ЮЖНЫЙ ФЕДЕРАЛЬНЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ

ПРАКТИЧЕСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА
АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА

1 курс

Ростов-на-Дону
2015

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УДК 811.111.81’366
ББК 81.2.Англ – 2
Ш 85

Ответственный редактор:
Кандидат филологических наук Л.П. Шрамко

Рецензент:
Кандидат филологических наук Л.А. Томашевская

Шрамко Л.П., Погребная И.Ф., Рябцева И.Г., Степанова Е.Н.

Ш 85 Практическая грамматика английского языка: Учебник по грамматике
английского языка для студентов 1-3 курса Института филологии, журналистики
и мкк. – Ростов н/Д: ЮФУ, 2015

Учебник состоит из двух частей: «Морфология» и «Синтаксис». В первой

части содержатся базовые сведения о частях речи английского языка, их свойствах
и нормах употребления в современном английском языке. Во второй части
представлены правила построения простого и сложного предложений,
особенности членов предложения и способы их выражения, а также правила
пунктуации.

УДК 811.111.81’366
ББК 81.2.Англ – 2
© Шрамко Л.П., 2015
© Погребная И.Ф.
© Рябцева И.Г.
© Степанова Е.Н., 2015

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 CONTENTS

Part 1: Morphology
The Noun
The category of number
The category of case
Gender
Noun determiners and quantifiers
The Article
Use of articles with common nouns
Articles with countable nouns
Use of articles with countable nouns modified by attributes
Use of articles with uncountable nouns
Articles with the nouns of material
Articles with abstract nouns
Articles with nouns in some syntactic functions and patterns
Special cases of the use of articles
Use of articles with proper nouns
Articles with personal names
Use of articles with personal names modified by attributes
Articles with geographical names
Articles with other proper nouns
The Pronoun
Personal pronouns
Possessive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns
Indefinite pronouns
Negative pronouns
Defining pronouns
Reciprocal pronouns
Interrogative pronouns
Relative pronouns
Conjunctive pronouns
The Adjective
Degrees of comparison
Substantivized adjectives
The words of the category of state
The Numeral
Cardinal numerals
Ordinal numerals
The Adverb
The place of an adverb in a sentence
Degrees of comparison of adverbs
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The Verb
The categories of Tense and Aspect
The category of Voice
The category of Mood
Modal Verbs
The Non-Finite Forms of the verbs (Verbals)
Infinitive
Gerund
Participle
The Interjection
The Preposition
The Conjunction
Part II: Syntax
The simple sentence
The composite sentence
Punctuation

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 PART I: MORPHOLOGY

PARTS OF SPEECH
THE NOUN
The noun is a part of speech denoting substance in a wide sense. They denote persons,
places, things, concepts, qualities, organizations, communities, feelings, events, etc.
Nouns have the following morphological characteristics:
- Nouns that can be counted have the category of number (the singular and the
plural);
- Nouns denoting living beings and some nouns denoting lifeless things have the
category of case (the common case and the genitive case).
Nouns have the following syntactical characteristics:
The noun can be used in a sentence in the syntactical functions of subject, object,
predicative, attribute, and adverbial modifier.
CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS
According to their meaning nouns can be classified into Proper nouns and Common
nouns.
Proper nouns are individual names given to separate persons or things. They can be
divided into personal names, geographical names, names of months and days of the week,
names of ships, hotels, clubs, etc. In general, words which begin with capital letters and
are not at the beginning of sentences are called ‘proper’ nouns.
Common nouns are names that can be applied to any individual of a class of persons
or things, to collections of similar individuals or things regarded as a single unit,
materials, and abstract notions. They can be divided as in the table below.
CLASS / CONCRETE NOUNS
They denote persons or things belonging to a class. They are countable, e.g. a flower
- flowers, a tree - trees, a man - men.
COLLECTIVE NOUNS
They denote a number or collection of similar individuals or things regarded as a
single unit. They can be divided into the following groups:
- Collective nouns used only in the singular and denoting a number of things
collected together and regarded as a single object, e.g. foliage, furniture, luggage,
baggage, machinery, equipment;
- Nouns of multitude singular in form though plural in meaning, e.g. police, poultry,
cattle, people, gentry, etc. If such noun is used as subject, the verb used as predicate is
in plural.
- Nouns that may be both singular and plural, e.g. family, audience, crowd, public,
press, committee, council, crew, fleet, nation, group, team, party, staff, government,
management, army, names of organizations (the UN, Coca-Cola).

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 NOUNS OF MATERIAL
They denote material or substance, e.g. iron, gold, water, snow, etc. They are
uncountable.
Nouns of material can be used in the plural to denote different sorts of a given material,
e.g. Foods are not allowed here.
Nouns of material turn into class nouns when they begin to denote an object of definite
shape made of this material, e.g. a glass, an iron.
ABSTRACT NOUNS
They denote some quality, state, action or idea, e.g. kindness, fear, fight, etc. As a
rule, they are uncountable, but some of them are countable, e.g. an idea, an hour, etc.
They can turn into class nouns if they denote objects, possessing qualities denoted by
abstract nouns, e.g. a beauty - beauties, a sight - sights, etc.
THE MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF NOUNS
Nouns can have the following morphological structure.
SIMPLE DERIVATIVE COMPOUND
They have They are formed by means They are built by
neither prefixes nor of suffixes -ance, -dom, - combining two or more
suffixes, e.g. cup, ence, -er, -ess, -hood, -ion, - stems, e.g. blueberry,
book, table, etc. ism, -ist, -ity, -ment, -ness, - snowman, living room, etc.
ship, -ty, etc., e.g. freedom,
movement, motion, worker,
darkness, etc.
THE CATEGORY OF NUMBER
Besides the classification given above, nouns can be divided into countable and
uncountable. Countable nouns have singular and plural forms that can be built in different
ways.
1. Most of the nouns build their plural form by adding the ending -s or -es. The ending
-s/es can be pronounced in different ways:
- The ending -s is pronounced [iz] after sibilants and affricates, e.g. noses, horses,
bridges;
- The ending -s is pronounced [z] after vowels and voiced consonants other than
sibilants and affricates, e.g. beds, bees;
- The ending -s is pronounced [s] after voiceless consonants other than sibilants and
affricates, e.g. caps, books.
The ending -es is added in the following cases:
- if a noun ends in -s, -ss, -x, -sh, -ch, -tch, e.g. bus - buses, glass - glasses, box -
boxes, brush - brushes, bench - benches, match - matches;
- if a noun ends in -y preceded by a consonant (-y is replaced by-i), e.g. lady - ladies;
Note: In proper nouns the ending -s is added: Mary – Marys.
If the final -y is preceded by a vowel, the ending -s is added: day – days.
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 - if a noun ends in -o preceded by a consonant, e.g. hero - heroes, potato – potatoes.
Note: There are some exceptions, e.g. piano - pianos, photo - photos, solo -
solos;
If -o is preceded by a vowel, the ending -s is used, e.g. cuckoo – cuckoos, portfolio
- portfolios.
Some nouns have both forms: mosquito - mosquitos, mosquitoes.
With certain nouns the final voiceless consonants are replaced with corresponding
voiced consonants and either –es or –s is added; the change in pronunciation isn’t
necessarily reflected in spelling:
f–v Ө-ð s–z
Calf – calves
Knife - knives
Leaf - leaves
Life - lives Bath - baths
Sheaf - sheaves Path - paths House - houses
Shelf - shelves Oath - oaths
Thief - thieves
Wife - wives
Wolf - wolves
Exceptions: roof - roofs, gulf –
Exceptions:
gulfs, proof – profs; In other nouns [s]
smith - smiths,
scarf - scarves, scarfs, dwarf - remains voiceless
month - months
dwarfs, dwarves
2. The following nouns form their plural by changing the root vowel: man -men,
woman - women, foot - feet, tooth - teeth, goose - geese, mouse -mice, louse - lice.
3. The following nouns form the plural by adding the ending -en: ox - oxen, child -
children, brother – brethren (poetic).
4. The following nouns have homonymous singular and plural forms: a deer – deer,
a sheep – sheep, a swine – swine, a fish – fish, a craft – craft; some nouns ending in –s
in singular do not change in plural: a means – means, a headquarters – headquarters, a
series – series, a species – species, a works – works.
5. The noun person has two plural forms: people and persons; but the form ‘persons’
is used in formal context:
There are 4 people waiting for you.
This vehicle takes 4 persons.
6. Some nouns borrowed from Latin and Greek keep their original plural forms:
analysis – analyses, bacterium – bacteria, basis – bases, crisis – crises, criterion –
criteria, curriculum – curricula, datum – data, focus – foci, formula – formulae,
nucleus – nuclei, phenomenon – phenomena, thesis - theses. Some of them can also
have regular forms, e.g. focuses, formulas.
Some nouns that originally were plural are coming to be uncountable:
the data are → the data is; the media are → the media is.

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 In compound nouns the ending is usually added to the head word, if it is a noun stem.
It can be either initial or final: a brother-in-law – brothers-in-law, a passer-by – passers-
by, a lady-bug – lady-bugs.
If there is no noun stem in a compound noun, the ending -s is added to the final
element: forget-me-not – forget-me-nots, a grown-up – grown-ups.
If the second element of a compound noun is -man, the root vowel is changed: a
sportsman – sportsmen, a postman – postmen.
If the first element of a compound noun is man or woman, both elements are changed
according the rules: a man-servant – men-servants, a woman-doctor – women-doctors.
There are nouns in English that have only plural forms:
- some nouns denoting pieces of clothing, trousers, shorts, pyjamas (pajamas);
tools and instruments binoculars, glasses, spectacles, scissors, scales, games billiards,
cards, dominoes, draughts and nouns that do not refer to any particular semantic group
such as belongings, contents, clothes, goods, headquarters, outskirts, premises,
refreshments, surroundings, thanks, troops, whereabouts have plural meaning and are
not used in the singular;
- nouns denoting subjects or science, such as phonetics, physics are usually used as
singulars;
- the noun politics can be used both as singular and plural;
- the noun news is treated as singular.
THE CATEGORY OF CASE
Case indicates the relation of the noun to the other words in the sentence. Nouns
denoting living beings and some lifeless things have two cases: the common case and
the genitive case.
The common case is the uninflected form, i.e. it has no grammatical ending. The
genitive case is the inflected form. It is formed by adding -'s (the apostrophe s) to the
noun in singular and only ' (apostrophe) to the nouns in plural ending in -s, e.g. girl -
girl's, girls - girls', man - man's, men - men's, but: Dickens - Dickens', Dickens's.
The "apostrophe s" may refer to a whole group of words, e.g. brother and sister's,
Jane and Mary's.
The ending -s is pronounced [iz] after sibilants and affricates, e.g. prince's, witch's,
judge's, Dickens's.
It is pronounced [z] after vowels and voiced consonants other than sibilants and
affricates, e.g. mother's, man's.
It is pronounced [s] after voiceless consonants other than sibilants and affricates, e.g.
bishop's, student's.
There are two forms of the genitive case. They are the dependent genitive and the
absolute genitive. The dependent genitive precedes the noun it modifies, while the
absolute genitive is used without a noun.
The dependent genitive with nouns denoting living beings has several meanings:
- It denotes possession or possessive meaning, e.g. Mary's book;
- It denotes family relations, e.g. John's brother;

