. .

, 2001

 517.545, 512.54
47
22.144

47

. .
.: ,
2001. 192 . 115 .
ISBN 5900916863
,
3- 4-
( ).

.

. ,
, .
, (
), -
. .

22.144

ISBN 5900916863

c . ., 2001

c , 2001

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. . . . . . . . .
3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. . . . . . . . . . .
5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7. . . . . . . . . . .
8. .
9. . . . . . .
10. . . . . . . . .
11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14. . . . . . . . . . .
15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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.

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II. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. . . .
4.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.
6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9. w = z . . . .
10.

14
14
18
20
24
26
27
30
30
32
34
36
37
39
43
46
51
52
57
62
64
66
69
73
77
82
91

 11. , . . . . . 98
12. . . . . . 105
13. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
, ,

. . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

1- () 2- (). ,
, .
,
. , 3- 4-
. .

4-, ,
, . . ,

.
.

. ,
, ,
,

. ,
,
. .
. . *).
*) . ., , , 1963.
. ., , ., , 1979.

 , , .
,
. , ( ) ,
. ,
,
. ,
.
,
.
.
. , . - ,
, .
,
. ,
, .
, - - 18 . . . ,
.
. .

,

1- 4- .
1- 2- , 3- 4- XVI .
n
a0 xn + a1 xn1 + . . . + an1 x + an = 0,
a0 6= 0*).
n = 1
a0 6= 0.

a0 x + a1 = 0,

, ,
x=

a1
a0

. n = 2

ax2 + bx + c = 0,

a 6= 0

( a0 , a1 , a2 a, b, c,
). a
b
a

c
a

p = , q = ,
x2 + px + q = 0.

(1)

*) a0 , a1 , . . . , an .


x2 + px +

p2
p2
=
q
4
4

x+

p
2

2

p2
q.
4

(2)

p2
p2

q > 0.
q < 0, , 4
4
(2) (1)
. , , .
( ) II.
:
1) , . .
, ,
, ;
2) , , , , ,

;
3) z , , n
, n n- z, . . n
w , wn = z.
z = 0 n 0 = 0. w1 w2 2-
z, w2 = w1 .
, ,
. ,
2 .
. (2) p q
r
x+
8

p
=
2

p2
q,
4

p
p2 /4 q - .
,
r
p
2

p2
q.
4

(3)

b2 4ac
.
2a

(4)

x1,2 =
a, b, c,
x1,2 =

, 2- :
1) *): x1 x2

x2 + px + q = 0, x1 + x2 = p, x1 x2 = q. , x1 x2 x2 + px + q = 0, (3). x1 + x2 = p, x1 x2 = q.
, x1 + x2 = p, x1 x2 = q , p q
x2 + px + q = 0 x1 x2 ,
x2 (x1 + x2 )x + x1 x2 = (x x1 )(x x2 ) = 0, ,
, x1 x2 x2 +
+ px + q = 0;
2) ax2 + bx + c
(. .

ax2 + bx + c = [ a(x x0 )]2

x0 ) , ax2 + bx + c (
x0 ).
(. (4)), b2 4ac = 0. b2 4ac
.
3-
x3 + ax2 + bx + c = 0.

(5)

( 3- a0 .) x = y + d, d
.
(y + d)3 + a(y + d)2 + b(y + d) + c = 0.
*) (15401603) .

 y
,
y 3 + (3d + a)y 2 + (3d2 + 2ad + b)y + (d3 + ad2 + bd + c) = 0.
y 2 3d + a. a
a
d = , x = y
3
3

y 3 + py + q = 0,

(6)

p q a, b, c.
y0 (6).
y0 = a + b ( a b ),

a3 + 3ab(a + b) + b3 + p(a + b) + q = 0

a3 + b3 + (a + b)(3ab + p) + q = 0.

(7)

, a b

p
ab = .
3

a b
(
a + b = y0 ,
p
3

ab = .
y0 a b
(, )

p
w2 y0 w = 0.
3

a b ( ),
(7)

a3 + b3 + q = 0.
p

(8)

ab = 3- 3
(8),
( 3
a + b3 = q,

a3 b3 =
10

p3
,
27

 a3 b3
p3
w2 + qw
= 0.
27

,
q
a3 = +
2

q2
p3
+
4
27

q
b3 =
2

q2
p3
+ ,
4
27

q2
p3
+
oe 4
27

2- . (6)
s
s
r
r
y1,2,3 =

q
2

q2
p3
+
+
4
27

q
2

q2
p3
+ ,
4
27

3-
*)
p
, ab = .
3

**). p q a, b, c
a
, (5).
3

: a = 1 , b = 2 , c = 3 , a0
a0
a0
3- .
4-
x4 + ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0.

(9)

(
a
a0 .) x = y ,
4
, 3- , (9)
y 4 + py 2 + qy + r = 0,

(10)

p, q r a, b, c, d.
(10) ,
***).
*) . 3 .
**) . (15011576) .
***) . (15221565) , .

11

 (10) :




p 2
p2
y2 +
+ qy + r
=0
2

h 
i

p
p2
2a y 2 +
r = 0,
+ a2 qy +
2
4
(11)
a . a , 2- y


p2
2ay 2 qy + ap + a2 +
r ,


y2 +

p
+a
2

2

, .
,
, ,
, . .


p2
r = 0.
(12)
q 2 8a ap + a2 +
4

, a
3- , . a
(12), , (11), .
(11) 2- y.

2- .
, 4-
, , , 3-
, ,
4-
, , ,
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5- .
1824 . (1802
1829) .
.
4-
12

, . . ,
4- , , , , .
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.

13

XIX
.
,
,
, . , ,
.
? ,
.

1.
,
. (3, 5)
8, (2, 2) 4. ,
, .
, . ,
(5, 3) 2, (3,
5) 2. , (5, 3) (3, 5)
.
, ,
.
. M . 14

 M M , , M
.
, ,
,
. , , , (3, 5)
.
1. : 1) ,
2) , 3) : ) ,
) , ) .
? *)
. .
1. A, B C ABC (. 1).
O 120 , . A B, B C
C A. ,


(



), . . 120 O . 1
,
. a.


ABC
a =
, BCA
,
, . 240
O
*)
. , .
- ,
, .

15

, .


ABC
b, b =
.
C AB
,

, a b,
 0 .
ABC
e, e =
. ,
ABC
3
*), ABC ,
e, a b.
g1 g2 . g1 g2 ( g1 g2 ) g3 , ,
g2 1
g1 ; g3 e a b
e
g2 g1 .
a
e

b
(. 1), ,
, ABC .
, g1 ,
, g2 ,
, g1 g2 . , ,
. 1 a b, ,
240 , 120 . ,
a b 360 , . . e.
, :
b A C, a C A. ,
a b A A.
,
B

 B, C
ABC
C. ab =
, . . ab = e.
ABC
2. 1.
, *) , . . ,
.

16

 ,
. , 1
.
2. , 3 , ,
l1 , l2 l3 (. 2).


AB C
c, d, f , c =
,
AC B




ABC
ABC
d=
, f=
. - CBA
BAC
. , , c d. ,
d
l1 (

, l3 , 
c l1 (. .


l3 . 
, , . 2
, ,
d c l1 .

. , , 2. .
3.
.
3. e, a, b c 0 , 180 , 90 270
, (. 3).
4. .
17

 4. d, f , g h
, . 4.







. 3

. 4

5.
.
5. ABCD , .
6.
.
6. ABCD , .
7. .

2.
X Y
, x X
y Y . , f X Y (f : X Y ). y
x, x y, f(x) = y.
. f : X Y
X Y ,
y Y x X ,
f(x) = y, . . y Y X.
8. f
(, f() = ). f
?
. f : X Y
18

 X
Y , y Y ,
, X.
9.
:
2
) f(n) = n
) f(n) = |n|;
(;
2n,
n > 0,
) f(n) =
2|n| 1, n < 0.

, ?
M .
M ,
g : M M , M .
g1 g2 ,
g1 (A) = g2 (A) A M .
.
, .


A1 A2 . . . An
,
Ai1 Ai2 . . . Ain

, ,
.
, g g 1 , : g(A) = B, g 1 (B) = A. , 



ABC
ABC
1, a =
, a1 =
, . . a1 = b.
BCA
C AB
10. ( 1, 2, .
1517).
11. g(x) = 2x . .
g1 g2 :
(g1 g2 )(A) = g1 (g2 (A)) ( g2 ,
g1 ). g1 g2 M ,
19

g1 g2 M .
. G : 1) g1 g2 G, g3 = g1 g2 G; 2) g
G, g 1
G. G
.
, ,
16, .
12. , e , e(A) = A
A M .
13. , eg = ge = g g.
14. , g1 , g2
g3
(g1 g2 )g3 = g1 (g2 g3 ) *).

3.
6 7 .
, (.
) .
. ( )
**) ( )
, ,
.
, (a, b) , a b
*) ,
g1 , g2 , g3 , g3 : M1 M2 ,
g2 : M 2 M 3 , g1 : M 3 M 4 .
**) . . 14.

20

 ab = .
-, , , . .
. G
, a b ,
:
1) : (ab)c = a(bc)
a, b, c G;
2) G e, ea = ae = a
a G, e G;
3) a G
a1 G, aa1 = a1 a = e,
a.
1214 , (
(. 55)). ,
.
, . . , , .
.
7. .
. . , 0, 0 + n = n + 0 = n n. , n
n ( ), n + (n) = (n) + n = 0.
.
.
15. : 1) , 2) 0?
16. ?
17. : )
21

, ) ?
18. , .
19. , a a1 .
20. , : 1) e1 = e, 2) (a1 )1 = a.
a b , a b
.
(a b) c, a (b c), (a b) (c d) .
, , . .

, ,
(, , ). ,
, . , (a b)
(c (a c)) , (a b) c (c d) , ,
.
a1 a2 . . . an
a1 , a2 , . . . , an , ,
,
, . . ,
, ,
,
. ,
,
.
21. a b
, . . (a b) c = a (b c) a, b, c. ,
, a1 ,
a2 , . . . , an , ,
(. . . ((a1 a2 ) a3 ) . . . an1 ) an .
, a1 , a2 , . . . , an 22

 , ,
a1 , a2 , . . . , an ,
, a1 a2 . . . an (
).

, : a1 a2
. . . an , . .
. a b , ab =
ba. ,
.
.
, , (.
2, ac = f , ca = d ac 6= ca).
22. , (. 2, 47): 1) ,
2) , 3) , 4) , 5)
.
23. , :
1
1) (ab)1 = b1 a1 , 2) (a1 . . . an )1 = a1
n . . . a1 .
. , .
a = b
G1 (,
), ,
c G. ,

, : ac = bc,
:
ca = cb.
24. a, b G. , ax = b ya = b
, , .
24
: ab1 = ab2 b1 a = b2 a,
23

b1 = b2 .
25. a a = e a G.
, G .
am , m a
G, a a . . . a, m.
26. , (am )1 = (a1 )m , m
.
, (am )1 (a1 )m m
, am . , a0 = e
a.
27. , am an = am+n m n.
28. , (am )n = amn m
n.

4.

, .
. a G. n , an = e,
a. n , , a .
29.
, (. 3, 5, 6).
30. a n. , :
1) e, a, a2 , . . . , an1 ; 2)
m am
.
. a n
e, a, a2 , . . . , an1 G
, G
n, a, a .
8.
n-. (
), n-
.
24

31. ,
n.
32. ( 1 3, . 15 17).
33. a n. ,
am = e , m = nd, d .
34. a p m
. , am = e, am
p.
35. m n d a n. ,
am n/d.
36. 12-.
37. a . ,
. . . , a2 , a1 , a0 = e, a, a2 , . . . .
. a . . . , a2 , a1 , e, a, a2 , . . . G
, G a .
38. ,
( 7, . 21)
. .
9. n .
, n, . . 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1.
. ,

n.
n. , 4 1 + 2 = 3, 3 + 3 = 2.
39. : ) 2, ) 3,
) 4.
40. ,
n ,
n.

n: e, a, a2 , . . . , an1 .
41. , am ar = ak , 0 6 m < n, 0 6 r < n
0 6 k < n, , n
25

 m + r = k.
, n n.

(. 27). .

5.
. G1 G2 ,
f G1 G2 (. 2),
, G1 G2 ,
. . f(a) = a0 , f(b) = b0 , f(c) = c0 ab = c G1 ,
a0 b0 = c0 G2 . f
G1 G2 , , , . , f
, :
f(ab) = f(a) f(b) a b G1 ;
ab G1 ,
f(a) f(b) G2 .
42. : 1)
, 2) , 3)
, 4) 4?
43. f : G1 G2 . ,
f1 : G2 G1 .
44. f1 : G1 G2 f2 : G2 G3 .
, f2 f1 : G1 G3 .
, , , .
45. , n
n
n.
46. , .
47. f : G F . ,
f(eG ) = eF , eG eF G F .
26

48. f : G F . ,
f(g 1 ) = [f(g)]1 g G.
49. f : G F f(g) = h. ,
g h .
, , , ,
. , ,
,
(. 45) n,
Zn ,
(. 46) , Z.
G1 G2 , G1
= G2 .
50. ( ) ,
: ) 2 , ) 3 .
51.
.
52. ,
.
53. a G. fa G ,
: fa (x) = ax
x G. , fa G ( . . G
).
54. a G
fa (. 53). , fa .
55. , G
.

6.
G . ,
,
G.
27

 H G. ,
, n- n.
a G, am G (
, 4).
56. H G. , :
) G ; ) a
H, , a G H,
.
57. H G ( ), , : 1) a b
H, ab ( G)
H; 2) e ( G) H; 3) a H, a1 ( G)
H. .
. 1 3 2.
58. : 1) , 2) .
59. : ) Z5 ,
) Z8 , ) Z15 .
n
60. , Zn e, ad ,

o
n
a2d , . . . , a d 1 d , d n a
Zn .
61. , {. . . , a2r , ar , e, ar , a2r , . . . },
a , a r .
62. , .
63. , *)
G G.
10. , A, B, C D.
D ABC,
*)
, .

28

 A, B, C
(. 5).
.

. 5

64. 

ABCD
: a =
120 BC AD


ABCD
; b =
180 DCBA
 ,
AD BC,

AB C D
c=
, AC BD
AD BC; ,



ABC D
d=
.
BCDA
, , ,
.
65. ?
66. ,
: ) , ) Z4 .
67. , , , . ?
, , .
68. , 29

 : ) Z2 , ) Z3 .

7.
.
. G
H ( G H) (g, h), g
G h H, : (g1 , h1 ) (g2 , h2 ) = (g1 g2 , h1 h2 ),
g1 g2 G, h1 h2 H.
69. , G H .
70. G n , H k . G ?
71. , G H H G .
72. G H, G
H.
73. G H . ,
G H .
74. G1 G 1
H. , G1 H1 G H.
75. G H . ,
G H G1 H1 , G1 G, H1
H?
76. ,
Z2 Z2 .
77. : 1) Z2 Z3
= Z6 , 2) Z2 Z4
= Z8 ?
78. , Zm Zn
= Zmn ,
m n .

8. .
H G
G . x G xh, h
H. , xH,
,
x.
79. : ) ,
30

) {e, c} (. 1
2, . 1517).
80. ,
H.
81. y
H, x. ,
H, x y,
.
82. H,
x y, . ,
.
, , , ,
, G . G H.
. m H. h1 6= h2 ,
xh1 6= xh2 , m . , m
G r G , m r = n,
1 ( *)). .
83. , (. . 24)
.
84. ,
, e, .
85. G 31 .
G?
86. , p .
87. n m. n,
, G m.
88. n m. n
*) (17361813)
.

31

 m?
Hx
G . H m,
m n/m, n . ,

.
.
, , ,
. eH = He =
= H, ,
.
89. : ) {e, a, b},
) {e, c}.
90. : )
{e, a}, ) {e, d}.
91.
, 3 *).
92. ( )
: ) 4, ) 6, ) 8.

9.
. .
A, B, C,

 
A, B, C.
, , 
 

 A BC,


AB C
. . 6
AC B
*) , , , , .

32

 ,

. ,

A, B, C. ,
: , A,
B C.


 A, B, C.
ABC
, g =
BCA
:

A
B

B
C

C
A

A, B, C. , (. 6) :


AB C

AC B


ABC

CBA
93. , h.

g?
, g
h ghg 1

, . ,

.
. G , g .
fg G
fg (h) = ghg 1 ( h ). 33

 G,
g.
94. , .
95. ?
96. 120

?
97. 2
,
?
.
98. , ab ba
.
,
( ) , ,
(,
).
(,
).
.

10.
. ,
.
, N G
G, a N
g G gag 1 N .
, ,
,
A BC ( ),

.
34

99. , .
100. , {e, a} ( 3, 4, . 1718)?
2. N G ,
(. 8) G N
*).
101. .
102. n G, m H m = n/2. , H
G.
103. , (. . 28)
G
G.
104. G,
, G. , , , G.
105. N1 N2 G1 G2 . , N1 N2 G1 G2 .
, G
G.
11. ,
(. 3, 4, . 1718, {e, a, d, f }).

(. 102). {e, d},
, {e, a, d, f }
, , .
, {e, d} ,
d
*)
.

35

 : bdb1 = f .

11.
.
, e a (. 3, 4,
. 1718). ,
4 , . 2.
2
- , , E, A, B, C.
e b d g
a c f h
A B,
E A B C

C , A B . ,
.
106. G
N , x1 x2
y1 y2
. , x1 y1 x2 y2
.
,
, , ,
. ,
N

: A = xN , B = yN ,
A B = (xy)N . 105 ,

x y, A
B. , A B = C.
107109 .
107. T1 , T2 , T3 . ,
(T1 T2 )T3 = T1 (T2 T3 ).
108. E.
, ET = T E = T .
109. , T T 1 , T T 1 = T 1 T = E.
36

 107109 ,

.
G N G/N .
, G/{e}
= {}. = G G/G
, n/m, n G, m N . ,

4 .
110. ,
.
111. *) : )
, ) Z2 Z2 , ) ,
) (. 125).
112. : ) Zn , ) Z.
113.
.
114. G1 G2
G1 {e2 }. , G2 .

12.
, a b G
( ), ab = ba.

aba1 b1 ,
, a b
().
. aba1 b1 a b. K(G) G
G.
*) , ,
.

37

115. , .
116. , .
117. ,
{e} , .
118. : ) , ) , ) (. 125).
119. , n- Zn n
Zn/2 n .
120. .
121. ,
, , .
122. .
2 : (. 7).

. 7

123. ? .
124. ,
.
125. 6 ( ),
,
?
.
126.
38





?




,
, 
(. 8). ,

B, D, A1 C1 ,

.

. 8
, .
127. ,
, , : ) , ) .
128. ,
.
3 , .
129. , G .
130. N G G/N . , N
G.
131. N G
K(N ) N . , K(N ) G (
. 35).

13.
G F f : G F , f(ab) = f(a) f(b) a b G ( ab G, f(a) f(b) F ).
, .
12. G , Z2
,
(. . 39). ;
. , 39


.
132. f : G F G F . G , F .
. ?
133. , G
F G F .
134. , f(a1 ) = [f(a)]1 f : G F , G,
F .
135. f1 : G F f2 : F H .
, f2 f1 : G H .
.
N G. f G G/N : g G
T , g.
136. , f : G G/N G G/N .
f G G/N . ,
. , , ,
G F G G/N
.
f : G F , g , f(g) = eF , f Ker f.
137. , Ker f G.
138. , Ker f G.
G Ker f.
139. , g1 g2 , f(g1 ) = f(g2 ).
3. f : G F G F , y : G/ Ker f
F , 40

 f(g) - ( (. 139))
g, .

.
140. , y .
141. , y .
142. , y .
.
13. 110


. ,
l1 , l2 , l3 ,




l4 (. 9). l1 l3
,
. 9
l2 l4 .

: l1 , l2 , l3 l4 .




 , l1 l3 l1 l3 , l2 l4 l2 l4
().

. 10
L1 L2 L3 L4 ( 10). ,
. ,
e a. , 3
{e, a}
,
.
.
143. , 180
41

, ,
,
.
144. , 180 ,
, , .
145. n-
O. R
O. Zn , n- . , R
R/Zn
= R.
146. N1 N2 G1 G2 . , N1 N2
G1 G2 (G1 G2 )/(N1 N2 )
=

= (G1 /N1 ) (G2 /N2 ).

147. ?
148. , ?
149.
, ?
,
, , . f : G F , G
M , M
f ( f(M )) F ,
. , P F ,
P ( f1 (P )) G,
P . , f1 P
: , , . ,
f(M ) = P , f1 (P ) M ,
(. 11).
150. , H G
42

   


   

. 11

f: G F F .
151. H F f: G F . , f1 () G.
152. N F f:
G F . , f1 (N ) G.
153. f: G F , K1 K2 G F . , f(K1 ) K2
K1 f1 (K2 ).
154. N G f
G F . , f(N )
F .
155. K1 K2 G F
f G F . ,
f(K1 ) = K2 . , K1 = f1 (K2 )?

14.
, , . ,
, ,
.
G K(G) .
K(G) ,
K(K(G)).
. .
((. . . K (G)) . . . )) Kr (G).
| {z }
r

43


,
Kr+1 (G)
=
K(Kr (G)).
. G , G, K(G), K2 (G), K3 (G), . . . n , . .
n Kn (G) = {e}.
, ,
G
, K(G) = {e} (. 117).
G , , K2 (G) = {e}.
156. ,
: ) Zn , ) , ) . 12
, ) (. 125), ) , )
, ) .
, 156, , ,
. , (. 12)
.
157. ?
4 :
1) ; 2)
, ;
3) , ; 4) ,
.
158. (
24 )?
159. N
N
14. ,
N .
, 14
, N .
160. , , {e}
44

.
161. G , {e} G. ,
G .
160 161 , .
,
.
162. , .
163. f: G F G F G ; , F
.
164. , F ,
G (. ).
165. G N G. , G/N .
166. , N G/N ,
G .
167. G F . ,
G F .
168. G . , , G0 , G1 , . . . , Gn , : 1) G0 =
G; 2) Gi (1 6 1 6 n)
Gi1 , Gi1 /Gi
; 3) Gn .
169. G
, .
, G .
168 169 , G
168

. ,
.
170. G . , G0 , G1 , . . . , Gn , : 1) G0 =
G; 2) Gi (0 6 i 6 n 1) Ni ,
Gi /Ni
= Gi+1 , 3) Gn .
45

171. G
, . ,
G .

15.
(. .
) n
1, 2, . . . , n;
n- . ,
n
,

1, 2, . . . , n.
n-


1 2 ... n

, im m
i1 i2 . . . in
. ,
,
.
172. n-
?
. n- (. . )
*) n Sn .
173. , n > 3 Sn .
,
; ,
. ,


1234567
4263517
2, 5 7,
: 1 4, 4 3, 3 6, 6 1. .
*)
(. 19)
. . .

46

 . , (1436) ,
1 4, 4 3, 3 6, 6 1 . ,
7- , ,
.
. ,


123456
354126
,
:


123456
= (1 3 4) (2 5)
354126
,
. ,
.
, , .
174. ( ) . .
(i, j), ,
.
175. , (
).
(1, 2), (2, 3), . . . , (n 1, n)
.
176. , .
174176 , n-
. , .
4. Sn 47

, Sn .
1, 2, . . . , n
. , i, j , i < j j
, i.
1, 2, . . . , n.
177. 3, 2, 5, 4, 1.
, .
178. ,
, .


