1999 .

..
: .., .., ..
..

:
..,
..,
..,
..,
..,

/ . .. . .: . .. , 1998. - 896 .

ISBN 985-6235-17-0

" " 1400 ,

( ,

- ),
. 400
. ,
, , ,
.
.

10 000 .
.. . 293 06.05.98. 220040 . , . ., 3.

........................................................ XIV
.........................................................XVIII

....................................................... 1
............................................................ 1
................................................... 1
................................................ 1
................................ 1
................................... 2
........................................................ 2
............................................................... 3

.............................................................. 3
............................................................. 3
.......................................... 3
.......................................................... 4
.......................................................... 4
.......................................................... 4
............................................................ 5
........................................................... 5
........................................................... 5
............................................. 5
........................................................ 5
........................................................ 6
......................................................... 6
....................................... 6
......................................... 6
.......................................................... 6
........................................................ 6
................................................................ 7
.......................................................... 7
...................................................... 8
.............................................................. 9
............................................................ 9
......................................................... 9
............................................................. 9
..................................................... 9
....................................................... 9
.................................................... 9
..........................................................10
...............................................................10

.......................................................11
.............................................................11
............................................................12
.........................................................12

..........................................................13
..............................................................13
..........................................................14
......................................................14
......................................................14
.........................................................15
.......................................................15
......................................17
.....................................................18
...................................................18
..........................................18
......................................................18
..............................................................19
................................................19
..........................................................19
....................................................19
....................................................19
......................................................19
....................................................20
..........................................................20
.........................................................20
..........................................................20
...............................................21
........................................................21

.........................................................22
.............................................22
...............................................22
.........................................................23
.....................................................23
........................................................23
................................................24
........................................................24
..................................24
..........................................................26
.........................................................26
()................................................26
...........................................................27
- .................................................27
............................................................27
..........................................................28
..............................................................28
...........................................................28
............................................................29
..................................29
..................................30
.......................................................30
..............................................31
......................................................31
........................................................31
..........................................31
...........................................38
..................................................38
..................................................38

....................................................39
...................................39
...................................................41
................................................41
............................................................41
...............................................................42
.....................................................43
................................43
.............................................43
.....................................43
......................................................43
...........................43
......................................................44
.............................................................44
......................................................44
.....................................44
.....................................................45
...........................................................45
....................................................45
...............................................................46
.......................................................47
................................................................48
............................................................49
.............................................................49
..........................................................49
...............................................................50
.......................................................50
.............................................................50
..............................................................51

.......................................................51
............................................................52
............................................................52
.............................................................52
........................53
............................................54
...........................................................55
...........................................................55
.................................................................56
...............................................................57
...............................................................58
.............................................................58
............................................................59
...............................................60
.............................................61
...............................................................61
.....................................................61
........................................................62
................................................................62
......................................63
...........................................................63
.................................................................65
..........................................................65
.............................................................66
..........................................................66
..............................................................66
.............................................................67
............................................................68
............................................................. 70

.................................................................71
.............................................71
............................................................73
........................................................73
...................................................... 74
.......................................74
........................................................75
.................................................76
........................................................... 77
.............................................................77
........................................................78
.......................................78
..........................................................79
..........................................................79
................................................80
.....................................................80
....................................................... 81
............................................................81
................................................................81
................................................................82
..........................................................82
................................................................83
.............................................................84
.................................................................84
..................................................................85
...........................................................87
.....................................88
..............................................................90
..........................................................90

...............................................................91
.......................................................91
......................................................91
......................................................92
.......................................................... 92
..............................................................92
..............................................................93
.................................................................94
.............................................................94
.......................................................94
.............................................................94
................................................................95
...........................................................95
..........................................................96
...............................................................96
...............................................................96
.............................................................97
...............................................................98
...............................................................98
............................................................99
........................................................ 100
........................................................ 100
........................................................ 101
............................................................ 102
.......................................................... 102
.......................................................... 102
-............................................. 104
.......................................................... 104
............................................................. 104

...................................................... 105
.......................................................... 105
......................................................... 105
.................................................... 105
..................................................... 107
.......................................................... 107
.................................................. 107
.......................................................... 108
..................................................... 108
.......................................................... 108
..................................................... 108
.......................................................... 109
.......................................................... 110
............................................................110
.............................................................. 111
................................................. 112
" " .................... 112
.............................................. 112
............................................................... 112
................................................... 114
..................................................... 115
.................................................... 115
" "............................................... 116
......................................... 116
" " .................................................. 119
............................... 120
.................................................... 120
............................................................... 120
.............................................................. 121

.................................................... 121
.............................................................. 122
........................................................ 122
................................................... 123
.........................................................123
.....................................................124
............................................................124
........................................................ 124
....................... 125
............................................. 126
.................................................... 127
.............................................................128
.....................................................128
.......................................................... 128
............................................................. 129
................................................... 130
.............................................................. 130
" "...............................................131
............................................................133
....................................................... 134
................................................... 134
..................................................... 135
.....................................................135
..................................................... 137
() .................... 137
............................................................. 137
............................................ 137
............................................. 137
..................................................... 138

 ................................... 139
.................................. 139
............................................................. 139
............................................................. 140
...................................................... 140
..........................................................141
....................................................... 141
.....................................................143
................................................... 143
.......................................................... 144
..........................................................144
..........................................................144
........................................................ 145
................................................. 146
............................................................ 146
......................................................147
.......................................................148
.........................................................148
........................................................ 149
.........................................................149
............................................................ 150
........................................................ 152
..........................................................152
............................................................. 152
.......................................................153
.....................................................153
............................................................155
........................................................... 156
................................................. 156

 ............................................................. 156
....................................................157
.................................................... 158
........................................................ 158
...........................................................159
............................................................159
.................................................. 160
..................................... 160
........................................................... 161
....................................................... 163
..............................................................876
.............................................................164
...............................................................165
-....................................... 165
-............................................ 166
.......................................................... 166
.............................................................167
................................................. 168
....................................................... 170
.......................................................... 170
............................................170
......................................................... 170
- .......................... 171
......................................................... 172
.....................................172
............................................................ 172
....................................................174
.............................................................. 174
......................................................175

..........................................................176
........................................................ 176
........................................................ 177
..........................................................178
....................................................178
.....................................................178
.........................................................180
...........................................................180
...................................... 181
.......................................................... 181
..................................................... 183
....................183
............................................................... 183
........................................................... 184
...........................................184
....................................184
........................................................185
........................................................185
.............................186
.................................. 186
...........................186
....................................................... 186
.......................................................... 187
...................................................... 188
............................................................ 188
........................................................190
......................................................... 190
......................................................... 192
...................................................193

.......................................................... 193
.................................................194
................................................... 194
.............................................................195
................................................................ 196
..........................................................196
...........................................................196
....................................................... 197
() ....................... 197
....................................................... 198
.............................198
.......................................................... 198
............................................ 198
........................................................198
............................................................. 199
........................................................199
.....................................................200
...................................................200
........................................................... 200
................................................203
.............................................................204
..........................................................205
....................................205
.....................................................206
........................................................206
..........................................................207
....................................................207
..........................................................207
.........................................................208

.........................................................208
.....................................................208
...................................................208
..................................................... 209
.................................................. 210
.......................................................210
............................................................210
.......................................................211
..........................................................212
.....................................................212
..................................213
............................214
...........................................................215
......................................................215
...........................215
.............................................................216
...................................218
.........................................................218
..........................................................218
...............................................221
...........................................221
..........................................................222
.................................................222
.....................................222
.................................................222
....................................................223
.......................................................223
..........................................................224
......................................................224

 ...............................224
................................................ 225
........................................................... 225
..............................................................225
...................................................226
....................................................226
...........................................................226
.........................................................227
.......................................................228
.............................................................228
...........................................................228
..............................................................228
...........................................................229
.......................................................229
........................................................232
....................................................232
...............................................233
.....................................................233
" ".............................233
........................................................234
.............................................................234
..........................................................234
..........................................................234
................................................237
........................................238
.................................................. 239
.............................................................239
............................................................239
" "............................................240

............................................................ 241
........................................................241
.............................................................243
..........................................................243
.......................................................243
................................................. 243
............................................... 244
-....................................................244
....................................................244
......................................................245
.......................................................245
......................................................... 245
..............................................................246
......................................................247
........................................................... 247
............................................................ 249
............................... 249
.......................................................... 249
.................................................... 250
....................................................... 251
........................................................251
................................................... 251
...........................................................251
..................................................... 251
.............................................................. 252
............................................................. 252
................................253
........................................................253
.......................................................255

 ................................................ 255
.................................... 255
............................................... 256
....................................................... 256
..............................................................257
.................................... 257
........................................................ 257
....................................... 258
........................................ 258
....................................................... 258
................................................. 259
........................................................ 260
............................................................ 261
..................................................261
........................................................262
...................................................... 262
........................................................ 263
, .............................. 263
............................................... 264
...................................... 264
.........................................................265
....................................................... 265
................................ 266
............. 266
................................... 267
...................................................... 268
...................................... 269
.............................................269
......................................................269

........................................... 270
..........................................270
...........................................270
................................................270
........................................ 272
.................................................... 272
.................................................... 272
.................................................272
.......................................................273
................................274
....................................................274
...........................................................276
.............................................277
.......................................280
...........................................................280
...............................................282
...............................................282
.........................................................283
............................283
.......................................................284
............................................................286
...........................................................287
.....................................................288
...............................290
..........................................................290
.........................................291
.........................................................293
..............................................................298
..........................................................299

..........................................................299
..........................................................300
.......................................................301
...................................................301
......................................................... 301
.................................................... 302
.............................................................302
.........................................................303
..............................................................303
....................................876
........................................................305
............................................................305
.............................................................306
...........................................................306
........................................................307
.................................................308
.........................................................308
.............................................................308
.......................................................308
.........................................................309
........................................309
....................................309
..................................309
.........................................310
................................310
.......................................................310
.........................................................311
..................................................311
..................................................311

........................................................311
............................................................312
.....................................312
........................................................313
............................................................313
.......................................................... 313
.....................................................313
......................................................314
...........................................314
..................................................314
......................................315
.............................................................316
............................................316
...........................................317
....................................................317
....................................................317
.............................................................318
....................................318
............................................................319
.............................................................319
........................................................... 320
...........................321
.....................................................321
.....................................................322
................................................322
........................................................323
............................................323
......................................................324
.........................................................324

 ......................................................324
....................................................325
..................................................325
.......................................................327
........................................327
..............................................................328
........................................................329
................................................ 329
......................................330
...........................................330
.......................................................330
..............................................330
.......................................................331
..........................................................331
...........................................331
................................................332
........................................................ 333
........................................................333
.............................................................333
.........................................................334
.............................................334
................................................334
.....................................................335
....................................................335
........................................................336
..........................................................336
...........................................................338
.........................................................338
..........................................................340

 ...........................................................340
......................................................341
.............................................................342
.............................................................343
.........................................344
..............................................................344
........................................................344
...................346
- .........................346
................................................347
................................................................348
.......................................................349
..........................................................350
........................................................351
........................................................351
........................................................... 352
.............................................................352
..........................................................353
...........................................................354
..........................................................354
-.........................................................355
........................................................... 355
- .........................................355
..........................................................356
........................................................357
.............................................................357
-.....................................................357
..........................................................358
- ....................................................358

........................................................359
......................................................... 360
..................................................360
......................................................... 360
.............................................................361
................................................................362
.............................................................362
........................................................363
......................................................363
. ..................................................363
. ..................................................363
...............................................................364
..........................................................364
.....................................................365
...........................................................366
..................................367
......367
...........................................................368
...........................................................368
...........................................................369
...................................369
........................................................369
.............................................................371
...........................................................371
.............................................................372
..............................................................373
........................................................374
.........................................................375
...........................................................376

 .............................................................376
....................................................377
.0...................................................378
...........................................................379
.......................................................379
.............................................................380
...........................................................380
............................................................381
.............................................................381
....................................................382
................................................382
.............................................384
...........................................................384
.............................................................387
......................................................388
.......................................................... 388
.......................................................388
........................................................388
....................................................388
-.......................................................389
..................................................390
.....................................................391
..........................................................391
................................................392
das Man..........................................................393
...................................................394
...........................................................394
.........................................................394
...................395

...............................................397
......................................................398
.........................................................399
....................................401
.............................................................401
........................................................402
.....................................402
..........................................................402
..........................................................403
...........................................................405
...........................................405
............................................406
....................................406
...................................................407
.............................407
.........................................................407
...............................................................409
...........................................................409
....................................................409
.............................................410
......................................................410
......................................................411
.............................................................412
..............................................................413
..............................................................413
.................................................414
-...................................................414
...........................................................416
..............................................417

.....................................................417
....................................................417
........................................................419
..................................................420
.............................................................420
.............................420
...................................................420
....................................................421
........................................................421
. .......................................................422
............................................................422
...........................................423
..................................................423
............................................................423
............................................................424
........................................................425
.................................................425
.........................................................426
............................................................429
...............................................................430
....................................430
.....................................................431
.................................................434
..................................434
..............................................................435
................................................435
...........................................................435
..................................435
......................................................438

.............................................................439
...........................................................439
..........................................................440
......................................................440
.......................................................440
................................................................441
...........................................................441
...........................................................442
...........................................................442
...........................................................443
......................................................444
..............................................................444
............................................................445
......................................................445
..................................................445
.............................................................445
................................................................446
..........................................447
...................................448
......................................................449
.........................................................450
....................................................452
....................................................452
.........................................................452
...........................................................453
...................................................453
........................................................453
.....................................................455
..........................................................456

...........................................................456
.............................................................457
.....................................459
..................................................459
............................................................460
..........................................................460
...........................................................460
....................460
..........................461
...........................462
...............................................462
...................................................462
.................................................463
................................................463
...............................................464
......................................................464
.............................................464
"-"............................................................464
.........................................465
......................................................... 467
...........................................................467
..........................................................469
....................................................4 70
..................................................470
....................................................471
......................................471
........................................................471
............................................................472
.....................................................473

, .............................474
...........................................................474
...............................................474
.......................................................474
....................................................476
....................................................476
....................................................478
.........................................................480
.........................480
.......................................481
- ...............482
.................................483
........................................................483
..........................................483
...............................484
.......................................484
...........................................................484
.....................................................484
............................................................485
....................................................485
................................................486
............................................................486
.......................................................486
.......................................................486
..........................................487
..............................................488
...............489
........................................................490
.................................................490

 ................................................... 490
...................491
..................................................492
..............................................................492
............................................................492
...................................493
.....................................493
--................................................493
.....................................................495
...........................................................495
...........................................................496
" ".................................................496
........................................................... 497
" "............................497
.........................................................497
() ..............498
.....................................................498
..........................................500
......................................................501
.....................................................501
...........................................................502
.......................................................503
................................................504
...........................................................504
........................................................504
......................................................504
.........................................505
.......................................................505
........................................................506

 ...........................................................507
........................................................508
..........................................................508
..........................................................509
.....................................................510
.....................................................511
..............................................................512
....................................................512
..................................512
...................................................513
....................................................514
.................................................514
.............................................514
..................................................515
........................................................... 515
............................................................516
.........................................................516
.....................................517

..........................................................518
.........................................................518
...................................................518
...........................................................519
..........................................................523
...........................................................524
........................................................524
...........................................................524
.....................................................525
.......................................................525

....................................................526
................................................526
...........................................................526
.....................................................527
........................................................527
........................................................... 528
..............................529
...................................529
....................................................... 529
........................................................530
........................................................530
......................................................531
..................................532
......................................................... 533
...........................................................533
........................................535
...........................535
................................................536
...............................................537
..........................................537
........................................................537
..................................................538
..........................................................538
.............................................................538
.............................................................538
....................................................540
.....................................................541
.................................................. 541
........................................................542

.................................................543
.....................................543
.......................................................544
.........................................................544
............................................544
.......................................544
............................544
........................................544
.....................................545
..........................545
..........................................................545
........................................546
........................................................546
.............................................547
.....................................................548
............................................ 548
..........................................................548
..............................................549
......................................................549
...........................................550
............................ 551
.........................................................551
...........................................................552
............................................... 553
.................................................. 553
............................................................ 554
................................................... 554
..................................................554
................................................... 554

 ...................................... 555
........................................................ 555
.................................................555
......................................556
..................................................558
................................................... 558
.....................559
.............................................. 559
.....................................................559
.....................................................559
..............................................560
................................................560
..........................................................560
..................................................561
......................................................... 561
-................................................ 561
......................................................... 562
.............................................................. 562
.................................................... 563
.............................................................. 563
.......................................................... 563
- .......................563
............................................ 564
............................................................ 564
...................................................565
..........................................................566
....................................................567
........................................................567
..................................................567

 .................................................568
.................,............................................ 568
.......................................................... 568
.......................................................... 568
..........................................................569
........................................................... 570
.......................................................571
...........................................................572
.............................................................573
..........................................................574
........................................................... 574
........................................................... 574
..................................................575
.......................................................... 575
.......................................................... 576
........................................................578
......................................................578
.............................................. 578
...................................................... 578
............................................................. 580
............................................................ 581
.................................................... 582
.......................................... 582
..............................................................585
..................................................... 588
............................................................ 590
........................................................ 592
......................................................... 592
.............................................. 593

 .................................................. 593
.......................................................... 595
.................... 595
.......................................................... 595
........................................................ 595
............................................................ 596
.....................................................596
.............................................................596
.......................................................... 599
......................................................600
..........................................................601
...................................................602
........................................................603
...............................................................603
.................................................607
....................................607
..........................................................608
...................................................... 608
.................................................609
.............................................................609
............................................................610
- ......................................................610
.....................................................611
..........................................................612
......................................................612
...........................................................614
...................................................615
........................616
............................................617

 ....................................................... 617
....................................................618
........................................................619
..........................................................619
" " ....................................620
............................................................620
.....................................................620
.......................................................621
..........................................................621
...................................................622
.................................................622
..........................................................622
.............................................622
................623
-.............................................624
...........................................................625
.................................................626
....................................................626
..............................................626
..............................................................628
().............................................628
..............................................................628
....................................................629
............................................629
.....................................................630
...................................................630
...................................................630
......................................................630
.......................................631

 .........................................631
- ...................631
......................................................632
........................................................632
........................................................... 633
......................................635
...................................................638
......................................................639
.........................................................639
................................................................641
.................................................641
..........................................................641
.........................................................643
...........................................................643
.....................................................643
.....................................................644
............................................................645
.................................................646
......................................................649
..........................................649
.....................................650
.......................................650
....................................651
.....................................652
..................................652
......................................652
..................................652
.............................................652
....................................653

 ...............................653
......................................654
.....................................654
......................................654
.........................655
...............................656
............................................656
........................................658
.........................................658
.......................................659
............................................660
......................................660
......................................661
........................................661
........................................662
..........................................663
......................................877
.............................................................663
..................................................663
................................................664
...................................................664
...........................664
.....................................................665
..........................................667
.................................................670
.....................................671
...................................................671
..........................................................672
..........................................................673

 .................................................674
.................................674
...........................................................678
.......................................................678
...........................................678
...........................................................678
........................................................... 679
................................679
.....................................680
...................................................681
........................................................681
............................................................682
............................................................683
...............................683
..........................................................683
............................................................684
.....................................................685
.......................................................686
................................................686
............................................................686
....................................................687
.................................................... 688
.....................................................688
.............................................688
..........................................................689
............................................................689
........................................................689
...........................................................689
.........................................692

.............................................................692
.....................................................692
...........................................................696
.....................................................696
...............................................................698
.....................................................698
........................................................... 698
.......................................................... 698
........................................................699
...............................................................700
.......................................................... 700
..................................................... 701
......................................................701
.............................................................701
.............................................703
............................................................. 704
..................................................... 705
........................................................... 706
........................................................707
........................................................707
........................................................... 709
........................................................709
...........................................................709
...................................................... 710
..................................................... 710
...............................................................712
..........................................................712
.......................................................... 712
...................................... 714

 ........................... 714
..................................................... 714
" " ..............................715
...........................................................715
................................................715
....................................... 716
........................................................... 716
.......................................................... 717
........................................................... 717
...........................................................718
..........................................................719
........................................................... 720
........................................................... 720
.................................................. 722
.............................................................722
........................................................ 723
.........................................................723
............................................. 724
.................................... 724
........................................................ 724
................................................... 726
........................................................726
...........726
............................................727
.......... 727
............... 728
............................................... 728
............................................................ 728
................................................... 729

 ...........................................................729
......................................................... 730
.................................................731
................................................. 732
-........................................... 732
........................................................... 733
............................................................. 734
.................................................... 735
............................................................. 735
.............................................................. 736
.......................................................... 736
.......................................................... 738
................................................ 738
................................................739
......................................................... 739
................................................... 741
.............................................................. 742
..................................................... 743
...................................... 743
........................................................... 743
...................................................... 744
............................................... 744
.............................................................. 745
............................................................. 745
................................................... 745
............................................... 745
.......................................................745
.......................................................... 745
.......................................................... 746

.......................................................... 747
..................................................... 747
........................................................ 748
....................................................... 749
........................ 750
...................... 751
................................................ 751
......................................................... 753
..................................................... 754
....................................................... 754
....................................................... 755
..................................................... 755
............................................................ 755
..................................................... 756
........................................ 758
................................... 763
............................................ 763
......................................... 764
................................... 765
......................................... 765
.......................... 767
............................................................ 767
........................................................... 769
.................................................... 769
................................ 771
.................................................... 772
............................................. 772
............................................................ 772
................................................. 772

 ....................... 773
............................................................ 773
.......................................................... 775
..................................... 775
........................................ 777
.............................................................777
......................................................... 778
3.......................................................... 778
......................................................... 779
......................................................... 780
............................................................ 780
-............................................... 781
............................................................ 781
.............................................................. 782
........................................................ 783
........................................................783
................................................... 783
........................................................ 785
............................................................ 786
.......................................................789
.............................................................790
......................................................... 790
..........................................................791
........................................................792
......................................................... 792
....................................................... 792
...........................................................793
....................................................... 793
........................................................... 794

......................................................... 794
......................................................... 795
....................................................795
............................................................ 796
.................................................. 796
.......................................................... 797
....................................798
........................................................ 798
..........................................................799
.................................................. 799
..........................................799
...................................................800
.........................................................801
..................................................... 801
..........................................................802
.........................................................802
..........................................................802
........................................................804
.................................................804
......................................................805
..........................................................806
...........................................................807
..............................................................809
.....................................................810
........................................................810
........................................................810
............................................................810
.........................................................811
............................................................811

 ........................................................812
..........................................................814
...........................................................814
....................................................815
..........................................................818
.........................................................819
..................................................820
.............................................................821
...........................................................821
.......................................................822
.....................................................823
.......................................................824
.............................................................825
.....................................................826
.........................................................826
.............................................................826
..............................................................827
..................................................828
.....................................................829
.................................................829
.......................................................829
......................................830
- .....................................................830
............................................................830
..............................................830
" " ..............................................831
.............................................................831
......................................................832
.............................................833

 .................................835
.........................835
....................................................835
................................................................835
" "...............................836
........................................................836
................................837
....................................................838
...............................................838
...................................................838
............................................................839
................................................839
...................................839
........................................................... 840
........................................................840
............................................................840
..................................................842
...........................................................843
........................................................843
........................................................844
........................................................845
...........................845
...........................................................846
.......................................................846
........................................................846
.................................................846
................................................................847
........................................................... 847
.................................................847

 .......................................848
..........................................................848
................................................................849
...............................................................850
.........................................................850
....................................................852
.............................................................853
..............................................854
.............................................................856
..................................................856
...............................................................857
..............................................................857
................................................................858
...............................................................859
............................................................859
.........................................................860
............................................................860
...................................................................862
..............................................................863
...............................................868
................................................869
.......................................................870
........................................................872
........................................................872
........................................................873
............................................................873

.. , , -, , ,
, , , , , , , , , ,
, ., ., , , , , , ,
., , , , , , - ,
, , , , , ,
, , , -, , , , -,
, , , ., ., , , ,
, , , , , -,
, , , , , ,
, , -, , , , ,
, , , , , , -, ,
, , -, , , , , ,
, , , , , -, , , . .,
, , , , , , ,
, , , , -, ,
, , ,
, , , , , ,
, , , , , , ,
, , , , , ,
- ., ., , , ,
, , , , , , , , , , , , ,
, , , -, , , , ,
, , , , , , , ,
, , -, , .
.. .
.. , .
.. .
.. , , , , .
.. , , , ,
, , , , -
, , , .
.. , , , , ,
, , , , ,
, .
.. , , , , -, .

 .. , .
.. .
.. , , , , , ,
, , .
.. , , , , , .
.. .., .., , , , ..,
, , , , , , , , ,
.
.. .
.. , , , , ,
.
.. , , , , , , ,
, , , , , .
.. .
.. , .
.. ..
.. .
.. , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , ,
, , , .
.. .
.. , , .
.. .
.. , , .
.. , , -, .
.. , , , ,
, , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , ,
, , , , .
B.C. , .
.. , , , , , , -,
, .

 .. , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , ,
., , , , , ,
, , , , , , ,
, , , ,
, , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
" ", , , , , , () ,
, , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , ,
, , -, , , , ,
, , " ", , , --, , , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , -,
, , , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , , , ..,
, , ,
, , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , ,
, --, , , ,
, , , , -, , , ,
, , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
, , , , " ", ,
, , , , ,
, , , ,
, , , , , , ,
, " ", , , , , ,
, , , , , , ,
, 3., , -, , , , ,
, , , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , , , ,
, , .
.., , .
.. , , , , , .
.. .
.. , , .
.. , , .

 .. , , , , , ., .,
, -, , , ,
, , , -, , , ., ., , , , , , ,
, , -, , , , -, ,
, , , , , , , , ,
-, , , , , , .,
., , -, , , , ,
, , , , -, .
.. , .
.. , , , , .
.. .
.. , , , , ,
, - , .
.. .
.. .
.. " ", , -.
.. , , .
.. .
.. , , , , , , .
.. .
.. .
.. , , , - ,
.
.. .
.. , , .
.. .
.. , , .
.. , , , , .
.. , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , ,
, .
.. .

 .. .
.. , .
.. , , .
.. , , .
.. .
.. .
.. , , .
.. , .
.. .
.. , , .
.. , , , , , ,
, , .
.. , , , .
.. , , , , , -, , ,
, , , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
, , , .
.. , , , , , ,
, , , , .
.. .
.. , , , , , , , ,
.
.. , , , , , , ,
, , , , .
.. , , , ,
, , , , -, .
.. , , , , ,
, , , , .
.. , .
.. , , , .
.. , , , , ,
, , , .., , , , , , ,

, , , , ,
, , .., ..
.. , , -, , ,
, , , , , , , ,
" ", , , , ,
, , -, , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , -, ,
, , , , ,
, , , . ., . .,
, -, -, , , , ,
, , , , ,
, , , , "
", , , , , ,
, , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , ,
, , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , -, ,
, , , -, , , , , , ,
, , .
.. .
.. , .
.. , , .
.. , , , .,
, -, -, , , ,
, , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , -,
" ", , , , , ,
, , , ., , , , , , , ,
() , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , ,
, , , , ,
, , , , , , , ,
, , , ,
, , , ,
, , ,
, , , , , , , ,
, , , , , ,
, (), , , , ,
, , , ,
, , , , , , , , ,

, , , , , , ,
., 3., , -, , , , , , , , " ", ,
, , .
.. , .
.. .
.. , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
, .., , , , , , , ,
.
.. .
.. , , .
.. .
.. , , -, , -.
.. , ., , -, , , ,
(-) , , , , , ,
, , , .
.. .
.. , .
.. , , -, ,
, , , , ., " ", , ,
, , , , , , , ,
" ", , , , ,
, , , , , , ,
, , "-", , , , , , , ,
, , , , , ,
, , , .
.. .
.. , , , , ,
.
.. , , , , , ,
.
.. , , , , -, , .
.. , , , , .
.. .

 .. .
.. , das Man, .
.. , .
.. , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , ,
.
.. .
B.C. , , .
B.C. , , .
.. - , .
.. , , , , , , , , , -, , , ,
, , .
.. .
.., -, , .
.. , , , ,
, .
.. , , , ,
, , , , , , ,
, , .
.. , , , , ,
, , , , , , ,
.
.. , , , ., , , ,
, , , -, , -, , ,
, .
.. -, -.
.. , , , , , .
.. .
.. ., .
.. .
.. , , .

 .. , .
.. , , , , , , ,
, , , , , ,
, , , , , .
.. , , , , .
.. , .
.. , , , , , , .
.. , , , , .

,
, .

""
,
, ,
, ,

, . ,
, , ,
,
(, , , .).
, ad
marginem.

( , ). ,
, ,
.
.

 , , .
. ,
-, ,
,
,
, . , , , , ,
,
,
.

, ,
, ,
, .
,
, -;
.
" "
,

, :
" . " (., 1980); "
: " (., 1990); " : " (., 1991);
" : " (., 1995); "ii i iki -
ik" (., 1995); " " (. , 1996).
, ;
.
:
; (Ciccarelli)
(), -BHK(Drekovic)(CIIIA), .. , .. , .. , ..
, .. , .. , .. , .. , .. , ..
, .. .
, ,
.
" "
: 220023, -23, / 136.

. ., ..,
.., ..,
..

(. absolutus , , , )
, , ,
, ,
. . 18 . .
., ", "
; (1800). : ,
, , , ,
. . ; ;
; ;
. .:
; ; ; -;
.. . :
; ; ;
""; ; "";
. . ,
,
" ".
. . -
(, , , ) . , ,
. . , .
, , .
. , .,
, . . .
, . . , (. ,
). . . ,
. . (. :
, ).
..

 (. absolutus ) ,
, ,
. .
, , ,
(" ", "" ..). ,
,
, , .
, , ,
" ", - ,
, , , "
". . -
, ,

(" ", " ", "
()" .). . ,
.
..

,

. .. .
,
.
- , .
: , , ..
,
. .. .., "-", , .
. .. ,
"", "" , , , ,
" " " ", , .
, ..
, , . .. , "----" , ..,
. ,
, , ..,
, . , , ,
, , , ;
. ,
, ,
, , .

.

, ,
. , .. ""
, (, , ),
.
..

(. absolutus , . relativus
)
. . , , , , ,
, , , . . () ,

, , ; ,
,
. . .
, , ,
.. . .
. .
, ,
" ", " ", "
". . , .
. "",
. "", "". (
) . .,
" ", " ", " ", " " ..
,
, , .. .
, , ,
, , , . ,
.; , ,
.. .
,
(), , , ,
,
(, . ). ,
. . .
,
,
. .
: ,
. . .
"", ()
, , , ,
.

..

,
, . . . (.
abstractio , ) ,
()
; ,
, ,
. ,
(, ,
, , .).
. : 1)
, ,
.
. ,
: ,
.
, , ,
, ; 2) , ,
,
("", "", "", "", "" .); 3)
, ,
() (" ", " ", ""
.); 4) (
, ..
); 5) (
, , ..
, ,
). (
, "" "
". .
(, ) (
). . (.1 , ,
) , , , , ,
( .). .
, ,
. .
.
..

 (. abstractio ,
, ) .

.

. .
. . .
. . ,
,
. . ,

( ,
). .
, , ,
, , , . (
. "", "" ..
, ). .
: , ;
, .
( )
.: ,
, . ( ,
""
). " ."
. . .
.
,
. (
,
).
..

(. ad absurdum ) ,
, .
"."
, ""
.
" " (, " . "). .
,
, . .
., ., ., . . .).
" ." .
"." .


, "" .
..

(. , bule )
,
; (
). , .
.
.
.
. .

(.) ,
(, )
, . ,
,
.
..

(Augustinus Sanctus) (354-430)

, , ,
. .
(387) . 395 (
). , , ,
: " ,
" (.). . .
, ""
" ", " "
. . ,
. , . , " "
, .
.
("" ,
,

), .
, .
. . ,
., , ,
. .
. . .
, .
"" - ,
.
,
, ,
. . "
". . ,
:
() ,
. ,
" ". . ,
" " " ". . ,
, ,
. , .
., , ,
. ,
, . "" ,
, . .
.
, , ,
, , , ..
() .
.
13 ., .
..

(Avenarius) (1843-1896) ,
. : "
" (1876), " " ( 2- , 18881890), "
" (1891) . . " ",

, . .,
" "
, ,
, .. .
. " " ,
" R" , .. ("

 "). , , .,
"".
. . .
" ". . "
" ,

.
..

(. 1937) , , .
. . (
1991). - ( ) (1987), ,
(1991), (1992).
().
(1990) " ". -
: " "" "" (1971), "
" (1973), "
" (1975), " " (1976), "
" (1977), "
- " (1979), ". . " (1988), "
: " ( " ",
" ") (1988), " " (1989), "
" (1989), " " "
(1991), " " (1991), " " (1992) .
( , , , ,
), .
,
,

. .
, ,
" ".
., , -
(, , , ,
),
, . .
(-
, -), ( ,
), - (- ),
( , ), -
10-12 . ( , , , , -, ,
, -, , -),

 . .
.. "".
. -
., " " (
" , , ,
"", , , , , ,
"", "principium")"
( ),
( ).
..

,
12 . (. Averroes). .
.

, . .
, , , ,
. ,
,
, .
,
, ,
, ("").
, " "
(), (" "),
(" ")
.
.
, : 1270
13 , 1277
XXI 219 ,
, 1513 . .
..

 (. autarkeia )
(, ), . " ". . ,
.
..

,
,
. . "
" (1973) .
.
"-" ( "-"), . "-".

( ), ,
, "
" (" "),

(" ""). , " "-"
,
, ".
, "
" (" " ,
" " ), (" " ),
(" " );
, , ,
, "
, ".
"-" , ,

,
. ., "
: , ,
, - ,

, ". ( ,
, "
, , , ,
"). .
: "
" (, , , ,
" "
.. .., " ,
, ... ;

 ").
, , ,
,
"-", , .
("
, ,
;
"),
"
".
" "
" "

"", .. (" " "
", 1981). .
"-"
- . ,
.
" " . (. " " ),

(. )
"". .
:
" " (), "" - () .
,
" " () (.: ) "
" (..),
.
..

(. autos cratos ) ,
.
.
, . ,
,
,
.
,
. .
: .
( ); ., (),
; .,
.

 ( ),
, . .
,
,
,
.
, , .
..

(. automaton ) ,
. " "
.
..

(. autos nomos )
. .
, ., ..

. ,
. . .
..

(. auctoritas , ) ,
,
. , . . : ;
; ; ,
; ; ;
. ,
(- .) . . "", ..
.
..

 (. auctoritas , ) ,
( ) ,
,
, . .. ,
,
. .. ,
. .. ,

" " " ". ..
.
..

(. auctoritas , ) ,
, , .
, , .. .
..

(1908-1997) , (),
1943 (1937-1942).
, , .
"" (1951). .
" , ".
: " " (1930), "
" (1933), " " (1950), " " (1952), "
" (1959), " " (1966), "
" (1973) . .
. -
. " " (1951),
.
" ", . ,
" ", "
", " ". .,

.
, , .
, "
". , ., ,
.
(), , ., . , "
, . --.

 , , ,
, ,
". , ,
, ., " ", " .
, , , .
, . .
". .
. ,
- . , . ,

,

. . " "
" " , .
" ".
" ", .
""
. --
()
20 .,
. ., " "
"
". "" ,
. "", .,
: ""
( ) "" ("
", " "), .
("", " " ..),
, - "-
-" . .,
" ", .
, . " . " (1986),
, ,
", ", "
".

. --
. ""
20 . ""
"" (, )
" ",
,
,
.
.. , ..

 (. agape ; . caritas) ,

, " ". . .
,
( . " ", " ").
" ", ,
" ", . ,
( " ") .
, , ,
" " ,
, .
. .

, - ,
, -
. .. ,
() .. .. (.: , ),
20-40- 20 . , ,
. .. : 1) . . 2)
. . 3) ( ). 4) .. 5) ,
. 1, . 2. 6) . 7) . 8) , . 1,. 2, .. 9) . 10) . 11)
( .. ). ..
" " (.. ). ..
, , ,
, -
. :
, , , "-",
, " " . ..
. ..
( ): 1)
; 2) -: "
", " ". .
,
,
. - .. " " .
.. ,
. ,
. : 1)
(); 2) (); 3) (-).

. " "
.

..,
, .
. ,
, , , ,
. ,
, " ",
, . , .., ,
. "" , .
. , ..
, , -
. ..
. .. :
,
, . -, , ,
. , " ",
.
, .., .
" " (.. ) .. ,
. ,
,
. :
, , - , .
.. "
" , : "...
...". .., ,
, , , , ,
. : 1) ; 2) ; 3)
; 4) ; 5) ; 6) ; 7) . : 1)
(), 2) - (), 3) ( ); 4) -
(), 5) (), 6) (), 7) ().

. , ,
, .
.
, .
..
. , ,
. .. , "
".
, , ,
. ().
, ,
, .
. ..
(, , ), -,
. ..
, " ": 1)

, , ; 2) (
) , ; 3)
, .
- . ..
, , , ,
.
..

(. , gnosis ) ,
,
.
. 19 .
. ,
( ),
. ( . .
, ..
, . ,
" ", ""
"". . ,
). .
, , ,
.
,
, , , ,
. , ,
,
( ).
" ": "", " ", "".
.
. . , ..
, . ,
- ,
", , ".
, , . ,
,
, ( ).
. ,
()
(--) , .
. "" , (
, ). . ,
, "" ,
, .

, , .
,
.
.
. ,

.
.. , ..

(. aggregate ) ,
- , ,
("") ()
. . ( )
.
..

(. aggredio )

, ,
.
"." .
.
,
, .
, .,
,
, ,
.
,
. , ,
, ,
, , ,
.
, ,
, . (. :
).
..

 (. adaptatio , )

(, ) .
. .
. .
. ,
.
. , , .
. . .
, . ,

-- .
. " ",
.
.
(), ,
, (). .
, .
. ,
: .
,
.
.
..

(. ) ,
, . . ( ) ,
.
..

(. addere ) ,
, .
..

 (. adaequatus ) , ,
, , . , , .,
, , , , "",
. . (
: " "). .
, .
. .

(. aggiornamento )
,
, , , ,
, , , .
II (1962-1965),
. (
20 . -.;
, "
" , ,
" ").
.:
- (, ) (. , .. )
; - (. , );
(. ) - (.
) . -
,
:
" ", -

(" ").
: ,
,
. , .
"-" ("")
. . ,
,
" ", "" ("
"), ,
"" "-" . .,
, "" (), "" (),
"" (). " "
,
, .. .
,
,

 , ,
.
. .
- . . , :
-
, - ,
,
" ". -
. , . ,
. " " (
, ""). , ""
, , - .
"",
(- ).
,
.
. ( ). ,

, ,
,
, .

,
. " "
(), " " (. kerigma . ), " " (. )
, ,
. .
-.
:
, ,
.
- .,
, ,
,
.
..

(. adiaphora , )
. , .
, , . - : "

 , , , , ...
, , , ,
...". , ,
, , .
..

(1870-1937) , . ,
(1929).
. : " " (1912), " " (1917),
" " (1920), " " (1929), " "
(1933) . 1902. " " (1907)
,
. ,

.
. .

,
. . ,
( ) .
, .,
, , ,
, , .
. " ".
. " " ( " " )
( ) " ".
, ., . .
,
.
..

(1878-1945)
. 1903 .
1904. 1905 (1906). 1914 1918
. , ,
. , .
( ) .
(19201929), . (1928-1931),
(1931-1936), (1931-1938)
(1938-1941, 1944-1945) --, (1936-1939)

 (1941-1944) . 1932 .
: " ." (.!, 1923); "
" (1924); ", , (-
" (1932); " " (1961) . 20- "",
,
. , ., ()
" ". ,
. ,
. -,
, , ., "
".
.
, ., ,

, , , ., . ,
, .
. , .
,
.
. " ".
. .

(Adorno), - (Wiesengrund-Adorno) (1903-1969)

, , , .
, . . 17 "
" (1920), .
.
. , " " 1920-.
.
, ,
. 1920-
,
.. . .

. .
- ,
.
. , ,
, .
. .
, "". 1934 .

 , 1938 . .
, .
. " " (1947),
. ,
.
. ,

.
, ,
.
.
, .
" " ,
,
. ,
.
, ,
, .
" " (1950). , ,
" ",
. 1940-
.
, , - .
" " . ,
.
,
.
.
1950-1960- . .
. , ,
: " " (1956), "
" (1966), " " (1970).
. .

. . -
, ,
"", .. ", ,
-- ". ,
, -
, . " "
"". . ,
. .
"" (bestimmte) ,
. ,
, . "",
"" (unbeirrte) , .


,
, , .
- . .
,
. , .,
" ". ,
- . .
. ,
- . " " (1949),
" " (1952), ".
" (1955), ". " (1956),
" " (1962).
"" , , ., ,
.

. , .,
"" , "".
,
, .,
, , . .
- " ",

. . ,
, , ,
1960-.
..

(. a se )
, . .
(), (), (.).
..

(Ajdukiewicz) (1890-1963) . 1920-1930

- . : " "
(1931), " " (1934), " " (1975), "
. 1931-1963" (1978) .
- . ,
,

 " " "

". "
" - ,

, .. , ,
. "" " " (
, ),
., , ,
, , .
, .,
" ", "
". -
, . ( "
"). . , ,

"". , .,
.
. , .,
; ;
; ;
, .
" ", .,
,
. "
, , ,
...
, "" ,
. ,
- ,
". , ,
"", (..
) . (
, " ", .,
, :
, , .).


, . 1950- .
( .. ""). .
,
, ,
( ,
.).
..

 () (1910-1989) ,
. (1946-1959) (1959-1978) .
. , ,
. ", " (1936) .
,
. ()
() .
"", ..
. () ,
: 1)
,
; 2) - ,
, ,
. "" .

-- .

(..
). .

. "" . "-",
, ,
.
. "" "" () , 19401950

. .
(
).
,
. .
. " " (1956)
, , ,
" ", "
". " " (1973), .
" ",
"".
, .
. . , .
(
). , .,
, . , .,
,
.

. .

(. akademia)
,
, . . 385 ..
, 529 . ""
. (1459-1521), . , .
.
..

, ,
, .
..

(. kosmos ) "".
, .
. , ,
. , . , ,
; .
.

(1823-1886) , .
. . . ( 1842
). : " " (1858-1859), ""
(1861-1865), "" (1867-1868), "" (1880-1886). .
12
.
. ,
. . " " ",
,... , ,
..." (.).
. .
.. , .

 , I ,
: ,
"" (. , , "".
19 . . , " ... ...
", "

...". ., ,
, "
...", , , .
. ,
, . .
"",
. , .,
, . ., . .
" ",
. (, ), .
, , - ,
. 1886-1887 7- .
..

(1817-1860) , , .
.. . .
1833-1840 (). : "
" ( , 1846), "
?", " ",
" " ( , 1898), " .
" . ( , . ,
" ").
. .
. 40- , , ,
- , " ".
, .
, .
( ), ., (. ), ,
, .
( )
(). ("", "") ,
, , : "
, , , ...
, , ",
.
, , . 06- ,
,

 (""), , .
(
). ( , ,
) , . ()
. "" ( )
, ,
: " ,
, , ...".
, I,
. ., ( )
, .
" ".
, . .
II (1855)
( ), . .
" " ()
" " (. ). .
, , ,
( ), .
. .
..

( ) (1868-1946) ,
, .
(1900). 1903 -.
, (1917). :
(1917-1920), (1920),
(1921-1923).
- ,
. : " "
(1906), " " (1923), ". "
(1924), "-- " (1924), "
" (1934) . 20-
, "",
.
..

(. axia , logos , ) ,

, ,

 . .
: 1)
( ) ,
, .. , , .. ,
; 2)
, " " " ",
- - ,
; 3)
, ,
, ,
(

: -, -, - ..); 4)
, ()
(, , , ..,
.); 5)
, ,
., " " , ; 6) ,
, "" (,
) "", (
, ""
,
. ). , .
- -
, , ,
(, ) -
.
,
"" (, ..), (
, ..)
,
. .

,
. , ""
)

( " ", 20 .,
19 .). .
,
, ,
.

. , .,
, ,
" ", .
. ,

 , (
, , ). .

(, , ..,
).
.
, , ().
( ) . ,
. -.
.. (1817-1881),
"" ,
"".
. , "
" ,
-, ( ,
"" , .. ).
.
( ).
, ()
. " " " " ,
. , ""
.
( , ), ,
- (, , , , ""
) , ,
.
. ,
, , ""
. "",
"" ( ).
- ,
( ). .
( , , 20 .).

(), "-" () .,
"-" .
-
. . , .
, . , , , "
", , ,
() ,
.
"-" ( ).
, - ,

, () "",
- ,

 , "" .
, (, , , ),
-- (,
, ). ,
- , - , ..
( , -,
-). .
(
, ,
, ""). , ,
. ,
" ",
, , .
"" : , ,
, ( ) . ,
, "",
: , "",
. , . .
"" .
. , ,
()
"".
"" . , ,
, . "
, ,
, , ,
. ,
, " ().
"" , ,
, "",
, ( )
. . ,

, " ", ,
( . ).
"" ,
, -,

. ( )
, ,
. . . ,
- , , .
,
( , ).
,

 .
., 20 . -
, ,
/,
.

. . ( . )
-
"" . , ,
. "" .
,
-. . . ,

, " "
(, ) " " .
"
" , .. ".
( -,
) ,
.
,
. -
( ). "" .
.
- ( " " ).

, ,
()
. (
) . ( )
. (
: " ?", " ?" "
?").
(, .), - - , (
"" ) " " "
" , - .,
B.C. , , , , .. .
" ",
( : "", "",
"" ..).
. . .
.. ( ), .. - ( ), .. (
) . 1966 " ", 1978 "
", "" .
(-, .. , .. , .. , .. -, .. , ..
, .. . .)

 . ( "").
"" ., (
, , . ). .
(, .. , .. , .. , A.M.
, .), ( ), (..
). , .
" ", ,
(
). , , .
, , (,
, , , .). , ,
. ,
. , .
( , ,
, , ..), ,
, ,
( ) ,
" " (.: ) (
, ), ,
- ( ,
), " " (
). .
, " ",
, . .
( "" ,
,
).
.
..

(. axioma , )
,
(),
() . A.M.
,
("") (""). A.M.
. A.M. ,
. ""
. . A.M.
, . A.M.
. , "".
A.M. ,
, ,

 ,

.
A.M. .

. , 1931 ,
,
. , . .
( )
- (
"") . -- ,
A.M., ,
,
.
A.M.:
, ;
, ..
" "; .
, A.M., ,
, ,
.
..

,
:
"" ();
( );
" ", ..
( ); -
(); (
). . ,

. . ,
, (""
), - .
.
- . . :
( );
( "" -
); (
,
); - (

 , ); -
( "" -)
- (, ) ; (
); (

); - (
"", "",
);
. . ,
, . " ".
..

(. actualis , ): 1) ,
- ; 2) -

; 3) (),
; -
; 4)
, , ,
(, ,
0 1) (,
); 5) , ,
, ; (
, ) .
.. , ..

() ,
, , , , .
, " ".
..
;
. .. ,
, (, .
).
..

 (. accidentia , ) ,
, , , , (
, ),
( ). .
"" "", , . "" (
) "" ( ).
( " .",
, , , ).
" ." . ""
( ). , .
..

(. actio ) . Actio transiens ,

, - ; actio immanens ,
, (, ).
.

(Alain de Lille, Alanus ab Insulius) (1120/11281202/1203) , , , , "Doctor

Universalis". 15 . ,
. : " "; "
" (134 "" " "); ("")
"" ( ); " "
(- );
"" (11831184)
, .
,
: " , ,
". ,
, ,
. ", ", ",
".
..

 (. algoritmi, algoritmus;
9 . -)
. .
. .
, . .
, ,
, . .
, .
. , .
. , ,
.
., .
,.

(Alexander) (1859-1938) -.
(1893-1923). : ", "
(1920), " " (1933) .
. -.
. .
"- ", , ., ,
,
"" . .
-, . ,
. - , ,
, ., , , , , "" . .
"- ". "" . "",
, . , .,
"" (. nisus ), .
"- ", ., .
. ,

(Alexander) (1891-1964) ,
" ".
. (1930),
(1932-1956),
- ( 1956). : "
" (1927, "-"), "
" (1935, . ), " " (1948),
" " (1950), " " (1953, ),
" " (1960), " " (1966, ) . .


,
,
.
.
.
(1921).
.,

(1908-1961) ,
. (1932).
(1938-1941),
() (1940-1947). (1946). .
() (1946-1955).
(1947-1954). (19541955). .
(19551961), , ( 1960).
(1943 1946). : "
" (1939), "" (1940), "
" (1946), " " (1959), "
. " (1959) . 1947
"" " "
() ( "
", 1947, 1) . " ".
- . (
" ") (
20-)
- ,
" ",
.


.
..

(, ) (1618-1659) -
. ,
, , , . ,
. 1655 . 1651 "
", : "", "", "".

 (. ),
.
, .
(Lex divina), ,
. : , .

. , .
.
().
( ,
).
. ,
( ). .
, ,
.
. .. , ..

, . , ,
, ,
. . ,
, . .
,

(
). .
.
. (12351311),
" ",
" ", " " ., .
" ". . (
)

(. ,
, . , , . , . -, . .).
-
, .,
19 .; (1848) .
"" ,
. (.: ).
. .

 (. allegoria )
, ,
. . (,
, ), , ,
, (
), . , .
. ,
: .
"" "". . , .
,
. - .
, . .
( "").
.
(, "" "" ) .
, . .
.
; . -, ,
, . . 19-20 .
.. , .. -, .
, . , . . .
, (, "" ).
.K.

(. alchimia) 1. ; 2.
(5-16 .); 3.
.
, . .
, ,
. . ,
.
, . , ""
"" "" , "" (),
"" "". "" "" . .
. .
() , ,
.
, .
" ". . ,

, . . .. " ",

, , ,
"" . " ." (
, , ). ""
. ( ).

, , , ,
, . " ", "
", "", " " .. ""
. ( )
.
:
.
: -
.
. , , .
, , 16-18 .
, .
"" "" .

19-20 .
.
- . ,
, ,
.
. .
, , :
. , ,
, (,
), . . , ,
. , . , . - . .

.
..

(Albertus Magnus) (1193/1207-1280) ,

, , , "Doctor Universalis"
(" "). 1223.
1245. 1931 .
, .. -.
.
"" , " ".
, ,
, ,

 . ,
. ., . . "" : , , .
(
). "", ,
"", .
. , .,
. ,
.
.
, ,
. .
, , .
..

(. altruisme, . alter ) ,
.
, ,
. .
, "
". , .
,
. .
. . , " ",
, 18 .
(. , . , ) ().
,
. , .,
, .,
. .
. .
. ".
" , .
..

(Althusser) (1918-1990) ,
. 1948, . .
, ,
, " ". ,
, ,

, . .
,
"". " " (1965) " "" ( .
- . , 1965)
.
. .
,
(
) ( ).
" ",
. 1967 . ,
"-", -,
. 70-, , .
. " " (1969), "
" (1974), "" (1976)
. .
, .
,
. 1980, ,
, 1988. .
, , ,
,
.
.
.
..

, (Amaury) (. . 1206)
-. .
. .
. :
, ;
, ; ,
, . ,
, , .
- . .
(-) ,
, .
. (1209) (1215)
. . .
.

..

(. amphi , , , . valentia
) , ,
,
, . .
20 . . ,
,
, ( ),
,
. .,
: 1) . (
); 2) .
(
) 3) . - (
, ). ,
.
. , . ,
. , .
. (, , ,
.., ),
.
, . ,
. .
,
, , , ,
( , )
. .

, .. , .
,
, . ,
, (..
, ..).
. , .
: ,
, ,
. .

(,
,
..). .
.

..

(500-428 ..) ( -) ,
, 30 ,
. . (431 . .).
" ". .
.
, , ;
. . ,
(" ",
"-", ""),
. . ,
, . ,
("
"). . " "
, .
"" (""), , , .,
, :
, . (
,
). ()

,
(. ). , ,
. . ,
: , . "
" (
. ).
. . .

. .
, .
( ,
). .
( , , , , )
(
, " ... ,
").
.. , ..

 (610-540 ..) ( -) ,
. . ("
"). , . ,
. .
, ("") .;
,
. . ,
, ,
, -
, . ,
., , , . , ,
, ,
. ( "" ,
., , .. ). .
, .. . ,
,
. , ., , .., ..

, , , ., -
, .
. ,
, . .

(" , ,
"). .
" ",
""
. . "" .
, , ,
" ", .
..

(585-525 ..) ( -) , .
. ,
. . ,
( )
( ). .
, , ,
. , ,
, , . , .,
, , , , .
.

- :
, . ""
""
.
..

, : 1) ,
(., ., , ,
); 2) . . (. analysis
, )
, () , .
. .
. .

(), (
), .
.: ,
;
;
, .
,
() .
: 1) () .,
. , . ,
, , ,
; 2) ()
, . , .
3 ,
; 3) . - :
, .. (
). . (. synthesis , )
, .,
. .
()
, .
.: 1) (),
, .,
, . , .
, , ,
, ,
, , , ; 2)
(),
. , .

 , ,
, , . ; 3)
, ,
.. ( ).
..

(. analytike ) , ,
,
. . ,
. ., . ,
" ,
".
..

20 ., . ..
,

.
.. , .
.. ,
. ..
, ,
. ..
"", "" 20
. . ..
, . ""
,
-
. "-"
.. (,
). .. -
. , .. ( )
,
.
.. : ;
; ,
; ; -
; . " ",
-

 ; ;
-

; ;
. ..

.
..,
, -
. , "Principia Mathematica" -

, " " ("
") (1892)
.
.. "" (=) (
) (=) , ,
, , ,
.. .
. , " " (, )
,
( , ). ""
( "").
, .
, , ,
, (
) . ,
( " ") -
,
,
. ..,
(
) . ,
(.. , ),
,
- .
- ,
"", . ,
- : ""
"",

.
.

. 1930-
, ..
-

 . 40--50- 20 . ..
,
. , ..

, ,
. ,

, .., ,
.
, .. ,
, , (" "),
,
; , , .

, " " .
,
. - ..
: (, . , .
), ; (. .),
(
) ( )
; - (. .),
.
, . , -, . , . .
, "
", "", "", .
"",
" ".
, ,
- . .. 20 .
,
. , , ,
. , ..
,
, . ,
,
.. 1990-, ( )
. .. 20
.
( ,
). , (, . .
) .. (
" " " ",
-

 ). (. : , ,
, , , , .).
.. , ..

(. analogia , ) 1)
- , ; 2) .