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 - It has partitive meaning (when a part of a whole or a part of a body is named), e.g.
the baby's eyes, this family's member;
- It denotes a doer of an action or creation (subjective genitive) or an object of an
action (objective genitive), e.g. Tom's step, Tom's reception;
- It denotes qualitative relations, e.g. officer's uniform, student's gown.
The genitive case of the nouns naming lifeless things may denote the relations
between a part and the whole, e.g. ship's deck. In most cases this meaning is expressed
without the ending -'s, e.g. a computer keyboard.
The genitive case is widely used with nouns denoting time, space, weight, place, e.g.
(a) two days' leave, the field's edge, a pound's worth, Asia's largest city, etc.
There are some peculiarities that should be remembered:
- We can built compound nouns according the model “noun + noun” to express
measurements: a ten-dollar note, a two-week course, a five-mile walk, a two-bedroom
cottage, a four-pound chicken, a two-storey house;
- The noun “worth” can be preceded only by a noun in the genitive case: five-
dollars’ worth of candies, a pound’s worth of apples, twenty rubles’ worth of butter;
- Time measurement can be expressed by nouns in the genitive case and by
compound nouns (the use of the indefinite article is different in these cases): a day’s trip,
five days’ trip, a five-day trip, ten minutes’ break, a ten-minute break;
- The common case of nouns denoting days and parts of the days are used when we
speak about things or events that happen regularly: the evening newspaper, an evening
show, a Sunday meeting; the genitive case is used when we speak about some particular
things or events: last Saturday’s match, tomorrow’s newspaper, yesterday’s show.
The absolute genitive can be used anaphorically (instead of the noun it modifies):
Her face resembles her brother's.
It can also have local meaning, i.e. denote some place, e.g. at the baker's, at my
Mom's.
The absolute genitive may be introduced by the preposition of:
She is no relation of Mary's.
The phrase "something of somebody" is alternative to the dependent genitive in some
of its meanings. It can be used to express family relations, creation and place, e.g. the
twin of the girl, the 5th symphony of Beethoven, the largest cities of Asia. It is generally
used in order to draw attention to the word put at the end of the phrase and it is more
common in formal and written English. The phrase can express quantity when used with
lifeless things, e.g. a glass of water. It is not used to express possession.
GENDER
There is no grammatical gender for nouns in English. Few nouns referring to living
beings can be male or female, e.g. waiter - waitress, lion - lioness, actor - actress,
salesman - saleswoman, etc. In other cases the nouns denote either male or female
beings, e.g. man - woman, uncle - aunt, brother - sister, son - daughter.
Nouns denoting lifeless things are usually treated as neuter, but the nouns sea, ship,
Britain can be referred to as female: Look, she is a nice ship.

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 SYNTACTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF NOUNS
The noun can be used in different syntactic functions:
- Subject: This woman looks older than she is.
- Object: She took the letter and read it slowly. She looked attentively at the man
standing in front of her.
- Predicative: My friend is a student.
- Attribute: John's brother doesn't look like John at all. She is a friend of my
brother's. The house door was open wide.
- Adverbial modifier: There is nobody in the room now. Let's meet at my sister's.
At night it became cold again.
NOUN DETERMINERS AND QUANTIFIERS
As a rule nouns are used with determiners. Determiners include the following groups
of words:
- articles (a/an, the);
- demonstrative pronouns (this/these, that/those);
- possessive pronouns in the conjoint form;
- indefinite pronouns some, any;
- defining pronouns each, every, either;
- negative pronouns no, neither,
E.g. a book, this street, my hand, some sugar, no water, etc
Nouns may be also preceded by quantifiers. They precede nouns with or without
attributes. Quantifiers denote an indefinite quantity of objects or substance (some, any),
a larger quantity (much, many, a lot of), or a smaller quantity (few, a few, little, a little).
The choice of a quantifier depends on the number of objects mentioned and on whether
the noun is countable or uncountable.
COUNTABLE, COUNTABLE, COUNTABLE,
UNCOUNTABLE
SINGULAR TWO THINGS PLURAL
Another, any, Both, either, All, any, enough, few, All, any, enough,
each, every, neither many, more, no, little, much, more,
some, no several, some, a lot of, no, some, a lot of,
plenty of plenty of, a great
deal of
Some is used in affirmative statements, offers, and requests to denote an indefinite
quantity of something:
There is some water in the jar. – В кувшине вода.
Would you like some tea? – Хотите чаю?
The stressed form of some denotes a restricted or limited quantity of something:
I like some music. – Какую-то музыку я люблю.
I can't eat some kinds of fish. – Я не могу есть некоторые виды рыбы.
Any is used in interrogative and negative sentences when quantity is not important:
Is there any bread at home? – Дома есть хлеб?
There isn't any bread on the table. – Дома нет хлеба.
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 Any book will do. – Любая книга подойдет.
The stressed form of any denotes an unrestricted quantity or unlimited choice:
I don't eat any meat. - Я не ем никакого мяса.
You can take any book. – Ты можешь взять любую книгу.
If the negation refers to the subject, the negative pronoun no is used:
No book will give you the answer. – Никакая книга не даст вам ответа.
Much, many, a lot of are used to denote a large quantity of something; much is used
with uncountable nouns and many is used with countable nouns. They are preferable in
questions and negative statements, while a lot of is used in affirmative sentences both
with plural nouns and uncountable nouns:
How many questions were you asked?
I wasn't asked many questions.
There isn't much coffee left.
There are a lot of interesting articles in this magazine.
There is a lot of interesting information in it.
We also use much/many after "so", "too", "how":
She has so many books to read. You are wasting too much time.
Tell me how much you have already done.
Note: 1. Many and much may be used in affirmative sentences, too, especially
in written and formal English.
2. A lot is used in questions and negative statements to give extra
emphasis to the amount.
Several, a few, a little suggest a smaller but sufficient quantity; several and a few are
used with countable nouns, while a little is used with uncountable nouns. They are more
often used in affirmative sentences:
She found several articles on the subject.
I have a few magazines, which can interest you.
There is a little coffee still.
Few and little denote a small quantity, which is not enough. They are more often used
in formal written English. Informally not many / much are used:
Few people can answer this question. Not many people can answer this question.
She has got little advice. She hasn't got much practical advice.
All and both can precede other determiners such as the, possessive pronouns, or
demonstrative pronouns:
All these exercises are rather difficult.
All the magazines are here.
Both my brothers are older than me.
We can also combine the following determiners:
- every and few, e.g. I travel every few weeks.
- a few and more/less, e.g. He needed a few more newspapers.
- a little and more/less, e.g. I received a little less money.
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 - few/little and enough, e.g. We get few enough letters as it is.
- much and more, e.g. There is much more work to do.
- They all can be combined (except every and no) with of-phrase, e.g. either of
them, many of them.
Little, few, much, many have degrees of comparison; the degrees of comparison of
little and much can be used with nouns preceded by adjectives to refer to the quantity of
quality, e.g. a less interesting book, the least complicated solution, a more difficult
exercise, the most exciting proposal.
More, most, fewer, fewest, less, least are used in statements about quantity, e.g. more
people, fewer people, less water, etc.

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 THE ARTICLE
The articles are words, which modify nouns.
The indefinite article a/an has developed from the numeral one and has some of its
meaning as it modifies only nouns in the singular.
The definite article has developed from the Old English demonstrative pronoun.
The articles are usually unstressed. The indefinite article ‘a’ is used before nouns
beginning with a consonant, e.g. a book, a flower. The indefinite article ‘an’ is used
before nouns beginning with a vowel or silent h, e.g. an apple, an hour. The article is
stressed if the following word is emphasized.
USE OF ARTICLES WITH COMMON NOUNS
ARTICLES WITH COUNTABLE NOUNS
Most of the class nouns and some abstract nouns are countable. The indefinite article
is used with nouns in the singular and it has the nominating, classifying, numeric and
generalizing meaning. The absence of article (the zero article) before plural nouns has
similar meanings.
USE OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE
The indefinite article has the nominating meaning when we give a name to an object:
A man is waiting for you.
We may use some, several, few, or a numeral if the noun is in the plural:
Some girls are waiting for you.
The indefinite article has nominating meaning in sentences with "there is/there are",
after 'have" and "have got":
There is a man in the room. I have got a problem.
The indefinite article has the classifying meaning when it refers an object to a certain
class of similar objects:
John is a student. His sister, a girl of 16, was extremely beautiful.
There is no article before a noun in the plural:
All my friends are students.
Nouns with the indefinite article in the classifying meaning are usually used as
predicative or apposition.
The indefinite article has the numeric meaning when it expresses oneness. It is often
used with nouns denoting time, distance, and weight, with the nouns dozen and score
and numerals hundred, thousand, million:
An hour passed, than another one.
She bought milk and a dozen eggs.
About a hundred people were already in the room.
It can also have the meaning of "every" in expressions of time or quantity: two times
an hour.
The indefinite article has the generalizing meaning when the noun it modifies
denotes a typical member of a class:
A dog is a domestic animal.