1 2 ... n
.

i1 i2 . . . in
,

. 12...n
,
12...n
,
.


12345
179.
.
25413
180. ,
, , .
181. , ,
.
182. :
) 3, ) 4, ) m.
183. ,
,

.
184. , a a1 , a .
48

 183, 184 ,
Sn .
. n-
n
An .
185. , n > 4 An .
186. , An Sn ,
Sn An .
187. An .
188. , S2 , S3 S4 .
, A5 , .
. 5 , 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
, .
5- A5 .
A5 .
189. 5
.
A5 .
.
190. , 5- , ,
:
) (i1 i2 i3 i4 i5 ), ) (i1 i2 i3 ), ) (i1 i2 )(i3 i4 ).
191. N A5 . , N ,
(. 190), N ,
.
192. , A5
, .
192, 161 , A5
, A5 .
49

193. , Sn n > 5
, A5 .
193 162 .
5. n > 5 Sn
.
,

.
, ,
:
. ., . .,
, . 4-, ., , 1996.
. ., , ., ,
2000.

50

 II

.
,

. ,
,
. . ,
. , , ,
,
.
,

. , ,
(15011576)
, .

.
,
. ,
n (n > 1)

(.
51

, . 80),

.

, , , ,
.


, - ,
, . .
.

.

1.
,

. , . . ,
.
3 :
1. (. I, 3)
(
0 ).
2. 0, .
3. : a, b, c
a(b + c) = ab + ac.
3 ,

52

, . . ,
. .
. ( ),
, .
194. , : ) ; ) ;
) ; )

r1 + r2 2, r1 r2 .
195. , a 0 = 0 a = 0
a.
196. , : 1) (a) b = a (b) =
= (a b), 2) (a) (b) = ab a b.
197. a, b a b =
= 0. , a = 0, b = 0.
14. {0, 1, . . . , n 1} n (. 9, . 25),
n,
n.
198. 2, 3 4.
199. ,
n
, n .
. b a ( b a) , x + a = b ( a + x = b).
b a a 6= 0 ( b/a) , ya = b ( ay = b).
24 ,
, , b a
b
( a 6= 0) .
a

, , x + a = b
53

 x = b + (a), ya = b a 6= 0 y = ba1 . , b a = b + (a)

b/a = ba1 .
, ,
,
. ,
, ;

. . ,
.
200. , (a b)c = ac bc
a, b, c.
K , ,
, K , ,
K.
. n (n ) x K

a0 xn + a1 xn + . . . + an1 x + an ,

(1.1)

a0 , a1 , . . . , an K, a0 6= 0. a K, a
K, a 6= 0, , a = 0,
.
a0 , a1 , . . . , an
(1.1), a0 .
x
,
.

P (x) = a0 xn + a1 xn1 + . . . + an1 x + an .

x
a K ,
K,
b K. P (a) = b.
54

 P (a) = 0, 0 K, ,
a P (x) = 0;
, a P (x).
K , .
P (x) Q(x) R(x), xk (k = 0, 1, 2, . . . )
( K) xk P () Q(x).
. ,
, .
P (x)
Q(x), axk P (x) bxl Q(x) : axk bxl = abxk+l ab K,
k + l .
, , . . ,
r x,
d1 xr + d2 xr + . . . + ds xr (d1 + d2 + . . . + ds )xr .

P (x) = a0 xn + a1 xn1 + a2 xn2 + . . . + an ,

Q(x) = b0 xm + b1 xm1 + b2 xm2 + . . . + bm ,

P (x) Q(x) = a0 b0 xn+m + (a0 b1 + a1 b0 )xn+m1 +

+ (a0 b2 + a1 b1 + a2 b0 )xn+m2 + . . . + an bm *).
a0 6= 0 b0 6= 0, a0 b0 6= 0 (. 197),
P (x) Q(x) n + m, . .
( 0) .
, K ,
, ,

*) xn+mk P (x) Q(x)
a0 bk + a1 bk1 +. . . +ak1 b1 + ak b0 , ai = 0
i > n bj = 0 j > m.

55

 K
, .

P (x) + Q(x) = R1 (x), P (x) Q(x) = R2 (x),

P (x) Q(x) = R3 (x)
a K, ,

P (a) + Q(a) = R1 (a), P (a) Q(a) = R2 (a),

P (a) Q(a) = R3 (a).
K
. P (x)
Q(x) S(x) () R() () ,
P (x) = S(x) Q(x) + R(x),
R(x) ,
Q(x), R(x) = 0.
P (x) Q(x) K Q(x) 6= 0. , P (x) Q(x) .

P (x) = a0 xn + a1 xn1 + . . . + an ,
Q(x) = b0 xm + b1 xm1 + . . . + bm .
n < m, S(x) = 0 R(x) = P (x)
. n > m,

a
P (x) 0 xnm Q(x) = R1 (x).
b0

R1 (x) xn , n 1 R1 (x) = 0.
R1 (x) = c0 xk + c1 xk1 + . . . + ck
k > m,
R1 (x)

c0 km
x
Q(x) = R2 (x)
b0

. .
, , , . .
Rs1 (x)
56

d0 lm
x
Q(x) = Rs (x),
b0

 Rs (x) , Q(x) Rs (x) = 0.

a0 nm
x
Q(x) + R1 (x) =
b0
a0 nm
c
= x
Q(x) + 0 xkm Q(x) + R2 (x) = . . . =
b0
b0
c0 km
a0 nm
Q(x) + x
Q(x) + . . . +
= x
b0
b0
d
+ 0 xlm Q(x) + Rs (x) =
b0


a0 nm
c0 km
d
=
x
+ x
+ . . . + 0 xlm Q(x) + Rs (x).
b0
b0
b0

P (x) =

, , ,
() Q(x) Rs (x) . .
, () Q(x)
Q(x) 6= 0, () Q(x) ,
.
201.
P (x) = S1 (x) Q(x) + R1 (x),
P (x) = S2 (x) Q(x) + R2 (x),
R1 (x) R2 () , Q(x) ( R1 (x) = 0 R2 (x) =
0). ,
S1 (x) = S2 (x),

R1 (x) = R2 (x).

2.
194 , ,
, , ,
.
, , ,
.
, . . (a, b), a b
. ,
(a, b) = (c, d) , a = c b = d.
57


:
(a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d),
(a, b) (c, d) = (ac bd, ad + bc)

(2.1)
(2.2)

( ). ,

( 2, 3) + ( 2, 1) = (2 2, 2),
(0, 1) (0, 1) = (1, 0).
.
, (2.1) (2.2), .
, :

. :
?
. ,
, ,
( )? 3.
, .
202. , .
() ?
, z ( w).
203. ,
, . . z1 z2 = z2 z1
(z1 z2 ) z3 = z1 (z2 z3 ) z1 ,
z2 , z3 .
,
(a, b) (1, 0) = (1, 0) (a, b) = (a, b)
(a, b). ,
(1, 0)
.
58

204. z z 6=
6 (0, 0). , z 1
=
,
z z 1 = z 1 z = (1, 0).
203 204 ,
.
205. ,
,
. . (z1 + z2 ) z3 = z1 z3 + z2 z3
z1 , z2 , z3 .
202205 ,
, (2.1) (2.2), .
.
(a, 0), a
, (2.1) (2.2)
(a, 0) + (b, 0) = (a + b, 0),
(a, 0) (b, 0) = (a b, 0).
,
(a, 0) a,
(a, 0) .
(a, 0)
a*) ,
.
(0, 1)
( ), i,
. . i = (0, 1).
i, b i a + b i, a b

.
206. (a, b) . ,
(a, b) = a + b i.
*) , , n 1
n.

59

 206, , ,
a + bi = c + di , a = c b = d.
, , , a + bi, a
b . z = a + bi, , , a z, bi ,
b .
z z = a + bi
z.
(2.1) (2.2) :
(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i,
(a + bi) (c + di) = (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i.

(2.3)
(2.4)

207. ( )
(a + bi) + (x + yi) = (c + di).
208. ( )
(a + bi) (x + yi) = (c + di),

a + bi 6= 0.

,
i i = (0, 1) (0, 1) = (1, 0) = 1.
2

. . i = 1. ,
.
209. : ) i3 , ) i4 , ) in .
210. z = x + yi , :
) z 2 = 1, ) z 2 = 1, ) z 2 = a2 , ) z 2 = a2 (a
).
. a bi
z = a + bi z. ,
z + z = 2a,

z z = a2 + b2 .

211. z1 z2 .
, : a) z1 + z2 = z 1 + z 2 , ) z1 z2 = z 1 z 2 ,
) z1 z2 = z 1 z 2 , ) z1 /z2 = z 1 /z 2 .
212.
P (z) = a0 z 2 + a1 z n1 + . . . + an1 z + an ,
60

z ai , .
, P (z) = P (z).
: . ,
, , . , ,
, .

, , . , ,

, , m/n
( n 6= 0); .
.
,
, - .
, , ,
, , , , 3 ,
4 . ,
, ( ) ,
,
, , *).
, - *).
, , , ,
*) ., , ,
. ., . 1.,
, , 1972.
*) . .,
, ., , 1979.

61

3.
,
, .
: ,
, . ,
?
.
. (
)
f,

, . . f(a + b) = f(a) + f(b)
f(ab) = f(a)f(b). ,
, .
, . , ,
.
, i , i2 = 1. ,

.
213. M ,
i0 , ,
i20 = 1. , M M 0 ,
.
, ,

.
213 : , i0 , i20 = 1, .
. . , , M
62

 i0 , i20 = 1,
, . ,
( ),
. .
M ,
. . M
M
. , , M
j,
. a1 , a2 , . . .
. . . , an M ,
j n + a1 j n1 + a2 j n2 + . . . + an .

(3.1)

n (3.1).
2 :
) (3.1) n > 1 , 0;
) (3.1) n > 1 0.
, ).
. K K,

K.

K*).
, x3 1 x2 x 1
,
x3 1 = (x
1)



1+ 5
1 5
2
2
x
,
(x + x + 1) x x 1 = x
2
2
2
2
x + 1 x + x + 1
. ,
.
214. (3.1), 0,
n (n > 1).

j n + a1 j n1 + a2 j n2 + . . . + an = 0.
*) , K,
.

63

,
xn + a1 xn1 + a2 xn2 + . . . + an
.
(. 272),
. n 214 2.
n 6= 1 ( , j + a = 0 j
a), n = 2.
, ) (. . 63)
p q M

j 2 + pj + q = 0
x2 + px + q
.
215. , ) (. 63) M
i0 , i20 = 1.
215 213 , )
M M 0 ,
. , M , M M 0 . , ) ,
, (. . )
. , ) (
) , , , .
216. , ) (.
. 63).

4.

XOY a + bi (a, b).

.
64

 .
217. ,
. 13?
218.
. f,
z: ) f(z) = z,
) f(z) = 2z, ) f(z) = z (z z).
A(xA , yA ) B(xB , yB )
(. 14). AB

A B AB.

:
= x x ,
= y y .
xAB
yAB
B
A
B
A
, ,
.




   

 



 

. 13





. 14

219. ,
, .

, , .
a + bi (a, b),
.
220. z1 , z2 z3 u, v w. , z1 + z2 = z3
, u + v = w,
.
221.
:
65

 ,
zA , zB , zAB

= z z .
A, B AB, zAB
B
A
,
. , .
. z ( |z|) *).
222. z = a + bi. ,

|z|2 = a2 + b2 = z z,
z , z.
223. :
) |z1 + z2 | 6 |z1 | + |z2 |,


) |z1 z2 | > |z1 | |z2 |,
z1 , z2 . ?
224. ,

.

5.

, OA OB , OA

, OB (

, ).
,


*) (


) . , a + 0i
. 15

(a, 0), x,
|a| a.

66

 2k p,
k .
.
O ,
OA (a, b)
z = a + bi (. 15).
z ( Arg z)

OX OA (. 15) ( z = 0, Arg z
).
z 6= 0 , Arg z ,
z 6= 0 ,
2p.
Arg z = f ,
f.

z = a + bi 6= 0 |z| = r. OA
(a, b) a + bi,
r. , , Arg z = f.
(. . 15)
cos f = a/r,

sin f = b/r.

z = a + bi = r cos f + i r sin f = r(cos f + i sin f),

r = |z|, f = Arg z

z.
, z = 1
+
3 i, |z| = 1 + 3 = 2 (. 222)

2p

cos f = , sin f =
. f =
,
2
3


2
2p
2p
z = 1 + 3 i = 2 cos
+ i sin
.
3
3
225.
: ) 1 + i, ) 3 i ) 3i, ) 5,
) 1 + 2i.
226. z1 = r1 (cos f1 + i sin f1 ) z2 = r2 (cos f2 +
+ i sin f2 ). ,
z1 z2 = r1 r2 (cos(f1 + f2 ) + i sin(f1 + f2 )),
z1
r
= 1 (cos(f1 f2 ) + i sin(f1 f2 ))
z2
r2

(z2 6= 0).
67

 ,
, , , .
227. *):
[r(cos f + i sin f)]n = rn (cos nf + i sin nf)

n.
(1

3 i)100

228.
.
2100
229. z = r(cos f + i sin f) n . w,
wn = z.
(5.1)

. n z ( n z)
,

z 6= 0 n
(5.1). z = 0 n 0 = 0.
230.

:

) 1, ) 3 8, ) 4 cos 100 + i sin 100 , ) 3 1 + i.

:

en = cos

2p
2p
+ i sin .
n
n

231. , n 1 1, en , e2n ,
.
. . . . . . , en1
n
. enn = 1,
1, en , e2n , . . . , en1
n
.

232. z1 n z0 .
n z0 .
, . . z = a + bi
(a, b). , z
z.
233.
. : ) |z|,
z
) Arg z, ) |z1 z2 |, ) Arg 1 ?
z2

*) (16671754) .

68

234. z, (z0 , z1 , z2
, R
):
) |z| = 1, ) |z| = R, ) |z z0 | = R, ) |z z0 | 6 R,
9p
) |z z1 | = |z z2 |, e) Arg z = p, ) Arg z = , ) Arg z = f.
4

235. n z,
z ?

6.
, ,
.
, , -, ,
,
(
, , ).



x3 2x
, ,
, f (x) = 2
x sin x + 1

,
, .


. , .
, , .
, .
f (x)
x0 , , :
x0 69

 f (x0 ).
,
. .
. f (z) ,
z. , f (z)
z0 , ec
e > 0 d > 0 ( z0 e), z,
|z z0 | < d,
|f (z) f (z0 )| < e*).
15. ,
f (z) = 2z z0 . z0 e > 0.
d > 0,
z, |z z0 | < d
|f (z) f (z0 )| = |2z 2z0 | < e.
, d = e/2 (
z0 ). , |z z0 | < d
:
|2z 2z0 | = |2(z z0 )| = (. 226) = |2| |z z0 | < 2d = e,
. . |2z 2z0 | < e. , f (z) = 2z z0 . ,
z. ,
, , f (x) = 2x
x.
236. a (,
, ) . ,
( ) f (z) a
.
237. ,
f (z) = z f (x) =
.
238. ,
f (z) = z 2 z.
*) |z z0 | < d |f (z) f (z0 )| <
< e . 233 ) 234 ).

70

 . f (z) g(z)
( ) . ( ) h(z)
f (z) g(z),
z0 h(z0 ) = f (z0 ) + g(z0 ).
, f (z0 ) g(z0 ) , h(z0 ) .
, .
239.
f (z) g(z) z0 . ,
z0 : a) h(z) = f (z) + g(z),
) h(z) = f (z) g(z), ) h(z) = f (z) g(z).
239 ) , ,
f (z) z0 n
, [f (z)]n z0 .
240.
f (z) g(z) z0 g(z0 ) 6= 0.
, z0 : ) h(z) =
=

f (z)
1
, ) h(z) =
.
g(z)
g(z)

. f (z) g(z) . h(z)

f (z) g(z), z0 h(z0 ) = f (g(z0 )).
, g(z0 ) f (z) g(z0 ) , h(z0 ) .
241. f (z) g(z) . g(z0 ) = z1 g(z) z0 , f (z)
z1 . , h(z) = f (g(z)) z0 .
239241 , ,
()
, ,

, , , ,
,
, ,
0.
, 236 237, , f (z) = z n , f (z) = az n
71

f (z) = a0 z n + a1 z n1 + . . . + an
z
a, a0 , a1 , . . . , an .
242. ,
f (x) = sin x f (x) = cos x
x.
243.

n
x,
n
x > 0
f
(x)
=

n x . ,
x > 0.

,
,
, , ,
. :
f (x)
,
. , , x
f (x)
. .
, , . ,
, .
, , :
. ., ,
, 1967. . . . ., , ., , 1995.

72

 7.
t
0 6 t 6 1, t

z(t) = x(t) + iy(t).
, z, z.
x(t) y(t) 0 6 t 6 1, t 0 1 z(t) z.



,
z0 = z(0) , z1 = z(1) . z(t) 

.
16. z(t) = t +


it2 . x(t) = t y(t) = t2 . 
y(t) = x2 (t) t, . .
. 16
z(t) t
2
= . t 0 1 x(t) 0 1 z(t) y = x2
z0 = 0 z1 = 1 + i (. 7).
244. z ,
: a) z(t) = 2t;
) z(t) = it; ) z(t) = it2 ; ) z(t) = t it; ) z(t) = t2 + it;
e) z(t) = R(cos 2pt + i sin 2pt); ) z(t) = R(cos 4pt + i sin 4pt);
) z(t) = R(cos pt + i sin pt);

cos 2pt + i sin 2pt
0 6 t 6 1/2,
) z(t) =
4t 3
1/2 < t 6 1.
245. -
,

z0 = a0 + b0 i

z1 = a1 + b1 i.
. .
,
z.
246.
73

 C1 z1 (t) C2
z2 (t), :
a) z2 (t) = z1 (t) + z0 (z0
);
) z2 (t) = a z1 (t), a
;
) z2 (t) = z0 z1 (t), |z0 | = 1;
) z2 (t) = z0 z1 (t), z0
?
247. z1 (t) C.
z2 (t), z2 (t) =
z1 (1 t)?
248. z1 (t) z2 (t)
C1 C2 , z1 (t) = z2 (0).
z3 (t),

1
z1 (2t)
0 6 t 6 ,
2
z3 (t) =
1
z (2t 1)

< t 6 1?
2
2

249. z(t) = cos pt + i sin pt (. 7). Arg z(t) t.

250. z(t) = cos pt + i sin pt. Arg z(t) t,


t 0 1, ,
Arg z(0) : ) 0, ) 2p,
) 4p, ) 2pk (k

).
. 17
,
.
6. C z(t) ( . . z(t) 6= 0 0 6 t 6 1), C (. . Arg z(0)) f0 .

C,
,
f0 .
, t f(t)
74

 Arg z(t) , f(t)

0 6 t 6 1 f(0) = f0 *).
251. f(t) f0 (t) ,
Arg z(t) C. ,
f(t) f0 (t) = 2pk, k
, t.
252. ,
f(0) = f0 , f(t), Arg z(t) C, .
253. f(t) Arg z(t). , y(t) = f(t) f(0)
z(t)
f(0).
253 , ,
t = 1, C, z = 0, f(1) f(0)
f(t).
. f(1) f(0)
C.
254.
:
a) z(t) = cos pt + i sin pt,
) z(t) = cos 2pt + i sin 2pt,
) z(t) = cos 4pt + i sin 4pt,
r) z(t) = (1 t) + it?
255. ,
. 18?
C , . . z(1) = z(0),
f(1) f(0) 2pk, k .
.
C, z = 0,
2pk, , C
k z = 0.
256. z = 0
:
*) : ., ., , , 1967, 2023, ,
. ,
6: f(t) = f0 (t) + f1 (t),
f1 (t) , z(0) z(t).

75




. 18

) z(t) = 2 cos 2pt + 2i sin 2pt (. 19),

1
1
) z(t) = cos 4pt i sin 4pt (. 20),
2
2
) . 21,
) . 22?

. 19

. 20

257. , z = 0 , .
258. C z1 (t) k
z = 0. z = 0
z2 (t), : a) z2 (t) = 2 z1 (t); ) z2 (t) =
= z1 (t); ) z2 (t) = z0 z1 (t), z0 6= 0; ) z2 (t) = z 1 (t),
z z?
. C z1 (t) z = z0 .
, C k
z0 , z2 (t) = z1 (t) z0
k z = 0 (. 23).
76



. 21

. 22

  



   
  


. 23

,
z = z0
z1 (t) z0 , , z0 z1 (t) (. 221).
259. z = 1 ,
256?
260. z1 (t) z2 (t) C1 C2 ,
z = 0.
f1 f2 . C z(t),
: a) z(t) = z1 (t) z2 (t), ) z(t) =

z1 (t)
?
z2 (t)

8. .

z w, w = f (z), 77

 z w. z
C z(t),
w = f (z) w. f (z) , w w0 (t) = f (z(t)).
f (C).
261. f (C), w =
= f (z) = z 2 , C:
) :


pt
pt
,
z(t) = R cos + i sin
2

) : z(t) = R(cos pt + i sin pt),

) : z(t) = R(cos 2pt + i sin 2pt)?
262. C f. f (C),
: ) f (z) = z 2 , ) f (z) = z 3 , ) f (z) = z n , n ?
263. C k z = z0 .
w = 0 f (C),
f (z) = (z z0 )n ?
264. C z = 0, z = 1,
z = i, z = i k1 , k2 , k3 , k4 .
w = 0 f (C), : ) f (z) =
= z 2 z, ) f (z) = z 2 + 1, ) f (z) = (z 2 + iz)4 , ) f (z) =
= z 3 z 2 + z 1?

a0 z n + a1 z n1 + . . . + an1 z + an = 0,
ai , n > 1
a0 6= 0. , . an = 0,
z = 0.
, an 6= 0.
|a0 |, |a1 |, . . . , |an | A. a0 6= 0, A > 0. R1 R2 , R1
, :
R1 6 1 R1 <
78

|an |
, R2 ,
10An

 : R1 > 1 R2 >

10An
.
|a0 |

265. |z| = R1 . ,
|a0 z n + . . . + an1 z| <

|an |
.
10

266. |z| = R2 . ,


 a1
a  |a0 |
.
 + . . . + nn  <
z

10

z(t) = R(cos 2pt + i sin 2pt) (. .