. . ,
, , .
. .
: 1) . ,
, .
, , ,
; 2) . ,
,
. ,
, .,
"", ,
. . , 17 .
:
, ..
.
.
, , . .
. 19 . .


, . .
.: 1) . ,

.
, .. ); 2) . ,
; 3) . ,
, ,
,
; 4) . ,
,
, . .
. .
. , . ,
.
, , , ,
. ,


- .
,
. . .
, ,
. , .
, ,
, , , , .

..

(. anamnesis , ) (
"" "") , .
, , "" "" ,
"", .
, "" , "",
, , . .
-
("") .
..

() (. ananke , , )
, . ,
, . ,
( ): ( ),
( ), (
).
,
( , , )
( ) , ,

(.
). ., ,
;
, " , , ,
" (. : , "
"). , . , .
.. , ..

 (. anarchia ) ,
, .
- ,
, .
. ,
. .
. , " "
" " (1793). .
( " ", 1845)
, " ",

"" . . . ,
(" ?", 1840),
" ". ,
" " (" ,
", 1846), (
) , ()
( )
"" ( )
. , ,
.
"" (" ", 1873)
,
.
" " ,
. , ,
.
.. ("
", 1920), "
" (" , ", 1907),

: .
" "
.
. .

- ( ) (1861-1937) -
. .
. . 1882
. .

 " ".
. 1887
.. , .
. 1897 - P.M. (1875-1927).
.
(1899, 1900) . . 1911
.
19121913 ,
.
. . (18771919). 25 .
.
: "" (1910), " " (1934),
.
..

(1906-1959) , .
. 1947 25
. " " (
1991) - ""
, ,
. , .
. .
" " . , . () . ,
. , , ., "
". ,
, .
, .,
. , ,
. , .,
. .
"", , . .
, " ,
". . ,
,
:
. .,
,
, , ,
, ,
.
, ,

, . .
. .
"": . , ,
, ,
. (. "" " ", ""
, ).
- , .,
,
. "" .
. ,
,
6 236 .
, , .
, ,
"". "-" , , ., 242 ,
"". "-" ""
. .
"", ., , , "" (
""), , ,
. "" . " ",
.
, ., " " "",
.
: "
. -... ".
( . " ")
, ,
" " "
" ("") , ""
II.
, ,
( .) " ", .
, .
: "
... , ,
, , .
, ".
. .
, 24 . (
, .,
,
-
). . ,
"" " ".
, "
,

 "
20 .
..

( , ,
) , ,
. . ,
, .
, .
,
,
(, , ).
. .
.
. .

, (. anima animus ) ,
;
: () , ()
. ,
,
, ()
(). , ,

. ,
- "
",
"" " ". ,

.
.
,
.
..

 (. anima, animus , )
, ( ),
.
: , , ,
, ,
, . .
. (1708), . , ,
, , " ". 1871
. ,
, ,
, "" , "-"
, . . (. , , . ) ,
. " ",
, - ().

. ,
, ,
. ,
, .
, , , . .
..

(. anomie , ) -
, ,

, "" ,
. . "
", "" ,
. , . ,
,
. . ,
. ""
: "", "" "".
- ,
. .
. ., ,
, .
, "." ,
, , , 20
. . ,
, "" (-) .
, , , ,

 ,
. ,

. -
:
) , ,
; ) ,
. , , "

". , . " "
, , ,

.
- (
, "" ,
) .
..

(nslm) (1033-1109) ,
, 1093 ().
"", " " ("Proslo-gion"), " " . ..
, , ,
.
.. : (", "). ,
.., ,
. .. , "
". , . ., :
, , ,
.
( , , ,
.) .. "".
.. . . .
, .
.. . ,
, , , .. ,
, , , ..,
, . ..
:
,
. .. (,
), ( -,
)
, . ..

"" , "Verbum" ( ,
, ). "
" (. ). .. ,
. , ,
-, ,
.
..

" "
. ,
, , ,
, " "
( , )
. , " "
;
,
, "" , "" ,
,
, . , . .
, ,
, " ",
, (, , " ",
) ..., . "
", .. , ,
.

, , : 1)
, 2) , 3) 4) .
: "
/ ;
, . " ,
, , /
". "
,
. /
, ". 4) "
, /
, ". ,
, .
,
, . . , " ",
, , . ,
, ,

 . . . .
" "
" ", " ".
() ,
(" ,
, ").
.
(""), , ,
, , . . " "
. ,
, ,
, ,
,
.
..

(. antinomia )
: , (,
), . .
.
()
( 1 .; , .). ,
(534) . ,
. . ,
. , , ()
. ,
() () .
. ,
(" "),
. , . ,
, . , , .
, ,
, , , ,
. , .,
.
,
, . , , "
". ,
, ,
,
. . ,
. ., ,
,

 ( )
. . "" ,
. (). , ,
, , . . " ".
.
, ""
. .
() . : " ,
". , :
" ".
"" , .
. , : "
.
".
. ,
. . () ,
. , ()
() ( ) .
, , , ,
. .
..

,
. . , ,
. (
"", .. ", " , "",
.. " "). .
. . :

. ,
, .
. - .
(20 .)
, .
. ( .
. , , .. -, .. .,
-, . , .
, . , . .). 20 . ,

 . ,
,
.,
. ( , . ,
" ").
, ,
: " ,
. , :
?" . ,

(. ),
: (. ),
(), (. ) ..
. .

, , -. . ,
.
.
(
) . . - ,
, , . ,
,
, , : ""
( ""
"" "", " ").
: " , ; ,
, , : ?..
". ( ,
., ). , . ,
, , ,
- , , ... ,
, , , , , , ,
, , , , , ,
, , , , ,
, ... .
. ,
, .: "... ,
, , , ...".
.
: . , . . .
..

 ,
7 . .. 6 .
- .
,
. -
(-),
,
,

. ..
-
, .
,
(, , ,
.). ..
,
. .. , ,
, ,
. - .. ,
1.
,

: (. arhe ) ( )
( ).

: -, - (
"") -,
(-
""). -
- ,
- ,
( " " " "),
, .
, ..,
,
.
, -, -
. ,

. ..
- , ( ).


,
. ,
:
,
.
,
. (
).
. ,
,

. ,
, -:

.

(" " " " , " "
, " " , " " ..),
.. .
:
. -,
, : 1. -
(
" "
"" ).
: ,
(. phusis "", . ""),
(. genesis ).
,

( , ,
..). , ""
", , , , ,
. , ,
". , ..
(, ) ; -
- ,
. (=)
, .

" " " " . ,

(. phusis ""
, bhu,
"" "", . ""

 "").
: "" "" .

- : mikrokosmos ( ) makrokosmos (
, ) .
: "
" , - ..
, , ,
- , , ,
, , , , , ..;
, -, . ,
( , ,
), ( , ,
, ). -
,
(, , ,
, .). ,
: ,
( , ,
-). ..:
( ,
, )
(
). ,
,

( " "). 2.
"", . ,
,

, : (. demiurgos
, ).
: (, ),

( ).
, ( , ,
) -
: , ,
. ,
,
, , ,
("", "") . ( )
(, ),
,
.
() : ""

 .

("") (""). ,
.. , , -,
, , -, . ,

(""
, ..), ,
.. (.
"" "-",
""; "-", ..
,
.)
.

(. " , , "), ,
- , ,
( "" ,
).
- (
), ( ). ,
-
( ),
( ).
-
: "-" ("
, ... .
... ,
... , "),
(,
, ,
;
" ", ,

).
,
: ,
(, ..)
.
..: "" , (. nus )
, "" , "
... ", .

( ) ( ),
.
,
,

 ( praxis); ,
" ", .. , ,
( noietis).
"", "
, .., ".

, .
( , ) :
, " ". ,

: ,
. , "",
"", - ,
( ). 3.
- ,
,
.
; -
:
. : "
".
(), .
.
-
, ,
, , .
( ) ,
.. . (moira)
. moirao meiromai . ,
-, ,
,

(.: , -
). -
" " (. aisa , , ). ,
, (, ),
, , :
, .
, . ,
(. moros , , );
"" .
,
(. ananke , ,
, , ).
:
(), , ,

 .

(. tuhe , ,
, , ). , ( )
.

,
, (. dike ,
, ). dike
; ( ) .
,
, .
, , ,
.
,
. () ()
.
. moira, nomos "", "",
: . nemo ()
, ,
(. nomos :
). ,
,
,
(. . 2).

:
, .
""
(. " "),

(" , ,
, " , , " "
). .. , :
- ,
. , ,
( -=
, )
( , " "),
,
" ". -
..
. , ..
, ,
( )
. , : ,

 ,
,
, ,
.

: (-
) (-
).
; ,
.. ,
.
: 1)

; 2)
. .
()

,
( ,
.).
("-" "")
("" ""),
("", "" ., "", "" .).
,
,
2. ,
.

: ,
,
, "", "",
"", "" .. , ,
, ,
: "", "" .. , ,
("", "" ..)
, :
, ; , . (, . ton apeiron
, ..
, .

,
,
: , . ,
, .) , ,


, .


,
.
,
,
.
,
. , ,
(. isonomia
, , ),
" , ".
( -: ",
, ,
"). :
(",
").
: " ".
:
,
;
(.: ).
, ,
, . , ,
" ..,
". :
, , ,
(. aion
; .: ". ").
, , , ,
, - , ,
, . , ",
, , ,
". , ,
,
--,
(" ") ,
(. to aidion ). ,
(", "),
: ,
; , . ,
"" : ,
, , , "
", -
,
.
( ) , :

 ( ,
..).
(, ), , ,
"". , ..
"" ""
-
,
()
. .. ,
,
, .

,
:
(. ). ..

.
, ,
, (
" ", ,
, 20 .; ""
..) ,
, , ..
.
, ..
.
,
(. :
;
"-" ;
"" .).

. -
,

, .
,
.
-
( " ", " ")
: ,
. , ,
,
. (" " , //
, ..." .. ,
, ,
, .)


- ,
(-)
(, ) :
, ,
. , , (
) ( ) ,
,
, . ,
,
. -
,
.
.
,
(,
). -

. , .. ,
,
,
.
: , ,
, ,
( , ).
, , , , ,
, , . ..
,
: , , ( );
- ( );
(); ();
();
(); , .
. .

, ,
.
,
. .., ,
,
.
..

 (. anthropos )
,
( ,
, , .).
,
(
),
, . . (, 30%,
, ,
).
.. ..,
( ), 1973 .
. "" .. : ", ,
, ". "" ..
, " (, , ,
) ,
". , "" ,
, . ,
.. - ,

(, , , , , , , . , .
, . .). .. , .
, " ,
, " ().

,
.
,
. ..
,
.
B.C.

(. anthropos analysis , )
. ,
()
" -" ( . . ). 30- 20 .
. .
, ,
.
..

 , ""
, , ,
, , , , , , , . . .
. .
( ) . .
, .
. , .
. .
""
"". 19 . .
(, , ). . ,
, . . (-,
, , . , . .)
-
, -
.
(, , , . .). .,
, ,
. .
, . .
, , .
..

(anthropology), . (general Anthropology)

,
. . , ,
,
, .

, " ",
. , .
., , . (
) . .
(),
.
,
. ,
., .

.
, ,

, ,
, . 19 .
,
, , -
.
, .
,
, ;
;
,
; ,
. . ( ., - .)
.

, .
.
, .
. , , ,
.,
, . .
.,
(, , ,
..). (
) ,
. .
., . ( ).
..

(cultural anthropology), . ,

.
, , ,
. .
(.: ) ,
,
,
. ,
,
. .
,
. ,
: , , , , , .,

. , . .. .
,
,
" " (). .,
, 30- 40- 19 . .
70- 19 . . 1879
( ) 1884 ( ).
.
, . ,
- ,
- ,
, .
16-18 .
.
" ", . , . ,
. . 19
, . , .
, , ,
" "
18- 19 .
19 . .
,
(, , ..)
. .

. , -
. - . ,
" "
() . .
. ,
. 20 .
,
,
.
, .

- ( )
. ,
,
.
- ,
,
. 1920- ,
" " (, ).
. . .
3. , ,

 .
. ,
.
, . ,
. -
1926.
. ,
- . ,
, -
, .
-
,
. .
- -- .
.
. ,
. ,
( " ").
. , ,
.

. . . ,
(,
) . . () , ,
. 19- 20 .
- . -, . , . , . -
.
. ,
.
(, -
) .
, , "" .
60-70- .
, 1920-
- . . . ,
-
. . .

. ,
,
,
.
..

 (. anthropos , sophia )
( 1909), , 1912 . (18611925) " " (1910), " " (1925). ,

, .
( ; .
" 20 "). .
, ,
. . (
) " ",
" ",
.
" " . . .
, .
. , . .,
, , .
"-": , , , ,
, .. ,
. 1913 , 1922 "
". . , . . , .
. , . :
(
). .
, .. , , ().
, -, .,
- .
. .

.
. 20 . ,
,
" ".
, (
, . ). .
"" "",

.

. .
, ,
. . , ,

 , .
:
-, .. ,
- .
,
( ), , (
, , , ,
). -
.
(.
, ), , , .
. 20 . . - ,
, .
. :
, ,
, .
"", "", "", " ".
..

(. , peiron , )
, "".
(, ..) ""
. .
(, , ),
( ).
. , ,
. .
( ) (
) ,
.
, . ""
. -
,
. .
: ,
- , .
(),
(), () , "" .
, --, .
( ),
,
. - , . ,

 " ". .
"" , , " ."
" ",
", " .
..

(Apel) - (. 1922) ,
. . ;
, , , -, . , , . .
-- ( 1972). : "
" (1963), " " (1973), "
" (1974), " .. " (1975), "
" (1976), "
"-" " (1979) .
. " "
, " prima philosophia " (.)

( .
: " , "). ., "

,
". , ,
"", "" "", .. ,
"" "", .. ,
"" "" (" ").

, . "-" ,
, , , "
", "
".
. "
, ", , - .
. , "
", "
".
, . ,
. ,
" ", .. "
". ., ,
, " ,
" (
" "); , . -

 performance, -
; , , ., "
".
.
. . , , -,
,
, " ",
, -,
( " ").
, ., . .
.

,
-, .
- ,
, .
,
. - ,

, "-"
"" (), "" ( ),
"" (-),
"" "" ().
() - ,

,
.
, , , "
- ".
,
( ) ,

,
. , ,

, "
" " "
, , ,
, .
, ., "-

prima philisophia
", .
.

..

 (. , ,
,
- ,
. .:
" " ( , " ,
, ");
(, ); " "; " ";
" ", " " ( . ""
, , " ",
).
. " " " ",
" ", " " . "" . .

. .
, , .

" ". (. , .
, .) , ,
, -, "" . (
) , , ,
, .. 21 . , ..
, .
, "", ,
, , , (.
). ., ,
, .
. .

6 "
", . .
- , . -
-. . . , , ,
( ). , ( ),
. ,
. .
( ),
, , . (. ), "
". ( . , "
, , -
", 1928) ..

 . , , . ,
. , , ,
" " . ..
,
(, , , ), (. ,
" ").
. .

20 . ,
,
( ,
, ). . .
..

" " " "

666. , " ", ,
. (
) .
"" "" 666. ( 11 .)
616 ( " "). , , ,
, , .
. . .
..

(. , ) ,
.
., ,
,
, , ,
( ) , .
. ,
,
. .
- .
"",
( ) , ,

 . 6 . ,
9 . ,
, , ,
, "".
..

- ,

. , " ...
,
, , ..,
...
.
". . . , .
" " (1872)
. .
(, ) . (-, , ) , ,
. ,
. .
..

(. apologeomai ) (1) -
- 2 .,

. .
, ,
. , .,
" " (100-167),
, ( 2 .).
"" , ;
(2) - (" "
, " " ),
.
(. ), ,
,
. ,
" "; (3)
,


(., : -, ).
..

(. , poros , aporia ,
, ) , f
, ;
, ;
. . , ,
(5 . ..) . ,
, . . - "
", "", " ", , : "
, , , ." . "
" .
. .
"", ,
. , ,
. ,
, .. ,
, ,
, , ,
. " ".
. " " ,
, , , ,
, : ,
,
; , ..
. . ,
,
, .
..

(. a posteriori, . ) ,
, , a priori ("-" ).
,
. . "
" " ", .. a priori. ,
. ,

 , ,
,
. ,
, .
..

(. apophatikos )
,
. - , . .

. . .,
, ..
-. . . , " ",
" , , ,
, ".
(. ).
..

(. ad percepcio ) , .
,
. .
.
. .:
. . "
",
. . .
.
. ,
. ,
. .
. , ,
. .
. , .
, .
: , "
": . , "
", , , .
,
, ,

 .
. .
-
. (. , , ).
..

(. a priori, . ) ,
, , . . ,
, .
. ,
(, ) .
.
"", , ,
, " ",
. , ,
. , . .
, " ",
, : "... , ,
, ". , ,
,
" ,
, , (
) ...".
, .
. ,
, ,
. , , " " ,
; ,
.
,
, .. , , : "",
"" ..,
. , , ,
, -
. ,
.
, , ,
,
.

, 4 : , ,
. ,
, .

 , ,
.
..

(. argumentatio) , -
, ,
() . , ,
, , ,
. .
, -, ,
.
".", "", "",
. , .
. , () ,
, . . , ,
. .
. . ,
, ,
, -- ,
. .
. ,
, ,
, , , , , ,
.
,
, .
( ) .
, .
,
, ,
. . , ,
. , . ,
,
, .. . - ,
:
- ( ), ,
(), ( ).
,
. ,
- , ,

 . , "-"
, - "no-", .. " ",
, .
, . .
, -
, , .. -
"".
,
. ,
. , ,
.

. ,
, , "", " ",
,
, "",
,
.
. ""
, , .
.
, ,
,
(), -
, ,
, , .
- .
, ,
.
. -
.
.
..

(Arendt) (1906-1975) - ,
(1928), - (),
. "
" (1951), " " (1958), " .
" (1961) .
, , ,

20 . .

 (" ...")
- (" ").
.,
,
-, .

. , ,
, ,
. , .,
, ,
" "
" , ", ,
, , .
(
) .
( )
, ,
, ,
, , ,
"". , , .
., ( ) ,
. . :
, . . , .
, ""
, " " .
, "" ( ),
.
,
, .
, " ", .
"". "" (labour),
,
"" (work), , ""
(action) -, - .

" " (animal labourer) " " (homo faber)
( labour work), " ".
, , . ,
- (, ,
,
). "", ,
. , "" (
) ""
, , " , ".
, ., .
- , ., ,
"" ,

 , " ". ,
, ,
,
, " ".
, ., "-" "". ,
"-" "", .. , ""
, . ,
"" , ,
, , .., ,
, " ", ,
,

. "" ""
" " .
..

(384-322 ..) -.
, . 367 .. . 335 ..
, , . .
, , .
, -
, , .
. . : "", "
", " ", "", " ",
"". - : "", " ", "
", "". " ": "".
: " ", " ", " ", " ", "
". : "- ", " ", "
". - : "", " ".
: "". , . ,
.
, " ". ,
" ", , .
" ". " "
. , " " :
, , ( ) .
, ,
. ,
, ,
. " ", .
.
, . , ,
. , ,

 . , ,
, (
). , ,
, . , ,
, , ,
. ,
. , .
, . "
", , " ",
. . "", " ".
, " "
, , ,
. " " ,
. ""
, ,
, . " "
, . .
, : (
), ( ), ( ), ( ).
,
( ). ,
, . ,
, , ,
. , .
. ,
. ,
( , X X),
. ,
: , (
), ().
.
" ". , .
( , X -).
( ) ( )
,
.
, .
, ,
, , , .
, , .
() , .
( " ,
"). ,
. " ,
, () ".
. , "" , ,
. .

 . , "", ,
, . . .
()
() , (). " "
. . " ",
,
, , . .
. , ,
, .
. " ,
". , -, ,
, , , -,
. . ,
,
. ,
. . ,
.
. , ., . "
", (
), . ,
, . .
.

( ) ( ).
.
, " " ().
(""),
. .
(""). ,
. ,
. , , , , , , , ,
, . -,
, , . .
: , .
. - (" S")
(" S -S"). .
. .
.
..

(ron) (1905-1983) , ,
. (1924-1928). 1930
, .

 , , . 1955-1968
. , 1970 .
" ". 1962 - . 1963
. ,
, . , . , .
. 60 ,
,

. .: " "
(1935), " " (1961), " " (1963), "
" (1965), " . "
(1969), " " (1977) . . : , .
, .,
. , ,
, , .

. . , , ,
"" ,
", ". 1963 . ,
1955-1956 " ".
60-70-
. -
,
( ) . .
,
. " "
. , ,
, , .
, ., ,
" ". .,
,
. ,
, . :
1966 ( )
.
, , , ,
, ., -
. . , " , , ,
, .
, .
. ,
".
. ,
" ". - , ,

 -
.
: "-", , ,
, ,
. ,
., ,
:
. , .,

.
.. , ..

(. arche typos ; , ) ,
" ",
. " ",
, " ",
("") ,
, .
"" (, ,
),
"." ,
. . "
" , . .
( );
()
.
,
. ( )
" ", -
. .
.,


. .
.
..

 (. ) ,
: ,
, .. .
.
C.IO.

(. aske ) ,
: ,
.., . -
(, ) .
. . .
, ,
, .
. .
,
" .".
..

(1894-1975) ,
, , , .
- (1919).
(1940). ( 1927)
, .. ,
. ( 1939). "
" ( 1943).
( 1968). . (1918).
. ().
. . . :
" " (1924), " (
)" (1926), " " (1927), " "
(1928), " " (1928), " " (1929), "
" (1930), " " (1933), "..
" (1939), " " (1941), "" (1947), "
" (1954), "" (1956), "
" (1957), "" (1960), " 18 " (1963), "
" (1965), " " (1973), "" (1975), " "

(1976), "- " (1984), ". : "

(1988) . . . (1960),

(" , //
// , // " .
.).
..

(. astron logos )
, . .
, - ,
. , .,
,
.
, .
, , ,
. ,
.
. , ,
. ,
, , . .
, , , ,
(", , , ").


- . , .
. ,
, , .
, , :
", 20 . ,
. -,
".
- ,
" ".
, .,
, , , , , , , -, ,
, , , , , , , , ,
, . , . ,
, 2530 .
(19-16 . ..)
, . . .
, ,
, , . (

 ),
. . - . ( . ),
,
. ,
. . , 7-6 . ..
,
( 4 . ..).

. ,
.
, .,
; ( ) .,
; .
..

(. theos ; ) . ., ,
, ,
, , , ,
, , ,
,
,

,
. . , ,
. .
: ,
, ,
, ,
. (),
, ,
. .
( -
), (
- )
( ).
. . .
.
. .
..
" " (22-21 . ..)
. 3 . ..
, ,

 , .
(580-480 ..) , , , ,
. .
(341-270 ..),
. (99-55 ..), "
" ., , "...
", -
. ,
,
,
, , , . . ,
, ,
. .
(, . ), (.
, , . , ).
18 .,
. , ,
.
(, ) . .
.
.
- .
,
. (. : , , ).
. .

(. , , -)
,
, "", . . , .
,
, .. ( ) ()
, "" . .
: . ,
, . .
. .
, . , ,
. .
: (.)
(). . :
. ; .
, ""
(), . ,
( "", )

 ( ); , ,
, . , .
.

(. "" , "" , , ),
, .
. .
-
,
.
..

, .
() . ""
, , . . , ,
() , (), ,
. , .,
, ,
.
. . .,
,
, . , ,
(),
, .
(, , , ),
( ,
,
; ). ,
, ,
( ) ;
.
. () (, ),
, ,
(
) ; ,
.. ,
.

: , ,
, , , ,
, , ..

 - ()
(), (). ,
. .
,
.
..

(. attribuo , ) ,
, . . ,
, . .
. .
, . . 18 .
. . . - , , ,
. . (
, , .).
..

(Outhwaite) (. 1949) ,
. , , ().
: " " (1983), " "
(1986), " . .
" (1987). ( . ) "
" (1993). , .
, .
, ., ,
.
, ,
.
. ,
. ,
, ,
, .
,
, .
..

 (. autos ) 1)
. . , (
, )
-
. .
; 2) .
. ,
,
.
. .

(, -)
, -
. 19 20 . ,
,
. .III. ,
" " (.. ),

, ,
, , 20 .
, .III. ("")
,
. , ,
,
- .
.III.
. ..
.. " ", "" "",
(S) ().
", S ,
, ", .. .
,
, . "" ,
..
S. (
) S , -
. , ,
. , ,
, ,
. ,
, , S
, . ..
- , ,

 "",
, S.

"" .. ,
, , S
, .
, , ,
,
, ,
. .. ""
. ,
,
. "",
"", , , ,
, .
, ,
, "".
(
) ,
, , , .
"" ,
,
, . ,
, , ;
. , , ,
; , .

" ". ..
.
. ?
?
?
.. ,

, .
- .. ,
, .
, , "
" , ,
(.. ).
: 1) -
, "
" " , ".

, , , ,
( ); 2) ,
,

, , , .
, , , ,
, , .
, , , ,
; , ,
, , ,
, , ,
" ". ,
, ,
( ),
. ..
. " ",
, ,
, .
..
, , , " ".
,
,
,
. ,
( " " " "), ,
, "" ,
, ""
, ,
. ,
" " ,
, .
,
.
: 1)
,
("" ); 2) ,
, (""
). , ,
.. ,
,
, - .
, ,
.., - .
- ,
, ,
,
. .
" ". ,
, :
, ,
.

 , .
.
, , , ,
, , " " ; ..
" " .
.. .
,
" ", ,
,
.
..

(. basis )
, "- ".

,
, .
. . "
": "
, ,
,
.
, ,

". , ., , ,
.
. (),
(, , .).
, , , , , (
, " "). . ,
.
(.. .) . ,
, .,
. , . , ,
. . .
. . .
.
.
.,
., . , .
. . . ,
, ,
. .

" " .

.
..

(1898-1970) . 1918
, . 1922-1925 , , . , .
.
, . ( ,
, ): " " (1929);
" " (1936); "" (1946); "" (1951, );
" " (1960, );
"" (1962); "" (1965); " " (1969) .
. .
, .
,
. ,
, -
. , : 1)
, ; 2)
; 3) .
, . .
. - .
20 .,
. ,
. .
"" ( ),
( , " ").
- (- :

). , , ,
.
.
. .
(
). .
, " ",
, . .
,
, ""
, . .
, ,
, , . - .

 ,
.
..

(1814-1876) , ,
. 1828-1833
. 1836 . .
, ,
, , ,
. .
, .
, . , ""
. , , ., "
". "". 1840
. ., . , ,
. ,
. .
. 18481849 , ,
. 1849 . 1851 .
. , ( 1854)
. I .
1861 , ,
. 1860- . 1868 I
, 1872 . .
.
. : " .
" (1838), " " (1840), " " (1842), "-
" (1871), " " (1873), ",
" ( ), " " ( ), ""
( ) . .
, .
. " ",
. , .,
. ,
, .
. ,
. , .,
. . .
" " ( , ""),
, ,
,
. " , , ;
, , , ". ,

 . , .
" ", "
".
. .,
. ,
, .
, ., .
. , ., " ,
". , ,
. .
. . " "
-
. .
" " " ". ,
" " " ". , .,

.
.. , ..

(Barthes) (1915-1980) , -.
(1960),
(1962).
., ,
, .
,
, ,
.
, -
. , "", ""
. .
- .
"" , , ,
, , .
, ,
, ., . ,

, , ,
. , , , ,
,
, ,
, . , , .
.

" " . "", ,

, (
, , ""),
, "",
no-
. , , . ,
. ,
, , -
, , ,
(, , ..), , , no , , ,
,
. .
.
" " ,
.
, ,
,
, ,
, ,
; , .
,
.
, . 60- , - ,
, .
. - . ,
, ,
( - ), ..
, ,
"-", -
,
. "--", ,
,
,
,
. , -
. .
1958-1959.
" "
: , , ,
. . ,
.
.
, , " "
. ,
" " , "" , ,

 "" .
"" .
.
- ,
- . .
, , ,
"-" ,
- ,
. " ", .
, ,
,
. ,
"" ( ).
: " " (1953); "" (1957); " " (1963);
" " (1964); " " (1964); " " (1966); "
" (1967); "S/Z. " (1970); " " (1970); ", , "
(1972) .
..

(Bataille) (1897-1962) , , , ,
, , . ( 1924).
"" (1929-1930), "" ( 1946) . :
" " (1943), " " (1948), " " (1949), "" (1957),
" " (1961), " " (1972) .
. , ""
, , ,
: , , , , ,
, , , , , , . ,
"" .,
(, , , , , ,
"" , ),
. "" "
", (,
, ) .
. , ,
. .
"" , .
- "" () ""
(). " ",
, , , ,
. .
" " "" (Herrschaft) ""
(Aufhebung),

 . "" ( . souverainete)
, .. " "
. ,
, ,
. ""
"",
, . "" (transgression .)
, , ,
, . "" .
()
" " , ""
"",
. "
" (, , , ) .
, .. "" , ,
, .
,
"", "" .
, ., " "
, "" ,
"",
. " "
,

,
. . ""
""
.
. , .
" " ;
,
. .,
"", " "
, .
.
, , . , ,
, . . ""
,
" "
.
..

 . . 1844, .
. .
. 6 . (1994). .,
(, , -, , , , ).
100 ( "--"
" ", 1872). .
., . , .
., ,
. .
" " (
. " "). 500-1000
.
,
. .
.
. , .,
. .
, ,
.
- .
.
: " !"
. ;
; ;
; ;
; ;
, . .
. . .
,
. . 1863. .

, ,
.
. .

(1895-1975) : , ,
, .
. , , ,
. .
" " ( . 1920-), .
" " , "
" "

 ".
, " ".
, ,
" ", . .
" ".
.
" " " ".
" ",
" " .
, ., " -
". , ., " ",
"-",
. homo
sapiens ,
, . .
" "
"- " " "
" " .
, .
., "-",
. " ", " " ("
"), , ()
" ", .
, () .
" ". ,
, . " " "
" ,
" " , " ".
" " .
. . , ,
,
. " ",
., " ".

"", "" "", "--" "--", "-" . .,
-, " " :
, , .,
. ., , ,
, , ""
. , , ,
, .
,
" ", " ",
"" . .
, , " -
".

 "-" :
, . " ,
., ".
. " " , ,
"" . 19. 20 ., . ,
., , ,
, .
. ,
. "
", , ., ,
, .
" " - .
, .
, " . ",
. , .,

. , ,
, ,
, ,
.
. ,
.
. " "
(1940), . (
) , . ,
. . ,
,
., .
(- .).
,
:
, , .
.: " " (1965, 1990);
" " (1979, 1986); " 1920- " (1994); "
" (1994) .
..

(h1d) (1884-1962) , ,
. ( ,
, , ).
" ". " " (1927). 1919
1930 , .

1940 , ,
. 1961 .
: " " (1929); "
" (1932); " " (1934); " " (1936);
" " (1937); " . " (1940);
" " (1953), " " (1962) .
,
( ),
, ,
. ,
, , ,
. . ,
() . ,
, . ,
"" " "
.
. ,

, .

. , ,
, .
"" ,
"" , ,
. (
. "").
, . . " "
(, ). , .,
"" ,
.
. "
".
""
,
" " .
,
. ,
,
.
(
). -
( ).
" ",
. , ,

. , ,
, " " .

 , : ,
(""). ,
, -. ,
., ,
"" ( )
"".
.
, (
, ,
"").
, " ", " ".
, , , .

. , , ""
: "" ( ),
"" ( ) ""
, - . .
"" "", .
" ", .
.
. " ".
: ( " "),
(" ") (" "),
. ""
" , , . .
" " ",
" ". ""
" " ( ) "" (
"", ).
,
, ,
"" . "... , ".
, "
, ", .
" , , ,
", " ". ., ,

.
" ",
. , "
". , , .
,
, .
, .
" , "
. " ",
,

 "" , " .
(" ").
" ". ,
, . ,
" ", "
". . . " ". .
()
,
. ,
.
, : (
), (" "), , ,
.
..

,
(
),
.
. , . .
,
(), ,
. : 1. (
) 2. (
).
.
, , ,
.
". ."
, ,

. , ,
, -
.
..

 ,

, . ,
" " ". .",
,
-
, " ". . .
, .
..

(1) (1647-1706) ,
. . 16761681
.
. .
. 1693 .
" " (1697, 1702),
1697 1741
. . : " ,
, 1680 " (1682); "
" " (1686); "
" (1704); " " (1703-1706); "
" (1707) . .
. . .
. ,
- .
.: () ,
, (
). " ": ,
, ,
. "
",
. " " : , ,
. ,
.
(""). " " ,
, , " " (
) (, , ).
, "" (:
, , ).
. - ,
,
" " .

 , , .
, , .

, , ,
. ( )
( ). - .
, .
, ,
. . " " ()
().
.. , ..

() ( ) (2- .
17 . 18 .) - .
, , , , .
-, . - ,
1681 , . . . . :
" " (1685); "" (1690); "" (1690); "
" (1698); " " (1699) .
, , ,
. .
"". "" , ,
. "" , .
" " , .
,
. .
, ,
. -.
.. , ..

(1811-1848) ,
. 1829-1832
. 1830 " ". ( 1832
), . 1832 , .
, .
. 1834-1836 . .. ""
"". 18371839 ,
" ". .
" " (1839-1846) "" (

1846). .
( " "). .
, .
" . " (1834).
" " (1847),
. 13 .
, ., , .
, , ,
. ,
, . ,
,
, . . "
", , . .

, . " ", .
" ". ( "
") .
, ,
. -
, .
. ,
, , .
, .
( .): ;
" "; ,
; .
. ,
,
. , , ,
, ,
, .
. ,
" " (.. ).
, " " ( "
"), "" -
- .
. ,
, ., .
. : .
, .
19 .
..

 (Bell) (. 1919) ,
. : " " (1955), " .
50- " (1960), "
" ( , 1967), " - . "
" (1973), " " (1976), "
" (1982) . 30- 40-
, , 50-,
, , , 60- . 1955 . .
. "The Public Interest". .
-
. 1960 . ( )
, . .,
, ,
, ,
.
,
.
.
. , ,
.
,
- , ,
"" . . - .. "
". ,
, , ,
. , .,
, ,
.
"", "", "".
" ", " "
, :
. ,
.,
, ,
.
.
" ",
, : 1)
" "; 2)
; 3)
.

" " .
" "
, ,
" ". ,

 , .
.
.
, , , ,
. ,
. , " "

.
" ", , ,
" ".
, .,
, , , .
, ,
.
, .

,
.
..

(; ) (1880-1934)
, , , . ..
. 1903
. . , -
. . ( 1912 1916 .
) . , , , , .
( ): " .
" (1910); "
" (1982); " " (1966); ": 2-
" (1990); ". " (1911); " " (1927); "" (1932);
" " (1934); " " (1991); ": " (1922); "
" (1917); " " " (1929); "
: " "
(1917); " " (1988); " " (1982); "
" (1994); " " (1989); " " (1990) .
1901. . . ""
(. , . , . , -).
("", 1900,

. 1903 " "; "", 1902; "", 1905; "

", 1908), " " (1909), "" (1913-1914,
1922), " " (1922), "
" (1927) "" (. 1 " ", 1926; "",
1932) ,
, -, - ( ""). . .
: - - .
, " ".
. (, , )
.
" "
. , " ",
, ( "", 1908).
, , . "" ""
"" , "" "",
, - . - ego.
("") "" ,
" ".
"" "", .
.
.
. , ,
( -). , ,
. . (. "")
. , ...
"" : " ", -, ... -- ; : , , ;
: , , . , .
. "..." " , ,
""; ,
"" , ""
...". "" "" "" "".
"" (.. , "")
. . " ""
. ,
. ""
. , , , , ,
. " ". ,
. "": ,
, , , , .
. .
, .
( "", 1910; " ", 1910; " "
", 1929), " " (1922) ""
. ., . .
, , ", , , , ".
" " .

" " " "" "".

"dance macabre", .
. , --
, " , ".
, . -, . .
, . ,
,
. ,
. , ., , ,
. " ;
, . " -
.
, . "
; ". ,
( , ,
(), ). :
, , .
, .
, a priori. A priori .
, a priori . . a priori
.
. - . " "
. ,
" ". "
". , " ",
, . .
, . .,
, , ,
. :
, , . .
, .
. , .
, . ,
, , " ".
, , . "
" ,
, .
- . " -
", " ". "
". ,
, , .
.
. .
. ,
. . ,
. -,

 -, . . .
a priori. " ""
, ...". " ""
...". "" , . ,
. "" "" ; ,
". .
, .
. , "
". ( ) : ,
" , ".
, , "".
, .
. . , ., . . ,
" ". , .
" ".
.
. , ., -, -.
. ", ".
, . " ;
; ".
.
, . ,
, 1) , 2)
, 3)
: : 1) , 2)
, 3) ; " ": 1) , 2)
-, 3) ; : 1) , 2)
, 3) . " ", "
", , .. .
.
. .

(Bohme, Bohm) () (1575-1624) , , .

. 10 , .
. , , . , .
-,
. .
. "Aurora ". .
" " .
, .
, , . : "

 ", " ", " ", "

", "Mysterium magnum " . .
,
. . .
, , .
, . - .

. , ., , , ,
, . , ,
, ,
. ,
, , .
, , . .
. . , . . .
. .. , , , . . "
" (1833). . " ".
. 17 . . .. .
. , , , .
"-
, ,
...".
..

(Benedict) (1887-1948) , .
(1923), (1948). --
( -). 1909
" ". . 1919
-.
. "
" (1923)
. 1922 . . . 1926-1928
. 1928
-. ,
. . ,
, " "
, ,
, .
1934 " " , ""
"" .

 , ,
, .
"" ,
.
.
- .
,
. 1934 " ",
.

, .
.

" ".
. .
. .
-
" " (1935, ).
-
"" ( , ..). 1946
" ", .

, .
.
, , . 1947
.
- . ",
" (1940) .
..

(Bentham) (1748-1832) , , ,
. (1760-1763),
,
. .: " " (. 1-11, 1838-1843). 1785-1788
( ), .
, , ,
" ". 1789
" ". .
,
. ,
, , .
- ,
. "

 ".
. .
.
. .
. 1792 . ,
I. . , , .
..

(Benjamin) (1892-1940) .
60- 20 .,
. .
,
. . , . "-
" - . 19251926 . , , . 1933
.
. . " ",
19 ., ( 1955) .
19 .,
. , , .
,
.
.
. "
" (1935). .
. . , ,
, .
, , ,
. , , .
,
,
. ""
, .
, .
, , ,
, .
. , ., .

, ,
- .
.
, ,

 . , ., ,

.
, , ,

.
.
..

(Berger) (. 1929) ,
.
. : " " (1961),
" " (1961), " " (1963), "
" (1966, . -); " " (1967);
" " (1969); " " (1973), " " (1975); "
" (1977), " " (1986), " -
" (1988) . .
, , .
. , .
, . " " .

"
" , , . -
,
,
(" ").
, - "".
,
, . ", "
, , ,
, - ,
.
, "" - ,
,
,
.
, ,
; , ,
, .
, ..
-,
, ,

.
" ",
. " ".
, .,
. . .
,
.
..

(Bergson) (1859-1941) . ,
" ".
. ( "
", 1889), (1900-1914).
(1901), (1914),
(1927). 1911-1915 ,
. .
. : " " (1896), ".
" (1900), " " (1903), " " (1907),
"" (1914), " .
" (1922), " " (1932) .
, ,
, , .
.
. ,
, .
, . , -,
. ,
, . ., "...
, ,
, .
,
-". ., ,
, . ,
., .
, .
, ,
. ,
. , ., : "
, ...
, ...
, ".
( )
,

 , .
. , .,
. . , ,
.
, .
, , " " ( .
"").
. , , "" ,
"" , ,
. ,
. .
, "" , " ", , "",
, , , , , , ,
, .
. ("
.
..."). ., " ,
". , ,
, , . ,
, , , .
, ,
.
. .
. , .,
,
. " ".
.
,
, .
" " ("elan vital") " ". .,
, ,
.
, " "
, ,
. .
. " "
" ", . ,
, , ""
. "" , ., ,
,
. , . " ,
.
,
;
"",
;

 ". ,
, 20 .
.. , ..

(1874-1948) . 1898
-
. 1900 3 . .
" " (1902), "" (1909), " " (1918).
(1918-1922).
. , 1922 .
, , 1924
(, ), - .
- "" (, 1925-1940),
-. ,
.,
. "
" (1901), " " (1911), "
. " (1916), " .
" (1918), " . " (1923),
" . " (1923), "
. " (1931), " " (1931),
" " (1932), "
. " (1934), " .
" (1934), " . -
" (1937), " " (1937), "
" (1937), " .
" (1939), " . XIX-XX " (1946),
". " (1949), "
" (1952) . .
, ,
. . (..
) , ,
. . .
- .
(
. ). .
. - ,
: ,
, - ""
. , , , (),
, , . "
" ,

. . "", "" ,
-, .,
, . ,
., ,
.
,
"" . ( ""
, , ,
, , , ) ("" ,
"", , )
. , "",
, .
, , " ", ""
" ". ,
, -.
: " .
-". ,

, .
, .
, . , "
,
. , ,
, , , ,
, , ,
". . , ,
.
, , .
,
, , , . , ,
. " .
, , ,
". .,
" ",
, (" ") .
" "
: , ,
. . -

, ,
, " , ,
, ". ,
. " ".
, ,
. " , ", . "
, ". .
" ", , .,

 : ", ,
". , ., .
" ",
). ,
. " " " ",
" ". ., " ",
" ", .. , " ",
, . ., :
"", "" , "-",
" ". "", ,
"" . ,
., , "
". , ,
. , "" ,
, "" . ,
, , ,
, . "",
"". "" , ""
, . , ,
, . :
"", .
.
-
. " "
, .
. .,
,
. ,
., , .
, ,
. , , , .
, , . , .,
. .
,
.
, ,
. .
,
. .
- , -
,
, "", ,
. ,
. " ",
,
, . .
, , ,

, , . , .
,
, "" ,
. , .,
-
, ,
. .
,
, , . .

-
. " ",
, , ,
, , . . , ,
,
. , .

. .,

,
, . ,
, ., - , -
- .
--, ., ("", ""),
( ), (
), -
, " ". , .,
. , , ,
. 1907 . ,
,
,
" ",
. " ", .
" " ,
, ,
, .

, . , ,
. .,
, 20
.
, .
. ., "
,
...
, ,
- ".

 . - ,
,
" " " " . .
,
.
, . ,
- ,
, " ".
,
, , .,
. , .,
, .
, ;
. .
; . .

. .
, - " "
1960-1970-.
.. , ..

(Berkeley) (1685-1753) . ,
, , - ().
1709. (1727). () 1734.
"". " " (1709), "
,
, , " (1710), "
" (1713), " ,
" (1721, ), ",
" (1732), "..." (1735), ",
..." (1744) . ., . , ,
,
, . ( , .,
). . ,
, ",

". . ,
- ,
. ,
, .
: " , ..
, ... ... .
, ,

...". . ,
. , .
, ,
. , ., .
, (esse est percipi).
. .,
, . .,
, . (
) , , ,
..
.
. , .,
, , ,
. ., ,
-
"" ("", .,
). .,
("") ( )

. ., "
,
. , , ,
, ,
,
, ,
;
". "" ,
, ()
().
. : ""
; " " "" ()
; "" ;
, , ( "
" 19 .); .
"" , "" "". .
" " .
"" .
, . , ..
. , . ,
" ,
". , .
, .
.
,
. ,
. , ,
- ,

, -, . .
, .
..

(Bern) (1910-1970) .
. . . , . 15
,
( ) . 1947 (
. ) " " (
"
"). 1949 " ". 1949-1950
.
. .
( ,
). 1950-
, . 1957
. 1961 " ",

. 1962 , ,
(. ). 1966 .
--
.
" ". "
" (1963), ", .
" (1966), " " (1970), "
(, ). " (1972)
. . ,
, .
..

(Bernard de Clairvaux, 1091-1153) ,

. , . 1113
( ), 1115 24- ..
,
-.
, . .
, ..
: , ,
; .. ,
;

 , , , ..
, .., ,
: 1- 12 .
. , ,
, .. (
, ),
,
, ,
. , , ..
,
credo: ,
(,
II VII - ).
,
- (, " " .).
(1147),
( 1168).
(
, III
).
"
" ( , ,
"" ). ..
( -)
, ,
- .
,

,
(.. ,
,
, , , ),
.. ..
-
" " (1 , 4, 8 16).
.. (" ", " ", "
" .), ,
" " (86 " ").
: " ,
, .
, . ,
. , ,
. , ; , .
." ( "magna res est amor") no
credo ..,
( 4 ) :
, , , , .. ,

 ,
. , . ., : 1)
; 2) ; 3) ; 4)
. ",
, , ,
, ". ,
, , , "
". ..
( 3 12), : "
, - ".
, " , ", ..
, . "
... ... ,
, , , ,
". ,
, , ,
, , , : "
, , ;
, ,
". , . .,
, .
. ., " ; ,
, , ". ..
, ,
,
, ..
, .. .
,
,
(
),
. -
,
, ( -
, ). ..
(1174), 12 .
, ,
, : -.
; ..:
"-" , -
.
..

 (urnham) (1905-1987)
, " " ( "The
Managerial Revolution", 1941). : " ?" (1953),
" " (1964), ", " (1967), "
" (1968) . . , " " (
-),
,
, .
..

(Bernstein) (1850-1932) . 1872 -. 188190

- "". 1902 - . 1917
" - ".
II .
. : " " ( ,
18961898), " -" (1899), "
. " (1890-1899), " . "
(18981899), " ?" (1901), "" (1922) . 19 .
.
. . ,
, , ,
. ,
,
, ,
. ., ,
,
,
" ", ..
. . ,
,
,
. . ,
" "
, , .
" ", .
,
,
, ..
, " ,
...". .
,

 (
), ,
,
, ,
.. .
, , . , .,
-: ,
, ..
,
. - , .,


. , .,
, .
, ,
" , ", .
: " "
( ),
"". ,

, ,
- . .
" ?", ,

, .. ( , )
, ,
-,
. , ,
,
, : "... " "
, ,
,
, ,
". .
,
(, , . , .
.). .
,
, . .
, -,
, " " (), "" (. , .
). - .,
,
.

.

..

, ,
, . .
,
, , .
.
"" (). , " "
() . , " ".
. ,
,
, , ,
.
( )
(.. )
(.. ). .
( ), ,
.
"", (""), ,
, , ,
.
, ,
( ,
( ) , ).

, :
, . :
. ,
,
, .
. ,
. : ,
( ), ,
.
, .
,
. ""
- ,
" ". 17-18 .
. , . ,
,

 . , ,
. ., ,
, .
,
. "" , ,
, "" .,
, .
.
, .. . ( )
. .
". " (. ). .
,
.
..

,
.. (1907-1966). . ., , " ,
. : - ". , ,
, , .. . ..
. ,
,
.
,
( : ) : " ".
, , .
()
,
( ),
, , .
, ( ) (
). ( ,
) . , ,
, ,
. , , "
", " ". , (, ..)
- ( " "), (" "), ..
.
() (
), ,
: , .
, .. .
( )

 ()
. , ..
. ( )
, , .
, ,
, ,
, , , .
, , .
.
.
( ).
. "" () ,
, .. , , , , .
,
. "" ,
-
(" "),
. ,
: "
, .. ".
, ()
, . , : "
, ". , ..
(), , , ,
..,
.
..

,
. , ,
.
.: -
( .);
, ,
( .); ,
( .);
(.
); - ,
( .);
(, - .);
, - ,
( .);


( .). .
,
( .),
( .),
( .) ..
.
.
,
. . ,
. .
. ,
, ( ,
..). ,
,
. ,
- .
,
. .
,
. (, )
,
. .
.
,
, . ,
, ,
. ,
,
. , ,
, , ,
,
. , .
, .
. (), - (),
. .
, .
, . .
. ""
, .
. .
. 17-18 . .
, ,
. ,
, . , ,
, . . ,

 , ,
,
. , (),
, , .
. (
) , , ,
. .
:
. .
.
. .
.
.
. ,
.
. 19 20 . ,
" " , ,

. ,
. . ,
,
, (.. , ).
.
.
..

( ) :
1) , , , ,
, , 2)
(, , , ..)
, 3) , ,
, 4)
, .
. (
- .).
.
. . : (
", "), ( .
), . ( . ), ( .
), (
), . (" "), . (" ."), .
( "-"), (" ", "

 ", " "), . (

" "), . ("
"), (" "), ( "."), .
. - ( ), (
), ( ; .
,
" " ), (
) . 20 .
. .
, . .,
, , ., ,
" ." , " .".

.
, . , 1) .
, "
", 2) .
(. ),
, , ,
, , , , .,
, , .. , .
( , )
( , ),
(). , 6. : 1) ,
2) ,
, . (, ,
..). . ,
, .
. (). . " "
, " ", , ,
. ()
. .
, , .
,
. , . : 1)
" ." .,
, ; 2)
" ." ., ,
, ,
,
; "
." ,
; 3) " ."
.,
, , , ,
. ,
" .",


. ,
" .", " ,
" , "
".
, .

. .: 1)
( ); 2)
,
( ); 3)
() ( .); 4)
(, , ..).
. ( )
: , ,
, , , , ..
.
, .
.
..

(1857-1927) , ,
, . (1881), (1894).
(1873) - (1878) . 1878
- . 1884
( .), ( )
( . .). 1885
,
. 1885 .
1890 . 1892
,
. 1893 " "
. 1893-1913
- (-) .
1897 .

. " ,
", " ", " "
. 1908
,
,
. 1918

 ( .
). , ,
.. .
, ,
( 1904),
( 1910) ( 1917).
( ),
. " ".
,
. , .
. 20
. ,
,
, (..
, .. , .. , .. , .. .).
. : " "
(1898), " " (1902), " " (1904), "" (1910),
", " (1911), " " (. 12, 1911-1915), " " (1917), "" (1918),
" " (1921), " " (1923), "
" (1923), ", " (1925), "
" (1926), " " (1928), "" (1928) 600
.
..

(. biblia ) ,
( 13 . .. 11 . ..),
. .
, ,
, .
, .
( ) . 1. (""), "
", : , , , ; 2. ,
: , , 1-2 , 1-2 ,
, , "" . 3. ,
, , , , ,
, , , , , , 12 .
( ),
, , -, :
, -, " " , -,
(). .
,

 .
, " , , ", "
". -
: " , , ?
, , " ( 11, 24).
. ,
. , ,
. " ", "
". " , ;
" ( 2, 17.). ,
, . ,
, , "" .
"" .
. ,
(): , " ,
! . , ,
. , , " ( 10, 2425).
, .
, , .
, . "... .
, " ( 9, 2223).
. ,
"", , . "
, " ( 9, 13).
, ""
. ""
, : "... , ,
, , , , , , " ( 3,
11). (" ", ""
..) () ,
.
. ( ),
(), -- . (.
, ).
..

(Binswanger) (1881-1966) , .
. . , .
10 . .
, .
-. 1907

 . 1910 .
1911, , - ( 1956
). 1923 ,
.
. 1930-
, ,

.
.
. ,

. "--"

.
. ,
. 1936
80-
" ",
. 1942
" ",
. 1949 "
",
" " . 1956
. -.
. , .
, "--" "----".
" " (1922), "
" (1947), " 3. " (1956) .
..

(. bios genesis )
. ,
,
(),

, ,
(). 20 . ..
.
..

 (. bios , sphaira ) .

18 19 . (, ), . 1875
. , .
.: 1)
; 2) ; 3) ,
; 4)
. .
,
.
" ", . , , ..
, ;
, , ,
,
2 . . " ", ;
, , . ()

, , .
,
, , . ,
. .,
, .
.
, .
. .
()
., . . ,
"" (
). .
, ,
(, ). ,
. ,
.
. ,
. ,
.
..


;
,
. .

. .
, . , .
,
( )
, , , .
. , .
( ,
), , , , .
. - , ,
. , :
- . ,
, .
, ,
.
, ,
. : 1)
( ); 2)
(); 3)
(-) ; 4)
,
,
. , ,
.
, ,
,
, ( ,
" ", ).
.
, ,
? ., ,

-, . ,
-
: ,
;
.
, ,
.
..

 (. bi . sexus ; " ").

: 1)
,
,
,
.
( )
(, ).
(,
, ).
,
. 19 . "."
. .
. , . . , ,
, , , .
,
. .
.
.
, ,
. ,
. , ,
, ,
( )
.

; 2)
,
- (, .. ) ; 3)
(. androgynes )
(.
Hermaphrodites )
.
..

(, behaviour, )
19- 20 .
"" ( , .

 , - .), ..
. . . .
. . . (1913).
. .
. . . .
, ()
. .
,
. .: ( )
, ,
. . ,
"-". .
" ",
" " " ", , "". .
,
. .,
, ""
,
.
.
,
"" (" "). ""
("
"). . 20-
20 ., , ,
. , , ,
, - ,
"
" ().
, ,
. (
) , , ,
.., ,
. (, -, , ,
.). . ,
1930- ( . - . ). "-"
,
.
(,
)
.
" ".
, , . " ."
, .
..

 (1831-1891) , , ,
. ,
. 17 , , ,
, , , , . 1848 1875
.
, " ". 1875
. - ,
: 1)
, , "
"; 2) , ,
; 3)
, , . .
, , .
. ,
. . -
: , , , , ,
, , .
, ,
. ()
() , . ,
- , . .
, , , .
., .
" " ("
").
. , . , .. . .. . "
". 1991 . .:
" " (1876-77), " . , " (1884
1891), " ", " ", .
" ", " ", " ".
..

(Blanchot) (. 1907) , , .
: " " (1955), " " (1963), "
" (1969), "" (1971), " " (1981) .
" " , , -, . .
, - (. , ,

 .), "
" . ,
, ""
.
, ""

. "" ""
,
"".
" ", , , ,
. . , ,
" " ( ,
, , )
. , .
, ,
" ".
" "
"" "".
"", " " ,
..
(, , )
, , , . "" , "
", " "
" ".
..

(Blau) (. 1918) ,
, 1973-1974.
: " " (1955); " " (1964);
" " (1964); " " (1977) .
. ,

.
, -
, ,
.
60- .
,
. .
60- , ( .
). , , .

 . .
- (
-) - ().
, , . , ., ,
, " "
" ".

.
, , -
. "-" .
,
, -.
,
, .
, , , ,
, - ,
,
"" ("").
, , , ()
,
. ,
(). . ,
,
"" :
" ";
, ; -
().
. ,

, , . .
" ",
( , )
. 4- :
, ,
.
..

