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2012
 530.145.6
22.314
204

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http://shop.rcd.ru

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ISBN 978-5-93972-944-4 22.314


c . . , 2012

c , 2012

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. . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xviii

1. -
() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3. . . . . . . . 5
1.1.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.5. . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.1.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.1.8. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.1.9. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.3.2. . . . . . . . . . 22
1.3.3. . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2. . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2. . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.4. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.5. () . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.5.1. () . . 35
iv

2.5.2. -
() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.6. () . . . . 37
2.7. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.7.1. () . . 39
2.7.2. (*) 42
2.7.3. -
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.7.4. -
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

3. . . . . . . . . . 47
3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.1.2. . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.1.3. . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.1.4.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.1.5. . 56
3.2. , (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.2.1. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

4. . . . . . . 66
4.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.1.1. -
? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.1.2. . . . . . . . . 69
4.2. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.3.1. -
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.3.2. . . . . . . 77
4.3.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.4. , , . . . , ** . . 80
4.4.1. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.4.2. * . . . . 82
4.4.3. * . . . . 83
4.4.4. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.5.1. . . . . . . 86
 v

4.5.2. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.5.3. . . . . . . 89
4.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.6.1. , -
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.6.2. * . . . . . . 92
4.6.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.7.1. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.7.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.7.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.7.4. ** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.7.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.7.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.7.7. * 104
4.7.8. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.8. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.8.1. * . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.8.2. * . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.9. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.9.1. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.9.2. ** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.9.3. *** . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.11.1. ** . 121
4.11.2. . . . . . 123
4.11.3. * . 124

5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.1.1. . . . . 125
5.1.2. * . . . . . . . 128
5.1.3. () ***** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.1.4. . . . . . . . . . 130
5.1.5. , . 131
5.2. ()
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.2.1. : * . . . . 133
vi

5.2.2. * 134
5.2.3. , -
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.2.4. . . . 136
5.2.5. . . . . . . 137
5.2.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.2.7. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.2.8. -
* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.2.9. -
** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.2.10. * . . . . . 146
5.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.3.2. * . . . . . . . 154
5.3.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

6. . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
6.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
6.1.1. ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
6.1.2. . . . . . . . . . 158
6.1.3. . . . . . 158
6.1.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
6.1.5. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
6.1.6. . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6.2.1. * . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.2.2. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.2.3. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.2.4. * . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.2.5. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.2.6. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.3.2. : . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6.3.3. : - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.3.4. . . . . . . . . 180
6.3.5. ** . . . . . . 182
6.3.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
6.3.7. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
 vii

7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.1. () (*) . . . . . . . 194
7.1.1. ** . . . . . 195
7.1.2. * . . . . . . . . . . 195
7.1.3. () * . . . . . . . . . 196
7.1.4. (*)196
7.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
7.2.1. () 197
7.2.2. ? () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
7.2.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
7.2.4. - . . . . 202
7.3. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
7.3.1. (*) . . . . . . . . . 209
7.4. ( -
)** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
7.4.1. ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
7.4.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7.5. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
7.5.1. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
7.5.2.
(*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
7.5.3. -
(*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
7.5.4. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
7.5.5. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
7.5.6. (**) . . . . . . . 226
7.6. -
** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7.6.1. (*) . . . . . . . 235
7.7. ** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
8.1. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
8.1.1. () . . 243
8.1.2. . . . . . . . . . . 244
8.1.3. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
8.1.4. () 245
8.2. * . . . . . . . . . . . 246
8.2.1. ** . . . . . . . 246
8.3. ? () . . . . . . . . . . . 250
viii

8.3.1. (*) . . . 251

8.3.2. () . . . . . 253
8.3.3. (*) . . . . . . . . . . 254
8.3.4. () . . . . . . . 256
8.4. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

9. (*) . . . . . . . . . . 259
9.1. (*) . . . . . . . . . 259
9.1.1. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
9.1.2. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
9.1.3. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
9.2. ? () . . . . 267
9.2.1. () . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
9.2.2. () . . . . . . . . . . . 269
9.2.3. () . . . . . . 271
9.3. () . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
9.3.1. () . . . . . . . . . . . 274
9.3.2. . -
() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
9.3.3. () . . 278
9.3.4. () . . . . . . . . . 280
9.3.5. () . . . . 282
9.3.6. () . . . . . . . . . . . 284
9.3.7. () . . . . . . 285
9.3.8. () . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
9.3.9. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

10. ** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
10.1. ** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
10.1.1.
() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
10.1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
10.1.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
10.2. () . . . . . . . . . . 297
10.3. () . . . . . . . . . . . 297
10.4. . . . . . . . 298
10.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
10.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
10.6.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
10.6.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
 ix

10.6.3. . . . . . . . . . . 302
10.6.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
10.6.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
10.6.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

11. -1 ( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
11.1. . . . . . . . . . . 306
11.2. . . . . . . . 308
11.2.1. -
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
11.3. . . . . . . . . 309
11.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
11.3.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
11.3.3. * . . . . . . . . . 314
11.4. . . . . . 316
11.4.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
11.4.2. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
11.4.3. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
11.5. ** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
11.5.1. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
11.5.2. ** . . . . . . . 324
11.5.3. **** . . . . . . . . . . 326

12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
12.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
12.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
12.2.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
12.2.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
12.3. . . . . . . . . . . . 337
12.4. * . . . . . 342
12.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
12.5.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
12.5.2. - -
** . . . . . . . . . 343
12.5.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
12.6. . . . . . . . . . . 347
12.6.1. . . . . . . . . 347
12.6.2. * . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
12.7. * . . . . 349
12.7.1. * . . . . . 350
x

12.7.2. -
** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
12.8. ** . . . . . . . . . . . 353
12.9. ** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
12.10. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
12.11. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
12.11.1. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361

13. . . . 363
13.1. . . . . . . . . 363
13.2. ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
13.2.1. -
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
13.2.2. . 366
13.2.3. . . . . . . . . 367
13.2.4. . . . . . . . . 368
13.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
13.3.1. * . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
13.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
13.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
13.5.1. -
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
13.5.2. . 377
13.5.3. 379
13.5.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
13.5.5. . 384
13.5.6. . . . . 386
13.5.7. . . . . 388
13.5.8. ** . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
13.6. . . . . . 391
13.6.1. 392
13.6.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
13.6.3.
* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
13.6.4. ?** . . . . . . . . 395
13.7. ** . . . . . . 395
 xi

14. -2* ( ) . . . . . . . 398

14.1. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
14.2. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
14.2.1. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
14.2.2. () . . . . . . . 401
14.2.3. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
14.2.4. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
14.2.5. () . . . . . . . . . . . 405
14.3. -1 -2. ?* . . . . . 406
14.3.1. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
14.3.2. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
14.4. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
14.4.1. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
14.4.2. () . . 410
14.4.3. () 411
14.4.4. (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413

15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
15.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
15.1.1. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
15.1.2. ** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
15.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
15.2.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
15.2.2. jz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
15.2.3. j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
15.2.4. jz , j 2 . . . . . . . . . 426
15.2.5. . . . . . . . . . . . 429
15.2.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
15.2.7. a -
j ** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
15.3. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
2
15.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
15.3.2. ** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
15.3.3. ** . . . . . . . . . 439
15.3.4. ** . . . . . . . 440
15.4. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
15.4.1. 1 . . . . . . . . . . 443
15.4.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
15.5. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
xii

15.5.1. 1 + 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
2 2
15.5.2. . . . 449
15.5.3. j + 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
2
15.5.4. 1 + 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453

16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
16.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
16.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
16.3. . . . . . . . . . . . 458
16.3.1. r 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
16.3.2. r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
16.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
16.4.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
16.4.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
16.4.3. * . . . . 469

17. . -
() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
17.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
17.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
17.2.1. . . . . . . . . . . 471
17.2.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
17.2.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
17.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
17.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
17.3.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
17.4. -- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
17.4.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
17.4.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
17.4.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
17.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
17.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
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,
, -
(2.1), ()

t  1 t E  h . (2.2)
2 2
-
():

x kx  1 x px  h .
2 2
-
,
. -

, , . -
- , -
.
46 2

2.7.4.
-
. -
2.7.3 -
, :
-
.
-
k1 -
(-
)
x k1 .

, -
px hk.
,
. .
.
. 2.11. , , -
( 19261927 .) ,
(19011976). W .
-
9 . -
. -
,
, . .
px .
, :

x px  ch, c = const 1.

9 , . 3.1 .
 3

:
5 ,
4 , ,
3 ,
2 , ,
.

, -
. -
. ,
- . ,
,
, . , -
, ,
, .

3.1.
.
,
,
. -

( ),

.
, ,
p A
48 3

, ( -
)
p = |A|2 = (ReA)2 + (ImA)2 = A A. (3.1)
,
, -
,
.

ij
A = |A|e
Im A

|A|

Re A
. 3.1. |A| , , .
2

-
, -
. ,

( ),
.
,
, , . . ,
,
, . . , , -
,
1 . , -
.
1 .
 3.1. 49

. -
, . ,
-
.
, -
,
.
, -

, .
, -
. .

.

3.1.1.
- -
, ,
.
1 -
3 2 2 ,
:
p(123 12 3) = p(123) + p(12 3) . (3.2)
-
3, -
3 , - :
p(123 12 3 ) = p(123) + p(12 3 ) . (3.3)
,
3 3 , . . -
.
(3.2), -
, -

A(123 12 3) = A(123) + A(12 3) , (3.4)
(3.3), -
, .
50 3

. 3.2. .

(3.4) , (
(1 2 3) a, (1 2 3) b)

p(a b) = |A(a b) |2 =
= |Aa |2 + |Ab |2 + (Aa Ab + Aa Ab ) =
= |Aa |2 + |Ab |2 + 2|Aa | |Ab | cos(a b ) = (3.5)

= pa + pb + 2 pa pb cos(a b ).

a = arg Aa , b = arg Ab .
.
(3.5) (3.2) , -
:

(Aa Ab + Aa Ab ) = 2|Aa | |Ab | cos(a b ) = 2 pa pb cos(a b ). (3.6)

, , ,
. -
-
, . , |Aa | = |Ab |, -
p(a b) = 2|Aa |2 (1 + cos(a b ))
4|Aa |2 .
-
? .
1.
, . -
, .
 3.1. 51

, -
( ),
(),
,
.
2. -
( , -
),
. , -
,
, .
, ,
. . .

3.1.2.
, . . -
, 1 2,
3,
1 2 2 3:
p(123) = p(12) p(23) . (3.7)
-

A(123) = A(12) A(23) . (3.8)

, p(12) , 1 2,
, A(12)
.
(3.8)
, (3.7). -
, -
.
, -
, ,
, - .

3.1.3.
-
. 1 (x),
52 3

2 (y), -
. :
(x, y) = 1 (x) 2 (y)  =  1 2 .
1 (x),
2 (y),
:
(x, y) = 1 (x) 2 (y) = 1 2 .
-
.

3.1.4.


.
(
) ( -
, ) , -
.
. -
.

, -
x, , . .
x , px x, -
x , (x),
x. , (-
) ( ) x,
1:2

+

(x) dx = 1.

2
, x , . . -
x ,
. W x,
, .
 3.1. 53

, -
, x x [a, b]. -
, ,

b
p[a,b] = (x) dx.
a

( -
) x . -
. -
:

+

(x) dx + px = 1.
xW

, , -
- . (x) ,
, , 1. - ,
. - f (x) x0
, (x)

+

f (x)(x)dx.

- :

+

(x)(x)dx = (0).

,
:

 (x) = (x) + px0 (x x0 ).
x0 W

:

+

 (x) dx = 1.

, -
, . . - ,
.
54 3

r(x)

a b x
r(x)

a b x
r(x)

a b x

. 3.3. -
.

, -
[a, b], ,
p[a,b] , -
.

, -
x, , . . x
, -
x, x ,
x.
, (-
) ( ) x, 1.
,
, x x [a, b]. -
, ,

b
p[a,b] = |(x)|2 dx.
a
 3.1. 55

Y(x)

a b
x

Y(x)

a b
x

Y(x)

a b
x

. 3.4. -
.

x
. -
. , -
[a, b],

, p[a,b] ,
-
.

[a, b]
P[a,b] :

P[a,b] (x) = I[a,b] (x)(x), (3.9)

IW W

1, x W,
IW (x) = (3.10)
0, x  W.
56 3

P[a,b] (. .
),
, ,

2
P[a,b] P[a,b] (x) = I[a,b] (x)(x) = I[a,b] (x)(x) = P[a,b] (x). (3.11)

,
, -
( ) ,
:

P 2 = P . (3.12)

,
,
.

3.1.5.
(n) -
n , -
n. n -
, . . n ,
k (k = n),
.
,
:

2 = | = |(n)|2 = 1.
n

, -
. ,
:

| = (n) (n).
n

(n) -
n (n (k) = nk ),
 3.1. 57

:

1, n = k,
(n) = n | = |n  , n |k  = nk =
 k.
0, n =

(n) -
, , , -
, n ,
-
. -
( ), (n) = |n 
, . . , -
, n , .


.
,
(2 = 2 = 1). , -
? -
.
, -
n ,
n .
n
n n :

An = (n) (n) .
     
n n

(,
n) n :

A = (n) (n) . (3.13)
n
  
n

. 3.5,
(3.13).
, , -
,

58 3

n=1

F*(1) Y(1)
n=2

F F*(2) Y(2) Y

F*(...) Y(...)
n = ...

. 3.5.
n (3.13).

.
, , -
-
.
(n) (n)
.
k () -
() k , ( )
.
, , -
, . . (3.13) -
.
-
(, ).
,
.

3.2. , (*)
, -
,
. -
(. 3.6). -
(. 3.7).
,
 3.2. , ( *) 59

-
: .
-
-

Af = A1 A1f + A2 A2f . (3.14)

w(x)

x
. 3.6. .

. 3.7. 2 .
60 3

w(x)

A21' A11' |A1A11'A1'f+

A1'f
A1 +A1A12'A2'f+
A12'
+A2A21'A1'f+
A2'f 2
A2 A22' +A2A22'A2'f+|

x
. 3.8. 2 2 .

-
(. 3.8). 1 2 -
:

A1 = A1 A11 + A2 A21 , A2 = A1 A12 + A2 A22 . (3.15)

(3.14),
, -
:

Af = A1 A11 A1 f + A2 A21 A1 f +

+ A1 A12 A2 f + A2 A22 A2 f . (3.16)

-
, -
. -

, ,

.
-
, (. 3.9).
,
, . -
,
 3.2. , ( *) 61

() -
, . -

, -
.
w(x)
2
|?exp(iS[x(t)/h])Dx(t)| =
2
Anf =|lim ?A1A12'...Anf|
A1

x
. 3.9. , , ,
,
( ) .



t1
exp i S[x(t)] = exp i L(x, x) dt. (3.17)
h h
t0
,
.
, , , -
, . . , S[x(t)]
x(t) , . . , -

S[x(t)] = S[x(t) + x(t)] S[x(t)] + o(x) =

 (3.18)
= S[x(t) + x(t)] = 0, x(t).
=0

. (3.18) -
62 3

, , ,
.
, -
,
, -
, , ,
. , -
. , -

, .
,
, -
.
. , ,
-
. 3.10.

+ + + + + +

. 3.10. -
: ; -
, ( ,
, ), -
( ),
, -
, , ,
, . .

(**) . 3.10 . -
-
. ,
(),
, . -

 3.2. , ( *) 63

, , ,
. 3.113 .

. 3.11. - . 3.12.
(19181988).
.
-
.
, . -
, , ( ),

. ,
, -
,
( ).

3.2.1. (*)
, ; ,
, .
,

.
, , , -
, .
, ,
,
( ,
3
, .
64 3

. 3.13. . . 3.14
- , . . . . . . .
? .
! . . .
? . . .
, , , . . .
?
, . . . .
,
, , -
, 4

-
,
).
, -
-
, (
, -
). -
,

E t h, (3.19)
E , , , t
, h .
-
, , , -
()
, , .
, , - (. . 3.155 )
W ,
4 . . -
; , : -
, 1979.
5 ( , ), -
. .
,
 3.2. , ( *) 65

80 , -
. W n -
p ( - ), W -
e e .
W
, W , -
15 6 .

Ve
+
p e

W
n

. 3.15. . , -
. W . 3.14.

, -
, . -
,
, ,
.
, , W + -
, W + ee , ,
, ,
, - ( , -
) ,
. ( , -
.)
(-
)
( ), .

.
, .
6 ,
.
 4

. . .
. . .
. . . .
( ,
)
, ,
, .
,

, -
.
: ,
, , , -
(, , ),
. . .
( -
), -
, ,
( ), 5 -
.

4.1.
4.1.1. ?
,
, .
 4.1. 67

(x, p), . .,
, 1 .
-
.
-
,
.
-
2 , . ., -
, 3 .
, -

. , , -
-
( , ) -
.
, , -
, .
. -
.
,
, . 10 ,
10 , 3 ,
, 30 (
). , , -
, ,
, .
(*) ,
-
6 K (3 3 ,
K ), L3 2K ( K -
-
1 -
.
2 .
, , - ,
- .
3
.
68 4

L3 L L L).
,
N , . . 6N K .
(*) (L3 )N K.
100 100 100
106 .
( -
, , . .)
, , -
, ,
,
4 .
, ,
,
. . -
(x1 , x2 ) -
(x1 ), , (x2 ), -
.
12 (x1 , x2 ).

12 (x1 , x2 ) = 1 (x1 ) 2 (x2 ), (4.1)

-
, . -
.
(4.1)

12 = 1 2 . (4.2)

( 1 = 2 ) 12 = 21 = 2 1 , . . 21 (x1 , x2 ) =
= 2 (x1 ) 1 (x2 ).
12
, (
4 , -
, , -
, , . -

. , - ,
, , -
, .
 4.1. 69

)
 (i) (i)
 (i) (i)
12 (x1 , x2 ) = 1 (x1 ) 2 (x2 ) 12 = 1 2 .
i i
(4.3)
, ,
, ,

. -
-
, .

12 (x1 , x2 ) = 1 (x1 ) 2 (x2 ) 12 = 1 2 . (4.4)

(. .
),
12 , -
( )
 (i) (i)
 (i) (i)
12 (x1 , x2 ) = 1 (x1 ) 2 (x2 ) 12 = 1 2 . (4.5)
i i

-
, ,
, -
, , (
), (-
), . ,
.
, -
, -
( ), -
, , ,
, -
(. .
) .

4.1.2.

,
70 4

, . . , ( + , . .
) (c). ,
, -
, , -
.
,

, . . -
c ( c = 0 -
) -
.
-
-
, -
. -
, -
( , .
2).

. 4.1. -
1886 . (18621943). W
-
H.
, ,
, -
.
, -
,
, , -
( ), ,
( -
).
-
,
(3.13) .
n- -
:


n
(a, b) = ak bk . (4.6)
k=1
 4.1. 71

,



n 
n
 2 
(a, a) = ak ak = Re ak + Im2 ak . (4.7)
k=1 k=1

,
,

 
| = (x) (x) dx, | = (k) (k). (4.8)
k

! -
,
. -

, ,
.
-
L2 ( ) l2
( ). -
-
H. -
Cn .
(*) -
. -
5 , . .
(-
) . , L2
l2 .
x U
W ,
 
| = (x) (x) dx + (k) (k). (4.9)
U kW

( ):
2 = |.
5 .
72 4

4.2. ()

,
,

,
.
. , ,

,
.
, -
Aij . , -
.
(-) , ,
Ai .
, .
(-) , , -
Ai . -
, .
:

ua = ui ai .
i

:
(au)ij = ai uj .
-
:

(AB)ik = Aij Bjk .
j

, -
.
, . .
:
 
((AB)C)il = ( Aij Bjk )Ckl = Aij Bjk Ckl =
k j jk
 4.2. ( ) 73
 
= Aij (Bjk Ckl ) = (A(BC))il .
j k

, ,

A, B : AB = BA,

, -
, -
, .
,
, :

tr A = Aii .
i

( ) -
() ,
, :

(Aa)i = Aij aj ,
j

A(a + b) = (Aa) + (Ab) (4.10)

( ).
() -
, ,
: 
(uA)j = ui Aij ,
i

(u + w)A = (uA) + (wA). (4.11)

A u -
a, , u
Aa, uA a:

uAa = u(Aa) = (uA)a. (4.12)

:

u = (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . 0), a = (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . 0)T ,

     
i j
74 4

. . i- j- , -
A:

uAa = Aij . (4.13)

:6 (A )ij = Aji .
: A = A. 
1, i = j,
: 1ij = ij =
0, i = j.
: U U = 1.
a b , ,
:

a|b = a b = ai bi . (4.14)
i

b a :

(ba )ij = bi aj . (4.15)

: a ( ) A

Aa = a,
C .
( )
.
( )
, .
( ,
) () A B :

[A, B] = AB BA = 0,

, -
() A B .
6 , -
(A )ij = Aij (AT )ij = Aji . ,
. , -
(-
= ) . -
!
 4.3. 75

() (-
) () :
A + A A A
ReA = , ImA = ,
2 2i
(ReA) = ReA, (ImA) = ImA,
A = ReA + i ImA.
() -
, () A
ReA ImA:
Aa = a (ReA)a = (Re)a, (ImA)a = (Im)a.
() ReA ImA , -
() A
,
[ReA, ImA] = 0 [A, A ] = 0.
(), , -
. , -
(), U = U 1 , [U, U ] =
= U U 1 U 1 U = 0.
(-
), -
(. . 4.2):

C A + iB [A, B] = 0
R A
iR iB
eiR = {ei | R} eiA
-
(, , ). -
. -
.

4.3.

, -
76 4

. 4.2

4.2. , -
( ),
(. .
).

. 4.3. (19021984). W

c -
(x) - -
, - -
(x) - -.

4.3.1.
( ).
, , -
,
;
 4.3. 77

| - ( ),
-, (x);
| - ( ),
- | = (|) ,
-, (x);
A ( ), -
.

-
:
C .
H -. -
(
-
, -
). - (
) -
,
-. H
.
H -. - -
( -
) , -
-. H H -
H C
.
H H H H. -
(
) , -
.
(-
-, , -
/, ).

4.3.2.
|| = | = (|) | =
(
78 4

) (. (4.8), -
(4.14))
;
A| - -
( A). :
A(| + |) = A| + A| ( (4.10));

|A - -
( A). -
: (| + |)A = |A + |A ( (4.11));

|A| = |A = A -
( (4.13)). -
:

- |A - |,
- | - A|,
A;

|A|, A = A ( -
. ), | = 1 A
;
|| - (
4.15).
|| --
|:
(||)| = | | = ||. (4.16)
  

|| --
|:
|(||) = ||; (4.17)
  

|| = | | -
-,
, : 1- |,
2- | (. (4.1), (4.2));
 4.3. 79

|| = | | = (||) -
(--
) -, , -
,
-,
(. ).

4.3.3.
-
( a, b, c , -, -
, ):
(a ) = a,
= , C -
,
(a + b) = a + b ,
(abc . . . ) = . . . c b a
,
(|) = |,
(|) = |.
:

|A| = |A| = A = A = |A |

,
, |A| = A = B = |B|, ,
( ), B =
= A ( 4.2),
(||) = ||,
(|) = (|) = |,
  

(A|) = |A = A|,

(|A) = A |,
80 4

(||) = ||,
(||)(||) = |||| = | | | = ||| =
  

= | |.
     

4.4. , , . . . ,
**
. , -
, -
, , -
. , -
, .

: . ,
, (
) -
,
() :

(ABC)il = Aij Bjk Ckl .
jkl

() -
-
().
( , ) A
B AB, BA:
 
(AB)ik = Aij Bjk , (BA)ik = Bij Ajk .
j j

,
.
. , -
,
.
,
,
 4.4. , , . . . , ** 81

. , , , -
, , , -
, - ,
(? ? ?) -:

n Dm n
D  
ABC
= Aij Bj m k Ckl = Aij Bj m k Ckl Dm n .
il jkm jkm

-
.
-:
. ,
-
.
.
.
-
. -
-
.
, , -
-
, -
. ,
, , , -
. ( -
(3.13) . 3.5, . 3.2 ,
(*).)
.

4.4.1. *
( , -
, ) ,
( ) .
, -
k .
().
82 4

,
, . -
-
/ .
-
:
/ -, -. -
.
/ . -
.
,
-
, , x y -
R, , -
, /.
-
.
/ -
/. , -
,
/ r = (x, y, z, ).
( ) -
,
.
, -
.
, , .
, , ,
( ) /. -
, .

( ).

4.4.2. *
,
, ,
 4.4. , , . . . , ** 83

, , -
.
: ()
- -.
, /
/ .
.
, ,
. ,
( ), .

.
, .
,
, ( -
).
-
, ,
.

4.4.3. *
-
/:
-, -
-, .
- . ,
-
, , -
- :
| A |  |  |  . (4.18)
ijk Akji qrs s r q

, -
, -
, - :
A B ,
(AB)ik jl =Ai j B k l

(A B) || = ( A| )(B|).

(AB)ik jl j l Ai j j B k l l
84 4

,
( , ), ,
. , (4.18)
- , -
(), -
-, . . -:
| A |  .
ijk Akji qrs s

4.4.4. *
i - |;

i - |;

i i = | ;

Aij A;

Aij j -: A|;

Aij i -: |A;
 4.4. , , . . . , ** 85

Aij i j = |A| ;

Aii = tr A A;

Aij Bkj Cik = tr(AB C) AB C;


ij - | = | |  ;


ij - | =  | | ;

Aij jk A (,

) - |: A 1| = (A| )| ;

Aik jk A (,

) - |: 1 A| = | (A| );
86 4

Aij
kl A, -
;

Aij
kl
kl
-: A| ( i, j
k, l I = (i, j) K = (k, l),
AIK K );

Aij
il tr1 A;

Aij
kj tr2 A.

4.5.
4.5.1.
, -
- ,
() :
| = 1. (4.19)
(4.9),
(x) (x) -
(x U ) (k) (k)
(k W )
 
| = (x) (x) dx + (k) (k) = 1. (4.20)
U kW
 4.5. 87

, -
.
(4.19) ( -
).
,
:
|
|.  =  .
|
ei ( R, |ei | = 1)
.

:
 
(x) dx + p(k) = 1. (4.21)
U kW

,
. -
, ()
. -
. ,

, -
, -
. ,
.

p
ipr
p (r) = e h . (4.22)
, , . . -
.

( ).

4.5.2. .

, ,
. -
88 4

, ,
,
.
|, -
k
|k . ,
,

| = |k , (4.23)
k
k |k  = pk kk , (4.24)
 
| = k |k  = pk = 1, (4.25)
k,k  k

pk k.7
|k  | -
Pk :

|k  = Pk |, (4.26)
Pk Pk = Pk kk , (4.27)

Pk = 1. (4.28)
k

Pk -
, k -
( ).
Pk -
, .

, , -
, -
. , , -
, -
. -
ei |

, | , R,
|


7 , 1, k = k ,
kk = .
 k
0, k =
 4.5. 89

ei , .
(-
)
.

4.5.3.
3.1.5
.
pk 4.5.2
:
  
k | = k | |k  = k |k  = pk kk = pk .
k k k

k -
-: , .
, , -
,
, , , -
. , ,
: -
? ,
.
A = |
8 .

p = |||2 = || =
= |(||)| = |P | = tr(P P ), (4.29)
8 0
( ) 1
.
, 1, -
0. .
, -
, ,
-
.
, ,
.
90 4

P = ||, P = ||.
P (. (4.26),
(4.27), (4.28) ).

4.6.
4.6.1. ,

| (x)
- x, -
.
 
| = (x) |x  dx + (k) |k . (4.30)
U kW

|x  |k  - -
x k . (x U )
, (k W ) .
.
-
-.
9 . , -
( )
:
 
(k) = k | = k | (x) |x  dx + k | (k ) |k  =
U k W
 
= (k ) k |k  = (k ) kk ,
k W k W
 
(x) = x | = x | (x ) |x  dx + x | (k) |k  =
U kW
 
= (x ) x |x  dx = (x ) (x x ) dx .
U U
9 . . 4.7.6.
 4.6. 91

-
,
, . . x0 (x) = x |x0 , . . , -
.
,
-:
k |l  = kl = l (k). (4.31)

k |l  = 0, k = l, (4.32)
k |k  = 1. (4.33)
-:
x |y  = (x y) = y (x). (4.34)

x |y  = 0, x = y, (4.35)

x |x  = (4.36)
().
-
, . . , -
, !
,

.
, -
H, -
.
, (4.32), (4.33) -
(4.31), (4.35), (4.36) -
(4.34) (, ,
). , - (ax) =
= (x)
|a| ( x), , -
.
,
: x ax -
x x
a
.
92 4

-

( ) -
.

