actors have developed shared perspectives after outside
experts—perceived by all to be nonpartisan and unbiased—offer insights into multifaceted
problems. The use of an external third-party mediator (e.g., the United Nations) or a single
negotiating text also helps to deemphasize the purely political considerations in a conflict. For
example, the use of nonpartisan technical expertise was immensely important in developing the
Law of the Sea Convention, which created rules for regulating the mining of critical metals in the
deep ocean floor. First—and third—world countries were split over the rights to seabed
resources and the issue of private companies’ present and future payments for the use of this
common heritage. The impasse was overcome by a computer model developed by scientists at
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, which offered a value-free vehicle for resolving
exceedingly complicated questions in the payment scheme. Establishing a platform for
negotiation is vital to negotiating success among international units because this sets
opportunities for repeated interactions that build trust and shared understandings among diverse
interests.
3. CASE STUDY SET
Case 1: Third Party Intervener

There are occasions when the negotiating parties cannot ‘see the forest for the trees’.
They are unable to see past their own goals and interests which prevent them from arriving at a
successful agreement in their negotiations. These are the instances when a third party intervener
can help both parties find a solution to the dilemma that is plaguing their talks that have likely
stalled in a stalemate with no possible resolution in sight.
The Egyptian and Israeli conflict [12] of the mid 1970’s posed that kind of dilemma.
There were also peripheral parties that also posed problems for the negotiators. Syria had grave
concerns about the Palestinian issue while Israel had no particular desire to sit down and
negotiate with the Palestinian Liberation Organization. Egypt had concerns about the growing
influence of the Soviet Union in the Middle East Region. This tangle of opposing interests posed
quite a challenge to the negotiators to overcome.
However, extending the olive peace branch in hand, Anwar Sadat made his memorable
and historic trip to Jerusalem to hold talks with the Israeli Prime Minister, Menachem Begin.
President Sadat said he represented all of the Arab concerns in this matter and stated that he
wanted all the Israeli occupied areas to be returned before normal peaceful relations could be
established with Israel.
Begin believed that a separate peace with Egypt would offer Israel some stability and a
possible military advantage. However the issues were extensive and extremely complicated. It
began to appear there was no resolution possible in bringing some stability to the region.
However, despite the ongoing talks, the United States and in particular, President Carter and his
Secretary of State, Cyrus Vance, saw a possible opportunity to offer their services to act as third
party intervener and mediate a resolution.
In the interim, most of Sadat’s Arab allies had abandoned the peace talks leaving Israel
and Egypt to pursue their own talks. However, animosity began to build between Sadat and
Begin and the whole situation began to look hopeless. President Carter and Cyrus Vance took the
initiative and invited both Sadat and Begin to come to Washington separately where they met
with both parties to discuss their respective issues, concerns and objectives in the Middle East.
As negotiations went back and forth, it became apparent they could not resolve this on an
issue by issue basis. The U.S. negotiators, acting as third party intervener’s, began the process of
presenting a resolution package that is often described as ‘single negotiating text’, a device often
used in multiparty negotiations. Each text is revised and gradually makes both parties more
comfortable with each improvement made, thus allowing the contending parties to slowly find a
middle ground upon which they both can agree.
Finding neutral ground was crucial to this process, so the meetings between Begin and
Sadat took place at Camp David in the United States. Eventually, both parties found an effective
means to resolve their seemingly insolvable dispute when both Sadat and Begin signed the Camp
David Accord. This historic agreement resulted in that poignant moment when both leaders and
President Carter shook hands for the entire world to see.

1. Political portrait of Anwar Sadat
2. Israeli Prime Minister, Menachem Begin: Personality
3. American interests in the region
4. Influence of the Soviet Union in the Middle East Region
5. Syria’s concerns about the Palestinian issue
6. The role of the Palestinian Liberation Organization in the conflict
7. Consequences of Camp David Accord
8. The apple of discord in the Middle East: disputable territory of Sinai peninsula
9. The chronology of the conflict
2. Read the case and answer the following questions:

1. This case study shows how a weaker negotiating party can negotiate successfully with
a stronger negotiating party in an international agreement. Specify the main issues of the process
in question.
2. What was the main threat of the conflict to the Middle East countries?
3. What countries could be involved into the conflict?
4. Why was President Anwar Sadat so concerned about the USSR’s influence in the
Middle East?
5. What do you think about the location of the meetings?
6. Can the outcomes be different if they took place in some other country?
7. Do you think that the role of the third party is really so important? If so, give your
examples.
Give your interpretation of the notions:

To prevent from arriving at, to find a solution to the dilemma, to plague talks, to stallin a
stalemate, peripheral parties, grave concerns, tangle of opposing interests, to pose a challenge,
the olive peace branch, to be extremely complicated, third party intervener, to mediate a
resolution, to abandon the peace talks, animosity, to go back and forth, on an issue by issue
basis, a resolution package, ‘single negotiating text’, to find neutral ground, poignant moment,
divisive issues, the land of Judea, “Balfour Declaration”, to issuea declaration, Mandated
Palestine, rioting and pogroms against Jews, a history of enmity, to be partitioned into to be
declared , to reject a plan, to win decisively, concrete solutions, ‘War of Attrition' , retaliated
strategically, Intifadas” , Gaza Strip
Fill in the gaps:

Defining the Israeli - Palestinian Conflict
History created (1) d………... i………………………… between both Israelis and Palestinians
[5]. The land of (2)J………., was conquered by the Roman Empire and named Palestine and it
was further conquered and inhabited by Arabs for a thousand years. Before Britain conquered
Jerusalem and the surrounding area known to be Palestine, in November 1917, the “Balfour
Declaration” was 3) i………………. This declaration stated that Britain support the creation of a
National Homeland of the Jewish People in (4) M……..……….. P…………..without violating
the rights of the existing Arab population. This eventually led to (5) r………..andp……… …..
…..against Jews creating a (6)h……………of e……………..between Jews and Arabs.
Following the World War II (1939-1945), in which more than six million Jews were killed by the
Nazis, pressure increased for the creation of a Jewish State. The UN held that Palestine (7) be
p………………… into an Arab State and a Jewish State. In 1947, the United Nations General
Assembly adopted the partition plan and the modern state of Israel was created and
independence (8) was d………………..on 14 May 1948 and David Ben Gurion become the first
Prime Minister.
The Arabs (9)r…………….…..the partitioned plan and refused to recognize Israel and wars
broke out in 1948 known as ‘War of Independence' and the Jews (10) w………….
….d……………. expanding their State territories. The conflict continued to deepen without any
(11) c………………..…. s……………………... to the problems. In 1956, the second war broke
out with Egypt (Sinai War) and in 1967 another war occurred (Six-day War) followed by (12)
‘W………. of A………….….' in 1968 making the conflict worse. In 1973, the Arabs Countries
tried to invade and attack Israel but failed as Israel (13) r………………...s………………… to
defend herself. There were many terror raids and Israeli reprisals. In 1982 and 2006 war broke
out between Israel and Lebanon making hundreds of victims on both sides. Two (14)“I… ……..
………. in broke out in 1983 and 2000 and the violence continued to increased and thus reducing
the prospect of peace. In December 2008 Israel launched an unprecedented attack on (15)
G……..…… S…………….……. to stop the firing of short range missiles (rockets) leading to
the Israeli Palestinian peace talk to collapse.
Gaza Strip, to be declared, divisive issues, issues, Judea, history of enmity, Mandated Palestine,
to be partitioned, rioting and pogroms, rejected, War of Attrition, concrete solutions, to win
decisively, Intifadas, retaliate strategically
The Middle East conflict is framed as one of the most complex problems in the world.
But, in reality, it's very simple. Israelis want to live in peace and are willing to accept a
neighboring Palestinian state. And most Palestinians do not want Israel to exist. As Dennis
Prager explains, this is really all we need to know. In 5 minutes, understand how Israel was
founded, and how, since that auspicious day in 1948, its neighbors have tried to destroy it, again
and again. Watch the film (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8EDW88CBo-8) and write down
the events according to the following chronology:
1947
1948
1967
Few months after the events of 1967
1978
2000
2. Watch the film for the second time and give the background information of the notions.
1. The role of Gamal Abdel Nasser
2. 3 NO (s)
3. the West Bank
4. 95% of the West Bank and all of Gaza
5. the waves of suicidal terrorists
6. One side wants the other side dead
Render the information of the film
4. Written Assignments: case analysis

Suggest your case analysis according to the Harvard business-school format. Divide the
group into 2 teams. The teams should choose either Palestine or Israel for the case analysis and
develop the case for the country. The task is to assess the perspective of the countries in the
conflict.
Case 2: Negotiation Frameworks
On a scorching summer day in August,1990, the citizens of Kuwait stared in puzzlement

at the encroaching, dusty streams of what appeared to be a pending desert sandstorm, creeping
ominously towards them from across the forbidding dessert [10]. To their dismay and horror
filled eyes, the quaking citizenry had become helpless witnesses to the advancing units of
Saddam Hussein’s Iraqi army, relentlessly engaged in the illegal invasion of their homeland.
There had been no warning of this pending disaster. Kuwaiti resistance was swept aside much
like one casually brushes away a crumb from one’s lapel.
After six days, Hussein declared that he had annexed Kuwait. The world was stunned by
Hussein’s audacity, and the Middle East became very anxious about what the future may hold
for this unsettled region. By August 30, the Arab League, called by President Mubarak of Egypt,
attempted to defuse this potentially explosive crisis through applying negotiation skills. The
Arab League proposed to Hussein that if he would withdraw his troops, they were prepared to
offer him several concessions. Through several negotiations, the Arab League eventually framed
a very generous negotiation proposal that they attempted to present to Hussein in a packaged
offer.
The three major negotiation concessions offered to Iraq were as follows;.
1) Iraq would take control of the Ramilla oilfields, which Hussein claimed had been
stolen from Iraq in their ongoing border dispute with Kuwait.
2) Iraqis would take possession of Bubiyan Island, which was an island located in the
Persian Gulf, and which abutted closely to the Iraqi shoreline.
3) The third concession entailed the wiping out or renegotiating of a $14 billion war debt
that Iraq held with Kuwait since the Iran-Iraq war. This last concession was still open to
considerable negotiation, allowing plenty of latitude for pending discussions.
Hussein had two ways to view how he could frame the Arab League’s proposal. He could
look at it from the viewpoint of what he would win if he did withdraw his troops, or he could
consider what he might stand to lose if he withdrew his troops – two very different perspective
frameworks of the same situation. In the end, he chose unwisely.
Hussein chose to take the perspective of what he would lose. The princely concessions
presented by the Arab League were disdainfully refused by the arrogant Hussein with little
consideration. He decided that since he already occupied all of Kuwait, anything else would be
seen as a loss to him as he was now in possession of all of Kuwait and its incumbent resources
anyway.
He could have viewed it from the alternative position of all that he would have won for
just a few weeks work, and would have received as concessions from the Arab League’s
proposal. The Iraqi leader might have been thinking about his decision as a powerful coalition of
allied forces dogged his beleaguered and battered army which was retreating deep into the
heartland of Hussein’s native Iraq, leaving its charred carnage in its wake. It was costly lesson to
learn. Is the glass half – or is it half full? How you view it can mean everything.
1. Saddam Hussein: political portrait
2. Economic situation in Iraq after the Gulf War
3. Ethnic and religious composition of the population: territorial distribution
4. History of the country and its political structure
5. Army and military: number, skills, facilities
6. Arab League: place, role, influence
7. What is Kuwait: origin and current geopolitical place
8. Oil wealth of the Middle East
Read the text and answer the following questions:

1. What was the greatest surprise for citizens of Kuwait in August 1990?
2. What army did Kuwait possess?
3. How long did it take for Saddam Hussein to annex Kuwait?
4. Who undertook the burden of settling the war conflict?
5. What were the main proposals from the Arab League? (check whether the situation
was really the one as described in the text)
6. Why was it important for Iraq to return the Ramilla oilfields?
7. What was the sum of the contribution due?
8. Why did S.Hussein refuse the proposals?
9. How did he view the situation “ is the glass half-empty? Orr half-full”?
10. What is your approach?
Find the sentences in the text to illustrate the usage of the following vocabulary, give
your interpretation of these notions
To stare in puzzlement, a pending desert sandstorm, the forbidding dessert, dismay and
horror, advancing units, illegal invasion, pending disaster, swept aside resistance, annexed
Kuwait, stunned by audacity, this unsettled region, potentially explosive crisis, negotiation
skills, to offer several concessions, a generous negotiation proposal, a packaged offer, ongoing
border dispute, take possession of Bubiyan Island, to abut closely to shoreline, to wipe out, to
renegotiate war debt, plenty of latitude for …., pending discussions, to frame the Arab League’s
proposal, different perspective frameworks, disdainfully refuse, with little consideration,
incumbent resources, coalition of allied forces, to dog beleaguered and battered army.
Fill in the gaps:

America's Greatest Fear
In early August 1990, the Iraqi Army executed a nearly ………………………………….(1) to
seize and occupy Kuwait [4]. Iraqi forces had grown …………………………………….. (2) in
the final year of the Iran-Iraq War, and they ……………………………..(3) Kuwaiti resistance
with little difficulty. What came next is well-known; the Iraqis hunkered down in the belief that
the United States and its allies would ……………………………….(4) from a direct military
confrontation over the future of Kuwait. The Bush administration assembled an impressive
coalition of forces, and ……………………………….………(5) Kuwait with trivial casualties.
Although the Bush administration and the U.S. military did not expect an Iraqi invasion of
Kuwait, U.S. officials would not have been surprised if Iraqi forces had followed up with an
invasion of Saudi Arabia. The first American response would have involved ………………..
…………………(6) to the region, likely followed by a small airborne force. Notably, U.S.
commanders didn’t expect the ………………………………………(7) to have much of a chance
of stopping Iraqi ………………………………………...(8), although air commanders were
initially quite optimistic about the potential for ………………………………..(9) Iraqi logistics.
During the Cold War, the Army and the Air Force often butted heads over the appropriate
strategies for defeating enemy forces. To………………………….. …(10) of the commanders at
the time, however, these tensions did not re-emerge immediately in the wake of the Iraqi
invasion. General Norman Schwarzkopf was, by almost all accounts, genuinely solicitous of Air
Force ideas for stopping, and ………………………………(11) pushing back, the Iraqi forces.
Could the Iraqi Army have sustained ……………………………….(12) into Saudi Arabia? Into
the northern border areas, perhaps. Into the interior, probably not. The Iraqi Army had little
experience with …………………………………(13) over forbidding terrain and managing
……………………………………….(14) with huge fuel and ammunition requirements is no
small task. Most of the fighting in the Iran-Iraq War had taken place along a relatively small
region of the border. American, and even Saudi, …………………………..(15) would have
greatly complicated the already overwhelming task facing Iraqi logisticians.
To shy away, the deployment of air assets, a heavily armored force, brushed aside, flawless
operation, disrupting, armored spearheads, the credit, airstrikes , increasingly lethal, tossed …
from, the deployment of air assets, potentially, an advance, long range logistics
Mr. Allsop History site suggests an interesting approach to the development of Kuwait-Iraq in
the review: Origins of the Gulf War revision for IGCSE & GCSE History (the invasion of
Kuwait) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bQnafQ35Seg.
Listen to the recording and mark the statements as true or false:

1. The film focuses on the origin of the 1 st Gulf war with a particular focus on Saddam
Hussein’s ambitions
2. The origin of the problem can be traced back many years to the period of the middle
ages
3. Iraq and Kuwait had been ruled by France for nearly 200 years
4. The long-term tension began to seep out into open following the crash of the USSR
5. Saddam Hussein borrowed $ 48 bln from the USA for the war.
6. Talks between Kuwait and Iran began in July 1990
7. USA said they had no interest in Kuwait and would not get involved into the matter.
8. Iraq asked for Ramilla oil field being returned to the country
9. 300000 military personnel invaded Kuwait
10. Saddam Hussein installed a joint Iraq-Saudi government to rule Kuwait
11. The UN passed a resolution condemning the invasion
12. UN resolutions 661, and 665 introduced economic sanctions both on Iraq and Iran. .
13. Iraq controlled more than 50% of world’s oil
14. America became concerned that Saddam might invade and seize control of the
Kuwaiti oil fields
15. The Carter doctrine was implemented by Germany
16. 54 separate countries joined the coalition forces against Iraq.
Watch the film for the second time and render the information with your comments
4. Written assignments: case analysis

Use your educated guess and assess S. Hussein’s position with the help of SWOT, the
following video can be of help (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bQnafQ35Seg). Present the
case-analysis in a written form. (the following information can be useful: the greatest threat for
Americans and their allies, URL:http://nationalinterest.org/feature/americas-greatest-fear-what-
if-saddam-had-invaded-saudi-12589)
Case 3: President Harry Truman's dismissal of General Douglas

MacArthur from Korea (failed negotiations and lack of consensus)
This feature film is recommended to better understand the case:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XGh_IOuBKKc) as well as the clip “5 things about Douglas
Mac Arthur (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jD646vy4Vvw). The American approach is
that in 1951 President Harry Truman's dismissal of General Douglas MacArthur from Korea
occurred as a result of bureaucratic politics. Watch the clip and use the following expressions in
your own situations to describe MacArthur’s personality:
1) Signature corncob pipe

2) President of the American Olympic Committee
3) To lose gracefully
4) The medal of Honor

5) A regimental flag
6) Invasion of the Philippine Island
7) One of the highest academic merits in the history of West Point
8) To double the school’s enrollment
9) To rise to the rank of the Brigadier General
10) To use one’s expertise
11) To be placed in command
12) To force smb’s retreat
13) To be fired from command
14) To be interrupted 50 times by ovations
Players' Positions
President Harry Truman was a strong, decisive leader. He relished the role of the
‘Commander in Chief" and was at his best in a crisis. He saw his role "as the man-in-charge of
government, as the maker of a record for his party, and as voice for the whole body of
Americans." The President, as the nation's "Boss-and- Spokesman", was the final authority for
all policy decisions. Truman was sensitive to any challenge to his role as decision-maker or to
the dignity of the position of President.
Truman cultivated a modest, unassuming public image. He played pacer, drank bourbon,
and cursed on occasion [2]. He dressed simply and his appearance was described by one
historian as that of a "main street shopkeeper." However, underneath this carefully devised
persona, he possessed a keen intellect and was a peerless politician. Truman never met
MacArthur before the start of the Korean War; however he had a strong preconceived dislike for
the General. Truman invited MacArthur back to the United States on several occasions before
the start of the Korean war. MacArthur always claimed pressing duties precluded him from
coming. MacArthur should have interpreted these invitations as an order, but he didn't.
General of the Army Douglas MacArthur was seventy years old at the outbreak of the
Korean War. He had been a General for thirty-two years. Twenty years earlier he had been
Herbert Hoover's Chief of Staff of the Army. He had no peers on active duty. President Franklin
Roosevelt had been cautious in dealing with MacArthur during World War II. His performance
in the Southwest Pacific Theater was nothing short of legendary. However, many contemporaries
noted his flaws as well. «An obsession for self-glorification, almost no consideration for other
men with whom he served, and contempt for the judgment of his superiors.
MacArthur lived in almost complete isolation in Japan. The Japanese people treated him
almost as a deity. He never returned to the United States after the war, even for a short visit. In
fact, he spent fourteen years outside of the United States. His staff was composed almost entirely
of sycophants, who constantly massaged his ego. Because MacArthur rarely traveled, even in
Japan, he was entirely dependent on his staff for input. MacArthur never adjusted to the change
in leadership styles between Roosevelt and Truman. Truman was much more sensitive of his
position, authority and role as the president, than was Roosevelt.
Truman's most implacable political foes'
The Secretary of State was Dean Acheson. Acheson was the most influential advisor to
President Truman. Acheson was Truman's most trusted confidant. The President admired
Acheson's judgment and intellect. More important, he was comfortable expressing his innermost
thoughts and political views with him. No one had more power with the President than the
Secretary of State'
Dean Acheson had an implacable hatred for MacArthur. He had four major clashes with
the General before the Korean War and had lost all four. In 1945, he had opposed the retention
of the Emperor in Japan while MacArthur undercut the President's demobilization policy and
announced that since the Japanese were behaving he needed only 200,000 men in Japan. Truman
acquiesced to this statement. At the time Acheson held a press conference in which he criticized
MacArthur and pointed out that policy was "being made in Washington and not in the field’.
In April 1946, Acheson did not feel the Japanese ready for free elections. MacArthur
ignored Acheson's people were recommendation and held the elections. So in March 1949,
Acheson recommended that military and political positions be separated. When MacArthur
discovered this plot, he contacted his Republican supporters in Congress and they quickly
defeated it. After four defeats, Acheson intensely disliked MacArthur.
Senator Robert Taft and the conservatives in the Republican party were avid supporters
of MacArthur. Taft had presidential aspirations. The Republicans disagreed with Truman's policy
that Europe was essential to American security. After the 1948 election they viewed Truman as
vulnerable. They rejected bipartisanship. Taft said, "We cannot possibly win the next election,
unless we point out the utter failure and incapacity of the present administration to conduct
foreign policy and cite the loss of China and the Korean War as typical examples.'
Players' Preferences
In the ten months, rune 1950-April 1951, MacArthur openly questioned the policy and
strategy of President Truman and his administration. Truman and Acheson sought to keep the
Korean War limited while focusing on the defense of Europe. MacArthur, engaged in a combat
in Korea, saw that theater as the most important.
He wanted to avoid a costly showdown with the General. As a consummate politician,
Truman realized a fight with MacArthur would not be good for the Democratic Party. After
December 1950, as the Chinese forces pushed south, MacArthur became increasingly concerned
with his reputation. He wanted to end his career in victory. Taft and the Republicans constantly
sought MacArthur's views in an attempt to discredit the President and his policies. Acheson was
the President's principal advisor advocating MacArthur's relief. Acheson's advice became critical
because the Joint Chiefs and Marshall tried to avoid the issue. However in the end, Marshall also
would lend his considerable influence with Truman in advocating MacArthur's relief.
The First Compromise
MacArthur sent a message to the Veterans of Foreign Wars, on August 28, 1950, in
which he opposed the "abandonment of Formosa» The Republicans, adhering to their strategy of
attacking the administration’s foreign policy, lumped on MacArthur's statement. Acheson
reacted to the Republican attack by demanding MacArthur's relief. Acheson said, "that this
insubordination could not be tolerated'
Truman's response was mild. He sent A. Harriman to MacArthur's headquarters to
explain the President's policy. Harriman explained that Truman wanted to avoid a confrontation
with Communist China. MacArthur didn't agree, but told Harriman he would obey orders.
Another Compromise was at Wake Island. After MacArthur's brilliant victory at Inchon,
Truman decided it was time the two met. The first, and the only meeting, between MacArthur
and Truman took place at Wake Island on 15 October 1950. At this point in the war, the North
Korean Army was in full retreat. The South Korean government was restored and the unifying of
all Korea under a democratic government was up in the air. MacArthur's popularity was at an all
time high so Truman tried to capitalize on this military success in the mid-term elections. The
actual meeting only lasted one hour and thirty-six minutes. Unfortunately, Truman and
MacArthur didn't take the advantage of this opportunity to establish a personal rapport. Truman
held a press conference and said there was a "very complete unanimity of view.'
The 1950 elections were a disaster for the Democratic Party. Truman was in the "depths
of despair.' The Republicans had successfully exploited the loss of China. The political climate
in Washington grew worse for Truman after the communist Chinese entered the war. MacArthur
issued a statement on December 1stprotesting orders forbidding him to attack bases in China.
Again Truman's response was mild [3].
MacArthur Crosses the Line
On March 24, as the State Department attempted to negotiate a peace with the North
Koreans, MacArthur issued an ultimatum to the enemy commander. He demanded their
immediate surrender. MacArthur had issued two previous surrender demands, once after the
Inchon landing and again after the capture of the North Korean capital. Truman felt that this
statement was "a challenge to the authority of the President."
Truman called in his principal advisors, Marshall, Acheson and Bradley, for advice.
Marshall recommended caution. He recommended that the President call MacArthur back to the
United States for consultation. Bradley also advised caution. He did not want to cause any
action which would provoke an attack from the 'primitives' in the Republican Party. Acheson
was adamant that MacArthur should go. Acheson articulated the President's fears. He said that to
recall MacArthur for consultations was the "road to disaster."" Acheson saw an alliance between
MacArthur and the 'primitives'. This would destroy Truman.
Marshall, after hearing Acheson's careful assessment, agreed that MacArthur should not
be brought home for consultation. Marshall tried for several days to find an alternative solution.
He agreed that MacArthur should go, but was concerned with the political fallout. In the end,
Marshall and all the Joint Chiefs of Staff, recommended relief." Based on the advice of his
advisors, Truman regardless of the political fallout decided to dismiss MacArthur.
MacArthur was a casualty of bureaucratic politics. MacArthur's failure to establish a
personal relationship with President Truman proved fatal. MacArthur and Truman relied on
advisors to interpret the intentions of each other. MacArthur's only friends in Washington were
the conservatives in the Republican Party. These friends did not endear him to Truman. The
more Taft attacked the President's policy, the more isolated MacArthur became. He had no
friends in the military to defend him. MacArthur needed more than silence and neutrality. He
needed someone to tell him the truth. In the end Marshall's loss of confidence in MacArthur
influenced Truman. Marshall tried to find an alternative solution but couldn't. Marshall was the
last advisor to advocate relief. When he did so, Truman listened. Eventually MacArthur's ego,
misconceptions, and poor choice in allies made him a victim of bureaucratic politics.
1. Harry Truman’s political portrait
2. Chronology of Mac Arthur’s glorious victories
3. George Catlett Marshall, Chief of Staff of the United States, Secretary of state and
Secretary of Defense under F. Roosevelt and H. Truman
4. Gooderham Acheson – “grey eminence” of American political establishment.
Designer of the Cold War, the NATO, the Truman doctrine and the Marshall plan
5. Republican Taft political family
6. American interests in Korea
7. American heroes after the WW II
8. Southwest Pacific Theater and American “national interests”
9. South Korea versus North Korea

1. What type of a political leader was Harry Truman?
2. Why did President Truman have a preconceived dislike for General Mac Arthur?
3. How did it happen that Acheson became the most trusted confidant of the President?
4. Why did Dead Acheson hate Douglas Mac Arthur?
5. Who were the main supporters of General MacArthur in Washington?
6. What important event took place at Wake Island?
7. Why were the elections of the 1950 a disaster for the Democratic Party?
8. When and why did General Mac Arthur cross the line?
9. Who recommended President Truman to call General Mac Arthur back for
consultation?
10. What was wrong with the Republican’ tactics of defending General Mac Arthur?
Give your interpretation of the following notions:
Commander in Chief, the nation's "Boss-and- Spokesman", to be sensitive to any challenge to...,
to cultivate an unassuming public image, to curse on occasion, "main street shopkeeper", a
peerless politician, preconceived dislike for…, to claim pressing duties, to be cautious in dealing
with MacArthur, an obsession for self-glorification, a contempt for the judgment of his superiors,
to be composed of sycophants, the most trusted confidant, to have an implacable hatred for…, to
undercut the President's demobilization policy, to discovered the plot, to reject bipartisanship, to
avoid a costly showdown with…, to oppose the "abandonment of Formosa» to be in full retreat,
a very complete unanimity of view, to issue an ultimatum to…, to demand immediate surrender,
to advise caution, the 'primitives' in the Republican Party, to be concerned with political fallout,
not to endear smb. to smb.
Find the sentences in the text to illustrate the usage of the above-listed vocabulary.
Fill in the gaps:

The background of the controversy
On June 25, 1950, the Korean People's Army of North Korea invaded the Republic of
Korea [8]. In the first phase of the war, American forces under General Douglas MacArthur,
deployed from Japan, (1)……………………. the small South Korean Army. Initially, the allies
were (2)…………….… to a small perimeter at the base of the Korean Peninsula. The bleak
tactical situation, during this phase of the war, resulted in MacArthur's recommendation to
(3…………………………… offered by Chlang Kai Shek. On August 28, 1950, General

MacArthur sent a letter to the Veterans of Foreign Wars which "opposed appeasement and (4)
…………………….which would lead to the abandonment of Formosa. It was later withdrawn
at White House request.
Phase two of the war began with General MacArthur's (5)……………………… landing
at Inchon. This brilliant (6)…………………….. resulted in the destruction of the North Korean
forces south of the 38th parallel. Seoul was liberated and the Chlang Kai Shek’s government (7)
………………... Thus the original political objective of the war was achieved. However, the
allies crossed the 38th parallel to (8) …………………….. the destruction of the North Korean
Army. The political objective of the war had changed from restoring the 38 thparallel
reunification of Korea which was to be accomplished without(9) ……………………..… the
Chinese into the war. On October 15, 1950, President Truman and General MacArthur met at
Wake Island. After this meeting President Truman announced that a very complete (10)
…………………………………..… was reached with General MacArthur over Pacific policy.'
On November 27, 1950, four Communist Chinese Armies attacked the United Nations
forces and drove them back. This (11) …………………….. the third phase of the war. General
MacArthur released (12) ………………………which protested orders not to attack Chinese
Communist forces north of the Korean border as "an enormous (13) …………………. without
precedent in military history. Five days later President Truman directed that in the future
General MacArthur (14)……………………..all press releases and statements concerning
foreign policy through the Secretary of Defense. Despite this directive, General MacArthur
undercut the President's peace initiative by publishing an (15)……………………………..
surrender demand on March 24th. After this paper letter was read on the floor of the House of
Representatives, General MacArthur was relieved.
installed, defeatism, provoking, to reinforce, to complete, maneuver, amphibious, unanimity of
view, to be driven back, insulting, use troops, commenced, a statement, handicap, clear,
Truman's decision came on April 11, 1951, President Harry Truman announced with "deep
regret" that he had dismissed General Douglas MacArthur as commanding general of U.S. forces
in the Korean War. (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X3aCIfVhW7w )
Truman's decision came after MacArthur repeatedly criticized the president's policies,
advocating a more aggressive strategy even as Truman sought to limit the war. After his
announcement, the president faced intense criticism while MacArthur returned home to a hero's
welcome, including an address to a joint session of Congress and a ticker-tape parade through
New York City in his honor. However, the controversy slowly subsided as most Americans--and
U.S. generals--made it clear that they opposed MacArthur's military strategy. General Omar
Bradley famously said that MacArthur's policies "would involve us in the wrong war, at the
wrong place, at the wrong time, and with the wrong enemy."
Listen to the recording and fill in the gaps:

1. A bedrock principle of American politics is ….(1) ……………………...
2. President Truman dismissed General Mac as ..(2) ………………………………….. of
US forces in Korea.
3. He fought with …(3) …………………………………. in the WW I.
4. Mac Arthur vowed : “ I shall return” and …(4) ………………………………

5. He is one of only five Americans to ever hold the rank of …(5) ………………………
6. He accepted Japan’s …(6) ……………………………………. in September 1945.
7. He ran the US occupation of Japan …(7) ……………………………...
8. Mac Arthur ordered one of the most daring and successful operations in (8)
……………………………….
9. The most brilliant operation of all times was the (9) ………………………. assault at
Inchon.
10. Some 300 000 …..(10) ………………………………. came to North Korea’s defense.
11. Truman refused to …(11) …………………………………. on targets in China.
12. Mac Arthur wrote a letter to the Republican speaker of the House criticizing the …(12)
…………………………………………………...
13. Truman decided that our Big General in the Far East …(13) ……………………………..
14. President Truman declared that world peace is much more important than …(14)
…………………………...
15. Some …(15) ………………………………… watched on TV as Mac Arthur gave as
address to the Congress.
16. “I am an old general who tried to ….(16) …………………………….. as God gave him
the light to see that duty”
17. ….(17) ………………………….. called Truman’s impeachment.
18. President Truman was …(18) ……………………….. booed in the 1950s.
19. The Mac Arthur’s strategy would involve us in the wrong war, at the wrong place, at the
wrong time and with the …(19) …………………………………………..
20. The US military always ….(20) ……………………………………..to the war
Render the information of the video, comment on it, using your educated guess.
4. Written assignment: case analyzes

For forty years, historians have portrayed this decision as a straight-forward conflict
between two strong-willed individuals. In reality, the President's decision was a result of a
breakdown in communication due to misconceptions, inadequate third party advice, and partisan
politics.' What is your point of view about the matter?
The decision to dismiss General MacArthur can be analyzed using Graham T. Allison's
Governmental Politics Paradigm. What is this Paradigm? Use available sources to find out the
information. Is it useful for a politician to use it in his/her activity?
Develop the case using Graham Allison’s Governmental Politics Paradigm or analyze it
with the help of Harvard format. Prepare the case analysis in a written form.
Bibliography:
1) Clem McCartney.Choosing to engage: Armed groups and peace processes http://www.c-
r.org/accord/engaging-armed-groups/armed-struggle-political-negotiation-why-when-
how
2) Doctrines- The Truman Doctrine//Encyclopedia of the New American Nation,
http://www.americanforeignrelations.com/A-D/Doctrines-The-truman-doctrine.html
(12.03.2018)
3) Douglas MacArthur//Wikipedia, URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur

(18.06.2018)
4) Farley R. America's Greatest Fear: What If Saddam Had Invaded Saudi
Arabia?//The National Interest, 9.04.2015
5) Israel Palestine Conflict//International relations, Know the World, URL:
http://internationalrelations.org/israel-palestine-conflict/ (12.06.2018)
6) MacKissick D.. Basic Political Negotiation Techniques//Campaigns, Opinions &
Activism, http://drewmckissick.com/basic-political-negotiation-techniques/
7) Mansbridge J., Martin C. Negotiating Agreement in Politics// Report of the Task Force
on Negotiating Agreement in Politics, Boston – Harvard: American Political Science
Association, December 2013 – 158 pp.
8) Millett A. Korean War 1950-1953// Encyclopedia Britannica, 19.06.2018, URL:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Korean-War
9) Negotiating Agreement in Politics Report of the Task Force on Negotiating Agreement in
Politics Edited by Jane Mansbridge and Cathie Jo Martin December 2013
10) Negotiation style and frameworks// DocSlide, URL:
https://documents.tips/documents/negotiation-style-and-frameworks-1.html (11.05.2018)
11) Shell G. Richard Bargaining for Advantage: Negotiation Strategies for Reasonable
People. Penguin Publishing – 2006
12) UK essays, URL: https://www.ukessays.com
Video:
1) The Middle East conflict as one of the most complex problems in the world, URL:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8EDW88CBo-8
2) Origins of the Gulf War revision for IGCSE & GCSE History (the invasion of Kuwait),
URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bQnafQ35Seg
3) A feature film about the dismissal of General MacAthur, URL:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XGh_IOuBKKc
4) 5 things about Douglas Mac Arthur URL:https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=jD646vy4Vvw
5) Truman's decision of April 11, 1951, URL:https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=X3aCIfVhW7w )
Module 6
POLITICAL TECHNOLOGIES: COLOR REVOLUTIONS
Brainstorming
1) The Arab Spring; 2) Maidan Nezalezhnosti; 3) Neurolinguistic programming; 4) NGOs
and color revolutions; 5) George Soros and his involvement into coup-d’états; 6) the
Open Society Foundation: 7) democracy versus dictatorship; 8) Gene Sharp – the father
of color revolutions technology
Read the
quotations and
interpret them:
1. Politics is the
art of looking for
trouble, finding it
whether it exists or
not, diagnosing it
incorrectly, and
applying the wrong
remedy. - Ernest Benn
2. All people are
born alike — except
Republicans and
Democrats. - Groucho
Marx
3 The hardest thing about any political campaign is how to win without proving that you
are unworthy of winning. - Adlai Stevenson
4 I offer my opponents a bargain: if they will stop telling lies about us, I will stop telling
the truth about them. -Adlai Stevenson
5 Instead of giving a politician the keys to the city, it might be better to change the locks. -
Doug Larson
6 “The greatest and most powerful revolutions often start very quietly, hidden in the
shadows. Remember that.” - Richelle Mead
7 “If you want to rebel, rebel from inside the system. That's much more powerful than
rebelling outside the system.” – Marie Lu
8 Poverty is the parent of revolution and crime.” Aristotle
9 Freedom in capitalist society always remains about the same as it was in ancient Greek
republics: Freedom for slave owners.” - Vladimir Lenin
10 Those who make peaceful revolution impossible will make violent revolution inevitable."
– John Kennedy
11 Even the strongest blizzards start with a single snowflake.” – Sara Raasch
12 There are decades where nothing happens; and there are weeks where decades happen.” –
Vladimir Lenin
13 “When widely followed public figures feel free to say anything, without any fact-
checking, it becomes impossible for a democracy to think intelligently about big issues.”
– Thomas L. Friedman
14 “The ruling power is always faced with the question, ‘In such and such circumstances,
what would you do?’, whereas the opposition is not obliged to take responsibility or
make any real decisions.” - George Orwell
15 “The art of those who govern consists above all in the science of employing words.” –
Gustave Le Bon
16 Politics, it seems to me, for years, or all too long, has been concerned with right or left
instead of right or wrong. - Richard Armour
17 We are weary of politicians' politicians. We want ours. - Gerald Stanley Lee
18 In order to become the master, the politician poses as the servant. Charles de Gaulle
19 George Washington is the only president who didn't blame the previous administration
for his troubles. - Author Unknown
20 An election is coming. Universal peace is declared, and the foxes have a sincere interest
in prolonging the lives of the poultry. - George Eliot
21 Democrats think the glass is half full. Republicans think the glass is theirs. - Author
unknown
2.INTRODUCTORY NOTES: FROM DICTATORSHIP TO DEMOCRACY:

