JHS Int Sci TG 2 PDF

GAST
Junior Integrated Science
Teacher’s
Guide 2
Authors GAST Editorial Advisors
S.A. Ali T.K. Arboh
J.W. Essiah S.A. Mohammed
E.O. Ocquaye
J.A. Kwarteng
E.C. Saka
Advisor
Derek MacMonagle
winmat
E
A
R
IR
FI
Ghana Association
EA
RE
R
of Science Teachers
AT
TH
PUBLISHERS LIMITED
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JHS INT SCI TG 2.indd 1 06/10/2017 5:53 PM

First published in 2017 by

WINMAT PUBLISHERS LTD.
P.O. Box 8077,
Accra North,
Ghana.
info@winmatpublishers.com
www.winmatpublishers.com
Text © Winmat Publishers Ltd. 2017.
Design and Illustrations © Winmat Publishers Ltd. 2017.
All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this

publication may be made without written permission. Any person who
does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to
criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.
ISBN 978-9988-0-4647-7
Designed and typeset by Francis K.N. Nunoo

Illustrated by Seth Attipoe
The publishers have made every effort to trace all copyright holders but if
they have inadvertently overlooked any, they will be pleased to make the
necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.

Contents
INTRODUCTION1
PART 1 4
I. OVERVIEW OF INTEGRATED SCIENCE YEAR 2 CONTENT 4
II. SKILLS 7
III. SAFETY ISSUES 9
IV. TEACHING METHODOLOGY 13
V. MULTI-ABILITY LEARNING 16
VI. ASSESSMENT 20
PART 2: TEACHING NOTES 36

SECTION 1: DIVERSITY OF MATTER 36
UNIT 1 ELEMENTS, MIXTURES AND COMPOUNDS 36
Elements �� 38
Mixtures�� 40
Compounds �� 40
Chemical symbols �� 41
Atoms and atomic structure �� 43
UNIT 2 METALS AND NON-METALS 47
Physical properties of metals �� 49
Physical properties of non-metals �� 50
Alloys �� 52
Rusting�� 54
iii

UNIT 3 CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS 58
Compounds ��60
Chemical equations��61
UNIT 4 MIXTURES 65
Homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures ��67
Solutions ��67
Suspensions ��68
Colloids��68
Methods of separating mixtures ��69
UNIT 5 WATER 75
Temporary hardness��78
Permanent hardness��78
Ion exchange ��79
SECTION 2: CYCLES 81
UNIT 6 THE CARBON CYCLE 81
Carbon in the environment ��82
Carbon footprint ��84
UNIT 7 WEATHER, SEASON AND CLIMATE 91
Composition of the atmosphere��92
Layers of the atmosphere ��93
Weather prediction ��93
Measuring the weather ��94
SECTION 3: SYSTEMS 97
UNIT 8 REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS 97
The male reproductive organs��99
The female reproductive organs ��100
iv

UNIT 9 HEREDITY 104
Variation ��105
Genes and chromosomes ��106
UNIT 10 DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS 109
Diffusion ��110
Osmosis ��111
UNIT 11 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN HUMANS 115
Structure and function of the heart ��116
Operation of the heart ��117
Blood vessels ��118
Blood pressure ��119
SECTION 4: ENERGY 122

UNIT 12 PHOTOSYNTHESIS 122
Requirements for photosynthesis��124
Storage ��125
UNIT 13 FOOD AND NUTRITION 128
Classifying nutrients��130
UNIT 14 ELECTRICAL ENERGY 136
Series and parallel ��138
A complete circuit ��138
Number of bulbs in series��139
Number of bulbs in parallel��139
Comparing series and parallel circuits��140
UNIT 15 BASIC ELECTRONICS 144

SECTION 5: INTERACTIONS OF MATTER 149
UNIT 16 INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF HUMANS AND PLANTS 149
UNIT 17 PESTS AND PARASITES 155
UNIT 18 FORCE AND PRESSURE 158
Friction �� 160
Static electricity�� 161
Charging with static electricity �� 162
Different types of charge�� 162
Why do charged objects attract?�� 163
UNIT 19 MACHINES 166
Balanced and unbalanced forces �� 167
Lifting machines�� 168
vi

Introduction
This series of books has been written to provide teachers in Ghana with a course which
delivers the new syllabus for Junior High School Science.
This Teacher’s Guide is designed to support the teacher in lesson planning and
delivering the Year 2 syllabus both in terms of factual content and the development of
a range of both practical and critical thinking skills.
In Part 1 of this Teacher’s Guide the teacher will find:
• an overview of the Integrated Science Year 2 syllabus

• a discussion of the various skills that it is hoped pupils will develop as a result of
following this course
• a review of safety issues with a view to providing a safe environment for pupils
to learn
• suggestions on how the teacher may use a variety of different approaches to
deliver the course
• suggestions on how the teacher may organise teaching for pupils of differing
abilities, including those who are disabled in some way
• advice on how and when to assess the progress of pupils.
Part 2 of this Teacher’s Guide is given over to the content of the Integrated Science
syllabus. Within each unit of this book the teacher will find:
• an introduction
• a list of specific objectives from the syllabus
• cross-references to the Pupil Book
• a suggested teaching plan
• additional background information which will allow a broader approach to
lessons
• a list of resources with suggestions for using low- or no-cost materials for
practical activities where possible
• suggestions where critical thinking skills might be developed
• diagnostic exercises which can be used to identify problematic areas within a
unit
• answers to the exercises and activities in the Pupil Book.

Introduction
The relevant section of the Teacher’s Guide should be read well in advance of teaching
a unit so that the teacher has time to plan his or her approach, gather equipment and
materials required for activities and write suitable lesson plans.
Part 1 Effective science teaching

i. Overview of Integrated Science Year 2 content
ii. Skills
iii. Safety issues
iv. Teaching methodology
v. Multi-ability learning
vi. Assessment
Part 2 Teaching notes
Section 1: Diversity of matter

Unit 1 Elements, mixtures and compounds
Unit 2 Metals and non-metals
Unit 3 Chemical compounds
Unit 4 Mixtures
Unit 5 Water
Section 2: Cycles
Unit 6 The carbon cycle
Unit 7 Weather, season and climate
Section 3: Systems
Unit 8 Reproduction in humans
Unit 9 Heredity
Unit 10 Diffusion and osmosis
Unit 11 Circulatory system in humans

Introduction
Section 4: Energy
Unit 12 Photosynthesis
Unit 13 Food and nutrition
Unit 14 Electrical energy
Unit 15 Basic electronics
Section 5: Interactions of matter

Unit 16 Infectious diseases of humans and plants
Unit 17 Pests and parasites
Unit 18 Force and pressure
Unit 19 Machines

PART 1

There are 19 units in the Year 2 Integrated Science course. Each unit consists of a series
of topics which can be delivered in part of a lesson, or in one or more lessons according
to their length.
Section 1: Diversity of matter

Unit 1 Definition of element, compound and mixture
Elements, mixtures and
Classifying materials
compounds
Chemical symbols
Structure of an atom
Sub-atomic particles
Formation of ions
Unit 2 Characteristics of metals and non-metals
Metals and non-metals
Metallic and non-metallic elements
Chemical properties of metals
Alloys
Compositions and uses of alloys
Corrosion of metals
Effects of corrosion on metals
Rust prevention
Unit 3 Definition of a compound
Chemical compounds
Formulae of binary compounds
Systematic nomenclature of binary compounds
Word equations
Symbol equations

Unit 4 Definition of a mixture

Mixtures
Classifying mixtures
Solute, solvent and solution
Preparing mixtures
Separating mixtures
Mixtures and compounds
Unit 5 Composition and properties
Water
Hard and soft water
Causes of water hardness
Softening water
Health benefits of water
Water in agriculture
Conserving water at home
Section 2: Cycles
Unit 6 Carbon in nature
The carbon cycle Importance of the carbon cycle
Disruption to the carbon cycle
Maintenance of the carbon cycle
Unit 7 Weather
Weather, season and climate
Measuring weather
Seasons in Ghana
Climate
Section 3: Systems
Unit 8 Definition of reproduction
Reproduction in humans
Parts of reproductive system
Teenage pregnancy
Causes of teenage pregnancy
Effects of teenage pregnancy
Unit 9 Definition of heredity
Heredity
Inherited characteristics

Unit 10 Definition of diffusion

Diffusion and osmosis
Diffusion and its applications
Definition of osmosis
Osmosis and its applications
Differences between diffusion and osmosis
Unit 11 Concept of a circulatory system
Circulatory system in
Parts of a circulatory system
humans
Composition and function of blood
Blood pressure
Section 4: Energy
Unit 12 Definition of photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
The process of photosynthesis
Importance of photosynthesis
Unit 13 Classification of foods
Food and nutrition
Importance of nutrients
Food tests
Balanced diet
Unit 14 Generating electricity
Electrical energy
Current, potential difference and resistance
Flow of current
Wiring a three-pin plug
Conserving electrical energy
Unit 15 Composition of transistors
Basic electronics
Characteristics of transistors
Section 5: Interactions of matter
Unit 16 Definition of infectious disease
Infectious diseases of
Common infectious diseases
humans and plants
Transmission and control of infectious diseases
Unit 17 Differences between pests and parasites
Pests and parasites
Controlling pests and parasites

ii. Skills
Unit 18 Definition of force

Force and pressure
Types of forces
Effects of forces
Measuring force
Friction
Pressure
Pressure in a fluid
Pressure and depth of a fluid
Uses of pressure in fluids
Unit 19 Definition of machine
Machines
Simple machines
Levers
Work, energy and power
Efficiency
Complex machines
Caring for machines
ii. Skills
In delivering an Integrated Science course there are a range of skills that a teacher
seeks to engender in his or her pupils. A good course will be seamless in the sense that
all of these skills will be woven into the subject content in such a way that pupils will
acquire them within the context of a variety of topics.
Knowledge and understanding

Knowledge requires pupils to remember and recall facts. It is considered to be the
lowest level of learning because it requires no more than a good memory and indicates
nothing about how well the facts are understood.
Pupils need to remember facts but they must also demonstrate an understanding of the
significance of facts, and how facts link together in order to explain observations and
concepts.

ii. Skills
Critical thinking skills

If skills are limited to knowledge and understanding, pupils will learn something of
science. However, it is only when pupils start to think about and question what they
are learning that real progress is made. Beyond this, pupils should apply what they
have learnt to new situations and offer their own explanations of what they have
observed based on scientific principles.
The following are described as higher cognitive skills or critical thinking skills. It is
highly desirable that pupils are provided with opportunities to develop such skills
during the course.
Critical thinking Interpretation

skill
Application The ability to apply general scientific principles to
specific situations.
The ability to take knowledge and understanding from
one familiar context and apply it to another unfamiliar
context.
Analysis The ability to break something down into its component
parts and to test the validity of each part.
The ability to compare and contrast by looking for
similarities and differences.
Synthesis The ability to create something new by drawing together
what has been learnt and what is consistent with
scientific principles.
Evaluation The ability to look critically at an exercise, a practical
project or some other scientific work and to make critical
judgements based on given criteria. Pupils should be
encouraged to evaluate their own work with a view to
improvement.
In each of the topics in this book, some suggestions are made as to where critical
thinking skills may be introduced or where a topic may be extended to provide a
suitable vehicle for delivering and practising such skills.

iii. Safety issues
Science process skills

Science is a practical subject and, as such, a good science course should provide many
opportunities for pupils to gain and practise a range of skills which are related to the
scientific method. These skills are both mental and practical and can conveniently be
described as process skills. Here are some examples of process skills.
Process skill Interpretation
Lesson planning The ability to plan a strategy to solve a defined problem

or to carry out a given process.
Observing The ability to use all of the senses to make accurate
observations.
Measuring The ability to make accurate measurements using suitable
instruments
Manipulating The ability to handle apparatus and equipment correctly
and safely.
Communicating The ability to describe findings in words, orally and in
writing
Data handling skills

Many of the experiments and activities that pupils undertake will provide either
qualitative or quantitative data.
As part of a good science course, students should learn how to record data, in the
form of tables, for example, and to display the data in appropriate forms, such as
pictographs, bar graphs, line graphs and pie charts.
iii. Safety issues

Science is an exciting subject which should stimulate the curiosity of pupils and
increase their desire to learn more. A good science course should provide many
opportunities for pupils to carry out practical activities. However, in doing so the
teacher must be mindful of the potential hazards associated with such work.
Practical work which is not well planned and carried out sensibly may result in injuries
such as cuts, burns, irritation to the eyes and nose or even poisoning. The teacher
should consider the following in relation to practical activities.

iii. Safety issues
Laboratory rules
All pupils should be made familiar with a set of laboratory rules designed to make
science lessons safe. A small number of rules which are easily remembered will have a
greater impact than a long list which pupils will forget.
Here is an example of laboratory rules which are easily remembered and which will
prevent accidents.
DO
• Follow instructions
• Tell your teacher if you have an accident or break something
• Wipe up spillages straight away
• Wear eye protection when carrying out experiments
DON’T
• Run about the laboratory

• Leave coats and bags where others may trip over them
• Touch apparatus or chemicals without being told to do so
• Eat, drink or taste things in the laboratory
Impress upon pupils that it is their responsibility to provide a safe working place in the
laboratory both for themselves and those other pupils working around them.
Risk assessment
Before contemplating carrying out a practical activity the teacher must first assess the
risks involved and devise ways of working which will either eliminate or reduce these
risks to an acceptable level.
Here is an example of a procedure that pupils may be asked to carry out in the Year 1
course:
• cut up an onion
• remove a piece of onion skin
• place the onion skin on a microscope slide
• stain the onion skin with iodine solution
10

iii. Safety issues
• place a cover slip over the onion skin

• examine the stained onion skin using a microscope.
Here are some potential risks and how the teacher may deal with them:
Potential risk Dealing with the risk

Pupils may cut themselves on Provide the pupils with pieces from an onion
sharp knives. which has already been cut up or warn pupils
when using a knife to cut down onto a board
and not cut towards themselves.
Onion releases chemicals which Tell the pupils not to put their faces near
cause the eyes to water. the onion when cutting and not to put their
fingers anywhere near their eyes afterwards
until they have washed them with soapy
water.
Iodine solution stains clothing. Warn pupils that iodine solution will
permanently stain their clothing so they
should take extra care when using it and
wipe up any spillage immediately.
If the tube of the microscope is Warn pupils to wind down the tube of the
wound down while the pupil is microscope while observing from the side
looking through the eyepiece it so that they can see when the objective lens
may go down too far and break approaches the cover slip. They should then
the cover slip and slide. The broken look through the eyepiece and move the tube
glass may damage the objective away from the cover slip in order to focus the
lens. microscope.
If the teacher is in any doubt as to whether an experiment is safe, or indeed will

give the desired results, he or she should work through it prior to the lesson and, if
necessary, modify the procedure in order that it can be completed safely by pupils of
the class age group.
It is desirable that pupils wear eye protection and wear laboratory coats when carrying
out practical work. If laboratory coats are not available, use should be made of old
shirts to protect the body from splashes and spillages.
If experiments are likely to produce noxious fumes they should be carried out in
a properly ventilated fume cupboard. If such a cupboard is not available such
experiments should be carried out by an open window in a well-ventilated laboratory
or outside the laboratory.
After assessing the risks involved in carrying out an experiment using his or her
professional judgement, a teacher may decide that a particular experiment is not
11

iii. Safety issues
suitable to be carried out by pupils but it may be an important part of a topic. Under
these circumstances, the teacher should demonstrate the experiment, taking whatever
steps are necessary to ensure the safety of the pupils watching it.
First Aid
Even after carrying out risk assessment and making adequate provisions for safety, the
teacher should anticipate that occasional accidents will happen, because pupils are
young and make mistakes or errors of judgement.
It is desirable that a First Aid kit containing items such as cotton wool buds, eye wash,
antiseptic cream, bandages and plasters is available in the laboratory. The contents
should be inspected regularly and items replaced as they are used up.
In the event of serious injury the teacher should seek medical help as quickly as
possible. However, it is likely that most accidents in the laboratory will result in minor
injuries which can be treated provided the teacher is familiar with some basic First Aid
procedures.
• Chemicals in the eyes – place the pupil in a horizontal position either on a table
or on the floor and rinse the eyes with clean water for 10 minutes.
• Chemicals in the mouth – spit out as much of the chemical as possible then rinse
out the mouth with clean water which should also be spat out.
• Chemicals on the skin – wash the area of skin with clean water for several
minutes.
• Burns – cool damaged skin with cold water for 10 minutes then cover with a
clean plastic bag or cling film; anti-burn cream is not recommended as it can
cause heat to be retained and worsen the burn.
• Minor cuts – wash the wound and remove any dirt; apply antiseptic cream and
either a plaster or a bandage as appropriate.
Safety equipment
A blanket should be kept to hand for smothering fires. In the event that a pupil’s
clothing catches fire, the area of clothing should be smothered with the blanket
immediately to prevent air reaching the flame.
A bucket of dry sand should be kept in the laboratory. In the event of a fire, the sand
should be sprinkled or poured on the fire to smother it. Sand is particularly useful
where a fire involves an organic liquid like kerosene or fat. Water should never be used
to extinguish such fires.
12


Science is a practical subject and as such, the teacher should take advantage of
every opportunity to carry out practical work. Where this is not possible, alternative
approaches which stimulate pupils should be sought. Courses based entirely on note
taking and written exercises will not deliver either the ethos or the practical skills
required by pupils.
Practical activities
Humans learn by exploring from a very early age so a teaching method that makes
use of a pupil’s natural curiosity is likely to be well received.
When lesson planning a practical activity, the teacher must give consideration to
factors such as the availability of equipment and materials, the difficulty of the
planned procedures, the amount of time available and the potential risks involved.
The teacher will then be in a position to make decisions such as the following:
• Should pupils work individually or in groups?

When there is sufficient equipment and materials, and time is not an issue, it
is best if pupils work on their own as this will allow them to develop practical
skills. If equipment or materials are in short supply, or the practical activity is
likely to take too long for an individual, pupils should work in small groups. A
maximum of four pupils per group is often considered to be appropriate. When
pupils work in groups it is essential that the teacher ensures that every member
of the group contributes to the work and has an opportunity to manipulate
equipment and collect data as appropriate. Mixed groups of pupils in which
boys carry out all of the practical procedures while girls only record data are not
acceptable.
• What level of support should be provided for pupils?

At one extreme an activity may be totally prescriptive and provide a pupil with
little opportunity for an individual approach. Conversely, a completely open-
ended activity allows a pupil a great deal of opportunity to develop their own
ideas but these may not be compatible with issues such as the availability of
equipment and materials, safe practice or time restraints. Within any science
course there will be opportunities to provide practical activities of different levels
of structure.
13

• What use can be made of locally available equipment?

Scientific equipment is generally expensive. Sometimes it is possible to make use
of locally available alternatives. For example, an empty jam jar can take the
place of a beaker where it is not necessary to heat a liquid. Similarly, a small
teaspoon provides a good alternative to a spatula.
It may also be possible for the teacher to make simple pieces of apparatus from
locally available materials. For example, a rain gauge can easily be made from
an empty soda bottle.
Class demonstration
Although practical activities are desirable, there may be instances where a class
demonstration is more appropriate. If an activity requires a particular piece of
equipment which is only available in limited numbers then the teacher has no
alternative but to carry out the activity for the class to observe.
There may also be practical activities which are considered too dangerous to be carried
out by individuals within the classroom. If safety is an issue then the teacher must not
allow pupils to put themselves at risk.
The teacher should also consider limiting activities that produce noxious fumes to class
demonstrations. It is not sensible to allow pupils to carry out activities that will fill the
laboratory with unpleasant and perhaps poisonous gases.
There may be a few instances where it is impossible for the teacher to provide even a
class demonstration. For example, some industrial processes require expensive and
complex equipment which is impossible to replicate in the laboratory. Under these
circumstances, the teacher must refer to the Pupil’s Book but it is essential that such
processes are fully explained. Pupils should not be left to read through a process
without being given any explanation.
Brainstorming
Brainstorming provides a useful way to start a unit of work. It gets pupils thinking
about the topic in hand while at the same time it provides the teacher with some
insight into the level of pupil understanding.
An appreciation of pupil understanding will allow the teacher to pitch lessons at the
correct level. If lessons are pitched too low, pupils become bored and distracted because
they don’t believe they are learning anything new. Conversely, if lessons are pitched
too high, pupils soon lose touch and do not understand what they are being told.
14

Discussion
Discussions in which both the teacher and the class exchange knowledge and ideas
are an essential part of any course and are not restricted to science lessons. It is only
through discussion that pupils can gain the fullest possible appreciation of the lesson
content. At the same time, questions asked by pupils alert the teacher to those parts
of a topic which have not been well understood, and to those misconceptions which
occasionally arise.
Without discussion, there is a danger in teaching pupils of any age that the teacher
becomes regarded as the fount of all wisdom and the role of pupils is one of receiving
knowledge without comment.
A free atmosphere should pervade the classroom or laboratory. Pupils should be

encouraged to speak out about things without fear of being thought stupid. Pupils
should be taught to listen to the opinions of their peers without interruption and wait
patiently for their turn to voice their opinions.
Drama and role play

Opportunities for drama and role play may be limited in science courses but they
are a valuable alternative strategy for dealing with the course content. Role play is
particularly useful in dealing with social issues related to science, such as pollution
and environmental protection.
Role play is also a useful skill for pupils to develop for use outside the classroom. It can
be of use in dealing with real situations in everyday life.
Question and answer

Asking questions about lesson content provides a useful way of identifying those
parts of a lesson that have been understood and those which are causing problems
for pupils. Asking questions can provide a means of initiating class discussion when
pupils are reluctant to ask questions themselves.
There is also a role for written questions within a lesson plan. The teacher should not
limit the use of questions to testing factual content but should also use them to develop
higher process skills. Questions that start with terms like ‘Explain …’, ‘Discuss …’, ‘Why
is it that …’ and ‘How could you …’ provide the pupil with opportunities to think about
and plan answers.
15

Project work
Project work provides a means of extending a project beyond the time spent in lessons.
Pupils can be encouraged to engage in a project after school hours both at school and
at home.
As with group work, projects can be undertaken by small groups of pupils. The ability
to work with others in groups is an important skill for pupils to acquire as much
of their working life beyond school is likely to revolve around working with others.
When working in a group it is important that each pupil in a group makes an equal
contribution.
Time is less of a constraint so project work can be more open-ended than a classroom
activity, allowing pupils opportunities to explore their own ideas and use the
knowledge and understanding they have obtained in their lessons. Project work also
allows pupils opportunities to develop organisational skills both in carrying out work
and in reporting on their results.
The results of project work can be displayed in the classroom or laboratory and shown
to parents as examples of the sort of work carried out by the class.
Field trips
Whenever opportunities arise, lessons should extend beyond the classroom or
laboratory. Apart from the novelty value of taking pupils outside the classroom, a
number of science topics such as the environment, habitats, pollution, etc., are better
dealt with outdoors where examples of the lesson content can be seen first-hand by
pupils.
Trips out to see local industries will also help to put some topics into perspective.
Pupils should be made aware that science is not an academic pursuit confined to the
classroom but a subject that has many important applications in the real world.
Field trips should be carefully planned in advance so that both teacher and pupils get
the maximum from them. Follow-up work should be carried out as soon as possible
afterwards before pupils have a chance to forget what they have seen and heard.
In any large class it is likely that the teacher will be presented with a range of abilities
and perhaps also disabled pupils. It is impossible to provide pupils of differing abilities
with the teaching they require simply by standing in front of a class and dictating
notes or writing on the board.
16

The teacher must devise strategies whereby pupils can receive group or even individual
attention. In order to achieve this, there must be a shift from teacher-centred learning
towards pupil-centred learning. In this section the teacher will find some suggestions
as to how this can be done.
Discussion
It is often better to discuss topics with pupils rather than to lecture them. Discussion
provides all pupils with the opportunity to contribute and to ask questions about
things they do not understand. To some extent, discussion also provides the lesson with
an appropriate tempo, moving quickly through things which are well understood and
pausing to spend more time on those things which are not.
The teacher should have a list of things which are to be covered in the lesson and
should use this to guide the discussions and move on when they believe sufficient time
has been given over to a particular issue.
Discussion also gives the teacher immediate feedback on how well, or how badly,
particular aspects of a topic are understood. If, after discussion, the teacher thinks that
certain things have not been well understood some remedial action can be taken. This
might be going back over some of the work or perhaps approaching the work from a
different direction or in a different way.
Group work
Apart from the educational advantages of group work, it is appropriate that pupils
learn to work together in groups as much of life is about working in harmony with
others.
Group work is often desirable when carrying out practical activities due to a lack of
resources, or where an activity is likely to overrun the time available if carried out by
an individual. However, group work should not be restricted to practical activities.
Groups may consist of pupils of similar abilities. In this way groups of more able pupils
can be asked to get on with a task while the teacher provides extra help for those
groups of less able pupils. It is essential that all pupils contribute equally to the work of
the group.
Groups may consist of a mixture of abilities. The less able pupils in a group can learn
from the more able by peer teaching. More able pupils may express themselves in
ways which are different from the teacher and this is sometimes easier for the less able
pupils to understand. It is essential that the more able pupils appreciate their role and
are genuinely prepared to help rather than to show off to their less able friends.
17

Group work frees the teacher from having to stand in front of the class for the whole
lesson. He or she can pass around the class working with different groups of pupils and
providing different levels of support as appropriate.
Open-ended tasks
It is impossible to write exercises or set tasks which are satisfactory for every pupil in
a multi-ability class. If the work is too easy the more able are not stretched and will
finish very quickly. If the work is too difficult the less able will not be able to do it and
will gain nothing from it.
One way of getting around this is to make work open-ended so that each pupil can
do as much or as little as they are able to. For example, in an exercise there may be
relatively easy questions at the start but questions become more difficult as the pupil
works through it.
In a practical activity, less able pupils may be asked to collect the minimal amount of
data while the more able may be expected to collect as much data as possible.
In assessing open-ended tasks it is important that the achievements of the less able are
given equal prominence and praise as those of the more able. Pupils should be made
aware that each has his or her own strengths and weaknesses. A pupil who is less able
in science may have to work harder to achieve less than a pupil who is more able and
finds the subject very easy.
Extension (enrichment) activities

Another way to occupy and stretch the more able pupils in a class is to provide
extension activities.
This could take the form of an exercise or task in which all pupils are expected to
reach a certain point, but additional questions or materials are provided for those who
are able to go beyond that point. In this way less able pupils are able to work at their
own pace without feeling that they are being pressurised to achieve more than they
are able.
It is important that all pupils undertake work essential to understanding the topic
content. Any extension work should contain material which provides additional
practice or perhaps goes a little beyond the syllabus content.
18

Pupils with a physical disability

There may be pupils who have some form of physical disability, particularly involving
their limbs, which makes it difficult for them to partake in practical activities where
they need to move around and manipulate apparatus.
It is impossible to give advice on all possible forms of physical disability but the
following general points should be borne in mind:
• Pupils may need more room to move about so they must have adequate working
space
• Equipment and apparatus must be user-friendly so that the pupil can handle it
with ease
• Pupils may need assistance in setting up apparatus
• Pupils may need additional time to complete tasks
• There may be additional safety issues that must be taken into account
• It may be necessary to modify activities in order that they can be completed.
Pupils with impaired hearing