4.6.2. *
, ,
H -
() . ,
,
: -
(x) = x |, -
,
x |x  , ,
x |y . , -
: , .
-
, -
. , -
. , -
, , -
.
, -
. , ,
, .
-
,
, . .

D H lim n | = x0 | = (x0 ).

n

, - -
-
.
-
, x -
, x (
) . -
. ,
 4.6. 93

,
, -
- -
.
, -
, . .
wlim n (x) = (x x0 ) = x0 (x)
n
D H lim n | = x0 | = (x0 ).
n

,
D -
D. H
 , -
. H
H ,
. ,
H H . H , -
-, .
D = H. -
, -
: , ,


(x) (x)dx.

, D
,
D  .10
, -
H,
: D 
D.
D H D (4.37)
.
10 , D  H, D,

.
94 4

D -
.

(4.30), -
,
(4.34).
-
. 4.6.3 , -
4.7.1 4.7.2 .

4.6.3.
, (4.30) -
,
-. -
( - ),
-. , (4.30)
m | (
, {|x }xUW , - ):

 
m | | = (x) |x  dx + (x) |x ,
U xW
 
(m) = m | = (x) m |x  dx + (x) m |x  = (4.38)
U xW
 
= (x) x (m) dx + (x) x (m).
U xW

(4.38) (m) | -
, (x) .
-
, -
m |x .
, , -
m x. m |x  -
- ,
.
m |x  - , , -
-
 4.6. 95

, . ,
, -
, ,
:

+ ip1 x ip2 x 
+ i(p p )x
2 1

p1 |p2  = e h e h dx = e h dx =

+R i(p2 p1 )x
= lim e h dx = 0. (4.39)
R+
R
  
p2 p1
sin( h R)
2
(p2 p1 )/h

*
-

G : H1 H2 .
H1 H2 , -
H
1 2. , H, H1 H2 (-
),
.
H1 H2 , . .
-
- , -

- , -

:

J : H1 H2 , J 1 : H2 H1 .

( H1 H2 ), -
, . . H1
H1 :
U = J 1 G : H1 H1 .
96 4

- ()
( ),

U .
, M1 : H H1
, U : H H , M2 =
= M1 U : H H1 .
-
, , -
, , -
, .
,
.
, -
, ,
-
11 .

L2 (R) ,
( hk):

k (x) = 1 eikx = x |k , k R.
2

x0 (x) = (xx0 ) (
x0 ).
.
, . .

k |l  = (k l).

k |l  , k = l
() , -
11 -
.
,
: ( ), -
( ).
 4.6. 97


+

k |l  = 1 ei(lk)x dx
2

(. (4.39)). -

+R
2 sin((l k)R)
ei(lk)x dx = , R +
lk
R
, - .
- -
, e|x| , +0,
k |l  = (k l) , ,
-
:

+ 
+

| = (x)(x)dx = (k)(k)dk,


+ 
+

(k) = |k  = eikx dx,
(x) (k) = k | = eikx (x)dx.

2 2


+ 
+

| = (x)|x dx = (k)|x dk -

(k) = k | (x) = x |, -
k |x  = x |k  :

+ 
+ 
+

k |x (x)dx, eikx x |k (k)dk.

(k) = (x) = (k)dk =
2

x , k -
,
. x k , -
, -
, , -
, x k x0
x.
98 4

-
k, p = hk.

h:
i
p (x) = 1 e h
px
, p R.
2h

*

,
12 , 2h
1
, .
i
, p (x) = eikx = e h px
, .
,
:

+
dp
| = (p)(p) . (4.40)
2h

, / -
dp dk
2h = 2 .
. n,
dn p dn k
(2h) n = (2)n .

-
:
 i i
px px
(p) = p | = e h (x)dx, p (x) = e h = x |p ,
 i i
px dp px
(x) = x | = e h (p) , x (p) = e h = p |x  = x |p  .
2h

:

x |x  = x (x) = (x x ), p |p  = p (p) = 2h (p p ).

.
: 2h, -
 4.7. 99

. -
, , -
-
, -
.
-
, 4.6.3.

4.7.
.
, ,
. ,
. , , -
.

, ,
.

,
12 :
A : D V, D, V H,
A = , , H ,
A() = (A), C, A( + ) = A + A.
. , -
x,
, ,

x : 
x .
, .

4.7.1. *


(Aa)m = n Amn an A : D V
12 D A H. -
.
, -
.
100 4

- :
 
A(x) = Axy (y) + Axy (y) dy. (4.41)
yW yU

W , , -
, U , .
Axy x y.
x,
(x, y).
D H , -
|| D H |A|. ,
, ,
:

A : D H C, D, H = L2 (U ),

A : || =
 |A| = (x)Axy (y) dx dy. (4.42)
x,yU

.
( 4.6.3 .)

4.7.2.
-

Axy = x |A|y . (4.43)
, (4.41)
(4.31), , (4.34),
.
(4.13)
.
(4.42) (4.43) -
/ -
/ .

-
, ,
 4.7. 101

A = |A|. (4.44)

(4.44)
, -
4.6.2 *, 4.7.1 -
*.

4.7.3.
() () -
A :
|xy  (x , y -
):

   

| = + dx + dy (x, y)|xy , A|xy  = x|xy .
xW U yWy (x) Uy (x)
(4.45)

A(x, y) = x (x, y).

, ( )
() ,
.

4.7.4. **
-
. , ,


| = (k)|k , A|k  = k|k ,
k

A| = (k)|k ,
k

(k) k |.
102 4

A(k) = k (k),
(k) , ,
, k.

:

  
(A )(k) = k (k),


  

.
, , (k) -
, . , -
k , -
.
, -
-
.

4.7.5.

:
(. . ) :

|A| |
A =  |A|  = , |  =  . (4.46)
| |

, | 
A (

). ,
-,
-

k |l  = kl , k, l W, x |y  = (x y), x, y U,
k |x  = 0, x U, k W,
 4.7. 103

x U W (
) |(x)|2 :

 
 |A|  = + dx x |(x)|2 .
xW U

4.7.6.
,
H H ,
|x y |.
- - (4.16),
(4.17).
-
. ,
, :

A = |x Axy y | dx dy.
x,yU

,

 
A = |x Axy y | dx dy + |x Axy y | +
x,yU x,yW
   
+ |x Axy y | dx + |x Axy y | dy,
xU yW xW yU

:

   
A = + dx + dy |x Axy y |. (4.47)
xW xU yW yU

:

 
1 = + dx |x x |. (4.48)
xW xU
104 4

4.7.7. *
-
/, ?
, -
.
, -
. ? , ! -
,
. () -
. , -
H , .

:
 
| = 1  + 2  2 + i + i2 i i2 .
4
-
13 .

. , ,


2 = | = |(x)|2 dx < , H,
R
x ( x) -


x2 = x|x = x2 |(x)|2 dx , x  H.
R
x|
H. , ,
13 , ,

 + 2 +  2 = 22 + 22 .
,
.
 4.7. 105

- -
H. -
, -
H,
.
?
. , , . .
, -
H ,
H. -
H -
, ( ), .14
, A
, -
eiA ( R),
. -
(|u| 1) -
H.
-
A = A ,
A A . -
( ).
, -
, . .
|A = A|
, , ,
.
(*) A A -

. ,
. -
A ,
A . -
A A .
, - ,
,
14 A,
A
A = sup 
< .
106 4

() -
.
, -
, ih x

. -
,
, .
.
( ) -

: (
).

,
-
.

4.7.8. *
-
(4.8 *). ,
, , .
-
() :

   
tr A = + dx Axx = + dx x|A|x. (4.49)
xW xU xW xU

, -
, () .
,
.
, - --
, :
tr || = |. (4.50)
(4.50) :

tr(A + B) = tr A + tr B, (4.51)
(4.49).
 4.7. 107

, (4.47), (4.50), (4.51) (4.49), .

(4.49) (4.51),
(4.50) :

 
tr || = + dx x ||x  =
xW xU

 
= + dx |(|x x |)| =
xW xU

 
= | + dx |x x | | = |1| = |.
xW xU

(4.50)
(), - - ( ):
tr(ab . . . yz) = tr(zab . . . y) = tr(b . . . yza). (4.52)
a, b, . . . , y, z , , - -
, , ,
. . ( 1 1).
(4.52) (4.51) -
, ,
:
tr = , C. (4.53)
(!!!) ,
1 1,
n n 1, 1 n n. ,
tr(1) = n = = tr .

*
-
:
H = H1 H2 .
,
, :
(x, y) = y|x|.
108 4

| = (x, y)|x|y.
x,y

( ,
.) (y|x|) = |x|y H,
|x |y -
H1 H2 .
H ( -
. . )
:
A(x, y; x , y  ) = y|x|A|x |y  .

A = |x|yA(x, y; x , y  )y  |x |.
x,y;x ,y 

H = H1 H2
H2 :
 
trH2 A = |xA(x, y; x , y)x | = y|A|y. (4.54)
x,y;x y

, , -
H1 .


trH2 A(x; x ) = A(x, y; x , y). (4.55)
y;y

, H2 -
H1 (. .
/, -
).

H2 , ,
, H2 . -
, (4.53) ( !) -
A1 : H1 H1
trH2 A1 = A1 . (4.56)
-
:
tr A = trH1 trH2 A = trH2 trH1 A. (4.57)
 4.8. * 109

4.8. *
-
( ),
,
-
.
. . -
. 1927 .
,
, -
| ( (x))
( -
). . 4.4.
. - (19081968).
(
, )

1 = ||, | = 1. (4.58)

, -
pk |k  ,
. -


= |k pk k |, k |k  = 1. (4.59)
k

|k  , .

, . .

= , ||  0, H, tr = 1. (4.60)

: ,
.
, , -
.
.
-
,
110 4

, . . -
( . 5
) , -
, .
:
A = tr(A). (4.61)
,
( - -) (4.52),
(4.58) (4.59), -
(4.61)
:
A1 = tr(A1 ) = tr(A ||) = tr(|A |) = |A | = A ,
 
 
A = tr(A) = tr A |k pk k | = pk tr(A |k k |) =
k k
 
= pk k |A |k  = pk Ak .
k k

, ,
, pk
k .
, ,
, , -
(4.29), -
P
p = P  = tr(P ). (4.62)

5 .

4.8.1. *
, -
, ,
( ) -
, ( -
) , -
,
.
 4.8. * 111

, -
(4.59) . ,
.
(4.59)
(4.58).
, , -
(Q, P ),
-
 (Q, P ) = (Q Q0 ) (P P0 ).
-
. , -
,
E eE/T , T ,
(kT , k),
:

H

= e T , Z = tr .

, -
, -
. ,

( ). ,

, .

4.8.2. *

, .
,

-
, ()
. ,
( ) , ,
:

1 = tr2 , 1 (x; x ) = (x, y; x , y) dy.

(4.63)
112 4

. , ,

| = A1 |1 |1  + A2 |2 |2 .
|1  |2  , |1 
|2  (),

A1 = ei1 p1 A2 = ei2 p2 (1 , 2 , p1 , p2 R+ , |A1 |2 + |A2 |2 = p1 +
+ p2 = 1) .

= || = A1 A1 |1 |1 1 |1 | + A2 A2 |2 |2 2 |2 | +

+ A1 A2 |1 |1 2 |2 | + A2 A1 |2 |2 1 |1 |.

( -
), p1 , p2
(1 2 ).
, -
, tr2 -
i , i :

1 = tr2 || = A1 A1 tr2 |1 |1 1 |1 | + A2 A2 tr2 |2 |2 2 |2 | +
+ A1 A2 tr2 |1 |1 2 |2 | + A2 A1 tr2 |2 |2 1 |1 | =
= A1 A1 tr2 |1 1 |1 1 | + A2 A2 tr2 |2 2 |2 2 | +
+ A1 A2 tr2 |1 2 |1 2 | + A2 A1 tr2 |2 1 |2 1 | =
= p1 |1 1 | + p2 |2 2 |.

i .
,

2 = tr1 || = p1 |1 1 | + p2 |2 2 |.

, , -
- i 1 2
. , -
, . .
(. ).
, -
. (Q1 , Q2 , P1 , P2 ) -
 4.8. * 113

, -


1 (Q1 , P1 ) = (Q1 , Q2 , P1 , P2 ) dQ2 dP2 ,

2 (Q2 , P2 ) = (Q1 , Q2 , P1 , P2 ) dQ1 dP1 .

(Q1 , Q2 , P1 , P2 ) -
(  Q1 , P1
Q2 , P2 ) 1 (Q1 , P1 ) 2 (Q2 , P2 ),
.
(
) .
,

(Q1 , Q2 , P1 , P2 ) = (Q1 Q01 )(Q2 Q02 )(P1 P10 )(P2 P20 ),

1 (Q1 , P1 ) = (Q1 Q01 )(P1 P10 ), 2 (Q2 , P2 ) = (Q2 Q02 )(P2 P20 ),

(Q1 , Q2 , P1 , P2 ) = 1 (Q1 , P1 )2 (Q2 , P2 ).

, ,
.
.
,
.

= 1 2 .

1 = || 1, 1 -
2,
.

1 = tr2 (1 2 ) = 1 (tr2 2 ), 2 = tr1 (1 2 ) = (tr1 1 ) 2 .

     
=1 =1
114 4

4.9. *
() ,
. -

.
.
.

4.9.1. *
-
, , -
.
, ,
,
. , -
, -
,
.
A -
: H
H = P H,
. ( -
.) A
P :

A = A = P , V R,


P = 1, P = P , P P = P .


A| = P |

 
A = |A| = |P | = p ,

 4.9. * 115

p = |P |
, A .

(. 5.3.1 **).
, -
:

cA c R;

A + B A B;

A B = AB + B A
2 ;

{A, B}q = 1
ih [A, B] .
, , ,
. . , -
:

{A, {B, C}q }q + {B, {C, A}q }q + {C, {A, B}q }q = 0.

, -
(-
), ,
.
-
.
, , ,
.

,
15 .

4.9.2. **
( -
) F (Q, P ).
15
.
116 4

F ,
(Q0 , P0 ) ( -
),

F (Q0 , P0 ).

, (Q, P ) (-
),

F  = dQ dP (Q, P ) F (Q, P ).

, -
:
cF c R;
F + G F G;
F G = F (Q, P )G(Q, P ) ;
  F G 
{F, G} = k Q k Pk
G F
Qk Pk .

.
, ,
, ,
.
, , -
(Q, P ),
.

4.9.3. ***
, ,
-
.

. , -
, -
, . .
.
.
 4.9. * 117

, ,
.
,
13 -
, .
, -
,
: . 4.5. -
,
= 1, = 2, = 3. -
, .

( ),
2 (). -
, . .
.
, -
, , -
( ) ,
.
, , ,
, -
R, - .
,
, -
,
.


.
-
F (Q, P ), F -
, V :

F : (Q, P )  F (Q, P ) V.

,
.

( -
118 4

):

{P }V , P = 1, P = P , P P = P .

, -
:
p = |P |.
V  C ,
. ,
.
, V -
- -
, , -
.
.
- -
. , -
. -
( -
) . -
, ,
, -
, .
, , . , -
z ,

:

1 1 + , 1 + < 2,
1 1 + 2, 1 +  2,
2 2 + , 2 + < 2,
2 2 + 2, 2 +  2,
(1 + 2 ) (1 + 2 ) + 2, (1 + 2 ) + 2 < 2,
(1 + 2 ) (1 + 2 ) + 2 2, 4 > (1 + 2 ) + 2  2,
(1 + 2 ) (1 + 2 ) + 2 4, 6 > (1 + 2 ) + 2  4,
(1 + 2 ) (1 + 2 ) + 2 6, (1 + 2 ) + 2  6.
 4.10. 119

( ) -
-
.
,
?
, . ( -
, 5.2
() .)
(-

), :
( -
);
( -
).
(-
-
), -
:
;
( -
).
, , -
{P }V
V , -
(
), P ( -
).
, ()
, .

4.10.
, ,
, . . -
. ,
L2 (R).
120 4

( -
)
, :

x0 (x) = x |x0  = (x x0 ).

-
:
i
p0 x
p0 (x) = x |p0  = 1
2h
e h .

( )

p0 (p) = p |p0  = (p p0 ).

-
:
i
px
x0 (p) = p |x0  = x0 |p  = 1
2h
e h 0 .

, , -
(. -
4.6.3).
-
(. 4.7.3 ). -
-
. (, -
-
!)
x (x) = x (x), p (x) = ih x

(x);

p (p) = p (p), x (p) = +ih p (p).
p x -
:
[x, p] = ih. (4.64)
(4.64)
.
(**) , [x, p]
,
 4.11. 121

x. L2 (R).
, [x, p]
. -
a,
, (0) = (a) = 0.
L2 ([0, a]), -
( )
.

-
:

[x, p] = xp px = x(ih x

) + ih x x = ihx x + ih.

   
1

4.11.
|
. -
, ,
(
):
|H|
E0 = min . (4.65)
=0 |

-
, , () , ,
().

4.11.1. **
(4.65) (
, )

E0 = min |H|
|
=1
122 4

 
E0 = min |H| + E(1 |) .
=0
  
E[|,|
]

E[|, |] = |H| + E(1 |),

(x) ,

E1 [] = (|H|) + E(1 (|)),

(x) ,
.
|, | E,
   
E = | H| E| + |H |E | + E (1 |) .
        

. . . . . .

,
1.16

.
E -
p2
H = 2m + U (x) (p = ih)
  
h 
2

E[ (x), (x)] = + U (x) + E(1 ) dx =
2m
 2

= h
( ) () + U (x) + E(1 ) dx
2m
(4.66)
, , -
. -
.
16 , -
! ,
, , . ,
, .
 4.11. 123

,

t1  
S[(t)|, |(t)] = (t)|H|(t) (t)|ih t |(t) dt.
t0

 2

S[ (x), (x)] = h
( ) () + U (x) ih t dx dt.

2m
(4.67)
| |,
t1 !
   
S = (t)| H|(t) ih t |(t) + (t)|H + ih t (t)| |(t) dt.

     
t0 . . .

, ,
( ,
) .

4.11.2.
-
, -
(4.65).
() -
, ,
-
. , ,
, -
:

()|H|()
E0 min .
()|()
,
:

|H|
E0  . (4.68)
|
124 4

, ,
( !), -
.

4.11.3. *
,
,
, :

|H|
E1 = min . (4.69)
=0,0 |
=0 |

|H|
En = min . (4.70)
=0,k |
|k<n =0 |

, -
, , , -
,

k ||k<n = 0,

k ,
k .
 5

5.1.

(2.3.1 -
. . . ) .
: -
, .
.
, -
(, , )

( 7.4.2 ). (
) -
(. .
)
-
.
-
, (-
). 11 -1 ( ) -
.

5.1.1.

,
, t1 ( -
) (t1 ) (t0 )
t0 . ,
. ., ,

(t0 )|(t0 ) = (t1 )|(t1 ) = 1. (5.1)

126 5

, -
, . . (t0 ) = (t0 ) + (t0 ),
(t1 ) = (t1 ) + (t1 ) . ,
, t1 , -
, t0 ,
U (t1 , t0 ), -
:

(t1 ) = U (t1 , t0 )(t0 ), (t1 ) = U (t1 , t0 )(t0 ) . .

,
:

U (t0 , t0 ) = 1,
U (t2 , t1 )U (t1 , t0 ) = U (t2 , t0 ), t 2  t1  t0 .

(5.1)

(t1 )|(t1 ) = (t0 )|U (t1 , t0 )U (t1 , t0 )|(t0 ) = 1. (5.2)

(5.2) (t0 ), -

U (t1 , t0 )U (t1 , t0 ) = 1. (5.3)

(5.3) , .
, -
1 .
-
,
:
1 A, A A = 1,

AA = 1. n , n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , .
A A|n  = |n+1 .
A Am,n = m |A|n  = m,n+1 .
A : An,m = n |A |m  =
= n+1,m = Am,n . A :
A |n  = |n1 , n = 1, 2, . . . , A |0  = 0. A A AA
, A A|n  = |n , .
AA |n  = |n  n = 0, AA 0 = 0, . . AA = 1 |0 0 |.
 5.1. 127

U (t1 , t0 ).
, ,
U U = 1 U U = 1. -
.
U U = 1.
U 1 .
U U = 1 U 1 = U .
, t1
U (t1 , t0 ) - -
t0 ( -
, ).
, -
.
, , -

: , ,
. -
, .

, t1  t0
.

U (t0 , t1 ) = U 1 (t1 , t0 ) = U (t1 , t0 ),

U (t2 , t1 )U (t1 , t0 ) = U (t2 , t0 )
t0 , t1 , t2 .
, . . ,
,
, . .
:

U (t1 , t0 ) = Ut1 t0 .

t. /-
/ /
128 5

/ :

Ut1 Ut2 = Ut1 +t2 , (5.4)

Ut1 = Ut , (5.5)
U0 = 1. (5.6)
-
, t R, 2 t/ Z.

5.1.2. *

. (4.59)

= |k pk k |.
k
,

|k (t1 ) = U (t1 , t0 )|k (t0 ), k (t1 )| = k (t0 )|U (t1 , t0 ),

(t1 ) = U (t1 , t0 )(t0 )U (t1 , t0 ).

,
:

tr (t1 ) = tr[U (t1 , t0 )(t0 )U (t1 , t0 )] = tr[(t0 ) U (t1 , t0 )U (t1 , t0 )] = tr (t0 ).

  
1

5.1.3. () *****
-
, -
(5.3) ().
, -
,
.
2 .
,
,
, .
 5.1. 129

, -
, , , -
, -
, . -
-
, -
, -
-
.
t = 0 -
, t = 0 H -
. t ,

Ut , . .

Ht = Ut H0 H0 = H.

Ht  H0 , . . - -

At Ht = H.
At -
, -
. Ut

Ut = At Ut .

, , , -
, -
,
.
, -
,
( -
). -
- ,
, -
(, ).
130 5

5.1.4.
(, , ) -
,
(t + ) = U (t). (5.7)
, . . t R, , -
, -
(5.7) , 0, -


d (t) = dU 
 (t). (5.8)
dt d 
=0
(5.8)
 (
U 
). dd  -
=0
H
ih .


dU 
H = ih  (5.9)
d 
=0
, 3 .
:
U .

H .
ih
-
, .
:
(t + ) = U (t + , t)(t),


d (t) = dU (t + , t)  (t) = 1 H(t)(t),

dt d  ih
=0

dU (t + , t) 
H(t) = ih  .
d 
=0
3 - -
: . ,
Hamiltonian .
 5.1. 131

-
:

U (t + dt, t) = 1 + dt H + o(dt) = 1 dt H + o(dt), (5.10)
ih ih
U (t + dt, t) = U 1 (t + dt, t) =

1
= 1 + dt H + o(dt) = 1 dt H + o(dt) H = H .
ih ih
,
, -
, :
d U (t , t ) = 1 H(t )U (t , t ), U (t0 , t0 ) = 1. (5.11)
1 0 1 1 0
dt1 ih
,
, -

i
H(t1 t0 )
U (t1 , t0 ) = Ut1 t0 = e h . (5.12)
( )
.

. , -
-
, .
-
(. . ,
) , . . -
.
5.2.7 -
*.
11.3.2 .

5.1.5. ,

H(t) = ih d (t)
dt
.
132 5

HE = EE .

.

,

ih d E (t) = HE (t) = EE (t),

dt
i
Et
E (t) = e h E (0).
-
hi Et
E = Eh e .

i i
Et Et
At = E (t)|A|E (t) = e h E (0)|A|e h E (0) =
i i
+ Et Et
= E (0)|e h Ae h |E (0) = E (0)|A|E (0) = A0 .
,
. -
. , -
, ,
4 . , -

H  = H + E0 1, (5.13)
H  -
, E0 . -
,
. -
-
. ,
4 , -
- , ( -
, ),
, ,
, ,
.
 5.2. 133

,
5.
,
, . , -
. -
, ,
. -
:
i i
E t E t
1 (t) + 2 (t) = 1 (0)e h 1 + 2 (0)e h 2 =
i i
E1 t (E1 E2 )t
= e h (1 (0) + 2 (0)e h ).
( -
) ,
e h E1 t (
i

).

5.2. ()

()
U (t1 , t0 ) (. -
5.1.1). 11 -1 ( )
, -
, ().

5.2.1. : *
,
:
, . . ,
;
, . . , ,
.
5 ( ), -
, ,
.
134 5

-
. , ,
,
, .

5.2.2. *
H
t
Ht ,
:

;

, :
;
()
, :
-
,
;
-
;
() -
, , -

.
, -
.
, -
, .

5.2.3. ,
-
: -
(
 5.2. 135

).
,
A(t) t -
:

|A|t = (t)|A(t)|(t) = (0)|Ut A(t)Ut |(0). (5.14)

, ,
.
,
A(t)
, . .
 
| (t) = |(t) = Ut |(0) (t) = Ut (0)Ut ,
A (t) = A(t)

.
-
5.1.1 5.1.4,
.
,
( ) , . .

|  = |(0) = | (0) ( = (0) = (0)),

A (t) = Ut A(t)Ut = Ut A (t)Ut

.
-
-, -
, :

 (t)|A (t)| (t) = ((0)|Ut )A(t)(Ut |(0)) =

= (0)|(Ut A(t)Ut )|(0) =  |A (t)| .

, ,
, .
,

136 5

(
):
(0) (0)
| (t) = Ut |  = Ut Ut | , (5.15)
Ut (t)Ut = Ut Ut Ut Ut ,
(0) (0) (0) (0)
(t) = [] (5.16)
Ut A (t)Ut = Ut Ut A (t)Ut Ut .
(0) (0) (0) (0)
A (t) = (5.17)

U (0) = 1 -
, U (0) = U .
-
, -
(0)
Ut , -
, - H0 . -
() , Ut , -
H0 -
V , :
H = H0 + V .

,
, -
().
, , -
. -
,
(. ).

5.2.4.
-
-
:
A U AU .

. , -
,
, . ( -
) ,
 5.2. 137

, :

(A + bB) = Ut (A + bB)Ut = Ut AUt + bUt B Ut = A + bB ,

(AB) = Ut (AB)Ut = (Ut AUt )(Ut B Ut ) = A B .

,
(
/ ):

[A, B] = (AB B A) = A B B A = [A , B ],

(eA ) = Ut eA Ut = eUt AUt = eA .

5.2.5.
, -
, . .
-
H(t). -
, Ut = e h H t -
i

:
[H, Ut ] = 0.
, (
) :

i i i i
H t H t H t H t
H = e h He h = e h e h H = H .

5.2.6.

, ,
,
, -
:

A = Ut A Ut ,
dA dUt dU dA
= A Ut + Ut A t + Ut Ut .
dt dt dt dt
138 5

(5.11), :

dUt dUt
= i H Ut , = i Ut H,
dt h dt h
 
dA i dA i dA
= Ut [H, A ]Ut + Ut Ut = [H , A ] + . (5.18)
dt h dt h dt

(5.18)
:  
dA dA
, .
dt dt


,
( ).
ddtA
, . .
.
: A
,
:
" #
dA = d A. (5.19)
dt dt
-
,
( ),
.
A,
, . . -
H 0 (. . U 1). -
.


.

dA = dA , A =
dA
.
dt dt t dt
 5.2. 139

-
:
dA = A + i [H, A]. (5.20)
dt t h
, -
, .

,
. A
,

A = 0, [H, A] = 0 dA = 0.
t dt
-
( ) eiaA . -
11.3 .

dAB = A dB + dA B
dt dt dt
:
[AB, C] = [A, C]B + A[B, C]. (5.21)
, -
.
, -
.
-
. (5.21), -
, 6
[[A, B], C] = [AB, C] [B A, C] = [[A, C], B] + [A, [B, C]]. (5.22)
6 , :
.
140 5

:
! !
d[A, B]
= A, dB + dA , B .
dt dt dt
(5.22) -
:

[[A, B], C] + [[B, C], A] + [[C, A], B] = 0. (5.23)

,
,
. -
-
,
.

-
H p ( ,
, p = i x

)
( -
):
p2
H = .
2m
,
(
, ):
$ % $ %
dp i p2 dx i p2 p
= , p = 0, = , x = i (p [p, x] + [p, x] p) = m .
dt h 2m dt h 2m 2mh      
ih ih

(5.21).
.
:

dp dx p
= 0, p (0) = p ; = m, x (0) = x .
dt dt
 5.2. 141

:
p p (0)
p (t) = p = p (0); x (t) = x + t m = x (0) + t m .
( -
) ,
:
p0
pt = p0 ; xt = x0 + t m . (5.24)
-
x2 p2 :

2
p p2 t (p x + x p ).
p2 (t) = p2 ; x2 (t) = x + t m = x2 + t2 2 + m
m
:
p2 t = p2 t p2t = p2 0 ; (5.25)
2
x2 t = x2 t x2t = t 2 p2 0 + m
t (px + xp 2x p ) + x2  .
0 0 0 0
m
x2 t
, t -
2
x2 t p2 t  h . -
4
,
,
.