(Block) (1886 1944) -,

, 20 .
: "--: " (1913), " " (.
1-2, 1939-1940), " " (1931), " ,
" (1941-1942) . 1929 . "

 ", "" ",

. " ", .,
,
,
. ""
,
, .
( )
.
"" ,
, (" ").
" " (, , )
,
" ", , , ..

. , .,
, (, ,
.) , -
. ,
, . "
" 70-80- (. , . , .. ). "
", . ,
. .
.
..

(1884-1941) , .
(1935), . -
(1907). ,
, ..
. 19071914 . 1915-1916
,
.
. 1919 (. ) 1931
. 1921 -
. 1922
. 20-
. 1930-1940
.
() , (,
, , ) , ,

 . " " (1918), " "

(. 1-2, 1918-1922), " " (1919), "" (1924, 8- .), "" (1925),
" " (1921), " " (1935), " "
(1935) , .
..

(Bloch) (1885-1977) ,
. " " " --".
, ,
" ", . , .
. (1933). (- .
, -, "
" ., ,
).
() (1949-1956). (
1949). (1954, ).
2 (1954). (1955).
. 1957
. . 1961 .
(1964).
(1967, , , ,
, ). (1969).
- (1975). : " " (1917), "
" (1921), " " ( , 1924-1933), ""
(1930), " " (1935), "-. " (1940),
" . " (1946), " "
(1952), " , " (1953), " " (
, 1954, 1955, 1960), " --" (1961),
" " (1963), " " (1968), "Experimentum
Mundi" (1975) . .
. (" ", ""
"". "" "--"). .,
, " " , " "
,
. ( .,
,
, ). .
"". :
,
. ( ., "
" " ?" : " ? ? ?
? ?"). (
) "",

"", , ., , "--". .,
" , .
, .
, ,
...". "--" , ., ,
, " "

. (""), , .,
, ,
("", "", " ", , ),
. ,
. " ": " . . ".
"" . ,
, " ". "
" , . " " (, , )
" " ( "", ).
. " " ,
"--" ( ), "--",
-, . .,
,
. ., "",
( 1930- ,
..) ,
"" "" , " " ..
" ",
,
, " ", .
., " , ,

, , ".
, ,
.
"
, .. , " ". , .,
" ", "-" " " . , ., . .,
" " "" "" "
": "... , ,
". .
, " " " ".
"" , ., ,
"" , .
" " . ,
, ,
. " ." ("
") :

 . , . "
" (. "" ,
), 1918 " " "--". .,
" " . .

, ,
. (. ).
..

(Blumer) (1900-1987) . 1925-1952

, 1952 () . ,
. . . (
) . 1937
" ", ,
( ).
., ,
" . " (1969). .
, .
, .
, .
: 1) ( )
2) ( ).
, "" .
, , - .
, .. .
, .
, , ,
,

. -
.
"". "", .. ,
" () " ( ,
). "", " " ( ). ""
, "" ,
.
. (
) " ". (
,
"" "",
.)

" " (.. ). , "",

. .
("")
. ,
,
"", .. ,
().
.
, ,
.
..

(Boas) (1858-1942) .
. .
(1881).
(1883-1884) . 1886
. (18961936). :
" " (1896); " " (.
., 1926); " " (1929); ", " (1940); "
" (1944) . . ,
. . , . , .
, . . . ,

. ., ,
, .
, . ,
.
.
, . .
. ,
, ,
. , , , , .,
, ,
. , , .
,
.
,
. .

.
, . , ,
.
..

 : ,
, ,
. .
, ,
.
(, , , )
.
,
( ototem " "),

,
. -
, :
, ..; : , ,
.
(, fetico . fetiche )
-
( , , ..);

, (
)
, . (. anima animas
) ( ..
. 17 .) ( ) (
) ,
;
""
:
, , .
(. magia ) ,
,
, ,
, ,
..
- "".

(. : " , ").

(. ),
, .
.
(. pan theos , .
), .,

, ,
( ) (
) .
- .
( , ,
, ..) ( , ,
, , , ..). -,

.,
.
( , ..)
,
, .. . , ,
. ,
. .
- (28/21 .. 41/49),
,
" .",
- -
(. ) -.
.,
( ) (
;
); (. )
(" ").
,
, - . (
" " ),
. (
. transcendere ): . , .
, . , ,
(. )
(. ).
, , ,
(. ),
;
" " , ,
.
17 . ,
,

(. ). - (, )
" ." "
" (., ., VI, 4; , II 256, III 1).
,
,

 . ( , .
).
, .,
-
: , .,
, " " ,
. ( ""

.) ,
, ,

, ( , ) .,

.: - , , ,
- .
. .
:
" " (
, . 330-379), " " (
, 1296-1359). .
. ,
"-", .
(
);
( ), ( ,
-) ,
( ) (
, -) .
.
, , ,
, ,
.
:
(),
(.. ) . , .
, , ,
, .
. , , , " "
(. analogia entis) . ,
,
,
, , , " ". ,

, ( )
(. ). ,
. " ", ..

 - , .

- (. transcendentalia . transcendeus ).
,
18 ., , ens (), res
(), aliquid ( ), inum (), verum (), bonum ().
, .
" " , "
, , ", .
, " " (.
) . -,
- (
" "
), ,
-
.
,
., : "
". : ,
( . ,
, ),
( , , ,
- -, .. , , .
), ( ,
).
,
( . ).

,
-
( ),
causa sui ()
(). , ., ,
, ,
,
" ",
-, -
.
-
(. ), " .",
, " ",

, ". .., .
". (
) .,
: . ,
, , , .

 (): .-, .- .- . .,
, ,
( ,
), (. ).
. ,
( .

., , "---" ).
. ( )
-
: -
""
(. " " ""

" "
- " "
).

(
,
) "",
.
., : -, ,
., ,
, , : "!"
..

(), (1873-1928)
, -,
, -, -. 1893
. 1894
, . 1895 , 1899
. 1896 .
-, 1899 .
" ". 1899
1903 ,
. 1905-1907.
1909 , 1911
, 1- .
. .
(1917) , .
(1917)

(1918-1926), . 19181920
. 1921 .
, , . 1926
. , .

- . .
-,
, , ,
-, .
. , 1917 .
, - .
,
, . ,
" ". ("
" " "),
" ". .
, , ( ,
" - ") , .
. ". (1904-1906)",
"
, .. ,
". " " (1913) .
, " "
(1913) , . .,
, , .. " ,

. "",
, " ".
. " ",
" " "", - (" ()". . I-III; 19131922). . "
, ". ,
. ( ,
.), .
. , ,
., " ,
". .
,
, .. "
".

, " ": " ,
... ".

 .
- ,
. . (
)
-. .
,
. .
,
" ",
" " - ( ,
). .
1917, , ,
, ,
, . . ("") ,
" ", . . ,
" " (1908) " " (1912), :
" " (1899); " " (1905);
" " (1908); " . (
. " ") (1910); " "
(1914); " " (1918); " " ( ..
-, 1918-1920) .
..

1) - ; 2)
, - ,
, , ; 3)
, , ,
; 4) -
, , , ; 5)
. . , . . .
() ( ),
.
, , ,
, ;
, ,
1 . ,
, .
. ,
: " , , . ,
. . ,
" ( ).
,

 ,
: " ... ...
, ...
,
" (. ).
. 325 381 --
, .
7 . 8 .:
" " . .
, : " " II
(1455-1456); "" II
(1576, 1579 1581); " "
(1625); " " ,
(1640); " " (1672); " "
(1848), "- " (1839),
. . . .
, ,
, . . . .
: ) ,
,
, ,
,
.
() -
(); ) :
(.. ) , ().
(,
.), : -
, - , - -
(. ); ) ,
( ).
, ,
,
, , ( ,
). . .
, : (
). ( ),
, .. (, , ,
).
( ,
, ,
. . ,
,

, )
, . "" (.
, ). ,

, .
, ( ,
, . .,
). . . . )
, . .,
.
.
( ). , -
. . ,
.. , :
,
, . ;
. .
, . ,
, .
. , , ,
- . " ,
, " ( ).
.
. , ,
, . ., , " "
, , : --
. ,
,
. :
. , .
. ()
. , , ,
. ,
( ), ,
. , . ., , (
) , , ,
, ) . . ,
, " " (1 . 3, 16); " ()
" ( 1, 14). . . .
.
. . ( )
, : , "
, "; ) . .,
, ,
, : ,
.
, . . .,
, , ,
, , . . .
.
, .

 , .
,
" " . ) . .,
,
: , , . ,
, ( ,
). , . ., ,
:
,
..,
, . , )
. . : ,
, .
,
, , , (.
" " -
). .. , ,
, , , ,
(4 .), (7 .), (14 .). .
.
..

(1746-1820) , , ,
. .
(1773) . ,
, , .
. . . ,
1804 , . : " " (1785);
" " (1808); " . ", "
", " " . .
.
.. , ..

(Baudrillard) (. 1929) , , .
: " " (1968), " " (1973), "
" (1976), " " (1981), " " (1983),
" " (1990) .
-
.
. ,

 ,
. " ", ,
, ,
, ,
( ),
( ) (
). , .
,
" " .
,
, ,
. , ., ,
:
, ,
" ".
,
,
.
,
""
, ,
. ,
, ,
""
"" .
,
, ,
, ,
. ,
"" (
),
, , ,
,
.
, , ,
" " ,
, ,
" " ( ),
" " ( ) " " (
).
, ""
"" "" "
" " ";
, " " .
20
.
"", ,

 , . ,
., "", ,

. , ,
,
, . ""
"", "" ,
"" "" ,
- ,
: " " . "
", " " " "
. .
.
" ", 2000 , "
",
, .
..

(Buckle) (1821-1862) .
. "
" (1857-1861).
, ,
"
".
. , "
:
". ,
, , , " ".
, (),
, ,
( ),
. . ,
, " ,
, ".
.
" " " " , "
: -, ,
, ; , -,
, ,
,
". . " "
. .
( 19 .).

..

POK (Bolingbroke) - (1678-1751), (1712)

, , . .
(1702). (1701),
(1704-1708), (1710-1714). (1714).
. . : "
" (1735-1736), " -" (1749) . (
. , 1754).
.
. .
,
. .
,
. .
. .
,
. .
, . .,

,
, , ,
. .
, .
, .
,
.
..

,
20 . .
- 2 1903.
(1917-1920) .
- 20 . , (, ,
, )
.,
. .
: 1)

 , , ; 2)

; 3)
; 4) ,
; 5) ,
, ; 6)

; 7) , ""
; 8)

; 9) -
; 10) , ,
.
( ) ,
, . 20 .

, .
..

(Bonaventura), - (1217-1274)
. (1253), ,
" ". ,
(1185-1245),
. .
, . 1243 .
,

, .
. " ",
. ("")
.
. .
, , .. ,
.
, . ,
. ,
, .
, . 1267-1268 .,
( 1257),
"". "",
" . ", "". . .

 , .
. , ,
, . . ,
. , .
,
. ,
, . . ,
" ",
. . . ,
, . .
65 , . ( 11 )
1882-1902 Bonaventura-Collegium .
..

(Bonaparte) (1882-1962) . .
. 1907 .
1925 , , .
.
. 1926 -
. 1927
" ". 1928
" ",
( . ). 1930 ",
" . . . 1934

. .
- ,
. 200 .
(1938).
. , (1950,
1985) . 1887 1904,
. 1953 "
",
. , . , .
, , .
-.
.
, .
" . " (1933, )
.
..

 (Borges) (1899-1986) .
-. (1950).
(1955). (1961).
: " -" (, 1923); " " (, 1925);
"" (, 1925); " " (, 1926); " "
(, 1928); "" (, 1932); " " (, 1935);
" " (, 1936); " " (, 1936-1940); "
" (, 1942); " " ( .
. , 1943); " " (, 1944); "" (,
1949); " " ( . , 1951); "
" (, 1952); "" (, 1960); " " (, 1964);
" " ( .. , 1965); "
" ( . , 1967); " " (
. , 1967); " " ( . , 1967);
" " (, 1969); " " (, 1970); " " (,
1972); "" (, 1975); " " (, 1975); " "
(, 1975); " " (, 1976); " " (1977); " "
( . , 1977); " " ( .
, 1978); " " (, 1979); "" (, 1981); "
" (, 1982); " " (, 1982); "25 1983 " (, 1983);
"" (, 1985) . .,
- " " "
", : , ,
; ,
; -
; -
; ,
, . ,
(" "),
, ,
- , ., ,
, , . ( ) . ( ). ., , , . ,
, ., ,
, ,
. "... , - ., -
. ,
".
: ( " "
, )
. , " ",
. . , -

", , ...
... ". . , " ,
, ,
, , .
- , - -". , .,
- ,

- " "
, ,
. , . "
", , ,
. "" , ., , , ,
- ,
,
, . ( ., " - , "). , , ., ""
: ,
, . . -
" " - ,
20 .,
. -,
, ""
. .
, , - ,
, -
. ,
,
- .
, , ,
, , , . .,
. , " ,
- ", "
" , "
". ., " ,
, , ,
". " ", .,
. . 20 .:
""
, ,
. (,
. -)
" " - . - " ,
".
, . -,
.

, . (

 - " "
.).
..

-
. . ,
" , ". .
, , ,
. (-, :
" "). .
: .
. .
. ". ".
.
: .
, -
.
..

(Boss) (. 1903) - ,
.
, . . 1938 .
, .
. 1950-
. ,

. ( ,
.)

. 1970-
, .
.
.
" "
,
. : " " (1957); "
" (1975) .
..

 (1799-1856) - , , . .
, , ,
-. , .
1838 " ", , 1838-1841 " ..." (. 1 2), 1842 - " ", 1847 " ". . - .
,
.
, ,
.
.. , ..

(Bochenski) (1902-1995) - - -,
( 1927). (), (),
(, ), (). 1931 - , 1935 - ,
1966 - - (). ,
, : (19571972), , .
. 81 .
"Studies in Soviet Thought" (1961) "Sovietica" (1959). : "
" (1939), "" (1950), " " (1956), "
" (1957), " " (1965), "-" (1976) .
. , , .
,
. ", ,
", . - .
.
. . ,
( , , ,
). , ( )
. ,
. .
: "-" (
, ) ""
( ). -
. ,
,
. .
: , ., - , ,

 . .,
, , .,
. . -
" " ( ).

: "", "", " " .. ,
., .
.
,
.
..

(Boethius) (480-524, ) - ,
-, .
. ,
- " ". .
, , , ""
"" . .
, "" "",

,
. , .
. (. ).
. : " ", "
", " ", " ", "
", " ", " ,
", " "", "" " " ",
" , , ,
", " - ". .
, , ,
. . :
, . .
, - ,
" ". " - " .
.
, .
., , ,
, . , "" -
, , . .
. , ,
"". "", "" " "

 , , ,
.
..

- ,
,
. . .
() -
., ,
(). ,
, , .
,
( .), - ( .).
, . .
: .
.
- . ,
, .
; - .
- ,
,
.
- , . . -
, ,
, . ,
-
, .
, - ., . . - ,
, ;
. .,
. . - ,
, , ,
. . ,
. - .
. -, ,
, , .
. . -
, , ,
.
, ,
. ,

 , .
,
,
,
(, ..). .
.
..

(. - ) -
,
( ); - ,
; - ,
,
. (
). . -
, ,
, , . .,
,
, , (,
, , , , " , " ..).
. .
, . (
- ). - "" . - .
.
..

(Brentano) (1838-1917) - .
(1866-1873) (1874-1894) . 1873
, ; 1880 .
, . , .
. .
.
.
. , ()
( ) ,
-. , .,
: ) (
), ) ( ), ) (
). (

 , )
( ). ,
. .
, ..
. : " " (1867), "
" (1874), " " (1882), " "
(1889), " " (1895), "
" (1911), " " (1911) .
..

(Brill) (1874-1948) - .
(1903), - .
(1889). - (1898)
(1903). . 1903
, - . . .
. .
, . .
. ,
. 1908 .
. 1908
-. . 1908-1910
- , . , .
. 1910 .
(1920, 1929-1935).
.
, , - , , .
,
.
,
. 1912 ":
" - . 1927
-
. 1933
. 1947 -
. : " " (1921),
" " (1944), " " (1946) .
..

 (Bruno) (1548-1600) - ,
, , (1576). : " ,
" (1584), " , " (1584), "
" (1584), " " (1585), " " (1587), "
" (1588), "
" (1591), " " (1591), " ,
" (1591), " " (1591) .
, , , . .
. . - ,
(
) , ,
- - , "" "",
"". ,
, .
. .
, , ( ., "
"). , ., ,
( , , ., "
")
"", . .,
, "minima" () ;
( , ) .
. . .
" ", "
, , ". . " ", .
. " ". .,
, ,
. ( ., "
, ") . "
. ". ( , .
, "" ,
). .,
, , ,
. . ,
,
"" "" -
, .
(" ") - ,
( . - , " "). , ., "
, ",
" " ,
" ". ,
., - . , .,
" , , ,
, , -,

, ,
, , , ...".
- .
,
- - :
" "
. , "
... ". - - .
, " " (.. ,
" ") " " (.. ,
), -
, , , , .
: ", ", , ,
" " , "...
, // //... // ".
. ,
. " " . (
)
. 9
1889 - . - 6000
.
.. , ..

(Bradly) (1846-1924) - ,
, . : " " (1883);
" " (1893); " " (1914) .
,
, , . ""
(, , .), ,
, ( .)
-
. ,
. ( )
, .
. " " (.. ),
, .. .
- , ,
, - .
( )
"" ,
, , . , .
() . ,

 ,
, , .
()
.
,
. -
, -
. ,
. . ,
,
.
. ,
"" . ,
,
, .. .
. : ()
, "" ,
"" "". -

.
( , ) ,
. - "" ()
. - "", "" . -
"". .
"" ,
. , "
", ( )
( ).
" " , ,
. ,
- , ,
. , , ,
( ).
. , , .
. -
, , ..
, " ", "
", . ,
.,
.
..

 (Buber) ( ) (1878-1965) - -.
. 1896-1904 , , .
, ,
. 1923-1933 - . 1933
. 1938 . 1938-1951 -
. : " " (1922), " "
(1928), " " (1931), " " (1933), " " (1936),
" " (1948), " " (1950), " " (1952), ""
(1952), " " (1952), " " (1954),
", " (1955), " " (1956), " " (1962) .
" " - " "
, , .,
, ,
. "
", "ego cogito". .
, , -
, "" .
: - , , , , - ,
.
. , , , ,
.
, ( ) , .
. "" ,
, ,
, ,
, . ""
"" , , ,
( ), - "",
" ", ( ). .
, ,
.
. ,
,
-.
, ,
, , .
.
( , , ),
. ,
.
..

 (. ) (. 567-488 ..) -
. , - ,
( - )
29 , (, , )
, .
, ; , 40 ,
(), ,
.
" ": 1) , 2)
, 3) , 4) ,
(" ", "" -
,
). .
- . -
, ;
.
- .
. " " - "
" " ". " " -
" ":
; -
, .
-,
:
"". ,
, - ,
. " "
:
( ) ,
. " "
, ;

(, ""). (
, - )
,
.
..

- - ,
( ). . - -
- . . - ,
, .
18 .

 (. 477 ..) (253 ..) .

1 . .: (" ") ("
"). - , . , ,
, - , , . 3-1 . ..,
1-4, 8-9 . . () 12
. . 400 . 1 . . . .
,
, ,
().
.
(" "). .
.
, - ,
- ( - , ; "" - )
( ). - (2 .),
- - (), , , (80-150).. 1-5 .
: (, (3 .), - (5 .);
( (4 .), (3-4 .),
- (5-6 .) (6-7 .). 5 .
(" "), .
. ,
- ( ).
, , ,
(. .. .. ).
(. . ).
: () (-).
- ( (1357-1419),
"-" (" ").
- (755-791). .
. - , ,
. " " ( "
"). ,
. . . (-.), - (-).
. .
. 19 .
. .. , .. , .. -, ..
, .. . . :
"" ( ), "" (-) (. ) -
, , , ,
(""), .; "-"
(" ."), , ""; (108 ) (225
) - . . - .
" ",
: 1) ,

 ; 2) -,
, , ; 3)
,
; 4)
,
, . " " :
1) , 2) , 3) , 4) , 5) , 6) , 7)
, 8) . .
: (, ), (), ( ),
(, - ), ( -
), (). . , ():
(, ); ( , ); ( ,
). . ("
"). .
( 12-, - 60-, ).
- " ".
.
. , , ,
. - "" .
. , ,
. ,
(). , ,
(). .
10 : , , ,
, , , , ,
, . " ,
, " ( . ).
, - .
"" , .. ,
, , . -
, ,
. - ,
. " , -".
.
. , ,
, ,
(). ,
, , ,
. (, ),
. ,
, (). ,
- . , .
. ,
. - - -
. , , ,
, . . - ,
, , .

 - .

. . ,
. . . -
, , , . 1950
.
..

(. 16 - . 17 .) - , ,
. .
(. , . ), .
. .

, . . ,
, .. .
- - , .
- ,
, . .
,
. " ,
- " (1599), -
, .
( -
I) 18 .
.. , ..

(. 1530-1593) - ,
, , , . .
( ), , ,
, , ,
"" "". ,
, . 1558 () - . 1560 . , .
1562 "" , "
". .
- ,
.
(" ", " " (-

 , . ,
), " ", 1573 ),
. . .
( ""
) (1572, ,
). 1574 " "
. - .
. , ,
, ,
. - , ,
- , . .,
, , - , .
,
, ( 1582
, 1584 ). .
, , ,
. . , . -
, ,
, . . ,
.

. ,
. , ,
, ( )
. - ,
.
, . -
. .
"". - ,
. .

-
( ,
). . (
). .
- " " (1580) "
" (1583). , .
" -" (1577). .
, .,
.
.. , ..

 (1871-1944) - , ,
. (1896).
(1901-1906) (1906-1918). .
1918 . 1919 ,
. 1923 - ,
(1925-1944). : "
" (1897), " . . 1-2" (1900), "
" (1903), " " (1903), " " (1904), " (
)" (1906), " " (1909), " .
. . 1-2" (1911), " " (1912),
" " (1917), " " (1918), " " (1927), " "
(1927), " " (1929), " . (" ", 1933;
"", 1936; " ", 1945), " " (1948), " "
(1953) . ,
. ,
., ,
" ".
. B.C. , , . ,
., ,
, ,
, ,
- .
: ,
. ,
. ,
. . - ,
. ,
"... - ", . ,
. ,
- , .. , ,
.
" " . , .
. ( ). , , ,
, . , ,
, ,
. . ,
, ,
.
. , ().
, ,
. ( )
, (),
, , , .. .
, , .
,
(" "),
. -

 ( -).
, , - ,
, .
, . :
, , , . , . ,
, ,
, ,
. : ,
"", "" .
(
) . , .,
. -
, .
, ,
,
, - , .
, .
.: , ,
, .
. . (
), . (
) . .
,
. ,
, . ,
, . -
, .
. - ,
; , .. , ,
.
.,
" ".
, ., , , ,
. .
,
,
. -
, .
..

 (Bourdicu) (. 1930) - , ,
, . 1955
, .
. . 1958 . :
" " (1961), " " (1964) . 1964 - ,
- . 1975 .
, " ". 1981 . .
: "" (1970), " " (1970),
" " (1976), "" (1979), "
" (1980), " " (1980), " " (1982), "Homo acade-micus"
(1984), "" (1987), "" (1992), " " (1993) .
. ,
,
,
. . - () :
, ,
. ,
(,
, ),
. ,
, ,
.
"" - ,
. , ,
, ,
,
, ,
. ,
. (, ,
..) - ,
. ,
"" ,
, , ,
.
, ,
, .
, ,
.
. , ..
, .
, , ,
,
- , .
, ., .
-.

 - .

(1888-1938) - ,
.
(1911). (1917)
-
"" (1917-1929); () (1924-1929), (1929),
"" (1935-1937). 1937. 1938. ,
(1988). :
" " ( 1914, 1919); "
" (1917); " " ( .. ) (1919);
" " (1920); " " (1921); "
" (1923); " ,
, ( . )" (1924); ".
" (1924); " " (1924); " " (1925); "
" (1928); " " (1929); "
" (1932); " " (1933);
" " (1937) . . "
" - (, , ) . .,
, ,
, - .
. " "
, . "
", " ", "
". ., - " ,
...". ,
.,
. 1920- .
" " ;
, ., .
" " , . , ,
" ",
" ".
, " ".
., " ,
,...
...". , ,
. , - " .
, ". "

", (-, 1925)

" ", ., , , "
, .
, .. ". ( 1962 . ,
1920- , ,
"

".) , .
,
, , ,
. ., :
,
. (
) . .
"", . " - - " .
" - -
". , .,
, .
, . : "
, ...
, , ,
". , ,
, "
; ,
, ", . ,
. 1915

. - " ,
; , ( )
.
". (, 1930- .
" " .
" , ,
", "
".
" , , ,
". ., " " ",
, " ".
""...
,
... : ""
"", " " " "). ,
. .
. ( )
,
, (
) " ",

 .
30- - . -
,
" " " ".
.
"" . .
( ,
, - - ,
, ) , , , (
)
.
..

"-" () - (. . - , , .. ) - - .
, 8-7 . .., 3-2 . ..
"" (. 6, . 23-40). 18 . .
- . ,
, ,
, .
, .
. , , ,
, . .
- , - , ,
. - (-),
(), (), (),
.
(, ) - (, ), () (,
) - . - ().
-, (, ,
, ) . ,
. . :
"" ,
- ,
. ., ,
, . 9 . 50
. , -, , , . .
19-20 . (. , -,
, ). . 1785
. .

 .. (1788). . , .
, . .
..

(Bhaskar) (. 1930) - ,
. : " " (1975), " "
(1979), " " (1989) . . -
, .. , ,
.
, ,
, "
" . ,
: ,
. ,
, .
,
( ) ,
. ; ,
, .
,
( ), ,
.. . ,
.
..

- , (
);
(. );
.
, - , ,
. (
) . ( - ).
. , .
.
. . . - , ,
- . ( - - ).
( - ) ( ) (
)
() ( ) .
. ( , - .)

 . .
: . - , ,
. . ,
- ( - ), -
. .
, ( ,
). "" . -
, ,
.
. : , , ,
, . .
. . ( ) -
. . - (
). .
" " , , .
..

(1901-1980) - .
(1941), (1929). " " (.
1-3, 1940-1943).
(1923).
, ( 1953-1973
. ).
.
. 20-
. 1923 "
3. "
. ,
. 1926 " "
. 1926 "
", .
. 1930 "
",
. " " (1933), " " (1940),
" " (1941), " " (1947),
" " (1957), "
" (1959), "" (1967), ". " (1970), "" (1972), "
"" " (1973), "" (1974), "" (1975), " -"
(1979) .
..

 - .

(Bacon) (1561-1626) - ,
, .
. :
- , - .. .
, ,
" ". .
, .
, . ,
, , , ,
. .
, . - "
" (1620) -
. . ,
, , .
(""
""), - . , ""
, .. .
. "": 1) " " -
; 2) " ",
; 3) " ", ,
()
, .. ; 4) " ",
.
, .,
. .
, ,
,
. .
, , ,
.
,
. - .
. 1627 . " ",
,
. -
.. " ",
( ),

 . .
.
. . , .
..

(. bureaucratie, - , . bureau - ,
.: kratos - , , ) -
, ,

,
. . - ,

, ()
. - 20 .
, ,
, ,
, .
. ,
: ,
;
" "; ,
( )
;
, -
.
.. -

. .
(" ") " ",
.
-

, ,
.
- .
,
, ,
,
. ., , . .,
, "" , ,
.

 , .
(.. ),
. .
"- ". .
,
, .
"" "",
"".
"" , .
.

., ( ) . . ( -
)
" " -
. ( )
, .
.. , ..

() (1879-1964) - ,
. - ( 1917 ).
(1897-1898)
(1900-1901).
. 1897 . , ,
, ()
. 1899 . 1905 "
" - - . 1905
. ( . , . - .).
. 1908 "
" ". ".
,
. 1911-1928 ( 1917-1918 "
", 1922-1928 "- "). 1928-1930
" " - . 1930
.
. "
-" (1906), " . "
(1908), " " (1953) .
..

 (. 1520-1587) -
(), "" - ,
. (,
). ,
. "" . ..
. , , . - " ".
.. , ..

(Waldenfels) (. 1934) - -. 1976 . . 1975 .

" " ("Philosophische Rundschau") ":
, " ( . ).
. " "; -
, " ". . " ",
" , , -,
...". , ., ,
.
" " ,
.
, : ,
(" ", 1980) , ,
, , , , ,
; " " (" ", 1985),
" ", , ,
; (" ", 1987),
, (,
, ). . ,
(das Fremde). . ,
,
. - , ,
, .
, ? . ,
- " " .
" , ,
" (" ", 1990).
. " " (responsive
Rationalitaet). , , .
(" ", 1994).
. -

, , ,
. - , ( response
).
,
.
. " , ".
,
.
,
- .
,
, .
,
, - , ,
. - . . 4- . ,
" ". " "
1997 . .
. ,
" " (1983), " " (1992), " " (1995).
..

(27- 98) - , .
" " (""),
1907-1911. .. .
, .. ,
. - "", , ,
, ("", " "). , ,
. .
"". "" -
. , .., "".
. .. ,
, ,
- . ,
. .. .
, , .
, .. . ..
, . -
, .
.. 20 .
..

 (Wartofski) (. 1928) - .
- (1945), (1952).
- . . - ( . ) Boston Studies *in
the Philosophy of Science+ (1963). : " "
(1968), "" (1977), ". " (1979) .,
,
. - . -
, . , , .,
,
. .
- , -
, .. .
(60- 20 .)
" ", .. ,
. . .
, ., - . . ,
(
, , , , ).
, ., . . , -
, , "
". - .
.
,
.
..

( ) (1885-1939) - - .
. 1905 .
. 1917
- . 1918
. 12 .
1922 . ,
( 1932 - ). 20- ""
. "" .

,
. "
" (1925) . . 20- I
, - . ..

- . " " (1924), "

" (. 1, . 1-2, 1925-1926), " .
" (1928), " "
(1928) , , .
..

(1856-1925) - , , .
- ,
. 1884-1886 - , .
. 1887 - -, 1890 - .
. -
. . : , .. -, .. .
- (1898).
, . -
. : "
" (1888); " " (1890); "
" (1894); " " (1896); "
" (1898); " " (1909); "
" (1909); " " (1914) . .
(
). ,
-
. , .,
, . ,
, , ,
(
). ,
( )
, . ""
-, "" . ,
"-", ( " ").
, , .
() ( )
( ). , "
", ,
. ,
, .
, ,
. . , ,
.
, -
. . ,
(

 , ).
- ( ) . (
) - .
(- ),
- . "
", - . ,
(, ..)
, , , . (
) (.. )
.
() .
, ,
( )
.
, -,
. .
,
( . , ).
, .
. (
) ,
( " ") . 1922
. , . ,
,
. .
( ,
) .
,
. , ., ,
" ".
..

(Weber) (1868-1958) - , , .
. (1899-1907); 1907 .
: " " (1924), "
" (1927), " " (1935), "
" (1951), " " (1953) .
. -
, ,
, ,
,

 , ,
. , ., " ",
, , .
., ( , )
, .
, .,
: , , ,
.
, -
, , , . - , ,
, , ., ,
, .
,
,
. ,
; "" ,
"", . ,
,
" ", , . .
., ,
- , ,
, ,
.
,
. ,
,
. ,
,
. ,
- - " "
, .
.

" ",
, .
. , ,
.
..

(Weber) ( ) (1864-1920) - ,
19 - 20 . -, ( 1892),
( 1894) ( 1896).

 (1903). ( . . )
" " ( 1904). (1909)
. ( 1918) (
1919). : " " (1889), "
" (1891), "
- " (1895), " -
- " (1904), "
. " (1903-1905), " " (1904-1905),
" " (1906), "
" (1906), " " (1913), "
" (1916-1919), " " (1919), " "
(1920), " " (1921) . .
,
, - .
. . .

,
.
" ", . ,
, , ,
, .
" ".
. , ) ,
) " ",
. ,
. ,
. : 1) (
, ), 2) ( ,
), 3) (
) 4) (
).
(, ).
( )
;
- .
( - , , ..)
. ,
,
. - ,
., ,
, - .

( . "").
. - " " -
. " " .

 ,
. ,
,
, .
( -
) . .
(. : ).
..

(Veblen) (1857-1929) - , , .
.
(1884). (1890-1892), (1892-1906), (1906-1909)
, (1910-1917). : "
" (1899), " " (1914), "
" (1921) . .
. . ,

: , , - . .,
- -
. ,
,
, . . , .,

.
, , . :
,
; , ,
, , ; ,

. , .
, ,
. , .
, . , .,
, ,
.
,
, .
.
.
, .
, . ,
(

) , . ,
,
. .
" " ( ) "
" ( ,
- ).
. "" "", ,
, ., -
. , , " "
. "" "" .
. .
, -
,
.
..

( ) - (. veda - , . veid - , ) , , , .
.
2- .
. 1- . . . : "-." (". "),
"-." (". "), "-." (". "), "-." (". ").
"-.", . "-." 1028
, 10 ()
. "-.": 1)
, , ,
; 2) - ,
, , (
, .. ). "-." . .. " " ,
. "-."
- , , , ,
, ., . ".-."
, , ,
- , . , ,
. : - ; - ,
.
- , (.
). . "-.".
- :
, , . . -
. .
. ,

 . , ,
. . (. -
) - ; (. - , ) -
; (. -
, - , ,
. - . - " .".
- "" (.. ). ,
, (" "), , , , (),
(), () . (
), , - , , "". .
. . . 25-
, (, . 4 . ..), -
(- 8-9 . ..), ( "-."), ( 20
.). . 19 . (. , ), - .
(), . ().
.
..

(. - omnipraesentia) - ,
, ,
. .
, - ,
.
..

" " -
, : 1) (
); 2) ( , ); 3)
( ); 4) ( ).
- . ,
. ....
"
" (1937), " " (1945), " " (1950)
. .
..

 - , 1920-
. .. 1922
. ..
"-
" . .. : , , , . , . , . , .
. , .. ,
. (), () .
, ,
, ,
, , ..
.
,
, ,
"- ".

.
.. " . "
(1929), , . 30- ..
, "Erkenntnis", ,
. 30- ..
. ..
.
..

- ,
, ,
( ,
), (
,
,
- : "" "") (
).
., ,
, .
". - - ".
.
, - ,
, . ,
.,
. .
,
- "
". .

 , .. (. dogma - , ,
),

( "") ,
.
( )
(. confcssio - ).
.
. (,
,
, .).
.
. , , .
, ,
( religious ) ("
"), ". "
( sola fide). .
(. faith - faith - faithfulness ., - . ..). .
" " , .

( ):
( ,
), , (.
--
- "").
- .
(" "), ". "
: "
" " , ".
, ,
:
" " (),
. " ,
" () - - , ,
" " ( ): .
, " ".
.
. , : "
, , " (1 , 1: 22, 27).
. ,
, : 1)
(", ") - ,
( ); 2)
(", ") - ,
( ); 3) (", ") -

 credidile est quia ineptum) - ,

. ,
,
(, ,
- . ..). .,
, , .
, ,
:
( ) ;
; " " ,
.
-,
,
,
. , , ,
".
"
."; " " (!), " "
, , , (, )
, , .
(. 673-755)
(
, 1064,
). ,
(
!) .,

.

, ( ), " ", .
. ,
( - , ) , ,
( ""), ,
.
-- (. 1096-1141),
, , . (. 1115 - .
1180)

: - , - . (
.) " "
- :
( , )
(, ).

 - -
, ,
- .
" "
( ),
", " :
. ,
- .; (.
1240 - . 1281) - -
(, ,
, ); -
. ,
" ".
13 .
. : . .,
: , ,
. ,
, .. ,
( , .), ,

( , , ..).

. ,
- ,
(
" ", ).

. 1277 " "
, -

(. : , ,
, 1979 II
). ,
"" ("
", 1864) " - " XIII
II " . ",
-
, . , ,
, , ,


(
.). , - ,
" " " ",
() , ( ,

, , " ."). ,
". ",
, " " ,
. - .
. :
, - - . 2-
18 . " .",
,
, . " ." " ",
"
" (.. ). " "
( ). "
" ".", "", "", ""
( ).
. ,
() () - ,
., " "
.
,
, .. ,
, .
( "") " "
" " . (,
) "" , , ,
" "
- .
, ..
: ,
" ", .,
. " ."
-
( , ), -
(, ).
. ,
" ." (), ". " ". ". .
,
" ": " " "
" ( II)

" " , ;
,
. , ,
" " (. -, . , . , . ).
. "
" , ,
, - ,
"" (. -, ., .).

..

(. verificatia - ; . verus - , facio - ) - (

, - )
( .) ,
( .).
, " "
: , " "
, . (. : , , , , ).
..

(1863-1945) - ,
, , .
- (1885),
(1898-1911), (1912).
(1918-1919), ,
, , , .
(1926) (1928) . : "
" (1922), "" (1926), " " (1927), " "
(1935) . . ,

. .
,
, ,
, .
. -
, ..
. ,
. , .,
.
. " ,
, ...
, ...
...". ,
.
.
. .

 "" . -, "
" ( ): " ... ,
, ...". -, : " , ,
,
, ". , .,
,
.
, ., ,
. , , .
, . , .,
, , ,

. , , , ,
. . -
. .
, ,
. .
-
() - - .
..

-
, .. , .
" - " . ,
, , . (,
), - , -
- (
), .
.
. ,
. .
.
. .
, .,
, - . .
, . " ". ,
. . ( .
) ,
-
: , ("

-"), . ,
, , - ,
. ,
- , ,
, , , .
,
(.. ).
- ,
.
( , )
. ,
30- 20 . .. . :
(, , . ), , ,
, .
,
.
,
, .,
.. 1960- . , .,
, ( ).
..

" " (. - gaya scienza) -

,
11-12 . ".."
(

). - , "
: // , // - ".
-
, (""), ,
.
,
.

,
, ,
, .
.. , ,
" ". ,
"" " ",
:

-. amor - .
, a ars amandi ( . "" . trobar - ). ,
,
, :
" : // . // - //
, " ( ). ,
(joi) ,
- : " , , // , , , ,
// , " ("").
- -
(., , ' "", ). -
: " , //
". , gaya scienza
(" " ), ..

(" " ). ,
, -

,
, (
,
), , - : "
- !" ( ).
1324 "
..", ,

- ( - ).
".." (1882),
" " "
";
,
.
.. , ..

, (ewige Wiederkunft des Gleichen, oder

aller Dinge) - , ,
. " Homo" : " . , ,
, , - 1881:
"6000 ". ,

, . " ",
" "? , ,
"", .
" .." ,
" ". ,
, , , , ,
; .. " ",
, -. .. -
"-", ,
: ekpyrosis - , apokatastasis - ,
, , , , ,
, ..
. , . ..
" " (. II), , "
", : "... , !". , ,
"" ,
: " , , ?
, ?
- ?" : ,
, . - ""
, , , , ,
, . : " !" -
" " . :
, - , ,
" ". : ,
, .. . ..
, ..
. "
" .. - " ", -
. , - .
.. , , , , - "
" . .. , - ,
(, 2): " , , , ,
: , , -
. , ; . ,
, . , ;
. , ;
. ; "" "". .
- ". .. , , , ,
- , "" . ""
, , : " ", - : " !".
, ,
. , ;
. : ,
, ; ,
.. : , , .
, ,

 . " " (1881, .

341), ..: "... ,
, ;
, ,
...
- ,
!"; , : " ,
?" - !
, ,
? - " .
, ,
. " ", , , ,
"", , .
, .. ,
" ", , .. -
: , - , , .
, . ,
" " " " " "
" , , : " ," -
. : ,
, , - ; "" - , . - - " ", .. "
", - " !" , .. ,
-, : "
, , , .
- . ,
, . ,
, existentia, essentia - , - " ".
, ,
essentia existentia; " "
" " . , , ,
- -
. , ""? ,
- . "" , , , "". " , ?" -
" ": " ;
, - ". "" - ,
, , .
, - , , ,
: !
, : ", , :
"".
, .
, "" : "
, ...
"", ! , ,
... " ,

 , !" ,
, ,
, . , , ,
-, , - ,
, , .
,
(. II, ): " -
, , ". -
; ,
, ,
, "" - , , ,
. " ?" : " ""
, .
? , ,
. ,
. ,
. "" .
- ,
... "
. "" , .
, " ", ,
. -
, : "... ...
! - !
! - ! (. III.
, 2). "" , ..
"", " ".
.. ; " ":
" ...
( ).
, ,
, , . ,
". , ..
. , , ..,
. "" :
"" , , "", ; " "
.
: ,
, - .
, " -". , ,
, , - " ", " ", "
". , ; -
--, - . .. ,
- "-",
"". , "
... .. ;
, .

 ".
.. , ,
, ..
. ,
: ,
, , , .. .
.. - " ",
: - , -, - " ",
. , ; ,
.., .. . "
" (. 10) , ..
: "... . :
, , - , , :
. " !" -
. , , ,
... ", , ,
. , ,
, . " ",
, ,
" ": " " .. -
, "-" .
..: ,
, - , ..
" ". ""
; - " " ,
.
, " , , ,
, :
, "", , ""; "",
- "", . "
" ".
- , -
- , " "
, , " ", " ", (. " "
). .
, , ,
- , -;
, , , ;
, , ; ..
, . ,
.. . ,
,
20 . : "" "", ,
; -
"" (Geworfenheit) ", " (Entwurf)

, " ". " Homo"

(. 8): " - : ,
".
" " (. II): " , , - ,
. , ,
, . , ,
"" " " - !" (. " "
). : "
?.. ?
, ? , ,
, , - ?
?" " " - ,
.. : , ""
, , . ,
, , :
.. , , .
. ,
, . , -
: . - , ,
, ,
. , , . ""
: "!" - : "!" , , "-". , ,
.. , " " .
, , "
". " ", ,
. " "
" ";
" ". , .
, ,
"!" . - ! ,
, , , . " " "" --
, "-" . " " ratio
"" "" , "
" , , ;
"-" . - ,
, ... ...
... . - ". , ..
. - , .
, ,
. , . .
, , ,
- ! ? " ,

 , , , ; ,
, ". "... ,
, , ..." (. III, ).
..

" " - , .
, , ( ),
, " ",
".
". ". ." ,
, , ..
. "
" (1787) ( . .)
: "

( )

, - ". . . - ,
, , ,
. ( )
. . " ",
. . ., , ,
, , "- "
, , .
, , , ,
(. .) . . .
,
, . ., .. ,
, , , . ., - .
. . , ,
- . ,
; , ,
. . . - (
,
), ,
, ,
.
.
. . .
" " , , ,
. .,
, .

 . . : . .
, , . .
, .
, ,
. . ,
.
, . .
- - .
( ,
). - . . . .
.
..

- .

( , - ) (1863-1902) , , -
, , .
1880-1884 ,
. - 1880. 4

. 1893 , , , ,
, . 1897
- " ". B.C. -
() (""). B.C. - -
, , .
, B.C., , (,
, .) - . - ,
, , . B.C.
.
. , , ,
, .
B.C. ,
, -
. " ". -,
, . . B.C.
, , ,
, . , B.C.,
, . B.C. ,

- . B.C.
- " ", ,
(" , - "). B.C.
"", -. ,
- " ", - ,
() .
..

(Wiese) (1876-1969) - ,
. (1908-1911), ( )
( 1919),
(1921-1954). 1933 , 1945 -
. . ,
, . .
" " "" "",
" " .
" " -
,
.., - , .,
. ,
( ). (,
) . (
, , ):
(" , ", " ,
"); ( )
. .
, " ", " ",
" ". , .,
: , ., , ,
().
..

(Vico) (1668-1744) - .
( 1699). .
.
: " " (1725) -
,
( ., - " "). .
.
. , "

 , ": . .
, , , ,
"" , .
, ., , .
, ., ,
, ..
. (. : - , ). ., ,
.
, . . ,
, ,
. .
. .
20 . ., "
.., .
, , , ,
, , , ,
, ,
, ,
". . ,
, , (
). .,
,
"" (
); ( )
( ) .
.
- " ". .
, .,
. ( . ,
,
). .
( , - )
.
..

(Windelband) (1848-1915) - ,
- ,
. (1870-1876), (1876),
(1877-1882), - (1882-1903), (1903-1915)
. : " " (1888), "
" ( , 1878-1880), " " (1904), "
XIX " (1909) . .

 , (
.) " ",
- 19 - 20 .
, , .

. , . .
. . ,
, .,
. .
, , ,
. " ?", ".
" (1903) " " .
, - . .
, .
,
,
.
, ?
, .
,
. , "
", , .,
" ". " ...
, ,
, ,
.
,
". -
, .
, , - ,
(
). .
, ,
, , ..,
, . (, ,
, ) - ,
, , .
,
, "".
, .
() () .
, " ", .. , ,
.
, ,
, .. ,
.
, .,

, . .
, , , ,
.
" " " " ( ) .
. , , ,
.
. "", - "".
,
; ,
-, ,
, ..
.
" ";
- . .
- . " " " "

- ,
;
- ,
. (. : ).
..

- ( ),
. .
, ,
. (, .
, ).
, , . .,
, ( ) .
. ,
. . , .
,
. , .,
(" , : ; ...", .
26, 27-28).
(, .).
. (,
.). (.: , ).
..

 (. vitalis - , ) - ,
,
. . .
. ,
.
. . ( 19 - 20 .).
. " ".
,

, ..

. ,
, . , , . .
"", " ". ,
, ,
.
, ,
. (., . .). .
, ,
,
. ,
, ..
..

(Wittgenstein) (1889-1951) - ,
(1939-1947).
20 . - ( ) .
,
, " " (1921), " " ( , 1953),
" " (1953), " " (1969) .
. ( 19 - 20 .),
, , .
, , , "" ,
, .
. .
, . .
" ". .
, , ,
, .
. . "-
", (1921),
(1922). .

 , ,
,
. , , "",
. , .
,
, ,
. , "- " . , ""
,
, . ,
, ,
"". ""
, . , "",
" ", " ", :
; , ;
.
"- " . .
"",
,
, . . 30-
.,
(, , ) " ",
,
, . .,
. .
, 1933-1935. ,
, " ".
. " ",
. " "
" ". -
, ,
. ,
, , ,
. ,
" " - ,
. ,
, , ,
. . ,
. .
" ". .
" ", ,
. " " .
. " " . ,
, ,
, ,
, .
, " "
, -

 (, "") . ,
. ,
, , ,
, , . , .
, -
. . , , -
, , , , , .

. .
, -
.
..

(Wittels) (1880-1951) - .
. .
1905 . 1906 ("
"), .
.
. 1910
.
. 1924
", , ",
. .
-. " " (1909), " " (1931) .
..

(1608-1678) - , ,
. . .
( ) ,
. , - -.
. ,
. - 1660 ,
, - ( 1665-1669
"
" 1667 - - " , ...",
1685). . - , . .
- ,
. , .
,
( ). ,

 . ( .
). , .
, .
, () - - . .
( ,
. ).
.
.. , R.JI.

- - ,
. . (
) " - " .
.,
.,
" - ".
(, .)
, .
.,
- . .
. ,
( . ), , ,
, - .
. , ,
, ., (, ,
, , ) (, , ).
. " - ",
. ,
. .
- "" . "
." , , ; , " ",
" .".
. ( )
" ". , ". - ",
" ." (
- ) , , - "".
"" .
, ,
. ., ,
, ,
"" ( , ,
..),
. " "
. " ". , ,

 ,
( , ..),
.
, ., , ,
,
. .
(. " "),
. ". ", ". " ..
. ,
, .
.
..

-
. .
,
.
. .: , .
. -
. . - .,
, . .,
,
, . .

. - ()
. - . ,
, .
, , . .,
: , , ,
. . ,
. ( . 4-6 ).
. . .
. . . .
. .
.
..

- , ,
, , - . .
,

 , . - ,
, . , ., ..,
.
. , . .
: . .
, , .
(, , ), . .
() . , .,
., , . (
. ). , .
. ,
.
. , , .
, .. , ., .
. ( .
, . - - ,
. , . -
- .). .
: 1) ., .. ,

(.
, ), . , .. ,
,
. (
.: " "
. .); 2) ., .. , , ,
, ., .
; 3) ., .
. (
), ., . .
. . (dinamis) . (energeia) ""
,
, : ,
, , ., .. ,

., . (., ,
- ,
, " " ..). ,
.,
( ), ( ).
- - (. ) ,
., . . ("
"). ("
") . . . .
, . - , - ., ,
, , , . . .
(" , ., ")

 . ("
"). . .
, -
- "" (" ."), "" (" .")
"" (" "). energeia dinamis
actus () potentia (),
. ,
,
. .,
. - ,
. . : .
, .
.
. (
): "
, " ().
, .,
, , . ,
""
. ,
.
. . : "
( ), ...
(), ... ,
, ".
. .: .
.: ". , .,
, . .,
., : .
, ; .
". . . (
, , , )

(, . , . , , . , . , .
, . .). . .
(. ). . .
,
.,
.,
(. ),
., .
..

 - , ,
. , -
,
..
, ,
( " "
; ,
- ..).
..,
,
.
", " "" ( ).
(" , "),
, , .
, - ..,

, . ,
, " , ", -
. ..
, : "
", " "
(). ..
, :
?
,
: ,
, ,
.
- - :
, , -
- - , ,
.
.
- - -
,
(
, ,

" "). or ,
, ,
. ..
: " "
.., "
" - .
,

.. (
.. ). " "
, ,
,
, ("
") .. . ..
( de re)
(de dicto). " "
,
. --,
.., " "
.., ,
. ..
(.
). ..
. , . , . , . , . .
,
.., -
. -
,
,
..
,
" , ",

, .


.

( )
, ,
;
, , .
" ":
,
,
, , ,
.
,
.
: ,

- , , -


..
..

( ) - ,
, .
. - 14-16 . "."
. (16 .).
. , . , . -,
, . , , -, ( ), . , .
( ), . , . ( ), ( )
. . (, ,
, ), , (
, , , . ), .
. (
, ) ,
16 ., , , , ,
,
, , ,
.
. - ,
,
, .
,
.
. .
,
.
, - ,
, .
,
, .
" ", , , , .
. ,
, ,
, .
,
;
, ,
,
, ,
, .

 , ,
. .
, ,
- . (, , ,
, ), ,
.
- , , , - -, ,
( ,
, - - ,
, ).
- ;
. ,
, ,
- , ( ).

. ( , ,
) ,
. .

, - - .
. - ,
(.
, . , . ), ,
(, , . ). " "
, , ,
; , ,

,
. -
. . ,
(,
, ).
- . - .
, ,
, - , . ,
, .. , , . " "
.
, ,
. (. : ).
..

() (1530-1610) - ,
, . ---

. ,
, - . ,
, . . - "
" (1572), "
" (1592), " , " (1596), "
" (1608) . .
, , ,
, .
. "
" ,
,
. . -
.
.. , ..

(1895-1936) - , .
(1913). 1913-1917
. -
. 1918
. 1919-1922 ,
., ,
, .
. , , ,
,
. 1922
. .
(1924)
().
. .
. " . " (1925) , ,
". " (1927)
. ,
, , ..: " .
" (1929) .
..

(Voltaire), - (Arouet) (1694-1778) -

, , , .
40- 18 . (1746). .
(1878-1885) 52 . :

" " (1727-1733), " " (1734, ),

" " (1736-1738), "-" (1752), "
XIII" (1756) ( .
" "), "" (1759), "
" (1764), " " (1766) . .
, ,
: " ,
". ., , , -
. , , . . ,
,
.
.
,
. "" " ".
,
"
". , .,"

. , . ,
, . (
)
. .
, .
, . : "
, ".
, . .
.
. . , . -
. -
( ). ,
., . .,
.
, ,
. . . "
, ,
". " ",
"" .
. , " ".
"",
() ,
(). - " ,
, ", -
.
..

 (Wolff) (1679-1754) - , ,
,
, , .
. , . 1706
. ,
, (
, . ).
. .
.
, ,
. . . ,
, .. , ,
, , - .
, , , , , .
. (
- ", ", 1712).
. "" ,
: , , ,
.. . .
: , .
. , ,
, "
" (),
. " ",
,
. .
. ,
, ;
. ,
, , , .
, .
. ,
. ,
, , "",
, , .
, , ., , ,
. . , ,
. ,
, .
, .,
"
", .
.

. .
. , ,
., - , .
.
, .
,

, " ".
..

(. voluntas - ) - ,
, .
1883,

. , , :
" " " ".
, ( , )
: " ", ..
, ,
, (
). . ,
, ( ),
(. ).
-
- : , ,
,
.
. 19 ., - ,
: ,
" ",
(" " ),
- ,
, " " (. ), "
" (). .
, ,
. (, . ). .
, (, ,
, . ). . -
-
- .
..

 - ,

.
, , .
, (
- ) - (
), . .
( ), (
) ,
, , ,
, -
. . " "
" ",
,
( ). , ,
,
. .
,
.
,
,
( ,
"fiat" - " "). .
,
, , ..
,
(. ), ,
(. ),
" "
()
( . ).
. , .
(, . ), , .
(. - .) (). .:
. ,
, , (
); . , ,
.
.
,
(. ) ,
, .
.

 , , ,

(" " , ). .
- ,
(. " ",
-
, ).
.
:
. " ." " ,
".
..

" " (der Wille zur Macht) - ,

20 .
, .
. " "
: " .
". , , ,
: " ",
.
: ". .", , ,
, , " " .
" " ,
, 1889 ( , ?)

. .
, ,
" ".
"" "", - ,
" ", "" , , , "" "
" , ratio, , -. . .
, , ,
. ". ." "", .. ,
, , .
" " ,
. .
, . . ,
, , , , ,
. .
" " . , ,
, .
, .. , .

 , ( , , ),
; . " - "
, .
, " " , ,
". .". , . . - " "
(" ", 693), , ,
-, - . (
). , . . -
, , , , ..
. , ,
, :
: "Voluntas superior est intellectu" ( ),
, , .
.
" , " , ,
, .. ,
, "..., (perceptions) (..
(representations) ),
(appetitions) (.. ),
". ""
, : , , , .
: ,
, ". .", " "
, , .. .
.
"
" : " ,
(Wollen). -, :
-, , , ".
, , , "",
- " ", .. , ,
-, , : "
". ,
"" " ". , ,
, , ,
-, "" , ,
" " " " " ", -, ,
, , ,
"" ; ..
, " - causa sui". " " (. 19)
, ,
: 1) " , ...
..."; " "; 2) "
() ; ,
"" " !"; 3) " "; 4)
" ", " , ,
" "; 5) ", , -

- , , "; 6) "
, ...
... , - "; 7)
"" ,
, . " " -
... ". ,
" ", "
", .. , " "no-" "no". (, , ) :
, -
-, -.
, , "" , . , ,
, . ,
,
, " "
Ego, .. " ", . " " (. 675):
" - , , -
". ,
: , , . ,
, ". .". ,
; ,
. ". .", ,
"" ( ) , "" , ,
"" -. . ., ,
, . . ,
,
, (energia) ,
, , ;
"" perfectihabea.
" ",
,
" ", "",
, " ". , ". ."
, , ""
, . " ",
, " " ;
" " "-" -; , ,
, , " ". , , "",
; " " ,
.
, , "" . .,
" ", , "
" - " -", " ",
, : " ". ,
, , "" , ,
, " ". , . , . .

