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ВЫСОКОЧАСТОТНОЕ ТИТРОВАНИЕ
В этом методе анализа исследуемый раствор подвергают действию
электрического поля высокой частоты. При действии переменного тока ионы
раствора колеблются около равновесного состояния. При увеличении
частоты тока амплитуда колебаний ионов уменьшается и наконец ионы
перестают колебаться в такт с током. Высокие частоты вызывают
иомеризацию молекул и ионов, что приводит к кратковременному току. При
добавлении в исследуемый раствор титранта происходит изменение
проводимости и диэлектрической проницаемости раствора, которые и
влияют на показание индикаторных приборов и установок, применяемых для
высокочастного титрования. В высокочастотном титровании могут
использоваться очистка емкостного и индуктивного типа, изображенный на
рис.4.
CONDUCTOMETRY
Conductometric methods are based on measuring the specific electrical
conductivity of the solutions under study. Electrical conductivity refers to the
ability of a substance (metals, gases, liquids) to conduct an electric current under
the influence of an external source of electric current. The electrical conductivity is
measured in reverse ohms. Several methods of conductometric analysis are known.
Direct conductometry is a method that allows direct determination of electrolyte
concentrations by measuring the electrical conductivity of an electrolyte solution
with a known qualitative composition.
Conductometric titration is an analysis method based on the determination of the
substance content based on the time spent for its titration, which is automatically
fixed in the diagram tape of the titration curve recorder.
Conductometry for analytical purposes uses the electrical properties of the
solution, independent of the specificity of the electrode reactions. The method is
based on measuring the electrical conductivity of a solution by placing electrodes
in a solution. Conductivity is measured mainly in the analysis of aqueous solutions,
although it can be used for other solvents and molten salts. Water has very poor
conductivity. Solutions of very strong electrolytes have an almost linear
dependence of the conductivity on the concentration up to 10-20 wt%. At high
concentrations, the conductivity begins to fall, due to the fact that the interaction
between ions prevents their movement through the solution. Using the method of
measuring the electrical conductivity, one ion can be determined in the presence of
a moderate concentration of others if there is a chemical reagent that can separate it
into a precipitate or an undissociated complex. For this, the electrical conductivity
is measured before and after the addition of a known amount of the reagent.
Addition of a reagent either causes an increase in electrical conductivity (a strong
electrolyte) or reduces the increase in electrical conductivity (a strong electrolyte)
or reduces it by binding it to an ion in solution. The addition of the reagent must be
carried out with a significant excess, so that the final electrical conductivity is
always greater than the original one.
The data obtained in the measurement of the electrical conductivity are plotted
against the calibration curve as a function of the concentration of the ion being
determined.
CONDUCTOMETRIC TITRATION
The existence of a linear relationship between the concentration of dilute solutions
of electrolytes and their electrical conductivity makes it possible to use
conductometry when titrating the analyzed solution to determine the equivalence
point.
Conductometric titration is the titrimetric method of analysis, in which the
equivalence point is determined from the change in the electrical conductivity of
the solution during titration.
Conductometric titration is possible only if the electrical conductivity of the initial
solution differs significantly from the electrical conductivity of the reactant or
reaction products. The conductometric titration curve is the dependence of the
electrical conductivity of the solution (w = 1 / R ohm-1) on the volume of the cast
titrant. The method is very useful in titrating strongly colored or turbid solutions.
The nature of the change in electrical conductivity during titration is due to the
replacement of one ion by another, having a different value of mobility. In this
case, the titration curve consists of segments of straight lines, the intersection of
which allows one to find an equivalence point and an equivalent volume of the
titrant. In order for the lines to be straight, the volume of the titrated liquid should
be practically unchanged; for this, the titrant should be more concentrated than the
test solution.
Acid-base titration. When titrating, for example, hydrochloric acid with a solution
of sodium hydroxide, hydrogen ions are replaced by less mobile sodium ions, since
virtually undissociated water molecules are formed during the neutralization
reaction. With continued neutralization, the electrical conductivity of the solution
containing the acid gradually decreases until all H + ions are replaced by Na +
ions, i.e. until the acid is neutralized (Figure 1a). With further alkali addition, ω
again increases due to an increase in the total number of ions in the solution, and in
particular, of hydroxide ions. Since l _ ( 〖 OH 〗 ^ -) <l_ (H ^ +) +, the line of
electrical conductivity to the point of equivalence drops steeper than it rises after it.
In Fig. 1b shows a scheme that reflects the qualitative nature of the ion
concentration change during titration, useful for understanding the conductometric
titration curve. The value of CCl - during the titration practically does not change,
whereas CNa + will increase monotonically. The value of CH + will decrease from
the initial value practically to zero at the point of equivalence, and the
concentration of CHF- practically equal to zero at the point of equivalence, after it
will increase.
Thus, the change in electrical conductivity to the point of equivalence is
determined by the action of two mutually opposite tendencies: decreasing due to
the decrease of CH + and increasing due to the increase of C Na. The resultant of
these contributions (Figure 1a) shows a sharp decrease in electrical conductivity to
the point of equivalence. It is caused by a decrease in the concentration of the H +
ion, which has a mobility of 350 S / cm2 / mole at 25 ° C, which is much greater
than the mobility of the Na + ion (50 S / cm2 / mole).
Fig. 1. Conductometric titration of a strong acid
strong base: a - change in electrical conductivity
(ie - the point of equivalence); b - change in the concentration of ions
When the weak acid is titrated with a strong base (Figure 2a), the solution grows
because of the substitution of salt (section ab) for the slightly dissociated acid.
After the equivalence point, w grows even faster, since an excess of hydroxide ions
appears in the solution (section bc).
When titrating a mixture of strong and weak acids (Fig. 2b), a strong acid first
enters into the reaction with the base and only weakly after neutralization.
Neutralization of a strong acid causes a drop in w (section ab). After the first
equivalence point, titration of a weak acid (section bc) begins with an increase in w
due to the formation of a well dissociated salt. After the second equivalence point,
there is an increase in w (section cd) due to the appearance of excess hydroxide
ions. Thus, b and c are equivalence points when titrating an acid mixture.
Precipitation titration. The form of the titration curve depends on the mobility of
the ions of the reagents (the substance and precipitant being determined), their
concentration and on the magnitude of the solubility product. For example, when
titrating 0.001 M solutions, the solubility product of the precipitate should be no
more than 10-9. The course of the titration curve is similar to the titration curve of
a weak acid and is shown in Fig. 3.
High-frequency titration
In this method of analysis, the test solution is exposed to an electric field of high
frequency. Under the action of an alternating current, the ions of the solution
oscillate near the equilibrium state. As the frequency of the current increases, the
amplitude of the ion oscillations decreases, and finally the ions cease to oscillate in
time with the current. High frequencies cause ionization of molecules and ions,
which leads to a short-time current. When a titrant is added to the test solution, the
conductivity and permittivity of the solution change, which affects the indication
of the indicator instruments and installations used for high-frequency titration. In
high-frequency titration, the cleaning of the capacitive and inductive type, depicted
in Fig. 4, can be used.