5.2.7. *
-
, ,
( ), . .

F (Q, P, t). (5.26)

(
)

dF = F +  F dQa + F dPa .
dt t a
Qa dt Pa dt
142 5

-
:

dQa dPa
= H , = H .
dt Pa dt Qa

H(Q, P ) , . . , -
. , -
.
, -
F :

dF = F +  F H F H = F + {F, H}.
dt t a
Qa Pa Pa Qa t
  
{F,H}

a {F, H}.
(5.20),
, :

dF = F + {F, H} dA = A + 1 [A, H],

dt t dt t ih

{, } 1 [, ].
ih

,
:

1 [q , p ] = , {Qa , Pa } = ab .
a b ab
ih

-
. , -
, -

(. . -
). 5.2.6 -
: ,
 5.2. 143

-
.
.

1925 , -
.

5.2.8. *

,
, -
, , -
.
, , -
(5.26),

(Q, P, t), (Q, P, t) > 0, dQ dP (Q, P, t) = 1, (5.27)

.
. ,
, .


, F  = dQ dP F (Q, P, t) (Q, P, t), (5.28)

, .

, . .
. -

F S = {F C |n, m N, xn F (m) 0, x },
 S  = {|F S  : F  , F  }.
, ,
( )
,
.
144 5

:
Q0 P0 (Q, P ) = (Q Q0 ) (P P0 ),
Q0 P0 , F  = F (Q0 , P0 ).
,
. -
. (-
, ), -
.
- (-
)
.
,
.

5.2.9.
**
,
-
(-
), -
(-
):7
d dF F
= { , H}, = ,
dt dt t
. 5.1. - d dF F
(18051865). W = 0, = + {F , H}.
dt dt t
, -

( ). -
{, } ih1
[, ] -

.
7 ,
. -
, , ,
:

.
 5.2. 145

, F t
:

, F t = dQ dP F (Q, P, t)  (Q, P, t) =

= dQ dP F (Q(Q0 , P0 , t), P (Q0 , P0 , t), t)
  
F (Q0 ,P0 ,t)

 (Q(Q0 , P0 , t), P (Q0 , P0 , t), t) =

  
 (Q0 ,P0 )

(Q, P )
= dQ0 dP0 F (Q0 , P0 , t)  (Q0 , P0 ) =
(Q0 , P0 )
  
=1

= dQ dP F (Q, P, t)  (Q, P ).

Q(Q0 , P0 , t) P (Q0 , P0 , t)
t -
Q0 , P0 t:
Q(Q0 , P0 , 0) = Q0 , P (Q0 , P0 , 0) = P0 .

(Q, P )
J= =1
(Q0 , P0 ) . 5.2.
(18091882). W

. , -
.
. , dJ
dt = 0
.

Qi (t) = Qi0 + Hi t + o(t), P i (t) = P0i Hi t + o(t),

P Q

i
+ 2 H t 2 H t
(Q(t), P (t)) j P i Qj P i P j
= det
2 2
+ o(t) =

(Q0 , P0 ) H
i j t ji H t
i j
Q Q Q P
146 5

2H 2H
P Q
i j
P i P j
= 1 + tr
2 2
t + o(t) =

H
i j i j H
Q Q Q P
$ %
 2H 2H
=1+ + o(t) = 1 + o(t).
i
P i Qi Qi P i
,

J(0) = 1, dJ = 0 J 1.
dt

5.2.10. *
-
(5.17) A =
(0) (0)
= Ut A Ut , , -
(5.18):
 
dA i (0) dA
= [H , A ] + . (5.29)
dt h dt

(0)
(5.15) | (t) = Ut | (t)

(0)
d | (t) = dUt |  + U (0) d |  =
t
dt dt dt
(0) i
= i Ut H (0) |  + Ut
(0)
H
 |  =
h h
(H (0) +V )

= i Ut V |  = i Ut V Ut |  = i V | .
(0) (0) (0)
h  h    h
(0)
Ut |
V

, -
, -
, -
:

ih d | (t) = V | . (5.30)
dt
 5.3. 147

-


(0) (0)
| (t) = Ut | (t) = Ut Ut |(0) = Ut |(0).
  
Ut

(5.30),
(0)
Ut = Ut Ut

ih d Ut = V Ut , U0 = 1. (5.31)
dt

, V , -
H (0) H = H (0) + V .
, [H (0) , V ] = 0.

5.3.

, .
-
,
. : -

(),
.

.
( -
). -
, -
, .
, -
.

5.3.1.
, -
(. 3.1.4 -
148 5

, 3.1.5 -
, 4.5.1 ).
-
,
.
, , , -


P = P = P P

H H. -
( *)
:
|  = P |  H .

= P P H H , H H . []
, ,
:

p = P  =  |P |  =  |  =  | .

p = P  = tr( P ) = tr( P
2
) = tr(P P ) = tr( ). []

, (
).
P ,

P = 1 P ,

( ). -
H , H .
H :

| = 1| = (P + P )| = P | + P | = |  + | .

P -
P . .

/ .
 5.3. 149

,
A . . .
A|k  = k |k , k = k , k = k ,
k .
k ,
, . .
k |k  = kk , (5.32)

|k k | = 1. (5.33)
k

, -
A, . . k ,
:
Pk = |k k | k ;
, (-
k ) Pk Pk = Pk kk ;
pk = |Pk | = |k k | ,
k , ,
(. (4.29));
Pk , -
A k (=1, =0)?,
, A k ?8 ;

1 = k Pk -
;
, -
k :
  
| = 1| = Pk | = |k  k | = k | |k ;
  
k k k

8 P , P
k k
0 1, ,
:
1 ( ), 0 ( ).
150 5

k k | -
, -
;

Pk
k 4.5.2:
Pk | = |k  k | = k | |k  = k ;
  


A = k k Pk .

-
,
, . .

A|kc  = k |kc , k = k , k = k .

c = 1, . . . , nk , -
k .
kc , -
, . .
kc |k c  = kk cc , (5.34)

|kc kc | = 1. (5.35)
k c

.
-
-
A, k:

Pk = |kc kc |, tr Pk = nk .
c

Pk
nk , {|kc }nc=1
k
.
c Uk , -
, c
 5.3. 151

:
kc |k c  = kk (c c ), (5.36)

|kc kc |dc = 1, (5.37)
k U
k

Pk = |kc kc |dc. (5.38)
Uk

-, -. :
A|  = | ,
 |  = ( ),

|  | d = 1.

| 
H.9
p = |  |, -
H ,
| , . . H. p -
A, :
() = |p |.
() , -
, :
b
b 
P[a,b] = () d = | |  | d | = |P[a,b] |.
a a
9
|   H, |  D (4.37).
(| D, D H)
 |. : () =  |
| H . (), -
| | . ()
( L2 (R)), L2 (R)
.
152 5

p -
- (. 3.1.4
):
b b
P[a,b] = p d = |  | d.
a a

P[a,b] ,
, [a, b],
(3.9) (,
() =  |).
P (a) = P(,a] .
, :

P(a,b] = P (b) P (a).

,
( ) ,
, .
,
A ,
:

A = |  | d. (5.39)

**
(5.39) , -
, -
:
k+1
 
k |  | d = k (P (k+1 ) P (k )).
k k k

, , -
:
 
f (x) (dx) = lim f (xk )(M (xk+1 ) M (xk )).
x0
k
 5.3. 153

(dx) = M (x + dx) M (x) .

((a, b]) = M (b)M (a). -
M :
 
f (x) (dx) = f (x) M  (x) dx,

M .
, - - M
, ({a}) = M (a+)
M (a). : -
xk
  
f (x) (dx) = f (x) M  (x) dx + f (xk ) ({xk }).
xk

, -
, , .
-
- P ().
,
, : P ()H
P ()H, > . :
P ()P () = P ()P () = P (min(, )).
M , P , -
:
P ({k }) = P (k +) P (k ) = 0.
-
,
:
  
A = (k) PA (dk) = |  | d + |  |.
U W

PA ( A ,
)
. -
H
.
154 5

5.3.2. *
,
,
(2.3.2 . . . ).
5.3.1 , -
,
,
. .
, -
. -
.
, .
, , ,
,
.
-
, ,
.
k ( ) -

k = Pk Pk Hk Hk , tr k = pk .
( )
:

. . = Pk Pk , tr . . = 1. (5.40)
k

, , , . . k -
.
-
, -
- , -
k, , .
:
   
  
= 11 = Pk Pk = Pk Pk .
k k k,k 
 5.3. 155

Pk Pk , k = k ,
-
(5.40). ,
, , -
, .
()
( ).
, -
, , -
.
(*) -
. ,
(. .
, -
) ( )
(5.40) .

5.3.3.

(). -
P , -
|,
, :

P = ||.

P : -
0, 1 ( ,  = 1).
|.
,
, ,
-
.

.
, -
, .
156 5

( , -
).
, , -
|||2 , .
,
. -
.
 6

1 . , -

. -

.

U (x), :

p2 2 2
H = + U (x), H = h 2 + U (x). (6.1)
2m 2m x

6.1.
6.1.1. ?
(6.1) -

 (x)+U (x) (x) = E  (x)+ 2m

2
2m
h
h2
(E U (x)) (x) = 0. (6.2)

-
. 2 -
XIX (18371841 .).
U (x) --
.
1 .
L2 (R) -
.
C2 12 , .
2 , .
158 6

E

. -
-
,
1 ( ),
- ( ).
, ,
. 6.1. E -
(18031855). W
-
2, 1, 0 (
).
( - 1) -
.

6.1.2.
U (x) , (x) -
(6.2) ( -
!)

(x) + (x) (x) (x)

(x), Re (x) = , Im (x) =
2 2i
. , -
(x)
, Re Im , .

.

6.1.3.
U (x) :

U = lim U (x), U+ = lim U (x).

x x+

:
U0 = min U (x), U1 = max U (x).
xR xR
 6.1. 159

, , U  U+ ,
:

U0  U  U+  U1 .

 (x) + 2m
h2
(E U ) (x) = 0. (6.3)

E > U , -
E < U :
 
eikx , k = 1 2m(E U ) ; ex , = 1 2m(U E).
h h
, .
, E > U
1, -
.
E  U+ -
, .
, E
, .
U+ > E > U + -
. ex -
, e+x .
+
(x) c ex + c+ e+x , x +,
: c+ = 0. -
(6.2) .
, -
. , U+ > E > U
.
E < U
:
(x) c ex + c+ e+x , x +;
(x) d ex + d+ e+x , x .
:

c+ = 0, d = 0.
160 6

. 6.2. .

,
(6.2) .
,
. x
, ||2 ,
.
-
-
, .
c+ = 0, d = 0
, E < U -
.
( )?
E  U0 .
( -
, 6.1.2 ), , 
:

 (x) = 2m
2 (U E) (x).
h  
0

(x ) > 0 (
), x > 0,  > 0 ( -
ex )  > 0. ,
, .
 6.1. 161

, x + > 0  > 0.
ex ( +).
U > E > U0 -
, .
(. 13.5.4 -
)
, :
 
N= 1 2m(U U (x)) dx > 0. (6.4)
h
U(x)<U

, -
.

, .

U1 = U+ = U > U0 (6.5)

.
, , -
.

6.1.4.
a
V : &
0, |x|  a ,
U (x) = 2 (6.6)
V, |x| < a .
2
.
, -
0 > E > V .
U (x) =
= U (x), ,
I (I(x)
= (x)), . . H I = IH.
,
I (. 4.2 ()), . .
.
,
,
162 6

E > 0. E < 0 , ,
.
.
(
E > U (x)) ( E < U (x)).

. ,
,
-
:
( a2 + 0) = ( a2 0),  ( a2 + 0) =  ( a2 0);
( a2 + 0) = ( a2 0),  ( a2 + 0) =  ( a2 0).

, (-
, a2 ), .
,
+ .
, -
, .

(x) = e (xa/2) ,  (x) = e (xa/2) ,


= 1 2mE , x  a .
h 2


(a/2 + 0) = 1, (a/2 + 0) = .

(x) = (x), x  a.
2
-
, . . :

+ (x) = A+ cos(k+ x), (x) = A sin(k x),


k = 1 2m(E + V ), x [ a2 , a2 ],
h
 6.1. 163

 
+ (x) = A+ k+ sin(k+ x), (x) = A k cos(k x).

+ ( a2 0) = A+ cos(k+ a2 ), ( a2 0) = A sin(k a2 ),
 a  a
+ ( 2 0) = A+ k+ sin(k+ a2 ), ( 2 0) = A k cos(k a2 ).

 a  a
( a2 + 0) = ( a2 0), ( 2 + 0) = ( 2 0)

A
:
 
A+ cos(k+ a2 ) = 1, A sin(k a2 ) = 1,
A+ k+ sin(k+ 2 ) = + ,
a
A k cos(k a2 ) = .

-
A . ,

k+ tg(k+ a2 ) = + ; k ctg(k a2 ) = .

.
, a2 . -
K+ = k+ a2 K = k a2 .
-
R:
'
 2
(
= a2 = a 2m(E + V ) = mV 2a K 2 = R 2 K
2,
2h 2h
'
2
R = mV 2a .
2h

 
K+ tg K+ = R2 K+ 2 ; K ctg K = R2 K 2 .

K+ K -
, .
164 6

10

0
2 0 2 4 6 8
x
2

. 6.3. K . K tg K, K ctg K R2 K 2
( R = 10). K > 0, > 0.

R.
,
n n + 2 .
.
R
.

, -
2 n, [0, R].3
3
R= 2
n, .
 6.1. 165

,
.

! $ %
2mV a
N = 2R +1= + 1 = [N ] + 1,
h

. ,
-
(6.4) 1.

*

( = R2 K 2  1) K 2 n,
. . K tg K K ctg K ,
. K = ka 2 2
n

, ( )
. -
, ( a =  1)
2
.

*
,
, . .

2R = 2mV a < 1.
h
R , . .

2R = 2mV a 1,
h
:
 
K tg K = R2 K 2 K 2 R2 K 2 .

K 2

1+ 1 + 4R2
K 4 + K 2 R2 0, K2 R2 .
2
166 6

0 , -

:
2 2 h2 20 2 2
0 = 2 mV a
a = h2 , E0 = h = mV 2a .
2m 2m 2h
- *
, -
, -:
a 0, V , aV = const.

'
2
R = mV 2a = const a 0.
2h
0

0 = mV2 a ,
h
-
.
h2 20
E0 = . (6.7)
2m

-:
2
wlim U (x) = V a (x) = h
m 0 (x).
a0

, - -
! , - -
. , - -
:

+

(x) 
dx = 
1 .

1
 6.1. 167

6.1.5. -
- -
. .
-:

 (x)
2
h2
2m
h
m 0 (x) (x) = E (x). (6.8)

x = 0 (x) = 0, -
.
0.
, -, -
. ,
:

+ + +
 (x) dx
2
h2
2m
h
m 0 (x) (x) dx = E (x) dx.

+ +

h2
2m  (x) h2
m 0 (0) = E (x) dx.

(x) 0
:
+0
1  
2 (x) 0 + 0 (0) = 0. (6.9)
, . . -
  (x),
.

(+0) = (0).

(x) = (x), . . -
(6.8) .

:
(0) = 0  (+0) =  (0).
-. ,
-
U (x) 0. .
168 6

.
2 2
(x) = Ce|x| , E = h .
2m
. -
. -
(6.9).
h2 20
= 0 E0 = .
2m
, (6.7), -
.

: -**
L2 (R)
(6.8). -
(6.9). -
(6.9) -
.
,
? (6.9), -
, , -
L2 (R) ?

6.1.6.
U (x)
U1 = U = U+ > U0 . ,
U1 > E > U0 . ,
(. . 6.2),
.
(4.68)
, U1 .
-
. , . . U0
(. . 6.2).
-
, , , U (x):

U1 , x  (a, b),
U (x) = x R, U (x)  U (x).
U1 V, x (a, b),
 6.2. 169

, U1 > E > U1
V > U0

p2
E0 <  |H|  =  | + U (x)|  =
2m
p2
=  | + U (x)|  +  | U (x) U (x) |  < E < U1 .
2m   
   <0x
E   
<0

, , (6.5),
E0 , -
U1 > E > E0 > U0 .

6.2.

,
.
( -
(6.1))
: , , -
, .
-
. (-

)
(-
).
,
, 0. -
, n- n, -
. ,
0, . . .

n- n.
n ( -
) -
n + 1.
170 6

. -
( ),

.

6.2.1. *
,
. , -
.
.
-
[0, a]
(0) = (a),  (0) =  (a), (6.10)
( )
( :
, ):

h2 kn2
E0 = 0, 0 (x) = 1 ; En = , akn = 2n, n = 1, 2, . . . ,
a 2m
( (
n+ (x) = a2 cos(kn x), n (x) = a2 sin(kn x). (6.11)

-
[0, a]
(0) = (a),  (0) =  (a),
:

h2 kn2
En = , akn = (2n + 1), n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
2m
(6.11).
(0+ ) a2 .
-
[0, a] ,

(0) = i(a),  (0) = i  (a),
 6.2. 171

, ( -
) .
-
-
, -
,
.
, -
, .

6.2.2. *
, , . .
.
0 (0  = 1) . E0 -
. (. 4.11.2)
.
,
E0 :

E0 = 0 |H|0  = 1 |H|1 , 0 |0  = 1 |1  = 1
i
1 = e 0 , R.
, 1 (x) = |0 (x)| = 0 (x) sgn(0 (x)),
:4


2
1 |H|1  = 1 (x) h 1 (x) + U (x)1 (x) dx =
2m

= 0 (x) sgn(0 (x))
 2 ) * 
h 0 (x) sgn(0 (x)) + 0 (x) sgn (0 (x)) + U (x)0 (x)sgn(0 (x)) dx =
2m


2
= 0 (x) h 0 (x) + U (x)0 (x) dx = 0 |H|0  = E0 .
2m

, - (sgn ), , . .
0 (x) 0 .
, -
, 1 0
4 , . . .
172 6

, 0
.

**
-
(6.10),
.
, -
, 1 E0 ,
.
E0 -
, 0 1 -
,

0 + 1 0 1
+ (x) = = 0 (x) (0 (x)), (x) = = 0 (x) (0 (x)).
2 2

(x) = sgnx+1
2 . + 0 -
() -
.
, - (x0 ) =  (x0 ) = 0, -

5 ,
0 1 ,

.
-
, . . , -
(
), -
.

6.2.3. (*)
-
. 6.4.
(17761853). [1897 . Felix Valloton. W] (
), .
5
(. 6.2.1 *).
 6.2. 173

,
:
 
 
W [1 , 2 ] =  1 2  = 1 2 2 1 . (6.12)
1 2

x, ,
x -
. ,
x, -
. , 1 2 -

, ( , , -
, )
W [1 , 2 ](x) = 0, 1 2 -
.
, -
, -
:

W  [1 , 2 ] = 1 2 2 1 =
= 1 2m
h2
2
(U2 (x) E2 )2 2 2m
h2
1
(U1 (x) E1 )1 =
= 1 2 2
h2
[m2 (U2 (x) E2 ) m1 (U1 (x) E1 )].

m1 = m2 = m U1 (x) = U2 (x), :

W  [1 , 2 ] = 1 2 2m
h2
[E1 E2 ]. (6.13)

(6.13),
x1
W [1 , 2 ](x1 ) W [1 , 2 ](x0 ) = 2m
h2
[E1 E2 ] 1 (x)2 (x) dx. (6.14)
x0

6.2.4. *
(6.14) -
x0 < x1 1 -
E1 . 2
E2 > E1 .
174 6

1 (x) 2 (x) ,
, 1 (x) > 0 x (x0 , x1 ).
0 0 0 0
           
[1 (x1 ) 2 (x1 ) 2 (x1 ) 1 (x1 )] [1 (x0 ) 2 (x0 ) 2 (x0 ) 1 (x0 )] =
     
W [1 ,2 ](x1 ) W [1 ,2 ](x0 )
0 0
 x1   
<0 >0
       
 
= 2 (x1 ) (1 (x1 )) + 2 (x0 ) 1 (x0 ) = h2 [E1 E2 ] 1 (x) 2 (x) dx.
2m

x0

, 2 (x)
(x0 , x1 ) .
, 1 (x) (-
)
2 (x). , -
2 (x), , ,
1 (x).
(*) 1 2
-
. x0 x1 , .
, -
-
, .

6.2.5. *
,
( , ),
, -
(6.1) n En ,
n , -
n1 , n1.
xk , k = 1, . . . n, n . x0 xn+1
. -
:
 x0 < x1 < . . . < xn < xn+1  +.
  

x n+1 (xk , xk+1 ) (k = 0, . . . , n),

xk (k = 1, . . . , n) , n + 1
 6.2. 175

,

nk (x) = I(xk ,xk+1 ) (x) n (x), k = 0, . . . , n
( (3.10)),
n , , . . n ,
, -
.
, (. 4.11.2),
-
. k
, nk , , . .
(xk , xk1 ), nk (x) 0. -
, . -
nk (x)
, . . , -
, -
.
.
,
, .
( x0 = , xn+1 =
= +) , -
x1 , xn ,
. .
.
n1 , -
, n ,
xk , (x1 , xn ) yk
(k = 1, . . . , n1), n
. -
n1,k (k = 0, . . . , n 1)
:

n1
n1 (x) = cn1,k n1,k (x).
k=0

n1,k (x) (yk , yk+1 )

, cn1,k ,

yk n1 .
176 6

, n1 ,
n , .
,
, -
.
:
0) .
yk (0) = xk+1 (k = 1, . . . , n 1).
1) k (k = 1, . . . , n 1) -
k ,
.
yk (1), k
k = 0, . . . , n 2,
, En1,n2 (1) = En1,n1 (1) < En .
2) 1) .
3) -
yk (k = 1, . . . , n1). , . . -
, , x1 ,
. . , x1 , , En1,0 > En , .

6.2.6. *
, n -
, , n 1 .
, , -

( )
.
, -
, ,
.
n+1 n , . .
n , -
n + 1.
, .

6.3.
6.3.1.
, -
, , -
 6.3. 177

-
,
.
ikx
e U(x), E
ik'x
de
ikx
re U1

U+
U
x

U0

. 6.5.
.

, , ,
.
-
(, ) -
:

 + 2m
h2
(E U (x)) = 0, (6.15)
ikx
(x) e ikx
 + r e  , x ,


(x) ik x
d e  , x +,

 
k= 1
h 2m(E U ), k = 1
h 2m(E U+ ).

(6.15) r
d. , -
1. ()
. -
() |r|2 |d|2 .
178 6

+hk hk.
+hk . (, )
, , -
( ) -
. (
) -
(, ).
() R D
:

R = |r|2 , D = k |d|2 . (6.16)
k

(. . ), R + D = 1 ( ).

6.3.2. :
:

0, x  0,
U (x) =
V, x > 0.
(6.15)
:
 
(x) = eikx + reikx ,  (x) = ik eikx reikx , x  0, k = h1 2mE,
  
(x) = deik x ,  (x) = ik deik x , x  0, k = h1 2m(E V ).
, -
:
(0) = 1 + r = (+0) = d,  (0) = ik(1 r) =  (+0) = ik d.



d =
2k ,
1 + r = d, k + k
  (6.17)
1 r = kk d r = k k .

k+k

 
 k k 2 
R = |r|2 =   , 


D = kk |d|2 = 4kk  2 .
k+k |k + k |
 6.3. 179

:
R + D = 1 ;
V = 0 ( ) k = k , -
: R = 0, D = 1;
E + k
k 1, :
R 0, D 1;
V > E k , -
: R = 1, D , (-
) x > 0, . . D
D = 0;6
, , , -
V V , E E V , . . k k , R D
( D R -
6.3.5
**).
-

.

6.3.3. : -
-:
2
U (x) = h
m 0 (x).
, (6.15)
:
 
(x) = eikx + reikx ,  (x) = ik eikx reikx , x  0,

(x) = deikx ,  (x) = ikdeikx , x  0, k = h1 2mE.
-
,
-:
(0) = 1+r = (+0) = d,  |+0
0 = ikdik(1r) = 20 (0) = 20 d.
6 D ,
.
180 6


d = k ,
1 + r = d, k i0
(6.18)
d + r 1 = 2i k0 d
r = i0 .
k i0

20 k2 .
R = |r|2 = , D = |d|2 =
k + 20
2
k + 20
2

:
R + D = 1 ;
0 = 0 ( ) : R = 0, D = 1;
E + 0
k 0, :
R 0, D 1;
0 - -,
0 ,
: R 1, D 0;
-

.

6.3.4.

k k , E -
. + (. .

eik x x +) -
.
(eikx x +)
. , r d
.
k , k , E
. +
 6.3. 181


e|k |x , , d = 0.7 ,

. -
,
. x -
, |r| = 1, . . .
r -
(,
).

*
(R + D = 1)
. .
(x) x -
j(x) 8

ih p
(x) = |(x)| ,
2
j= ( + ) = Re (x) m (x) .
2m

j
+ div j = 0, + = 0.
t t x
j .


t = 0. , -
,
7 , ,

, eik x
d,

D = kk |d|2 ,

, eik x , , +,
d = 0.
8 C. 13.6 ,
, ,
, . .
9 , , -
j.
j(x) = const .
182 6

j(x) = const, j(x) = ih (  +  ).

2m
j(x) +,
(6.15) :

j(+) = |d|2 hk
m, j() = (1 |r|2 ) hk
m.

j() = j(+) 1 |r|2 = k |d|2 .
 k
R
  
D

6.3.5. **
,
(6.15),
U (x) , :

o + 2m
h2
(E U (x)) = 0, (6.19)
ik x ik x
o (x) e   + r e , x +,
o  

ikx
o (x) do e , x ,
  

 
k= 2m(E U ),
1
h k = 1
h 2m(E U+ ),

Ro = |ro |2 , Do = k |do |2 . (6.20)

k
U (x) -
E > U+ , (x) o (x)

.
,
(x) o (x).


. , -
.
 6.3. 183

, (6.12)
(. 6.2.3 (*)). , -
, (6.13)!
-
(x), (x),
o (x), o (x), -
r, d, ro , do , k, k .

i W [, ] = k |d|2 = k(1 |r|2 )

2      
x+ x
j (x).
.

i W [o , o ] = k (1 |ro |2 ) = k|do |2
2      
x+ x
j o (x).

k d = kdo ( k k
i W [, o ] = 
2 
x+ x
),

D = k |d|2 = k |do |2 = Do .
k k
( ) -
!

i W [, o ] = k dro = kdo r .
2      
x+ x

6.3.6.

. , -
, . . ,
,
.
,
, .
(
184 6

) ,
( ).
, , -
, : -
, |(x)|2 , , -

.

, U (x) =
= const. -
x ,
.
-
(5.2.6 ).

, :

(x) = 1 eikx f (k k0 ) dk. (6.21)
2
, ,
f (k k0 ), , k k0 ,
.
eik0 x , (x) -
-
f(x), f (k )
: 

(x) = eik0 x 1 eik x f (k ) dk = f(x) eik0 x . (6.22)
2
  
f(x)

k, f ,
k0 .
(x) ,
k0 , x k1
-
.
k
(k):
ei(kx(k) t) .
 6.3. 185

E(k) 2
(k) = = hk .
h 2m


(x, t) = 1 ei(kx(k) t) f (k k0 ) dk = (6.23)
2

 
= ei(k0 x(k0 ) t) 1 ei(k x[(k0 +k )(k0 )] t) f (k ) dk .
2

, f (k )
, -
: 


(k0 + k ) (k0 ) d  k = v(k0 ) k .
   dk k0
0

d 
v0 = v(k0 ) = ,
dk k0
(
p
v(k) = hk
m = m)


(x, t) ei(k0 x0 t) 1 eik (xv0 t) f (k ) dk =
2
   (6.24)
f(xv0 t)

= f(x v0 t) ei(k0 x0 t) .

, , 10 , -
v0 = v(k0 ).

*
(6.21), -
, f (k k0 )
, -
10 , (k + k  ) (k )
0 0
k , (
) .
186 6

:

(x) = 1 k (x) f (k k0 ) dk, (6.25)
2
k (x) + 2m
h2
(E(k) U (x))k (x) = 0,
k (x) e ikx
+ r(k) eikx , x ,

k (x) d(k) eik (k)x , x +,
'
2 2  2mU+
E(k) = h k , k (k) = h1 2m(E(k) U+ ) = k2 ,
2m h2
 
|f (k)|2 dk = |f(x)|2 dx = 1.