 . : ",'
, ". ,
- . ., ,
" " --;
, , " . ." ,
. "Wille zur Herrschaft", "Wille zur Macht".
, , "Herrschaft".
"Macht" , ,
- , . "Macht"
"machen" - , , , . "Macht" - --,
, , . "Macht" -
, , ; , . "Wille zur Macht"
, : , ,
" ". ,
, "". -
" " " -".
, ( , );
, "", ( ,
" "). ;
, , . , ,
" " .
, ;
". ." " ". ""
, : " , , ,
, : , . ,
,
, ".
, . .
- . ( , " ")
, .. . .,
. " " - (. 18) ""
: " , , ,
: .. , ( "")". " "
" ", , .
" ": " , - ,
( ! -
), ...". : " ", , . , -, ..
. "" - "Ego cogito" .
, : "... , "" , "" ;
: "" "". (Es
denkt): "" , , ,
...". , ratio, , ..
; , , cogito . .
. , . , , "",
. . " , , "

 . ., "" , ;
, - , , ,
. , , ,
. :
"Ego cogito, ergo sum", - : "Ego volo, ergo sum",
. ,
: "Ego volo, ergo cogito, ergo sum", Ego -
, , .. .
, . , "" :
Ego " ";
, ; ""
. ,
: "Ego impero, ergo sum". , " "
" "; , ,
, " ". ,
" "
. ,
- " ", - " ",
, .. subjectum. ,
, , .
, . "
". " ", ,
. " " , " "
, : " ... ,
". . . " " ,
, ". ."
" ". " "
" ": "
; ,
, - ... ,
..., , , ,
, - , ...
, , , - ,
, - , ...". ,
,
" ";
- " " ,
;
; "--",
"" . . ( , :
" , "); ,
, , "" ,
, "" . , :
". ."; , ;
? : " ? ?
?... , . ".

..

- ,
, . . : 1)
- , ; 2) - , .; 3)
, ()
. .
( ), .
, , , . .,
,
, , ,
, . . ,
..
(.. , ,
- ,
) .
. .,
.
. ( . )
. : 1) .
(), ,
,
, ; 2) . (),
,
. . . ,
., ,
. . ("
, ?") ("
?"). . (" ,
47256 2 3?") ("
?") (" ?"). .
"" " ",
" ", " ", " " .., "" - .
. ,
("
?"), ,
(" "-"?", ", ,
?"). , ., .
: 1) ; 2) ; 3)
; 4) .
..

 (1884-1943) - .
, .
.
. . 1917 - . "
" (1923), " " (1924), " " (1925), " "
(1926), " " (1928), " " (. 1-2, 1928-1929) .
. 1922
(). 1925-1928 .
(), . .
,
.
, " "
. 1937
" - "
(). 1957 .
..

- - () ,

. (" - ", "
, ") ,
- , .
. .
: " -: ? ?...
: , ; ,
; , . , ;
- ".
( ), .
(" ") ,
. ,
- "" : " ,
.
, , - ,
, , , ,
...". .,
, .
. , ,
: . ,
"-
"
" " ".
, " , ,

 , ,
... ... . ,
, ,
... , ,
, ,
, ,
...". , . .
, , ,
. "",
.
, , -
, " ", - ,
. "
". - . ,
(
""). , " "
"" , , , -
. - ? .
: ", , ...". , .
. (" ,
..., - . , - ... ..." .
, "...
, , , ,
, ,
,
.
"...). "" ,
, , ,
, , ,
. . " , ,
", , ,
: " - ... , ...
". , "

,
, ...". . " ",
, . "", "", "" ,
,
, . .
- : " ,
...". .
, ". - " ,
. . . ""
(" , , ,
"),
( ) - ,

 . . -
-
( .,
).
..

(1920-1997) - ,
, , .
., 14 "" (1980)
, 1917
.
- .
, . ,

.
, .
, ,
,
. ,
, - ,
" "
.
.
90-, . , "
" " ", ,
,
.
.. , ..

- - . .
. - .
: 1)
(); 2)
(
"", .). . - ,
(),
. .
(
,

 , , ,
). "" ("")
. ,
,
, ,
() ()
"" . . -
,
. .
. . -
. () , .
, , .
. ,
- .
- . -
. . ,
, . .
, ("")
. , . - ,
"" . ,
, , . .
, ,
. , ,
. ,
, . .
. ,
,
"" ,
.
, -
. . -
, .
(
). , .
. , .
, .
.
, ( ),
, ,
, ..
.
, (--) . ,
. 1) -
, - (). ,
, .
. -
, (, ).

 , , " "
"". 2) - ,
(). - "" ,
,
, , .
"". ,
.
, ,
, " " ( ),
" " .
. - .
-- ,
, . ;
, ;
, (, , ..),
, -
, .
, , ..
,
. -
, "-"
,
. ,
.
, . ,

, ,
" ".
. 3) - ,
( () ) - ().
, ,
. - , ,
.. ,
, , ,
. , -
.
.,
.
, .
.
, ,
.
, .
. ,
, ,
, . ,

 ""
, (
), ,
" ". ,
, - "
"
- ( ).
.
. , ,

. ,
.
" " " ",
.,
, .
,
.
, .,
,
.
, "
, , (
) " (.. ).
,
. , , ,
.
., ( ),
, .
-
, ,
. ,

- ,
.
, .
, " ",
.
, .. (),
- ,
. . ,
, ,
.
, ,
.
, ,
. , ,
.,

. , . - -
, .
.. , ..

- ,
-
. . -
, . .
,
, - , ,
. . ,
. . ,
. .
, . .
. .
, :
,
. . ,
. ,
., , , ,
. . ., , .
. . .
, . .
. .
- . . , ,
. .
, - .
..

() - - ,
, ,
, , , ,
, . .. ""
( , , ,
..). .. -
, , ,
, . ..
, .

..

- . - .

- , ,
.
.. . ,
, ,
" ", .. .. .. .
17-18 . (, ) .. ,
, .. .. ,
. (,
) .. , , ,

. , , ,
, . .. ,
, ,
- "" . ,
, .
.. . ..
, ,
. .. - ,
, .
..

- (, ),

,
. . ,
. . , ,
B.C. , - .,
, , , , .. , ,
, .. , .. , .
.
. .: ,
(), , .
, . ,
, , ,
.

 ., . " "
,
. ("
", " "), "
, . ,
, , ;
, ". ,
, , , ,
. -
(
). ,
.
,
.
( ) , ,
., .
. , -
, - .
() - ()
, , ,
, . ,
,
, .
,
. ., , ,
(, " -"; , " ").
. (, )
,
, . .
"- ",
"" , -
. ., .
, . . .
,
-
(" ", " ").
. (
) ( ) ,
,
,
, .
("").
.,
,
(, ) , ,
, .
,

" ". .
- - ,
, ,
, ,
- (" ").
.
("", "" .)
(" ", " " .). ,
, ,
. , ,
.
, , ,
. , ,
.
, . ,
.
..

- -
.

- , .. .

. ...
. , , , ,
,
;
(, , , ),
( ), (, , ,
). . -
, .

, . .
- , , .
, . .
.
, ,
, ,
, (, ,
, ..). ...
-
. ,

 ,
.
..

(. vulgaris - ) - ,
19 . . , . , . . - ,
,
- 19 .
;
; ,
,
, . ..
, - ,
..; , ;
; .
: "... , ,
...".
, , -, .
19 .
.
, , ,
19-20 .
" " (. , . ),
, ,
.
..

(1878-1971) - .
. .
. , . . 1907
. , ,

. 1908 . , 1909
" ". 1909 . ,
,
( ) (1911).
. 1912
" ". 1912 -
. (1914),

 . 1914 ,
. ,
- , , ,
. (1920)
1- ( 1922)
. ..
.
. 1922
()
1924-1927 .
, " " ( ) "",
" " . , ,

. 1926 " .. "
" " (1925),
.
1922-1927
" " .
. 1926
" ". 1927
. 1927 . 1930
" ",
" ".
. 1933
(),
(1934). 1943-1953
.
.
.
.
..

(Wundt) (1832-1920), , ,
. ( . ) .
(, 1879),
.
-- .
,
, -
, . . ,
() ()
, .
" ", "" ,

 (" " ),
(-) ,
.
.
-. ( )
,
, ,
; ..
, .
(, , ) . -
, , ,
" " " ".
" " ( ),
, ,
" " .
, .,
, ,
. : " " (. 1-2, 18581862); " " ( , 1863); "
" ( , 1873-1874); "" ( , 1880-1883); " "
(1889); " " (1896); " " (. 1-10, 1900-1920) .
..

(1896-1934) - . .
(1917) .. - (). . . 1924 ,
. .
, . .
1925 .. "
", , "
", " " ,
" " ,
. " " ( 1965)
, " " "
", . 1927
" ".
, , ,
. .
1928 " " .
, "
, " . .
1930-1931 " " ( 1960),

 - ,
: "" (
) "" ( ). (
) , ., " " ,
"", , ,
"", () .
" "
, ,
. - (, ,
. .). " . " (1926), "
" (1930, ), " " (1930,
), " " (1934), " "
(1935) 100 , ,
, , , , , -
.
..

(1869-1918) - , .
, .
(1899). (1888) (1893).
,
(). 1894-1895 (-). (-).
1897-1900
( "" -).

. 1899 "
", ()
. 1900 ,
(. , . , .), (. , .)
. 1901-1907
.
.
.
. 1909
: " " "
",
. 1909
() "
" .. - "
" ().
.
.

1910 - (
-),
". ",

. -
(1910-1914).
.
.
. . 1911
.
" " 1-
. 1912
" " ( . 1911
" "). 1914
,
. ,
. 1917
,
.
,
.
: " " (1910), " " (1911), "
" (1913), " " (1914), " -
. " (1914), "
" (1905), " , "
(1911), " " (1914), "
" (1915) . .
..

(1938-1980) - . .
20 .

. (. - B.C. -
(" ")
-
: , , .).
.
( , 1970-1980- ,
. - , , ).
( ,
). ,

 .,
,
,
("... ...") . ( . " " ,
,
( )
).
, (
), . : ,
, ("", " ", " ,
...", " "); -, ("", "
...", " "), (" ", " ") ; -, ("
...", " ...", " ") (" ", " ", " ") ;
(" , ",
"", " "); (" ...", "", " ")
.
, (" ", ",
"); (" "),
(" ", " ",
" "); (" ", " ");
(""); ("- , ...", "
", " ..."); ("
...", " , ..."); (" ", " ", "
..."); (" , ...", "", " ");
("", " ");
(" "); (" ...") ("-
, ...", " ", " ", "
") . , -
(""), ("") -
(" ").
, ,
("", "", " ").
. , ,

-,
. ,

.: " " " ",
(" , ...") (" ..."),
(" ") (" "),
" ..." " ", " "
" ", 1 "
" , " " (" ..."),
(" ")

 ("", " "), - ,

(" ...") " , // , //
", , " ",
,
. . ,
, , - - . , ,
" " (
), ( ) (),
.
", ",
, ,
, , , , , , (
) . , ,
" "
,
, , ,
("... "),
, .
. (",
, " ""; " " " "),
-
: ", ... "; ", , , // ,
...".
("", " ", " , ...")

(" ").

(.
" " ),
,
-, , - : " , ? , ?".
("
, " - .
" " )
, "
",
- .
" , ?" .
,
- , : " -
, // ( - ). //
, // - , !... // , , - //
... , , ! // , - -
// , ... //
, - // , !".

 , .
: - " " " "
" ". . ,
, , , "
". , , , ,
", ". . - , :
, ,
(" , , , - // ,
, "), (""),
("" - . ""
: " - // , ! - // ,
// , - // - // ,
// - // // ... - , // , !
- // // ?!"). . -
(
. ), ,
-, .
(. ),
60-70- 20 . -. .
,
( -
(. ): " ", "" ("
") .), -
- -
- , ,
, -, -
;
. . .
-,
(" // "
" "),
,
" - ",
.
.. , ..

, , (. repressio - ) -
- , " ",
- ()
. .

. , . (, ): 1) .

, , .. 2)
. ,
, , ..
.
" ",
, , .. .
, .
..

(1877-1954) - ,
(1917). ,
. 1922 - .
"", . -.
. : " .
" (1914), "
" (1923), " " (1924), "
" (1929), " . " (1931),
" " (1952), " . .
. " (1953), " " (1955) . .
, ,
.
. "" , .

. ,

. .,
20
,
, , -
. .
20
, .
..

( ) (1795-1868) -
. (1816).
.

. , , ,
, . (1840-1841).
: " " (1837-1840) ( VI
), " " (1843), "
. " (1850). . -
, , . , .,
: , - ,
- . , ., ,
" . ,
, , ".
. ,
-, ("
"), -
.
" ", - ", ,
". .
, .
..

(Gadamer) - (. 1900) - ,
. ( 1939), -
(1946-1947), ( 1949). :
" " (1931), " " (1947), " " (1960),
" " (1971), " " (1980), " " (1983),
" " (1984) . - , .
, ,
( ), , ,
, .
., , .
- , .
. ,
, .
, .
( )
. , ,
(Vorurteil), , (Vor-Urteil) , ,
, .
( . -
), . . "" ,
., -
, - ,
, , "

 ".
- (Anwendung).
, . ,
,
,
. , .,
, ,
. , .
,
. . ,
, ,
"" "".
, - .
. , .
, . , ( )
. .
, ., , ,
. ,
( , ), .
. , . ,
, ,
, . ,
, "
", .
, .
..

(Galilei) (1564-1642) - , ,
, , ,
- , .
( 1589),
(1592-1610). : "
" (1610), " " (1613), " " (1613), "
, , ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
" (1630), " ,
" (1638) . .
.
, . 1609 3- ,
- 32 .
( , ,

, 4 , , ,
.). .
-
. . " -
" (1633), .
, ,
. .
, ,
, , , .
. .
, , .
. , ., ,
. ,
- .
.
. - .
, ., - , - . . ,

, , "... ,
".
"" ., . ,
.. "" . . :
, , , .
, ,

. . , , , ,
, .. . .
, .. ,
. . ,
, .
,
- .
,
. . .
.
" ". 1971 .
..

(. armonia - ) - ,
( , )
.
. ,
(), ()

 ,
(. ). . ,
,
( "."
, ;
, "." "", "",
" -").
, ,
, .
. : "
." (). .

:

(. ) - "
" (.. . ):
, .
. --
: " " (), " , " () .. .
-
-
.: , , . (. ),
(. )
, - - (.
). .
:
" , - ." (),
. , ,
,
: ". , " (
). -,
, (. ) .
. .
, (
, ) .
, (. )
,
( ) (
) . (. )
..

 ( ) -
, , , - .
( "" , "", - ).
" " . (
) : ,
, - , , "", "" "".
, .. - , -
, ..
,
(). ..
,
, , ,
" ",
. ,
, , ,
, , , ,
- . ".", ,
(),
(, , .).
..

(Garaudy) (. 1913) - . "

". (1970). :
" " (1960), " ?" (1963),
" " (1965), " XX " (1966), "" (1972), " "
(1973) . . ,
:
, - .
., , -

.
,

. "",
.
" ", .
, ,
" , ". .

. ( )
- ; ,

 ;
, - , .,

. , , .,
" , - , ". ,
. . ,
, "
, :
,
,
, , ". .
,
,
", ". , - .,
" ". - .
- ("") , ,
, . " 1948,
, XX , ,
1956 . 1958, ,
, ...
,
, , ,
, - . , ""?
? , -
?
, ?"
" " -
- - " "
- , .

. , , ., "
, ,

-.
".
" ", .

-
.
: , , .
- , ., "... .
, . ,
".
,

 , .
: " ,
, , - , ,
, , , ".
..

(Hartmann) (1882-1950) - . .
. 1905 ,
( 1922). 1907 . 1909 -, 1920 - . 1926 -
, 1931 - , 1946 - .
: " " (1909); " "
(1921); " " (1923); " " (. 1-2, 1923-1931);
"" (1926); " .
" (1933); " " (1933); "
" (1938); " . " (1940);
" . " (1950); "" (. . 1958) . .
.
, 20-
"", "" "".
, - ..
, ()
. .
" " ",
". "", .
() ,
,
"" 20 .
(, , , , ),
(, , , , , ) . .
, ,
. . 20
. " "
(" "). 20 . - "
" ( ).
" " - , ,
- ( ) . - , , , ,
, , . ,
- - . ,
( , - ). -
, "" ,

 . ,
.
"" ,
. , ,
. . - ()
. . " " ()
" " () ,
. ( - ). , .
, . ,
, ( ""
), ( ). (
), "" (). ""
(): (), (), ()
( ). "" ,
(" "). "
, ". ,
(" "). ""
(" "). .
.
() .
.: ,

. ,
, ,
, "" ""
, (" "). (,
). , . "
":
. " " - (
) .
, , (
). , .
" "
.
" " - , (
, ).
. ,
, .. - ,
"" . , -
., , .
, .. "
", .
(
). "
": :
"" ( , .,

 ).
.
. , , ,
, .. , -
, , ..
- . -
. . ,
, (
, , ).
"" , , ""
( "").

,
, , .
,
. ,
,
- .
(
). ""
.
, ,
. , , ,
- .
, " ",
, , , , ..
, . ,
, , , "--", ,
.
, "--" ( -
). " "
, "-",
. - " ", "":
( ), ( : , ,
), ( : , , ).
- ( ) , .,
.
..

(Hartmann) (1842-1906) - , "

". - .
, ,

, . , ,
, . : " "
(1869). , ,
( ),
, .
, , .
;
. ,
. ,
, .
..

(Gassendi) (1592-1655) - . 1614

, 1616 - .
. ( 1622). 1626 - . . 1645
.
, . .
, .
,
. . : ,
. , ,
. , , ,
, " " " ". .
,
. . . ,
.
. .
, , .
, . -
. ,
. ,
. , ,
. - .,
, , ,
. . :
" " (1624); " " (1647);
" " (1649); " " (1658). .
.
.. , ..

 (Guardini) (1885-1968) -
. , , ,
- . ( 1910),
(1915),
(1923). 1939.
1945. - :
" " (1917, 12 ), ".
-" (1925), " " (1929),
" . "
(1932), " . " (1935), " "
" " (1937), " " (1939), " ""
" (1941), " " (1946),
", , " (1948), " " (1950), "" (1951), "
" (1962), " , " (1969) .
.
. ., , - ,
, "-"
(, "" "" )
. , ., "- "
. , .

( --, , ).
" ",
- 20 ., ., ,
, . .,
,
, "
" , : " " " ".
. ., "
, - , ,
; , ;
-
; , ,
...". , ,
., ;

;
, . ., ,
:
, "
. ""
, "" (Person).
. , , ,
, , , ,
. - ,

 , ,
; - ,
... ,
, , , ".
, .,
: "... ... ...;
, , ,
, ,
... ,
-...
,
, , , , ".
, , ., ,
" " . ., -
, : " ,
, . - , ...
, , , ...".
..

(Guattari) (1930-1992) - .
. .
, , ,
- .
-
, , , ..
" ",
,
, .
" ",
. 70-, ,
,
.
. , , ""
(. ). .
( ): " " (. 1 "-", 1972; . 2 "
", 1980); "" (1976) . (. ).
..

(Hegel) (1770-1831) - ,
,

 ,
.
() . 1788 1793 -
( ), 1794 - (, ),
1801 1806 - - , 1808-1816 -
, 1816-1818 - , 1818 -
. .
. , ,
, .
- . .
- , ,
, .
. -
.
.
,
. .
; , ,
, , ,
, .
.
" " (1807), .
-
, -
- , .
: 1) , " " " ",
; 2) "", - "
", (); 3) , " "
( ).
. ,
, . ,
, " ".
, " .
. ", , , ,
, - .
.
.: " " - ,
, .
, ,
,
. ,
,
. , " "
;
, ,
.
,

 , .. ,
.
. () .
, , ,
. , ,
, ,
,
. .
, , ,
.
,
, ,
, . " " .
,
,
, . 1812 .
, .
1817 " ".
1812 1816 " " (..
, "..."), ,
- .
, " ",
, ,
, . " "
( )
( ). ..
. , , , ,
( ), ..
, - , .
" ",
,
,
(.. ).
, .
, , ,
,
- , , , ,
, .. , , , ..
, ,
- , ,
" ".
, ,
, .
, ,
, (, ).
., ,

 . ,
, ,
, , , - .
. ,
, , ,
.
, . , -
( ), . ,
, , .
. .
,
, "", ,
.: " ,
, ". , ..,
,
, ,
. , ,
- . -
,
, ,
. .
- , .
: , .
, :
;
, . ,
,
.
: (),
() () .
. ,
(

). - , . " " ("
", 1821 " ", 1826) -
, , ..
,
. . ,
.
, , ,
, , ,
.
,
. ,
. "
" - , .
- , , " ",

 .

- .. , .
("
", 1837). "
", . ,
.
-
, , ,
. . ,
, ,
. ,

, , , ., ,
, , : ("
", 1835-1838), , - .
. , ,
" " .
, ,
, .
. " " (1833-1836) . .
,
, ,
, ,
. - - ,

,
. ,
, ,
..
.
,
,
. , ,
,
. .
., ,
, ,
.

,
. ,
, ,
, .
.

. .
, ; -
( , ),
. ,
,
. - .
.
,
, ,
, ,
.
..

(Hesse) (1877-1962) - - (
1923) , (1946). : "
" ( , 1899), " "
(1901), " " (1904), " " (1906), "" (1910), " " (,
1913), "" (1914), "" (1915), " " (1918), "" (1919), " "
(, 1919), "" (1919), " " (1920), " " (1920),
"-" (1922), "" (1925), " " (1927), " " (1930),
" " (1932), " " (1943), " " (,
1945) . ., ,
, , -
(. ). . : ,
, ,
( )
, " ",
. . , ", ,
, , ..
. , , ,
, , ,
". , ,
, .
1960-. "" ( )
. ,
: " " ( , , ,
) ,
(2 .). , ,
" " (""), ,
. " ",
, ... , ,
, " (.). "" . " ": "

 , - ". ., , - ,
" .., ": "
, , ", , " "" "
", , "" "
". .., .,
, , - . (.
).
(" ") - " ", "", "
- ". " " "",
. " " (
) , . , " - ", " -
, ". " ", "
" - , "
". " ", ,
, , . ., " - ",
(. ). .,
, . . " ", " ,
... , ", "" ( -
- " ") , , , "" , "
, ". (. ). " ",
, , .
" " - ,
()
. (" " -
), , , "

". " ".
, - , .
, ., . , " ,
", ; ;
; -
, . .
: ("") ("").
..

(. hedone - ) - , ..
,

. . -,
,
(., ). ,
, , - ,

 , . .
, .
. .
,
18 . . , .
""
. .
, .
..

(Haechel) (1834-1919) - ,
(1865-1909). : " .
" (1899), " -" (1868), "" (1892), " "
(1904), " " (1914) .
, .
. ,
( ) (
). .
. .
. " " . (1866)
. .
.
..

(Gehlen) (1904-1976) - ,
. ( 1934), (1938-1940), (19401942), ( 1947), ( 1962).
( ,

). . - ".
" (1940) - 12 -
. . :
-
, - "" "".
, ., " "
, "", "", "".
. ,
" ". , , .,
, , " ".
,

 .
, .,
, ,
, .
,
. .
.
. , ,
, .
, , . ,

.
..

(Helvetius) (1715-1771) - ,
,
18 . : " " (1758, 1759

), " , " (1769, 1773) .
. : ,
, ;
; , ; .
. . ,
. , , ,
. .
, . . -
.
. , ,
. .
, .
. . ,
., - , , , ,
. . , . . , ,
,
, . .
.
. .
.
. .
18 .
..

 (Holderlin) (1770-1843) -
,
20 . 1788 1793
( ), ,
, . " ,
( ) (
)", - . . - , .
, .
. . "- ".
. ,
, ,
. .
. " ". " "
. , ,
- , . 1794-1795 . ,
" ". ,
- " (Dauer im Wechsel)"
- " , (Das Werden im Vergehen)".
, " "
. "-" (1794). " " ( .),
. . , .
" " . - " ", "
" (1795), -. . :
" , ,
* - ..+,
- ...".
, 1792 . , ,
", ". - " ",
" ", . (
, .
).
. , .. " ":
, , .
. .
. -
, ; ,
. . , , "
". "": "... //
, ". .
: " - , -
, , , , .
: . :
". (. "" ,
" "). ,

, ., : " ,
, ,
. " " ,
". . .
, . ,
, .
(12.XI.1798) " " ,
, , .
"" . , . ,
"" . : " , , ".
., , ,
;
. " ,
, ". ,
, , . "...
, ,
". . : ",
, ... ;
, . ,
,
, . ,
, , ".
. ,
. "" : ", : "
, ! !". .,
.. , .
.. . " , -
... - ...". ., , ,
, .
" " . , ,
. 20 .
" " . . .
, ., .
"" . ( "" : "//
. // , // ")
" " "
". . - " " -
" " ; Vergehen
(Aufheburg), " "
" ". . .
: " ", -
. . - "":
, 20 ., .
, . ,
, Nostalgie - .
.: ,
, , . . "".

-, ( )
. "" .
" , ,
... ,
.., , ...
, ... : ,
,
. , ;
, , ,
; , ,
, ". . ,
" " "18 " ,
. . " ",
" " , .
: " ... ,
". . : "
, , . .
, . ,
...". , ,
.: ", , ,
, ...". , . - "...
," - : " ", , ,
. ,
, -. ( , 1871
"-".) . , . 1905
" : - - - ",
" " - .
" ." 20 . , 28
1 , . . 6 .
" " (Hellingrath. Holderlin-Vermachtnis, 1936).
" ."; . , . , .-.
. . ( )
-, " "
. " ",
. ".
" : "... , , , ,
...
". " , , (Welt),..
, , ". , " "
' . "", "
, , ".
"" .,
. 4, 39, 52 53 Gesamtausgabe. II
: -- - ,
; " "; ;
" "

 " ", - , ,
.: " ,
". : '" ' :
. '' -
, - : //
, ". . . . (Bertaux)
1978 . ,
. .
: , .
. - , , :
, -, ,
. "' " . : ",
, // ...". : "
,., ".
. , " ,
". . ,
, " ": " ()
, , , // , . //
, //
". . " ", ,
, 200 , , ,
. "
" : " , , , , ,
, .
- , ,
: , ". .,
" " , - : "
, , // . // , //
// ".
..

(. gender - , ) - ,
.
, , : , -
: (sex) - - (gender) - "".
--
, .. . Sex
"" ,
. Gender, ,
, , . Sex gender
. Sex ,
. Sex : ,

 , , .
Gender - .
. !! , -,
, sex gender. "- "
:
. -
. -
. , , , ,
,
( , , ..) .
, . ,
20 . ,
, , .
(), , (, ,
), , .

. , ..
, .
"-", "", "" " ",
, , ..
. " ",
. . ,
, , ,
, , , ,
, , ,
"", . , ,
,
, , . ,
, , , , , ,
, , , , ,
, , ..
. Sex
"-" (etic) . Gender
"" (emic) .
-- , gender.
, ,

. ,
.
( , )
. ,
(, , )
,
.
. , ,
. , , .

 .
--

. , ,
U .
.. .

(. - genesis) - , ,
. .
. .

, , .

, ,
(. )
:
, - ,
,
.
.
, - .
..

(. generalis - , ) - 1) ,
, , ; 2)
, ,
( )
() . ,
. ,
, .
( ) . ,
( )
( - " "). .
,
.
..

 (Guenon) (1886-1951) - , ..
. . 1912 .
" ",
-
, , . : "
" (1921), ", --" (1921),
" " (1923), " ", " ", " ",
" ", " " (1931), " "
(1932), " " (1939), " " (1945) .
( , .
). " ",
" ", " " .. ,
, ,
, ,
(. , , . , . , . .).
20 . . - ,
,
, .
"" ,
. -
, , , ,
. , ,
, ,
,
. , - , ., " " , .
, . , .,
- " ".
, (""
), , ,
, . , - ., -

: - "". ,
, ,
, , .
, , , ,
.
, . , .,
, -
, ( )
- . .
,
" ". ( , .,
"-" ). , ., -
( , ),

 . "" . , ,
( , .). " - , ,
, ... , ,
, , , .
,
; , ", . " ".
, . : " ,
, .. ,
, , ,
, ,
". , .,
, ,
, - - , ,
, ,
, . .,
, "-" (
, , ., ) (
) (
) . ( ,
, . " " , "
- "). .
. .
"" ,
.
, .,
, . ,
( -
., ),
( - ). - ,
. - ( !)
. - . (
!) . - ,
- ( .
"" ). ,
. . , .
20 . ,
.
..

- , -
. (1846-1922)


" ". .
, , .
.
. (1844-1904).
,
.
, ,
, " " ,
, () . .
(1869-1946), .,
, ,
"
". ,
.
. .. (18401914)
, ,

. ""
80- 20 .
"", , , .
. , ". " (1990),
, .
, ,
, , ,
, .. (
). . ""
, ,
( " "),
,
.
,
, 20 . ,
. ,
" "
.
( ),
"" , " "
" ". "-" (
) ""
.
""
( - ).
.
, -
, -


' .
..

(. geos - . centrum - ) - ,
, . .
, , ,
. . ( )
.
. .

(544/540/535-483/480/475) - ,
. ,
- ( -,
). ,
, .
. " " (" , , ") 130 (
- 150 100) . "" ( )
"" ( ) ( ., ,
). ., "" (
"")
, , ( - " ",
" "), .
- ("" . , ,
, , ,
) "". (.
"", "" - , "" - ). ""
(" "). . -
, ; ; ,
; .
"" (" ").
- ( "" "" "" -
.). , , . ""
"". , , .
, .
, - .
(" ") . ( , ., ,
). " "
. " " .

, , . (" "). , ., " - - ".

- (" , ")
. :
" , ( )... ".
, ", " . . - "",
"" , , , . .
: " : ,
". .
. ., ,
. ,
. -, , , ,
(" ").
. ( ,
, ). .
, , ., . ,
., , , ,
. .
- ,
,
. ,
. .
. 19 . - , , 20 . - ,
.
..

(Herbart) (1776-1841) - , , .
( 1805 1831) ( 1808). " " (1806), " " (1807), "
" (1808), "" (1816), "
" (1828-1829) . . ,
"". . "" "
". .
.
, "", . , .
.
, , , .
.
, "", ,
,
.
" " ,

 . .
,
. "" (.)
. , ,
, "", .
., " ",
" , ". ,
"" .
"". , ,
,
, , ""
. "" "
", , , ,
. ""
, "".
..

(Herder) (1744-1803) - -.
: " " (1772), "
" (1774), " " (1784-1791),
" " (1793-1797) . .
, . ,
, - .. .

, -,
" ", ,
, - . .
,
,
. . " " 1769.
- , , , - . , 1776
, -.
; ,
. .
,
,
,
.
: , , .. .
- " ",
,

 18 .
; , ,
,
. ,

, .
.
,
, .
, .
,
.
,
- ,
, ,
, , ,
(
, ).
" "
" ", .
. , , .
, ,
, -, ,
. .
, , ,
, " " (1799) "-" (1800).
(
), " "
, . ,
,
. . ,
-
,
- , , , .
..

(. hermeneia - ) -
, () .
- , , . .
, ( ,
- ). .: (
), ( )

 ( ( ) ).
. -
- ( ) (
). , ,
. - . -
.
. , ,
-
-
.

( ). ,
, .
. , ,
., - . . ,
, - , -
. ,
() ,
.
, . .
(); (, )
(, . " "). ,
, , , . -
(), .
-
"". - , -
. .
" ",
. . - ,
. - , -
, , .
""
.
-
. . .
. .
. .
. 20 . , , -
.
..

 - ,
, . .
. , . . . 19 .,
. ,
().
. .. , , .
.
, , .
,
. " ",
,
.
, - ,
, . , ,
. -
, , ,
() .
.
() , .
,
. "" "
". ,
- , .
, , ( )
. - ,
( ) ,
. , ,
- - ,
. ,
, .
, 19 .,
.
,
, 20 .
.
,
20 .
, , . ---,
,
" ". ""
: - .
" ": ,
, ,
. , ,
,
. - .
( ) .

 - ; , ;
, , .
. --
, , , . . ..
.
..

() (1812-1870) - , ,
. 1829-1833 -
. .. ,

. . .. .
, -. 1834
.
1835 (, , ). 1840
, (1841-1842)
. 1842 1847 .
. . . 1839
. .
" ", "
". 1847 , 1849 . 1853
, 1855 1869 " ".
( 1856) 1857 1867
"". 1848 . ,
,
" ".
.
. , , ""
. .
" ". .
: " " (1842-1843); " " (18451846); " " (1851); " " (1855); "
" (1859); " " (1862); " " (1864); "
" (1869) . .
, .
, , .
, .
, ()
(). ,
, , .
( " ") - , . ,
, .

 . , .
, . " -
", - " - ". .
, .
, .
.
, .
,
. ,
("") . "", .. "" ,
, .
"" , .
"" ,
. (),
, ,
, , .
"", ., . "
", ( ), .
- .
"". .
.
, .
- () "-", ..
"", " ",
"". , ,
" ".
: ( );
("-"
): "" ( "").
"" (
), .
,
. ,
.
, , .
, ,
, .
, ,
, .
. " ". . "
, ".
, . -
, . .
.
., , ,

 , , , ,
. , .
, - ""
(). . " " (1855),
.
, ,
- . . -
, (" -
, ").
, ,
.
. .
" ". .
. , .
" ", "",
- . . "" ,
, . ,
( ).
,
" ". ,
" ", . ,
, .
"" "".
, . . (
) ,
" ". . : "",
, ( , , , ,
). " ".
"" , , , " ".
( ; . , .
.) . - ,
. , " ",
. . .
, , 1860-,
(
1849). . . -
"" "" ( ). -
"" . -
, ,
. , 1870-. - ,
( ()
). 1860- .
( 1840-,
, ), (
" "), ""
. 1860- . . , , ,

" " .
, , .. , , , .
..

(1869-1925) - , , . 1887
, . 1889-1894 -
- .
. " " " ",
" " " ", "". 6-
" "
(1915-1919, 1923 " ").
: " . " (1902); "
" (1908); ".. . " (1908); " B.C. " (1910);
" " (1912); " " (1914); " " (1919);
" " (1919) . , "" (1909).
" ". . ""
. .
. : "- ,
, - ,
".
" ",
( ""), ,
. 1917 ,
. . 1922 ,
. , . ,
. ..
1921 " " ( 12 ,

1920). ,
. --, ,
, .. . . .
: " " (1918); " " (1922); "" (1922).
. - , ,
.
. .
, ,
. .
. , , ,
(
). . - ,

 "" .
, , , .. ,
- , - .
"" , " ". ("
") , .
. (): -
(" "), " ";
"" (, , ),
" "; "" "" , .
"" ,
, ""
"", () .
,
,
- . ( )
" "
.
() (). ,
,
. , ., . ,
() , " ",
, () , (
, ) " ": " -
". "-"

. "-", "-",
" " " ".
" ", , "
" ( , ""
, ). , ., . ,
, ""
, , . , .,
, ""
,
. , .
"", ,
"", , , .. .
. , " "
.
, " ",
.
. " ",
, "" ,
" ", " "
. , .
, ., , .

..

- .

(1887-1950) - , , .
( . -, . , . , . ) - ( .
. ) . 1909 ("
"). 1910 1914 ( ..
, .. ( 1911), .. - ( 1913), "".
, , ,
., . -. 1914 1917 - -
( ).
. 1917 1921 -
. 1921 . .
. 1931 P.O.
,
, . 1923 1929 -
" ". 1935 ,
. - ( ). . ( ,
, " ")
. : " "
("", 1912-1913); " . " (1923);
" " (1928), " "
" (1928); " " ("
", 1924-1928) . . ,
, " "
( " "). -
,
, .
" ". " ".
. - .
( ). , .
.
, .
.
.
( , ). ,
. - ,
( , - ). ( ) -
( ), , .
, - .

 - ,
. , ,
"" . ""
. " " ,
, .
.
- , - , , ., " "
( , ). ,
("").
.
( )
( ). . ,
, ,
( ) .
" ",
(
, , ("- ") ..).
.
,
( ) ( )
. - , . - , ,
. -
. (
- ). ,
, .
- , ,
( - )
. . ,
.
-
( " ") . .
. , , ( ,
, , ). ,
. ,
( " ").
, . ( )
.
..

(Goethe) (1749-1832) - , ,
( . 143 ), , ,
. ,

 .,
. ,
. .
, ,
, (, , ,
..) - . -
. . - " ",
,
. - 80- .,
: . ,
, , .,
. . :
,
. . (" ", 1790);
. . 1784 .
. ,

. ,
. ,
.
. .
. (1808) "",
.
. : , , , ,
"",
. . ,
.
, .
. . ,
., , ,
. .
: "... , , ,
, ,
". ., "
,
- . , -, .
, , .
, , ,
". . : "
. , ,
,
. , , ,
, ... - -, .
- - , -
". " ,
-
". , .

 . . -
, " ,
, ".
- . - ,
" , ,
, ". .
: " ;
... ,
,
, - ". . - ""
. .
;
. . 18-19 .
, ,
, .
..

- - .
19 . . , .
,
.
"" (. Gestalt - , , ,
"" ""). ""
1912 . . .
, .

.
.
.
, ,
, , , . 20-40- 20 .
. (-)
(). -
(, , ) -

. 30-40-
.
" - " , . .
,

.
-. ( " ")
.

 ; , , , ,
.
, :
, , .
,
, , .. ,
, , , ,
" " .. . ,
, .
(. , . , . , . .)
, ,
. - (. -).
..

- -
. . () (1893-1970).
, ,
, .. .
. .
( ).
.
( , , ..),
-' ,
.
.
, .

, , ,
, . ,
.
-
.
, . , .. ,
, . .
, , ,
, , ,
-.
-:
. 1940-1950 .
,
- ,
- .
-

 (, - -).
. : -,
, , .
. .
..

(Giddens) (. 1938) - . 1961 -

, 1970 -
, 1985 - ,
(). , .
. .
("
", 1971). ,
, . . ,
,
, "" ()
.
. .
"" "".
"" , : (1) ""
, (2) ,
, ,
, .
"", ., " " ,
" " . . ,
, .
.
, ,
.
( )
. ,
, ,
. , ,
, " ". , ,
. .
.
" , ( )
".
, . (, .. , "
", 1989). . ,
,
. , ,

 (: ., "..
", 1990).
..

(Guillaume) (1883-1960) - ,
. (1938-1960).
: " " (1919), "
" (1929), " ", "
" ( ), " "
( , 1973) . ,
. .
,
. (, ),
, . . ,
. 1919, 20-
.
. ,
( -), ,
30 , , . ,
, . , . :
" = + ", . - ,
, . .,
, :
, - . -,
, ., , ,
: , ,
, . .
(
),
, . , .
" " . ,

.

: " ". .
, , ,
. . " " " ".
- " " ,
, "
" - . .,
, ,
. .
.

 . . .
, - ,
, ? . . .,
. ,
, - , ., " ",
. ., ,
,
. , ""
,
. .
""? ,
. "" . ,
. ., . .
, -
,
.
.
. 20

" " " ", ,
, .
. .
20 . .
: " " - , " " , , .
:
"" , "". .

"" - , ,
"", " "
" ". "-"
,
. 1964 ( 1973)
(, ) .
(). 1968 .
..

(. hile - , morphe - ) -
( 19 . )
,
- ( ) .

 (arche) ( ),
( ),
( , .. -=
""). "", ,
,
(ton apeiron - , ), ,
,
() - - .
( arche) -
.
"": "...
, .., ,
", - " , - " (
- ).
(. )
() -, (, )
, " " ().
, ,
,
,
(. ), -

(. , ).
. (
, , ), ,
.

, - , .
(.. )
(. "
", " " ..),
()

.
( ,
, ).
( , )
,
, . , ,
, - ( ).
-
:
, ..
,
(. ). ,
(. ),

 ( , )

(. ).

, - - ""
(., , ("")
(""), -

" " - (. ),
(. ),

). ,
() ,
, .
. , , ,
, , - ,
"" -
. ,
() - , ,
: ( ,
) ,
- (. ). ,
( " " ) ,
, , (noema
- . -). -
("") , ,
- .
, ..
(. ).

, ,
() -
, ,
(. ). (, )
("
, ?" - ). .
, ,
, - . : 1) - :

(archetipium , species
, visiones ..).
"" (exphcatio)
"" (.
); ""
(implicatio) ( - .

 )
(. ).
.
(. , . .); 2) - -- :
,
, , " " ,
, .. " "
" "
(
), " "
( ). (.
); 3) - :
(, - )
, - ,
( exphcatio ),
,
,
(, , "
").
. ;
( ),
- "" ( species, " "
" " - . ).
.
: (
) , (. )
..
..

(. hyle - , zoe - ) - ,
, , , . .
. . 1678
,
- (-, , ). .
, ,
. ( ,
, - ; "", ""
() - ; "" ..). .
. .
. ,
, , ,
, . .

 , . ,
, , .
18 . (,
, ). .
, , . .
, ""
" ",
. .
, , . . ,
, ,
. , .
( )
.
..

, (Hypatia) (370-415) - , .
.
, .
. . (
) .
..

(. hypostasis - , ) -
(. ),
, .
-
, - . .
, ,
(, "" , ""
.).
..

(. hypothesis - , ) - ,
, ()
( ) (
, " ." ).

 . ,
,
, (
) (, ) ,
() , , ..,
. ,
. . ,
, (),
. . (
, - , )
.
. .
- , - (
). . - -
,
. .
() () . ()
, .. . ,
., ( );
() .
, - ,
(),
- (..
"" . () ).

,
( ) ,
) . (, )
" ", ,

, . , ""
- , ""
, .

, ,
, ..
(
, () ).
"" -
. ( ),
,
. ()
, , .
(.: ,
), , ., ,

 . .
,
. ,
, , - ,
, . ( "",

"" ).
.- .-, , ,
.
.-. , , , .
( -)
. ( ,
).
. ,
, ,
,
.
. , . ( ),
. .
.
., ,
( ) . - .
,
. : (
. ); (
. ); (
, .); (
, );
( .); (
. - ); ( );
( .).
. -
, ,
, .
() .: (
), ( ),
- ( , ,
), (
), (-).
.,
() . (
. ). . : - ,
, .
..

- -
, - ,
() .
,
, .. "",
"" . : 1)
, , - ; 2)
; 3)
. - -
. (-)
( ,
-), --
,
. ,
.
, , , ,
. , ""
(" "), --
. , ,
ad hoc , ,
. ad hoc
.
-- "",
, , ( ,
). .
" ". .-. .
: 1)
() (
); 2)
(
). -
( ).
..

AKMAH (Gluckman) (1911-1975) - .

, .
.,
.
(Witwatersrand) .

 (1938)
. 1949-1971 -
.
, .
. ,
. .
-. . ,
, ,
, , .
, . , ( "")
, . .,
,
,
. , ,
, , , ., "
". .
.
. ,
" ",
. , .
,
. ,
. : "
" (1955); " " (1962); "
" (1963) .
..

- ,
, , ,
,
, . .. ,
, , (-,
.). - , .,
.-, . ,
.- . .. 19 .
. ,
.

..

 (. gnosis - , ) - -
- ,
-
, , .
- - ( 1945),

. 1 . : 1)
,
(, , ,
, ,
, - ,
); 2) 1-2 . -
() (), - ,
;
3) - (,
, ). (.)
: .
, .
: " ? ? ? ? ? ?
?". -
,
- - , ,
(, ) .
, .
,
. ,
: ( "") , ("") - .
("") , ("")
("") ("
") "
" - .
, "",
:
,
. ,
( : " " ,
- , ", "). (
) .

"" ""; ,

, , .
, " - ", ,

- :

 , .
:
.
: ,
, . - , ,
.
, , : 33
365 . , , (.: ). , ,
: ,
. " " (
) -
. (.
: "", ..
). " ",
- ( "--" ). ,
, , , (.. ).
.
( ), - (
). - 30 - . , ,
. , 30 - ,
- ("
"), .. (. ,
). ",
, ". ,
,
. ,
, - , ,
.
: ()
;
- . ( )
-
(" "),
( " "
). ,
, , , (.
, ).
( "
"), ,
" " .
, - . -
" ", .
, -
,

 .
: , -
, - , etc.
(),
- .
,
.
: , ,
, - ,
. -
, , .
, , .. - - ,
( ); ,
; , ,
, , .
, , . - ,
,
.
,
. , , ("")
: , -
, ,
.
:
(" ") ( 44 :
"... ...").
"" (. apokriphe - , )
.
; 2-3 . --
( manda - .) ( )
.
..

(. gnosis - , logos - ) - ,
, , - . ,
. ()
( ) " - ".
,
, ,
( --) .

, ,

 , .
,
, ,
,
. ,
.,

,
,
,
. ,
,
"-", , , "-" (17-18 .).
(, ).
,
,
,
.

. , ,
, ,
.
. .
" ".
.
.

(). ,
, - ("
" , " " ), "",
(, , ). ,
.
,

, . ,
19 . ,
. "" "" .
, - ,
, :
(""), (""), .
, ,
, . .
(. , ).
..

 (Hobbes) (1588-1679) - .
(1608). 17 , ,
. 1613 - . . : " ,
" (1640); " " (1640-1658): "
" (1642), " " (1655), " " (1658); ",
, " (1651); "
" (1654), ", " (1668) . .
- ,
: ; ; . , ., - ",
, ,
, , -
". , ., "". " -
. , , ". .
, ( :
"", "", "" - "") . "",
., - , ; , ;
. .
( : "" ""). ,
., , ,
. .
, ,
, - (" ..."). .
, , - "
". (
,
). , , .
,
"", , .
. , .
"" "": " , ". " " - . ,
., - " ". , ., " " . "
" . -
. " ",
,
. " " .
- . ., "
, ,
- ".
- . " -
, ,
, ,
". -
. ( ,

 ) .
, "
" V (bellum omnium contra omnes), .
" " ,
. .
,
.
-
. - ,
, .
. , , - .
, , - .
, . : "
, , ,
- , , ,
, ,
, ".
..

(1890-1967) - , , .
- .
( . -). 1913 "
" ( ).
. -. 1919-1920 - . 1922-1923 - ,
-. (2- ,
, - )
, (. , , .
"Academia"), , ,
. 1936-1939 - , (1939-1942) - .
. .
. (. , . , .
.). 40- - 50- " ,
18 ." ( ). : "
" (1961), " " (1963), " " (1987).
- "- " ( 1928-1936 ,
- - 1961). , ., (. imago - ) - , .
, .
. . "",
, ..
,
. - ,
,

 . -
. . , -
. ( . ).

( ). : ,
( - ), . -
"" - , .
, , .. .
. .
,
. ,
, ,
, ( )
, , .. ()
. - ,
. (. enigma - )
(, , ,
). ,
" ", , ,
.. ( ,
). , ,
. - , .
("" ), ("" )
("" ). " ",
"---" () "--"
() . . - :
, , ""
(), - ,
, --, ,
. - ,
( ), .
() (
) .
. -, -, .
20 . . ,
.
..

(Holbach) (1723-1789) - ,
, ,
18 . .
: " , "
(1770), " " (1761), " " (1768), " "

(1772) . . ,
. ,
, , - ,
. .
.
, ., , - ("
"). . ,
.
, .,

. . , ,
- , ,
. , .,
, . .,
,
.
, .
. ,
. . .
. .
,
. . . .,
, 18 .
..

(Goldmann) (1913-1970) - ,
.
,
. : "
" (1945); " " (1952); " " (1955);
" " (1959); " " (1964); "
" (1970); " " (1970); "
" (1971); " " (, . 1973) .
, , , . .
, , , , , ., . .
()
,
, . , .
. .
.
" ",

 , . ( .
, ,
).
(" ")
(), ("
", ) . .
: 1) - ; 2) ; 3)
. ,
("") ,
.
, " " . . ,
,
. ,
, " "
,
. , ,
" ", "
" ( ). ,
(), .
. ,
(
). ,
., ( ).
("
" , .. ,
). . .
.
- ( -). -
, ,
. ,
, , , ,
, . - ,
. -
. , ,
. ,
- .
. , "", ..
. - "" "" . "
", ., " "
, ,
.
, .
- .
.
. : 1) ,
("

" ) "" ; 2)
"" ,
"" " " ( ); 3) "
" (), "
" . " " ( ,
) ()
(), .. "" ,
, -
. . .

, " "
( ).
, " ",
. . " " (
) " " ( ) -
" ".
, -
. . ,
. ,
, , . .
"" ("")
"" () .
. ,
. . , . , .
.
..

, (. homois - , stasis - ,
) -
.

. . .
(
. , 19 .) . ( .
-, 1929). .
(,
, .).
, . .,
, - :
, ,
. ( -) .
- -
, -,

. 20 . . .
.. , .
.
: , ,
.. . .
"" , .
, , . ,

. .

, .

20 .
..

(1886-1943) - .
, - .
" ".
. ,
. ; " " . 1913
" " " ",
. 1915 (" " .
). 1918 " " .. ,
. 20- .
" ".
.
" ", .
1924 " ", ,
,
, . ,
" ".
" ", " "
" ". " ", , "
" "
- ",
. 20- ..
(" . ..
.. ", " : .. .. " .). 1928
( . ) "..
". 1929 8 .
1937 . .
. -

 . 1943 . .
" " (1924), "" (1926, .. ), "
" (1928) . .
..

(. hospitalis - ; - ) -
, ,
.
. - . 1945,
, , .
, .
. . ,
,
, .. .
. .
. ., , ,
,
. .
, ,
,
. .
..

- ,
, ..


. .
. . ,
, ,

. ,

. , , "
1789": " ,
, " ( 16).
,
. ,

.


. .,
, .
,
( -),
,
(, ).
. ,
(, , , .),
, :
, , ,
, .
., ,
,
.
, -
. ,
, , ,
.. . : , ,
, : ,
.

. . ,
. . ( ,
, ..), (
, ), (,
, ,
, ..),
, , (
-
). .
,
. .
, , ,
, , ,
,
.. , , ,
, , ,
.
.
, , -,
, , .
.
. ,
, , ,
..,

 . ,
, , . ,
, .
. , , .
.
.

, - (
, , ..). .
, , , ,
,
,
.. . , , -
, ,
, , ,

. .
,
. . ,
.

. . ,
,
,
.
,
,
. . .
, , ,
, ,
, , , . " ,
" (). ,
, -
.
().
. , .

.
, , ,
, - ,
. .
,
. ,
..
, ,

 , , . ..
,
. .,
,
., .
.,
.
,
, .
. , , ,
, ,
.. 20 . ,
. X.
" ". .
, ,
. ,
.
,
, - ., .
(. : , ).
B.C.

(Gouldner) (1920-1980) - .
" ", - "
". : " " (1970);
" " (1976); "
" (1979); " " (1980) . 1950- , .
, ,
. 60- , . ,
, ,
,
. "
". ., "
" - ( )
( ).
" " - , .
,
. " ".
"mass media" "
" ,
, "

" " ", " ". "

" - . .
" " (
, ). .
"" . ,
" " ,
, , ..,
,
. ( ) , . ""
"mass media" ( ),
"", .
, ,
, " ", .
, , .,
. - "
" , (
) , ,
. "-" ( ,
) ""
( , , ,
.. ).
" ", , , .
, ,
, (
). " ", "
, ",
" " (" "), .. " ".
,
.
" "

" " ( . " ").
, "" ""
.
..

(Goffman) (1922-1982) - .
, -
. .. . " " (1959),
,

 "" "" (" ").

- ( ),

, .
- " ", "", , ..
"", "".
, "",
, "" . ,
, "" "".
"" (, ..),
, ( ) "".
. "",
. "" ( ),
. , , ""
"" " ". "" - , .

. () . ,
.
: ,
- , . ,
, ,
, , ,
. .: " ", ..
, , ; " ",
. ""
"", "" - "", , -
.
. (),
, "-" ()
. - "
, ".
..

- ,

. .. - (
, ),

. , .. 16
"" . ..

 !
: .. - (
) .
" " " " (
)
- . " " - "" " ", . ..
" " .
..
-
" ". (, ,
, , " "
- , ).
.. ,
. ,
- III ,
.. . (
.. " "
). 70- 20 ..
. .., ,
, -

.
..

(Gramsci) (1891-1937) - , , ,
. 1911-1915 , .
. : "!" ( 1915 -
) " -".
( ), ""
( " "),
. . "" ,
" ", . 1913 ().
: " "
(1917), ( . , . . )
"- " (1919), -
(1919-1920).
1920
, .
( " "),
. 1921
(). .

 " " ( ). 1922-1923 1925

. 1923 - , "".
1924 , . 1924 . 1926 " ",
, ( ,
, ). 1926 . 1929 20
,
1929 1935 ( )
" ". 1933 1935 - ,
. 1934 .
. 1947 " ", 1948-1951 - "
". 12- ( 80-
). . ,
, (),
().
( ) ( ),
. , .,
- , ( )
. " " - "".
, " ".
, .
" " ( - ) - -
, ,
, , , .
, ., - .
- .
. " ", ,
. " ",
() .
,
. . " " "
") ,
, (
). ,
, , ,
. , .
, .
- ("")
. , .
, :
, .. ,
, . , .,
.
, , ,
, ( ), , .,
,

 , ( )
. , .,
,
. "
", .
,
,
, , ..
. . "" (
) "" ("" ) .

. "" - .
: ,
, -
,
, . : 1) -;
2) ; 3)
, .. .
, .
,

, ()
().
(" ").
, -
"", .
. . :
(, ) (, ), ,
, ,
. ,
, .
, .. . -
, .. .
, (),
( ), " " . ( " " .
"- ").
.
" "
" " .
-
. () . ("
") (,
"-" , ,
" ").
"- " , ..
, , . - , ,

 , . " ",
. , .
, ,
, . 20 .
..

(1813-1855) - , ,
. 1832-1835 ,
. 1836-1839 - , . ,
.. , . , . , . . ,
, ,
. . .
, .. , . ,
1843 1851. , .
, 1846
.
- .
. , , ,
. .
1897 , 1905 - ( ).
, ., , ""
,
. .
( ) ,
. , .,
.
.
. .
, .
, . " "
. , 18 . (
), , .
.
"" "" . ,
"", .. , ,
, . ""
"" " " . , .
..