R, ) CR . CR (z(1) =
= z(0)), f (CR ), f (z) = a0 z n + . . . + an ,
(f (z(1)) = f (z(0))). n(R)
f (CR ) w = 0 ( f (CR )
w = 0).
267. n(R1 ) n(R2 )?
R R1
R2 . f (CR ) f (CR1 ) f (CR2 ).
R f (CR )
w = 0, R
f (CR ) ,
w = 0 , . .
R n(R) .
f (CR ) R1 6 R 6 R2 w = 0, n(R)
R1 6 R 6 R2 . n(R)
,
, n(R) R
R1 6 R 6 R2 ; ,
n(R1 ) = n(R2 ). 267
, n(R1 ) = 0, a n(R2 ) = n. , , f (CR ) R1 6 R 6 R2
w = 0, . , z f (z) = 0.
*).
*)
, , .
( )

79

 7 (
**)).
a0 z n + a1 z n1 + . . . + an1 z + an = 0,
ai , n > 1
a0 6= 0, .
268. ***): z0 a0 z n + . . . + an1 z + an = 0, a0 z n + . . .
. . . + an1 z + an z z0 .
269. , a0 z n + . . . + an1 z + an
a0 6= 0,
a0 z n + . . . + an1 z + an = a0 (z z1 )(z z2 ) . . . (z zn ).
. P (z) :
P (z) = a0 (z z1 )(z z2 ) . . . (z zn ).
0 ,
0 (. 195, 197).
P (z) = 0 z1 , z2 , . . . , zn
.
270. z0
a0 z n + . . . + an1 z + an = 0,
ai . , z 0 ,
z0 , .
271.
a0 z n + . . . + an1 z + an = 0
z0 , . ,
a0 z n + . . . + an1 z + an
.
(., , ., ., , , 1967). . . . .,
, ., , 1995.
**) 1799
. (17771855).
***) (17301783) .

80

272. , .
. 272 ,
(. . 63)

. 3 .
,
269,
.
.
. z0
a0 z n + . . . + an1 z + an = 0.
, z0 k,
a0 z n + . . . + an1 z + an (z z0 )k
(z z0 )k+1 .
273. z = 1 z = 1
z 5 z 4 2z 3 + 2z 2 + z 1 = 0?
.
P (z) = a0 z n + a1 z n1 + . . . + ak z nk + . . . + an1 z + an

P 0 (z) = a0 nz n1 + a1 (n 1)z n2 + . . .
. . . + ak (n k)z nk1 + . . . + an1 .
.
274. P (z) Q(z) . : ) (P (z) + Q(z))0 = P 0 (z) + Q0 (z); ) (c P (z))0 =
= c P 0 (z), c
; ) (P (z) Q(z))0 = P 0 (z) Q(z) + P (z) Q0 (z).
275. P (z) = (z z0 )n (n > 1 ). ,
P 0 (z) = n(z z0 )n1 .
276. , P (z) = 0 z0 k > 1, P 0 (z) = 0 z0 k 1, P (z) = 0
z0 1, P 0 (z0 ) 6= 0.
81

 9. w =

,
. ,

*).
. ,
,
, 5-
, .
,
5- ,
, 5 .
, .

.
**). ,
, 5-
z,
, ,
,
.
,

*)
.

,

w = z.

, w = z *) , ,
.
**) (18111832) , , . : .,
( ), ., , 1958. .
., , ., , 1936.
*) . (18261866) .

82

 w = 0 z = 0
z 6= 0 (. 229).
,

z0 , 0

z0 w0 .
277.

) 1, ) 1, ) i, ) 1 + i 3 ( 3 ).
z
0 z,
, w = z,
w.
,

z, , 1 z.
z, , w (. 24).


. 24

. Arg z , p <

1
< Arg z < p 1 z Arg 1 z = Arg z
2

(. 229). w = 1 z z
.
z, ,
w = z,
w, ,
z,

. ,

2 z, z, ,

w (. 25). 2 z = 1 z.
83





. 25

1 z 2 z
w = z (
).
z,
,
0
z,
(. 26). 1

2 z.


1 z 2 z



,


z,
,

.
, z . 26

( ), ,
. z, , , , ,
. , , ,
A B z w = 1 z
A0 B 0 (. . 24).
, . 24 25 ,
A w = 1 z ( A0 )
D w = 2 z
( D0 ).
, z
84


,
.
z,
,


(. 9).
0 .

z, . 27
,

w = z,

, w = z,
.

,

w = z
, ,
z,
.
w = z.

( ) .
, , . 9

w = z,
,
. .
. 7 (. 38) .
,
, ,
.

w(z) ,
w = z.

w(z), z () 85

 .
, ,
.
w(z)*).
, ,
w(z) .

w = z.
w(z) , w0 w(z) z0 . w0 (z) w(z), z (, , - ),
, w0 (z0 ) = w0 . , , C
, z0 z1 z.
z C w0 (z)
w0 (z0 ) w0 (z1 ).

, w0 (z).
, z0 w0 w(z), C
, z0
z1 . C,
z, C, w(z) ,
z C,
w0 . , z1 ,
w1 = w(z1 ).
, w1 w(z1 ),
C w(z0 ) =
= w0 . w(z),
C, w,
,
*) , , , .
. . .,
, ., , 1978.

86

 w0 w1 .
C
w = w(z).

278. w(z)= z w(1) =

= 1 = 1. w(1) = 1
: ) 1
, ) (. 28).

. .
279. w0 (t) C
z(t) = 2t 1 (. 29)
w = z, : ) i, ) i.






. 28

. 29

279 ,
C
C w = z .
, C z = 0. ,

w = z,
z(t) ,
.

w = z,
z = 0 .

w = z.
, z0 w0 = w(z0 ) w(z1 )
87

 z1
, z0 z1 ,
w(z1 ) (., , 278). ,
.
280. z(t) C
f. w0 (t)

w(z) = z.

281. w(z) = z
w(1) = 1 = 1.
w(i) = i :
) , z = 1 z = i; )
3
3
z(t) = cos pt i sin pt;
2

) z(t) = cos
+ i sin

5p
t.
2

2
5p
t+
2

282. w(z) = z C w(1) = 1 = 1.

C w(1) = 1 ,
C : ) z(t) = cos 2pt + i sin 2pt,
) z(t) = cos 4pt i sin 4pt, ) z(t) = 2 cos 2pt i sin 2pt.
283. C z (. .

z(1) = z(0)). , z C, ,

, C z = 0
.
.
. C
z(t). C 1 , C,
;
(. 247) z1 (t) = z(1 t).
. C2
C1 . C1 C2
, ,
C1 C2 (. 248).
284. C1 C2 , z0
z1 , z0 = w0 .

, z1 , C1 C2 ,
88

 , C11 C2 (. 30)
z = 0 .
, ,
C11 C2 0 z = 0,
z

C1 C2 ,  



, ,
.
,




w = z, ,
. 30
C11 C2 z = 0. z = 0 .
, z = 0
.


z0 w00 = z0 ,
z1 C, z0 z1
, , ,

1 z

w = z. z0

w000 = z0 , 2 z
w = z.
285. ,

z,
, 1 z 6= 2 z.
286.
z 0
0
w = 1 z w = z z ( ) , z 0
. ,

, 1 z ( z0 ).
286 , , z,

89

, , , ,
.
287. z0 z1
C, z0 z1 ,


(.
31).
w0 = z0

C

w1 = z1 . , w0 w1



w = z.
, ,
. 31

w = z
, . .
, (. . 9).

w = z.
, z0 ,

z0 ,
*).
288. , z0
w =
= z, z0 6= 0, , z0 = 0.
.
. ,
(. . ), *) .
w = z (. 32).
,

w = z 2 , z = 0

w = z . 32
*) : d > 0,
z0 , d.
*)
.

90

 z = 0
.
z = 0
z = 0, , z = 0
. ,
, ,
.

,
.

10.

w = 3 z.
289. z(t) f, w0 (t) z(t)
w = 3 z.
w0 (t).

290. w = 3 z.
291. z = 0 ,

w = 3 z :
f1 (1) = 1,

f2 (1) = cos(2p/3) + i sin(2p/3) = 1/2 + i 3/2,

f3 (1) = cos(4p/3) + i sin(4p/3) = 1/2 i 3/2.

: ) f1 (i), ) f2 (i), ) f1 (8), ) f3 (8), ) f3 (i).
292.

w = 3 z.
293. C

n
z(t), w0 z(0). , C w(z) = n z, w0 .
294. z(t) f, w0 (t) z(t)
w(z) = n z.
w0 (t).
91

295.
(. . 68) :

z.

en = cos(2p/n) + i sin(2p/n).
.
296. z(t) z = 0,
w0 (t) z(t)
w = n z.

z(t) w = n z.
C1 C2 z0 z1 . ,
w = z (. 284), ,
C11 C
2 z = 0,
w = n z

C1 C2 . , w = z,
- z = 0
, w = n z .
297. - z = 0 ,
z = 1, n z : fi (1) = ein ,
i 0 n 1.
fi (z) f0 (z)?
298.
n z.

299. z 1
.
300. n z + i.
,
,

-
.
,
(
327 328). ,
, , .
92

 , .
,
,
, , .
.
301. f (z)
C
z,
n
z0 . w0 f (z0 ). ,
C
n
w = f (z) w0 .

301
n
w = f (z)
, ,
.
302. f (z)
w0 (z)
(
n
) w(z) = f (z).
( )
w(z).
303.
p
: ) z(z i),
) z 2 + 1.
304. :

p
p
3
) z 2 1, ) 3 (z 1)2 z, ) 3 (z 2 + 1)2 .
305. z 2 .
. 305 ,
z = 0 z 2 .
,
z = 0, . , (. 33) w =

z 2 COD, COF , EOD EOF (. 33).

z = 0,
( COD EOF )
(
COF EOD).
2
w(z)

.
34.
= z
,
. ,

,
93




. 33

, .

, ,
. 34
. . .
306.

4 2
z ,
: ) 4 z 2 + 2, )
p
p
p
4
4
4
2
3
2
3
3
3
) (z 1) (z + 1) , ) (z 1) (z + 1) , ) z(z 1).
, .
.
307.
p 1/z.
308.
r
q
q
2
1
3 z 1
4 (z + i)
, )
, )
.
: )
3
zi

z+1

z(z 1)

,

,
. ,
. , , , ( 11),
( 14) ( ,

,
94

 ).

.
*)
.
( , 11).

. , ,
,
.
, w(z) ( z) , w(z) ,
C1 C2 , z0 z1 .
.
w(z) , w0 z0
w(z)
(, ) , z0 ( ,
w(z) ). , w(z) ,
.
. C1 C2 z,
z0 , z1 w(z). , , C1
C2 , , ,
w(z)
(. 35, a, b *) ., , ., , , 1960, ., .,
, ., , 1968.

95

). w(z1 )
C1 C2 (
w0 = w(z0 )).
, .
309. w(z) . z



w(z)

w(z). ,


w(z)


.
310.


. 35
w(z)
w(z) . ,
(
) w(z)

, .
1.
,
. 310 ,
( )
, , , , ,
.
2. 309 310 , w(z)
, w(z)
.

w(z)
w(z) .
, , . 96

 ,
.
, w(z) , , .
.
, . C10 C20 C1 C2
w(z), w0 = w(z0 ).
, C10 C20
.
, ,
C1 C2 ,
, w(z) (. . 93). C .
C 0
C w(z),
w0 = w(z0 ). w(z) *),
C C1
C2 C 0
C10 C20 .
C 0 .
C z1 ,
C 0 w(z1 )
z1 . w(z) z (
, z1 ) (
),
C 0 z1
, . ,
C 0 , , C10 C20 , .
, , C
w(z),
.
,
a (. 36). z0
w0 = w(z0 ), *)
. ., , .,
, , 1960, . 97.

97

 w(z) A.




ADE


ABE w(z) E,
EDABE
w(z)

a w(z).
. 36
w(z) E
,
Ez1 w(z)
z1 .
,
, .
, *).

11. ,
. f (z) g(z)
. f (z) + g(z)
, z0 ,
f (z0 ) g(z0 ).
f (z) g(z), f (z) g(z),
f (z)/g(z).
[f (z)]n , n , , z0 ,

f (z0 ) n.

n
f (z), n , , z0 ,

f (z0 ) n n
f (z0 ).

1 2i

311. : ) 3 8 + 2i, )
,
4
p
p

) i + 1, ) ( 4 (1 + i)2 ), ) ( i + i)2 .
*) ., , . ., , ., , 1985 . .,
, ., , 1978.

98

 . ,
h(z) ,
f (z) = z
g(z) = a (a
) , , , ,
.

p
3
3 4
z + 3z 2
, h(z) =
z

. ,
, .
312. h(z) ,
C z, z0 ,
h(z) . , w0
h(z0 ),
C w = h(z),
w0 . (,
w(t) = a, a ,
, .)
312 ,
h(z), ,
C, ,
h(z) . C

(. . 93) h(z), h(z)
C .
, , ,
*), . . .
, ,
(. 309 310)**).
.
, , .
*) , , .
**) , ,
.

99

313. h(z) = f (z) + g(z).

h(z) ,
f (z) g(z). f1 (z), . . . , fn (z) g1 (z), . . . , gn (z)
f (z) g(z)
. h(z).
z0 fi1 (z)
fi2 (z) gj1 (z) gj2 (z), , ,
hi1 ,j1 (z) = fi1 (z) + gj1 (z)
hi2 ,j2 (z) = fi2 (z) + gj2 (z).
h(z) = f (z) + g(z) ,
( )
f (z) g(z). fi (z) gj (z)
,
hi,j (z) = fi (z) + gj (z).
f (z) g(z) z0
fi1 (z) fi2 (z) gj1 (z)
gj2 (z), h(z) z0 hi1 ,j1 (z)
hi2 ,j2 (z).
314.

3
: ) z + z 1, ) z 2 1 + 1/z, ) z +

+ 3 z, ) z 2 1 + 4 z 1.

h(z) = f (z) + g(z) , ,
hi,j (z) . ,
h(z). , h(z), ,
, ,
. , , h(z), . . ,
z0 .
100

315. f (1), : ) f (z) = z + z,

4
) f (z) = z + z 2 , ) f (z) = 3 z + 3 z.
316.

4

: ) z + z, ) z + z 2 ,

) 3 z + 3 z.
, h(z) = f (z) + g(z)
f (z) g(z) ( )
.
,
h(z) =
f (z) g(z), h(z) = f (z) g(z), h(z) = f (z)/g(z).
317. :

z+ z
z2 1
4 2
4

,
)
.
) i z z , ) z 1 z, )
3
4
z+1

z(z 1)

318. f1 (z), f2 (z), . . . , fm (z) f (z). h(z) =

= [f (z)]n , n .
, h(z) = [f (z)]n f (z),
hi (z) = [fi (z)]n .
. ,
,
.
, h(z) = [f (z)]n
f (z)
fi (z) hi (z) = [fi (z)]n .
, .
319.

: ) ( 4 z)2 , ) ( z + z)2 , ) ( z 3 z 1)3 .
,

n

f (z)
101

 f (z).
320.

n
f (z)?
z
f (z) ,
, f (z)
0, f (z). () f1 (z),
f2 (z), . . . , fm (z). , f (z) 0. g(z)

n
f (z) .
321. , [g(z)]n
fi (z) , .
,
n
f (z)
f (z).
322.
g(z)
n
f (z), fi (z) f (z).

fi (z)
n
f (z).
, fi (z) f (z) , n
n f (z).
fi,0 (z), fi,1 (z), . . . , fi,n1 (z) ,
k fi,k (z) = fi,0 (z) ekn .
z0 f (z),
z0 fi (z)

n
fj (z). , , f (z)
: , fi (z), z0
, fj (z).
323. C z z(t), w
w0 (t)
C

n
w = f (z). , wk (t) = w0 (t) ekn

n
C w = f (z).
324. C z 102

f (z). ,
C fi,s (z) fj,r (z),
fi,s+k (z) fj,r+k (z),
s + k r + k n (. 40).
, , n
f (z) ,
,

324.
p325.
z 1.
326. p

p 3
z 2, ) 3 z 1.
: )
, ,
.
327.

f (z) = z 2 + 1 2 , : )
. 37, ) . 38. ,
z ,
f (z) = 0.
328. p

2
h(z) =
z + 1 2 , : )
. 39, ) . 40.
,
.

 

. 37







. 38

103

 8. h(z) = f (z) + g(z), h(z) = f (z) g(z),

h(z) = f (z) g(z), h(z) = f (z)/g(z)no
f (z) g(z),
, : ) fi (z)
u gj (z) , hi,j (z), fi (z) + gj (z),
fi (z) gj (z), fi (z) gj (z), fi (z)/gj (z);





. 39





. 40

) z0 fi1 (z) fi2 (z) gj1 (z)

gj2 (z), h(z)
hi1 ,j1 (z) hi1 ,j2 (z);
) , hi,j (z),
.
9. h(z) = [f (z)]n
f (z),
, :
) f (z) fi (z) hi (z) = [fi (z)]n ;
) , hi (z), .
10.

n
h(z) = f (z)
f (z),
:
) 104

 f (z) n ;
) h(z)
;
)
f (z);
) ,
fi,k (z) = fi,0 (z) ekn , ,
(. 324).

12.

.
329. C z w(z). ,
w(z) .
, 329,
( ) w(z)
w(z), ,
.
330. , 314, ,
, , (. 175),
1, 2, . . . ,
.
331. g1 , . . . , gs G. G, g1 , . . . , gs
. ,
G.
. , 331,
, g1 ,
105

. . . . . . , gs .
. g1 , . . . , gs
,
( ) . , g1 , . . . , gs ,

.
1. (
), ,
. , g
k: g k = e,
g 1 = g k1 = g g . . . g
{z
}
|
k1

.
2. ,
, , ,
.
, , Sn .
332.

3
2
3
n
z,
)
z,
)
z,
)
(z

1)
(.
304),

:
)

4
) (z 1)2 (z + 1)3 (. 306).
333.
, : 1) 314, 2) 317, 3) 319?
334.
p
h(z) =
z 2 + 1 2, 328.
z0
w(z),
w1 , w2 , . . . , wn w(z) z0 .
C, z0
w(z).
wi = w(z0 )
106

 w(z0 ) C,
wj = w(z0 ).
, wi ,
wj ( C 1
). , C
w1 , w2 , . . . wn . ,
C g, C 1
g 1 C1 C2 (
z0 ) g1 g2 ,
C1 C2 g2 g1 (,
).
, , z0 ,
w(z0 ).
335. G1 w(z0 )
G2 w(z). , G1
G2 .
, w(z0 )
w(z). 335 , w(z0 )
z0
w(z)
. , w(z0 ) z0
w(z) , . . .

w(z)*).

13. ,


, .
11. h(z) , h(z) *) .

107

 (. I, 14).
11 .
336. h(z) = f (z) + g(z), h(z) = f (z) g(z),
h(z) = f (z) g(z), h(z) = f (z)/g(z),
h(z)
f (z) g(z)
( 8, ), ), . 104). ,
F G ,

F G (.
I, 7).
337. H1 ,
, a H2 h(z). ,
(. I, 13) H1
H2 .
338. f (z) g(z) . , :
h(z) = f (z) + g(z),
h(z) = f (z) g(z),

h(z) = f (z) g(z),

h(z) = f (z)/g(z).

339. f (z) . , h(z) = [f (z)]n .

340. H n
h(z) = f (z), F
f (z), . H F .
341. , (. I,
13), , .
342. f (z). n
, h(z) = f (z) .
h(z) = a h(z) = z
108

 z.
, , ,
{e} ,
, . , , (. 99),
338, 339 342, 11.
1. ,
, .
h(z)
h(z) z0 (. . 107),
11
. , h(z)
, ,
,
(,
ez , sin z . .), Ln z
. h(z) , .

14.

3w5 25w3 + 60w z = 0.

(14.1)

z z w
. 269 z 5 ( ),
.
343. w
( 1, . . 81)
3w4 25w3 + 60w z = 0?
z ?
, z =
= 38 z = 16 (14.1) 4 ,
z 5 . , w(z),
(14.1) z, 4 z = 38 z = 16 5
z.
w(z).
109

 , z (14.1) .
.
344. z0 w0
(14.1) z = z0 .
r w0 .
, r >
> 0, |z00 z0 | < r,
(14.1) z = z00 .
w(z) (14.1)
z w0 w(z0 ).
344 , z ,
z0 , w(z),
w
, w0 . , w(z) C. C (. 93) w(z), w(z)
C .
345. , , z = 38 z =
= 16,
w(z), (14.1) z.
w(z) , (14.1) z. *), w(z)
(. 10, . 96), . .
. w(z) (. 309 310).
, , 5 .
345
w(z)
z = 38, z = 16, , *) w(z) ,
z
a0 (z)wn + a1 (z)wn1 + . . . + an (z) = 0,
ai (z) z.
.

110

.
346. , z0 = +38 ( z0 = 38,
z0 = 16) w(z),
(14.1) z.
w(z)
z0 (, , z0
; . 2 . 96)?
347. w(z) , (14.1) z. , , z0 z1
, z = 38 z = 16, w0 ,
w1 w(z). ,
z0
z1 , z = 38
z = 16 ,
w0 , w1 .
348. , z = 38 z = 16
w(z).
w(z)?
. ( ,
).
349. w(z),

3w5 25w3 + 60w z = 0
z.
350. , w(z),

3w5 25w3 + 60w z = 0

z, .
351. , 5-

a0 w5 + a1 w4 + a2 w3 + a3 w2 + a4 w + a5 = 0
(a0 , a1 , a2 , a4 , a5 , a0 6= 0) , . . , , , , ,

.
111

352.
(3w5 25w3 + 60w z)wn5 = 0

(14.2)

, n > 5
n .
351 352 . .
. n > 5
n
a0 wn + a1 wn1 + . . . + an1 w + an = 0
.
1. 3- .
, , ,
.
, n (n > 5)
,
, . , (14.1).
, w(z), (14.1) z,
w1 (z), , w(z)
w1 (z). G w1 (z), G , w(z).
G S5 . S5 , G (. 163).
, G
, .
.
2. . 109 ,
, ,
(ez ,
sin z . .), Ln z .
3. (14.1)
112

 . y()
3y 5 25y 3 + 60y x = 0
. y()
? , .
, ,
,
. , w(z), (14.1) z,
. , y()
, ,
,
, , w(z), . . w(z) .
,
,
n (n > 5) . ,
2,
,
, , (ex ,
sin . .), ln .
4. (.
. 110) . , ,
, , . , , ,
( 11, . 107). ,
,
:
, . ,
,
.
(. , . .,
, , 1934).