,
E(k)
E(k) ei(k) t , (k) = ,
h

(x, t) = 1 k (x) ei(k) t f (k k0 ) dk. (6.26)
2

(x, t) x .
:

r(k) = |r(k)| ei(k) |r(k)| ei(0 +1 (kk0 )) r0 ei1 (kk0 ) ,

d(k) = |d(k)| ei(k) |d(k)| ei(0 +1 (kk0 )) d0 ei1 (kk0 ) .

, -
k k0 .11
x -
, ,
(6.24),

x , (6.27)

(x, t) 1 (eikx + r(k) eikx ) ei(k) t f (k k0 ) dk =
2
11 |r| |d| k, -
R(k) D(k) |f (k k0 )|2 .
 6.3. 187

= 1 ei(kx(k) t) f (k k0 ) dk +
2

+ 1 r0 ei(kx(k) t+1 (kk0 )) f (k k0 ) dk =
2
= f(x v0 t) ei(k0 x0 t) + r0 f(1 x v0 t) ei(k0 x0 t) .
     

, x,
, ,
f(x v0 t), x =
= v0 t.
.
1:
0  
|(x, t )|2 dx = |(x, t)|2 dx = |f(x)|2 dx = 1.

, f(x
v0 t + 1 ), x
 
x = 1 v0 t = v0 t v 1 .
0

|r0 |2 , . .
() :
0 
|(x, t +)| dx = 2
|r0 f(x)|2 dx =


= |r0 |2 |f (k k0 )|2 dk = |r02 | = R0 .

k (k) k k0 :


k (k) = k (k0 ) + dk  (k k0 ) = k1 + Ck2 ,
   dk k=k0   
k1    k2
C
 
  k
C = dk  = k  = 0.
dk k=k0 k k=k0 k1
188 6

x + ,
x +, (6.28)


(x, t) 1 d(k) eik (k) x ei(k) t f (k k0 ) dk
2

e 1 d0 ei(C(kk0 ) x[(k)0 ] t+1 (kk0 )) f (k k0 ) dk
i(k1 x0 t)

2

ei(k1 x0 t) 1 d0 eik2 (C xv(k0 ) t+1 ) f (k2 ) dk2 =
2
= d0 f(Cx v(k0 ) t + 1 ) ei(k1 x0 t) =
  

k0
= d0 f (x v1 t) + 1 ei(k1 x0 t) ,
k1

d  
v(k0 ) dk  d 

v1 = =  = . (6.29)
C dk  dk k =k1

 
dk  k =k1

,
  ,

f k1 (x v1 t) + 1 , , -
k0

f, kk01 , -
x

k1 1 k1 1
x = v1 t 1 = v1 t = v1 t v .
k0 v1 k0 0

|d|2 k1
k0 ,
. . () :

+  
2
 
|(x, t +)|2 dx = d0 f k0 x  dx = |d0 |2 k1 = D0 .
 k1  k0
0

, , -
-

.
 6.3. 189

-
, , x = 0
, v01 v01 .
1 (v0 v1 ) + 2v1 1 = 0, , -
,
x,
.
, , -
, .

( )
.

1 (k) = Im 1 d r(k), 1 (k) = Im 1 d d(k).

r (k) dk d (k) dk

x , . . v0 = hk
m.
-
-.

: , *
-
. (6.17)

2k , k k
d= r= , E > V, k, k R.
k + k k + k

, . . -

.
d ,
r :

k k k i
d = 0, r= 
= , E < V, k, R,
k+k k + i
' (
 2mV
k= 1
h 2mE, = h 2m(V E) =
1
k = 21 k2 ,
2
h2
190 6

k i 21 k2
r(k) =  , r = 1r , 21 = 2mV ,
k + i 21 k2 h2

4 + 421 k2 4k4
1 (k) = Im 1 dr = Im r dr = 2 1 .
r dk dk 41

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
. 6.6. 1 (k) , .
11 .

(1  k)

2.
1 (k)

-
.

: , -*
-
-. (6.18)

k , i0
d= r= .
k i0 k i0

20 3k2 k2 320
1 = 0 , 1 = 0 .
(k2 + 20 )2 (k2 + 20 )2
 6.3. 191

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
k
. 6.7. , ( )
( ) -. 10 .

(|0 |  k) -
-:

1 1 , 1 3 .
0 0

(|0 | k) , -
:

1 3 20 , 1 20 .
k k

6.3.7. *
-
, ( )
.
( -
)
.
( ) -
.
-
, :
.
E (x0 , x0 +
+ a) a Ua k =
= h1 2m(E Ua ). -
192 6

a (x) = A cos(kx) + B sin(kx).
,
A B
:
ka = 2n, n Z, a (x0 ) = a (x0 + a), a (x0 ) = a (x0 + a).
-
, (x0 , x0 + a) ,
(, x0 ) (x0 + a, +). -
. ,
.
,
A B
:
ka = (2n+1), n Z, a (x0 ) = a (x0 +a), a (x0 ) = a (x0 +a).
-
, (x0 , x0 + a) ,
(, x0 ) (x0 + a, +),
. -
, .
.
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
. 6.8. R(E) a = 30, h = m = V = 1.

, -

.
 6.3. 193

, , -
(6.6) -
( ( a2 , + a2 ) )
:

k a = a 2m(E + V ) = n, n N.
h

, 12 ,

(k2 k2 )2 sin2 (k a)

R= =
(2k k)2 cos2 (k a) + (k2 + k2 )2 sin2 (k a)
2mV sin2 (k  a)
h2
= .
(2k k)2 cos2 (k a) + (k2 + k2 )2 sin2 (k a)

() R = 0.
k a (n + 12 ) , -
, .
- -
.

12 .
 7

.
W

7.1. () (*)
, -
( ) -
. ,
-
,
, -
.
-

, ,
. 7.1.
-
(19031987). W
. -
.
, -
. . 1933
1 ,
( , , ) -
.
1 , , . .
, , -
. ,
.
 7.1. ( ) ( *) 195

, -
-
. , -
, -
.
,
2 .

7.1.1. **

(, , P ),
-
, - , -
,
, ; A, B : A B, A B ,
/
Ak , k N : Ak ;
kN

() P :
P : [0, 1], P () = 1, P () = 0.
A, B , A B = :P (A B) = P (A) + P (B),

/ 
 k N, Ak Ak = : P
Ak , k N, k = Ak = P (Ak ).
kN kN

7.1.2. *
.
, ,
,
.
.
2 ,
, -
. . 2.5.2 ().
196 7

, , -
, -
. (, )
. , -
. .
P .
0 1, ( ) -
( ) .

7.1.3. () *
-

A : R.
P
,
: 
A = A() P (d).


( ), P (d) ()
:
 
P (d) = P (, + d] .
( )
-
() -
:
  
A() P (d) = A() P ({}) + A() () d.
1 2
, ,
1 2 . ,
, -
1 .

7.1.4. (*)

. -
( ),
A.
 7.2. 197

,
, . -
( -
) R.
-
, -
. ( )
, P (. -
5.3.1), L
L.
P ( !) P
( ):

P (L) = |P (L)| P (L) = tr(P (L) ).

( ) -
:
 
|A| = P (d) = |P (d)|,

 
A = tr(A ) = P (d) = tr(P (d) ).

, , -
, .
,
-
.

7.2.
7.2.1. ()
,
A B, ,
. . , -
.
A B.
198 7

-
.
:
X = (A)2 (B)2  = (A A)2 (B B)2 .
| -
.
| :
A0 = A |A|, B0 = B |B|.
([, ]) ([, ]+ )
:
[A, B] = iC = 0, C = C ,
[A0 , B0 ] = A0 B0 B0 A0 = [A, B] = iC,
[A0 , B0 ]+ = A0 B0 + B0 A0 = D0 , [A, B]+ = AB + B A = D,
|D0 | = |D| 2|A||B|.
X , -
:3
X = |A20 ||B02 | = A0 |A0 B0 |B0  
 |A0 |B0 |2 = ||A0 B0 ||2 .
-
:

A0 B0 = 1 ([A0 , B0 ] + [A0 B0 ]+ ) = 1 (D0 + iC),

2 2
 
|A0 B0 | = | 2 (D0 + iC)| =
1 1 |D0 | + i|C| .
2
C D0 , :
 2
 
X  ||A0 B0 ||2 = 1 |D0 | + i|C| =
4
 
= 1 |D0 |2 + |C|2 .
4
3 , |||   ,
, .
 7.2. 199

 
X  1 |D0 |2 + |C|2 ,
4
(7.1)
. . (A) (B)2   1 [A0 , B0 ]+ 2 + 1 i[A, B]2 ,
2
4 4
.

X  1 |C|2 , . . (A)2 (B)2   1 i[A, B]2 . (7.2)

4 4
-
[x, p] = ih,

(x)2 (p)2   1
4 h2 .

(7.1) -

1 [A , B ]  1 [A, B]  AB

0 0 + +
2 2
r= =  .
(A)2 (B)2  (A)2 (B)2 

-
r, , -
1930 :

i[A, B] 2
(A)2 (B)2   1 . (7.3)
4 1 r2

7.2.2. ? ()
? -
?
-, , ,
2.7.3 -
. -
A B.
, , -
- .
200 7

-, -
, ,
.
, -

. -
,
.
(-
) A B .
,
,
A B (, ).

, ( -
) ,
( ) .

7.2.3.
*
, -
(7.1) (7.2)
.
, (7.1)
, ,
 2
 
A0 |A0 B0 |B0  = A0 |B0  ,

, A0 | B0 |
.
, -
:

(A0 + B0 )| = 0 (A + B)| = Z| Z C. (7.4)

(7.4) -
A, B.
 7.2. 201

,
, (7.4)
:

|[A0 , B0 ]+ | = 0,
(A0 + B0 )| = 0 (A0 + B0 )2 | = 0
|2 A20 + 2 B02 + [A0 , B0 ]+ | = 0.

, :

2 A20  + 2 B02  = [A0 , B0 ]+  = 0.

A20  B02  , ,

2 = B0  .
2

2 A20 

, :
0
1 2
= i = i1
2 B0  , 0 R.
0
A20 

(7.4), (
0 , )
0
1 2
1 B 
(i0 A0 + B0 )| = 0, 0 = 2 0 . (7.5)
A20 

| = (i A0 + B0 )|, R.

0  | = |(i A0 +B0 )(i A0 +B0 )| = | 2 A20 i[A0 , B0 ]+B02 |.
202 7

2 A20  + C + B02   0.

:
(
C C2 4A20 A2B 
1,2 = .
2A20 
, , ,
, , -
, . . -
:
C2 4A20 A2B   0.
, .
(i A0 + B0 )| = 0, , = 1 =
= 2 ,4 . . :

(i A0 + B0 )| = 0 (i A + B)| = Z|, Z C, R. (7.6)

(7.6)
A, B. -
i A + B.
-
. -
,
.

7.2.4. -

. . . , .
. ,

, --
, -
. -
, - --
.
4 0 .
 7.2. 203

-
, ,
4- , 4--
.
() -
-
. ,
, ( ),
. -
( ), (
).
-
. , (.
).
, ( ), ,
.
5

d = 1 [ , H] = ih. (7.7)
dt

(7.7) , -
-
:
d 
= 1 [ , H] = ih. (7.8)
dt
5 , -
-
. -
.

H = ih t ,
, -

: H = ih t . [t, ih t
] = ih
( -) . -
[ , H] = +ih? ,
.
p = L q
. 4- -
pi = (E, px , py , pz ) . -
, - -
, ( ) -
: pi = (E, px , py , pz ) = ihi . -
, .
204 7

-H -
(7.2):
2
( )2 (E)2   h . (7.9)
4
, -
-.

? ()
, , , -
, .
- -

( -
-
), :
?
-
, ,
H H ,
H0 V :

H = H + H0 + V , [ , H ] = ih, [ , H0 ] = 0, [ , V ] = 0.

,
.
, - (7.9)
, , ,
.

()
, -
.

. A

2
" #2
dA = 1 [A, H], 1
(A) (E)   i[A, H] =
2 2 2 h dA . (7.10)
dt ih 4 4 dt
 7.2. 205

 dA ,
dt
2
(t)2 (E)2   h . (7.11)
   4
(A)2 
" #
dA 2
dt

-
.
()
-
(7.9)
.
-
,
(. 13.5.6 ).
: (
), ( -
) . .

t

, n = n0 e (7.12)
0

n , 0
. n0 = 1.
-
(7.12):
 t
 t

t0  = 1 te 0 dt = 0 , t20  = 1 t2 e 0 dt = 202 .
0 0
0 0

,
2

2
t20  = t20  t0  =2
02 E   h 2 =
2 h .
40 20
h
20 -

E0 = h . (7.13)
20
206 7

,
.
, . .
: ,
.
( )
, . ,
.
:
n = 1, = 0;
n = 0, = 0 .
, ,
t

  = 0 (1 e 0 ).
d 
t
, = e 0 , . . (7.8)
dt
0, 0 .
n0 -
. n
( 0 n0 1), -
,
ln n0 .

()

- .
-
.
8.2 -
*.
(*) () -
H0 , -
, H .
( )
. t0 -
V0 .

V = V0 ( t0 ).
 7.3. * 207

t. -
E.
-
, -
E.
t.
-
, .

.
, ,
- (7.9)
, , -
( )
.
,
. , -
, -

(. 9.3.2 ()).

7.3. *

.
W
,
, , ,
( ). -
, -
. 3.1.4 (.
. 3.4).
, ,
( ) ,
. , -
, .
,
6 .
6 - , ,
,
208 7

, -
, .
-
,
. , -
( ,
, ), , ,
, , .
, -
, . -
:
, -
;
,
.
, , -
, . .
. -
-
.
,
7 .
( ) -
, .
: (-
) , ( ), -
, ,
. , ,
- ( ),
( ),
, , ,
. -
, ,
, , , -
. (
.)
, , .
7 ,
, .
, ,
, :
.
 7.3. * 209

7.3.1 (*),
7.4 ( )**
-
, -
.

7.3.1. (*)
,
,
. :
,
, , .
, -
, .
. 7.2, -
( 12 ) ,
:8
1- 0
12 (1 + i2 ), -
;
2- -
, 12 (i3 4 );
2-
a , .

a b .
, -

. , -
, ,
a , b .
, , ,
.
,
.
8 i. ,
, (
), .
210 7

0 1

2 3

a
4
. 7.2. -
.

.
. 7.3 -
. -:
, a .

. 7.3. --
.

,
(-
2-4).
, ,
( 1-3) . . 7.4.
, -
. -
, -
, .
, -
, :
 7.3. * 211

1
. 7.4. , 2
-
.

. 7.5. , 12
.
, .

12 , -
;
14 , ( -
a ) ;
14 , ( -
b ) , , .
, , -
,
, .
,
212 7

, , :
, .
,
  1 n1 -
( ) n=1 4 = 3 ,
23 . -
, 12 .
:
;
;
, ,
1.

7.4. (
)**

, .
.
;
.
, ,
:
,
.
. .

7.4.1. ?
, ,
. -
,
. -
, .
-
9 -
, , , -

9 , (Z ) . 490 . 430 . .
: .
(, = .) ,
 7.4. 213

( ).
, -
.
,
, -
.

-
:
- -
/, -
-
, .
-
, , , . 7.6.
,
- (http://elementy.ru/trefil/zeno_paradox)
: - .
- ,
,
, .
, -
-
, ,
. ,
, , ,
-
(. .
)10 .
,
( ) ,
.
, , -
(, , ).
, -
, ( )
(. . 7.6), .
10 -
2
p2
0 (p) = 1 e2p 0 .
p0
2 p2 t
H = p
2m
Ut = ei 2mh t -
214 7

1958 -
11 . -
1978 .

1989 12 .
.

= E h . -
,
E , -
. ( , -
, ,
.)
-
, , -
, t
(t) = cos( t) + sin( t).
,
?, -
cos2 ( t), -
sin2 ( t). t 1
 2
( t)2
p = cos ( t) 1
2
1 ( t)2 ,
2
p = sin2 ( t) ( t)2 .

2 p2
0t
p2 1+i mh
(p, t) = Ut 0 (p) = 1 e 2p0 .
p0
t 0 -

1/2
p2
0t
0 |(t) = 1 + i 2mh . P0 (t) = |0 |(t)|2 =

1/2
p4 t 2 t 2 p4
= 1 + 4m02 h2 1 8m2 h0 2 . T N
t = T /N , 0
2 p4
P. (T, N ) N (1 P0 (T /N )) = TN 8m20h2 . , P. (T, N ) 0 N ,
. . , , -
.
11 . . // . 1957. . 115. . 277; . 1958. . 33. . 1371;
: . . ... . .-. .
, 1960.
12 Science. November 1989. Vol. 246. P. 888.
 7.4. 215

, p . ,
t n ,
t = nt ,

 2 (t)2
P n p n nt = n 0, n .
,
?,
, . -
-

13 , .
-
,
. ,
1, ,
.
. -
, , -
, . . -
, -
, 14 . -
, , ,
. 7.7 (
x y).
-
, -
.
( -
).
, -
, -
, ,
, 15 .
13 t > 0 p > 0 n,
0
t , 1 p0 .
14
.
15 , , -
. -
.
216 7

Y cos(wdt) + F sin(wdt)
wdt Y
Y cos(wdt)

. 7.7. (, )
.

,
, -
( ).

(t)? -
(t) ( (t) -
). -
, (t) ,
, , -
(t). ,

(
). -
.

, , .
( ) -
. , -
,
, ,
, ,
.

7.4.2.

, . . -
 7.4. 217

-
, | |d = ih H
dt |.
-
|0  (0 |0  = 1), dt -

| = |0  + |d = |0  + H dt |0 .
ih
H, | -
dt:
2
| = 0 |(1 H
ih dt)(1 + H
ih dt)|0  = 1 + dt2 H 2 .
h
dt , ,
|0 . , -
|0 , ,
|d, |d -
, |0 :

|d  = (1 |0 0 |)|d = dt (H H)|0 .

ih
|d  , , -
, , -
|0 , ( dt ) 1 |.
, p , |0 

2
p (dt) = d |d  = |d  = dt2 (H 2  H2 ).
h
t0
dt = N , , -
|0  t0 , N
dt, :

2 t2
P (t0 ) = N dt2 (H 2  H2 ) = 0 2 (H 2  H2 ) 0, N .
h N h
,
,
(E)2 = H 2  H2 .
218 7

7.5. ()
,
.
, -
, . , -
.
-
, -
.

7.5.1. (*)
() .

: x1
x2
(x1 , x2 ), H1 H2 .
:
(x1 , x2 ; x1 , x2 ), H1 H2 H1 H2 .

, -
.
(x1 , x2 ) = 1 (x1 ) 2 (x2 ),

(x1 , x2 ; x1 , x2 ) = 1 (x1 ; x1 ) 2 (x2 ; x2 ).
,
. : -
, , .
entangled states.
-
(. . ), -
.
:
,

;
 7.5. ( ) 219

, -

;
,
( ) .
, -
.
-
( ) .

,
(. 4.8.2 -
*).
, -
,
.

7.5.2. (*)

,
, A1 H1 H1 , -
, A1+2 = A1 12 ,
12 H2 H2 ,
. , -
, -
:
P1+2 = P1 12 .
, -
| = |1 |2 , -
:

(P1 12 )|1 |2  = (P1 |1 )(12 |2 ) = (P1 |1 )|2 .

, ,
,
.
, , -
, -
220 7

. , , |1 |2  +
+ |1 |2 ,

(P1 12 )(|1 |2  + |1 |2 ) = (P1 12 )|1 |2  + (P1 12 )|1 |2  =
= (P1 |1 )|2  + (P1 |1 )|2 .

P1 |1  P1 |1  (, P1
P1 = |1 1 |),

P1 |1  = c|1 , c = 1 |1 , P1 |1  = c |1 , c = 1 |1 .

(P1 12 )(|1 |2  + |1 |2 ) = |1 (c|2  + c |2 ).

c c , |2  |2  -
, , |1 
-1. |1  -
, -1. -
-1 -
, .

-2. .

. 7.8. (
, ).

, , -
0:

| |  | |  | |  | | 
= ,
2 2
 7.5. ( ) 221

|  + |  |  | 
|  = , |  = , (7.14)
2 2
1- | 
| , |  |  2-
. -
-1
- ( |  | ), - ( -
|  | ),
.
-1 ,

, , , ,
, , -
, (.
. 7.8). -
+

2


2
,
+

2
=

2
=
(. (7.14)).
, -
- .
, 1 2
, -
. -
. (.
.)

7.5.3. (*)

, , -1
, -
. -
, . . , -2,
. -2 -
-2,
-1,

-2.
222 7

, -
, -1
-2, -1
-2 -
:

1 = tr2 , 1 (x1 ; x2 ) = dy (x1 , y; x2 , y).

-
y -
.
a(y) (-
( ) y -2)
(x1 , y1 ; x2 , y2 ), -
a(y1 ) = a(y2 ):
(x1 , y1 ; x2 , y2 ) = (x1 , y1 ; x2 , y2 ) a(y1 ),a(y2 ) .
y ,
-1.
A -2 ,
y , A,
a(y).
, ,
-2, ( )
-1 . -
.
, -
,

.

7.5.4. (*)

,
,
.
, ,
(x, y), -
x y -
.
 7.5. ( ) 223

 ( ),
-
:
(x, y) = 1 (x) 2 (y).
-2 -
, y W (W ),

(. (3.10)) W :

 (x, y) = (x, y) IW (y).

y, , y = y0 ,
-:

 (x, y) = (x, y) (y y0 ).

-
(. .
-1 (x, y0 ) -2 (y y0 )).
-1 -
-2. ,

1 (x) = dy (x, y), (7.15)

1 (x) = (x, y0 )


1 (x) = dy (x, y).
W

, , -2,
-1.
-1 ,
-2 ,
y, ,
, (7.15). ,
, -
.
224 7

, -

:
(-
, . 7.8).

.

7.5.5. (*)
-
, ,
: -
, ,
. , (-
)

(x, y),
x y -1 -
-2.
-1, , -2 y = y0 ,
:
y0 (x) = (x, y0 ). (7.16)
,
. III -
, -1, ,
-2 . -

( )
(x, y),
x y ( 1 2)
-1 -2.
(
) -1,
, -2 y = y0 .
:
y0 (x) = (x, y0 ). (7.17)
 7.5. ( ) 225

-1, , -2
, y = y0 .
-
, -
: -1, y = y0
-2. -2 ,
(. .
-
16 ). , -
(x, y; t), -
y = y0 (t) (-2),
-
-1:

y0 (t) (x; t) = (x, y0 (t); t).

(-2)
, /. .
-
,
(-1), (. 9.3.9 -
(*)).
(7.17) -
y = y0 -2:

Py0 = 11 |y0 y0 |. (7.18)

11 -1, |y0 y0 |

y = y0 -2:

|y0  |y0  = Py0 | |y  = y0 |  . (7.19)

 0   
-1 -2 1+2

, , |y0  -2, |
1 2, y0 | , -
-1.
16 Relative State Formulation of Quantum Mechanics,
Hygh Everett, III, Reviews of Modern Physics, Vol. 29, N. 3, 1957 -
. , . . -
,
.
226 7

(7.19) -
| , . . , -
. -
(7.19) ( -
) |
-2:

|0  |0  = (11 |0 0 |) | |0  = 0 |. (7.20)

  
P0

|0  -1,
|0  -2 -
| . -
,
(9.3.7 -
()).
-

(8.2 *).
, -

, . -
(
). -
-
( =).

7.5.6. (**)

, .
!
W

1964 -
, -
1935 .
 7.5. ( ) 227

. 7.9. (19281990).
http://www.s9.com/Biography/Bell-John-Stewart

,

-
.
- -
. , , 1964 .
. . ,
, n
. . 1962 .
, ,
.

a, b, c, -
1. a, b, c ,
.

. 7.10. (18151864). W . 7.11. -

(19251995). [http://emi.nw.ru]
228 7

,
P (d)
(
, ):

A = A() P (d).

, , a2 1,

|ab bc| = |(a c) b| = |(1 ac) 

ab |  1 ac = 1 ac.
     
a2 0 1

|ab bc|  1 ac. (7.21)

c c ()
:
|ab + bc|  1 + ac. (7.22)

, -
: -
, , L , -
0  P (L)  1.
,
a(),
b(), c(), 1.

. ,
, (, , , -
, ) ( ,
, ), ,
- ( -
).
-
P ,
ab, bc, ac, .
 7.5. ( ) 229

,
- ,
(, ). ,
8 a, b c.


P (a, b, c)  0, P (a, b, c) = 1.
a,b,c{1,+1}

, ,

ab = P (+, +, c) + P (, , c) P (+, , c) P (, +, c).
c{1,+1}

, , -
8 P (a, b, c),
: , -
, ,
, 17 .

, , . .
.
,
, .
, -
, , -
( ,
), , -
.
( )
.
,
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,
.
17 !? :)
230 7

-
,
. ,
( , -
, ) ,
. , , -
,
, -
, ,
,
.
,
, -
, -
( ) ( -
) . , -
,
.

*
-
12 .
-
12 , -
:

| |  | | 
| = .
2

|  |  .
.
-.

.
-
.
-
( 1,
).
 7.5. ( ) 231

(
) z ( , . . -
!), 12
12 .
, -
.
,
, -
: ,
.

, , -
. z,
x,

1 0
|1+  = |  = , |1  = |  = ;
0 1

cos 2 sin 2
|2+  = , |2  = .
sin 2
cos 2
,
, , 1, 1
:

P (+, +, ) = 12 |1+ |2+ |2 = 1

2 cos2 2 ,
P (+, , ) = 12 |1+ |2 |2 = 1
2 sin2 2 ,
P (, +, ) = 12 |1 |2+ |2 = 1
2 sin2 2 ,
P (, , ) = 12 |1 |2 |2 = 1
2 cos2 2 .

ab = P (+, +, ) P (, +, ) P (+, , ) + P (, , ) =

= cos2
2 sin2
2 = cos .

( , n)( , n ) = (n, n ) = cos(nn ), |n| = |n | = 1. (7.23)

232 7

, ,
, , (7.23) -
(7.22).
, a, b c,
2
3 .

ab = bc = ac = cos 2 1

3 = 2.

(7.22) :

| ab + bc |  1 + ac 1  1.

   2
12 12 12

, , -
-
, . ,
, / -
, .
, -

(
), -
. 3,
4 . , a -
, b , c
,
.


. 1982 .
,
, . . 18 .
, -
. , -
2 1, -
/, : 0, .
18 . . 1
2
, 1,
2.
 7.6. ** 233

, -
,
, -
.
, -

-
.
, -
-
-
,
. . 7.12. .

7.6.
**
-
, ,
, .
, ,
,
- .

-
.
-
.
, -

( |0  )
|0  = ||0 
,
K.
, K
:
|0  |, ,
|1  = |||1  , ,
, .
234 7

1 2 -
, , 1 + 2
K.
1 2
K|1 |0  = |1 |1 |1 ,
K|2 |0  = |2 |2 |2 .
1 + 2 K
K|1 + 2 |0  = |1 |1 |1  + |2 |2 |2  + |1 |2 0 + |2 |1 0.
, 1 + 2 -
K:
K|1 + 2 |0  = |1 + 2 |1 + 2 |1+2  =
= |1 |1 |1+2  + |2 |2 |1+2  + |1 |2 |1+2  + |2 |1 |1+2 .
1 2

|1 |1 , |2 |2 , |1 |2 , |2 |1 .

, K|1 + 2 |0 , , -
:

|1+2  = |1 ,
|1+2  = |2 ,
|1+2  = 0,
|1+2  = 0.

,
K ,
1 2 .
,
( ).
,
, ,
( ) -
,
.
 7.6. ** 235

-
, . ,

( , -
. .).

7.6.1. (*)
,
, () -
? ( )
. , ,
-
.
, - -
, :
, ,
, ,
.
-
n, (
)
, . .
pn = |n |2 .
, . .
|n |, arg(n ). ,
,
-
.

(*)
-
19 . -

( ).
19
. ,
x +
+ p, 12
. .
236 7

-
.
,
, . . (-
) .
, -
, , , -
- .
: -
,
. , -
,
.
, -
( ), -
, . , -
, |0 |1 -
|0+|1. -
-

, .

( ) -
, . . .

, .
( )
.

