473 The Particle 515

(b) Feelings of admiration, scorn etc.:

Смотр-ка, каке кнжки он читет!
Just look what books he is reading!
(iii) Alternatively, it may contain a note of indignant challenge:
Постй-ка под холдным д"шем!
Just you try standing under a cold shower!

(10) Ну
Ну is used:
(i) In exclamations:
Ну, устл! Am I tired!
Ну и ну! Well, well!
(ii) In emphasis:
Ну, морз! Quite a frost!

Note
Sometimes there is an element of sarcasm:
Ну, герй! Some hero!
(iii) With the perfective future to denote grudging consent:
Ну пойдём, сли ты так хчешь!
All right, let’s go, if you are so keen!
(iv) To express impatience:
Ну, хвтит! That’s enough of that!
(v) To express a peremptory imperative:
Ну, говор! All right, out with it!

(11) -то
(i) -то may be used to express diffidence, a reluctance to be categorical:
— Тут у вас впить-то мжно?
‘Are you allowed to have a drink here?’
— Вообщ-то не полжено
‘Actually it’s not normally allowed’
(ii) It is frequently used to refer to something already mentioned:
516 The Particle 473

— Я вчер и в магазне-то н был . . . (Shukshin)

‘Yesterday I wasn’t even in the shop . . .’
(iii) It may be the equivalent of English ‘I mean’:
— Он что, зарегистррован как алкоглик? Королёв-то?
(Shukshin)
‘Is he registered as an alcoholic? Korolev, I mean?’
(iv) Emphatic use is common with adverbs:
Тепрь-то я пнял, чт его беспокит
It was now that I realized what was bothering him
Смое стршное — плав"чие мны. Потом4-то кр"глые с"тки
нес"т вхту вперёдсмотрAщие (Gagarin)
The most terrible things are mines. That’s why the look-outs are on
24-hour watch
(v) The particle may also be used to strengthen a negative:
'то не так-то прсто It’s not so simple at that

(12) Уж
Уж emphasizes the main emotive content of a statement, ranging from:
(i) Confident assertion:
Уж мнго лет в тих краAх нет дких олней (Astafev)
Now there haven’t been any wild deer in these parts for many years
(ii) Resigned acceptance of the inevitable:
— Да уж пусть себ игрют ‘Oh let them play’
(iii) Reassurance:
Не беспокйтесь, уж я не заб"ду! Don’t worry, I won’t forget!
(iv) Condescension:
Уж прид"мал! That’s a tall story!

(13) Хоть
Хоть can denote:
(i) A minimum requirement or expectation:
 473–474 The Particle 517

Хоть причешсь! At least comb your hair!

(ii) An exemplary meaning:
Взять хоть тебA; ты ведь ни рзу не пожловался
Take you, for example; now you haven’t once complained
(iii) A readiness to oblige, or to indulge a whim:
Подем хоть звтра! Let’s go tomorrow, for all
I care!
(iv) Intensity or extreme manifestation (with imperatives):
Рабты у нег хоть отбавл3й! He’s up to his eyes in work!

(14) Что
(i) In questions, что often emphasizes the preceding noun or pronoun:
А A что, возражю? I’m not objecting, am I?
Т что, с ум сошл? Are you mad, or what?
(ii) The phrase (ну) чт вы! denotes energetic denial:
Ну чт вы! Я вполн Now come off it! I’m perfectly fit!
здорва!

474 The aggregation of particles for increased emphasis

(1) Particles may be aggregated to heighten emphasis:

(i) А ведь/да ведь/но ведь:
А ведь Алексндр считлся однм из сильнйших игрокв
(Russia Today)
And yet, you know, Aleksandr was considered to be one of the very
best players
(ii) А ещё:
Сам не учлся, а ещё специалстов критик"ет!
He hasn’t studied himself, yet has the nerve to criticize the experts!
(iii) Бы уж:
— О гсподи, — перекрестлась бба, — молчл бы уж (Belov)
‘Oh, my God’, the woman said, crossing herself, ‘you really ought
518 The Particle 474

to have kept your mouth shut’

(iv) Вот ещё/вот уж:

— Ндо бы ег разыскть — сказл Пётр.

— Вот ещё. — нахм"рилась Лля. — Бльше теб длать
нчего? (Uvarova)
‘I suppose we ought to go looking for him’, said Petr.
‘Come off it’, said Lelya with a frown. ‘Have you nothing better to
do with your time?’

Вот уж не зню.
I haven’t the foggiest

(v) Да и/да уж:

А костёр горл-горл да и спалл 1 700 гектров лса (Russia

Today)
And the bonfire burnt on and on and went and destroyed 1,700 hectares
of woodland

Да уж и сам-то хорош! (Shcherbakov)

She’s a fine one to talk!