Any pupil who has impaired hearing may find it difficult to hear what the teacher is
saying. Depending on the degree of hearing loss, the teacher should consider:
• Sitting the pupil at the front of the class so that he or she may hear better
• Using illustrations to teach concepts
• Providing written instructions for practical activities
• Providing notes on the lesson content.
Pupils with visual impairment

Visual impairment may include colour blindness, sensitivity to light, an inability to
interpret illustrations and an inability to see clear images. Depending on the nature of
the impairment, the teacher should consider:
• Sitting the pupil at the front of the class so that he or she can see the board more
clearly
• Describing structures in terms of colour and labelling diagrams with the colours
19

vi. Assessment
• Warning pupils in advance when any bright light may be produced, such as
when burning magnesium
• Talking pupils through diagrams rather than assuming that they are self-
explanatory.
Other conditions
There are a myriad of other physical and behavioural conditions which the teacher
may need to deal with over time. It is impossible to provide advice beyond saying that
the teacher must get to know his or her pupils well, be aware of those who may need
extra help in some way and be prepared to make special provisions for them.
vi. Assessment
It is very important and useful for a science teacher to assess pupils of different levels
in various ways and settings. Therefore, in the course of guiding pupils to learn science
effectively the teacher needs to plan and design assessment tools. The tools will be used
to collect evidence about teaching and learning.
Assessment information will help the teacher to make decisions about pupils’ learning.
It will also allow the teacher to evaluate his or her lessons and to improve their
teaching practices.
The word assessment is used to mean the process of identifying, obtaining and
providing information about teaching and learning, usually with reference to expected
outcomes or criteria. Assessment is about direct measurement of performance.
Assessment refers to all those activities which measure the performance of pupils and,
by outcome, of the teacher. Therefore, assessment is a task that provides information
which may be used to modify the teaching and learning activities. Assessment of
learning is an ongoing (continuous) process.
Evaluation is the process of making value judgments about overall teaching and
learning. These judgments are made on the basis of information gathered through
assessment and monitoring, thus assessment and evaluation are closely related.
Relationship between assessment and evaluation

Assessment data is used to make an evaluation in the sense that after administering
a test of any kind it is important to mark it and obtain scores. The next task will be
to interpret the scores in order to determine the number of pupils whose performance
20

vi. Assessment
is poor, average or high, i.e. valuation. This may be done either on a summative or
formative basis.
Continuous assessment is a formative evaluation. It is an ongoing process which is

done from the beginning and continues throughout the school year.
Summative evaluation is the process of judging the totality of all learning that the
learner has undergone during a period of time. This is frequently carried out in the
form of a test at the end of a unit, term or year.
Formative assessment is often about finding out if particular knowledge and skills
have been acquired by pupils. These are often criterion-referenced tests which measure
the pupil’s performance in relation to specific instructional objectives. The questions on
the tests are directly related to specific knowledge and skills.
Summative assessment is often carried out to determine order so that grading,

placement and selection can be made by the teacher. An assessment that compares
the performance of a pupil with other pupils is described as norm-referenced. Schools
commonly use norm-referenced tests. Summative assessment might also be criteria-
referenced in terms of whether given competencies have been mastered or not.
Informal assessment
Assessment may be informal when the teacher moves around the class during a
science lesson, talking to, listening to and watching pupils at work.
Informal assessment does not require a formal or defined reference group or a task.
More often it includes idiosyncratic information obtained in a setting that is natural to
the pupils’ daily experience and ordinary classroom interactions.
Informal assessment data may also include subjective opinions that reflect either the
teacher’s teaching style and needs, or the pupil’s learning style and needs. Informal
assessment encompasses information that is ongoing and cumulative rather than
information that is drawn from a fixed point in time.
Informal assessment data guides the practices of the teacher in the following ways:
• It helps the teacher to check on the general participation of pupils in science

lessons. This occurs when pupils are effectively monitored as they carry out their
work.
• Talking to and listening to pupils’ ideas and contributions during science lessons
will help the teacher to discover any learning difficulties. Once alerted he or
she can start to deal with the problems immediately. This may include pupils
with problems in learning science concepts, slow learners, pupils with language
21

vi. Assessment
problems and those with a negative attitude to learning science. A pupil who
spends hours in classroom activities produces a myriad of clues as to his or her
motivation, ability and needs.
After gathering informal assessment data, the teacher should use it to identify
problems of particular pupils and devise methods of dealing with them. For example,
there may be a pupil or group of pupils who are having problems visualising an
abstract concept such as the structure of molecules. The teacher can address this by the
use of suitable diagrams, wall charts or models.
The teacher’s skills in gathering and interpreting data on a daily basis will help
him or her to gain some insight into the specific problems and requirements of each
individual pupil. Such data allows the teacher to devise more appropriate teaching
strategies and set more appropriate goals which will, in turn, result in an overall
improvement in classroom management.
Formal assessment
In general the information obtained through informal assessment is used to interpret
the data gathered through formal assessment. For example the scores of pupils who
were less keen to explain and describe concepts will be low in a written test meant to
measure such a competence.
Both informal and formal assessment procedures are used in most evaluation
situations.
The teacher can assess their pupils formally through oral or written tests, quizzes,
examinations and other performance-based tasks and investigations. The teacher
should plan and administer at least one of the above to their pupils at regular
intervals. For example, a formal assessment might be carried out at the end of each
unit.
The teacher may plan with pupils to have a regime of regular formal assessment
consisting of a variety of different assessment methods in order to assess their
performance and prepare them for end-of-year examinations.
Planning for assessment

Informal assessment may be ongoing. A teacher may assess each pupil at regular
intervals by monitoring their work in the classroom. It is neither possible nor desirable
to assess each pupil in each lesson. The teacher should aim to assess each individual
once over a given period of time, such as on a weekly basis. In addition pupils’ work
may be assessed by marking exercise books at regular intervals.
22

vi. Assessment
There are a number of factors to be considered in planning for assessment. The teacher
can devise a suitable strategy based on the following questions:
• Why do we need assessment in science?
• How do I assess?
• Who will be assessed?
• What will be included in the assessment?
• How will I ensure reliability and validity?
Assessment requires the teacher to:
• Identify the purpose
• Select a suitable activity
• Prepare the learners for assessment
• Plan and design the assessment tasks.
The teacher should bear in mind that the nature of the assessment tasks will depend
on the nature of the subject matter and the purpose of the assessment and should
reflect the required knowledge, skills and attitudes. The tasks set by the teacher for his
or her pupils should be challenging, interesting and enjoyable for pupils.
Reliability and validity are basic concerns of all assessment tasks. In teacher-made
tests, the responsibility for reliability and validity rests with the teacher.
Good reliability requires that the teacher provides enough test items so that an
individual’s chance errors and misconceptions do not result in an inaccurate picture of
their actual ability.
Good validity requires that the assessment is carried out on the appropriate part of the
syllabus, the assessment tool is written in such a way that it can easily be understood
by all pupils and the assessment tasks can be completed in the time available.
Question writing
The following shows how different types of questions can be developed around an
experiment in which the growth of seedlings is monitored over a period of time. These
questions could be used in a topic on the growth of plants.
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vi. Assessment
1 Multiple choice question
A B C D
Q: Four similar-sized plants were grown for 7 days under different conditions. Which plant
grew strongest?
A B C D
2 Sentence completion question
A B C D
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vi. Assessment
Q: Four similar-sized plants were grown for 7 days under different conditions.
Plant C grew the .................................... . strongest weakest
Plant C grew two more pairs of leaves than ............................... .
3 Data extraction question

Q: Different amounts of fertiliser were applied to six similar-sized plants and their heights
were measured after 7 days.
25 cm
20 cm
15 cm
10 cm
5 cm
0 cm
A B C D E F
0g 5g 10 g 15 g 20 g 25 g
Tabulate the information given in the diagram in the following table.
Plant A B C D E F
Growth / cm
Fertiliser / g m-2
In this question pupils must interpret information in the diagram and complete the
table.
25

vi. Assessment
4 Data presentation question

were measured after 7 days.
Draw a bar graph/line graph to present this data.
Plant A B C D E F
Growth / cm 4 9 15 19 23 16
Fertiliser / g m -3
0 5 10 15 20 25
In this question pupils are given a table of data and can be asked to draw a bar graph
or a line graph.
5 Data analysis question

were measured after 7 days. The following graph shows the heights of the plants after
7 days.
30
25
20
Growth/cm
15
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Fertiliser/ g per square metre
Comment on the pattern of growth shown in the graph.
In this question pupils are given a graph and asked questions about it.
In addition to not being related to the part of the syllabus being taught, questions may
also be invalid for a number of other reasons. Here are some examples of bad practice.
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vi. Assessment
1 Which of the following is an insect?
A ant B mosquito C mouse D snake
Ant and mosquito are both insects. There should only be one correct answer in a
multiple choice question.
2 Arrange the following fish according to size starting with the largest.
dzaflafa nile perch shark whale yalefo
The science in this question is incorrect. A whale is not a fish but a mammal.
3 Which planet do you think is the biggest?
Whatever the pupil writes will be correct because it is what he or she thinks. The
question should be ‘Which planet is the biggest?’
4 The following table shows how the mass of five pupils varies with their height.
Mass/kg 5 8 10 12 14
Height/cm 20 40 55 63 65
Use this data to draw a graph of height against mass.
The data in this question is totally unrealistic. Any data used in a question should be
sensible in terms of what it represents.
5 It takes a car 3 hours to travel from Accra to Kumasi. What was its average speed for
the journey?
This question cannot be answered because insufficient data has been given. In order
to calculate the average speed, the pupil needs to know the distance from Accra to
Kumasi.
Planning exercises, tests, quizzes, examinations and

performance -based assessments
Exercises
Exercises may consist of a few short, straightforward questions covering the
instructional objectives. The teacher should write down the correct responses, allocate
appropriate time and decide the particular stage of the lesson where the exercise will
be done.
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vi. Assessment
Homework
In planning homework, the teacher can prepare a task that engages pupils in
brainstorming, revising, and practising the ideas, skills and theories from the topic
recently covered. The types of questions to be included in the homework may depend on
pupils’ responses to class exercises and the competences the teacher wishes to focus on.
A homework assignment for pupils who perform well in class exercises may include
extra and more demanding questions. Those who did not do well in the class exercises
may be required to work on the same questions again or others of a similar nature.
Pupils with special needs and slow learners may be given a separate set of questions.
Weekend exercise
Exercises should be given to pupils to solve during the weekend. These should be
exercises based on the learning objectives treated during the week and some questions
to get pupils reading around.
Quizzes
A quiz can be in the form of a series of short and challenging questions which are
answered by each individual learner under the supervision of the teacher. It should be
allocated a shorter time, and in contrast to exercises and homework a quiz should be
completed without reference to exercise books and other texts for clues or answers.
Class tests
Tests can be planned in advance. These should be different from exercises and
homework, and may contain test items of several types. The teacher should describe
the format of a test and its purpose to pupils in advance of administering it.
Written tests may be used to test knowledge and understanding but also to assess skills
like application, data handling analysis and decision making. Practical tests such as
investigations may be used to test manipulative skills as well as some higher cognitive
skills such as synthesis, evaluation and problem solving.
School-based examinations
End of term (terminal) and end of year (annual) examinations can be set to include
more questions than are in a test. A good examination ought to test all levels of the
cognitive domain. It should contain various types of questions and pupils should be
advised of the format prior to the examination. The time allocated for completing
the examination should be moderately longer than it is thought will be required. The
results of the examination can be analysed to provide information for grading and
selection.
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vi. Assessment
Designing assessment tools

Pupils should not be assessed just for the sake of it. Unnecessary testing:
• Adds to the workload of the teacher
• Reduces class time that can be spent covering the syllabus content
• Results in a loss of impact.
In designing an assessment tool the teacher should take into account the nature of the
learners, the subject matter and the instructional process. For example, if pupils have
been taught an extended topic it is very likely that the teacher will need to administer
a number of exercises and/or tasks to enable pupils to demonstrate mastery of all of
the required knowledge, skills and competences. The teacher should also vary the level
of demand of test items within a task according to the range of abilities of pupils.
The design of assessment tools requires the teacher to make a number of decisions.
He or she needs to decide exactly what it is that they wish to assess and thereafter to
design their assessment tool accordingly. The assessment tool needs to be:
• Focused on the particular part of the syllabus to be tested

• Focused on the knowledge, skills and competences to be tested
• Sufficiently demanding to stretch pupils, i.e. not too easy
• Accessible to all pupils, i.e. not too difficult
• Clearly set out with instructions that are easily read and understood
• Written at a language level that can be understood by all pupils
• Able to be completed by all pupils in the designated time.
A well-designed and fair test will help both the teacher and the pupil to identify those
areas of the syllabus and those skills and competences which require remedial work.
A teacher needs to use his or her creativity to come up with new and challenging
questions. They should not get into the habit of only reproducing or copying exercises
which are found in the textbooks and past examination papers. This is because such
exercises may not reflect the knowledge, skills and competences that the teacher wishes
to assess. However, questions from textbooks and past papers can be used to improve
the teacher’s writing skills in creating their own test items.
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vi. Assessment
Designing good assessment tasks

Tasks should be based around the knowledge, skills and competences to be assessed.
An assessment task should enable the pupils to demonstrate what they know and what
they can do.
Initially the teacher should decide the number of questions which will be included in
the task. For example if there are to be five questions in the task, the ratio can be two
fill-in-the-blanks type questions, one multiple choice and two short answer questions.
The mark scheme should provide all of the possible correct answers that pupils may
offer.
During the course of teaching science it is important that the teacher designs different
types of tasks. These could include multiple choice tests, short answer tests, open-ended
questions, problem solving tasks, group work and short research projects.
Multiple choice questions should have four alternative answers; one key and three
distracters.
1 The sense organ used for feeling is the

A ear
B eye
C nose
D skin
An open-ended question allows the pupil to write what they know:
1 Explain the effects of poor nutrition on children less than 5 years old.
In some of the topics it may be necessary to design tasks that engage pupils in
conducting research work or field projects.
1 In the area where you live:
a) find examples of seeds which are dispersed in different ways
b) for each type of seed, explain how it is dispersed.
The teacher should also design a project which can be done as group work, and where
the contribution of each pupil can be assessed.
1 In groups of five conduct interviews with youths who have just recovered from drug
addictions and collect the following information:
a) the practices/factors/conditions that influenced them to use/take drugs
30

vi. Assessment
b) the types of drugs they have been using
c) the effects of the drugs on their: body/health, career, family and community
d) the practices that helped them to stop using drugs.
The assessment can be arranged so that each pupil is assessed by the teacher and
at least one colleague. The contribution of each pupil will determine the score of the
whole group in this task.
The teacher can also design other tasks that can help pupils to be good inquisitors.
Such tasks develop an inquiring mind and help teaching to be a two-way process
and not just the teacher talking all of the time. For example before getting pupils to
investigate the conditions necessary for seed germination, the teacher may encourage
pupils to ask themselves several questions about germination, such as:
• What happens to the seeds which have been planted in the soil?
• Some seeds have been planted in wet soil and some in dry soil. Which ones will
germinate better?
• Do seeds need air to germinate?
• Do seeds only germinate in the dark?
• Will seeds germinate if you plant them upside down?
• What are the conditions necessary for seeds to germinate?
The central consideration when designing any assessment task is to match the task to
the expected pupil outcomes in terms of knowledge, skills and competences.
This means that the tasks the teacher designs for his or her class should target
the instructional aims while allowing pupils to demonstrate their progress and
capabilities.
Sources of ideas for good assessment tasks may be:
• Brainstorming with colleagues

• Looking at textbooks and other publications
• Television or newspapers
• From local industry or the surrounding environment
• From listening to pupils.
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vi. Assessment
Task description
Another important consideration to be aware of is the need to describe each
assessment task in detail. A task description helps the teacher to identify the learning
domain and provides for the possibility of writing other assessment tasks from it. It
also allows the teacher to review their work and identify problems before they are set
for pupils.
Irrespective of the nature of the assessment task, the teacher will need to specify the
following:
• The intended use of the results obtained from a task

Specify whether the results will be used in grading and/or selection processes
or not. Prior knowledge about the purposes of assessment allows the teacher to
select the most appropriate types of tasks.
• The syllabus content upon which the task is based

Specify whether the assessment task is intended to cover several topics or the
current topic only.
• The nature and format of questions in the task and whether all
questions will be attempted by all pupils
Specify whether all the pupils in the class will answer all questions or not. For
example the teacher may instruct slow learners to answer some of the questions
and fast learners to answer all of the questions. Also, the teacher may restrict
pupils with special learning needs to answering only a few questions.
• Specify whether the task is to be group work or individual work.

Where it is group work, specify the roles to be assumed by each
member in the group.
Assessments carried out in class often involve individual tasks such as exercises
while assessments carried on field work are more often group tasks.
• The nature of the questions in the task

An assessment task may include questions of several different types. Pupils
should be instructed to answer each type of question in the appropriate way.
• The resources needed by pupils to complete the task

Specify any materials, apparatus or other resources which will be needed by
pupils to complete an assessment task.
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vi. Assessment
• The order of tasks

Where there is more than one part to a task, the teacher many need to specify
in what order the parts should be attempted.
• The mark scheme and procedure that will be used

At the same time as designing an assessment task the teacher should also be
constructing a suitable mark scheme.
Keeping records and monitoring pupils’ progress
Meaning and purpose of monitoring

Monitoring refers to activities that are pursued by teachers to keep track of pupils’
learning for the purposes of making instructional decisions and providing feedback to
pupils on their progress.
Teachers should move around the classroom during group work and engage in one-to-
one contacts with pupils about their work. Monitoring individual work will make the
teacher aware of how well pupils are progressing with their assignments and working
with pupils one-to-one as needed.
Classroom monitoring largely involves posing questions to pupils during classroom

discussions in order to check their understanding of the material being taught.
Questioning provides the teacher with information on pupils’ levels of understanding

so that he or she can vary the pace of instruction, either decreasing or increasing the
pace of the lesson as appropriate.
Monitoring can alert teachers to situations where pupils do not understand the lesson
content and where it may be necessary to break material down into smaller parts or to
review what has already been taught.
Other monitoring activities include marking and correcting homework. When

carefully administered and monitored, homework assignments bear a significant and
positive relationship to achievement. Homework also increases pupils’ learning time.
Homework should be given frequently as a means of extending pupils’ practice time
with new material in a way that is clearly understood by pupils and parents.
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vi. Assessment
The teacher should look to involve parents in monitoring homework. Let them be
aware of what needs to be done and encourage homework completion. Homework
should be returned marked, graded and commented on to pupils as quickly as possible.
Learning can also be monitored through administering and correcting tests.

Classroom testing is one of the essential elements in monitoring science learning and
shows a positive correlation with later pupil achievement.
Effective monitoring of classroom testing will have beneficial effects on learning. This
is especially true when tests are administered regularly, collected, scored and returned
to pupils promptly so that they can correct errors of understanding before these
become ingrained.
Keeping pupil records

To monitor learning effectively the teacher needs to keep complete records of
pupil performance. Generally, record keeping refers to consistent and ongoing
documentation of pupils’ work and progress. Record keeping will enable the teacher
to make decisions and to plan follow-up work. It will allow them to communicate
pupils’ progress to parents and other stakeholders and to support their comments with
evidence of achievement.
There are several types of pupils’ records that can assist the teacher in monitoring
science pupils effectively. These may include:
• A checklist of observed behaviour

A checklist can be used to identify different kinds of observable behaviour. It
may contain both negative and positive comments. For example:
o Dislikes science
o Is uncooperative with teacher
o Often does not attend science lessons
o Has fights or arguments
o Contributes regularly to class discussion
o Can be trusted to work independently
o Demonstrates high skill in two or more areas
o Always completes assignments.
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vi. Assessment
• Individual pupil progress record folders

It is important to have a folder in which the results of all of the assessments
carried out in science are stored.
• A file of tasks
The teacher can create a file in which he or she retains copies and/or details of
the science tasks, including the nature of the task, how long the task will take
to complete, instructions for the pupil, scoring criteria, a list of resources needed
and dates when the task was set and when it was completed.
• Progress chart
The teacher can place a chart showing the progress of each pupil on the wall
of the classroom. When pupils perform a science task well they can be given a
coloured star or some other token which indicates their progress.
35

36

PART 2: TEACHING NOTES
Section 1: Diversity Of Matter

After studying this section, the pupil will be able to:
1. recognise the variety of living and non-living things in nature and their
connectedness
2. understand the terms elements, mixtures and compounds, and their
differences, formation and uses
3. be aware of the differences between metals and non-metals
4. use their knowledge of corrosion to take care of metallic objects
5. show an awareness of the basic principles involved in some separation
techniques
6. show an appreciation that water is a precious resource and of the need to
conserve it.
Unit 1 Elements, Mixtures and Compounds
Introduction
This unit is concerned with elements, compounds and mixtures. Pupils will be given
definitions of these three classes of substances and will use them to classify materials.
Pupils will learn how to represent the first 20 elements by their symbols and how to
draw a diagram to represent the structure of an atom. In the latter part of the unit,
pupils will also learn about sub-atomic particles and briefly consider the formation of
ions.
Specific objectives
After studying this unit, the pupil will be able to:
1. explain the terms element, mixture and compound

2. classify materials into elements, mixtures and compounds
3. write the chemical symbols for the first 20 elements of the periodic table
4. draw and label the structure of an atom
5. state the electrical charges on the sub-atomic particles
6. describe the formation of ions
37

Pupil’s Book cross-references

Syllabus topic Section Pupil’s Pupil’s Pupil’s
in Pupil‘s Book Book Book
Book page activities page
Definition of the terms element, 1.1 2 1.1, 1.2 3, 4
compound and mixture
Classifying materials 1.2 6 1.3 6
Chemical symbols 1.3 7 1.4 9
Structure of an atom 1.4 10 1.5 16
Sub-atomic particles 1.5 16
Formation of ions 1.6 17 1.6 19
Lesson planning
The syllabus provides a logical order of work on elements, compounds and mixtures.
Teaching strategies should be determined by the nature and content of the topic.
Lessons should be planned to cover the following sequence of topics:
1. Provide pupils with a simple definition of an element.

2. Pupils should work through activity 1.1 looking at some examples of elements.
3. Discuss how different materials may be added together to form mixtures.
4. Pupils should work through activity 1.2 looking at some examples of mixtures.
5. Explain to pupils how elements combine to form compounds. Discuss how a
compound is different from a mixture, stressing the need for a chemical reaction
to take place in order to form a compound.
6. Discuss some examples of common binary compounds and identify the elements
from which they are formed.
7. Pupils should work through activity 1.3 classifying substances as elements,
mixtures or compounds on the basis of what they have learnt so far in this unit.
8. Show the class a periodic table and ask pupils if they have any idea what the
symbols in the boxes mean. Use this to introduce atomic symbols.
9. Discuss the format of the periodic table explaining the significance of groups
and periods.
38

10. Focus pupils on the first 20 elements in the periodic table and their symbols.
11. Explain to pupils that the concept of an atom as the smallest particle of an
element that can exist is not new but was suggested by the Ancient Greeks.
Explain how the atoms of an element are the same but different from the atoms
of another element (do not mention isotopes at this stage).
12. Explain to pupils that once the concept of the atom was firmly established,
scientists started to ask the question ‘What are atoms made of?’ Experiments
and observations by various scientists over a number of years led to our modern
understanding of atomic structure.
13. Describe atoms as consisting of a nucleus of protons and neutrons, surrounded
by shells of electrons.
14. State the relative masses and charges of the proton and neutron and how the
numbers of these particles in the nucleus of an atom are linked to relative
atomic mass and atomic number.
15. State the relative mass and charge of an electron and explain how electrons are
arranged in different shells and how the maximum number of electrons in any
shell can be calculated.
16. Pupils should work through activity 1.5 looking at electronic configuration.
17. Explain how ions are formed from atoms by the loss or gain of one or more
electrons. Point out that in general metals produce positive ions and non-metals
negative ions but there are important exceptions, such as hydrogen.
18. Discuss the formation of positive ions looking in detail at the sodium ion, Na+.
19. Discuss the formation of negative ions looking in detail at the chloride ion, Cl-.
20. Pupils should work through activity 1.6 looking at the formation of ions.
Additional information for the teacher
Elements
Over 2000 years ago the Ancient Greek philosophers believed that everything was
made from different amounts of air, fire, earth and water. They called these the
four elements. Each element was thought to have certain primary and secondary
characteristics associated with it. For example the characteristics of water were thought
to be cold and wet.
39

Element Primary characteristic

Air wet and hot
Earth dry and cold
Fire hot and dry
Water cold and wet
Table 1.1 Characteristics of the Greek elements
This model of the elements was believed until around 200 years ago when people
adopted scientific methods of experimenting.
As a result of their work, early scientists were able to identify substances which they
were unable to break down into anything simpler. They called these substances
elements.
An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by
chemical means.
Some of the elements we know today have been known for thousands of years. People
did not think of them as elements but they made use of them in lots of different ways.
These elements have been found at archaeological sites or are mentioned by authors
writing at that time.
Many other elements, and in particular metals, were only discovered more recently.
One important reason for this was the discovery of electricity. Most metals exist in the
ground as ores. These are chemical compounds in which the metal is combined with
elements. For example, aluminium is not found in the ground as the metal but as
bauxite, an ore in which the aluminium is combined with oxygen.
Up to the present day, a total of 118 elements have been observed. Of this number, 94
occur naturally and can be found as free elements, or combined with other elements,
in the ground or air, or dissolved in the oceans. The remainder have been made
artificially in particle accelerators. Such a device consists of an oval track several
kilometres long. Particles are accelerated around the track in opposite directions and
when moving very fast they are allowed to collide.
Only individual particles of the elements are made, and some are so unstable that they
only exist for fractions of a second. Particle accelerators cannot make large amounts of
these artificial elements.
40

Mixtures
When two substances are added together the result is a mixture. This should not be
confused with a chemical reaction in which two substances react together. Sea water,
crude oil and air are all examples of common mixtures.
All mixtures have certain general properties. Pupils should use these properties to help
them to recognise a mixture.
1. Mixtures do not have an exact composition. The proportions of the different

components in a mixture can vary.
2. The components of a mixture can be separated using physical processes. The
processes of simple distillation and fractional distillation are physical processes
based on the boiling points of substances.
3. Each of the components in a mixture retains the same properties it has as a pure
substance. Sea water turns blue cobalt chloride paper pink even though there
are substances other than water present in it. The oxygen in air still supports
combustion even though there are other gases present.
Compounds
Compounds consist of two or more elements that have combined together in a
chemical reaction. For example, the gas hydrogen burns in oxygen in the air to form
water.
We can represent this chemical reaction by a simple word equation.
hydrogen + oxygen = water
The two starting materials or reactants, hydrogen and oxygen, are gases while the
product formed, water, is a liquid.
Water is not a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen. Water is a chemical compound

formed by a chemical reaction in which bonds are formed between hydrogen particles
and oxygen particles.
Here is some evidence that water is not a mixture.
• The ratio of hydrogen particles to oxygen particles in water is always the same.
This ratio is two hydrogen particles to one oxygen particle.
• Water cannot be separated into hydrogen and oxygen by a physical process like
distillation. It can only be done by the chemical process electrolysis.
• Water has completely different properties to either hydrogen or oxygen. For
example, hydrogen will burn in air but we use water to put fires out.
41