113

, ,

1
1. . 1 ), 1 ), 2 ), 3 ).
2. . . 3.
3. . . 4.
4. . . 5.
5. . . 6.
6. . . 7, e a 0 180 , b c
.
3
4
5
e a b
e a b c d f
e a b c
e e a b
e e a b c d f
e e a b c
a a b e
a a b e f c d
a a e c b
b b e a
b b e a d f c
b b c a e
c c d f e a b
c c b e a
d d f c b e a
f f c d a b e

e
a
b
c
d
f
g
h

e
e
a
b
c
d
f
g
h

a
a
e
c
b
f
d
h
g

b
b
c
a
e
h
g
d
f

c
c
b
e
a
g
h
f
d

d f g
d f g
f d h
g h f
h g d
e a c
a e b
b c e
c b a

6
h
h
g
d
f
b
c
a
e

e a b
e e a b
a a e c
b b c e
c c b a

7
c
c
b
a
e

7. . . 7, e a 0 180 , b c
,
.
8. . , .
9. . ) f , , ,
n , f(n) = 5, . . 5 ; ) f , ,

114

 f(n) = |n| , ,
5 5 5 (f(5) = f(5) = 5); ) f
, 0, 1, 2, . . .
0, 2, 4, . . . , 1, 2, 3, . . .
1, 3, 5, . . .
10. . e1 = e, a1 = b, b1 = a, c1 = , d1 = d, f 1 = f .
11. . g 1 (x) = x/2.
12. g.
g 1 g 1 g = e.
13. e (eg)(A) = e(g(A)) = g(A) (ge)(A) = g(e(A)) = g(A)
A. eg = g ge = g.
14. ((g1 g2 )g3 )(A) = (g1 g2 )(g3 (A)) = g1 (g2 (g3 (A)));
(g1 (g2 g3 ))(A) = g1 ((g2 g3 )(A)) = g1 (g2 (g3 (A)))
15. 1) . 1,
01 , . . x , 0 x = x 0 = 1.
2) .
16. .
17. ) . x
, n + x = x + n = n n. (
, , 0, .) ) . 1, , 1,
.
18. e1 e2 . e1 a = a
ae2 = a a. e1 e2 = e2 e1 e2 = e1 .
e1 = e2 .
19. a a1 a2 .
(a1 a)a2 = ea2 = a2 a1 (aa2 ) = a1 e = a1 . Ho
(a1 a)a2 = a1 (aa2 ). a1 = a2 .
20. 1) ee = e. 2) a1 a = aa1 = e.
21. .
n = 3 ,
: (a1 a2 )a3 a1 (a2 a3 ) (a1 a2 )a3 = a1 (a2 a3 ).
n , 3 6 n < k. , n =
k. A,
k a1 , a2 , . . . , ak .
, , , , A A = (A1 ) (A2 ), A1 A2 , l k l
, l < k k l < k. l < k k l < k,
A1 ,
(. . . ((a1 a2 ) a3 ) . . . al1 ) al , A2
, (. . . ((al+1 al+2 ) al+3 ) . . . ak1 ) ak .
, A ,
(. . . ((a1 a2 ) a3 ) . . . al ) (. . . ((al+1 al+2 ) al+3 ) . . . ak ).

115

(. . . ((a1 a2 ) a3 ) . . . al1 ) al = a,
(. . . ((al+1 al+2 ) al+3 ) . . . ak2 ) ak1 = b.

A a (b ak ). a (b
ak ) = (a b) ak . a b
, k 1 < k .
ab = (. . . ((a1 a2 ) a3 ) . . . ak2 ) ak1 .
A
a (b ak ) = (a b) ak = (. . . ((a1 a2 ) a3 ) . . . ak1 ) ak .
.
22. . 1) , 2) , 3) , 4) , 5) .
23. 1) (ab)(b1 a1 ) = a(bb1 )a1 = aea1 = aa1 = e (b1 a1 )
(ab) = b1 (a1 a)b = b1 eb = b1 b = e. 2)
no n: n 1 , (a1 . . . an )1 = ( 1) =
1
1
1
= a1
= a1
n (a1 . . . an1 )
n an1 . . . a1 .
24. ax = b x. ,
a1 , a1 ax = a1 b x = a1 b. , ax = b
a1 b. ,
a(a1 b) = (aa1 )b = b. ,
ya = b y = ba1 .
25. aa = e a, b c (bc)(bc) = e.
b c. bbcbcc = bec. bb = e cc = e,
(ec)(be) = (be)c cb = bc. b c
G, .
26. , am (a1 )m = (a1 )m am = e. am (a1 )m = am1 a a1 (a1 )m1 = am1 e (a1 )m1 = am1
(a1 )m1 = . . . = a a1 = e. ,
(a1 )m am = e. (
.)
27. : ) m > 0, n > 0, am
an = a a . . . a a a . . . a = a a . . . a = am+n ; ) m < 0, n < 0,
|
{z
} |
{z
} |
{z
}
m

m+n

m = k (k > 0), n = l (l > 0), am an = ak al = (a1 )k

(a1 )l = (. )) = (a1 )k+l = a(k+l) = am+n ; ) m > 0,
n < 0, m + n > 0, am an = (. )) = (am+n an )
a(n) = am+n an (an )1 = am+n ; ) m > 0, n < 0, m + n < 0,
am an = (. )) = am (am am+n ) = am (am )1 am+n =
= am+n . m < 0, n > 0 )
). m = 0, n = 0 .
n
28. :
}|
{
z
) n > 0, (am )n = am am . . . am = (. 27) = am+m+...+m =
|
{z
}
n
= amn ; ) n < 0, m > 0, n = l (l > 0), (am )n = ((am )l )1 =
= (. )) = (aml )1 = ( ml > 0)= aml = amn; ) n < 0,
m < 0, n = l (l > 0), m = k (k > 0), (am )n = (((ak )1 )1 )l =

116

= (. 20) = (ak )l = (. )) = akl = amn . m = 0

n = 0 .
29. . (. 3) a, b 3, c, d, f 2; (. 5) b, c 4, a, d, f ,
g, h 2; (. 6) ( e)
2.
30. 1) ak = al , 0 6 k 6 n 1, 0 6 l 6 n 1 k > l. al . ak al = al al
(. 27) akl = e. 0 < k l 6 n 1,
, a n.
2) m m = nt + r,
0 6 r 6 n 1 t . am = ant+r =
= (. 27) = ant ar = (. 28) = (an )t ar = ( an = e) = ar ,
0 6 r 6 n 1.
31. . 2p/n.
32. . : a
120 b 240 , : b 90 c 270 .
33. m = nd + r, 0 6 r 6 n 1. (. 30 2))
am = ar . ar = e (. 30 1)), r = 0.
am = e , m = nd.
34. (am )p = amp = (ap )m = em = e. (. 33) am p. p ,
.
35. n/d m/d , (am )n/d = amn/d = (an )m/d =
= em/d = e. k , (am )k = amk =
= e, (. 33) mk n m/d k
n/d. m/d n/d , k n/d. , k ,
(am )k = e k = n/d.
36. a 2p/12.
e, a, a2 , . . . , a11 .
am , ,
12, , , m 12 (. 35)
. am m = 1, 5, 7 , 11.
. p , 5p , 7p , 11p .
6

37. ak = al k > l. ak al = al al akl = e,

, a .
38. . ,
am a + a + . . . + a (m ) a1
a. 1 1.
39. ) . . 8, ) . . 9, ) . . 10.
8
+ 0 1
0 0 1
1 1 0

+ 0 1
0 0 1
1 1 2
2 2 0

9
2
2
0
1

10
+ 0 1 2 3
0 0 1 2 3
1 1 2 3 0
2 2 3 0 1
3 3 0 1 2
40. , : 1)

117

 a, b, c (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) n,
n a + b + c;
2) 0, m + 0 = 0 + m = m
m; 3) m 6= 0, ()
m n m, n m + (n
m) = (n m) + m = 0; 0 .
1, k ,
1 + 1 + . . . + 1 = 0 n, n.
|
{z
}
k

41. am ar = ak , am ar ak = ak ak a(m+r)k = e.
(. 33), (m + r) k n, . e. m + r k
n .
42. . 1) 4) ( f:
f(e) = 0, f(a) = 2, f(b) = 1, f(c) = 3) 2) 3) (
f: f(e) = e, f(a) = a, f(b) = b, f(c) = c (. 6
7)).
43. f , f1 . c d
G2 . () a b G1 , f(a) = c f(b) = d.
f , f(ab) = f(a)f(b) = cd (
). f1(cd) = ab = f1(c)f1(d).
c d G2 , f1 .
44. f1 : G1 G2 f2 : G2 G3
, f2 f1 : G1 G3 . a b G1 .
(f2 f1 )(ab) = f2 (f1 (ab)) = f2 (f1 (a) f1 (b)) = f2 (f1 (a)) f2 (f1 (b)) =
= ((f2 f1 )(a)) ((f2 f1 )(b)) , , f2 f1
( ).
45. . 41. : f(am ) = m.
46. . 27. : f(am ) = m.
47. f(eG ) = x. x x = f(eG ) f(eG ) = ( f
) = f(eG eG ) = f(eG ) = x, . . x2 = x.
x1 F , x2 x1 = xx1 x = eF .
48. f(g)f(g 1) = ( f ) = f(g g 1) = f(eG ) =
= (. 47) = eF . f(g 1) = [f(g)]1 .
49. n . f(g n ) = f(g . . . g ) =
| {z }
n

= ( f ) = f(g) . . . f(g) = hn . n1
|
{z
}
n

g h. f(g n2 ) = hn2 = eF (. 47) g n2 = eG .

n1 6 n2 . , hn1 = f(g n1 ) = f(eG ) = eF ,
n2 6 n1 . , n1 = n2 .
50. . ) Z2 , ) Z3 .
. ) , a e
. e e = e, e a = a e = a a a.
a a = a = a e, (. 24) a = e . , a2 = e
, 2 . -

118

 Z2 .
) e, a, b e .
, ab, ba, aa, bb. ab = a,
b = e , ab = b, a = e . ,
ab = e ba = e. a2 = a, a = e ;
a2 = e = ab, a = b . a2 = b
b2 = a. , , . a3 = a2 a = ba = e,
e, a, b = a2 Z3 .
51. . ,
, 4,
(. 49).
52. f(x) = 2x . x , 2x
.
f
. x y
f(x + y) = 2x+y = 2x 2y = f(x) f(y) , , f


*).
53. y G, fa (a1 y) =
= aa1 y = y, fa G G.
fa (x) = fa (y), ax = ay = y, fa G .
54. (fa fb )(x) = fa (fb (x)) = fa (bx) = abx = fab (x)
x, fa fb = fab . fa (a1 x) = aa1 x = x,
(fa )1 (x) = a1 x = fa1 (x) x,
(fa )1 = fa1 . ,
(. , . 20).
55. y , y(a) = fa .
fa (e) = ae = a fb (e) = be = b, fa 6= fb a 6= b.
y . , y(ab) = fab =
= (. 54) = fa fb = y(a)y(b). , y .
56. ) eG eH G H. H eH eH =
eH . G. , G eG eH = eH .
G eH eH = eG eH (. 24) eH = eG .
) a H, a1
G
a1
H G
1
H. H aH a = eH = (. ) =
= eG .

*) 2 a > 0
(a 6= 1), f(x) = ax .

119

 G. , G a1
G a = eG . G
1
1
1
a1
H a = aG a aH = aG .
57. 56 .
. 1 G
H. eG ,
H 2, H,
eG a = aeG = a a G , , H. a
H, a1
G , H 3), 1
a H, a1
G a = aaG = eG = eH . , , . , H
G.
58. ( . 14). 1) {e, a, b}, 3 : {e, c},
{e, d}, {e, f }, 2 : {e} ; 2) {e, a, b, c}, {e, a},
4 : {e, d}, {e, f },
{, g}, {e, h}, 2 : {e, a, d, f } {e, a, g, h}, 2 : {e} .
59. . {e, a, a2 , . . .
. . . , an1 } (n = 5, 8, 15). : ) {e}, Z5 ;
) {e}, {e, a4 }
= Z2 , {e, a2 , a4 , a6 }
= Z4 , Z8 ; ) {e}, {e, a5 , a10 }
= Z3 ,
{e, a3 , a6 , a9 , a12 }
Z
,
Z
(.
60).
= 5 15
60. H {e} ad
H. H
akd = (ad )k k. am
H. m d : m = td + r, 0 6 r 6
6 d 1. H am atd = amtd = ar .
r > 0, , d H. , r = 0 m d. an = e
H, d n. , H
, .
61. , 60.
62. ,

(. 61), . , , : a1 , a2 , , a3 ,
, . .
,
.
63. H1 , H2 , . . . , Hm G H
. (. 57): 1) a b H, a
b Hi . ab Hi
, , H; 2) e Hi ,
, H; 3) a

120

 H, a Hi . a1
Hi , , H. 57 H
G.
64. . a , b , c , d ,
65. A , B
, C . . 4 3 2 = 24.
) 
,
  
D;
66. .




AB C D
AB C D
ABCD
ABCD
2
3
) e =
, d=
,d =
,d =
.
AB C D
BCDA
CDAB
DAB C
67.
.
D, ABC D, , ,
. ,
, , , ,
. ,
, ,
, , .
,
, .
e, , a1 a = e
a, a , a1
. (. 57), , ,
. D ,
ABC ,
4 3 = 12 .
68. . ) , ; )
, D ABC.
69. G H,
G H.
((g1 , h1 )(g2 , h2 ))(g3 , h3 ) = (g1 g2 , h1 h2 )(g3 , h3 ) =
= ((g1 g2 )g3 , (h1 h2 )h3 ) = (g1 (g2 g3 ), h1 (h2 h3 )) =
= (g1 , h1 )(g2 g3 , h2 h3 ) = (g1 , h1 )((g2 , h2 )(g3 , h3 )).
(eG , eH )(g, h) = (eG g, eH h) = (g, h) (g, h)(eG , eH ) =
= (geG , heH ) = (g, h). (eG , eH )
G H. , (g 1 , h1 )(g, h) = (g 1 g, h1 h) = (eG , eH )
(g, h)(g 1 , h1 ) = (gg 1 , hh1 ) = (eG , eH ). (g 1 , h1 )
, (g, h) G H. , G H
.
70. . nk.
71. . , f ,
f((g, h)) = (h, g), G H H G.

121

72. . (g, eH ) G,
G. (eG , h) , H.
73. : (g1 , h1 )(g2 , h2 ) = (g1 g2 , h1 h2 ) = (g2 g1 , h2 h1 ) = (g2 , h2 )
(g1 , h1 ).
74. 1) : (g1 , h1 ) (g2 , h2 ) G1 H1 , g1 , g2
g1 g2 G1 h1 , h2 h1 h2 H1 .
G1 H1 (g1 g2 , h1 h2 ) = (g1 , h1 )(g2 , h2 ).
2) G1 1 G H, eG G1 eH H1 . G1 H1
(G , eH ) G H.
3) (g, h) G1 H1 , g G1
1
h H1 . G1 H1 , gG
G1 h1

H
.

1
1
1
H
1
(gG
, h1
H ) , (g, h) G H.
57 G1 H1 G H.
75. . . G = {e1 , c}
H = {e2 , d} .
{(e1 , e2 ), (c, d)} G H, .
76. ABCD. G =
= {e1 , g} A C, H = {e2 , h}
B D. f ,
( . 6)

f(e) = (e1 , e2 ),

f(a) = (g, h),

f(b) = (e1 , h),

f(c) = (g, e2 )

, , G H
= Z2 Z2 .
77. 1) (e1 , g) (e2 , h, h2 ) . a = (g, h): a2 = (g 2 , h2 ) = (e1 , h2 ) 6= (e1 , e2 ), a3 =
= (g, e2 ) 6= (e1 , e2 ), a4 = (e1 , h) 6= (e1 , e2 ), a5 = (g, h2 ) 6= (e1 , e2 ),
a6 = (e1 , e2 ). Z2 Z3 6 ,
Z2 Z3
= Z6 .
2) (g, h) Z2 Z4 .
(g, h)4 = (g 4 , h4 ) = (e1 , e2 ). Z2 Z4 8
, , Z2 Z4 Z8 .
78. g Zm , a h Zn ,
r (g, h) Zm Zn . (g, h)mn =
= (g mn , hmn ) = (e1 , e2 ), r 6 mn. (g r , hr ) = (g, h)r =
= (e1 , e2 ), (. 33) r m n. m n
, , r = mn (g, h)
Zm Zn . , Zm Zn
= Zmn .
m n ,
k k < mn. k = mk1 k = nk2 . g h
Zm Zn , g m = e1 hn = e2 . (g, h)k = (g mk1 , hnk2 ) = (e1 , e2 ). k < mn, ,
Zm Zn mn ,
, Zm Zn Zmn .
79. (. 1, 1 2), ) {e, a, b}, {c, d, f }; ) {e, c},
{a, f }, {b, d}.

122

80. x = xe e H, x
xH.
81. y = xh1 , h1 H.
x = yh1
1 . h H.
h1 h h1
1 h H. yh =
1
(xh1 )h = x(h1 h) xH, xh = (yh1
1 )h = y(h1 h)
yH. yH xH
, xH = yH.
82. z xH yH. (. 81) xH = zH
yH = zH. xH = yH.
83. . .
.
84. . p , , e (. 83), p.
85. . . {e}
.
86. . 84 45.
87. G m n = md. . G Zd
(. 72).
88. . . , , 12 (. 67), , 6 . . .
. (. 67) 12 : e, 8 (
120 240 ) , , 3 ( 180 ) ,
. ,
, 6 .
, , a
, , A. a 120 ( 240 ), a2 240
( 120 ).
, A.
3 ( ),
A, b, A , B. bab1 .
B B , , bab1 6= e (
a = b1 b = e).
, , ,
B. A C D. ,
, ,
, C D.
9 ( e). . ,
6.
89. .
) {e, a, b}, {c, d, f };
) {e, c}, {a, f }, {b, d},
{e, c}, {a, d}, {b, f }.

123

90. . ) {e, a}, {b, c}, {d, f },

{g, h};
) {e, d}, {b, g}, {a, f }, {c, h}, {, d}, {b, h}, {a, f }, {c, g}.
91. . 3
: 1) 3k (k = 0, 1, 2, . . . ), 2)
3k + 1 (k = 0, 1, 2, . . . ), 3) 3k + 2 (k = 0, 1, 2, . . . ).
92. . ) : Z4 Z2 Z2 .
) : Z8 ;
) : Z8 , Z4 Z2 , (Z2 Z2 ) Z2 , , 1, i, j, k
, . 11.
11
1 1
i i
j j
k k
1
1 1
i i
j j
k k
1 1
1 i
i j
j k
k
i
i i 1
1
k k j
j
i i
i
1 1 k
k
j j
j
j j k
k 1
1
i i
j j
j
k k
1 1 i
i
k
k k
j j i
i 1
1
k k
k j
j
i i
1 1
. ) {e, a, b, c} . a, b, c 2, 4 (. 83).
.
1) a, b, 4,
Z4 .
2) a, b c 2, . . a2 = b2 = c2 = e. , ab. ab = e
( ab = a2 b = a), ab = a ( b = e) ab = b ( a = e).
, ab = c. ba = c, ac = ca = b
bc = b = a.
(. 6) , Z2 Z2 (. 76).
) 1, 2, 3 6
(. 83). .
1) 6,
Z6 .
2) 2, (. 25), a, b ,
{e, a, b, ab} . (.
) , ,
.
3) 2 3 3. a 3 c , a. {e, a, a2 } {c, c, ca2 }
{e, a, a2 } , , 6
e, a, a2 , c, ca, ca2 (. 82). ,

124

 6 . , -, c2 = e. , c2 = cak ( c = ak ). c2 = a
( c2 = a2 ), c3 = cc2 = ca 6= e ( c3 = ca2 6= e),
, 2 3. , 2 = e. c ,
{e, a, a2 }, (ca)2 = e (ca2 )2 = e. 6
. , ak al = ak+l , (cak )al = cak+l , (cak )(cal ) =
= (cak )(cak )alk = ealk = alk , ak (cal ) = c(cak )(cal ) = (. ) =
= calk . ,
, . , 6 ,
2 3.
.
) 1, 2, 4 8
(. 83). .
1) 8,
Z8 .
2) 2.
(. 25). a b
, e. {e, a, b, ab} . c ,
{c, ac, bc, abc}
{e, a, b, ab} , , 8 e, a, b,
c, ab, ac, bc, abc .
, a2 =
b2 = c2 = e (, (ac)(abc) = a2 bc2 = b). ,
2, .
(Z2 Z2 ) Z2 .
3) a 4 ,
e, a, a2 , a3 , b 2, . . b2 = e.
{e, a, a2 , a3 } {b, ba, ba2 , ba3 } {e, a, a2 , a3 } , , 8
. ,
ab. ab = ak ( b = ak1 ) ab = b
( a = e). ab = ba2 , ab2 = ba2 b ( b2 = e) a = ba2 b.
a2 = (ba2 b)(ba2 b) = ba2 a2 b = bb = e . ,
ab = ba, ab = ba3 .
2 :
a) ab = ba. . , ak al = ak+l , ak (bal ) = bak+l , (bak )al = bak+l ,
(bak )(bal ) = b2 ak+l = ak+l . ,
. . Z4 Z2 .
e1 g Z4 , e2 h
Z2 , a = (g, e2 ),
b = (e1 , h) .
b) ab = ba3 . . , ak al = ak+l , (bak )al = bak+l ,
ak b = ba3k , ak (bal ) = ba3k+l , (bak )(bal ) = b(ak bal ) = b2 a3k+l = a3k+l .

125

, .
. . : a 90 , b ,
.
4) a 4 , e, a, a2 ,
a3 , 4. b ,
e, a, a2 , a3 . e, a, a2 , a3 , b, ba, ba2 , ba3
. ,
bb. b2 = bak ( b = ak ) b2 = e (
b 4). b2 = a ( b2 = a3 ), b4 = a2 6= e
. , b2 = a2 . b ,
e, a, a2 , a3 , (ba)2 = (ba2 )2 = (ba3 )2 = a2 .
baba = a2 = b2 , aba = b, aba4 = ba3 ab = ba3 . . ,
ak al = ak+l , (bak )al = bak+l , ak b = ba3k , ak (bal ) = ba3k+l , (bak )(bal ) =
= b2 a3k+l = a2 a3k+l = a3k+l+2 . ,
. ,
. . :
e, a, a2 , a3 , b, ba, ba2 , ba3 1, i, 1, i, j,
k, j, k. 1, 1
, . , i2 = j 2 = k2 = 1, ij =
= k, ji = k, jk = i, kj = i, ki = j, ik = j.
. 11 (. 125).
93. , A. g 1 (A). , hg 1 (A) ghg 1 (A).
B ghg 1 () C
ghg 1 (C). , ghg 1 .
94. ghg 1 = h1 , h = g 1 h1 g.
h1 fg , , . , fg (h) = ghg 1
. , fg (h1 h2 ) =
= g(h1 h2 )g 1 = gh1 (g 1 g)h2 g 1 = (gh1 g 1 )(gh2 g 1 ) = fg (h1 )fg (h2 ).
fg .
95. . ,
96. . 120 240 .
97. .
: 1) e; 2) , e; 3) 180 ,
; 4)
, - ; 5) ,



AB C D
,
. 2
BCDA
, -

126

 .
4 5 ,
2 2 : 2)
120 ( ,
); 2) 240 .
. , . : 2) 3
, 3) 2 , 4) 2 ,
5) 4 .
(. 94),
(. 49). , h
ghg 1 , ( : g g
). , .
h1 h2 180 , , g , .
gh1 g 1 , ,
gh1 g 1 6= e ( h1 = g 1 eg = e). gh1 g 1 h2 .
, 3
(
) .
h1 h2 , g ,
. , , gh1 g 1 = h2 .
g1 hg11 = h1 g2 hg21 = h2 , h = g11h1 g1 g2 (g11h1 g1 )g21 =
= h2 . (g2 g11 )h1 (g2 g11 )1 = h2 , h
h1 h2 , h1 h2 . , -
.


AB C D
a =
5 gi (i =
BCDA




AB C D
AB C D
1, . . . . . . , 5) , g1 =
, g2 =
,
AC DB
ADB C






AB C D
ABCD
AB C D
g3 =
, g4 =
, g5 =
. ()
CBDA
BDC A
BADC
1
gi agi (i = 1, . . . , 5) a 5.