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 Note: Among abstract countable nouns are the following: answer, belief, conclusion,
decision, fact, holiday, idea, job, lie, mistake, opinion, plan, promise, question, reply,
sentence, word.
USE OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE
The definite article is used both with nouns in the singular and in the plural. It has the
specifying and the generic meaning.
The definite article has the specifying meaning when the noun refers to a particular
object or objects distinct from the others of the same class:
He entered the house expecting to find his parents there.
It is also used with the nouns denoting unique objects:
The sun hadn't risen yet when they started.
Note: If nouns denoting unique objects are modified by descriptive attributes they
take the indefinite article:
A bleak winter sun gave no warmth.
The definite article has the generic meaning when the noun refers to a class of objects
as a whole:
The tiger is a dangerous animal.
The plural noun in a generic sense takes no article:
The daisy is a pretty flower.
Daisies are pretty flowers.
The noun man has no article when used in the generic sense; the noun woman is used
with the definite article or without any article:
Man has to take care of nature. (The) woman is more sensitive than man is.
The definite article has the generic meaning when used with nouns denoting genres,
e.g. the tragedy, the comedy, or collective singular nouns denoting classes or groups, e.g.
the aristocracy, the public, the press.
The nouns mankind and humanity are used without any article:
Mankind has no choice but fight against terrorism.
It is often used with nouns that are names of animals, plants, professions and scientific
terms:
The teacher is a noble profession.
USE OF ARTICLES WITH COUNTABLE NOUNS MODIFIED BY ATTRIBUTES
When a noun is modified by an attribute, the latter can influence the use of articles.
There are two types of attributes - limiting and descriptive.
Descriptive attributes do not influence the use of articles. Both the definite and
indefinite articles can be used with the noun modified by a descriptive attribute in
accordance with the general rules of the use of articles:
A young girl entered the room.
He turned round. The young girl was following him.
A limiting attribute is used to point out a particular object or a number of objects
from the other objects of the same class or kind. A noun modified by a limiting attribute
is used with the definite article:
Jane was the oldest girl in our group.
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 Words belonging to different parts of speech can be used as limiting or
descriptive attributes:
ATTRIBUTES EXPRESSED BY ADJECTIVES
- Adjectives in the superlative degree are limiting attributes;
It is the most interesting film I have ever seen.
- Adjectives same, only, very, main, principal, left, right, central, following,
present, former, last, next, wrong are limiting attributes:
It is the same person. We took the wrong turn and lost our way.
Note 1: Nouns denoting time (day, week, month, year, etc.) do not take article when
they are modified by the adjectives next and last in the present time context and are used
in the function of the adverbial modifier of time:
They finished school last year. Next week we are going to Moscow.
Note 2: The adjective only is used as a descriptive attribute with the nouns son,
daughter, child: John is an only child.
- The adjective whole and the pronoun all used as an adjective are descriptive
attributes and articles with the nouns modified by them are used according to the general
rules:
It took him a whole day to write this composition.
I spent the whole evening writing letters.
All people like holidays.
All the people in the room are my friends.
ATTRIBUTES EXPRESSED BY NUMERALS
- Ordinal numerals are usually used as limiting attributes:
The first day in the camp was rather boring.
Note: If an ordinal numeral means ‘another’, the noun it modifies takes the indefinite
article:
She was thirsty. She drank a second glass and felt better.
- Cardinal numerals can be used as limiting attributes and take the definite article
with the meaning of 'these/those':
I watched the people at the next table. The two men looked hostile.
We have missed the ten o’clock train and have to wait for the next one.
Note: No article is used if the cardinal numeral is used in post-position:
We are to read text 2 and to answer the questions.
ATTRIBUTES EXPRESSED BY NOUNS
- Nouns in common case are usually descriptive attributes and articles are used
according to the general rules:
The book cover was bright and attractive. A paper bag attracted her attention.
Last year we had only a two-week holiday.
Proper nouns in common case are usually limiting attributes:
The Broadway theatres are very popular.

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 - Nouns in genitive case can be both limiting and descriptive attributes. The article
usually refers to the noun in the genitive case if the noun denotes a particular person or
thing and both articles can be used:
A child's toy lay on the grass. I don't like the child's behaviour.
The noun in the genitive case denoting qualitative relations or of the nouns denoting
time, space or weight is a descriptive attribute and the article refers to the head-noun:
We don’t have to wear a student’s uniform.
The student’s uniform at Oxford hasn’t changed.
The lake is not very far; it’s just a two miles’ walk.
We didn’t enjoy the two miles’ walk to the lake.
No article is used when the noun is modified by the nouns today, yesterday, tomorrow
in the genitive case:
I haven’t read today’s newspaper yet.
- A noun with a preposition (a prepositional phrase) can be both a limiting and a
descriptive attribute:
A smile of happiness lit her face. I don't know the man at the window.
The following prepositional phrases are used as descriptive attributes:
a) phrases denoting a container with its contents, e.g. a cup of tea;
b) phrases denoting certain quantity, e.g. a slice of meat;
c) phrases denoting composition, e.g. a crowd of people, a pair of gloves;
d) phrases denoting measure, e.g. a distance of two kilometres, an ounce of milk;
e) phrases denoting origin, e.g. a citizen of Russia;
f) phrases denoting characteristics of an object, e.g. a woman of unusual beauty;
g) phrases denoting age, e.g. a man of 30;
h) phrases denoting material a thing is made of, e.g. a ring of gold;
i) of-phrases with the double genitive, e.g. a friend of my sister's.
The of-phrase can be also used as a limiting attribute, e.g. the city of Moscow, the
sound of the door.
ATTRIBUTES EXPRESSED BY INFINITIVES
They can be both limiting and descriptive attributes:
Ask him. He is the man to help you.
We have a task to solve.
ATTRIBUTES EXPRESSED BY ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSES
If a noun is modified by a limiting attributive clause, the definite article is used:
We looked at the road that was stretching in front of us.
If a noun is modified by a descriptive attributive clause, the indefinite article is used:
We took a road that was leading south.

16
 USE OF ARTICLES WITH UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
USE OF ARTICLES WITH THE NOUNS OF MATERIAL
Nouns of material are used in singular but they do not take the indefinite article. They
are usually used without any article and the absence of article has the nominating
meaning:
Bread, butter and meat were already on the table.
Nouns modified by descriptive attributes are used without any article:
Children need fresh air.
The definite article is used when the noun refers to a definite quantity of substance:
Pass me the butter, please.
The meaning of the definite article is restricting. The restriction may be also expressed
by the limiting attribute:
I don't like the food in this cafe.
These rules apply to some collective nouns denoting a group of objects, thought of as
a whole, e.g. furniture, equipment, silverware, luggage, etc.:
They have just bought new furniture for their house.
The nouns of material can become countable; then the articles are used according to
the general rules. In such cases they denote:
- A kind or a variety of substance, e.g.
She always drinks a white wine at dinner.
- A portion of food or drink, e.g.
She used to have a tea and a cake for lunch.
USE OF ARTICLES WITH ABSTRACT NOUNS
Abstract nouns can be countable and uncountable. Uncountable abstract nouns are
used only in singular and take no article when used in general sense:
While there is love, there is life.
Abstract nouns may be modified by attributes. If a descriptive attribute narrows the
notion expressed by the abstract noun, no article is used. Descriptive attributes can be
expressed by the following groups of adjectives:
- Adjectives denoting nationality, e.g. English literature, Flemish art:
I love French poetry.
- Adjectives denoting social characteristics, e.g. racial prejudice, feudal law, social
tension, etc.:
There is no place for racial prejudice in a democratic society.
- Adjectives denoting periods of time, e.g. modern art, Victorian age:
I admire modern art.
Remember the exceptions: The Middle Ages, (the) golden age of.
- Adjectives denoting authenticity, e.g. true love, false friendship, real power:
It was false alarm.
True friendship is the most valuable thing in life.

17
 - Adjectives denoting degree or extent, e.g. immense success, complete failure,
absolute power:
It is sheer stupidity.
Remember the exception: be a complete failure (when we speak about a person or
thing that is not successful): He was a complete failure as an actor.
- Adjectives denoting genres or trends in art, e.g. detective literature, romantic
poetry, dramatic collision:
I love spiritual music.
- Adjectives referring to man's social and spiritual life and those characterizing
man's manner or behaviour, e.g. public relations, social position, immoral behaviour,
human law, nervous state:
Every politician needs public recognition.
- Adjectives denoting position or locality, e.g. local authority, inner vision, outside
information:
Local authority is not able to solve this problem.
- Adjectives characterizing phenomena as continual or recurrent, e.g. continuous
discussion, constant failure:
These facts will cause continuous discussion.
- Some other adjectives, e.g. good, bad, free, critical, plain, ordinary, human,
etc.: good reputation, free talk, plain appearance:
Good reputation is difficult to earn but easy to lose.
An abstract noun may be used with the indefinite article in the following cases:
- If it has a descriptive attribute and a certain aspect of the notion denoted by the
noun is meant:
Her face expressed a calm dignity of the one who knew the answer.
- Some abstract nouns can be used with the indefinite article when their meaning is
particular rather than general and in set expressions:
You need a good rest.
Thank you, you’ve been a great help.
We had a good time at the picnic last Sunday.
- If an abstract noun is modified by the adjective certain or peculiar:
He felt a certain anxiety in the air.
- The nouns pity, shame, disgrace, pleasure, relief, comfort, disappointment are
always used with the indefinite article in the sentences beginning with the formal it as
subject:
It's a pity, you haven't met him.
They are also used with the indefinite article in exclamatory sentences after what:
What a pleasure to see you again!
A number of abstract nouns function both as countable and uncountable nouns. As
countable nouns they can denote some concrete things or particular notions. When they

18
are used as countable nouns, they follow the general rules for the use of articles with
class nouns but as uncountable nouns they never take the indefinite article.
UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS COUNTABLE NOUNS
work a work
There is still much work to do. It was a real work of art.
nature a nature
Nature was still untouched there. She had a very agreeable nature.
decision a decision
He was a man of decision. We are to make a decision immediately.
beauty a beauty
Beauty can easily deceive. She used to be a beauty in her youth.
experience an experience
You will learn by experience. I had a strange experience there.
time a time
We needn’t hurry – there’s still plenty of I’ve told her about it several times already.
time.