All compounds have certain general properties. Pupils can use these properties to help
them to recognise a compound.
1. Compounds have an exact composition. The proportion of the different elements

in a compound is always the same. Those proportions determine the chemical
formula of a compound.
2. The elements in a compound cannot be separated using physical processes. A
compound is only broken down by chemical reactions.
3. A compound has a different set of properties to the elements from which it is
formed.
Chemical symbols
Symbols are a shorthand way of representing an element. Modern scientists use
symbols based on letters of the alphabet but this hasn’t always been the case.
Alchemists are sometimes described as early chemists. Some were clever and carried
out useful scientific work but they did not apply the scientific methods we use today.
Alchemists tried to achieve things which we now know to be impossible, like turning
base metals into gold and making an elixir that would allow people to live forever.
In their writing, alchemists used symbols to represent certain elements. The names of
some of the elements are different from those we use today. Some examples are shown
in Table 1.2.
Modern name for the Alchemists’ name for Alchemists’

element the element symbol
Arsenic Arsenic
Copper Venus ♀
Iron Mars ♂
Magnesium Magnesium
Platinum Platinum
Silver Luna
Sulphur Sulphur
Tin Jupiter
Table 1.2 Alchemists’ symbols
42

At the beginning of the nineteenth century the English chemist John Dalton proposed
a series of symbols for the substances that were thought at that time to be elements.
These symbols worked at a time when only a small number of elements were known
but they were time-consuming to draw and difficult to print. As more elements were
discovered, simpler symbols were needed.
Every element has a unique symbol. It consists of either one or two letters. The first
letter is always written in upper case and, where there is a second letter, this is written
in lower case.
For example, the symbol for magnesium is Mg, and not MG, mG or mg. The symbols of
the first 20 elements are given in Table 1.3.
Atomic Element Symbol Atomic Element Symbol

number number
1 Hydrogen H 11 Sodium Na
2 Helium He 12 Magnesium Mg
3 Lithium Li 13 Aluminium Al
4 Beryllium Be 14 Silicon Si
5 Boron B 15 Phosphorus P
6 Carbon C 16 Sulphur S
7 Nitrogen N 17 Chlorine Cl
8 Oxygen O 18 Argon Ar
9 Fluorine F 19 Potassium K
10 Neon Ne 20 Calcium Ca
Table 1.3 Symbols of the first 20 elements
For most elements the symbol is the first letter of its name. Where there are two
elements whose names start with the same letter, an additional letter is added. For
example, the symbol for hydrogen is H, while the symbol for helium is He.
43

There are a small number of elements which do not seem to fit this pattern. The reason
is that their symbols are derived from their Latin names. Some examples are given in
Table 1.4.
English name of Latin name of element Symbol

element
Antimony Stibium Sb
Copper Cuprum Cu
Gold Aurum Au
Iron Ferrum Fe
Lead Plumbum Pb
Mercury Hydragyrum Hg
Potassium Kalium K
Silver Argentum Ag
Sodium Natrium Na
Tin Stannum Sn
Table 1.4 Symbols derived from Latin names
Many of these elements have been known since ancient times and were well known
to the Romans. Sodium and potassium were not discovered until the early nineteenth
century but were given symbols based on the Latin names.
Atoms and atomic structure

The idea of an atom as a fundamental particle from which all substances are formed
was proposed over 200 years ago. In 1808 the chemist John Dalton proposed his
atomic theory. In this he described what he believed were the properties of atoms.
Dalton’s atomic theory proposed that:
• Elements are made up of small invisible particles called atoms

• Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed
• Atoms of the same element are identical – they have the same mass and size
• Atoms of different elements have different masses and sizes
• Atoms combine to form compounds and they do so in small whole numbers.
44

Although some of Dalton’s proposals turned out not to be totally correct this did allow
scientists to define an atom as: ‘the smallest particle that can exist’. This model of
an atom as a simple sphere was accepted for almost a century. However as a result of
some important experiments, the real structure of the atom became known.
In 1897 the Scottish physicist J. J. Thompson discovered that atoms contained even
smaller particles which he called electrons. Since electrons carry a negative charge
and atoms are neutral, Thompson reasoned that the remainder of the atom must be
positively charged. He proposed the ‘plum’ atom in which the electrons were contained
in the nucleus rather like plums in a plum pudding.
After more work scientists realised that the electrons were not in the nucleus, but
moved around it a bit like the planets move around the Sun.
Finally, scientists discovered that the nucleus was composed not just of one type of
particle but of two, the proton which has a positive charge, and the neutron which has
no charge. The existence of neutrons was finally proved by Chadwick in 1934.
The particles from which atoms are made are called sub-atomic particles. They are
even smaller than the atoms themselves. As a result of the discovery of sub-atomic
particles scientists can no longer say that an atom is the smallest particle that can
exist. A modern definition of the atom is:
‘An atom is the smallest unit of a substance that retains the properties of that
substance’.
Resources
• Beaker
• Stirring rod
• Heat source (gas, charcoal pot, etc.)
• Elements, e.g. gold, silver, iron, copper, mercury, lead, magnesium, sulphur, iodine,
sodium, phosphorous, oxygen, hydrogen, bromine
• Sulphur
• Iron filings
• Sugar
• Aerosol spray
45

• Coloured plastic
• Milk, water
Opportunities to encourage critical thinking skills

Pupils could be asked to create a model of a lithium atom from given information.
A lithium atom consists of:
• A nucleus containing three protons and four neutrons

• Three electrons outside the nucleus; two in orbits closer to the nucleus and one in
an orbit further away.
Provide pupils with some large spheres or similar objects to represent protons and
neutrons, and smaller spheres to represent electrons.
Pupils should:
1. Paint the spheres that are to represent protons, neutrons and electrons different
colours
2. Make a model of a lithium atom either on a flat board or, if they are more
adventurous, in three dimensions by supporting the nucleus on a rod and
attaching electrons to the nucleus with thin wire.
Diagnostic assessment exercise

These diagnostic assessment exercises will help to gauge to what extent the specific
objectives of this unit have been achieved. You should be honest in your appraisals
since the outcomes will assist you in improving your teaching in the future. If,
on reflection, you feel that certain parts or aspects of the unit have not been well
understood, some remedial work should be undertaken before moving on.
1. How many elements was it possible to obtain for activity 1.1? Were there sufficient
for pupils to see a range of metals and a range of non-metals? When shown
colourless and odourless gases like oxygen and nitrogen were pupils expected to
accept them at face value? All colourless and odourless gases look the same: would
it have been better to carry out simple tests to identify these gases?
2. Review the lesson spent discussing the differences between compounds and
mixtures. Did the pupils appreciate that a chemical reaction must take place to
bring about a chemical change? Was it necessary to go over any properties of
compounds and mixtures more than once?
46

3. How well were pupils able to interpret the periodic table after learning about
atomic symbols? Was there any aspect of the periodic table or atomic symbols that
caused particular problems? Was it possible to use a different approach?
4. How successful were pupils in answering the revision questions? Did all of the
pupils gain at least half marks on the questions? Was there any particular
question answered badly by most or all of the pupils? If so this indicates that some
remedial work should be carried out on that particular part of the unit before
moving on.
Answers to revision questions in the Pupil’s Book
1. C
2. C
3. B
4. C
5. B
6. B
7. B
8. D
9. C
10. i. 1 - N shell
2 - L shell
3 - K shell
4 - M shell
5 - nucleus
ii. proton - positively charged

neutron - neutral (no charge)
47

Unit 2 Metals and Non-Metals
Introduction
This unit is concerned with the different properties of metals and non-metals and those
elements which are metals and non-metals in the first 20 elements of the periodic
table. Pupils will consider some of the typical chemical properties of metals. They will
also look at some common alloys and how they are used. The final part of the unit is
given over to the causes of corrosion of metals and how this may be prevented.
Specific objectives
1. describe the characteristics of metals and non-metals

2. group the first 20 elements of the periodic table into metals and non-
metals
3. outline some chemical properties of metals
4. explain the term alloy
5. outline the composition of some common alloys and their uses
6. outline the causes of corrosion of metals
7. outline the effects of corrosion on metals
8. describe ways of preventing rusting.

Characteristics of metals and non- 2.1 23 2.1 24
metals
Metallic and non-metallic elements 2.2 25
Chemical properties of metals 2.3 27 2.2, 2.3, 28, 29,
2.4, 2.5 30, 31,
Alloys 2.4 32
Compositions and uses of alloys 2.5 33 2.6 34
Corrosion of metals 2.6 35 2.7 37
Continued on page 48
48


Effects of corrosion on metals 2.7 38
Rust prevention 2.8 39 2.8 40
Lesson planning
The syllabus provides a logical order of work on metals and non-metals. Teaching
strategies should be determined by the nature and content of the topic. Lessons should
be planned to cover the following sequence of topics:
1. Describe and discuss the different properties of metals and of non-metals and
draw a comparison between them.
2. Pupils should work through activity 2.1 examining some metals.
3. Explain how the different properties can be used to classify materials as metal
or non-metal. Remind pupils of the first 20 elements of the periodic table
encountered in the previous unit and discuss whether each is a metal or a non-
metal.
4. Relate the electronic structure of the first 20 elements to whether they are metals
or non-metals. Elements with one or two, and sometimes three, electrons in the
outer shell are metals while elements with more electrons in the outer shell are
non-metals.
5. Describe some of the chemical properties of metals.
6. Pupils should work through activity 2.2 making hydrogen by the reaction of a
metal with a dilute acid.
7. Pupils should work through activity 2.3 classifying elements as metals or non-
metals.
8. Point out to pupils that not all metals are equally reactive and introduce the
idea of a reactivity series.
9. Pupils should work through activity 2.4 investigating the relative reactivities of
several metals.
10. Pupils should work through activity 2.5 looking at the different properties of
metals and non-metals.
11. Introduce pupils to the term ‘alloy’ and provide a simple definition of an alloy as
a mixture of a metal with other metals and sometimes non-metals.
12. Name some common alloys and state their composition.
49

13. Explain why an alloy may be used rather than a pure metal, giving some
common examples where an alloy has advantages over a pure metal.
14. Pupils should work through activity 2.6 investigating alloys.
15. Show the class an example of a metal object which has corroded and ask pupils
why this happens. If necessary, direct the discussion towards chemical reactions
taking place between the metal and gases, including water vapour, in the air. Point
out that rusting is a particular form of corrosion associated with iron and mild steel.
16. Pupils should work through activity 2.7 investigating the conditions necessary
for rust to form.
17. Emphasise the negative effect of rusting in terms of weakening iron and steel
structures and having to replace them at regular intervals.
18. Discuss ways in which iron and steel may be prevented from rusting.
19. Pupils should work through activity 2.8 examining the process of rusting.

Physical properties of metals
All metals have similar physical properties. We can often tell whether a substance is a
metal or not by looking at its physical properties.
Some metals like iron, steel and titanium are very strong. Steel is often used to build
large structures like skyscrapers, bridges and ships. Titanium is both strong and light.
Titanium is used to make small objects where strength is important.
Other metals, like aluminium, copper and lead, are less strong. They can be bent into
different shapes.
Metals generally have high melting points and high boiling points. Table 2.1 shows the
melting points and boiling points of some common metals.
Name of metal Melting point/°C Boiling point/°C

Aluminium 660 2520
Copper 1084 2590
Iron 2447 4530
Lead 328 1760
Tin 232 2720
Zinc 420 910
Table 2.1 Melting points and boiling points of common metals

50

Some metals can be polished to a high shine or lustre. Brass is cheap and is used for
ornaments and musical instruments. Gold is expensive and used for jewellery.
Some metals can be beaten out into very thin sheets or drawn into threads. Gold can
be beaten into very thin sheets called gold leaf. Gold is described as malleable. Copper
can be drawn into very fine threads or wires. Copper is described as ductile.
The density of a substance is the mass, measured in grams, of a cube of sides 1 cm of

the material. The volume of such a cube is one cubic centimetre or cm3. For example
the density of iron is 8.7 grams per cubic centimetre or g/cm3. Metals generally have
higher densities than most non-metals.
All metals are good conductors of heat. All metals are good conductors of electricity.
The physical properties of metals can be summarised as follows:
• Metals are generally strong but some are much stronger than others
• Many metals have high melting points and boiling points
• Some metals can be bent into complex shapes
• Some metals can be polished to a high lustre
• Some metals are malleable: they can be beaten into thin sheets
• Some metals are ductile: they can be drawn out into fine threads
• Metals have high densities
• All metals are good conductors of electricity
• All metals are good conductors of heat.
Physical properties of non-metals

Although non-metals are generally weaker than metals they have important physical
properties which make them useful in construction. For example:
• Glass is transparent: windows allow heat and light into rooms

• Plastic can be moulded into complicated shapes: plastic frames and mouldings
do not rot, do not need painting and are easy to keep clean
• Wood provides a stronger and more attractive material for doors and floors
• Carbon fibres are weak but they can be embedded in resins to make materials
that are both very light and very strong.
51

Non-metals generally have low melting points and boiling points. Table 2.2 shows the
melting points and boiling points of some common non-metals.
Name of non-metal Melting point/°C Boiling point/°C

Carbon (graphite) 3680 4200
Chlorine -101 -34
Hydrogen -259 -252
Nitrogen -210 -196
Oxygen -219 -183
Sulphur 115 445
Table 2.2 Melting points and boiling points of non-metals
Most non-metals do not conduct electricity. They are electrical insulators. Glass and
ceramic insulators are used on overhead power lines where large amounts of electrical
energy are carried by cables. Plastic insulation is used for domestic appliances where
the amount of electrical energy carried by the wires is much less.
Although carbon and silicon, as non-metals, will conduct electricity, they do not
conduct electricity as well as metals and are therefore called semiconductors. All of
the microelectronic equipment in use today, like computers and mobile phones, has
only been possible because of the development of silicon chips containing millions of
microscopic circuits.
Most non-metals are poor conductors of heat. They are called heat insulators or
thermal insulators. Pans often have plastic or wooden handles. Both these materials
are heat insulators. Air is also a good heat insulator. In cold countries heat loss
through a roof can be reduced by insulating the loft with fibreglass or mineral wool.
Air trapped between the fibres provides the insulation.
The physical properties of non-metals can be summarised as follows:
• Some non-metals have physical properties that make them useful in

construction
• Some non-metals are brittle
• Most non-metals do not conduct electricity and are therefore electrical insulators
• A few non-metals are semiconductors
• Non-metals are poor conductors of heat and are therefore heat insulators.
52

Alloys
An alloy is a mixture of a metal with one or more other metals and/or non-metals.
Some alloys, such as brass, contain only metals while others, like steel, also contain
non-metals.
Historically, people were using alloys, such as brass and bronze, long before they were
able to isolate pure metals. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. Ores of copper and
tin sometimes occur in the same rocks and the metals are relatively easy to obtain by
heating the ores. The first bronze may have been discovered accidentally by people
building a camp fire in a circle of rocks.
An alloy consists of metal ions of different sizes which cannot pack together as
efficiently as pure metals. As a result of this, alloys generally have significantly
different physical properties to the metals from which they are formed.
Brass is a commonly used alloy of copper and zinc.
Amongst its other properties, pure copper is a very malleable metal. Copper can be
drawn into fine wires or beaten into thin sheets without breaking up. When copper is
drawn or beaten, the layers of copper ions, which are of course equal in size, are able
to slide over each other relatively easily.
Brass contains both copper ions and zinc ions. Zinc ions are significantly bigger than
copper ions so the ions in brass cannot pack as closely as in pure copper.
53

When there is a mixture of metal ions which differ in size it is not so easy for the layers
to slide over each other. Brass is therefore harder than pure copper and it is not as
malleable.
Pure metals are often alloyed with small amounts of other metals to produce
alloys that are better suited to particular uses. Table 2.3 gives details of commonly
encountered alloys and explains why they are used.
Table 2.3 Some common alloys

Alloy Constituents (% by mass) Use and explanation
Alnico Aluminium 8–12% Alnico is used to make strong
permanent magnets. These magnets
Nickel 15–26%
are much stronger than can be
Cobalt 5–24% made simply with iron.
Copper up to 6%
Titanium up to 1%
Iron makes up the balance
Brass Copper 60–80% Brass is harder than pure copper
and melts at a lower temperature
Zinc 20–40%
(900–940 °C) so it is easier to
work with. It is more attractive
in appearance than copper and
can be polished to a high lustre.
It is used for musical instruments,
moving parts in machinery, such
as clocks, plumbing joints and taps,
ornaments and decorative fittings.
Bronze Copper 88% Bronze is harder than pure copper
and more decorative. It is used for
Tin 12%
medals and coinage, and is cast to
(Some bronzes also contain make sculptures and bells.
other elements such as
phosphorus, manganese,
aluminium and silicon)
Duralumin Aluminium 93.5% Pure aluminium has a low density
but it is weak. Duralumin also has
Copper 4.4%
a low density but is much stronger
Magnesium 1.5% and is used for aircraft bodies and
Manganese 0.6% car panels. continued overleaf
54

Alloy Constituents (% by mass) Use and explanation

Soft solder Tin 60% Soft solder melts at a relatively
low temperature and is used to
Lead 40%
join metals together such as in
(Composition varies greatly soldering wires and joining pipes in
as there are a large range of plumbing.
soft solders)
Stainless Iron 65–90% Stainless steel is much more
steel resistant to corrosion than mild
Chromium 10–25%
steel and more attractive. It is very
Nickel up to 10% hard and can be given a sharp
edge. It is used to make tools and
instruments, as well as kitchen
utensils and kitchenware.
Steel Iron 97.9–99.8% Steel is stronger than iron and
is widely used for large-scale
Carbon 0.2–2.1%
construction and for road vehicles,
tin cans, tools and many other
everyday items.
Type metal Lead 50–86% Type metal is hard and durable and
can be cast into shapes which do
Antimony 11–30%
not shrink as much as pure lead on
Tin 3–20% cooling. Prior to electronic printing
this metal was used to make type
for printing.
Table 2.3 (continued) Some common alloys
Rusting
Rusting is a particular form of corrosion exhibited by iron and steel (other than
stainless steel). Rust forms in the presence of air and moisture
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) + xH2O(l) 2Fe2O3.xH2O(s)
Rust can conveniently be represented as a hydrated form of iron(III) oxide. Some

metals, like aluminium, form oxide layers which are non-porous and prevent any
further oxidation of the underlying metal. Unfortunately, this is not the case with iron.
Rust is porous so, as long as suitable conditions persist, iron will continue to rust until
it has all been oxidised.
55

Preventing iron from rusting involves preventing the iron (or steel) from coming into
contact with air and/or water. This can be done in a number of ways:
• Painting is a common way of preventing rust; however, once paint begins to

flake, the iron is exposed and will rust
• Parts of engines and machines are often covered in oil or grease
• In wire-mesh fencing, the wire may be covered in plastic
• Iron may be covered in another metal which does not itself rust. For some
applications, iron may be plated with chromium. This is expensive but has an
attractive appearance. Iron may also be protected by covering with zinc. This
process is called galvanising.
Resources
• Hammer
• Pair of pincers/tongs
• Heat source
• Torch light bulb
• Pan of hot water
• Cells or a battery
• Connecting wires with crocodile clips
• Apparatus and matrials activity 2.2
• Examples of different types of metals: iron, copper, silver, aluminium, etc.
• Pieces of different metals of the same size and shape
• Metallic scraps or objects, e.g. a galvanised bucket, a brass pan, a coin, etc.
• Apparatus and materials for activity 2.7

Pupils should be told that iron and mild steel structures rust more quickly at locations
near the sea. They should be asked:
• To explain why this might be, i.e. what is present in sea water that may increase
the rate of rusting (dissolved salt)
• To carry out an activity to determine if their explanation is correct or not
(compare rusting in the presence and absence of dissolved salt).
56


1. Review the introductory lesson on metals and non-metals. Did the pupils
understand the differences in the appearance and properties of metals and non-
metals? Was it necessary to go over any aspects of metals and non-metals more
than once?
2. How well did pupils relate the electronic configuration of elements to whether they
were metals or non-metals? Would the use of wall charts and/or models make it
easier to teach this part of the unit?
3. Would there have been sufficient time to add an additional practical activity in
which pupils tested different methods of rust prevention? Would this have provided
pupils with a better understanding of the rusting process?
4. Was there any part of this unit that went down particularly well with pupils?
Analyse why this was so successful. Was it just that the content was easy to
understand or interesting, or was it taught in such a way as to capture the
imagination? Can this be built on for future teaching?
1. B
2. A
3. C
4. A
5. C
6. A
7. A
8. A
9. D
57

10. Preventing rusting mainly involves placing a protective layer over the
surface of the metal, to prevent any contact with air and moisture. Some
of these methods of coating may be:
• grease or oil
• galvanising as in iron roofing sheets, etc.
• paint, e.g. car bodies
• coating iron with other metals such as copper, tin, gold, silver and
chromium, ie. electroplating as found in car bumpers, etc.
• coating with enamel as in cooking pots and pans
• coating with a thin layer of tin as seen in some containers of food
and other products.
• using plastic to cover steel as in wire-mesh fencing material
• connecting iron to a more reactive metal. Metals react at different
rates, e.g. with water or acid, for example calcium reacts with
hydrochloric acid but water does not.
Certain alloys of iron do not rust, e.g. stainless steel which is used for
surgical instruments and sometimes used to make tools and eating
utensils.
58

Unit 3 Chemical Compounds
Introduction
This unit is concerned with simple chemical compounds, their names and their
formulae. Pupils will consider a number of simple binary compounds, discussing their
formulae and how they are named. The work on naming will be extended to writing
word equations, and finally balanced chemical equations.
Specific objectives
1. explain the term compound

2. write the formulae of simple binary compounds
3. write the systematic names of simple binary compounds
4. write word equations for some simple chemical reactions
5. balance simple chemical equations.

in Pupil’s Book Book Book
Definition of a compound 3.1 44 3.1 45
Formulae of binary compounds 3.2 45
Systematic nomenclature of binary 3.3 46 3.2 49
compounds
Word equations 3.4 49
Symbol equations 3.5 50
59

Lesson planning
The syllabus provides a logical order of work on chemical compounds. Teaching
1. Point out to the class that they have already learnt something about compounds
in unit 1 and that a compound is formed when atoms of two or more elements
combine during a chemical reaction.
2. Explain that the term ‘binary’ means two so a binary compound is one which is
formed from two elements.
3. Identify and discuss the composition of some common binary compounds.
4. Pupils should work through activity 3.1 investigating whether mercury(II) oxide
is a compound, and if it is then what elements combine to form it.
5. Explain to pupils that if they know which elements are present in a binary
compound it is possible to deduce its name. Also, if they know the atomic
symbols for the elements present it is also possible to deduce the chemical
formula of a compound.
6. Discuss the names and formulae of some common binary compounds.
7. Explain to pupils that compounds often have common or traditional names
and systematic names. The systematic names are the result of the IUPAC rules
on naming compounds. Discuss the traditional and systematic names of some
common compounds.
8. Pupils should work through activity 3.2 naming some binary compounds.
9. Show pupils how the names of compounds can be combined to provide a word
equation for a chemical reaction. Work through a few simple examples.
10. Show pupils how a word equation can be used to generate a balanced chemical
equation for a chemical reaction. Firstly the names of the compounds are
replaced by their chemical formulae and then the equation is balanced by
ensuring that there are equal numbers of atoms of each element on both sides of
the equation.
11. Work through a number of examples of writing balanced chemical equations,
describing each step so that pupils can see how equations are balanced.
60

Compounds
Atoms combine to form compounds. A chemical formula is a combination of atomic
symbols of the elements present, and numbers which indicate the relative proportion of
each element in the compound.
The simplest compounds are binary compounds. They contain atoms of only two
different elements, e.g. sodium chloride (NaCl), magnesium oxide (MgO), iron(II)
sulphide (FeS) and carbon(IV) oxide (CO2). The formula of a binary compound is
simply a combination of the atomic symbols of the two elements present.
In order to determine a formula we need to know how many bonds an atom of one
element forms with an atom of another. This is called the ‘combining power’ of the
element. Values for common elements are given in Table 3.1.
Combining power
1 2 3 4
Hydrogen (H) Magnesium (Mg) Aluminium (Al) Carbon (C)
Lithium (Li) Calcium (Ca) Iron (Fe) Silicon (Si)
Sodium (Na) Barium (Ba) Nitrogen (N)
Potassium (K) Copper (Cu) Phosphorus (P)
Copper (Cu) Iron (Fe)
Chlorine (Cl) Zinc (Zn)
Bromine (Br) Oxygen (O)
Iodine (I) Sulphur (S)
Table 3.1 Combining power of common elements
When using the information in Table 3.1 it should be borne in mind that:
1. It is not possible to combine any two elements to make a compound. In general,

compounds are formed between a metal and a non-metal, or two non-metals.
2. Where a compound contains a metal, this symbol is always given first.
3. In compounds of metals and non-metals, the ending of the non-metal changes
from ‘ine’ to ‘ide’, e.g. oxide, chloride.
61

4. Some metals exhibit more than one combining power. To show the combining
a Roman number is given after the name of the metal, e.g. copper(I) and
copper(II), iron(II) and iron(III).
This information can be used to work out the formulae of any compound formed
between elements in Table 3.1.
Chemical equations
A chemical equation describes what happens during a chemical reaction. A chemical
equation is a symbol equation and involves the use of chemical symbols and formulae.
The general form of an equation is:
Reactant(s) Product(s)
Pupils should note that an arrow ‘ ’ is used in a chemical equation rather than
the equals sign ‘=’ used in a mathematical equation.
The simplest way for pupils to describe a chemical reaction is by a word equation. This
gives the names of the reactants and products. For example:
iron + sulphur iron sulphide
Word equations are useful but they have their drawbacks. Word equations:
• Are long to write

• Cannot be understood if written in another language
• Don’t show the numbers of atoms and molecules involved in a reaction.
In a symbol equation the names are replaced by appropriate symbols and formulae:
Fe + S FeS
Symbol equations:
• Are short to write

• Can be understood by everybody because the same atomic symbols and
formulae are used by scientists of all nationalities
• Show the numbers of atoms and molecules involved in a reaction.
Since matter is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction, it is essential when
writing a chemical equation that there are equal numbers of atoms of each element on
each side. This process is called balancing the equation.
62

The above equation is already balanced since there is one atom of iron and one atom
of sulphur on each side of the equation but an additional step to balance an equation
is generally necessary. Pupils could be given the following equation to consider:
Mg + O2 MgO
If they count the number of oxygen atoms on both sides of the equation they will
find that an atom of oxygen has been lost. Pupils should try to balance the equation.
Perhaps a ‘2’ on the right-hand side?
Mg + O2 2MgO
Now the number of oxygen atoms is the same but a magnesium atom has been
gained! A ‘2’ is needed on the left-hand side also:
2Mg + O2 2MgO
This equation is finally balanced. It has the same number of atoms of each element on
both sides of the equation.
Here is another example for pupils to balance:
Zn + HCl ZnCl2 + H2
Counting the atoms on each side of the equation:
Left-hand side 1 x Zn 1 x Zn Right-hand side

1 x H 2xH
1 x Cl 2 x Cl
Ask pupils to balance the equation. The balanced equation is:
Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2
It is important to emphasise to pupils that they cannot balance an equation by

altering the chemical formula of an element or compound. For example, the chemical
formula of zinc chloride cannot be changed to ZnCl for the convenience of balancing
the above equation.
The following three steps will help pupils to write balanced chemical equations:
1. Write a word equation giving the names of the reactant(s) and the product(s).
2. Replace the names by atomic symbols and formulae.
63

3. If necessary, balance the equation by increasing the proportions of reactants

and/or products.
Resources
• Test tube
• Heat source
• Wooden splint
• Mercury(II) oxide

Pupils could be asked to apply what they have learnt about atomic symbols and the
combining powers of different elements to work out the chemical formulae of some
binary compounds such as the following:
1. Lithium chloride (LiCl)

2. Magnesium bromide (MgBr2)
3. Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)
4. Sodium oxide (Na2O)
5. Copper sulphide (CuS)
6. Aluminium oxide (Al2O3).