(*)
,
. ?
! -
.
()

| |  | |  | |  | | 
|I = = .
2 2

: -
-. -
 7.6. ** 237

:
|  + |  |  | 
|  = , |  = .
2 2
, -
. -
-.
, :
": |I | |  | | ,
: |I | |  | | .
, -
.
|  | , , -
-. |  | , ,
-. ,
, -
, ,
, -
, (- 1, - 0).
, -
, .
,
, . -
, , -
. ,
20 , , -
. ,
. -
, ,
(. 7.5.3 -
(*)) ,
.

(*)


20 . 8.3.2 (),
9.3.9 (*).
238 7

, . -
7.6 **
-
. -
:
, -
.

, , -
.

7.7. **
-
. -
, -

, , -
, ,
.
,
.
, q- , -
,
12 ( ), ( -
), ( ) -
. .

1 0
|0 = , |1 = .
0 1
-
(1-), (2-) (3-), -
, , ,
( ),
.
-

|0  = |0 + |1 = , ||2 + ||2 = 1.

 7.7. ** 239

|1|0 |0|1
|1  = .
2

1- , 2- -
. , -

|0  = |0 |1  = 1 (|0 + |1)(|1|0 |0|1).

2

.
, 1- 2- -
, 3- . 2- 3-
(- ). -
, ( , 1-
|0 ) 2, 3 2- .
.
, -


4
A = n |n n |,
n=1

|n  -
( |1  ):

|1|0 |0|1
|1  = ,
2
|1|0 + |0|1
|2  = ,
2
|1|1 |0|0
|3  = ,
2
|1|1 + |0|0
|4  = ,
2

n |m  = nm .
240 7

A . , -
, ,

A12 = A 1.

A12 A,
.
A12

A12 |n  = n|n , |n  = |n |, n {1, 2, 3, 4},

| .
A12 , n {1, 2, 3, 4},
|n :

|0  = |0 |1  = 1 (|0 + |1)(|1|0 |0|1) =

2
1
= (|0|1|0 |0|0|1 + |1|1|0 |1|0|1) =
2

1 |2  |1  |4  |3 
= |0 |1 +
2 2 2

|4  + |3  |2  + |1 
+ |0 |1 =
2 2

= 1 (|1 [|0 |1] + |2 [|0 |1] +

2
+ |3 [|0 + |1] + |4 [|0 |1]).

, |0 
A12 :


4
1 | | .
|0  =
2 n n
n=1

|1  = |0 |1 = ,

 7.7. ** 241

|2  = |0 |1 = ,

|3  = |0 + |1 = ,

|4  = |0 |1 = .

 2
A12 1 2 1
= 1
4 2
|n , 3 -
|n . |n  ,
|0 
:
|0  = Un |n ,

1 0 1 0
U1 = = E, U2 = = z ,
0 1 0 1

01 0 1
U3 = = x , U4 = = iy .
10 1 0
-
.
-
,
Un .
12 , ,
, Un n {2, 3, 4} -
z, x y .
, -
. n = 1
|0  .
, , -
, , -
3- , 1- -
. ,
, -
.
242 7

( )
14 : -
,
( |1 ) , -
. ,
n = 1.
 8

7 -
9 -
(*),
-
. , ,
. , -
,
, ,
.

.

.

, .

8.1. ()
8.1.1. ()
2.3 -
, ,
.
7 ,

, .
:
.
-
, , -
. -
.
244 8

,
( ), ,
. ,
-
, -
-
1 .

8.1.2.
, -
, ,
, /
, .

(, ,
, );

(,
, ):
(
) ,
,
,
:
() ( -
) , -
(, -
, , -
),
( ) (-
) : (),
.. (, -
, ).
-
,
1 .
,
, .
 8.1. ( ) 245

,
.

, -
, -
.
-
, . -
, -
.
-
.

8.1.3. ()
? ,
,
.
7, -
, -
:
( : -
, ),
(, -
, ),
(
).

8.1.4. ()
-
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. -
,
.
-
.
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, ,
. :
246 8

?
?
-
?
,
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8.2. *
, -
,
.
( -
), . -
, , -
,
.
,
: -
, -

( ).
, -
,
, .
.
, -
-
(
).
, -
, 9
(*).

8.2.1. **
-
. -
, ,
(m) , (M ) .
 8.2. * 247

q,
Q.

p2 2
H = + P + q P .
2m 2M
, -
, .
. , -
(|t<0 = 0),
T (|t[0,T ] = 1 ),
(|t>0 = 0).

Q.
, m M , T
( )
.
-

iT T
q P q
h Q
UT = e =e .
, -
T q, q.2
0 (q, Q) =
= 0 (q) 0 (Q), -

1 (q, Q) = UT 0 (q, Q) = 0 (q, Q T

q) = 0 (q) 0 (Q T
q).
Q0 (. . -
(Q Q0 ))
1 (q) = 0 (q) 0 (Q0 T
q),

2 (q, Q) = PQ0 1 = 0 (q) 0 (Q T
q) (Q Q0 ),
iT
2 : UT = e h q P =
T P
=e , T P , -
p

.
248 8

( -
, . . 2 )

w1 (Q0 ) = 2 |1  =

) *
= dq dQ 0 (q) 0 (Q T q) (Q Q0 ) 0 (q) 0 (Q T
q) =

 2
= dq 0 (q) 0 (Q0 T q) = 1 |1 .

(w0 (Q) = |(Q)|2 )

,
0 (Q0 T q) ,
q,

q0 = Q0 .
T

, wlim 0 (Q) = (Q), -

.

1 (Q) = f (Q0 Q).

|1 1 |1 ,

|2f  = 1 |1 .
, -
|1  (. (7.20) 7.5.5 -
(*)).
1 , 1 ,
, :

2f (q) = dQ f (Q0 Q) 0 (q) 0 (Q T q) =
 !

= dQ f (Q0 Q) 0 (Q q) 0 (q).
T


2f (q) = F (q) 0 (q), F (q) = dQ f (Q0 Q) 0 (Q T q). (8.1)
 8.2. * 249

, -
3 0 ( T q) f .
,
Q2 Q2
a = 1 e 2a2 ,
a = 1 e 2b2
4 4
a2 b2

a b c = a2 + b2 :
' ' Q2 ' Q2

4a2 b2 = 2ab e 2 2
2(a +b ) 4a2 b2 1 e 2(a2 +b2 )
4
c = 4
 .
a2 + b2 a + b2
2 2
a +b 2 4
(a2 + b2 )
f ,

1 1, |Q Q0 |  Q,
f (Q Q0 ) =
2 Q 0, |Q Q0 | > Q,
0
Q2
0 = 1 e 2a2 ,
4
a2

2 Q (a ), -
Q0 :

+Q
T
q)2
0
F (q) = 1 1 e (QQ2a
2 dQ.
2 Q 4
a 2
Q

( (3.9) 3.1.4 -
) , -
(-
), ,
, . , -
,
3 (f g) f g

(f g)(t) = f ( ) g(t ) d.
R
250 8

, -
,
4 .
, -
. -
( -
).
, -
.
, ,

, . ,
, . ,
,
. -
.

8.3. ? ()
,
:
;
-
( ).
-
.
.
, .
-
(. 8.3.1 -
(*)).
.
.
,
4 R [0, 1]
, (fuzzy set),
/ , . ,

, () ,
, .
 8.3. ? ( ) 251

(. (8.1) 8.2.1 -
**), -
. ( - -
.)
-
:
,
.

8.3.1. (*)
, , -
(-
, -
), -
( ) .
. . -
, ,
.
. -

|||2 ||
p = = , (8.2)
 
2 2 ||
, :
p [0, 1] -
| |,
;
;
-
;
p = 1;
1, . . -
|i  ( ),
1:

pi = 1;
i

3.
252 8

.
-
, |, |, |i ,
. , ,
| , . . | = |||.
, -
p = p -
|, . .
 
2 ||
p = g(||| ) = g .
||

 
g(|i ||2 ) = 1 = 2 = |i ||2 .
  
i i
g0 (||
|2 )

, g0 (|||2 ) = |||2 .
, g(0) = 0, . ., |1  = |,

1 +
1 =  g(0).
g(1) i =1

, g .
|i  , |
, |1  |2 . ,
g(x) + g(1 x) = 1, x = |1 ||2 [0, 1].
g( 21 ) = 12 .
|i  , |
, |1 , |2  |3 . |3 ||2 = 12 .
,

g(x) + g( 21 x) + 1 = 1, x = |1 ||2 [0, 12 ].

2
g( 41 ) = 14 :

g( 14 ) + g( 34 ) = 1 g( 34 ) = 3 .
 4
1/
4
 8.3. ? ( ) 253

|3 ||2 , -
,
 
g 2kn = 2kn , n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , k = 0, 1, . . . , 2n .
[0, 1]. g
, g(x) = x, x [0, 1].

, -
. , . .
, -

, ,
,
.
-
. , , -
,
. , -
,
- , -
,
( ).
, - -
.

8.3.2. ()
(., , 9.3.9 -
(*)) ,
-
|n |2 ?
(),
|0 |1,

, -
.
, -
:
|0|0 + |1|1
| = . (8.3)
2
254 8

, .
|0, |1.
, :
| |0|0 |1|1.
, ,
,
.
,
, - -
,
! -
, - -
, ,
, , -
|0 |1. , ,
,
, .

,
. -
(
). -
8.3.3.

8.3.3. (*)
8.3.2 ()
,
(8.3)

.
, , , -
.
, ( )
:
, -
, -
,
(), -
.
 8.3. ? ( ) 255

,
( ), -
| H. A,
, -
Pn Hn .
n: pn -
, pn . P+
H+ :
 3
P+ = Pn , H+ = Hn = P+ H,
n:pn >pn n:pn >pn

P = 1 P+ , H = P H.
p+ p+ , -
:
 
p+ = 1 p = pn , p+ = 1 p = pn .
n:pn >pn n:pn >pn

| :
| = |+  + | , |+  = P+ |, |  = P |.
:
| = |+ |1 + | |0.
, -
.
A
|1 p+ |0 p .
1 0, ()
.
, -
1 0 p+ p .
|, -
-
. 1 0 -
, ( p+ 1)
( p+ > p+ 1).
, (-
), ( )
256 8

A -
|.
-
:
,
.

8.3.4. ()

.
, ,

, ,
t, ,
, (-
) Ut = e h Ht .
i

: -
,
.
, -
, ,
.
.
.
-
Ut,n = e h Hn t , n . -
i

, -
- -
. , -
- .

.
(. 8.2 *),
-
, -
,
, ( ) . .5
5 , , .
 8.4. ( ) 257

8.4. ()
-
-
(). ,
, (-
++) ( -
), +
( ).
.
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). -
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)
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++ -
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258 8

(9.3.7 ()),

, -
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.
 9
(*)

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, -

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9.1. (*)

! .
, .
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260 9

, , -
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.

9.1.1. (*)
-! . ?
.
,

, , -
, (-
, . 9.3.2).
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.
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:
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. (
.) (, -
,
.)

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, .
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.
-
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.)
-
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, , -
- .
 9.1. ( *) 261

(
), . .
. ( .)

9.1.2. (*)
, -
,
() . , -
, , -
: , ,
, -
.
.
1 , -
. -
2 , , -
-
.
9.1.3 (*)
.

. 9.1. .

, ,
(

1 Schrodinger E. Die gegenwartige Situation in der Quantenmechanik // Naturwissenschaften, 48,
807, 49, 823, 50, 844 (November 1935).
2 -: Verschrankung, -: entanglement.
262 9

). , -
, -.
, -
- . ,
(, , - ), -
,
.
-
, -
. ( , -
.)
1. , -
( |).
. ( |0 ),
( |). (
|0 )
||0 | = |0 .

. 9.2. . . . .

2. , -
|0  |1 , -
, .
-.

|0  + |1 
|0 |.
2

.
|0  |1  ,
 9.1. ( *) 263

. 9.3. -
.

, (-
)
|2 ,
, . .
. 9.3.
3. |1  , -
( |1 ). -
|0  . :

|0 |0  + |1 |1 
|.
2

4. ( |1 ) (
|). ( |0 ) -
. , :

1
(|0 |0 | + |1 |1 |) =
2
 
= 1 | + | .
2

5. . , -
,
, . , ( -
, )
. ,
, ?
264 9

. 9.4. ?

6. ( )
, .
12 :

| = |0 |0 |,

| = |1 |1 |.
, ,
.

. 9.5. | ( ).

, -
, ,
?
, -
, , -
, - - ?
,
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6 Hellmuth T., Walter H., Zajonc A. and Schleich W. Delayed-choice experiments in quantum
interference // Phys. Rev. A. 1987. Vol. 35. P. 25322541.
Alley C. O., Jakubowicz O., Steggerda C. A. and Wickes W. C. A delayed random choice
quantummechamic experiment with light quanta // Proceedings of the International Symposium on
the Foundations of Quantum Mechanics / Edited by S. Kamefuchi. Tokyo: Physics Society of
Japan, 1983. P. 158164.
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1 C. G. Bennett and G. Brassard, Quantum cryptography: Public key distribution and coin tossing,
in: Proc. of the IEEE Inst. Conf on Computers, Systems, and Signal Processing, Bangalore, India
(IEEE, New York, 1984), p. 175.
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a + = e Qi
=e h Qi
= e h .
Qi n! Qi
(11.11)
3 -
,
.
312 11

Qi 

Ta 
Pi = ih = ih  . (11.12)
Qi a 
a=0

-
.
.
(11.12) Qi

i
pQi
p (Qi , q) = c(q) e h . (11.13)
Qi R, , -
p p R. -
Qi [0, Qmax ] -
(, Qi - , Qmax =
= 2, Pi ),
Pi , pQ max
2h Z. Qmax ,
.
-
-
[Q, P ]:4

[Q, P ] = (QP P Q) = Q ih ih (Q) = ih,

Q Q
[Q, P ] = ih. (11.14)
(11.14) , -
Q, , -
, Q Q, P -
P = ih Q

,
4 . [Q, P ]

, Q, P ,
ih H. , -
[Q, P ] ,
.
. , -
,
.
 11.3. 313

( -
).
,
- -
, -
. , -
,
. -
-
a. -

, -
. , -
:

Ta (Q1i , Q2i , q) = (Q1i + a, Q2i + a, q) = (11.15)

 
= (Q1i , Q2i , q) + a + (Q1i , Q2i , q) +
Q1i Q2i
 n
+ a 1 n + (Q1i , Q2i , q) + .
n! Q1i Q2i
   
i
a + a ih ih i
aPi
i
a(Pi1 +Pi2 )
Q1i Q2i h Q1i Q2i
Ta = e =e = e h = e h .
(11.16)


Ta 
Pi = Pi1 + Pi2 = ih  , (11.17)
a 
a=0

Pi1 = ih 1 ,
Qi

Pi2 = ih 2 .
Qi

, , -
Qi -
.
314 11

,
, ()

 i
Ta  Pi a
Pi = ih  Ta = e h . (11.18)
a 
a=0

(11.18)
, , -
, (
) -
(11.10), (11.15), - 5 .

11.3.3. *
(11.14) [Q, P ] = ih -
( ) .

Q P , P Q,
6 .
, , -
, -

P = P, Q = ih .
P
,
i
Qb b
Sb = e h =e P

b:

Sb (P ) = (P + b).

, Sb = e h Qb -
i

, . ,
5 , (11.18)
(
).
6 , -
, .
 11.3. 315

Sb -
(Q) e h Qb . ,
i

, -

Sb p0 (Q) = p0 b (Q) .
      
i
e h bQ 1 e hi p0 Q 1 i
e h (p0 b)Q
2 2

p0 , , -
Qb -
.
U (Q) ,

.
, a
:


+
i
2n
Q

+
U (Q) = un e a = un S 2h .
a n
n= n=

, a

2h
a . ,
U (Q) -
, ,

q = P + 2h
a n, n Z, q [0, 2h
a ),

. .
(11.4.3
*).

-
:
 i   i

u(p) Sp dp, u(p) = 1
pQ pQ
U (Q) = u(p) e h dp = U (Q) e h dQ.
2h
316 11

()
, -
. , -
, -
( -
).
U (Q), -
,
 
U (Q)(P ) = u(p) Sp (P ) dp = u(p) (P p) dp.

u(p) (P ).

p u(p).
, U (Q)
(Q) -
U (Q).

11.4.

, -
, (-
), .
: -
, -
.
, U
( ),
A, -
, U , .
U , , -
A.
, A,
. ,
U -
,
( U ).
 11.4. 317

, U , ,
U -
A, . -
/ -
, U .
A -
, :

U = ei0 A , 0 R. (11.19)

-
:
U = U0 , U = eiA , 0 , R.
U A, -
k,

uk = eiak .

, ak 2,
eiak = ei(ak +2n) , n Z, uk = um ,
ak = am , ( 11.4.3,
,
).

11.4.1.

I,
, -
:

II = I2 = 1 I = I1 .

, , -
, . .

I I = 1,

I = I1 = I . (11.20)
318 11

, , -
( x):

I.x (x) = (x).

-
. -
. , ,
, 1.7

1 + I 1 I
P+ = , P =
2 2
, -
+1 1 (!):

P+ 2 = P+ , P 2 = P , P+ P = P P+ = 0,
P+ ) = +1 (P+ ), I(
I( P ) = 1 (P+ ).

I H, (11.1)
= 0,
[H, I] (11.21)

, I ,
.
, (11.21) -
(11.9).

I , eiI -
:


 
(i)k (i)2l (i)2l+1 2l+1
eiI = Ik = I2l + I .
k! (2l)! (2l + 1)!
k=0 l=0 l=0

I2l = 1, I2l+1 = I,
,



(1)l 2l (1)l 2l+1
eiI = 1 + iI = 1 cos + I i sin . (11.22)
l=0
(2l)! l=0
(2l + 1)!
7 , , ,
, -: 1.
 11.4. 319

, ( )
I :

i I
ei0I = 1, e 2
= iI.

i = ei 2 , , I
:

ei eiI = ei(I1) .

(11.23)

i (I1)
= eiP = I.

ei0(I1) = 1, e 2

11.4.2. *
, , , ? ,
? , ,
? , . . .
,

I.x , , -
. -
+1 ,
1 .
8 .

P = I.x I.y I.z ,
9 .
(. . )
P , . . . -
,
(P = ), (P =
= ),
.
8 -
, . -
, (11.20). ,
(1 +1), .
9 -
.
320 11

, P -
(. 11.1).
, , ( ,
, . . ),
( ), :
, , , .
1927 -
, , -
,
. , -
-, -
, - , -
10 ( ).

11.4.3. *
a -
x. , ,
11 .
Ta , , -
px :
i
apx
Ta = e h .
, 11.3.2, -
-
. , 11.4, -
, ,
.
Ta ? -
x +,
|u| = 1.
i i 2h
aq a(q+ a n)
u = ei = ei(+2n) = uq = e h = e h , , q R, n Z.
10
. ,
, -
( ,
).
11 , .
 11.4. 321

u q,
. q . -
,
2h
a . . -
,
( h h
a , a ]. , -
Ta
, ,
, q -
uq .
Ta (x) = (x+a),
Ta u = uu . ,

u (x + a) = uu (x). (11.24)
, Ta ,
Ta . -
(11.24) a
, , , -
.
|u| = 1
x0 x0 +a

|u (x)| dx = |u|
2 2
|u (x)|2 dx
x0 a x0

x0 . x R, u ,
, u .
x R x [x0 , x0 + N a]
.
,
N aq
uN = 1 Z.
2h
N ( N - -
). |u |2 x [x0 , x0 + N a] -
, . N -
, -
.
322 11

(11.24),
|u| = 1. -
, |u| > 1, |u| < 1.
-
a, -
a. -
u |u| = 1
, -
, ,
. -
-
-
. 11.2. , , -
(19051983). .
-
(11.24) -
q a:
i
xq
u (x) = e h (x), (x) = (x + a). (11.25)
(11.25) . , (11.24) -
(11.25).

11.5. **
11.5.1. *

Ta Sb
i i
aP bQ
Ta = e h , Sb = e h .

i
bQ
Ta (Q) = (Q + a), Sb (Q) = e h (Q).

i
aP
Ta (P ) = e h (P ), Sb (P ) = (P + b).
 11.5. ** 323

P Q (4.64)

[Q, P ] = ih,

Ta Sb .

[a, b] = ab ba = ic ( )
a b c.
-
, . . .

.
ABA1 B 1 .
Ta Sb -

i i
bQ b(Qa)
Ta Sb Ta Sb (Q) = Ta Sb Ta (e h (Q)) = Ta Sb (e h (Q a)) =
i i i i
bQ b(Qa) ba ba
= Ta (e h e h (Q a)) = Ta (e h (Q a)) = e h (Q).

( )
i
ab
Ta Sb Ta Sb = e h . (11.26)
( ) P , Q,
i
ab
P , Q e h , -
( )
ab, (Q, P ).
() ,
. -
-
. , -
(Q, P )

i
S()
T = e h , (11.27)
S(),
(
).
324 11

(11.26) -
:
i
ab
Ta Sb = e h S
b Ta . (11.28)
, -
.
i
(aP bQ)
e h Ta
Sb -
a b S = ab
2
i i ab
(aP bQ)
Sb Ta e h = e h 2 . (11.29)
,
:
i i ab i ab
(aP bQ)
e h = e h 2 T h 2 S
a Sb = e b Ta . (11.30)

11.5.2. **
, . , -
( ) , -

:
 i  i
(aP bQ) (aP bQ)
F (Q, P ) = e h F (b, a) da db, F = e h F (b, a) da db.
(11.31)
 i
1 (aP bQ)
F (b, a) = e h F (Q, P ) dQ dP. (11.32)
(2h)2
F (Q, P )
F (b, a) = F (b, a), -
F .
F (b, a) F
.

i i
(aP bQ) b(Q+a/2)
e h (Q) = e h (Q + a).
 11.5. ** 325

i i
(aP bQ) b(Q2 +a/2)
Q2 |e h |Q1  = e h (Q2 Q1 + a).

:
  
i i
(aP bQ) (aP bQ)
tr e h = Q1 |e h |Q1  dQ1 =

 i
b(Q1 +a/2)
= e h (a) dQ1 = 2h (b) (a),
 
i
(aP bQ)
tr e h = 2h (b) (a) = tr(Ta Sb ) = tr(Sb Ta ).

, -
( Q P )
i i i i
(a2 P b2 Q) (a1 P b1 Q) ([a1 +a2 ]P [b1 +b2 ]Q) S
e h e h = e h e h  ,

S , (a1 , b1 ) (a2 , b2 ):
 
a a 
S = 1  1 2  = 1 (a2 b1 a1 b2 ).
2 b1 b2 2
 
i i
(a P b2 Q) (a1 P b1 Q)
tr e h 2 e h = 2h (a1 a2 ) (b1 b2 ).

F -
( )
 
i
1 (a2 P b2 Q)
F (b, a) = tr e h F . (11.33)
2h

(11.31), (11.32), (11.33) -

- .
326 11

11.5.3. ****
,

. -
(11.27)
i
S()
T = e h , .. U (1). , -
U (1).
, . .
.
U (1) - -
.
-
:
. -
,
U (1). -
: -
12 .
X K .

[X K , X L ] = ihJ KL , {X K , X L } = J KL .
J KL
U (1).

i i i i
Qj
X Q = Qi , X Pj = Pj , JQ Pj
= J Pj Q = ji , JQ = J Pi Pj = 0.
P p
, -
. (
) x I (
J, )

xpj = pj = Pj ec Aj (Q),
i
xq = q i = Qi ,
[xK , xL ] = ihI KL , {xK , xL } = I KL ,
12 Isidro J. M., de Gosson M. A. A gauge theory of quantum mechanics// Mod. Phys. Lett. A.
2007. Vol. 22, Pp. 191200.
 11.5. ** 327

I pi pj = ec Fij = ec (i Aj j Ai ).
i i i j
Iq pj
= I pj q = ji , Iq q
= 0,
I,
.. KL I LM = K
M
.

qi pj = pj qi = ji , qi qj = ec Fij , pi pj = 0.

(
),
, -
Fij (Fxy = Hz , -
).
-
.
-
:

 (Pa ec A(Qa ))2  p2a

H= = .
2ma 2ma
a a

a , -
. ,
A(Qa ) (H = rot A), -
, (
J) . -
-
-
pa , I.
, -
, , -
t p0 = E
.
, , ,
,
, , -
.
 12

( ) -
, -
, -
.
.
, -
, . , -

( ), -
-
(. 12.11).
-
. , ,
:
,
, -
,
().
-
. , , ,
, , -
( ,
).
,
.  -
k, = k/m:

p2 2 p2 2 2
H = + kx = + m x . (12.1)
2m 2 2m 2
 12.1. 329

12.1.

, -
: ( ) ( -
). ,
, . .
.
m (-
) ,
-
h, . -
() = () ()2 /() =
= () () = () (). h
, ,
 
p2 m x 2
H = h + . (12.2)
2hm 2h

, -
.
, Q P -
:
 
P 2 Q2
H = h + , (12.3)
2 2
4
p p
P = =p , Q = x m = xx , (12.4)
hm 0 h 0
4
h ,
p0 = hm, x0 = m p0 x0 = h (12.5)

, (,
, h). -
-
, h
.
[x, p] = ih
, -
( -
330 12

):
$ 4 % 4
m p [x, p]
[Q, P ] = x , = m 1 [x, p] = = i.
h hm h hm h

[Q, P ] = i. (12.6)
, ,
, ,
[, ]/(ih) {, }.

12.2.
12.2.1.
Q, P
-
.

. 12.1.
(Q, P ).

-
z = const (Q + iP ).
: z(t) = eit z(0).
 12.2. 331

-
eit -
, -
:
Q + iP Q iP
a = , a = . (12.7)
2 2
Q P a a .
( -
,
, , . . -
):
$ %
Q + iP Q iP  

[a, a ] = , = 1 [Q, Q] i[Q, P ] + i[P , Q] + [P , P ] =
2 2 2

= 1 (0 i i + i(i) + 0) = 1.
2
[a, a ] = 1 aa = a a + 1. (12.8)
a a , -
(A B)(A + B) = A2 B 2 -
1

H = 1 (Q2 + P 2 ).
h 2
:
Q iP Q + iP  
a a = = 1 Q Q + iQ P iP Q + P P =
2 2 2
 
= 1 Q2 + i[Q, P ] + P 2 .
2
N :
 
N = a a = 1 Q2 1 + P 2 , (12.9)
2
:

H = h a a + 1 = h N + 1 . (12.10)
2 2
1 , [A, B] = AB BA = 0,
(A B)(A + B) = A2 B 2 + AB BA = A2 B 2 + [A, B].
332 12

-
2 N = a a.
,
12 . ,
Q P (
) , .
a a .
, -
N ( [AB, C] = A[B, C] + [A, C]B -
[A, B] = [B , A ]):

[N , a] = [a a, a] = a [a, a] + [a , a]a = a,
[N , a] = [a , N ] = a .
-
:

[N , a ] = a , a+ = a , a = a. (12.11)

|n  N :

N |n  = n|n . (12.12)

|n  a a ,
a|n  a |n  N :

N a|n  = (aN + [N , a])|n  = (aN a)|n  =

= a(N 1)|n  = a(n 1)|n ,
N a |n  = (a N + [N , a ])|n  = (a N + a )|n  =
= a (N + 1)|n  = a (n + 1)|n ,
N (a |n ) = (n 1)(a |n ). (12.13)

(12.13) , |n , -
(12.12), a |n  -
, n 1, .
a+ = a , a =
= a .
2 N : N = (a a) = a a = a a = N .
 12.2. 333

N :
|N | = |a a| = a|a  0. (12.14)

n |N |n  = n | 
n |n  = nn |n   0 n  0. (12.15)

:
a|n , a2 |n , , ak |n , .

a N
, . , ,
N , -

|n0  = const ak |n  (12.16)
a:
a|n0  = 0 a a|n0  = N |n0  = n0 |n0  = 0 n0 = 0.