A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR LIBERATION (by Gene Sharp)
When one wants to bring down a dictatorship most effectively and with the least cost then
one has four immediate tasks [8]: One must strengthen the oppressed population themselves in
their determination, self-confidence, and resistance skills; One must strengthen the independent
social groups and institutions of the oppressed people; One must create a powerful internal
resistance force; and One must develop a wise grand strategic plan for liberation and implement
it skillfully. A liberation struggle is a time for self-reliance and internal strengthening of the
struggle group. Against a strong self-reliant force, given wise strategy, disciplined and
courageous action, and genuine strength, the dictatorship will eventually crumble. Minimally,
however, the above four requirements must be fulfilled.
Negotiations are a very useful tool in resolving certain types of issues in conflicts and
should not be neglected or rejected when they are appropriate. In some situations where no
fundamental issues are at stake, and therefore a compromise is acceptable, negotiations can be an
important means to settle a conflict. A labor strike for higher wages is a good example of the
appropriate role of negotiations in a conflict: a negotiated settlement may provide an increase
somewhere between the sums originally proposed by each of the contending sides. When the
issues at stake are fundamental, affecting religious principles, issues of human freedom, or the
whole future development of the society, negotiations do not provide a way of reaching a
mutually satisfactory solution. Negotiations, of course, may not be an option at all. Firmly
entrenched dictators who feel secure in their position may refuse to negotiate with their
democratic opponents. Or, when negotiations have been initiated, the democratic negotiators
may disappear and never be heard from again.
When the dictatorship is strong but an irritating resistance exists, the dictators may wish
to negotiate the opposition into surrender under the guise of making "peace." The call to
negotiate can sound appealing, but grave dangers can be lurking within the negotiating room. On
the other hand, when the opposition is exceptionally strong and the dictatorship is genuinely
threatened, the dictators may seek negotiations in order to salvage as much of their control or
wealth as possible. In neither case should the democrats help the dictators achieve their goals.
Recent history shows the vulnerability of dictatorships, and reveals that they can crumble in a
relatively short time span: whereas ten years — 1980-1990 — were required to bring down the
Communist dictatorship in Poland, in East Germany and Czechoslovakia in 1989 it occurred
within weeks. In El Salvador and Guatemala in 1944 the struggles against the entrenched brutal
military dictators required approximately two weeks each. The militarily powerful regime of the
Shah in Iran was undermined in a few months. The Marcos dictatorship in the Philippines fell
before people power within weeks in 1986: the United States government quickly abandoned
President Marcos when the strength of the opposition became apparent. The attempted hard-line
coup in the Soviet Union in August 1991 was blocked in days by political defiance. Thereafter,
many of its long dominated constituent nations in only days, weeks, and months regained their
independence.
Three whence comes the power?
Achieving a society with both freedom and peace is of course no simple task. It will
require great strategic skill, organization, and planning. Above all, it will require power.
Democrats cannot hope to bring down a dictatorship and establish political freedom without the
ability to apply their own power effectively.
But how is this possible? What kind of power can the democratic opposition mobilize
that will be sufficient to destroy the dictatorship and its vast military and police networks? The
answers lie in an oft ignored understanding of political power. Learning this insight is not really
so difficult a task. Some basic truths are quite simple. A Fourteenth Century Chinese parable by
Liu-Ji, for example, outlines this neglected understanding of political power quite well: In the
feudal state of Chu an old man survived by keeping monkeys in his service. The people of Chu
called him "ju gong" (monkey master). Each morning, the old man would assemble the monkeys
in his courtyard, and order the eldest one to lead the others to the mountains to gather fruits from
bushes and trees. It was the rule that each monkey had to give one-tenth of his collection to the
old man. Those who failed to do so would be ruthlessly flogged. All the monkeys suffered
bitterly, but dared not complain.
One day, a small monkey asked the other monkeys: "Did the old man plant all the fruit
trees and bushes?" The others said: "No, they grew naturally." The small monkey further asked:
"Can't we take the fruits without the old man's permission?" The others replied: "Yes, we all
can." The small monkey continued: "Then, why should we depend on the old man; why must we
all serve him?" Before the small monkey was able to finish his statement, all the monkeys
suddenly became enlightened and awakened. On the same night, watching that the old man had
fallen asleep, the monkeys tore down all the barricades of the stockade in which they were
confined, and destroyed the stockade entirely. They also took the fruits the old man had in
storage, brought all with them to the woods, and never returned. The old man finally died of
starvation. Yu-li-zi says, "Some men in the world rule their people by tricks and not by righteous
principles. Aren't they just like the monkey master? They are not aware of their muddle-
headedness. As soon as their people become enlightened, their tricks no longer work."
The principle is simple. Dictators require the assistance of the people they rule, without
which they cannot secure and maintain the sources of political power. These sources of political
power include: Authority, the belief among the people that the regime is legitimate, and that they
have a moral duty to obey it; Human resources, the number and importance of the persons and
groups which are obeying, cooperating, or providing assistance to the rulers; Skills and
knowledge, needed by the regime to perform specific actions and supplied by the cooperating
persons and groups; Intangible factors, psychological and ideological factors that may induce
people to obey and assist the rulers; Material resources, the degree to which the rulers control or
have access to property, natural resources, financial resources, the economic system, and means
of communication and transportation; and Sanctions, punishments, threatened or applied, against
the disobedient and non-cooperative to ensure the cooperation that is needed for the regime to
exist and carry out its policies.
Identifying the Achilles' heel
A myth from Classical Greece illustrates well the vulnerability of the supposedly
invulnerable. Against the warrior Achilles, no blow would injure and no sword would penetrate
his skin. When still a baby, Achilles' mother had supposedly dipped him into the waters of the
magical river Styx, resulting in the protection of his body from all dangers. There was, however,
a problem. Since the baby was held by his heel so that he would not be washed away, the
magical water had not covered that small part of his body. When Achilles was a grown man he
appeared to all to be invulnerable to the enemies' weapons. However, in the battle against Troy,
instructed by one who knew the weakness, an enemy soldier aimed his arrow at Achilles'
unprotected heel, the one spot where he could be injured. The strike proved fatal. Still today, the
phrase "Achilles' heel" refers to the vulnerable part of a person, a plan, or an institution at which
if attacked there is no protection.
The same principle applies to ruthless dictatorships. They, too, can be conquered, but most
quickly and with least cost if their weaknesses can be identified. Among the weaknesses of
dictatorships are the following:
-The cooperation of a multitude of people, groups, and institutions needed to operate the system
may be restricted or withdrawn.
-The requirements and effects of the regime's past policies will somewhat limit its present ability
to adopt and implement conflicting policies.
-The system may become routine in its operation, less able to adjust quickly to new situations.
-Personnel and resources already allocated for existing tasks will not be easily available for new
needs.
-Subordinates fearful of displeasing their superiors may not report accurate or complete
information needed by the dictators to make decisions.
-The ideology may erode, and myths and symbols of the system may become unstable.
-If a strong ideology is present that influences one's view of reality, firm adherence to it may
cause inattention to actual conditions and needs.
-Deteriorating efficiency and competency of the bureaucracy, or ex-cessive controls and
regulations, may make the system's policies and operation ineffective.
-Internal institutional conflicts and personal rivalries and hostilities may harm, and even disrupt,
the operation of the dictatorship.
-Intellectuals and students may become restless in response to conditions, restrictions,
doctrinalism, and repression.
-The general public may over time become apathetic, skeptical, and even hostile to the regime.
-Regional, class, cultural, or national differences may become acute.
-The power hierarchy of the dictatorship is always unstable to some degree, and at times
extremely so. Individuals do not only remain in the same position in the ranking, but may rise or
fall to other ranks or be removed entirely and replaced by new persons. Sections of the police or
military forces may act to achieve their own objectives, even against the will of established
dictators, including by coup d'état.
About two hundred specific methods of nonviolent action have been identified, and there
are certainly scores more. These methods are classified under three broad categories: protest and
persuasion, noncooperation, and intervention. Methods of nonviolent protest and persuasion are
largely symbolic demonstrations, including parades, marches, and vigils (54 methods).
Noncooperation is divided into three sub-categories: (a) social non -сooperation (16 methods),
(b) economic noncooperation, including boycotts (26 methods) and strikes (23 methods), and (c)
political noncooperation (38 methods). Nonviolent intervention, by psychological, physical,
social, economic, or political means, such as the fast, nonviolent occupation, and parallel
government (41 methods), is the final group. The use of a considerable number of these methods
— carefully chosen, applied persistently and on a large scale, wielded in the context of a wise
strategy and appropriate tactics, by trained civilians—is likely to cause any illegitimate regime
severe problems. This applies to all dictatorships
Realistic planning
In the future, unplanned popular action will undoubtedly play significant roles in risings
against dictatorships. However, it is now possible to calculate the most effective ways to bring
down a dictatorship, to assess when the political situation and popular mood are ripe, and to
choose how to initiate a campaign. Very careful thought based on a realistic assessment of the
situation and the capabilities of the populace is required in order to select effective ways to
achieve freedom under such circumstances. If one wishes to accomplish something, it is wise to
plan how to do it.
The more important the goal, or the graver the consequences of failure, the more
important planning becomes. Strategic planning increases the likelihood that all available
resources will be mobilized and employed most effectively. This is especially true for a
democratic movement – which has limited material resources and whose supporters will be in
danger – that is trying to bring down a powerful dictatorship. In contrast, the dictatorship usually
will have access to vast material resources, organizational strength, and ability to perpetrate
brutalities.
Formulating a grand strategy
Following an assessment of the situation, the choice of means, and a determination of the
role of external assistance, planners of the grand strategy will need to sketch in broad strokes
how the conflict might best be conducted. This broad plan would stretch from the present to the
future liberation and the institution of a democratic system. In formulating a grand strategy these
planners will need to ask themselves a variety of questions. The following questions pose (in a
more specific way than earlier) the types of considerations required in devising a grand strategy
for a political defiance struggle: How might the long-term struggle best begin? How can the
oppressed population muster sufficient self-confidence and strength to act to challenge the
dictatorship, even initially in a limited way? How could the population's capacity to apply
noncooperation and defiance be increased with time and experience? What might be the
objectives of a series of limited campaigns to regain democratic control over the society and
limit the dictatorship?
Are there independent institutions that have survived the dictatorship which might be
used in the struggle to establish freedom? What institutions of the society can be regained from
the dictators' control, or what institutions need to be newly created by the democrats to meet their
needs and establish spheres of democracy even while the dictatorship continues? How can
organizational strength in the resistance be developed? How can participants be trained? What
resources (finances, equipment, etc.) will be required throughout the struggle? What types of
symbolism can be most effective in mobilizing the population? By what kinds of action and in
what stages could the sources of power of the dictators be incrementally weakened and severed?
How can the resisting population simultaneously persist in its defiance and also maintain the
necessary nonviolent discipline? How can the society continue to meet its basic needs during the
course of the struggle? How can social order be maintained in the midst of the conflict? As
victory approaches, how can the democratic resistance continue to build the institutional base of
the post-dictatorship society to make the transition as smooth as possible?
It must be remembered that no single blueprint exists or can be created to plan strategy
for every liberation movement against dictatorships. Each struggle to bring down a dictatorship
and establish a democratic system will be somewhat different. No two situations will be exactly
alike, each dictatorship will have some individual characteristics, and the capacities of the
freedom-seeking population will vary. Planners of grand strategy for a political defiance struggle
will require a profound understanding not only of their specific conflict situation, but of their
chosen means of struggle as well. When the grand strategy of the struggle has been carefully
planned there are sound reasons for making it widely known. The large numbers of people
required to participate may be more willing and able to act if they understand the general
conception, as well as specific instructions.
This knowledge could potentially have a very positive effect on their morale, their
willingness to participate, and to act appropriately. The general outlines of the grand strategy
would become known to the dictators in any case and knowledge of its features potentially could
lead them to be less brutal in their repression, knowing that it could rebound politically against
themselves. Awareness of the special characteristics of the grand strategy could potentially also
contribute to dissension and defections from the dictators' own camp.
Once a grand strategic plan for bringing down the dictatorship and establishing a
democratic system has been adopted, it is important for the pro-democracy groups to persist in
applying it. Only in very rare circumstances should the struggle depart from the initial grand
strategy. When there is abundant evidence that the chosen grand strategy was misconceived, or
that the circumstances of the struggle have fundamentally changed, planners may need to alter
the grand strategy. Even then, this should be done only after a basic reassessment has been made
and a new more adequate grand strategic plan has been developed and adopted.
Planning campaign strategies
However wise and promising the developed grand strategy to end the dictatorship and to
institute democracy may be, a grand strategy does not implement itself. Particular strategies will
need to be developed to guide the major campaigns aimed at undermining the dictators' power.
These strategies, in turn, will incorporate and guide a range of tactical engagements that will aim
to strike decisive blows against the dictators' regime. The tactics and the specific methods of
action must be chosen carefully so that they contribute to achieving the goals of each particular
strategy. The discussion here focuses exclusively on the level of strategy.
Strategists planning the major campaigns will, like those who planned the grand strategy,
require a thorough understanding of the nature and modes of operation of their chosen technique
of struggle. Just as military officers must understand force structures, tactics, logistics,
munitions, the effects of geography and the like in order to plot military strategy, political
defiance planners must understand the nature and strategic principles of nonviolent struggle.
Even then, however, knowledge of nonviolent struggle, attention to recommendations in this
essay, and answers to the questions posed here will not themselves produce strategies. The
formulation of strategies for the struggle still requires an informed creativity.
In planning the strategies for the specific selective resistance campaigns and for the
longer term development of the liberation struggle, the political defiance strategists will need to
consider various issues and problems. The following are among these: Determination of the
specific objectives of the campaign and their contributions to implementing the grand strategy.
Consideration of the specific methods, or political weapons, that can best be used to implement
the chosen strategies. Within each overall plan for a particular strategic campaign it will be
necessary to determine what smaller, tactical plans and which specific methods of action should
be used to impose pressures and restrictions against the dictatorship's sources of power. It should
be remembered that the achievement of major objectives will come as a result of carefully
chosen and implemented specific smaller steps.
Determination whether, or how, economic issues should be related to the overall
essentially political struggle. If economic issues are to be prominent in the struggle, care will be
needed that the economic grievances can actually be remedied after the dictatorship is ended.
Otherwise, disillusionment and disaffection may set in if quick solutions are not provided during
the transition period to a democratic society. Determination in advance of what kind of
leadership structure and communications system will work best for initiating the resistance
struggle. What means of decision-making and communication will be possible during the course
of the struggle to give continuing guidance to the resisters and the general population?
Communication of the resistance news to the general population, to the dictators' forces,
and the international press.
Claims and reporting should always be strictly factual. Exaggerations and unfounded
claims will undermine the credibility of the resistance.
Plans for self-reliant constructive social, educational, economic, and political activities to
meet the needs of one's own people during the coming conflict. Such projects can be conducted
by persons not directly involved in the resistance activities. How can external help be best
mobilized and used without making the internal struggle dependent on uncertain external
factors?
Attention will need to be given to which external groups are most likely, and most
appropriate, to assist, such as non-governmental organizations (social movements, religious or
political groups, labor unions, etc.), governments, and/or the United Nations and its various
bodies.
Furthermore, the resistance planners will need to take measures to preserve order and to
meet social needs by one's own forces during mass resistance against dictatorial controls. This
will not only create alternative independent democratic structures and meet genuine needs, but
also will reduce credibility for any claims that ruthless repression is required to halt disorder and
lawlessness.
Spreading the idea of noncooperation

For successful political defiance against a dictatorship, it is essential that the population
grasp the idea of noncooperation. People living under the dictatorship may be already familiar
with this concept from a variety of sources. The "Monkey Master" story, or a similar one, could
be disseminated throughout the society. Such a story could be easily understood. Once the
general concept of noncooperation is grasped, people will be able to understand the relevance of
future calls to practice non-cooperation with the dictatorship. Despite the difficulties and dangers
in attempts to communicate ideas, news, and resistance instructions while living under
dictatorships, democrats have frequently proved this to be possible. Even under Nazi and
Communist rule it was possible for resisters to communicate not only with other individuals but
even with large public audiences through the production of illegal newspapers, leaflets, books,
and in later years with audio and video cassettes. With the advantage of prior strategic planning,
general guidelines for resistance can be prepared and disseminated.
Repression and countermeasures
Strategic planners will need to assess the likely responses and repression, especially the
threshold of violence, of the dictatorship to the actions of the democratic resistance. It will be
necessary to determine how to withstand, counteract, or avoid this possible increased repression
without submission. Tactically, for specific occasions, appropriate warnings to the population
and the resisters about expected repression would be in order, so that they will know the risks of
participation. If repression may be serious, preparations for medical assistance for wounded
resisters should be made. Anticipating repression, the strategists will do well to consider in
advance the use of tactics and methods that will contribute to achieving the specific goal of a
campaign, or liberation, but that will make brutal repression less likely or less possible. For
example, street demonstrations and parades against extreme dictatorships may be dramatic, but
they may also risk thousands of dead demonstrators. The high cost to the demonstrators may not,
however, actually apply more pressure on the dictatorship than would occur through everyone
staying home, a strike, or massive acts of noncooperation from the civil servants.
If it has been proposed that provocative resistance action risking high casualties will be required
for a strategic purpose, then one should very carefully consider the proposal's costs and possible
gains. Planners must consider what measures may be taken to keep nonviolent discipline and
maintain the resistance despite brutalities. Will such measures as pledges, policy statements,
discipline leaflets, marshals for demonstrations, and boycotts of pro-violence persons and groups
be possible and effective? Leaders should always be alert for agents provocateurs.
Adhering to the strategic plan
Once a sound strategic plan is in place, the democratic forces should not be distracted by
minor moves of the dictators that may tempt them to depart from the grand strategy and the
strategy for a particular campaign, causing them to focus major activities on unimportant issues.
Nor should the emotions of the moment — perhaps in response to new brutalities by the
dictatorship — be allowed to divert the democratic resistance from its grand strategy or the
campaign strategy. As long as the basic analysis is judged to be sound, the task of the pro-
democracy forces is to press forward stage by stage. Of course, changes in tactics and
intermediate objectives will occur and good leaders will always be ready to exploit opportunities.
These adjustments should not be confused with objectives of the grand strategy or the objectives
of the specific campaign. Careful implementation of the chosen grand strategy and of strategies
for particular campaigns will greatly contribute to success.
3. CASE-STUDY SET
All color revolutions have similar characteristics. Watch the film and answer the questions or
fulfill the following tasks (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5KWKw1WnziY):
1. How many revolutions have been mentioned in the film?
2. What NGOs’ had their hands in the coup d’états mentioned in the film?
3. What are other names for “colored revolutions”?
4. What are the most important elements of modern protest movements?
5. What is the dominant mode of societal conflict in the 21st century?
6. Who is behind the independent NGOs?
7. The most important organization of the NGOs is NED. What conflicts was NED involved
into?
8. What organization does the Soros Foundation structurally present?
9. What are common patterns of colored revolutions?
10. What is the target destination of colored revolutions?
Case 1: Overthrow of Milosevic or covert war against Yugoslavia
For one long decade, the West waged a fierce campaign to subjugate Yugoslavia. Every
means was utilized: support for violent secessionists, the imposition of severe sanctions, a 78-
day bombardment, followed by forcible occupation of the region of Kosovo. The Yugoslav
Federation withstood it all, but it was Western covert operations that finally brought disaster.
In November 1998, President Clinton launched a plan for the overthrow of the
government of Yugoslavia. The initial emphasis of the plan centered on supporting secessionist
forces in Montenegro and the right-wing opposition in Serbia. Several months later, while
NATO bombs fell on Yugoslavia, Clinton signed a secret paper instructing the CIA to topple the
Yugoslav government. The plan called for the CIA to secretly fund opposition groups and the
recruitment of moles in the Yugoslav government and military. The effort to recruit moles in the
police and army eventually yielded fruit nearly two years later, when renegade policemen aided
the mob assault on the Federal Parliament [3].
There were several components to the plan, and assassination was a key element in the
Western arsenal. On July 8, 1999, U.S. and British officials revealed that commando teams were
training snatch operations to seize alleged war criminals and Yugoslav President Slobodan
Milosevic. As an encouragement to mercenaries, the U.S. State Department also announced a $5
million bounty for President Milosevic. Several Yugoslav government officials and prominent
individuals, including Defense Minister Pavle Bulatovic, were gunned down.
Goran Zugic, security advisor to secessionist Montenegrin President Milo Djukanovic,
was murdered late on May 31, 2000. The assassin escaped, allowing Western leaders to place
blame on President Milosevic. It was just one week before crucial local elections in Montenegro
and forces opposing President Milosevic stood to gain from the murder. A few days after the
assassination, Yugoslav Minister of Information Goran Matic held a press conference, at which
he accused the CIA of complicity in the murder. Matic played a taped recording of two
telephone conversations between head of the U.S. mission in Dubrovnik Sean Burns, U.S. State
Department official James Swaggert, Gabriel Escobar of the U.S. economic group in
Montenegro and Paul Davies of the U.S. Agency for International Development. Excerpts of the
conversations, recorded 20 minutes after the assassination and again three hours later, included
comments such as, “It was professional,” and “Mission accomplished.”
During NATO’s war against Yugoslavia, a missile struck President Milosevic’s home on
April 22, 1999. Fortunately, he and his wife were staying elsewhere that evening. Pentagon
spokesman Ken Bacon was quick to announce that “we are not targeting President Milosevic.”!!!
In November 1999, members of an assassination squad, code-named “Spider,” were arrested in
Yugoslavia. According to Minister Goran Matic, “French intelligence was behind” the Spider
group, whose aim was the assassination of President Milosevic. Planned scenarios included a
sniper attack, planting an explosive device alongside a route they expected Milosevic to travel,
planting an explosive in his car, and organizing 10 trained commandos to storm the presidential
residence. The leader of the group, Jugoslav Petrusic, had dual Yugoslav and French citizenship.
Matic claimed that Petrusic worked for French intelligence for ten years. During interrogations,
Petrusic said that he had killed 50 men on orders by French intelligence. Matic announced that
one of the members of Spider was a “specialist for killings with a truck full of sand” – the same
method used against Draskovic the previous month.
At the end of July 2000, a squad of four Dutch commandos was apprehended while
attempting to cross into Serbia from Montenegro. During the investigation, they admitted that
they intended to kill or kidnap President Milosevic. The four said that they were informed that
$30 million had been offered for “Milosevic’s head,” and that they intended to “claim a reward.”
One of the men said that the group planned to abduct Milosevic or former Bosnian Serb
President Radovan Karadzic and “surrender them to The Hague.” The group planned to put them
atop a car “in a ski box and transport them…out of the country.” If the abduction failed, one of
the men “had the idea to kill the president, to decapitate” him, and to put his head “in the box
and to send it home” to the Netherlands. One of the arrested men, Gotfrides de Ri, belonged to
the openly racist neo-nazi Center Party. During the wars in Croatia and Bosnia, the Center Party
sent Dutch mercenaries to fight in right-wing Croatian paramilitary units. At the time of their
arrest, the four were found with several knives, including one with a swastika, and wires with
hooks for strangulation. All four admitted that they had trained under the British SAS. Flagrant
Western interference distorted the political process in Yugoslavia. U.S. and Western European
funds were channelled to right-wing opposition parties and media through such organizations as
the National Endowment for Democracy and George Soros’ Open Society Institute. The National
Democratic Institute (NDI) is yet another of the myriad semi-private organizations that have
attached themselves like leeches on Eastern Europe.
The NDI opened an office in Belgrade in 1997, hoping to capitalize on opposition
attempts to bring down the government through street demonstrations. By 1999, the NDI had
already trained over 900 right-wing party leaders and activists on “message development, public
outreach and election strategy.” NDI also claimed to have provided “organizational training and
coalition-building expertise” to the opposition. The New Serbia Forum, funded by the British
Foreign Office, brought Serbian professionals and academics to Hungary on a regular basis for
discussions with British and Central European “experts.” The aim of the meetings was to “design
a blueprint for post-Milosevic society.” Subjects under discussion included privatization and
economic stabilization. The Forum called for the “reintegration of Yugoslavia into the
European family.”
Western aims were clearly spelled out in the Stability Pact for Southeastern Europe of
June 10, 1999. This document called for “creating vibrant market economies” in the Balkans,
and “markets open to greatly expanded foreign trade and private sector investment.” One year
later, the White House issued a fact sheet detailing the “major achievements” of the Pact. Among
the achievements listed, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) and
the International Finance Corporations were said to be “mobilizing private investment,” and the
Pact’s Business Advisory Council was “visiting all of the countries of Southeast Europe” to
“offer advice” on investment issues. Another initiative was Hungarian involvement with
opposition-led local governments and opposition media in Serbia leading up the September 24,
2000 election in Yugoslavia.
On July 26, 2000, the Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) inaugurated an
investment fund to be managed by Soros Private Funds Management. The Southeast Europe
Equity Fund “will invest in companies in the region in a range of sectors.” Its purpose, according
to the U.S. Embassy in Macedonia, is “to provide capital for new business development,
expansion and privatization.” In March 2000, Montenegro signed an agreement permitting the
operation of OPIC on its territory.
Western leaders yearned to install a puppet government in Belgrade, and placed their
hopes in the fragmented right-wing opposition parties in Serbia. When upcoming Yugoslav
Federal and local elections were announced on July 24, 2000, American and Western European
officials met with leaders of Serbian opposition parties, urging them to unite behind one
presidential candidate. The opposition presidential candidate, Vojislav Kostunica, was
essentially hand-picked by US officials when American-run polls demonstrated that he was the
only candidate capable of garnering enough support to win the election.
At the beginning of August 2000, the U.S. opened an office in Budapest specifically
tasked to assist opposition parties in Yugoslavia. Among the staff were at least 30 psychological
warfare specialists, some of whom had earlier been engaged in psychological warfare operations
during NATO’s war against Yugoslavia and against Iraq in the Gulf War. Members of the
student opposition group, Otpor, were invited to attend ten-day courses, beginning August 28,
and again on September 11, 2000, at the American embassies in Bulgaria and Romania. The
courses, conducted by CIA personnel and propaganda experts, focused on political and public-
image techniques.
In Bulgaria, the Western-financed Political Academy for Central and Southeastern
Europe established a program for training the Serbian opposition. The academy was tied to
Vojislav Kostunica’s Democratic Party of Serbia, Otpor and various opposition groups. Another
Bulgarian-based and Western-financed organization, the Balkan Academy of Leading Reporters,
gave “financial, technical and expert assistance” to Yugoslav opposition media prior to the
election. In preparation for possible military action, the Italian army signed a lease contract to
conduct training exercises beginning in October at the Koren training ground, near Kaskovo in
southeast Bulgaria. The French army signed a similar agreement, in which French soldiers and
tanks would train at the Novo Selo grounds in central Bulgaria from October 11 to December 12.
Plans called for the U.S. military to lease the Shabla training grounds in eastern Bulgaria.
Djukanovic (Montenegro President) moved steadily toward secession from Yugoslavia,
indicating that he would push for separation if President Milosevic were reelected in the
September 24 election. In a phone call to Djukanovic in July 2000, Madeleine Albright promised
that the U.S would provide him with an additional $16.5 million. That same week, Djukanovic
blurted out that Montenegro “is no longer part of Yugoslavia.” Western support for secession
extended beyond Albright meeting and talking with Djukanovic. More than half of the
population of Montenegro opposed secession, and any such move was likely to explode into
violence. In preparation for a rift, Djukanovic built up a private army of over 20,000 soldiers,
the Special Police, including units armed with anti-tank weapons and mortars. Sources in
Montenegro revealed that Western special forces trained Djukanovic’s private army.
Prior to the election, Djukanovic requested that NATO establish an “air shield over
Montenegro.” In August 2000, two armored vehicles bound for Montenegro were discovered in
the port of Ancona, Italy. One of the vehicles was fitted with a turret suitable for mounting a
machine gun or anti-tank weapon. A violent conflict in Montenegro would have provided NATO
with a pretext for intervention. As early as October 1999, General Wesley Clark drew up plans
for a NATO invasion of Montenegro. The plan envisioned an amphibious assault by more than
2,000 Marines storming the port of Bar and securing the port as a beachhead for pushing inland.
Troops ferried by helicopters would seize the airport at Podgorica, while NATO warplanes
would bomb and strafe resisting Yugoslav forces.
What the U.S. truly wanted, though, was all of Yugoslavia, not merely another piece.
U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright expected and demanded street demonstrations
to topple the government if the election result did not satisfy her. Every contingency was planned
for in the multifaceted U.S. destabilization campaign. An electoral process distorted by Western
intervention, combined with street action, finally toppled the government of Yugoslavia. The
U.S. pumped $35 million into the pockets of the right-wing opposition in the year preceding the
September 24, 2000 election. This haul included transmitters for opposition radio, and
computers, telephones and fax machines for several organizations. Right-wing media received an
additional $6 million from the European Union during this period. Two organizations under the
umbrella of the National Endowment for Democracy, the National Democratic Institute and the
International Republican Institute, provided $4 million for a door-to-door campaign and get-out-
the-vote programs. Organizations such as the International Republican Institute and the Agency
for International Development pumped several million dollars into the pockets of Otpor, building
up the small student opposition group into a major force. By the time the election date was
announced in Yugoslavia, Otpor had already printed over 60 tons of campaign material [5].
The week before the election, the European Union issued a “Message to the Serbian
People,” in which it announced that a victory for opposition candidate Vojislav Kostunica would
result in lifting of sanctions. “Even if Milosevic were to be returned by democratic vote,” stated
one EU official, sanctions would remain. Before the election even took place, Western officials
were accusing the Yugoslav government of electoral fraud, planting the seeds for disruption.
Throughout election day and the days that followed, the Democratic Opposition of Serbia (DOS)
coalition proclaimed their candidate’s victory. American officials encouraged the opposition to
call for mass demonstrations, even before official results were announced. At one point they
claimed 57 percent. Two days after the election, on September 26, DOS claimed Kostunica won
54.66 percent of the vote, based on 97.5 percent of the ballots processed, but that 130,000 votes
“and the votes from Kosovo and Montenegro” had yet to be processed by DOS.
The tally, they said, was based on 98.72 percent of the ballots counted. This time, DOS
Electoral Staff spokesman Cedomir Jovanovic changed his tune, claiming that unprocessed
ballots were from soldiers and mail-in ballots. According to Jovanovic, on September 26,
5,093,038 ballots out of a total of 5,223,629 were processed for a total of percentage of 97.5.
Based on the total, given by Jovanovic, that would have meant less than 64,000 ballots were
counted the following day, when he claimed a count of 98.72 percent. Assuming that Kostunica
lost every single one of those votes, his percentage would have dropped to 52.75 percent, higher
than the announced 52.54 figure. DOS disposed of this awkwardness by issuing significantly
different totals. Despite claims made to the contrary in the Western media, the official vote count
was publicized widely in Yugoslavia. Vojislav Kostunica won 48.96 percent of the vote, falling
just short of the 50 percent required for outright victory. President Milosevic trailed with 38.62
percent of the vote. A second electoral round for the two top candidates was called for October 8.
Backed by Western officials, Kostunica and DOS refused to participate in the second round,
claiming that they had already won. DOS refused to include votes cast in Kosovo and by many
refugees from Kosovo, ostensibly because polls in Kosovo closed at 4:00 PM, rather than 8:00
PM. According to DOS, the scheduled early closing time invalidated all of the ballots cast by
these voters. Only by discounting votes from Kosovo residents and refugees could DOS claim a
50 percent victory for Kostunica.
Over 200 international observers from 54 countries monitored the election. A three-
person delegation from Great Britain’s Socialist Labour Party declared that the Federal Electoral
Commission “did everything in its power to ensure that people were able to cast their votes
without intimidation and in an orderly manner,” but that irregularities were observed in
Montenegro. “We received many first-hand reports from people who stated that they had been
threatened [by Djukanovic supporters] with the loss of their jobs if they turned out to vote.”
Nevertheless, a final statement by the observers declared that “the voting process overall was
orderly and smooth” and that, “in the opinion of many, was equal or superior to the ones in their
own countries.”Given his commanding lead in the first electoral round, a Kostunica victory in
the runoff on October 8 was a near certainty. Why then, did Kostunica refuse to participate in the
runoff? As a result of the September 24 election, the left coalition won 74 out of 137 seats in the
Chamber of Citizens and 26 out of 40 seats in the Chamber of Republics. The left-led coalition
already held a majority in the Serbian Parliament, whose seats were not up for election until the
following year. It would have been impossible for DOS to implement their program, as the
President’s duties are rather limited. Only a coup d’état would allow DOS to bypass legal
constraints, sweep aside the government and reign unopposed.
Madeleine Albright’s cherished scenario became reality, as demonstrators demanded the
removal of the government. According to opposition sources, as many as 10,000 armed DOS
supporters joined the final mass demonstration in Belgrade. The assault on the Federal
Parliament and Radio Television Serbia was led by a group of specially trained squads of former
soldiers. Velimir Ilic, opposition mayor of Cacak, led the assault. It is probable that the CIA was
involved in the planning of the well-coordinated attacks. After armed squads forced their way
into the Federal Parliament, they were followed by a drunken mob of DOS supporters, who
rampaged through the building, smashing furniture and computers and setting the Parliament
ablaze. In the streets, police were beaten and drunken gangs, many armed with guns, roamed the
streets. Ambulances taking injured police to hospitals were stopped by DOS activists, who
demanded that the injured policemen be turned over to them. After Radio Television Serbia in
Belgrade was seized, it too was torched: offices of the Socialist Party of Serbia and Yugoslav
United Left were demolished.
Gangs of DOS thugs forcibly removed management at state-run factories and enterprises,
universities, banks and hospitals in towns and cities all across Serbia. Government ministers
were pressured to resign, and DOS established a crisis committee to perform government
functions, circumventing the Federal Parliament and government ministries. DOS officials
openly threatened to call forth more street violence as a means of pressuring the Serbian
Parliament to agree to new election, one year ahead of schedule. Western officials couldn’t hide
their glee. American and European corporations were waiting to snatch up state enterprises. The
economic program for DOS was drawn up by an organization named Group 17 Plus. Their plan,
called Project for Serbia, calls for a rapid transition to a full market economy. Immediately
following the coup, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development promptly
announced plans to open an office in Belgrade. Days before the coup, President Milosevic
warned that DOS was an instrument in NATO’s campaign to impose neocolonial control over
Yugoslavia. Milosevic pointed out that neighboring countries already under Western dictate
“have speedily become impoverished in a manner destroying all hope for more just and humane
social relations,” and that Eastern Europe had seen a “great division into a poor majority and a
rich minority.” Inevitably, he said, “That picture would also include us.”
The text of the case is never absolutely unbiased and lots of points require additional
clarification. It’s necessary to objectively evaluate the role of several factors. You are welcome
to share your educated guess on the following issues:
1. The objectives, activity, political role of NDI;
2. The main targets of the National Endowment for Democracy Organization;
3. Economic, political, social situation in Yugoslavia;
4. Geopolitical position and historical background of Yugoslavia;
5. The role that George Soros’ Open Society Institute played in destabilizing the situation in
Serbia and Montenegro;
6. The level of economic interference of the Overseas Private Investment Corporation. You
are welcome to share your knowledge on the pros and cons of FDI;
7. A small group “Otpor” of 50+ students had become quite a force by 1999. Present some
information about its structure, its sponsors, the role in the riot;
8. Kostunica was pushed forward to the position of Serbian president by Western allies.
Depict his political portrait;
9. Djukanovic in Montenegro has played a crucial role in the coup. Assess his
“contribution” into the process;
10. After ousting Slobodan Milosevic the driving force of the bloody conflict, in the face of
General Wesley Clark and Madeleine Albright, got assets in the country. Characterize
their role in the disintegration of the country.
11. Give a political portrait of Slobodan Milocevic;
12. Collect information about DOS, which was the key factor in the riot-revolution-war.
Answer the questions