 - . 17-18 .
(. , . -, . , .
.).
, , ,
.. , -, , ,
., , . . . .
" ,
", 1787-1789
. , ,
,
.
( - ).
1757 "
-...", , " " (1790), - " " (1792). ...
. 19 .
.. , ..

(1852-1899) - . 1875 , .
1876 - . :
" ", - " "
(1882). . .
("") . ,
. 1886 ,
. .
( 1888 ) "
" ( 1889), 1896 ( 1894
). , B.C. , ,
, . . : "
" (1883); " " (1884); "
" (1884); " " (1885); "
" (1886); " " (1890); "
" (1892); " (1894);
" " (1894); " "
(1895); " " (1895); " " (1898);
" " (1904) .
.
, .
.
"" , .
.
( ) "

 ".
.
" ": , ""
,
. - ,
"", "" ( -
). . ,
.
. ,
( , . ).
- .
.
. ,
"". , " " (
), .
. (,
), " "
" ". - " "
. . ,
( ),
, ""
. - "". - "
", , .. . "
" , .
" " ,
. . ,

. .
.
..

(Grotius, de Groot) (1583-1645) - , ,

. " " (1625)
. , , , ,
. , , .
, " ", , " ",
- " " " ".
" ",
( ), ( ).
" ", ,
, .
( ) . ,
, .

 .
" ".
. .
.
" , ".
"... ,
". , ,
.
,
. , .
.
,
. .
. (
), .,
, . .
.
..

- .

, , -
,
, , ,
,
.
.. 20- 20 .
.. : . , . , . , . ,
, . , . , . .
" " ( - ..)
1925 . . ,
..: 1. (
, , ); 2.
(
) 3.
(
, .. ).
..

 (Grunbaum) (. 1923) -
. 1938 - . . ( 1956).
( 1960,
). :
", " (1962), " "
(1963), " " (1968), " .
" (1984) . ., -

. " " , . (
),
. . -
-.
( "
? "; "
, , ?";
" ?"; "
ad hoc "). ., -
. ,
,
, . . .,
( )
. , , ,
, . (
" , ,
", .,
" " ).

-, . ,
. . ,
- - .

, ,
, , - ., . - ,
.,
. ., :
"" ( " ,
" " ");
- "
"; ,
; (
" " " ") .. , .,
, - , "" "".
, . ,


.

 . ("
" - , . ).
, ., ,

. " "
, (
, ). , .,
, -
.
..

(. humanitas - ) - (
,
""
" " , ,
""),
. (
). "." . - 1808. ,
; -
, ;
""
. .
" " ,
.
, , ,
, , , , , , , . , , ,
, . .
( )
. ,
, , , - .
. ,
, . .,
,
.
.,
20 .,
, (, ,
.). 20 . ,
"", "" ,
. . ""
, , "" (

 " ", " " ..). , 20 .

, ( ,
, )
, (
- ) . .
" ". , ,
.
. ., , - ,
- , , .
..

- ,
. 1950-
. ..
" ".
: 1)
; 2)
, ; 3) ,
,
; 4) - "--",
. .. .
.. (, , . , .) .

.
,
. , ..
,
. ,
. ,
, -
. .. (): 1)
, , ; 2)
; 3) ,
,
; 4) -
; 5)
,
,
. .. - ,
,
, - , ,

 - , ""
.
,
, . ,
", " (), ..
, ,
.
..

(. humanus - . religio - ) -
, ,
, , .
, ,
. - ,
.
.. . ..
, , , , ,
( ) .
..

(. humanus - ,
) - ,
,

" ".
..

(Humboldt) (1767-1835) - , ,
, , (1810).
. .
, (
) . -
, ,

. ,
. , .,


. . 1790-1800-
. .
, " ,
" ( - 1792, - 1851) -
,
. .,

. .
, ,
. .
. .
, ; , .,
"" - , "" - . "
" , ., (, ). .
,
" ". ( .
"") " ",
. (" ...", 1820). "
" (
" ", . 1-3, 1836-1839)
: - , ,
, .. , ",
", " ": (
" ") ("")
. . .

19-20 . . , .
.
., ,
, .
. .
-
.
..

(1912-1992) - -, ,
. .
1933 1935. (1938-1943). 1948
. ( " "), ,
, . - 1956. (1961, " 6-8 ."). ( - "

", 1979). : "" (1960), "

(). " (1960),
" - " (1962), " " (1966), " " (1967), "
" (1970), "- " (1974), " . . 1-3"
(1979, 1989), " " (1989), " "
(1990), " " (1990), " " (1991), " :
" (1992), ": " (1993), "
. " (1993), " " (1993), " .
" (1994) .
, -- .
" ". .
: 1)
"-" ;
- . ; 2)
"" ,
,
; .
, - ; 3)
,
, (,
),
; 4)
,
; . (
) . .
" ": , " ",
" "
. , ., -
: , ,
, , .
. ,
" ". . ,
, .
( - , ,
..) "" .
"" .
.
, , -
. - ( - " ")
"" ,
.
, ,
- - (
). (
, )
. - . .

 .
, ( ,
" " ). - ,
, ,
, ..
. .,
, ,
,
.
..

(Gumplowich) (1838-1909) - - ,
,
, " ", "",
, . : "
" (1875), " " (1883) . .
, , , ,
. ,
, , .
, " ,
, , ".
, ., , ,
, , .
" ,
, - ., -
". .
, . ,
, ,
, , , ,
: , , ,
, , ,
, . , ., ,
.
.
" , , ,
". -
. (.. , ), ,
, , -
: , , , .
. " ". ""
, . .

. "",
" ". ,
. " " -
, . , ,
,
, , , , ,
.. ""
. . -
. .,
. ,
, , ,
. "
, ,
.
". , ., .
, ,
, .
, .
, . .
, : "...
, , ,
,
, , ".
..

(Gurvitch) () (1894-1965) -
. . ,
, . 1917-1918 . 1918
. 1920 . 1921-1925
. . ,
(1929-1935) , . . 1928
. . , , .
. .
,
-. , , . . 1949
, .
(1946) ,
, "
".
: "" (. 1-2, 1947, . ); " "
(1950); " " (1949); " " (. 1-2, 1960-1962).
,
(1915), - "- " (1924).

 . (
). . : " . ,
-, . , . , " (1930); " .
. 17 19 . " (1932,
); " " (1935,
. ); " " (1938); " "
(1942, , ); " " (1944, , ); "
" (1948); "
" (1955); " . " (1959); ". , " (1965);
" " (1962); " .
" (1966); " " (1966) .
,
, , , . .
.

( "
"). . "
". , .,
.
,
.
, .
, .., ", --
". " - ,
. ( )
, :
, ,
, .
: "", "", "".
. laisser - faire, (
) .
() .
, .
. , . ,
., " ",
. "" "".
,
, .
. , .,
"". ( ) -
, ()
, , .
, , " " .
- : "?",
- , -
. , ,
,

. ,
, ,
( " "). ( )
- ,
,
. "
" ( ). " "
.
-.
, , . -
, , ,
, . ,
, (
, , ).
., , - ,
, ( " "
). .
, . .
, ,
. " ",
,
( ). ,
. " ".
"", " "
( "", " "
" "). -,
" ",
" ".
..

(1872/1873/1877-1949) - . .
. " "
, .
1913 .
. 1917-1918 . (
) , , ,
(1919-1921) . (
- 1922, , 14 ., .
, , "
"). 1924 -. .
" ". , , -,
. , .
,

" ".
, , , .
, ., , " ",
, " ". .
,
, .
, , ,
"",
"", .
, ,
"". . -
. . , .,
, .
,
. , , "".
( ) - .
"", ,
, ,
. . . - ""
(, ""). ,
"-" , "" ,
, . "", ,
. , , "" - " "
(" "). , , ., ,
" ". ,
. "" ,
"",
. ("").
"" .
: ( ), ( ),
( ). ,
" ", , .
. . " ".
. 1930-1940- , ,
,

. . ..
. . - " ,
", - " "
, .
. .

 (Husserl) (1859-1938) - , ,
20 .
. , , , , ,
(). , . , , , , .
. . ,
- , " " (1894),
.
- " " (1901) -
,
- "". 1 (""),
(
), . " ",
- ,
,
. 2 ,
. " "
, " "
. - - -
, , , .,
- . ,
" " ,
, -
'" ". " "
, "" (Anzeichen) ""
(Ausdruck) (Zeichen).
-
. "",
. ,
"",
, . ,
"" , . "
" (1913)
. " ",
" ".
" "
- "". ,
(
" " ),

. ,
. - -
a priori,
"",
. ,
,
, . , ego,

 -
- ,
. ,
"" .
"" . ,
.
-, " " "
": - ,
"" "". ,
, .
- ,
" " - .. - "" ,
, .
, ()
().
"" ; ""
, , .
: , ""
, , "",
. (
.) - ,
,
. :
"" - , () () -
. " " (1932) .
- cogito,
.
- ,
"-". "" .
. ,
"", ego cogitatio cogitatum ( cogitatio cogitatum -
). ,
- ego, ,
,
. , .,
, "".
"" , ,
"", ,
, . ,

, " "
, .
.
. . "
" (1938),

 , " ". "" .

"" "".
,
" ", "" "",
, "", .. , .
. ""
" ", ego- - .
" "
,
. , ,
,
. , .
, - .
, . ,
"" -
" ", .
,
,
. .
(), (), ; ,
. , ., -
, , , . . .
; , ,
.
..

(Galbraith) (. 1908) - , , ,
, . (1949).
: " " (1967), " "
(1973), " " (1958), " " (1984) .
-, .
" ". .,
(, ,
, ): ,
. , - .
, ., , , ,
( ),
, - .. "".
. , .,
, .. , . ,

 , - ,
.
" " - "" ,
, .. ,
.
,

.
:
. , .,
,
.

,
. ,
. , ,
, .. ,
. .
" " "
". .
60-70-.

.
.. , ..

() (. 475 -1 . 6 .) - -.
. 30- 6 . ..
- .
" "
" " . . .
: " ", " "" " "
"" ". :
, ,
. , ..,
.
, , -
.
. ,
- , ..,
. 1980 1500- ..
..

 - , 1916 1921
, . ( .), X. , . , . , .
, . , . , . , ', . , .. , . ', . ,
. , . , . , . -, . , . . .
. -, . (. ), . , . , . .
. , . , . .
. "",
:
. , " ,
: . : .
, , - -: ...".
- . ( " ",
"" "" ,
.
- 1917 ..) .
, , ,
.
( . " , , ;
, , , "; , "
"; . : " ,
, .., ,
, , " ..), .

( . , " - ")
, - ,
. .

()
"-" (), (. )
() (. -),

,
- (. ). ,

( , - - )
( , ,
), , "
", ., ,
: " ,
, " (X. ). , " - .
. , ,
,
. , , "
(. " ", ,
- ,

 , " ",
). .
, , - - :
" , .
, . " (). ,
" ": " ?
: . ? : .
. , .
, , , -? ,
, , ? : ", ..
(X. ). - , "
- , , ,
, ,
: " (" 1918 ",
). .
(" " - . );
.,
"
" ( "
" - , , , 1919). credo .
: "
" (), -
, , .,
: " ,
. . ,
" (). .
(" ", )
: " .
. , , , , . -
. ,
, . ,
" (). , ,
" , " ().
, ,
(),
() : " ;
. -?
- ? ,
? , , , ... -
" (). - . :
- ,
( ) , ,
(" ", ), .
: " ""
, .
, ,
- " (. ).

 .,
(" ,
" - ),
(, " " . "" . ,
, ,
, , , ,
., ).

(), ,

(. ).
..

- .

(1822-1885) - , ,
, . (1849).
-
. (1879). : "
. " (1869), ". " (1885-1889), "
" (1890) .
" ", (,
. , ). ,
" ", (
) -- ,
.
, .
, . - ,
, ,
.. . ., ,
- .
(), . " " (). ""
, .
, ., 11 - :
, , --, ,
, , , , , ,
- .

 " ", .. ,
" " .
4 ( ): ; (,
); ; - .
- - , ,
, - ( ). , .,
"" - .
.
,
- . .,
, - .
.
. . ,
" ", ..
.
.
. -
,
, ("", "", "")
, . .
,
- - .
, , ,
.
.
; ,
,
. . .
.
, .
20 .: , , ..
..

(Dante Alighieri) (1265-1321) -

, , ,
. . :
: " ",
( , );
"" - (volgare)
,
, , ; " ", -
(
); - "",

- ; -
" "; , , , -,
, . , ,
, , ;
, III,
-. , 18 , ,
. , , (, ,
, , ). ( )
, 4 . , 1295
,
(Consiglio della Capitudino; 1295 - 1296);
(. savi - ) -; 1296
( ); 1300 -
. .
baratteria, .. , ( 1302), 1302
.: ,
" , ". . 1- (
), (, , .),
. 1313
(" ").
, ,
.
. ( "-" 01.03.1311), .
. .
, ,
, ; 1315
.
-. ,
. ( 19 .
. ). ,
, - - ,
. - ,
, , .
. -
( " ") ("").
., ,
- , -
. .
:
(" , , ! , , !
, "). ,
., , ,
, -
. , ., " ", ..
. . "- " (..
)
; . ,

 ""; , 1329,
.
"", ,
, -, ,
. "" .
;
( ), (
) -- ( )
; .
.
. (. "" , ..
, -
). .
(" ,
... ,
"), ( , " ")
,
. . (. beatrice ; " "
: " , , - "),
- ',
. dolce stil nuovo
: .
, , (
" ").
. ("
"), - , ,
" " ( - " "),
: " ,
". , , .
,
: " // ,
". .: ,
, - - ;
, - -
(" "); , , ,
, . (" "),
,
.
(. . " ...",
- , , , ).
. " ",
" , ".
" " .
, " " "

" : " //
. // //
". . ^
,
-, (
B.C. ). .
- ,
(
, ).
..

(. - , , , ) - , ,
: , ; , , ,
; , , , ; ;
, - " ", " ". . ("" -) - : " ,
(), - ., . - ".
..

- " ".
6-5 . .. . - ( - 7-9 . -
). . (4-3 . ..) ,
, - . .,
() " ".
. (.
. ,
.., ). "" .
" " (2 .), " " (4 .), "
" (13 .) . .
(", ", 4 .); ("
", 6 .); ( " ", 10 .).
. (" ") 12 . .
, ,
. (. ,
-).
..

 (Darwin) (1809-1882) - ,
. (1831).
"" (1831-1836) , ,
. : "
, - " (1869;
1842); " " (. 1-2, 1868);
" " (1871), " "
(1878), ( ),
"" (1839-1843). .
,
,
,
, ,
. .
. ,
,
.
. ,
.
, ,
, . .
. ,
,
.
. (-
.)
..

(Darendorf) (. 1929) - , , .
1958-1967 - , , . 1968-1974 -
. 1974 -
. 1982 - . - (). : "
" (1957), " " (1967), "
" (1968), " " (1973) .
" ". .
- -
.
,
. . , , ,
, . -.
, . ,
, ( ) .

 . , .
. , ..
, .
. "": "
, - ".
,
. . .
" " - ..
, :
. . , "... ,
,
, , , ,
".
.
,
, ,
. . "
, ". .
: "
, .
.
,
.
". . -
" ,
".

.
. : 1)
() ,
, . 2)
() , , . 3)
( ) .
4) (
, ),
.
, ..
- .
.
-.
,
, , ., - .
,
. :
,
; ; . "
". , .,

 ,
, , ,
.
..

() - ,

,
. - " " -
,
, . - "
" - , ,
, . ,

.
..

- ,
. - - -
.: ( )
( ). ,
.,
( , "
"). .
(, , , , , . , X. ).
. ,
, . .,
,
:
,
(), , - -
() - .
. ,
( ),
, . (
., . .).
. ,
(. " "; .
; ..).
(.

 , - , - ,
, , . - ).
..

-
,
() (
, , -
). ...
. , e
.
. ...
. .
..

() (1881-1963) - . 1908
. 1907-1917 - . 1917
. . .. ,
. . 1924 1931 -
, 1926-1930 - " ".
1929 - , (1935-1945).
. ( ) (-
). ,
, ..
"" . . -
, ,
- .
1920- ""
, " " .
"", ., "",
.. (). . "",
, ,
, . 1930-,
, ..
., "" "
", "" - " ". 20-
. . 1930 ""
(, . -, . ), " ". 25
1931 () " " ", .
" ", , ,

" ".
"" ,
.,
"", . : "
" (1916); " .
" (1923); " " (1924); " " (1930), "
17 18 ." (1930); " " (1930), ".
" (1933); "- " (. 1,
1958); " " (1961) .
B.. , ..

- . (. deductio - ) -
,
. .
.
. - . ,
,
. . (
) . ,
, .
. . , .
,
, .
.
., ,
.
.
..

(. deus - ) -
. ., ,
, - ()
( ""),
, .
, - .
, , , , , .
. . - -
,
( ) (. theour-gyia ) , - -

 . .

, ("
") , . .,
- " "
: 1)
(" "), 2)
(" "), 3)
(" "), 4)
" " (" ").
.
. - - .. (1583-1648), "
" (1624) . " " (" "):
,
( ); ,
(" "),
( ). .
18 . (. , , . , . -,
. , , .), (, ), (, ..
.), (. , . , . .) (..
: .. , .. , .. , ..
.). - . ("
", 1779) (" ", 1793).
, ., ,
- , .
( ) " " (.
). .
,
, ( , .)
(. " "
). .,
, ,
.
- " " (". " ).
, .
,

(. ), - -
: , . " *..
. - ..+ *..
. - ..+ ... ".

..

(Dijk) . (. 1943) - ,
,
, . : " .
" (1972), " .
" (1977), ".
, " (1980), "
" (1981), " " (1983, . ),
" " (1984), " " (1988) .
.
,
. -
, ,
- ,
.
, ,
. ()
, , .

, ..
. , ..
. ,
. , ,
.
.
, , ,
.
, , .
,
.
"" () ,
. ,
, . -
, .
(). .

: ,
,
(, .) .
..

 - 1825,
. (
,
" " 17-18 .
, - ,
, - "",
..). ., , ,
-
, I,
,
- 19-20 . -

.
. ,
, ( ) -
"" (
,
"" ,
-- ), ., ,
.

, : 1)
( I)
, - ,
. 2)
" ",
. 3) ,
,
, , .
(. 19 .,
- 20 .,
1970-1980- ..). 4) .,
.
- 19 . - -
.
.. , ..

(. decadence - , ) - , - ,
.

 "
". ""
, , . , "."
,
. ., ,
, , .
..

(Descartes) (. - ; Renatus Cartesius) (1596-1650) , , , .

. , , 1629-1649
, : " " (1637),
" " (" ...") (1641), "
" (1644), " " (1649). . - " "
, "" 17 ,
,
.
. :
,
,
( , , , )
.
, - ,
, , .,
, , .
: " , ,
". ,
, . ,
. , .
, -. ,
(., ), , .,
" ". , -
, . ,
.
" ", " ", -
, .
, ,
, .
- . : " , ,
, , ,
". . "" . ,
,

 , ,
, , .
: , , ,
.. ( )
( ),
, , .
, . ,
, , ,
. (
, ) ,
, .
,

: (), , (),
. , .
" , , " (cogito ergo sum). ""
, , , .
,
"": "", -
, "", ,
cogito.
: (), - .
Cogito .
: " (cogitatio) ,
, ;
, , , , ".
, , , .. .
cogito.
, ,
, -, , -,
(, "", ) . cogito
- , ( ""
: " ,
"). . (
, .) ,
-. , (
), , (). cogito .
, : , ,

, , ,
" - , ", , . .
: , ,
, ?

, ", ",
"" ( "") " ".
. : " - ",

 , " " , ,
. ,
, ,
, " " (
). "
" , , ,
, , , , , , ..,
: " ", " ,
, " .. ,
, , -
. " " .,
, ,
, .. ,
, , , .
(
), . , "" ,
,
, . ,
,
, ., , ,
,
, ,
. , . "
", "", , .
"" . - , ,
. " , ,
, ,
, ". ,
, , ., ( "
" ) " ", ,
,
. ,
, -
. ,
"", ,
, -
. "" ,
. , "" ,
, ( " , ", ..
.-. ,
). ,
,
, .
,
, , ,
,
, "", cogito ( , ). .

 , "" - ,
, , (
). ,
,
, -
. (modi cogitandi),
, . " : , -
". , , (" ,
, , ,
- "),
. . ,
- , ,
, , , .,
, . , , (
)
. .
.
( , .
" "),
:
. . "
", " " " " (
, ).
"" . , ,
. , ., , , "
", , , -
. , ., , ,
"
", - "",
"" ( ,
, , ), " ,
" ( , , ,
, , ).
"", . : ,
" ", - , ,
- . , ., " "
, - .
(.. )
, , , .
, .,
"" () . " "
( )
. ,
, .
(-, ,
""),
( - ),

, " ".
, ( , , ),
, - , .
- "" . - ,
. ( . .) - , -
., 17-18 .,
. . ""
(.: ). . . , . , X. .
. . . ..
- (", ", 1662). ""
. . . .
, - ""
. .
20 . (, .). , ,
cogito
; ,
(, , , , -, .)
.
.. , ..

- ,
. -
, . ,
.
( -
- , , ,
) - "", "", "" - ,
,
,
-, -. , , (
: , ),

. - ,
-, -
, , ,
. ,
, ,
.
,
" ".
, ,

- ,
,
, , (" " -
). , , ,
, , ,
, -, differance ( ,
, "" difference, differer. I)
; 2) ).
(
), differance, , .
Differance - :
, , , -
,
- "", ""
. , , differance

. difference , ,
. Differance
"", ,
"" - -, ,
, . ,
( )
"" (
"", 1972) .
, differance, .
,
, ,
,
, .
()
. . .
"", , ,
(
" ", 1974, - ""
" " "" ,
). .
-
"". ,
- . "",
, , (
"" " ") , ..,

,
. ., ,
- , , -

, - " "
. , X. , . -, .
..

(Deleuze) (1925-1995) -
. - " " (1962), " " (1964),
" " (1968), " " (1969), " ", "1" (1983), "-2" (1985), "" (1986); . -
. -" (1972), " " (1980); "" (1975).
. , ,
, - -
.
- -.
, .
" " ( ),
, ,
. , . ,
. , , ,
,
. , "- ",
" ",
. " ", . "
" (1968), - .
, , . ,
. ,
, , ,
. ,
"",
. .

. , ,
, " ",
" " . " " (
)
- . ,
, , .
, ,
, " - ", " " .. ., ""
"" , - ,
, . ,
, .
.

,
. , ,
" ", .
- . .
- ,
, , ,
, .
60-70-.
" "
. ,
" ",
, "" . ""
""
" " . " "
, , , , ,
, , . - ,
,
. .
" ", , ,
"", ""
. " "
, " "
-. , ,
, . .
,
. "
" ,
. ,
., , , ..
, .
, . ,
,
. ,
, ,
. , .
, ""
, , ,
, .
,
, . . "
", .
, ,
, ""
. , .,
.
- ,

 .
: " ",
,
, ,
, .

. .
, "", .
., 60-70- ,
.
,
"". (. : ).
..

(. demiurgos - , , ) - ; - , "" (
), , ; -
; - , ,
, ; - " ".
. . . " "
. . . .
.
- , . " ".
.,
, - . .
. . (), , "
". (" - ."). ,
, . ""
. . " ."
. .
, . (. :
( " ").
..

- -
.
: , ()
() . ,
, - .
,


. , ,
, ;
.

, .
,
, ,
.
, ,
,
- .. ,
.. (, 19 .), . ..
: .. .. ..
.
. ..
,
. .. ,
, 1950-. ..
, 80%
. .. - .
,
, .. .
, , ..
21 . ,
5, 7 , 2000 , , 6
. 10000
, 800 .

, ,
, , ,
,
.. ..
, . ..
,
, ..,
, .. " " ,
,
. .., , :
. , , . (),
" ", . ,
, , . (), ,
, ,
, . ,

. ,
:

 (, )
(
, , 1994). .. ,
,
,
.
..

(. demos - , grafo - ) -
- . "."
1855 . "
", 19- - 20- .
. .
. (1620-1674),

. () - . -
,
. (
) - .
,
.. , ,
, ,
. .
,
; ;
, ,
;
.
;
;
;
, ,
;
, ,
, ,
; ;
;
.
. ,
( ),
. .
, ,

 , ,
. ,
, .
, .
., , ., .,
., . . . ,
, , , ,
, .
. , , ,
. - .
,
.
: , ;
;
.
,
, , ,
, ,
.

,
. ,
, ,
,
.
..

(460 - 370 ..) - , , -.

. , , , ,
, . 70 . (" ", "
", " ", " " .), ( 300)
. . , ,
, .
. ,
,
. . ,
.
atomos (.) - . , ,
,
. : ,
,
, ,

. , ., - (), ,
.
(- ), , , , ,
(, ),
.
. ( . - ,
). . . .,
()
. -
. ., " ,
". - -
, . . "",
.
, .
.
"" (""). , , .,
, ( )
, , .
- , . ., , , ,
, .
.
, "" , ,
.
..

(. de-notation - ) - ,
. . : " .., .. ,
". .
.
. " ", " ", " "
.
- (" ", "", " 7", " ", .).
: 1) - .
(" 1814 .", " " .); 2) . (, " " .); 3)
- ("", "") .
..

 (. deon - logos - , ) - ,
, , .
. .
, ,

.
(18 .) ,
. .
(, , .).

"". , ,
( ).
,
.
,
. , ,
,
, ( ) ..

,
. . .
- , ,
, .. , . " " ,

.
..

(Derrida) (. 1930) - .
(1960-1964), ,
(), " ",
(1983). : "
" (1967), " " (1967), " " (1967), " "
(1972), "" (1972), "" (1972), " " (1974), ". "
(1978), " . " (1980), ": "
(1987), " : " (1988), " " (1993) . ,
, . , ,
, , - . .
.
, ,
. .,
, - .
(, -),

 , .
() ( - , , , ..) . -,
,
(), , , , .. ,
, . .
, .,
" ". .
"differance" - "",
: 1) ,
(, ) , ,
" "; 2)
(" "). Differance
, . .
,
()
, ( ).
,
, ,
( -).
, "" (
) - " ". /
. . ,
. -
, "" ,
differance. .,
,
- " ".
differance , , ,
, . , " "
. ,
, ,
, , .
, .
, , .
..

(. designatio - ) - , ,
- , (., , ..
" ", ., ("", "" .).
..

 (. destructio - , -) -
. , () ;
, .
..

- .
. , ,
. ,
"" (1913),
, , -
, .
. , .
, , -
( ), .
, , ..
, .
.
, .
. : ,
; ; . . , .
, . -. .
,
. - .
Abbau , "" .
..

(. determino - ) -
,
- - . .
,
(). 16-17 .. . -
- , "
". 17 .
. ,
, .
,

 .
, .
. . .
,
. -
,
- .
.
, , ,
.
,
. . - . 19 .
,
; .;
- . .
.
() . .
:
(-) , ,
, ..
,
, , , , .
. ,
, -

- .

. .
,
. . .

, , .
, ,
- , ,
, , ., . (, , )
.
.
, ,
,
19-20 . . .
-
.
,
. ,


, . .
,
. .
( ,
).
..

(. definitio - ) - : 1)
()
, ( ); 2)
.
(), ().
, , ,
. , .
: (dfd) - ,
(dfn) - ,
.
, .. , .
: 1) - (
, ) ( - ); 2)
- ( , )
( , ,
, ). ,
.
: 1) -,
, (,
" - "); 2) ,
, (, " ,
"); 3) , ,
,
(, " - ,
").
,
(,
.). : 1) (,
- ); 2) (,
, ,
); 3) (,
() ,
: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8 ..); 4) (,
" ").

..

- ,
, . .
. . : 1)
( : , ,
); 2) - (
, ); 3) ( ,
, ..). . .
, ,
. . ,
, , ., ., ,
. ,
- . . .
() ,
,
.. . : 1) , ;
2) ; 3) . .
(), , .
.
-
..
. . , .
20 . ,
( ).
.,
.
, , , , ,
. - ,
.
. - , "", "",
"", " ".
.
(-, .;
,
; ,
., ..) .
, , , 20 .
, 20 . - "" "" .,

, .
..

 (. - ) - , 6
. .. , - . .
. ., , ,
24 -,
, - -, (
) (), .. ,
. .
. .
, . .,
, . .
. , .
, , ,
(), .
, , .
. . . ,
, .
.. - ,
,
. : ()
(), . , ,
.
.

. , , . ,
. . . -
. .
. , ,
(), , , ,
. . ., ,
. ,
. . . :
(, " "),
, - (" "),
. .
: , .
., .
..

() (James) (1842-1910) - ,
(, , ) (1889-1907),
. : " " (1890), "

 " (1890), " " (1891), " " (1896),

" " (1902), " " (1904), "-

" (1904), " -

" (1907), " " (1909) . ,
., 20 . ", ., -
... -, ,
, , , ,
. , .
,
. - .
". . , ,
. .
. " " - . , , "
", " , ". -
. " " . , "
", ( , .)
.
" " - . . - "
, . ,
, , ,
"" ". " ,
,
". -, ., - " " ("", ""
, " ",
" "). " ":
- , , , , . -
. ", ,
, ,
... , ,
". - , - .
- - : , .,
. -
, - .
(" ") . . ",
". .,
. ,
. , . . - , 20 .
.

, , ., .
,
. : "...
.
, . ,
... , .
( ), ,
,
". . - , ,
.
..

(Gentile) (1875-1944) - , ,
" " (""). .
, . ,
. . ,
. 1944. : "
(1913); " " (1916); "
" (1923); " " (1931) .
, . ,
"". " " ( ,
" ") " "
(" "), .
"", "- ".
, " ". - " ",
. (, )
( ), .
"", "". (
) .
, "",
" ", .
. "" (
. ) ,
, ,
. , , - "", "" ,
, "
" ,
. , , .. " ",
" ", .. . ,
, .
" " ""
"" . ( .
-). ,

, . "
".
. .
, , .
- , - .
. , " "
" ".
()
: , ,
; ,
. - ( , ..
) ( ,
, ..
). " ", , " ",
. , "
-", , " " " ", ..
(, ). ", - , ., - : ,
, - - , , ,
: , ".
"" .
,
. , ,
. .
,
.
( ) ( , ,
" "). .
,
" " " " .
..

(Jilas) (1911-1995) - , ,
. 1929 .
1932. 1933
. 1940. , . 1953 - . ( )
, - , 1953 -
(). 1954
"" " " .
. 1955 18

 " ,
". 1956 1966 .
. " " (1957), " " (1969),
" " (1984) . ,
. . ,
, ,
,
" " - - . .,

,
, ,
- "
". , .
"", " ", "".
., " "
,
, (
"", "") ,

. .,
"
". , .
, " ", ""
.
" ", . ,
, , , .
, .
, ( .. )
. " "
, ., . " ", .,
, .
., " , ,
. .
,
, .
... ... ,
- ,
". . " "
, .
..

- , ,
- , - - -

 , . , , ; , .
"."
.
. ,
- .
. , .
, . .
, . , ,
.

, . .
, .
,
(, , ).
. , ..

, .
. . . , ,
, .
. .,
, ,
, .
. .

, .
, ,
,
.
.
. ,
, - , .. ,
.
, .., ,
.
. .
, ,
.
..

- 1920-30-.
; - . (1886-1968); - .
, . , . , . , . , - .

(1892-1971). .. . "
" (1919), .. - .
" ", * 1923-1933.
"",
(.: ) ,
(.: ). - ..
,
. ".."
() ,
.. ,
(. )
-- (. ). ..
, ..
. , ..
,
.. , () . ,
" " "" ( .. -
,
). , ,
" " ( ),
( ) (
). - " ,
, " (. ). ..
, ,
" ",
. , (
) .. .
, ( )
,
.. - . ..
" ", .
( . , " ", " ,
".) , ..
. " " (. ). , , ,
, . ..
. ,
,

, -
. ..
" " (: ""
, -
.
, - "" .
" " "",

 , ,
"".
, . . ,
" , ".
, ,
. , , , ..
"" (). :

. ,
.
..,
" " ():
, ,
,
.
("" "" . )
,
- .. ,
. ..,
. - ..
,
- ", " - ",
". .. 20-30- 20 .
,
, ,
( " ") .
.. (
"" ). , ,
..
. , , ,
..,
.

. ,
, , , .
, , .
,
. - .
, , , , - .
, :
.
, " ,
". ,
, , " ,
". " "
, , , - (" ,
, ,

 "). ,
, , ,

. ,
- , ,
,
"". .., ,
, ,
, " ",
, " ": . . .
..

-
, ("") (" "). ..
1930-1980-. ..
: 1)
(
" "); "" ,
, .., : ,
. 2) ,

,
, "" . 3)

- ,
, .


( ). ,
. ..

(
-
" , .." ).
..
, "" "
", , " , , ,
, , , ...
... ,
, ". (
20 .,
).

 , ,
(
)

-
. " "
, -
.
-
,
.
..

(. dialogos - ) -
- , . .
,
"" "", ., ,
; . , . - , .
- . .
, (),
, .
. -
, , ;
. , ,
,
.
. .,
, .
,
(, , ). .
. . ,
, , " " "
( )".
, , . ,
. - . .
, , , , , . ,
, . , . "",
, .

 (.
) (. ).
..

- 20 .,
- "". .
, . -, . , .
. "" (1919-1923).
- , -
.
("") ("").
"" ( ) "",
. "" - . - ",
, ", - ---.
"" ( ) "" ,
, -
. , ""
, "", (
) . . -
-
20 . . (, ),
(, ), (, ) ,
.
..

-
, ( )
- .
- "" "" "".
: 1) . - " " ( ); 2) . " ", , - ,
.. .
,
. ""
, - . ,

. . , -. - (
, ).

 , , , , ,
, .
.. , ..

(Diderot) (1713-1784) - , ,
, . :
... " (1745,
), " " (1746), "
" (1749), " " (1754), " '
", " '" " " (1769), "
" (1770), " " (1778), "
" (1782), " " (1777-1780); "
, " (1747, . 1796), " "
" (1773, . 1785), "" (1760, . 1796), " " (1762, . 1792), "- " (1773, .
1792) - , - ' .
. ,
,
: 1746 " "
( " " ),
. " "
. 20 .
35- ", , "
(1751-1780), . ""

(, ', , , , .). .
"" (1750) "" "
"
, .
"" (1773)

,
. ( 1773 1774) . "
",
", ", " ,
, ",
-
,
, " , "
" ".
.
, ,

 . . .
.
"" " " (1774).
.: "
", ., , ,
" ".
. , "
" - ,
: "
,
, - , , .
, ;
; ,
, , ,
, ".
. - , "
, " ", " ". .
- ,
- , ("")
"": "-
" " , ,
, ". . ,
" " . . ,
(" ") , "
" , " "
, -
". - ,
. .,

, .
. : " "
. , " ",
. ,
, .
, "
, , ".
"" . " ";

, . ,
, ("")
("") , : "
,
... ,
". "" . ""
, , , - " ",

 , "
". " ".
" ": " , . - ,
".
( . - " " , . " " )
, ,
(): "
, , ,
, , . .,
" ". - , .
. - ,
: ,
, . ., " "
, "" ""
, "
" - " ".
18 . .,
"" "" ,
,
( " "). - .
, , ,
, " ... ,
"
. ,
, , ""
, , . "" , "
" " ,
", " ,
". , , ""
. , , .
,
("
") - , ,
" , ,
". (
)
. " "
" "
, ., , ,
, ,
, "",
: " , ;

 , ". ,
" ",
" , ". ,
, .
, ,
- . .
, " ": "
, , ".
"" " " .
: " , ,
".
, " ", . ,
, .
.
, :
, ,
. .
" ", ,
-, (,
),
, "
", " " ("").
(
). ,
. ,
" -".
. -,
: ("
' ", " '", " ", " ",
"- ") -
" " (. ). .
,
, ,
. -
, , ,
, ..
. "" (. " "),

.
, . , . .
, . ,
,
, " ":
., " " ,
. , .

 ,
,
" ". . - ,
, " ... ,
, "
, "
". .
"", , ,
. . , ,
"
, ".
..

- , "
1848 1850 .",
,
. ..
.
" " (1875) : "

. ,
,
". .. , . .
.. .
, .. , ,
. ,
"", .. , ,
. , . ,
.., , "
, ... ,
,
, ,
, ".

" ".
.
..

- (. di - , . - lemma - - ) , ,

 . -
, - , - .
: ,

..

(Dilthey) (1833-1911) - , .
, , . - "
. " (1883), " " (1894),
" " (1900) . .
,
. .
-
, - ,
- - . .-
- .- .- .
, ,
20 . -
. .
- ,
( ), ,
- .
. "",
- .

, , ., - ,
- . -
,
:
,
, . .,
, ;
,
. , ,
. - " " - .
"
, , ,
", .. .
, " ", ,
. .. " ". "
, - ., - ; .

, ,
".
, . "" .
. "" -
, ". .
;
, ,
. "" . ,
, . , . ,
, .
, , , ,
, .
, , . ..
, . "
". . , ,
, .
" ". .
- , ,
.., .
,
, . . ,

. , .,
( )
. ,
( ), . , "
", " ", " ", " ", "
" .. " " "
". . -,
. , ., . ,
- "
" " ". " " ,

.
. , , . -
, , ,
. , ., " ", " "
, ..
, -
, ..
- ;
, ,
. " ", ., ,

. ,
, - , .

., "" .

. .,
.
"" ,
. , , ,
?
- , , ,
? . , , ""
, . .
., , , - ,
. .,
,
, . ..
,
. "" (" " " ")
. " "
, , ,
. , , , .,
, , ..
, .
. ,
, ,
, .
,
, "
". ,
. , .,
"",
. - , ,
. "" .
; .
. ,
, . "" ,
. "", .,
; ;
, , ..
. "".
. .
"" "" ;
: "" , ""
"". . "" .
, , , .., .
"" .
, . , ,
., . -
"". "" - "" - "", "",

"". , .
.
"", "" "", .. ""
, - ,
. , ",

". , ., .
. .
,
: , .. ""
- , .
, ., , ,
, , ..
, . " ".
. -
. , , , , , , ,
.. . .. "-" -
, . , ., ..
, , ,
. . , ,
. . , ,
- , . .

,
. . - ,
( ) -
. , ..
: , ,
,
, .
, .
" ", .
, - ,
. -
, . ,
. " , ", - .
( ) , .
,
. ..
, " ",
.. , ,
. ..,
, , ,
, . .
( ) . .,
,

 . . ,
: . ,
, " ", ; ,
, ...
" " , . ,
"" .
. . " ",
. :
, - ,
"" . " " .. . ,
""
, . -, ;
, -
, .
, .
,
. . - " ", - "
". , ,
- . .
,
"" "".
, ,
, .
? " "
20
- (, .).
..

( 2-3 .) - ,
- ,
.
. , 1759 : "..:
, ,
". : " ", : "
". ,
,
.
, .. ,
, .
-
. , ,
, .

, . . ,
, .
- . .,
.
, , . .
, , .
, , . . ,
, ,
. , . . ,
, - ,
, . . .
, .. -.
: ,
: , - ,
( , .), ,

. , . . ,
, ,
. ,
, , . . ,
- -, , .
, . . .
, . , . .
. ,
, .
..

(. 404 - . 323 ..) - ,

. , .. -,
. - - -, . .
. ,
,
;
, .
.. -
.. ,
- -
(, , . ).
,
(, .). ..,
. ( , , ,
.). .. - " "

. ..,
, , 14 ..,
(" ", " " ..), .
,
.. , ,
, , , ,
,
"" " ". , ..
,
,
, , ..
, ,
, .
,
, . , ,
( ).
.
, ,
.
. , ,
.. . ..
, -
. (. :
).
..

(. discour - ) -
( ,
),
, .. ,
, . .
, .

. . , -,
, . - , discours (e), -, ,
. .
, , .
, , ,
. .
. . - , , , (
. ). .
,
,

(, , , - .). . -
" " ( ).
. ""
, ,
. "" "" ""
,
. , ,
, . , ,
, , " ".
" "
- , ., ,
. " "
, -
, .
, . -
. . -
. , , ,

, , , .
. ; .
, , , . (. :
, ).
..

(. discursus - , ) - , ,
. , .
, , .
..

- .

- , 1920 . .
.,
, .

 . -
,
.
, . .
. .. ,
- .
. . (1871-1937) . (1887-1949),
"-." "-".
,
,
. . .
,
. , ,
. .
(1864-1922),
. -
. (1877-1934) . (1868-1954) , ,
, -, . ,
, .

" " - .. ,
"". -
, , -
" " (Kulturkreis),
- .
,
. . (1870-1947) . (1876-1960),
,
. ,
" ". ,
- , ,
, ,
. , . . 1920-.
. . ,
,
1940-70-
( "-", "", ..).
..

- ,
,
, ,
. . 3. ,

 , (),
(), (), ();
, . 3. (),
();
. 3., , , ,
, , , ; , . 3.
, . . 3.
- , , ,
, , , ,
.
, , , ; , ,
, , ; :
, , , . .
, , , , , ,
, . 3.
, ,
, , , .
. 3. , .,
3. . 3. ,
, , .
,
,
, ,
- . .
3. - .
, 3.
, 3. .

3. . ,
, , " ,
". 3.
, .,
. . 3.
: , .
: " , 3., ,
3., ".
..

(1722-1794) - ,
. . , 1773 -
. 1760 . "
...", ,
. : " ..." (1761), " "

(1762), " " (1771). .

.
( ) . .
,
, .
, .
, .
. .
, - , .
: ( )
( - , ). ,
, .
, , . ,
-.
, - , - ,
, - ,
. : .
. , -
. " " .
,
(). . ,
, ( ), ,
( ), . .

.. , ..

(1776-1835) - , ,
. , ,
, , . .
1818 - , 1832.
" , " (1821), 1828 -
" " (). 1828
" ". .
60- . XX . .. . . - .
(, , .). .
.
,
.
. ,
. .
,
(

 " ", 1839). .

, , ( ), .
. . ,
: " ,
, ".
- . .
, .
.. , ..

(. dogma - , , ) - ,
- ,
,
. . , .
,
. . . . -
, , ..
, ,
, . . ,
-
, ,
,
. ,
" ", .
.
.
..

- ,
. (
) ... : (
), (
- ) (
).
- ... , , ...

(" "). ,
..
,
. , , - " ",
, -

 ,
, .
- "
" - , , , -
, ,
- , .
, , .
, ,
. -
- , .
,
, , .. . ,
,
- .
: 1) ,
; 2) ..
, ; 3)
, ,
. , ..
. ,
, , , : 1)
,
; 2) ,

; 3) , - .
, .. ,
.
(. : ).
..

- - . . ( ) ,
. .
(, ), , (,
) (
). . -
, - ,
, .. , . .
- ,
. .
, . , ,
(" "). .
, , -

 . , ;
. (
" "). (
, " ", " "); ,
( " .");
(
: " ", " ", " ", "
" .). , ..
(
: " ", " ", "
" .). .
,

.
.
, , .
.,
.
..

(. - doctor) - : doctor
angelicus ( .) - ; doctor invincibilis ( .) doctor singularis
( .) - ; doctor mirabilis ( .) - ; doctor subtilis
( .) - ; doctor universalis ( .) -
; doctor fundatisimus ( ) - ; doctor ecstaticus
( .) - ; doctor solemnis ( .) - ; doctor christianissimus ( .) - ; doctor seraphicus (
.) - . . ,
, - -: ( , )
( -). ". ", 19-20 .
( ) , ,
.
.. , ..

- , ; ,
( .),
,
( .). .

 .
. . , ,
. . , ,
- . () .
,
, . .
,
,
, . . : 1)
; 2) . ; 3)
, . . .
,
, , ,
. - . , ,
.
" " " ".
. .
, .
. .
, . - , ,
-, ( ) . - . -
, , . (. :
).
..

- (6-5 . ..),
4 . .., ""
. . " " 1903
X. (1848-1922) ( 400 .
). . - -
- , , ..,
. , , .
. , , .
. ., , "" - , , , , , , ,
-, , , . .
"" () , ,
- ""
( ) , -
, ,
.
..

 (1821-1881) - , -.
: " " (1845), " " (1860), "
" (1861), "" (1868), "" (1872), " " (1873), "
" (1876), " " (1880) . .
, ,
- " ", ,
, -
,
, . , .,
, -
, ,
, , . . - ,
, - - . -
, ,
, - . ,
., , - . .
"
". "", -
( ) (
, ), ,
20 . . "",
" ", " ", "
"; " " "", ""
"" - . ,
. " ", "", "" ""
( ", ") -
- " ".
, " " .
, -
"" "".
;
,
; " ";

; "", "" ,
,
-
.
20 .
..

 - 20 .,
, , , . .
- .
. -. .
,
. .
. .
- , , ,
,
. . - ,
, ,
. ( ), -- .
. " "
. - -
( " " ). .
(" ") . , ,
, , . .
--- ("" . "--" . ). -
. "" (, -
) - ,
---- ( ). .
"" (). . . .
"--" - "" - "--.". ""
., . ,
, .
. ( - )
. - "" .
. . (. : ).
..

(. dualis - ) - 1) ,
:
( .: , - .;
"."), ( .: , .),
( .: , , ,
, , , ),
( .), , (),
(

 : , , , .).
- - ; 2)
, - , ,
- .
:
, , -
. " " ()
, . ,
.
(. ) ,
( ). .
,
(. , : "
, , , -
"), - "."
-,
(. "." .
- . ).
( )
(.
, -
, ), - ,
. .

, . -

(
- . ),
, (.
, - -
). ,
" ",

(. - ,
, )
(. " , -
"). -
, .
. , -
()
() ,

.
,
(. .

, , - . ).

, .. : ,
;

; (.
); -
( );
;
.. .

: -
(. ),
(. " "
. ).
..

- . (. psyche, . anima): 1. .
, ,
() , "", , , ,
, ("") , ,
(., , ). 2. .

, .
. . . ,
. ;
. , ; . , ( .);
(, , , ) -
. .
, . .
.
..

(. dharma, . chos, . fa., . ho - , , , , ,

, , , , ) -
. . - , ,
- . - , ,
. - , . ""

 : "Satiat nasti paro dharman" - " , ",

" ". "-" . .
. - , . , . -
, -, . . , .
.: 1. , ; 2. , , ,
. 3. ; , (. ); 4.
, .: " .
"; 5. , : ".
-, , - ,
" (. ). .
"" (5 . ..).
, ,
, , . .
(skandha), "", (aytana), " ", (dhatu), "
". : 1) .,
(); 2) . (); 3) . , (); 4) .
(); 5) . , (). .
.
().
. . ; ,
, . - "", ..
, , . -
.
..

(Dewey) (1859-1920) - , ,
. , ,
(1904-1931) . : " " (1899), "
" (1903), " " (1910), " " (1910),
" " (1916), " " (1925), "
" (1935), ": " (1938), "
" (1938), " " (1939), " " ( .
, 1949) . ( ).
. ,
. , .,
, ,
. , ., -
. "",
"", . , ,
,
, -
. . , ;

 ; "", ""
"". ., , - . "
, , , , , , , ,
, , , .
, ". ""
"", . , : - ,
- . , .,


, " ". , ., :
; ;
; ;
, ""
"". ,
, .
, . -
,
, , . " ,
, ,
.., - ., - ,
,
". . ,

,
,
.
,
,
.
, ,
, .
" ", ., , " ",
, "
". , " ",
, ,
. , ,
" ",
,
, .
, . ,
, .
, ,
. , .,
(,
) ,
. ("
" .). .

 , "planned society" (
), ,
, ,

("continuosly planning society").
..

(During) (1833-1921) - , .
: " " (1875), "
" (1875), " " (1878), " " (1881), "
" (1895) . ,
" ",
. "" ,
. .
, . .
, .
,
, .
, " "
, ,
" ", . :
" , ,
. ,
- , - ,
- .
, ...
, ,
". . ,
"-" (1878),
.
. ,
,
,
. ( "-")
, ,
" ",
"". , - -
20 .
..

 (Durkheim) (1858-1917) - ,
, ,
" " (1896-1913).
, , :
" " (1889), " " (1893), "
" (1895), "" (1897), "
" (1912), " " (1924) . , .
, , , .
, 19 ,
, , .
- ,
, ,
" ". .,
, "
", " ", " ", " ",
" ", "", " " .
,
. ., ,
, ,
. - ,
" ". . : ) ,
" " ( ,
. ;
; ..), - ) ,
(" ",
). . , , ,
(, , ), . . (
). , .
. ., . : , ,
; ,
- . , .,
, , , .
"" . " ",
. - .
" ". ,
, , .
.
, ,
. : 1) 2) .
.
,
, .
.

 ,
. ,
,
, . .
, .
, ., .
,
, ,
, .
. .
, - .
, -
, . , "" ""
- , -
, . .
, , "
", " ". ,
"", "". .
"".
, . , , , .
: 1) ,
, , , ; 2)
,
- ( , " ",
, ..); 3) ,
(,
..). , . ,
, ; , ; ,
; , .
, , .,
, .
.
: "", "", "", "",
" ", " ", " ", "
" . . , ,
, . " , - ., - , ; ; , , , ,
". , .
. " , , , ,
, ,
". . ,
, . . ,
,
. I II . . (. , . , , . ,
. .) , .

 .
, , .
..

(. eugenes - , ) -
,
,
,
. .
. 19 ., .
1904. ., , - ,
""
. . :

, ,
, .
, ,
. ( ,
). ,
.. (
).
20 . .
., ,
. 1920- . .
., " "
, . .
. . , , , .
, ,
, ,
, .
..

- -
, 20-30- 20 .
- 20-21 .
. , , .. , , ..
. . " .
. " (1921). .
(" ", ""), .
., . -

, . , . .,
" ". .,
" " (
- , ,
-), ,
"" , - , , , .
., -
, . - ,
, . , .
- ,

: " - - ", " - ". "" (-)

, ,

"" "" . .,
"" -
.
. ,
- , ,
"" - , ,

. ( . -
"" ). 30-
" ",
. 20-21 .
.
20 . , ,
" "
. , ""
20 . ( , ,
- )
. ,
. ( .
"") : 1)
- ,
; 2) "
", " "; 3)
" "
; 4)
-
; 5)
,

 -
- ; 6)
; 7)
""
; 8) ,

.. . - "", " 3 "" .
""
( ,
, )
.
20-21 . ,
21 .,
.
, - .
. .

- - ,
-
.

. , ,

. .
.
, .
.
,
(1410, ). . ,
-, - .
.
,
.
. 19 .
.
, , . ,
, , .
,
. .
( ) ,
. 20 .

 .
.
- . ,
,
20 . . . ,
, ,
, .
. , .
"-" () . 20 .
, "" .
,
.
,
, .
. ,
. - ,
,
.
. , ,
, 300
,
.
-

.
..

(. evcharistia - ) - ,
, . - , .
,
. , . .,
, .
..

" " -
( 16 . ..,

). , (
, , ),
.
...,
;
;
.

.
..

() (1756-1813) - ,
- .
, . .
, . . ,
, . (1794),
, II, : "
".
. , ( ),
"", ,
. , ,
,
- .
. -
: , , ..
, -
,
, - .
. 19
. , .
.. , ..

(. hairesis; - , - , , ) ,
. ., ,
2-3 . (, , ).
.
.
. (,
, , , - . .);

(, , , , );
(); () .. .
- ( ),
( ), , , , .
.,
, , . . ,
(, , .
18 .), (). .
.
..

( - ) (1875-1942) -
. . (1920).
. (). ()
(1896) (1902).
.. .. . 1902
.
. 1913 .
1913
. .
. 1919
- .. ,
() . 1920
, ..
. " ",
. 1921
" " (
.. , .. , .. .)
. 1922 ( .. , .. .)
" ",
1922-1925 .
.
: " .. " (1923) "
.. " (1924) 1923
, ( , , .. .) -
(),
.
(1925) .
( , ). 1934-1941
. 1941

. 1941 . .

. (1959). 30
, .
,
, .
..

(1938-1990) - ,
1960-1990-. .
. -
. -, ,
; (1958-1975) .
(), (),
- (), (-),
(), (),
(), (, , -
10 ), " - " (),
" " () .. :
" - " (, - 1970); " " (,
1973); " " (, 1982); " , " (,
1985); " " (1988); " " (1956-1958); ""
(1962) . . 30 .
.
, ( "") ,
-
. , ,
- .
20 ., -
. ( )
-
, .
- "" ( ., "... ,
? . : ...
, ? ,
- , . :
- ..."). ""
. ., " ",
20 .,
" ... ...".
( "" ) , ,
, "
",
" ". ., ,

 : ,
( . ). ., .
, " ... , ".
. "... .
... . ,
" ( . ). .

- : " : , . ,
. ( ), ,
, , , -
". ,
. " ",
,
, ., ." - , , ? -
. . - ? - . , ? - .
. - ? - -, ,
. , , ?" ( .
""). "" .
( ), , ("...
, ... ... ,
-"): " .
, .
. , .
:... , , ... ,
, , ... -
... - ! , . - ! (
!) . .
. , ,
- . ...".
.
. .,
" 20 ",
- , ., .
., 20 . ,
(
) : " XIX . . XX - ,
". , .,
. . - "
, "" , . , ,
, , , - -
. , , . , , , , .
, , . - ... ,

 - ... , .
, . , , . -
. - . - . , . , , , ,
...". .
" " (),
, " "
" " . "
, ,
". , ., -
,
"" - "". ("
. , ,
, - ,
, , -...").
"", ., , , .
; : "
, , :
. - . - . , ,
? ? ?
, ! , ?
, , : ... , ,
: - ? .
. - -! - . - , - ,
! - ", , , ", - , .
- ? ". ,
20 .
, . . "...
: , , , , . , - .
- -' ,
- , .
. , . , ,
, , , - , . , , - ,
, . ,
- , ,
-, - ...". 21 .
-, , ,
, : ", , ,
, , : ,
- ! , , !
- . ,
, ".
" " " , ,
" . -
, 16-20 .

 - ""
, .
, , -
, - ,
. ("... ,
, - , . -
, . " "
- , , , ...")
. ("
"), - (
" "). ("... "
.) - (" "
), . (" :
, . ? ? , . ,
"). ., " , ...
. ". .
: ", ! ,
-
! , !"

, . "" -
, ,
19-20 . - "".
-
("... , ...
, ? - ... ,
, "), .
, , ,
, , - . "", "
". . - ,
,
. (.
-, .: " , , ,
. , , !
... !"... , . , . ,
. , : "
"). ,
., "" ,

, ,
: "...
, - -
.
-. , ,
, ,
. -

 .
...". .
, (.
1960-,
- (): "...
, . ,
, : , .
, ,
. . ,
, : " ? 13- ?"
: " , , ? , !".
-- .