, N
:
a|0  = 0. (12.17)
-
E0 = h
2 ,
.
, |
a :
a |a  = |aa | = |N + 1|  | > 0. (12.18)
, |0 
a , -
, . -
:
|0i , -
(12.17)? . -
,
. .
334 12

N |0i 
a ? (. ).
N ? .
|n  ,
n,
. ( ) -
(12.16), ak |n  = 0, ak+1 |n  = 0, ,
ak |n  N ,
0 = n k, . . n = k .
N ,
|0i  ?
. N
|ni  = cn (a )n |0i . , |n  -
, |ni  -
n . n > 0, . . |n 
{|0i }i . n .
|n  a, -
|n 1  = n1 a|n  ( a|n  = 0, . . n > 0).
, a |n 1  = n1 a a|n  = n1 N |n  = |n .
|n  |n 1 
a . |n 1  |(n 1)i ,
n , , |n 
|n i .
|ni , -
n N ? (
n ?) ,
n = 0 (. ), . . n -
. n > 0. a|ni  (. . n > 0)
(. .
  , .
 . i ci a|ni  = 0,
0 = a 0 = a i ci a|ni  = i ci a a|ni  = i ci n|ni , . . -
). , -
n.
n a |ni  

(. . , . . c a |ni  = 0,
   i i
0 = a0 = a i ci a |ni  = i ci aa |ni  = i ci (n + 1)|ni , . .
). , -
n.
 12.2. 335

12.2.2.
, -
N n. ,
, ,
:
|n  = |n. (12.19)
, . . , -
, .
( , ),
k|n = kn . (12.20)

:
a|0 = 0, (12.21)
a|n = cn |n 1, cn C, n > 0.
cn ?
, :
n|a = n 1|cn ,
n|a a|n = n 1|cn cn |n 1,
n|a a|n = n|N|n = n|n|n = nn|n = n,
n 1|cn cn |n 1 = cn cn n 1|n 1 = cn cn = |cn |2 .

|cn |2 = n cn = ein n.
, , -
cn . -
. ,
-
:
|n = ein |n,
cn = ei(n n1 ) cn .
cn , -
. cn -
.
336 12

,

(|n = ei0 |n, cn = n
):
a|n = n |n 1. (12.22)
a . -
a :

k|a|n = n k,n1 n|a |k = n k,n1 = k + 1 k+1,n .
(12.23)


0 1 0 0 . . . 0 0 0 0 ...
0 0 2 0 ... 1 0 0 0 ...

0 0 0
a =
3 . . . , a =
0 2 0 0 . . . . (12.24)
0 0
0 0 0 0 ... 3 0 ...
.. .. .. . . . .
.. .. .. .. . . . . . . .
. . . . .

, .
, a

a |n = n + 1 |n + 1. (12.25)

(12.25) |n -
|0:
(a )n
|n = |0. (12.26)
n!
, (12.22) (12.25) -
. , (12.22) -
. (12.25),
,
, , -
(12.25) (12.22).
N , (12.10) -
:

En = h n + 1 , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . . (12.27)
2
 12.3. 337

n -
h, -
12 h. n ,
{|n} n=0 .

12.3.

. ,
,
. ,
, -
.

x = x, p = ih , (x) = x|.
x
:

Q = Q, P = ih 1 = i , (Q) = Q| = x (x)|

0 x=Qx0 .
(Qx0 ) p0 Q
(12.28)
x0 ,
, Q:
  
|(Q)|2 dQ = |(x = Q x0 )|2 d(x0 Q) = |(x)|2 dx = 1.

Q+ Q
Q
Q
a = , a = . (12.29)
2 2
(12.21), -

Q+
Q
a|0 = 0 0 (Q) = 0. (12.30)
2
338 12

( -
Q, ), -
, , ,
-
( ). -
, :

d0
Q0 + =0
dQ
Q2
d0 Q2
= Q dQ ln 0 = + const 0 = const e 2 .
0 2

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
4 2 0 2 4

. 12.2. : 0 (Q)
|0 (Q)|2 .
.

.
, 0 (Q) -
,
Q2
0 (Q) = 1 e 2 . (12.31)
4

, , . . -
.
, -
, ,
 12.3. 339

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
4 2 0 2 4
Q
0.2

0.4

0.6

. 12.3. : 1 (Q)
|1 (Q)|2 .

(Q, m), Q
, m , K (-
, , K = 2s + 1), K-
. ( , , -
m.)

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
4 2 0 2 4
0.2 Q

0.4

. 12.4. : 2 (Q)
|2 (Q)|2 .
(12.31)
a (12.26). -
340 12

, -
(12.29):

(a )n
n (Q) = 0 (Q) =
n!
n
Q Q2
Q 1
1
= e 2 =
n! 2 4

n Q2

= ( 2n n!)1/2 Q e 2 .
Q

Q2 Q2

= Q e

Q e
2 2
, -
, n-
2

Q
n (Q) = ( 2n n!)1/2 Hn (Q) e 2 ,

Hn (Q) n, -
.
, Q, -
Q , , -
a a
. 0 (Q) , n (Q) -
Hn (Q) n.
6 :

H0 = 1, H1 = 2Q, H2 = 4Q2 2, H3 = 8Q3 12Q,

H4 = 16Q 48Q2 + 12,
4
H5 = 32Q5 160Q3 + 120Q.

n-
Q2
n Q2

Hn (Q) = e 2 Q e 2 .
Q

,
Q2 Q2 Q2
e 2 e 2 e 2
 12.3. 341

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
4 2 0 2 4
Q
0.2

0.4

0.6
. 12.5. : 3 (Q) |3 (Q)|2 .

Q2

Q2

e 2 Q F (Q) = e 2 F (Q).
Q Q

:

n
Hn (Q) = eQ2
eQ .
2

0.4

0.2

10 5 00 5 10
0.2 Q

. 12.6. 50- : 50 (Q)

|50 (Q)|2 .
342 12

12.4.
*
, , - -
, , QP 2 Q |n. , ,
5 -
n (Q) n|QP Q|n = n Q(i/Q)2 Qn dQ, -
2

.
, -
,
:
a + a a a
Q = , P = . (12.32)
2 i 2

 2
a + a a a a + a
n|QP Q|n = n|
2
|n =
2 i 2 2
( , a a -
!), -
(12.22), (12.25) -
(12.20).
, , -
, a a ,
()
, ,
, . , -

= 1 n| a a aa a a a a + a a aa +
4    
N N N (N +1)

+  a a 
aa  aa aaa a |n =
aa 
(N +1) N (N +1) (N +1)

6
4 .
( P ) .
|n -
, N . -
,
 12.5. 343

, , :

1
= (n|a a )(aa|n) n2 + n(n + 1) +(n + 1)n (n + 1)2
4       
aan |aan
+n n1
  
1

(n|aa)(a a |n) =
  
a a n |a a n

: aa|n =
= n 1 n|n 2, a a |n = n + 2 n + 1|n + 2. , -

= 1 (+(n 1)n + 1 + (n + 2)(n + 1)) = 1 (2n2 + 2n + 3).

4 4

12.5.
12.5.1.
-
, I.
, , -
, -
I, . . . -

( ), -
, . -
0 (12.31), , . a = 12 (Q Q
)
, . .
. ,
, . . :
n = (1)n n .
I

12.5.2. -
**
-
H = 1 h(Q2 + P 2 )
2
, .
344 12

, -
. F -
, :

1
(F )(P ) = eiP Q (Q) dQ.
2
R
P Q -
(12.6), , ,
Q P , P Q. ,
3 :
Q P = F QF 1 , (12.33)
1
P Q = F P F , (12.34)
P + iQ
a F aF 1 = = ia, (12.35)
2
P iQ
a F a F 1 = = ia . (12.36)
2
-

 
2
1
H. = F H. F = h
2 +Q .
2
2 Q

F H. = H. F .
.
, -, ,
-
, F , f ,
-
F .
(t)|F |(t) .
, 4- -
, . . F 4 = 1. , -
:
F = f , = 1 = F 4 = f 4 f 4 = 1, f {1, i, 1, i}.
3 (12.33)(12.36).
 12.5. 345

,

: (F 2 )(Q) = (Q) = (I)(Q), -
. . F 2 = I.
,
f = 1, f = i. , -
,
.

:

1
f (P ) = eiP Q (Q) dQ.
2
R
(Q) (P ) ,
.
, -
n (Q)
F , ,
. 0 (12.31) f = 1, -
0 :

 Q2 
1
1 e 2 1 1 e 2 (Q2 +2iP Q) dQ =
(F 0 )(P ) = eiP Q dQ =
2 4
2 4
R R
 ((Q+iP )2 +P 2 )
1 1
= e 2 dQ =
2 4
R
(Q+iP )2

P2 
P2
2 2 2
= e e
dQ = e = 0 (P ).
4
2 4

R
, f -
a . :
1. , (12.36) a
F . F a F 1 = ia F a = ia F ,
, :
F a = ia F = ia f = (if )a .
346 12

2. , -
4 . Q P -

, Q , -
:


(F a )(P ) = 1 1 Q
eiP Q (Q) dQ =
2 2 Q
R


= 1 i iP 1
eiP Q (Q) dQ =
2 P 2
R
= (ia F )(P ) = (ia f )(P ) = (if )(a )(P ).

, f
i,

F n = (i)n n .

:
i h
i n i N i a a (H )
F n = (i)n n = e 2
n =e 2 n =e 2 n =e h 2 2 .
n

n ,
-

2 , . . 14 T0 = 2
, ,
-
E0 = h
2 :

i T0 i
i a a (HE0 ) i H 1+i
F = e 2 =e h 4 =e 2 e h 2 = U .
2 2


i t
e 2 . , -

( -
, E0 ).
4 , (12.36), . . ,
3. , .
 12.6. 347

12.5.3.
- -
2 .
. 12.1 , -
, -
. -
- , ,
-, -
.
: -
U , -
. , -
, -
.

12.6.
12.6.1.
, -
. a, -
(5.20),

da = i [H, a] = ia. (12.37)

dt h

, -
, ( -
)
&
da
= ia ,
dt a (t) = eit a . (12.38)
a (0) = a

, -
, . 12.1,
.
a (t) -

348 12

a (t) + a (t)  
Q (t) = = 1 eit ait
+e a =
2 2
 
1 it Q + iP it Q iP
= e +e =
2 2 2
= cos(t) Q + sin(t) P .

a a , -
-
t:

1 dQ = i [H, Q ] = sin(t) Q + cos(t) P .

P (t) =
dt h
,

Q (t) = cos(t) Q (0) + sin(t) P (0),

P (t) = sin(t) Q (0) + cos(t) P (0).

(, ),
(. . , ) -
:

Q (t) = cos(t) Q (0) + sin(t) P (0),

P (t) = sin(t) Q (0) + cos(t) P (0). (12.39)

12.6.2. *
-
,
.
, , -

 |A | t =  |A | t .

n 1|a|n. -
 12.7. * 349

|n (t) = e h En t |n (0). ,
i

n 1|a (t)|n = (n 1) |a |n t =

En En1
i t
=e h n 1|a |n0 = eit n 1|a |n0 .
a (t) -
eit ,

a (t) = eit a .
,
a , . .
, a
h.

12.7.
*
, -
A, B (7.6).
i A + B.
a a -
,
-.
, a 5 .
,
a|z  = z|z , z C, (12.40)
. -
z
|0
(. (12.21)).
, a = Q
+ iP
2
,

+ i
z= , , R.
2
5 , , a | = Z|, |
|n. ( n
?)
350 12

(12.40)

Q + iP + i
|z  = |z  [(Q ) + i(P )]|z  = 0.
2 2
, |z  z C
|0 .

(Q)2
z (Q) = 1 eiQ 2 .
4

-
, -
(12.40). , Q
P ( , a a ).
-
|z .
a a ,
a a ( [a, a ] =
= 1 (12.8), -
):6
z |H|z  = z | h (a a + 12 )|z .
2
a , -
a , (12.40) :

a|z  = z|z , z |a = z |z ,

z |H|z  = z | h (z z + 12 )|z  = h (|z|2 + 12 ).

2 2

12.7.1. *
-
:

|z (t) = Ut |z ,
a|z  = z|z  Ut a|z  = Ut z|z  = z|z (t).
6 .
 12.7. * 351

, a (t) = Ut1 aUt = eit a,

Ut a|z  = Ut aUt1 Ut |z  = a (t)|z (t) = eit a|z (t).

     
a (t) |z (t)

eit a|z (t) = z|z (t) a|z (t) = eit z|z (t).

, |z  t
|z (t), a,
z(t) = eit z.

( 2 z)
, ,
, . .
, .
-
.
,
.

12.7.2. **

, -
(12.40) ,
|n -
7 . -
( ).

(a )n
|n = |0:
n!



  (a )n  cn
| = cn |n = cn |0 = (a )n |0 = f (a )|0.
n=0 n=0 n! n=0 n!

,
|0 f a .
7 .
352 12

f :

cn
f (x) = xn .
n=0 n!
, f (x) -
|. , -
f (x) ,
. ,
f (x), :
 


  dn f (0) 2
1  
 =
2
|cn | =
2
  .
n!  dxn 
n=0 n=0

.
a , f (x)
8
x, a x .
,
(12.40) :9

df
a|z  = z|z  = zf.
dx
, :

f (x) = c ezx |z  = c eza |0.


|z  = c eza |0 = c z n (a )n |0 = c  z n |n.

n! n!
n=0 n=0

 (z z)n
= |c|2 e|z| .
2
z  = |c| 2
n!
n=0
-
:
|z|2

|z  = e 2 eza |0. (12.41)
8 . , (12.8), :

[a, (a )n ] = n(a )n1 . a = a .

. 13.2.4 .
9 , -
a | = z|, x f (x) = z f (x).
 12.8. ** 353

, -
-
:
|z|2 |z|2 |z|2
za za
|z (t) = Ut e 2 e |0 = e 2 Ut e Ut1 Ut |0 =e 2 eza (t) |0
t.

, a (t) = eit a ,

|z|2 t t
it i i
|z (t) = e 2 eze a
e 2 |0 =e 2 |
z(t) , z(t) = zeit .
(12.42)

12.8. **
z C
.
, | = f (a )|0
|z .

dn2 f 
|z|
dxn2 x=0
2
 n1 
z | = n1 |e 2 z |n2  =
n1 =0 n1 ! n2 =0 n2 !
|z|2
 

2
dn f  zn ,
=e
dxn x=0 n!
n=0

|z|2

z | = e 2 f (z) (12.43)
, -
z . ,
f (z) -
.
z -
z , -
a :

Q iP Q iP
z= , a = .
2 2
354 12

|f  = f (a )|0.
, -
-
:
6  7
n2  n1
n2 |n1  = z z
 = n2 n1 .
n2 !  n1 !
f
:

1
f2 |f1  = f2 (z) f1 (z) e|z| dz dz .
2
(12.44)
C

, z
|z|2

F (z) = 1 e 2 f (z) (x) = x|f (a )|0 L2 (R)

-
.

Q iP
F (z) = F
2
: , -
.
a = z a = d :
dz

F2 |a |F1  = F2 (z) z F1 (z) dz dz .
C
 
1
F2 |a|F1  = ezz f2 (z) d f1 (z) dz dz = F2 (z) z F1 (z) dz dz .
dz
C C
z , ,
df2

zz
= 0, de = z ezz .
dz dz
-
a a , -
: a, a

F2 |an2 an1 |F1  = F2 (z) z n2 z n1 F1 (z) dz dz .
C
 12.8. ** 355

A(a, a ) 10

F2 |A(a, a )|F1  = F2 (z) A(z , z) F1 (z) dz dz .
C

( )
, |F (z)|2 -

z, . . -

Q = 2Re z P = 2Im z:

F |A(a, a )|F  = |F (z)|2 A(z , z) dz dz .

|F (z)|2 , -
.
(x), -
F (z) .
(x)
x, F (z) -
,
, -
11 .
(x) , F (z) -
.
(x), -
R.
F (z),
. -
F (z) -
f (z).
10 A(a, a ) a a -
. 5
11 , ..
z |z z | dz dz =
C
= const 1 = 1. .
15
2 |1  = 2 |z z |1  dz dz , (12.44).
C
356 12

|F (z)|2
z, . , -
z , . . -
,
.

12.9. **

, 12.7, -
-
- (. 7.2.3).
-

(x + i p)|z  = z|z ,

z C > 0 .

= xp00 = m 1
(. (12.5)).
(-
) .
-
,
, . -
12 .

( ) (
,
x0 p0 = h).
,
. x
ln |x|. ,
:

G0 = ih = ihx = xp. (12.45)

ln |x| x
12 ,
(), .
 12.9. ** 357

, , , , -

i i
kG0 kG0
e h , e h (x) = (ek x)
. , ek
x 2 .
, G0
, :

G = ih x + 1 = xp ih = 1 [x, p]+ =
x 2 2 2
a2 (a )2
= 1 (xp + px) = ih . (12.46)
2 2
-
:
i k k
k G (a2 (a )2 )
Dk = e h = e2 , Dk (x) = e 2 (ek x). (12.47)
, ?

|k  = Dk |,
|k (t) = Ut |k  = Ut Dk | = Ut Dk Ut1 Ut | = (Dk ) (t)|(t),
k k
(a2 (t)(a (t))2 ) (e2it a2 e2it (a )2 )
(Dk ) (t) = e 2 = e2 =
2it
ke
2 (a2 e4it (a )2 )
=e .

, 14 k,
. . ( ) -
( ).
,
, (12.39).
, ,
-, -

Q (t) = cos(t) Q sin(t) P ,

P (t) = sin(t) Q + cos(t) P .
358 12

12.10. *
? -
,

, (12.39).
?
Q(t) = P (t) = 0, Q2 (t) = P 2 (t) = n + 12 , E = En =
= h(n + 12 ).
h
(n ) 12
.
(n = 0) -
, -
:
 ,

Q2 (t) = P 2 (t), -
. -
.
: = t. -
- (2.2)
-:

t E = E  h n  1 . (12.48)
2 2

, -
, .

,
Q2 (t) = P 2 (t) = 12 .
,
.

12.11. (*)

, . -
( -
) .
 12.11. ( *) 359

,
, .
, -
. -

,
, , , ,
-
.
(. . -
) , Lx Ly Lz -
.
( )
K, -
.
, ,
:
 
 2 2 2
H = Hk , k = N , N , N ,
Lx x Ly y Lz z
k,
Nx , Ny , Nz Z, = 1, . . . , K.

-
, , -
.
Hk, , -
. (,
) -

Hk, = hk, 1 ( Pk,

2
+ Q2k, ) = hk, (ak, ak, + 12 ).
2

ak, ak,
( , )
k (. . pk = hk), k, = hk,
. Nk, = ak, ak,
k . Nk,
360 12

,

N = Nk ,
k,

 
H = k (Nk + 12 ) = hk (Nk + 12 ),
k, k,


p = pk Nk .
k,

( -
)

E0 = 1 hk ,
2
k,

(
). , , ,
( ).
, -


Hk, = hk, ak, ak, .
k,

,
,
( ) . -
, -
. -
E0
(. . ).

, -
.
Hk,
0 ( )
 12.11. ( *) 361

0 + hk, ( ). -
.
,
-
, .
-
, , ,
, -
2 a , a .
, -
. .
, .
, () ()
. -
, .
, , , , -
, ( ) (
) .

12.11.1. (*)

, -
,
(12.48),
:

n  1 .
2
,
.
( ) -
, . ,
, -
, , -
. ,
, ,
.

, (
362 12

1 ) -
-
, .
()
0 1. -
, , -
.
 13

(2.4 ())
-
, . .
.
,
, -
, , . -
h 0 -
. -
,
, .
, , -
, ,
- .

:
, -
, -
.

13.1. .
1923 -
,
, :
p
k= , = E.
h h
364 13

h , -
, -
. , ,
, -
.
1927
.

ei(krt) .

v = k .
. ,
. , -
E = p2 c2 + m2 c4 -
-
:

p 2 c2 + m 2 c4 2
v = p = vc > c.

: -
.
-
, . . , -
:1
v = .
k
,
-
, .

( h), -

H(x, p)
v = E , v = x = .
p p
, ,
.
1 -
6.3.6 .
 13.2. ? 365

-
.
, , , -
, -
,
.
-
. , , -
-
, .
, -
.

( ), -
(. -
2.5.1 ()).

13.2. ?
-
-
, .
-
: ,
.
:

F : RN
 R
 .
. .

: ,
( ),
( ),
,
, .
, -
, (
), , , -
.
366 13

, (-
) -
, -
.

13.2.1.
, , -
.
. -
( -
), ,
() .
, , ,

p2
K(p) = ,
2m
U (x) ( U (x)
),
a
i p
e h ,
b
i q
e h ,
t
i H
e h ( ),
a
i (p +p0 lz )
e h z .

13.2.2.
-
, -
. Ak -
, 2 .
2 -
. , [x + iy, px + ipy ] = 0, x + iy px + ipy
. -
,
.
 13.2. ? 367

.
H -
Ak :
3
H= Hi
i

( i , ).
Hi -
Ak :
Hi , Ak = ki .
,
Ak -
.
- F (Ak ) , -
Hi , , -
Ak
F :
Hi F (Ak ) = F (ki ). (13.1)
,
-
(), -
, , -
, , - ().

(, . .). -
, Ak -
F (Ak ),
.

, -
(5.3.1 -
**).
(11.4.3 *).

13.2.3.
-
. ,
368 13

. , -
, -
, (
) , -
.
, ,
. , -

ab + ba
a b = , (13.2)
2
. -
: -
, . . ,

a (b c) = (a b) c, (13.3)

, .

, ,
, -
( 13.2.1 13.2.2).

13.2.4.
, , , -
, . .
.
,
, , -
, (
). , -
, -
F (Ak ), -
Ak . -
, (
), .
, -
, .
 13.2. ? 369

,
:
dpi dqi
= {pi , H} = H , = {qi , H} = + H , (13.4)
dt qi dt pi
{qi , pj } = ij , {qi , qj } = {pi , pj } = 0.
, -
:
{, } ih
1
[, ].
, -
:
dpi dqi
= 1
ih [pi , H] = H , = 1
ih [qi , H] = + H , (13.5)
dt    qi dt    pi
     

1
ih [qi , pj ] = ij , [qi , qj ] = [pi , pj ] = 0.
,
H = K(p) + U (q),
,
( -
).
, , ,

[x, A + B] = [x, A] + [x, B]
( !)
(5.21):
[x, AB] = [x, A]B + A[x, B].
, Ak Bl , -

[Ak , Bl ] = ck kl , [Ak , Al ] = [Bk , Bl ] = 0,

F = F (Ak , Bl )
:

F (Ak , Bl ) 1 F (Ak , Bl ) 1
= ck [F , Bk ], = ck [Ak , F ]. (13.6)
Ak Bk
370 13

(A + B)
= A + B ,
x x x

AB = A B + A B
x x x

xi
= ij .
xj
,

( !)
xn = nxn1 .
x
F (Ak ) -
Ak , ,
: (-
) xk () F (x):
F (x)
Fk (x) = .
xk
( )
:
F (A)
= Fk (A).
Ak
-
, , -
( ).
-
. ,

[ai , aj ] = ij , [ai , aj ] = [ai , aj ] = 0,

 13.3. 371

F (a, a ) F (a, a )
= [F , ai ], = [ai , F ]. (13.7)
ai ai
-
,
, , ,
, I2 = 1, I = 1 (-
, . .). -
:
= 1 = I2 .
F (I)

, -
:

F (I)
F (I) 2
= 1 = 0, = I = 2I = 0.
I I I I

13.3.
-
-
(13.6) -
-
, -
:

dpi dqi
= H , = + H . (13.8)
dt qi dt pi

(13.5)

, - . 13.1.
, (18801933).
- W
( )
.
,
(13.8) . ,
372 13

(5.19) -
, :
" # " #
dpi  H dqi  H
= , = + . (13.9)
dt qi dt pi

, ,
, .
( 5.2.6) -
(5.24) (5.25)
-
. -
,
(12.39).
, -
,

dpi  dqi 
= H (q, p), = + H (q, p). (13.10)
dt qi dt pi

(
).

F (q, p) = F (q, p).

(13.10) , -
-
H H
qi pi . -
-
,
.

13.3.1. *
,
, , -
. . , , -
( ),
(
).
 13.4. 373

dpi dqi
= H , = + H (13.11)
dt qi dt pi
(
), -
(
, ):
" # " #
dpi  H dqi  H
= , = + . (13.12)
dt qi dt pi
, (
)
F (q, p) = F (q, p).
-

dpi  dqi 
= H (q, p), = + H (q, p) (13.13)
dt qi dt pi
, -
-
.
, -
,
-
,
(-
) ,
( , -
) . . 13.2. -
, .
-
,
.

13.4.

(-
).
374 13

A() (, )
. -
a() |():

A()|() = a()|(), ()|() = 1. (13.14)

,
, . -
, , , - -
, ,
. , -
, -
, ( ) -
.
(13.14) :

A | + A | = a | + a | . (13.15)

- ()|, :

| |
| A | + |A = | a | + |a . (13.16)
  
|a

,
: (13.14)

| A | = a . (13.17)

(13.17) -
,
, .
,
A, F (A),
A2 , A3 . ., F (A)
:
F (A) F (a)
| | = . (13.18)

 13.5. 375

( ), -
-
.

13.5.
() -
.
,
.
, -
, ,
-
- ,
.

,
.
,
, -
. , -
.
( ) .

13.5.1.

-
, -
, . .
i
p(x) x
(x) C e h (13.19)

x . -
, , x,

   
   
    1.
 x  ||  x  (13.20)
376 13


(x) = 2h , p(x) = 2m(E U (x)).
p(x)
.
(13.19) C x, -
:
i
p(x) x
(x + x) (x) e h . (13.21)

,
i i i
p(x0 ) x p(x0 +x) x p(x1 x) x
(x1 ) (x0 ) e h e h e h

x1 x0
x

(x0 ) exp i p(x0 + nx) x
h n=0

x1
(x0 ) exp i p(x) dx.
h
x0

, px

 p(x)
p(x) dx:


(x) C exp i p(x) dx . (13.22)

h

(13.22), ,
.
, , (13.22)
, |(x)|2 = |C|2 = const. ?
x, E > U (x),
x,
dx dx
dx v(x) = m p(x) , v(x)
. ( -
.) dx,
 13.5. 377

, ,
, ,
. , -
, |(x)|2 p(x)
1
.

(x)  C exp i p(x) dx . (13.23)

p(x) h
x
. ,
(13.23) .
-
( ,
), -
:


C+
(x)  exp i p(x) dx +
p(x) h


C
+ exp i p(x) dx . (13.24)
p(x) h

,
, .
(13.24) , ,
,
: 1) ; 2)
.
, -

E > U (x), ,
p(x), . . -
E < U (x).

13.5.2.

, .

i
S(x)
(x) = e h (13.25)
378 13

, -
:

1 (S  )2 ihS   = E U (x), (13.26)

2m

S = 2m(E U ) + ihS  . (13.27)
, -
S(x).
, -
.
, . .
.
()
, , (-
) , . . -
.
S(x)
:

S = S0 ihS1 + (ih)2 S2 + . . . . (13.28)

, , ,
.
(13.28) (13.27) -
, :
 
S0 (x) = 2m(E U (x)) = p(x) S0 (x) = p(x) dx.

p(x) x.
:
(
(S0 ihS1 ) = 2m(E U ) + ihS0 + o(h) =
 ihp (x)
= p2 + ihp + o(h) = p(x) + ,
2 p(x)
 
p 
(x)   
S1 (x) = = ln p(x) S1 (x) = ln C .
2 p(x) p(x)
 13.5. 379

(13.28) (13.25) -
, , -
(13.23):
i 5

(x) = C e
p(x) dx
h .
p(x)
, ? -
, , ,
, S(x)
. -
, ,
(13.20)
 
 
  1.
 x 
,

E > U (x), p(x) R, -
E < U (x) ,
,

.
,
p(x) 0
| (x)| 1 . E U (x) (p(x) 0)
.

13.5.3.
-
,
(13.24).
( ), . . -
,
, . -
( )
, . .

x
(x) =  C sin 1 p(X)dX + 0 . (13.29)
p(x) h
x0
380 13

0
2 0 2 4 8
1

2
. 13.3. .
, -
, a (a) = 0

x
(x) =  C sin 1 p(X)dX . (13.30)
p(x) h
a

0
2 0 2 4 8
1

2
. 13.4. .
a (
), U (a) = E ( U (a 0) > E > U (a + 0)),
a

x
(x) =  C sin 1 p(X)dX + 0 . (13.31)
p(x) h
a

, 0 , -
(13.31)
( a).
 13.5. 381

-
(, p(a) = 0), , ,
a,
. -
0 .

, , -
0 > 0 ( , ).
, a, -
, , a
0 , . . -
.
, (, -
) ,
(. )

0 = ,
4

. . 14 .
,
12 .