1. How did the American establishment plan to overthrow the government of

Yugoslavia?
2. What were the components of the coup-d’état plan?
3. Why and when did Goran Matic hold a press conference?
4. What did the “Spider” squad plan to do in November 1999?
5. Who participated in preparing the NDI opposition?
6. Who took the responsibility for “mobilizing private investment”?
7. Where and when did the opposition attend training courses?
8. What was the role of Djukanovic (Montenegro President) in Serbian coup-d’état?
9. Prior to the election, Djukanovic requested that NATO establish an “air shield over
Montenegro.” Where did the military equipment come from?
10. How much money did the West spend on toppling the Serbian government?
11. What served as a pretext for the “color revolution”?
12. Why did DOS and Kostunica refuse to participate in the runoff?
13. What roles did Madeleine Albright, Velimir Ilic and Western media play in the
uprising?
Interpret the words and word-combinations and illustrate them, using the sentences from the
text:
Otpor, to lease the Shabla training grounds, to explode into violence, preparation for a rift, an
“air shield over Montenegro”, a beachhead for pushing inland, the multifaceted U.S.
destabilization campaign, the haul, to topple the Yugoslav government, to subjugate, secessionist
forces, recruitment of moles, an encouragement to mercenaries, covert war, message
development, public outreach, to design a blueprint, an assassination squad, preparation for a rift,
to be fitted with a turret, a fierce campaign, to strafe forces, to plan contingency, multifaceted
campaign, anti-tank weapons and mortars, to “claim a reward, to decapitate Milosevic, wires
with hooks for strangulation, NDI activity, to create vibrant market economies, the Pact’s
Business Advisory Council, the Southeast Europe Equity Fund, to permit the operation of OPIC
on its territory, to be hand-picked by US officials, political and public-image techniques, to
pump dollars into the pockets of Otpor, to plant the seeds for disruption, mail-in ballots, to
invalidate all of the ballots cast by the voters, in the runoff, to bypass legal constraints, to reign
unopposed, to rampage through the building, to be torched, to be demolished, gangs of DOS
thugs, code-named “Spider”, to plant seeds for disruption, without intimidation, to bypass legal
constraints, to sweep aside, to plant an explosive device alongside a route, to cross into Serbia
from Montenegro, to snatch up state enterprises.
Fill in the gaps:

Twenty Principal Misconceptions about the Kosovo Issue
There are lots of misconceptions about Kosovo issue [4] which is often regarded as a conflict
between ethnic Albanians and ethnic Serbs over territory.
1. It is wrong that the Kosovo issue is a part of the conflict between Balkan Albanians and the
surrounding populations, in Montenegro, Serbia, Macedonia and Greece and that it is a fight
of Albanians for their political rights. The crux of the matter lies at the (1)…………………
……………… The real rationale is a…(2) ……………………………….. which is going on

within the Albanian population for a century or so (rate of growth by Albanians four to five
time faster than the average rate in other European countries) and the ensuing expansion for
Lebensraum.
2. It is wrong that the southern Serbian province is called Kosovo and 90% of the population
are Albanians. In fact, it is Kosovo and Metohia, abbreviated KosMet. Kosovo itself is an ….
(3) …………………………… of Kosovo Polje, what in Serbian language means Blackbird
Field. Metohia is a corrupted Greek name for Metohi, meaning dependency ….(4)
………………………….., referring to the land bestowed by Serbian kings and other rulers
to the monasteries and churches in KosMet. Ethnic Albanians at Kosmet call themselves
Shqipetars. According to the last reliable census carried out at KosMet in 1961, Shqipetars
constituted 67% of the population, with Serbs and sharing the rest. As for the subsequent
censuses, Shqipetars refused to take part in them.
3. It is wrong that Shqipetars are …(5) ………………………………………….. in Kosmet. In
the Middle Age KosMet was the central part of Serbian state, culture and civilization.
Shqipetars were tiny minority (about 2%, according to the …(6) ………………………… in
1455), nomadic herdsmen mostly. They came to KosMet from North and Central Albania in
1690 after an abortive uprising against the Otoman rule in 1689. When KosMet was liberated
from the Ottoman rule in 1912, by Serbia, Serbs and Shqipetars shared equally the overall
population there (50% versus 50%). All place names at Kosmet are Slavonic-Serb.
4. It is wrong that Kosmet is an undeveloped, poor region. In reality, it is the most fertile land in
Serbia (apart from Vojvodina). The average …(7) ……………………………. is the same as
in the rest of Serbia. It is low only if counted per head and the region is quite prosperous,
having the biggest …(8) …………………………………. in Europe.
5. It is wrong that the aim of Shqipetars is an independent Kosovo. It is a common goal of all
Albanians to live in a single national state of a …(9) ………………………………... This
aim has been practically already achieved. KosMet has been practically…(10) ……………
…………………………….as there is no border between KosMet and Albania. As for the
West Macedonia, it is a matter of the near future.
6. It is wrong that the …(11) ……………………………………. from KosMet after 1999 is an
act of retaliation. The process of Shqipetar committed ethnic cleansing of KosMet goes on
for the last century and refers to all non-Shqipetars (Roma, Turks, Croats, etc). It is a clear
case of well planned …(12) …………………………………, whose rationale is an extreme
xenophobia. As a matter of fact, after the NATO occupation of KosMet in 1999 the ethnic
“purity” has reached the figure of 97%..
7. It is wrong that KosMet used to be economically supported by the rest of former Yugoslavia.
Since the Serbia’s contribution to the Yugoslav Federal Fund for the …(13) ……………………
………………….. matched exactly the amount donated by the Fund to KosMet, it was
Serbia which helped KosMet to construct the infrastructure, schools, the Prishtina University,
hospitals, factories, mines, etc. Further, since the KosMet population consists mainly of
children and teenagers who used to get …(14) ………………………………………….., it
was another source of enormous income from the rest of Serbia, which had on average less
than 1.5 children per family (as compared with 8 in Albanian families)
8. It is wrong that the blood feud has been extinguished among Albanians after 1999. It was
much reduced during the communist regimes in the area, but has been revived after the
“democratic governments ”have taken power in Albania. It is widely spread at KosMet,

despite the opposite claims by the local politicians. In fact, …(15) ………………………
……………….……….. of non-Shqipetar population in 1999 was experienced by Shqipetars
as a collective …(16) ………………………….. as it is, for instance, recognized by
Shqipetar’ girl Rajmonda from KosMet in the British Channel 4 documentary movie „Why
Rajmonda Lied“ (June 1999)
9. It is wrong that Americans are…(17) …………………………….. Albanians in the current
Balkan affairs. In fact, they are directly involved, at all levels, from financing, organizing,
training, arms supplies, diplomatic supports, etc. Training camps at the North Albania,
KosMet, and Macedonia are led by American instructors, who are engaged even at the front
line, as the case with Arachinovo near Skopje.
10. It is wrong that former Yugoslavia …(18) …………………….. because of Slobodan
Miloshevic. His political manners only provided an excuse to Slovenia and Croatia for
leaving Yugoslavia. The …(19) …………………………. for this understandable decision
was to leave the state that was burdened with the time bomb called KosMet, which the
Federal Police hardly dismantled in 1981. And, of course, Slovenia and Croatia decided to
leave Yugoslavia, a country in which they could not enjoy any…(20) …………………
…………………………………….as they used to have after the WWII. The same applies,
“mutatis mutandis”,to the dispute between Montenegro and Serbia from 1999 to 2006.
children allowance, disintegrated , demographic explosion, abbreviation, Ottoman census, coal

reservoir, Greater Albania, annexed by Albania, expulsion of Serbs, ethnic cleansing,
undeveloped regions, biological level, privileged economic and political position, monastery, the
persecution and expulsion, autochthonous population, real rationale, GNP per family, blood
feud, siding with Albanians
Yugoslavia was the first color revolution of global age. It has some traits which were
successfully applied in many other places after 2000. Some words about the state of Serbia: it
has quite an outstanding history. Through its history, Serb people were always faced with an
overwhelming enemy and a dilemma: bow their heads and surrender or fight the invader. They
always chose to fight! 1389 - The battle of Kosovo. The battle was fought on St. Vitus day and
both sides suffered great losses. Tactically, battle was a draw, but strategically it was Turkish
victory.1804 - First Serbian Uprising. Serbia has been under Ottoman rule for 400 years. After
"Slaughter of the knezes" Serbs revolted and uprising begun. After defeating one after another
Turkish army the rebellion was crushed in 1813. 1815 - Second Serbian Uprising. After the
defeat of the First Serbian Uprising, the Turks inflicted more persecution against the Serbs. In
April 1815, Serbs decided upon a new revolt.
1914 - First World War. Austria declared war to Serbia. Although Serbia was ten times smaller
than Habsburg empire, it won the first allied victory in the battle of Cer. After Bulgaria attacked
Serbia from behind, Serbs withdraw to Greece. Serbia was occupied but Serbs did not want to
surrender. In 1918 with the help of the allies Serbs broke through Solun front and knocked
Bulgaria out of the war and in 45 days liberated Serbia.
1999 - NATO aggression. During the war against terrorists in Kosovo, Serbia recieved the
ultimatum from NATO to withdraw its forces and allow NATO to establish its bases in Serbia.
Serbia refused and in March of 1999 NATO started war against Serbia that would last for 78
days. Primary target was Serbian military, but when NATO saw it cannot do any damage to it,
they started bombing civilian targets. There is many examples of so called "Serbian spite" when
Serbs refused to listen to orders of foreign powers. And although there is only about 15 million
of Serbs all over the world, this "spite of ours” is what makes the Serbs a smallest great nation in
the world. Watch the video “True Serbia versus NATO” and tick the answers as true or false,
URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fV2h4F1OglE
1. The objective of NATO was to destroy Serbian civil objects.

2. During bombings NATO started aiming at water and power plants
3. Miloshevic did not agree to pull his forces out of Kosovo.
4. NATO experts studied video footage and claimed to have destroyed between 5000 and
10000 military pieces.
5. NATO claimed more than 10 000 military casualties.
6. NATO peacekeepers stated that Serb forces had been virtually immune to attacks and not
very damaged by shelling and bombing.
7. Allied forces committed 11 000 strikes within 78 days which should have caused great
damage but it hadn’t.
8. NATO launched an on-ground operation and it didn’t allow the Serbs to use a variety of
techniques to deceive NATO.
9. Serbs were able to deceive radars and missiles by placing large drums of liquid in the
sunlight to later use them in their own offences.
10. In the darkness the liquid gave off its stored heat, thus diverting missiles and radars away.
11. Besides, the Serbs placed their damaged equipment out in the open to deceive the enemy,
which was done many times.
12. The real figures of losses were: less than 200 tanks, lots of artillery, a few dozen armored
vehicles.
13. The estimates give the death toll figure at less than 1000.
14. KLA, not NATO forced Serbs to come out in the open and make them better target.
15. Miloshevic couldn’t hold NATO troops at bay and his tactics was a complete failure.
4. Written assignment: case analysis

The collapse of Yugoslavia was a big blow to the Russian Federation. Discuss in groups the
possible ways to help Serbia and Montenegro to stay a single state. The analysis should be done
in a written form.
Case 2: Euromaidan
Initial causes
On 30 March 2012 the European Union (EU) and Ukraine initiated an Association
Agreement; however, the EU leaders later stated that the agreement would not be ratified unless
Ukraine addressed concerns over a "stark deterioration of democracy and the rule of law",
including the imprisonment of Yulia Timoshenko and Yuri Lutsenko in 2011 and 2012. In the
months leading up to the protests Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovich urged the Parliament
to adopt laws so that Ukraine would meet the EU's criteria. At the time Ukraine had experienced
a drop in industrial production and relations with CIS countries". On 7 December 2013 the IMF
clarified that it was not insisting on a single-stage increase in natural gas tariffs in Ukraine by
40%, but recommended that they be gradually raised to an economically justified level while
compensating the poorest segments of the population for the losses from such an increase by
strengthening targeted social assistance. The same day IMF Resident Representative in
Ukraine Jerome Vacher stated that this particular IMF loan is worth US$4 billion and that it
would be linked with "policy, which would remove disproportions and stimulate growth".
President Yanukovych attended the 28–29 November 2013 EU summit in Vilnius but the
Association Agreement was not signed. On December 11, 2013 the Prime Minister, Mykola
Azarov, said he had asked for 20 Billion Euros (US$27) in loans and aid to offset the cost of the
EU deal. The EU was willing to offer 610 million euros (838 million US) in loans; however
Russia was willing to offer 15 billion US in loans. Russia also offered Ukraine cheaper gas
prices. As a condition for the loans, the EU required major changes to the regulations and laws
in Ukraine. Russia did not.
Public opinion about Euromaidan
According to December 2013 polls between 45% and 50% of Ukrainians supported
Euromaidan, while between 42% and 50% opposed it. The biggest support for the protest can be
found in Kiev (about 75%) and western Ukraine (more than 80%).Among Euromaidan
protesters, 55% are from the west of the country, with 24% from central Ukraine and 21% from
the east. Polls also show that the nation is divided in age: while majority of young people are
pro-EU, older generations (50 and above) more often prefer the Customs Union of Belarus,
Kazakhstan and Russia.
A study conducted at Harvard University examining public opinion in regular and social
media found that 74% of Russian speakers in Ukraine supported the Euromaidan movement, and
a quarter opposed. However, in a December poll by the same company, only 30% claimed that
terms of the Association agreement would be beneficial for the Ukrainian economy, while 39%
said they were unfavourable. In the same poll, only 30% said the opposition would be able to
stabilise the society and govern the country well, if coming to power, while 37% disagreed. The
pro-European Union protests are Ukraine's largest since the Orange Revolution of 2004, which
saw Yanukovych forced to resign as prime minister over allegations of voting irregularities.
According to Hrytsak, "young Ukrainians resemble young Italians, Czech, Poles, or Germans
more than they resemble Ukrainians who are 50 and older. This generation has a stronger desire
for European integration and fewer regional divides than their seniors."
Escalation to violence
The movement started peacefully but did not end that way. Protesters felt authorized to
use violence after the government's crackdown on protesters which happened during the night of
30 November 2013. The bout of street violence began Tuesday when protesters attacked police
lines and set fires outside parliament, accusing Yanukovych of ignoring their demands to enact
constitutional reforms that would limit the president's power — a key opposition demand.
Parliament, dominated by his supporters, was stalling on taking up a constitutional reform to
limit presidential powers. Police responded by attacking the protest camp. Armed with water
cannons, stun grenades and rubber bullets, police dismantled some barricades. But the protesters
held their ground through the night, encircling the protest camp with new burning barricades of
tires, furniture and debris [9].
On 29 November, a formal resolution by protest organizers proposed the following:
1.Form a co-coordinating committee to communicate with the European community.

2.To state that the president, parliament and the Cabinet of Ministers aren't capable of carrying
out a geopolitically strategic course of development for the state and calls on Yanukovych's
resignation.
3.Demand the cessation of political repressions against EuroMaidan activists, students, civic
activists and opposition leaders.
The resolution stated that on 1 December, on the 22d anniversary of Ukraine’s
Independence Referendum that the group will gather at noon on Independence Square to
announce their further course of action. A petition to the US White House demanding sanctions
against Viktor Yanukovych and Ukrainian government ministers gathered over 100,000
signatures in four days. The opposition also demanded that the government resumed negotiations
with the IMF for a loan that they saw as key to helping Ukraine "through economic troubles that
have made Yanukovych lean toward Russia"
On 30 November 2013, the protests were dispersed violently by the Berkut riot police
units, sparking riots the following day in Kiev. On 1 December 2013, protesters reoccupied the
square and through December further clashes with the authorities and political ultimatums by the
opposition ensued. This culminated in a series of anti-protest laws by the government on 16
January 2014, and further rioting on Hrushevskoho Street. On 19 January, a Sunday mass
protest, the ninth in a row, took place gathering up to 200,000 in central Kiev to protest against
the new anti-protest laws, dubbed the Dictatorship laws.
Many protesters ignored the face concealment ban by wearing party masks, hard hats and
gas masks. Opposition leader Vitali Klitschko appeared covered with powder after he was
sprayed with a fire extinguisher. Riot police and government supporters cornered a group of
people who were trying to seize government buildings. The number of riot police on
Hrushevskoho Street increased after buses and army trucks showed up. The latter resulted in the
buses being burned as a barricade. The next day, a clean-up began in Kiev. On 22 January, more
violence erupted in Kiev. This resulted in 8-9 people dead.
Protests also took place in other large Ukrainian cities: Kharkiv, Donetsk.
Dnipropetrovsk, Luhansk, Lviv, and Uzhhorod. A rally in Simferopol, which drew around 300,
saw nationalists and Crimean Tatars unite to support European integration; the protesters sang
both the Ukrainian national anthem and the anthem of the Ukrainian Sick Riflemen. On 9
December, a statue of Vladimir Lenin was destroyed in the town of Kotovsk. The removal or
destruction of Lenin monuments and statues gained particular momentum after the destruction of
the Kyiv Lenin statue. The Crimean parliament repeatedly stated that because of the events in
Kiev it was ready to join autonomous Crimea to Russia. On 27 February armed men seized the
Crimean parliament and raised the Russian flag. In the beginning of March, thousands of
Crimean Tatars in support of Euromaidan clashed with pro-Russian protesters in Simferopol. A
report published on 25 January by Armament Research Services, a specialty arms and munitions
consultancy in Perth, Australia, stated that the mysterious cufflink-shaped projectiles presumably
fired by riot police on Hrushevskoho Street at protesters during clashes were not meant for riot
control, but for stopping vehicles, busting through doors and piercing armour. The bullets were
reported to be special armour-piercing 12-gauge shotgun projectiles.
Following the revolution of 18–23 February that saw over 100 killed in gunfire, the
government's new health minister, Oleh Musiy, suggested to The Associated Press that the
similarity of bullet wounds suffered by opposition victims and police indicates the shooters were
trying to stoke tensions on both sides and spark even greater violence, with the goal of toppling
Yanukovych. The IB Timesreported that a telephone call between Estonian foreign minister
Urmas Paet and Catherine Ashton had been intercepted in which Paet stated that a doctor named
Olga stated that victims from both sides were shot by the same snipers and that Olga had photos
of the shooting victims with the same "handwriting." On 12 March 2014, Interior Minister
Avakov has stated that the conflict was provoked by a 'non-Ukrainian' third party, and that an
investigation was ongoing.
Main events of February
One year after the violent coup in Ukraine, RT recreates the four days of bloody clashes
of February 2014, which saw approximately one hundred people killed in central Kiev and
resulted in a power shift in Ukraine [2]. The protests came to a head in February the following
year as violent clashes between the rioters and police triggered a dramatic change in Ukraine’s
history. On Tuesday, February 18, around 20,000 protesters marched toward the national
parliament, the Verkhovna Rada, in what has been dubbed a“peace offensive,” but it soon
degenerated into a violent standoff with the police. Many of those who clashed with law
enforcers looked more like well-trained extremists rather than ordinary demonstrators. Wearing
black masks, helmets, some also equipped with bulletproof vests, they pelted riot police with
rocks and Molotov cocktails, as well as shooting fireworks.
The authorities responded with water cannon and tear gas. Live rounds were reportedly
fired by both sides. Violence continued overnight and by morning, at least two dozen people
were killed, including up to ten policemen. Hundreds more received injuries. As protests
intensified, the opposition demanded a return to the 2004 constitution, which would make
Ukraine a parliamentary, rather than a presidential, republic. The ruling party at the time insisted
that the opposition’s demands intrinsically violated the Ukrainian constitution. That day,
Crimean authorities warned that the general mobilization called for by far-right groups was a
definite attempt to start a civil war in Ukraine and “a new attempt at a forceful power grab.”
The peninsula’s authorities urged Yanukovich to come up with “decisive action and emergency
measures”to end riots and restore constitutional order.
On Wednesday, February 19 tensions were high following the deadly events of Tuesday.
A huge fire began at the House of Labor Unions, cloaking Maidan (Kiev’s Independence Square)
with thick black smoke. Police checkpoints were set up across Kiev, schools were closed and
restrictions on public transport were introduced in a de facto state of emergency. As the situation
intensified, US President Barack Obama said that the US “condemns in the strongest terms the
violence” in Ukraine, adding that the Ukrainian government must uphold the rights of peaceful
protesters and refrain from using force.
Away from the capital, rioters looted a depot in western Ukraine, making off with more
than a thousand guns. Rioters attacked police and government offices, setting buildings on fire,
scattering documents and smashing furniture. However, a shaky truce was agreed in Kiev
between President Yanukovich and the leaders of three top opposition parties – the nationalist
Svoboda opposition party, Oleg Tyagnibok, Batkivshchyna opposition leader Arseniy
Yatsenyuk, and Ukrainian Democratic Alliance for Reform (UDAR) party leader Vitaly
Klitschko. Yet the far-right wing of the Ukrainian opposition refused to observe the truce. The
leader of Right Sector said that the group did not sign any agreements and called for the
continuation of the “offensive of the resurgent people.”
The next day (February 20), now known as Bloody Thursday, became the most violent
day in Kiev since the World War II. Rioters ignored the truce and started an early morning revolt
against the authorities. Gunfire broke out again on the square, hitting both protesters and police.
Many of the victims were shot by snipers from nearby buildings. It’s still not clear, who the
shooters were and whose orders they were executing, with both sides still blaming one another.
In the chaos, the rioters managed to push the law enforcers off the Independence Square and
back into nearby streets, capturing dozens of police officers. With exact figure still unknown, it’s
believed that nearly 100 people could have lost their lives that day alone.
As events got worse, and the demands for ultra-nationalists and radicals to lay down their
arms and “return to peaceful protesting” failed, the Interior Ministry officially authorized the
use of weapons by law enforcers to “protect citizens, rescue hostages, and counter life-
threatening attacks.” Events became so intense that EU Foreign Ministers from Poland, France
and Germany, who were scheduled to meet Yanukovich and the opposition to broker a peace
deal, had to leave the Ukrainian capital because of security concerns.
After what they themselves called “a night of difficult negotiations” the European
foreign ministers brokered a new peace deal on Friday, February 21, witnessed by Poland’s
Radoslaw Sikorski, France’s Laurent Fabius and Germany’s Frank-Walter Steinmeier.
Yanukovich gave in to the demonstrators’ demands and announced early presidential elections
and the return to the constitution of 2004 – with a new coalition government to be formed within
10 days. He also announced a third round of amnesty for all involved in violent rioting and
agreed to refrain from imposing a state of emergency, giving protesters up to three days to
surrender all illegal weapons. The Ukrainian parliament in the meantime, banned the use of
firearms by law enforcers and voted to pull back troops from Kiev, with over 80 percent of the
ruling party’s MPs not showing up for the vote. At the same time a presidential impeachment bill
was introduced in the parliament. During the day police and other security forces began moving
out of the capital. By the evening however radical rioters announced that truce or no truce, they
were still willing to use force to make the president step down immediately. The following night
Yanukovich fled the capital in fear of his life and shortly after he was ousted from power.
However, European countries stated their reluctance to offer Ukrainians visa-free
entrance, not to mention EU membership. Meanwhile in Ukraine journalists are being charged
with treason for publicly rejecting the war effort, the same political talk shows that gave air to
Yatsenyuk in the Maidan days has been kicked off the TV after interviewing a Russian public
figure. Judges refused to try a case against the Ukrainian Communist Party, which was accused
of encouraging separatism by the new authorities. A Ukrainian political joke says that somebody
painted “Viktor, you bastard, come back!” on the wall of Yanukovich’s former residence.
1. Assess the role of the EU Summit 2013 in the fate of the Ukraine
2. Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovych was hated by a majority of Ukrainian people
in 2012-2013. It was the main cause of dissatisfaction. What prompted the situation?
3. Give a short characteristics of core fighters of Euromaidan: Klitschko, Oleg
Tyagnibok, Batkivshchyna opposition leader Arseniy Yatsenyuk, the Right Sector
fighter Yarosh
4. The role of European ministers of foreign affairs in provoking the riots in Kiev.
Does the situation resemble the one in Yugoslavia?
5. Find similar and different features between the events’ development in Serbia and
Ukraine

1. What requirements did European Union put forward, postponing the association with
Ukraine?
2. What was the effect on relations within CIS union at the period?
3. Why did President Yanukovych decide not to sign the agreement?
4. What was the structure of supporters at Euromaidan?
5. What provoked an aggressive development of the protests?
6. When did the protesters propose their formal resolution?
7. The author of the text believes that the Berkut riot police dispersed the protests
violently. Watch the following video and give your own opinion about how it all was
going. (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0vsbVArqWc4)
8. Where (in what districts and large cities) did the protests take place?
9. How did the main events develop in February?
10. What actions did rioters undertake in Western Ukraine?
11. What was the US involvement?
12. What date was called Bloody Thursday and why?
13. Who brokered a new peace deal? Did they contribute to a new wave of violence?
14. Did the expectations of the Maidan protester come true?
15. What is the after-Maidan reality?
Interpret the words and word-combinations and find the sentences in the main text to
illustrate them:
stark deterioration of democracy, to meet EU’s requirements, escalation to violence, the anthem
of the Ukrainian Sich Riflemen, special armour-piercing, 12-gauge shotgun projectiles, the
similarity of bullet wounds, bulletproof vest, to pelt with rocks, Molotov cocktail, the“offensive
of the resurgent people”, to ban the use of firearms, law enforcers, to pull back troops from, to
show up for the vote, a presidential impeachment bill, to take a heavy toll on economy, power-
shift, to refrain from using force, to make off with guns, to set buildings on fire, to scatter
documents, to smash furniture, a shaky truce, Ukrainian Democratic Alliance for Reform
(UDAR) the Right Sector, to call for the continuation, to revoke the tax-free trade deal, to
promise visa-free travel to Europe, to rein national debt, to low utility prices, bringing in billions
of dollars of foreign investments, to experience a deep plunge, the devaluation of the hryvnia, to
limit currency exchange operations, to withdraw of assets from banks, an austerity strategy, to
secure IMF loans, a $17.5 billion lifeline, to raise the total bailout, a six-fold increase in military
spending.
Gap filling:
Decoding Chomsky
Noam Chomsky has his own point of view on Ukrainian crisis, different from the mainstream
American establishment [6]. He is quite a personality in academic circles. He is an American
philosopher, cognitive scientist, historian, linguist, social critic and political activist. In 1970,
Chomsky was named one of the…(1) ………………………………………… by the London
Times. In early 1969, he delivered the John Locke Lectures at Oxford University to be followed
by many others. Chomsky has received…(2)………………………….from more than sixty
colleges and universities around the world.
He usually identifies as an anarcho-syndicalist or a libertarian socialist. He views these positions
not as precise political theories but as ideals which he thinks best meet the needs of humans:
liberty, community, and …(3) …………………………………...Unlike some other socialists,
such as those who accept Marxism, Chomsky believes that politics …(4) ………………………
…………. the remit of science, however he still roots his ideas about an ideal society on
empirical data and theories.
In Chomsky's view, the truth about political realities is systematically …(5)
………………………….. through elite corporate interests, who use corporate media,
advertising, and think tanks to promote their…(6) ……………………………….. His work
seeks to reveal such manipulations and the truth that they obscure.He believes that "common
sense" is all that is required …(7) ……………………………… the web of falsehood and see
the truth, if it is employed using both critical thinking skills and an awareness of the role that
self-interest and …(8) ………………………………………. plays on both oneself and on
others. He believes that it is the moral responsibility of intellectuals to tell the truth about the
world, but claims that few do so because they fear …(9) …………………………….. and
funding. He argues that it is his duty to use his privilege, resources, and training to aid popular
democracy movements in their struggles. He is a member of the Industrial Workers of the World
international union, and sits on …(10) ………………………. of the International Organization
for a Participatory Society.
Chomsky believes that the basic principle of the foreign policy of the US is the establishment of
"open societies" which are economically and politically controlled by the U.S. and where U.S.-
based businesses can …(11) …………………. He argues that the U.S. …(12) ………………
…………………. any movements within these countries that are not compliant to U.S. interests
and ensure that U.S.-friendly governments are placed in power. When discussing current events,
he emphasises their place within a wider …(13) ………………………………………….
Chomsky explains his decision to focus on criticizing the U.S. over other countries as being
because during his lifetime the country has militarily and economically …(14) ………………….
……………………….., and because its liberal democratic electoral system allows for the
citizenry to exert an influence on government policy. He has been critical of U.S. involvement
in the Israel-Palestine conflict, arguing that it has consistently blocked a peaceful settlement.
Chomsky has long endorsed the left bi-nationalist program, seeking to create a democratic state
in the Levant that is home to both Jews and Arabs. Chomsky has also considered …(15)
……………………………………on the condition that both nation-states exist on equal terms
As a result of his criticism of Israel, Chomsky was barred from entering Israel in 2010.
Rather than accepting the common view among American economists that a spectrum exists
between total state ownership of the economy on the one hand and …(16) ……………………..
……………….on the other, he instead suggests that a spectrum should be understood between
total democratic control of the economy on the one hand and total …(17) ……………………….
….. on the other.He argues that Western capitalist nations are not really democratic, for in his
view, a truly democratic society is one in which all persons …(18) ……………………………..
in public economic policy.
One of Chomsky's best-known works, ”Manufacturing Consent”, …(19)
…………………………. …………… in reinforcing and acquiescing to state policies, across the
political spectrum, while marginalizing contrary perspectives. Chomsky claims that this 'free-
market' version of censorship is more subtle and difficult to undermine than the equivalent
propaganda system which was present in the Soviet Union. As he argues, the mainstream press is
…(20) ………….. ………………………………. and thus reflects corporate priorities and
interests.
to break through, self-deception, losing prestige, corporate owned, makers of the twentieth
century, total private ownership, autocratic control, have a say, dissects the media's role,
honorary degrees, freedom of association, lies outside, distorted or suppressed, the interim
consultative committee, prosper, seeks to suppress, historical perspective, a two-state solution,
dominate the world
Watch the clip, in which Noam Chomsky is reminding people that the best way to
actually solve a problem (in Ukraine) is to look at its roots instead of fiddling with symptoms.
This takes courage, because the root is the biggest part of a problem. And courage is rare. People
prefer to attack small symptoms so that they can have a belief in success that they can book as
their own little personal victory. It's all about wanting to be on the winner side of belief systems.
Filling the gaps, using the information from the video (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7-
lKRsmCx4E):
1. First of all, let’s …(1) ……………….