: "... ... ,
. , , -,
: " ".
" "... - ? - ,
... - , . ,
- . , - , - ,
- ; , , ;
, , , -,
; , ,
,
, ,
- ,
..!" (. .-.
"" ""), .,
20 .,
,
: " , ,
, - , - . ,
, : " ? ".
" ", (" ,
"), . " ,
, - . - -, ...". . ,
. .

1970-1980-. ., "", -
, , : "
- - , , - , ,
, , , - , :
" ? ?" - , ,
, .
? ? ,
-, , - . a :
, . ,

, . - ? , ,
, . ,
, , - ;
... " ?" - , .
? : , ...". . " - "
-
: "",
(
)
.
..

- ,
- ,
. .
. . -
, . .

,
,
.
, ,
.
. ,
(
;
- , , , -
.). .
,
" " " ".
.
. .
- (.
). .
.
, (
). . : (17-18 ); ,
, (19 .); ( 20 .); , , (
20 .). . 20 .
, ,
,
. .
.

 , .
.
..

( , . 1110-1173) -
-, ().
. , .
.
. . "
", .
.., , ,
.
.. , ..

(Buridan) (. 1300-. 1358) - ,

( ). 1328 -
; ( ) . :
" " ("")
( 15-17 .).
,
; (impetus),
; , ,
, .
,
- , , ,
, ,
,
, . ,
, ..
, -
, , ,
- - . (
,
.. " ",
- ).
.. (. 1390;
) (. 1396; ).

..

(Janet) (1859-1947) - , .
(1889), (1902). (1913) ( 1925)
. .
. ,
1881 .
.
. 1879-1885
. , ,
- . 1889
" ",
(, ) ("") . 1890

, 50 . 1895
.
. 1934. 1904
. " " -
.
, , ,
.
. ,
, 1892
" " ( 2- .).
, -

. 1894 "".

.
, . .
.
. .
, .
. ,
. . .
.
, . : " "
(1898), " " (2 ., 1903), "" (1909), "
" (3 ., 1919), " " (2 ., 1926-1928), "
" (1928), " " (1929), " "
(1932), " " (1935), "- " (1936) .
..

 (. 1935) - ,
(1990-1996). (1987). : ".
" ( 1967, 1982), " "
(1987), " " (1989) . - ".
" - , ,

, , , . .,
20 . : .
, " -
", - . , ,
,
, -
. . , " ,
, ,
, ,
".
, . ,

. , .,
: "...
, - ,
". ,
, , , .
: "...
, ,
, ,
. ,
, . -

,
". ""
(1991) .
, , ,
: () () - . .,

, :
, - ,
, , , .. ,
-
, . ,
" -
,
,
!" .


, 1990 : "
... ,
, ,
, . ,
, ,

".
..

" " (Lebenswelt) -

,
.
""
- "
, ". , "" ,
, ,
. , , " ",
...
, "" "" ,
" ". ,
"..". - -,
, ,
. - " ,
", " -",

. ..
: ) .. ; ) .. , .. , - ; ) .. - , , , ,
; ) .. - ; )
.. - ""
, (
); ) .. - - ..,
. ..
, ""
. - "-", "", "",
"" .. - , , , ;
- . ..
,
. .., ,

. , , , ..
.. , , ""
, -,
,
. .. , ..,
-, ,
, ,
. , - ..
, . , ,
. , "
" .. 20 .
. .. ,
- ;

" ". ,
,
-
. .. ,
.
,
"" ,
.
..

- 1) ,
, -
. .
-, , - (.
"" , "", ). 2)
, " "
:
(); " "
. (); . ,
- (, ). 3) ,
, , ,
, , . .
, . .

. 20 .
. - . .

 ( ),
. . (
, ..).
.,
- , .
. ,
.
: , --,
.
, .
,
.
., .
,

.
. ,
, , .
.: " , , ,

". .
.
.
" ", , "
", "" .
,
. . , .
, ,
,
. (. : , ).
..

(Gilson) (1884-1978) - ,
,
-. : " . " (1924), ".
" (1925), " " (1932), " " (1943),
" " (. 1-2, 1944), ". .
" (1947), " " (1947), "" (1948), "
" (1948), " " (1949), " "
(1949), " . " (1952), " "
(1953), " " (1957), " " (1955), "
" (1955), " " (1955), " "
(1958), " " (1960), " " (1960),

" . " (1966), " " (1967)

. , (,
, );
(); ( 1946), " " ( 1922).
. : ,
, "
,
", "
-". ,
" ".
. - -
: " , , ".
.
(. - " " -
" - "). . , .
. , "
", " "
, (.
" " - ,
, ).

, " -
". .
, .

, - - " ,
, ,
". ( )
. - . ., " ,
. ,
". , , "
, , "
. - " ",
, , ., ,
" " "
",
, , , -
. - "
", - " ,
". " ", " , ,
, ".
. - :
" "", , "
. ,

 , , "
". (
) ,
, - ( )
: " , ",
- -
. ., -
, , " - ,
, ".
. (
, , .. - " ,
, ") , , "
",
- ("
,
"). .
" ,
", ,

. -
.,
(, , ).
, . : " ",
; " ",
; " ",
.
, , .,
" " " ",
( - ,
- ), . ""
, "".
" - , , , - ,
, , ". .
: " , - , ,
, , - ". ,
, .
. .
: ,
("
")
(. "" ).

, " ".
- " ",
(" ,
").
" , " -

 , .,
,
" " .
..

- , , , ()
. 3. , ,
,
, , ,
(). 3. - , , .
, 3.
3.: 3. - , 3. ,
, 3. - 3. .
3., - .
3. ,
.
"3. " . 3. ,
, . 3.

"3.". , ,
"", "", " " ..
"3. "
. "3.
" . 3. ,
,
. "3. "
. , 3.
. 3.
. , 3.
- . 3.
, ,
, 3.
, 3. - "" "" ,
,
. -
17-18 . , "... ,
" (). 3.
.
3. ,
.
, 3. . 3.
, ,
3. .

..

(1886-1936) - . 1910
. 1913
"".
.
" " . 20- "" " " ( 90% () ,
),
, ,
. 1924 " " " ,
",
. 1925
"" . 1928
. 1930
, . 1931
"" ( 1932), 1932 -
. "-- ". "
" (1926), " " (1928)
.
..

(1604-1676) - ,
1620. 1625-1628 - , , 1629-1633 - .
, 1637-1640 - ,
. 1669 , 1652 -
. , . 1658 -
. 1640 . .
" ". : 1) ("",
"", ""); 2) ("", " ",
""). , 3. ,
,
,
( , , " ").
.. , ..

 () - 40-60- 19 .,
. 3.
,
(). 3.
(.. , , , .. , .) - .. .
3. : , , ,
, , . 3., ,
, , .
3. : 1) -
, ; 2) -
: "... ,
. ,
" (.. ); 3)
: 3.
- -
; 4)
I, 5) .
3. 40-.

( ),
. ,
; ,
" ...
, , ,
" (.. ). 40- .
- 3.
(, , .) - (, ,
). ( ..
, )
(
).
. 3. : - ,
, ; , -
. ,
3. ( )
-
. .. ,
, .
3. , ..
(,
). 60- 19 .
, 3., , ;
- 3. .
..

 (. 490 - . 430 ..) - ,

(6-5 . .., . , ). ,
-. 3.
.
(" ")
. , 3.,
,
, , ,
, . , ,
, , 3. (. aporia - ,
). 3. , 1)
; 2) .
, : "", "", "",
"". , "" , - , ..
, ,
, .. 3., ,
, ,

..

- (346/336/333-264/262 ..) - ( ).
, 300 .. - . 3.
, ("" ""),
. 3.
: " , ", " ", " ",
"", "", "" . "" ("").
: ", " ",
". 3., - .
3. ,
. , , 3. . 3.
, , ,
.
..

(1881-1962) - .
- .

 (1915-1919). (1918) ..
. 1919 . (
, 1920-1923), ( , 1923-1926),
( - , 1926-1962). 1942
(), (1944,
. ). : " " (1914), "
, " (1918), " " (1923), " " (1928), " "
(1929), " " (1934), "
" ( 2- ., 1948-1950, . , 1953), " (
)" (1951), " .
" (1955), " " (1955), " " (1955), "
" (1956), "" (1957), "
( - .. - .. )" (1959, 1961), " XX " (1960),
".. " (1961), " " ( 2- ., 1961-1964) .
B.C. , ..
. , ,
(, ). 3. " ",
, . 3.
( ),
" ". , 3., ,
( -). "
,.. ", ,
( , "", ) ( ,
"", ). "" - .
( ), ,
. , , ""
- , , -
" ", .. , ,
(
). :
( , ..) (
) . 3. ,
, ,
. , .,
, 3.
(),
,
. 3. ,
. ,
, , (, ,
.), .. .

(3. , - ).
, 3.
: ( )
, .., , -

- ; ("
").
..

() (. 1560-1634) -, ,
. . . -
( 1592), (1592-1595) (1595-1597) .
. 1619 - - .
1626 . , , ,
" " ( 20- ). 1627 ,
"". 1628
105 .
(, ..). "
..." (1596) 3.
, , ,
, ..
. " "
, ,
, , . 3.
.
, ""
. .
.
.. , ..

() (2- . 16-. 17 .) - -,
-, . . .
.
,
. 1595 "", .
3. . 1596 (
. ). . 1599 - . , 3. .
3. " ..." (1596) (
" " " " ), "
" (1599). - 3.
, , .

.
. , (

, ..), ,
. -, 3.
.
.. , ..

(Simm1) (1858-1918) , .
, .
. 1901 -
, 1914 - ( 1908 .
3. -, ; 1915
, ). 3.
. , . ,
. , . . , , .
, . . . ,
. .
, . 3.
, ( )
.
, . 3. ""
(): 3. ,
,
. (30 , 25 ):
" " (1890); " " (1892-1893); "
" (1900); "" (1904); "" (1908); " " (1910);
" " (1911); "" (1916); " " (1918) .
3. , , :
, ;
- ;
( ).
( ), 1917.
,
, , ,
.
, 3.
" ",
.
"" (, , , .),
"". 3. ,
.
, (
, ,
" "),
, . "-" " "

, ", ", " ". ,

, ,
.
, , "" , ,
, , . ,
"", " ".
(
) , ,
( - ).
" ".
. 3.
, .. .
" " ,
. , ,
.
"" . ,
" ",
, 3. -
, .
3. - -
, , ""
, , "" (
, ). 3. ""
, , "" ,
, ..
. "" , .
3. ,
.
,
,
.
. - ( , 3.
), ,
"",
, .
. 3., ""
, -
, " " , ..
. -
, ,
. , ,
, .
,
"" .
. ,

 3., ("", ""),

. ,
() , .
, ,
. , 3. , . 3.
, 3. "",
20 . ,
.
..

- , (, ),
, ,
, , . , ,
(). 3. -
, -- .
, , 3.,
, 3.
, 3., . 3.
: , 3.
- . 3. ( ); ( );
( ..). 3.
(, 3., - )
. 3.
. 3.
( ) .. 3. - ,
3. 3.
, 3. . 3.
(), 3. , (),
3. (). 3.
, , , ..
3. (, ,
), 17-18 . (, , ). 19 .
3. . 19-20 . 3. (, , -, ).
3.
(. . ), 3.
() . , 3.
-
() ().
. 3.
(. , 1867) , - .
(. ) : ;

 . ()
,
. ( ) - " ,
", , 3. 3.
" " (
, , " "). 3.,
, 3. . 3.
3. . 3.
,
. ,
, , ,
. : 3.
( , 3.
.), 3. ( ) 3.
.
, 3. .
, 3. ,
.
..

(Znanietskij) (1882-1958) - - ,
, . , , ,
. , ,
. , 3. "
", (. 1-5, 1918-1920), . 1917 3.
. 1920
, 1920 , 1931 "
".
. 1939,
, 1941 . -
. : " " (1910),
" " (1912), " " (1919).
3. : " " (1921),
" " (1934), " " (1934), "
" (1934), " " (1925). 3.
, ,
. : , : ,
, , .. ,
() ,
3. .
, .
, .
, - ,

 .
, , . , 3., -
, ,
. 3. .
..

- (1), (2), ()
(3), - () (4) ,
(5) 3.
(6). 3.
: 3.
3. (, , ..), ""
- 3. .
3. ( 3.,
3., , , - ). ,
, ( ) (),
() 3.,
. , , , ,
- 3. "",
, , ( ,
), 3. (3. 3. 3.).
, , 3. "",
(3. , , 3.,
) (, , ).
: (" 3.")
(" "), -
"" (, -, ..),
3. - 3., , ""
.
, , -- (). 3., "" 3.,
"" - 3. .. ( );
--, - . ( ); ,
, , . ( )
3. " " ,
3. ""
. , ( )
3., . ,
- 3.,
(
. : " ").
(
)

 ( )
"", "" .. 3. "" 3.
"", "" .. ,
,
, , ""
---
, "", "" .
3.
() , 3.
"" ""
.
. 1) 3.
() 3.
. , "" 3.
3. , ""
. ""
(, ,
,
"") 3. "" (
), "" (
3.; , ,
3., () "
()", , ,
"" 3.). 2) ""
3. ,
( ..)
, (
, ) 3.

3. . 3.
-
3. , 3. ,
- (,
, -, - ..). 3)
3.
3. (
) - - 3.,
(, ,
). 3.
, 3. ( )
(- ) . 3.
. 3.
-, 3. -. 4)
3. ,
(""), .
("") 3.,
, . ,

, 3. ,
- " "
3. (- .). 5)
.
3. ( ) "
", - "" 3.
( ) "
()", " ()" "",
"" 3. .
" ": " " 3.

( ,
). 6) , , ,

() 3. 3.
().
3.
(),
"" . -
. 7) --- 3.
3.
() , , .
3. (-, -,
; "-", "-", "-" ..).
3. - . 8)
3. , , , , .. -,
" " . - (
) , (
) 3.
- --
- , "".
, - ; ,
- , ,
.. , 3. ,
. 9) , - 3.
, - , , , 3.
() "-", , () 3., () ()
. "" - ,
, , () 3. ,
.
3. " ", ..
. 10)

 3., , "".
"" 3., , 3.,

, ( ),
3. ( ), ,
( 3., ),
, .
, 3.,
3., . 11) ,
3.
() () 3.,
,
,
, -.
..

(1772-1833) - .
. ( )
. , . , . -, . , . .
,
. 3. ,
. 1810 - .
, -, "" ,
, 3.
. ,
, 3. . 1811 "
", 1816 - " , ".
1588 .
.. , ..

- , ,
, : "
, ".
: " , , ".
...
.
..

 (Sombard) (1863-1941) - , ,
. : " XIX . "(1896), "
" (1932), " " (1934). 1890 (), 1906
- . 1909 .
, .
,
, . "". ,
, ,
.
" " - , ,
.
, .
3., ,
.
,
, ,
.
"" 3.
,
. -
, ,
- , , 3.,
. 3. "
" - , ,
. -
" " " " " ". 3.
, - .
3.
"" .
,
,
, ,
" ", , 3.
. , - "
"
, .. " ".
3. , ""
" ". " " 3.
.
..

 () - ,
() - "" - 7-6 . .. .
(. , . ),
"" - 3. - . 3. : , ,
. ,
- - - " " -
. 3. ,
. 3. ,
, ,
, . 3. 4
: , , , .
: . . " " - ,
,
. "" "" . 3.
. 3. , ,
. 3. ,
.
..

( - ) --
(1126-1198) - ,
. ,
,
() ,
. ..
, . .
" ",
. .. ()
, . ..
. ..
.
..

( - ) (. 9801037) - , . .
, ,

. , .. .
, , .. ,

 , . , ..,
, .
. ,
. .., ,
,
. .. " "
.
..

- (1332-1406) -
, , ,
. " ". :
" ", " ", "
, ,
". ..
.
, ,
, .
.. -
. , ..,

.
..

(1898-1983) - ,
20 .,
. .
20 . . .,
,
. ,
., , ,
.

, , ,
,
. . , , ""
" " - , .
, .,
, ,
, , (

 ) 30 . ., "
- , . , - .
. ... ".
.
. ., , " - !".
, . ,
, . ., : "...
, ... , ,
... ... , ".
., , ,
.. - . "
, , ...". ,
, , . (
, . - ,
- "" ).
, , , ,
, .
.
, .
:
1935-1975 . 12
.
..

(1867-1931) - - ,
, . . .
. 1899 - , 1904 - , (19201921) . 1921 1927.
:
. " ",
: " " (1893); " " (1897); "
" (1898); " .. "
(1900) . . (
). ,
.: " . --
", 1 (1909). : ". , 18971899 " (1899); " . ,
" (1908).
: , . , , . , . -, ("
" " " ).
: "
" (1923). . ,

 . .
- , . .
, - ,
. . . .
, " "
. . ,
( .).
..

- ,
,
. . -
.
"Homo Ludens" (1938).
20
- ,
. .
(), ,
(--), ,
" " (). . - ,
,
. :
; , , (, , ..);
(, , );
. . - , .
. .
,
- ; , , ,
. .
.
, , .
. " ", ,
(
.) , "" . .
. ,
. .
,
. , .
, . .
,
- ,

,
.
. ,
. . ,
. ,
" " ,
,

. ,
., , ,
. (. : , ).
..

(. idea - , ) - ,
, .
.
, , , ; -
. . -
, - , ,
, ,
. , ,
., ,
(, , , , .).
,
.
, .
.
.
. ( 18-19
.; - 20 .). . .
. -
. . ,
(
, () ).
.
( ).
. -
" ".
, . .
, ,
. .
, ( ).
. ,

 ,
(). - - . (
) . , , . (,
, ). .
. . , .
-, ,
. . ,
, , "" .
, . , , ,
, . . .
, - "
" .
..

- ,
.
,
,
( .., " ", ,
" "). ..
,
. ..
, -
. , ..
, 19-20 .
. ,
- ,
, . , ..
,
.
..

(. idealisme . idea - ) - , 18 .
,
.
. - 1702 (

 ). 18 .
"
" .
: ,
"
- ". -
. ,
, , :
. ( , -
); .; .,
;
.. . , ,
, - .
. ,
, , , .
, -
. ,


.
, ,
(. genesis "", a phusis,
. "", "").
,
- , :
, - .. ,
, ( ),
, . (
, - ) -
( , ,
, , , ,
, " " -
). ,
.
, , ..
() , .
, :
, ..
,
, .

, , , .
:
(-, - - ),
- . , ,
( , ) , : ( ,

 ) ( ).
, ,
, - ,
- .
:
, -
,
. ,
,
", , , , ,
. , - , - " (, 50). (. : " ...
, ?").
,
.
- (, , ..), - , (
); ^

. : () , , . - (.
) - ( , ),
,
(
oikurema,

"").
, , , , : "... ,
,... , ,... -
, " (, 50).
, , , .. (, )
, , ,
, . , ,
", ",
" " (, 29-30, 41). ()
, ,
, , (
, ,
- , ,
,
- , - ). , ,
,
-, .,
, . ,


, (.
: " , , ,
, , ").
-
- , , ,
- ,
-
.

,
,
. ,
(,
, ), , -
(, ): . " " "...
...,
" - .
.,
(),
(), (" "), ().
.
( ), (
), ( ),
.
(, )
( ).
, . , - ,
-
, - , , .
, ,
, (
- ), (
, ),
( ,
, :
, ,
, ,
).
..

- , ". "; - .

, , ,
- .
, ;
- . .
. , -
. () ,
()
( ). .
, ,
. (.
() , )
, . ".
,
, . ,, ,
, ,
" (). 20 ,
, .
, , , .
.
..

- , .
, . , , "
", , ,
. ,
"", "", " " .., ,

, .. - "",
.
;
"
". .. "
", ,
.
: ..,
. . -,
- ,
. ,
( ):
, .. ,
. -, .., ,
, , . ..

 ,
20 ,
. .., , ,
. , ,
,
" ", .. ,
" ". ,
, -
. ,
. ,
.., ,
.
..

- .
. ...
. , .

, ,

. ,
, , , .
...
, , ,
,
. . - ""
, ,
.
.. .
,
"", " ", " " ..
,
, , .
, ...,
, ,
. ...
19 - 20 .,
. ... ,
,
, .
..

(. identifico - ) - 1) , -,
-; 2) , -, -. .
,
, ..
, ,
, ..
, .
. , ,
. - .

,
, . .
"", "",
- .
.
, ,
, "",
, . . .
. : )
( - , - ); "",
, "" ;
,
.
..

- , ,
, , , ,
; , .
"" ,
.
. ( ,
)
, .
. , ,
. 1795 .-.
,
1796 - . (" ", 1801-1815) . ("Ideologie")
. .
. , , . ,
.

 , " ,
". 1808 : "
, , , - ".
" " (1845-1846) .: )
, ,
; ) , - ,

,
; ) ,
, .
, " , ,
, ". , , .
, . . .
. ,
, . . "" ,
. . " ",
" " , "
". . "
" . "", .
. ()
, "" ( .
- , " " ),
, "" ..

20 .
. - . " "
- , : "
(, , , .). .
. . - .".
. - " " " ".
, " "
, , . "", - " .". , ,
: " ,
( , , ) - .
, ".
. ,
, ..
. "". .

,
, - (
).
. . "" (1957)
., "".
. , .

 .
, -
, . " ", " ".
, "" "", ,
( ),
, .
, .. .
, - ""
"". .
: " - , ; , ,
, ,
, ". .
-, ,
. "" . "
" (1965) , . - .
, , . . "".
"" ,
, ,
. ., ,
.,
. ,
. ., "
",
.
. .
"
". . ,
.
,
. , -
, .
.
. ("-" -
, "" -
..).
..

- ,
( - ). .
, ,
.
, . , ,

 . , .
. . ,
. .
,
. - . "",
. .
, . . , . .
,
. . ,

, . 20 . .
. (.
).
..

- . , .

(. hieros - , arche - ) -
,
() , , ().
n (n-1)
(n+1). . ,
. . . .
. .
. . , ,
. .
- . . 2- 5 . " ." " .". .
. - : , , , , ,
, ( ). .
( ); - . ,
(), - . .
, ,
. , . " " "
". .,
-, . , ,
, . ,
, . . (, , .),

. . , , ,
() . .
.
..

- .

- ,
, .
,
""
. " - " ,
, ,
, ,
.
.., ,
, , ,
, .. ( ),
. ,
.. , ,
, , , , ,
. .. ,
. ,
,
. ..
. ,
, , .. (,
, . -,
). ..
,
(, ). ,
.., - . ..
( .). , .. - , .
(. ), ..
,
.
..

 -
. ,
, ,
. - ,
"" . .
, , ,
. , .
/ , .
.,
, , .,
. .
.
,
, "",
.
. ,
, , ,
. ,
: , ,
.
.
, , ,
, .

- " ", " - ", .. : ,
, , .
, , : ,
, , - .
,

. ,
() : ,
, , , ,
,
. , ( )
, .
, ,
( - - - ), -
( , ). , , 6-
, 4-, ;
, ,
.
() . ,

 . , ,
, .
, ( ) ,
. , , ,
, ,
. , ,
, "" , "",
,
- . ,
, .
(, ), ,
(, ).

, , .. , ,
, ,
,
, .
, :
,
., ,
, . , ,
, ,
. , ,
,
. ,
,
,
.
, .
,

, .
, ,
: , , , , (
), ( ).
, ,
, ,
, .
. :
, , .. ,
,
, . .
(, IQ
. ), ,
. .
.: , ,
, .

 ., - :
, ,
, ,
. . ,
,
. . ,
.
().
., , ,
, .
. .
( )
. .
, , ..,
.
, ,
- ,
.
..

(. Iesous - . Jesua, Jehosua - , ; .

Christos - , . Mashiah - , ) -
- , ,
( " " " ");
, -, ;
, (.
); ,
(. . . Soter - ;
). (1) - ..
:
, ,
, , , ,
" " ( ) " ". - ..
( ),
,
. ..
.. (.
, , , , :
" , ,
"). , - ,
,

 - , ,

( , : , ),
, ("... , ... :
, " - , 25, 35-40). ..,
, ,
, (
) , () - ,

. (2) - ( - ) -
(. , . -, .
, (.. , . -, . , . , . , .
), . , . , . , . , . , . , . , . , ,
.) ( . , . , . - . , .
, . , . -, . , .. , . .)
-, -
(. ):
( -
) -- (
- .

" ") ,
(. ).
2-18 . 24 ,
.. ( ); . . (3) -
, -, -- : ,
, -
,
(
), ( ), (
) ( ),
-
. ..
-
(. ,
: " , " - . ). ..
,
,
( : " ?
?"). ..
(, 1, 14)
- ,
. ,
- -
-


,
.
,
,
(.: ). . : ,
, , , , , . .. , ..
, ..
(1924-1979) - ,
, , , . 1953 1979
. 1965 .
. . .
, , . 1968 : "
". . -
. . - - . .
. ,
., - ,
()
.
. . , ,
, , , . . : "
"" . " (1960), " " (1968), "
" (1974), " " (1979), "
" (1983), " " (1991).
..

(1883-1954) - , ,
, (1918, .. .. ),
(1923), (1918). : "
" (1918), " " (1918), " "
(1925), " (1931) " " (1935), "
. " (1937), " . 1948-1954" (1956), "
" ( 1979) ., -
,
, .

, .
- 20 "",
, , , , . .,
. "
", , ".
, , . ,

 , . ",
, . ,
, , ...
, .
". , .,
, . .. , .
,
, . (
" ")
- .,
. .,
,
" - ".
, "
" "
", . , (" ",
), (" " -)
,
,
" , ,
, , ,
". .,
" ",
, ,
" ".
, , ,
, . ,
. "
- , , ; - -
". .,
,

, .

-.
, ., ,
, ,
, , "
", .
. ,
, , , ,
, " ",
, . , . ,
, .
, , "
, ; ,
, ". -

 .
.
,
, .
..

(. immanens - ) - , ,
, ; , ,
, . ,
,
. . - .
(.) , .
. .

(. heterores, . alterritas) - ("", ""),

- .
-
"", , . .
- ""; .
"" ; .
.
. .

(, invective - , ) -
,
,
. ., ,
.,
- , -
( .
,
, ).
, .
; , ,
, .
.

 :
,
, .,
(. "" "" ); ,
, .,
, , (, . "
" ); ,
, ., : .
( -
) ,

( . clitor ; ,
" " .); , ,
. - (.
"", "" , - .
" " dirty dozen (" ")
); , , .,
(bastard , psa krev ( )
, " " ); ,
- , .,
(. God damn - " ")
( " ") .. ( )
. -, (.
"" ), (, ""
) .
,
. (. semen
). .
, (.
" " :
, ., ; ,
, , .
, . " " ""
, - , . "" ""
).
.
(""), - .
" " (.. ). .
: 1) - , ..
(, ); 2)
., ,
: , .
( ), ,
- ( ); .

( ); 3) -
(

 ). - . (
, )
(. Donnerwetter - : " " -
" "). .
(
),
. .
, :
.
. (- ""
"",
-
). , , ,
, ,
,
-, ():

. , . ,

: ", ... , ,
, , "
(.. ). , , (, ,
), (P.M. ),
.
(.. ). , .
.
.
(.. , . , .. , .. , .. , . --, ..
, . , P.M. , .. .)
..

(. inversio - , ) -
,
. . , , ,
, .. . ,
. . 1882
. .
. , .
,
. .
.
: 1) ,
; 2) - ( ),

 () ; 3)
,
( ),
. : 1)
., 2) ., 3) . , ., ..
, ,
, ,
( ).
. ,
, , .

., ,
"
".
..

, ( . individum - ) - , ,
, .
"" (
"").
, , , , , , ..
.
- . ,
"" .
"" "" (. respon-sare - ,
)
.
( ) () :
( - ,
, - ..); , ..
; ("")
, .. ;
, ,
;
( , , , ,
..),
()
.
()
,
(,
, ..).
. ,

, ..
"", , ""
,
, -

. ""
"", , -
, "",
.
"" (, )
.

. . . ""
"" . "" -
. ""
"", .
,
,
,
. "" ""
,
() .
"" ,
,
()
. ""

, ,
..,
, , ,
. .. ""
.


(
). , ""

. .. ,
,
,
, (.. )
. ,

.
..

 (. idividuum - ) - - ,
' .
.: ,
, , ; ,
. .
.
. " "
, , . , ,
, . . ,
" ", , , . .
20 . . , ,
. ,
.
( )
. . ,
. ,
, "" .
-
. , . ,
, ,
, . . , ,
, ,
. . -
, ,
, , .
, , , , ,
, , .
- .

.

, . .
.
,
. ,

,
.
..

- ,
. ..

,
. (
..
. ,
).

. (" "),
(" ").
,
,
. -
( 8-7 . ..) -
, , , .
- ,
.

- , -
. , - , , ,
, . (). ,
,
. ,

, ,
( ),
. " "
,
, -
. ,
; ,
, .

- .
- ,
("", .. ).
I . .. (
, ), (
), (" " - )
(- ).
.
( ()
)
I . .. ,
. - (

 ), (
) ( ).
, , ,
, - , ,
( - ), ,
.
, , .. , ,
() - , , , ,
. .. -
.
..

- ( 80% ;
,
). . 1 ..
. . : ""
, , . .
, , -
, . ,
, .
, ,
, .
. . : -
, ;
() (, ).
( ) .
, , .. ,
, , (-, , ,
.) -
(). . .
.
, ,
, , ,
. ()
4 : , ,
; ,
; , ;
, .
..

 (. inductio - ) - ,
. . ,
.

. .
, 17 . . : "
, " (
).
- , , . ,
:
, , .
: " ,
, , ".
.
, ,
. ,
, , ,
.
., " " "
". . . , )
, , ; )
; ) , ,
; ) ,
; ) , ,
, . ,
, ,
, .
..

- ,
, ,
, .. "" "", "" (, .) "..", 19 . , , ,
. , 50-60- 20 .,
.. . ,
,
: 1956-1959
" . ". .. ,
-,

 ""
"",

.
- . .. ,
(),
(),
, (). , ..
, ,
. , ,

. ""
.. ,
,
, .
..
,
"" - , ,
, , , ,
(). ..
, " "
, . 70-90- 20 .
.. . , ,
- ..,
, ,
" , .."
" ".
..

-
, ,
, ,
,
, .
. ,


, (
,
)
. , , ,
,

 , , ,
,
, -
.
.
,
, ,
,
.

, -
, ,
,
,
.
,
.
,
, ,
,
: , .
,
, "...,
...", ,
,
. , , -,
, -,
,
, ,
, .
: 1) - (
, ;

), 2) -
,
), 3) - (
,
), :
.

,
,
.

, ,
, . ,

 - ,
,
.
(, ),
, , .
,
,
.
..

- ,
(.. ,

).
() - ,
, . ..
, .
, ,
, ,
,
, , .
,
, ,
. . . :
, (, , .), , ,

, , - .
, ..
-.
. ..
, ,
. ,
,
.
, ..
,
, , ,
. ,
.. ,
.
.. ,
, ..

 ,
.
..

(. inovatio, . innovation - ) - ,
,
(""); ()
() , , ,
. ,

( )
,
() ,
. , .
- ()
. .
. ()
,
. (, ,
..) (, ,
..). - -
(, , ) -
() , . -
- , , ,
, , .. ,
, (. ,
, "" .),
. - . , .

, , , ,
"", (
) . ""
, "
, ", .. - .,
. - "". (
- ;
.
" "). . ,
. , .

( "" .)

 ( . - "").
( -)
,
. .
, , ..
.
.
"" "" (
" " " ", ).
. ,
. , .. .
, ( )
: - ( - );
- ( - ); - (
, , , ).
()
, , - , -
,
""
. ( "" ,
"" "", .). "
"
", ..." ().
, (
"" ) , .
. ( )
. "" ,
. ,
"", " " ( , , " "),
, "", " " (-
), - . .
()
, ,
( ) -
.
, (
, )
( ,
,
). ( , .. )
()
( )
( ),
().
- - ( , -

, , ).
, . -
, (
, ,
.), (, , .).
.
.
..

- .

- - ,
- (. , . , . ,
. .). , .,
, (- . ,
" " -, ),
. .
- , ,
, .
, ,
, ,
() .

(),
, .. .
" ",
.
. , ,
, , ( - ""), " ", "
" , , .. ()
. (
),
-
, .
- , , .
.
. ( )
( , ).
. , .
()

, , ,
, . ,
, () , , ..
. ( ), ,
, , ,
. ,
() ,
-- (
). ,
,
. " " ,
, ,
-.
(- ).
- "", , . -
,
, . ,
, ,
, . (
"", "" ,
).
, . . ,
. , .
,
"" . ,
( )
,
.
..

(. intellektus - , ) -
. . ,
, ,
, , ,
, , .
. ,
- , , .. ,
, .
., (),
. . ,
. , .
, ,

 .
( , ,
, - .).
.
().
(. , . ),

, . ,
,
( , ,
), ,
.. ,
. ,
, .; ,
. , ,
.
..

(. intelligibilis - ) - ,
. . ,
. "" (. sensibills ) ,
. . -
. . , "",
, ,
- .
,
. - "",
, ""
"". . ,
(, , , ),
"". .
. "",
"".
..

(. intentio - , ) -
. , ,
. ,
. , (

 . ,
,
, .. .. " ",
, ,
, . .
, . .
() (),
. .
. - .
, .
. .
, . . .
, ,
.
..

(. inter - natio - ) - ,
: .
( - ,
, ..); .

,
; . , ; . ,
, , ,
, ,
; . (
,
).
.
, ,
, , ..
..

(. interpretatio - , ) -

, .
. , ,
, , , . .

, .


: .,
. .. .,
, ,
, - .
, -
, : . ""
-
( : . . . --
). .
- (
). - .
:
(,
- ), - -
. .
: 1) .
,
; 2)
. ,
,
" " (- ),
, ; 3) .
, ,

. , ,
,
. .
( ,
).
, , (""
"") ., . ("" "").
. ,

. , ., , "" : , " " ( -,
- ),
, , -,
, .
. , (.
:
,
). ,
"-" . (. , . .)
. , , (. " " . )
, , .
. .


, ,
" .", , . ,
" " (, . , . .) .
,
(, ).
- .,
, .
, -,
- : " ", " ", " "
.. . ,
. (, . )
.
, .,
- , ..
, "" .
. :
.
,
("" , "" ),
,
" , ..,
, ,
" (-). "
" () .
( "") ,
. - ., ""

, .

, (. : "
- "). .
( )
"" , "-" ()
"" ()
, ().
, , , ""
(). .
( ) (), . " "
" ".
.,
: "
, " ".
- ,
, " (). ., ,
:

 , ""
, - ,
.
..

- ,
( - ) .
20 .
. . "
".
"" ( --),

. , ,
, - , . ,
- , , . ,

- () , , ,
, (-) -
. .
. ,
"" , ,

( , - ).
, - , -. - ,
"" "" - -
. .
( - , ,
), (: ; -:
)
(). . ()
-
.
.
..

, (. intro - verto - ,
) - ,
-

 . .
. .
, : 1)
; 2)
. , .
.
..

(. intro - jacio - ) -
()
(, , ,
.), .
.
() . . ,

- ("-"). (. , .
.)
() ,
, . .
(
, ..).
..

(. introspectare - ) - ,
,
.
. --
. , ,
: , : - .
: , ,
.
, 19 .
"" ,
"", " , ,
". , .,
. ,
, , , ,
- . .
, .

 . ,
. .
, - .
- .
, ,
. ,
, , , .
. ;
" " .
(, . , . );
. .
. ,
. , ..
, , ,
.., . .
,
. . ,
(., , .
" " - "", "" .).
. .

(. intuitio - ).
.: 1) . , -
( ) (, ,
, ); 2) . ,
,
(, , ); 3) . ();
4) . ,
"", , , .. (, , , ,
, , , , ).
., , ,
.
. . . . ,
, , ,
. . - ,
. ,
, , , , ,
, , , , , -.
. ,
, , . .
( . ). . -

, , , ,
.
.
. .
. . , ,
. , -
,
. . , .
. - ,
,
. . , ,
, . ,
,
. , .,
, .
. .
,
, , ,
.
.
, ()
. .
,
, , . . - ., .

. . - ,
- .
., .,
,
.
. , ,
, - , ,
. .
, ,
. , . .
, .
, - , - .
,
,
.
. . - ,
. - ,
.
, . "" .,
, , ,
. . .

. ., - .
, ,
, , ,
.
..

- , 20 .
" ". ".."
. (" ",
1962). ,
. ".."
,
.
"" - " " (, 1958),
, ,
, - .
(, 1967).
(, 1953; , 1956),
,
(, 1958; , 1979).
( " " -, 1964).
(,
1973). ..
. ,
. ,
" " (1983), : "
,
;

, , ;
" ",
; - ,
,
";
"
", " ";
" ". ,
21 ., "",
: (1) ; (2) ; (3)
; (4) - ; (5) ,
.
,

 ,
. ,
,
. , . , . . ,
-
.
.
, ,
. , ,
, ,

. (. , .
), .
..

(. informatio - , , ) -
, , - ,
.. - .
: ,

, ;
, ,
. ; ,

, , ,
. .
- ., .
. . , .
. - ,
.
(), .
.
. - , ,
- ,
, , .. ,
, - ,
.. . , ()
, ,
. (). ,
.,
, .., .
, , .
,

. ,
, . .
,
.
. .
.
. , ,
,
, ., , .
,
.
. ,
, ., .
.
. .
, . .
. ,

, ,
. , ,

,

. . ,
,
, .
, . -
. . ,
.. . , , .
.
. ,
.
, .
, . ,
., . .
, , .,
"" . .
/ . , .,
, .
.
. , - .
, ,
() .
. ,
(), , .

 () (), (),

. ,
, .
. . :
, (.
); (); ,
(. ); (); ();
().
.
,
. . ,
. ,
, ,
, .

. . ,

. , .
, - , , .
,
, .
. ,

, ,
, .,
.
/ , ,
., , ,

.
, ,
.
.:
, ,
.
- .,
.
,
.: 1) ( ) .,
,

, ..
; 2) ( ),
,
.
.

. - . ..
.,
( )
( ).

.,
.
, , ,
( ), .
, ,
, . .
, ,
, . .,
, :
. , .
. .

,
, , ,
, ,
. - .
, .
-
.
.
.
- .
.
. .
, , , -, ,
,
- , , , ,
.. - .. .
., .
, -
. "" "."
" ". .
.
- .. " ",

- .

, ,
, . :
, ,
- ,

 .

.
,
, .
,
, ,
.
,
- ,
. ,


-
.
..

, (. incestus - , ) - ()
( , ..); .
, .
( )
. .
, ,
,
( , .).
,
. , .

. 20 . .

.
. , .
.
() -
() ,
( ). ,

( )
.
, , ,
( );
; ; ,
. .


. ,
,
,
. , , ,
,
,
. ,
" ",
(, ..),
. , ,
,
, .
.
, , ,
. , , , .
. .

, ,
. ,
, ,
,
, , , ,
,
. ,
,
. ,
, ,
.
..

(Duns Scotus) (1265/1266-1308) -

, . 16
. ...
- :
, (1302-1305) (1308)
.
... : (
); - (
,
, ...,
, );
,

 ; ,
. .
,
...,
" "
- ""
, - ,

. ...

(
- , ). : "
" ( ...,
), " ", " ",
. ...
,
. " " (,
" "
- . - :
"" " ") ...,

. ..., , - ,
,
.
, -,
, , , (
) - ,
, ,
, ,
(
) - ,
- ,
. ,
,
... ,
.
.. , - (. distinctio - ),
.

( ),
("- ") , ,
" ". ... "", ..
" "
, "", .. "
", : , ..
(, ). , -
, ,

 haecceitas ("") (
: "" , , ""
). ... -

, , ,
(.. ) ( )
.. ...,
. , , "- (, , )
", " ( ) ", "", "-
" ., ,
.
, "" "",
, , , ,
, ,
. Doctor Subtilis, ,
, ,
: "
.
? , , -
,
, ,
, ".
...
(, ) : "
, , ,
. , , ,
". ...
:
: "" (formalitas)
(.
" "
); : ..., (
) , (.
19-20 . - - "
"); causa sui
" ": " ", "
"; ( ) : ",
, , ... ";
,
"-" (primo prima), .. , "--" (secundo prima),
.. , , "-" (tetrio
prima), ..
, -
,
( ). ,
... -
,

 ,
, , . , ...
, ,
: "
, ,
. ,
, ".
, , " , ,
".
...
,
,
( )
.
...
: ( -),
,
.
, ... , ,
:
,
,
. ,
( , ...
, "
" " , "). ,
- ()
, - ,
. ...

: " , ". ...
; ... ,
primo prime, -
, - " ".
,
-:
, -
, ,
(
" "
). ,

, : ,
, ,
.
... ,

 ( ) .

- , ...
(), (). ,
..., ,
. , , ,
( -)
, . ( , ...

" - ", .)
... :
(), (),
,
- haecceitas (""). , , , ,
; " ,
... " (.
, ). , haecceitas "
" quidditas (""), ..
" ", .
haecceitas - , quiddditas
( ).
... ... (
, , ), ,
( ) :
(
... - ),
(. ),
, , ,
(- )
- ( (species)
..., ,
). ...
("" ""),

,
- (),
(. - ,
" " ).
, ...,
; ,
, , , , " ", ,
- "- ". ,
, ..., , "
, ",
(" "), : "
, ". ",
, , . ,

 , . , , ,
; , ,
". ,
, - , ,
. ... ,
( ).
... , , , ,
... - . ...
,

,
, :
- ;
, ;
;
;
- .
..

(810-877/887) - . , ,
. 840 .
... .
... - ,
" ".
, "" .
-
... ... ,
, ... , .
. 865
" ",
. ,
. ... ,
. , ,
. . , - ,
. ...
. , .
... . ,
, . - : , . . - , ,
, . .
, , . - ,
. . - .

 , . ...
. 1050 - IX, 1225 III.
..

(. eironeia - ) - ,
.
,
. . :
, ,
, . ,
- - (" .")
-
. .
.
( , - ,
), ( , - - , ,
-),
, (, ..).

. ; .

, , ,
, .
. ,
, " , , , ..
" ( " "),
. (, , .
.). .
,
,

19 .
. ( ,
, , . , .-.-. ). " ."

. .

, ..: " .
, " ().
( " .") ,
. -

 . , , , " ."
" "" ,
". .
. ,
" ." .
. .
--, ,
20 . " ", ,
" ... ".
-
( ). .
, -
, :
( ), - ("
, - // : // , // ..."
. ) - (
). , ,
- . . '
Katzenjammer: " "
. ,
-
: " :
, , - ,
" (). ,
" " (. )
. - " " (
" ").
: " ,
: " ", , ( , ),
. . : " ,
". , ,
, , ,
. ,
... , - ,
. .
" (). . (
) , ,
(" , " .
): ,
, .
, -
(. ). - : " ",
" , , ; ...,
, " ().

- (. pasticcio - -)

 ,
(. ) , "" () .
.,
: "" . -, "
" . , "., , " - (. ,
). .
: " " (. ).
. " ",
. , . (
) - ,
" " () " " ( ),
(. ), -
, , . (,
. " ": ,
, , " "). "
" (. ) ,
, , ,
, ,
. ,
,
,
- "" .
(. ). ,
. "" ().
- , ,
, . ,
" ",
"" , ,
"" "". , .,
, , ,
.
"" ,

,
.
..

- ,
.

, .. " ".

 : ",
, , , ,
, - , .
, , ,
" (). ..
. (1892-1971), ,
, . "
" (1949), " " (1952) .
( -, )

.
- "
",
. .. , , ,
,
-
. .. - : -

-. ,

,
, - ,
. ,
, , ,
. .. , , , ,
- ,
.
..

(. irrationalis - , ' ) - ,

, -. ,

,

. , ,
, , -
,
( )
. (, , )

, ,
.
,
( , ,

 ).
, , ,
(
, " ,
";
; . "
").
(.. ) ,
,
, ,
- , , . .
(
) " " ,
" " , ,
" " . . .., ,

, ".", , ,
19 - 20 .

. -
,
. .. ,
.
,

. -
. -

.
- ,
-, ( - ).
, , ,
, - ,
( )
.
. . ,
. 1950-

, , ..
, .
. . ,

.


(

 ; " " ; " "

.)
..

(. hesychia - ) -
, ,
, , (,
, .) 14 .
- (, ) - , , .
. , -,
. . ,
, - . (4-5 .) .
- , , "
- , ,
, ".
. ,
. , .. ("
") .
- " ",
, "" . , ,
" " (.. ) :
, , , , ,
, " ".
- ,
" "", . "" (). ,
, - . 14 .
III
, " .". 1341
, ,
- -.
,
. , ,
, . ,
(usia) - (energeia):
, ,
( , ).
.: " " - , ,
, - ,
, - " " (. 35. 10).
. , ,
( ). .

, . . "
"
. ,
- " ",
, ,
(. ). -

(, , ) (. ) . .
.
..

- ,

. ( ,
)
: ,
, ,
. .
.
. , . .,
" - ", " - ",
" - " . , ,
, .
,
, , ,
. . : "
" ,
.
.
-
, ,
.
. . .
"", ,
" " " ".
( "" "").
- ,
. , , ,
, , , , . , "."
"", ,
- , -
- (,

 ).
,
(, ..) , .
, -
- . . ,
20 , :
- -
(), , , , ..
.
, , . .,
" ":
"" "".
. ,
,
, , . :
- .
,

. . .
,
, . . . .
. ,
.
- () . . .
, 1)
, 2)
, 3)
,
( , )
( , , ).
. .,
; , , ,
- , .
..

- , : 1) , , ,
, ; 2) ,
, - - . .
,
. "."
() , , -
, ,
,

 ,
- , , , , ,
.
., "",
, .
, , -
. - , .
, () ,
,
. , .
, , .
: "POIESIS - MIMESIS - TECHNE". POIESIS -
, ,
(- ), ;
-, . MIMESIS - ( ), ,
. TECHNE - , , , - ,
, . . -
. (,
), () . ,
(-) ,
- ( ) .
,
, .
. ()
() AISTHETIKOS (. - ,
, , ).
., ,
- , - ,
, ()
, , .
. .
,
. ( ).
, ,

.
.
. .

. .
- ,
. .,
. , ("" , ).

 (), - ,
"" ( , , ,
). . 3 .
. .

.
., :
(-) ; -,
, (, ); ,
. . ,
,
.
, ( ),
. - (),
() . . (
, ,
..).
"", . "."
"", "".
, ., ,
. ,
, , , - (
, , ). ,
.,
"", "
", () ,
, , . (
), ,
. ()
,
-. . ,
, , ,
" , ".
"" - , , "",
, " ".
"" . ,
()
().
,
(, ),
(), ()
. .
" ",
.
. () ,
(.
" ", " () "),

 , -
"" "". " ."
()
. , , ,
. . .
, . (), . . (
.)
() ,
. ,
"" ,
. ( ) (
- ).
, no-, ,
. ,
-
, ,
"" "" .
, POIESIS
,
. POIESIS
, ,
"modern art",
, - . 19 - 20 .
20 . ,
.
, . -: "...
. :
".
.
,
,
, , -,
, - .
() ,
, .,
(), (, -)
. .
, " ".
""
- ,
, .
() , ,
. , " ." - , ,
- .
,
. , " ."

 ,
, , ,
,

. , .
,
( ,
, , ).
,
,
.
..

(. - - , ) - , . . 7 .
( .. )
(, ). . (. 570-632)
. ,
. ,
, 610 40 40 ( ( )
""). , " ",
.
622 .
- -
630. .,
. - , ,
. 800 .
. .
, (). .
, , , ,
- ,
. . , , ,
. - .. ,
, ; - ..
. . "" ""
() :
( ). . - . " ", , 114 ().
(. - , ) - .
"", , . .
, , . ,
, - . - ,

 ( - ).
"" , , -
. () . .
: (), "";
(), ; (),
" "; (), , , , ,
" ", .
(), " " .
- ".", "" "". ., , ,
.
" -" - , .
(" "). - , .
. - , .
- , , - ,
: " .", () (). " ." : 1)
(-) (-).
" , () - - "; 2)
(-); 3) (-); 4)
(-); 5) ( ) (-).
() "" . .
, . .
(), , , . . ()

()
. . .
,
- .
. .
: 1) - (. - , ),
(-); 2)
(. - ), ,
, ; 3) ( ""),
, .. " ",
- . . .
. -
. 7-8 . .
, (), : 1)
, , ; 2) ,
, , ,
; 3) , " "
"" "". (
) (-)
: 1) ,
; 2) ,
; 3) ,

 ,
. : 1)
-,
, " "; 2) ,
, ; 3) ,
. .
, - . : ,
(. 748) , - (. 935),
- .
- (. 860-879), - (. 865925 934), - (870-950), (980-1037), (1126-1198).

(, , , ),
. .
- (. 1153), -- (. 1111), (.
1240). . ,
"", ().
- . (-, . 728); "" 9-10 . (-, . 860 "" ); - (. 896) - , , ; -
(. 922) - "" . -,
., - (. 1191),
"" (-); - (. 1240),
"", "" . . ,
. ,
, ,
"" () "" (). .
, (19 ., ). (
() ( - -)
, .
18 . ( -),
, .
. 19-20 .
, - ,
. .
" ",
. .
..

- - (.: ,
),
, , -
. (1)

 .
(, . ,
, , , , , .), -
:
(, .), (, ,
), (),
(), (),
(), (. ) .

., . (
, ,
- -
); . . .
( . .
: );
. , , ,
" " " " (.
). (2) - .:

(), , " , " (
), (),
(. ) .
,
(. , -), .
()
,
. .
, . ,
(. ,
). (3) .
,
,
"" (. , ).
..

- ( - - ) ,
-
. 19-20 . -
(
) .
,
(. 19 .), .
("")

 . - , "
". -
, ,
. " " " "
,
- " , ". ,
" " , .
- " " - .
" ",
,
. (
, )
"", "", ""
:
, . ,
, , ,
"" : , .. " " ("
", " " .. "", "" ..) -
, ,
. "" - ,
"" .
( , ) -
, , , - "" ( ),
, , "" .

,
.
. : 1)
, -
(,
); 2) - ( "-
" ); 3) ,
" " (, ,
); 4) - "- "
(. ). .
,
.
.
, -,
,
, -
, " ", ,
, ,
(.. " "
, ).

, ,
,
,
.. , ,
,
"", .
(, , ),
- , "" (
) .
- ()
(-), :
- (. nomotetike -
), ,
, ,
,
.
,
() ,
,
.
(. idio - grapho - ),
, ,
", ", -
. , "
",
. ,
, ,
. ,
" ",
(, )
.
"", .. - - (
,
, .. -
?). , , " ",
, - -

. ,
.
" ",
, - -
: ,
,
" ".
., ,
: "-",
"", "", -

 ,
, "",
"-". .
, ,
, " "
. .
,
.
"- ", ,
-.
(), ,
" ". ,
, : ""
- "",
.
, ,
, (.. " "), ,
,
.
:
, .
,
, .

" ",
, "" .
, .
, .. ,
, .. (). ,

. , " ",
,
. ,
"" - , ,
. ,
,
" ",
, .
( ) ,
: " ",
" , " ..
"":
,
,
(" "). " "
( - - ,

 )
.
(" "
""),
, . ,
- .
. (

), (
). . , -
- - - , ,
, , ,
,
: ,
.
- .
. ( ,
) -
, (
).
" " ,
:
, ,
.

, .
(, . , .. , -, . , . , .),

(" ",
)
, " "
, , - .
,
, .
-
.
. "- " ,
, :
(" "),
, " "
(. ).
(" ")
.
..

 ( ) -
, . ..

- . ..

: "
, .
, , , ". ,
( )
. ..
,
, -
,
20 . - , ,
, .
, ,
..,
, ,

.
( "" ..)
- . (. :
, , , -, , ,
- , , , ,
, , , , ).
. .

- , .
. ,
( .)
. ,
, .
. (" ",
" ", " " ..). .
; ,
, .
, ,
, - ,
, .
. ,

 .
. , , ,
,
- ,
. , , .
, 4 ..;
() , .
-
. . .
. ,
,
. - . .
( , ,
, ,
),
., ,
. , , "
", . -
.
18-19 . 19 . - " " - .

. , . , " "
. , ,
., - " ".

. - . -.
, 19 ., : .
, "" , . ,
.
, ,
, , -
. -
.,
, "
" " .".
. 20 . .
, , . " ."
, ,
. , .

.
, , .
, . -
. .
. .
, , .

 , .
. , 20 .
,
.
.
- : . ( )
( - - )
.
. ,
.
.
-
, ; .
.
: .
. , -,
. .
., , .
, ,
. -
( ). , " ." " .",

-
. , . - , :
, :

.
, .
. (. : , ).
..

- ,
. ..
, ,
,
, , .
, ,
, ..
,
,
. , ..

 ,
.
-,
-. ,
,
.. , " ,
"
, .
, , ,
,
. ..
,
-, . . ,
- , .,
. -

,
.
, , -,
- . ,
-
" ", ..
. ..
. ,
"
", , ,
" ". , ..
, , ,
, . .. , ..
. , .. - ;
" ". .. -
,
, , ..
. .. ,
,
. : 1) , ,
,
..
, ;
2)
; , ..,
, , , ..
; - ,
, , ; 3) ,
, ; ,
, ,

 ,
. , .., . (
..) ,
, ,
,
,
. .. , , ,
" ", ..
. . . "" -
. ,
.
. ,
,
20 . 19 .
,
, ,
..; ,
- .
, . , . , , . , .
.
,
,
19 . , , ,
. ,
, ..
,
" ". 19 . ..
, ,
.
,
;
..;
.
, - , ,
,
.
,
, ,
. 19 - 20 . ,
" "
.
, -
- ;
. ..
, ,

 , . .
" "
, , "
" (1912).
,
,
.. , ,
, ; ,
"
". -
, , . ,
,
,
. .. 1-
20 . . ,
" ,
."
" ", ..
.
-
. - 20 .
,
.
-
. ..
19 - 20 .
19 . , ,
.. ,
,
- , ,
- . ,
, . -
,
, "" .
.. , " ,
, ". ..
-
, , ,
, ,

, , ,
.
, , ,

. .. -
.

 - ,
. ,
- ,
(, ., ,
.. "" , ,
-,
). ,
,

.
,
. ,
,
"" .., .
..

- ;
. -,
- , - - . .
, , ,
. ( 2 ..) .
- ,
. : 11 . .. .
(
); , 622 .. , .
. .
: , (), (), - .
, (. hamesh ) - , : , , , (
, , , ).
. - .
(. talmud - ),
., (
). . (.
, ). . ,
. ,
, ,
, .
(, 2: 1-10).
, .
:
( , ),

 " " (, 7: 16).