*
(13.31) 0 , -
a, ,
: - x < a
, - x < a ,
.
, a -
, , ,
, , -
, .
-
,
( p(x) )

a
C
(x) =  exp 1 |p(X)|dX , x a, (13.32)
2 |p(x)| h
x
382 13

x
C+ 1
(x) =  sin p(X)dX + 0 , x  a, (13.33)
p(x) h
a

:
 + 2m
h2
F (x a) = 0, F = U  (a), x a. (13.34)

C+ C (
), 0 .
:
0 = , C+ = C .
4
:
(13.34)
(
) -
(13.32) (13.33) ( -
).
x -
( sin -
) x = a
( ).
x a ( , -
)
(13.32) (13.33)
0 , -
C .
.
|p(x)| ( )
|x a|. |p(a )| = p(a + ) = p0  h . -
. 13.4:

C
(x) exp 1 p0 (a x) , (13.35)
2 p0 h
 13.5. 383

C+ 1 p (x a) + .
+ (x) sin 0 0 (13.36)
p0 h

a:

 (a) p0 +  (a) p0
= = = tg 0 0 = .
(a) h + (a) h 4

13.5.4.

p(x), -
( p(x)
). , -
. -
.
,
[a, b].

b
1 p(X) dX
h
a
a b.
a b ( -
). ,
, ,

b
1 p(X) dX + = n, n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
h 2
a

, -
.
, -
:

x
C
(x) =  a sin 1 p(X) dX + =
p(x) h 4
a
384 13

x
C
=  b sin 1 p(X) dX =
p(x) h 4
b

b x
C
=  a sin 1 p(X) dX + 1 p(X)dX + . (13.37)
p(x) h h 4
a b

Ca = Cb ,
:
b
1 p(X) dX + = (n + 1), n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
h 2
a

(x, p) a b
,
(x(t), p(t)). a b , ,
,
p(x).

8
p(X) dX = 2h(n + 12 ), n = 0, 1, 2, . . . (13.38)

()
. -
-
.
,
8
p(X) dX = h(2n + 2[ a b ]), n = 0, 1, 2, . . . (13.39)

a b (0 -
(13.31)).

13.5.5.
-
-
.
 13.5. 385

dx p

8 8 8 

J[E, x(l)] = pdx = |p||dx| = 2m(E U (x)) dl = 2h n + 1 ,

    2
dl |p|

J[E, x(l)] , -
.
:
8
J[E, x(l)] = J E + J x(l) dl = 2h n.
E x(l)

  
=0 . x(l)

.
8
J[E, x(l)] = J E = E 2m(E U (x)) dl =
E E

8
m
= E  dl.
2m(E U (x))
  
m 1
=
|p| v

|p|
v = m = dl .
dt
8 8
J[E, x(l)] = E dl = E dt = E T = 2hn,
v

T = 2
.
n = 1, ,
E :

E T = E 2
= 2h E = h.
386 13

, E:
(E) = 1 = 1 .
E h
E ,
, , , -
.
-
,
. -
, . .
,
.

13.5.6.
(13.38)
(13.39), -
, .
-
, (.
. 13.5).

U(x), E

. 13.5. () () .

. -
-

, ,

.
 13.5. 387

,
(D, 13.5.7 -
) -
(T ). -
D1 1 D2 1, T
D = D1 + D2 . ,
( 0 )

1 D 0 = T  T.
0 = T D

(7.9),
(7.13)

E0 = h .
20

,
, , -
()
0 :3
i t i h
E t (E0 i )t
(t) = 0 e h 0 e 20 = 0 e h 20 .

,
:

E = E0 i 2h0 = E0 i E0 .

( -
).
.
:
. -
, (
) , -
.
3 , -
.
388 13

, -
, . .
.
, -
, -
-. 13.5.8 -
**.

13.5.7.

. ,
(S(x)
h) (13.23) 

(x) C exp i p(x) dx

p(x) h

, -
.
, (E > U (x)) -
(S(x) h) .
E, -
.
,
a b (E = U (a) = U (b)).
:

l(x) = h .
|p(x)|

l(x) , , , -
(-
) :
b b
L= dX = 1 |p(X)| dX  1.
l(X) h
a    a
dX

L a b, l(x)
( ).
 13.5. 389

, 1,
. .
sin, (13.33). -
, , -
.
eL .
,

D0 = e2L .

-
1 .
p(x)
(13.5.1 -
),
, -
, . ,

.

1:

D = D0 Da Db , Da , Db 1.

,
, ,
,

Db = 1 .
Da

b
D = D0 = e2L = exp 2 |p(X)| dX . (13.40)
h
a

, (13.40) , .

, -
.
390 13

13.5.8. **
-
:
b b  b 
2 |p(x)| dx = i 2 2m(E U (x)) dx = 2 2m(E + U (x)) dx.
h h h
a a a

h1
 a b
p (x) = 2m(E + U (x)):
8 b
1 p (x) dx = 2 1 p (x) dx.
h h
a

p (x)
:
E E, U (x) U (x).
( ) -
.
a b , -
.
, , -
S, (3.17)
i
S
e h ,
,
( ) ( -
,
), -
:
  b 
 i S 2
 h  2
D = e  , S= 2m(E U (x)) dx.
  h
a

.
 13.6. 391

, -
, , ,
, , -
-. .
-
, , ,
.

13.6.
(5.1.1
), -
.
( ) -
.
-
. -

, -
.
, ,
(Q) . Q -
Qn ( -
).
,

(Q) = |(Q)| ,
2
(Q) dQ = 1 = const


+ div j = 0, (13.41)
t
 jn
div j = n Q n

j, -
.
j , -
(13.41).
392 13

13.6.1.
, .

j(Q) = (Q) v(Q),
v(Q) .

p = p = mv .
-
, v :
p(Q) mv(Q) (Q).
(Q),
(Q) p(Q) mv (Q) (Q) = mv (Q).
,
1 (Q) p(Q).
j(Q) = (Q) v(Q) = m

-
, (Q)p(Q)
. -
. :
1 Re (Q)p(Q) = 1 ( (Q) p(Q) + (Q)(p(Q)) ).
j(Q) = m
2m
,
p2
H = 2m + U (Q). , p =
= ih, :

j = ih ( + ). (13.42)
2m
-
(x) = |(x)2 | (x) = arg (x),

(x) = (x) ei(x) j = (x) m h
(x), (13.43)
  

 13.6. 393

, -
(x), m h
(x),
(x). -
, -
.

13.6.2.
:
2
H = 1 (M 1 )nk pn pk + U (Q) = h (M 1 )nk n k + U (Q). (13.44)
2 2
(M 1 )nk . -
n k 4
   
( ) H H
= = + = + =
t t t t ih ih
2

= 1 h (M 1 )nk n k + U (Q) +
ih 2

2
+ 1 h (M 1 )nk n k + U (Q) =
ih 2

2 2
= 1 h 1 nk
(M ) n k + 1 h 1 nk
(M ) n k =
ih 2 ih 2

= ih (M 1 )nk (n k n k ) =
2
!
= n ih 1 nk
(M ) (k k ) = n j n .
2
, (13.41) -
, :

j n = ih (M 1 )nk (k k ) = 1 (M 1 )nk ( (pk ) + pk ).

2 2
(13.45)
4 , .
(M 1 )nk Mnk . -
pn , v k = pn (M 1 )nk
,
(M 1 )nk . T = 12 (M 1 )nk pn pk = 12 Mnk v n v k
v, p.
394 13

n
v n = ddt
Q
= (M 1 )nk pk , -
, , ,
= ||2 = arg :

j n = 1 ( (v n ) + v n ) = Re( v n ) = (iv n ) . (13.46)

2   

13.6.3. *

, ,
. -
, , -
, .
a
ea (ra ). -
, pa
e
pa ca A(ra ):

 1  e 2 
H = pa ca A(ra ) + U (Q) + ea (ra ). (13.47)
2ma
a a

,
(13.46),

dra  e 
va = = m1 pa ca A(ra ) .
dt a

.

:

e iea
pa pa ca A(ra ), a A
a = a A(ra ),
ch
. -

.
 13.7. ** 395

13.6.4. ?**

?
-, , , ,
,
, .
-, , -
.

,
, .
, , , -
,
U (Q). -


U (Q)(p) = U (p p ) (p ) dp .

,
( )
.
, (-
), -


 
n
n U 
N
U ih = ih .
p Qn Q=0 p
n=0

,
N 1.
N =
(
).

13.7. **

2N - (q, p),
396 13

(q1 , q2 ) = q1 ||q2 , (p1 , p2 ) = p1 ||p2 

, . .
, , , , , -
.
-

:
 i
px
W (q, p) = 1
(2h)N
(q x/2, q + x/2) e h dN x. (13.48)

-
. -
, , . .
x -
.
-
-
(!):

(q, q) = W (p, q) dN p,
. 13.6. 
(19021995). (p, p) = W (p, q) dN q.

-
-
,
-
.
-
. 13.7. - (q, p) -
. ,

-
, . .
(2h)N .
 13.7. ** 397

-
q, p A(q, p):
 i
px
A(q, p) = 1
(2h)N |q + x/2e h q x/2| dN x,

q |q = q |q, q|q   = N (q q  ),

W (q, p) = A(q, p) = tr(A(q, p) ). (13.49)

, -
q p, , q, p
.

w(X, , ) = W (q, p) dN (q + p), (13.50)

N N , , rank(, ) = N . X
p = q + p :

[X , p ] = ih , , = 1, . . . , N.

(13.50) W (q, p) w(X, , ) -

, w(X, , )
.
, -
, . . -
.
:
.
-
. .
.
 14
-2*
( )

11 -1 -
. ,
. ,
- (
), ,
( ).
-
. -
,
, .

14.1. ()
( 11 -1), -
,
.
.
-
:
? , -
U1 U2 :
U2 U1 = ?
?
, U
: U = ?
 14.2. ( ) 399

. 14.2 -
().
( : -
). 14.4 ().

14.2. ()
14.2.1. ()
G , :
() E G;
: GG G, . . g2 g1 = g3 , g1 , g2 , g3 G.
g, g1 , g2 , g3 G :
E g = g E = g, (g3 g2 ) g1 = g3 (g2 g1 );

()1 : G G, . . g G
g 1 G. -

g 1 g = g g 1 = E.
() .
, :
-
;
g1 g2 , -
g3 , . g3
g1 g2 (!!!): g3 =
= g2 g1 . -
:
E g = g E = g, (g3 g2 ) g1 = g3 (g2 g1 );

g
g 1 . , ,
, g G,
g 1 G. -

g 1 g = g g 1 = E.
400 14

,
?
: A.
, B A
B A, -
, , . -
,
. ,
.
, , -
, , .
:
g ( )
g:GG
g : h  g h, g, h G. (14.1)

f : G H
G H, , . .

f (EG ) = EH , g1 , g2 G, f (g11 ) = f (g1 )1 .

f (g1 )f (g2 ) = f (g1 g2 ),
(14.2)
( ).
, -
, .
, , ,

, -
, .
,
, G H
(). : G  H.
() - -
. ,
, -
. , , -
,

. -
.
 14.2. ( ) 401

14.2.2. ()
() , -
:
g1 , g2 G g1 g2 = g2 g1 .
,
, , .
, -
, -

g1 g2 g11 g21 .
, -
E. -
[g1 , g2 ] = g1 g2 g2 g1 , . .
.
() -
: -
, .
, -
.

14.2.3. ()
H G , -
G, . .
g, h H G, E, g 1 , g h H.
, H G , -
, G.
()
, -
, , - -
. , -
(),
. , -

, -
. -
SO(3)
SO(2) SO(3).
402 14

H G
:

g0 G [g0 ] = g0 H = {g G|g = g0 h, h H},

[g0 ] = Hg0 = {g G|g = h g0 , h H},

g0 [g0 ], .
G/H
H \ G H
.
, -

g G g 1 Hg = H

.
, .
.
,
H \ G = G/H.
:

EG/H = [E], [g]1 = [g 1 ], [g1 ] [g2 ] = [g1 g2 ].

, -
. -
G H -
G/H.
G , , :
G , {E} ( -
). ,
.
(14.2) f : G L,
, L,
:
f 1 (EL ) = {g G|f (g) = EL }.

, f 1 (EL ) -
G.
 14.2. ( ) 403

1 : f : G L,
L

L  G/f 1 (EL ).

, -
. ((): ,
-
.) ,
: (1) ( -
) (2)
( ).

14.2.4. ()
G |G| -
|G| . -
,
.
, -
, N , -
SN , |SN | = N !
() SN -
N ( ) , , -
()
, .
N N ,
-
, . -
1. -
. -
, SN
AN , -
+1, |AN | = 12 N ! ( N > 1).
1
:
!
, ,

!
404 14

() AN -
N ( ) , ,
()
, ,
( ) , -
.
(-
) , . .
. -
1, ,
, , -
, . -
, (det = + 1),
,
(det = 1).
()
-
, . -
.
-
. -
,
. , , -
,
.
( )
:

{g0n |n Z}

. -
, Z (():
). -
N N

, N :

ZN = Z/N Z.
ZN N .
 14.2. ( ) 405

14.2.5. ()
-
(det M = 0) N N , -
GL(C, N ), GL (General) (Linear) -
. ( , -
) -
.

:
S Special det M = 1,
U Unitary M = M 1 ,
O Orthoganal M T = M 1 ,
L Linear ,
G General ,
.
-
:
();
(
), -
( -
O, , -
);
, ( C R)
C ( ),
R ( ),
Q ,
Z ,
N .
:
GL(R, N ) , , N N ;
SL(N ) , det M = 1, N N ;
406 14

O(1, 3) M diag(+1, 1, 1, 1) M T =
= diag(+1, 1, 1, 1) , -
( 1 -
3 );
O(3) 3 3 M M T = E
;
SO(3) 3 3, det M = 1
( );
U(N ) N N ;
SU(2) 2 2, det M = 1
( 2 1);
O(N, N ) = SN N ;
SO(N, N ) = AN N -
.
GL(C, N ) -
N - , -
N .

14.3. -1 -2. ?*
11 -1 (
)
, .

14.3.1. *
, 11 -1
. -

A, R -
U = exp(iA).

U U = U+ , U1 = U , U0 = 1.
, -
, :
-
-
( x);
 14.3. -1 -2. ?* 407

, , -
, exp(iA) = exp(i( + 2)A).
, , -
2 ( z).
, :
R(+) ,
SO(2) . -
, . . -
.

14.3.2. *
, -
, -
exp(iAk ) ( R, Ak = Ak ), -
,
, .
-
, -
Ak , -
([Ak , Al ] = 0),
(
z, Jz :
exp(iJz )). ,
, -
(
). Jz J2 =
= Jx2 + Jy2 + Jz2 .

D- , D
, , (
) -
.

SO(3).
, ( -
),
408 14

, D-
 D 

U = exp i k Ak .
k=1

U -
. D - Ak -
.
,
, . , SO(3)
, SU(2) ,
() , -
so(3) su(2).
.
.
, -
.
- (-
) . -
, ,
-
N ,
-
.
,
. ,
() , -
, .
, SO(3) , --
-
j .

.

, . . -
:


D
m
[Ak , Al ] = i Ckl Am .
m=1
 14.4. ( ) 409

m
Ckl . -
, .

.


3
[j , j ] = i e j .
=1

,
, . -
, , SO(3) -
O(3) 3 3 ( -
, )
( ).
, SO(3) SU(2), -
2 1
4 . SU(2)
.

14.4. ()

f G -
f (G) M, -
(14.2), . ,
, .

(), -
.
-
M, -
.
-
.
M , -
f (G) , f
. dim M -
.
410 14

() , -
H, -
. , H ,
( -
),
.

14.4.1. *
, G -

(14.1).
.
-
,
, M = CG .
, -
:2
g, h G, g : eh egh .
() G:

. -
: , () -
, . ,

,
.

14.4.2. ()
H f G -
H(1) H,
:
g G, f (g)H(1) = H(1) g G, H(1) , f (g) H(1) .
: -
{0} H.
2
.
 14.4. ( ) 411

, f -
.
() (. .
) -
.
, . .
, .
f ,
H(1) -
f(1) (-
), f , f (G) H(1) .
() -
,
,
. -
,
, ,
.

14.4.3. ()
f , -
f(1) , :

> dim H > dim H(1) > 0.

-
:

> dim H > dim H(1) > . . . > dim H(n) > 0,
H = H(0) H(1) . . . H(n) {0}.

, -
f .
f(n) , H(n) , -
. , -
.
,
H. , -

H(n) H(n) -
412 14

. : -
f f(n) , -

f(n) , H(n) ,

dim H(n) < dim H. f(n) ( -
), , -
.
H, -
f , -
Hn , -
f , :
H = H1 H2 . . . Hk ,
dim H = dim H1 + dim H2 + . . . + dim Hk ,
f = f1 f2 . . . fk .

.
Hn (1 < n < k), H
. H
dim Hn , -
, , f (g)
(g G) - ,
dim Hn dim Hn :

1 f1 (g)1
2 f2 (g)2

= . = 1 2 . . . k H, f (g) = .. ,
..    .
H1 H2 Hk
k fk (g)k

f1 (g) 0 0 0
0 f2 (g) 0 0

f (g) = .. = f1 (g) f2 (g) . . . fk (g).
0 0 . 0
0 0 0 fk
(**) -
Hn ,
.
()
.
,
 14.4. ( ) 413

.
3 , -
-
,
. ,
-
, -
: (. . -
, , -
),
.

14.4.4. (*)
.
-
:
[f1 (g) f2 (g)]( 1 2 ) = (f1 (g)1 ) (f2 (g)2 ) .
       
H1 H2 H1 H2

,
.
()
, . ,
, -
f1 f2 , -
. -

f1 f2 . -
,
, -
(
). , -
,
-
( -
3

{1, +1} L2 (R) I (-

) 1.
414 14

) . , (. 15.5 -
*)
SU(2).


: -
-
.
()
, ,
.
.
 15

14 -2
. -
-2, .
-
.

15.1.
, -
, .
.
, -
.

15.1.1. ()
()
, -

:

x = Rx, x R3 , (x , x ) = (x )T x = xT RT Rx = xT x = (x, x).

x R3 , R:

RT R = E. (15.1)

.
33 O(3), -
.
416 15

(15.1),

(det R)2 = 1 det R = 1.

R , -
. +1
. SO(3), -
O(3) -
. , -
, . -
, det R = 1, ,
, , . . R -
, det R, -
+1 = det E 1. -

.

()
O(3) : SO(3) -
, P SO(3) (, P -
11.4.2 , ,
P = E) ( , . . (1)2 =
= +1 -
).
O(3) SO(3) :
.
SO(3) (-
),
. [0, ].
n n
, .
, -
, -

.
, SO(3) -
, (-
) .
O(3) , -
SO(3).
 15.1. 417

()
-
.
, , , -
, .
x
:

x 1 0 0 x
x = y  = 0 cos sin y = Rx () x = ei jx x.
z 0 sin cos z
     
Rx () x

hjx x. (.
11.3.2), ( )
. -
x. , jx -
, h ( h).
! -
, ! , -
, ,
! -
.
ijx , Rx ()

 0 0 0
dRx 
ijx = = 0 0 1 .
d =0 0 1 0
, ijx
, ,
jx3 = jx n = 0, 1, 2, . . . jx2n+2 = jx2 = jx0 = E,
jx2n+1 = jx .
(15.2)
33!
(. 15.4 1.)
( )

0 0 1 0 10
ijy = 0 0 0 , ijz = 1 0 0 .
10 0 0 00
418 15

Rn ()
, n :

Rn () = eijn .

jn = (j, n) = nx jx + ny jy + nz jz , j -
(jx , jy , jz ).

, -
3 3:

[jx , jy ] = ijz x, y, z.

[j , j ] = ie j , , , = 1, 2, 3. (15.3)

0, , , ,
e = +1, (, , ) (1, 2, 3),
1, (, , ) (1, 2, 3).

(15.3) -
, , ( , ) -
.
-
, . e
SO(3).
, , -
j 2 = jx2 + jy2 + jz2
:
[j 2 , j ] = 0. (15.4)

( ,

j ).

15.1.2. **
,
,
SO(3), -
,
( so(3)).
 15.1. 419

-
, .
, , (-
), ,
, . . -
, ,
.
,
, , -
, -

.
, ,

( ), -
. (
, , -
.)
,
( SO(3)),
R(l) E, -
Rn ():
R() : [0, 1] SO(3), R(0) = E, R(1) = Rn ().

, , , -
Rn (),
R(l).
, , -
, R(l).
, , -
, -
.
, , -

.
: -
-
R(l). ,
: ,
420 15

R(l) ( R(l)
E) ,
SO(3), . . ( ) -
SO(3).
, -
R(l). -
SO(3) -
. SO(3)
( -
), .
R(l)
, , , -
, () E E, -
. -
,
. ,
R(l) , , , E
E, R(1).
( SO(3) ) -

.
, ,
,
( , , ). -
, , -
E ( ),
.
( ,
) -
. , , -
,
, ,
.
SO(3) ( ) -
: Z2 = {+1, 1}. 1
, -
(. 15.1.1 ()).
, 2 , -
, , 4 -
.
 15.2. 421

2 -
P . 4
2, . . P 2 , 4
, . . -
.
P 2 = 1, P = 1.
P = +1 SO(3). P = 1
, 2
4. , 12 ,
SU(2).

15.2.
, ,
, . . , -
, . . -
.

15.2.1.
, -
.

ypz zpy
L = [r p] = zpx xpz .
zpy ypz
L -
,
, -
. ,
, -
, h (
):

l = 1 e x p = i e x ,
h
lx = 1 (y pz z py ) = i(yz zy ),
h
ly = 1 (z px xpz ) = i(zx xz ),
h
422 15

lz = 1 (xpy y px ) = i(xy yx ).
h

l
, = .
x

l :

[lx , ly ] = 12 [y pz z py , z px xpz ] =
h
= 12 ([y pz , z px ] [y pz , xpz ] [z py , z px ] +[z py , xpz ]) =
h      
0 0

= 12 (y [pz , z] px + x [z, pz ] py ) = i 1 (xpy y px ) = ilz .

h       h
(ih) ih

x, y, z
, (15.3):

[l , l ] = i e l .

l
1
lx = i(0, z, y),
ly = i(z, 0, x),
lz = i(y, x, 0).

i -
-
1 , -
, . .
- : v = v a a .

a = x a ( ). -
, .
, , -
, - dxa ,
.
 15.2. 423

. l
il .
-
, l
l . , -
-
, r.
r, -
( , ,
z), ( xz,
z ):
x = r sin cos ,
y = r sin sin ,
z = r cos .
-
, -
. -
xa dxa ea dxa ( ,
, a ).
er = (sin cos , sin sin , cos ), |er |2 = 1,
e = (r cos cos , r cos sin , r sin ), |e |2 = r 2 ,
e = (r sin sin , r sin cos , 0), |e |2 = r 2 sin2 .
ea ,
,
:

1 0 0
dl2 = dr 2 + r 2 (d 2 + sin2 d2 ) gab = 0 r 2 0 . (15.5)
0 0 r 2 sin2

l
(l ,
ea )
e2a :

lx = i ( sin ctg cos ),

ly = i (cos ctg sin ),
lz = i .
424 15

, hlz (-
) ().
l2 -
( ) -
:
$
%
2
l2 = 1 + 1 sin =  .
sin2 2 sin

15.2.2. jz
-
, -
(
). -
z.
z .
m jz

jz m = mm .

2 m
, (15.1.2 **):

ei2jz m = ei2m m = m .

, m ,

m Z, m+ 1
2 Z.

m
, . .
2 1.
jz lz . -
():

eilz (r, , ) = (r, , + ).

2-

m Z, m (r, , ) = Cm (r, ) eim .

 15.2. 425

15.2.3. j

j = jx ijy = j .

l = lx ily = ei ( + i ctg ).

j jx jy , , -
a, a P , Q -
(12.7). +, z
, x, y z.
, -
a a , j 2 j
jz :

j j+ = jx2 + jy2 + i[jx , jy ] = jx2 + jy2 jz ,

j+ j = jx2 + jy2 i[jx , jy ] = jx2 + jy2 + jz .

,
[j+ , j ] = 2jz , (15.6)
2
j = j j+ + jz2 + jz = j+ j + jz2 jz . (15.7)
(15.3) (15.4),

[jz , j ] = j , (15.8)
[j 2 , j ] = 0. (15.9)

, a a -
(12.13), j
jz :

jz (j m ) = (j jz + [jz , j ])m = (j m j )m = (m 1)(j m ).

(15.10)
(12.13), ,
j m , -
, (m 1).
426 15

15.2.4. jz , j 2
jz
(15.2.2 jz ), -
. , -
j 2 ,
jz :
jz m = m m , j 2 m = m .
j 2 = jx2 + jy2 + jz2 , , > |m|2 .
, m
.
j m , (. (15.10),
(15.7))

jz j = j j ,
j+ j = 0,
j 2 j = (j j+ + jz2 + jz )j = (0 + j 2 + j)j = j .
, = j(j + 1). , ,
m j:
jz j = j j ,
j j = 0,
j 2 j = (j+ j + jz2 jz )j = (0 + j 2 (j))j = j .
j ,
= j(j + 1), j. -
m j
|j, m:

jz |j, m = m|j, m,

j 2 |j, m = j(j + 1)|j, m,
j1 , m1 |j2 , m2  = j1 j2 m1 m2 ,
2j N {0}, m {j, j + 1, . . . , +j}.
(15.10)

j |j, m = C |j, m 1.

 15.2. 427

C (15.7):
j+ |j, m = C+ |j, m + 1,
j, m| j = j, m + 1| C+ ,
j, m| j j+ |j, m = j, m + 1|C+ C+ |j, m + 1 = |C+ |2 ,
j, m| j j+ |j, m = j, m| j 2 jz2 jz |j, m = j(j + 1) m(m + 1).

, |C+ | = j(j + 1) m(m + 1), -
, . .
,
C+ . -
(12.22) -
.
C+ , -
. C+ -
.
,
, C+ .
C+,j,m
C,j,m :
j+ |j, m = C+,j,m |j, m + 1,
j, m + 1|j+ |j, m = C+,j,m ,
j, m + 1|j+ |j, m = C+,j,m

,
j, m + 1|j+ |j, m = j, m|j |j, m + 1 = C,j,m+1 ,

C,j,m+1 = C+,j,m .
, C -
:

j+ |j, m = j(j + 1) m(m + 1) |j, m + 1 =

= (j m)(j + m + 1) |j, m + 1,

j |j, m = j(j + 1) m(m 1) |j, m 1 =

= (j + m)(j m + 1) |j, m 1.
, -
m -
.
428 15

j

j  , m |j+ |j, m = (j m)(j + m + 1) jj  m,m 1
 

j, m|j |j , m  = (j m)(j + m + 1) jj  m,m 1 .
j -
(2j + 1) (2j + 1):

0 (2j)1  0 0 ... 0
0 0 (2j 1)2 0 ... 0

 .

j+ = 0 (2j 2)3 . . . . ,
0 0 .
. .. .. .. .. 
.. . . . . 1(2j)
0 0 0 0 ... 0

0 0 0 ... 0
(2j)1 ... 0
 0 0
0 (2j 1)2  0 ... 0

j = 0 0 (2j 2)3 . . . 0 .

.. .. .. .. .
. . . . ..

0 0 ... 1(2j) 0
, +j j
.
j
jx = j+ +2 j jy = j+ 2i .
2
jz j , -
, , -
( ) -
j 2 = j(j + 1)E. jz , ,
:
j 0 ... 0
0 j 1 ... 0
jz =
.. .. . . . .. .
. . .
0 0 . . . j
(*) (2j + 1)-
. j , SO(3) SU(2) -
, j ,
SU(2).
 15.2. 429

15.2.5.
la
(a ) . -
, eilan
, . -
,
.
,
L ( -
)

 
N
il1n il2n ilN n i a lan i Ln
e e ...e =e =e , Ln = lan .
a=1
, , . . ,
-
(15.3), -
[L , L ] = i e L .
, ,
. , -
, , -
() s .
,
, -
, . .
( ), , ,
.
-
.
s2 = s2x + s2y + s2z s(s + 1), s -
.
, -
, ,
s +s 1.
, -
,
. , -
.
s (2s + 1) (2s + 1).
430 15

15.2.6.
, , -
- , ,
(11.2):

dA.   
 = d eij Aeij  = i[j , A].
d  d =0
=0

,
.
(
, . 11.2 -
).

, (,
) j :

[j , A] = 0 A .

j 2 .

, ,
, . -
. (
,
.) e
:
A A e A + O(2 ).
, -
, , -
15.1.1 ()2

dA
i[j , A ] = = e A .
d
2 , , , , -

, [x1 , l2 ] = ix3 .
 15.2. 431

, -
:

[j , A ] = [A , j ] = i e A . (15.11)

(15.3), -
, A -
j . , , -
, .
(15.11) :

[Az , j ] = [jz , A ] = A , (15.12)

[A+ , j ] = [j+ , A ] = 2Az . (15.13)

, [jz , A ] = A (15.12) ,
A z
1 ( (15.10)), j .

[A , j 2 ] = i e (j A + A j ),
[A , j 2 ] = (Az j + j Az A jz jz A ).