AB C D
b =
120 AC DB
, A. ,
.
, b 



AB C D
2
b =
-
ADB C

127


ABCD
. g1 DBAC




AB C D
ABCD
g2 , g1 =
, g2 =
.
ADB C
BC AD
g1 bg11 = b2 g2 bg21 = c.
g , , 120
( , )
240 . 120
120 , 240
240
98. fb (ab) = b(ab)b1 = ba. fb (. 94), ab
ba (. 49).
99. . a N g G gag 1 = agg 1 = a
N .
100. . . , g
geg 1 = e gag 1 = a.
101. , a
N , a g G.
gN N g g,
. ga, gN , N g, . . b N ,
ga = bg. gag 1 N , ,
N G.
N G. ,
gN = N g g G. ga
gN . gag 1 = b, b N ,
ga = bg , , ga ( , gN ) N g. cg N g.
(g 1 )c(g 1 )1 = d, d N . cg = gd
, , cg ( , N g) gN .
, gN N g .
102. . : ,
. . 2 (. 35).
103. N1 , N2 , . . . , Ns G
N . a N , a
N . g G, gag 1 Ni , , , N . , N G.
104. g G. eg = ge
e . a , ag = ga.
a1 , ga1 = a1 g.
a1 . a b ,
ag = ga bg = gb. g(ab) = (ga)b = a(gb) = (ab)g ,
, ab . 57
.
a g
, , c =

128

 G. gag 1 = agg 1 = a . .
105. h1 , h2 N1
N2 g1 , g2 G1 G2 .
g1 h1 g11 N1 , g2 h2 g21 N2 . (g1 , g2 )(h1 , h2 )(g1 , g2 )1 = (g1 h1 , g2 h2 )
(g11 , g21 ) = (g1 h1 g11 , g2 h2 g21 ) N1 N2 . , N1 N2 G1 G2
106. x1 x1 N , ( ) x2
x1 N . , h1 N ,
x2 = x1 h1 . h2 N , y2 =
y1 h2 . N , N y1 = y1 N .
h3 N , h1 y1 = y1 h3 . x2 y1 =
x1 h1 y1 h2 = x1 y1 h3 h2 . h3 h2 N , x1 y1
x2 y2 x1 y1 N .
107. a, b, c
T1 , T2 , T3 . (T1 T2 )T3
T1 (T2 T3 ) , (ab)c a(bc). (ab)c = a(bc), (T1 T2 )T3 =
= T1 (T2 T3 ).
108. e. E e.
109. . a T .
T 1 , a1 .
110. (. . 2, . 36), A2 = B 2 = C 2 = E.
.
111. ,
{e} .
) . 58 (1), 95, 96, 102. . , Z2 .
) . 99, 74, 75. {e1 , c} {e2 , d} .
. : 1) {(e1 , e2 ), (c, e2 )}, 2) {(e1 , e2 ),
(e1 , d)} 3) {(e1 , e2 )(c, d)}. Z2 .
) . 3, 4 (. 17). b c,
.
{e, a, b, c} (. 102), Z2 .
bdb1 = f bf b1 = d. d,
f , .
df = a, a
. {e, a, d, f } (. 102),
Z2 .
bgb1 = h, bhb1 = g hg = a, , , {e, a, g, h}, Z2 .
b, c, d, f ,
g, h, {e, a},
Z2 Z2 (. 100, 110).
. : 1) {e, a, b, }, 2) {e, a, d, f }, 3) {e,

129

a, g, h}, 4) {e, a}. 1 3 Z2

4 Z2 Z2 .
) {1, 1, i, i, j, j, k, k} . h
, 1 1, h2 = 1. ( {1}) 1. , {1 1}.
. 12. i2 = j 2 = k2 = 1,
A2 = B 2 = C 2 = E , 12
Z2 Z2 .
1
i
j
k
1 (1 i j k
) , i i ,
E
A
B
C
.
j j, k k. ()
2 4
(. ), 3 (. 102): {1, 1, i, i}, {1, 1, j, j}, {1, 1, k, k}.
Z2 .
. : 1) {1, 1}, 2) {1, 1, i, i}, 3) {1,
1, j, j}, 4) {1, 1, k, k}. 1
Z2 Z2 , 24 Z2 .
112. a) . 99, 60. n = dk. . 13 Zn = {e, a, a2 , . . . , an1 } {e, ad , a2d , . . .
. . . , a(k1)d } (l 0 k 1). a
A1 m ,
am E, d. A1
d , , Zd .
) . 99, 61. . 13 Z = {. . . , a2 ,
a1 , a, a2 , . . . } {. . . , a2d , ad , e, ad , a2d , . . . } (l = 0,
1, 2, . . . ). ) ,
Zd .
13
a

dl

dl+1

A1

adl+2
A2

...
...

adl+(d1)
Ad1

113. . 97.
,
, 97 ( ), . ( 120 240 )
,
, ,





AB C D
AB C D
. a =
b=

AC DB
CBDA

B,


ABCD
ab =
180 ,
DCB A

130

 AD .
180 ,
, ,
.
,
() , 180 ,
. 3 , , Z3 (. 50).
114. (g1 , g2 ) G1 G2 (g3 , e2 )
G1 {e2 }. (g1 , g2 )
(g3 , e2 ) (g1 , g2 )1 = (. 69)= (g1 g3 , g2 ) (g11 , g21 ) =
= (g1 g3 g11 , e2 ) G1 {e}. G1 {e} G1 G2 .
(g1 , a) G1 G2 . , G1 {2 }
. (g1 , a)
G1 {2 } (, ),
(g, a), g
G1 .
Ta . , G1 {2 } Ta , a
G2 . (e1 , a), (e1 , b) (e1 , ab)
Ta , Tb , Tab (e1 , a) (e1 , b) =
= (e1 , ab), Ta Tb = Tab . f G2 , f(a) = Ta a G2 , , f(ab) = Tab = Ta Tb =
= f(a)f(b).
, G1 G2
G1 {e2 } G2 .
115. . 57. 1 57, , .
2) eee1 e1 = e, e . 3) k aba1 b1 , k1 = (aba1 b1 )1 = (. 23) = bab1 a1 , . .
k1 .
a a = k1 k2 . . . kn , ki
1
. a1 = (k1 k2 . . . kn )1 = kn
. . . k21 k11 ,
ki1 , a1 .
116. g , k
aba1 b1 , gkg 1 . :
gkg 1 = gaba1 b1 g 1 = ga(g 1 g)b(g 1 g)a1 (g 1 g)b1 g 1 =
= (gag 1 )(gbg 1 )(gag 1 )1 (gbg 1 )1 .
a , a = k1 k2 . . . kn ,
ki . gag 1 = g(k1 k2 . . . kn )g 1 =
= gk1 (g 1 g)k2 (g 1 g) . . . (g 1 g) kn g 1 = (gk1 g 1 )(gk2 g 1 ) . . .
. . . (gkn g 1 ) , , . g
, , -

131

 ,
117. . , aba1 b1 = e , ab = ba.
118. ) ,
{e}. g , g g 1 , . g1 g2 g11 g21 0, 2, 4 , , , ,
g1 g2 g11 g21 , . . .
. {e} ,
(. 58),
.
) ), , {e}
. g , g g 1
, .
g1 g2 g11 g21 . ,
, ,
e, a. e a,
{e}, {e, a}.
) 1 1 . g1 , g2
1 1, g1 g2 g11 g21 = 1. g ,
1 1, g (g) = g 2 = (1) = 1,
. . g 1 = g. , g1 g2 , 1 1, g1 g2 g11 g21 =
= g1 g2 (g1 )(g2 ) = g1 g2 g1 g2 = (g1 g2 )2 . 1 1.
1 1, ,



{1}. , {1, 1}.
119. 118 ), ),
, . 41
n- .
n , a n-
l (. 41), b n- p p/n
( A B). aba1 b1
n-, () B C, . .
2p/n.
, , n
, 2p/n. n-, n
n-, Zn (. 31).
n = 2k. n- k-, .
, k-. g

132

 n-, g g 1
2 k-,
k- .
g1 g2 g11 g21



k- . , n = 2k

, 2p/k. c n- 2p/nd, d
m (. 42).
cdc1 d1 , () C B, . .

4p/n = 2p/k. ,
. 42
2p/k, . , k- .
Zk = Zn/2 (. 31).
120. k, l, m , . K,
L M KLM .
k, l m ,
(). k,
l m K, L KLM , ,
KLM ,
.
KLM .
, e.

k, l, m . ,

180 , . , {e},
, (. 113) ,
180
, .
121. . 113.
122. g g 1
, (. 67). g1 g2 g11 g21 . , 



AB C D
AB C D
. a =
b=
AC DB
AB D C


AB C D
, aba1 b1 =
,
ADB C
A. (. 116), (. 121)
.

133

123. . 24. : 1) ;
2) ( 9) 90 , 180 270 ,
; 3) ( 6) 180
, ;
4) ( 8) 120 240 ,
.
124. ,
. .

.
125.
, -,
6 5 4 3 2 = 720,
6 , 5
. . 24 (. 123), 720/24 = 30
.
4 ,
( 3 180
, ),
720/4 = 180 .
126. . Z2 Z2 .
127. . ) . 57. ) , g g 1
,
.
128. g g 1
ACB1 D1 A1 C1 BD (. . 8),
. .
ACB1 D1 .
a 90 ,
ABCD A1 B1 C1 D1 , , B
A. b 120 ,
A1 C, , A D1 .
aba1 b1 () A ,
A1 , D, . .
, A C1 . ACB1 D1 ,
A. (. 121),
, ACB1 D1 . ,
,
.
129. A, B a, b
. aba1 b1 ,
ABA1 B 1 = E. AB = BA.
130. a, b A, B , . AB = BA, ABA1 B 1 =
E. aba1 b1 -

134

 N . , N , ,
.
131. h1 , h2 N g G. N , 1
1
gh1 g 1 gh2 g 1 N . g(h1 h2 h1
=
1 h2 )g
1
= gh1 (g 1g)h2 (g 1g)h11(g 1g)h1
= (gh1 g 1)(gh2 g 1)(gh1 g 1)1
2 g
(gh2 g 1)1 N , . . K(N ). a K(N ) a = k1 k2 . . . ks , ki N . gag 1 =
= g(k1 k2 . . . ks )g 1 = (gk1 g 1 )(gk2 g 1 ) . . . (gks g 1 ), . . gag 1
K(N ) , , K(N )
G.
132. f1 f2 F .
f G F , g1 g2 G , f(g1 ) = f1 f(g2 ) = f2 .
f1 f2 = f(g1 )f(g2 ) = f(g1 g2 ) = f(g2 g1 ) = f(g2 )f(g1 ) = f2 f1 . ,
F .
. . 12 (. 39).
133. f(eG ) = x. xx = f(eG )f(eG ) = f(eG eG ) = f(eG ) =
= x. x x = x x = eF .
134. f(a)f(a1 ) = f(aa1 ) = f(eG ) = (. 133) = eF .
f(a1 ) = [f(a)]1 .
135. a b G.
(f2 f1 )(ab) = f2 (f1 (ab)) = f2 (f1 (a) f1 (b)) = f2 (f1 (a)) f2 (f1 (b)) =
= ((f2 f1 )(a)) ((f2 f1 )(b)).
136. f(a) = A f(b) = B, f(a) f(b) = A B = ( ) = f(ab).
137. . 57. 1) a b Ker f, f(a) = eF , f(b) = eF
f(ab) = f(a)f(b) = eF eF = eF , , ab
Ker f. 2) f(eG ) = (. 133) = eF . eG Ker f.
3) f(a) = eF , f(a1 ) = (. 134) = [f(a)]1 = e1
F = eF . , a Ker f, a1 Ker f.
138. a Ker f g G. f(a) = eF f(gag 1 ) = f(g)f(a)f(g 1 ) =
(. 134) = f(g) eF [f(g)]1 = eF . gag 1
Ker f , , Ker f
G.
139. g1 g2
g Ker f. r1 r2 Ker f ,
g1 = gr1 g2 = gr2 . f(g1 ) = f(gr1 ) = f(g)f(r1 ) = f(g)eF =
f(g)f(r2 ) = f(gr2 ) = f(g2 ).
, f(g1 ) = f(g2 ). f(g11 g2 ) = f(g11 )
f(g2 ) = (. 134) = [f(g1 )]1 f(g1 ) = eF . , g11 g2 = r,
r Ker f. g2 = g1 r
g1 g2 g1 Ker f.
140. f F . f , a G , f(a) = f .
A , a.
y(A) = f(a) = f .
141. y(A) = y(B), a, b A

135

 B. f(a) = y(A) = y(B) = f(b). (. 139) A = B.

142. A B a, b
. ab AB. y, y(AB) = f(ab) = (f
) = f(a) f(b) = y(A) y(B). y (. 141), y .
143. k, l, m , .
, . .
f1
k, l, m.
, (),
,
. , g1 g2 k, l, m,
g1 g2 , , g1 g2 , . . f1 (g1 g2 ) = f1 (g1 )f1 (g2 ) , , f1
.
k, l, m KLM .
f2 k, l, m
KLM .
f2 f1 (. 135) KLM .
, k, l, m .
180
k, l, m. 138 3 , 4

.
144. k, l, m , . 143,
KLM .
, k, l, m .
180
, .
138 3 , 4
.
145. ra
a . f(ra ) = rna
R ,

f(ra rb ) = f(ra+b ) = rn(a+b) = rna rnb = f(ra )f(rb )

ra ra/n , f(ra/n ) = ra .
f r , na =
2pk, . . a = 2pk/n. ,
n- . 138

136

 3 .
146. f1 f2 (. . 40)
G1 G2 G1 /N1 G2 /N2 .
f G1 G2 (G1 /N1 ) (G2 /N2 )
, f((g1 , g2 )) = (f1 (g1 ), f2 (g2 )).
; ,

f((g1 , g2 ) (g3 , g4 )) = f((g1 g3 , g2 g4 )) =

= (f1 (g1 g3 ), f2 (g2 g4 )) = (f1 (g1 )f1 (g3 ), f2 (g2 )f2 (g4 )) =
= (f1 (g1 ), f2 (g2 )) (f1 (g3 ), f2 (g4 )) = f((g1 , g2 )) f((g3 , g4 )).
f (g1 , g2 ) ,
f((g1 , g2 )) = (E1 , E2 ), E1 E2 G1 /N1 G2 /N2 . f((g1 , g2 )) =
= (f1 (g1 ), f2 (g2 )), f (g1 , g2 )
, f1 (g1 ) = E1 f2 (g2 ) = E2 . f1 f2
, , f
N1 N2 . 138 3
.
147. . , Z4 = {e, a, a2 , a3 } Z2 Z2
{e, a2 } Z2 {e2 },
Z2 , Z2 .
148. . , Z4 Z2 Z4 = {e, a, a2 , a3 }, {e1 } Z2 {e1 }
{2 }, (Z4 Z2 )/({e1 } Z2 )
= (Z4 /{e1 })
(Z2 /Z2 )
= Z4 (Z4 Z2 )/({e1 , a2 } {e2 })
= Z2 Z2
(. 146).
149. . 145,
R/Zn
= R.
= R , , R/{e}
, , , Z4 Z2 ,
Z4 {e2 } Z2 Z2
Z2 (. 146).
150. . 57. 1) f1 f2 f(H). ,
H h1 h2 , f(h1 ) = f1 f(h2 ) = f2 .
h1 h2 H f(h1 h2 ) = ( f
) = f(h1 )f(h2 ) = f1 f2 . f1 f2
f(H).
2) eG H f(eG ) = eF (. 133), eF f(H) H.
3) f f(H). , H
h , f(h) = f . h1 H f(h1 ) = (. 134) = [f(h)]1 = f 1 . f 1
f(H).
151. . 57. 1) g1 g2 f1 (H). , f(g1 ) = h1 f(g2 ) = h2 H.
h1 h2 H f(g1 g2 ) = f(g1 )f(g2 ) = h1 h2 .
g1 g2 f1 (H).
2) f(eG ) = eF (. 133) eF H, eG f1 (H).

137

3) g f1 (H). ,
f(g) = h H. h1
H f(g 1 ) = (. 134) = [f(g)]1 = h1 . g 1
f1 (H).
152. a f1 (N ). ,
f(a) = h N . g G f(g) = f , f(g 1 ) = (. 134) = [f(g)]1 = f 1 . f(gag 1 ) = f(g)f(a)f(g 1 ) = f hf 1 N ,

N F . gag 1
f1 (N ) , , f1 (N ) G.
153. g1 g2 G f(g1 ) =
= f1 , f(g2 ) = f2 , (. 134) f(g11 ) = f11 , f(g21 ) = f21 .
f(g1 g2 g11 g21 ) = f(g1 )f(g2 )f(g11 )f(g21 ) = f1 f2 f11 f21 , . . G F . K1 k1 k2 . . . kn ,
ki . f(k1 k2 . . . kn ) = f(k1 )f(k2 ) . . . f(kn )
F , ,
K2 . , f(K1 ) K2 .
, K1 f1 (K2 ).
154. a f(N ). ,
N h , f(h) = a. f
F . f , G
g , f(g) = f . f(g 1 ) = f 1 (. 134)
f(ghg 1 ) = f af 1 . N G,
ghg 1 N . f af 1
f(N ) , , f(N ) F .
155. f1 f2 f11 f21 F .
f , G g1 g2 ,
f(g1 ) = f1 f(g2 ) = f2 . (. 134) f(g11 ) = f11 , f(g21 ) = f21
f(g1 g2 g11 g21 ) = f(g1 )f(g2 )f(g11 )f(g21 ) = f1 f2 f11 f21 . g1 g2 g11 g21 K1 , f1 f2 f11 f21 f(K1 ). f(K1 ) F (. 150)
, f(K1 ) K2 .
, f(K1 ) K2 (. 153). f(K1 ) = K2 .
K1 = f1 (K2 ) . , f Z2 = {e1 , a} {e2 },
, , f(e1 ) = e2 f(a) = e2 , . K1 = {e1 }, K2 = {e2 } f1 (K2 ) = {e1 , a} 6= K1 .
156. , ) : Zn , ) (. 118), )
(. 118), ) (. 118), ) (. 120), ) (. 122 )), )
(. 128 )).
157. 12 , .
. 60.
158. . 1) 1, 2) 24, 3) 20, 4) 15.
159. l1 l2 (. .
,
, ). g ,

138

 l1 l2 . a () l1 , gag 1 () l2 ,
. gag 1 (
a = g 1 g = e l2 . ,

,
.
(
) 5, 3 2. 5, 3 2 ,
( e)
(. 34), . . . ,
,
.
160. 159 ,
14, 1 .
(60) (. , . 31).
(. 158), ,
1 .
161. G , K(G) 6= {e}.
K(G) G (. 116),
K(G) = G. G, K(G), K2 (G) = K(K(G)), . . .
G , ,
. G
.
162. G . n ,
Kn (G) = K(K . . . (K (G)) . . . ) .
|
{z
}
n

H G, K(H) K(G), K(K(H)) K(K(G)) . .

Kn (H) Kn (G) Kn (G) ,
Kn (H) . H .
163. K(G) G Kr (G)
K(K . . . (K (G)) . . . ). f G
|
{z
}
r

F , f(K(G)) = K(F ) (. 155). f(K2 (G)) = K2 (F )

f(Kr (G)) = Kr (F ). G ,
n Kn (G) .
f(Kn (G)) = Kn (F ), Kn (F ) .
F .
164. . , f: G {e}, G
.
165. . (.
. 40) G G/N . 163.
166. K(G) G

139

Kr (G) = K(K . . . (K (G)) . . . ).

|
{z
}
r

f (. . 40) G G/N . (. 155) f(K(G)) = K(G/N ),

f(K2 (G)) = K2 (G/N ) f(Kr (G)) = Kr (G/N ). G/N , n Kn (G/N )
, . . Kn (G/N ) = {E}. f(Kn (G)) = Kn (G/N ) =
= {E}, Kn (G) N .
N , s Ks (N )
. Kn (G) N , Kn+s (G)
Ks (N ) . ,
G .
167. 146 (G F )/(G {e2 })
= {e} F .
G {e2 } {e} F G
F , , (. 166) G F .
168. G , G,
K(G), K2 (G), . . . n Kn (G) = {e}. G, K(G), K2 (G), . . . Kn (G).
,
, , (. 116)
, Ki (G)/Ki+1 (G), G/K(G)
(. 129); Kn (G) = {e} .
169. Gi1 /Gi ,
K(Gi1 ) Gi (. 130). K2 (Gi1 ) K(Gi ) Kr (Gi1 ) Kr1 (Gi ) r > 1 1 6 i 6 n.
Kn+1 (G0 ) Kn (G1 ),
Kn1 (G2 ), . . K(Gn ). , Kn+1 (G) K(Gn ). K(Gn ) = {e} Gn
. Kn+1 (G) = {e}, . . G
.
169
, Gn Gn1 , Gn2
. . 166.
170. G . , n Kn (G) , , Kn1 (G) . Kn1 (G) G (. 131), G1 = G/Kn1 (G). , Kn2 (G1 ) . (.
. 40) f: G G1 Kn1 (G). f ,
(. 155) f(K(G)) = K(G1 ). f(K2 (G)) = K2 (G1 ) . .
, Kn1 (G1 ) = f(Kn1 (G)) = ( Kn1 (G) f) = {eG1 }. Kn1 (G1 ) = K(Kn2 (G1 )) = {eG1 },
(. 117) Kn2 (G1 ) .
G2 G1 /Kn2 (G1 ).
, , Kn3 (G2 ) .
G3 = G2 /Kn3 (G2 ) . . Gn1 =
= Gn2 /K(Gn2 ) (. 129). G,
G1 , G2 , . . . , Gn1 Kn1 (G),

140

Kn2 (G1 ), Kn3 (G2 ), . . . , K(Gn2 ) .

171. G0 , G1 , . . . , Gn 170 . , ,
, G0 . n
0. Gn , ,
, K(Gn ) = {e}. , Gi . , Gi1 . Gi1
, , ,
Ni1 , Gi1 /Ni1
= Gi
. Gi1
166. ,
, G0 , G1 , . . . , Gn . , G0 .
172.

n 

1 2 ... n

, im 1
i1 i2 . . . in
n. i1 n . i2 n 1 . . n
n(n 1) . . . 2 1
= n!





1234...n
1234...n
1234...n
173. a=
b=
, ab=
,
2314...n
1324...n
2134...n


1234...n
ba =
, . . ab 6= ba (, ab
3214...n
b, a.)
174. i1 i2 , i2 i3 . . ir
. , ir = ik ,
2 6 k 6 r 1, , ik1 ir1
.
, ir = i1 , .
, , . .
,
.
- .
i1 i2 i1 i2 ,
i1 i2 . i2 ,
i1 , i1 ,
. , . , ,
. ,




123
123
= (1 2) (2 3)

= (1 3) (1 2).
231
231
175. . ,
(i1 i2 . . . im ) = (i1 im ) (i1 im1 ) . . . (i1 i3 ) (i1 i2 ).
176. . i < j. , -

141


(i, j) = (i, i + 1) (i + 1, i + 2) . . . (j 2, j 1) (j 1, j)
(j 2, j 1) (j 3, j 2) . . . (i + 1, i + 2) (i, i + 1).
177. , (3, 2), (3, 1), (2, 1) (5, 4), (5, 1),
(4, 1). . 6.
178. i j k1 , k2 , . . . , ks , i j,
: (i, j), (i, kr ), (kr , j) r = 1, 2 . . . s, . . 2s + 1 .
2s + 1 ,
.
179. . (6 ).
180.