2. The Western world …(2) …………………………………………………………….,
but there are a few other things to think about.
3. In fact, this violation is nothing …(3) ……………………………. what US has done
with Cuba.
4. …(4) ………………………………. USA took over Eastern Cuba (the territory that
we call Guantanamo) by force.
5. In 1959 Cuba gained its independence and tried to get the territory back but the uSA
refused, making the island …(5) ……………………………………….
6. In the last 50 years the main purpose of the Americans was to impede the
development of Cuba by blocking the ports of Easter Cuba and ..(6)
………………………………………..
7. The lead article, analyzing the Ukrainian events, was published in the …(7) …
…………….……… and called “The West is responsible for the Ukrainian crisis”
8. As for Russian acts in Crimea, it is important to go back to 1990, when the Russian
Empire …(8) …………………. and Gorbachev made …(9) ………………………..
…………………….. to Germany, to its unification.
9. It was done on a condition that NATO wouldn’t move …(10) ………………………..
10. Gorbachev was pretty upset when Pr. Bush claimed that it was just ….(11) ………
………………………. with nothing on paper and not binding on the West.
11. During the cold War people were told that NATO was necessary …(12) …………….
…………………. the Western Europe from Russians.
12. Now the NATO mission is …(13) ………………………………….. the global
energy system and to serve as US intervention force.
13. As for Ukraine, it’s at the core of Russia’s …(14) …………………………… and
any Russian leader would regard Ukraine in NATO as a threat to Russia’s security.
14. So, after …(15) ………………………………………….. in Ukraine the West is not
without its significant involvement in the matter.
Handle the case using the key points of Gene Sharp’s work. When was it possible to stop the
riots (if there was such a possibility) in Ukraine? Work in pairs to develop the case according to
Harvard business- school approach. The case should be developed in a written form. The
following items are obligatory: summary, problem, issues, options (with advantages and
disadvantages), and recommendations.
Case 3: The Tulip revolution
Introductory information
Shortly before parliamentary elections were held in Kyrgyzstan, an opposition-run
newspaper ran photographs of a palace under construction for since-deposed president Askar
Akayev. This newspaper received grants from and was printed on a printing press financed by
the US government. The US government itself confirms this. In fact, nearly one year ago in May
2004,Lorne Craine, US Assistant Secretary of State for Democracy, Human Rights and Labor
revealed: “We did a project recently... in Kyrgyzstan where there had only ever been one
printing press. We funded the operation of another printing press there so that newspapers that
were once unable to print day by day -- due to censorship and lacks of facilities -- are now able
to print much more often, basically every day now”
Kyrgyzstan became the nation with the highest per-capita foreign assistance level in
central Asia after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Most of the money came from the US, under
the FREEDOM Support Act, passed in 1992 to help former Soviet republics in transition. Money
ear-marked for Kyrgyz pro-democracy programs totaled about $13.3 million dollars last year.
The programs receiving the money "focus on improving political processes and accountability of
government institutions, strengthening civil society and public advocacy, and supporting
independent media." Akayev, in an interview with RIA Novosti, said that the opposition which
had taken over the government in Kyrgyzstan was supported "with financial and technical
support from the USA." As proof, he cited a report which was posted on the Internet and
attributed to the US ambassador in Kyrgyzstan. "The scenario was carried out to a tee. In it he
writes that president Akayev has to be toppled, removed. And because the country is key, a
neighbor of China, with a Russian military base, it's necessary to increase influence there."
Pink revolution rumbles on in blood and fury
First there was the rose, then the orange, now it's pink. Revolution seems to be contagious
in former Soviet republics; this is the third in 17 months. After three days of looting and
violence, Kyrgyzstan's parliamentary Speaker yesterday tried to place a seal on the week's
uprising by announcing that presidential elections would be held on 26 June. The accidental
revolution erupted in the Kyrgyz capital, Bishkek, on Thursday morning when 1,000 people
turned up outside the presidential administration for a protest over an election that President
Askar Akayev had fixed to give his allies, son and daughter all but six of the 75 parliamentary
seats.
The Akayev regime had anticipated such a protest and bussed in hundreds of
sympathizers, mostly state industrial workers. Together with thin lines of young, ill-equipped
police, they encircled the presidential administration, next to the central square. Opposition
leaders Kurmanbek Bakiyev and Roza Otunbayeva, later the country's President and Foreign
Minister, were at the front of the protesters, while behind the crowd snaked and grew, a mixture
of the impassioned and drunk. The marchers' fury was clear, but their aim was not. Pink
armbands were distributed to the crowd; they had been orange in Kiev. In Georgia, the symbol of
2003's revolution was a rose. Daffodils appeared in the marchers' hands, the opposition claiming
the government had cleared the city of the initial symbol - tulips - out of fear.
Forty police, riot shields linked together, faced a volley of sticks and stones and dust rose
over monuments in the city's central square as missiles flew between rival protesters. Within an
hour the crowds had broken through and were inside the presidential kitchen, drinking the
presidential wine, riding the presidential Stairmaster and ransacking the safe. They expressed
their rage at the monopoly the Akayev government had on business and life in the central Asian
state. Photocopiers, clocks, photographs of the President - nothing was safe from the rage of a
crowd part ideological, part criminal, part drunk.
With no leader coordinating or calming the protest, mob fury ruled. The opposition,
steeled by the peaceful success of crowds in Ukraine and Georgia, felt a repeat would be easy in
Kyrgyzstan. But the infrastructure - parliament, economy, media and police - that held Ukraine
together during its electoral crisis to ensure a clean transfer of power collapsed in Kyrgyzstan. At
least five people died and more than 200 were treated in hospital. There were also fears this
weekend of further conflict. Last night some 3,000 Akayev’s supporters were marching on
Bishkek from a town 55 miles away. A second night of violence and looting hit the capital on
Friday. Many police stood by, idly smoking. They said they wanted to impose a curfew but
lacked numbers.
How it all happened
The Tulip Revolution or First Kyrgyz Revolution overthrew President Askar Akayaev
and his government in the Central Asian republic of Kyrgyzstan after the parliamentary elections
of February 27 and of March 13, 2005. Following the revolution Akayev fled to Kazakhstan and
then Russia. On April 4 he signed his resignation statement in the presence of a Kyrgyz
parliamentary delegation in his country's embassy in Moscow, and on April 11 the Kyrgyz
Parliament ratified his resignation.
"Tulip Revolution" is a term that Akayev himself used in a speech. The term evoked
similarities with the non-violent Rose Revolution in Georgia and the Orange one in Ukraine in
2004, whose names owe a debt to the 1989 Czechoslovak Velvet Revolution and the 1974
Portuguese Carnation Revolution. Givi Targamadze, a former member of Liberty Institute and
the chair of Georgian Parliamentary Committee on Defense and Security, consulted Ukrainian
opposition leaders on the technique of nonviolent, and later he advised leaders of Kyrgyz
opposition during the Tulip Revolution.
Post-election violence
The results of the parliamentary elections revealed on February 27, 2005 show that the
opposition trying to dismantle President Askar Akayev’s reign lost to pro-presidential candidates
in most voting districts. Protests started almost immediately over alleged election fraud,
especially in the western and southern areas of Kyrgyzstan. The Organization for Security and
Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), which is the world’s largest security-oriented organization
mandating international issues like fair elections, were critical of Kyrgyzstan. They released a
statement saying that the first round of voting was most likely illegitimate and would have not
passed international standards. There were a number of protests ranging from just a few dozen to
over 2000 in Naryn as well as the southern cities of Jalalabad, Osh and Uzgen. Protesters
demanded President Akayev’s early resignation and the cancellation of the fraudulent election
results.
On 3rd day of March, 2005, while waiting for runoff election results on March 13, a
bomb went off in Rosa Otunbayeva’s apartment. Otunbayeva is a key leader for the opposition.
No one was hurt or killed in the attack. Kurmanbek Bakiyev, leader of the main oppositional
group called the People’s Movement of Kyrgyzstan, gathered protestors outside of the
Parliament building in Bishkek. Bakiyev and 22 other oppositional parliamentarians issued a
symbolic vote of no confidence pertaining to the Akayev administration on March 10. Fury
intensified throughout the country.
Protests intensify as 3,000 people gather in Bishkek and a record 50,000 gather in
Jalalabad on March 19, 2005. On March 20, the Kyrgyz government deploys interior ministry
troops to suppress civilian protests in Jalalabad and Osh because demonstrators took over
government buildings. No one was hurt, but protestors fought aggressively against law
enforcement. They refuse to leave the buildings or stop protesting. The next day, the Kyrgyz
government loses all large cities in the southern part of the nation. Protestors demand Akayev’s
resignation. There are reports of arson, beatings, mass arrests, and death. The international
community reacts to the complicated situation in Kyrgyzstan through solidarity protests in
Washington DC, Chicago, New York City, Moscow, London, and Brussels.
The KelKel movement, which is the organized youth crusade against President Akayev’s
corruption, was particularly influential during the protests. Translated from the Kyrgyz language,
kelkel means "renaissance and shining of the good.” On March 22, 2005, the following day,
President Akayev addresses Parliament. He refuses to engage in negotiations with the
opposition. 10 of his 71 deputies who sit in Parliament refuse to appear at Akayev’s speech as an
act of solidarity with the protestors.
Opposition unites
The opposition to the Kyrgyz government claimed control of over 60% of the country’s
territory and over 30% control of the nation’s population. But the opposition lacked an obvious
leader who had the ability to inspire ordinary citizens to ignite the revolution. RozaOtunbayeva
is one of the most vocal leaders of the opposition. Her political career started in 1981 as the
Communist Party’s second secretary of the Lenin raikom council. Otunbayeva’s political beliefs
slowly westernized through the years leading up to 2005. During the Tulip Revolution, she
served as Acting Foreign Minister (ambassador to the United States and the United Kingdom) in
the interim government. Otunbayeva ran for Parliament several times without success and played
a key role in the November 2006 protests urging the Kyrgyz state to ratify a new democratic
Constitution. She simply did not have the support to lead the opposition single-handedly.
Another vocal leader of the opposition is Kurmanbek Bakiyev, former Prime Minister to
President Akayev. Bakiyev resigned after police shot and killed five peaceful demonstrators in
the southern town of Asky in 2002. He widely rejected Akayev’s corruption and declared his
support for democratic ideals. However, Bakiyev couldn’t harness the opposition’s force into a
united front against the state. The opposition never united so completely as when over 50,000
protestors gathered in Jalalabad on March 21. According to Roza Otunbayeva, "policemen,
including high-ranking officers, took off their uniforms, changed into civilian clothes and joined
our ranks. So we have substantial support." The opposition’s integration continued when
between 15,000 and 20,000 people gathered in Bishkek’s central square demanding President
Akayev’s resignation. The next day, opposition leaders met in Bishkek and formed an interim
government. There was a breakdown in the rule of law, and the Supreme Court ruled that that old
Parliament was legitimate and the rightful body. However, only 2 days later, the “old”
Parliament dissolved itself and the “new” Parliament gained recognition as the official ruling
body of the country. Kurmanbek Bakiyev was appointed acting Prime Minister and new
elections were to take place in July [7].
Government reaction
After massive national and international protests on March 19 and 20, President Akbar
Akayev ordered the Central Election Committee and the Kyrgyz Supreme Court to investigate
election fraud claims and general deceit allegations. On March 22, Akayev angrily dismissed
both his Interior Minister Bakirdin Subanbekov and General Prosecutor Myktybek Abdyldayev
for not doing a good enough job suppressing protests in southern Kyrgyzstan. Both men urged
law enforcement to use minimal violence and Akayev had previously stated he would not resort
to violence to end the protests. The next day, after Akayev appointed a new Interior Minister and
General Prosecutor, riot police used violence to break up a peaceful protest in Bishkek and 30
people were arrested.
Akayev fled the country but did not formally resign until April 3, and the new Kyrgyz
Parliament accepted the resignation on April 11. The new Parliament stripped his family of
various “special privileges” the old parliament had endorsed. Also, the new Parliament formally
stripped Akayev of the title of the “First President of Kyrgyzstan.”
Regime change
By March 23, the protest movement had become widespread, particularly in some of the
majority Uzbek southern towns, having gained momentum in the wake of allegations of massive
fraud and manipulations during the elections. On Thursday, March 24, protests spread to
Bishkek, where a large crowd of tens of thousands of people gathered in front of the main
government building. When security forces and pro-government provocateurs began beating a
number of youthful demonstrators in the front ranks, the main crowd behind them closed ranks
and a large number of the young swept past the security forces and stormed into the government
headquarters. They also occupied the building of the state television. A number of skirmishes
took place between the opposition and police, before sheer force allowed a throng of protesters
to overrun government offices—which crowds of young men then vandalized.
On March 26, armed supporters of former president Akayev reportedly tried to enter
Bishkek in force, but turned back when it became apparent that they would not meet much
support in the capital.
By March 28, gradual stabilization of the political situation appeared to have taken place.
The "old" parliament dissolved itself, and the "new" parliament gained recognition as legitimate.
This drew some protests from people who argued that the street outpourings justified more
radical reform, but the power brokers in the country seemed to consider it preferable to have the
forces represented in the new parliament on the inside rather than the outside.
After Akayev’s resignation as president, the Kyrgyz Parliament announced that elections
for a new president would take place on July 10. In the meanwhile, an interim government was
established with president Kurmanbek Bakiyev at the head. After only a month of its inception,
the government was facing harsh criticism at the hands of the media for Bakiyev’s lack of
transparency and self-serving motives when new cabinet members were appointed, his inability
to restore order following the recent revolution and the resignation of Akayev, and the alleged
discrimination against Russian minorities in Kyrgyzstan.
Exposure of Akayev’s corruption
Amongst all the criticisms, Bakiyev’s government continuously worked on exposing the
extent corruption of the previous Akayev regime through diaries that were discovered on March
24. Revealing Akayev’s corruption was one of the first initiatives taken on by the interim
government due to the previous difficulty of proving Akayev’s corruption while he was still in
power, especially because his secret diaries were, obviously, not available to the public at the
time. Bakiyev created a commission specifically for the purpose of investigating further
instances of corruption that might have occurred during the Akayev regime. The commission
consisted not only of ordinary citizens, but government workers, bankers, and NGO workers.
On April 21, the commission published some of the contents of the secret diaries, which
revealed information such as the names of the 42 enterprises that Akayev’s family controlled
during his presidency. The list demonstrates the extent to which the Akayev family embezzled
hundreds of millions of dollars every year. Another instance of corruption discovered in the
process of changing Kyrgyz regimes was the revelation that Akiyev’s government orchestrated
wide-scale pogroms, looting, and general chaos in order to interrupt peaceful demonstrations
protesting the old regime. One supposed example of this occurred on March 24 in Bishkek, when
men dressed in civilian clothing began assaulting demonstrators. The result was a series of mass
arrests following the ensuing clash between the demonstrators and the instigators, as well as the
silencing of the demonstration due to the incarceration of most of its participants.
Kyrgyz political union
On May 13, Bakiyev and political rival Felix Kulov agreed to form a political union to
tackle the soon-approaching presidential elections on July 10, under the condition that Kulov
would be appointed prime minister of Kyrgyzstan should Bakiyev attain the presidency. This
alliance would unite northern and southern Kyrgyzstan until January 2007. It also significantly
decreased the chances of election for the 11 other presidential candidates. Not only was this
alliance much desired by the Kyrgyz public, both leaders felt that political unity was necessary in
order to unify Kyrgyz society as well as to quell unrest in nearby Uzebkistan.
At that time Akayev sued the head of Bakiyev’s corruption committee and a Kyrgyz
newspaper journalist for defamation, on the grounds that the accusations of corruption brought
against Akayev were flawed. Bermet Akayeva, Akayev’s daughter, sued Kyrgyzstan’s Central
Election Commission for accusing her of alleged campaign fraud and canceling her ability to
hold a seat in parliament. In addition, the interim government returned several of Akayev’s
possessions that were seized upon his removal from office. This is said to have included personal
items, archives, and the personal diaries that exposed “Akayev’s corruption”.
New instability in Kyrgyzstan
As the July 10 presidential elections quickly approached, several instances of violence
started occurring in Kyrgyzstan. A month before the elections, on June 10, Jyrgalbek
Surabaldiyev, a member of Kyrgyz parliament, was shot to death in Bishkek. An investigation
was launched on his murder, and after his death, it was revealed that Surabaldiyev was allied
with Akayev, was involved in the March 24 attacks on demonstrators rallying against Akayev’s
regime. The next day, on June 11, two of Bakiyev’s security guards were beaten severely and
coerced for information about Bakiyev’s and Deputy Prime Minister Daniyar Usenov’s travel
itineraries.
On June 13, violence between protesters and parliamentary security broke out in Osh,
leaving six people hospitalized. The parliamentarian involved was Bayaman Erkinbayev, and the
attack against the protesters that occurred on his behalf was said to be linked to the former
president Askar Akayev. That morning, protesters petitioned Erkinbayev to surrender his
parliamentary seat because he took illegal ownership of state property. They were subsequently
attacked by over one hundred men with guns and Molotov cocktails.
Movement was finally made on the issue of the refugees displaced by the Andijan
conflict in Jalalabad, Kyrgyzstan. The Kyrgyz government made plans to give each refugee a
legal status with assistance from the international community. The refugees also started receiving
support from international organizations such as UNICEF, the Red Cross, and the United
Nations with shelter, food, water, and other necessities. The interim government received praise
on the actions they took to support the refugees. However, on June 9, four Uzbek refugees were
deported back to Uzbekistan at the request of President Karimov, much to the chagrin of
Bishkek’s United Nations office, who said that the interim government had violated the Refugee
Convention of 1951. However, Felix Kulov maintained that only those refugees that were
accused or guilty of rape or murder were sent back to Uzbekistan.
At the same time, Andijan mass media attempted to stifle the flow of Uzbek refugees by
reporting on the supposedly poor living conditions they would face in Kyrgyzstan, which was
untrue because of the international support the refugees were given. Uzbek politicians also made
promises that there would be no more persecution if the refugees returned home. The Uzbek
government’s attempt at bringing back the refugees did little to alleviate their intense fear of
returning to their homeland, and thus most of them preferred to wait for the official refugee
statuses and remain in Kyrgyzstan.
Bakiyev Comes to Power
Kyrgyzstan’s presidential elections went underway on July 10, as originally planned. As
expected, Kurmanbek Bakiyev won 90 percent of the popular vote in only the first round of
voting. As promised, Felix Kulov was also appointed Prime Minister. The election was met with
much praise from Western observers compared to previous elections in Kyrgyzstan’s democratic
history. Within hours of Akayev’s departure, the general mood of the country took a dramatic,
optimistic turn. The former regime’s iron grip over its people was no longer felt, as cities were
free of police and guards. Censorship was no longer enforced; televisions and radios now
reported on any news, a huge difference since Akayev’s time in power. However, the initial
freedom citizens felt was soon replaced with chaos and violence.
Upon stepping into office, Bakiyev was greeted with a cornucopia of post-Soviet
domestic problems: an economic depression, rising unemployment, poverty, decaying
infrastructure, and ongoing corruption. Hundreds of thousands Kygryz have already left the
country as refugees of the revolution or in search of work. Bakiyev also faced working with a
Parliament that came into power in the spring of 2005 following fraudulent elections. Despite,
the new optimism instilled in Bakiyev, his authoritarian ways soon surfaced and the new
“democracy” that was thought to have been achieved during the March revolts, quickly
disintegrated.
Since the last parliamentary elections in the spring of 2005 until the fall of 2007, Bakiyev
The political atmosphere at this time in Kyrgyzstan reflected nothing more than bargaining
between elite leaders. This ultimately resulted in three different constitutions officially enacted
within two years. Despite Bakiyev’s secure power, demonstrations continued to occur.
Between 2005 and 2007 it became evident that Bakiyev was very corrupt. He would plot
against his opponents and remove them from power only to replace them with officials of his
choosing. By doing this, Bakiyev was able to centralize political and economic power, and
officially become the dominant entity in the country. As Bakiyev gained ultimate control of the
country, opposition leaders were persecuted and harassed. Bakiyev’s family, his seven brothers
and two sons, all received large shares of the country’s wealth.
Leading the way forward or falling behind with the rest?
The tragedy of it all is that Kirgizstan used to be seen as an island of democracy in
Central Asia. Mr. Akaev, a respected physicist, won a tough fight for the presidency in 1990
against a communist party boss. After a popular-election victory in 1991 he introduced multi-
party democracy and signed up to an economic-reform plan backed by the International
Monetary Fund. But over the 1990s, his government became increasingly intolerant of dissent.
Though the country is small and remote, events in Kirgizstan are being watched with interest.
Both America and Russia have military bases near Bishkek. Kirgizstan's neighbours are also
watching closely. Two of the former Soviet Central Asian republics, Turkmenistan and
Uzbekistan, are thorough dictatorships. But the other two, Tajikistan and Kazakhstan, both have
visible opposition activity, despite setbacks in their recent elections.
1. A political portrait: Askar Akaev.
2. The main causes of the situation aggravation.
3. Political, social or economic situation in the country.
4. An outward impact in the situation?
5. Political opposition leaders: Kurmanbek Bakiyev
6. Political opposition leaders: Roza Otunbayeva.
7. Characterize the development of the country from the point of view of
equality disproportions: regional level, individual level…
8. The elections as a pretext for the coup d’état?

9. A typical clan system and nepotism in Kyrgyzstan: the level of corruption in
the country.
10. American interests in Kyrgyzstan.

1. Where did the Kyrgyz mass media get money for their printing?
2. How did it happen that Kyrgyzstan became the nation with the highest per capita
assistance level?
3. What made the country an important geopolitical actor?
4. Why did we call this revolution the Tulip revolution? Who coined the name?
5. What triggered the riot in March 2005?
6. What role did the OSCE play in Kyrgyzstan?
7. What was the main demand of protesters?
8. How did Roza Otumbayeva become westernized?
9. What was the “democratic program” of Kurmanbek Bakiyev, former Prime
Minister to President Akayev?
10. Why do you think the international community reacted to the complicated situation in
Kyrgyzstan through solidarity protests in Washington DC, Chicago, New York City,
Moscow, London, and Brussels. Was it voluntary or orchestered?
11. How did it become so that the KelKel movement became particularly influential
during the protests?
12. What was the role of provocateurs on March 24?
13. How did Bakiyev’s government decide to fight against corruption?
14. What pre-election moves did Bakiyev undertake?
15. What was the reason of multiple casualties in June?
16. What did the political atmosphere in 2007 reflect?
Interpret the words and word-combinations. Find them in the sentences of the text:
the highest per-capita foreign assistance level, focus on accountability of government
institutions, to strengthen public advocacy, was to carry out smth. to a tee, censorship, to impose
curfews, to lack numbers, "Tulip Revolution" , to evoke similarities with, Rose Revolution, the
Orange Revolution, to owe a debt to, youth crusade against corruption, Kelkel, to engage in
negotiations with ,to orchestrate wide-scale pogroms, to ensue clashes between the
demonstrators and the instigators, the incarceration of participants, pro-government
provocateurs, to beat youthful demonstrators in the front ranks, to close ranks, to sweep past the
security forces, to storm into the government headquarters, skirmishes between the opposition
and police, a throng of protesters, to overrun government offices, to vandalize public assets.
Gap-filling:
The Impact of the Tulip Revolution in Central Asia
The messy exit of President Akayev may not mean that his colleagues in the region will
also……………………………(1), but it certainly does increase the likelihood that secular and
religious opposition groups will try and …………………………(2) them [7]. The current
presidents may still be strong enough to retain power or stage-manage its passage, but not to
create …….. …………………..(3) for their successors to try and secure their authority. But
throughout the region members of the elite are likely to try and take advantage of the growing
weakness of each of the region’s presidents. Those who seek political power are going to use all
the potential tools …………………………………………..(4) to advance their cause.
Throughout Central Asia, there are various “have-not” groups that have been waiting to make
their presence felt. These include those from the presidential entourages who will ……………
………….(5) and damaged by the choice of a successor, as well as ………………………..…(6)
from among the old-Soviet elites and their children, many of whom have accumulated economic
“markers” or levers to use in advancing their cause.
The…………………………………………….(7) include both those with secular and religious
orientation. The mix of forces varies quite substantially from country to country, as do the tools
that are available for them to use in their struggle for power. But most had added to their
traditional …………………………………………….(8) - manipulation of political position or
of position in ethnic and sub-ethnic communities -new economic and cultural tools of “global
outreach.” Throughout Central Asia, members of the elite from ……………………………..
…….…(9) and families have been sitting by, waiting for the opportunity to grasp more
economic and political power.
The Rose, Orange and Tulip revolutions have changed their perspective, and have given them
…. ………………………..(10) to try and plot the downfall of the current regime. This is
particularly true in Kazakhstan. The political system in Kazakhstan most resembles that of
Kyrgyzstan, in that in both countries there is already a strong penetration of civil society
institutions, the political and economic elite is …………………………………………….…(11),
and the president has been associated with a pattern of corruption. But there are important
differences. First of all, Kazakhstan is a ………………………………………………….(12)
than Kyrgyzstan, with a much larger economy. Both countries have pursued relatively similar
policies of economic reform, but Kazakhstan attracted vastly greater sums of foreign investment
due to its ……………………………….…(13), which also have allowed the Kazakhs to benefit
from high global oil prices. As a result, …………………………………..(14) is much less of a
problem than in Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakhstan’s poor are ……………………………...(15) across
the country’s enormous territorial expanse, making them much more difficult to organize.
Kazakhstan is likely to be the next state targeted by its opposition for a democratic revolution.
large oil and gas reserves, poverty, be pushed from office, relatively dispersed, oust, altenative
elite, disfavored clans, new incentive, partially fragmented, risk-free environments, at their
disposal, feel slighted, out-groups, much wealthier society
The former president of Kyrgyzstan, who himself was overthrown during the bloodless Tulip
Revolution in 2005 has spoken to RT. Askar Akayev lost his presidential seat to Kurmanbek
Bakiyev. He explains why the regime of his successor is doomed and what the future holds for
Kyrgyzstan (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jGthr7EjJTw)
Put the sentences in the order of succession in the film and render the information:
1. Akaev is not looking to return to Kyrgyzstan presidency as he is a professional physicist

and mathematician and is doing research in complex systems.
2. Kyrgyzstan needs new leaders from among the new generation of talented professionals.
3. Aklaev is sure that democratic parliamentary and presidential elections will help to sort
out young leaders to form a government with constructive strategy
4. Kyrgyzstan received $1550 mln from Russia in sponsorship, bailouts, grants. Besides,
Russia wrote off $ 200 mln debt.
5. Bakiev came to power, promising better future, but the result didn’t come to people’s
expectations.
6. Nevertheless, Akaev sees no conditions for a new confrontation because the Uzbeks and
Kyrgyz, Northern regions and Southern regions are indignant at the regime and eager to
start building a peaceful life.
7. Bakiev oriented more towards the US and planned to build one more US military base.
8. What happened in Kyrgyzstan in 2010 is reminiscent of the Tulip Revolution of 2005.
9. It seems that history repeats itself, though being a logical result of Bakiev’s rule.
10. All color revolutions followed similar scenarios climaxing in coup and takeover.
11. There were objective reasons of instability: social and political problems, poor living
conditions, economic problems after the collapse of the USSR
12. Kyrgyz people quickly figured out real interests of pro-western leaders aimed at higher
influence in this strategic region.
13. Real economic collapse didn’t happen in 2009 thanks to Russia’s extended and generous
assistance.
14. A coup of 2005, committed by political extremists, put Bakiev forward but later he went
back on his promises of democratic society and created a regime of repression.
15. In 2010 Bakiev gave an order to fire on his people, who protested against the regime after
the aggravation of social and political situation.
16. Akaev said that Bakiev passed a sentence on himself and his return to power is out of the
question.
17. It caused irritation of other Asian states and indignation of Russia who always gave a
generous assistance.
18. One million migrants work in Russia and remittances give about 50% of the country’s
budget.
19. Akaev believes that Russia has been given to Kyrgyz people by God and history and is
their main strategic ally.
20. It’s hard to return Kyrgyzstan to evolutionary way of development without Russia’s help
and Akaev hopes that the temporary government have learnt the lessons of Bakiev’s
regime.
Render the information of the film and comment on it

The Tulip revolution followed the same pattern as all the previous color revolutions. Analyze the
patterns and work out recommendations for Mr. Akaev’s administration on how to avoid the
turmoil. Use Harvard business-school approach (summary, problem, issues, chronology, options,
and recommendations). Compare the chronology of the events with the ones in Ukraine and
Yugoslavia. Prepare a written analysis of the case, team-work is welcome.
Bibliography
1) Brill M. Lessons of “The Tulip Revolution”, 2005 URL:
http://carnegieendowment.org/files/olcotttestimony-April7-05.pdf (accessed 9.01.2018)
2) #EuroMaidan revolution: 2014 Ukrainian coup timeline//RT, 15.02.2015, URL:
https://www.rt.com/news/233163-ukraine-maidan-february-timeline/ (accessed 12.12.2017)
3) Fitch G. The covert war against Yugoslavia: http://www.left.ru/inter/august/elich2.html
(accessed 1.02.2018)
4) Grujic Petar V.: “Twenty Principal Misconceptions About The Kosovo Issue” //The NGO
Kosovo-Metochia,http://www.kosovo-metochia.org/kosovo-misconceptions/(accessed
7.02.2018)
5) Ieva Bērziņa Color Revolutions: Democratization, Hidden Influence, or Warfare?//Center for
Security and Strategic Research, 12.2014 – 41 pp
6) Knight Ch. Decoding Chomsky: Science and Revolutionary Politics, UK-US: Yale
University press, 2016 (abstracts)
7) Pannier B. Kyrgyzstan: Protests Gain Steam Ahead Of Major Antigovernment
Rally//RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty, 9.07.2007, URL:
https://www.rferl.org/a/1075768.html (accessed 11.04.2018)
8) Sharp G. From Dictatorship to Democracy: A Conceptual Framework for Liberation, The
Albert Einstein Institution, 2012 – 160 pp
9) Ukrainian protesters occupy Kiev square after violent clashes// i24 news, 2.12.2013
Videos
1) Similar characteristics of color revolutions, URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=5KWKw1WnziY
2) An outstanding history of Serbia where the first color revolution of global age took place:
“True Serbia versus NATO”, URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fV2h4F1OglE
3) Disperse of riots by the Berkut riot police. URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=0vsbVArqWc4
4) According to Noam Chomsky the best way to actually solve a problem (in Ukraine) is to
look at its roots instead of fiddling with symptoms, URL:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7-lKRsmCx4E
5) Askar Akayev explains why the regime of his successor is doomed and what the future
holds for Kyrgyzstan, URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jGthr7EjJTw
MODULE 7
ARMS RACE AND ARMS CONTROL
Brainstorming
1) Arms of the Past; 2) controlling arms-race; 3) types of weapons; 4) disarmament; 5)
a new world order and arms-control; 6) the Club of Nuclear States: 7) chemical
agents; 8) usage of weapons of mass-destruction in the Past
Comment on the following

citations:
1. Laws are silent in
times of war (Marcus Tullius
Cicero)
2. In anger nothing right
nor judicious can be done
(Marcus Tullius Cicero)
3. Force overcome by
force (Marcus Tullius
Cicero)
4. All's fair in love and
war. (American proverb)
5. It is easy to be brave from a safe distance. (Aesop)

6. Union gives strength. (Aesop)
7. Persuasion is often more effectual than force (Aesop)
8. To jaw-jaw is always better than to war-war. (W.Churchill)
9. Of course, when you are winning a war almost everything that happens can be claimed to
be right and wise (Winston Churchill)
10. In War: Resolution. In Defeat: Defiance. In Victory: Magnanimity. In Peace: Good Will.
(W. Churchill)
11. Good fences make good neighbors. (American proverb)
12. Forewarned is forearmed. (American proverb)
13. Better a live coward than a dead hero.( American proverb)
14. Man is by nature a political animal. (Aristotle)
2. INTRODUCTORY NOTES: WEAPONS OF MASS DESTRUCTION