A j 2 , m 1,
j. -
,
( l2 lz ) l
l2 , x -
lz , l2 ,
.
j
,
, . . A -
, , , -
[p , l ] =
= [l , p ] = ie p .
, -
,
[s , l ] = [s , x ] = 0.
432 15

15.2.7. a
j **
-
a j . ,

.

. 15.1. n1 n2 j m.

H
H1 H2 ,

H = H1 H2 ,
a
1 = a 1,

a
2 = 1 a ,

N1 = N 1 = a a 1,
N2 = 1 N = 1 a a.

H -
:
|n1  |n2 , n1 , n2 {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }.
 15.2. 433

j = n1 +n 2
2

n1 n2
m = 2 (. . 15.1):
 9
|j, m = |j+m|jm, j 0, 1 , 1, 3 , 2, . . . , m {+j, +j 1, . . . , j} .
2 2
, -
:

N1 N2
jz = ,
2
j+ = a a,
j = a a .

j j:

N1 + N2
j = ,
2
j 2 = j(j + 1).
,
: -
 n + n2 n1 n2
|n1  |n2  =  1 , = |j, m:
2 2
n1 n2
jz |n1  |n2  = |n1  |n2  = m |n1  |n2 ,
2

j+ |n1  |n2  = a a |n1  |n2  = (n1 + 1)n2 |n1 + 1 |n2 1 =

= (j m)(j + m + 1) |j, m + 1,

j |n1  |n2  = a a |n1  |n2  = n1 (n2 + 1) |n1 1 |n2 + 1 =

= (j + m)(j m + 1) |j, m 1.
(2j + 1)-
j:
3
H= C2j+1 = C1 C2 C3 C4 .
1 3
j=0, ,1, ,2, . . .
2 2

j.
-
434 15

SU(2). -
SU(2) .

1
15.3. 2

12
(r, ) r R3 (
z) { 12 , + 12 }. , -
. ,
r, -
, :

(r, + 1 )
(r, ) = 2 = (r).
(r, 1 )
2
, -
, .
, , -
( )
. -
,
.
, -
, (-
, ) -
,
, .

H = Hr 1s + 1r Hs ,
r ,
s , -


(r, ) = (r) (), ih = Hr , ih = Hs ,
t t
(r) , () -
.
 1
15.3. 2
435

, (15.2.4
jz , j 2 ),
12 :

01 00
s+ = , s = s+ = ,
00 10

s+ + s 1 0 1 s+ + s 0 i +1 0
sx = = , sy = = 1 , sz = 1 .
2 2 10 2i 2 i 0 2 0 1
( z)
-:
 #

1 1 1
 ,+
 2 2 = 0 = |  = |1,
 #

1 1 0
 ,
 2 2 = 1 = |  = |0.

|0 |1 -
, ().

15.3.1.
2 2 : -
, -
.
2 2 , , s ,
12 E.
s 12 ,
: .
s - , -
2. -
0 E:

 = (x , y , z ), = 2s , {1, 2, 3}, 0 = E,

10 01 0 i +1 0
0 = , x = , y = , z = .
01 10 i 0 0 1
12 ,
( ) ,
. . . 2 2
436 15

, 2 2
. -
, .
22, -,
, -
:
2- x y z
1- : x E iz iy
y iz E ix
z iy ix E
:
= E + i e , , , {1, 2, 3}. (15.14)

2 2 (, -
, -
, . . ):

Az Ax iAy Az A
(A,  ) = A = = .
Ax + iAy Az A+ Az
( (15.14)) -
, :
(A,  )(B,  ) = (A, B) + i([A B],  ). (15.15)
n , (n,  )2 = (n, n)E = E =
= (n,  )2k , k = 0, 1, 2 . . . , . .
. -
(n,  )2k+1 = (n,  ) = n .
,
:


i (i/2)k
Rn () = eisn = e 2 n = nk =
k!
k=0

 2k

(i/2) (i/2)2k+1
=E +n ,
k=0
(2k)! k=0
(2k + 1)!
     

cos i sin
2 2
 1
15.3. 2
437
 
cos + nz i sin n i sin
Rn () = E cos + in sin = 2 2 2 .
2 2 n+ i sin cos nz i sin
2 2 2
, 12 2
E.
Rn () -
2 2, ( ,
i) ,

Rn () SU(2).

15.3.2. **
, , -
- , -
(15.15), .
,
2 2 :

E 1,
ix i,
iy j,
iz k.

- -
:

2- 1 i j k
1- : 1 1 i j k
i i 1 k j
j j k 1 i
k k j i 1

-
:

A = A0 + Ax i + Ay j + Ax k = A0 + A.

A0 , A = Ax i + Ay j +
+ Ax k .
438 15

,
. -
, ,
. ,
, -
, , .
, , -
( ). ,
, :
( ) ( -
).
,
, :

A = A0 A = 1 (A + iAi + jAj + kAk),

2
|A| = A0 + A = AA,
2 2 2

A1 = A 2 .
|A|
, , -
, -
-
(. . ).
, -
,
,
, 3 .
-
( ),
, .
, . . -
, -
2 2,
.
-
2 2, , -
3 . . 16 1843
. i2 = j2 = k2 = ijk = 1
.
 1
15.3. 2
439

in n,
( ) :

n
Rn () = e 2 = cos 2 n sin 2 , |Rn ()| = 1.

15.3.3. **
-
, , -
( ) -
C2 ,
, -
. , ,
| ,

| = |  + | , C.

|  .

. 15.2.

12
C ,
C.
,
.
= x + iy (x, y),
.
440 15

. 15.3. ( )
.

, (x, y) ,
. -
, . . (0, 0, 1).
- ( -
) () 4 C (
). C
.
, , -
P =   :

Re , Im , 1 ||2
x  = y  = z  = .
1 + ||2 1 + ||2 1 + ||2

P
z.
P , -
1 , P , P
+ 12 . , P .

15.3.4. **
12 (
) 2 2.
4 , -
.
2, . . 2
.
 1
15.3. 2
441

, ( )
( 1).
(15.3.1 ), -
2 2
.
,

E + (P ,  )
= , P = (Px , Py , Pz ) R3 , |P |  1.
2

12 tr = 1.
-
1. ,
(P ,  ).
(P ,  ) |P |,

1 |P |
p =  0.
2

, |P |  1.
, -
, .
1 (
), . .
, (15.3.3 -
12 ).
P ,
  :

  = tr( ) = 1
2 tr( + P ) = 1
2 tr( EP ) = P 1
2 tr E = P .

(15.14) - ,
- 0.
, P

P =   = tr( ).
( )
, .
442 15

15.4. 1
, 15.3 12 -
, 1,
, .
1
(r, ) r R3 (
z) {+1, 0, 1}:

(r, +1)
(r, ) = (r, 0) = (r).
(r, 1)

,
3 3.
, (15.2.4
jz , j 2 ),
1
0 2 0 0 0 0
s+ = 0 0 2 , s = s+ = 2 0 0 ,
0 0 0 0 20

2 2
0 2 0 0 i 2 0
+1 0 0
2
2 , s = 2
2 , s = 0 0 0 ,
sx = 0 i
2 0 2 y
i 2 2
z
0 0 1

2 2
0 0 0 i 0
2 2

Ax iAy A
+A z 0 +A z 0
2 2
Ax + iAy Ax iAy A+ A

(A, s) = 0 0 .
= 2 2
2 2
Ax + iAy A+
0 A z 0 A z
2 2
sn = (n, s)
+1, 0, 1, - -
- 5 .
5 - , , 1
2
= 2s ,
. .
 15.4. 1 443

( z)
-:

1 0 0
|1, +1 = 0 , |1, 0 = 1 , |1, 1 = 0 .
0 0 1

15.4.1. 1
1, ,

Rn () = eisn .
sn +1, 0, 1, ,
-, . ,

s3n = sn n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , s2n+2
n = s2n = s0n = E,
s2n+1
n = sn .
(15.16)
, -
(15.2). -
1.
, :

  
(isn )n (i)2n+1 (i)2n
Rn () = eisn = = E + sn +s2n ,
n! (2n + 1)! (2n)!
n=0 n=0 n=1
     
i sin (cos 1)

Rn () = E + sn i sin + s2n (cos 1),

n 1 + n2z nz n n 2
+nz 0 2
2 2 2

n+ nz n+ nz n
n
sn = 0 , sn =
2
2 1 n z
2
.

2 2 2
n+ n+ 2 nz n+ 1 + n2z
0 nz
2 2 2
2
(. 15.1.1 ()) -
-
.
, - ?
444 15

{|1, m}+1m=1
{e }3=1 ,
j , ,
s 1:

ex iey e+ ex iey e
|1, +1 = = , |1, 0 = ez , |1, 1 = = .
2 2 2 2
(15.17)
|1, +1 + |1, 1 i|1, +1 + i|1, 1
ex = , ey = , ez = |1, 0.
2 2
(15.18)
, 1 -

-
,
, R3 .

15.4.2.

. -
12.11 (*),
-
, k , -
,
.
k .
? , -
, , (. . -
), .
-
e . (15.17), (15.18),
1. -
1.
1 3 , -
2. ?
. -
k ( hk) z. -
(15.18) -
:
 15.5. * 445

e ie
|1, +1 = x

2
y
-
( k
);
e ie
|1, 1 = x2 y
( k );
|1, 0 = ez
( ).
-
. -
E, -
, A,
A
. -
( ):
, ( ).
(-
) :
: ( +s)
( s). ,
,
( ), -
, SU(2).
.

15.5. *
,
; ;
j1 j2 .
(j1 (j1 + 1) j2 (j2 +
+ 1) ). ,

|m1 |m2  = |j1 , m1 |j1 , m2 .
( |m1 |m2  j1
j2 .)
,
j12 , j1z , j22 , j2z .
; ;
J2 = (j1 + j2 )2 Jz = j1z + j2z .
446 15

(*) ,
SU(2), -
j1 j2 ,
.
Jz . |m1 |m2 
:
Jz |m1 |m2  = (j1z + j2z )|m1 |m2  = (m1 + m2 ) |m1 |m2  = M |m1 |m2 .
  
M
m1 m2 ,
M , -
(. . 15.4). , M 1
(j1 + j2 ) j1 + j2 . M ( ,
M . 15.4) 1 ( M = (j1 +
+ j2 )) 2j1 + 1, j1 .

m1 M = m1 + m2

j1 + j2

6
5
2 j1 4
3
1 2
1 j2
-4 -3 -2 -1-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 m2
-2 -1
-3
-4 -2
-5
-6

(j1 + j2)

. 15.4. M m1 m2 .

.
: |j1 |j2 . J+ = j1+ +
+ j2+
J+ |j1 |j2  = (j1+ + j2+ )|j1 |j2  = (j1+ |j1 ) |j2  + |j1  (j2+ |j2 ) = 0,
     
0 0
 15.5. * 447

-
:

| j1 + j2 , j1 + j2  = |j1 |j2 .
     
J M

2(j1 +j2 ) |j1 +j2 , j1 +j2  -

J = j1 + j2 , ,
J = j1 + j2 , M J +J 1. ((*) -
, j1 + j2 .)
:

J |j1 + j2 , j1 + j2  = 2(j1 + j2 )|j1 + j2 , j1 + j2 1 =
= (j1 + j2 )|j1 |j2  = (j1 |j1 )|j2  + |j1 (j2 |j2 ) =
 
= 2j1 |j1 1|j2  + 2j2 |j1 |j2 1,

j1 |j1 1|j2  + j2 |j1 |j2 1
| j1 + j2 , j1 + j2 1 = .
      j1 + j2
J M

, M =
= j1 + j2 1 (. . 15.4). -
, |j1 + j2 , j1 + j2 1,

j2 |j1 1|j2  j1 |j1 |j2 1
| j1 + j2 1, j1 + j2 1 = .
      j1 + j2
J M

, J = M ,
:
   
J+ ( j2 |j1 1|j2  j1 |j1 |j2 1) = 2j1 j2 |j1 |j2  2j1 j2 |j1 |j2  = 0.
     
j1+ | . . .
j2+ | . . .

|j1 + j2 1, j1 + j2 1
J J = j1 + j2 1 M .
, -
|J, J J = j1 + j2 , j1 + j2 1, . . . , |j1 j2 |.
J |J, M , M < J.
448 15

, :
j
1 +j2

(2J + 1) = (j1 + j2 |j1 j2 | + 1) (j1 + j2 + |j1 j2 | + 1) =

    
J=|j1 j2 |

= (2j1 + 1)(2j2 + 1).

(*) , -
, j1 j2 , -
, j1 +j2 , j1 +j2 1, . . . , |j1
j2 |.

m1 , m2 |J, M 

, , . . -
.
,
.
1 1
15.5.1. 2
+ 2

-
12 .
,
:
|1, 1 = |+|+,

S |1, 1 = 2|1, 0 = (s1 + s2 )|+|+ =
= (s1 |+) |+ + |+ (s2 |+) = ||+ + |+|,
     
|
|

||+ + |+|
|1, 0 = ,
2
||+ + |+|
S |1, 0 = 2|1, 1 = (s1 + s2 ) =
2
|(s2 |+) + (s1 |+)|
=
2
 15.5. * 449

|1, 1 = ||.
|0, 0 |+|
||+ ( ), -
|1, 0:
||+ |+|
|0, 0 = .
2
1 , -
, 0 .
(,
. . 12 ), ( )
:

(r1 , 1 ; r2 , 2 ) = (r2 , 2 ; r1 , 1 ).

,
:

(r1 , 1 ; r2 , 2 ) = (r1 , r2 ) (1 , 2 ).

(r1 , r2 ) (1 , 2 ) = (r2 , r1 ) (2 , 1 ).

,
(1 , 2 ) = (2 , 1 )
(+ 1, 0),

(r1 , r2 ) = (r2 , r1 ).

-

(+ 0, 1). -

15.5.2.
s1 = s2 = s.
Ps :

Ps |m1 |m2  = |m2 |m1 .

450 15

, . .
Ps = Ps1 . , Ps = Ps1 ,
, . -
1.
,
:
|2s, 2s = |s|s.

S = s1 + s2 ,
, . . S :

[S , Ps ] = 0.
,
|2s, M , M = s, . . . , +s
.
2s 1

|s 1|s + |s|s 1
|2s, 2s 1 = ,
2
. .
|s 1|s |s|s 1
|2s 1, 2s 1 = .
2
, |2s 1, 2s 1 .
S ,
|2s 1, M , M = s + 1, . . . , +s 1,
.
, , S , , -
(
).
,
.
, K (2s 2s K +
+ 1) ( K = 1 )

Ps |2s k, M  = (1)k |2s k, M , k = 0, . . . , K 1.

 15.5. * 451

HK (K = 0, . . . , 2s) (K + 1)-
, M = 2s K.
|2s K, 2s K
|S, 2s K (S = 2s, . . . , 0).
1. , |2s K, 2s K -
:

S, 2s K|Ps |2s K, 2s K = S, 2s K|2s K, 2s K = 0,

S = 2s, . . . , 2s K + 1.

Ps |2sK, 2sK K K +1,

|2s K, 2s K, . . .
2. HK +

HK . HK K + 1 -
|m1 |m2  (m1 + m2 = M = 2s K).

|m1 |m2  + Ps |m1 |m2  = |m1 |m2  + |m2 |m1 

. , -
m1 m2 , ,
!
dim HK =
+ K + 1,
2
.

HK HK
!
dim HK
=K K .
2

3. , )
* |2s K,)2s *K (1)K .
K1 2 + 1 K 1 K12 -
, S

HK1 . HK , -
, |2s K, 2s K . K
, . K ,
.
, S , ,
|2s K, M  (1)K .
452 15

s -
,
(r1 , 1 ; r2 , 2 ) = (1)2s (r2 , 2 ; r1 , 1 ).
,
:
(r1 , 1 ; r2 , 2 ) = (r1 , r2 ) (1 , 2 ).
,
s:
(1 , 2 ) = (1)K (2 , 1 ) = (1)2sS (2 , 1 ).
,
:
(r1 , r2 ) = (1)S (r2 , r1 ).
1
15.5.3. j + 2

j 12 -

J = j 1,
2
|j + 2 , j + 2  = |j|+.
1 1

J = j + s , -
 
2j + 1|j + 12 , j 12  = 2j|j 1|+ + |j|,

2j|j 1|+ + |j|
|j + 2 , j 2  =
1 1
.
2j + 1


|j 1|+ 2j|j|
|j 1
2, j 2
1
= .
2j + 1

J N
|j + 12 , j + 12  |j 12 , j 12 . 12
s 2 = 0, :
J N = (j + s )N = j N + N j N 1 s = (j + N s )j N 1 ,
 15.5. * 453

C|j + 12 , j + 1
2 N  = J N |j + 12 , j + 12  = (j + N s )j N 1 |j|+ =
= C  (j + N s )|j N + 1|+

= C  ( (2j N + 1)N |j N |+ + N |j N + 1|).

( , C, C  > 0),

2j N + 1|j N |+ + N |j N + 1|
|j + 2 , j + 2 N  =
1 1
.
   2j + 1
M

( )

N |j N |+ 2j N + 1|j N + 1|
|j 2 , j + 2 N  =
1 1
.
   2j + 1
M

15.5.4. 1 + 1
2, 1, 0. -
2 0 , 1 .
-
. , 1

j : j |m = 2|m 1 m =
= 1, 0.
, ( )
:

|2, 2 = |1|1,
|0|1 + |1|0
|2, 1 = ,
2
| 1|1 + 2|0|0 + |1| 1
|2, 0 = ,
6
| 1|0 + |0| 1
|2, 1 = ,
2
|2, 2 = | 1| 1,
|0|1 |1|0
|1, 1 = ,
2
454 15

| 1|1 |1| 1
|1, 0 = ,
2
| 1|0 |0| 1
|1, 1 = ,
2
| 1|1 |0|0 + |1| 1
|0, 0 = .
3
 16

, -
. -
,
U (|r1 r2 |), |r1 r2 |. -
-
:
p21 p2
H = + 1 + U (|r1 r2 |). (16.1)
2m1 2m1
,
2
U (|r1 r2 |) = |r1Ze
r2 | ,
( ,
).
, -
,
,
,
, .

16.1.
,
.
,
.
, -
.
-
,
.
456 16

,
.
(U (|r1 r2 |) = k|r1 r 2|
2

2 -
2
, U (|r1 r2 |) = |r1Ze
r2 | -
) ,
( -
)1 .
, (16.1),
- , .
,
. .

.
+1 (
) 1 (
) .

16.2.
, , -
() -
.
, .
, - -
:
r 1 m1 + r2 m2
P = p1 + p2 , M = m1 + m 2 , R= .
m1 + m2
, -
-:
v1 v2
 
 p p2  m1 m2 p1 m2 p2 m1 m1 m 2
1
p = m m = , = , r = r1 r2 .
1 2 m1 + m2 m1 + m2 m1 + m2
     
v.

1 -
() .
( ).
 16.2. 457

,
:

[R , P ] = ih , [r , p ] = ih ,
[R , p ] = [r , P ] = [R , r ] = [p , P ] = 0.
, (r1 , r2 , p1 , p2 ) (r, R, p, P) -
.
x-:
 
 1 1 
D(rx , Rx ) 
=  m1 m2  = 1,
D(r1x , r2x )  m1 + m2 m1 + m2 
 
 m2 m1 
D(px , Px )  m +m m +m 
= 1 2 1 2  = 1.
D(p1x , p2x )  1 1 

, -
,
.
(16.1) (-
, , -
):
p2 2
H = + U (|r|) + P . (16.2)
2 2M
   
H1 H0

, H0
, H1
. , -
-
: .
. -

(r1 , r2 ) = (r, R) = 1 (r) 0 (R),
-

(H1 + H0 ) 1 0 = (H1 1 ) 0 + 1 (H0 0 ),

  
H
458 16

, :
1 0
ih = H1 1 , ih = H0 0 .
t t
:
M
.
U (|r|)
.
, -

H1 H0 :
H1 0 = (E1 + E0 )1 0 , H1 1 = E1 1 , H0 0 = E0 0 .
( ) -
, , :
2 2
0k = eikr , E0k = h k .
2M
U (|r|)
.

16.3.

p2
H1 = + U (|r|). (16.3)
2

l = 1 [r p].
h
,
, -
:
l2 , lz , H1 .
 16.3. 459

,
, -
r . H1

2
H1 = h  + U (|r|).
2

 
 = 1 a |g| g ab b ,
|g| ab x x

g ab ( -
dl):
  
ab a 1, a = c
g gbc = c = , dl2 = gab dxa dxb ,
0, a = c
b ab

|g|d3 x ,
:

g = det(gab ).

-
(15.5). -
l2 :
$
%
2
= 2 1 r 2
+ 1 1 + 1 sin .
r r r r 2 sin2 2 sin
  
 =l2

,
2
L 2 :
2r

2
H1 = h 12 r 2 + h2 l2 + U (r).
2 r r r 2r 2
  
. .
460 16

l2 H1 . -
l2 ,

1 (r) = 1 (r, , ) = R(r) Yl (, ),

Yl l2 :

l2 Yl = l(l + 1)Yl .

Yl lz (
) , -
Yl Ylm ,
lz Ylm = mYlm , l2 Ylm = l(l + 1)Ylm .

Yl -
l. -
, Ylm , ( m = l, l 1, . . . , 0, . . . , l)
2l + 1 .
Yl ,

H1 (RYl ) = E1 (RYl )
     
1 1
$ %
h2
1 2 h2 l(l + 1)
r + + U (r) R(r) = E1 R(r). (16.4)
2 r 2 r r 2r 2

H1
, l2 l(l + 1).
() , -
h2 l2
2r 2
h2 l(l+1)
2mr 2 .
,
.
h2 1
() 2 2
r 2 r r r -
.
, , r, -
, .
 16.3. 461

, -
, -
, ( )
r12 , 1r .
:

R(r) = 1r (r), 1 (r, , ) = 1r (r) Yl (, ).

dP dr, d, d:

dP = |1 |2 d3 r = |R(r)Yl (, )|2 r 2 sin dr d d =

  

= |(r)Yl (, )| sin dr d d.
2

dP (r) r2 , r
,
.
:

1 r 2 (r) = 1 r 2  
r r2 = 12 (r ) = r .
r 2 r r r r 2 r r r

R = r (16.4)
1r , , -
-
: $ %
h 2
2 h2 l(l + 1)
+ + U (r) (r) = E1 (r). (16.5)
2 r 2 2r 2
  
Hr

() Hr -
2 2
K = 2 h
r 2 ,
-
2 ;2

L
U (r) h 2r
l(l+1)
2 = 2r 2 . -
-
, ,
.
462 16

,
r 0  r < ,
R = r ,

(0) = 0. (16.6)

16.3.1. r 0
(16.5)
r 0:
$ %
2
h2 h l(l + 1)
 (r) + + U (r) E1 (r) = 0, (0) = 0. (16.7)
2 2r 2
r 0 ,
U (r).
, r 0 U (r) ,
:
r0
r 2 U (r) 0.
r
2 h2 l(l + 1)
h  (r) + (r)  0, r 0, (0) = 0,
2 2r 2
r2  (r) = l(l + 1) (r), (0) = 0.
-
,
r:
r l+1 , 1l .
r
(0) = 0 ,
-

(r) r l+1 , r 0 1 (r, , ) r l Yl (, ), r 0. (16.8)

1
, r2 ,
-
-

(16.8) : r l r l , l
( , ).
 16.3. 463

(-
) ,
- L2 (R+ ), . . (r)
r , 1r . -
, . .
.
const
r 2 .

16.3.2. r
r ,
U (r), E1 .
( ) -
, ,
.

:
2
h  (r)  E1 (r), r , (0) = 0. (16.9)
2
, (0) = 0 (
) , -
. (0) = 0
jr (0) .
:
(r) jr (r)
+ = 0.
t r
-
, (r)
t = 0
:
jr (r)
= 0, jr (0) = 0 jr (r) 0. (16.10)
r
-
. (16.7) (r) -
E1 . -
(0) = 0 -
(16.7) E1
464 16

, (r), Re(r), Im(r)

.
,
(r), . . (16.7)
.
(16.10) E1 < 0 ( -
)

2E1
(r) er , = , r . (16.11)
h
( )

2E1
(r) sin(kr + ), k = , R, r . (16.12)
h
-
r. , U (r) a, -
(a) = 0, l = 0
(r) = C sin(k r ka), r  a.


, U (r )
.

r
U (r)
, . . ,
, .

, . . :
(0) = 0,
.
U (r ). -
, -

2 2
U (r) = r
2
 16.4. 465

-
(. 12 )
r2 4

(r) e 2x20
, x0 = h r .
,

16.4.
U (r) =
2
= er , ( , -
2
Z) U (r) = Zer . , -
, (16.3),

p2 2
H1 = Ze , (16.13)
2 |r|
(16.5),
(16.6)
$ %
h2
 h2 l(l + 1) Ze2
(r) + r E1 (r) = 0, (0) = 0. (16.14)
2 2r 2

16.4.1.

. -
(). ,
,
. -
Z e. , ,
( )

= 1, h = 1, Ze2 = 1.
, .
( 2 103 ),

.
 (1 0,5 103 ) me .
466 16

= me , Z = 1
me = 9,109 1028 = 1, h = 1,055 1027 = 1,
e = 4,803 1010 . = 1.
:
[me ] = M, [h] = ET = M L2 T 1 , [e2 ] = EL = M L3 T 2 .
-
. ,
, .
1/100 :
e2 = 2,187 108 / 102 c, c = 2,997 924 58 1010 /.
h
, -
, -
. -

= 1  1 1 + 2,5 105
1 (v/c) 2 1 0,5 104

105 .
, ,
(1 A = 1010 = 108 )

2
a = h 2 = 0,529 108 = 0,529 A.
me
( )
, , -
, :
3
ta = h 4 = 2,419 1017 .
me
(Ry). ,
1 :
4 2
0 = 2Ry = me2 = ea = 27,1 = 4,34 1018 = 4,34 1011 .
h
 16.4. 467

16.4.2.

!
l(l + 1) 1
1  () + + 1 () = 0,
2n2 (0) = 0. (16.15)
2 22



 = E01 = 2n1 2 (n
r ), = ar
.
, . .
 < 0.

() l+1 , 0, 1 = 2.
() e/n , , n

() = l+1 e/n u().

u() ,
, l+1 ,
e/n :
$
 %
 /n   l+1 1 l(l + 1) 2(l + 1) 1
() = e
l+1
u + 2u n +u n + 2 .
2 n

u + u l + 1 1 + u n l 1 = 0,
2 n n
 
nl1
u + 2u l + 1 n + 2u n = 0.

u() :


u() = C k k , (16.16)
k=0
468 16



u () = (k + 1)Ck+1 k , u () = (k + 2)(k + 1)Ck+2 k ,
k=0 k=0

 )
(k + 2)(k + 1)Ck+2 k+1 + 2(l + 1)(k + 1)Ck+1 k
k=0
%
2(k + 1) 2(n l 1)
n Ck+1 k+1
+ n
k
Ck = 0,

$ %
 2(n l 1)
(k + 1)kCk+1 + 2(l + 1)(k + 1)Ck+1 2k
n Ck + n Ck k = 0,
k=0

$ %
 2(n l 1 k)
(2l + k + 2)(k + 1)Ck+1 + n Ck k = 0.
k=0
:
2(n l 1 k)
Ck+1 = Ck . (16.17)
n(2l + k + 2)(k + 1)
k
2 )k
(n
Ck+1 Ck 2 const u() const e2/n , .
nk k!
e/n -
e+/n ,
, , . . .

, , . .
K = 0, 1, 2, . . . , CK = 0,
2(n l 1 K)
CK+1 = CK =0 n = l + 1 + K N.
 n(2l + K + 2)(K + 1)
=0

, n, -
, :
K
k
2 (2l + 1)!(n l 1)!
u() = C0 n .
k=0
(2l + 2 + k)!(n l 2 k)!k!
 16.4. 469

k
2
K n
u() = const
k=0
(2l + 2 + k)!(K 1 k)!k!

K = n l 1.

16.4.3. *

, , .

. . . 1961 .*
* . ., . ., . . -
. : . 2 . . 2. /
. . . . .: , 2001.

,
. -
1913 ,
,
-
: L = pR = nh.
R2
'
2
2 p 2 2
U = e , K= = U = e p = e m,
R 2m 2 2R R
'
2
p 2R = n2h p = nh = e m
R R
1 = e2 m
4
E = U = e 2m2 .
R n2 h2 2 2n h
,
,

L = pR = nh
2 ,

K = 12 U , . . E = U
2
.
470 16

0, . . . , (n 1)h,
.
-
0 < L  nh. L = 0 , -
.
 17
.
()

,
- ,
. . .

17.1.

. -
- -
, . , ,
.

17.2.
17.2.1.
-

-
. , -
,
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