... r ... s ...
... r ... s ...
(r, s) =
,
. . . ir . . . is . . .
. . . is . . . ir . . .
ir is . 178
.
181.
(. 174, 175). a m a = a1 a2 . . . am . a =
e a1 a2 . . . am . e m
, (. 180), m a
, m a .
182. . 175. . ) ; ) ; )
m, m.
183. .
(. 181). ,
.
184. a a1 ,
(. 183) aa1 = e , .
185. ,


12345...n
(1 2 3) (2 3 4) =
,
21435...n


12345...n
(2 3 4) (1 2 3) =
.
34125...n
186. a , gag 1 g. An
Sn . b . , bAn . c . b1 c
. c = b(b1 c)
bAn . , Sn
An
.

142

187. . Sn 2
An (


),

An (. 172)
n!
= 1 2 ... n.
2
2









188. S2 2
, , 

Z2 . S3 S4 
.
. 43
(. 156).
189.
, . 43.
, , : (1, 8,
14, 16), (2, 9, 15, 17), (3, 10, 11, 18), (4, 6, 12, 19), (5, 7, 13, 20).
190. 5-
: ) (i1 i2 i3 i4 i5 )
) (i1 i2 i3 ), ) (i1 i2 )(i3 i4 ), ) (i1 i2 i3 i4 ), ) (i1 i2 i3 )(i4 i5 ), ) (i1 i2 ). 182 183, , ), ),
) , ), ), )
.
191. N A5 h ) (. 190).
, h = (1 2 3 4 5). , (i1 i2 i3 i4 i5 ) ) N .
 i1,
1 2 3 4 5
i2 , i3 , i4 , i5 , g =
i1 i2 i3 i4 i5
. N ghg 1 = (i1 i2 i3 i4 i5 ). i1 , i2 , i3 , i4 , i5
, i1 , i4 , i2 , i5 , i3
(

).


1 2 3 4 5
g =
. N i1 i4 i2 i5 i3
ghg 1 = (i1 i4 i2 i5 i3 ),
(ghg 1 )2 = (i1 i2 i3 i4 i5 ).
N
h = (1 2 3) ) (. 190), (i1 i2 i3 ) . i4 i5 {1, 2, 3, 4, 5},
i1 , i2 , i3 . i1 , i2 , i3 , i4 , i5
i1 ,i2 , i3 , i5 , i4  .


1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5

.
i1 i2 i3 i4 i5
i1 i2 i3 i5 i4
g, , N
ghg 1 = (i1 i2 i3 ).
N )
(. 190), h = (1 2)(3 4),
(i1 i2 )(i3 i4 ) ). ,

143




1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5

i1 i2 i3 i4 i5
i2 i1 i3 i4 i5
. g , N
ghg 1 = (i1 i2 )(i3 i4 ).
192. ), ) )
(. 190).
) 5 4 3 2 1 = 120
1, 2, 3, 4, 5. )
(
), ) 120 = 24.
5
) , ), ,
) 5 4 3 = 20.
3
) ) 8 (4 i1 2 i2 ).
) 5 4 3 2 = 15.
8
N .
, 191 , A5
(. 190) , .
A5 (60). 1 24, 20, 15 60:
. ,
A5 .
193. , , ,


1 2 3 4 5 6...n
,
i1 i2 i3 i4 i5 6 . . . n

i1 , i2 , i3 , i4 , i5 .

II
194. ) . , (. 17).
) . ,
( 1 1 ).
) . . 57.
. ,
, ,
,
. , 57. : 1) a b ,
a + b a b ; 2) 0 1
; 3) a , a 1 ( a 6= 0) a
. , , .

144

, .
) . .
57.

2
=
0 r1 r2
.
r
+
r
1
2

r 6= 0, 2 = r1 /r2 , 2
. , r1 + r2 2 = 0
r1 , r2
, r1 = r2 = 0. r1 + r2 2

(r1 , r2 ) ,
r1 + r2 2 = r3 + r4 2,

(r1 r3 ) + (r2 r4 ) 2 = 0 r1 = r3 , r2 = r4 . ,
r1 + r2 2, r1 r2 ,

. , r1 + r2 2
,
.

57: 1)

a = r1 + r2 2 b = r3 + r4 2, a+ b = (r1 + r3 ) + (r2 + r4 ) 2
ab = (r1 r3 + 2r2 r4 ) + (r1 r4 + r2 r3 ) 2 ; 2) 0 1

, 0 = 0
+ 0 2 1 = 1 +0 2;
3) a = r1 + r2 2, a = (r
2 6= 0)
1 ) + (r2 ) 2 ( r1 + r2

r1 r2 2
1
a1 =
= r12 r2 22 = 2 r1 2 +
=

r1 2r2
r1 2r2
r1 + r2 2
(r1 + r2 2)(r1 r2 2)


2.
+ 2 r2 2
r1 2r2

,
.
195. a0 + a0 = a(0 + 0) = a0.
, a0 + a0 = a0 a0. a0 = 0. ,
0a = 0.
196. 1) ab + (a)b = (a + (a))b = 0b = (. 195) = 0.
(a)b = (ab). , a(b) = ab; 2) (a)
(b) = (. 1) = (a(b)) = ((ab)) = (. 20) = ab.
197. ab = 0 a 6= 0, a1 , a.
a1 ab = a1 0 = (. 195) = 0. a1 ab = 1 b = b. b = 0.
198. . . 14.
14

0
1

0
0
0

1
0
1

0
1
2

0
0
0
0

1
0
1
2

2
0
2
1

0
1
1
3

0
0
0
0
0

1
0
1
2
3

2
0
2
0
2

3
0
3
2
1

199. n , . . n = n1 n2 , n1 < n n2 < n.

n n1 n2 = 0, n1 6= 0 n2 6= 0.
(. 197), n
n .
. x y ,
r1 , r2 n, . . x = k1 n + r1 y = k2 n + r2 .
x + y = (k1 + k2 )n + (r1 + r2 ) xy = (k1 k2 n + k1 r2 + k2 r1 )n +
+ r1 r2 , , x + y r1 + r2 , xy
r1 r2 n . ,
, -

145

 x y n ( )
n ( ) x y
,
n. ,
n n ,

n.
.
n (. 40). a, b,
c (a + b)c ac + bc, ,
n, n (a + b)c =
= ac + bc, . . . n :
(ab)c = a(bc) ab = ba. 1. , n a,
0, , . . x ,
ax = 1 n.
, 0 < a < n. a 0, a 1, . . . , a(n 1)
( ). ak al =
= a(k l) n, n , a < n 0 < |k l| < n.
, n , , n. ,
n 1, . . ax = 1 n x. , n
.
200. a b = a + (b), (a b)c = (a + (b))c = ac +
+ (b)c =(. 196)= ac + (bc) = ac bc.
201.
P (x) = S1 (x)Q(x) + R1 (x)

P (x) = S2 (x)Q(x) + R2 (x).

0 = (S1 (x) S2 (x))Q(x) + (R1 (x) R2 (x))

(S1 (x) S2 (x))Q(x) = R2 (x) R1 (x).

(1)

S1 (x) S2 (x) 6= 0, , (1), , Q(x),

, , ,
Q(x). ,
S1 (x) S2 (x) = 0 , , R2 (x) R1 (x) = 0,
. . S1 (x) = S2 (x) R1 (x) = R2 (x).
202. (. 69 73). () (0, 0).
203. z1 = (a, b), z2 = (c, d), z3 = (e, f ). z1 z2 =
= (ac bd, ad + bc) z2 z1 = (ca db, cb + da). Ho ac bd = ca db
ad + bc = cb + da, z1 z2 = z2 z1 .

146

 : (z1 z2 ) z3 = (ac bd, ad + bc) (e, f ) = (ace bde

adf bcf, acf bdf + ade + bce) z1 (z2 z3 ) = (a, b) (ce df, cf +
+ de) = (ace adf bcf bde, acf + ade + bce bdf ), . . (z1 z2 )
z3 = z1 (z2 z3 ).
204. z = (a, b) 6= (0, 0),
z 1 = (x, y). z z 1 = z 1 z = (ax by, ay + bx).
z z 1 = (1, 0) :
(
ax by = 1,
bx + ay = 0.
:
x=

a
,
a2 + b2

y=

b
,
a2 + b2

a2 + b2 6= 0, (a, b) 6= (0, 0). ,

(a, b)1 = 2 a 2 , 2 b 2 .
a +b

a +b

205. z1 = (a, b), z2 = (c, d), z3 = (e, f ). (z1 + z2 ) z3

= (a + c, b + d) (e, f ) = (ae + ce bf df, af + cf + be + de) =
z1 z3 + z2 z3 = (ae bf, af + be) + (ce df, cf + de) = (ae bf
+ ce df, af + be + cf + de), , (z1 + z2 ) z3
= z1 z3 + z2 z3 .
206. a + bi = (a, 0) + (b, 0)(0, 1) = (a, 0) + (0, b) = (a, b).
207. . (c + di) (a + bi) = (c a) + (d b)i.

+
=

(c + di)(a bi)
208. x + yi = c + di =
=
a + bi

(a + bi)(a bi)

(ac + bd) + (ad bc)i

bc
=
= ac2 + bd2 + ad
i
a2 + b2
a +b
a2 + b2

( a + bi 6= 0, a2 + b2 6= 0).
209. .
) i3 = i; ) i4 = 1;

1,
n = 4k,

i, n = 4k + 1,
n
) i =

1, n = 4k + 2,

i, n = 4k + 3.
210. . (x + yi)2 = (x2 y 2 ) + 2xyi = b,
b ,
(
x2 y 2 = b,
2xy = 0.
. ) z = 1, ) z = i, ) z = a, ) z = ai.
211. ) z1 = a + bi, z2 = c + di.
z1 + z2 = (a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i =
= (a + c) (b + d)i = (a bi) + (c di) = z 1 + z 2 .
) (z1 z2 ) + z2 = z1 . ) z 1 = (z1 z2 ) + z2 = (z1 z2 ) + z 2 .
z1 z2 = z 1 z 2 .

147

) z1 z2 = (a + bi)(c + di) = (ac bd) + (bc + ad)i = (ac bd) (bc +

+ ad)i = (a bi)(c di) = z 1 z 2 .


 
) z 1 = z1 z2 = ( )) = z1 z 2
z2
z2
 
z
z1 = 1 .
z2

z2

212. 211
P (z) = a0 z n + a1 z n1 + . . . + an1 z + an =
= a0 z n + a1 z n1 + . . . + an1 z + an =
n

= a0 z + a1 z

n1

+ . . . + an1 z + an =

= (ai = ai , ai ) =
n

= a0 z + a1 z

n1

+ . . . + an1 z + an = P (z).

213. M i0 , a + bi0 , a,
b .
M , a + bi0 , M 0 . , , M , M 0 :
(a + bi0 ) + (c + di0 ) = (a + c) + (bi0 + di0 ) = (a + c) + (b + d)i0 ,

(1)

2
0

(a + bi0 ) (c + di0 ) = ac + adi0 + bci0 + bdi =

= ( i20 = 1) = (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i0 .

(2)

C . C ,

f(a + bi) = a + bi0 .

(1), (2) (2.3), (2.4) . 60, , f (. . 39) C M . f(C) = M 0 ,
(. 150) M 0 M . M
, , , , M 0 .
, M 0 .
a + bi0 = c + di0 , (b d)i0 = c a. b d 6= 0,
i0 = c a , ,
bd
1.
, b d = 0, c a = 0. b = d, a = c.
, a + bi0 M (a, b). , f C
M 0 . , , f , f C M 0 , . . M 0
.

148

214. , . .
xn + a1 xn1 + a2 xn2 + . . . + an =
= (b0 xm + b1 xm1 + . . . + bm ) (c0 xk + c1 xk1 + . . . + ck ),
m < n, k < n, bi cl b0 6= 0, c0 6= 0.
x j. M
,
( j) .
, x j.
,
j n + a1 j n1 + a2 j n2 + . . . + an =
= (b0 j m + b1 j m1 + . . . + bm ) (c0 j k + c1 j k1 + . . . + ck ).

j n + a1 j n1 + a2 j n2 + . . . + an = 0,

(. 197)
0. b0 c0 ,
(3.1), 0 , n.
, n (3.1), 0. , ,
, .
215. , ) j m
j 2 + pj + q = 0,
p q , x2 + px + q
.




p2

p2
p
2
p2
x2 + px + q = x2 + px +

q = x+

q .
4

p2
p2

q > 0
q = a2
4
4

a.

x2 + px + q = x +

p
p
2
p
a2 = x + + a x + a ,
2
2
2

. . x2 + px + q . ,

p2
p2
q<0
q = b2 4
4

b, 0. M j 2 + pj + q = 0,
M
p2
p2
p
2
p2
j 2 + pj +
=
q j+
=
q = b2 .
4

j
p
2
+
= b2 = 1.
b
2b
b

,
i0 =

j
p
+ ,
b
2b

M , .

149

216. . ( ) , ,











 






. 44


. 45

j,
.
217. . A: 2 + 2i, B: 1 + 3i, C: 2 i.








. 46










. 47



 


. 48

218. . ) (
, 180 ). ) 2 . ) x.
219. .
A1 B1 C1 A2 B2 C2 (. 44).
220. z1 = xu + iyu , z2 = xv + iyv , z3 = xw +
iyw . z3 = z1 + z2 :
(
xw = xu + xv
(1)
yw = y u + yv .
, w = u + v, (. 45) xw = ( ) = xC xA = (xC xD ) + (xD xA ) = xu + xv
yw = yu + yv . w = u + v
(1).

= yB yA .

= xB xA y
221. x
AB
AB
222. |z|2 = a2 + b2 (. 46).
z z = (a + bi)(a bi) = a2 + b2 .
223. . . 47. . , ,
, ,
.
, z2 = kz1 , k .

150

224. . . 48.
|z1 + z2 |2 + |z1 z2 |2 = (. 222) =
= (z1 + z2 )(z1 + z2 ) + (z1 z2 )(z1 z2 ) = (. 211) =
= (z1 + z2 )(z 1 + z 2 ) + (z1 z2 )(z 1 z 2 ) =
= 2z1 z 2 + 2z2 z 2 = 2|z1 |2 + 2|z2 |2 .




2 cos p + i sin p ; ) 2 cos 7p + i sin 7p ;
225. . )
4
4
6
6

) 3 cos p + i sin p ; ) 5(cos p + i sin p); )
5(cos f + i sin f),
2
2
f = arctg 2.
226. : z1 z2 = r1 r2 [(cos f1 cos f2 sin f1 sin f2 ) + i(sin f1
cos f2 + cos f1 sin f2 )] =( )= r1 r2 (cos(f1 + f2 ) + i sin(f1 + f2 )).

z1 = z2 r1 (cos(f1 f2 ) + i sin(f1 f2 )),

r2

.
227. .
226.

228. 1 3i = 2 1 3 i = 2 cos p + i sin p .
2
2
3
3
h
h
i

100


(1 3i)100 = 2 cos p + i sin p
= (. 227) = 2100 cos 100 p +
3
3
3
i




i sin 100 p = 2100 cos 2p + i sin 2p .
3

(1 3i)100
= cos 2p + i sin 2p = 1 + i 3 .
100
2
3
3
2
2

. 1 + i 3 .
2
2

229. z = 0, w = 0 (. 197). z 6= 0 w 6= 0.
w = r(cos y + i sin y).
(. 227)
wn = rn (cos ny + i sin ny) = r(cos f + i sin f).
rn = r ny = f + 2pk, k .
f + 2pk
, y =

w=

r cos

f + 2pk
f + 2pk

+ i sin
.
n
n

(1)

f + 2pk1
k1 k2 = ln, l ,

n
f + 2pk2
2pl. (1)
n

w. w ,
k (1) k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1.
230. . , (1) 229.

151

. ) +i, i; ) 2, 1 + 3i, 1 3i ( 3 ); ) cos(25 + 90 n) +

2(cos(15 + 120 n) +
+ i sin(25 + 90 n), n = 0, 1, 2, 3; ) 6
6

+ i sin(15 + 120 n)), n = 0, 1, 2 (

2
).
231. . . (1) 229; 1 =
= 1(cos 0 + i sin 0); ekn = cos(2pk/n) + i sin(2pk/n) (. 227).
232. . z1n = z0 z2n = z0 , (z2 /z1 )n = z2n /z1n = 1.
. z1 , z1 en , z1 e2n , . . . , z1 en1
(. 231).
n

, O 233. 221 zA = z
OA
. . ) z ; )
Ox Oz; )
(. 221); )
z1 z2 ( zB zA = z
AB
Oz2 Oz1 (. 226).
234. . 233. . ), ) 1 ( R) ; ) R z0 ; ) R z0 ;
) , z1 z2 , ; ) ;
) ; ) ,
Ox f.
235. . 229 232. .
n- .
236. z0 e > 0. d = 1 ( z0 , e).
z, |z z0 | < 1, |f (z) f (z0 )| = |a a| = 0 < e. , f (z) a
z. ( d
.)
237. z0 e > 0. d = e ( z0 ). z, |z z0 | < d,
|f (z) f (z0 )= |z z0 | < d = e, . . |f (z) f (z0 )| < e. ,
f (z) = z . z, , f (x) =
x .
238. z0 e > 0. d
|z z0 | < d, |f (z) f (z0 )| = |z 2 z02 | = |(z z0 )(z + z0 )| =
= (. 226) = |z z0 | |z + z0 | 6 d|z + z0 |. |z + z0 | = |(z z0 ) +
+ 2z0 | 6 (. 223) 6 |z z0 | + |2z0 | < d + 2|z0 |. ,
|z z0 | < d
|f (z) f (z0 )| < d (d + 2|z0 |).
d ,

d (d + 2|z0 |) 6 e.

z0 = 0, d = e (
e). z0 6= 0, -

152

 |z0 |

e

3|z0 |

. d 6 |z0 |
d 6 e .
3|z0 |

d(d + 2|z0 |) 6

e
(|z0 | + 2|z0 |) = e.
3|z0 |

, |z z0 | < d, d , |f (z)
f (z0 )| < e. , f (z) = z 2
.
239. ) e > 0.

|h(z) h(z0 )| = |(f (z) + g(z)) (f (z0 ) + g(z0 ))| =

= |(f (z) f (z0 )) + (g(z) g(z0 ))| 6 (. 223) 6
6 |f (z) f (z0 )| + |g(z) g(z0 )|.
e e . , 2
f (z) z0 ,
d1 > 0, z, |z z0 | < d1 ,
|f (z) f (z0 )| < e . ,
2
g(z) z0 , d2 > 0, z,
|z z0 | < d2 , |g(z) g(z0 )| < e . 2
d d1 d2 . z,
|z z0 | < d, : |f (z) f (z0 )| < e |g(z) g(z0 )| < e . z,
2
2
|z z0 | < d,
|h(z) h(z0 )| 6 |f (z) f (z0 )| + |g(z) g(z0 )| < e + e = e,
2

. . |h(z) h(z0 )| < e. , h(z) = f (z) + g(z)

z0 .
) h(z) = f (z) g(z),
|h(z) h(z0 )| = |(f (z) g(z)) (f (z0 ) g(z0 ))| =
= |(f (z) f (z0 )) + ((g(z) g(z0 )))| 6 (. 223) 6
6 |f (z) f (z0 )| + | 1| |g(z) g(z0 )| =
= |f (z) f (z0 )| + |g(z) g(z0 )|.

|h(z) h(z0 )| 6 |f (z) f (z0 )| + |g(z) g(z0 )|
, ), ,
).

153

) e > 0.
|h(z) h(z0 )| = |f (z)g(z) f (z0 )g(z0 )| =
= |f (z)g(z) f (z)g(z0 ) + f (z)g(z0 ) f (z0 )g(z0 )| 6 (. 223) 6
6 |f (z)(g(z) g(z0 ))| + |g(z0 )(f (z) f (z0 ))| = (. 226) =
= |f (z)| |g(z) g(z0 )| + |g(z0 )| |f (z) f (z0 )|.
d > 0 , z,
|z z0 | < 0,
, e .
2
1) f (z0 ) 6= 0, e1 = |f (z0 )| > 0.
f (z) z0 , d0 > 0 |z z0 | < d0
|f (z) f (z0 )| < e1 = |f (z0 )|. |z z0 | < d0
|f (z)| = |f (z) f (z0 ) + f (z0 )| 6 (. 223) 6
6 |f (z) f (z0 )| + |f (z0 )| < |f (z0 )| + |f (z0 )| = 2|f (z0 )|,
. .
|f (z)| < 2|f (z0 )|.
e2 =

e
. 4 |f (z0 )|

g(z) z0 ,
d00 > 0 |z z0 | < d00 |g(z) g(z0 )| <
e
. d1 d0 d00 .
< e2 =
4 |f (z0 )|

z, |z z0 | < d1 ,
:
|f (z)| < 2|f (z0 )|

|g(z) g(z0 )| <

e
4 |f (z0 )|

, ,
|f (z)| |g(z) g(z0 )| < e .
2

f (z0 ) = 0, . e1 e1 = 1.
d0 > 0 |z z0 | < d0 |f (z) f (z0 )| < e1 = 1, ,
, f (z0 ) = 0 |f (z)| < 1. e2
e2 = e . d00 > 0
2

|z z0 | < d00 |g(z) g(z0 )| < e2 = e .

2
d1 d0 d00 , z, |z z0 | < d1 , :
|f (z) < 1

|g(z) g(z0 )| < e

, ,
|f (z)| |g(z) g(z0 )| < e .
2

2) g(z0 ) 6= 0, e3 =

e
.
2|g(z0 )|

d2 , z,

154

|z z0 | < d2 ,
|f (z) f (z0 )| < e3 =

e
2|g(z0 )|

, ,
|g(z0 )| |f (z) f (z0 )| < e .
2

g(z0 ) = 0, d2
, z
|g(z0 )| |f (z) f (z0 )| = 0 < e .
2

d d1 d2 .
z, |z z0 | < d,
:
|f (z)| |g(z) g(z0 )| < e
2

|g(z0 )| |f (z) f (z0 )| < e

, ,
|h(z) h(z0 )| < e + e = e.
2

, h(z) = f (z) g(z) z0 .