A weapon of mass destruction (WMD) is a nuclear, radiological, chemical, biological, or other
weapon. WMD can kill and significantly harm to a large number of humans or cause great
damage to buildings, nature or the biosphere. The term was originally coined in reference to
aerial bombing with chemical explosives, but since World War II it has come to refer to such
weaponry as chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear weapons.
One of the major efforts to preserve international peace and security in the 21st century
has been to control, limit and monitor the number of weapons and the ways in which weapons
can be or cannot be used. Two different means to achieve the goal have been disarmament and
arms control.
Disarmament is the reduction of the number of weapons and troops maintained by a
state. Arms-control refers to treaties made between potential adversaries that reduce the
likelihood and scope of war, usually imposing limitations on military capabilities. .
Chronology of Arms Control [6]
JUNE 17, 1925 The Geneva Protocol is signed prohibiting the use of chemical weapons or
bacteriological warfare. It enters into force in 1928. The United States accedes to the Protocol in
1975.
AUGUST 5, 1963 The United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union sign the Limited
Test Ban Treaty (LTBT) which outlaws nuclear tests in the atmosphere, in outer space and
underwater. The treaty enters into force on October 10, 1963.
JANUARY 27, 1967 The Outer Space Treaty is signed prohibiting the placement of weapons of
mass destruction in orbit, on the moon or on any celestial body. The treaty enters into force on
October 10, 1967.
JULY 1, 1968 The United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and 59 other nations
sign the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). The treaty: ·Bars Nuclear Weapons States
(NWS) from transferring, assisting or encouraging Non Nuclear Weapons States (NNWS) to
acquire, manufacture or control nuclear weapons. ·Bars NNWS from seeking, acquiring or
receiving nuclear weapons. Permits the development, research, production and use of nuclear
energy for peaceful purposes. · Commits the parties to the treaty to undertake negotiations in
good faith to end the arms race and pursue nuclear disarmament. It enters into force March 5,
1970 and is extended indefinitely and unconditionally on May 11, 1995.
APRIL 10, 1972 The Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) is opened for signature. Parties to
the Convention undertake not to develop, produce, stockpile, or acquire biological agents or
toxins “of types and quantities that have no justification for prophylactic, protective, and other
peaceful purposes,” as well as related weapons and means of delivery. It enters into force on
March 26, 1975.
MAY 26, 1972 The United States and the Soviet Union sign the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty
(ABMT), limiting strategic antiballistic missile defenses, and the Strategic Arms Limitation
Talks (SALT I) Interim Agreement, providing an interim ceiling on strategic offensive nuclear
weapons.
JUNE 18, 1979 The United States and the Soviet Union sign the Strategic Arms Limitations
(SALT II) in Vienna that further limits strategic nuclear weapons. The parties also agree that the
1972 ABM Treaty will remain in effect. The treaty is never ratified.
OCTOBER 10, 1980 The Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW) is concluded in
Geneva. The Convention bases itself on the principal “that prohibits the employment in armed
conflicts of weapons, projectiles and material and methods of warfare of a nature to cause
superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering.” The CCW provides the framework to which
separate protocols are added governing individual weapons. There are initially three protocols: •
Restricting fragmentation weapons. • Restricting mines, booby traps and certain other explosive
devices. • Restricting incendiary weapons.
DECEMBER 8, 1987 The United States and the Soviet Union sign the Intermediate-Range
Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty to eliminate all ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with
ranges between 500 and 5500 km. The treaty enters into force June 1, 1988 and is fully
implemented June 1, 1991.
JULY 31, 1991 Presidents Bush and Gorbachev sign the Treaty Between the United States and
the Soviet Union on the Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms (START I). The
treaty calls for a 25-35 percent cut in the strategic warheads of both sides and enters into force on
December 5, 1994. It is fully implemented
Dec. 4, 2001. SEPTEMBER 27, 1991 The United States announces a presidential nuclear
initiative (PNI) involving the unilateral withdrawal from overseas bases and operational
deployment of all land- and sea-based tactical nuclear weapons. The following month, the Soviet
Union responds with unilateral nuclear reductions of its own.
DECEMBER 12, 1991 President Bush signs the Soviet Nuclear Threat Reduction Act (the
Nunn-Lugar legislation) approving U.S. aid to help the CIS with the storage, transportation,
dismantlement and destruction of nuclear and chemical weapons, as well as defense conversion,
and military-to-military exchanges. Over the next 10 years around $4 billion is budgeted for
these nonproliferation activities under the Nunn-Lugar legislation.
MARCH 24, 1992 The Open Skies Treaty, intended to strengthen confidence and transparency
with respect to military activities, is signed during a meeting of the CSCE in Helsinki. Parties to
the treaty are required to open their airspace, on a reciprocal basis, to the overflight of their
territory by unarmed reconnaissance aircraft.
JANUARY 13, 1993 One hundred and thirty nations, including the United States, the United
Kingdom, France, Russia and China sign the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC). The
convention aims to achieve the global elimination of chemical weapons within ten years of its
entry into force on April 29, 1997.
DECEMBER 13, 2001 The United States announces that it intends to withdraw from the ABM
treaty in six months. This is the first formal renunciation of an international arms control
agreement since the end of World War II.
There are many dangerous types of weapons, among them chemical, biological,
radiological, nuclear one. Chemical weapon refers to any of several chemical compounds,
usually toxic agents that are intended to kill, injure, or incapacitate enemy personnel [12]. In
modern warfare, chemical weapons were first used in WWI (1914–18), during which gas warfare
inflicted more than one million of the casualties suffered by combatants in that conflict and
killed an estimated 90,000. In the years since then, chemical arms have been employed numerous
times, most notably in the Iran-Iraq War (1980–88). The United States and the Soviet Union,
during their decades of confrontation in the Cold War (1945–91), built up enormous stockpiles
of chemical weapons. The end of the Cold War enabled those former adversaries to agree to ban
all chemical weapons of the types that had been developed during World War I (first generation),
World War II (second generation), and the Cold War (third generation).
Under the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) of 1993, the use of chemical weapons
in war is prohibited, as is all development, production, acquisition, stockpiling, and transfer of
such weapons. However, some individuals and militant organizations have acquired or have
sought to acquire chemical weapons in order to attack their enemies or to secure their own ends
through terror. The continued threat from chemical weapons has led many states to prepare
defenses against them and to exert diplomatic pressure on dissenting or noncompliant states to
abide by the CWC. Not all poisonous substances are considered suitable for weaponization, or
use as chemical weapons. The compounds of most utility must be highly toxic but not too
difficult to handle. Furthermore, the chemical must be able to withstand the heat developed when
delivered in a bursting shell, bomb, mine, or warhead. Finally, it must be resistant to water and
oxygen in the atmosphere in order to be effective when dispersed. Since World War I, several
types of chemical agents have been developed into weapons. These include choking agents,
blister agents, blood agents, nerve agents, incapacitates, riot-control agents, and herbicides.
Choking agents were employed first by the German army and later by the Allied forces
in World War I. The first massive use of chemical weapons was when the Germans released
chlorine gas from thousands of cylinders along a 6-km (4-mile) front at Ypres, Belgium, on April
22, 1915, creating a wind-borne chemical cloud that opened a major breach in the lines of the
unprepared French and Algerian units. The most lethal and important chemical weapons contain
nerve agents, which affect the transmission of impulses through the nervous system. A single
drop on the skin or inhaled into the lungs can cause the brain centres controlling respiration to
shut down and muscles, including the heart and diaphragm, to become paralyzed. Poisoning by
nerve agents causes intense sweating, filling of the bronchial passages with mucus, dimming of
vision, uncontrollable vomiting and defecation, convulsions, and finally paralysis and respiratory
failure. Death results from asphyxia, generally within a few minutes of respiratory exposure or
within hours if exposure was through a liquid nerve agent on the skin. Defense against nerve
agents requires a skintight gas mask and special protective overgarments.
After the Second World War the United States, the Soviet Union, and a number of other
states also produced these and other nerve agents as weapons. VX, the most famous of the so-
called V-nerve agents was developed by chemists at a British government facility in 1952.
Britain renounced all chemical and biological weapons in 1956 but traded information on the
production of VX with the United States in exchange for technical information on the production
of thermonuclear bombs. In 1961 the United States began large-scale production of VX. The
only other countries believed to have built up VX arsenals were the Soviet Union, France, and
Syria. Following the signing of the CWC in 1993, the United States and Russia began the
elimination of their chemical weapons stocks, with a goal of finishing the process by 2012;
neither country trains its forces with such weapons at present.
Tear gas and vomiting agents have been produced to control riots and unruly crowds.
Although the United States signed and ratified the CWC, it has reserved the right to use riot-
control agents in certain other situations, including counterterrorist and hostage-rescue
operations, noncombatant rescue operations outside war zones, peacekeeping operations where
the receiving state has authorized the use of force, and military operations against non-state
actors initiating armed conflict.
Biological warfare- also known as germ warfare - is the use of biological toxins or
infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi with the intent to kill or incapacitate
humans, animals or plants as an act of war. Biological weapons are living organisms or
replicating entities (viruses, which are not universally considered "alive") that work within their
host victims. Biological weapons may be employed in various ways to gain a strategic or tactical
advantage over the enemy, either by threats or by actual deployments. They may be targeted
against a single individual, a group of people, or even an entire population. They can be
developed, acquired, stockpiled or deployed by nation states or by non-national groups.
A radiological weapon or radiological dispersion device (RDD) [11].
RDD is any weapon that is designed to spread radioactive material with the intent to kill
and cause disruption. According to the U.S. Department of Defense, an RDD is "any device,
(weapon or equipment) other than a nuclear explosive device, specifically designed to employ
radioactive material by disseminating it to cause destruction or injury by the radiation resulting
from the decay of such material”.
One type of RDD is a "conventional explosive combined with some type of radiological
material", also known as a dirty bomb. It is not a true nuclear weapon and does not yield the
same explosive power. It uses conventional explosives to spread radioactive material, most
commonly the spent fuels from nuclear power plants or radioactive medical waste. Another
version is the salted bomb, a true nuclear weapon designed to produce nuclear fallout.
3.CASE-STUDY SET
Case 1: Pakistan Nuclear Strategy
In recent years the concern over nuclear proliferation has centered on Iran’s ongoing
effort to develop a nuclear weapons capability [5]. Pakistan’s nuclear weapons program,
however, may prove to be just as dangerous and just as destabilizing as that of Tehran’s. That
country is well on its way to quickly amassing the third largest stockpile of nuclear weapons.
Moreover, its current focus on deploying theater nuclear weapons (5 to 10 kiloton low-yield
battlefield weapons) represents a dangerous new strategy for the stability of the Indian
subcontinent and the threat that a militant organization will obtain a nuclear device.
India and Pakistan have fought four wars since their birth, following the partition of
British India in 1947. These wars, fought in 1947, 1965, 1971 (which resulted in the loss of East
Pakistan and the birth of the new state of Bangladesh), and in 1999, all resulted in significant
Indian victories. The 1999 war, called the Kargil War, was fought in the Kargil district of
Kashmir. This was the first Indo-Pakistani conflict following the deployment of nuclear weapons
by both countries, potentially bringing the two countries to the brink of a nuclear conflict.
Although a truce was later negotiated, the fate of the original princely kingdom of Jammu and
Kashmir, a legacy of the 1947 war, has to this day still not been resolved and continues to be a
major source of conflict between the two countries.
The genesis of Pakistan’s nuclear weapons program had a number of sources. In part it
was a response to the defeat in the 1971 Indo-Pakistani war. It was also driven by Pakistan’s
realization that India was going ahead with the development of its own nuclear arsenal. Neither
country is a signatory to the U.N. sponsored Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and Pakistan
opted to try to develop both plutonium and enriched uranium-based weapons. In 1985 the CIA
warned of a Pakistani plan to build a “plutonium production reactor.” Pakistan subsequently
built, with Chinese help, the 40-50 megawatt heavy-water Khushab plutonium production
reactor. The reactor went on line in 1998. Three additional heavy-water reactors were also built
and are currently operational at the same site. Pakistan also built a plutonium reprocessing plant
at the New Laboratories facility at the Pakistani Institute of Science and Technology. An
additional reprocessing facility is being built at the same location and a third is under
construction in Chasma.
Pakistan also began a program to produce highly enriched uranium using gas centrifuge
enriched uranium. The specially designed centrifuges spin uranium hexafluoride gas at high
speeds to increase the concentration of the uranium 235 isotope. This is the same technology that
Iran has been using in its nuclear weapons program. The program got a significant boost when
A. Kahn, a metallurgist working in the Dutch subsidiary of the British-based Uranium
Enrichment Company returned to Pakistan in 1975. Khan brought with him blueprints for
various centrifuge designs and a broad array of business contacts. By buying individual
components (not complete gas centrifuge), he was able to evade existing export controls and
acquire the necessary equipment.
Khan would go on to establish an illicit nuclear weapons technology procurement and
consulting operation, the “Khan Network,” that would play a major role in the transmission of
nuclear weapons technology to Iran, Libya and to a lesser extent, North Korea. The Pakistani
government has denied that it had any knowledge of Khan’s illicit side business but under
American pressure arrested A.Q. Khan, sentencing him to house arrest, and dismantled his
network. There continue to be reports, however, that rogue elements of that network continue to
operate clandestinely. In 1998 and then in 2001, for example, according to former CIA Director
George Tenant, the agency obtained fragmentary intelligence that Osama bin Laden had
dispatched emissaries to make contact with the Khan network, in order to discuss obtaining the
equipment necessary for developing a nuclear weapons infrastructure, details of nuclear bomb
design and information on how to construct radiological dispersal devices.
There are also unconfirmed reports that as recently as 2014, the Islamic State has also
reached out to former members of the Khan network for assistance in securing atomic weaponry.
While construction of a nuclear device is beyond the capabilities of Al Qaeda, ISIS or any other
militant jihadist group, the use of radiological dispersal devices, so called dirty bombs, is well
within their capability. The Pakistani nuclear effort also received considerable assistance from
China. Starting with the late 1970s Beijing supplied Pakistan with a broad array of missile and
nuclear weapons related assistance: warhead designs, highly enriched uranium, components of
various short and intermediate range missile systems, gas centrifuge equipment and technical
expertise. The A.Q. Khan network later transferred some of this technology to other countries.
According to various intelligence sources, Pakistan currently has between 100 and 120
nuclear weapons under its control. It is believed, however, that Pakistan has produced and
stockpiled around 3,000 kilograms of weapons grade uranium and about 200 kilograms of
plutonium. The current stockpile is enough for an additional 150 to 200 weapons, depending on
the warhead’s desired yield. As of the end of 2015, Pakistan has enough HEU and plutonium to
produce addition 175 to 235 warheads. This number could be higher if Pakistan opts for smaller
warheads intended for battlefield weapons. This would raise the Pakistani nuclear arsenal to
between 300 and 350 nuclear warheads. According to the Federation of American Scientist’s
latest tally, there are 15,465 nuclear weapons in the world. The vast majority of those are owned
by the United States and Russia. France has about 300 warheads, China has around 250 and the
United Kingdom has about 215. Israel is widely acknowledged to possess a sophisticated array
of nuclear weapons. Estimates of the Israeli nuclear arsenal vary widely, from as little as 80 to as
many as 400, with at least 100 of those weapons being thermonuclear “hydrogen bombs.” Since
the late 1980s, Pakistan has used a variety of militant organizations as proxies in its ongoing
struggle with India over Kashmir and elsewhere. This strategy may have been a direct result of
its success with “Operation Cyclone,” the CIA and Saudi funded program to arm the Afghan
mujahedeen during the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.
Battlefield weapons on the other hand, by their very nature, are more at risk to theft,
diversion or unauthorized use. As battlefield weapons they need to be under the control of local
commanders. While the decision to deploy them may still be under the national command
authority, their actual use has to be left to the commander in the field. Although most of them
can be kept disassembled, it is likely that some portion has to be maintained in a ready state if
they are to prove useful in stopping an Indian incursion. At the very least, some portion would
need to be assembled and deployed forward in anticipation of a possible Indian attack in
response to a Pakistani operation. Typically, these battlefield weapons have short ranges. Since
the facilities where the components of Pakistan’s nuclear arsenal are stored are well back from
the Indian frontier, this means that the weapons would likely need to be stationed relatively close
to the frontline in a ready state. It is unclear how the Strategic Command Authority would
exercise its control over such battlefield weapons once they were deployed or who would be
responsible for guarding them.
In a positive development, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi met informally with
Pakistan Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif on November 30, during the Paris Climate Change
Summit. The meeting was followed up by a surprise visit of Modi to meet with Sharif in Lahore
Pakistan on December 26. This was the first direct meeting between sitting Indian and Pakistani
Prime Ministers in more than a decade. Ultimately, in the long-term, the future direction of
Pakistan’s nuclear weapons policy is going to be a function of the state of Indian-Pakistan
relations on the subcontinent. In the short-term, however, Pakistan’s rapid growth of its nuclear
arsenal and its deployment of battlefield nuclear weapons adds one more factor of instability to
the regions international politics and further raises the risk that nuclear weapons could fall into
the hands of either rogue elements in Pakistan or international jihadist groups.
1. The effects of nuclear weapons
2. Hiroshima and Nagasaki nuclear bombings (different types of nuclear fusion)
3. 1947: Origin of Independent states of India and Pakistan
4. 1971: the Birth of Bangladesh
5. The Kargil district of Kashmir: Kashmir
6. Uranium enrichment process
7. The British-based Uranium Enrichment Company and its technologies
8. The scientific personality of A.Q. Khan
9. Indian nuclear arsenal
10. Pakistan nuclear arsenal
11. The “Operation Cyclone,” and the Afghan mujahedeens
12. The state of Indian-Pakistan relations

1. Why can Pakistan’s nuclear weapons program be more dangerous than that of Tehran?
2. When did the history of India and Pakistan confrontation begin?
3. What region has become the Apple of Discord between India and Pakistan?
4. Who helped Pakistan to build a plutonium production reactor?
5. How did A.Q. Khan help Pakistan to develop the nuclear technology?
6. What countries got an opportunity to receive an illicit nuclear weapons technology thanks
to Khan?
7. How did China influence the enhancing of Pakistan nuclear technologies?
8. What the current stockpile of Pakistan weapon grade uranium and plutonium?
9. What are estimates of sophisticated weapons in different countries?
10. What was Pakistan’s involvement into the “Operation Cyclone”?
11. What is the advantage of battlefield weapons in stopping an Indian incursion?
12. What adds one more factor of instability to the regions international politics in the short-
term period?
nuclear proliferation, to deploy theater nuclear weapons, the partition of British India, a legacy
of the 1947 war, the genesis of program, a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty,
enriched uranium-based weapons, CIA, heavy-water reactor, a plutonium reprocessing plant, gas
centrifuge enriched uranium, to spin uranium hexafluoride gas at high speeds, to bring the
blueprints, an illicit nuclear weapons technology procurement, the transmission of nuclear
weapons technology, to operate clandestinely, to dispatch emissaries to, to construct radiological
dispersal devices, to be beyond smb’s capabilities, to stockpile smth., to opt for smaller
warheads, battlefield weapons, thermonuclear “hydrogen bombs”, be stationed close to the
frontline in a ready state, the subcontinent
Gap-filling
Pakistan's Nuclear Weapons Program
Pakistan’s nuclear program has created a bleak security environment in South Asia.
While the world continues ….(1) ………………………………..on the threat of Iran’s nuclear
weapons program, a potentially much greater nuclear threat has emerged just to its east:
Pakistan, the Islamic world’s only nuclear-weapons state. Although Pakistan argues that its
nuclear weapons are ….(2)…………………………………., many experts are not so sure,
pointing out that the Taliban and …(3) …………………………have frequently struck at
supposedly secure military bases with impunity. More worrisome, though, is Pakistan’s …(4)
……………………………………………, which increases the chance that one day some
element or the other in the Pakistani military will provide nuclear materials to an even more
dangerous third party - or even to…(5) ………………………………….like Saudi Arabia,
which could set off an arms race in the Middle East [10].
History
At first glance, it may seem strange that Pakistan has nuclear weapons, as it maintains
close relations with China and the United States, neither of which would allow it to be
dismembered. Even its rival India does not wish to see it collapse, but that doesn’t stop Pakistan
from having nuclear weapons largely for one reason—India.
Pakistan’s nuclear weapons program began in 1972 under Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali
Bhutto, who had always been…(6)………………………………………………….. Indeed, it
was Pakistan’s poverty that held it back from ….(7) …………………………………………….
in the 1960s, despite reports that India was secretly working on nuclear weapons. To compensate
for this, and to accelerate the development of its own program, Pakistan resorted to subterfuge,
deceit, and help from generous friends in order to go nuclear. Pakistan’s nuclear weapons
program took off under the leadership of Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan, who began trying …(8) ……..
…………………………………at the secret Engineering Research Laboratories in 1976. Prior to
this, A.Q. Khan worked from 1972-75 at the Physics Dynamic Research Laboratory in
Amsterdam where he had access to information on uranium enrichment and he left the
Netherlands for Pakistan with secret documents that detailed the construction of a uranium
centrifuge. Once back in Pakistan, Khan’s laboratories developed a uranium enrichment plant.
Khan was convicted in absentia for theft in 1983; later on, he was linked to the sale of nuclear
designs and materials to North Korea, Iran, Iraq, and Libya. By 1984, Pakistan had the ability to
enrich uranium to …(9)………………………………………….. Pakistan finally conducted a
nuclear test in 1998, in response to an Indian test that same year.
Current Capabilities
Pakistan does not have …(10)……………………………………………….., but that is
likely to change soon with the news that Pakistan has bought eight diesel-electric submarines
from China, which could be equipped with nuclear missiles. Pakistan currently has extensive
land and air based nuclear capabilities. With the development of Pakistan’s newest missile,
Shaheen-III, which has a range of 2,750 kilometers, Pakistan is capable of hitting all of India and
can also reach Israel. Pakistan F-16 fighters can also drop nuclear bombs deep in Indian territory
and can…(11) ……………………………………. like Mumbai and Delhi. Finally, Pakistan is
believed to be developing tactical, battlefield nuclear weapons, which are necessary for its
strategy …(12) ………………………………….. Pakistan’s Nasr Missile has a range of 60
kilometers.
Pakistan does not have to worry about….(13)………………………………………….to
the extent that some other countries do because of its size, which allows nuclear weapons to be
scattered around multiple sites and because it has not adopted a no-first-use nuclear doctrine,
meaning Pakistan is perfectly willing to use a nuke first, before …(14)…………………………...
This hurts India’s nuclear deterrent capabilities, since theoretically Pakistan can hit every Indian
nuclear site. Various reports indicate that Pakistan has joined the United States in offering to use
its nuclear weapons ….. (15) ……………………………………….against nuclear threats. In
Pakistan’s case, these countries include the six Arab members of the Gulf Cooperation Council,
especially Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia is said to have funded Pakistan’s continued expansion of
its nuclear stockpile in return for a guarantee that Pakistan would provide Saudi Arabia with a
weapon or a nuclear shield in the case of Iran getting a bomb.
to shield allies, a stable country, a proponent of going nuclear, to enrich uranium, to focus
primarily, other militants, weapons grade levels, retaliation, hit major cities, to counter India, its
second strike capabilities, well-guarded, history of proliferation, pursuing a nuclear program, a
nuclear triad
Watch the video “How Do Countries Build Nuclear Weapons?: Israel, India, Pakistan,
and South Africa” delivered by prof. Siegfried Hecker of Stanfort Center
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CXONabvJDYk) and put the phrases in the order of
their sequence in the film:
1) I am going to take you through what different countries did to get the nuclear weapons.
Professor Sagan covered why they have wanted to do it, and I am going to tell you more: how
did they do it from a technical standpoint.
2) The weaponization appears to have been some combination with Iran and South Africa,
including possibly a nuclear test that's still disputed today, in 1979.
3) The Pakistanis also had help from the Chinese, at least the best as we know and suspect.
They got a little bit of highly enriched uranium from the Chinese. They got one of the Chinese
weapons designs, that was tested. And then the Pakistanis also tried to get reactor and
reprocessing capabilities from the French. But with American pressure, the French pulled back,
but the Pakistanis were able to finish it up. And it's generally believed that by 1987 Pakistan had
the capability to enrich uranium to 90% so it was able to build a uranium bomb.
4) Okay, in India, by other way, the picture is Bhabha, who was the Indian nuclear
superhero and he's a fantastically gifted scientist. India took advantage of President Eisenhower's
Atoms for Peace, and then Canada built them a reactor, heavy water reactor. By the way, the
Israeli also, work on heavy water.
5) The best is to read Avner Cohen's book, a couple of books, including "The World's Worst
Kept Secret: Israel and the Bomb." And it is generally believed that Israel had the bomb around
1968. And it was plutonium, because that's the way they went. And then the Israelis did the rest.
6) I should've mentioned more specifically that the uranium works both in the gun assembly,
and in the implosion assembly. They were ready by 1987 but they did not want the test because
of the pressure from the United States, until the Indians tested. Two weeks after the Indians
tested five explosions, the Pakistanis tested six.
7) Whenever you hear heavy water reactor or gas graphite, you know, the red flag ought to
go up because it implies good plutonium, bad for electricity. So, Canada built a reactor, U.S.
supplied the heavy water, and the Indians were there, happy as can be, doing a lot of the
indigenous stuff, doing research. But that reactor not only did research it also made plutonium
and they went ahead and extracted that plutonium, and did a nuclear device, tested a nuclear
device in 1974, that they called the Peaceful Nuclear Explosion.
8) So, first of all, of these four Israel in the 1950s had already struck up a relationship with
France. In the 1960s, France actually built a plutonium-producing reactor; they called it a
research reactor, in Israel. They also actually developed and helped them, with a reprocessing
capability. So they now would only not be able to do nuclear research, make plutonium, but re-
process and extract that plutonium. And then, at least as best as we know, it appears that Israel
and Iran worked together on the bomb during the Shah's days, and South Africa was in the mix
also.
9) Of course, it demonstrated they now had the capacity, and the capability to build a bomb.
And then they went ahead and did enrichment also of uranium, and they pretty much used the
covert global market in order to get the centrifuge technologies. In 1998, then India actually
decided they would test another nuclear device, and this time they said, it's a bomb. Actually
they tested five of them and said they were a nuclear weapons state.
10) There are some indications that they may have had some collaboration with Pakistanis
also. And then there's potential collaboration with Israel. They have built six bombs but then
South Africa decided to stick with the implosion, the simple (gun assembly) bomb, but they had
also done a lot of work for delivering in the possibility of building an implosion bomb.
11) So, Pakistan President Bhutto made the decision that, they will eat grass if they have to,
but they're going to build a bomb. A.Q. Khan, one of their scientists, went to Urenco, the
European consortium, that did centrifuge technologies, and there he learned the trade, he stole
the secrets, stole the drawings and then took those back to Pakistan to help them build the
capacity to do the enrichment.
12) South Africa is a really interesting case, and I'm sure Professor Sagan has mentioned it as
to why did South Africa want the bomb. Well, let me tell you about how they did it. Americans
built them a little reactor in accordance with the “Atoms For Peace Program”. And then the
South Africans decided they would build a bomb. And they're going to do it with a rather novel
technique of enriching. Instead of centrifuges, they did it by the aerodynamic nozzle technique.
In fact, they went to school on the French, and then particularly on the Germans.
Render the information of the video and say what facts are new to you
Pakistan is not an official member of the “Nuclear states club”, which means that its arsenals are
not under the international control. Besides, some part of the country’ population is involved into
terrorist activity, which aggravates the situation. Think about the ways for the international
community keep under control the weapons of this unstable state. Use the Harvard format:
summary, problem, issues, options, recommendations and plan of action steps (2-4), including
the budget, responsibilities, the number of staff involved, and desired results.
Case 2: Use of Chemical Weapons in Vietnam

Introductory Notes
The Protocol [2] for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or
other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare, usually called the Geneva Protocol, is a
treaty prohibiting the use of chemical and biological weapons in international armed conflicts. It
was signed at Geneva on 17 June 1925 and entered into force on 8 February 1928. It was
registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on 7 September 1929. The Geneva Protocol is a
protocol to the Convention for the Supervision of the International Trade in Arms and
Ammunition and in Implements of War signed on the same date, and followed the Hague
Convention of 1899 and 1907. It prohibits the use of "asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases,
and of all analogous liquids, materials or devices" and "bacteriological methods of warfare". This
is now understood to be a general prohibition on chemical weapons and biological weapons, but
has nothing to say about production, storage or transfer. Later treaties did cover these aspects —
the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) and the 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention
(CWC). A number of countries submitted reservations when becoming parties to the Geneva
Protocol, declaring that they only regarded the non-use obligations as applying to other parties
and that these obligations would cease to apply if the prohibited weapons were used against
them. The main elements of the protocol are considered by many to be part of customary
international law.
Nevertheless, there were lots of violation of the Geneva protocol under different pretexts,
the operation Ranch Hand being one of them. American troops started to use a strong chemical
substance Agent Orange since 1961. It was a mixture of equal parts of two herbicides, and in
addition to its damaging environmental effects, the chemical has caused major health problems
for many individuals who were exposed. Up to 4 million people in Vietnam were exposed to the
defoliant, with around 1 million now suffering serious health issues. The chemical is capable of
damaging genes, resulting in deformities among offspring of exposed victims. The U.S.
government has documented higher cases of leukemia, Hodgkin’s lymphoma, as well as other
various kinds of cancer in exposed veterans. Agent Orange also caused enormous environmental
damage in Vietnam.
It was of great concern to all humanity and in 1966, the United Nations General
Assembly Resolution 2162B called for, without any dissent, all states to strictly observe the
protocol. In 1969, United Nations General Assembly resolution 2603 (XXIV) declared that the
prohibition on use of chemical and biological weapons in international armed conflicts, as
embodied in the protocol (though restated in a more general form), were generally recognized
rules of international law.
The victims of Vietnam War
The chain of events bitterly denied by the US government is terrifying: millions of litres
of defoliants such as Agent Orange were dropped on Vietnam, but US government scientists
claimed that these chemicals were harmless to humans and short-lived in the environment [13].
US strategists argue that Agent Orange was a prototype smart weapon, a benign tactical
herbicide that saved many hundreds of thousands of American lives by denying the North
Vietnamese army the jungle cover that allowed it ruthlessly to strike and feint. New scientific
research, however, confirms what the Vietnamese have been claiming for years. It also portrays
the US government as one that has illicitly used weapons of mass destruction, stymied all
independent efforts to assess the impact of their deployment, failed to acknowledge cold, hard
evidence of maiming and slaughter, and pursued a policy of evasion and deception.
Teams of international scientists working in Vietnam have now discovered that Agent
Orange contains one of the most virulent poisons known to man, a strain of dioxin called TCCD
which, 28 years after the fighting ended, remains in the soil, continuing to destroy the lives of
those exposed to it. Evidence has also emerged that the US government not only knew that
Agent Orange was contaminated, but was fully aware of the killing power of its contaminant
dioxin, and yet still continued to use the herbicide in Vietnam for 10 years of the war and in
concentrations that exceeded its own guidelines by 25 times. As well as spraying the North
Vietnamese, the US doused its own troops stationed in the jungle, rather than lose tactical
advantage by having them withdraw.
On February 5, addressing the UN Security Council, secretary of state Colin Powell, now
famously, clutched between his fingers a tiny phial representing concentrated anthrax spores,
enough to kill thousands, and only a tiny fraction of the amount he said Saddam Hussein had at
his disposal. The Vietnamese government has its own symbolic phial that it, too, flourishes, in
scientific conferences that get little publicity. It contains 80g of TCCD, just enough of the super-
toxin contained in Agent Orange to fill a child-size talcum powder container. If dropped into the
water supply of a city the size of New York, it would kill the entire population. Ground-breaking
research by Dr Arthur H. Westing, former director of the UN Environment Programme, a leading
authority on Agent Orange, reveals that the US sprayed 170kg of it over Vietnam.
John F Kennedy's presidential victory in 1961 was propelled by an image of the New
Frontier. He called on Americans to "bear the burden of a long twilight struggle ... against the
common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease, and war itself." But one of the most
problematic new frontiers, that dividing North and South Vietnam, flared up immediately after
he had taken office, forcing him to bolster the US-backed regime in Saigon. Kennedy examined
"tricks and gadgets" that might give the South an edge in the jungle, and in November 1961
sanctioned the use of defoliants in a covert operation code-named Ranch Hand, every mission
flown signed off by the president himself and managed in Saigon by the secret Committee 202 -
the call sign for defoliating forests being "20" and for spraying fields "2".
When US troops became directly embroiled in Vietnam in 1964, the Pentagon signed
contracts worth $57m (£36m) with eight US chemical companies to produce defoliants,
including Agent Orange, named after the coloured band painted around the barrels in which it
was shipped. The US would target the Ho Chi Minh trail - Viet Cong supply lines made invisible
by the jungle canopy along the border with Laos - as well as the heavily wooded Demilitarised
Zone (DMZ) that separated the North from the South, and also the Mekong Delta, a maze of
overgrown swamps and inlets that was a haven for communist insurgents.
A reporter for the St. Louis Dispatch witnessed a secret spraying mission and wrote that
the US was dropping "poison”. But only when the Federation of American Scientists warned that
year that Vietnam was being used as a laboratory experiment did the rumours become
irrefutable. More than 5,000 American scientists, including 17 Nobel laureates and 129 members
of the Academy of Sciences, signed a petition against "chemical and biological weapons used in
Vietnam". Eight years after the military launched Operation Ranch Hand, scientists from the
National Institute of Health warned that laboratory mice exposed to Agent Orange were giving
birth to stillborn or deformed litters, a conclusion reinforced by research conducted by the US
department of agriculture. These findings coincided with newspaper reports in Hanoi that blamed
Agent Orange for a range of crippling conditions among troops and their families.
New Phase: Crimes Become Evident
In December 1969, President Nixon made a radical and controversial pledge that America
would never use chemical weapons in a first strike. He made no mention of Vietnam or Agent
Orange, and the US government continued dispatching supplies of herbicides to the South
Vietnamese regime until 1974. That year, Kiem was born in a one-room hut in Kim Doi, a
village just outside Hue. For her mother, Nguyen, she should have been a consolation because
her husband, a Viet Cong soldier, had been killed several months earlier. "The last time he came
home, he told me about the spray, how his unit had been doused in a sweet-smelling mist and all
the leaves had fallen from the trees," Nguyen says. It soon became obvious that Kiem was
severely mentally and physically disabled. "She can eat, she can smile, she sits on the bed. That's
it. I have barely left my home since my daughter was born."
By the time the war finally ended in 1975, more than 10% of Vietnam had been
intensively sprayed with 72 million litres of chemicals, of which 66% was Agent Orange, laced
with its super-strain of toxic TCCD. But even these figures, contained in recently declassified
US military records, vastly underestimate the true scale of the spraying. In confidential
statements made to US scientists, former Ranch Hand pilots allege that, in addition to the
recorded missions, there were 26,000 aborted operations during which 260,000 gallons of
herbicide were dumped.
Chronic Conditions of US Veterans
Almost immediately after the war finished, US veterans began reporting chronic
conditions, skin disorders, asthma, cancers, gastrointestinal diseases. Their babies were born
limbless or with Down's syndrome and spina bifida. But it would be three years before the US
department of veterans' affairs reluctantly agreed to back a medical investigation, examining
300,000 former servicemen - only a fraction of those who had complained of being sick - with
the government warning all participants that it was indemnified from lawsuits brought by them.
When rumours began circulating, that President Reagan had told scientists not to make "any
link" between Agent Orange and the deteriorating health of veterans, the victims lost patience
with their government and sued the defoliant manufacturers in an action that was finally settled
out of court in 1984 for $180m (£115m).
It would take the intervention of the former commander of the US Navy in Vietnam,
Admiral Elmo Zumwalt, for the government finally to admit that it had been aware of the
potential dangers of the chemicals used in Vietnam from the start of Ranch Hand. The admiral's
involvement stemmed from a deathbed pledge to his son, a patrol boat captain who contracted
two forms of cancer that he believed had been caused by his exposure to Agent Orange. Every
day during the war, Captain Elmo Zumwalt Jr. had swum in a river from which he had also eaten
fish, in an area that was regularly sprayed with the herbicide. Two years after his son's death in
1988, Zumwalt used his leverage within the military establishment to compile a classified report,
which he presented to the secretary of the department of veterans' affairs and which contained
data linking Agent Orange to 28 life-threatening conditions, including bone cancer, skin cancer,
brain cancer - in fact, almost every cancer known to man - in addition to chronic skin disorders,
birth defects, gastrointestinal diseases and neurological defects.
Tragedy and Depression
The Office of Genetic Counselling and Disabled Children (OGCDC) operates out of a
room little bigger than a broom cupboard. Dr Viet Nhan and his 21 volunteers share their
cramped quarters at Hue Medical College with cerebral spinal fluid shunt kits donated from
Norfolk, Virginia; children's clothes given by the Rotary Club of Osaka, Japan; second-hand
computers scavenged from banks in Singapore. Vietnam's chaotic and underfunded national
health service cannot cope with the demands made upon it. The Vietnamese Red Cross has
registered an estimated one million people disabled by Agent Orange, but has sufficient funds to
help only one fifth of them, paying out an average of $5 (£3) a month. The walls of his room are
plastered with bewildering photographs of those he has helped: operations for hernias and cleft
palates, open-heart surgery and kidney transplants. All of the patients come from isolated
districts in central Vietnam, villages whose names will be unfamiliar, unlike the locations that
surround them: Khe Sanh, Hamburger Hill, Camp Carroll and the Rock Pile.
Back in his tiny office, the doctor gestures to photocopies of US Air Force maps, sent by
a veterans' organisation because the US government refuses to supply them. These dizzying
charts depict the number of herbicide missions carried out over Quang Tri, a province adjacent to
the DMZ, from where almost all Nhan's patients come. Its topography is obliterated by spray
lines, 741,143 gallons of chemicals dropped here, more than 600,000 of them being Agent
Orange. "I'm just scratching the surface," he says. The Vietnamese government is reluctant to let
us travel to Quang Tri province. It does not want us "to poke and prod" already dismal villagers,
treating them as if they are medical exhibits. We attempt to recruit some high-powered support
and arrange a meeting in Hanoi with Madame Nguyen Thi Binh, who until last year was the
vice-president of Vietnam.
She looks genteel, but old photographs of her in olive fatigues suggest she is a seasoned
campaigner. As minister of foreign affairs for the Provisional Revolutionary South Vietnamese
government, she negotiated at the Paris peace talks in 1973. "I must warn you, I will not answer
questions about George W Bush," she says, madame Binh does, however, want to talk about
chemical warfare, recalling how, when she returned after the war to her home province of Quang
Nam, a lush region south-west of Hue which was drenched in defoliants, she found "no sign of
life, just rubble and grass". She says: "All of our returning veterans had a burning desire for
children to repopulate our devastated country. When the first child was born with a birth defect,
they tried again and again. So many families now have four or five disabled children, raising
them without any hope." What should the US do? Madame Binh laughs. "It's very late to do
anything. We put this issue directly on the table with the US. So far they have not dealt with the
problem. If our relationship is ever to be normal, the US has to accept responsibility. Go and see
the situation for yourself."
Class-1 human carcinogen
The US environmental protection agency, pressed into a 12-year inquiry, recently
concluded that it is a "class-1 human carcinogen". The evidence is categorical. Last April, a
conference at Yale University attended by the world's leading environmental scientists, who
reviewed the latest research, concluded that in Vietnam the US had conducted the "largest
chemical warfare campaign in history". And yet no money is forthcoming, no aid in kind. The
US government has yet to respond to the Hatfield Consultants' report, which finally explains why
the Vietnamese are still dying so many years after the war is over, but, last March, it did make its
first contribution to the debate in Vietnam. It signed an agreement with a reluctant Vietnamese
government for an $850,000 (£543,000) programme to "fill identified data gaps" in the study of
Agent Orange. "Studies can be proposed until hell freezes over," says Dr Dwernychuk of
Hatfield Consultants, "but they are not going to assist the Vietnamese in a humanitarian sense
one iota. We state emphatically that no additional research on human health is required to
facilitate intervention or to protect the local citizens."
There is cash to be lavished in Vietnam when the US government sees it as politically
expedient. Over the past 10 years, more than $350m (£223m) has been spent on chasing ghosts.
In 1992, the US launched the Joint Task Force-Full Accounting to locate 2,267 servicemen
thought to be missing in action in Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos. So it is that America continues
to spend considerably more on the dead than it does on the millions of living and long-suffering -
be they back home or in Vietnam.
The science of chemical warfare fills a silent, white-tiled room at Tu Du hospital in Ho
Chi Minh City. Here, shelves are overburdened with research materials. Behind the locked door
is an iridescent wall of the mutated and misshapen, hundreds of bell jars and vacuum-sealed
bottles in which human fetuses float in formaldehyde. Some appear to be sleeping, fingers
curling their hair, thumbs pressing at their lips, while others with multiple heads and mangled
limbs are listless and slumped. Thankfully, none of these dioxin babies ever woke up. One floor
below, it is never quiet. Here are those who have survived the misery of their births, ravaged
infants whom no one has the ability to understand, babies so traumatized by their own
disabilities, children so enraged and depressed at their miserable fate, that they are tied to their
beds just to keep them safe from harm.
Recommended presentation:
1. The main points of the Geneva Protocol
2. The provisions of the 1972 Biological Convention
3. The 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention
4. The Ranch Hand operation
5. Toxic chemicals used in gas bombs
6. Topography and geography of Vietnam
7. Kennedy’s “New Frontier”: inner and outer issues
8. The after-effects of the Vietnamese war on the US public
9. The US Navy in Vietnam, Admiral Elmo Zumwalt
10. The activity of the Office of Genetic Counselling and Disabled Children in Vietnam
11. Class-1 human carcinogens: classification and meaning

1. When did the Geneva Protocol enter into force?
2. How many people were exposed to the defoliant in Vietnam?
3. Why did the UN General Assembly approve the resolution 2603?
4. Why did the US experts call Agent Orange a prototype smart weapon?
5. How much Agent Orange was sprayed over Vietnam?
6. Who profited from production of defoliants?
7. How long were the Americans dispatching supplies of herbicides to the South
Vietnamese regime?
8. What chemicals did the US spray over Vietnam?
9. Why did Admiral Zumwalt launch the campaign to compile a classified report which
contained data linking Agent Orange to 28 life-threatening conditions?
10. Did the US redeem the losses of the millions of living and long-suffering people of
Vietnam?
Prohibition, asphyxiating, League of Nations, the Hague Convention, bacteriological methods, to
submit reservations, non-use obligations, customary international law, the operation Ranch
Hand, Agent Orange, to be exposed to the defoliant, to damage genes, deformities, offspring , to
be embodied in the protocol, harmless to humans, short-lived, a prototype smart weapon, a
benign tactical herbicide, to strike and feint, maiming and slaughter, contaminated, to clutch
between his fingers, a tiny phial, anthrax spores, ground-breaking research, to be propelled, a
long twilight struggle, to flare up, to bolster the US-backed regime, defoliants, to become
directly embroiled, the jungle canopy, a maze of overgrown swamps and inlets, a secret
spraying mission, to sign a petition, stillborn or deformed, to reinforce, a controversial pledge, to
use in a first strike, to be doused in a sweet-smelling mist, recently declassified, US military
records, skin disorders, asthma, gastrointestinal diseases, born limbless, spina bifida,
deteriorating health of veterans, to use one’s leverage, the Office of Genetic Counselling and
Disabled Children (OGCDC), cerebral spinal fluid shunt kits, topography, to scratch the surface,
a seasoned campaigner, to drench in defoliants, carcinogen, not to assist one iota, politically
expedient, chasing ghosts, to float in formaldehyde, dioxin babies
Gap filling
Hong Hanh is …..(1)…………………….. She has been poisoned by the most toxic molecule
known to science; it was sprayed during a prolonged military campaign [14]. The …..(2)
…………… ………………………persists. No redress has been offered, no …..(3)
………………………The superpower that spread the toxin has done nothing to combat the
medical and environmental catastrophe that is overwhelming her country. This is not northern
Iraq, where Saddam Hussein …….(4) ……………………….5,000 Kurds in 1988. Nor the
trenches of first world war France. Hong Hanh's story, and that of many more like her, is quietly
…..(5) ……………………………. in Vietnam today. Her declining half-life is spent unseen,
in her home, an unremarkable concrete box in Ho Chi Minh City, filled with photographs, family
plaques and yellow enamel stars, a place where the best is made of the worst.
Hong Hanh is both surprising and ……(6)………………………………….. Here is a 19-year-
old who lives in a 10-year-old's body. She clatters around with disjointed spidery strides which
leave her soaked in sweat. When she cannot stop crying, soothing creams and iodine are rubbed
into her back, which is a lunar collage of septic blisters and scabs. "My daughter is dying," her
mother says. "My youngest daughter is 11 and she has the same …..(7)………………………….
What should we do? Their fingers and toes stick together before they drop off. Their hands wear
down to stumps. Every day they lose a little more skin. And this is not leprosy. The doctors say it
is connected to American chemical weapons we were ….(8) …………………………….. to
during the Vietnam war."
There are an estimated 650,000 like Hong Hanh in Vietnam, suffering from an array of baffling
…….(9)………………………………... Another 500,000 have already died. The thread that
weaves through all their case histories is defoliants deployed by the US military during the war.
Some of the victims are veterans who were …..(10) ………………………………….in these
chemicals during the war, others are farmers who lived off land that was sprayed. The second
generation are the sons and daughters of war veterans, or children born to parents who lived on
contaminated land. Now there is a third generation, the grandchildren of the war and its victims.
contamination, doused, chronic conditions, compensation, terrifying, symptoms, gassed,
unfolding, exposed, falling to pieces
Named for the orange stripe lining the 55 gallon barrels containing this herbicide and defoliant,
Agent Orange was one of the most widely-used "rainbow herbicides" of the Vietnam war. But it
wasn't just harmful to plants. Soon after it was deployed in Vietnam, Vietnamese citizens and US
veterans alike reported crippling, life-threatening symptoms. Watch the film “War and Health:
Agent Orange” (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8RekDNnXHPY) and mark the statements
as true (T) or false (F):
1. From 1962 to 1971 the United States deployed a little less than 16 million liters of the so-
called rainbow herbicides across Vietnam.
2. During a project called Operation Ranch Hand the US forces were hoping to defoliate the
countryside, depriving the enemy of hiding places in the jungle.
3. It was the first use of herbicide as warfare British forces as well as American ones didn’t
dare to use it in the 1950's
4. The full consequences were not immediately apparent according to people who've been
exposed both Vietnamese citizens and US veterans.
5. Agent Orange and other toxic substances were not responsible for any genetic diseases.
6. The American public knew about the strategy behind the use of herbicides and was quite
happy about the stated purpose to defoliate the area.
7. The returning US veterans reported no problems to occur because of the exposure to
Agent Orange
8. In 1990 victims of exposure alleged that they agreed with Reagan administration decision
to drop a study on Agent Orange.
9. In 2011 the U.S. agreed to fund the decontamination of dioxin spots across Vietnam after
years of arguing at this point.
10. Estimates of the damage from the number of people affected to the ecological effects
vary widely and remain a subject of intense debate.