(vi) Ещё бы/ещё как:

Всело на душ! Ещё бы: сбылсь мечт (Sobolev)

I’m overjoyed! You bet, my dream has come true

Согластся? Ещё как согластся!

Will he agree? I’ll say he will!

(vii) 1ак :то:

Обдится? 1ак :то обдится!

Take offence? Not a chance!

(viii) Не то чтBбы уж:

А Клвдия был не то чтBбы уж красвица . . . (Shcherbakov)

And Claudia was not exactly what you might call a raving beauty . . .

(ix) Ну и; ну уж; ну уж и; ну-ка; ну что ж:

Ну и бба! — бормотл он (Grekova)

‘What a woman!’, he murmured
 474 The Particle 519

Ну уж не сердсь, я не хотла тебA обдеть

Come on, don’t get angry, I didn’t mean to offend you

Ну уж и прид"мал!
That’s a tall story if you like!
Ну-ка, попрбуй мо/ похдку, — сказл Кондрт (Shukshin)
‘Go on then, do my walk’, said Kondrat

Првда, не стал ни потом, ни певцм . . . Ну что ж, не всем быть

потами! (Kazakov)
It’s true I became neither a poet nor a singer . . . Oh well, not
everybody can be a poet!

(x) Так и; так уж:

Я так и не пнял I simply didn’t understand

Не б"ду я так уж расхвливать ти фльмы (Russia Today)

I’m not exactly going to give these films rave notices

(xi) Хоть бы/хот3 бы/лишь бы:

Хоть бы кт-нибудь ммо прошёл . . . (Gagarin)

If only someone passed this way . . .

Он рда был бы любму поп"тчику, хот3 бы тхнику Мишлю

(Zalygin)
She would have been glad of any travelling companion, even if it was
only the technician Michel

(xii) Что же, что ж:

Что же ты не цел"ешь менA? — слбо шпчет он (Kazakov)

‘Why ever don’t you kiss me?’, she whispers faintly

(2) Particles may appear separately, at different points in the statement:

(i) Ведь . . . же:

Знаментые спортсмны: боксёр Генндий Шаткв, конько-

бжец Борс Стнин — кандидты на"к. Но ведь то же
единцы. Исключние (Russia Today)
There are famous sportsmen who have doctorates: the boxer Gennady
Shatkov, the skater Boris Stenin. But you know, these are isolated
exceptions
520 The Particle 474

(ii) Ведь . . . -то:

Опоздем ведь на пезд-то
You know, we’re going to go and miss that train
(iii) Ну . . . же:
Ну, ну, — сердто добвил он. — Я же сказл, что ид"
(Proskurin)
‘All right’, he added angrily, ‘I said I was coming, didn’t I?’
— Ну, обнимтесь же
— Come on then, give each other a hug
(iv) Уж . . . -то:
Уйдёт. Уж н-то её знет! (Koluntsev)
He’ll leave. After all, he knows her if anyone does!
(3) Feelings such as indignation can generate whole strings of particles:
Ну да ведь и дурк же он!
Well, really, you know, the man is a complete idiot!
(4) The phrase куд там can appear either with or without уж:
Прбовали её учть программрованию — куд там. Снус
п"тала с интегрлом (Grekova)
They tried to teach her programming. Some hope. She confused sines
with integrals
— Тепрь такх мужикв и нет, как мой старк, — говорт
стар"ха.
— 1уд уж там! (Rasputin)
‘They don’t make them like my old man any more’, says the old woman.
‘No way!’
Word Order

475 Introductory comments

(1) The inflected nature of Russian allows greater flexibility of word

order than is possible in English, where only rigid order of words
differentiates the meaning of sentences such as ‘Ivan loves Masha’ and
‘Masha loves Ivan’.

(2) In Russian, by contrast, inflexional endings indicate the functions of

words irrespective of their position in the sentence. Thus, the feminine
noun accusative ending -у in Мшу identifies Masha as the object of
the verb both in Ивн лбит Мшу ‘Ivan loves Masha’ and Мшу
лбит Ивн ‘It is Ivan who loves Masha’, the difference between the
two sentences being one of emphasis rather than meaning.

(3) Word order in Russian, though flexible, is by no means arbitrary,

however; any disruption of the accepted or ‘neutral’ order throws the
displaced elements into sharp relief.

(4) Questions of word order are ideally considered within the wider
context of a narrative, since the order of elements in a sentence is often
determined by what has gone before (see 476) (3) (ii)).