Remember: The following abstract uncountable nouns are never used with the
indefinite article:
accommodation, advice, behaviour, chaos, experience, expense, information,
lightning, luck, music, nature, news, nonsense, permission, progress, publicity,
research, scenery, society, space, thunder, traffic, travel, trouble, weather, work.
The definite article is used in the following cases:
- when a limiting attribute or a context restricts the notion denoted by the noun, e.g.
The hopelessness of our efforts was disheartening.
- The substantivized adjectives denoting abstract notions are always used with the
definite article, e.g. the present, the past, the future, the singular, the plural, e.g.
They didn't expect anything cheerful in the future.
Note: The expression in future means ‘from this time on’, while in the future means
‘after a period of time’:
In future try to be more careful.
You will need it in the future.
ARTICLES WITH NOUNS IN SOME SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS AND
PATTERNS
1. Articles with predicative nouns
- The indefinite article with the singular countable nouns and zero articles with the
plural countable nouns and singular uncountable nouns have the classifying meaning:
He is a student. They are students. This is love.
- The definite article is used when the predicative noun is modified by a limiting
attribute:
He is the person to help you. He is the authority you look for.
2. Articles with nouns in apposition
19
 - The indefinite article with the singular and a zero article with the plural has the
classifying meaning:
Jane, a girl of 17, is already a student.
John and Nick, young sportsmen, will take part in the competition.
- The definite article is used when the noun is modified by a limiting attribute or the
noun refers to a familiar object:
Mr. Smith, the owner of the house, met us on the steps.
R. Burns, the famous Scottish poet, is well known to Russian readers.
- Nouns denoting titles and ranks are used without article if they are followed by
personal names: President Bush, Queen Mary.
- Nouns denoting family relations are used without articles if they are followed by
personal names: Aunt Mary, Uncle John.
- Other appositive nouns take the definite article if they are followed by personal
names: the painter Hogarth, the writer Dickens.
- The definite article is used with names of books, films, etc.: the novel "A Farewell
to Arms".
3. Articles in parallel structures
Nouns used in parallel structures take no article:
He went from house to house asking the same question.
Remember: arm in arm, hand in hand, man to man, shoulder to shoulder, from
beginning to end, from north to south, from floor to ceiling, from right to left, from
head to foot.
4. Articles with nouns used as address
Nouns used to address a person take no article:
Do you hear me, officer?
5. Articles after the verbs to appoint, to elect, to make
No article is used as a rule with nouns after these verbs:
Last year he was appointed secretary of the council.
6. Articles after “as”
Both articles can be used with nouns introduced by as. The article can be left out as
well:
She allowed it as an exception.
As the headmaster she had to do it.
She started to work as teacher last year.
7. Article after the exclamatory “what”
After the exclamatory what the indefinite article is used with countable nouns in the
singular. In other cases nouns do not take any article:
What a pity! What nice weather we are having this autumn!
SPECIAL CASES OF THE USE OF ARTICLES
ARTICLES WITH THE NAMES OF SEASONS
Names of seasons (winter, spring, summer, autumn) are usually used without article
if they have general sense:
20
 Summer is the best season for travelling.
It is autumn now, but the days are as cold as in winter.
Note: In the American English the definite article is used in this case.
The indefinite article is used when names of seasons are modified by descriptive
attributes:
It was a rainy summer and we didn't go out much.
Names of seasons take no article if they are modified by the adjectives late or early:
It was early winter. They arrived here in late summer.
The definite article is used, if names of seasons are modified by limiting attributes:
The summer of 1941 was extremely hot.
The definite article is used after the prepositions during, for, through:
They used to go to the country for the summer.
ARTICLES WITH THE NAMES OF TIME OF DAY AND NIGHT
Names of time of the day and night like day, night, evening, morning, noon,
afternoon, twilight, midnight, daytime, sunrise, sunset, are used without article in
the following cases:
- in the function of a predicative:
It was morning but the sky was covered with clouds.
- if they denote "light" or "darkness":
When night came we stopped to make a fire.
- when they are modified by the words yesterday or tomorrow:
We arrived yesterday evening at nine.
- after the prepositions at, after, before, by, till, until, towards, past:
There will be a lot of people here before evening.
You cannot phone her at night.
Remember: all day long, all night long, day after day, day in day out, from
morning till night, from sunrise to sunset, from day to day, night after night, day
and night:
He worked day and night and knew he would be a success.
Names of time of the day and night are used with the indefinite article if modified
by descriptive attributes:
It was a cold morning and the streets were still empty.
No article is used if they are modified by the adjectives early or late, e.g.
They started when it was still early morning.
Names of time of the day and night are used with the definite article in the following
cases:
- when the noun is modified by a limiting attribute or the context makes the day or
night mentioned specific:
The day of their arrival was hot and dull.
The day came when they met at last.
- when the nouns are used in the generic sense;
They spent the day working, but the evening was the time he enjoyed.
21
 - after prepositions in, during and through:
It is already rather chilly in the morning.
But it will get warmer during the day.
It was raining all through the day yesterday.
- when the nouns are preceded by the pronoun other:
I met her the other day on my way home.
ARTICLES WITH THE NAMES OF MEALS
- Names of meals take no article when used in general sense:
As a rule he has breakfast at home.
- The indefinite article is used when names of meals are modified by descriptive
attributes:
He had a substantial dinner and after it he felt much better.
- The definite article is used if names of meals are modified by limiting attributes or
the context limits their meaning, e.g.
They all enjoyed the lunch in the park on such a warm and pleasant day.
ARTICLES WITH THE NAMES OF DISEASES
Names of diseases usually take no article, though some of them may be preceded by
the definite article: bronchitis, cholera, (the) flu, influenza, (the) measles, scarlet
fever.
Remember: to have a headache /(a) toothache /(a) stomach ache/(a)
backache/earache/heartache/a heart attack/heart failure/a pain in the back/ a high
blood pressure / a cold / a cough / a sore throat.
ARTICLES WITH SOME OTHER NOUNS
1. The noun sea
- as a rule it is used with the definite article:
They were in the open sea and couldn't see the shore any longer.
- it is used with the indefinite article when modified by a descriptive attribute:
A calm blue sea was in front of us.
- no article is used in the phrases to be at sea, to go to sea:
At the age of seventeen he went to sea for the first time.
2. The nouns school, hospital, church, etc.
The nouns school, class, college, university, hospital, church, jail, prison, bed,
table are used without article when they denote activities associated with these places.
Remember: to be in (to go to) hospital / class / church / prison / bed; to be at
school / college / table; to come from school / college / university / church; to come
out of hospital / prison; to leave school / college; to stay in bed.
Compare the use of articles in the examples below.
He is ill, he is in hospital. This man works at a hospital.
After school he went to college. He is somewhere in the college now.
22
Every Sunday their family used to go to church. The tourists went into the church to
see the ancient frescoes.
3. The noun town
The noun town takes no article when it is used in contrast with country or when the
business centre is meant:
He went to town every morning and returned to his house in the suburbs only in the
evening.
Remember: to be in town, to be out of town, to live in town, to stay in town, to go
to town, to come back to town, to return to town, to leave town.
4. The nouns radio and television
- The nouns radio and television take no article if used in general sense:
Radio and television are important means of mass communication.
- The noun radio takes the definite article after the verbs to listen and to hear:
You can hear the news on the radio. I usually listen to the radio on my way to college.
Remember: to watch television (TV), to see on television, to show on television,
e.g.
Did you see the show on TV yesterday?

EXPRESSIONS TO REMEMBER
play the piano / the violin / the guitar, play the blues play football, tennis, hockey,
cards
(go, come, leave, travel) by train, plane, bus, boat, by air, by land, by sea
by post, by mail, by phone, by telegraph, by hand, by accident, by sight, by chance,
by mistake
on deck, on foot, on leave, on holiday, on vacation
at hand, at rest, at table
in detail, in person, in debt, in mind, in turn in the original, in the least
(go to, to be at, to be on at) the cinema, the pictures, the movies, the theatre
a bit of, in a hurry, in a low voice, as a result, at a glance
make a start, do a turn, have a mind to do sth., have a good time, be at a loss, get in
a fury, fly into a passion, fly into a rage, take a fancy to, tell a lie
on the coast, on the one hand… on the other hand, on the whole, in the black, off the
record, pay through the nose, out of the blue, out of the question,
to take the trouble, to tell the truth, to be on the safe side
at present, at first sight, at peace, in action, out of action, out of doors, for ages, to
keep house, to be in bed, to go to bed, to come to power

USE OF ARTICLES WITH PROPER NOUNS

23
 ARTICLES WITH PERSONAL NAMES
Personal names are generally used without any articles:
Do you know Jane?
I've read a lot of books by Mark Twain.
Note: The common nouns mother, father, aunt, uncle, sister, brother, cousin,
daughter, etc. can be treated as proper nouns and take no article when used by members
of the family or close friends:
Father decided to take a holiday.
Will you help me, Uncle?
As proper nouns they are spelled with a capital letter.
The definite article is used with personal names in the plural to indicate a whole
family:
The Browns have a cottage in the suburbs of London.
The indefinite article is used with personal names to denote a representative of a
family or one resembling somebody:
He is a Forsyte and this explains everything.
Look! He looks a Byron!
No article is used before nouns denoting military ranks and titles such as
academician, professor, doctor, colonel, etc., followed by names of persons:
Colonel Pickering, Mayor Brown, Doctor Smith, etc.
Note: Common nouns denoting professions followed by names of persons usually
take the definite article: the painter Turner.
If the name of the person is always used with the noun denoting profession, it becomes
a set expression and is used without any article:
Judge Brown, Agent Murphy.
If the name of a person is used to denote a work of art that belongs to that person, the
article is used with it like with a common noun:
I think this picture is a Rembrandt.
Have you seen the Rembrandt exhibited in this museum?
THE USE OF ARTICLES WITH PERSONAL NAMES MODIFIED BY ATTRIBUTES
1. The definite article is used with personal names modified by descriptive adjectives:
At last we met the famous John Brown.
I wasn't acquainted with the late Mr. Gray.
2. No article is used if the personal name is modified by the adjectives old, young,
little, dear:
Little Mary is asleep in her room.
Young John was a copy of his mother.
3. The indefinite article is used if the adjective modifying the personal name denotes
the mood of the person:
We watched a silent Mary with interest.
24
 4. The definite article is used with personal names modified by limiting attributes:
He was not the Alex of our youth.
5. The indefinite article is used when the personal name is modified by the adjective
certain:
Sherlock Holmes was told that a certain Mary Green was waiting for him.
6. Personal names can turn into common nouns to denote things associated with the
names of certain persons. In these cases they take articles according to the general rule
of the use of articles with common nouns:
Aunt, you are a real Miss Marple.
ARTICLES WITH GEOGRAPHIC NAMES
The following geographical names are used without any article:
1. Names of continents: Africa, America, Antarctica, Asia, Australia, Europe.
Note: The Arctic and the Antarctic are used with the definite article as they denote
the regions round the north and south poles.
2. Names of countries, counties, provinces, states: France, Devonshire, Scotland,
Texas.
Note 1: Some names can be used with or without the article: (the) Congo, (the)
Lebanon, (the) Senegal, the Ruhr, the Crimea, the Caucasus, the Argentine (but:
Argentina), (the) Ukraine.
Note 2: Names of countries consisting of word groups are used with the definite
article: the United States of America (the USA), the Russian Federation, the CIS, the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, etc.
3. Names of cities, towns, or villages: London, New York, Moscow.
Note: the exception is the Hague.
4. Names of mountain peaks and single islands: Snowdon, Elbrus, Ben Nevis, Etna;
Cyprus, Man, Madagascar.
5. Names of lakes, waterfalls, and bays: Lake Michigan, Lake Baikal, Onega Lake;
Victoria Falls, Niagara Falls; Hudson Bay.
Note: If the word lake is not used, the name of the lake is preceded by the definite
article.
6. Names of peninsulas and capes: Hindustan, Cape Horn.
Note: If the word 'peninsula' is added, the definite article is used: the Hindustan
Peninsula, the Balkan Peninsula.
The following geographic names are used with the definite article:
1. Names of the cardinal points: the North, the South, the East, the West
2. Names of seas, oceans, rivers, straits, canals: the Pacific Ocean, the
Mediterranean Sea, the Thames, the Suez Canal, the English Channel.
3. Names of mountain chains and groups of islands: the Alps, the Urals, the Rocky
Mountains; the Hawaii.
25
 4. Names of deserts: the Sahara, the Gobi.
5. Geographic names having the plural form: the Midlands, the Netherlands.
Note: Geographic names that are used without article may take the definite and
the indefinite article in the following cases:
- a geographic name used with a limiting attribute takes the definite article:
At last he saw the England of his youth.
- a geographic name used with a descriptive attribute takes the indefinite article:
He came to a different London and didn't recognize it.
- the definite article is used in phrases with the preposition of:
the City of New York, the Isle of Man, the Gulf of Mexico, the Strait of Dover.
ARTICLES WITH OTHER PROPER NOUNS
The following proper nouns are used without any article:
1. Names of streets, squares and parks: Fleet Street, Trafalgar Square, Red Square,
Hyde Park.
Note: There are some exceptions: The High Street, The Strand.
2. Names of airports and railway stations: Kennedy Airport, Victoria Station.
3. Names of universities and colleges: Oxford University, Harvard University,
Trinity College.
4. Names of buildings and bridges; Westminster Abbey, Windsor Palace, Tower
Bridge.
Note: the White House, the Kremlin, the Tower of London.
5. Names of magazines and journals: National Geographic, Punch, Cosmopolitan.
6. Names of months and days of the week: March, June, Monday, Saturday.
The following proper nouns are used with the definite article:
1. Names of hotels, clubs, museums, picture galleries, concert halls, theatres,
cinemas, monuments: the Hilton, the British Museum, the Tretyakov Gallery, the
Albert Hall, the Grand Opera, the Lincoln Memorial.
2. Names of ships and boats: the Titanic, the Mayflower.
3. Names of parties and institutions: the Democratic Party, the Conservative Party,
the British Parliament (Parliament - in Britain), the Congress (Congress - in the USA),
the House of Lords.
4. Names of newspapers: the Morning star, the Times, the Economist.