Many people express outrage at US actions in Vietnam. The reaction was very much the same at
the time of the war. Think about possibilities to stop there outrageous actions. Develop a plan of
actions of how to stop them. Do it in a written form.
Case 3: Anti-Ballistic Missile Agreement: History, Modern State and

Perspectives
An anti-ballistic missile (ABM) is a surface-to-air missile for missile defense. Ballistic missiles
are used to deliver nuclear, chemical, biological or and conventional warheads in a ballistic flight
trajectory. The term "anti-ballistic missile" is a generic term conveying a system designed to
intercept and destroy any type of ballistic threat. However it is commonly used for systems
specifically designed to counter intercontinental ballistic missiles.
When the Cold War came to a finish in 1972, the Soviet Union and the United States of America
knew some sort of action needed to be taken to evade a nuclear war in the future. The U.S.
wanted an agreement with the Soviet Union for the limitation of strategic offensive arms [9].
From this dilemma, the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty was produced, and signed, by both
countries to put an end to their aggression towards each other and to limit anti-ballistic missile
systems designed to defend against strategic ballistic missiles. After nearly 30 years of the Anti-
Ballistic Missile Treaty [4] being in effect, the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, and
extenuating circumstances taking place in the United States, President George W. Bush in 2002
made a decision to pull out of the treaty.
According to him, time has changed, and along with it, so have methods of defense. Many events
had occurred in the previous thirty years that make the treaty out of date, i.e. the ABM Treaty
may have banned anti-ballistic missile systems, but it did allow the research, development and
limited deployment of some type of ground-based anti-ballistic missile system. Other countries
had given the United States reasonability to be removed from this treaty. The United States
government had considered alternatives and a number of terrorist attacks against the United
States that had taken place over the years, when this system could have possibly prevented some
them. [3] Lots of experts welcomed this step, saying: “Putin, of Russia, should not look down
upon President Bush for removing the U.S. from this treaty, but be in high spirits because he can
also remove his country from the treaty and develop an anti-ballistic missile system for his own
country. If most countries are secured by this type of system, however, other countries may well
not be fearful of firing missiles at them. Also, this can give Russia political points. They can
keep calm about the treaty, get along with U.S., and look like a peacemaker.”[8]
Position of European Nations
During 1993, a symposium was held by western European nations to discuss potential future
ballistic missile defense programs. In the end, the council recommended deployment of early
warning and surveillance systems as well as regionally controlled defence systems. During
spring 2006 reports about negotiations between the United States and Poland as well as the
Czech Republic were published. The plans propose the installation of a latest generation ABM
system with a radar site in the Czech Republic and the launching site in Poland. The system was
announced to be aimed against Iran and North Korea. This caused harsh comments by Vladimir
Putin at the OSCE security conference during spring 2007 in Munich. German foreign minister
Frank Walter Steinmeier expressed severe concerns about the way in which the U.S. had
conveyed its plans to its European partners and criticised the U.S. administration for not having
consulted Russia prior to announcing its endeavours to deploy a new missile defense system in
Central Europe. Western countries opted for mutually assured destruction.
Anti-ballistic missile agreement versus MAD?
This issue has been widely discussed by Western media for some time. Should enforcing
MAD(mutually assured destruction) be more important than protecting citizens against nuclear
missiles? MAD [8] is a doctrine of military strategy and national security policy in which a full-
scale use of nuclear weapons by two or more opposing sides would cause the complete
annihilation of both the attacker and the defender. It is based on the theory of deterrence, which
holds that the threat of using strong weapons against the enemy prevents the enemy's use of
those same weapons.
According to Raymond Lockley [4], former special advisor on energy & security to Office of
President, the whole notion of Mutual Assured Destruction was created originally to assuage the
fears of society that a nuclear war would be so horrific that no sane person would attempt to start
such a war because they themselves would be assured of destruction. He sticks to the point that
“if you analyze that doctrine, you will soon realize that from the very first it was only intended to
calm the populace, especially in a democratically-elected society where people could vote their
consciences and demand that no such weapons be built and deployed to begin with. In fact, all
during the Cold War right up to present time, there are elements within the defense complex
whose responsibilities are to plan for such a nuclear war, not only from a “defensive”
perspective, but from a first-strike “offensive” strategy too. In military parlance this is called a
contingency scenario.”
There are already some steps that have been undertaken in different countries. In Russia, as “we
have recently learned that they have nuclear shelters for upwards of 40,000,000 people most at
risk in major population areas. Besides, Russia has been developing a missile defense shield for
several decades to secure strategic military balance with the US. The A-135 anti-ballistic missile
system is currently deployed around Moscow. It comprises dozens of interceptor missiles and
sophisticated early warning radars. As for the US, about 7 TRILLION dollars has gone
unaccounted for in the Pentagon’s budget over the last several years according to the estimates of
Secretaries of Defense and the Government Accounting Office …for underground nuclear
shelters for the elite, the US Congress and Continuity of Government—at the expense of every
citizen who will never gain admission to such shelters. Beside, within the last couple of years the
government has accelerated the purchase of hundreds of millions of individual MREs (meals
ready to eat) and other long term survival food supplies, bottled water, and even billions of
rounds of hollow point ammunition for virtually every government agency from the US Postal
Service to the IRS to the Department of Agriculture.
History of Russia's Anti-ballistic Missile (ABM) System
In 1962-63, the Soviet Union began constructing the world's first working ABM system, which
was designed to protect Moscow [7]. Originally, the system was intended to have eight
complexes, each with 16 interceptors (for a total of 128 interceptors), in the Moscow area, but
construction slowed in 1968 and by 1969-70 only four of the sites, with a total of 64 interceptors,
were completed. Plans for additional sites were scaled back in 1972, when the signing of the
ABM Treaty limited the Soviet Union and the United States each to two ABM sites totaling 200
interceptors. The system's architecture shrank again to one site with 100 interceptors when a
protocol to the treaty was signed in 1974.The Moscow system relied on a huge A-frame radar
known in the West as the "Dog House" for long-range tracking and battle management. This was
later supplemented by a radar, known as "Cat House," for the same purpose. A network of "Hen
House" radars on the periphery of the Soviet Union provided early warning and missile
acquisition information. Like the US Safeguard system, the Soviet system used a nuclear-armed
missile (called the Galosh) as its interceptor. The interceptor used a warhead with a yield of
several megatons -- several hundred times larger than the bomb dropped on Hiroshima.
Also like the US Safeguard program, the original Russian system had problems - its radars were
vulnerable to "blackout" or blinding by nuclear blasts (including those from its own interceptor
missiles). The system also did not cover all possible attack corridors, so missiles approaching
from certain directions might be undetectable.
The Soviet Union began a major upgrade of its system in 1978. The new system was a two-layer
defense using two types of nuclear-armed interceptors - an improved version of the Galosh, for
intercepting warheads outside the atmosphere, and the high-acceleration Gazelle (similar to the
US Sprint) for intercepts within the atmosphere. The updated system, still nominally in
operation, relies on the phased-array Pillbox radar at Pushkino for coverage and a network of
large phased-array radars, along with the original Hen House radars. The new system apparently
includes the maximum 100 interceptors allowed by the ABM Treaty.
Despite the improvements, US military and intelligence reports say the Moscow system would
still be relatively easy to defeat. The Soviet Union continued to research both traditional and
"exotic" technologies for use in ABM systems, but assessments by the Defense Department in
1988 put its programs at approximately ten years behind similar US efforts. Since that time, the
break-up of the Soviet Union and subsequent economic troubles in Russia have led to a
significant deterioration in the existing system and a lack of funding to complete the upgrade
program or to undertake new research. At the time of the Soviet Union's collapse in 1991, the
new ABM system had still not reached full operational capability. Much of the early warning
radar upgrade program associated with the improved system had not yet been completed, and of
those radars that had been updated, several were in republics other than Russia. The sharp
decline in the Russian defense budget after the break-up also effectively ended most work on the
program, and the early-warning network quickly deteriorated. Despite these problems, the
system has continued to operate at partial capability, and a secret presidential decree in 1995
declared that it was still operational.
The system, operated by the Air and Missile Defense Command of the Russian Air Force, is
compliant with the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty from which the US unilaterally withdrew
in 2002. America keeps developing its own systems, including the ones in Eastern Europe, where
NATO is building Aegis Ashore ground-based missile defense sites. Moscow says the systems
can be easily adapted to deploy offensive weapons. “The missiles are put into a capsule used for
launches of sea-based Tomahawk missiles. Now they are placing their antimissiles there, which
are capable of engaging a target at a distance of up to 500 kilometers [310 miles],” Russian
President Vladimir Putin said at the St. Petersburg International Economic Forum “We know
year by year what will happen, and they know that we know,” he said, adding that Western
officials “pull the wool over [their news outlets] eyes,” who in turn misinform their audiences.
Russian leaders have previously said Washington’s missile defense plans in Eastern Europe
leave Moscow with no choice but to target countries hosting such systems, stressing that
Russia’s next-generation ballistic missiles are capable of penetrating any adversary missile
defense shield.
Russia’s Anti-Missile Shield
Now that the ABM Treaty is no longer in force and US and NATO anti-ballistic missile systems
are creeping closer to Russia’s borders both in Europe and Asia, ostensibly to deal with mostly
imaginary Iranian and North Korean “threat”, this naturally raises the question of whether the US
efforts to endanger the viability of Russia’s nuclear arsenal will result in a symmetrical response,
in addition to improving the offensive systems’ ability to overcome defenses [14].
Russian defense industry has not been sitting still in the face of NATO ABM expansion. Long-
range air defense systems like the S-300, S-400, and the upcoming S-500 have considerable
ability to destroy ballistic threats, though none of them have been tested against the extremely
fast ICBM re-entry vehicles which are far harder to defeat than short- and intermediate-range
ballistic missiles. … Moreover, Russia is working on the successor to A-135, the A-235 which
will likewise use multiple types of missiles to provide an ability to destroy incoming warheads at
long ranges and at extremely high altitudes bordering on orbital. However, the A-235, whose
development has been highly classified, to the point of very little information being available
through open sources, will have a couple of major differences from the A-135.
The first is that it will use conventional high-explosive and kinetic-energy warheads, rather than
nuclear ones. That fact will greatly decrease the system’s cost and complexity, and also the
associated infrastructure needs which will no longer have to ensure proper security for its nuclear
munitions. The second and related difference is that the A-235 will be mobile. A number of
published A-235 concept drawings show a mobile transport and launch vehicle similar to what is
used by the S-400. It means that the A-235 will have a level of flexibility that the fixed-site and
silo-based A-135 does not. The mobility of the A-235 means that it can be not only deployed at
any location within Russia’s territory but also outside of its borders, including on the territory of
friendly countries. The current geopolitics suggest such locations could include not only the
islands and archipelagos of the Arctic (where an ABM system could easily shoot down NATO
submarine-launched missiles in their boost phase), but friendly countries such as Syria, Egypt,
Iran, possibly Vietnam and others, with the ultimate “prize” being, of course, Cuba, where a
Russian ABM system easily negate any advantage from stationing comparable US systems in
Poland and Romania.
1. First ballistic missiles in US and USSR
2. History of the limitations of strategic offensive arms
3. G. Bush’s political stance
4. Ballistic missile defense programs in different countries
5. MAD as a military strategy
6. The theory of deterrence
7. The first strike offensive strategy
8. “Dog House", "Cat House" and "Hen House" radars versus the US Safeguard program
9. The Galosh anti-missile system
10. “Exotic" technologies for use in ABM systems
11. Putin’s position on American exit from ABM treaty
12. Long-range air defense systems S-300, S-400 and S-500
13. ICBM re-entry vehicles
14. A-135 and A-235 potential

1. What is a ballistic missile?
2. Who made a decision to pull out of the treaty?
3. What were the reasons of pulling out of the treaty?
4. Why did Frank Walter Steinmeier express concerns about the US way of conveying its
plans?
5. Why is the approach of deterrence criticizes by experts?
6. What steps are being undertaken in US and Russia in modern political environment of
MAD
7. What is implied by terms Dog House, Cat House and Hen House?
8. What were the after-effects of the USSR collapse?
9. What are functional capabilities of S-500?
10. What does the A-235 mobility mean from geopolitical point of view?
Interpret the words and word-combinations and illustrate them, by using in sentences from
the text:
surface-to-air missile, ballistic flight trajectory, a generic term, to counter intercontinental
ballistic missiles, to pull out of the treaty, allow the research, remove from the treaty, to give
political points, deployment of early warning and surveillance systems, a radar site, the
launching site, to announce its endeavours, mutually assured destruction, complete annihilation,
the theory of deterrence, a first-strike offensive strategy, nuclear shelters, sophisticated early
warning radars, individual MREs, interceptors, to be scaled back, a huge A-frame radar, "Hen
House" radars, the US Safeguard system, vulnerable to "blackout”, a major upgrade, a two-layer
defense, to intercept warheads, a network of large phased-array radars, full operational
capability, to unilaterally withdraw, to creep closer to Russia’s borders, a symmetrical response,
extremely high altitudes, conventional high-explosive and kinetic-energy warheads, a mobile
transport, a launch vehicle, to shoot down, submarine-launched missiles in their boost phase.
Gap-filling exercise:
Shaping Up Anti-Missile Defense System
Russia’s anti-missile defense system currently faces two types of threats: ….(1) ……………….
……..and ballistic missiles [1]. Both can be used for …(2) ……………………either a disarming
blow, or a general blow. To prevent or reduce threats from cruise missiles, requires not only
active means such as missile defense systems, but also passive means.
As we know, the major part of Russia’s strategic nuclear potential is located along the line from
Moscow broadly defined through Vypolzovo, Yoshkar-Ola, Teikovo, Kozelsk, or along the
narrow line following …(3) …………………………. ……………..of Russia from the Saratov
region to Irkutsk.
The range of any American cruise missile currently operating (BGM-109 Tomahawk, AGM-
86B), is less than 3,000 km. Besides, all of them are either air or …(4) …………………………..
Looking at the map, we see that all the objectives except Russia’s strategic nuclear forces bases
in the Moscow are located ….(5) ………………………striking range of cruise missiles.
European Russia is safely covered with …(6) ……………………………….defense systems and
missile defense systems. Anyway, cruise missiles can only attack them from two directions from
the waters of the Black and Baltic Seas. Some Northern or Mediterranean Sea bases can be
reached with the …(7)……………………………………, but only if the route is direct as an
arrow, which is easier to ….(8)……………………………….. That’s why any ship with cruise
missiles in the Black and Baltic Seas is under constant air watch and would be destroyed on
command within minutes. That’s why they are always used for ….(9)……………………………
……….
Of course, there are other ….(10)……………………………… on Russian territory that can be
attacked by cruise missiles, starting with advanced missile defense systems. It’s very important
not just to site them as far as possible from protected objects, but to ….(11) ……………………
the fight against the enemy’s missiles over water wherever possible.
The point is that it’s much easier to intercept atmospheric targets over the sea. The new Russian
"Podsolnukh" over-the-horizon ….(12)………………………….., for example, whose export
model has a range up to 450 kms, can cover …. (13) ……………………………………..and
missile defense locations in these areas. They are designated to operate on low targets. A "Mars"
radar station will probably be the "eyes and ears" of the S-500 surface-to-air missile system.
Thus, a first conclusion: Russia’s missile defense…(14) ………………………………………..
increases efficiency, while decreasing threats when ….(15)…………………………………….
our borders, and it would be silly not to use this opportunity:
 in the north – Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya, New Siberian
Islands;
 in the east – Wrangel Island, Chukotka, Komandorskie Islands, Kuril Islands;
 in the west – the Kaliningrad region, the Crimea, Belorussia.
Thanks to the location of its missile defense blocks, Russia can drastically …(15) reduce the load
on those elements.
moved to, reduce the load, cruise missiles, sea based, ultimate range, intercept, training, targets,
naval bases, dramatically, striking, the southern border, beyond, ground - air, radar
The A-135 (NATO: ABM-3) anti-ballistic missile system is a Russian military complex
deployed around Moscow to counter enemy missiles targeting the city or its surrounding areas. It
became operational during 1995. It is a successor to the previous A-35, and compliant with the
1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty from which the US unilaterally withdrew in 2002.
The A-135 system attained "alert" (operational) status on February 17, 1995. It is operational
although its 51T6 (NATO reporting name: SH-11) component was deactivated in February 2007.
A newer missile is expected to replace it. There is an operational test version of the system at the
test site in Sary Shagan, Kazakhstan. The system is operated by the 9th Division of Anti-Missile
Defence, part of the Air Defence and Missile Defence Command of the Russian Aerospace
Defence Forces. Watch the film about the Russian ABM (https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=HVVkXWZMXuI) and finish the sentences:
March the forth of 2016 saw the 55th anniversary of the first successful anti-ballistic missile
intercept (1) ……………………………….
The V1000 anti-missile was equipped with a conventional blast fragmentation warhead to
destroy the warhead launched by (2)………………………………………………………...
This initial experiment led to the ultimate development and deployment of the a 135 amour
ABM system around Moscow as permitted by the 1972 ABM Treaty. The system employed
32:51 t6 as of long-range anti missile interceptors (3) …………………………………
…………………. and 68 short-range 53 t6 short-range anti-missile interceptors in accordance
with the ABM Treaty which permitted a (4) ……………………………………………………
with no more than 100missiles.
A 135 was deployed to protect Moscow (5) ……………………………………………….None
of these missiles were ever used in combat and hopefully they never will have to be, for even a
short range 53 t6which can intercept incoming warheads (6) ……………………………………
……………………………. carries a ten-kiloton nuclear warhead.
Now that the ABM Treaty is no longer in force since the US abrogated it in 1972 and
US and NATO anti-ballistic missile systems (7) …………………………………………………

…………………………..both in Europe and Asia, ostensibly to deal with mostly (8) ………
……………………………………………………….………this naturally raises the question of
whether the US efforts to endanger the viability of Russia's nuclear arsenal will result in (9)
………………………………………………………………In addition to improving the
offensive system's ability to overcome defenses Russian defense industry has not been sitting
still in the face of NATO ABM expansion.
Long-range air defense systems like (10) ……………………………………………
………………… ..have considerable ability to destroy ballistic threats.
But none of them have been tested against the extremely fast (11) ……………………………
……………………………………………………..which are far harder to defeat and short and
intermediate range ballistic missiles
It is however possible that they could be effective in the so called (12) ………………………
…………………………………….…… against missiles which have just left their launches
which is far easier to perform than intercepting of small and fast warhead.
Moreover, Russia is working on the successor to A135- A 235 which will likewise use multiple
types of missiles to provide an ability to destroy incoming warheads at long-ranges and at
extremely high altitudes (13) ………………………………………………………………………
However the A- 235 deployment has been highly classified, very little information being
available through open sources. There’s a couple of major differences between the A 135 and
the A 235.The first is that it will use conventional high explosive and (14)
………………………… ……………………..…rather than nuclear ones. That fact will greatly
decrease the system's cost and complexity and also the associated infrastructure needs which
will no longer have to ensure proper security for its (15)
………………………………………………………………………..
The second difference is that the A 235 will be mobile. The number of published A 235
drawings shows a mobile transport and a launch vehicle similar to what is used by the S 400.
It means that the A 235 will have a level of flexibility that the fixed side and silo-based A 135
does not have. The mobility of the A 235 means that it can not only be deployed in location
within Russia's territory but also outside of its borders including the territory of friendly
countries.
The current geopolitics suggest such locations could include not only the islands and (16)
………………………………………………………………….An ABM system could easily
shoot down NATO submarine launch missiles in their boost phase. But friendly countries such
as (17) ……………………………………………………………………………………and
others can advantage, with the ultimate prize being, of course, Cuba where a Russian ABM
system can easily negate any advantage from stationed US systems in Poland and Romania.
Whether or not such deployments ever take place largely depends on (18) …………………
…………………of Russian-NATO relations.
The only reason the ABM Treaty was ever (19) …………………………………………was
USSR’ s demonstrated ability to deploy effectively ABM systems.
The US withdrawal from that treaty was driven by its leaders (20) ……………………………..
………………that the US could launch a new nuclear arms race with no country able to counter
it. Once Russia demonstrates its ability to fit the next generation of “dritt ejek” anti-ballistic
systems we may see the world's great powers once again returned to the negotiating table.
You are to act as experts in the sphere of ABM treaty. Suggest your ways of settling the
situation. You can choose your “employer”: RF, USA, UN ….others. Start with the summary,
problem and issues (developed according to SWOT), then proceed to options, recommendations
and a plan of actions. The analysis should be done in a written form.
1) How Russia’s Own Anti-Ballistic Missile System is Shaping Up//Russia Insider,

25.07.2016, URL: http://russia-insider.com/en/military/what-san-russias-antimissile-
defense-system-look/ri15077 (accessed 12.11. 2017)
2) Geneva Protocol, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_Protocol; Protocol for the
prohibition of the use in war of asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases, and
bacteriological methods of warfare//United Nations Treaty Series. 5.08.2013. URL:
http://treaties.un.org/Pages/showDetails.aspx?objid=0800000280167ca8 (accessed
28.12.2017)
3) Jeffrey S. The anti-ballistic missiles treaty//The Guardian, 14.12.2001 URL:
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/dec/14/qanda.september11 (accessed 12.
02.2018)
4) Lockey R. Are Anti-Ballistics missile Treaties Immoral?//Quora, 5.11.2016, URL:
https://www.quora.com/Are-anti-ballistic-missile-treaties-immoral (accessed 3.01.2018)
5) Micallef Joseph V. The Other Bomb. Pakistan’s Dangerous Nuclear Strategy//The
Huffington Post, 2.07.2016
6) Mendelsohn J., Grahame D. Arms control Chronology, Washington: Center for Defense
Information, 2002 – 154 pp
7) Missile Defense//Union of concerned scientists, URL: http://www.ucsusa.org/nuclear-
weapons/missile-defense/history-of-russian-missile-defense.html#.WUtqoLZn21s
(accessed 12.12.2017)
8) Mutual assured destruction//Wikipedia, URL:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutual_assured_destruction (accessed 22.02.2018)
9) President Bush and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, URL:
https://educheer.com/president-bush-and-the-anti-ballistic-missile-treaty/ (accessed
13.04.2018)
10) Pillalamarri A. Pakistan's Nuclear Weapons Program: 5 Things You Need to Know. //The
National Interest, 21.04.2015, URL: http://nationalinterest.org/feature/pakistans-nuclear-
weapons-program-5-things-you-need-know-12687 (accessed 14.09.2017)
11) Radiological Weapons//Wikipedia, URL:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiological_weapon (accessed 23.11.2017)
12) Schneider Barry R. Chemical Weapons
https://www.britannica.com/technology/chemical-weapon
13) Scott-Clark C. and Adrian Levy Specter Orange//The Guardian, 29.03.2003, URL:
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/mar/29/usa.adrianlevy (accessed 12.02.2018)
14) Simkin J. Chemical Warfare//Spartacus Educational, 02.2015, URL: http://spartacus-
educational.com/VNchemical.htm (accessed 1.05.2018)
15) South Front team Russia’s Anti-Missile Shield//the Real Syrian Free Press, 12.03.2016,
URL: https://syrianfreepress.wordpress.com/2016/03/12/russia-anti-missile/ (accessed
1.08.2017)
16) Strategic Arms Limitation Talks// Encyclopedia Britannica, URL:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Strategic-Arms-Limitation-Talks (accessed 3.04.2018)
17) The free dictionary by Farlex, URL:
http://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Nuclear+Weapons (accessed 5.03.2018)
VIDEOS
1. The video “How Do Countries Build Nuclear Weapons?: Israel, India, Pakistan, and
South Africa”, URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CXONabvJDYk
2. Agent Orange was one of the most widely-used "rainbow herbicides" of the Vietnam war,
that the Vietnamese and US veterans alike reported crippling, life-threatening symptoms,
URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8RekDNnXHPY
3. The film about the A-135 (NATO: ABM-3) anti-ballistic missile system is a Russian
military complex deployed around Moscow, URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=HVVkXWZMXuI
MODULE 8
WARS AND CONFLICTS IN GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT
Brainstorming
1) Traits of wars; 2) characteristic features of conflicts; 3) wars of the Past; 4) World Wars;
5) civil wars; 6) cyber wars; 7) new types of wars; 8) proxy-wars; 9) hybrid wars;
religious wars
Comment on the
following
quotations:
1. “God created
war so that
Americans would
learn geography.”–
Mark Twain
2. “War is what
happens when
language fails.” -
Margaret Atwood
3. I know not
with what weapons
World War III will
be fought, but World
War IV will be
fought with sticks
and stones.” - Albert
Einstein
4. “The true soldier fights not because he hates what is in front of him, but because he loves
what is behind him.”– G.K. Chesterton
5. “It is forbidden to kill; therefore all murderers are punished unless they kill in large
numbers and to the sound of trumpets.” - Voltaire
6. “Older men declare war. But it is youth that must fight and die.” – Herbert Hoover
7. “Only the dead have seen the end of war.” - Plato
8. “Appear weak when you are strong, and strong when you are weak.”– Sun Tzu
9. “If you win, you need not have to explain...If you lose, you should not be there to
explain!”–Adolf Hitler
10. “The supreme art of war is to subdue the enemy without fighting.”- Sun Tzu
11. “All war is a symptom of man's failure as a thinking animal.”– John Steinbeck
12. “War does not determine who is right — only who is left.” - Anonymous aurther
13. “Sometimes you have to pick the gun up to put the Gun down.”– Malcolm X
14. “If everyone fought for their own convictions there would be no war.”- Leo Tolstoy
15. “The world is full enough of hurts and mischances without wars to multiply them.”– John
R.R. Tolkien
16. “When the rich wage war it's the poor who die.”– Jean-Paul Sartre
17. “You can have peace. Or you can have freedom. Don't ever count on having both at
once.” – Robert A. Heinlein
18. “Peace is more than the absence of war. Peace is accord. Harmony.” - Lainin Taylor
19. “A nation that continues year after year to spend more money on military defense than on
programs of social uplift is approaching spiritual doom.” - Martin Luther King
2. INTRODUCTORY NOTES: WARS AND CONFLICTS
Why does war exist? What causes war? This is very much a philosophical question but the sad
reality is that war exists. It has since the dawn of time, and there seems to be no signs of it letting
up [14]. Let’s look at the recent developments in the Middle East. To begin with, nationalism has
played a major role. Nationalism has many connotations, but basically it can be thought of as
extreme pride in one's nation. Nationalism often causes one particular people group to believe
they are superior to others. Nationalism played a major role in both world wars.
For example, Slavic nationalism in the Balkan region helped lead to the assassination of
Archduke Franz Ferdinand, this proved to be the ‘spark’ that ignited World War I. And of
course, there was Adolf Hitler's National Socialist Party, with its fanatical belief in the
supremacy of the Aryan race. The bottom line is extreme nationalism has been a leading cause of
twentieth century conflicts.
War has broken out for other reasons, too. While religion has been a major cause of war
throughout world history, its role in 20th century conflicts has been more limited. Still, elements
of religion have worked their way into modern conflicts. The Indo-Pakistani Wars, lasting a half
century, had strong religious elements. This conflict pitted Hindu India against Muslim Pakistan.
And of course, modern Islamic terrorism is fueled primarily by religious motives. Muslim
extremists reject Western values and culture, and are intent on destroying it. In this sense, we can
also think of war as arising from a clash of cultures. But throughout the twentieth century, more
than religion, ideology has been a leading cause of war. Think of the Cold War, the half-century
conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union. That 'war' was fought over ideology:
Soviet communists sought to export their socialism system around the world, while capitalist
Americans believed their system was superior (and sought to export it around the world). The
stark ideological differences between the two superpowers resulted in the Cold War, and
periodically erupted in proxy 'hot' wars, like the Korean War and Vietnam.
Ethnicity has also been a source of conflict. Sometimes this is tied in with religion but not
always. Think of the Nazis in World War II. The Nazis believed the German race was superior
and sought to wipe out the Jewish race and subjugate Slavic peoples. The Yugoslav Wars of the
1990s were ethnic conflicts, pitting various Eastern European ethnic groups against one another.
A term closely associated with ethnic conflict is genocide. Genocide is the systematic destruction
of specific ethnic or racial group. The Holocaust is probably the most famous example of
genocide. But not all twentieth century conflicts follow the typical model of World War I or
World War II. A civil war, as we know, is a war between competing factions within the
boundaries of a nation. For example, in the early twentieth century, the Russian Civil War pitted
communist 'Reds' against monarchist 'Whites.' As of the summer of 2014, there is a civil war
taking place in the country of Syria.
The 20th century was dominated by wars and conflicts [13]. The wars changed the face of the
20th century, often altering the balance of power across the globe. The 20th century saw the
emergence of "total wars," such as World War I and World War II, which were large enough to
encompass nearly the entire world. Other wars, like the Chinese Civil War, remained local but
still caused the death of millions of people. The reasons for the wars varied from expansion
disputes to upsets in government to the intentional murder of an entire people. However, they all
shared one thing - lots and lots of death.
The largest and bloodiest war of the 20th century - and of all time - was World War II, which
was responsible for an estimated 40 to 50 million deaths. World War I was also bloody, with 8.5
million military deaths plus an estimated 13 million more civilian deaths. (If we were to add in
the deaths caused by the 1918 influenza epidemic, which was spread by returning soldiers at the
end of World War I, the WWI total would be much higher since the epidemic alone was
responsible for 50 to 100 million deaths.) Third in the list of bloody wars of the 20th century is
the Russian Civil War, which caused the deaths of an estimated 9 million people. (Interestingly,
the Russian Civil War was over 14 times deadlier than the American Civil War, which saw the
deaths of 620,000.)
The role of religion in civil unrest and war:
Often, the media does not identify the precise causes of some of the conflicts around the world
[12]. Clashes are frequently described as being ethnic in origin, even though religion may have
been a main cause. The true causes of unrest are sometimes difficult to determine. Frequently,
there are a mixture of political alliances, economic differences, ethnic feuds, religious
differences, and others.
In Northern Ireland, "the troubles" refer to about three decades of violence, largely between the
Roman Catholics nationalist community who sought union with Ireland and the primarily
Protestant unionist community who want to remain part of the UK. It was largely rooted in
discrimination by the Protestant majority against the Catholic minority. Between 1969 and 2001,
3,526 people were killed by Republican and Loyalist paramilitary groups and by British and
Irish security forces. An uneasy peace was attained by the Belfast Agreement of 1998 and has
endured.
The Rwanda genocide was mainly an ethnic conflict between the Hutu majority and the Tutsi
minority. The religious split in the country, where 75% are Christian and 25% indigenous,
appears to not have been a significant factor. On the order of 800,000 Tutsi and moderate Hutu
were murdered, between 1994 April – July, mostly by being hacked to death. The war in Bosnia-
Herzegovina [5] was among three faith groups: Muslim, Roman Catholic, and Serbian Orthodox.
The horrendous civil war in Sudan [10], called the Second Sudanese Civil War, lasted from 1983
to 2005. It had a significant religious component among Muslims, Christians and Animists. But
inter-tribal warfare, racial and language conflicts are also involved. About two million died
directly or indirectly during the war. Later, the conflict has eased. A peace agreement of 2011
led to a referendum and independence for Southern Sudan, which is now known as the Republic
of South Sudan.
Another example is the Great War of Africa, which is also known as the Second Congo War or
Africa’s World War. The fighting started in 1998 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. By
2008, 5,4 million persons had been killed, largely from disease and starvation. Hostilities
continue to the present.
A group of world religious leaders from the Buddhist, Protestant, Catholic and Orthodox
Christian, Jewish, Muslim and many other faiths met in Geneva Switzerland during 1999-OCT.
They issued a document,The Geneva Spiritual Appeal, askingpolitical and religious leaders and
organizations to ensure that religions are not used to justify violence in the future. Delegates
believed that many of the then-current 56 conflicts have religious elements.
It is important to realize that most of the world's current "hot spots" have a complex interaction
of economic, racial, ethnic, religious, and other factors.
Civilians are now the target
Civilian fatalities in wartime have climbed from 5 per cent at the turn of the century ... to more
than 90 per cent in the wars of the 1990s[11].
New weapons and patterns of conflict that include deliberate attacks against civilians are
increasingly turning children into primary targets of war. "Armed conflict kills and maims more
children than soldiers," notes a new United Nations report by Graça Machel, the UN Secretary-
General's Expert on the Impact of Armed Conflict on Children [8]. "It is a basic need of children
to be protected when conflicts threaten, and such protection requires the fulfillment of their
rights through the implementation of international human rights and humanitarian law," the
report states.
Modern warfare is often less a matter of confrontation between professional armies than one of
grinding struggles between military and civilians in the same country, or between hostile groups
of armed civilians. More and more wars are essentially low-intensity internal conflicts, and they
are lasting longer. The days of set-piece battles between professional soldiers facing off in a field
far from town are long gone. Today, wars are fought from apartment windows and in the lanes of
villages and suburbs, where distinctions between combatant and non-combatant quickly melt
away. Civilian fatalities in wartime climbed from 5 per cent at the turn of the century, to 15 per
cent during World War I, to 65 per cent by the end of World War II, to more than 90 per cent in
the wars of the 1990s.
In war, children usually have little choice but to share the same horrors as their parents. As wars
take on an ethnic, tribal or fratricidal cast, civilians and their children may find themselves the
objects of genocidal violence. As one political commentator cynically expressed it in a 1994
radio broadcast before violence erupted in Rwanda, "To kill the big rats, you have to kill the little
rats." Even humanitarian activities that were once safe from attack are now treated as legitimate
military objectives'. Relief convoys, health clinics and feeding centres have all become targets.
And when food supplies run short or water is contaminated during wartime, it is usually children
who suffer most. In Somalia, half or more of all children under age five who were alive on 1
January 1992 were dead by the end of the year. In Mozambique, wartime damage to schools has
left two thirds of 2 million primary school-age children with no access to education.
Sexual abuse is also appearing more often as a systematic policy of war, deployed to terrorize
civilian communities. In some raids during the carnage in Rwanda in 1994, virtually every
adolescent girl who survived militia attack was later raped. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the rape
of teenage girls was systematized into a deliberate policy. It has been estimated that more than
20,000 women have been raped since the Balkan war began in 1992.
The technology of war has also changed in ever more deadly ways. Inexpensive new lightweight
weapons have made it tragically easy to use children as the cannon-fodder of modern warfare. In
Uganda, an AK-47 which is simple enough for a child of 10 to strip and reassemble can be
bought for the same price as a chicken, and in Mozambique for a bag of maize. Thanks to such
innovations, by the late 1980s adults had put guns in the hands of as many as 200,000 children
under the age of 16 in 25 countries. As soldiers, children are often considered the most
expendable: during the Iran-Iraq war, child soldiers were sent out ahead in waves over
minefields.
The causes of war
"The sense of dislocation and chaos that characterizes contemporary armed conflicts can be
attributed to many different factors," says the report. "Some observers point to cataclysmic
political upheavals and struggles for control over resources in the face of widespread poverty and
economic disarray” [8]. Others see the callousness of modern warfare as a natural outcome of the
social revolutions that have torn traditional societies apart. The latter analysts point as proof to
many African societies that have always had strong martial cultures. While fierce in battle, the
rules and customs of those societies, only a few generations ago, made it taboo to attack women
and children," the report continues.
Even as wars become deadlier for innocent civilians, it is possible to mitigate their effects on
children. In El Salvador, for example, beginning in 1985, government and rebel forces agreed to
three days of tranquillity, during which 250,000 small children were immunized against polio,
measles, diphtheria, tetanus and whooping cough. This vaccine truce was repeated annually for
six years until the end of the civil war. Similarly, the 1996 Atlanta Olympics inspired UNICEF-
brokered truces between warring factions in Afghanistan (3 million children were vaccinated)
and in Kurdish areas of northern Iraq (66,000 vaccinated) a gold medal success for all sides. The
idea that twenty-first century organised violence is different from the wars of the twentieth century has
been widely debated and often new wars can be described as post-clausewitzean. New wars are the
wars of the era of globalisation. Typically, they take place in areas where authoritarian states have been
greatly weakened as a consequence of opening up to the rest of the world. In such contexts, the
distinction between state and non-state, public and private, external and internal, economic and
political, and even war and peace are breaking down. Moreover the breakdown of these binary
distinctions is both a cause and a consequence of violence. The difference lies also in actors, goals,
methods and forms of finance. These are:
 Goals: old wars were fought for geo-political interests or for ideology (democracy or socialism). New
wars are fought in the name of identity (ethnic, religious or tribal). Identity politics has a different logic
from geo-politics or ideology. The aim is to gain access to the state for particular groups (that may be
both local and transnational) rather than to carry out particular policies or programmes in the broader
public interest. The rise of identity politics is associated with new communications technologies, with
migration both from country to town and across the world, and the erosion of more inclusive (often
state-based) political ideologies like socialism or post-colonial nationalism. Perhaps most importantly,
identity politics is constructed through war. Thus political mobilisation around identity is the aim of
war rather than an instrument of war, as was the case in ‘old wars’.
 Methods: in old wars, battle was the decisive encounter. The method of waging war consisted of
capturing territory through military means. In new wars, battles are rare and territory is captured
through political means, through control of the population. A typical technique is population
displacement – the forcible removal of those with a different identity or different opinions. Violence is
largely directed against civilians as a way of controlling territory rather than against enemy forces.
 Forms of finance: old wars were largely financed by states (taxation or by outside patrons). In weak
states, tax revenue is falling and new forms of predatory private finance include loot and pillage,
‘taxation’ of humanitarian aid, diaspora support, kidnapping, or smuggling in oil, diamonds, drugs,
people, etc. It is sometimes argued that new wars are motivated by economic gain, but it is difficult to
distinguish between those who use the cover of political violence for economic reasons and those who
engage in predatory economic activities to finance their political cause. Whereas old war economies
were typically centralising, autarchic and mobilised the population, new wars are part of an open
globalised decentralised economy in which participation is low and revenue depends on continued
violence.
3. CASE-STUDY SECTION
Case 1: COLD WAR