1 Review the lesson spent introducing compounds. Did the pupils understand the
concept of groups of a binary compound? Was it necessary to go over any aspects
of binary compounds more than once?
2 This unit dealt with assigning chemical formulae to binary compounds and
writing chemical equations. Chemical formulae and equations are common
sources of problems for pupils. Were pupils able to derive formulae successfully?
Were pupils able to write chemical equations successfully? Which parts of this unit
64

did pupils find most difficult? Is there another approach which could be tried in
the future?
3 In this unit pupils were introduced to IUPAC nomenclature. Pupils often find this
initially cumbersome and do not appreciate the benefits they will derive from it
later. Did pupils tend to use the traditional names? How were pupils encouraged to
use the systematic nomenclature?
1. B
2. A
3. B
4. A
5. B
6. D
7. B
8. A. CO2 (carbon dioxide)
B. FeS (ferrous sulphide)
C. 2NH3 (ammonia gas)
D. CuO2 (copper oxide)
9. 2Na + 2H2O 2NaOH + H2
10. 2Mg + O2 2MgO
3H2 + N2 2NH3
CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
65

Unit 4 Mixtures
Introduction
This unit is concerned with different types of mixtures. It will introduce pupils to the
terms solute, solvent and solution. Pupils will consider how a mixture differs from a
compound and how different mixtures may be prepared and separated.
Specific objectives
1. explain the term mixture

2. classify mixtures
3. explain the terms solute, solvent and solution.
4. prepare a mixture
5. demonstrate some methods of separating mixtures
6. differentiate between a mixture and a compound.

Syllabus topic Section Pupil’s Pupil Pupil’s
Book Page activities Page
Definition of a mixture 4.1 56
Classifying mixtures 4.2 56
Solute, solvent and solution 4.3 58
Preparing mixtures 4.4 59 4.1 61
Separating mixtures 4.5 62 4.2 64
Mixtures and compounds 4.6 67 4.3, 4.4 68, 69
Lesson planning
The syllabus provides a logical order of work on mixtures. Teaching strategies should
be determined by the nature and content of the topic. Lessons should be planned to
cover the following sequence of topics:
1. Remind pupils that they have already been introduced to mixtures in unit 1.
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Unit 4 Mixtures
2. Provide pupils with a definition of a mixture as two or more substances which

have physically come together but have not undergone any chemical reaction.
3. Explain to pupils that mixtures can be in the form of solids, liquids, gases or a
combination of states. Discuss some examples of common mixtures involving
two states.
4. Introduce the terms ‘solute’, ‘solvent’ and ‘solution’ and explain how they are
related. Discuss some examples of common solutions. Pupils should be made
aware that water is the commonest solvent but there are other examples of
solvents such as acetone, ethanol and methylbenzene.
5. Discuss the terms ‘solubility’, ‘saturated’ and ‘unsaturated’ as they are applied to
solutions.
6. Explain the terms ‘homogeneous’ and ‘heterogeneous’ as applied to mixtures
and discuss some common examples of each.
7. Pupils should work through activity 4.1 preparing mixtures.
8. Point out to pupils that since the components of a mixture are not chemically
combined together, they can be separated by physical means.
9. Discuss how filtration can be used to separate a mixture of a solid and a liquid.
10. Discuss how evaporation can be used to obtain a solute from a solution.
11. Pupils should work through activity 4.2 using evaporation to obtain salt from
salt solution.
12. Discuss how magnetism can be used to separate a mixture of iron or steel and a
non-magnetic material.
13. Discuss how distillation can be used to separate a mixture of miscible liquids.
14. Discuss how immiscible liquids can be separated using a separating funnel.
15. Discuss the properties of a mixture and of a chemical compound and
summarise the differences between them.
16. Pupils should work through activity 4.3 investigating the differences between a
mixture of iron and sulphur and the compound iron sulphide.
17. Pupils should work through activity 4.4 investigating the differences between a
mixture and a compound using coconut chaff and sugar.
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Unit 4 Mixtures

Homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures
Pupils should be familiar with many different mixtures from their everyday lives.
Mixtures can be broadly classified as follows.
1. Homogeneous mixtures – the components are hard to differentiate. Some

examples of common homogeneous mixtures are:
• Table salt – a mixture of sodium chloride, potassium iodide and magnesium
carbonate
• Petrol – a mixture of hydrocarbons
• Air – a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen and other gases.
2. Heterogeneous mixtures – the components are hard to differentiate. Some

common examples of heterogeneous mixtures are:
• Sea water – a mixture of water and salts as well as suspended plant and
animal life
• Soda water – a mixture of water and carbon dioxide
• Sand - a mixture of rock and shells.
Solutions
A solution is a mixture of a solid, liquid or gas, in a liquid, which is often water. In
order for a substance to form a solution, it must dissolve in the liquid. The substance is
called the solute, and the liquid is called the solvent.
sodium chloride + water brine
solute solvent solution
The solute may be a solid, liquid or gas. A solution is formed when any of these
dissolve in a solvent. Here are some common examples.
1. Solid solution – a solution in which the solute is a solid:

• Brine – a solution of sodium chloride in water
• Tincture of iodine – a solution of iodine in ethanol.
2. Liquid solution – a solution in which the solute is a liquid:

• Vinegar – a solution of ethanoic acid in water
• Wine – a solution of ethanol in water.
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Unit 4 Mixtures
3. Gaseous solution – a solution in which the solute is a gas:

• Hydrochloric acid – a solution of hydrogen chloride in water
• Ammonia solution – a solution of ammonia in water.
An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals. Alloys are made by making a solution of
one molten metal in another and then allowing the solution to cool and form a solid.
Suspensions
When a substance is added to a solvent it does not always dissolve to form a solution.
What happens depends upon the size of the particles. When particles are about
1 micrometre or more they are large enough for sedimentation to occur. If the mixture
is stirred and left, the solid will eventually settle out to form a sediment.
This type of mixture is called a suspension. Suspensions are classified in terms of a

dispersed phase and a dispersion medium, where the former is essentially solid but the
latter may be a solid, liquid or gas.
Common examples of suspensions include:
• Muddy water – soil or clay particles are suspended in water

• Paint – particles of a pigment are suspended in a solvent
• Flour water – flour particles are suspended in water
• Algae – single-celled organisms are suspended in water
• Dust – particles of dirt and pollen are suspended in air.
Colloids
If the particles are smaller than about 1 micrometre then they will never settle and
form a sediment. Instead, they will remain dispersed in the solvent.
This type of mixture is called a colloid. Colloids are described in terms of a dispersed
phase and a continuous medium and may be solid, liquid or gaseous. Examples of
different types of colloids are given in Table 4.1.
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Unit 4 Mixtures
Dispersed phase
Gas Liquid Solid
Gas None Liquid aerosol Solid aerosol
e.g. fog, clouds e.g. smoke, air
particulates
Liquid Foam Emulsion Sol
e.g. whipped e.g. milk, e.g. pigmented
Continuous cream mayonnaise ink, blood
medium
Solid Solid foam Gel Solid sol
e.g. e.g. agar, e.g. glass
polystyrene, gelatine, jelly
sponge cake,
pumice
Table 4.1 Examples of colloids
Hydrocolloids are colloids in which the colloid particles are dispersed in water. Milk is
an example of a hydrocolloid.
Methods of separating mixtures

Different substances have different physical properties. Scientists have a number of
ways of separating mixtures which are based on differences in physical properties.
Magnetism
Some substances have very specific physical properties which can be used to separate
them from mixtures. Iron is a magnetic material so it can be removed from a mixture
simply using a magnet. This separation technique is easy to carry out but is of very
limited use. It works only on iron and other magnetic materials like steel, cobalt and
nickel.
Decantation
Some mixtures consist of a solid which is not dissolved in a liquid. If the solid falls
to the bottom of the liquid it is possible, by careful pouring, to decant off most of the
liquid.
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Unit 4 Mixtures
Separating using a separating funnel

Immiscible liquids are liquids which will not mix together but form two separate
layers, like palm oil and water. Palm oil is less dense than water so when they are
mixed the palm oil forms a layer above the water.
The resulting mixture can be separated using a separating funnel. When the tap at
the bottom of the funnel is opened the water flows out while the palm oil remains.
Filtration
Decantation is a quick way to separate a solid and a liquid but it is of limited use.
Sometimes solid passes over with the liquid, and the solid that remains is always wet.
A more effective method of separating a solid from a liquid is filtration.
A filter is made of thick porous paper which will allow liquids to pass through but not
solids. After filtering, solid remains in the filter as the residue, while the liquid which
passes through is called the filtrate.
Evaporation
In addition to mining, salt is also obtained from sea water. Sea water is trapped in
large shallow lagoons. Heat from the Sun causes evaporation of the water leaving
white deposits of sea salt.
The product is not pure sodium chloride (table salt) since sea water is a solution
containing many different compounds. However, sodium chloride makes up over half
of the total solids dissolved in sea water.
Distillation
It isn’t possible to separate the solid and the liquid in a solution by filtration because
the particles of the dissolved solid are so small they pass through the filter.
In the process of distillation the solution is heated to remove the liquid and the vapour
is collected and converted back to the liquid state.
Pupils should be made familiar with the apparatus used for distillation. The process is
sometimes described as simple distillation and should not be confused with fractional
distillation.
The condenser consists of an inner tube surrounded by an outer jacket. Cold water
passes from the bottom to the top of the outer jacket and cools the inner tube. When
vapour passes down the tube it condenses and liquid flows out into the collecting
beaker. This is called the distillate. A thermometer is used to show the temperature of
the vapour leaving the flask.
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Unit 4 Mixtures
In order to carry out this process safely and correctly the following points should be
observed.
• The flask should not be more than half full. If the flask is too full and boiling is
vigorous, liquid may pass up the neck of the flask and into the condenser.
• In order to give an accurate value for the boiling point of the liquid, the
thermometer bulb should be placed where the vapour leaves the flask and enters
the condenser and not in the liquid itself.
• Cold water should enter the outer jacket of the condenser at the bottom. If it is
added from the top it may run down the outer jacket without cooling the inner
tube efficiently.
Fractional distillation
Miscible liquids are liquids that mix together, like ethanol and water, without forming
two layers. Simple distillation is used to separate a solvent from a solution but to
separate mixtures of miscible liquids effectively a more sophisticated process called
fractional distillation is needed.
The fundamental difference between fractional distillation and simple distillation is

that the apparatus includes a fractionating column. This is a vertical column filled
with small glass balls or helices which provide a large surface area.
When the mixture is heated the more volatile liquid, which will have the lower boiling
point, boils first and its vapour rises up the fractionating column. As the temperature
of the mixture increases, vapour from the less volatile liquid will also rise up the
column. In the column, vapour from less volatile liquid will condense and fall back.
The heat it releases will convert any of the more volatile liquid which has condensed in
the column back into vapour so it can continue to rise up.
The overall effect of the fractionating column is to allow miscible liquids to be

separated efficiently. Once all of the more volatile liquid has boiled off the temperature
at the top of the column will increase as vapour from the less volatile component starts
to pass into the condenser. At this stage the collecting vessel is replaced so the less
volatile component is collected separately.
Resources
• Beaker
• Bowls
• Heat source
• Water bath
72

Unit 4 Mixtures
• Evaporating basin
• Bar magnet
• Watch glasses
• Salt
• Palm oil
• Powdered chalk
• Powdered sulphur
• Iron filings
• Coconut chaff
• Sugar

Pupils could be asked to apply what they have learnt about separating techniques to
separate some unfamiliar mixtures. Some suggestions are:
1. Gari/water
(If the mixture is left to settle, gari will fall to the bottom of the container. The
mixture can be separated by decanting.)
2. Glycerine/water
(Glycerine is denser than water, and is immiscible with water. The mixture can be
separated using a separating funnel.)
3. Rock salt – a mixture of salt and particles of rock.

(Salt is soluble in water while rock is not. If the rock salt is added to warm water the
salt dissolves. The undissolved rock particles are removed by filtration and the salt is
obtained by allowing the water to evaporate from the filtrate.)

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Unit 4 Mixtures
1 Review the lesson spent introducing mixtures. Were pupils confused between
mixtures and chemical compounds? Was there a simple demonstration that could
be used to illustrate the difference between them?
2 There were a number of scientific terms introduced in this unit which may have
been new to pupils. Did any terms cause particular problems and how were these
problems resolved.
3 How did pupils perform in the practical activities? Were there any accidents or
mishaps? Are there any safety issues to be learnt for conducting practical sessions
in the future?
1. B
2. D
3. C
4. C
5. C
6. C
7. In Ghana, salt is obtained on a large scale from the sea. Large areas along the
sea-shore are dug to create sufficient spaces for the creation of artificial ponds.
Then, sea water containing a high concentration of salt is pumped into them to
occupy the spaces created. This is then left untouched for the Sun to cause ex-
tensive evaporation of sea water resulting in the formation of large salt crystals.
This process is enhanced by the movement of wind.
The salt crystals obtained are then cleansed of their impurities and crushed
into suitable sizes for bagging and for sale. During the process and before the
evaporation, the sea water in the ponds may be mixed with an iodated salt. The
purpose of this treatment is to help rid consumers of the salt from acquiring the
disease called goitre (thyroid disease).
The two main scientific concepts/processes involved in the whole exercise are:
(i) evaporation and (ii) crystallisation. In Ghana, salt production is intensive in
Accra and Ada.
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Unit 4 Mixtures
8. Five examples of common mixtures and their constituents
Common mixtures Constituents

Air Oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen
and rare gases
Milk Water, sugar, fats, proteins,
vitamins and minerals (salts)
Urine Water, urea and salt
Soil Sand, clay, humus, mineral salts,
water and air
Blood Water, proteins, fat, oils, sugars,
salts, vitamins, hormones,
enzymes and various blood cells
9. When a strong magnet is placed above a mixture of sulphur powder and iron
fillings, the iron fillings are attracted to the magnet leaving the sulphur powder
behind. By this simple process, iron fillings may be collected separately from
the sulphur powder. This shows that the two substances mixed together without
the occurrence of any chemical change have formed a product called a mix-
ture. In this example, the substances are freely mixed together, i.e. they are not
held together by any chemical force. Their properties are the properties of the
constituents as they still retain their individual properties.
10. Differences between a mixture and a compound
Mixture Compound
A mixture is not produced by a A compound is produced by a
chemical change. chemical change.
The constituents of a mixture can be It is very difficult to separate
separated by simple methods. the original constituents of a
compound.
A mixture has the sum properties of its A compound has properties
constituents. entirely different from those of
its constituents.
75

Unit 5 Water
Introduction
This unit is concerned with different aspects of water including its composition and
physical properties. Pupils will learn about the causes and effects of hardness in
water and how it can be removed. In the latter part of the unit pupils will consider
the importance of water both to humans and other organisms, and the importance of
water conservation.
Specific objectives
1. describe the composition and properties of water

2. explain the terms hard and soft water
3. explain the causes of hardness of water
4. demonstrate various ways of softening hard water
5. outline the health benefits of water to humans
6. outline the uses of water in agriculture
7. outline ways of conserving water in the home.

Composition and properties 5.1 74 5.1 77
Hard and soft water 5.2 78 5.2 78
Causes of water hardness 5.3 79
Softening water 5.4 80 5.3 81
Health benefits of water 5.5 84
Water in agriculture 5.6 86
Conserving water at home 5.7 87 5.4 88
76

Unit 5 Water
Lesson planning
The syllabus provides a logical order of work on water. Teaching strategies should be
determined by the nature and content of the topic. Lessons should be planned to cover
the following sequence of topics:
1. Ask the class to recall the chemical composition of water from the work carried
out on binary compounds in unit 3. Point out that water in the environment also
contains dissolved gases.
2. Discuss the physical properties of water.
3. Discuss different natural sources of water.
4. Pupils should work through activity 5.1 investigating water from different
locations.
5. Introduce the terms ‘hard water’ and ‘soft water’ and explain their meaning in
relation to dissolved solids. Explain how water may become hard by dissolving
magnesium and calcium compounds as it flows through and over rocks.
6. Pupils should work through activity 5.2 testing water for hardness.
7. Explain that hard water does not form a good lather because the magnesium/
calcium ions it contains combine with chemicals in the soap to form scum.
8. Explain temporary hardness in terms of the formation of calcium/magnesium
hydrogencarbonate.
9. Explain permanent hardness in terms of the presence of calcium/magnesium
chloride/sulphate.
10. Explain how soluble calcium/magnesium hydrogencarbonate breaks down
on boiling to give insoluble calcium/magnesium carbonate. This removes the
hardness from the water but forms a deposit commonly called limescale.
11. Pupils should work through activity 5.3 removing temporary hardness by
boiling.
12. Explain how magnesium/calcium ions in solution can be removed by
precipitation as a result of adding washing soda. Washing soda is a form
of sodium carbonate and when it is added to permanent hard water the
magnesium/calcium ions are precipitated as the insoluble carbonates.
13. Describe the action of ion exchange resins in exchanging magnesium and
calcium ions, which cause hardness, for sodium ions which do not.
14. Explain how distilled water is obtained and point out that it contains no
dissolved solids.
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Unit 5 Water
15. Discuss the importance of water to life and the health benefits of having a
supply of clean water.
16. Briefly discuss commercial water treatment and how treated water can be
returned for reuse.
17. Discuss the importance of water in agriculture and in fish farming.
18. Ask pupils to suggest ways in which water consumption at home can be reduced.
Make a list on the board of those uses which might be considered essential even
in times of drought, such as drinking and washing, and those things which may
be considered non-essential in times of drought like washing cars.
19. Pupils should work through activity 5.4 by discussing different ways in which
water usage in school could be reduced.

Although drinking water is clear and contains no organic compounds, it may well
contain inorganic compounds which are collectively described as dissolved solids. As
rainwater collects on the ground and it flows over rocks, some minerals dissolve in the
water.
The dissolved solids are said to make the water hard because they interfere with
the action of soap. Soaps are sodium and potassium salts of octadecanoic acid,
C17H35COOH, a long-chain alkanoic acid. The common name for octadecanoic acid is
stearic acid. In soft water, i.e. water that contains no dissolved solids, these salts stay in
solution and remove grease and dirt from clothing.
In hard water, the octadecanoate ions combine with calcium ions or magnesium ions
to form insoluble salts calcium octadecanoate and/or magnesium octadecanoate which
precipitate as scum. In hard water, therefore, more soap is needed to wash things
effectively.
Ca2+(aq) + 2C17H35COO -(aq) Ca(C17H35COO)2(s)
calcium octadecanoate or scum
Water hardness can conveniently be classified as temporary or permanent on the basis

of the dissolved salts present in it.
78

Unit 5 Water
Temporary hardness
Temporary hardness is caused by the presence of calcium and/or magnesium
hydrogencarbonate in the water. For simplicity only the formation of the calcium salt
will be considered.
Rainwater is always acidic due to the presence of dissolved carbon dioxide and the
formation of the weak acid, carbonic acid.
H2O(l) + CO2(g) H2CO3(aq)
carbonic acid
When this water flows over rocks containing calcium carbonate the following reaction
takes place:
CaCO3(s) + H2CO3(aq) Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
insoluble soluble
Calcium hydrogencarbonate is soluble in water and is carried away in solution.
The formation of calcium hydrogencarbonate is a reversible reaction. The temporary

hardness caused by this compound can be removed by boiling the water.
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
soluble insoluble
In an area where there is temporary hardness kettles and pans used to heat water
contain hard deposits which are called scale or limescale. These are deposits of calcium
and/or magnesium carbonate.
Permanent hardness
Permanent hardness is caused by the presence of calcium and/or magnesium chloride
and/or sulphate. These compounds dissolve in rainwater as it flows over rocks.
Permanent hardness affects the ability of soap to lather in the same way as temporary
hardness but it is not removed by boiling. It can be removed by adding washing soda,
sodium carbonate, which precipitates the insoluble calcium and magnesium carbonates
Ca2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) CaCO3(s)
insoluble
Mg2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) MgCO3(s)
insoluble
79

Unit 5 Water
Ion exchange
One method of removing both temporary and permanent hardness is by passing
the water through an ion exchange column. This contains a resin rich in sodium
ions. As the water passes through the column, calcium ions and magnesium ions are
exchanged for sodium ions.
Eventually the ion exchange column becomes saturated with calcium and magnesium
ions and must be regenerated. This is achieved by passing a strong solution of sodium
chloride through it. The calcium and magnesium ions in the resin are replaced by
sodium ions and the column is ready for use again.
Resources
• Beakers
• Test tubes
• Hand lens
• Dropper
• Filter funnel
• Filter paper
• Microscope
• Stoppers
• Distilled water
• Distillation apparatus
• Soap/liquid soap
• Water from different sources (e.g. rain, river, pond, well, sea, hollow in tree)
• Samples of hard water
• Washing soda

Pupils could be asked to apply what they have learnt about temporary and permanent
hardness in order to devise and carry out an activity on finding the amount of
temporary and permanent hardness in a sample of water.
This would involve:
1. Evaporating a weighed sample of water to total dryness to measure the total

dissolved solids
2. Boiling a sample of water to destroy any temporary hardness
80

Unit 5 Water
3. Filtering the boiled water to remove any precipitate

4. Evaporating a weighed sample of the boiled and filtered water to dryness to
measure the mass of solids causing permanent hardness.

1 In activity 5.2 was it sufficiently accurate to scrape off pieces of soap and add them
to the water or would better results be obtained by using liquid soap? Did this and
other practical activities work well or should they be modified for future years?
2 How aware were pupils about the problems associated with water hardness? Were
they able to discuss this in any detail from their own knowledge and observations
or did they rely heavily on what they were taught. Would it be useful to have some
examples of the effects of limescale to show when introducing this topic?
3 How much were pupils able to bring to the lessons on health benefits, uses
in agriculture and conservation of water from their own experiences and
observations? Was sufficient time allowed for pupils to contribute fully to these
lessons or should more time be allowed for this in the future?
1. D
2. C
3. B
4. C
5. B
6. B
7. B
8. B
9. C
10. D
81

Section 2: Cycles
1. recognise that there are repeated patterns of change in nature and

understand how these patterns arise
2. recognise the repeated pattern of change for carbon and its effect in
nature
3. recognise the interdependency of plants and animals in relation to
gaseous exchange
4. understand the concept of climate change and its effects on plants and
animals.
Unit 6 The Carbon Cycle
Introduction
This unit is concerned with the carbon cycle. Pupils will learn about the importance of
this cycle and how it may be disrupted by human activities.
Specific objectives
1. describe how carbon is cycled in nature

2. outline the importance of the carbon cycle
3. describe ways in which the carbon cycle is disrupted.

Carbon in nature 6.1 93
Importance of the carbon cycle 6.2 95
Disruption to the carbon cycle 6.3 96
Maintenance of the carbon 6.4 97 6.1 98
cycle
82

Lesson planning
The syllabus provides a logical order of work on the carbon cycle. Teaching strategies
should be determined by the nature and content of the topic. Lessons should be
planned to cover the following sequence of topics:
1. Explain to pupils that all of the organisms on the Earth many be described as
carbon life forms because they are composed of complex compounds of carbon.
2. Explain that carbon is continually recycled on the Earth by a number of natural
processes.
3. Ask pupils to look carefully at the carbon cycle given in their Pupil Book and
discuss the different processes by which carbon is removed from the atmosphere
and replaced in the atmosphere.
4. Explain the importance of the carbon cycle by pointing out that if carbon were
taken out of nature every time a new organism was formed the Earth would
have run out of carbon millions of years ago. Instead, carbon is recycled by
natural processes so life can be sustained.
5. Point out that some human activities actually disrupt the carbon cycle. Discuss
the impact of deforestation, pollution and the combustion of biofuels and fossil
fuels and the impact each of these may have on the carbon cycle.
6. Discuss how human activities should be modified in order to reduce the
disruption of the carbon cycle.
7. Pupils should work through activity 6.1 by researching into the disruption of the
carbon cycle and how this can be reduced.
Carbon in the environment

Carbon exists in the atmosphere as the gas carbon dioxide. Although it only amounts
to 0.03% by volume it plays a vital role in supporting life. During photosynthesis,
green plants absorb carbon dioxide and convert it into carbohydrates, releasing oxygen
in the process.
The carbohydrates in plants provide food directly for herbivores, and indirectly for
carnivores and decomposers. The oxygen formed is necessary for respiration in both
plants and animals.
Carbon is released into the atmosphere in a number of ways:
• Respiration in plants and animals
83

• Decay of plant and animal material

• Combustion of fuels and other organic materials
• Production of lime and cement (calcium carbonate decomposes to calcium oxide
on heating)
• Volcanic eruptions (carbon dioxide is one of the principal gases in volcanic
gases).
Around half of the dry mass of most living organisms is carbon thus the element
carbon is an essential part of life on Earth. It is estimated that living biomass holds
about 575 gigatonnes, most of which is wood. Soil holds 1650 gigatonnes, about two-
thirds of which is in the form of organic compounds, and the remaining third in the
form of inorganic compounds like calcium carbonate.
Organisms may be classified as autotrophs or heterotrophs in regard to the production

of organic (carbon) compounds.
• Autotrophs are organisms that produce their own organic compounds using
carbon dioxide from the air or from water. The most important autotrophs for
the carbon cycle are trees on land and phytoplankton in the oceans.
• Heterotrophs are organisms that obtain organic compounds either by eating
plants, or their parts, or animals. This includes the uptake of dead material by
fungi and bacteria.
Carbon is also circulated within the biosphere where dead organic material becomes
incorporated in the geosphere, for example plant material becoming meat and animal
shells becoming limestone.
It is estimated that the oceans contain around 40 000 gigatonnes of carbon. Over 90%
exists in the form of the hydrogencarbonate ion, HCO3-, and the remaining 10% as the
carbonate ion, CO32-.
When carbon dioxide enters the oceans it becomes involved in a series of reversible
reactions which determine the form in which inorganic carbon exists.
CO2 (in the atmosphere) CO2 (dissolved in water)
Conversion to carbonic acid:
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
First ionisation:
H2CO3 H+ + HCO3− (hydrogencarbonate ion)
Second ionisation:
84

HCO3− H+ + CO32− (carbonate ion)
The carbonate ion can combine with calcium ions to form insoluble calcium
carbonate, mostly as the shells of microscopic organisms. When the organisms die
their bodies sink to the ocean floor and build up into sediments. Over a long period of
time the sediments are converted to limestone rock.
Carbon footprint
A carbon footprint was historically defined as the total amount of greenhouse gases
emitted by an individual, event or organisation. It was however impossible to calculate
this value with any certainty due to the amount of data involved.
A more workable definition has now evolved. A carbon footprint is the total amount of
carbon dioxide and methane emitted by an activity or population taking into account
all sources, sinks and storage.
There are many sources of greenhouse gases including transport, land clearance,
the production and consumption of food, manufacturing goods, building roads and
buildings. In order to simplify reporting, a carbon footprint is often expressed in
terms of the amount of carbon dioxide, and its equivalent for other greenhouse gases,
emitted.
Once the size of a carbon footprint has been found, strategies may be devised to reduce
it. The main influences on carbon footprints include population, economic output and
energy demand. A commonly proposed strategy for reducing a carbon footprint is to
decrease the amount of energy needed for production and to reduce dependency on
fossil fuels. The development of alternative energy sources, such as solar cells and wind
power, are known as carbon offsetting.
Resources
• Access to the Internet for reference books

When organic material decays in the presence of air the carbon it contains is oxidised
to carbon dioxide. This is shown in the carbon cycle.
The fossil fuels coal, crude oil and natural gas were all formed by the decay of organic
material. Pupils could investigate how the conditions during decay were different such
that the carbon in the organic material was transformed into a fuel.
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1. The activity in this unit is in the form of carrying out research using the Internet
and reference books. Were pupils disappointed not to be doing any practical work?
Is it possible to devise one or two practical-based activities for the next time this
unit is taught?
2. There is a lot of information on the diagram of the carbon cycle. How much help
did pupils need to interpret this diagram? Would it be an advantage to show how
the cycle builds up by drawing it on the board in future?
3. How successful were pupils in answering the revision questions and particularly
the short answer questions 5-8? Did all of the pupils gain at least half marks on
the questions? Was there any particular question answered badly by most or all of
the pupils? If so this indicates that some remedial work should be carried out on
that particular part of the unit before moving on.
1. B
2. C
3. C
4. A
5. Three ways the carbon cycle is disrupted are the burning of fossil fuel (petro-
leum products), deforestation and cement manufacturing.
(a)
Burning of fossil fuel:
Nature has stored/preserved fossil fuel deep in the Earth for thousands of years.
Fossil fuel is mainly organic matter which has been compressed by the weight
numerous of layers of soil over many years. Since the origin of fossils can be
traced directly to organic matter, it follows that the entire structure of fossil fuel
is made up of carbon. This has been preserved for a long time under the Earth
and away from any human interference.
However, the advent of science and technology have made it possible for this
hidden treasure to be converted into various forms of industrial petroleum
86

products, such as petrol, liquefied petroleum gas, bitumen, etc.