, " ", .
, , , ,
.
, , , .
, ,
(" , !" , 7: 16). , ,
(" ") : "1. , , , . 2.
. 3. , . 4.
, . 5. . 6. . 7.
. 8. . 9. . 10.
, ,... ,
" (, 20: 2-14).

( ).
, .. ,
(" , " - , 43, 12)
(" ")
. "" "" (. brit - ),
,
: - , - ,

, (.
,
: - , , , - ..).
( ) .
,
. - ( )
, .
:
(, 6: 5, 6: 13, 10: 20).
, ,
(. ,
, , - , 1), :
" , " (, 19: 14), " "
(, 13: 32), " " (, 25-36), " ...
" (, 19: 43) .
. : " ", 10
(, 1-3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28). ., ,
--, (.
),
, ,

 - - .
. (. - .
): " ; , ,
;... , ,
... " (, 4, 12, 15-16).
,
(, " ", " "
..), . ,
: " , ,
" ( , 2: 5), ,
, -
, : "
, , , " (, 9, 11). (), ()
.. , , -
, , :
() ;
- ; , , ( -
: - ).
, ,
.
, , ,
. , , ,
- ()
,
, (.
).
, , .
,
; -
(, "-" ).
, ( "")
, (. golem - , , ), ,
, ,
. .
(" "),
(""). , , .
( -
, 14 .). , , .
(., , " "). . (), , .
( , 2 . ;
, 17 . -), .
,
(, ). .
: " , , , -
, " ( , 1 .). ,

 , . (" "), - . ,
,
, -
-. (seol - ),
(, 32). .
(- ),
,
. , .
, . -,
() : , .
( "" - ., 10
). . ,
: ,
(.
- ).
. . , .
(" "),
("
"). , ., " " (,
). , .
,
( , , ).


. .
, ,
, 613 (), 248
, 365 - ,
( , - (1838-1933),
1906, 20 . 300 ;
. ,
: , " "
). .
( ) (
). , " " (, 1: 27), ,
., ,
("").
. (" "), -
(" "), -
(""), , , .
, ( ),
. ,
: " ,
, , " (; , 31). ,
, . "" (. cedek -

; . . karitas - ) :
10% 3 , - 10% ;
;
, " ,
, - ,
" (-, , 7: 7). .
- (. " " - , 21: 24,
). ,
, , , , ,
, , , ,
. , ., , ,
(, )
, -
.
( -),
,
. : ",
, " (, 72), - .
. (" ")
. .
, .
, , " "
(, 9 , ,
-; ( ),
,
, , ..). .
, :
, ()
( ).
: ", " (,
24: 17, 27: 19). ""
(, ), . ( 19: 34; , 15: 15);
,
: ", ,
... ... ... "
(, 22: 35). . ,
("- ").
" ") (),
, ; , 36 ,
(.
" " . -). .
:
(" "), (" , " , 19: 18), (" ,
, , " - , , 4: 5),
(" " - , 42 - ,

 , ,
, ,
, " ,
- , 24: 16); (" , ?" , 25 ), (", , "
- -, , 2: 3). .
: (" "); ("- "),
,
, , ,
(, .,
, " ",
); (" "); (" "); (" ") .
- .
, ( ) .
. (,
, : "
?" - , 4: 9).
, -
" ", " ": 1. . 2. . 3.
. 4. ,
, . 5. . 6. , . 7.
" (, 56 ).
, . , , "
" ( , 13: 2). , .
, " ", ..
" " ( ""),
,
( . , , -
, ). .
" " (
- ); .

: , " ,
, . ,
".
, :
" ",
(, (), ).
(1948) . .
.
(CLAL) ; -. () .
, ; " "
1842; 1875
( , -, -),
. .,

 -,
- -- ;
-, ("");
. (1883),
, ; , ("")
, . -
. ( . ;
, (1937) ).
. . :
, ;
- (, .
"", .. 10 ,
, ,
10 ).
. -. .
-, .
( , ),

.
..

(. joga - , , , ) - , (,
); - ()
. . .
(, , ).
"" .
" " " ",
, . .
(. 2 . ..), "-" ( ,
1911). .
. .
, , , ,
. -
();
( , "") () ,
. .
"" (
), .
., , ; "" - , ;
"" - ; "" - ; "" - ;
"" - ; "-" - ; "" - ; "" , . .: -. (.

, ); --. (. ,
); -. (. , ). -.
(. , , " " ). " " . -. .
,
, .
, . . , " ."
, . , . ""
. .
. (, , )
().
..

(Cabanis) (1757-1808) - - .
-.
. .
, ,
, (,
..). . " " ,
, .
,
. . ,

. , .,
, , , .
. ,
, , .
. .
, 18 .,
.
..

(. Qabbalah - , ) - ()
, ,
,
. .
, , .
. 3000 - ,
, 13 .,
. - "", (2-3 . ..),

 . .
(). .
( , , ).
. , ,
. ( )
: " ,
() - ,
...". , ,
: , ""
(, ), , ,
( ), . .
(. ""), (. "").
, , "" . :
" " " " (6-7 .). .
, , , ,
, "-", .. , (.
, - ).
, "", -- ,
"" . ,
: 32 " ", .. 10 () 22
(3 , 7 , 12 ).
, 32 . 10
: 1) (), 2) (); 3) (), 4)
( ); 5) ( ); 6) (-); 7)
(), 8) (); 9) (), 10) (). .
(. - .:
).
( - ) (. -, ,
). - (). ; "" (. ), ..
; "" () -
; "" () - . :
,
(), . :
(), ()
; ()
, , , -
(-), () .
- , (. , . ). "" ,
"" () "" , .. ,
. - . (. , ). .
. : 1) .
(, , ),
, ..; 2) , ..

 ( , ,
18 .). ,
--, ,
. . : (.) , . - (II
.), . () 13 ., . (16 .), . ,
"" () (16 .). . , ,
, IV, . , . , , . , , , .
, , , .
..

(1818-1885) - , , , .
1839 (
). 1844 . 1848
, .
, , .
, ,
( . ).
. , ,
" " "". ,
.. . . 1857-1861
. , 1858
" ". 1861
,
. . ,
1860- ,
. " ",
, . .
. ..
(1866) . " , ",
,
. . -
, 1883 - . . -
. -
- . , ""
, . . : "
" (1847); " " (1866); " "
(1872); " " (1874); " " (1878);
" " (1884) . .
. - .
, -
, .
, .
. - " " ( )

 , . " ,
, ".
, , .
, ,
. .
, , . (..
.) " ".
, ,
.
,
- .
" ", ,
"". .
,
( ,
" "), ( ,
) , (
-
. ""). "" . - , ,
, :
, .
.
, ,
,
. , ( ), ,
, . ", - ., - , "
" , "" .
, ".
.
.

. (
) . ,
. "
. , , ,
". .
, ., ,

, .
, . ,
., , ,
. , .,
.
, , , .
() .
, ,

, .
. " ,
( ) ", - . "" "",
"". ,
, .. ""
. ,
, , ,
. .
, -
() .
..
.
H.JI.

(1926-1982) - , , . 1950
, 1953 , .
1958 . .
-, .. , . . , .
. " " "
" (1966).
" " (1970) " " (1980).
. : ,
"" ..

, ,
.
, "" "--". -
, .
,
"" . , .
,
. . -
,
"--". .
"---", ""
, "- ".

, .
. , - ,
- " , ,
, , ". - -
, , , ..
"- ".

 -. ,
, "" (
, ). , ..
("-"),
, .. "
" , " ".
- . ,
. ( )
.
- ( )
( ). -
"", "". ,
.
. " ".
"" , ( )
. - "--".
,
"" (.. ),
. , "---",
( , , , ,
).
, , ,
.
..

- (. kalos kai hagatos - ) - -

, ,
( ,
, ); -
,
. - . -
. - .
-
( ,
). ()
- - . ,
- .
..

 (Calvin) (1509-1564) - ,
(). . 1533
. 1536
, , (1541), .
" " (1536-1559),
, . ,
, . . "
",
"", - "".
. ,
" ".
, .
. . " "
(1541), . .
, ,
, . .
, , .
. .

(Campanella) (1568-1639) - , ,
. ( 1582 - ).
. 27 .
1626, '- 1629.
- ,
. - " " (1601-1602, 1623),
(" "),
", " (1591) " " (1630). .
, ,
. " " - .
, .
- . .
, , ,
: "
". . , , ,
. ,
, . .
"" , ., (
) , .
. ,
. " " - - ., ,
- ,
. - ,
" ". ,

., , ,
4- . - 40
( - , - : ;
; , ). :
, , , , , , ..
, ., ,
. (1688-1768),
" ", , "
".
. .

(Camus) (1913-1960) - , , , .
(1957). : " " (1941), "" (1942), "
" (1943-1944), " " (1951), "" (1947),
"" (1956), " " (1958) . .
, , ,
. : ,
, " ". . ,
, ,
20 . . ,
, . . " "
: , ,
? , .
"--", .
.
,
.
. ,
, .
" " (, ,
..) -
. . ,
(" ") ,

( ""). " ",
, -
, . . , ,
(, , ) (, , ),
, ,
"" - - .
, , " " .

 - ,
.
"" .
"" () , . ,
, , .
.
, ( , )
. " "
() . - -
. .
. ()
,
, , , .
, ., . . " ", "
" , , 20 .
. ,
, ,
- . .
,
, ,
. . ,
. ,
.
,
, - . .
. , ,
, ,
. .
.
..

(Canetti) (1905-1994) - . 1938

, . . :
" " (1960), "" "".
(1981). -, .
,
- - - --. .,
" ...
... ,
". ., - .
, " - ".
. ,

 . , ., . " " .
, ,
, . .,
"" - .

. , , . -
- . -
- .
" ", .
, ,
. ,
. "" "" ,
,
. .,
,
:
- .
" ",
,
. , ., ,


.
. .

(Kant) (1724-1804) - ,
. .
( - ), , (1745),
(1755-1770), (1770-1796) . .
2 . - "" - 1776 ( " ") - 60-
18 .
. .
- ,
, .. (
" ", 1755)
, ,
.
.: " , ...". . .
1770 - : "
". .
: , (

 ).
. - " ", " ", "
". , .
:

, . .., ,
.. , ., ,
, . .
, .
: 1) ,
; 2) ,
.
, , .,
. ,
- (- ) .
. - " " (1781,
, 1787), .
, , .
, - ,
, ,
. ., ,
- , ,
, , .
,
, . .
, ,
: .. ,
.
, , - ,
. . :
?
, "
(X) , ,
, ". " " ,
.., " ".
.
- ,
().
- ( ),
( ) ( ).
-
,
.
, .
- -
. .

 ;
( )
,
.
, ,
. . 12 4 : ,
, . .
,
( ,
). ,
, , ., ,
, , ,
. . " ",
, , -
, . . , ,
. .
, , .
, ,
, . .
, ., ,
. ,
, .. ,
, , , ,
.. . 3- : 1) (
); 2) ; 3) .
. -
, ,
- . . ,
, . .
.
. . . 60-. "
", , "
" (1785), " " (1788), " " (1797).
, , . , , , ..
, ..
, . .
. . ,
. . ,
: ,
. .
,
, . .
" ". ., ,
, , ..
" ", .
. , ,
,

. . , . .
. .
,
.
, , , .,
-
. - .
, " " .
" " (1795)
. .
,
( ).
. , ,
. .
: 1. . ,
, ,
" ",
, . .
, ,
- . . .,
.
. 2.
, ., ,
,
.
20 ( , , ). 3.
, , .
, -
. ,
, , ,
.

20 .
..

- .

(rdiner) (1892-1981) - , ,
. . 1921-1922
. - .

 ,
-. .
,
, .
. ,
, , ,
(1941), .
.
, .
,
.
. ,
,
, , . .
. ,
, ,
( ). ,
" "
.
,
.
. ,

, . ,
, ,
,
, .

. . " "
(1939), " " (1945) .
..

(1850-1931) - , ,
B.C. . -
. (1879-1884) (1886-1899 1906)
( 1899 ""
). , I
. - (1910), (1929).
- , , .
: " .
" (. 1-3, 1883-1890);
" " (1889); "-
" (1895); " (1896);

" " (1897); ". " (1913);

". " (1915); " " (1919) .
. - ,
"" , .
,
.
. ,
- . (
, "") (
), .
. - ,
. ,
( ) ( ). ,
- .
, ., - ,
.
.
-, - ,
.
;
. ,
.,
. ,
, , ..
-- (
).
, .
- ,
, , .
" " " ".
.
, ,
. , ,
, ,
.
- ,
.
..

(. karman - , , ) -
, ( , ).
-- .
( - ). .

 . .
, - , ..
; . - . , .
, ,
, .
- . "" ,
. ". ", ".
", ,
(). - .
,
. , ,
( - , - ).
, ,
. .
: " , - ", . "
, "). . , ,
, . . ,
. .
"", - , - .
.
..

(rn) (1891-1970) - - ,
,
( 1936),
. : " " (1928), "
" (1928), " " (1931),
" " (1931), " "
(1934), " " (1935), " " (1936),
" " (1942-1947), " " (1947), "
" (1954) . .
, ,
-
. .,
,
: "-"
"" ( ); "-" "";
"", .
, ., - : ) "-",
- ; ) ""
,
; ) ,
. ( .

 " ", - ",

"). .,
, , "
".
, .. .
, , , (
. ""
, ""
. , ,
). . ,
,
,
. . " " (
),
" " " "
. .,
,
,
. " -
", - . 1936 .
" ".
,
, , . .

, .. . "...

". .
, ,
. , .,
.
..

(1882-1952) - . ,
. 1922 . 1926
. 1948 , . : ", "
(1922), ", " (1923), " " (1923), " " (1925),
" " (1929) . , , ,
. -,
. .
, ,
. , .,
, ; ,

 .
. , (
.)
. , .
,
. () .
() "",
, , , " ".
. - :
, ,
; ,
.
. ,
: - - - . (" ")
, . .
, ,
: - - .
, .
, ,
. , , ;
- . .
, ,
( ), , ,
" " : " , - ,
, - , - ".
, . ()
, .. , .
, , ,
; ,
,
.
., .
, .,
.
() (
),
. ,
.
, , . , ,
. ,
, . ,
.

 .
, . , " ",
.
. .

.
..

- .

(Cassirer) (1874-1945) -
. 1896 ,
1933,
, , 1941
. , 1920- ("
", 1910),
20-, "
", . . , .
;
,
.
. ,
()
- , ,
, .
,
; , .,
, , .
. , , .
, 20- - 30-
,
, . ,
, . .
,

, : -
- , , , .
.
" ".
. ,

 20 . ,
.
,
.
"" - . " ", .
-
. . , .
, .
, ,
.
, , ,
, , ,
, "
, " " .
"" . " ",
.
", ", ,
" ",
, .
..

(. casta - , , ) - ,
, .
.
(.
, ..).
. (1950), .
(1955). ,
, ,
. -
, ( ).
..

(Castaneda) (1896-1958) - , ,
,
( .) . ( .: " :
"; " ", " -", " " .).
1960. .
, ,

 20 .
(.. .)
: " - , .
, .
, ". .
( - , Datura inoxia,
Psylocybe - .
), (
)
, -, ,
- . . ("
", - .). , ,
" ", , ., .
. , ,
. "" ,
. - ,
. , , , - .
(
) - . "" , , .
- . " ",
, , . ,
"", . , "
, ", - , ,
. " , - , . , ,
, - ".
,
, . .
"" "". "" - ,
; "" ; , ( ,
, ""). "" (,
) - , (
),
. "" "" ( , )
- "",
" ". , -
. "", ,
,
. , ,
"" . . , ,
, , , ;
, , , . "
, ... . ,
- !".

..

(. katharsis - ) - ,
,
, . .

.
(, , , ,
, , .). .
.
,
, " " (" "). .
. ,
, , ., ("")
(), () ..
. .
. 3.

.
. .
.
..

(. katharsis - ) - . , , , .
90- 19 . : )

(, ); )
; )

; ) ,
,
,
() , , . ..
, : 1)
() 2) .
. . -
, . , ..
.
..

 - .

(. kataphatikos - ) -
.
.
.. ( ). ..
" " (analogia entus),
.
-
-
, ..
. , ,
, , ..
,
.
.. : "
? ?". -
..
. (. ,
, ).
..

- ,
, - .
.. .. .
, -
.. . .. ,
, , , , , .. ..
, ,
. .. ,
, ""
. , .. , - ,
,
,
.. .. -
, .

 , ..
(, ..). .
: .
..

(. imperative - ) - ,
,
. ,
, .
, ,
, ? , ,
, , , .
, , , ,
, , , ,
. ,
, , , ,
- , . ,
, (.. )
. ,
. ,
, ,
, - ,
. (
- )
- , ,
. .. - ;
,
. , :
, ,
. ( , ,
" ,
" " ,
,
"). , ,
, ,

, . .. , ..,
, , .. ,
. ..,
, ,
. ,
, , ,
.

..

(. Kategoria - , ; ) - .
()
. , , , ,
, ..
. , ,
.
.
, ., . , , , , ,
, , .; - , ,
, , ; - , , ;
,
.. . .
..

(. cathexis - ) -
, , .
, ( , , ,
..) .,
(),
(), (-.), ( .),
(id-., ego-K.
..),
. ,
.,
, .
.
..

(. katholikos - ,
. (, 8. 2.)
: 1)
, , .. , ",
, "; 2) "", "" ""
""; 3) -
1054 (. ); 4) ,
-

, ()
; 5) "."
("-.") , (16 .), .. "
" , "."
("-." "") - , 6) , , ".",
,
. . -.
" " , "
", .
,
,
(1563)
,
,
, I 1870.
, 19 .
. II
, - ,
,
. -.
. , ,
, (. 20, 23) . , (.
16, 18; 22, 32; . 21, 15-17), .
, -,
,
4 5 .
II ,
. , ,
7 (, , , ,
, ). -. ,

. . ,
, .
, .
" " (). 1993, 900
-. (. , , , ,
, ).
..

(. causalis - , causa - ) -
, ()

 (). .
, , . - , , ,
, . . ,
. ..
- : . . , .. ,
, , ( )
. :
, .
A.M.

(Kautsky) (1854-1938) - , , ,
- II . 1874 1879
. 1874 . ,
. 1875 - . 80- 19 . .
- . 1883 " " (Die Neue
Zeit), -,
1917. 1890 ,
- , II . 1934
, , ( 1938)
, , . .
. 2- 70- 80- 19 .
(, ). " " (1880), "
" (1883) -
. ,
, .
. . ,
- " " (1887),
" " (1888), " " (1895),
" " (1909-1921), " "
(1-2 ., 1927-1929) .
, ,
, .. . . . "
",
,
. , .
- , , 1910-1912
, 1917 -
, " "
- ( , , ).
(1917) . ,
, . :
" " (. 1918), " " (. 1921),

" " (1921). . -

. .

- ,
, - ,
, .
..

(Kafka) (1883-1924) - . "", "",

"", . ,
,
20 . .,
20- 20 ., .
: , , .
, ,
"" ""
, .
. ,
.
.
.,
.
. , , ,
, .
, .,
, .
. ,
(. ).
, ., ,
,
. .
. ,
, "",
"", (.
). 50-70- 20 . .
. , , .
.
, ; , (, )
. .
..

 - ,
"" "". (,
"?") :
, ; ,
; , ;
. ( "?") -
"" "" , ,
: "" "".
. ,
( ""
, ; "" - ,
),
. ,
, - , ,
.
"--", -
.
"", ""
, ""
( ,
, ,
, ) ""
- .
"" "" (
) "" .
.
, -
"
".
,
,
,
"" "".
..

(. quietus - ) - ,
- quies (-
- ). 17 .; -
(. 1628-1696), ,
,
, " " ,
(. " " ,

 ). "",
,
,
. (
), .
,
-
- . ., ,
" "
( ),
, . .
( ): (1685),
68 XI "Coelestis Pastor" (1687)
. , " " (1675) 18 .
20 . .
( (1651-1715),
, ; .. (1648-1717),
. , ,
, .. -, . .,
: .. , . ), (
19 . - .,
. 1840-).
(17 . - ). .
(. " ");
,
(.
, -
,
: ,
.). (
), .,
, ,
18 ., ,
, .
.. , ..

(1903-1985) - , ,
. 1930-1931 - .. , 1931-1932 -
. " "
. 1935-1937 ().
(1939-1941). 1946 .
"
". - 1960. 1962-1972 -

 . 1966 .
(1973-1974).
" " (1947-1949). "
" . ( )
. .
, , ,
. . .
: " " ( .. ,
1958); " " (1962); " ,
" (1963); " " (1965); " XX :
" (1969); " . XIX :
. . .
. . " ( .. , 1978); "
. . " (1980); " .
(), " (1983) .
..

- . (1806-1856) -
, . . 1820-
. . (
1831 , , , ). 1840- ( . ""
"-" "-").
: " " (1832; ""); "
.. " (1839); "
" (1852, " ", .
); " " (1856) . .
, " " ""
( ) . . ,
, -
() .
, ., " " , "

, , , , , -
, ... ",
.
. ,
. ,
:
" - ",
- " ". .
" " .

 , ., : ; ,
; .
,
" , - .
".
() ,
, , , ., 1551,
I, , .
,
-
, "
,
-
". . ,

(), ,
. .
, . .
, , ,
, . . . 1920 .
..

- . (. - . 1182) , , .
, "" ( ),
. 1169 ,
. . "...",
(" ", " ", "
-", " ", " " .),
, .
.., -
, ,
. .. ,
" ". .

, , .., .
.. - .
() .
, ,
.

.. , ..

(1868-1920) - , ,
. 1888 - - -. 1890 . ,
-. 1895
.
, . 1897
, 1898
" " (. 1899 . ). 1901 -
( .). 1906 (
), .
"", 1907-1910 - " ".
" ". 1909 - -
. " " (1902) "" (1909).
,
, . 1913-1917 " ". 1917 . 1918 -
.
, 1919 - .
. .. .
" .
" (1916). " " (
1918). .
, , .
., -,
, , ; -,
; -,
, . , .,
,
.
: 1) - ; 2)
; 3) .
, .
,
. . - ,
, . , ,
. , ,

. . ,
. .
. .
- , ..

 -, . ,
, ., ,
, ,
.. . , .
- .
,
, .
,
( ) . -, .
, (
), .. .
.
. .
, ., (-,
) ,
. .
. : 1)
; 2) . .
, .,
. , .,
,
- . -
, ()
. .
, . . .
, , , . ,
. - .
- . -
, , ..
. , ., ,

. - , ,
, .
..

- ,
.
-
,
, - - ,

 .
, : "",
, ,
- "" "" ( ,
); "" "",
.
- - ,

. - "" - ,
: " ".
- ,
()
. (. I . ..)
- "", .
"" (--) . - "",
, " " ()
, . , ,
, ,
. " "
6-3 . .. , , , ,
. ,
, "" .
- - -
"" - .
"" "" ;
. -
"".

"". " " (" "),
- .
"
". (
"" - " ") - ""
. (3 . .. - 3 . ..)

.
" ",

. :

,
.
..

 (. classls - , ) -
, . , .,
. ,
( , )
.
,
. , . ,
, .
. - ,
,
. , .
- - , ,
, , , .

(, , ..)
( ).
, .,
"" " "
., . . ,
.
"." , ,
.
() (),
.
..

(. classis - , f acio - , ) -
() -
( ) (
- - ). . - . . , -
, ,
- , . .
. , . (),
. , () .,
() . .
, , " ".
, . ,
.
() ( ,
..),
. , "."

 , .
. , .
. ,
. .
. ..
( , ) .
, , . . ,
, ,
. ,
"",
( ) (
) . ,
. .
. .
(- ). ., ,
- .
. ,
(, "" , "" ).
, . "" ,
. . , , ,
. ,
, . .
.
..

(1- . 12. - 1164) , .

. .
, , . . 1147 . 1155 ,
.
. 1161 . .. - "
" ( ) " ".
"..." - ,
, . ..
.

. , ,
, , -,
.
, . ..,
, , -
.

.. , ..

(Klossowski) (. 1903) - , , ,
. , , ,
. . ", "
(1947), " ",
. " " , "
" (- ) ,
"".
"", , "",

.
, .. " " ,
.
,

. " "
"" "" . "
", "" (
, ..), "", "",
.
.
, " "
,
. -,
, "" ,
.
,
, , ,
" " "".
"" ""
, "" " "
, , . . -
" " (1969) . .
..

(1851-1916) - , , .
.
, . (1877)

 ( " ", 1880),

.
(1884). 1887 . ,
. 1905 ,
, (
) . " "
(1909-1916), (1910-1916). 1899 - , 1914 - .
" ", I , 1907 -
. . " "
(1910-1913). : " . ,
" (. 1, 1879); " " (. 1-2, 1886); "
" (. 1-2, 1886); " " (. 1-2, 1890); "
" (. 1-3, 1898-1903); "
" (1899); " " (. 1-4, 18951899); " " (1905); "
" (. 1-3, 1906); "" (. 1-2, 1910) .
. - .
: .
.

,
, . ,
., ,
. - ()
() . -
( - , - ..),
" ". (
) ,
- . ,
. .
( ). ,
, , .
, ., - -,
(
- ).
. - ,
("") . , ., " " (
). .
() .
..

 (Cohen) (1842-1918) - ,
. : " " (1885),
" " (1877), " " (1889), "
" (1902), " " (1904), " " (1912) . .
. (1865-1875), 1875
, ,
,
. . , . ., , ,
.
. 1902,
- " ". ,
,
, ,
, .
" " , - ""
, . , .
, - ,
. ..,
, ,
,
(
, ).
()
( ), . ,
, "" , "" , "",
.. , . .,
, .
,
.
, ., (),
, , " ", ..
, . ()
, , - ,
. , "", ,
, " " -
.
- - , .
"",
.
"" ,
; ,
, . ""
, .. - "
"; , . (
).
, - . (.
: ).

..

(. dissonans - , cognitio - , ) ,
,
. .. - " ",

. . (1944).
- ,
, ,
. , .
- ,
, .. . . - .
,

. .. .
(1957):
- (, , ) .
,
. , ..
() ()
, . 1970- " "

. ..

.
..

(Kozhev) ( - ) (1901-1968) - . , 1920, .

. 1928 - . (
). , 1933 1939,
,
. .
, 20 .
, ,
1920- .
,
, , . ,
. . "

" " ", " ",

, . . ,
" "
, .
,
, .
, ,
,
- . 4 "
", . ,
. , ,
.
. -
(" , , "). ,
., ,
. , ,
. ,
, ,
. ,
- , ..
, , , ,
. ,
- - , ..
. , ,
, - .
, ,
, :
, .
. : , , ,
, ,
: ,
- . , -
. ,

( . , ,
, - ), . : "
. - , - ,
- ,
" ( 1930- . " ").
.,
, . , .
, , , -. : "
" (1968-1973).
.. ,

 (Coser) . (. 1913) - ,
. : " " (1956),
" " (1956), "
" (1967) .

. , ., - ,
. ,
. .
,
,
, , .
,
.
. .
: , ,
, , ,
"" "" .
:
,
, ,
. .
,
, , ,
, .
..

(1831-1901) - . , - .
( ), . ,
, . .
40 - , , . -.
, .
1875 , . 1876 -, 1884 - ( : "
"). 1885-1887 " ".
1887 , , " " (18881898). . .
: " . " (. 12, 1873-1875); " .
" (1878); " " (. 1-2, 1876-1880);
" (1877); " " (1887); " .. ,
" (1895) .

, .. . ( (
). (" ").
( ) .
.. .. - ( .). .
, , .. ( ). .
, ,
.
.
,
- .
- ,
. .
,
.
, , ,
, . . -
.
. ,
. ,
(" " " ", ). ,
, ,
( , ,
). " "
,
. .
, , -
. ,
. - ,
", ". " "
" ", ,
, . " "
. () ,
" ", ,
.
. "" , ,
,
, ..
, , " ".
-
.
("") ,
,
, ,
.
-
, ..
, "" . , ,

 "" .
, , ("")
. ,
. " " . " ". ( )
, , , "" . . ,
. -
"".
, , " ".
- "
, ... ".
..

- ,
,
, , , , ..,
,
. , ..
.
..

(Collingwood) (1889-1943) - .
: " , " (1924); " " (1933);
" " (1938); "" (1939); " " (1940); "
" (1942); " " (1946, 1948, 1949, 1951, 1961 ;
: " ") . . -
, ,
- , .
.
" " ,
. , .
,
. ,
, ( )
. . .
" ", ..
- , . "
", ..
( ).

 ,
. ( .
- ).
.,
. . ,
, , , .
" " " ".
, ., - " ".
""
. - "" :
- ,
, .. .
. . .
" ".
, ,
, .
,
,
( ). ,
" ".
, . -
, ,
. , ,
, , - , ..
. ,
, -, -
, . .
: , .
, ..
. , ,
.
, (
). , .,
: ) , ,
; )
- , ( ),
. ,
, (, , )
. . "
, , - ". , .. ,
. " ,
". : "
, ...". ,
( , )
( ). ,
( ) -

. , , - , .
, ,
, ,
( ). .
" " ( ),
()
. ""
.
"",
. "" :
,
. .
, , .
. ,
, ,
, , . , ..
,
( , ).
, " " - ,
(), ,
.
.,

(. communis - ) - ,

. .
. .
, ,
, .
. : " ",
" ", " " .
.
: )
, ; ) ; )
; ) " " ..
" .", , "
" " , - ".
, ""
-
( , .), , (
, ..).
, . ,
( )

 , . ,
. ,
(), ,
; " , ", " ,
" (). , "."
: 1) ,
(" ", - ""
); 2)
" ", "
" ..; 3)
(
" - - - " ..)
; 4) - ,
.. (, - )
, . -
,

, . , .,
: ,
; ,
" "
"" ;
" .". .,
,
,
. . (
) ,
-, ;
.
. .

(. communicatio - , ) - . ,
, . . -
.
. : 1) -,
, , ; 2) (
), ; 3) ,
; 4) ,
, .. , ; 5)
. , , , ,
,

, .
, , .
, (, , ), - (
, ) . 20 . . ,
, , ,
( ), ,
. ( ). .
, .
,
. (" .").
" "
, . ,
,
, "", .. ,
. , . .,
20 .
, .,
.
, 20 . (,
.), ( .) ( .) .
. , , .
, -
. .,
. ,
. -
. , . ,
( ., "-" ..). ,
., ,
20 . , "."
"" .
. : 1) . -
- ,
- . (
. ).
2) - .
. 3) ,
-
. 4) . .
. - ( )
,
, . . ,
- . .
. ,
, . .
.

.
, , , ,
. .
(-) - . .
, ..
- , , .
. -
"".
,
, , , ,
. .
: , .
..

(. complexus - , ) -
, , , : 1)
; 2)
(, - ); 3)
; 4) ; 5)
; 6)
.
( )

, (,
, , ),
. , .
( ., . ),
(. ) (. ) .
50 ., , ,
. , .
( ), . (
), . ( ), . ,
, , -, , , , , , -,
. . , , ,
, .
., .
, . .
..

 (. conventio - ) - ,
()
, , - ,
. . - .. .

, .
.
. 1930-
. -
. , " " -,
" ",
. "
". " " , ,
, ,
" ".
" " , ,
(),
. , .
,
. , ,
"". ,
"" ,
- .
,
.
" - " , ""
, . ,

.
..

(Condillac) (1715-1780) - ,
,
. (1768). : "
" (1746), " ,
" (1749), " " (1754), "" (
, 1780), " " (1798) .
, (,
, ) (sensations),
. , ., -
"", .
, ., - ; - . ( . -

 ).
., , , , "
". ., ,
.
. ; ,
, .
, .
. . 18
. .
-, , , "... ,
, . , - ,
, , ,
, ,
, .. ". .,
,
18-19 .
..

(Condorcet) , (1743-1794) - ,
-, , .
( 1785). (1791).
. ( ).
"" . - "
" (1795). ,
(,
, ). , ., ,
( ). ,
, .
. .
,
. - . ,
.,
, ,
. ., ,
; . .
. .

, . .
: .,
" , ,
, , ,
, ".
, . ,

 . . ,
.
.. , ..

(1717-1795) - , , .
//, - , .
. 1744 - . , 1755
, , .
, II -.
.
, .
. . ,
, . -
.
, .
.. , ..

(. connotatio, . con - noto - , ) - , ()

. , .. ,
. ., ,
,
, . , "
" , . "."
, : ,
, . . - ,
" ",
.
: ( ""
" ",
" " ..), (
, ""),
.. . " " .
-. , ., :

, ,
; , .
,

 ""
.
., , ..

(. conservare - ) - ,
:
(
), ( ,
, "" ) , , (
). ,
. , , ,
. , , .
, .
, , - , ,
, . ,
- . , ,
, . , ,
.
. .
, .
, - .
, , .
, . , . . .
() . ,
,
. .
, , ,
- ,
. . ,
, , , , , . , .
.
" " , , ,
. . ,
.
. , .
, ,
. .,
. . , .
, .. , " ,
, , ,

 , ". ,
- , ,
, " .".
20 . " , ".
. .
, ,
-: " . -
" ().
, "" "".
,
.
. ,
. . , ., ,
" - ".
. : " - ,
- ". ..
: " , , ,
". . .
, , , , . -
- ,
, - .
" ".
: 1) .

, . 2)
, .
.
, .
. , ,
. 3) ,
.
, . (
. , " " ,
. ,
, ). 4)
. .
, ,
. . 5)
- , , .
. .
. ,
, ,
.
. 6)
. ,
. , ,
. . 70-

 20 . " ".
60- 70-
"" ,
"". .
"" - .
,
"". . , ",
". , ,
,
-. , -
. . ,
", ".
"" ,
, , ,
. ,
. , ,
.
,
.
, , , , .

,
, , -
.. . - .
, " ,
".
. -, -,
, , . ,
.
.
,
.
.
. " "
( . )
. " ", ""
-- .
, (
.).
, , , ,
, 19-20 .
. , , ,
. . ,

 . , - . , .
. , , "
", .. ",
". .
(),
(), (). .
,
" .": 1) .
, , .
, ,
. , ,
, , .
, - . 2)
.
. " ,
,
". 3) .
. , ,
. , - ,
, , - (), . 4)
.
. ,
.
. 5) . , ,
" ".
, .
- .
, , " ". 6)
. .
.
. , .
..

- , ()
()
,
, ..
. , .

. ,
,
. . - ,

 . , ,
. . (
) . :
", ,
". .. - " .",
, " " , -
.
, .. ,
(
) . . " "
" " (" "). .
, , .
, . ., ()
, ,
" .". ., ()
( " ", ). .,
,
" ". . : 1)
; 2)
; 3) "" (..
); 4) - (..
); 5) .
; 6) ( , ).
. .
, , ,
- . (
).
. .
. ( ) .
..

( ) - (
), (
, .. )
. ..
. "
" , , . "
" ( ), .. - " "
( ). .. ,
, . , (
) ,
, , .. .
, ,

 , ..
, (
). , ..
( ) . ,
, .
,
, , -
( )
(..
, ).
, - " ", - "
", ,
.
. , "" ,
- . , .. -
, ,
.
.. ,
-
. , ..
"" ( ) ,
() . ..
" " " ",
, "" "".
.. -: 1)
() .. ; 2)
(); 3)
; 4) .. ,
. .. , ( , -).
.. (1899-1960). , ,
. ,
"-" ( ""
-,
"" - ).
..

KOHT (Comte) (1798-1857) - , ,

, , ,
, , . . "
" (1830-1842). . ""
, ,
, ,

. . " "
" ": . ,
,
, .
. : 1)
(Milieu), ,
() ,
( ), ,
; 2) ,
,
; 3) , ,
, ; 4)
, ,
, . , .,
: , . .,
, .
- ,
. - ,
, .
. ,
.
, .
" " " " .
, . , ,
, . .,
, , .
, . "
" . ,
: ,
. ,
,
(, , ). -
- ,
"" "", . , ,
, ,
,
, . ,
., .
. : .
.
(, , , , , , )
, .
"", ,
.
.
, - , ,

, , . .,
, . ,
, , , .
, , , . .
: , , . ,
, -
. , . (
) ( ).
: ", , , , ,
". , .
, " "
, ,
. ., " "
. . " ", "
, " (1851-1854),
.
.
, . .
" ", - " ", - " ".
.
" " . " , ": "
;
, ,
, ... , ,
, - , - ,
, ".
..

(. contextus - , ) - ,
-

. .
,
. .
, ,
, - " , "
( .
). "."
,
; "."
. (
) (

 ). .
.
() , (
), ,
. -
(. )
"" ().
, ,
( " " - . ),
., ,
( ) (. )
- .
. .

- 1) ,
- ,
; 2) , " " 60- 70- 20 .,
" ". .
. -
, , , . .
,
, , .
, , ,
. .
(
, , , -, ),
,
,
"" ("" , ,
). ,
. 60-, , , , -,
, , . ,
, .
,
.
,
, . -
, ,
.
- : 1)
"" ,
; 2) --

 " " -

; 3) ,
- . .
,
, ,
.
.
- -
"" ,
.
,
"", .
..

- .

(. configuratio - ) - , ,
. .
()
. , 20 .
,
.
, -. 20 .

(, , , .), ,
, , . ,
,

,
. ..
.

, .
, , ,
. , , .. .
, ,
, .
.

 , .
, ,
. , ,
"". -
.
, .
,
( ,
,
, , ,
). ,
"" .
: 1)
, ; 2)
,
, . .
,
. . ,
.
,
.
..

(. conflictus - ) - ,
. . ,
. . - ,
,
. .

. . ,
. .
. , ,
. .,
, .
, -
- .
. . .
- .
..

 - " ",
. ,
.
.

. , ,
, . 20 .

,
.
,
. , -,
, .
,
, " ". . -
,
.
,
.
.
" "
,
. , .
, ,
,
,
. .
,

.
.,

(-) (551-479 ..) - ,

- ,
. .
, -""
- "", "" (" ")
"" (). . "" -
; ""
. "", "".
, . "", "". -,
"" , . "" -

 . , -, . "-"
(" "), .
"-" "" - , "" - , "" -
"" - . ""
, .
"" " -
, . "
": ( ), -
.. "" . , - ,
. , "" ,
.
, ,
. "", " ",
., "" - , ( ., , .). .
: " , ". , , , .
- " " " ",
" ".

. (2 . .. - 3 . ..)

- ,
.
.. .

(. conceptus - ) -
. . . .
. ().
- .
, .
. .
- . .
. .
, ,
. .
( ,
), .
( ).
..

 -
; ,
; ,
,
; ,
,
,
.
,
() , ,
- - (: "",
"", "" ..), (
) .
(, ) ,
(- -,
).
,
( ),
. . .
. . :
("" "" ); , ,
- .
,
, .
()
, (
), , ,
(, , ).
, ,
(
,
, ). . -
(
),
"", .. ,
. ,
, ,
. ,
()
,
, ()

( )
( ).

( ),

 ().
( )
. ( )
.
.
..

(. conceptus - ) -
,
(nomma) ,

,
(conceptus). . ;
.
, : - ;
- . .
- , ..
- - .
,
(
: , ),
, flatus vocis ( , vox,
- sermo). ,
, ,
, , -
, . ,
,
() , "" (status),
,
, ,
- - :
, ,
status. ,
. , ,
,
,
,
. . ,
, , ,
.
(, ), .
,
-, - ("") ,

 -
: " , , ,
. ,
, ".

. . (, , ),

,

. ,
",

" (). .
, ,
- ,
. . : , .
..

(Kopernik, Copernicus) (1473-1543) -

, , .
, .
, (, , , )
, , (. ) . -
() , 30 .
,
"", .
( , 3 . ..),
. (. : " ;
, ,
"). ( "
", 1505-1507), . , ,
, . . ,
. , .,
" ,
".
, . ,
, , , "" ( .,
) . ,
, . "
" (1543). .,
, .
, "" . .
, . V 1615 .

, " "
1828.
.,

() (. 1651-1714) - -
, , . .
, . -
, .
, . -,
. ,
. 1699-1706 . , 20
. . .
, " ...",
" ...", " ..." . .
, . ,
"" ". "
", .
.. , ..

(Korsch) (1886-1961) - .
.
(1925). (1936).
: " " (1923), " " (1938) .
.
,
1930-, "-". "
" , ., "
",
. , .,
, , ,
. .
. .,
: " "
(-

); (
,
, ); (

). . ,

 - , ., - .
,
- - .
, ,
, . ( ,
-
) ",
". -

" "
. ,
, . "
", ., - "
".
. .

(. kosmos - , kosma - ) -
,
" " (, , , -), ,
. .
- .
; "-". , . ,
- , ,
"", .
,
.
. .
. (, ) .
,
. . :
- (18 .)
; . , .
(20 .), . .
- .
.
..

- - , 19 20 . , .

 , ,
.
. : -,
- -.
. .
.: - (, . , ,
, .) - (, ,
, .. , .). ,
(
),
( , ) ,
. , -, - ., ,
,
.: 1) ( . ,
,
, ); 2)
, (
, );
, - : (,
-, , , ,
); (
- . ; - , ;
- - ,
); - ;
( );
. . (
, "" )
", " (), ,
, (
"" . ). . ,
,
homo sapiens . homo sapiens explorans , . - homo creator . homo faber - . . "
" (. ), , , "
".
.
: ""
), "" (), "" (),
(), (), ().
. () ,
;
.
(. ).

..

KOTAPHCK (Kotarbinski) (1886-1981) - ,

. , ,
1907 1912 - . .
, 1919 - , 1929 -
( 1961). 1927 - .
, . 1944
( , "-"). 1946 1949 , 1951 - .
1951, 1957-1962 . ( 1958).
: " " (1913); " " (1915);
" , " (1929); "
" (1938); " " (1955); " " (1956);
" " (1957); " " (. 1-2, 1957-1958) . . -
-- . ,
,
. (1886-1939). : "-" (. res ), "" (. concretio - , ), "" (. coma -
pan - ), .
"", "".
( , , ),
, , " " (
- ),
" " , "
", "" . .
.

. , , , .
" "
, , ,
" ". , ,
" " (""), ("") ()
, .. ().
(" ")
. (""),
(""), ( ) ("").
, (, ..). , ,
.. , ,
, , ,
. , - , ,
.

 . "
, , , ,
, ;
, ,
, ". ,
,
, .. " ". , "" - "
-". :
() ; , ,
, ("") ("")
, .
. : , ,
. , " "
. .
, ,
- "" (
"" - ).
. ( ) ,
. . : , .
..

(. 16 . - 1647) - ,
. , .
. . .
" -",
.
,
.
. , 1645
, .
", "
.
.. , ..

( - , , ; .
evolutio - ) - ,
,
. , "."
. , ,
: - "." ,

 (
). , ,
- " - ", " - ".

, .
,

. "."
. .
, .. - (1968),
,
: ("
..." - . ) (", !" - ).
., , , ,
, , ,
. "
, - . , - , ,
". " - "
,
. ,
, .
( - ),
,
. . - " ,
, , ,
. ,
... ".
, (,
), , ,
.. ,

.
B.C.

(1609-1677) - , , . 1627
. 1629-1632 .
, , , . 1634-1638
. ,
. 1655 . 1666
. " " 2 ,
. ", ..." (1648)
, ,
.

.. , .,

- - ,
- . "."
, ,
- . .
-
. . ,
()
, , () , ,
(. , , ). , .
;
. .
.
,
, , , "
", -
.
: . ,
. ""
, ,
: (1) -
: ,
. : " . ,
." ( ). .
: ". ,
." ( ). . (
, , )
(). - " ." , " (implicatio)
, (explicatio)
" ( ). , ". ,
" ( ); (2) - :
, .
- " ", - .
"" . ; (3) - .
,
, : ,
. " " ( ); . (" , ."
""), (. " "); (4) - :
("
" -, " " , "
" ) - : " "

 - " , "
(), " " (), " " ( -) ..
, ., ,
. ,
, . ,
- - ("
, , ") -
.
( , ); (5) -
: (" ,
, " ),
- ("
." ),
(" , ,
" ); (6) - - ,
(. " " ),
(.
" " ). .

. ( ): "...,
" ;
", , , , "
; "
, , ", .. ",
" (concinnitas),
" ", , " " (.-. ). , ( . )
, , .
, . (
) : . kalon ()
kalo - (, 416 b-). ,
.
, , , "
." (, 210d). , , "
, " (, 249d).
,
() (. eros - ,
, ). ., , (.
- - ,
, : "
, "). , "
" ().
" ." - . : "
...: , ,
, " (, 211).
- (. extasis

 , , ). ,
: " " -
kalos, - kallos, .
kalo ""; , ,
" ( -). .
.: ". " "
" ( ); "
" (;
-; 11 .). ,
() .: "
" ( -).
: "
, , .
- ; , , ; , , - ".
, . "",
" ", , "
" ( ). ,
" ", ..
, etc. " ." ( ),
" ." (. -). "
" ( ), " " ( ).
" " ( );
.,

(), - . -
(. )
( ), ,
" " - . ,
. :
", " " " ; .
, " " ,
; " " (. ). .
, ( "")
: () : , .
:
" ." ( );
. " ",
. ;
. : " , , //
" ( );
..; () - -: .
- : .
"" (dignitas) ; , . - "
, ... , ,
... - ";

, . ,
: ,
: " // " (
), " // , // , //
, // " ( ); .
, " " (). -
, ,
- . ,
,
: ". " (.-. ), ",
" (), " " () ;
.
()
. (" "
" " ): "
, " (-). ,
-, , ,
. , : "
" (),
"- " ,
"- " (. ).
, ,
" " (),
, . .
, ("-")
(" "),
, "-", , ,
", , , , ,
, " ().
"" (), " "
(.. ). , "-"
: " ( )
, , " ().
, 1980-
" " (, . , . ),

. , "
", ,
( , -
): " "
(. ).
, , " " ( ),
" " () "",
", , ... " (). - ,
, " "
-:
, "... ... " (). ""

 (" "
, " " " " -)
, " " (). -
" " - , .
.
..

(Kratylos) (2- . 5 . - . 4 . ..) - ,

. - ,
- , , .,
. (" ,
, , .
, , ,
"). . ,
"" .
. ( ).
., , -
, - , , ,
, - ,
- .
..

(Kristeva) (. 1941) - , , .
- - , ,
, , . 60- - 70- .
, .
, , , , ,
,
, . ,

.
, " " , ,
" ". . , -
- ,
, ( ,
..).

, . .
,
" ". - ,

 - .

- . ,
, . ,
,
Ego,
, "
".
, .
(). ,
,
. " " (1974) .
,
, . .
-
- ,
.
(

.)
, " ()".
. " ,
( )
"; , ,
, .
.
"". ,
, ,
. , ,
, , . , ,
,
, .
, . , .
""
. .

.
, - " " -
,
, , .
, ,
.
. , ""
, , , -
. ()
, ,
, , .

, . , , ,
, , , ,
,
. "" ,
, ,
( ),
,
. "" . .
: , , () .
"- , "
;
,
, ,
. , ,
. .
, .
, .
- .

, . ( - ,
, )
. .
, " ".
,
, - .
.,
( ).

(, . )
-, -. - . -
. -
(, - ) ...,
( , ...). - - (
-),
. , .,
,
. ., , ,
,
,
. : "" (1969); " " (1974);
"" (1977); " " (1980); " " (1983); " .
" (1985); " , " (1987); "
" (1988) .
..

 (. Krsna, Krshna, , "", "", "-") -

, () ,
. . : , ,
- . .
- , . , .
( , ),
. . - "-",
- . "-" . - , ,
, . " " . -
,
- . ,
, "-", "-". . -
, , ,
-, , , ,
. () () (, -, )
,
. . -
- - ,
.
,
(-, -) -
, , . .
..

(Kroner) (1884-1974) - .
: 1919 - , 1924 - , 1929 - , 1934 -
--. 1935 . 1938
(), 1940 - , . 1949-1952
(-), 1953 - ().
1910 . , - "",
1933. .
( );
, ;

. ,
. : " " (. 1-2, 1921-1924); " .
-" (1928); "- " (1931);
" " (1943); " " (1951); " "
(. 1-3, 1956-1961); " " (1966) .
. "

 " (" "), ( ),

.. . ,
,
. , ,
, . "" ("
") , .
, .. (
). ,
, , ,
, ..
. - . ,
. ,
, ,
. - ,
"" .
, ,
.
( ) --, .
, , , ,
( ). ,
. , ,
, .
.
, ,
. () ,
()
, ( "" ).
( )
, ,
. ,
.
-, -.
: ,
( , - ).
() , ,
. . ,
, : , ,
, , , .. .
, . ,
, . " ,
". .
- , - (
, ). (
) , "
". , " "
, ,

. . (,
) . ,
, . ,
, ,
"" .
. ( ).
( ,
). , ,
- , , .
..

(1842-1921) - , ,
-, , . .
1862 , 1867-1868
. 1870-, ,
. 1873 "
?".
, . .
. ,
.
5 . , , , 90- 19 .
. 1917 .
. .
.
, .
, . ,
"-" - .
- . .
. .
() , , ,
,
. .
, ( ,
) ,
. . ,
. . "
", ,
( : ,
, ). " "
, (),
, , .
-

- ,
. ,
., " ".

.
, , . ,
, .
. ,
, .
,
.
. "",
- .
. - , ; ,
.
. - .
, , ,
. ,
- , ,
.. - . ,
, , , ,
, - ,
. .
: " " (1892), ", , "
(1898), ". " (. ., 1900), ",
" (1904), " " (1905), " " (1906),
" . 1789-1793" (. 1979), ",
", " " (1907), " "
(1913), " " (. ., 1922),
"" (1922) .
..

() (1866-1952) - , , .
. " " ("-").
. , .
( : ,
, . ). 1903
"", ,
, . .
20 . " ".
(1902-1920), 40-
. : " " (1900);
" " (1902); "

 " (1906); " " (1905); "

" (1915); " 1871 1915" (1928); "
" (1938) . . - " , ,
, ". ""
(), .
, .

, ( ) - .
, , ,
. , (
) ( ). .
. . . ,
, , , ,
, , , . ,
.
, . "
,
, ". , - " "
( ). . , ,
, " ". :
. , ,
, "" (.. )
, , ,
. . .
,
, .. . .
, .
. , (-
). . -
, ,
- , , , .
- , ,
. ,
, , . (
) ,
, - .
,
, ( " "
).
, .
, ,
,
. ,
.
.
. .
( ),

 ( ,
). . "-": "
, , ". ()
, : ,
( ) . ,
, , .
( , )
( ) , ,
. ,
, . ,
, , , , - " . ...
. - ".
..

(Quine) (. 1908) - .
(1932). ( 1938).
,
20 . : " "
(1941), " " (1951), " " (1953), " "
(1959), " " (1960), " " (1966), "
" (1969), " " (1974), " " (1981),
"" (1987) . , , .
( "" "" ,
" " " ") , , -,
"" (" "
, "" - ). ,
., :
( ,
) ,
.
()
, .. ,
(" " " " - ).
, .., , (
),
. ,
- ,
. " , ,
, ", . , ( , "" -
), , .

,
, - , ., "
, ". , .
, "
( ) " ,
. , - ., - ,
.
- "" ( ), -
.. .., ., "
". 1906 .
(..
) . ,

, -
.
, .
.

(), . " , .,
,
, ". ( . : "
- "). ,
, . (
: " ,
. ,
, , ,
,
. , ...
..."). ,
, ,
,
. , . ("
") "" - "", ", " - "
". . , ""
.
" " ( ., " ,
")
"". "", :
"... ,
".
, ,
. " " ("... ,
..."). " " ( . )
, ,
, - " "
. " , -
., - , ,

 ".

. .
, ,
, "" : "... ,
, ...
, ,
, , , ". , ., ,
, .
( , ., ).
, ., - : , "
, - ,
... ...
?". , . ,
"" "" .
. .

- . -

(Cooley) (1864-1929) - .
: " " (1902), "
" (1909), " " (1918), "
" (1930). ( 1907), 1918 .
, . .
, ,
. , . .

, .
, " ",
, , ,
. .
. .
,
. (, , ,
.) , ,
, .

, .
, ,
, . (
, . , , ,
. .
.
,
. .
" ",
, ,
"".
, .
.
, .
, .
. .

.
..

(. cultura - , , ) -
- , ,

. , , .,
: , , ,
, , ,
..
. . , ( )
, .
, (, ) ;
, ,
, (
), - ,
. .
. (
, ), .
, 18
. . ,

. .
. ,
(

); - ,
, , , , ,
( - , ,
, ; - , ; - ,
). .,
, .
, ( , , ). , , , .
, .
., , . 19
20 . .
, , , (
- -, ; - , - - ;
- -, , ; .).
. , .
, , .
. * , .
, , ,
. ,
, ,
.
,
. . .
, ,
, : ,
, ,
( , ,
, ..).
,
,
. , ,
., . ( ,
, , , , ..).
, .
. .
: , , -
.
. (). ,
, ,
. . -
, ., ,
.
,
, .
, ,
, ( ,
,

 ,
). - , , ,
. , ,
,
. . .
,
; , ;
, -
- ,
. ,
, .

- ,
.
,
, .
.
( .),
.
- ,
. , ,
, .
, - ,
. , .
. ,
, ,
.' .
, ,
, .
, (
), ,
. , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
.. .
,
, , ,
. .,
: "", "", "", "", "", "", "",
"", "", "", "", "", ..

. .
, - . .
, ,
. .

 , ,
, ,
.. ,
,
,
. .
, , .
.
. ,
. ,
, ,
. .
., , ,
, , , ..
, . - , ,
, .. ,
.
-. , .,

, ,
. .,
, .
, ,
, , , ,
. .. . ,
, , ,
, ,
.. (, , -, , ). , ,

70-80- 19 . (. .),
,
19 .
(, ), ,
,
,
.
,
. ,
.
.
.
. .
, .
, ,
, ,
. ,
, , , ..,

 . .
.
, . , .
. . ,
., , . (. : , ).
B.C.

- -
.
:
(),
(). ..
" ",
, "" ( ),
"". ,
, ,

.
, ""
" " . ..
, "" .
, "" ,
, .., , ,
" ". , ( ,

) ,
,
, . -
""
( ) "
". , "" "
"
,
, " ". ..

- (.
). . : .
..

- -
, 19 .
. . . , . , . -, - , - .. , .. - .
- ,
" " -,

(. . ).
, : .-..,
,
, , . . . .-..
. .
. .-..
. .-.. - ,
.
"" ( ) .
, , ,
. .
( ).
, , "" (
), "" ( ,
) "" ( ). ,
, . -
,
,
: , , . "" ,

(. , . ).
,
"" ,
. .-.. - ,
,
"",
. ,
,
.
, -, .. , .
, , .
,
- ,
.
: , ,
. .-.. (.. , ..
), ,
, . .-

.. ,
- .
, , .
20 .-.. ,
, (. - , . - , "
" - ), (.. , .. -) 60-.
..