During World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union fought together as allies against the
Axis powers. However, the relationship between the two nations was a tense one. Americans had
long been wary of Soviet communism and concerned about Russian leader Joseph Stalin’s
tyrannical rule of his own country. For their part, the Soviets resented the Americans’ decades-
long refusal to treat the USSR as a legitimate part of the international community as well as their
delayed entry into World War II, which resulted in the deaths of tens of millions of Russians.
After the war ended, these grievances ripened into an overwhelming sense of mutual distrust and
enmity. Postwar Soviet expansionism in Eastern Europe fueled many Americans’ fears of a
Russian plan to control the world. Meanwhile, the USSR came to resent what they perceived as
American officials’ bellicose rhetoric, arms buildup and interventionist approach to international
relations. In such a hostile atmosphere, no single party was entirely to blame for the Cold War; in
fact, some historians believe it was inevitable.
By the time WWII ended, most American officials agreed that the best defense against the Soviet
threat was a strategy called “containment.” In 1946, in his famous “Long Telegram,” the
diplomat George Kennan explained this policy: The Soviet Union, he wrote, was “a political
force committed fanatically to the belief that with the U.S. there can be no permanent modus
vivendi [agreement between parties that disagree]”; as a result, America’s only choice was the
“long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies.”
President Harry Truman agreed. “It must be the policy of the United States,” he declared before
Congress in 1947, “to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation…by outside
pressures.” This way of thinking would shape American foreign policy for the next four decades.
In fact, the term "cold war" first appeared in a 1945 essay by the English writer George Orwell
called "You and the Atomic Bomb."
THE COLD WAR: THE ATOMIC AGE
The containment strategy also provided the rationale for an unprecedented arms buildup in the
United States [4]. In 1950, a National Security Council Report known as NSC–68 had echoed
Truman’s recommendation that the country use military force to “contain” communist
expansionism anywhere it seemed to be occurring. To that end, the report called for a four-fold
increase in defense spending. In particular, American officials encouraged the development of
atomic weapons like the ones that had ended World War II. Thus began a deadly “arms race.” In
1949, the Soviets tested an atom bomb of their own. In response, President Truman announced
that the United States would build an even more destructive atomic weapon: the hydrogen bomb,
or “superbomb.” Stalin followed suit.
The first H-bomb test, in the Eniwetok atoll in the Marshall Islands, showed just how fearsome
the nuclear age could be. It created a 25-square-mile fireball that vaporized an island, blew a
huge hole in the ocean floor and had the power to destroy half of Manhattan. Subsequent
American and Soviet tests spewed poisonous radioactive waste into the atmosphere.
The ever-present threat of nuclear annihilation had a great impact on American domestic life as
well. People built bomb shelters in their backyards. They practiced attack drills in schools and
other public places. The 1950s and 1960s saw an epidemic of popular films that horrified
moviegoers with depictions of nuclear devastation and mutant creatures. In these and other ways,
the Cold War was a constant presence in Americans’ everyday lives.
Space exploration served as another dramatic arena for Cold War competition. On October 4,
1957, a Soviet R-7 intercontinental ballistic missile launched Sputnik (Russian for “traveler”),
the world’s first artificial satellite and the first man-made object to be placed into the Earth’s
orbit. Sputnik’s launch came as a surprise, and not a pleasant one, to most Americans. In the
United States, space was seen as the next frontier, a logical extension of the grand American
tradition of exploration, and it was crucial not to lose too much ground to the Soviets. In
addition, this demonstration of the overwhelming power of the R-7 missile–seemingly capable of
delivering a nuclear warhead into U.S. air space - made gathering intelligence about Soviet
military activities particularly urgent.
In 1958, the U.S. launched its own satellite, Explorer I, designed by the U.S. Army under the
direction of rocket scientist Wernher von Braun, and what came to be known as the Space Race
was underway. That same year, President Dwight Eisenhower signed a public order creating the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), a federal agency dedicated to space
exploration, as well as several programs seeking to exploit the military potential of space. Still,
the Soviets were one step ahead, launching the first man into space in April 1961.
That May, after Alan Shepard become the first American man in space, President John
F.Kennedy made the bold public claim that the U.S. would land a man on the moon by the end of
the decade. U.S. astronauts came to be seen as the ultimate American heroes, Soviets, in turn,
were pictured as the ultimate villains, with their massive, relentless efforts to surpass America
and prove the power of the communist system.
THE COLD WAR: THE RED SCARE
Meanwhile, beginning in 1947, the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) began a
series of hearings designed to show that communist subversion in the United States was alive
and well.
In Hollywood, HUAC forced hundreds of people who worked in the movie industry to renounce
left-wing political beliefs and testify against one another. More than 500 people lost their jobs.
Many of these “blacklisted” writers, directors, actors and others were unable to work again for
more than a decade. HUAC also accused State Department workers of engaging in subversive
activities. Soon, other anticommunist politicians, most notably Senator Joseph McCarthy (1908-
1957), expanded this probe to include anyone who worked in the federal government. Thousands
of federal employees were investigated, fired and even prosecuted. As this anticommunist
hysteria spread throughout the 1950s, liberal college professors lost their jobs, people were asked
to testify against colleagues and “loyalty oaths” became commonplace.
The fight against subversion at home mirrored a growing concern with the Soviet threat abroad.
In June 1950, the first military action of the Cold War began when the Soviet-backed North
Korean People’s Army invaded its pro-Western neighbor to the south. Truman sent the
American military into Korea, but the war dragged to a stalemate and ended in 1953.
Other international disputes followed. In the early 1960s, President Kennedy faced a number of
troubling situations in his own hemisphere. The Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961 and the Cuban
missile crisis the following year seemed to prove that the real communist threat now lay in the
unstable, postcolonial “Third World”. Nowhere was this more apparent than in Vietnam, where
the collapse of the French colonial regime had led to a struggle between the American-backed
nationalist Ngo Dinh Diem in the south and the communist nationalist Ho Chi Mihn in the north.
By the early 1960s it seemed clear to American leaders that if they were to successfully
“contain” communist expansionism there, they would have to intervene more actively on Diem’s
behalf. However, what was intended to be a brief military action spiraled into a 10-year conflict.
The close of the cold war
Almost as soon as he took office, President Richard Nixon began to implement a new approach
to international relations. Instead of viewing the world as a hostile, “bi-polar” place, he
suggested, why not use diplomacy instead of military action to create more poles? To that end,
he encouraged the United Nations to recognize the communist Chinese government and, after a
trip there in 1972, began to establish diplomatic relations with Beijing. At the same time, he
adopted a policy of “détente” - ”relaxation”–toward the Soviet Union. In 1972, he and Soviet
premier Leonid Brezhnev signed the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I), which
prohibited the manufacture of nuclear missiles by both sides and took a step toward reducing the
decades-old threat of nuclear war.
Despite Nixon’s efforts, the Cold War heated up again under President Ronald Reagan. Like
many leaders of his generation, Reagan believed that the spread of communism anywhere
threatened freedom everywhere. As a result, he worked to provide financial and military aid to
anticommunist governments and insurgencies around the world. This policy was applied in the
developing world in places like Grenada and El Salvador (the Reagan Doctrine).
Even as Reagan fought communism in Central America, however, the Soviet Union was
disintegrating. In response to severe economic problems and growing political ferment in the
USSR, Premier Mikhail Gorbachev took office in 1985 and introduced two policies that
redefined Russia’s relationship to the rest of the world: “glasnost,” or political openness, and
“perestroika,” or economic reform. Soviet influence in Eastern Europe waned. In 1989, every
other communist state in the region replaced its government with a noncommunist one. In
November of that year, the Berlin Wall–the most visible symbol of the decades-long Cold War–
was finally destroyed, just over two years after Reagan had challenged the Soviet premier in a
speech at Brandenburg Gate in Berlin: “Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall.” By 1991, the
Soviet Union itself had fallen apart. The Cold War was over.
1. The results of the WWII
2. Stalin’s role in the final resolution on the WWII
3. Types of influence division in Europe
4. Post-war Soviet influence: carrots and story
5. American expansion in the world: carrots and sticks
6. American space program

7. Soviet space exploration
8. Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki as a step towards the ”cold war”
9. Hollywood’s contribution to creating the image of “a Russian bad guy”
10. Cuban crisis
11. From the Nixon’s policy of détente to Reagan’s doctrine
12. Berlin’s wall and the reunification of Germany
13. The end of the Cold War – the collapse of the USSR
14. American advances under the direction of atomic technology and rocket scientist
Wernher von Braun

1. How can you characterize the relations between the members of the Alliance (USSR, US,
UK)?
2. What were the main resentments of the Soviet Union over the way the US treated the
USSR?
3. Why did some experts believe that the cold war was inevitable?
4. What triggered the Cold War?
5. How can we characterize the arms race after 1949? What were its main events?
6. What made the Cold War a constant presence in American’s everyday lives?
7. What measures and steps resulted in the Cold War becoming a constant presence in
America’s everyday lives?
8. How did the US demonstrate that they are not losing too much ground to the Soviets?
9. What does the term “the Red Scare” imply?
10. How did the second stage of confrontation begin in the 50s?
11. What was a new approach that Richard Nixon began to implement to international
relations?
12. What were the “pluses” of the approach to the world, China and the USSR?
13. What was Reagan’s believe concerning “communism”, “USSR”, and what did it lead to?
14. When did the Cold War end?
15. How can we assess M.Gorbachev’s role: a) from the point of view of the Western World
and b) the world stability and development?
Give your interpretation of the following notions and illustrate them by examples from the
text:
to ripen into, mutual distrust and enmity, bellicose rhetoric, strategy of containment, permanent
modus vivendi, vigilant containment, attempted subjugation…by, the rationale for,
to follow suit, the Eniwetok atoll, the Marshall Islands, a 25-square-mile fireball,
to spew poisonous radioactive waste into, nuclear annihilation, bomb shelters, dramatic arena,
intercontinental ballistic missile, to lose ground to, to gather intelligence about, a bold public
claim, to land a man on the Moon, ultimate villains, to surpass America, HUAC, communist
subversion, blacklisted writers, anticommunist hysteria, “loyalty oaths”, to drag to a stalemate,
postcolonial “Third World”, to spiral into a conflict, to create more poles, a policy of “détente”
toward , to disintegrate, a growing political ferment, to redefine relationship to, to tear down the
wall, to fall apart.
Matching exercise: Match the beginning and the end of the sentences
The Cold War: Causes
1.Although the Soviet Union and China a. Western Europe as a base to attack it.
started off as allies in 1949, b. the leader of the Soviet Union.
2. The US formed an alliance with China in c. towards the Americans.
1971 d. was a major factor for US suspicions.
3. The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in e. a personal dislike of the Soviet leader
1980, Joseph Stalin.
4. In retaliation, the Soviet Union and its f. which alarmed the Americans who claimed
allies boycotted they followed democracy.
5. The US financed and armed the Afghan g. the 1984 Olympic games in Los Angeles,
guerrillas USA.
6. The Afghan War was a major factor h. to fight against the Soviet troops.
7. In the '80s, President Ronald Reagan of the i. to the ash heap of history.
US dubbed j. and the SDI (Strategic Defense Initiative)
8. He predicted that it would be consigned also dubbed as "Star Wars".
9. He announced a major weapons buildup k. to reply in kind.
10. The Soviet Union was too economically l. that spiraled the confrontation
enfeebled m. caused fear in the Soviets.
11. In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became n. adhering to mutual mass destruction.
12. He adopted a conciliatory attitude o. in bankrupting the Soviet Union.
13. There were many cause p. the Soviet Union as an "evil empire".
14. The Soviet Union wanted to spread its q. in the part of Germany it had occupied.
ideology of communism worldwide, r. there emerged an estrangement between
15. The acquisition of atomic weapons by them, which was cleverly exploited by the
America Americans.
16. Both countries feared an attack from each s. to contain the Soviet Union.
other t. which led to the United States and its allies
17. The Soviet Union's action of taking boycotting the 1980 Olympic games in
control over Eastern Europe Moscow.
18. The US President had
19. America was annoyed by the Soviet
Union's actions
20 The Soviets feared that America would use
A Brief Overview of the Causes and Effects of the Cold War

Although the Soviet Union and China started off as allies in 1949, there emerged an
estrangement between them which was cleverly exploited by the Americans [1]. The US formed
an alliance with China in 1971 to contain the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union invaded
Afghanistan in 1980, which led to the United States and its allies boycotting the 1980 Olympic
Games in Moscow. In retaliation, the Soviet Union and its allies boycotted the 1984 Olympic
Games in Los Angeles, USA. The US financed and armed the Afghan guerrillas to fight against
the Soviet troops. The Afghan War was a major factor in bankrupting the Soviet Union.
In the '80s, President Ronald Reagan of the US dubbed the Soviet Union as an "evil empire" and
predicted that it would be consigned to the ash heap of history. He announced a major weapons
buildup and the SDI (Strategic Defense Initiative) also dubbed as "Star Wars". The Soviet Union
was too economically enfeebled to reply in kind. In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became the leader
of the Soviet Union. He adopted a conciliatory attitude towards the Americans and many arms
reduction pacts were signed. In 1989, there was a Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan and in
1990, the Soviets agreed to the reunification of Germany. Movements against communist
governments in Eastern Europe followed this. The Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, marking the
end of the Cold War.
Causes of the Cold War:
- The Soviet Union wanted to spread its ideology of communism worldwide, which alarmed the
Americans who followed democracy.
- The acquisition of atomic weapons by America caused fear in the Soviets.
- Both countries feared an attack from each other adhering to mutual mass destruction.
- The Soviet Union's action of taking control over Eastern Europe was a major factor for US
suspicions.
- The US President had a personal dislike of the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin.
- America was annoyed by the Soviet Union's actions in the part of Germany it had occupied.
- The Soviets feared that America would use Western Europe as a base to attack it.
The film is an attempt to analyze the epic struggle between Soviet communism and Western
capitalism: it starts with 1945, Potsdam, in defeated Germany where Stalin, Truman and
Churchill meet. They are the “Big Three”, the allies in the WWII who are would be rivals in the
coming Cold War. Watch the film “From World War to Cold War” and fill in the gaps in the
sentences (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HpYCplyBknI):
1. It was July 1945, Harry s Truman was bound for Europe at a meeting of the …..(1)
……………………………………………, the coalition of the three leading Allied powers of
World War II. The American president was poised between two of history's greatest battles: the
world war that was ending and the cold war that would replace it.
2. Monumental issues confronted Truman and his wartime partners: the control of defeated
Germany, …(2)……………………………………………………….., winning the war with
Japan, securing a lasting peace for Europe. “There's not one piece of territory or one thing of a
monetary nature that we want out of this war, we want peace and prosperity for the world as a
whole. Victory over Germany had restored peace to Europe but it was already threatened by a
growing rift between the partners themselves.
3. At the Potsdam Conference President Truman and British Prime Minister Winston
Churchill were…(3)………………………………………………………., determined to secure
political freedom and democratic governance in the post-war Europe. Their partner, the dictator
of the Soviet Union Joseph Stalin had other plans. He was determined to dominate all of Europe
and impose communism on its nations.
4. The Allies had won the war but their alliance would not…(4)…………………………..
……………………………….. Historic differences would prove too great to overcome. The
bitter rivalry having its roots in the years of the First World War when the competing ideas of
communism and liberal democracy first came into conflict.
5. Beginning in 1914 World War one consumed Europe in killing and destruction. For the
Western powers the war was held, for the Russian army it was…(5)…………………………
……..……, the troops were sent to fight without food, without ammunition, sometimes even
without weapons. The demoralized soldiers were a human sacrifice to the war gods offered up by
a corrupt imperialist ruler, Russia's tsar Nicholas II.
6. At home the tsar …(6) ………………………………………………to work harder, eat
less, support the doomed war effort. By 1917 the Russian people were tired of the war, tired of
starving and tired of their Tsar.
7. In February of that year a public demonstration for a higher bread ration escalated into a
popular rebellion. Tsar Nicholas was overthrown and imprisoned. A new government came to
power, they promised democratic elections, new freedoms, equal rights for women: “a revolution
that belongs to the people” They proposed to defended against any attack whether from the left
or from the right. However, Russia's …(7) ………………………………………………..would
be short-lived.
8. In Switzerland an exiled Russian, named Vladimir Lenin, was planning his own
revolution based on the writings of the German philosopher Karl Marx. Living in 19th century
England Marx witnessed firsthand …(8) …………………………………………………………
between the rich and the poor and he predicted that the inequities of the capitalist system would
inspire a spontaneous revolution of the modern working-class, the proletariat. Capitalism would
be replaced by a system of social and economic equality called communism: “We declare openly
that our ends can only be achieved by the forcible overthrow of all social conditions.”
9. Lenin interpreted Marx beliefs with religious and violent fever. He returned to Russia to
lead a group, called the Bolsheviks, and condemned the new government: “They imagine that
political questions are decided by voting. As a matter of fact they are decided …(9)
…………….. ……………………………and in October 1917 Lenin launched his revolution and
seized control of Russia.
10. He and his band of comrades then set about establishing their worker's paradise; the
modern Soviet Socialist state, bank accounts and …(10) ………………………………………
were confiscated, private fields became collectivized farms stores and businesses were
surrendered to the state. Lenin was intolerant of dissent and totally ruthless: arrest without
charge, imprisonment without trial, disappearance without explanation - all became routine.
11. In the United States President Woodrow Wilson viewed events in Russia with growing
unease: he had committed his nation to World War I in order that the world be made safe for
democracy. In his 14 points address to Congress he outlined how to achieve his lofty goals based
on principles of …(11)………………………………………………………………., free trade
and international cooperation. But the president's vision for the future did not include the
Bolsheviks. Instead when civil war broke out in Russia in 1919 Wilson sent troops to fight
against the government and in England a young Winston Churchill urged swift action.
12. Before the House of Commons he declared we must sprinkle the infant Bolshevism in the
cradle. Such rhetoric convinced Lenin and his comrades, including Joseph Stalin, that the West
would stop at nothing to …(12)………………………………………………………………...
13. Nearly three decades later the battling ideologies remain bitterly opposed and Potsdam
did nothing to bridge the divide. President Truman called on Stalin …(13) …………………….
…………………….from Eastern and Central Europe and to hold the free elections he had
promised.
14. Stalin refused. The region was …(14)………………………………………………., he
said. It was essential to his nation's security. The president was unconvinced in his fury. In his
diary he condemned the Soviet dictator for running a police government plan and a few top
hands just take clubs pistols and concentration camps and rule the people on the lower level.
15. But Truman had …(14)…………………………………………………: his nation had
developed an entirely new class of weapon, it was just in the end war with Japan but it would
also provide leverage in dealing with people like Stalin. If it worked, Truman noted, I'll certainly
have a hammer on those boys.
16. On the first day of the Potsdam Conference …(15) ………………………………….
seared the New Mexico desert, assuring in the atomic age. The Manhattan Project had produced
the world's first nuclear explosion, and the father of the bomb, Dr. J Robert Oppenheimer, at the
awesome sight summoned the words of the Hindu god Vishnu: “Now I am become death, the
destroyer of worlds”.
17. The president gave his …(16) ………………………………………………..to drop the
bomb on Japan. “Release when ready”, he wrote. When Stalin learned that the city of Hiroshima
had been destroyed by the American bomb it came as no surprise.
18. His spies within the Manhattan Project had long ago revealed its existence. But Truman's
willingness to use the weapon presented a stark new reality for the Soviet leader. In a war
fought with atomic bombs his mighty Red Army would be …(17)………………………………..
…………………………...“The balance has been destroyed” he would later tell the scientists
working on the Russian bomb “that cannot be”.
19. Potsdam was the first and final meeting between Stalin and Truman and set the tone for
the early Cold War. In the words of one British diplomat it was a very …(18)……………………
………………………………………..….
20. As President Truman sail for home he could scarcely have imagined the decades of Cold
War that lay ahead. There would be no …(19)………………………………….. in this coming
struggle, no sudden attacks or declarations of war. Just a growing sense of fear and distrust,
pulling the former allies toward a confrontation that neither could afford but that neither would
managed to escape
post-war, boundarie, personal property, Grand Alliance, survive the peace, pure hell, flirt with
democracy, the growing disparity, by class war, on one side of the divide, to urge one’s subjects,
national self-determination, final go-ahead, rendered impotent, a trump card, a blinding flash,
bad-tempered conference, Pearl Harbor, to withdraw his troops
Think about possibility to find a way to prevent the Cold War. Scrutinize the UN’s role in the
conflict as one of the options. Think about General de Galle as a possible mediator in the
conflict. Develop this case in a written form according to the Harvard format.
Case 2: The Iran-Iraq War
The protracted war between the neighboring Middle Eastern countries resulted in at least half a
million casualties and several billion dollars’ worth of damages, but no real gains by other side
[16]. Started by Iraq dictator Saddam Hussein in September 1980, the war was marked by
indiscriminate ballistic-missile attacks, extensive use of chemical weapons and attacks on third-
country oil tankers in the Persian Gulf. Although Iraq was forced on the strategic defensive, Iran
was unable to reconstitute effective armored formations for its air force and could not penetrate
Iraq’s borders deeply enough to achieve decisive results. The end came in July 1988 with the
acceptance UN Resolution 598.
During the eight years between Iraq’s formal declaration of war on September 22, 1980, and
Iran’s acceptance of a cease-fire with effect on July 20, 1988, at the very least half a million and
possibly twice as many troops were killed on both sides, at least half a million became
permanent invalids, some 228 billion dollars were directly expended, and more than 400 billion
dollars of damage (mostly to oil facilities, but also to cities) was inflicted, mostly by artillery
barrages. Aside from that, the war was inconsequential: having won Iranian recognition of
exclusive Iraqi sovereignty over the Shatt-el-Arab River (into which the Tigris and Euphrates
combine, forming Iraq’s best outlet to the sea), in 1988 Saddam Hussein surrendered that gain
when in need of Iran’s neutrality in anticipation of the 1991 Gulf War.
Peculiarities of Iran-Iraq Wars
Three things distinguish the Iran-Iraq War. First, it was inordinately protracted, lasting longer
than either world war, essentially because Iran did not want to end it, while Iraq could not.
Second, it was sharply asymmetrical in the means employed by each side, because though both
sides exported oil and purchased military imports throughout, Iraq was further subsidized and
supported by Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, allowing it to acquire advanced weapons and expertise
on a much larger scale than Iran. Third, it included three modes of warfare absent in all previous
wars since 1945: indiscriminate ballistic-missile attacks on cities by both sides, but mostly by
Iraq; the extensive use of chemical weapons (mostly by Iraq); and some 520 attacks on third-
country oil tankers in the Persian Gulf, for which Iraq employed mostly manned aircraft with
anti-shipping missiles against tankers lifting oil from Iran’s terminals, while Iran used mines,
gunboats, shore-launched missiles, and helicopters against tankers lifting oil from the terminals
of Iraq’s Arab backers.
When Saddam Hussein, president of Iraq, quite deliberately started the war, he miscalculated on
two counts: first, in attacking a country greatly disorganized by revolution but also greatly
energized by it, and whose regime could be consolidated only by a long “patriotic” war, as with
all revolutionary regimes; and second, at the level of theater strategy, in launching a surprise
invasion against a very large country whose strategic depth he was not even trying to penetrate.
Had Iran been given ample warning, it would have mobilized its forces to defend its borderlands;
that would have made the Iraqi invasion much more difficult, but in the process the bulk of
Iranian forces might have been defeated, possibly forcing Iran to accept a cease-fire on Iraqi
terms. As it was, the initial Iraqi offensive thrusts landed in the void, encountering only weak
border units before reaching their logistical limits. At that point, Iran had only just started to
mobilize in earnest.
From then on, until the final months of the war eight years later, Iraq was forced on the strategic
defensive, having to face periodic Iranian offensives on one sector or another, year after year.
After losing most of his territorial gains by May 1982 (when Iran recaptured Khorramshahr),
Saddam Hussein’s strategic response was to proclaim a unilateral cease-fire (June 10, 1982)
while ordering Iraqi forces to withdraw to the border. But Iran rejected a cease-fire, demanding
the removal of Saddam Hussein and compensation for war damage. Upon Iraq’s refusal, Iran
launched an invasion into Iraqi territory (Operation was called Ramadan, and it started on July
13, 1982) in the first of many attempts over the coming years to conquer Basra, Iraq’s second
city and only real port.
But revolutionary Iran was very limited in its tactically offensive means. Cut off from U.S.
supplies for its largely U.S.-equipped forces and deprived of the shah’s officer cadres who had
been driven into exile, imprisoned, or killed, it never managed to reconstitute effective armored
formations or its once large and modern air force. Iran’s army and Pasdaran revolutionary guards
could mount only massed infantry attacks supported by increasingly strong artillery fire. They
capitalized on Iran’s morale and population advantage (forty million versus Iraq’s thirteen
million), but although foot infantry could breach Iraqi defense lines from time to time, if only by
costly human-wave attacks, it could not penetrate deeply enough in the aftermath to achieve
decisive results.
By 1988 Iran was demoralized by the persistent failure of its many “final” offensives over the
years, by the prospect of unending casualties, by its declining ability to import civilian goods as
well as military supplies, and by the Scud missile attacks on Teheran. But what finally ended the
war was Iraq’s belated reversion to main-force offensive action on the ground. Having long
conserved its forces and shifted to all-mechanized configurations to circumvent the reluctance of
its troops to face enemy fire, Iraq attacked on a large scale in April 1988. The end came on July
18, when Iran accepted UN Resolution 598 calling for an immediate cease-fire, though minor
Iraqi attacks continued for a few more days after the truce came into effect on July 20, 1988.
Casualties
The Iranians, who were usually less well equipped, suffered even more deaths than the Iraqis.
After the Islamic revolution, and the seizure of American diplomats as hostages, the world had
punished Tehran with an arms embargo. The biggest asset its young volunteers had was their
sheer number, and they advanced in surprise "human wave" attacks - often straight into machine-
gun fire from the Iraqi trenches. "You're getting shot at, killed. Sometimes they cannot find your
body. It's in pieces. And then you see that it's an unequal war - all you have is yourselves and the
other side have everything - bunkers, artillery, air force," says Mehdi, who once volunteered to
clear a path through a minefield by running across it. Over the long years of the war, the basij
improved its efficiency, evolving from a rag-tag militia into a battle-hardened force. "The first
time when I saw a grenade strike the earth I lay on the ground for several minutes, I was so
afraid," says Mehdi. "But in time hundreds of grenades were coming - and I didn't mind. You
adapt, and get used to war. You start to recognize which bullet is passing you, and which bullet
is in front of you. You become more professional. And some basijis were really good by the end
of the war."
But by August 1988, when Ayatollah Khomeini was persuaded to accept a UN-brokered
ceasefire, the Iranian death toll was anywhere from 300,000 to one million. Yet for the devout
Basijis, death held little horror. They sincerely believed they would become martyrs, with their
sins forgiven and paradise assured in the afterlife. And they felt that on Earth, their theological
revolution, under attack from the outside world, was also something well worth dying for.
New Statistics on dead in Iran-Iraq War

The government has issued a new tabulation of war dead that differs only very modestly from
the figures issued 14 years ago. It says that 190,000 combat personnel were killed during the war
—a number consistent with previous figures although very different from the million war dead
frequently cited in the Western media [9].
The group also published figures showing that the overall burden of the war fell on the Basij,
which is comprised largely of young boys and old men, rather than on the regular Army or the
Pasdaran. The following are the total numbers serving during the eight-year war:
200,000- Pasdaran & police; 217,000- Regular forces; 2,130,000–Basij.
That means 84 percent of the war’s fighters were in the Basij. The numbers for the Pasdaran and
the regular armed forces are exceedingly low for a war that lasted eight years and therefore had a
large turnover in military personnel. The figures reveal a stunning dependence on boys and older
men. When Khatami released casualty figures in 1988, he lumped the Basiji dead in with the
parent organization, the Pasdaran. Here is a comparison of the 1988 and 2000 figures, showing
the percentages of uniformed war dead by organization: Pasdar 64.7% -19%; Basij— 43 - 23;
Regulars 28,5…
According to Khatami in 1988, 123,220 uniformed personnel died in the war. Tens of thousands
of others were missing. After the war and up through 2000, more than 45,000 remains were
recovered from the battlefields, which would logically make for a total of uniformed dead of
around 168,000. Khatami said 60,711 were listed as missing at the end of the war. The Martyrs
Foundation listed no one as missing. If Khatami’s figures for uniformed dead and missing are
summed, the total comes to 183,931, close to the Martyrs Foundation figure of 188,015
uniformed personnel declared dead. Military analysts, however, point out that the Iran-Iraq war
was fought episodically. “The last half-dozen years, Iran was launching only one major offensive
and a half-dozen lesser offensives each half-year,” one American analyst said. “On the majority
of days, there were only minor skirmishes with few casualties.”
It is clear that the Iranian and Iraqi censuses were inaccurate. It is also possible that they were
politically manipulated. And perhaps international migration mitigated the death toll, though it
seems unlikely that migrants would have fit neatly into the birth cohorts of the Iran-Iraq war.
But if we believe the census figures, the death toll from the Iran-Iraq war was far less than the
scholarly estimates of 600,000 or 1,250,000. It may even have been lower than the government
figures of 250,000 Iraqi fatalities and 155,000 Iranian fatalities. The Iran-Iraq war was, by any
measure, a terribly bloody cataclysm. But it may not have been so bloody as we imagined.
1. Iranian revolution: causes and consequences
2. The geographic and geopolitical situation around Iran – Iraq
3. Religious beliefs in Iran and Iraq
4. Ethnic composition of population in Iraq and Iran
5. History of Iranian state
6. Origin, colonial period: Overview of Iraqi history

7. UN Resolution 598
8. The Basij militia: creation and role in the wars
9. Arab countries involvement into the Iran-Iraq wars
10. American involvement into the wars
11. Territorial gains and losses in the conflict.
12. Iran’s recapture of Khorramshahr

1. How did the Iran-Iraq war start?
2. What was the main strategic and tactical approach used by Iraq?
3. How long did the Iran-Iraq war last?
4. How rich did the American weapons-producing corporations become due to military
orders from Arab countries?
5. What were most striking features, distinguishing the Iran-Iraq War?
6. What were the main miscalculations, made by Saddam Hussein who deliberately started
the war?
7. What could have helped Iran to defend its borders?
8. When did the operation Ramadan begin? What was it launched for?
9. Revolutionary Iran was very limited in its tactically offensive means. What tactics did
they chose while fighting Iraq?
10. When and how did the offensives end?
11. Which side suffered more deaths and why?
12. Why did the Iranians use the drastic surprise "human wave" attacks?
13. What was the Iranian death toll? Why was it so high?
14. What accounts for the difference in casualty figures in 1988 and 2000?
15. How does statistics prove that the Iran-Iraq war was a terribly bloody cataclysm?
Interpret the words and word-combinations and find sentences in the text to illustrate them:
Protracted war, indiscriminate ballistic-missile attacks, strategic defensive, decisive results,
artillery barrages, inconsequential, outlet to the sea, asymmetrical, advanced weapons, three
modes of warfare, extensive use of chemical weapons, manned aircraft, gunboats, to
miscalculate on two counts, to be consolidated by a long “patriotic” war, theater strategy, to
defend its borderlands, offensive thrusts, logistical limits, to mobilize in earnest, to proclaim a
unilateral cease-fire, compensation for war damage, to be cut off from U.S. supplies, to
reconstitute effective armored formations, to capitalize on Iran’s morale, foot infantry, belated
reversion to, all-mechanized configurations, an arms embargo, human wave attacks, Iraqi
trenches, a rag-tag militia, devout basijis, a new tabulation of war dead, the Pasdaran, the
regular armed forces, uniformed dead, minor skirmishes, to mitigate the death toll, a terribly
bloody cataclysm.
Gap –filling:
Basij in Political Literature
Basij is …(1) …………………………………………..established in 1979 by order of Ayatollah

Khomeini, the Islamic Revolution leader. Its full name is Sazmane Basij-e-Mostaza’fin, that
“The Organization for Mobilization of the Oppressed”[2]. Originally, it comprised …(2) ………
……………………………….whom Ayatollah Khomeini urged to fight in the Iran-Iraq war.
The force consists of young Iranians who have volunteered, often in exchange for …(3)……
……………………………………….. Currently Basij serve as an auxiliary force engaged in
activities such as internal security as well as law enforcement auxiliary, the providing of social
service, organizing of public religious ceremonies, and policing of morals and the suppression of
…(4)………………………………………………………..
Historical notes
The Basij was established on 30 April 1980. It was open to those above the age of 18 and below
the age of 45.During the Iran-Iraq War hundreds of thousands volunteered for the Basij,
including children as young as 12 and unemployed old men, some in their eighties. These
volunteers were swept up in Shi’i(5) …………………………………………………..and the
atmosphere of patriotism of the war mobilization. They were encouraged through visits to the
schools and an intensive media campaign. The Basij may best be known for their employment(6)
…………………………………………………….which cleared minefields or draw the enemy's
fire. It is estimated that tens of thousands were killed in the process. The typical human wave
tactic was for Basijis (often very lightly armed and unsupported by artillery or air power) to
march forward (7) ………………………………………………While casualties were high, the
tactic often worked.
By the spring of 1983 the Basij had trained 2.4 million Iranians in the use of arms and sent
450,000 to the front. In 1985 the IRNA (news agency) put the number of Basijis at 3 million,
quoting from Hojjatoleslam Rahmani. Tehran Bureau estimates …(8) …………………………..
of Basijis at the front at 100,000 by December 1986.
Western analysts believed thousands of Iranian …(9) ……………………………………………
were stationed in Syria as of December 2013. Syria's geopolitical importance to Iran and its role
as one of Iran's crucial allies prompted the involvement of Basij militiamen in the ongoing
Syrian Civil War. The Basij militia, similar to ….(10)………………………………,work with
the Syrian army against rebel forces. Such involvement …(11)……………………
…………………………………….. challenges for a number of countries across the region,
particularly Israel and Turkey as Iran's influence becomes more than just ideological and
monetary on the ground in the Syrian conflict. The Basij involvement in the Syrian Civil War
reflects previous uses of the militia as …(12) ………………………………………..for Iranian
foreign policy in an effort to assert …(13) …………………………………………in the region.
Basij form the fifth branch of …(14)…………………………………………………………... It
is organized into the Imam Hossein Brigades and the Imam Ali Brigades, which deal with
threats. Estimates of the number of Basij vary, with its leadership giving higher figures than ….
(15)…………………………………………….. Official estimates are as high as 23.8 million.
official benefits, dissident gatherings, love of martyrdom, a paramilitary volunteer militia, poses
new foreign policy, a proxy force, Iranian dominance, outside commentators, the civilian
volunteers, human wave attacks, in straight rows, the peak number, Hezbollah fighters, the Army
of the Revolutionary Guard, paramilitary Basij fighters
What if Iran Won the Iran-Iraq War?