Obviously, the benefits of the industrial processing of fossil fuel have been tre-
mendous. The provision of various forms of petrol has made it possible for man-
kind to visit the moon, fly many forms of aircraft and shorten air travel time.
Natural gas can generate electricity to assist in providing many services and
comfortable automobiles have made travelling inland easy and convenient, etc.
Despite the numerous advantages that have been provided through the indus-
trial processing of fossil fuel, there is a dangerous and negative aspect. Carbon
dioxide, in large quantities, is produced during the industrial processing of
fossil fuel. As a result, the atmosphere becomes completely choked with carbon
dioxide gas. The respiration of animals and the decomposition of living organ-
isms already have put CO2 in the air. Negatively impacting the CO2 balance in
the air disrupts the carbon cycle and may enhance ‘global warming’.
(b)
Deforestation:
During the day, plants absorb large quantities of carbon dioxide gas to enable
them to manufacture sugar through the process of photosynthesis. This reduces
the amount of CO2 in the air and ensures that the CO2 balance is maintained.
In this regard, any action taken by humans to reduce and clear vast stretches
of vegetation (plants)– e.g. cutting of trees for timber; construction of build-
ings and roads; unnecessary burning of bushes; insatiable and indiscriminate
cutting of young plants (trees) for firewood, etc– may result in the presence of
excess and huge quantities of CO2 in the atmosphere because there would not
be an adequate number of plants (mostly trees) to naturally absorb the gas.
The creation of such a situation could enhance ‘global warning’ and also
causes disruption of the carbon cycle.
(c)
Cement manufacturing:
The ingredients used to produce cement are limestone and clay. These two sub-
stances are subjected to a high degree of heating (heated above 2000 ºC). The
end products are very fine particles of cement and the production of volumes of
carbon dioxide gas. After collection of the cement the carbon dioxide gas adds
to the CO2 content in the atmosphere. From time to time this process is repeat-
ed, resulting in more CO2 being thrown into the air. The continued presence
of CO2 in excess in the atmosphere causes disruption of the carbon cycle and
could enchance ‘global warming’.
6. Four ways of maintaining the carbon cycle:
• In areas with a large population, people must be provided with adequate
facilities for toilets and suitable and convenient locations for the proper
disposal of garbage. All gutters need to be covered to prevent people using
them as reservoirs for garbage and filth. This will help to avoid the decay
and decomposition of organic matter which people dump into the gutters.
• The pollution of air, land and water must stop. More people should be
87

educated about good sanitation practices.

• The unnecessary burning of refuse must stop. Incinerators need to be
provided for people at convenient places.
• Good farming methods should be adopted to avoid clearing vegetation
which cannot be properly utilised.
• Good and acceptable mining methods should be practised to avoid wasting
land and destroying the environment.
• Winning sand must also be properly controlled.
• ‘Galamsey’ must be abolished entirely to avoid not only the destruction of
the environment but also the dangers left behind after digging yawning
pits.
• The clearing of land for construction purposes must be controlled and done
properly. This will stop damage to vegetation and the environment.
7. Ozone Layer:
The atmosphere of the Earth is made up of various layers of gases. These
clouds of gases carry certain pollutants from one layer to the other thus caus-
ing changes in the natural state of each layer. One of layers is called the ozone
layer.
The ozone is formed by the action of sunlight on oxygen molecules. This unique
blanket layer at a high altitude in space filters out and absorbs harmful and
dangerous ultraviolet radiation/light in sunlight before it reaches the Earth’s
surface. Ozone therefore protects plant and animal life on Earth. The layer
therefore serves as a protective sheath or blanket surrounding the Earth.
In the early 1970s, scientists were taken aback when they realised that certain
compounds, e.g., chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), such as CF2Cl2, and the halons
(compounds of carbon and combinations of halogen atoms, e.g. CBr2CF), were
destroying the protective ozone layer, creating holes in it. The holes allow
ultraviolet rays to reach living organisms, often causing diseases such as skin
cancer.
CFCs have been identified as greenhouse gases which are causing global warm-
ing. Harmful and dangerous gases such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides
are blown by air masses from one region another, polluting the air and harm-
ing the environment.
Uses of CFCs:
• CFCs are used as cleaning solvents in electronics; aerosol propellants; and
air conditioning and refrigeration gases.
• They are used to blow plastics into shapes.
• Halons are used in fire extinguishers; when they are used, they drift up into
the ozone layer. Under suitable prevailing conditions of low temperature,
low pressure and in the presence of the Sun’s ultraviolet light, the CFCs
88

and halons break up, releasing chlorine atoms that react with the ozone
molecules and destroy them. The reaction creates new chemicals that
repeat the destruction of millions of ozone molecules.
• The reduction in the ozone layer by the reaction of the chlorine atoms from
CFCs and halons is known as ozone layer depletion.
How the ozone layer can be preserved:
(a) We should encourage the growth of plants that produce oxygen,
i.e. forestation, and discourage deforestation. This would ensure the
availability of numerous plants to absorb the carbon dioxide gas from the
air, in order to keep the carbon cycle in a balanced position.
(b) We should try to eliminate the production and release of known ozone-
depleting chemicals such as CFCs and hydrofluorocarbons and replace
them with alternatives which are favourable to the ozone layer.
(c) As much as possible, rocket flights should be stopped or discouraged to
prevent water vapour deposition.
(d) High altitude aircraft flights must be discouraged to prevent oxygen
reduction and water vapour deposition.
(e) Incessant releases of high temperature steam and moisture into the
atmosphere should be decreased or stopped as far as possible.
(f) Excessive carbon dioxide production from fossil fuel manufacture should
be controlled or reduced considerably.
(g) We should try to reduce the large volumes of carbon dioxide gas produced
during the manufacture of cement, through appropriate research.
(h) We should replace halon fire extinguishers with alternatives, e.g. carbon
dioxide or foam.
8. Role of CO2 at the centre of the carbon cycle:
Animals obtain their energy requirements through respiration. This essential
process results in abundant carbon dioxide gas production into the atmosphere.
In order to make their food, plants absorb CO2 from their surroundings. With
the help of the Sun as a driving force, plants absorb mineral salts and water
from the soil and utilise the energy from the rays of the Sun and intricately
combine all these ingredients to produce food: glucose/sugar. Afterwards,
certain chemical combinations take place to produce starch. This phenomenal
natural process which ends with the production of sugar by the plant is called
photosynthesis. All life is dependent on photosynthesis.
A small rodent, like a rabbit, satisfies its energy needs by consuming starch
from plants. A small carnivorous animal, such as a fox, also requires starch to
satisfy its energy requirements, so it would consume the herbivorous rabbit.
After, the fox dies it decomposes, releasing CO2 into the air to be available to be
89

absorbed by plants for photosynthesis.

In the instances cited above, CO2 is the fulcrum around which all life activities
revolve. First, animals release CO2 through respiration to be absorbed by plants
to enable the process of photosynthesis to happen. The starch produced is con-
sumed by a herbivore; after it dies, its body decomposes to release CO2 into the
air to be absorbed by plants for the cycle to continue. This shows the central
position of CO2 in the carbon cycle.
ire,
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The carbon cycle

The carbon cycle describes the flow of essential elements from the environment
to living organisms and back to the environment again. This process is the
building source of all organic compounds. The cycle is the Earth’s fastest recy-
cling process. It therefore has no specific beginning or end point.
The cycle passes through three main stages: reservoir, assimilation and release.
The unique and central role performed by CO2 permits it to serve as a conveyor
belt within the cycle, to ensure that the equilibrium between producers and
consumers of CO2 does not tilt to either side of the equation. If anything unex-
pected happens to unbalance this normal situation, the consequences could be
disastrous.
Until now nothing untoward has occurred to upset the central role CO2 is ac-
knowledged as having in the carbon cycle.
Unfortunately, however, it has become apparent that due to incessant human
interventions the balance is being disturbed and threatened. As a result, cli-
matic changes have been experienced globally, leading to the threat of global
warming and its subsequent devastating effects on all living organisms.
Attempts are being made all over the world to ensure that the equilibrium of
the carbon cycle is maintained (reference the Kyoto agreement).
90

9. Role played by photosynthesis in the carbon cycle:

Much of the Earth’s carbon is held in the atmosphere which serves as a reser-
voir. Atmospheric carbon consists mostly of carbon dioxide. Plants draw carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere and have a major role in maintaining the equilib-
rium of the carbon cycle.
Deforestation may deprive certain locations of their plant coverage and, thus,
may be the cause of overproduction of CO2 gas. Such a situation could upset the
balance of CO2 in the carbon cycle.
Clearly, without plants the balance between production and absorption of CO2
in the carbon cycle cannot be maintained.
10. Three stages in the carbon cycle where CO2 is produced:
CO2 is released into the atmosphere through
- The respiration performed by plants and animals; this reaction involves the
breaking down of glucose into CO2 and water
- The decay of animal and plant matter. Fungi and bacteria break down the
carbon compounds in dead animals and plants and convert the carbon to
CO2 if oxygen is present or methane if not
- Combustion of organic material which oxidises the carbon it contains,
producing carbon dioxide (and other things, like water vapour).
Burning fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum products and natural gas,
which releases carbon that has been stored in the Earth for millions of
years. Burning biofuels also releases CO2 which has been stored for only a
few years or less.
91

Unit 7 Weather, Season and Climate
Introduction
This unit is concerned with weather, season and climate. Pupils will learn how
different factors of the weather may be measured. They will also discuss the different
seasons in Ghana and learn how to relate weather to climate.
Specific objectives
1. explain the term weather

2. identify and use some weather measuring instruments
3. explain the term season
4. explain the term climate.

Weather 7.1 101
Measuring weather 7.2 101
Seasons in Ghana 7.3 103
Climate 7.4 103 7.1 105
Lesson planning
The syllabus provides a logical order of work on weather, season and climate. Teaching
1. Explain to pupils what is meant by the term ‘weather’ and ask them to identify some
of the characteristics by which weather is described. Make a list of these on the board.
2. Discuss some different ways in which weather can be measured. Show any
instruments that are available to the class. Explain what information each of
the following provides about the weather:
92

• Rain gauge – amount of rain in mm

• Thermometer – temperature in ºC
• Anemometer – wind speed in m/s
• Wind vane – wind direction
• Barometer – atmospheric pressure in bar or mmHg.
3. Explain the term ‘season’ in describing how the physical conditions in an area
change over a year as a result of changes in the weather. Discuss the nature of
the seasons in different parts of Ghana.
4. Explain to pupils what is meant by the term ‘climate’ and how this is different to
weather.
5. Discuss the following aspects of climate and their importance to everyday life
and food production:
• Amount of rainfall
• Amount of sunshine
• Temperature
• Humidity
• Wind strength and direction.
6. Pupils should work through activity 7.1 discussing the meaning of and
relationship between weather, season and climate.
Composition of the atmosphere

People live at the bottom of a sea of air. The air is composed of a mixture of gases,
which make the Earth suitable for life.
Gas Percentage of dry air

Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Argon 1%
Carbon dioxide 0.04%
Table 7.1 Gases in the air

93

• Nitrogen is used in the manufacture of fertilisers which increase plant growth

• Oxygen is essential for all living things for the process of respiration
• Argon is an unreactive gas used in filament light bulbs
• Carbon dioxide is essential for plants for the process of photosynthesis.
In addition to these gases, water vapour is almost always present in the atmosphere.
The amount varies from place to place. It forms clouds which provide the rain that is
essential for plants and animals. It is also responsible for the blue colour of the sky.
Layers of the atmosphere

The atmosphere can be divided in to a number of layers.
• Troposphere – the layer nearest to the surface of the Earth. It is in this layer
that clouds form.
• Stratosphere - airliners fly in the stratosphere because no clouds form and
there is no air turbulence. The stratosphere also contains an important gas
called ozone. This filters out harmful ultraviolet rays present in the sunlight that
reaches the Earth’s atmosphere.
• Mesosphere - the mesosphere is too high for clouds to form but there are strong
winds in this part of the atmosphere.
• Ionosphere – the furthest layer from the surface of the Earth. Radio waves are
reflected by the ionosphere so it is important for communication.
Weather prediction
Nowadays, we can predict the weather with much greater accuracy than used to be the
case thanks to the use of a range of sophisticated electronic equipment.
Weather stations gather basic information about the weather such as air temperature,
atmospheric pressure, wind strength and direction, and amount of rainfall. This
information is sent to a weather centre where it is collated to provide a picture of the
weather over a large area.
Balloons filled with helium gas carry a box of instruments far up above the surface of
the Earth. The box contains equipment to take various measurements and transmit
the results to a ground station.
Satellites which orbit around the poles of the Earth send back pictures of clouds and
weather fronts at regular intervals. As the Earth rotates, a weather satellite takes
pictures of a different part of the Earth. These pictures can be put together to see an
overall pattern.
94

For people like farmers and fishermen it is essential to know what the weather will be
like tomorrow because it may affect their work. People who are travelling might find it
useful to know what weather to expect when they arrive at their destination. For most
people the weather forecast helps us to plan for tomorrow.
Measuring the weather

Scientists use a variety of instruments to measure different aspects of the weather.
These include:
• A maximum-minimum thermometer records the highest and the lowest

temperatures attained each day. It must be reset after it is read.
• A wind vane points in the direction that the wind is coming from. When a wind
is described as westerly it means that it is blowing from the west.
• A weather sock shows the direction and the strength of the wind. The stronger
the wind the more the sock stands out. A big weather sock is often to be seen at
an airport.
• An anemometer measures the speed of the wind. It has three or sometimes four
cups mounted on a spindle. The stronger the wind, the faster it spins.
• Humidity is a measure of how much water vapour is present in the air. It is
measured with a hygrometer. On humid days the air is high in water vapour
and it makes people feel sweaty. On dry days there is much less water vapour in
the air and it feels more comfortable.
A weather station monitors the weather conditions and records a number of different
measurements every day. Table 1 shows a sample of the information recorded.
Day
Tuesday Wednesday
Sunrise 06.05 06.02
Sunset 16.10 16.12
Maximum temperature 17 °C 16 °C
Minimum temperature 9 °C 8 °C
Visibility Good Moderate
Pressure 1030 mb 1015 mb
Wind direction NE N
Wind speed 1.1 m/s 1.8 m/s
Rainfall 0.0 mm 0.8 mm
Table 7.2 Information recorded by a weather station
A weather station gives information about the weather in one particular location. In
order to get an overall picture of the weather in a region, or over the whole country,
95

meteorologists must combine the information from a number of station models to

produce a weather map.
The information on a weather map is given in the form of symbols. In order to read the
map it is necessary to understand their meaning. Here are some typical symbols used
on a weather map:
• The fine lines are called isobars. These are lines which join up points that have
the same atmospheric pressure. Normal atmospheric pressure is 1000 mb so
values are generally a little above and a little below this value.
• The lines with bumps and spikes identify warm fronts and cold fronts. These are
masses of warm and cold air.
• Shaded areas show where there has been rain.
The data which meteorologists obtain relates to the weather today. In order to predict
what the weather will be like tomorrow, meteorologists look for trends in the weather
patterns over previous days.
For example, if a warm front is moving steadily west towards Accra, it is likely that
the weather will be warm, unless something happens to change the pattern. Similarly,
meteorologists can track rain clouds and predict when and where it will rain.
Meteorology is not an exact science. It uses the available information to predict the
most likely weather in the future.
Resources
None

Many daily newspapers and television programmes provide information about the
weather in the form of weather maps on which symbols are used to represent different
types of weather.
Pupils could be asked to make up their own symbols for a number of different weather
conditions, e.g. sunny, cloudy, rain, snow, thunder, lightning, etc.
They could be provided with an outline map of Ghana and the surrounding countries
showing some important cities, and asked to decide what kind of weather the people
in this part of the world should be having and then, using their own symbols, draw a
weather map.
96


1. The activity in this unit is in the form of a pencil and paper exercise and
discussion. Were pupils disappointed not to be doing any practical work in this
unit? Is it possible to devise one or two practical-based activities for the next time
this unit is taught?
2. Review the lesson spent introducing climate. Were there any difficulties in
explaining the difference between weather and climate? Can you say why this
was?
3. How knowledgeable were pupils about the seasons in Ghana? Was it necessary
to provide pupils with information about the different regions of Ghana before
discussing seasonal changes? Does this need to be part of the lesson plan in
future?
1. C
2. C
3. D
4. A
5. B
6. A
7. (a) Weather is the condition of the atmosphere of a place at any given time;
season is a period of time with a particular type of weather.
97

Section 3: Systems
1. recognise that a system is a whole, consisting of parts that work together

to perform a function
2. be aware of the physiological processes in reproduction
3. be aware of the dangers of indiscriminate sex
4. appreciate that offspring inherit certain characteristics from their parents
5. be aware of the role of diffusion and osmosis in life processes
6. show an awareness of the circulatory system in humans.
Unit 8 Reproduction in Humans
Introduction
This unit is concerned with reproduction in humans. Pupils will consider the parts and
the functions of the male and female reproductive systems. The latter part of the unit
is given over to discussing teenage pregnancy, its causes and its effects.
Specific objectives
1. explain the term reproduction

2. explain the functions of the parts of the reproductive system
3. explain the term teenage pregnancy
4. state the causes of teenage pregnancy
5. explain the effects of teenage pregnancy.

Definition of reproduction 8.1 110
Parts of the reproductive system 8.2 110 8.1 114
Continued on page 98
98


Teenage pregnancy 8.3 114 8.2 115
Causes of teenage pregnancy 8.4 115 8.3 115
Effects of teenage pregnancy 8.5 116
Lesson planning
The syllabus provides a logical order of work on reproduction in humans. Teaching
1. Ask pupils to state what reproduction is and to suggest the importance of

reproduction to the survival of a species.
2. Show pupils a diagram of the female human reproductive system and discuss
the functions of the various parts.
3. Show pupils a diagram of the male human reproductive system and discuss the
functions of the various parts.
4. Pupils should work through activity 8.1 identifying the parts of the human
reproductive system.
5. Introduce the topic of teenage pregnancy.
6. Pupils should work through activity 8.2 discussing the nature of teenage
pregnancy.
7. Make pupils aware of some of the problems that can arise as a result of teenage
pregnancy.
8. Pupils should work through activity 8.3 discussing the causes and problems of
teenage pregnancy.
9. Describe and discuss some of the possible effects of teenage pregnancy.

Humans reproduce by sexual reproduction. A male gamete, called a sperm, fuses
with a female gamete, an egg, to form a zygote. This develops into a baby inside the
mother’s uterus or womb.
99

The male reproductive organs

The male reproductive system produces sperm which are then transferred to the female
during copulation. After a male reaches puberty millions of sperm are produced
throughout his life. This takes place inside two oval-shaped testes which lie in a pair of
sacs, called the scrotal sacs, between the thighs. Scrotal sacs are pouch-like extensions
of the skin that lie outside the body cavity. Sperm need a temperature slightly lower
than the body temperature of 37 ºC in order to develop.
The sperm are produced by cells on the walls of seminiferous tubules inside the testes.
At the end of the testis there is a narrow, coiled tube called the epididymis in which
sperm from the testis may be stored.
Sperm are very small and can only be seen with the aid of a microscope. Each sperm
has:
• A head of diameter about 2.5 μm (0.000 002 5 m). This contains a large nucleus,
a small amount of cytoplasm and an acrosome. The nucleus carries a set of
chromosomes from the male. The acrosome is a sac containing enzymes. These
enzymes break down part of the egg membrane allowing the sperm to penetrate
the egg during fertilisation.
• A middle part containing mitochondria, which provide the energy needed by the
sperm.
• A tail or flagellum, which allows the sperm to swim towards the egg.
Sperm flow along a tube called the sperm duct or vas deferens. The sperm ducts
pass into the abdominal cavity and loop over the ureter and finally open into the
urethra. A gland called the seminal vesicle opens into each sperm duct. At the base
of the bladder, where the sperm ducts join the urethra, there is the prostate gland and
beneath it is Cowper’s gland. The seminal vesicle, the prostate gland and Cowper’s
gland secrete a fluid which is rich in fructose into the vas deferens. The mixture of fluid
and sperm together is called semen. Semen contains nutrients and enzymes which
nourish the sperm so that they begin to swim actively.
The urethra passes through the centre of the penis to the exterior. It is not possible for
semen and urine to pass along the urethra at the same time. There is a circular band
100

of muscles at the base of the bladder and automatic contraction of this muscle prevents
urine from coming out of the bladder during ejaculation, when semen is released.
The female reproductive organs

The female reproductive system produces eggs and also provides a place where an
embryo and then a baby can develop.
Eggs develop inside two ovaries which are found just below the kidneys. Even before
a baby girl is born, eggs have already begun to develop. At birth there will be about
70,000 potential cells but only a fraction of these will ever mature within the two
ovaries. Eggs are released at regular intervals from the onset of puberty, at about 12
years of age, to menopause, in the woman’s late 40s or early 50s. Usually only one egg
is released every month, from alternate ovaries.
Some features of an egg are:
• It is spherical, with a diameter of about 120 µm which is around 50 times the

size of a sperm.
• It has a large nucleus containing the set of chromosomes from the female.
• There is a lot of cytoplasm, which contains food stores for the zygote to survive
on until it arrives in the uterus.
• The egg has a plasma membrane which in turn is surrounded by the vitelline
membrane.
The eggs are contained in follicles inside the ovaries. When an egg is ready, the follicle
opens and a mature egg is released into the nearby oviduct or Fallopian tube.
Each of the two oviducts is a narrow muscular tube that leads from the ovary to the
uterus. It has a funnel-like opening lying close to the ovary, which makes it easier for
the egg to enter. It is in the oviduct that the egg is fertilised should it meet an active
sperm.
During pregnancy the embryo or foetus develops in the uterus. The uterus has
muscular walls, is pear-shaped and about 7.5 cm long in a woman who is not
pregnant. The inner lining of the uterus is called the endometrium and it is soft and
smooth. Every month this lining becomes thick and full of blood vessels when the egg
is released, in preparation for receiving a fertilised egg. If the woman does not become
pregnant, the lining is lost every month during menstruation.
101

A circular ring of muscles called the cervix is located at the lower narrow end of the
uterus. From the cervix to the outside is the birth canal or vagina. The opening of the
vagina is the vulva. Semen is deposited in the vagina during sexual intercourse.
Resources
None

Pupils could be asked to investigate the facilities available in their area to provide
people with advice on such issues as family planning and unwanted pregnancies.
They could review any written materials provided for people and invite a person from
a local advisory body to come and address the class on the work that they do. Pupils
should be asked to organise it themselves, i.e. write the letter of invitation and arrange
times, etc., rather than the teacher doing it for them.

1. Pupils are at an age where they find it embarrassing to talk about reproduction.
Were pupils sensible in their approach? Were topics a particular source of
embarrassment? Does some thought need to be given as to how best to approach
these topics?
2. Review the unit as a whole. Were there any particular parts of the unit where
pupils appeared particularly interested? Can you say why this was? Were there
any particular parts of the lesson where pupils appeared bored? Can you say why
this was?
3. How aware were pupils about the problems associated with teenage pregnancy?
Did they feel able to discuss this openly? How effective was the visit by the
community health nurse? Were pupils able to make the most of this by asking
pertinent questions or would it have been better to have had a preparatory lesson
discussing the sorts of issues that the nurse should be asked to comment on?
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1. B
2. C
3. A
4. B
5. B
6. C
7. C
8. B
9. (i) Changes in boys during puberty
• Growth of hair round genitals and armpits
• Growth of facial hair
• Breaking of voice, i.e. deep voice
• Body becomes muscular
• Wet dreams
• Enlargement of penis
• Production of sperm
• Broadening of shoulders and chest
(ii) Changes in girls
• Body contours become more prominent
• Enlargement of vagina
• Enlargement of breasts
• Widening of hips
• Ovulation and menstruation
• Growth of hair round genitals and armpits
10. (a) Teenage pregnancy: this is pregnancy in a teenager, i.e. a young person
between 13 and 19 years old. Teenage pregnancy could be between a teenage
mother and teenage father; a teenage girl and an adult man; a teenage boy
and an adult woman.
(b) Causes of teenage pregnancy
• Peer influence
• Broken homes
• Ignorance of problems of early parenthood
103

• Lack of parental care

• Curiosity
• Indiscriminate sex
• Poverty or financial difficulties
• Influence of both electronic and print media
• Rape of a teenage girl
• Lack of sex education
(c) Effects of teenage pregnancy
• Fatherless children where teenage mother might have had more sexual
partners
• A break in education leading to school dropouts
• Ectopic pregnancy
• Death of mother during birth as a result of complications
• Criminal abortion may result in death
• Damage to pelvic bone during pregnancy leading to difficult labour
• Underweight babies
• Abandoned babies as a result of frustration and despair on the part of the
mother
• Lack of finances may lead to malnutrition in mother which adversely
affects her health and that of the unborn child
• Embarrassment of both the teenage parents and their families
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Unit 9 Heredity
Introduction
This unit is concerned with heredity. It will provide pupils with a brief introduction to
the inheritance of characteristics from their parents.
Specific objectives
1. explain the term heredity

2. name some characteristics that can be inherited from parents.