26
 THE PRONOUN
The pronoun is a part of speech, which points out persons, things and qualities without
naming them.
CLASSIFICATION OF PRONOUNS
Pronouns can be classified into the following groups:
Personal pronouns: I, we, you, he, she, it, they;
Possessive pronouns: my, mine, our, ours, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, their, theirs;
Reflexive pronouns: myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, himself, herself, itself,
themselves;
Demonstrative pronouns: this, these, that, those, same, such;
Indefinite pronouns: some, somebody, someone, something, any, anybody, anyone,
anything, one;
Negative pronouns: no, none, nobody, no one, nothing, neither;
Defining pronouns: each, every, everybody, everyone, everything, all, either, both,
another, other;
Reciprocal pronouns: each other, one another;
Interrogative pronouns: who whose, which, what;
Relative pronouns: who, whose, which, that;
Conjunctive pronouns: who, whose, which, what.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
Personal pronouns denote persons and things. They are: I, we, you, he, she, it, they.
Personal pronouns have the grammatical categories of person, number, case, and gender
in the third person singular. The personal pronouns have three persons and two numbers
(singular and plural). They have two cases: the nominative case and the objective case.
CASE / NUMBER
PERSON
Singular Plural
Nominative Case Objective Case Nominative Case Objective case
1st I me we us
2nd you you you you
3rd he him
she her they them
it it
The personal pronouns of the 3d person singular distinguish gender: he refers to male
beings, she refers to female beings, it refers to inanimate things as neuter. The pronoun
she is also associated with such nouns as Great Britain, sea, ship, etc., e.g.
How old is your brother? - He is 14.
Our teacher came in. She was tall and rather slender.
Can I take your book? Don't you need it?
A ship entered the harbour. She looked white against the blue sky.
Personal pronouns have various syntactic functions in the sentence. They can be used
as subject, object, predicative and adverbial modifier (if preceded by a preposition:

27
 Subject - We are first year students.
Object - Can you tell me the news? Give it to me, will you?
Predicative - Open, it's me. Who is there? - It's she.
Adverbial Modifier - There is nothing interesting in it.
In colloquial speech the personal pronoun you may be used to denote a person in
general sense, e.g.
It's a nice place. You can do what you like here.
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
Possessive pronouns denote belonging to things and persons. They are my, our, your,
his, her, its, their. They have the grammatical categories of person (1st, 2nd, 3d), number
(singular, plural) and gender (male, female, neuter) in the 3d person singular. Possessive
pronouns have two forms: the dependent (conjoint) form and the independent (absolute)
form.

PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL

conjoint absolute conjoint absolute
st
1 my mine our ours
2nd your yours your yours
3rd his his
her hers their theirs
its -
The conjoint form is used as an attribute to modify a noun, e.g.
His hair was thin and grey.
She watched her daughter with love and tenderness.
Note: In some grammar books the conjoint forms of pronouns are called ‘pronominal
adjectives’ or ‘noun determiners’ because they don’t replace nouns but modify them
The absolute form is used when the possessive pronoun doesn't modify a noun. It
can be used as subject, object, predicative or attribute when preceded by the preposition
'of':
Object - I don't want your pen. Give me mine.
Subject - It isn't my book. Mine is in the bag.
Predicative - Whose glasses are these? - They are yours.
Attribute - A friend of mine is coming to see us at the weekend.
When possessive pronouns are used to modify nouns naming parts of the body,
clothing, a person's belongings, they are not usually translated into Russian.
She took her hand out of her pocket and showed us the key.
Она вынула руку из кармана и показала нам ключ.
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
Reflexive pronouns indicate that the doer of the action expressed by the subject of the
sentence is affected by the action:
She never does such things herself.
28
 I know it's true because I saw it myself.
Thank you, but we'll call you a bit later ourselves.
Reflexive pronouns are myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, himself, herself,
itself, themselves. They have the grammatical categories of person, number and gender
in the third person singular.
PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL
st
1 myself ourselves
2nd yourself yourselves
himself
3rd herself themselves
itself
Reflexive pronouns can be used as predicative, object, attribute and adverbial
modifiers:
Predicative - Jack is alone, he is by himself.
Object - Mary tried not to hurt herself.
Prepositional object - Don't do it to yourself.
Attribute - He put something of himself into this novel.
Adverbial modifier - She didn't see anything attractive in herself.
Reflexive pronouns can be used emphatically, e.g.
He himself will never ask you for help.
They themselves didn't believe a word, but tried not to show it.
Remember: The following verbs take reflexive pronouns enjoy oneself, help
oneself, acquaint oneself (with):
Help yourself to the cake.
The following verbs do not take reflexive pronouns: wash, dress, feel, behave:
I don’t feel well.
The verb behave takes a reflexive pronoun in the meaning “to do things in a way that
people think is correct or polite” (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary):
Behave yourself or you’ll be punished.
The phrase ‘by oneself’’ means ‘alone’ or ‘without help’:
We’ve decided to go on a hike by ourselves.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
The demonstrative pronouns are: this, these, that, those, such, same. They are used
to point out a person or a thing. This and these are used to point at what is nearer in space
or time, while that and those point at things and persons that are farther away in space
or time:
This is Jane and that girl by the window is Ann.
I've looked through these books; can I have a look at some of those?
The pronouns this, these, that and those have the grammatical category of number:
this and that are singular, while these and those are plural, e.g. this boy - these boys;
that box - those boxes.
29
 The pronoun such is used to talk about a person or thing, which is of the same kind
as that already mentioned:
Such behaviour is not allowed here.
The pronoun such can be used to emphasize a quality of a person or a thing:
Did you have to say such a silly thing?
The pronoun same is always used with the definite article. It is used to point at one
particular person or thing:
I'll never make the same mistake again.
It is also used to say that two or more people or things are exactly like each other:
These pictures look the same to me.
The pronoun same can be preceded by the demonstrative pronouns this/these and
that/those and have the meaning «этот самый», «тот самый»:
It is this same man who helped me who now tries to ruin me.
Тот самый человек, кто помогал мне, теперь пытается погубить меня.
The pronoun same is used in a number of phrases: at the same time (в одно и то же
время), in the same way (так же, таким же образом), all the same (все равно), one
and the same (один и тот же).
The pronoun that/those may also be used as a word-substitute:
I like your plan more than that we discussed before.
We tried to find some pictures like those we saw in the window of an old shop.
Demonstrative pronouns can be used as subject, object, predicative, and attribute:
Subject – This is rather interesting.
Object – He told me the same.
Predicative – She looks the same.
Attribute – I don’t know this person.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
Indefinite pronouns point out persons or things without saying who or what they are.
The indefinite pronouns are some, somebody, someone, something, any, anybody,
anyone, anything, and one.
The pronouns somebody, someone, anybody, and anyone have the grammatical
category of case. They have two cases - the common case and the genitive case:
There is somebody in the house, knock again.
I remember someone's words about her said many years ago.
Anyone can do this easy job.
She will follow anybody's advice without thinking it over.
Some, somebody, someone, and something are mostly used in affirmative sentences,
while any, anybody, anyone, and anything are used in interrogative and negative
sentences:
Look, somebody is coming.
Is anybody going out tonight?
There isn't anybody at home now.
I'm sure she knows something.
30
 Do you know any new facts?
Some people never change.
I don't know anything about this phenomenon.
When some and any are followed by the preposition of and a noun in plural they refer
to an indefinite number of things:
Some of his stories are rather interesting.
Have you answered any of his questions?
When some and any modify nouns of material they denote indefinite quantity of the
material:
I would like some tea now. Is there any soup for dinner today?
Я бы выпила чаю сейчас. На обед сегодня есть суп?
Some, somebody, someone and something are used in special and general questions
expressing requests and proposals:
Who wants some ice cream? – Кто хочет мороженого?
Can I have some water please? – Можно мне воды?
Can I do something for you? – Я могу что-нибудь сделать для тебя?
Note: The pronoun "any" in this context will sound rude.
Some used with a noun in the singular has the meaning 'какой-то':
He has some reason to say it.
Some used with a noun in the plural can have the meaning 'одни’, ‘какие-то':
Some people like it, but others don't.
Any, anybody, anyone, anything are used in affirmative statements with the
meaning ‘любой, кто угодно, что угодно’:
Any child will do the same.
Don't boast. Anyone can do it.
I'm so hungry that I can eat anything.
The indefinite pronouns some and any may be used as subject, object and attribute:
Subject - Some were walking slowly, others just stood and watched.
Which pencil do you want? - Any will do.
Object - There is no milk at home. Buy some on the way back.
Don't argue. You can take any.
Attribute - Some people like to make fun of others.
Have you seen any newspapers here?
The indefinite pronouns somebody, someone, something, anybody, anyone, and
anything may be used as subject, object and predicative:
Subject - Someone told me about him, but I don't remember who.
Does anybody know how to cook fish?
Object - Wait a moment, I want to tell you something.
Don't tell anybody that you have seen me.
Predicative - You must see the film. It's something wonderful.
Everybody who is anybody will come to the party.
The genitive case of the pronouns somebody, someone, anybody and anyone may
be used as attribute and predicative:
31
 Attribute - Somebody's face in the crowd attracted her attention.
Do you know anybody's plans for tonight?
Predicative - The book is somebody's. Don't take it.
No, it isn't anybody's. It has been here for so long.
The indefinite pronoun one is used instead of a countable noun already mentioned or
known:
The train was crowded, so we decided to catch the later one.
It can be also used in general sense in a formal context:
One can do what one likes here.
Note: The pronoun one is not used to refer to an item that has been defined: Have you
seen my bag? – Here it is.
The pronoun one has the grammatical category of case. It has two forms - the common
case and the genitive case. The pronoun one in the common case may be used as subject,
object or predicative:
Subject - One never knows what is going to happen to him.
Object - I have left my umbrella today. - Don't worry, I can give you one.
Predicative - Ask this man. He is the one who can help you.
The genitive case of the pronoun one has the function of an attribute:
It's difficult to hide this feeling. One's voice will show it.
As a word-substitute the pronoun one has the category of number and can be used in
plural:
He wrote a number of books. The most interesting ones were translated into Russian.
NEGATIVE PRONOUNS
Negative pronouns denote the absence of a person, thing or quality. They are: no,
none, nobody, no one, nothing, neither. They correspond to indefinite pronouns:
INDEFINITE NEGATIVE
somebody, someone; anybody, anyone nobody, no one, none
something; anything nothing, none
some, any, one no, none
There is correlation between negative pronouns and defining pronouns:
DEFINING NEGATIVE
everybody, everyone nobody, no one, none
everything nothing
all, every, each no
both, either neither
The negative pronouns nobody and no one refer to human beings. The pronoun
nobody has the category of case. It has the forms of the common case and the genitive
case (nobody, nobody's). The negative pronoun nothing refers to things.
The pronoun none means not one of the group of people or things:
I heard the news but none was interesting.
When none of is used with a plural noun or pronoun it can be both singular and plural:
32
 None of the trains is/are going to Moscow tonight.
The negative pronouns nobody, no one and nothing can be used as subject, object
and predicative:
Subject - Nobody will help you if you keep silent.
There was nothing to do and we left.
Object - He saw nobody in the room but he felt somebody's presence.
I want no one here.
Sorry, but I can do nothing at the moment.
Predicative - He felt he would become nobody for those people.
Don't worry, it's nothing.
The genitive case of the negative pronoun (nobody's) can be used as attribute or
predicative:
Attribute - He doesn't have friends. He himself is nobody's friend.
Predicative - The cat is nobody's. It's a stray cat.
The negative pronoun none can refer both to human beings and things. It can be used
as subject or object:
Subject - They expected about a dozen people but none came.
I wanted an apple but there was none in the cupboard.
Object - Everybody has left. You'll find none here.
The negative pronoun no is used before a noun as its attribute:
No cars were seen in the street.
The negative pronoun neither refers both to persons and things and it has the meaning
"not one or the other of two people or things". It takes the predicate in the form of the 3rd
person singular. It can be used as subject, object or attribute:
Subject - Two people entered the room. Neither looked familiar to me.
Object - Would you like coffee or tea? - I want neither.
Attribute - He offered me a couple of ideas. Neither idea seemed exciting.
DEFINING PRONOUNS
The defining pronouns are all, each, every, everybody, everyone, everything,
either, both, other, another.
The pronoun all is used to denote a complete amount or quantity of something or
somebody. It refers to three or more items. In a sentence it can be used as subject,
predicative, object or attribute:
Subject - All are present.
Predicative - It is all I have now.
Object - You can give her all you have, you won't make her happy.
Attribute - I will take all the flowers in the basket.
When all modifies a noun it is used in pre-position; when it modifies a pronoun it can
be used in pre-position and in post-position:
All (of) the people were laughing. All (of) them seemed happy.
Soon I will see them all.
Note: The pronoun all is not used separately to mean ‘everybody’ or ‘everything’.
33
 The pronoun both is used to refer to two persons, things, situations, etc. It is used in
affirmative sentences as subject, object or attribute:
Subject - John and Mary have called. Both will come.
Object - I don't know what book to choose. I'll take both.
Attribute - You'll like them. Both books are interesting.
Before a noun with a determiner (e.g. the, my, these), both and both of are both
possible:
Both (of) my parents like gardening.
We have eaten both (of) the apples.
Both (of) these apples are sweet.
The definite article and the possessive pronoun are often dropped:
He lost both parents when he was a child.
We have eaten both apples.
Note: The definite article cannot precede the pronoun both.
Both of precedes the objective case of a personal pronoun; both is used when it
follows a pronoun:
They invited both of us. They invited us both.
When both refers to the subject, it can precede a notional verb or a predicative like
some adverbs:
These apples are both sweet. We can both speak English.
We both speak English.
‘Both ... and’ is used with the same kind of words:
She plays both the piano and the violin. She is both nice and clever.
She both sings and dances.
The pronoun each is used to denote every single one of two or more people or things
considered separately. It can be used as subject, object or attribute:
Subject – First watch me, and then each will do the same.
Object - I read each of his books but I didn't find this description.
Attribute - Each story regarded separately seems rather primitive.
The pronoun every is used to refer to each one of a group of people or things. It is
used as attribute:
Every person here knows what I am talking about.
The pronouns everybody and everyone refer to all the members of a group of people.
They have the category of case. The common case of the pronouns is used as subject and
object:
Subject - Everybody will be glad to see you. – Все будут рады видеть вас.
Object - You cannot help everybody. – Вы не можете помочь всем.
The personal pronoun corresponding to the pronoun everybody is they:
Everybody knows you, don’t they?
The genitive case of these pronouns is used as attribute:
Everybody's advice will be appreciated.

34
 The pronoun everything refers to each thing or all things of a group. It can be used as
subject, predicative or object:
Subject - Everything is ready, we can start.
Predicative - It is everything I can say just now.
Object - He'll do everything you ask him to.
The pronoun either means each of the two, or one or the other of two people or things:
Would you like coffee or tea? - Either. It doesn't really matter.
The pronoun either can be used as attribute, subject, or object:
Subject - Which one will you take? - Either will do.
Attribute - Which team will win today? - Either team is strong enough to win.
Object – Which book do you want? – I can take either.
The pronoun other is used to denote a person or thing different from the one
mentioned before:
I don't want to go there. I'd like to go to some other place this time.
It has the category of number: singular - other, plural - others. It has the category of
case and has two case forms: the common case and the genitive case (other – other's,
others – others').
The pronoun other can be used as subject, object or attribute:
Subject - Some were walking, others were running.
Object - He can't keep a secret. He will tell others.
Attribute - I saw him the other day.
Do this exercise. Other exercises are too difficult for you.
When preceded by the definite article, it denotes the second one of the two or all the
rest:
John and Pete were standing by the window. John was looking out, the other was
looking at us.
Write this exercise and do the other ones orally.
‘The others’ means all the rest:
John has come, the others will come later.
The pronoun another is used to refer to one more person or thing of the same kind or
to a different person or thing:
I'd like another helping of the cake. – Я хочу еще порцию торта.
I don't like this magazine, give me another one. –
Мне не нравится этот журнал, я хочу другой.
It can be used as subject, object or attribute:
Subject - She watched the guys. One was talking, another was listening, and the
others were quiet.
Object - No, I don't like this cake. I'd rather take another.
Attribute - I am sure, there is another blanket somewhere.

35
 RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS
Reciprocal pronouns each other and one another are used to show that each of two
or more people does something to the other or others:
They looked at each other in surprise.
Each other usually refers to two subjects, one another to more than two:
John and Mary blamed each other for being late.
In our group we always help one another.
Reciprocal pronouns have two cases. The common case is used as an object, while the
genitive case is used as an attribute:
Object - They used to tell one another everything they felt.
The sisters always helped each other.
Attribute - They no longer believed each other's words.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
Interrogative pronouns are who, whose, what, which. They are used to form special
questions.
Who has the category of case. The case forms are who for the nominative case and
whom for the objective case. The pronoun who refers to persons:
Who is there? Whom (Who) are you talking about?
What is used in questions about a thing or person or a kind of thing or person:
What do you know about him? What is your mother?
What is there on the table? What is he like?
Which refers to a person or thing when a choice has to be made:
Which of you can answer my question? Which of the books is yours?
Whose is used to ask who a particular thing belongs to:
Whose coat is this?
Interrogative pronouns can have the functions of subject, predicative, object or
attribute:
Subject - Who is going with me? What is there in the room?
Predicative - Who are you? What is this?
Object - Who (whom) do you expect to see there?
What do you want to do?
Attribute - Whose sister is she? Which book would you like to take?
What kind of weather do you like?
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
Relative pronouns are who, whom, whose, which, and that. They refer back to a
person or thing or a possessive relationship and links a relative (attributive) clause with
the main one. The word they refer to is called antecedent. If the antecedent denotes a
person, the pronoun who or that is used:
I know the guy who (that) you have mentioned.
If the antecedent denotes a thing, the pronoun which or that is used:
36
 I have already read the magazine which (that) you gave me last week.
But only which is used if preceded by a preposition:
The house in which we lived was not far from the bank.
That can replace any relative pronoun except whose.
Whom can be used to link an attributive clause to the main clause when the relative
pronoun is not the subject of the relative clause:
Is that the person who (whom) you invited?
Whom is used mainly in formal contexts. In spoken English it is often replaced by
who or that:
We are happy to greet our friends whom we haven't seen so long.
They are the friends who (that) I told you about.
If a relative pronoun is an object of the clause it can be left out:
I know the people who (whom) you talk about.
I know the people you talk about.
Whose has possessive meaning. It refers to the subject of an attributive clause and
cannot be left out:
We looked at the house whose roof was shining in the rain.
It is interesting to meet a writer whose books you like to read.
CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS
Conjunctive pronouns are who, what, whose, which. They refer back to a person or
thing and link a subordinate (subject, object, predicative) clause to a main clause:
Subject clause - What I am going to do is none of your business.
Object clause - I don't know who told you this thing.
Predicative clause - The question is which of us is to do it.
In clauses conjunctive pronouns perform different functions. They can be used as
subject, object, predicative, or attribute:
Subject - Do you know who did it?
Object - Give him what he wants.
Predicative - Nobody knows what he really is.
Attribute - It's not really important whose advice you follow.
The question is which way to take.