The Iran-Iraq War was one of the most devastating conflicts of the 20th century, costing
hundreds of thousands of lives on both sides. In the end, it resulted in just a stalemate. So what if
in this case, Iran won the war? Here is one scenario. Watch the film
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ufilxkLcqns) and mark the statements as true or false:
1. In the 1980s the Middle East was set for a collision of two international irrational
regimes.
2. This was the Iran-Iraq war, an eighteen year long devastating conflict which cost
hundreds of thousands of lives for soldiers and civilians on both sides only to end in a stalemate.
3. Iran's secular but corrupt Shah had been overthrown in an Islamic Revolution, turning the
nation into a theocratic state.
4. While Baathism already was an ideology of Arab superiority Ayatollah Homeini believed
Iran was a superior nation of the Arab world and he wanted to show it through military might.
5. Iran controlled a predominantly Arab region neighboring Iraq, called KoozaStan.
6. On September 22nd 1980 Iraq's ground forces swept across into Iran, taking land in
Kooza Stan in western territory of the country. However, Saddam terribly miscalculated.
7. Iran fought back a counter-attack making Saddam to retreat his forces behind the border.
8. The two countries evenly began to fight similar to World War I: Iran using mustard gas
attacks on both civilians and troops alike; Iraq launching massive human wave attacks.
9. The attacks on the oil inspired admiration in much of the world countries like the U.S.,
the USSR and Britain
10. Eventually, after years of constant fighting attacks on civilians and hundreds of thousands
of deaths on both sides Iraq and Iran agreed on peace.
11. If Iran did take Baghdad they could have won the war, if it was just between them and
Iraq.
12. Iran was universally loved throughout the globe by both the West and the Soviets.
13. Reagan remarked:“the US would do all in its power to help Iran achieve a victory against
a Iraq.
14. Iran was able to overthrow Saddam Hussein's regime either by capturing Baghdad or by
funding an uprising among the Kurdish and Shia population against the Baathist government.
15. Saddam while a brutal madman was still seen as a deterrent to Islamic Iran.
16. The Kurds who had been fighting for independence for decades became allies with Iraq
to combat Ayatollah Homeini
17. So in summary, if Iran defeated the Iraqis and was able to overthrow Saddam or capture
Baghdad they would face an international coalition similar to the Persian Gulf War.
18. Saddam's regime is brutal and the US. seems to have a problem with that.

International community could have played a more important role in solving the Iran-Iraq
military conflict. Think about a better approach to find a way out, and prepare a written
development of the case.
Case 3 Taiping Civil War
The Taiping Rebellion or Taiping Civil War [6] was a massive rebellion or civil war in China
that lasted from 1850 to 1964. It was fought between the established Manchu-led Qing dynasty
and the millenarian movement of the Heavenly Kingdom of Peace. It was the second bloodiest
war in the history. The death toll estimate is from 20 to 89 million people.
In 1850, the Chinese emperor was challenged by a new dynasty who carved out their own
kingdom, known as “Taiping Heavenly Kingdom”. It was led by a Chinese general who
converted to Christianity. He took it further than most would have, claiming to be the second
coming of Jesus. His kingdom was isolated and in survival mode for most of its existence, being
besieged by the surrounding Qing dynasty. But still the conflict lasted for 14 years and only
came to an end when Britain and France intervened on the side of China.
Historical Background
France and Britain had been actively involved into the conflict. Europeans had long thought
India, China and other countries in East Asia were lands of wealth. The Asians were, in fact,
close to the Europeans in standards of living. India's textile workers in the 1700s had a standard
of living equal to that of British workers. This was due to India's agriculture. Paying less for food
raised standards of living. Asian agriculture was producing harvests twenty times the amount of
seed planted, while European harvests were only eight times or less. The Asians were growing
rice, and rice took nutrients from water rather than soil. Asians were not leaving land lie fallow
as were the Europeans. And farmers in China were impressing visitors from Europe by their
ability to get as many as three harvests a year from the same plot of land.
In mechanizing their economy, however, India and China were falling behind. In 1750, hand and
arm muscles were still much involved in making and doing things. China was producing 32.8
percent of the world's manufactured goods. In textile manufacturing, particularly cotton, the
British had an advantage in steam power. Britain was smaller and had fewer people than India or
China. In 1750 Britain was producing only 1.9 percent of the world's share of manufactured
goods, but its manufacturing per person was around 140 percent of India's and 125 percent of
China's. In manufacturing, Britain was racing ahead.
By 1800, China's share was up slightly from 1750, at 33.3 percent, but by 1830 it had fallen to
29.8 percent. Britain's share had risen to 4.3 percent in 1800 and to 9.5 percent in 1830, five
times what it had been in 1750. By the end of the nineteenth century the shift would be more
extensive. India would have only a 1.7 percent share of the world's manufacturing, China 6.2
percent. Britain would have 18.5 percent. The United States was also moving ahead. By the end
of the century it would have a 23.6 percent share.
China had a few problems concerning economic growth. With a growing population, by the year
1800 people in China were moving to lands less suited to high agricultural productivity. Around
80 percent remained in agricultural areas, and more people meant more unemployment. But
more important in China not keeping up with the West was its lack of people with both money
and interest in investing in technology. In 1800, China had banks in its major cities. It had
copper and salt mining and porcelain manufacturing employing millions. Many of China's
landlord-aristocrats had money, but they saw themselves as gentlemen and learned gentlemen
did not speak of profits. They were imbued with the combination of Confucianism and Taoism.
While seeing Europeans pressing upon China with their advanced technology they tended to
claim that it was all Heavens doing. They were not interested in imitating Europe. Their major
interest was great books and elevation of the spirit. Such intellectuals dominated China's
bureaucracy. In China, government was also little concerned with investing in economic
development or in change. Bureaucrats made money from taking payment bites from
transactions, and they saw change as merely disruption and jeopardy. While landlord and
bureaucrat aristocrats believed in intellectuality, the peasants believed in work – to survive. And
all they had went into their survival.
The First Opium Wars
China had long been aware of opium as a medicine. Its addictive qualities had also been known,
and in 1723 its sale and consumption within China had been made illegal. Nevertheless, a rapid
increase in population in China was accompanied by a leap in demand by for opium. The British
attitude toward opium was little different from their attitude toward the other drugs sold in
London's many apothecary shops. British merchants violated China's ban on the importation of
opium and bribed Chinese officials. From India in the 1790s the East India Company was
sending to China around 4000 chests of opium each year, aboard third-party ships – alongside
the cotton that it was selling to the Chinese. The use of opium as a narcotic had increased with
the drug's availability and drop in price.
The British were buying tea from the Chinese in an amount greater in monetary value than the
cotton and opium they were selling to the Chinese. The Chinese were asking for silver, when
selling tea. Rather than reduce their consumption of tea to save their silver the British saw
remedy in an increase in the sale of opium. Between 1822 and 1830, the British shipped,
perhaps, four times as much opium per year as they had around the year 1800. The British
wanted their tea, and the Manchu emperor, Daoguang, wanted an end to opium importation. He
campaigned against it with little success. His letter to Britain's Queen Victoria (whose rule began
in 1837) was never delivered. In March 1839, after a decade of tepid resistance to opium
importations, China's authorities demanded that British merchants hand over their stocks of
opium and promise never again to trade in opium in China, on penalty of death. Britain's
Superintendent of Trade, Charles Elliot, on the scene in China, complied. He ordered British
subjects to hand over their stocks of opium to China's authorities, and 21,000 chests of opium in
China were surrendered and destroyed.
Britain's government came under pressure from companies involved in the opium trade, and the
party in power (the Whigs – soon to be called the Liberal Party) did not want to be accused of
failing to protect Britain's commercial interests. Britain's Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs,
Lord Palmerston, had previously acknowledged the right of China to end the importation of
opium, but under pressure he now considered that British subjects in China had been imprisoned
and mistreated. For the British, superior fire power worked. British warships along China's
coasts – including the Nemesis, a steam-powered ship of iron – had fire-power superior to
China's vessels or shore defenses. This included the important factor of weaponry's range.
Despite heroic efforts against the British, China was forced to acknowledge the superiority of
Western weaponry. China was obliged to acknowledge defeat and to concede to British
demands.
With the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842, signed aboard the warship Cornwallis, China agreed to
trade with Britain. It agreed to "fair and regular" tariffs and to open to foreign traders the ports of
Guanzhou in the south and, moving north, the ports at Xiamen, Ningpo and Shanghai. And
China's monarchy agreed to grant to the British whatever trading concession China granted to
other powers. China agreed to pay Britain an indemnity of 20,000,000 silver dollars and to cede
the island of Xianggang (Hong Kong) to Britain. The Chinese viewed the settlement of the First
Opium War in 1842 – the Treaty of Nanjing – as unfair. The British were unhappy because
profits were not what they had hoped they would be, and they believed that the Chinese were
slow in implementing the Nanjing agreements involving trade. Opium, meanwhile, continued to
be smuggled into China, which contributed to the resentment of foreigners by Chinese officials.
The Taiping Rebellion
China's economy was in turmoil, flooded with foreign goods and burdened by reparations
payments. With this, a rebellion started in 1850 against Manchu rule – rule by the Qing dynasty
(1644 to 1911). This was the Taiping Rebellion. From twenty to eighty million would die.
Western powers would choose sides and intervene. And it would leave a lasting impression
among the Chinese. The leader of the rebellion, Hong Xiuchuan, considered himself a Christian
and saw himself as the son of God ordered to save the world. He led a movement that favored
sharing wealth, land distribution and advocated following the Ten Commandments. It favored
chastity and an end to foot-binding for women and was opposed to opium smoking. It swept
across central-eastern China, intending to drive away "Manchu demons" and rival faiths,
Buddhists and Taoists, whose temples they destroyed. Chinese intellectuals, of course, sided
with Manchu rule against Hong's rebellion. And Christian missionaries rejected Hong's
movement, seeing Hong's views as heretical and his movement as an infringement on their own
interests in Christianizing China.
Five years into the rebellion, Manchu rule also confronted a British and French force. A ship
registered with the British in Hong Kong and owned by a Chinese resident there was docked off
Guangzhou (Canton) and searched by Manchu government agents looking for a notorious pirate.
The British sent an expedition of ships seeking redress, and they were joined by the French, who
wanted to avenge the Manchu execution of a French missionary in Jiangxi province that same
year – 1856. The British and French force occupied Guangzhou. The force then cruised north,
and in May, 1858, it captured some forts. The Manchu government gave in and signed the
Treaties of Tianjin with Britain and France and with the United States joining in the agreements.
New Commercial Rules
The new treaties held that tariff barriers were to be adjusted downward further than previously
agreed. China was to pay Britain and France indemnities. The British, French, Russians and the
United Stated won the right to have embassies in Beijing. Eleven more ports were to be open to
Western trade, and these powers were to have the right to navigate the Yangzi River. The opium
trade was legalized; Christians were to be allowed to proselytize and to be guaranteed protection,
and Westerners, including businessmen, were to be allowed to hold property in China.
China's emperor, Xianfeng, remained hostile to the Westerners. He refused to ratify the treaties
and he forbade the creation of foreign legations in Beijing. In the summer of 1859 the British
returned for treaty ratification and the Chinese attacked, killing more than 400 Britons and
sinking four ships. The British were forced to withdraw while under the cover of fire from a
United States naval squadron. A larger British and French force returned in 1860 and made their
way to Beijing where they ransacked and looted the emperor's' Summer Palace and Old Summer
Palace in retaliation for Chinese atrocities. The British and French took control in Beijing. And
Queen Victoria was given a Pekingese dog that had been confiscated from one of the palaces, a
dog she named Looty.
In 1860, foreigners began to monopolize trade along China's coastline. Meanwhile, the Manchu
Emperor Xianfeng had been weakened by debauchery and drugs, and he died in 1861 at the age
of thirty. On Xianfeng's death bed his shrewd former consort, Cixi, also a Manchu, managed to
have the boy she called her son succeed Xianfeng, and she maneuvered her way into the position
as regent for the boy. She acquired the title Dowager Empress – a title she shared with one other.
The new government was influenced by Xianfeng's brother, Prince Kong, in partnership with
Cixi. And, under pressure from the Taiping Rebellion, they were dedicated to appeasing the
Western powers. They ratified the treaties that had been made with the Europeans, and they tried
appeasing the Chinese by putting more Chinese rather than Manchus in positions of authority.
Prince Kong, in partnership with Cixi, modernized the Manchu army, and he enlisted Westerners
against the Taiping rebellion. Some 600 cities had been overrun by the rebels. In the city of
Shanghai, Western commercial interests had grown, and there the Westerners sided with Manchu
rule. The Westerners financed a pro-Manchu army, which was led by a US citizen, Fred E. War
and later, an Englishman, Charles G. Gordon. Gordon's military took many cities for the
Manchu. The Taiping rebellion was crushed by 1864.
The Bloodiest War
The war was the largest in China since the Qing conquest in 1644, and ranks as one of the
bloodiest wars in human history, the bloodiest civil war, and the largest conflict of the nineteenth
century with estimates of war dead ranging from 20 to 70 million, to as much as 100 million, as
well as millions more displaced [3].
Hostilities began on January 1, 1851 when the Qing Green Standard Army launched an attack
against the God Worshipping Society at the town of Jintian, Guangxi. Hong declared himself the
Heavenly King of the Heavenly Kingdom of Peace (or Taiping Heavenly Kingdom), from which
the term Taipings has often been applied to them in the English language. The Taipings began
marching north in September 1851 to escape Qing forces closing in on them. On March 19,
1853, the Taipings captured the city of Nanjing and Hong declared it the Heavenly Capital of his
kingdom. Hong died on June 1, 1864, and Nanjing fell shortly. After the fall of Nanjing many of
his protégés were celebrated as saviors of the Qing empire and became some of the most
powerful men in late-nineteenth century China.
Taiping Legacy
This was more than a geo-political tussle; the rebellion cost millions of human lives, with 20 to
may be 50 million dead [7]. Much of this brutality was at the hands of the Manchus who made
‘scorched earth’ reprisals against the rebels. Most of the deaths were attributed to plague and
famine. At the Third Battle of Nanking in 1864, more than 100,000 were killed in three days.
The Taiping Rebellion was a grass-root rebellion fought by ordinary peasants and not by trained
armies. As for references to the role of the Taiping Heavenly Army – it was the rebellion’s key-
strength.
It was marked by a high level of discipline and fanaticism. They typically wore uniform of red
jackets with blue trousers, and grew their hair long. So in Chinese they were nicknamed
“Longhairs”. The large number of women serving in the Taiping Heavenly Army also
distinguished it from other 19th-century armies. Combat was always bloody and extremely
brutal. The Taiping Army’s main strategy of conquest was to take major cities, consolidate their
hold on the cities, then march out into the surrounding country-side to recruit local farmers and
battle government forces. Estimates of the overall size of the Taiping Heavenly Army varied
from 1,000,000 to 3,000,000 [15].
The organization of a Taiping army-corps was thus: 1 general, 5 colonels, 25 captains, 125
lieutenants, 500 sergeants, 2,500 corporals, 20,000 infantry. These corps were places into armies
of varying sizes. In addition to the main Taiping forces organized along the above lines, there
were also thousands of pro-Taiping groups, fielding their own forces of irregulars. It had great
influence on those taking part in the next Chinese Civil War (1927-1950) between the
Nationalists and Communists when the Communists relied on the support of the rural poor
people. With the aid of foreign mercenaries and imported arms, China learned how to discipline
an army, use modern weaponry and update military tactics.
The Taiping Rebellion was the first instance of total war in modern China. Almost every citizen
of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom was gives military training and conscripted in to the army to
fight against Qing imperial forces. During this conflict both sides tried to deprive each other of
resources to continue the war and it became standard practice to destroy agricultural areas, to
butcher the population of cities and, in general, exact a brutal price from captured enemy lands
in order to drastically weaken the opposition’s war effort. This war was total in that civilians on
both sides participated to a significant extent in the war effort and in that armies on both sides
waged war on the civilian population as well as military forces.
1. Population of China in the 19th century
2. Insight into the Manchu-led Qing dynasty
3. Christianity in China: Main Personalities and political role
4. The geopolitical division of Chinese empire
5. Western interests and Western colonies in south-eastern Asia
6. The structure of Chinese economy at the beginning-middle of the 19th century
7. The role of “the tea” in economic cooperation between Asian countries and European
states
8. From the Napier Affair through the First Opium War (1834 – 1843)
9. Second Opium War (1856 – 1860) and British East India Company
10. Emperor Xianfeng: Role in the Rebellion. End of Manchu influence.
11. The cities that were overrun by the rebels
12. The most important battles of the Taiping Civil War.
13. Hong Kong and Shanghai: new future
14. China: life after opium wars and Taiping rebellion

1. How long did the Taiping Rebellion last?
2. What was the main cause of the rebellion?
3. Why did India and China present a great interest for France, Britain and, later, the US?
4. Why did the wealth of Asian countries started to lag behind the European ones?
5. What were the Chinese problems concerning economic growth?

6. How many Opium Wars did China survive?
7. Why did the European countries advocate the circulation of opium on the territory of
China?
8. What was Daoguang’s position concerning the spread of opium on the territory of China?
9. What were the results and the consequences of the First Opium War? How were they
viewed by the Chinese?
10. How was opium smuggled into China and what reaction did it contribute to?
11. How did the Chinese population react to the spread of the “Manchu demons”?
12. What was the pretext for British and French involvement in the Rebellion?
13. What were the new commercial rules that resulted from the new treaties?
14. What people became very influential after the death of Emperor Xianfeng?
15. How was the Taiping Heavenly Army organized?
an established dynasty, a millenarian movement, to convert to Christianity, lands of wealth, to
raise standards of living, twenty times the amount of seed planted, to mechanize their economy,
an advantage in steam power, high agricultural productivity, copper and salt mining, to speak of
profits, imbued with the combination of Confucianism and Taoism, elevation of the spirit,
disruption and jeopardy, to believe in intellectuality, addictive qualities, to bribe Chinese
officials, an end to opium importation, tepid resistance, on penalty of death, the Whigs, British
subjects, weaponry's range, to concede to British demands, to cede the island of Xianggang to,
to be burdened by reparations payments, to favor chastity, foot-binding for women, heretical, a
notorious pirate, the Treaties of Tianjin, to pay Britain and France indemnities, to navigate
the Yangzi River, naval squadron, to ransack and loot, in retaliation for Chinese atrocities,
debauchery and drugs, to appease the Chinese, one of the bloodiest wars, the God Worshipping
Society, to be at the hands of the Manchus, ‘scorched earth’ reprisals, a grass-roots rebellion,
nicknamed "Longhairs", small arms, sergeants and corporals, infantry, total war, to
Match the beginning and the end of the statement:

Arrow War
1.The Second Opium War, or Arrow War a. of piracy and smuggling, and were arrested.
2. Chinese officials boarded b. the ship was flying a British flag, and was
3. The crew of the Arrow were accused protected by the Treaty of Nanking.
4. In response, the British claimed that c. broke out following an incident.
5. The war's true outbreak was delayed for a d. British-registered, Chinese-owned ship, the
few months Arrow.
6. The British then gained aid e. but was not ratified by China until two
7. The Treaty of Tientsin was created in July years later.
1858, f. by the Treaty of Tientsin.
8. This would prove to be a very important g. where the British set fire.
document h. of privileges to British and other Western
9. It was one of subjects within China.

10. Hostilities broke out once more in 1859, i. after China refused the establishment of a
11. The embassy had been promised British embassy in Beijing.
12. Fighting erupted in Hong Kong and in j. in China's early modern history.
Beijing, k. by the Taiping Rebellion and the Indian
13. It happened in the Summer Palace and Mutiny.
Old Summer Palace l. from their allies-France, Russia and the US.
14. In 1860, at the Convention of Peking, n. the primary unequal treaties
15. China granted a number o. after considerable looting took place.
p. China ratified the Treaty of Tientsin.
3.Listening section:
Watch the film “Taiping Rebellion: Modern East Asia” in which we learned about the Taiping
Rebellion, one of the deadliest wars in world history which is viewed by a young Chinese. It
represents his point of view which is shared now by many in China.
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ktIIVRWGvM).
Handle the gap-filling exercise:
I'm your host Sean Kim, A.K.A. The Dragon Historian, and today we are going to continue our
journey through China and discuss the causes, processes, and effects of the …(1)
…………………..
So our story begins with this guy named Hong Xiuquan, a poor commoner from a village near
Canton. He was very…(2) ………………………………………..and sought to get into the
Chinese government via passing the Imperial Examinations, which was pretty much the coolest
thing a Chinese male could do at the time. Women could not participate.
Anyhow, Hong studied very hard for the examinations, beginning his studies when he was just
four years old. His first attempt at the Imperial Examinations was in 1827, when he was only
twelve years old.
Naturally, he failed the examinations, so he studied harder. In 1836, …(3) …………………
………………..…….., Hong visited Canton and decided to take the test there. He failed again.
But during his visit at Canton, an Evangelical Christian missionary gave Hong a book titled the
"Quanshi Liangyuan", which roughly means, "Good Words Admonishing the World."
He briefly read it and …(4) ……………………………………………on the shelf. He did not
think much of it at the time, but that little booklet would change Chinese history.
In 1837, a year after the previous attempt, Hong took the Imperial Examination. And failed...
again. This time, Hong had a metal breakdown and collapsed. But during …(5)…………………
……………………………………Hong had a series of visions via dreams, in which he met two
figures: a paternal elderly man, and a brotherly middle-aged man. The former, with …(6)……
………………………, told Hong to turn away from his worship of demons and worship Him
instead; and the other encouraged him throughout his journeys to defeat said demons.
After ….(7) …………………………………….the earlier Christian booklet, he realized that he
could draw several parallels between the contents of the book and his own dreams. Eventually,
he came to the conclusion that he was the second son of God, making him the younger brother of
…(8)…………………………………….
He began to believe that he had been sent by God to save the Chinese people from false idols
such as…(9………………………………………………; as well as the ruling Manchus.
He was a teacher at the time, but he began to destroy Confucian works, which got him fired in
1844. After this, Hong joined with Feng Yunshan, a fellow Christian convert, and began to …
(10) ……………………………………………………….together in the province of Guangxi.
His teachings were very popular in Guangxi because the population was predominantly Hakka -
a group within the Han Chinese people who speak the Hakka dialect and was often discriminated
against. In fact, Hong was a Hakka himself.
After a few months, the two returned to Guangdong, at which point they …(11) …………
………………………………….... the God Worshippers Society. The God Worshippers Society
was very successful in the provinces of Guangxi and Guangdong, and in just a few months they
collected 2,000 followers. And by 1850, that number had grown to nearly 30,000.
The God Worshippers Society not only preached Christianity but also advocated for some
awesome stuff; like …(12)………………………………………, abolishing the class system,
and racial equality. Well, unless you were the Manchus. If you were the Manchus, you had to
die. And so did non-Christians.
So religious freedom, CLEARLY not on their List of Awesome Stuff. The God Worshippers
also took on the task of defeating …(13)…………………………………………………….. .
However, the Qing government allowed little religious freedom and suppressed the Worshippers.
The Worshippers were not happy with the Manchus before, and now they had more reasons to be
angry. The idea of a revolt began to spread across their community.
Finally, on January 11th, 1851, (by the lunar calendar) the God Worshippers started the Jintian
Uprising at the town of Jintian in Guangxi. After killing hundreds of Qing soldiers, Hong
Xiuquan declared the …(14) ……………………………………………………
The Taipings subsequently fled the province of Guangxi and traveled north, and they were
defeated by Qing soldiers on the way multiple times. Nevertheless, the Taipings managed ….
(15) ………………………………….Nanjing on March 19th, 1853.
Nanjing became the Heavenly Capital of Taiping. The Taipings were mostly active around the
Yangtze River, capturing several major cities along the river. However, their failure to capture
….(16) ……………………………eventually resulted in a loss of momentum for the Taipings.
Another factor for the Taipings' downfall was internal strife. Yang Xiuqing, a young but
influential military commander, had several disagreements with Hong Xiuquan. In essence,
Yang believed that some parts of Confucianism, such as its (17)……………………………….,
were to be kept, while Hong wanted to eradicate them all.
In 1856, Yang attempted a …(18) ………………………………… but failed, weakening the
government severely. Nevertheless, the 1850s was, in general, a good decade for the Taipings.
That all ended in 1862, when the Taipings failed to take Shanghai after more than a year of
siege. Even Western powers, primarily France and the United Kingdom, intervened on the side
of the Chinese government. After this defeat, the anti-Taiping alliance took away their territory
rapidly. In spring of 1864, Hong Xiuquan abdicated the throne in favor of his son. Hong Xiuquan
died of …(19) ………………………………………………….in June later that year, and
Nanjing fell to the Alliance a few days later.
The Taiping Rebellion was a disaster. Over the span of 14 years (by the solar calendar), it killed
over 20 million people. That enormous death toll makes the Rebellion the third most destructive
war in recorded human history. Fighting was not all that the Taipings did, though. The Taiping
government actually did implement some social reforms. Some of them were awesome. Others
were awful.
Well, let's start with the awesome ones. First of all, …(20) …………………………….was
abolished. Second, gender equality was implemented, and women could participate in the
Imperial Examinations for the first time in Chinese history. The class system was also abolished.
They also banned …(21)…………………………………………….., a barbaric practice in
which girls' feet were bound to keep them from growing...because apparently, Chinese men at
the time felt that a dysfunctional, deformed foot was attractive.
Now onto the bad stuff. First of all, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom was an …(22) ……………..
……………………………………………….and a theocracy. Evangelical Christianity was
declared the state religion, and there was no religious freedom. There was also heavy segregation
of the sexes, and up until 1855, not even married couples could live together or have sexual
relations. ...and all the killing was pretty bad too.
And here's some other stuff that they did. First, the Bible became the primary subject of the
Imperial Examinations, replacing Confucian classics. They also replaced the traditional …(23)
………………………………………….with the solar calendar, and the queue hairstyle of the
Manchus was banned. The Taiping government also made…(24) ……………………………..
…………………………, prostitution and polygamy illegal, all of which were punishable by
death. Funny enough, Hong Xiuquan himself practiced polygamy.
Oh, and lastly, the Taipings abolished all private land ownership and had the government
distribute all land. If this sounds like communism to you, well, you're right!
Chairman Mao would agree. The communist party of China, which is to play a significant role in
Chinese history in just a few decades, looked to the Taipings as their inspiration.
But at the time, the Qing rulers were not very inspired. And understandably, too, because to
them, the Taipings were nothing more than rebels who had left China ….(25)…………………....
Also, thanks to the Taipings, the Chinese also lost another important war: the Second Opium
War. There were two of them, unfortunately.
4.Written assignment: case analysis

All conflicts in China and India have always demonstrated direct or indirect involvement of
European states into the turmoil. Think about possibilities to settle the conflict peacefully, in
case Britain, France, Russia and other countries do not support the parties of the conflict, but
instead, suggest constructive plans of stopping military activities. What are the lessons, that
humanity can learn from the conflict? Suggest your list of measures
1. A Brief Overview of the Causes and Effects of the Cold

War//Buzzle, http://www.buzzle.com/articles/causes-and-effects-of-the-cold-war.html
(accessed 27.09.2018)
2. Basij Militia//The New York Times, 02.12.2011 (retrieved: 3/07/2017),
http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/organizations/b/basij_militia/
index.html (accessed 29.05.2018)
3. Cao, Shuji Zhongguo Renkou Shi [A History of China's Population]. Shanghai: Fudan
Daxue Chubanshe., 2001, pp. 455, 509
4. Cold War History//http://www.history.com/topics/cold-war/cold-war-history (accessed
30.02.2018)
5. Davis G. Scott Religion and Justice in the War over Bosnia, Routledge, 1996 – 208 pp
6. Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica, Taiping Rebellion/ Encyclopædia Britannica,
Chinese history, https://www.britannica.com/event/Taiping-Rebellion (accessed
12.12.2017)
7. Hanson E. Taiping Rebellion 1850 – 1864, http://www.chinasage.info/taiping.htm
8. Machel G. Impact of Armed Conflict on Children – Twenty Years of Action Following
the Publication//Children and armed Conflicts, 25.09.2016, URL:
http://wn.apc.org/mstudy/mstudy.html (accessed 3.01.2018)
9. New Statistics on Dead in Iran-Iraq War//Iran Times http://iran-times.com/new-statistics-
on-dead-in-iran-iraq-war/ (accessed 22.03.2018)
10. O’Keefe M. Religion inflames Sudan war, The Oregonian 27.10.1998, URL:
http://www.oregonlive.com/todaysnews/9810/st102714.html (accessed 1.06.2018)
11. Patterns in Conflict//Impact of armed conflict on children,
URL:https://www.unicef.org/graca/patterns.htm (accessed 7.06.2018)
12. Religiously-based civil unrest and warfare, an overview of many of the world’s conflicts,
URL: http://www.lessonsite.com/ArchivePages/HistoryOfTheWorld/Lesson35/
ReligiousIntolerance.htm (accessed 1.12.2018)
13. Rosenberg J. The nature of modern wars and conflicts
http://study.com/academy/lesson/the-nature-of-modern-wars-conflicts.html (accessed
24.07.2017)
14. Sallivan N. The Nature of Modern Wars and Conflicts,
http://study.com/academy/lesson/the-nature-of-modern-wars-conflicts.html (accessed
1.09.2018)
15. Taiping Rebellion: Death Toll//Academic, http://en.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enwiki/48996
16. The Iran-Iraq War. Facts & Summery/ HISTORY.com, URL:
http://www.history.com/topics/iran-iraq-war (accessed 26.10.2017)
Videos
1. The film “From World War to Cold War” is analyzing the epic struggle between Soviet
communism and Western capitalism, URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=HpYCplyBknI
2. The Iran-Iraq War, the most devastating conflicts of the 20th century, URL:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ufilxkLcqns
3. Taiping Rebellion as the deadliest war in world history, URL:
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ktIIVRWGvM).

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МОСКОВСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ

Учебное пособие и практикум

The manual abstract:

Module 1: Alter–globalism and alter–globalization actors: Non-governmental

Module 2: Soft power in global world (28-58)

Module 3: Diplomacy (59-85)

Module 4: Counter-terrorism struggle (86-108)

Module 5: Political negotiations and political consensus (109-126)

Module 6: Colored revolutions in modern world (127 – 163)

Module 7: Arms Control and Disarmament (164 -190)

Module 8: Wars and conflicts in global environment (191 – 219)

Literature and Internet sources

ALTER-GLOBALISATION ACTORS: NON-

Comment on the following citations:

13. Unfortunately, what anti-human trafficking NGOs [non-governmental organizations]

2. INTRODUCTORY NOTES: HISTORY OF ALTER-GLOBALISM

A Brief History of the Alter-Globalization Movement [9]

3. WORKSHOP: CASE-STUDY SECTION

1 Understanding the case

b. Read the case and answer the questions:

Fill in the gaps

The beginning of the 1900-s

defined. Examples include: non-profit organizations, governmental units, and individuals.

Case 2: Battle in Seattle

1. Understanding the case

Read the case and answer these questions

2. Fill in the gaps

Fill in the gaps:

Also, Ananda Tan joins us, the North America (5)………………………………………..for

4. Written assignment: Case analysis

5. For a Europe-wide coordinated levy on wealth

1. Understanding the case

Read the case and answer the questions:

2. Fill in the gaps:

emancipator, expanded, network, redefinition, global taxes, negotiation, counter summits,

1) Tobin tax is no more in fashion in economic circles.

Render the information of the film and suggest your opinion.

4. Written assignments: Case analysis

Suggest your recommendations.

2. INTRODUCTORY NOTES: JOSEPH NYE AND SOFT POWER

Why sport matters

3. CASE STUDY SECTION

1) Understanding the case

Answer the following questions;

Fill in the gaps in the text:

Satirical humour : a tradition which dates back to the French Revolution

10. What is the status of Oceania?

4.Written assignments: Case analysis

Suggest your recommendations.

Case 2 INDIA: SOFT POWER

1. Understanding the case

10. Strategic interests: expansion throughout the Indo-Pacific and beyond

Answer the questions:

…………………………., poor treatment of women, widespread caste discrimination, and

4.Written assignments: Case analysis

Suggest your recommendations for promotion of Indian soft power

Case 3: China’s Soft Power.

1. Understanding the case

Answer the questions:

10. Who perceives China’s economic and military rise as a threat?

Fill in the gaps:

4.Written assignments: Case analysis

Suggest your recommendations.