Definition of heredity 9.1 121 9.1 122
Inherited characteristics 9.2 122 9.2 123
Lesson planning
The syllabus provides a logical order of work on heredity. Teaching strategies should be
determined by the nature and content of the topic. Lessons should be planned to cover
the following sequence of topics:
1. Introduce the term ‘heredity’ and give a brief account of the role of chromosomes
and genes in passing characteristics from one generation to the next.
2. Pupils should work through activity 9.1 by considering what characteristics may
be passed from generation to generation.
3. Use the results obtained by pupils in activity 9.1 as the basis of a class discussion
on inherited characteristics.
4. Discuss physical characteristics that might be inherited.
5. Discuss behavioural characteristics that might be inherited.
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Unit 9 Heredity
6. Pupils should work through activity 9.2 by considering what characteristics

might have been passed on to them from their parents.
Variation
Parents pass on characteristics to their offspring such as the colour of our eyes, hair
and skin and height. They are hereditary characteristics, passed from one generation
to another. Members of a family are not identical but there is always a similarity
between them because of the hereditary characteristics. At the same time there are
also differences between family members which are described as variation.
Variation may be:
• Caused by genes inherited from parents. The study of the inheritance of

characteristics caused by genes is called genetics.
• The result of differences in our environment. This type of variation is the result
of acquired characteristics. Acquired characteristics cannot be passed down from
parents to their offspring.
Variation is most often the result of a mixture of genes and environment. For example,
a child may have tall parents and thus inherits genes for tallness from them. However
if he or she receives a very poor diet during growth the child will not grow as tall as
her parents. The final height of the child is determined by a combination of genes and
environment.
Continuous and discontinuous variation

There are many different characteristics in which organisms may vary including
• In animals - height, weight, eye colour, hair colour and sex
• In plants - flower colour and number of leaves.
Some characteristics can take any value. For example, a person is not just tall or
short but may be any value within a range. Such a characteristic shows continuous
variation.
Some characteristics can take only particular values. For example, a person is either
a male or female: there is no other possible value between these extremes. Such a
characteristic shows discontinuous or discrete variation.
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Unit 9 Heredity
Genes and chromosomes

Farmers and other people who rear animals and grow crops have known for centuries
that many characteristics can be passed from one generation to the next and that it
is possible to selectively breed varieties of animals and plants which have desirable
qualities, such as cows that produce lots of milk or maize plants that produce more
grain.
Scientists were unable to explain how this worked until the middle of the 19th century
when an Austrian monk called Gregor Mendel carried out a famous series of breeding
experiments with garden peas. He was the first person to provide a satisfactory
explanation for the mechanism of heredity.
We now know that hereditary characteristics are passed from parents to offspring
by sequences of genes that are carried on chromosomes. Chromosomes are very
long thread-like molecules of a chemical called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA.
Chromosomes are found in the nucleus of every cell. The nature of the DNA molecules
in a person’s cells is determined by the characteristics inherited from their parents.
Homologous chromosomes and alleles

The nucleus of all human cells, apart from sex cells, contains 46 chromosomes. In
reality they are two sets of 23 chromosomes, and each set contains a chromosome 1,
a chromosome 2 and so on, up to 23. One set comes from the father, and the other set
comes from the mother.
The first 44 chromosomes are called autosomes and are concerned with different
features of the body. The remaining 2 are called sex chromosomes. A man has the sex
chromosomes XY while a woman has XX.
Each member of a homologous pair of chromosomes has the same sequence of genes
along it. One member of the pair of homologous chromosomes has come from the
father and one from the mother. In each cell therefore there are two copies of each
gene: one copy inherited from the mother and one from the father.
A gene for a particular characteristic may have different varieties. For example, the
gene for eye colour has one variety that produces blue eyes and another that produces
brown eyes. These different varieties of a gene are called alleles. Each cell in the body
has two copies of every gene: the two copies might be the same allele, or they might be
different alleles.
Resources
• Mirror
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Unit 9 Heredity

Pupils could be asked to take or obtain photographs of their immediate family, i.e.
grandparents, parents, aunts and uncles, brothers, sisters and cousins.
They should analyse these photographs with a view to identifying features which have
been passed from generation to generation.

1. The concept of chromosomes and genes is quite abstract. Did pupils have problems
understanding this? Would a simple model or analogy have helped?
2. Was there any part of this unit that went down particularly well with pupils?
Analyse why this was so successful. Was it just that the content was easy to
understand or interesting, or was it taught in such a way as to capture the
imagination? Can this be built on for future teaching?
1. C
2. B
3. C
4. B
5. B
6. C
7. A
8. (i) Heredity – the study of characteristics passed on from parents to their offspring
(ii) Variation – differences that exist in characteristics between individuals of the
same species
(iii) Heritable characteristics – these are characteristics that are transmitted or in-
herited from parents; they are influenced by genes
(iv) Acquired characteristics – these are characteristics that are not passed on from
parents but are due to environmental effects
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Unit 9 Heredity
(v) Chromosome – structure in the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic charac-
teristics of the cell; it is therefore the genetic material of inheritance
9. Common characteristics that a child can inherit from the parents.
• Height
• Sex
• Skin colour
• Hair texture
• Sex-linked characteristics (colour blindness, baldness and haemophilia)
• Albinism
• Colour of eyes
• Shape of nose and ears
• Ability to roll tongue
• Sickle-cell disease
10. • A child inherits the genetic material called genes from both parents
which influence the characteristics of the child. The genes carry inherited
information from parents to their offspring making it possible for the
offspring to show characteristics of their parents.
• The child is a product of fertilisation of sex cells from both parents which carry genes
that determine the characteristics of parents and the child.
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Unit 10 Diffusion and Osmosis
Introduction
This unit is concerned with the processes of diffusion and osmosis. Pupils will learn
about each process and carry out activities to demonstrate them. They will also learn
the essential differences between the two processes.
Specific objectives
1. explain the term diffusion

2. demonstrate the process of diffusion
3. explain the term osmosis
4. demonstrate the process of osmosis
5. distinguish between diffusion and osmosis.

Definition of diffusion 10.1 126

Diffusion and its applications 10.2 127 10.1, 10.2 127, 128
Definition of osmosis 10.3 129
Osmosis and its applications 10.4 129 10.3, 10.4 130, 131
Differences between diffusion and 10.5 132
osmosis
Lesson planning
The syllabus provides a logical order of work on diffusion and osmosis. Teaching
110

1. Give the class a brief definition of diffusion in terms of the random motion of
particles such that there is a net movement of particles along a concentration
gradient.
2. Describe and discuss some common observations which involve diffusion.
3. Pupils should work through activity 10.1 investigating the diffusion of ink or the
manganate(VII) ion in water.
4. Use activity 10.2 to demonstrate diffusion of a gas to the class.
5. Give the class a brief definition of osmosis as a special kind of diffusion in which
there is a net movement of water molecules along a concentration gradient.
6. Describe and discuss some common observations which involve osmosis.
7. Pupils should work through activity 10.3 investigating osmosis in living tissue.
8. Summarise the results of activity 10.3 paying particular attention to the
direction in which water moved.
9. Pupils should work through activity 10.4 investigating osmosis through non-
living tissue.
10. Summarise the unit by discussing the main differences between diffusion and
osmosis so that pupils will be able to distinguish between the two processes.
Diffusion
Diffusion can be introduced by pouring a small amount of perfume (or some other
volatile liquid with a distinctive odour) on a watch glass on the front table and asking
each student to raise their arm when they can smell the perfume.
The perfume spreads out or diffuses from the watch glass to all parts of the classroom.
At the start of the experiment the perfume is in high concentration immediately above
the watch glass and in low concentration in the rest of the classroom. The perfume
particles move from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration.
The perfume particles diffuse across a concentration gradient. A concentration
gradient is the difference in the concentration of particles between two regions.
If the perfume vapour was coloured, it would be possible to see the colour start above
the watch glass and slowly spread out in all directions. After a period of time the
colour would be the same in all parts of the classroom showing that the concentration
of perfume was the same everywhere.
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The kinetic model states that the particles in a gas are in constant random motion.
They move very quickly and collide with each other and with the walls of their
container.
It is important for pupils to understand that diffusion is a random process. During

diffusion particles don’t just spread out in different directions as if there has been an
explosion.
Particles moving towards a region of low concentration will be able to travel longer
distances before colliding. Particles moving towards a region of high concentration will
soon collide and therefore change direction. It is in this way that the particles spread
out.
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of high concentration

to a region of lower concentration, across a concentration gradient. Net because
the particles are in constant motion and do not stop once they have filled the
classroom. There will always be some particles heading back towards a region of
high concentration but many more moving in the opposite direction. Eventually the
concentration of particles in all parts of the room will be the same.
The same is true of particles of a solute diffusing in a solvent. When a crystal of purple
potassium manganate(VII) is placed in water, particles start to break away from the
surface of the crystal and the water around the crystal starts to turn purple.
Once the particles have dissolved they are in continuous motion and collide with
each other and with water particles. The potassium manganate(VII) particles slowly
diffuse across a concentration gradient from a region of high concentration, where the
purple colour is most intense, to a region of low concentration where the solution is still
colourless.
It is possible to follow the diffusion of potassium manganate(VII) because it has a

distinct colour. If the solution is left for a long time, the colour is the same in all parts
of the solution because the potassium manganate(VII) particles become evenly spread
out.
Osmosis
Osmosis is a special kind of diffusion which is concerned only with the movement
of water molecules. Like other substances, water also diffuses along a concentration
gradient from a place where water is in high concentration to a place where it is in low
concentration.
This can sometimes be a little confusing because water is in a higher concentration in

a dilute solution and in a lower concentration in a concentrated solution. The upshot is
112

that under suitable conditions water will move from a dilute solution, making it more
concentrated, to a concentrated solution, making it more dilute.
A partially permeable membrane is a membrane which has holes large enough to

allow small molecules like water to pass through, but small enough to prevent the
movement of large molecules. Osmosis is often demonstrated using a semi-permeable
membrane like Visking tubing.
It should be emphasised that the water molecules are not restricted to only moving in
one direction through a partially permeable membrane. As well as water molecules
passing from a more dilute solution to a more concentrated solution, water molecules
will also pass in the opposite direction. Eventually an equilibrium situation is reached
where water molecules pass either way across the membrane at the same rate, thus the
concentrations of the solutions on either side of the membrane will remain unchanged.
Resources
• Glass container
• Glass tubing or a drinking straw
• Large bowl
• Beaker
• Thistle funnel
• Stand and clamp
• Knife
• Clock
• Bottle of ink/crystals of potassium manganate(VII)
• Bottle of strong perfume
• Tuber of yam or unripe pawpaw
• Strong sugar solution
• Parchment paper (a non-living, semi-permeable membrane)

If a length of Visking tubing mounted on a glass tube and containing sugar solution
is suspended in a beaker of pure water, water molecules will pass by osmosis into the
sugar solution and the level of solution in the glass tube will rise.
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Firstly pupils could connect a simple U tube manometer to the glass tube and observe
that the pressure in the glass tube increases as water passes into the sugar solution.
Secondly pupils could also devise a way of exerting a pressure on the air in the tube
by connecting a syringe to it and forcing air into the tube. They could then investigate
what happens to the level of solution in the glass tube and explain their observations
in terms of the movement of water molecules. This is the principle of reverse osmosis,
used to obtain fresh water from sea water.

1. Was it possible for pupils to carry out all of the practical activities in this unit
or was it necessary to do some as class demonstrations? Is it possible to organise
lessons such that pupils carry out more of the practical activities themselves?
2. Review the lesson spent introducing osmosis. Did the pupils understand the process
of osmosis and how it related to diffusion? Was it necessary to go over any aspects
of osmosis more than once?
3. Both diffusion and osmosis are dynamic processes in which particles continue
to move in both directions. It is important for pupils to understand that these
processes are concerned with the net movement of particles. Was this appreciated
by pupils? Is there some model or analogy which would assist understanding?
1. B
2. C
3. C
4. C
5. D
6. C
7. D
8. C
9. B
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10. (a) (i) Diffusion – Passive movement of molecules or ions from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration, along a concentration gradient.
(ii) Osmosis – The movement of solvent or water molecules across a semi-
permeable membrane from a region of high water concentration (dilute solu-
tion) to a region of low water concentration (concentrated solution).
(iii) Semi-permeable membrane – It is a substance that allows the passage
of smaller molecules or solvent but does not allow larger molecules or solute
across.
(b) Differences between diffusion and osmosis:
Diffusion Osmosis
• Involves the movement of • Involves the movement of water or
solute and solvent particles solvent molecules
• Movement of solute particles • Movement of water molecules
is from a higher concentrated is from a region of high water
region to a lower concentrated concentration to a region of lower
region water concentration
• It does not involve a semi- • A semi-permeable membrane is
permeable membrane always required
• Occurs in both gases and • Occurs only in liquids
liquids
(c) Examples of diffusion in plants and animals.

Plants:
• Absorption of mineral ions from soil solution into root hair cells
• Diffusion of carbon dioxide from the air into the leaf through the stomata
• Diffusion of oxygen from the plant into the air through the stomata
Animals:
• Diffusion of oxygen into the bloodstream in the lungs in mammals
• Diffusion of carbon dioxide out of the bloodstream into lungs
• Absorption of digested food from the small intestine (ileum) into the
bloodstream.
(d) Two ways by which the process of osmosis is used in food preservation
1. Salting of fish – The process allows water molecules to move from the cell of
the fish into the salt to prevent growth of micro-organisms in the fish; this
prevents the spoilage of the fish.
2. Production of syrup concentrates fruit juices by removing water when
highly concentrated sugar solution is used.
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Unit 11 Circulatory System in Humans
Introduction
This unit is concerned with the human circulatory system. Pupils will discuss the
benefits of a circulatory system and consider the functions of the different parts of
the human system. They will also learn about the composition of the blood and the
reasons for the development of high blood pressure and low blood pressure.
Specific objectives
1. explain the concept of the circulatory system

2. outline the functions of the parts of the circulatory system
3. describe the composition and functions of blood
4. explain how high and low blood pressure develop in the circulatory
system.

Concept of a circulatory system 11.1 136 11.1 136
Parts of a circulatory system 11.2 136 11.2, 11.3 138
Composition and function of blood 11.3 140
Blood pressure 11.4 143
Lesson planning
The syllabus provides a logical order of work on the circulatory system in humans.
1. Activity 11.3 requires a visit to a local slaughterhouse. This should be organised

well in advance of the activity.
116

2. Ask pupils to state what circulation is and why it is so important in humans and
other organisms.
3. Pupils should work through activity 11.1 by discussing the nature of the
circulatory system.
4. Show pupils a diagram of the circulatory system and discuss the functions of the
various parts.
5. Pupils should work through activity 11.2 looking at the internal structure of the
heart.
6. Pupils should work through activity 11.3 looking at the internal structure of the
heart. This will involve a visit to a local slaughterhouse.
7. Explain to pupils that blood is carried around the body by a network of blood
vessels. Briefly discuss the features of the arteries, veins and capillaries.
8. Summarise the work on blood vessels by comparing the structures and functions
of arteries and veins.
9. Describe the composition of human blood paying particular attention to red
blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma.
10. Discuss the function of the blood and relate this to its composition.
11. Explain blood pressure and describe how it is measured using a
sphygmomanometer.
12. Discuss the likely causes and symptoms of blood pressure which is above the
normal range of values.
13. Suggest ways in which high blood pressure can be controlled.
14. Discuss the likely causes and symptoms of blood pressure which is below the
normal range of values.
15. Suggest ways in which low blood pressure can be controlled.
Structure and function of the heart

A human adult heart is about the size of a clenched fist and lies inside the chest
between the lungs, slightly to the left side of the chest bone or sternum.
The heart is essentially muscle but, unlike other muscles, the heart is made from
special cardiac muscle tissue that never tires. The heart is supplied with oxygenated
blood by the coronary arteries. These arteries start at the base of the aorta, the large
117

blood vessel leaving the left ventricle. The heart muscle needs a continuous supply of
oxygen so that its cells can respire and release energy for the muscles to work.
The heart is divided into two halves by a septum. The septum separates the
deoxygenated and oxygenated blood. The right side of the heart receives deoxygenated
blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs. The left side of the heart receives
oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the body.
The heart has four chambers. Each side has:
• An upper chamber called an atrium (plural: atria). The atria have relatively thin
walls.
• A lower chamber called a ventricle. Ventricles have much thicker muscular walls
than the atria.
The muscular wall of the left ventricle is much thicker than the wall of the right
ventricle. This is because the left ventricle has to produce a higher pressure to pump
blood right around the body, while the right ventricle only has to pump blood a
relatively short distance to the lungs.
Blood flow through the heart is controlled by a series of valves which allow the blood
to flow through the heart in one direction only. The valves are:
• The tricuspid valve, which lies between the right atrium and the right ventricle.
• The bicuspid (or mitral) valve, which lies between the left atrium and the left
ventricle.
• The two semi-lunar valves, which are found between the right ventricle and the
pulmonary artery, and between the left ventricle and the aorta.
Operation of the heart

The heart muscles continuously contract and relax in a cardiac cycle. Each cycle
corresponds to one heartbeat. The cardiac cycle involves a series of events occurring in
different parts of the heart.
When the muscles in the walls of the ventricles contract, blood is forced out through
the arteries and carried around the body. Blood flows through both sides of the heart
at the same time.
When the ventricles contract, the cuspid valves between the atria and ventricles are
forced to shut by the pressure of the blood. This makes a soft ‘lub’ sound. When the
ventricles relax, the pressure of the blood inside the heart falls. The higher pressure of
the blood in the arteries then forces the semi-lunar valves to shut. This makes a soft
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‘dup’ sound. So, each heart beat is accompanied by the characteristic ‘lub-dup’ sound
that can be heard with a stethoscope.
Blood vessels
Blood vessels carry blood throughout the body. There are three types:
• Arteries that carry blood away from the heart

• Veins that carry blood back towards the heart
• Capillaries which are small blood vessels connecting arteries and veins.
Arteries and veins can be regarded as ‘highways’ that carry blood long distances
around the body. Capillaries are then smaller side roads that supply every cell in the
body with blood.
Arteries carry blood away from the heart to all body organs. The main artery is the
aorta. The artery that takes blood to the lungs is the pulmonary artery.
The arteries have thick muscular walls which are needed to withstand the high
pressure of blood. The space inside or lumen is narrow in order to maintain the blood
pressure.
The inner lining of the lumen is known as endothelium. It is very smooth and only one
cell thick. The middle layer is made up of elastic tissue that allows the wall to expand
as pulses of blood are forced along the artery, and then contract as the blood pressure
falls between heart beats. It also contains strong collagen fibres that help to support it.
Arteries branch into smaller arteries or arterioles that supply blood to smaller regions
within the body organs. Arterioles have smooth muscle in their walls, which can
contract to partly close off the arteriole. This can help to divert blood from one part of
the body to another when needed.
Veins carry blood from the various organs towards the heart. The main vein is the
vena cava. The veins that bring blood to the heart from the lungs are the pulmonary
veins.
The blood in veins is at a low pressure therefore there is no need for the thick
muscular structure found in arteries. Veins have thin walls and a wider lumen than
that of arteries. The veins have cup-shaped valves at intervals in order to prevent the
backward flow of blood.
Capillaries link the arterial system with the venous system in the tissues. Capillaries
allow the exchange of materials between blood and body cells and are adapted to do
this in the following ways:
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• Capillaries form a dense network in the tissues creating a large surface area for
the exchange of materials
• Capillary walls are only one cell thick, which allows the rapid diffusion of
substances in and out of the capillaries
• The lumen of a capillary is so narrow that only single red blood cells can pass
through. This ensures that every red blood cell which is carrying oxygen is
brought close to the respiring cells in the tissues.
Blood pressure
Blood pressure is the pressure of the blood in blood vessels. It is usually measured in
one of the big arteries of the arm, just above the elbow, using an instrument called a
sphygmomanometer.
The blood pressure in the artery is highest when the heart has just contracted and
blood is being forced out of the heart into the arteries. This is called the systolic
pressure. When the heart relaxes, the pressure drops. This is called the diastolic
pressure.
Blood pressure is often measured in millimetres of mercury or mmHg. The pressure in

an artery in the arm, for a healthy young person, should be
• Systolic 139 to 120

• Diastolic 89 to 80.
If a person’s resting blood pressure is frequently above these ranges they are said to
have hypertension. This condition can increase the risk of developing heart disease. It
puts a greater strain on the heart, because it is having to work harder in order to pump
blood at the higher pressure. Hypertension increases the risk of a heart attack and also
increases the risk of an artery or arteriole bursting. If this happens in the brain the
result is called a stroke.
Factors that increase the risk of hypertension include:
• Being overweight
• A stressful lifestyle
• Too much salt in the diet.
It is also possible to suffer from low blood pressure which means that blood is not
flowing as fast as it should do into the tissues. Low blood pressure leaves people
short of oxygen so they feel tired and weak. Low blood pressure may also prevent the
kidneys from working properly, so waste substances such as urea accumulate in the
blood instead of being excreted in urine.
120

Resources
• Model and/or chart of the heart of a named mammal
• Actual heart of mammal or visit to the local slaughterhouse to observe one

Pupils could observe any blood vessels near the surface of the skin on their lower arms
or the backs of their hands. They could be asked to use their index finger to find places
on their body where they can feel blood being pumped through blood vessels.
Arteries are generally deep in the body but there are some places where an artery runs
over a bone and a ‘pulse’ of blood can be felt such as:
• At the neck (carotid artery)

• At the wrist (radial artery)
• Behind the knee (popliteal artery)
• On the inside of the elbow (brachial artery)
• Near the ankle joint (posterior tibial artery).

1. Review the lesson on the internal structure of the heart and how it works. Was it
clear from pupils’ comments and questions that they appreciated that the heart
acted as a double pump and that valves ensure that the blood always flows in the
correct direction?
2. This unit involved a visit to a local slaughterhouse (activity 11.3). Was there any
difficulty arranging this visit? Was the visit a success in terms of what the pupils
gained from it? Are there any lessons to be learnt about planning trips in the
future?
the short answer questions 9 & 10? Did all of the pupils gain at least half marks
on the questions? Was there any particular question answered badly by most or all
121

of the pupils? If so this indicates that some remedial work should be carried out on
Answers to exercises and practices in the Pupil’s Book
1. B
2. C
3. D
4. D
5. B
6. D
7. A
8. B
9. (a) Components of mammalian blood
• Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
• White blood cells (leucocytes)
• Platelets (thrombocytes)
• Plasma or liquid parts
(b) Four functions of mammalian blood
• White blood cells defend the body against disease-causing organisms
• Blood transports substances such as digested food, hormones, waste
metabolic products and carbon dioxide
• Blood distributes heat in the body to regulate the body temperature
• Blood plays a major role in reproduction by causing the erection of the
penis
10. (a) Two diseases that affect the circulatory system
• High blood pressure
• Low blood pressure
(b) Five ways by which high blood pressure is managed
• Low intake of salt
• Reducing the intake of fatty foods
• Avoid the habit of smoking
• Regular exercise
• Controlling emotional stress
122

Section 4: Energy
1. recognise that energy has a source, and can be transformed into various
forms
2. recognise the Sun as the primary source of energy
3. recognise food as the main source of energy for living organisms
4. be aware of the uses of electrical energy.
Introduction
This unit is concerned with photosynthesis. Pupils will learn about the factors
necessary for photosynthesis to take place and will discuss the importance of
photosynthesis both to plants and to animals.
Specific objectives
1. explain the term photosynthesis

2. outline the factors necessary for photosynthesis and give the functions of
each factor
3. state the importance of photosynthesis to plants and animals.

Definition of photosynthesis 12.1 148 12.1 149
The process of photosynthesis 12.2 149 12.2, 12.3 151, 153
Importance of photosynthesis 12.3 154
123

Lesson planning
The syllabus provides a logical order of work on photosynthesis. Teaching strategies
1. Describe photosynthesis as the process by which green plants are able to use
energy from the Sun to make food in the form of glucose, which is then stored in
the plant as starch.
2. Discuss the equation for photosynthesis.
3. Pupils should work through activity 12.1 by discussing the process of
photosynthesis.
4. Briefly describe the test for the presence of starch using iodine solution.
5. Pupils should work through activity 12.2 testing leaves for the presence of starch.
6. Pupils should work through activity 12.3 investigating whether light is necessary
for photosynthesis to take place.
7. Explain and discuss the importance of photosynthesis directly to plants, and
indirectly to animals.