476 ‘New’ and ‘given’ information

(1) ‘New’ information

522 Word Order 476

Each statement contains new information. Except in emotionally charged

language, where different criteria apply (see 484), this new information
appears at or towards the end of a statement in Russian, in contrast with
English, where it usually appears at or near the beginning. Thus, in the
sentence
В Жен ве состолся A festival took place in Geneva
фестивль
the festival (фестивль), as the nucleus of the new information, occupies
the final position, while the verb состолся ‘took place’ is also new but
of secondary significance. В Жен ве ‘in Geneva’, as incidental or ‘given’
information (see (2)), appears in initial position.

Note
(a) The reverse order: Фестивль состолся в Жен ве answers the
question Где состолся фестивль? ‘Where did the festival
take place?’ and can be rendered as ‘The festival took place in
Geneva’.
(b) In English, nouns which are the subject of new information are
usually preceded by ‘a’: ‘There is a dog in the garden’ (В сад
есть собка). Nouns which are the subject of given information
are usually preceded by ‘the’: ‘The dog is in the garden’ (Собка
в сад).

(2) ‘Given’ information

Most statements contain an item or items of ‘given’ information, that
is, information which is either known or presumed to be known to the
reader, has been mentioned before, can be assumed from the context,
or is entirely incidental to the event being described. Given information
is never the point of the utterance. It is often circumstantial, taking the
form of an adverb of time, place or manner:
Здесь удбно It’s comfortable here
5 октябр в Жен ве в непринуждённой обстан"вке началсь
переговры по разоружнию
Disarmament talks began in a relaxed atmosphere in Geneva on
5 October

(3) ‘Given’ and ‘new’ information

(i) The order ‘given’ information + ‘new’ information (with less essential
preceding essential new items) is standard in a Russian sentence:
 476 Word Order 523

От реф"рмы цен никт" не пострадет (Ogonek)

No one will suffer from the price reform

In this example, price reform (реф"рма цен), as a matter of common

knowledge (‘given’ information), occupies initial position, while никт"
не пострадет ‘no one will suffer’ is new information and appears in
final position.

(ii) An utterance must be considered within its overall context. Thus, in

the following extracts, the new information at the end of each successive
sentence becomes the given information at the start of the next:

В то врмя я жил в мленьком сверном г"роде. Г"род стол

на берег рек(. По рек пл$ли блые парохды (Kazakov)
At that time I lived in a small northern town. The town stood on the
bank of a river. Down the river sailed white steamers

На плщади вbзле решётки стот столб*. 1 столбм прикреплен$

желзные табл(чки. Вbзле *тих табл(чек останвливаются
автбусы (Soloukhin)
On the square close to the railing stand pillars. To these pillars are
attached iron plaques. Buses stop close to these plaques

Note
The principle that ‘given’ information precedes ‘new’ allows the
differentiation of ostensibly synonymous statements such as На стол
вза ‘There is a vase on the table’ (answering the question Что на стол?
‘What is on the table?’) and Вза на стол ‘The vase is on the table’
(answering the question Где вза? ‘Where is the vase?’).

(iii) Sometimes the relative status of items is implied by context.

Thus, in

Я включл рдио и усл$шал знак"мую баллду. П ла ,лла

Пугачёва
I switched on the radio and heard a well-known ballad. It was being
sung by Alla Pugacheva

the reference in the first sentence to a well-known ballad (new information)

determines the status of п ла ‘it was being sung’ as given information
at the start of the second. 1лла Пугачёва, as new information, appears
in final position, since the point of the statement is to establish, not that
someone was singing a ballad (that is known from the first sentence), but
who was singing it.
524 Word Order 477

477 Relative position of subject and verb

The order of the items in an utterance containing a subject and a verb

depends on which is new information and which is given.

(1) Subject + verb

In the following example the subject (от ц) represents given information
and precedes the verb (2мер), which reports new information:
Отц мер Father has died

(2) Verb + subject

The reverse order (verb + subject) is found in the following contexts;
in each of them the new information is represented by the noun, which
accordingly occupies final position:
(i) Impersonal statements, statements about the weather etc.:
Идёт дождь It is raining
Дул свжий втер A fresh breeze was blowing
(ii) Statements in which the verb denotes existence, non-existence, coming
into existence, beginning, continuing, finishing etc.:
Наступ(ла сень Autumn arrived
Идёт фильм A film is on
Прох"дит день, начинется другй — ни звка (Literaturnaya
gazeta)
One day passes, another dawns; not a sound is heard
(iii) Statements in which the verb denotes occurrence, state, process
etc.:
Произошёл несчстный An accident happened
слчай
Родилсь дочь They have had a daughter
У мен бол(т грло I have a sore throat
Зазвон(л телефн The phone began to ring
(iv) Constructions which involve the quotation of direct speech:
— Кто такя? — спрос(л он вполглоса (Grekova)
‘Who is she?’, he asked sotto voce