37
 THE ADJECTIVE
CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES
Adjectives describe qualities of objects referred to by nouns, pronouns, and noun
phrases.
According to their meaning adjectives can be classified into qualitative and relative.
Qualitative adjectives denote qualities of persons, things, phenomena directly (soft,
large, sweet, sour, pretty).
Relative adjectives denote qualities through their relation to materials, place, time,
or action (wooden, Indian, daily, preparatory).
If an adjective modifies a noun, it usually precedes it. If it modifies a pronoun, it
usually follows it: a warm coat, something warm.
In the sentence they are used as attribute, predicative and objective predicative:
Attribute - There is a green book on the table.
Predicative - The book is interesting.
Objective predicative - They left the door open.
When two or more adjectives occur before a noun the following word order is
observed.
1) First comes an adjective with general meaning and an adjective with specific
meaning follows it e.g. a large French car.
2) First comes an adjective expressing opinion and a descriptive adjective follows it
e.g. a wonderful warm day.
Here is a general order of adjectives:
1) size 2) shape 3) colour 4) origin 5) material 6) use + NOUN:
small round Spanish silver serving dishes,
large white clouds
If adjectives precede the noun they modify, no conjunction is necessary:
They came to a terrifying, dark, gloomy clearing in the wood.
If the conjunction ‘and’ is used, it emphasizes the final adjective and can change the
usual order of adjectives, e.g.
They came to a dark, gloomy and terrifying clearing.
If adjectives describe qualities that can be measured, they can be modified with
adverbs very, quite, fairly, rather, terribly, completely, utterly, and others:
It’s a fairly exciting film.
The story is rather dull.

MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF ADJECTIVES

Morphologically adjectives can be divided into simple, derivative and compound.
Simple adjectives have neither prefixes nor suffixes: good, bad, green, sad, etc.
Derivative adjectives can have the following suffixes:

38
 -able movable -en wooden -less useless
-al paternal -ent intelligent -like childlike
-ate immaculate -ful careful -ory obligatory
-an Anglican -ish childish -ous curious
-ant fragrant -ist pacifist -some handsome
-ary imaginary -ive impressive -wise streetwise
-ed crooked -ic synthetic -y,-ly misty, daily
They can have the following prefixes:
un- unusual pre- prewar
in- /im- /ir- incorrect, impossible, post- postwar
irregular
dis- dishonest pro- pro-American
non- non-descriptive anti- antinuclear
Compound adjectives are built from two or more stems. Stems of different parts of
speech can form adjectives:
noun stem + adjective stem night-black
noun stem + participle stem self-centered
adverb stem + participle stem well-done
adjective stem + adjective stem dark-blue
adjective stem + noun stem + suffix -ed broad-shouldered
numeral stem + noun stem + suffix -ed two-wheeled
adverb stem + noun stem + suffix -ed overpopulated
DEGREES OF COMPARISON
Qualitative adjectives have the grammatical category of degrees of comparison. There
are three degrees: positive, comparative and superlative. The comparative degree is
used to compare some common feature of two or more things or people in terms of degree
or quantity. The superlative degree is used to single out a thing or person as being special
in relation to others.
She is smarter than you think.
He is the strongest boy in our group.
Comparatives can also have the meaning of “more than average”:
There will be an additional class for slower learners.
The definite article is used with the adjective in the comparative degree if we compare
two objects:
I know the elder of the two sisters.
When the noun modified by an adjective in the superlative degree preceded by the
indefinite article, an extremely high degree of quality is meant; the idea of comparison is
not expressed in these cases.
This was a most delicious dinner.
The degrees of comparison are built in synthetic, analytical and suppletive ways.
There are also adjectives with irregular forms of degrees of comparison.
39
 1. Synthetic way
The comparative degree is built by adding the inflection -er; the superlative degree is
built by adding the inflection -est to the stem:
dark - darker - darkest
The following adjectives build the degrees of comparison according to this pattern:
- monosyllabic adjectives and adjectives of two syllables ending in -y,-ow, -er, -
ure, -le, e.g.
long – longer - longest
funny -funnier - funniest
narrow -narrower - narrowest
clever - cleverer - cleverest
mature - maturer - maturest
simple - simpler - simplest
The adjectives ending in -ow, -er, -ure, -le can also have analytical forms (more
narrow, more mature, etc.).
- some common two-syllable adjectives, e.g.
common - commoner - commonest
common- more common - most common
handsome - handsomer - handsomest
handsome - more handsome - most handsome
quiet - quieter - quietest
quiet - more quiet - most quiet
- adjectives of two syllables which have the stress on the final syllable, e.g.
polite - politer - politest
Note: One-syllable adjectives ending in –ed and the adjectives real, right and wrong
have analytical forms:
Now your story sounds more real.
Spelling rules
- If the adjective ends in a consonant preceded by a stressed short vowel, the
consonant is doubled, e.g. sad - sadder - saddest, big - bigger - biggest.
- If the adjective ends in -y, preceded by a consonant, -y is changed into -i before -
er and -est, e.g. busy - busier - busiest, happy - happier - happiest.
- If the adjective ends in -e, the -e is dropped before -er and –est, e.g. white – whiter
– whitest.
2. Analytical way
Polysyllabic adjectives build the forms of the degrees of comparison with the help of
the adverb more/most, e.g.
important - more important - most important
interesting - more interesting - most interesting
The adjectives real, right, wrong and like have analytical forms:
He is more like his father than his brother is.
This explanation seems more real.
3. Suppletive way
The adjectives good and bad have suppletive forms of the degrees of comparison:
40
 good - better - best, bad- -worse - worst.
4. Irregular forms
The following adjectives have irregular forms of degrees of comparison.
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
many
more most
much
little less least
farther farthest
far
further furthest
older oldest
old
elder eldest
latest
late later
last
nearest
near nearer
next
The adjectives elder and eldest are used to speak about people’s ages in the same
family.
Her elder sister is two years older than she is. But: He is my oldest friend.
Both farther and further can be used to speak about a ‘greater distance’, but only
further is used in the meaning of ‘more’:
Go farther and you will see the house.
Who wants to read further explanations?
The adjective latest is used in talking about events and productions to refer to new
or very recent things. Last can mean ‘before this’. Latest suggests there may be more
to come, while last means ‘final’:
Do you know the latest news? What is the last story about?
Nearest is used to mean ‘most near in space’, while next is used to talk about time
and series and means ‘nearest in the future’ or ‘after this/that one’:
Where is the nearest bus stop? Who is the next to answer?
In some expressions like ‘next door’ next means nearest in space:
My best friend lives next door.
Note: The adjective lesser doesn’t have degrees of comparison and is used to mean
“smaller in size, amount or importance”. It is used in such phrases as: to a greater or
lesser degree, the lesser of two evils, the lesser evil; it can be also used in compounds: a
lesser-known artist.
Comparatives with the definite articles can be used to say that two things change
together:
The more exciting the show is, the more people come to see it.
The word order in these sentences is the following:
The +comparative +subject +predicate, the +comparative +subject + predicate.
The short form of the structure can be used in set expressions and in sentences ending
with “the better”:
41
 The more the merrier.
The stronger you are the better.
SUBSTANTIVIZED ADJECTIVES
When adjectives are substantivized, they acquire characteristics of the noun. Wholly
substantivized adjectives have become nouns, e.g. a native, valuables
Partially substantivized adjectives have acquired only some of the characteristics of
the noun. They denote a whole class and are used with the definite article having the
generic meaning, e.g. the blind, the deaf, the disabled, the elderly, the handicapped, the
poor, the rich, the unemployed, the young the English, etc.
THE WORDS OF THE CATEGORY OF STATE
In English grammar these words are treated as adjectives which cannot be used
attributively. Russian scholars treat them as a separate part of speech.
The words of the category of state are used to denote a temporary state of a person or
thing:
She is afraid of dogs.
These words are derivatives with the prefix a-: ablaze, afire, aflame, afloat, afoot,
afraid, aglow, ajar, alight, alive, asleep, awake, aware, etc.
The words of the category of state cannot precede a noun. They are used as
predicative, objective predicative, attribute in post-position, and adverbial modifier, e.g.
Predicative – He is afraid of dogs.
Objective predicative – This story makes him asleep at once.
Attribute – John, awake and cheerful, entered the kitchen.
Adverbial modifier – Aware of the danger awaiting him, the man moved slowly
through the wood.

THE NUMERAL
The numeral indicates the number of persons or things (cardinal numeral) or the
order of persons or things (ordinal numeral).
CARDINAL NUMERALS
Cardinal numerals are used in counting. They have the following morphological
structure. From 1 to 12 and 100, 1000, 1000000 are simple words; numerals from 13 to
19 are derivatives with the suffix –teen; the cardinal numerals indicating tens are formed
by means of the suffix –ty. The numerals from 21 to 29, from 31 to 39, from 41 to 49
etc. are composite words.
SIMPLE DERIVATIVE COMPOUND
1 - 12 13 - 19 21 -29, 31 - 39, etc.
One, two, three, four, five, Thirteen, fourteen,
six, seven, eight, nine, ten, fifteen, sixteen, Twenty-one, twenty-two,
eleven, twelve seventeen, eighteen, twenty-three, twenty-four, etc.
nineteen

42
 100, 1000, 1 000000, etc. 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 101 - 999, 1001 - 9999, etc.
80, 90
One hundred and one, nine
Twenty, thirty, forty,
Hundred, thousand, hundred and ninety-one, one
fifty, sixty, seventy,
million, etc. thousand two hundred and
eighty, ninety
five, etc.
Cardinal numerals hundred, thousand, million can take the indefinite article in the
meaning of "one". They can be substantivized and used in plural, e.g. hundreds,
thousands, millions, but they have singular form when preceded by other numerals, e.g.
two hundred, three thousand, four million.
Cardinal numerals can be used as subject, predicative, object, attribute (apposition),
adverbial modifier, e.g.
Subject - How many do you want? - Five will do.
Predicative - We are three here. He is fourteen.
Object - I'll take two, if I may.
Attribute - Two small birds and one big one flew out of the bush.
Adverbial modifier - I'll be back after four.
ORDINAL NUMERALS
Ordinal numerals have the following morphological structure: they are built by means
of the suffix -th from cardinal numerals, e.g. fourth, twenty-fifth, etc. The exception is
three numerals – first, second, third.
In ordinal groups only the last member of the group has the ordinal form: (the) twenty-
fifth.
Ordinal numerals are usually used as attributes, but they can also be used as subject,
predicative, or object, e.g.
Attribute - The first car appeared and the public roared.
Subject - The first two questions were difficult, but the third was the worst.
Predicative - He is always the first to come.
Object - Which one would you want? - Show me the third.