Autotrophism is the mode of nutrition in plants. Plants use simple inorganic
substances to make their own complex food substances using the process of
photosynthesis. During photosynthesis, plants make glucose. Glucose is the starting
point for making a number of other organic molecules, such as proteins and lipids,
which are needed by the plant for growth and repair. Glucose also provides the plant
with energy.
During photosynthesis organic food substances such as glucose, amino acids and lipids
are made. These foods are used by the plant, and, in turn, by animals that eat either
the plant or each other. Photosynthesis uses up carbon dioxide and releases oxygen as
a by-product. This helps to maintain the balanced concentrations of these two gases
in the atmosphere. Photosynthesis converts light energy from the Sun into chemical
energy which is stored in the form of chemicals in the plant. During respiration in
both plant cells and in animal cells, this energy can be released to drive processes in
the cell.
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Requirements for photosynthesis

A leaf can be regarded as a factory in which glucose is made. Raw materials, in the
form of carbon dioxide and water, are taken into the leaf and used to synthesise
glucose. The energy needed to do this is provided by sunlight. The energy is trapped by
the green pigment chlorophyll which is present in structures called chloroplasts in the
leaf.
carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen (word equation for

photosynthesis)
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 (chemical equation for photosynthesis)
Most of the glucose made in the plant is turned into another carbohydrate called
starch. Starch is sometimes described as a storage polymer and is formed when many
glucose molecules join together. Starch is far less soluble than glucose and is therefore
easier for the plant to store.
The requirements for photosynthesis can be investigated by using the food test for
starch. If starch is present in the leaves of the plant then photosynthesis must have
taken place.
For these experiments it will be necessary to start with a plant which has been kept in
the dark for 2 days so that any existing starch is used up by respiration and no new
starch can form due to photosynthesis.
The following experiments can be used with pupils:
1. Cover part of a leaf on a destarched plant with aluminium foil or cardboard and
place the plant in sunlight for several hours. The test for starch will show that
only that part of the leaf exposed to sunlight contains starch therefore sunlight
is necessary for photosynthesis.
2. Carry out a starch test on a variegated leaf. Only those parts of the leaf that
contain chlorophyll will contain starch therefore chlorophyll is necessary for
photosynthesis.
3. Place a plant under a bell jar or other transparent container with a dish
containing potassium hydroxide which will absorb carbon dioxide from
the air around the plant. Leave the plant in sunlight for several hours. The
test for starch will be negative showing that carbon dioxide is necessary for
photosynthesis.
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4. Place Elodea or Hydrilla (water plants) in boiled water containing a small amount
of dissolved sodium hydrogencarbonate under an inverted filter funnel and test
tube full of water. Leave the plant in sunlight for several days. Bubbles of gas
will collect in the test tube and these can be tested using a glowing spill to show
that oxygen is produced during photosynthesis.
Storage
Plants make a lot of glucose during photosynthesis which is turned into starch. This
provides a store of food which can be used by the plant for respiration at times of the
year when it is difficult for plants to photosynthesise, for example during a drought.
In addition to storing starch in the leaves, plants may also store starch in stems and
in roots. It is important for the wellbeing of humans and other animals that plants
produce far more food than they use since this provides them with food.
Resources
• Heat source
• Beaker
• Boiling tube
• Dropper
• White tile
• Aluminium foil
• Iodine solution
• Ethanol
• A green plant previously exposed to light
• Three potted plants

Pupils could be asked to apply what they have learnt about photosynthesis to devise an
activity to investigate the effect, if any, of light intensity on photosynthesis.
For example, they could use samples of Elodea in beakers of water under different light
conditions and measure the volumes of oxygen gas given off over a fixed time interval.
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1. Review the work on factors necessary for photosynthesis. Did the pupils understand
how each of the factors discussed would affect the rate of photosynthesis? Was it
necessary to go over any aspects of photosynthesis more than once?
2. How did pupils perform in the practical activities? Both activities 12.2 and 12.3
require a certain level of experimental expertise. Were there any difficulties or
mishaps? Are there any issues to be learnt for conducting these practical sessions
in the future?
3. Pupils often assume that the product of photosynthesis is starch because that
is what they test for in the leaves. Did pupils appreciate that the product of
photosynthesis is glucose and that this is then turned into starch by the plant for
storage? Would it aid understanding to explain that starch is sometimes called a
storage polymer and is much less soluble than glucose?
1. B
2. D
3. B
4. C
5. B
6. B
7. D
8. (a) Photosynthesis is a process whereby green plants make their food using
carbon dioxide, water and sunlight and give off oxygen.
(b) Importance of photosynthesis:
• Produces food for both plants and animals
• Replenishes oxygen supply in the environment
• Reduces carbon dioxide concentration to help prevent pollution
• Forms the base of all food chains and food webs
• Provides the substrate (material) for the synthesis of other food products
such as proteins and lipids.
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(c) Two conditions for photosynthesis:

• Availability of light and carbon dioxide
• Presence of chlorophyll
• Suitable temperature.
9. (a) a by-product of photosynthesis is oxygen
(b) Xylem – transports water and mineral ions from the roots to the leaves.
Phloem – transports products of photosynthesis such as sucrose from the leaf to
other parts of the plant.
10. Carbon dioxide – by diffusion from the air into the stomata of the leaf.
Water – absorbed by root hairs from the soil by the process of osmosis and car-
ried through the xylem vessels into the leaf.
Sunlight – trapped by the chlorophyll in the chloroplast.
Mineral salts – absorbed in solution as ions from the soil into the root hairs by
diffusion or active transport and carried through the xylem vessel to the leaf.
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Unit 13 Food and Nutrition
Introduction
This unit is concerned with food and nutrition. Pupils will learn about the different
nutrients present in foods and their importance to the body. They will carry out
activities on food tests to demonstrate the presence of simple sugars and lipids in foods.
The final part of the unit is given over to discussing the concept of a balanced diet and
why this is so important to wellbeing.
Specific objectives
1. classify food items based on their nutrients

2. state the importance of food nutrients
3. test for sugar, and fats and oil
4. describe a balanced diet and state its importance.

Classification of foods 13.1 158 13.1 159
Importance of nutrients 13.2 160
Food tests 13.3 162 13.2, 13.3 163, 163
Balanced diet 13.4 164 13.4, 13.5 165, 167
Lesson planning
The syllabus provides a logical order of work on food and nutrition. Teaching strategies
1. Explain to the class that food consists of a mixture of different nutrients

necessary for health. Name the following nutrients:
• Carbohydrates
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• Proteins
• Lipids (fats and oils)
• Vitamins
• Minerals
2. Explain that water and roughage are not nutrients but they are nevertheless
essential components of a healthy diet.
3. Identify and discuss some good sources of each nutrient.
4. Pupils should work through activity 13.1 by researching into different types of
food.
5. Discuss the importance of carbohydrates to the body.
6. Discuss the importance of proteins to the body.
7. Discuss the importance of lipids to the body.
8. Discuss the importance of vitamins and minerals to the body.
9. Explain why it is important for the body to take in several litres of water each
day.
10. Explain the nature and importance of roughage.
11. Pupils should work through activity 13.2 testing for simple sugars.
12. Pupils should work through activity 13.3 testing for lipids.
13. Introduce pupils to the concept of a balanced diet which contains necessary
amounts of each nutrient for the body to be healthy but not excessive amounts
so as to cause problems such as obesity.
14. Discuss how a balanced diet is related to age, sex, occupation and state of health
and point out that a balanced diet for one person may not be a balanced diet for
another.
15. Explain that, as is the case in humans, other animals also need a balanced
diet if they are to remain healthy. Animals in the wild have access to a range
of foods and are able to maintain their own diet but domestic animals rely on
farmers for food and so it is necessary to provide them with a balanced feed.
16. Pupils should work through activity 13.4 preparing a balanced poultry feed.
17. Introduce the term ‘deficiency disease’ to describe a condition resulting from lack
of nutrients. Describe and discuss some deficiency diseases.
18. Pupils should work through activity 13.5 by researching into deficiency diseases.
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Classifying nutrients
The components of a balanced diet are: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins,
mineral salts, roughage and water.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are sugars and polymers formed from items such as starch. Good
sources of carbohydrates include bread, rice, maize, millet, sorghum, bean and
cassava. Carbohydrates contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and,
together with fats, are the main sources of energy for our bodies. This energy is
released during the process of respiration. The human body does not store glucose in
the form of starch like green plants, but as another storage polymer called glycogen.
Lipids
The term lipids includes fats and oils. Fats and oils have the same structure but simply
melt over different temperature ranges. Good sources of lipids include butter, lard,
cheese, groundnuts and maize. Excess carbohydrate is converted into fat and stored
in the body around some vital organs to protect them from harm, and under the
skin to provide insulation. It is possible to store energy more efficiently as fat than as
carbohydrate. Lipids are used to make cell membranes.
Proteins
Good sources of proteins include liver, chicken, eggs, beans and fish. Proteins are
polymers formed of amino acids. They are needed by the body to build new cells and
also to repair damaged tissue.
Humans are unable to make some of the amino acids that the body needs, so these
must come from food. All animal protein contains all of the essential amino acids.
Apart from beans, such as soya bean, food from plants contains less amino acids and
some plants lack different essential amino acids.
In some countries people’s diets often contain little or no animal protein and they rely
on one main type of plant food such as maize. A lack of essential amino acids leads
to protein-deficiency illnesses such as kwashiorkor. As proteins are used to build new
cells, it is particularly important for growing children, pregnant women and those
recovering from illness to have a diet that contains plenty of protein.
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Vitamins
Vitamins are only required by the body in small quantities; however their role in
maintaining good health is vital. Vitamins are complex organic substances and were
labelled A, B, C, D, E and K in order of their discovery. They also have chemical names.
Some vitamins are soluble in water while others are soluble in fats.
Most vitamins are made by plants, and are found in fresh fruit and vegetables. Lack of
vitamins leads to deficiency diseases.
Vitamin Principal Why it is needed Symptoms of

sources deficiency
A meat, fish, to make the eye pigment dry eyes; night
liver, egg yolk, that allows us to see in the blindness
carrots dark
B yeast, helps cells to carry out beriberi (muscle
eggs, meat, respiration; helps the wastage); digestive
(includes
groundnuts nervous system to work problems; fatigue;
riboflavin
well pernicious
and niacin)
anaemia
C citrus helps to form the elastic scurvy – bleeding
fruits, fresh fibres in skin gums, ulcers on
vegetables skin
D fish liver oil, so that calcium can be rickets – soft,
egg yolk, liver absorbed and used to bendy bones
make bones and teeth
Mineral salts
Mineral salts are inorganic substances that contain elements the body needs, such as
iron, calcium, iodine and sodium. Plants are able to absorb mineral salts in solution
from the soil while humans obtain minerals from food. As with vitamins, minerals
are only needed by the body in small quantities but lack of them can lead to serious
deficiency diseases. Fresh fruit and vegetables contain a lot of the essential mineral
salts.
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Mineral Principal sources Why it is needed Symptoms of

deficiency
Calcium milk and other dairy to make strong bones weak bones and
products, fish, green and teeth; to help blood crumbling teeth
vegetables to clot
Iron red meat, green leafy to make the red pigment anaemia
vegetables, foods that in blood, haemoglobin (constant
have been cooked in tiredness and
iron pans lack of energy)
Iodine fish, iodised salt to make a hormone sluggishness,
called thyroxine swollen thyroid
gland (goitre)
Sodium salt to help cells to work well; cramps
to allow nerves to carry
electrical impulses
Roughage
Roughage or dietary fibre mainly consists of undigested cellulose from the cell walls
of plants. Brown rice and vegetables contain a lot of roughage. Although the human
body cannot digest this material, it has an important role in helping the digestive
system to function. It aids peristalsis by which muscles in the digestive system push
food materials along the alimentary canal. It also helps to prevent constipation by
stimulating the contraction of the muscles surrounding the intestines, especially the
large intestine.
Water
Water has no nutritional value but it is essential for life. It is possible for a person to
survive without food for a number of weeks, but they will die within a few days without
water. In tropical climates, at least 3–5 litres of water are needed every day. Water is
taken into the body as drinks and in food and is lost from the body through exhaled
air, sweat and in the urine. The role of water in the body includes the following:
• It is a solvent in which substances can dissolve and be transported within the

body.
• It is the main constituent of the cells. A cell is comprised of over 70% water.
• It is used to cool and transfer heat around the body.
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• The chemical reactions that take place in the cells of the body do so in solution.
Resources
• Access to the Internet or reference books
• Heat source
• Water bath
• Forceps
• Test tubes
• Filter paper
• Measuring cup
• Bowl
• Mixing spoon
• A selection of food items from home
• Glucose
• Ripened mango or pawpaw
• Benedict’s solution/Fehling’s A and B solutions
• Fat, oil or grease
• Cereal grain such as maize, wheat bran or rice bran
• Fishmeal or other animal protein
• Groundnut cake, copra cake or soya bean cake
• Salt
• Oyster shell or bone meal
• Vitamin premixes

Pupils could be asked to analyse the school lunches chosen by two pupils and comment
on whether they were a good choice or not:
Pupil A: A 12-year-old boy. He likes watching sport on the television but doesn’t
play any sports himself and he is a little overweight. He gets a lift to
school each day in his parents’ car. For his lunch he chose beef burger,
chips, jam doughnut and fruit squash.
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Pupil B: A 13-year-old girl. She runs cross-country races and plays lots of different
sports. She is very fit and cycles to school each day. For her lunch she
chose a salad roll, yoghurt and milk.
The boy is not very active so his body does not need lots of energy and he doesn’t need
so much food. The foods he has chosen are rich in carbohydrates and fats and contain
lots of sugar. Some of this will be stored as fat in his body and he will become more
overweight.
The girl is very active and her body needs lots of energy. The food she has chosen
contains some carbohydrates but very little fat. She could have added something like
a jacket potato to her lunch which would have given her more carbohydrates but not
much sugar.

1. Food and diet are popular issues in the modern world. How aware are pupils about
the composition of the food that they eat? Were they able to contribute to the
lessons? Was there sufficient time to allow pupils to express their own opinions?
If not perhaps some reorganisation of content should be made before the unit is
taught again.
2. Were pupils able to carry out the food tests, activities 13.2 and 13.3, successfully?
Would it be an advantage to demonstrate these food tests before pupils carry them
out?
3. Did pupils understand that malnutrition is the result of not obtaining nutrients
rather than not obtaining food? Did they appreciate that a person could have lots
to eat but still be malnourished if they do not receive sufficient amounts of one or
more nutrients?
the short answer questions 9 and 10? Did all of the pupils gain at least half marks
135

1. D
2. B
3. B
4. C
5. B
6. B
7. B
8. B
9. (i). Balanced diet:- a diet that contains all the nutrients required by the body
in their correct proportions and quantities
(ii) Deficiency disease:- a disease caused by lack of specific essential nutrients
in the diet
(iii) Malnutrition:- the adverse effects on the health of people who eat an un-
balanced diet (one that contains inadequate amounts of certain food nutrients)
10. (a) Three classes of food
• carbohydrates
• proteins
• fats and oils
(b) Carbohydrates: starch, sugar
Proteins: milk, egg albumen
Fats: butter
Minerals: iodated salt
Vitamins: carrot, milk
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Unit 14 Electrical Energy
Introduction
This unit is concerned with electrical energy. Pupils will discuss different ways in which
electrical energy may be obtained. They will learn about current, potential difference
and resistance and investigate the relationship between them. Pupils will investigate
the flow of current using simple circuits and learn to wire a three-pin plug correctly.
The final part of the unit is given over to discussing how electrical energy may be
conserved.
Specific objectives
1. describe ways of generating electrical energy

2. explain the terms electric current, potential difference and resistance
3. demonstrate the flow of current using a simple electrical circuit
4. wire an electric plug and explain the use of a fuse in electrical appliances
5. explain ways of conserving electrical energy.

Generating electricity 14.1 171 14.1 173
Current, potential difference 14.2 179
and resistance
Flow of current 14.3 179 14.2, 14.3, 181, 182,
14.4 185
Wiring a three-pin plug 14.4 186 14.5 187
Conserving electrical energy 14.5 188 14.6 189
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Lesson planning
The syllabus provides a logical order of work on electrical energy. Teaching strategies
1. Activity 14.6 involves a visit to a local factory or hospital. This should be

organised and a date set at the start of the unit.
2. Ask pupils to identify some sources of electricity. Make a list on the board.
3. Pupils should work through activity 14.1 examining at the inside of a cell and
identifying the different components.
4. Discuss the structure of the dry cell and its advantages and disadvantages.
5. Describe and discuss each of the following sources of electricity:
• Fuel cells
• Rechargeable cells
• Accumulators
• Solar panels
• Wind turbines.
For each one, discuss the energy changes that take place in order to generate
electricity.
6. Provide pupils with a definition of electric current in terms of a flow of charge

around a circuit.
7. Provide pupils with a definition of potential difference in terms of a difference in
potential energy between two points in a circuit. Explain the term ‘electromotive
force’ (EMF).
8. Provide pupils with a definition of resistance in terms of reducing the flow of
current around a circuit.
9. Introduce pupils to the concept of circuit diagrams and show them the symbols
used to represent common components.
10. Pupils should work through activity 14.2 building some simple circuits.
11. Pupils should work through activity 14.3 investigating current, potential
difference and resistance.
12. Use the results of activity 14.3 to deduce the relationship V = IR.
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13. Describe how bulbs may be connected together in parallel and discuss the
characteristics of parallel circuits.
14. Describe how bulbs may be connected together in series and discuss the
characteristics of parallel circuits.
15. Pupils should work through activity 14.4 investigating connecting bulbs in series
and in parallel.
16. Show pupils a three-pin electric plug and discuss the components: three pins,
fuse and cord grip. Demonstrate how the plug should be attached to a cable.
17. Pupils should work through activity 14.5 to practice wiring a three-pin plug
safely and correctly.
18. Point out to the class that electricity is expensive so it should not be wasted. Ask
pupils to identify ways in which electricity is wasted such as forgetting to turn
lights off. Make a list on the board. For each way in which electricity is wasted
challenge the class to suggest what should be done to reduce waste.
19. Pupils should work through activity 14.6 by visiting a local factory or hospital
and looking at how electricity is used and whether any savings could be made.
Series and parallel

There is a fundamental difference between connecting components in series and
connecting them in parallel.
If we imagine two bulbs connected in series and the wires as roads then if you travelled
from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of the cell along the road you
would pass through both of the bulbs.
Now if we imagine the two bulbs to be connected in parallel, at the point where the
wires are joined there is a junction. You either go straight on or you turn. If you go
straight on you will pass through one bulb, and if you turn you will pass through the
other bulb. Neither road will allow you to pass through both of the bulbs.
A complete circuit
An electric current will only flow through a complete circuit. If a gap appears in the
circuit, the current will stop. Sometimes a gap in the form of a switch is deliberately
introduced into a circuit in order to control a circuit. When a switch is turned off a gap
139

is opened and no current flows. When the switch is turned on the gap is closed and
current flows.
A bulb contains a very thin length of wire called a filament. When current flows
through the circuit the filament becomes white hot and glows giving out light. When
the filament of a bulb breaks, the circuit is incomplete and the bulb ceases to shine. If
bulbs are connected in series and one breaks, all of the bulbs in the circuit will go out.
Number of bulbs in series

The brightness of a bulb is determined by how much electrical energy is being
converted to light (and heat) energy.
As more bulbs are added in series to the circuit the bulbs shine less brightly. If an
ammeter is placed in series at different points in the circuit it will be found that the
same current flows through all of the components.
Assuming that the bulbs are of the same type, if a voltmeter is connected in parallel
across the bulbs in the circuit the potential difference across each bulb will be the
same and the sum of the potential differences across the bulbs will be equal to the
potential difference across the battery. The more bulbs that are added the smaller the
potential difference across each bulb. The bulbs divide the potential difference across
the battery.
When cells are connected in series the total potential difference of the battery is the
sum of the potential differences of the cells provided they are placed in the same
direction.
The greater the potential difference across a bulb the brighter it will glow, but at some
point the filament will melt and the bulb will be broken.
Number of bulbs in parallel

Adding bulbs in parallel does not alter their brightness. However, it is not possible to
keep on adding more and more bulbs without end. There will come a time when the
battery is unable to provide sufficient electrical energy.
It would seem that connecting two bulbs in parallel provides more energy than
connecting them in series but the situation is not so simple.
If voltmeters are placed at different positions in the parallel circuit it will be found that
the potential difference across each of the bulbs connected in parallel is the same as
the potential difference across the battery. If the battery consists of two 1.5 V cells the
battery potential difference is 3.0 V therefore the potential difference across each bulb
will be 3.0 V.
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If ammeters are placed at different position in the same circuit it will be found that
the total current flowing from the battery is equal to the sum of the currents passing
through each component, i.e. each part of the parallel circuit.
Comparing series and parallel circuits

The bulbs connected in parallel are brighter but they are drawing twice as much
current from the cell. This means that the cell will be exhausted more quickly.
Two bulbs connected in series will shine less brightly but will continue to shine for
longer because the cell will last for longer.
Resources
• Hacksaw • Screwdriver
• Knife • Three-pin plug
• Flashlight bulb x 2 • Dry cells
• Switch • Connecting wires
• Voltmeter • Aluminium foil
• Ammeter • Three-core cable
• Ohmmeter • Selection of possible conductors (e.g. strip
from milk tin, metal tin, rope, coins, paper,
blade, nails)
• Battery • Container
• Bulbs • Resistor

An electrical cell can be made by pushing rods of two different metals, so they are
not touching, into a citrus fruit like a lemon. A potential difference exists between the
ends of the metal rods that can be measured with a sensitive voltmeter and may light
a light-emitting diode. These are sometimes called fruit cells or fruit batteries. Several
can be connected in series to light a torch bulb.
Pupils could use their knowledge of potential difference to investigate which metals
and which fruits form the cells which give the greatest potential difference.

141

1. Cutting a dry cell in half along its length (activity 14.1) can be quite tricky. Did
pupils experience any difficulty doing this? In future would it be better for the
teacher to cut the cells in half and provide students with half cells so they can
observe the contents?
2. Pupils often have difficulty understanding the difference between current and voltage
and some even assume that they are alternative terms for the same thing. Were there
any difficulties in this respect? Would a simple analogy be useful? One common
analogy is to regard the flow of charge as a waterfall with the voltage corresponding
to the height of the waterfall and the current to the volume of water passing over it.
3. There are a number of practical activities in this unit? How did pupils perform on
them? Were there any difficulties in getting good connections? Are there any issues
to be learnt for conducting practical sessions on electricity in the future?
4. This unit involved a visit to a local factory or hospital (activity 14.6). Was there
any difficulty arranging this visit? Was the visit a success in terms of what the
pupils gained from it?
1. B 2. B 3. C 4. B 5. C 6. A 7. A
8. (i) An electromotive force is the force with which electrons are moved from
the negative terminal to the positive terminal of a cell.
(ii) A resistor is an electrical or electronic component that does not allow free
flow of electric current through an electrical or electronic circuit.
(iii) A transformer is an electrical component which steps down or steps up
the electrical energy in an electrical circuit or transmission line.
9. Manganese dioxide and powdered carbon.
10. (i) Current – ammeter
(ii) Potential difference – voltmeter
11. In series connections the same quantity of current passes through the loads
whereas in parallel connections each load takes current needed by the load.
12. (i) An electrical conductor is any material that permits the free flow of elec-
trons through it, e.g. silver, copper, carbon rod.
(ii) An insulator is a material that prevents the free flow of electrons through
it, e.g. rubber, wood.
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13.
cells connected in parallel
1.5V
1.5V
R1 connecting wires
R2
R3 three resistors in
parallel
14.
Component Symbol
(i) Resistor or
(ii) Light bulb or
(iii) Three cells
(iv) Switch
15. In the dry cell polarisation by the hydrogen atoms is prevented by the manga-
nese dioxide which oxidises the hydrogen to form water. This process reduces
the polarisation action of the hydrogen when large current is drawn from the
cell.
143

Brass cap
(positive contact)
Insulating pad
Zinc can
(negative plate)
Mixture of powdered
carbon and manga-
Ammonium nese
chloride jelly
Carbon rod
Cardboard disc
Negative contact
here
144

Unit 15 Basic Electronics
Introduction
This unit is concerned with basic electronics. Pupils will learn about the composition of
NPN and PNP transistors and investigate how transistors can be used in a circuit as a
switch and as an amplifier.
Specific objectives
1. describe the composition and types of transistors

2. describe the characteristics of transistors.

Syllabus topic Section Pupil’s Pupil Pupil’s
book page activities page
Composition of transistors 15.1 193
Characteristics of transistors 15.2 194 15.1, 15.2 196, 196
Lesson planning
The syllabus provides a logical order of work on basic electronics. Teaching strategies
1. Remind pupils about the structure of the diode which they studied last year.
Show them the structure of a transistor and let them compare the two.
2. Describe a transistor, showing the structure of a PNP and an NPN type and
identifying the three connections as the base, emitter and collector.
3. Show pupils the electronic symbols for a PNP and an NPN transistor.
4. Explain how the emitter-collector circuit is switched on when a small current
passes through the base.
5. Pupils should work through activity 15.1 investigating the switching action of a
transistor using an LED.
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6. Pupils should work through activity 15.2 investigating the amplifying action of
a transistor.

A bipolar transistor has three leads called the collector (C), the base (B) and the emitter
(E).
• In a NPN transistor the C and B must have positive voltages with respect to E.
• In an PNP transistor the C and B must have negative voltages with respect to E.
There are two paths which the current takes through a transistor. In the NPN type the
base current enters by B and the collector current by C. Both currents leave by E where
they combine to form the emitter current. The transistor is said to be in common-
emitter connection.
The base current switches on and controls a much bigger collector current. This switch
on does not occur until the base is at least 0.6 V positive with respect to the emitter.
The base-emitter therefore behaves as a diode and must have a forward bias of at least
0.6 V before current flows through the base and turns the collector on.
The base current must be limited by a resistor otherwise an excessive collector current
will destroy the transistor by overheating.
If the base current, IB, is considered as the input to a transistor and the collector
current, IC, as the output from it then the transistor acts as a current amplifier.
Typically, IC will be 10 to 1000 times greater than IB depending on the type of
transistor. The current gain, hFE, an important property of the transistor, is the ratio of
the collector current and the base current:
hFE = IC

IB
Since the current leaving a transistor, IE, equals that entering it, then IE = IB + IC.
For example, if IB = 0.05 mA and IC = 5 mA then:
• hFE = 5/0.05 = 100

• IE = 0.05 + 5 = 5.05 mA
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Resources
• Connecting wires
• 10 Ω resistor
• 470 Ω resistor
• 560 Ω resistor
• NPN transistor
• LED x 2
• Switch x 2
• 9 V battery

Pupils could use their knowledge of transistors to investigate what happens when two
NPN transistors are arranged such that the emitter from the first transistor provides
the base current for the second transistor.
This configuration is sometimes called a Darlington pair and provides a much higher
current gain than an individual transistor.

1. Review the lesson spent introducing transistors. Did the pupils understand the
concept of transistors and their characteristics? Was it necessary to go over any
aspects of transistors more than once?
2. How did pupils perform on the practical activities? Were there any difficulties
in getting good connections? Were any LEDs or transistors damaged because
they were connected incorrectly in circuits? Is it necessary to give more explicit
warnings about checking circuits before connecting them to batteries in the
future?
147

1. B
2. A
3. C
4. D
5.
collector
collector
base
base
emitter
emitter
Symbol for NPN

6. A transistor is said to be forward biased when it allows current to pass through
it.
7. The output signal is amplified.
8. The transistor receives signal (small) from the d.c. source through the base and
transfers it to the collector. This adds up to the collector’s current, which be-
comes magnified and sent out as output. Thus a small input signal becomes a
large (magnified) output signal.
9.
collector
base
P N P
emitter
Symbol for PNP
collector
base
N P N
emitter
Symbol for NPN

148

The direction of the arrow determines the type of transistor. If the arrow points
towards the emitter it is an NPN. If the arrow points towards the base then it is
a PNP transistor.
10. Transistors must be forward biased to allow the free flow of electrons; diodes
also must be forward biased to allow electrons to flow through them. Both
diodes and transistors have regions that are majority donors of electrons called
n-type and minority donor regions called hole or p-type. Transistors were devel-
oped using the principles of diodes.
149

Section 5: Interactions Of Matter
1. appreciate that interactions between and within matter help humans to

better understand the environment and their role in it
2. recognise common pests, parasites and diseases of plants and animals
3. show understanding of the negative effects of pests, parasites and diseases
4. develop skills in preventing and controlling pests, parasites and diseases
5. recognise basic principles underlying the operation of basic machines.
Unit 16 Infectious Diseases of Humans and Plants
Introduction
This unit is concerned with infectious diseases of humans and plants. Pupils will learn
the meaning of the term ‘infectious’ and consider the causes and control of a number
of common infectious diseases.
Specific objectives
1. explain the term infectious disease

2. identify common infectious diseases
3. describe the causes, mode of transmission, prevention and control of some
common diseases of humans, animals and crops.