240. ) e > 0.


|h(z) h(z0 )| =  1

g(z)

1   g(z0 ) g(z) 
=
=
g(z0 )
g(z)g(z0 )

= (. 226) =

| (g(z) g(z0 ))|

|g(z) g(z0 )|
=
.
|g(z)g(z0 )|
|g(z)| |g(z0 )|

|g(z )|

0
e1 =
> 0. g(z) 2
z0 , d1 > 0

|g(z )|

0
|z z0 | < d1 |g(z) g(z0 )| < e1 =
. 2
, z, |z z0 | < d1 ,

|g(z)| = |g(z0 ) (g(z0 ) g(z))| > (. 223) > |g(z0 )|

|g(z0 ) g(z)| > |g(z0 )|

|g(z0 )|
|g(z0 )|
=
.
2
2

e |g(z )|2

0
e2 =
> 0.
2
d2 > 0 |z z0 | < d2

e|g(z )|2

0
|g(z) g(z0 )| < e2 =
. d
2
d1 d2 . z, |z z0 | < d,

|g(z)| >

|g(z0 )|
2

|g(z) g(z0 )| <

e |g(z0 )|2
2

155

, ,
|h(z) h(z0 )| =

|g(z) g(z0 )|
e |g(z0 )|2
2
<

= e.
|g(z)| |g(z0 )|
2
|g(z0 )|2

, h(z) =

1
z0 .
g(z)

) f (z) g(z) z0 , z0 1 (. )) , ,
h(z) =

g(z)
f (z)
= f (z) 1 (. 239 )).
g(z)
g(z)

241. e > 0.
f (z) z1 ,
d1 > 0, |z z1 | < d1
|f (z) f (z1 )| < e. d1 > 0.
g(z) z0 , d > 0, |z z0 | < d |g(z) g(z0 )| <
d1 , . . |g(z) z1 | < d1 .
|f (g(z)) f (z1 )| < e, . . |f (g(z)) f (g(z0 ))| < e. ,
z, |z z0 | < d, |h(z) h(z0 )| < e , ,
h(z) = f (g(z)) z0 .
242. x0 e > 0.
f (x) = sin x |f (x) f (x0 )| = | sin x sin x0 | = (




) = 2 sin x x0 cos x + x0  = 2 sin x x0 
2
2
2








cos x + x0  6 cos x + x0  6 1 6 2sin x x0 .
2
2
2
f (x) = cos x |f (x) f (x0 )| = | cos x cos x0 | = (




) = 2 sin x x0 sin x + x0  = 2 sin x x0 
2

2
2






sin x + x0  6 sin x + x0  6 1 6 2sin x x0 . 2
2
2
,


|f (x) f (x0 )| 6 2sin x x0 .
2

d > 0 , x, 

|x x0 | < d, sin x x0  < e .
2
2


e > 1, sin x x0  < e x
2

d . e 6 1,
2
x y 1
y = e y = e (. 49).
2

a b sin a = e , sin b = e , ,
2
2
, b = a.
d d = 2a. |x x0 | < d
 x x0  d

 < , . . a < x x0 < a. sin(a) < sin x x0 < sin a
2
2
2
2

. . e < sin x x0 < e sin x x0  < e .
2



|f (x) f (x0 )| 6 2sin x x0  < e.
2

156

, f (x) = sin x f (x) = cos x

x.
243. x0 > 0
e > 0. d > 0,
x, |x x0 | < d (, ,
x > 0),

| n x n x0 | < e.
(1)

e < n x n x0 < e

x0 e < n x < n x0 + e.
(2)

n x

x
(
x
>
0),

(2) , n x0 e > 0,

( n x0 e)n < x < ( n x0 + e)n

(3)
( n x0 e)n x0 < x x0 < ( n x0 + e)n x0 .

n
n

,

x
x
0 (
0 e)

( n x0 + e)n x0 , |x x0 | < d (3), (1). (2)

n x e < 0, (2) (
0
x > 0) (2)

x < ( n x0 + e)n

(4)
x x0 < ( n x0 + e)n x0 .

d = ( n x0 + e)n x0
x, |x x0 | < d, (4), (2) (1).
244. . ) . . 50. . y(t) 0. ), ) .
. 50. . x(t) 0. ) . . 50; x(t) = t, y(t) = t,








 




 
. 49


. 50

y = x. ) . . 51; x(t) = t2 , y(t) = t, x = y 2 . ), )

R,
( )) ( )) z = R + 0i (. 52).
. |z(t)| = R, Arg z(t) = 2pt ( )) Arg z(t) = 4pt ( )).
) R (. 53). ) . . 54.

157



. 51

. 52



. 53

. 54

y b0
245. . . 55. x a0 =
. a1 a0

b1 b0

z z0 = a0 + b0 i
z1 = a1 + b1 i 0 1.
y b0
, , t = x a0 =
. x = a0 +
a1 a0

b 1 b0

+ (a1 a0 )t, y = b0 + (b1 b0 )t, z(t) = (a0 + (a1 a0 )t) + (b0 + (b1
b0 )t)i.
z0 z1 , , a0 = a1


b0 = b1 .

= zB (. 221),
246. zA + z

AB
) C1 , z0
 
(. 56). z2 = z0 z1 Arg z0 = f0 ,
Arg z1 = f1 (. 226) |z2 | = |z0 | |z1 |




Arg z2 = f0 + f1 . ) C1
. 55
a (. 57); )
C1
f0 = Arg z0 (. 58); ) |z0 |
f0 = Arg z0 (. 59).
247. t 0 1, 1 t
1 0. z2 (t) = z1 (1 t) C,
.
248. t 0 1/2, 2t 0 1. t 1/2 1,
2t 1 0 1. z3 (t),
, , ,
C1 C2 . z1 (1) = z2 (0) -

158

  

  

 

  

. 56

. 57

 

 

  

  

. 58

. 59

249. . pt + 2pk, k = 0, 1, 2, . . .
250. . a) pt, ) 2p + pt, ) 4p + pt, ) 2pk + pt.
251. t f(t) f0 (t) = 2pk, k, ,
t. f(t) f0 (t) = 2pk(t).
f(t) f0 (t)

k(t) =
. f(t) f0 (t)
2p
0 6 t 6 1, k(t) 0 6 t 6 1 (. 239, 240).
k(t) ,
, , . .
k(t) = k k ,
f(t) f0 (t)

t.
= k f(t) f0 (t) f0 (t) = 2pk.
2p
252. f(t) f0 (t) ,
Arg z(t) f(0) = f0 (0) = f0 . (. 251) f(t) f0 (t) =
= 2pk, k . f(0) = f0 (0) = 0. k = 0. f(t) f0 (t) 0 f(t) f0 (t).
253. f(t) f0 (t) , Arg z(t). (. 251) f(t) f0 (t) = 2pk, k
. f(0) f0 (0) = 2pk.
f(t) f0 (t) = f(0) f0 (0) f(t) f0 (0) = f0 (t) f0 (0).

159

254. ) f(t) = pt. . f(1) f(0) = p (. . 53);

) f(t) = 2pt. . 2p (. . 52); ) f(t) = 4pt.

. 4pt; ) . p (. 60).
2

255. . ) 3 p, ) p .
2
2
256. . ) 1, ) 2, ) 2, ) 0.


257. C

. 60
A, B (. 61).
C AB (
C) f1 , BA f2 , C , , f1 + f2 .
258. ), ), ) z2 (t) = z0 z1 (t) f1 (t) , Arg z1 (t), f2 (t) = f1 (t) + f0 ,
f0 = Arg z0 , Arg z2 (t) (. 226, 239).
f2 (1) f2 (0) = f1 (1) f1 (0).
. k . , ,
246.
) Arg z = f, Arg z = f (.

218 )). , f1 (t) ,
Arg z1 (t), f2 (t) f1 (t)

Arg z2 (t). f2 (1) f2 (0) = (f1 (1) f1 (0)).
. k .
. 61
259. a) 1, ) 0, ) 1, ) 2.
260. . f1 (t) f2 (t) ,
C1 C2 , f(t),
C, ) f(t) = f1 (t) + f2 (t), ) f(t) = f1 (t) f2 (t) (. 226, 239). f(1) f(0) = (f1 (1)
f2 (1)) (f1 (0) f2 (0)) = (f1 (1) f1 (0)) (f2 (1) f2 (0)) = f1 f2 .
. a) f1 + f2 ) f1 f2 .
261. w0 (t) = [z(t)]2 ( ; . 227):
a) w0 (t) = R2 (cos pt + i sin pt) R2 ;
) w0 (t) = R2 (cos 2pt + i sin 2pt) R2 ;
) w0 (t) = R2 (cos 4pt + i sin 4pt) R2 , .
262. 260 ). . ) 2f
) 3f, ) nf.
263. z(t) C z1 (t) =
= z(t) z0 . Arg z1 (t) 2pk. f (C)
w0 (t) = (z(t) z0 )n = [z1 (t)]n .
(. 262 )) w0 (t) 2pkn. , f (C) w = 0 kn .
. kn .
264. z(t) 2pk1 ,
z(t) 1 2pk2 , z(t) i 2pk3 z(t) + i
2pk4 . 260 ). :

160

a) w0 (t) = z(t) (z(t) 1). w0 (t)

2pk1 + 2pk2 = 2p(k1 + k2 ). . f (C)
w = 0 k1 + k2 .
) w0 (t) = (z(t) i)(z(t) + i). . k3 + k4 .
) w0 (t) = [z(t)]4 [z(t) + i]4 . . 4(k1 + k4 ) .
) w = (z 1)(z 2 + 1) = (z 1)(z + i)(z i). . (k1 + k3 + k4 )
.
265. |a0 z n + . . . + an1 z| 6 (. 223 a)) 6
6 |a0 z n | + . . . + |an1 z| = (. 226) = |a0 | |z|n +
+ . . . + |an1 | |z| = |a0 | R1n + . . . + |an1 | R1 6
6 ( R1 < 1) 6 |a0 | R1 + . . . + |an1 | R1 6
6 ( |ai | 6 A) 6 nAR1 <


|a |
|a |
|an |
< nA n = n .
< R1 <
10nA
10nA
10
 a1

n
266. 
+ . . . + an
6 (. 223 )) 6
z
z
 
 n
 = (. 226) =
6 a1  + . . . +  an
z
z
|a1 |
|an |
|a |
|a |
=
+ . . . + n = 1 + . . . + nn 6
|z|
|z |
R2
R2

|a |
|a1 |
+ ... + n 6
R2
R2
nA
6 ( |ai 6 A|) 6
<
R2


|a |
nA |a0 |
< R2 > 10nA <
= 0 .
|a0 |
10nA
10

6 ( R2 > 1) 6

267. |z| = R1 , (. 265) |f (z) an | <

|a |

|an |
. 10

f (CR ) n w = an
10
(. 62). ,
w = 0. n(R1 ) = 0.
, n(R2 ) = n. ,
, . 266 , |z| = R2
|f (z) a0 z n | = |a1 z n1 + . . . + an | =



= z n a1 + . . . + an  = (. 226) =
zn

 |a0 | |z n |

|a | R2n
|a | |z|n
n
<
= 0
= 0
.
= |z n |  z1 + . . . + an
z

10

10

10

|a0 | R2n = R. |f (z) a0 z n | < R |z| = R2 .

10
z R2 , w = a0 z n
() n R.
|f (z) a0 z n | < R , w = f (z) ()
10

R .
10
w = 0 n R,

161

 n w = 0 (. 63).

n(R2 ) = n.





. 62

. 63

n(R2 ) = n

 f (z)
|a |
. |z| = R2 , (. 266)  n a0  < 0 .
z
10
, n(R1 ) = 0, , z(t) CR2 ,
f (z)

n 0. z 2p ,
z
, z n 2pn (. 262).
f (z)

f (z) = n z n , (. 260) f (z) 2pn, . .

z
f (CR2 ) w = 0 n . n(R2 ) = n.
. n(R1 ) = 0, n(R2 ) = n.
268. P (z) = a0 z n + . . . + an1 z + an z z0 (, ; . . 56).
z, Q(z).
P (z) = Q(z) (z z0 ) + r.
z z0 ,
P (z0 ) = Q(z0 ) (z0 z0 ) + r = 0 + r = r.
P (z0 ) = 0, z0 P (z) = 0. P (z0 ) = r r = 0. , P (z) =
= Q(z) (z z0 ).
269. P (z) = a0 z n + . . . + an1 z + an . P (z) = 0 z1 . (. 268) P (z) = (z z1 )Q(z),
, Q(z) Q(z) = a0 z n1 + b1 z n2 + . . . + bn1 .
n 1 > 1 Q(z) = 0 z2 ,
Q(z) = (z z2 )R(z) R(z) = a0 z n2 + . . . P (z) =
= (z z1 )(z z2 )R(z). ,
n- , , -

162

, , a0 . ,
.
270. P (z) = a0 z n + . . . + an1 z + an , (. 212)
P (z) = P (z). P (z0 ) = 0. P (z 0 ) = P (z0 ) = 0 = 0, . .
z 0 P (z) = 0.
271. P (z) = a0 z n + . . . + an1 z + an . ai
z0 P (z) = 0, z 0
P (z) = 0 (. 270).
z0 , z0 6= z 0 . z0
z 0 P (z) = 0, (. 269) P (z) =
= a0 (z z1 )(z z2 ) . . . (z zn ) (z z0 )
(z z 0 ). : P (z) = (z z0 )(z z 0 )Q(z) = (z 2 (z0 +
+ z 0 )z + z0 z 0 ) Q(z). , P (z) z 2 (z0 + z 0 ) + z0 z 0 ,
(. 211, . 60).
272. P (z) .
P (z) 2, P (z) = 0
z0 . z0 , P (z) z z0 . P (z) =
(z z0 )Q(z) (. 268). z0 , P (z) (. 271).
, ,
, , (. . 56).

. .
,
1 2. .
273. z 5 z 4 2z 3 + 2z 2 + z 1 = (z 1)(z 4 2z 2 + 1) = (z 1)
(z 2 1)2 = (z 1)3 (z + 1)2 . . 1 3; 1
2.
274.
.
P (z) = a0 z n + a1 z n1 + . . . + an1 z + an ,
Q(z) = b0 z m + b1 z m1 + . . . + bm1 z + bm .
P 0 (z) = a0 nz n1 + a1 (n 1)z n2 + . . . + an1 Q0 (z) =
= b0 mz m1 + b1 (m 1)z m2 + . . . + bm1 . , ) z k
(an1k + bm1k )(k + 1), ) z k
can1k (k + 1).
). 
n
P
P
P 
.

i=0

i+j=r

, ,
, i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n ( i, j
, i + j = r) .

163


P (z) =

n
X

ai z ni ,

Q(z) =

n1

bj z mj ,

j=0

i=0

P 0 (z) =

m
X

Q0 (z) =

ai (n i)z ni1 ,

m
X

bj (m j)z mj1 .

j=0

i=0

k 0 n + m 1.
z k+1 (z) Q(z). (n i) +
+ (m j) = k + 1 , i + j = n + m k 1,
z k+1
P
P (z) Q(z)
ai bj .
i+j=
=n+mk1

z k (P (z) Q(z))0
P
ai bj (k + 1). ,
i+j=
=n+mk1
k

P 0 (z) Q(z)

ai bj (n i),

i+j=
=n+mk1

P (z) Q0 (z)

ai bj (m j). ,

i+j=
=n+mk1
0

z k P (z) Q(z) + P (z) Q0 (z)

X
ai bj ((n i) + (m j)) =
i+j=
=n+mk1

= ( (n i) + (m j) = k + 1) =

ai bj (k + 1),

i+j=
=n+mk1

z k (P (z) Q(z))0 .
275. n = 1 , (z z0 )0 = 1 = 1
(z z0 )0 . n = 2 : ((z z0 )2 )0 = (z 2 2z0 z +
+ z02 )0 = 2z 2z0 = 2(z z0 )0 . n =
= k . . ((z z0 )k )0 = k(z z0 )k1 . , n = k + 1. ((z z0 )k+1 )0 = ((z z0 )k (z
z0 ))0 = (. 274 )) = ((z z0 )k )0 (z z0 ) + (z z0 )k (z z0 )0 =
= k(z z0 )k1 (z z0 ) + (z z0 )k = (k + 1)(z z0 )k . ,
n = k, n = k + 1.
n = 1 n = 2,
n > 1.
276. P (z) = (z z0 )k Q(z), Q(z)
z z0 . P 0 (z) = (. 274 )) = ((z z0 )k )0 Q(z) +
(z z0 )k Q0 (z) = (. 275) = k(z z0 )k1 Q(z) + (z z0 )k Q0 (z) =
= (z z0 )k1 (kQ(z) + (z z0 )Q0 (z)). , , z z0 , Q(z)
z z0 . , P 0 (z)
(z z0 )k1 (z z0 )k .
.

277. . ) 1, ) i, ) 2 + i 2 . ) 6 + i 2
2

164

( 2 6 ).
278. ( )
w = z, w = 1, AB ( AC) (. 64).
AB i, AC i.
. ) w(1) = i, ) w(1) = i.
279. 0 6 t 6 1 w0 (t) : w0 (t) =
2

= i 1 2t ( ). 1 < t 6 1
2

w0 (t) : w0 (t) = 2t 1.


t = 1 w0 (t) : w 1 = 0.
2
2
(. . 65). ) AOB
AOC, ) DOB DOC.
280.
C1 o6pa C
w = z, C1 f1 .
C C1 z = w2 ,
(. 262 )) f = 2f1 . f1 =
f
. .
2

f
.
2



. 64

. 65

281. w = z w0 (t) .
i = cos p + i sin p , i ( w0 (1))
2

: cos p + i cos p = 2 + i 2 cos 5p + i sin 5p = 2 i 2 .

4
4
2
2
4
4
2
2
w0 (0) = 1, Arg w0 (0) = p.
) , , p .
2

(. 280) w0 (t) p
w0 (1) p + p = 5p .
4

. i = 2 i 2 .
2

165





) z(t) = cos 3pt + i sin 3pt . Arg z(t) 2

, f(t) = 3pt .
2

: f(1) f(0) = 3p . ,
2

w0 (t) (. 280) 3p w0 (1)

4


p + 3p = p .
4
4

. i = 2 + i 2 .
2

) f(t) = 5pt . : f(1)

2

f(0) = 5p . w0 (t) 5p . 2

w0 (1) p + 5p = 9p .
4
4

. i = 2 + i 2 .
2
2
282. w = z, w0 (t)
w0 (0) = 1. w0 (1). Arg w0 (0) = 0.
) Arg z(t) 2p. Arg w0 (t) p (. 280).
Arg w0 (1) = 0 + p = p.
. 1 = 1.
) z(t) = cos(4pt) + i sin(4pt). Arg z(t) 4p. Argw0 (t) 2p. Arg w0 (1) = 0 2p = 2p.
. 1 = 1.
) , z = 2 (. 246 )).
z = 0, Arg z(t) 0. Argw0 (t) 0.
. 1 = 1.
283.
w0 (t) C
w = z. z(1) = z(0), w0 (1) = w0 (0), w0 (1) = w0 (0),
w0 (1) = w0 (0)
 
,
Arg w0 (t) 2pk, k .
Arg z(t)
4pk (. 280), . . C

z = 0 2k .
284. L1

C1 , L2

C2 w = z.
L1 L2
. 66
w0 (. 66), L1
1 L2 ,
C11 C2 . L1
1 L2
( A B) ,
C11 C2 z = 0 (. 283).
285. C ,
z0 z1 . ,
,

z0 z
C, z.
C 1 , . . C,

166

. , C 1
( z) ,
( z0 ), , .
, C

z = 0. , ,
1 z = 2 z, .
286. z , ,
C1 , z 0 z
. C2 , ,
z0 z 0 . (. 67)
w0 =1 z 0 . , z0 = w00
C2 ,
z 0

w0 . z,
C1 z 0 = w0 , ,
z,
C2 C1

z0 = w00 .
z z,

, 1 z.
287. C1 ,
z0
z1 , (. 68). w10 = z1
z, C1
z0 = w0 . C1 ,
w0 w10 z.
1
C1 C2 z = 0. w1
w10 , (.283). w0 w10
z, w0 w1 .










. 67





. 68

288. z0 6= 0, z0 z = 0.
Arg z(t)
0 ,
, Arg w0 (t) 0, . . z . Arg z(t) z = 0
2p.
Arg w0 (t) p. z
z = 0 .
289. z(t) w0 (t)
z(w) = w3 . , f1
f
w0 (t), f = 3f1 (. 262 )). f1 = .
3
290. z0 6= 0, z0 z = 0.

167

 Arg z(t) 0.
Arg w0 (t) 0 (. 289), . .
w = 3 z . , z 6= 0
.
Arg z(t)
z = 0 2p. Arg w0 (t) 2p .
3
, z = 0

w = 3 z e3 = cos 2p + i sin 2p , . . z = 0
3
3

3 z.
. z = 0.
291. z(t) , z = 1 .
w0 (t)
w = 3 z Arg w0 (0)
f0 . Arg z(t) f, Arg w0 (t)
f
f

(. 289). Arg w0 (1) = f0 + .

3

f0 = 0 f1 (z), f0 = 2p f2 (z) f0 = 2p
3
3
f3 (z).
p
p
a) f0 = 0, f = , Arg w0 (1) = .
2

. f1 (i) = cos p + i sin p =

3
+ i.
6
6
2
2
p
5p
) f0
f = , Arg w0 (1) = .
2
6

. f2 (i) = cos 5p + i sin 5p = 3 + i .

6
6
2
2

= 2p ,
3

) f0 = 0, f = 0, Arg w0 (1) = 0.
. f1 (8) = 2.

) f0 = 2p , f = 0, Arg w0 (1) = 2p .
3
3

. f3 (8) = 2 cos 2p i sin 2p = 1 i 3.
3

) f0 = 2p , f = p , Arg w0 (1) = 5p .
3

. f3 (i) = cos 5p i sin 5p = 3 i .

6
6
2
2
292. w = z, ,
z = 0 ,
,
w = 3 z .
z = 0 ( ) Arg w 2p , 3

4p z = 0
3
w = 3 z
. w = 3 z ,
. 69. ,
. 70 ( 3
).
293. , C
z = 0. f(t) ,
Arg z(t) (. 6, . 74), r(t) = |z(t)|. f(t) r(t)

168


z(t) = r(t)(cos f(t) + i sin f(t)).

n
r(t)
r(t). r(t) (. 243) n






f(t)
f(t)
wk (t) = r(t) = cos
+ 2pk + i sin
+ 2pk ,
n

k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1,
,
z(t)
w(z) = n z(c. 229). wk (0) n
n
z(0), w0 .
C z = 0, ,
z(t) = 0, C . ,
, ,
, w0 .
z(t) = 0, w(z(t)) = 0. , .

. 69

. 70

294. . 280 289. . f/n.

295. . 290. . z = 0.

n
296. w0 (t)
t z(t). n
z(t) t (.232) w0 (t), w0 (t) en ,
w0 (t) e2n , . . . , w0 (t) en1
. n z
n
z(t) n , n
z(t) w = n z ( z = 0, z(t)
). n
w0 (t), w1 (t) = w0 (t)en , w2 (t)e2n , . . . , wn1 (t) = w0 (t) en1
.
n
. w0 (t), w1 (t) = w0 (t) en , w2 (t) = w0 (t) e2n , . . . , wn1 (t) =
= w0 (t) en1
.
n
297. . fi (z) = f0 (z) ein .
. z(t) , z = 1 . 296 ,
ekn , ,
, ekn . fi (z) = f0 (z) ein .