- ,
. ., ,
. . -
(" "),
.
: "" ;
(
); ,
- (,
, ..); -
; ,
"-"
,
. . -
(
, , ,
).
, , -, "
" ...
, , , ,
( , ). , .
,
,
,
(, , )
. -
1930- "" (, .
). 20 . ""
( , ,
.).
"" ( . ).
, ,
(30-40- 19 .)
, ,

, ,
"",
" ", .

-
.
" ", . -.
20 . ()
, " - ",
" - - ", " - ", "
- " (, ), () (),
()
() (, ), ()
().
,
, .. , .. , .. .
. 1990-,
" " " " " ".
.., , -
,
- ; ,
"" ,
" ".
.. , ..

(Kuhn) (1922-1996) - ,
.
, - , .

.
. "- "
(1957), .
.

,
, .
. "
" (1962),
. .
, . :
, (), (-, ).

 , ,
, -
. -
,
.
( ) , ,
.
,
.
,
.
"" (..
) ,
, , .
,
,
.
, , ,
.
,
(, , ..).

,

. ,
. , .,

, , , ,
.
,
,
.
.
, ,
. .
, ( ),
.
,
, "
". " . 18941912" (1978) . - -
,
, --
. . .
- , ,
(),

 ,
.
..

, (Kierkegaard) (1813-1855) - .
., - ,
, :
, , .
,
; , .,
- ,
, .
- . .
( : "-", " ",
"", " ", " ", " ",
" " -
, 1843 1846; 1849 " ")
( "" . 14 ). (
" ", ) .
, .
. ( .
). .
. .
,
(existenz) , .
, .
.
, , .,
. ,
, " ",
, "".
, , .
,
:
(). , .,
, , , ,
. , .
(. "")
("", ). , "" - ("" "",
, " ,
"). , .,

 , ,
, -,

. , .
: , . "" ,
, .
, , -
. -- .
. , ..
() , .
. . . , ,
, ( "" (InnerlichKeit),
" ", , ..
, . , ,
. , ,
, ..
, - , , :
(= ) , .
, ., ,
. , .
, , -
, ,
, , "Sola fide" - "
" ( ) - . .
,
(
, , , ).
. ,
" ", "
". , .,
( ).
, ,
, ,
. .
20 ., ,
.
. .
., " " ,
" ",
.
..

 (Carroll) ( - ) (1832-1898) -
, , "" (, nonsense - ).
( - 1861), (1857).
-. : "
-" (1860), " " (1864),
" " (1865), " " (1866), "
" (1867), " " (1869), "
" (1871), " " (1874), "
" (1879), "? - ?" (1883), " " (1887), " "
( , 1888 1893), " " (1893), " " (1896) .
- ., , ,
,
, ,
1840-1870-. , . ,
: - -, -
, - ,
, -
, - .. "" ,
, : , - , - , , - , - ,
- , - , - - ..
20 .
. , ,
: . - ,
; . -
; . -
( . ", "),
( . ", ") ..
19 ., ""
. , ;

; ,
,
. - ("") . -
: ( )
, ; - (
, ""),
. . : ;
, ;
.. ,
" "
" " . " ": "
. : 1) , ,
, ; 2)
; 3)

 "/", "/" "/"; - 4)

, ,
"" , ". " "
., , - "" ( , shark - snake - ).
, " " .,
", ",
( . , .) " "
. .
. " " (1884) .
,
1928 . . .,
, , , .
20 .
(. : , , , ).
. .

- - -
(. : " ", 1944; "
", 1949; " -, ", 1949 .) (.:
" ", 1980; " " ", 1983; " ", 1987;
" ", 1990; " ", 1994; " ", 1995
.). , , :
, " -
( , , ) - ,
- ". , "" - . ,
- ,
, . - , :
" - ,
, (,
, : "). . , (" ") " ", .,
. -
, ( )
:
, "
". , , -
.
,
. (" "
"), . ,
: ,
, -

 . ( . ,
, :
) . , ,
( - - ); ) "", , .,
-
). ,
- .:
. "", "". ,
: "
". , . - "", ,
" . , ,
. ". . -
, . : .
, : "
- " (). "" "", ,
- -. .
, . ,
. .
, ,
(" "),
,
" ". -
, , " " " ,
".
" , ,
": , , , - ,
" " (.: "
", ). " "
,
" " " "
( ) "
" ( ).
(. ) , :
?
,
, ?
?
,
. ,
(" ", " "):
. ""
: "-",
, - - . "
" (). . . (.: , , , ).

. .

(Labriola) (1843-1904) - .
. (1874).
: " " (1896), " " (1897),
" " (1895-1898, 1925) .
, .
, . , ., "
... ".
, , ,
., " ",
, .

, - , .
""
, , . , "
,
, (
), ". , .,
, ( , .
). -
. , " " (
.) - , - ,
.
. - , : (
) , .
, , .

.
..

(1823-1900) - , , ,
. , .
1868-1869 " ", "" . 1870
, "!", --
. ,
.
; . . ,
. . (

),
- : " " . ..
, ,
,
(), , , ,
( , )
. , .
: , , .. ,
, .
, ,
,
(, ). -
. .
. . ,
. ()
( ), .
, . ,
, , .
,
, .
,
.
.,
. (, ), .,
,
, , , , , .
,
.
, .
,
" ",
. , .
,
. , .., .
,
( , .
).
. . ,
, , .
" ":
, ,
, .
( )
,
. .
. .: "
. I. " (1860), "

" (1861), " . . 1. . 1" (1875), "

" (1898), " " (1898), " "
(1903), " " (1903-1904), "
" (1923) .
..

(Lacan) (1901-1981) - ,
. : " " (1953), ""
(1966), " " (1973-1986) . -
- ( 1953), (19641980), ( 1963),
" ".
- , . ,
(. )
, ;
. 50- -- .
("") .
. "
"
" " . .
" "
:

;
, ,
.
( - - -). , .,
- , .
, - (
, , ) .
-
( ),
( ) .
" ", 6-18
, ,
, ., ,
. , .
, - , ,
. ,
, :
( ) ,
, , .
- ., ,

 ,
- .
, ,
, " "
( - , ),
, , (, ),
. , .,
, "" , " "; , " " :
" "; - ,
,
cogito. - , .,
( ,
- ),
( ) "
", , ,
"" (, , ),
,
. ,
"" (
), ,
,
, , .,
. -
,
.
..

(Lakatos) (1922-1974) - .

.
. .
17-19 .

, .. . ,
- ,
" " . - : )
" ", ""
; ) " ",
, .
., , " " -
: , -

 , . " "
,
, ,
. , , .
: , , ..
.
, ,
. . " ".
, . , -
. ,
" ",
, ad hoc , " "
. , . ""
"" . "" . - " ",
"" "" , " " ,
. ,
"" , -
-
.
.
"" ,
:
. ., - ,
. , - .
- . ,
, ""
"".
..

(Lamark) (1744-1829) - ,
( 1793).
, , , , ,
"". . - .
: " " (1809), " . . 1-7" (18151822), " " (1820) .
( 1779), ( 1783),
( 1784), 25
. ; . .
(
), ,

 ;
, , ..
,
. .
"", - , ,
, . , .,
,
" ". , .,
, .
. ,
, , .,
.
. " "
. . ,
.
.
. ,
( )
. .
-
,
19 .
, .,
, . .
..

(Lammetrie) (1709-1751) - , .
-
. (1748) ,
. : " " (1745),
"-" (1747), "-" (1748), " " (1751), "
" (1751) .
. . ,
, (
, ) ,
, ( ) .
, ., -
(, , ). ,
, , . :
" ,
,
". ("",
) , , ,

 : " ,
, ,
... , , ,
, - ,
, ". .,
- " ", " "; - "
". .

"-" .
? .,
. .
, . -, .
, ,
, . .
. ., -
, - . ,
: -
. .
. .

- (6-5 . ..) - ,
; " "
- " - -". ( )
"-", , -
"", (). -
" " (" "):
" ", ,
, "", "-" .
"" (" "), ,
, . ,
- "" , .
"" . "" - " ,
" - ("") .
(""). ,
, ,
.
(" ")
(" - ").
"" " "
: "" (-"" ),
( "" ""), ( -), . "" "" . : ""
, "" - . " "

 "". -
"";
"", "",
. , "", " ",
, . "-",
, : "" ,
"" , ,
. , , ""
(" , ");
" "
.
..

(Laplace) (1749-1827) - , , , ,
. . 1785 -
, 1790 - . . (1796)
"" ,

. .
:
(" ", . 1-2, 1795-1796).
-
(" ", 1812).
("", " ",
"" ..) (" ", 1814).
, . 18 .,
, .


. ,

,
.

.
..

- (1863-1919) - , .
- . 1890 -
. .
.
.
.
. (1916-1918). "
" (1902). - " " (19101911), .
. .-.
, .
- : 1)
; 2) ; 3)
. , .-., : 1)
; 2)
; 3)
; 4) .
, .
. -
.
- - ( )
( ), , - .
(
).
. - ,
,
, .
-
. "", ,
. " " ( ),
" " ( )
" " (
).
, ,
. ,
. ,
: 1) (
); 2) (
). , - .
- .
.
( ). , ,
, .. .
- -
, - () .
(
) ""

 . - -
( ).
,
( ). -
, ,
, - .
..

(1870-1952) - , , ..
. - ,
. ,
, 1897 - -, 1913 -
, . 1906, ,
(" "). 1922
. . - "
" (1906). . : " " "
" (1910); " . . 1. "
(1917); " " (. 1-2, 1922); "
" (1922); " " (1922); " " (1923);
"" (1937) . , .
, .
, .
, , "
". " " " " .
"", "" .., " ".
.
, ,
, , .. . " ", .,
. ,

. - , ",
, , a priori ". , .
- , ( )
, , , " ",
, . . ,
, .
, - . ,
, ,
. . ()
.
, ,

 , .
, ( "").
, ""
. . " "
.
, , ., (
. ,
" ").
" ", "" " ". ,
, ., - " "
:
" ", - " ".
" ".
" " .
.
(
) , " ".
, -
, , , ,
. . ( ) ,
, , , , ,
( , ).
..

(1596-1670) - - , "
", .
. , ,
(1635-1638). ( ,
..).
" , ", 13 ,
.
18 . . " ...",
- .
.. , ..

(L Bon) (1841-1931) - , , ,
. : " " (1886), " -"
(1895), " " ( . ., 1908), " ", "
", " " (1907) .
. -

,
, .
,
: " ", , , , , ;
- .
.
. " ", ,
, , ,
, , ,
, , .

; " ", . - .
. ,
,
, .
. ., ,
, ,
. , ,
" ". "" "" .
. .
. , .,
, .
.
;
,
. , ., .
., , ,
, ,
, ( .).
..

- (Levy-Bruhl) (1857-1939) - , .
( 1904). . .
(1926). .-.
" ". .-.
" ". .-.,
, . "
" .
" ". .. .
. , ,
.

 .-. , " "

.
, ,
. ,
- (),
- , . .-.
"", ,
, .
, ""
,
. .-. , ""

, ,
, . .-.
, . ,
,
. : "
" (1903), " " (. ., 1930); "
" (1910); " " (1931);
" " (1935) .
..

AC (Levinas) (. 1906) - -. 1916-1920

, 1920-1923 - ,
. 1923 ,
. 1961 - .
. , , . .
" " 1930.
, .
. 1947
- " " "
". 1948 " " - ,
. . .
.: ,
. , ,
, , , , -
- .
, .
, - ,
.
, .
, .
( ).

 , .
, ,
.
- , ,
. .
,
. . "
. " (1961).
,
60- . . . "
" (1963), .
, . . 11 1963
, .
. ..
. , "
" (1964). . " ,
" (1974), " . . " (1982), " " (1988)
. .
.
..

- (Levi-Strauss) (. 1908) - ,
.
- (1935-1938), . (1949-1950),
( 1959). (1973). :
" " (1958), ". . 1-4" (1964-1971), " 2" (1973), " " (1970), " " (1974) .
20 ,
.-. .

, , , - , (,
) (, --) .
.-.
( .) - . .-.
: 1) ; 2)

; 3) ; 4)
- - "" .
, .-. : " "
, ,
.

 ( ),
,
. , ,
,
( , , ),
.
, ,
(, ..) .
.-. . "
" -,
" ", .-. , "
".
("") .-. ,
() .
, .-.,
,
. "
",
, ,
.
. .-.
"".
,
- .-.
.

, ,
.
..

(1908-1983) - , , .
. ,
.. . 1941 - (: "
"). , (""). ,
, , 1947 ""
" ". 1949 - ,
, (1955) - "". 1958
"" " ". 1965 1974 ( )
. 1968 "
". "", " ", "" .
. (.. ,
), - . . -

 "" ,
, , ()
. ,
, .
, ,
- - .
, .. (). -
, - (
). . ,
( ,

). - . .
"" : ( ), (
), ( ).
. ,
: ( ),
( ),
( ), (
- ,
). ( ,
). , , .,
(), (. -).
, -
, ()
. - "", . ""
. " ,
". ,
. ,
, ,
, .
.
. , ,
.
, .
. " ":
() " " , ,
. " ".
( "") ,
, ,
, .
, "" ( ), ""
( ), - ( , ).
( - ).
, , .
"" , .
, ( )
( ). : (

 ) ( ,
). . .

,
. -
. () -, , ,
, .
. .
, ( )
( ). , ..
( ). ,
"". "" ( ""
). "" , " ", " " ( , .
).
. ,
" ", " ", "" (
.. -) ,
. , , .
. , .
. ' , "",
"" ( ).
.
" ".
..

(5 . ..) - ( ). .
. ( ) , . . 19-20 . . , .
. . -
. .
" " " ". , .
.
, .. . .
, . . ,
- .
. -
- .
. .

 (. legitimus - ) - - ,
, , .
( ) ,
. .
"" , "
",
. " "
"" , ""
. .

,
, . ., ,
, .
( . ),
"".
,
; ,
, . .
, ,
, .
,
,

, , , ,
,
.
..

(Leibniz) (1646-1716) - , , ,
, , . : " "
(1685), " " (1695), " " (1704),
"" (1710), "" (1714). .
17 .
( ), (
), . , .
( ),
.,
. .:
.
- , , , .
. ,
, . ,
: , ,

 . .

. - , , ; , ;
,
. ., , .
, ,
;
.
- ( ,
, " ", ).
,
, , .
-
. ,
. ,
, . .
, ,
. , ..
, . .,
- , ,
. , ,
- ,
. - , ,
. ;
. , ,
, .
. -
- - . .
: , ; ,
; . - ,
. -
- , . .
. - ,
, , - ,
. . , , ,
. . .
. ,
. 17 .
. ,
, ( , " ",
, ""). -
. , "" - tabula
rasa, . (
),
.

 ( ), . ,
, ,
, . .
. , ,
- - , - , , . .
.
. .
.
: , - .
, .
, . . .
, . -,
, -
, .
-, . .
, ,
. . .
,
. . : .
..

(Laing) (1927-1989) - .
. . .
( .. ), .
.
, , ,
, ,
,
, . ,
.
.

. ,
.
.
. 1961 " .
",
,
. 1965 .

 "
",
.
(, ), .

" " .
" ".
.
" " .
"
". , " ",
. " " (1961),
", " (. 1. ; . ,
1964), " : .-. , 1950-1960" ( . ,
1964), " . " ( .
. , 1966), " " (1967), " " (1967), "
" (1969) .
..

(Lem) (. 1921) - , , -.
: " " (1946); "" (1950); " " (1955);
"" (1958); " " (1954, 1958); " " (1961); ""
(1961); " " (1962); "" (1964), "Summa technologiae" (1964, 2-
- 1967); " " (1964); "" (1965); " " (1968);
" " (1968); " " (1968); " "
(1970); " " (1971); " " (1973); " " (1975);
"" (1976); "" (1976); " " (1979); " " (1987); ""
(1987); " " ( 2 , 1988) . - .
" "
. ,
, ;

. (: - - ..)
;
Homo sapiens - .
- , 1960-1980-,
, ,
. , ., - ( )
.
, ,
, - .
,
,

 .
3-4 , .
,
20 ., (
)
. .
- (
- - ; "
"; "" - "
, ";
), " "
"
", -

1960-1980-.
. .

() (1870-1924) - ,
(1917) .
. 1891 .
,
, . ,
,
.
.
, . , ,
. .

. , .
. .
, .
, . ,
( ) .
, , .
. . "" :
" , .. ,
, ". , .
, 19-20
.: " ", " " (" ", 1909).
,
( ), . , ,
, ("

 ", 1922).
--
, .
- - - .
. .
" "

, . : "
-
" - , - !"

. ,
,
.
, ". .
". -
, , .
,
,
.
. .

- , 20 .,
,
- ,
. . -

. (,
" ", " " ..).
. .
, 6 " "
.
" - " ("
" - )
, ,
, -
.
..

 (15 74-1653) - . .

(1593-1601). ,
, . .

. - :
" ", " ", "
" ( , , , .
) . 1650 .
.. , ..

(1903-1979) - , (1932),
(1941), (1950), (1965)
( 1979).
. ,
,
, , ,
. (1963).
: " " (1931), " " (1947), "
" (1950), " " (1959), ". . " (1975)
. . ,
, , , ,
. . ,
- .
- .
, .,
.
, -,
- .
,
. .
, ,
, .
. "",
"" "". .
- . ,
., (
),
(" -"). ,
,
, ,
. .
, (.. )

 ,
. . .
, ., ,
- - . .
" "
.
..

(1831-1891) - , :
.
1853-1856 . 18631873 - ( ).
. . , .
, "
" (). . :
() ( ),
,
.
. " " ( - .
" " ),
. , .
" " .
" " , :
; (, );
( - ). - ,
: ,
. . , ,
, , 18
. " " "" ,
... ,
". ,
" ", .. :
. , (B.C. ),
, , : "
... , ...".
- - , .,
, ,
, . . 19 , , .
- 18 .
: " : ,
, ". " ", .,

 , "" : ,
, - ( .
, ). ""
, , , .
. "",
. . (
), . .
: , " ,
".
, , :
"" ,
. , .,
. .:
( , , , ,
) ( , ).
,
, ,
, .
- , ,
. . -.
, , , " . ,
", , . ,
. : " " (1875);
" " (1872-1884, ,
1912); ", " (. 1-2, 1885-1886) . ( 1912-1913
9- ).
..

(Leroux) (1797-1871) - , ,
"". : "" (1838); " ,
" (. 1-2, 1840) . .
" ", .
, .,
"
". .,
" " ,
, . .,
.
(1852) - .

..

(Lessing) (1729-1781) - -, ,
, . .,
,
, , .
.
. " " (1767-1768) .
.
: " ", " ", " ".
. " ", ,
,
. .,
. ",
", . -
, . .
,
:
. ,
.
. . , "" ,
, ,
, .
" ", . ,
. ,
. . ,
, . ,
., , . .
. , , -
; ;
. , . ,
1785 " " .,
, ,
. , ,
, , .
, " ",
. . .
.
, " " (1780),
. , " , ,
, . ".
..

 (. liberalis - ) - -
,
, . .
, (1812). .
,
. .
, , ,
.
, ,
.
,

17-18 . 17 . , -
, , , ..
.
-- ,
.
- ,
. 17-18 .
,
, - - .
, ,
, , .
.
,
- , ,
, ,
, .
. (
, - ), ,
, , ,
, (
) , ,
, .
,
, ,
. ,
, . , . , , .
(1776),
(1789), .
,
.
, ,
. . , ,

 ,
.
, .
, . " ..."
,
, . .
(1772-1823) .
, .
, ,
.
, ,
. " " (1803)
.. ,
. ,
,
.
. .
, . ,
. ,

.
18 .,
.
, .
, ,
. ,
.
,
. , .
. .
, ,
,
. ,

, . ,
, . ,

, .
,
, . .

. .
, ,
,
, , . , .
, , , .
. ,

 .
, 19 .,
. (1834-1910).

.

. ..
(1883-1946) ,
. ,
, ,
.
, .
,
, , ,

. ,

.

.
(, , . ) , ,

. , ,
, .
, ,
. ,
. .
-
.
B.C.

(. libido - , , ) - ,
, , . 1)
. . :
) ,
, ; )
(),
; ) , ,
, ; ) ,
) ,
,
, , ,

 ; 2) ,
, . .
19 . .; 3) ,
;
, ,
; .
. ,
.
. , , .,
( ) ,
, .
., , ,
-. ( .), .. .,
- "" , -. (.-, ., -., .), "" "" .
, .
,
, , . .
, , "
", ,
.: , 4)
.
(.. ).
. , ,
, .
..

- , ,
- 20 . ,
,
,
cogito. ..
("- "),
(" "), , .
.. ,
, ,
,
, .
.. 1920-
,
. , ,
, ,
, ,

 , .
, ..
, .
.. 40-50-,
. , ,
,
.
, , ,
.
,.

( . - .
) -
.
,
. ,
,
18 .: (),
().
, " , ",
" " ().
: "
; - ,
" (); , "
, " (. ). ...
, ,
, , -
,
( ,
.).
(
) .
, "... "
".
,
, .
,
- ,
. ,
, , ,
... ,

 , -
- -
, :
,
(.
" " (),
...)- ... -
,
,
, - - : "
.
. - -
, " (. ).
- ,
(
" " . , -
" " " " . . ).
...
,
("
" ); ...
( , "
", ",
");
"" (), "" "" (), " " (. );
,
"", .. ,
(); "-"
().
..

( " ") -
, . -
()
.
, . ,
, - . ,
. .
, , ,
, , .
. . ( . )
.

..

(Lyotard) - (. 1924) - ,
"", .
, , ,
" " . (" ", 1974;
"", 1983; " ", 1984 .) 70-80-,
" " (1979). .
.
"" "" - ,
. . ""
, - ,
, , .
- "" ,

(., ), . , .,
" ",
. "
" ("") , .,
20 . (, ).
, ,
. ,
,
. " ", ,

.
, " ",
("", )
("", ).
" "
,
, " ". 80- .
,
"" "".
,
: - ,
, , .
"" ""
" " , ,
.
, "" ,
, .
" ":
""

 ,
- " ". .
" ", ""
.
. ""
. ,
, .
.
..

( ) - - 16 . 1538-1540
--. 1550
- " , ", 1615
. . - , .
, , ,
. ,
, . ,
, .
.
.
.. , ..

(. 1560 - . 1635) - -,
, . . . , 1585 . 1593 - .
1592 " " ( 1636
). 1597 " -".
: " " (1586), ",
" (1589), "" (1598).
, 1615
-. , , ,
, .
.. . (1596).
.. , ..

, (. persona - , ) - ,
,
, (, ,
, ..), ,
.
"".
,
,
.
, ,
, ,
, . ""
""
, - ()
".", ""
. ,
, ,
, ,
,

. .
, , :
) , ,
, , )
, )
- - .
. , ,
,
,
.

, .
, ()
, , ,
, ( ,
).
. ""
, , ,
.
. , ,
, , , , .
.
, ,
, .
.
, - "."

 . -,
, , ,
.
. .
( ()
) ,
. , . ,
.
"." ,
. . .
"."
, ,
,
.
"" ,
: 1) ; 2) ,
; 3) . -
., ()
(, )
"" () ""
( ) . ,
- "" .
, , , ., ..
, , .
: 1) ,
; 2) ,
; 3)
,
. "" . .,
, ,
, , ,
,
. "" .
, . -
, .

. "" , ,

.,
. .,
"" ,
, ,
, ,
"" , - .
.
. ,


"" , .
,
, () "".
""
, "",
"-" . ""
,
, .
"" "" - ,
, , .
., ( ) .
"" ,
" ",
. .
, .,
( ),
. ,
.
-
. , .
"" .
,
,
. "" ""
() , .

. : ) (
,
); ) (
, ); )
( , ); ) (
). "" ,
,
,
, .
"",
,
. ""
,
.
.

. , ""

 "", .
,
, .
"" ,
, ( ) .
"",
.
" ", ,
,
, , ,
, , . ,
.
""
, , ,
. ""
.
, ,
, , ,
, . "" ,
"" ,
( - )
, " ",
.,
. .
, ,
., ,
"" ("" ..) "",

. .
- ., ""

( , ), -
.,
( ) -
. ,
.

, -
(. .) - .
. , .
, . (. - ).
..

 ( ) - , XVI .
. , .
, . ,
, , ,
. , . , ", , ...
". .
, .
.. , ..

(. logos - , , , ) - ,
; () .
:
, , ,
. , ..,
, .
.
. (
, , , ,
, . ,
, .) .) ,
.
. , ,
, . ,
(). ,
: " , ".
,
(),
, , .. .
.
, .
- ..
, " ", " ", "
", " ".
, .
.. ,
. - .
,
,
. 17-18 .
. .
, , ,
. -

 - . 19 .
(, , , )
, () (
. - , , , , ) -. ,
, , "
, ", . ,
, , , ,
(, ).
, , . 19 .,
.
-
. . ,
.
. .
. .
, ,
. ,
.
. .
.
. ,
, - ,
, , ,
. . ,
. , , .
- .
. ,
" .", , , , .
.
, - " "
. , ,
,
.
. ,
.
. .
. . , . , . , .. -, ,
, . , .,
. 20 ., 20- 30-, . , .
, . , . , . -, . , . , .. , ..
, . , .. , . -, . - .
.: ., , ,
, . . ,
("", ""),
, , , . 1930- .
(. meta - , ),

 , , ,
, , ,
. .. " ".
,
-, .
, . . .
, ..
. , ,
, . ,
. .
, , ,
, (
).
: 1) . (. ,
, , , ., ..),
, ; 2)
. ,
, - , . ,
"" - ,
. . (
) .
.
, , .
, ,
. .
. . . -
: " , ,
, , , ,
(.. - ..)
". , , ,
., -
.
..

(. logos) - , , ,
,
, - -.
, : " ".
"."
- . :
-. .
. ,
,

 .
, , ,
. (
)
: . .
, :
. , , (
),
: ,
..
(" , "): , -
. , ,
: .
. "", "", "",
"" ( - ,
) . ,
.
(
): . , ; ,
; , ; ,
, - - , ,
"" , " " ,
.
- - ,
:
/ (/ ) , () ..
"." . ,
- ".", - . . "", "", "", ""
"". , "", "",
"" "". -
" " "
". , .
. ,
.
-, .
.,
(" ") (" .") ,
. .
. " "
(), (-)
.
. ,
- " "
. .
,

. - . (" "):
. "". .,
, :
. ,
-.
: " : . . *...+
, . *...+ : ... * .+ *...+
..." 1, 1-7. ,
("") ("
"). -, (" ,
, "- , 1, 1), . - ("
, , " - , 1, 14), , ,
. . ,

. .

(, , , .).
..

(Locke) (1632-1704) - -, ,
- . .
.
,
. ,
( ). " " 1688 .
,
. - " " (1690),
20 . "
", " " .
: " " (1706), "
" (1694). .
, ,
. .
- , .
, ,
. ,
. . - ..
" ", (external),
(inward) . , ,
. ,
, . -
, . ,
().

 . , .,
. ,
, - . , ..
., , ,
, , ,
. ,
. , .., ,
. . . .,
- , , ,
.
. , ., (),
,
(), . .
. ,
" " " ", .
, " " (1690),
-

. ,
.
.
. , : 1) , 2)
3) . ,
, .
, , ,
.
. ,

. . .
, ..,
. . .
.
- .
. ,
, , .. , .
, , , , .. .
, ., .
. ,
.
- . .
" ". .
.
;
. , , .
. , . . ,
. . .

-, .
.
..

(Lombroso) (1835-1909) - . .
, -
( 1862). .
" , "
(1880). " ". : "
. " (1863), "
" (1876), " " (1889), " " (
. , 1893) . .
, .
, ,
. ., , ,
- -
, "
" ( ) .
., ( ) ,

. . " ,
- , , , ,
", ,
, , ,
- .
,
., , .
. 20 .
..

(1855-1920) - . B.C.
. 1875-1879 -
. 1885 -, 1892 - .
.
( 1899 -
1918), ( 1894), .. ..
( 1896) 1889 " ", 1905 , 1918. .
. . : "
" (1889); " ", ("

", 1886) , ("

", 1891) - ; "
" (1899); " " (1890); "
" (1900); " " (1901); "" (1902); "
" (1902); " " (1903); "
" (1906); " " (1910);
" (1911); " " (1912);
" " (. 1, 1914); " "
(1917); " " (1917) . .
, , -, ,
. .
" ", " ".
, ,
,
, (
), . ( )
.
,
.
, ,
, .
-
, - ,
" " ( ). "
; .
- , ...".
" ", ..
.
, (, ,
( ), " "). " -
, - ,
, ...".
, "". ""
, , ,
(.. " "),
.
( (),
),
. , ""
" ", , ,
. "
".
.
.. " ",
.
" ", ,
. ,

 . ,
- , ,
- ,
. ()
" ",
-
. .
, , ,
. , , , ..
" ",
. ,
. . " " (
, - ,
). ,

. -,
. -
.
. , , ,
. .
. ., , , ,
. "
" ( ) "", ,
, .
.
, ,
. ()
, , , .
.
. ,
.
, "" , ,
- , ,
, .
, : " ,
".
..

(Lorenz) (1903-1989) - ,
" ". (1973).
( 1940). (1944-1948).
(1947).

 (1949).
. (1961-1973).
(; ; ,
.. ;
.).
" ( )" (1963), " " (1965), "
" (1971) .
,
,
() . ,


.
,

: ..
.
, ., -

.
"" . . ,
, ,
.
, .
,
, ,
.
..

(1893-1988) - 20 . . 20-
, ,
20 . .
,
.
20- . (8 ),
" " " ".
., " " .
1933 . 20
.
1950-. . 400 ,
8- " ". .
,

 . . ""
(" , ,
, ".). , .
, . ,
"" . .
- ,
, ,
, .
.
.
. (
) - -
.
"- " -
, , :
("... , ").
:

;
.
. -
, (,
..) .
. "" "".

, "",
"", (, ).
,
, , , "
", , " " .
, : "
... ", , " , ", .. "
, - , ,
". . .
, - , , ;
, .. . "
, ... ... ".
. "",
: "...
". . -
, . : "
" (1916); " " (1927); " "
(1927); " " (1927); " " (1928);
" " (1929); " " (. 1,
1930); " " (1930); " -
" (1953); " " (1957); "

" (. 1-6, 1963-1980; " . ", . 1-2,

1992-1994); " " (1988); " " (1989); "
" (1990); ". . . " (1993) .
..

(1903-1958) - . .. .
( 1920) , ( 1927
). 1922 (
" "). 1924 - .
. 1939 .
" " . (1944) ,
- .
.
"-" (1962),
" " (1964-1965), " " (1967).
., -
"". ,
( , ""
..), ,
(
), " ". , .,
, , ,
" ". , "", ..
, - , . .,

: " ",
" " (, ) "
" ( ), , .,
" ", , ""
(" " ), ,
. , ., ,
(. ):
", ", ,
. , ., , .
, . ", ,
;... , ".
: ",
".
, ., " " " ",
() . .,
"" () " " (.
).
: " ".

 . -
" " , -
. , ., " ":
" ".
, "
". .,
:
, ""
, "",
"". " " (.: "
, " ( ) ).
, - - "", .
"" (. " " .
). , ., " "
- "
". . "
", "
". ,
(" "), - ,

,
. ., " ,
" ()
- " " (.
). .
( . -
). , " ." , "
". .
" ". , . ,
( " " - 1972;
- 1990-)
.
.. , ..

(1870-1965) - .
, . (1907). 1922
. , ( 1942), 1946 (
- 1947-1950). 1955 - . : "
" (1903), " " (1906),
" , . I" (1911), " " (1914), "
" (1916), " " (1917), "
" (1919), " -" (1922), "

" (1922), "" (1923), " .

" (1924), " " (1927), " XX " (1931), "
" (1931), " . " (1931), "
" (1934), ", " (1938),
" ( )" (1949), " " (1951),
" " (1953), "
" (1956), " " (1957) .
( ), .
- , .
. . -.

, . , ,
, . .
. ,
.
; - ( )
- . - .
( ),
,
, .
, ,
() (
)
(-) . ,
,

- ().
,
,
, .
, .
,
, .
., ( ),
. ,
, , , ..
( )
, . , ..,
, ;
, ,
.
, , ,
; , ,
, . .
- " ",

 . . . , .,
,
.
,
:
, ;
(, , ..) .
, . .
.
, -
.
- ( )
( -).
, ,
() , ,

.
..

(1922-1993) - , , . 1939 ; 1940 - ,

. 1950-1954 , 1954 -
( 1960-1977 - . ). 1951 - , 1961 -
. - , , ,
(1990) . - .
. " " "
", " " (
). "-- " (
). : " " (1964) "
" (1970); " " (1972) ; "
" (. 1-2, 1970-1973); " " (1973); "
" (1987); " " (1992) . 60- . (
" ", .. ,
). .
(), ,
. ,
(""),
.
, ,
.
(" ")
.

, - ,
- . .
-,
- . ,
,
, , , ..
- , , . -
, ,
.
.
,
-.
:
, ,
( ) ( ).
, -
.
, , ,
( ) , (
).
,
. .
" " -
-
, .
- ,
. ,
, .
( )
,
(" " " ").
, "", ,
- .
. , . ,
, ., () ,
. ,
" " . .
: .
.. , ..

(Lukasiewicz) (1878-1956) - ,
(1915-1939), 1949 - (),
. . -

 (1920).
, "", "".
. : (1), (0), (1/2).
, . , ..
, ,
. .
,
( )
( ). 1929
" ", 1930 - "
", 1938 - " ". 1954 .
, - - (n-) ,
-
(). (, 1).
. . .
, ,
. -
.
. (
),
, - (N, -, - , - , R - ).
..

(Lukach) () (1885-1971) - , ,
. , , .
. . . 1918
.
, . (1919-1929). 1929
, 1945 ( 1931-1933 ). ,
, , . . 1945 ,
. 1949
. 1956 . ,
( 60-). : "
" (1911), " " (1914-1916), " " (1923),
" " (1936), " " (1937), "
" (1938, 1948), " "
(1939), " " (1948), " .
" (1954), " " (. 1-4, . . - 1985-1987), ".
" (. . - 1990), "
" (. . - 1991) . . " ",
" ", -, " ,
". .

 20 .
:
-
; ,
; -
(
)
", ". .,


. (
, . ,
. "" ). .,
"",
, . .
,

. . , ,
, (
), . .,
"" ,
.
, ., ,
.
, -
, , .,
, .
- , ,
., , , ""
,
. " ",
"" "". - "" ,
,
( - ). , , .,
, , ,
, . ,

, .
,
" ". , .,
, "
, ". .,
"" .
(" " )
" ", " "

" " - -
.
. .

(Luckmann) (. 1927) - , ,
,
(). : "
" (1963), " " (
, 1966); " " (1967); " " (
, 1973) . "
" - (" ")
. "
" ,
"" , , "" ,
, . - ,
, ,
, ..
.
, , , .,
" ",
. - ,
.
-
, , .
, -
, ,
.
, .
,
" ". ,
-
, .. , ,
, - .
, ., ,
( ),
. .
.
,
, , ,
. . - " ",
- "-",
,

 . - - ,
,
. .
( ""),
, " ".
..

(Luhmann) (. 1927) - ,
, -
. : " : " (1984),
" " (1992) .
( , ,
). , ., - ,
, . ,
,
, , , - .
,
, . ,
"" ,
. (
) , .
. , ,
, .
(, , , , , ,
) ,
, .
,
, (" ").
,
.
(, ), ,
.
, ,
() . -
,
, .
, .. . :
,
, , ,
. ,
,
, .. , .

, ,
.
..

(1902-1977) - ,
. (1937) (1943) . ( 1945).
(1947) (1968). ,
.
(1921).
. 1- (1937).
20- , . 1922
. 1923 "
". 1923 .
. .. . 1924-1925
,
()
(). ,
. ,
(
.). 1925 " ".
, . 1924-1926
. 1926 ( .. )
" "
,
. .
- :
- () ,

, , ..
.
, . 1969-1972 . "
. . . " (1930, ), "
" (1932), " " (. 1-2, 1963-1970),
" " (1973), " " (1974),
" " (1979), " . " (1982) .
.
..

 (1634-1689, ) - ,
, "
", ,
"". 350 .
. ,
, , , -.
" "
, . . , 1658
. 1666
, . ,
: " ...",
.
.,
(, , , 17 ).
, , , ,
.
"" .
("... , ,
"). , .
, ,
, . , ,
. , , :
( .
, , ). . -
.
.. , ..

(Lewis) (1898-1963) - , , ;
" ",
- " 20 .". 1917 1954 -
( I ), 1954 1963 -
. (1955). :
" " (1936); "" (1939-1940); " " (1942-1943); "
, , ,
" (1943); " " (1958); "" ("
", 1958-1960); , : " " (" ",
1942), " " (1958), " " (" ", 1943); .
- " " ,
fantasy ( ., " "): "
", "", " ";
. . : ,
- , ,
. , ,

, , : 1930-
.
( ), 1950-
.
.
: ,
, . , -
, ,
"" (misunderstood) - - ,
: "
.
", -
, (. "
"). . ,
, ( 16
.). 1940- .
, "",
"", ,
"
": ., " ,
, ". , .,
,
, " ",
" ",
(" , "). ,
. , "
". " ",
" " - ,
. . " , , , , . ("
"), - . , , , , ,
" " ,
. , ,
". - , ., 20 .; .
,
"" , , : "
, , ...
,... ,
. , ,
, , , , ". (
., " " "",
- : - ).
. : "
". - ,
" ?". .,
, -

 : ", , -
...
", " ,
, , , - ,
". , , .,
", " (.
: , .. ).
, ., , : " -
, ". " ", ..

( , .,
.) -
,
, , , -
: " ...,
, , ". ,
,
, , ..
: " .
, , ", ,
, " ,
". , " , ".
, (
, , ) .
:
, , ,
(. , "" "":
, "" , ; " "
, " " " "). "
" : "
", - , , ,
;
"" , , "
" "; , ", " , , ..
, ". ,
(" "), ,
" ". .,
" , " ( "
"), " , .
, , ".
: " ,
, , ". (joy) .
, (" "),
.
(. - joi)

, . ,
( ;
).
, , ., , ,
, . ( ,
: "
, , "). .
, : 1) "-",
("-"). "
. . , ,
. , ;
, ". , " ,
-... , -, ,
... , ...
... ...
, , -
"; 2) "-", (" ,
, , , , ,
... , "); 3) " ,
", "-", .. ,
: ", ,
. , - ".
-, ., " ": "
, : ", ". , ,
: ", !" , ,
: " !"... - ... ...; , , " " (. I, 31)".
, " "-" , "-"
, , , , . : "
", " " " !". , , , ,
, ".
, "" (. ), "" (. ), "" (. , )
"" (. ), ,
, , .
credo: " ,
", - , , ,
, ,
(, , "",
), (.. ,
), ,
.
"", ( 1989) .
:
.
. .

 (Lewis) (1883-1964) - . (1911).

(1920-1953). " ".
: " " (1918), " " (1929),
" " ( . , 1931), "
" (1932), " " (1941), " " (1955), "
" (1957) . , ., " ".
, , , , , ;
. ,
, .
. ( .,
), , ,
"", "", "" .. ( " ")
, ,
. . ,
,
,
, , , - .
, .,
: "... , ...".
, - (
), - .
" "
. ., "...
, ,
, ...
, . ...
,
". . ,
,
, (
) :
. , .,
.
..

- ,
- ,
. . , . .
,
: , .,
. .

 ,
. . ,
:
, , .
.
, . , .,
, .
, ". , ".
. ,
., , , . .,
-- ,
. ()
( ).
. .
: . ,
.
( )
, . - , ,
( - ), - :
, ..
( ). .
( , .)
. , ,
.. ; (
)
. , .. .
., .,
, .
( )
, .
, , ,
"",
. , . (,
, ).
. , .,
, - ,
, ,
, -
.
, .
, , -,
.
: ,
, -
. ( )
. ,

 ,
- .


.
, .. ".".
.
", , , , ,
. , - ,
- " (, 50). ,

: - ,
(, - ).
, .. () ,
. - ,
;
, . ,
, ,
, .. .
. . :
- - -
.. - " " (, 211).
.: ., , ,
, ();
, , -
().
, , ,
("--"). ,
.

: -, ,
. -
. - (. , ,
, .). -
(, , - . . . ,
.
). .
. , " ", ( , ) .
, - -
, . , ,
: "
.., " (),
. ,
. : .

. " i",

 . .
. (. ) . ,
.
,
, .
,
, . 1.
,
.
.,
-
. 2. ,
. ( ,
" "),
( ""
). 3. ( ) ,
"" ,
, . : .
( "amor-entrave"),
( ),
. (.
" "),
( ), - .
( -
). 4.
. ( ,
) ,
. , , ,
,

.,
. : -
( )
( ).
. .
. 20 .
, 20 .
.: , ,
" " ,
, (
, ) . ,
. ,
20 . ,
. , , .
: "" ,
, , .. ,
, . -

 ; -
, ,
. ,
- . - ("
" , " -" .. ).
, . ,
,
" ".
. ,
., ".
" " ." (. ).
.
,
().
" ": " " (), " " (),
" " (). " "
, , , .
. , , -
(.: " " " " ). .
,
- (, , . ,
), - - (
),
( "---"
),
( . . ),
(" "
). . : , , , , , " ".
..

(Luther) (1483-1546) - , ,
. (1512) - .
. , . ,
, . 95
(31.10.1517).
" ", " ", "
" . . . 1520 .
; (1521)
. .
, ,
. , ., " " ,
. . " ",

 15
. , " ". .
.
, .
. . :
, - ,
, , .
, , , , , . .
, -
.
, - ,
- . .
.
. . .
, , , .. . :
, .
..

(. maieutike - ) - ,
, -
. .
, - . ",
". ,
, ,
( ) .
.
..

() (1753-1800) - -. ,
. .
. "
" . , , , , ,
. .
, , ,
. .
(. ), .
" ", . .
, " "; .
,
. .

 1780, , "
". (1790) "
". ,
, .
. -
. " " ,
- . .
. ,
,
. . " ", "
", " ", "
", " " . , .
, ( ).
.. , ..

(Maimomdes),
( ) (1135-1204) - , - -
, .
. : " " (" ") (. 1190, , ),
" " . , , ,
, ,
. . - " ",
. , 13 ,
( : "
, , ").
., , ,
. .
( " ")
. .
., , , :
-, , .
..

- (. Maitreya, Metteyya - ) - "

", , -
-. , - (
),

( ). . -
, . .
"-" (" "), "-" .
. . , ,
, .
, ( ) . (
)
() . . -: "
, . - ". ,
. ,
. .
. .
, (. .. ,
.. ), 350 ..
, , .
..

(Machiavelli) (1469-1527) - ,
, . (14981512). : "" (1513, 1532), "
" (1516-1517), " " (1519-1520), "
" ( 1520) . "" (
) , -
, .
"" . . ,
,
,
. . " "
, , ,
.. " ".
, .
" " " , ".
. " " -
- .
, .
,
. .,
: "
, - , -
, ".
. . . ,
. . . . 1546
"" , ,

"" ". 1559 . "

". . : " , , ".
..

- (McLuhan) (1911-1980) - ,
, , ,
. ( 1952). :
" " (1962), " " (1963), " " (1977,
). .-. ,
;
.-. .

, .-.
. .-.
, ""
( ) ,
- .
.-. , , ,
, -
. (
) , - "",
, ,
, , ,
. " " .-. ,
: ( ), , TV,
, , , , , . "
", " " ,
, , ,
, . .-.
,
- () - ( ) , ,
, - -, .. " "
" ". .
,
. , - . ,
: ,
, (,
). ,
. .-., (), " "
- ,
- .
, " " ,

 . ( , '
, -
:
, , "".
: , .
"" - , "",
- ""). ,
-. - (. , 15 .) - - -, " ", .-.
" ". , .-.
,
. ,
.-., . "
" () , - "
" " ", - .
, , ,
( " ") ,
. , .-. ""
- - -, - . ,
, ,
( , ,
), ( ),
- ,
. (), ,
:
( ,
, )
"---" -. ,
, .-., ""
"", .. .
- -
- - ,
(" ") ,
. " " .-., "
": mass-media
, ,

, (""
, - ),
, .
, " ", .. ,
. ,

, ,

 - . ("
") .-. " ",
, ,
. "
" .-. -
mass-media
. , ,
,
. -
, . ,
,
,
- , ,
, "",
"" . ,
- ( )
, - ,
, . , ,
, ""
, .
..

(Malinowski) (1884-1942) - ,
. , .
, , , ,
. 1914-1917
.
(1927-1938), ""
, , . 1938 - ,
. ,
, , , ..
.

,
, - , ,
. . ,
"" () ,
, ..
,
"" .
. , ,
. ,
(, )

 . ,
. .
,
: ; ; ; ,
, .. . ,
-
. .
, , , ,
.. , ,
. , ., ,
"" , , . ,
, :
, .
.
. . .,
, , , ,
.
" ", , . .
- , ,
. .
. .,
.
,
.
. .
. . , .
,
. : "
" (1922), " " (1926), "
" (1927), " -
" (1929), " " (1936), " " (1944), ",
" (1962) .
..

(1brnh) (1638-1715) - ,
. : " " (1675), "
" (1683), " " (1688) . .
.
, , .,
, . .
, . ,

 , ""
"" , .. ,
. , .,
,
. .
, .
. :
; ;

. ., ,
, , ,
, .
. , , ,
; , . " ", "
" - , . ,
" " ("
"). . ,
., .
18 . . , , .
..

(Malthus) (1766-1834) - ,
. , , , -
(1784-1788). (1791),
. 1795-1804 -. 1805 - ,
. . (1819),
(1821), (1824)
(1834). . "
,
", ()
1798. , , . .
, . ,

.
, . ,
. ,
, ,
, , ,
, .
. , , ,

 , ,
.
, "...",
., (1803), ,
, , ,
. " "
, .
,
, ..
,
. . ,
, , . ,
. .
, , . .
. .

(1930-1990) - .
" " " " (),
. 1968-1974 - . "
". 1974 . 1980 -
(). -
.
.
, 70-80- ,
, .
. - , , .
. ,
,
( . -
, . .
, 50-
.
. -
, .
"" .
. " " (),
,
. ,
, . "
" (1968), .
50-
- .
, , ..


.
. . ,
.
,
. .
,
"" "".
, ,
.

- .
, -
. ,

. ,
, ,
, , . .
,
. ,
. , . " ",
, " ", "
".
, -
. ,
" ".

.
. . ,
" "
(
). , - ,
. ,
.
, ""
. "" .
"" , , .
, ,
"" , .
, , ,
. , ., -
, , , .
"",
. 60- .
, , -
. "",

" ", "", ""

. . ,
,
. .
" ". ,
.
( )
, .
, (" "), ("
") . " ",
. ,
- ,
- ,
.
(""), cogito ,
,
"" - , .,
,
.
.
. .
, ,
, , , .
" " .
" ", - ,
.
"" "" ,
, .
. . , ,
, ,
. - "" "" ,
, , ,
(, ).
, .
, - .
, ,
, , .. .
,
, -- ,
., .
, ,
, , , ,
.. ,
, . ,
" ", ..
,
. ,

 . , ,
, , ,
. .
.
, , ,

. .
" ". ""; (
" ", " "), ( ),
, "" () -
,
, , .
"" "-", ,
, , . ,
Homo sapiens, .. , " ", "
". , -, ,
, (, ),
,
" ", -
cogito sum.
..

Das MAN (. man - - ) - , "

" (1927) . -
, ,
" ", . ( -, )
, . ,
, - (.), .
, ,
. . ""
( .
) , " ". .
; - "",
""; , -. "
, ; ,
, ; "", ;
"" , ".
- , , ,
.. . (, )
. - ,
. ,
().

 , ,
" ", , .
., ,
,
, " ".
..

- - ,
(-, -). .
, , , (
). - , (214-277),
. ,
. : - ,
- , 25-30 .
() (238).
. - , , . 270
. - . 277
I
. ,
, . :
"", " ", "", " ", " " .,
20 . ,
. . " ". "
" : , . "
, ", . " " -
. () . , ,
, - , (
), .
(),
, . :
,
, . " " -
. . (),
- , . ,
, . -
, .
-- : "
, ,
. , ,
, ; () -
; - , .
... , , , ".
, ,

 , , . " "
- " ",
(). , ., .
. , , ,
, . . 3-4 .
.

. 10-11 .
- -
. .
, 8 .,
. .
(1889).
..

(. - , ) -
, .
- .
. .
"-" "" , , ,
.
, .
. . " ME " ("! !")
.
, . "" ""
,
.
. .

(Mannheim) (1893-1947) - .
, , , . 1919
. 1925 - - . 1929 --. 1933
, . 1941 -
, 1945
. .
" ". :
"" (1924); " " (1925); " .
" (1929); " " (1935); "

 " (1943); ", " (1950); "

" (1959); " " (1956) .
, .
, (
, ).
, . , , , . , .
.
,
- (, ,
, , ). (
, ) . .
, () ,
.
. ,
. . .

. - , ., ,
, " "
(" "). - .

. ,
- " ".
-
, " ", ..
, .
, ., - , ,
" ".
, - .
. - , ,
. ,
.
, -,
., .
:
, ("").
"" - .
, - , .
, ""
"" ( - ).
- ,
. ""
, , ., "" .
,
,
, ". ,
"
, ,

 ". ,
-. ,
, ,
() . . .
.
.
,
.
.
,
.
,
( ), () ,
( ),
( ). -
. -
- . ( "") . ( )
, ()
, - ("
").
, .
,
., . ()
-
() - , .,
, " "
( )
.
..

- ,
- .
,
- -,
(, .). , ..
( . .) .
. - ,
, , ,
. .. ,
,

 .
, ..,
.
( ) . .
,
, ,
.
.. , ..
.
- - ,
.
, ,
(
,
,
- " "). ..

.
- ""
. , ,
, , ,
.., .. ,
. , ,
;
, , , ratio.
.., " ""
, " " (). , ..,
,
,
,
. , ,

.
,
, , , , , . ,
,
, - .
, , ,
-, "
, ".
" ",
, .

. , ,
, , ,

 .
-
, (
)
, .
, ,
.
..,
- " ", , ,
" ",
.. .
, -
; ,
- ,
. " "
, ,
,
, , ,
, ,
() . , ,
, ,
.
, , .
, , .
.. , - X, -
, .
, " "
,
, , ,
.
, ; ,
,
.
,
.
, ,
, , , ,
. , ,
.., . , ,
, ;
. ;
, , ,
. , ..

, , ,
, ,

 . .. -
, . ,
"" - Ursprung -
( ). ""
,

"" . ,
, ,
,
. ,
, ,

. , ,
, (
),
, , , ..
,
, . ,
,
, " ". ,
( ) .
, .., , ,
, , , ..
- , ,
. ,
,
,
,
, ..,
,
,
. . ,
. ..
,
,
.
, , .
..

(. margo - , ) - ,

- ,

 . . .
-
. . .. " ",
,
, , . .
, ,
,
, ,

. . ,
, . -, . , , . . .
(
, , ..).
. , " ",
" ", " ", "",
""
, .
, ,

. .
, .
, ,
, "", "",
, , ,
. ( ,
) , .
. "",
, ,
"" ( "" ).
" " ,
" "
.
"". .
,
, "" ,
, , -
. ,
. ,
. ,
- , , , "
", , , ,
, ,
. ,
, ,
, , ,

 , .
.
. .

(Marinetti) (1876-1944) - ;
, . , (
-
);
. . " - " (1910), "--" (1914)
: " " (1909,
""; . , "
"), " " (1909), " " (1911), " " (1912), "
" (1913, . .), "
" (1914), " " (1930) .
1909-1911
.
, , , , ,
. , -
(1910, 1914). ,
" ",
, ( ., "
" " "). . "
" 1910 (. , . , . , . , . )
: "
, , ,
".
, :
., " , , ".
. (" ! -
")

" " ( I
), " ",
" " (. , ",
"; ;
: , "" . ).
. , -,
"";

( ", "),
. ( : "
", " " ..).

(. ), . - : "
",
(" "), " ,
, ". - " " . (. "-"
-: .) - , " -.
, , , .
, , , , ...
". , ., ("" , "
") (" ",
" ... " "
"). ., ,
; , "-
", " ", "
". . , ,
, , ,
: " ".
, ., " , ", -
: " -...
", - " ", ,
" , ". -
,
" " " ". .
,
(" -
, - ").
. " " (.

). " - " . ,
. ., "
"" ", "
, ", " " (..
): " , , " (.
).
: .
" " (" ... ,
"); . "
", ;
""
"" , .
- " " (,
), -
, . ( " - "),
- -
. "" " "

. 1914-1919 . . ;

. ,
( . " " "
"; "" . ; .
"", "" ;
,
" ": . . 1930 - "
"). .
:
" " " " - . . .
, - " " pop-art;
. " " " " arte povera (.
- " "), " , (...):
, , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
, , , .. ,
-... " ( arte povera
. ) " " (
, , .. - " " .
.). . ( ,
)
" " - , " ": Eathwork Landart
( " " " " . ;
, ", " " " .
;
. ; " " . ;
. .), Seawork (" " . ,
. .) Skywork (,
- . .).
..

(Maritain) (1882-1973) - ,
. ,
. 1899 . 1901
. . 1914 .
. 1919
, 1939. .
, . , . , . , . 1940 . ,
1945, - . 1945 1948
, 1948-1960
, 1960 ,
. II
XXIII VI. " " (1936), " " (1941), "

" (1947), " " (1957), " " (1960), "

" (1967), " " (1970). .,
" ", ,
. "
" , ., , ,
, - 20 ,
, , ,
. ,
, .
, 20 .
, ., , , ,
.
, , ,
, , . .
, . ,
, , - ., -
. () ,
, ,
, . ,
. , .
- , "".
"" - , ,
. , , ,
. , .
,
. . ,
.
. "" "",
, ., , .
, , ,
, , ,
, . ,
.
. ,
.
, .
" ", .. .
, ,
.
, . " " - ,
.
,
. , , ,
. ,
, .
, ,
.

 , ,
, .
.
, , .
,
, ,
. ,
. .
.
,
. -
, ,
.
, ,
, . .

. , ,
, .
, ,
,
. , ,
,
. ,
, ,
. .
.
, -
. ,
, - , , ,
, .
- , ,
,
.
, , ,
, . .,
, .
, - ,
,
. , .,
, , ,
, , , .

,
. .
, ,
, . - ,

 . , .,
,
, , ,
.
,
,
.
, .
,
.
, . -
, ,
, .
, ,
- . , .,
" ".
..

(Markus Aurelius Antoninus) (121-180) - ( 140),

(161-180), ,