Definition of infectious disease 16.1 200
Common infectious diseases 16.2 200
Transmission and control of 16.3 200 16.1, 16.2 208, 208
infectious diseases
150

Lesson planning
The syllabus provides a logical order of work on infectious diseases of humans.
1. Give pupils a definition of an ‘infectious’ disease as a disease caused by

pathogens that can spread from one organism to another. Give some examples
of infectious diseases in plants and in animals.
2. Point out that, by comparison, the deficiency diseases mentioned in unit 13 are
non-infectious diseases since they are the result of nutrients lacking in the diet
and cannot be passed on to others.
3. Name and discuss some examples of infectious diseases affecting humans
including:
• Tuberculosis
• Chickenpox
• Meningitis
• HIV and AIDS
• Buruli ulcer
• Typhoid
• Cholera
• Influenza
• Hepatitis
• Yellow fever.
For each one identify the cause, the way in which the disease is spread, the
symptoms of the disease and how it may be prevented or controlled.
4. Briefly discuss the following examples of infectious diseases in plants in a

similar way to above:
• Black pod
• Swollen shoot.
5. Pupils should work through activity 16.1 researching into infectious diseases
using whatever resources are available.
151

6. Pupils should work through activity 16.2 in groups, devising a poster that
will alert people to the dangers of AIDS in order to reduce the spread of this
condition.

For a disease to be infectious it must be transmitted from some source. Identifying the
means of transmission is an important part of understanding the disease and devising
means of preventing it. Transmission may be through several different mechanisms.
• Respiratory diseases such as tuberculosis and meningitis are commonly acquired

from contact with droplets in the air spread by sneezing, coughing, talking or
kissing.
• Gastrointestinal diseases, such as dysentery, are often acquired from eating
contaminated food or drinking contaminated water.
• Sexually transmitted diseases are spread as a result of sexual activity.
• Some infectious diseases may be spread as a result of coming into contact with
inanimate objects such as coins or bank notes.
Transmission of disease may also involve a vector which carries the pathogen from
one place to another. Vectors may be classified as mechanical or biological.
• A mechanical vector picks up the pathogen on the outside of its body and carries
it from one place to another. This is a passive way in which disease spreads. A
house fly may land on animal waste, pick up pathogens on its body and then
land on food where the pathogens are deposited.
• A biological vector actually harbours the pathogens inside the body and delivers
it to the new host in an active manner. Biological vectors are responsible for
some serious blood-borne diseases including malaria, viral encephalitis, Chagas
disease, Lyme disease and sleeping sickness. Biological vectors are often but not
always arthropods such as mosquitoes, ticks, fleas and lice.
Resources

Pupils could choose an infectious disease and research its prevalence in Ghana and
what is done to control it. Information on infectious diseases in Ghana is available on
Internet websites such as:
152

• http://www.indexmundi.com/ghana/major_infectious_diseases.html
• http://www.usaid.gov/ghana/global-health
• http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20140714084352/http://www.hpa.org.uk/
MigrantHealthGuide/CountriesAZ/SubSaharanAfrica/Ghana/

1. The activities in this unit both involve research on the Internet or in reference
books. Were pupils disappointed not to be doing any practical work in this unit? Is
it possible to devise one or two practical-based activities for the next time this unit
is taught?
2. How successful were pupils in answering the revision questions particularly the
short answer questions 8–10? Did all of the pupils gain at least half marks on the
questions? Was there any particular question answered badly by most or all of the
pupils? If so this indicates that some remedial work should be carried out on that
particular part of the unit before moving on.
1. B
2. B
3. B
4. D
5. B
6. D
7. C
8. (a) Infectious diseases are diseases that are easily transmitted from one
person to another by different methods; they are also described as contagious or
communicable diseases.
(b) Two infectious diseases in humans and their causes:
153

Diseases Causes
Cholera Vibrio cholerae (bacterium)
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis (bacterium)
HIV and AIDS HIV virus
Chickenpox Virus
Typhoid Salmonella typhi
(c) Two precautions to prevent the spread of typhoid and chickenpox
(i) Typhoid
• purification of water supply
• safe disposal of sewage
• vaccination
• screening of food vendors
• clean environment and good sanitation
(ii) chickenpox
• avoid direct contact with infected persons
• avoid overcrowded areas
• vaccination
9. (a) Personal hygiene: personal cleanliness that promotes good health,
prevents disease and ensures good sanitation.
(b) Ways of maintaining personal hygiene:
• washing hands with soap before eating and after visiting toilet
• keeping fingernails clean and short
• cleaning teeth
• covering food to prevent contamination
• proper sewage and refuse disposal
• clean water
• footwear to prevent cuts and worm infections
• regular exercise
10. (a) Diseases that can be controlled by immunisation
• infective hepatitis
• tuberculosis
• influenza
154

• diphtheria
• whooping cough
• tetanus
• measles
• poliomyelitis
• yellow fever
(b) Two ways of preventing infection during an outbreak of cholera:
• isolation of victims
• good personal hygiene
• avoid contaminated or unhygienic foods
• use of clean water
• good environmental cleanliness
155

Unit 17 Pests and Parasites
Introduction
This unit is concerned with pests and parasites. Pupils will learn the difference between
a pest and a parasite. They will identify some common pests and parasites and discuss
how to control them.
Specific objectives
1. differentiate between pests and parasites and give examples

2. outline methods of controlling pests and parasites.

Differences between pests and 17.1 212 17.1 217
parasites
Controlling pests and parasites 17.2 218 17.2, 17.3 221, 221
Lesson planning
The syllabus provides a logical order of work on pests and parasites. Teaching
1. Activity 17.3 involves a visit by an agricultural officer or health official. This

should be organised at the start of the unit so that a date and time are fixed.
2. Define the terms ‘pest’ and ‘parasite’.
3. Discuss the difference between pests and parasites.
4. Describe and discuss the effects of pests and parasites on crops.
5. Describe and discuss the effects of pests and parasites on livestock.
6. Describe and discuss the effects of pests and parasites on humans.
156

7. Name some crop pests and parasites and briefly describe their effect on crops.
8. Name some pests and parasites that affect humans and describe their effects.
9. Pupils should work through activity 17.1 discussing pests and parasites.
10. Describe and discuss how pests and parasites may be controlled using chemicals.
11. Describe and discuss biological control as an alternative to the use of chemicals.
12. Explain how cultural activities can help to control pests and parasites.
13. Ask pupils what might be needed in order to devise some form of integrated pest
management. Write their suggestions on the board and ask pupils to devise a
plan of action.
14. Pupils should work through activity 17.2, taking part in a whole class discussion
of pest and parasite control.
15. Pupils should work through activity 17.3 listening to what is said by a local
agricultural officer or health official about pests and parasites, and asking
questions to obtain more information.

A pest is an organism that causes harm or damage to crops and livestock.
A parasite is an organism that lives on or in another living organism called its host.
Some parasites, such as tapeworms, live inside the host while others, like fleas, live on
the outside of the host. A parasite gets all of its food from its host.
Pests that create problems in the home include flies, cockroaches, rats and mice, and
mosquitoes.
• House flies may carry diseases such as dysentery. Eggs laid in waste food hatch
out into maggots.
• Cockroaches carry bacteria on their bodies and in their faeces. If bacteria are
ingested it may result in food poisoning. Inhaled bacteria may trigger an allergic
reaction.
• Rats and mice can transmit bacterial diseases including leptospirosis and a more
severe form called Weil’s disease. Rats carry parasitic fleas that can transmit
diseases like bubonic plague (the Black Death).
• Mosquitoes act as vectors for a range of diseases including yellow fever, dengue
fever and malaria.
157

Resources

Pupils could be set the task of using their knowledge of pests to design and write a
leaflet warning people of the dangers of household pests and what they can do to
avoid problems caused by such pests.
If suitable facilities are available these leaflets could be printed and distributed locally.

1. Review the lesson spent introducing pests and parasites. Did the pupils understand
the difference between a pest and a parasite? Was it necessary to go over any
aspects of pests or parasites more than once?
2. The activities in this unit are all in the form of pencil and paper exercises and/or
discussions. Were pupils disappointed not to be doing any practical work in this
unit? Is it possible to devise one or two practical-based activities for the next time
this unit is taught?
3. Review the work on controlling pests and parasites. Were there any particular
parts of the lesson where pupils appeared particularly interested? Can you say
why this was? Were there any particular parts of the lesson where pupils appeared
bored? Can you say why this was?
1. D 6. D
2. A 7. C
3. C 8. B
4. C
5. D
158

Unit 18 Force and Pressure
Introduction
This unit is concerned with force and pressure. Pupils will learn about different types of
forces and their effects. They will measure forces using a forcemeter and investigate the
effects of friction. Pupils will find out about the relationship between force and pressure
and the effects of pressure on solids and fluids.
Specific objectives
1. explain what is meant by the term force

2. describe the different types of force
3. demonstrate the effects of force on objects
4. measure force using a force meter
5. outline the effects of friction on objects
6. define pressure and demonstrate its effects in solids
7. demonstrate that pressure acts equally in all directions in fluids
8. demonstrate that pressure in fluids increases with depth
9. outline some uses of pressure in fluids.

Syllabus topic Section in Pupil’s Pupil’s Book Pupil’s
Pupil’s Book Book page activities Book page
Definition of force 18.1 225
Types of forces 18.2 227 18.1, 18.2, 18,3, 227 - 230
18.4, 18.5
Effects of forces 18.3 230
Measuring force 18.4 231 18.6 231
Friction 18.5 231 18.7 232
Pressure 18.6 232 18.8 233
Pressure in a fluid 18.7 234 18.9 235
Pressure and 18.8 235 18.10 236
depth of a fluid
Uses of pressure 18.9 237
in fluids
159

Lesson planning
The syllabus provides a logical order of work on force and pressure. Teaching strategies
1. Provide pupils with a definition of a force.

2. Discuss the nature of gravity and ask pupils if they can suggest some examples
of where they might encounter this force.
3. Pupils should work through activity 18.1 finding out about gravity.
4. Discuss the nature of elasticity and ask pupils if they can suggest some examples
5. Pupils should work through activity 18.2 finding out about elastic force.
6. Discuss the nature of friction and ask pupils if they can suggest some examples
7. Pupils should work through activity 18.3 finding out about friction.
8. Discuss the nature of magnetism and ask pupils if they can suggest some
examples of where they might encounter this force.
9. Pupils should work through activity 18.4 finding out about magnetism.
10. Discuss the nature of an electrostatic force and ask pupils if they can suggest
some examples of where they might encounter this force.
11. Pupils should work through activity 18.5 finding out about electrostatic forces.
12. Describe and discuss the different effects a force may have on an object.
13. Pupils should work through activity 18.6 measuring forces using a force meter.
14. Describe and discuss the effects of friction.
15. Pupils should work through activity 18.7 investigating friction between two
surfaces.
16. Provide pupils with a definition of pressure in terms of force per unit area. State
that the S.I. unit of pressure is the pascal which is equivalent to newtons per
square metre.
17. Pupils should work through activity 18.8 investigating pressure. Work through
some examples of pressure calculations with the class.
18. Discuss how pressure acts in fluids.
19. Pupils should work through activity 18.9 investigating the direction in which
pressure acts in a fluid.
160

20. Explain to the class how pressure increases with depth in a fluid. Point out that
this is the case in the atmosphere (the higher you go the lower atmospheric
pressure becomes) and in the sea (the deeper you go the greater the water
pressure).
21. Pupils should work through activity 18.10 investigating how pressure varies with
depth of water.
22. Briefly describe and discuss some applications of pressure being transmitted
through a fluid, such as the breaking system of a motor car.
Friction
Whenever one object slides over another a force tries to prevent this movement. This
force is called friction. Friction is not restricted to movement between solid surfaces. It
also exists when a solid moves through a liquid or a gas, and between moving layers
of liquids and gases.
The direction of friction is always opposite to the motion of an object. Friction only
exists while an object is in motion.
If the surface of an object that feels perfectly smooth to the touch is examined using a
powerful microscope it will be seen that it is far from smooth. The surface is really an
irregular pattern of high points and low points.
As an object moves, the high points on the object’s surface and the high points on the
other surface push against each other so they act to slow the object down.
Energy is needed to overcome friction. This energy is wasted in the sense that it is not
being used do useful work. Wasted energy causes surfaces that are in contact with each
other to heat up.
On a cold day rubbing hands together makes them feel warm. The energy needed to
overcome friction between the hands is converted to heat.
161

Friction also causes surfaces to wear each other away. In an engine there are many
moving parts. If these were not lubricated by oil they would soon wear each other
away. Oil reduces friction in a car engine by helping parts to move over each other
more smoothly and it also removes heat.
Reducing friction
Friction cannot be completely eliminated; however it can often be reduced. Any
method of reducing friction must keep the surfaces apart so that they can pass over
each other more easily.
A film of oil or grease between moving objects prevents the surfaces from touching
each other so they are able to move over each other more easily. A layer of polish has
the same effect.
Rollers reduce friction because there is less contact between the surfaces and the rollers
than there would be between the surfaces.
A hovercraft is designed to float on a cushion of air so there is no contact or friction

with the ground.
Modern transport vehicles have a streamlined shape in order to reduce friction as they
move through the air and water. This is particularly important for aircraft because
they travel at high speeds.
Useful applications of friction

Friction should not be regarded only as a nuisance. There are many instances where
friction is essential.
Friction between the feet and the ground allows people to walk.
Friction between the wheels of a car and the ground allows it to move. Friction between
the brakes and wheels ensures that the driver can stop the car.
Static electricity
The word static means standing still. Static electricity is a build-up of charge on an
electrical insulator like glass or plastic. The charge cannot flow away so it remains on
the surface of the insulator. When a comb or a glass rod is charged by rubbing it on
a cloth the amount of charge is so small that it cannot be felt; however it can produce
some very interesting effects.
The nature of static electricity

Here are some examples of static electric charge building up:
162

• When a person combs their hair they may sometimes hear a crackle.
• If a person walks across a nylon carpet and then touches a metal door handle
they may feel a sharp tingle at the end of their fingers. They have received a
small electric shock.
• A person may receive an electric shock when they get out of a car and touch the
metal door handle. Static charge builds up on the car as it moves through the
air.
The Ancient Greeks noticed that rubbing a material called amber on wool gives it
unusual properties. It is able to pick up small objects, like hairs, threads, pieces of
feathers and even dry leaves.
The physicist William Gilbert discovered that after rubbing some materials together
they attract small objects. Rubbing them together charges them with electricity.
Under certain conditions charge even builds up in the atmosphere. When cold and
warm bodies of air rub over each other they become charged. Eventually the charge
becomes so great it passes to Earth in a great spark. This is called lightning.
A Van der Graaf generator is a device used in the laboratory to generate large amounts
of electric charge.
Charging with static electricity

Any insulator can be charged with static electricity by rubbing it with another
insulator. Rods of glass or plastic are often charged by rubbing them on fabrics such as
wool or silk.
A piece of cling film can be charged by wrapping it around the hand and rubbing it in
the same direction on a woollen garment or on someone’s hair.
Different types of charge

When a glass rod is rubbed with silk it becomes charged. The charged glass rod can be
suspended by a thread so it can spin around.
When a second charged glass rod is placed close to it, the suspended glass rod turns
away because the two rods repel each other.
Rubbing a rod of a substance called ebonite with a duster causes the ebonite rod to
become charged. When a charged ebonite rod is brought near the suspended rod it
turns towards the ebonite rod because the rods attract each other.
163

From the above observations it is clear that there are two different types of static
electric charge. Scientists call them positive charge and negative charge. The charges
can be denoted by the symbols + and –.
• Two like charges, i.e. + + or – –, will repel each other

• Two unlike charges, i.e. + – or – +, will attract each other.
Why do charged objects attract?

When a charged object, such as a nylon comb, is placed above some small pieces of
tissue paper, the paper is attracted and ‘sticks’ to the comb.
Image that the comb is carrying a + charge and that each piece of tissue paper has
equal amounts of + and – charge. When a piece of paper is away from the comb the
+ and – charges are distributed evenly, but when the comb is brought near something
happens.
The + charges on the paper are repelled by the + charges on the comb and move as far
away as possible from it. Conversely, the – charges on the paper are attracted by the
+ charges on the comb and move towards it. The part of the paper next to the comb is
sufficiently attracted to the comb to become attached to it.
Resources
• Pieces of chalk
• Paper
• Soft clay
• Sand
• Sponge
• String
• Stick
• Cocoyam or yam
• Marker pen
• Hole punch
• Catapult
• Spring
• Bar magnet x 2
• Plastic comb
• Force meter
• Stones
164

• Trolley
• Aluminium bucket
• Hacksaw blade
• Weights
• Empty metal tin
• Wooden pegs
• Measuring device
• Shea butter or cooking oil
• Knife
• Punching device

Pupils could apply their knowledge of forces to measure the size of the friction force
between two surfaces as one is dragged over the other. They could then investigate
different ways in which friction could be reduced using wax, oil, water, etc., and find
out how effective each is in reducing friction.

1. Review the lesson spent introducing forces. Did the pupils understand the concept
of forces and were they able to identify different types of forces? Was it necessary to
go over any aspects of forces more than once?
2. There is a lot of practical work in this unit. How did pupils perform in the
activities? Were there any problems or mishaps? Are there any organisational
issues to be learnt for conducting practical sessions in the future?
3. Did pupils understand the relationship between force and pressure, i.e. that
pressure is force applied over a unit area? Did calculations involving pressure,
cause any difficulties? Would it be useful to work through more exemplar
calculations on the board in future?
165

the short answer questions 9 and 10? Did all of the pupils gain at least half marks
1. A
2. B
3. C
4. A
5. B
6. D
7. B
8. B
9. (i) Electrostatic force is a force between particles or objects because of their
charge; it can be attracive or repulsive.
(ii) Contact forces are the forces that occur as a result of a force coming into
contact with a body; contact forces include friction and compressive
force.
(iii) Pressure is the force per unit area.
10 The clouds at different temperatures meet and move, with the higher tempera-
ture clouds rising to the top while the cooler clouds sink. The friction between
the particles causes the atoms to ionise and generate positive and negative
charges. The attraction between the unlike charges creates electrostatic forces.
166

Unit 19 Machines
Introduction
This unit is concerned with machines. Pupils will consider examples of simple
machines, such as the lever, inclined plane, gears, wheel and axle, and screw. They
will investigate the different types of levers and how they are used. Pupils will learn
about work, energy and power, and how to find the efficiency of a machine from the
ratio of work out to work in. In the final part of the unit pupils will consider some
complex machines and how they should be cared for.
Specific objectives
1. explain the term machine

2. give examples of simple machines
3. describe the types of levers and the principles involved in their use
4. explain the terms work, energy and power
5. explain work input, work output and efficiency as they apply to machines
6. explain the terms compound/complex machines
7. outline how to care for machines.

Definition of machine 19.1 241
Simple machines 19.2 241
Levers 19.3 242
Work, energy and power 19.4 245 19.1 247
Efficiency 19.5 248 19.2 248
Complex machines 19.6 249
Caring for machines 19.7 251 19.3, 19.4, 258, 259,
19.5 259
167

Unit 19 Machines
Lesson planning
The syllabus provides a logical order of work on machines. Teaching strategies should
be determined by the nature and content of the topic. Lessons should be planned to
cover the following sequence of topics:
1. Provide the class with a definition of a machine.

2. Describe and discuss the action of levers. Explain the difference between first-
class, second-class and third-class levers and give some common examples of
each.
3. Work through some exemplar calculations involving levers based on the
relationship work done = force × distance.
4. Explain to pupils that work done is a measure of the amount of energy
transferred and is measured in newton metres. The unit of work done (and
energy) is the joule which is equivalent to the newton metre.
5. Explain to pupils that power is the rate at which work is done or energy is
transferred and it is therefore measured in joules per second. The unit of power is
the watt which is equivalent to the joule per second.
6. Pupils should work through activity 19.1 investigating the relationship between
work, energy and power.
7. Explain to the class that, in physics terms, efficiency is the proportion of energy
input which is used to do useful work. Point out that efficiency can either be
given as a fraction or a percentage and that no device is 100% efficient.
8. Pupils should work through activity 19.2 thinking about useful machines.
Balanced and unbalanced forces

When a car moves forward, its motion is affected by three forces:
• The force of the motor that moves the car forward
• The air resistance that pushes the car backward
• The friction of the moving parts rubbing against each other.
If the first force is greater than the other the two the velocity of the car will increase. If
the first force is less than the other two the car will slow down. In both cases the forces
are said to be unbalanced. When unbalanced forces act on a body its motion will
change.
168

Unit 19 Machines
If the first force is equal to the other forces the forces are said to be balanced. The car
will travel at a constant velocity. When balanced forces act on a body its motion will
remain unchanged.
When the forces acting on a cyclist are balanced the cyclist travels at a constant
velocity.
When the cyclist needs to stop he or she pulls the breaks. A friction force acts between
the brake blocks and the wheel rim. After braking the forces are no longer balanced
and the bicycle will eventually come to a stop.
When a parachutist jumps out of an aeroplane the force of gravity pulls him or her
towards the ground. When the parachute opens the air resistance greatly increases
and the parachutist slows down. Eventually the forces of gravity and air resistance are
balanced and the parachutist falls to the ground at a constant velocity.
Lifting machines
The inclined plane
An inclined plane can be used to load barrels onto the back of a lorry. It takes less
effort to roll a barrel up the plane than it does to lift it vertically upwards, however
the effort on the inclined plane must be applied over a longer distance. The ancient
Egyptians are thought to have used an inclined plane to raise large blocks of stone into
place when building the pyramids of Giza.
Pulleys
Raising heavy weights vertically is difficult. A pulley block makes this easier. Pulling
on the rope requires less effort than carrying the heavy weight, but the effort of pulling
the rope has to be applied for longer. More rope is pulled through the pulley than the
distance by which the weight is raised.
Windlass
A windlass is a form of wheel and axle. Windlasses are often seen on top of wells. A
bucket of water is heavy. A windlass allows a bucket to be raised from the bottom of
the well to the surface with less effort than pulling the bucket up directly, but the effort
of turning the wheel must be applied for longer. The person raising the bucket has
to push the wheel around much further than the length of the rope attached to the
bucket.
169

Unit 19 Machines
Resources
• A cement block weighing 2 kg
• Bathroom scales
• Tape measure
• Stopwatch/clock

Pupils could apply their knowledge of power = work done/time taken to find the power
of a small electric heater. The information they will need is:
• The mass of the water heated

• The initial temperature of the water
• The final temperature of the water
• The specific heat capacity of water which is 4.18 J per g per K
• The time the heater is used for.
From these values it is possible to calculate the power of the heater. For example,
suppose that a small heater was switched on for 5 minutes and raised the temperature
of 100 g of water by 7.8 ºC.
Energy given out by heater = energy gained by water = 4.18 x 100 x 7.8 = 3260.4 J
Time heater switched on = 5 x 60 = 300 s
Power of heater = 3260.4/300 = 10.9 W

1. Review the lesson spent on simple machines. Were there any particular parts of
the lesson where pupils appeared particularly interested? Can you say why this
was? Were there any particular parts of the lesson where pupils appeared bored?
Can you say why this was?
170

Unit 19 Machines
2. Did pupils have difficulty in remembering the positions of the load, fulcrum and
effort in different classes of lever? Is it possible to provide a simple aid to help them
remember?
3. There are a number of formulae given in the unit. Did pupils have difficulty in
applying any of the formulae to carry out calculations? Would it benefit pupils to
carry out more exemplar calculations using some of the formulae?
the short answer questions 9–13? Did all of the pupils gain at least half marks on
the questions? Was there any particular question answered badly by most or all of
the pupils? If so this indicates that some remedial work should be carried out on
1. C
2. C
3. B
4. A
5. B
6. D
7. A
8. C
9. Work = force × distance
(i) 12 N × 3 m = 36 joules
(ii) 16 N × 8 m = 128 joules
(iii) 10 N × 9 m = 90 joules
10. work done

Power =
unit time
work done
11. (i) Power =
unit time
50 × 10 N × 8
=
4 seconds

= 1000 watts

171

Unit 19 Machines
(ii) Work done = Force × distance

= M × g × distance
= 50 × 10 × 8
= 4000 joules
= 4 kJ
12. (i) First-class = effort at the end, pivot at the centre and load at the end
(ii) Third-class = load at the end, effort at the centre and pivot at the end
13. Friction is overcome by using rollers and lubricants. Friction can be reduced by
moving the surfaces in contact apart (creating a gap between the surfaces in
contact).
172

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Junior Integrated Science

JHS INT SCI TG 2.indd 1 06/10/2017 5:53 PM

First published in 2017 by

Text © Winmat Publishers Ltd. 2017.

Design and Illustrations © Winmat Publishers Ltd. 2017.

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this

Designed and typeset by Francis K.N. Nunoo

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III. SAFETY ISSUES 9

IV. TEACHING METHODOLOGY 13

PART 2: TEACHING NOTES 36

UNIT 2 METALS AND NON-METALS 47

Physical properties of non-metals ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 50

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UNIT 3 CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS 58

Homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures ����������������������������������������������������������������67

Methods of separating mixtures �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������69

Carbon in the environment ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������82

UNIT 7 WEATHER, SEASON AND CLIMATE 91

Composition of the atmosphere�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������92

The male reproductive organs��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������99

The female reproductive organs ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������100

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UNIT 9 HEREDITY 104

Genes and chromosomes �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������106

UNIT 10 DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS 109

UNIT 11 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN HUMANS 115

Structure and function of the heart ����������������������������������������������������������������������������116

SECTION 4: ENERGY 122

Requirements for photosynthesis��������������������������������������������������������������������������������124

UNIT 13 FOOD AND NUTRITION 128

UNIT 14 ELECTRICAL ENERGY 136

Number of bulbs in parallel����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������139

Comparing series and parallel circuits�������������������������������������������������������������������������140

UNIT 15 BASIC ELECTRONICS 144

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UNIT 17 PESTS AND PARASITES 155

UNIT 18 FORCE AND PRESSURE 158

Charging with static electricity ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 162

Why do charged objects attract?���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 163

UNIT 19 MACHINES 166

Balanced and unbalanced forces ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 167

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In Part 1 of this Teacher’s Guide the teacher will find:

• an overview of the Integrated Science Year 2 syllabus

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Part 1 Effective science teaching

Part 2 Teaching notes

Section 1: Diversity of matter

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Section 5: Interactions of matter

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i. Overview of Integrated Science Year 2 content

Section 1: Diversity of matter

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Unit 4 Definition of a mixture

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Unit 10 Definition of diffusion

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Unit 18 Definition of force

Knowledge and understanding

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III. SAFETY ISSUES 9

IV. TEACHING METHODOLOGY 13

PART 2: TEACHING NOTES 36

UNIT 2 METALS AND NON-METALS 47

Physical properties of non-metals �� 50

UNIT 3 CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS 58

Homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures ��67

Methods of separating mixtures ��69

Carbon in the environment ��82

UNIT 7 WEATHER, SEASON AND CLIMATE 91

Composition of the atmosphere��92

The male reproductive organs��99

The female reproductive organs ��100

UNIT 9 HEREDITY 104

Genes and chromosomes ��106

UNIT 10 DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS 109

UNIT 11 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN HUMANS 115

Structure and function of the heart ��116

SECTION 4: ENERGY 122

Requirements for photosynthesis��124

UNIT 13 FOOD AND NUTRITION 128

UNIT 14 ELECTRICAL ENERGY 136

Number of bulbs in parallel��139

Comparing series and parallel circuits��140

UNIT 15 BASIC ELECTRONICS 144

UNIT 17 PESTS AND PARASITES 155

UNIT 18 FORCE AND PRESSURE 158

Charging with static electricity �� 162

Why do charged objects attract?�� 163

UNIT 19 MACHINES 166

Balanced and unbalanced forces �� 167