169

298.
297 , n n z : fi (z) = f0 (z) ein (i = 0,
1, . . . , n 1). n z z = 0.

n z 2p (. 294), . . n

en . n z
, . 71.
299. Arg(z 1) 2p z = 1

(

). Arg z 1 p
z = 1 . ,

z = 1,
z 1
1. w = z, ,
- z = 1

w = z 1.

z 1 . 72.
300. . 299. i
( z + i = z (i)),

n

z + i en .
n
z + i . 73.

n
301. .
w = f (z)
: t = f (z) w = t (. 293).

 



. 71
302. w(z) =
:

t(z) = f (z)

. 72

. 73

f (z)

w(t) =

t.

C z, t
C 0 = f (C) . f (z)
, C 0 . C 00
w0 (t)
C 0
w(t) = n t, wi (t) = w0 (t)ein
(i = 1, . . . , n 1)
C 0

w(t) = n t (. 296) , ,

n
C
w(z) = f (z).

n
, w(z) = f (z)

170

 C ein , C,
, ein .

n
, w0 (z) f (z),
w0 (z), w0 (z)en , w0 (z) e2n ,
. . . , w0 (z) en1
.
n
. w0 (z), w1 (z) = w0 (z)en , w2 (z) = w0 (z) e2n , . . . , wn1 (z) =
= w0 (z) en1
.
n
303. )
z = 0 z = i Arg(z(z i))
2p (.
260), a Arg z(z i) p (. 280), . .
z(z i)
1.
z(z i)
z = 0 z = i (
,
w = z).
z(z i) . 74.
) . . 75. . z 2 + 1 = (z i)(z + i).

. 74

. 75

304. . 303. ) z 2 1 = (z 1)(z + 1),

3
z = 1 z = 1 z 2 1 e3 =
= cos 2p/3 + i sin 2p/3.
. 76.
3
) z = 0 (z 1)2 z
e3 . z = 1 Arg((z 1)2 z) 4p
3
 
Arg (z 1)2 z
4p/3 . .


3
(z 1)2 z
e23 .  

. 77.
) . . 78. . z 2 +
 
+ 1 = (z i)(z + i).



305.
z 2

. 76
z w0 (z) = z,
w1 (z)
= z. z
= 0 Arg z 2 4p
Arg z 2 2p, . . z 2 .
.





. 77

 
 
 











. 78

306.
,
304. ) . . 79.
e. z 2 + 2 = (z i 2)(z + i 2). ) . . 80. ) . . 81.

171

) . . 82. . (z 2 1)3 (z + 1)3 = (z 1)3 (z + 1)6 . ) .

c. 83. . z 3 1 = (z 1)(z e3 )(z e23 ).










. 79

. 80

. 81

. 82

307. . . 84. .
z = 0 Arg z

2p, Arg
1/z

2
p
(.
260
))

Arg
1/z

p, . .

1/z 1.
308. ) . . 85. ) z = 1 Arg z 1
z+1

2p, z = 1
2p (. 260).
r z = 1
3

z1

z+1

e3 -

z = 1
e1
= e23 .
3



. 86. ) . . 87.
 
309. z0
. 83
w0 = w(z0 ), z1 . C1 C2 ,
z0 z1 (. 88), , , C1 C2 ,

. 84

. 85

. w(z) , w(z1 ),
C1 C2 . ,

172

 w(z1 ) , z0 z1 .
310. . . 89. i- AB j- . i-
CD. w(z)
, AB CD
, CA BD ,
CABDC
w(z).


CABD , , CD,
. 86
. w(z) , w(z) D CD
CABD. i- CABD,
i- , j-
j- . , CABD,
, CD i- j- ,
. . , .






. 87



. 88

311. ) . 3 8 = 2ei3 (i = 0, 1, 2), 2i = (1 + i).

.
). 1 + i, 3 i,

( 3
2 + ( 3 + 1)i, ( 3 1)i, 2 + (1 3)i, ( 3 + 1); ) (1/2 + i), 1/2;
) (1 + i) > 0; ) (1 + i) ) 4i, 0.
312. . ,
h(z) = z h(z) = a, f (z) g(z),

n
f (z) + g(z), f (z) g(z), f (z) g(z), f (z)/g(z), [f (z)]n , f (z)
(n ).
. 1) h(z) = z, w0 = h(z0 ) = z0 . w0 (t) = z(t),
z(t) C.
2) h(z) = a, w0 = a
w0 (t) = a ( ).
3) h(z) = f (z) + g(z) f (z) g(z)
. w0 =
w00 + w000 , w00 f (z0 ) w000

173

g(z0 ). f (z) g(z) , C 0 = f (C) C 00 = g(C), w00 w000 . w0 (t) w00 (t)
C 0 C 00 , w0 (t) = w0 (t) + w00 (t) (



) , w0 (0) = w0 (0) +

+ w00 (0) = w00 + w000 = w0 .
h(z) = f (z) g(z),
f (z)
. 89
h(z) = f (z) g(z), h(z) = [f (z)]n , h(z) =
( w0 (t) =

g(z)
w0 (t)
w00 (t)

C ,
h(z) ,
, , w00 (t) 6= 0).

n
4) h(z) = f (z)
f (z) .

n
f (z)
w0n = t0 , t0

n
f (z0 ). h(z) = f (z)

t = f (z) w = n t.
f (z) ,
C 0 C t = f (z),
t0 . 293

C 00 C 0
w = n t, w0 . C 00 .
313. z0 h(z) nm
: hi,j (z0 ) = fi (z0 ) + gj (z0 ), i = 1, . . . , n; j = 1, . . . , m.
,
h(z)
nm : hi,j (z) = fi (z) + gj (z), i = 1, . . . , n;
j = 1, . . . , m.
314. ) . . 90. .
z z 1 (. 288, 299). ) . . 91.
. . 304, 307. ) . . 92. . . 288, 292.
) . . 93. .

z 2 1 4 z 1.
  
  

 

 

 

 

  

. 90

  

  


  

. 91

315. . ) : 2, 2, 0. ) : 2, 0,
1 + i, 1 + i, 2, 1 i, 1 i. ) : 2, 2e3 , 2e23 , 1 + e3 ,
1 + e23 , 1.

174

316. ) f0 (z) f1 (z) = f0 (z)

z. h(z) =

= z + z, , . 94.
h0,1 (z) = f0 (z) + f1 (z) 0, h1,0 (z) = f1 (z) + f0 (z) 0 .

h(z) = z + z h0,1 (z) h1,0 (z). . 95.

 

  

  



  



  



  

 

  

 

 

  

. 92

. 93

)
f0 (z) f1 (z) = f0 (z)
z. f0 (z)2 = z, [f0 (z)]4 = z 2 . ,

4
f0 (z) z 2 .
: g0 (z) = f0 (z), g1 (z) = i f0 (z), g2 (z) = f
0 (z),
g3 (z)
= i f0 (z). h(z) = z +

4
+ z 2 , , . 96.
(. 97)
h0,2 (z) 0 h1,0 (z) 0.
) f0 (z) 2
3 z. : f0 (z), f1 (z) = f0 (z)
e3 , f
2 (z) = f0 (z) e3 .
h(z) = 3 z + 3 z,
, . 98. (. 99) h0,1 (z)
h1,0 (z), h0,2 (z) h2,0 (z), h1,2 (z) h2,1 (z).



 





 

 

. 94






. 95

317. ) f0 (z) f1 (z) = f0 (z)

2
. z. [f0 (z)]2 = z [f0 (z)]4 = z
4 2
g(z) = z g0 (z) =
= f0 (z), g1 (z) = i f0 (z), g2 (z) = f0 (z), g3 (z) = if
0 (z).
4
h(z) = i z z 2

175

 : h0,1 (z) = h1,3 (z) 0.

z = 1. . 100.
) f0 (z)
f1 (z) = f0 (z)
f (z) = z 1, g0 (z), g1 (z) = i g0 (z), g2 (z) = g0 (z),
g3 (z) = i g0 (z)
g(z) =

4
=
z. h(z) = z 1
4 z (. 101)
: h0,0 (z) = h1,2 (z), h0,1 (z) = h1,3 (z), h0,2 (z) = h1,0 (z), h0,3 (z) =
= h1,1 (z).
z = 2. . 102.





  








 

 



 

 

 



 

 

. 96

. 97

 




 


. 98

 






 

 



 



 

 










. 99

) . . 103.

, ).

) f (z) = z + z 3
: f0 (z) 0, f1 (z) f2 (z) = f1 (z) (. 316 )). 3
g(z) = z(z 1) 3 :
g0 (z), g1 (z) = e3 g0 (z), g2 (z) = e22 g0 (z). h0,0 (z), h0,1 (z) h0,2 (z)

176

: h0,0 (z) = h0,1 (z) = h0,2 (z) 0. z = 2.

. 104.
318. .
hi (z) = [fi (z)]n , i = 1, 2, . . . , m.

 

  


 



 

 



 

 

 

  



  

 

. 100

  

. 101

319. ) f0 (z), f1 (z) = i f0 (z), f2 (z) = f0 (z), f3 (z) =

i
f0 (z) f (z) = 4 z,
[f0 (z)]2 = [f2 (z)]2 [f1 (z)]2 = [f3 (z)]2 .
. 32, . 90.
) . 316 a). f
0 (z) 0, f1 (z) f2 (z) = f1 (z)

f (z) z + z, [f1 (z)]2 = [f2 (z)]2 .

105.
) f0 (z)

f (z) = z 3 z 1, f0 (z), f1 (z) = f0 (z) e3 ,
f2 (z) = f0 (z) e23 , f3 (z) = f0 (z), f4 (z) = f0 (z) e3 , f5 (z) = f0 (z) e23 .
[f0 (z)]3 = [f1 (z)]3 = [f2 (z)]3 [f3 (z)]3 = [f4 (z)]3 = [f5 (z)]3 .
32, . 90.

     
     

     

. 102

     

 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 

. 103

320. z0 f (z). z0
f (z) .
, , f (z0 ) 0. w = f (z)
z0
, w =
= f (z0 ). f (z0 ) 0,

177

 w = 0,
. . Arg f (z)
.

n
n
f (z). f (z) f (z) ,
f (z) 0.
. f (z) ,
f (z) 0.

 

 

 







  
  
 

. 104
321. g(z) , [g(z)]n .

z g(z)

n
f (z), [g(z)]n z
f (z). ,
[g(z)]n
. 105
f (z) .
322. . 302. . g(z), g(z) en , g(z) e2n , . . . , g(z) en1
.
n
323. . w0 (t) ,
wk (t) ; , [wk (t)]n = [w0 (t)]n
n
ekn
, , [wk (t)]n n = [w0 (t)]
f (z(t)).
324. . 323 , n

f (z) C ekn ,
n
f (z) C,
, ekn .
325. f0 (z) f1 (z) = f0 (z) z, f0 (1) = 1, a f1 (1) = 1. f0 (z) 1
f1 (z) 1 z 1,

z 1.


z 1 = 0, z = 1 z = 1. ,
z = 0, z = 1,

, f0 (z) 1
( 1 = 1).
f0 (z) 1 =

(f0 (z) 1)(f0 (z) + 1)

[f (z)]2 1
= 0
= z1 .
f0 (z) + 1
f0 (z) + 1
f0 (z) + 1

z = 1 ,

178

f0 (1) + 1 = 2 6= 0. z =1 2p. Arg(f

f0 (z) 1
0 (z) 1) 2p, a Arg

p, . . f0 (z) 1. z = 0
z, , f0 (z) 1 ,
f1 (z) 1, .
z = 0

Arg( z 1) ( 0 1 6= 0). z = 0
. ,

z 1, . 106.
326. ,
. 106
325: ) . . 107; ) . . 108.

f
(z)

3
z f0 (1) = 1,
f0 (z) 1 =

f03 (z) 1
z1
= 2
,
f02 (z) + f0 (z) + 1
f0 (z) + f0 (z) + 1

f02 (1) + f0 (1) + 1 = 3 6= 0.

327. z 2 + 1 = (z i)(z + i), z 2 + 1 z =

i z = i, . .
z 2 + 1 2.
) ) . 75, . 172.

. 107

. 108

z 2 + 1 2 = 0, z 2 +1 = 4 z = 3 ( 3 ). f0 ( 3) = 0, . .

4 =
2. f0 ( 3). z = 3
z = 3 , .
)
, , ,
z = 3 z = 3. ,
Arg(z + i) = Arg(z (i)) 2p/3, a Arg(z i)
2
2p/3. Arg(z
+ 1) ,
2 + 1 2. ,
z
,

) f0 ( 3) = f0 ( 3) = 0.

179

 )
,

z = 3 z = 3 , Arg(z + i)
2p , Arg(z i) 4p . 3
3

, Arg(z 2 + 1)
2p, Arg z 2 + 1
2
p, . .

z + 1 .

) f0 ( 3) = 2 2 = 4 6= 0, f1 ( 3) = 2 2 = 0.
328.
g0 (z) g1 (z) g(z) = z 2 + 1, g0 (z) 2 = f0 (z)
327)
(.

g1 (z) 2 = f1 (z). ) g0 ( 3) = g0 ( 3) = 2 (.
327)
g0 (z) 2 =

2
g02 (z) 4
(z 3)(z + 3)
= z 3 =
.
g0 (z) + 2
g0 (z) + 2
g0 (z) + 2

z = 3 z =
3 , g0 ( 3) + 2 = g0 ( 3) + 2 = 4 6= 0, a

2p. Arg(g0 (z) 2)

2p, a

Arg g0 (z) 2 p, . . f0 (z)

.

, ) z = 3 z = 3
. ,
) .
,
z = i z = i. C
R R = 1,1 z = 0
w = z 2 + 1 , . 109
(
: w = z 2 , w = z 2 + 1, w = z 2 + 1).

z = 2.
CR Arg( z 2
+ 1 2)
h(z) =
z 2 + 1 2. , z = i z = i
(. 1 . 96).
. 110 . 111.



. 109

329. .
C 1
 .



1234
1234
330. . ) z = 0:
, z = 1:
;
3412
2143




123456
123456
) z = 0:
, z = 1, 1:
;
214365
345612


123456
) z = 0:
;
564231

180




12345678
12345678
, z = 1:
.
67852341
56781234
331. . 57: e =
= g1 g11 ; 1) 3), , .
332. . ) Z2 , ) Z3 ,
) Z
n , ) Z3 , ) Z4 .

333.
z + z 1, 314 ),
, z = 0
hi,j (z), z = 1
.

Z2 Z2 (. 7 1).

z 2 1 + 4 z 1, 314 ),
g1 , z = 1,
a g2 , z =
1. g2
hi,j (z), g1 g21
. g1 = (g1 g21 )g2 , o ,
g1 g2 , , g2 , g1 g21 .
Z2 Z4 .
333 .
. 1. ) ( 7 I) Z2 , Z2 , ) Z3
Z2
= Z6 (. 77), ) Z2 Z3
= Z6 , ) Z2 Z4 . 2. a) Z2 , ) Z4 , ) Z4 ,
) Z2 Z3
= Z6 . 3. a) Z2 , ) {e}, ) Z2 .
) z = 1:





. 110





. 111

334. g1 , g2 , , g1 g2 g11
. , , ,
, ,
. ,
, ,
,
.
1 3, 2 4, ,
1, 2, 3, 4 , ,
-

181

 .
.
335. w1 , w2 , . . . , wn w(z0 ), z1 , . . . . . . , zs
w(z). w(z) , wi = w(z0 )
i- . wi
. ,
G1 G2 . g G1
C, z0 .
C (
),
zi1 , zi2 , . . . . . . , zim . zj
gj , , C ( wi ),
c
c
m
gicm
. . . gi22 gi11 , ci = 1,
, ci = 1, (.
c
m
1 . 96). g = gicm
. . . gi11 g
c1
cm
G2 . , g = gim . . . gi1 G2 (
ci = 1)*), C,
wi G1 . , . 112
, g21 g3 g11 .
336. z0 h(z), z0 d1 d2

f (z) g(z). z0 -
f (z) g(z), 
d1 d2

.
h(z)
hi,j (z) ,
8, ) (. 104),

z0

( 8, )).
d1 , . 112
d2 . , z0
h(z), (d1 , d2 ). d1 d2
F G, (d1 , d2 )
F G. , h(z),
F G.
*) G2 (. 106) ,
.

182

337. , , , .
.
, , . ,
d , , ,
, . d1
d2 , , ,
d1 d2 , .
di ,
, H1 , ,
. di . d0i
. , di d0i dj d0j , ocaoe
di dj d0i d0j . H1
.
h(z) ( 8,
))
, , H1 H2 .
338. . 336 337. F G (. 336) .
F G (. 167). H1 ,
, F G
(. 336), H1 (. 162). H1 2
h(z) (. 337),
H2 (. 163).
339. . . 9 (. 104). F H
f (z) h(z),
, 337,
F . 163.
340. f (z)

n
n
h(z) = f (z) ( 10, ), . 104).
h(z), h(z),
, ( 10, )).
H , .
d H d0 . , d1 d01
d2 d02 , d1 d2 d01 d02 . H
. ,
z0 ,
z0
f (z) ( 10, )).

183

 , H, F (, F ).
, , , H F .
341. , 340
H, .
d1 d2 . , fi,k (z) = fi,0 (z) ekn , , d1 d2 , (. 10,
)). . d1 l , d2 k
, , d1 d2 d2 d1 ,
l + k . , d1 d2
d2 d1 , . . d1 d2 = d2 d1 .
342. f , 340,
Ker f , H/ Ker f F
( 3, . 40). Ker f (. 341),
F , H (. 166).
343. Pz (w) = 3w5 25w3 + 60w z. w0 Pz (w) = 0, w0 Pz0 (w) = 0, Pz0 (w) ,
Pz (w) ( w) (. 276). Pz0 (w) =
= 15w4 75w2 + 60 = 15(w4 5w2 + 4) = 15(w 2)(w 1)(w + 1)
(w + 2). Pz0 (w) = 0 4 1:
w0 = 2, 1, 1, 2, Pz (w) = 0
( 2) w0 = 2, 1, 1, 2.

3w5 25w3 + 60w z = 0,
, ( 2)
z = 16, 38, 38, 16.
. 2 : w0 = 2
z = 16, w0 = 1 z = 38, w0 = 1 z = 38, w0 = 2 z = 16.
344. Pz (w) = 3w5 25w3 + 60w z. z = z0
w t, t = Pz0 (w). C
r w w0 (. 113)
C 0 C t = Pz0 (w).
Pz0 (w) = 3w5 25w3 + 60w z0
(. 269). Pz0 (w) = 3(w w1 )(w w2 )(w w3 )(w w4 )
(w w5 ), wi Pz0 (w) = 0.
C w wi .
, wi C,
2p, wi C.
C Pz0 (w)
2pm, m ( )
Pz0 (w) = 0, C. C 0 C t = Pz0 (w)
t = 0 m (. 114).
C w0 Pz0 (w) = 0,

184

 m > 1. r > 0, r
t = 0 C 0 (. 114).
z00
t = Pz0 (w). C 00 C
0
t = Pz0 (w). Pz0 (w) = 3w5 25w3 + 60w z00 =
0
0
= 3w5 25w3 + 60w z0 + (z0 z00 ) = Pz0 (w) + (z0 z00 ),
00
0
C z0 z00 (. 246).
z0 z00 r, C 0 ,
C 00 t = 0
, C 0 . ( , , ,
t = 0; . 114.) C 0
t = 0 m , C 00
t = 0 m . , , ,
C m > 1 Pz0 (w) = 0 (
0
).




. 113

. 114

345. z0 , z = 38 z =
= 16. 5 z w(z). w1 , w2 , w3 , w4 , w5 . C z0 , wi (i =
1, . . . , 5) C
w(z). wi
C ( wi ),
C 6 .
, 5-
. , z0
w(z).
5 : D1 , D2 , D3 , D4 , D5 r wi . r ,
.
344 D0 z0 r, z00
, ,
D1 , D2 , D3 , D4 , D5 , w. C
, D0 ,
Di (i = 1, . . . , 5).
C w(z)

185

 , . . C 0 C
Di (i = 1, . . . , 5). C,
D0 ,
z00 , C 0
, z00
w(z). C 0
Di (i = 1, . . . , 5)
z00 , C 0
.
, C ,
D0 , w(z) C,
,
. ,
z0 , , r. , z0
w(z).
346. 343 , z = z0 = 38 (14.1) : w1 , w2 , w3 , w4
(, , w1 ) 2, . z00 z0 . 344 , w1 z00
w(z), w2 , w3 w4 o
z00 . C
z0 z00 .
345, , C
w(z), w2 , w3 w4 , , ,
w1 z00 ,
z00 , w1 .
z0
.
347. - C 0 w0
w1 , w(z) z =
= 38 z = 16. , z =
38 z = 16 . C
C 0 z(w) = 3w5 25w3 + 60w.
z(w) C 0 ,
C . z w z(w)
3w5 25w3 + 60w z = 0, ,
w(z), C 0 C w(z). C 0
z = 38 z = 16, C
z = 38 z = 16.
C z(w0 ) = z0 z(w1 ) = z1 . , C
.
348. 347 w(z)
, z = 38 z = 16.
, ,
(. 1 . 96). ,

186

 , . ,
z = 38 z = 16, (. 345),
z = 38 z = 16 2
(. 346), ,
z = 38 z = 16, . .
.
. 115.
w(z)
. ( , 3
.)


. 115
349. , ,
. 115,
(. . 47), . . (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 5).
,
.
(1, 2). (2, 3)
(3, 4) (2, 3) = (1, 2)
(1, 3) (1, 2) (3, 4) = (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 3). (4, 5) (4, 5) = (1, 4) (1, 5)
(1, 4),
.
,
, ( 4, . 47),
5- .
350. 349 ,
w(z) S5 5- ,
(. 5, . 50). , w(z) , ( 11, . 107).
, w(z)
.
351. . , , a0 = 3, a2 = 25, a4 = 60, a1 = a3 = 0 a5 = z,
, w(z) (. 350) .
352. w1 (z), (14.2)
z, , , w1 (z) 0, 5 ,
w(z),

187

3w5 25w3 + 60w z = 0

z. , w1 (z), , w(z), . . S5 , 5- ,
(. 349). , w1 (z)
,
(. 11, . 107). , w1 (z)
n n > 5
.

188

12, 112
60

n 7
67
21

60
56
52

80
14

49

65
65
84

19
9
34
39
40
21
21
25
44
17
38
29
15
108
49
23
21

107
106
20
44
18
18
18
29
17
46
21
n 24
26

c 40
21

75
26
62
11
38
23
38
23, 37
60

65
67
58

55
k 81
55
31
31
31
84
11

60
54
63
63
66
68
73
70

189

 87
48
34
42
18
24, 25
19
21

n 7
84
80
18
19
18
73
23, 37
27
34
19, 46
48
47
48
53
42
21
31
24
32
32
19
19
20
98
55
19
71
81
18
30

35
31
32
53
98

190

55
71
44
85, 86
96
46
16
n 25
31
32

60
98
55
71
71
91
12, 112
80
9
31
94
91
47
47
67
n 53

73
37
11
11
68
, 99
35
47
25
53
98
71
48
47
40

.

.
121002, , . ., 11.
01335 24.03.2000 .
28.02.2001 .
84 108 1/32. .
. . . 6,0. 3000.

.

107005, , . , 46.

., . 11.
. (095) 2417285. E-mail: mbc@mccme.ru