43
 THE ADVERB
Adverbs are words that modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb describing some
circumstances or features of an action, state, or quality.
MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF ADVERBS
Morphologically adverbs can be divided into
- simple (hard, here, now, etc.),
- derivative (friendly, likewise, westward, etc.),
- compound (sometimes, anyway, etc.)
- composite (at least, at last, etc.).
CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS
According to their meaning adverbs can be classified into the following groups.
meaning adverbs meaning adverbs
time now, then frequency sometimes, often
place here, there manner carefully, slowly
degree very, fairly relative time already, soon
quantity much, little focusing, even, also, only,
attitude markers particularly, apparently,
fortunately
THE PLACE OF AN ADVERB IN A SENTENCE
Adverbs can have different places in a sentence. It can have the initial position:
Nowadays, it doesn't matter so much.
It can come before a verb:
We never saw him do it.
It can come before a notional verb and after an auxiliary verb or a modal verb:
We have never seen him. You can never do it.
It can come at the end of a sentence:
She pronounces every word distinctly.
An adverb can precede an adjective:
It is a very good decision.
It can precede another adverb:
Thank you very much.
We can vary the position of adverbs according to what we want to emphasize:
She put the cup on the table carefully. Carefully, she put the cup on the table.
She sometimes gets up early. Sometimes she gets up early.
I already know it. I know it already.
The adverbs of quantity usually come at the end of a sentence:
She didn't say much.
Note: Already is usually used in affirmative statements and yet is used in negative
statements and questions.

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 Little / a little is used in affirmative statements, while much is mostly used in
negative statements and questions. A lot can be used both in affirmative and negative
statements and in questions.
DEGREES OF COMPARISON
Adverbs can have degrees of comparison.
1. Adverbs form degrees of comparison in the synthetic way by means of inflections
-er, -est in the following cases:
- if an adverb is a monosyllabic word:
hard - harder – hardest
fast - faster - fastest;
- if it is a word of two syllables but identical in form with the adjective:
early - earlier – earliest
funny - funnier - funniest.
2. Other adverbs of two syllables and polysyllabic adverbs form the degrees of
comparison in the analytical way:
quickly - more quickly - most quickly
slowly - more slowly - most slowly.
3. The adverbs well and badly have suppletive forms of the degrees of comparison:
well - better – best
badly - worse - worst.
4. The following adverbs have irregular forms of the degrees of comparison:
much/many - more – most
little - less – least
far – farther/further – farthest/furthest.

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 THE VERB
GENERAL NOTION
The verb denotes actions, existence, mental condition, states and processes.
There are transitive and intransitive verbs.
Transitive verbs can take a direct object: Read the letter.
Intransitive verbs cannot take a direct object: Come here.
Morphologically verbs can be divided into
- simple, e.g. come, read;
- derivative, e.g. reconstruct;
- compound, e.g. daydream;
- composite, e.g. give up, put on, take off. These verbs are also called ‘phrasal
verbs’.
The verb has four basic forms.
THE THE PAST THE PAST PARTICIPLE
PARTICIPLE I
INFINITIVE INDEFINITE / PARTICIPLE II
to write writing wrote written
to work working worked worked
According to their basic forms verbs are divided into regular, irregular and mixed.
Regular verbs form the Past Indefinite and Participle II by adding -ed/-d to the stem,
e.g. walk - walked, love - loved.
Irregular verbs change their root vowel, add suffix -en, change the final consonant,
have homonymous or suppletive forms, e.g. run - ran - run, take - took - taken, send -
sent - sent, put - put -put go - went - gone.
Mixed verbs have the regular form of the Past Indefinite and the irregular form of
Participle II, e.g. show - showed - shown.
CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS
There are four main types of verbs: notional, auxiliary, link, and modal.
Notional verbs have the meaning of their own and can be used without other verbs,
as a simple predicate:
She writes a lot of letters every day.
Auxiliary verbs combine with notional verbs to build analytical forms. Auxiliary
verbs have lost their lexical meaning. They are do, have, be, shall, will, should, would:
Do you know this person?
He is writing a test now.
They have never met us.
Shall we go? They will help you. They said they would help you.
Link verbs are used in compound nominal predicates. They are: be, feel, seem, look,
become, get, grow, taste, come and others. Some of them have lost to some extent their
lexical meaning; in other cases their lexical meaning is not important:
We are students.
It becomes colder every day.
The road came white and straight in front of us.
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 The soup tastes good.
Modal and semi-modal verbs express the speaker's attitude toward the action or state
described by the infinitive. They are: can/could, may/might, must, shall, will, should,
ought, would, need, dare, be, have. As a rule they are not used alone and are followed
by a notional verb. Modal verbs are a kind of modal auxiliaries as they build forms
without other auxiliary verbs:
You can go now.
Must we come again?
You shouldn't believe everything he says.
Semi-modal verbs can use auxiliaries in negative and interrogative forms:
Do you have to go there again?
You needn’t read the text. You don’t need to read the text.
There are verbs that can be used both as notional and auxiliary and there are verbs that
can be used as notional, auxiliary and semi-modal or auxiliary and modal.
Notional Auxiliary Modal Semi-modal
do do - -
be be - be
have have - have
- will will -
- shall shall -
- would would -
- should should -
- might might -
need - - need
dare - - dare
How often do you do such things?
He is at home. He is sleeping. He is to come soon.
He has this book. He has read it. He had to read it last week.
Will it rain, do you think? I mustn’t, but I will.
We shall start at 5. You shall be sorry.
She said she would come. We asked her but she wouldn’t listen.
I thought I should call you. You should have called.
Wherever you might go you will meet him. You might have cleaned the room.
According to lexical meaning verbs can be terminative, non-terminative, and verbs
of double aspect character.
Terminative verbs denote actions implying a certain limit, e.g. come, find, bring,
etc.
I’ve brought you a book. Here it is.
Non-terminative verbs denote actions that do not imply any limit, e.g. live, possess,
hope, stay, etc.
I hope to meet you again.
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 Verbs of double aspect character can be both, depending on the context, e.g. see,
read, learn, etc.
She can see well. I haven’t seen him yet.
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES OF THE VERBS
The verb has the grammatical categories of person, number, tense, aspect, and
voice.
THE CATEGORIES OF PERSON AND NUMBER
There are few forms indicating person and number. The verb be has separate forms in
the Present Indefinite to indicate person and number and forms to indicate number in the
Past Indefinite.
PRESENT PAST
person singular plural singular plural
1st am are was were
2nd are are were were
3rd is are was were
The ending -s /-es is the marker of the third person singular in the Present Indefinite
Indicative, while the other forms have no ending:
He likes music. We like music.
The category of person can be manifested in the Future tenses and in the Future-in-
the past tenses, as the auxiliary shall/should can be used with the first person, while
will/would can be used with all the persons:
Shall I go now? He will come later. We will help you.
I said I should come. He said he would come.
THE CATEGORIES OF TENSE AND ASPECT
The category of tense is expressed in the forms of the verbs. It is closely connected
with the category of aspect. Each tense has four aspect forms - Indefinite, Continuous,
Perfect, and Perfect Continuous. So, on the whole there are 16 tense-aspect forms:
TENSE ASPECT
Present Indefinite Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous
Past Indefinite Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous
Future Indefinite Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous
Future-in-the-past Indefinite Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous
Present Indefinite - He works really hard.
Present Continuous - He is working now.
Present Perfect - He has already finished working for today.
Present Perfect Continuous - He has been working at the project for a couple of
months.

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 THE CATEGORY OF VOICE
The category of Voice indicates the relationship of the predicate to the subject and the
object of the action denoted by the predicate. The form of the active voice shows that the
subject is the doer of the action. The passive voice shows that the subject of the sentence
is influenced by the action:
Active voice - He usually writes letters on Saturday.
Passive voice - Letters are written every Saturday.
THE CATEGORY OF MOOD
Mood is a grammatical category, which indicates the attitude of the speaker towards
the action or state expressed by the verb from the point of view of its reality.
There are three principal moods in Modern English:
The Indicative Mood shows that the action or state expressed by the verb is presented
as a real fact.
You remember my brother, I am sure. They walked to the car slowly.
The forms of the Indicative Mood have tense and aspect distinctions and they can be
used in the Active and Passive Voice.
The Imperative Mood is used to express a command or a request. It has only one
form that coincides with the infinitive without the particle to.
Come in and close the door.
The negative form is built by means of the auxiliary verb do.
Don’t say it again. Don’t be late.
If the command or request concerns the 1st or 3rd person, the verb ‘let’ is used:
Let him help you. Let me help you. Let us walk a little.
Commands and requests can be also expressed by modal verbs. Remember that
requests expressed by modal verbs sound more polite, while requests expressed by the
Imperative Mood sound like polite commands/
The Subjunctive Mood presents the action or the state expressed by the verb as a
non-fact, as something imaginary or desired:
If I were you, I would accept this proposal. I wish I could fly.
На вашем месте я бы принял это предложение. Жаль, что я не могу летать.
THE INDICATIVE MOOD
THE PRESENT INDEFINITE TENSE
(THE SIMPLE PRESENT)
FORMATION
The verb be distinguishes the category of person in the singular and the category of
number.
PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL
I I am We are
II You are You are
III He, she, it is They are
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 Contracted forms of be with pronouns and with the negative particle not are very
common in Spoken English:
I’m he’s she’s it’s we’re you’re they’re
isn’t aren’t
The form of the Present Indefinite of other verbs coincides with the form of the
Infinitive without the particle to. The third person singular form takes the ending -s, -es.
The pronunciation of the ending -s (es) varies:
1. It is pronounced [z] after vowels and voiced consonants other than sibilants and
affricates:
go - goes, come - comes
2. It is pronounced [s] after voiceless consonants other than sibilants and affricates:
work - works, hope - hopes
3. It is pronounced [iz] after sibilants and affricates:
pass - passes, match – matches, wish – wishes, fix - fixes, buzz - buzzes
SPELLING RULES
The verbs ending in -s, -ss, -ch, -sh, -tch, -x, -z take -es (passes, pushes, fixes); the
verbs ending in -о take -es (goes, does); the verbs ending in -у preceded by a consonant
take -es and у is replaced by i (try - tries); the verb have changes into has. The other
verbs take the ending -s. Interrogative and negative forms of the Present Indefinite of all
the verbs except be and have (with the meaning to possess) are analytical. They are built
by means of the present indefinite of the auxiliary do and the infinitive of the notional
verb.
Affirmative Interrogative
I read Do I read?
He, she, it reads Does he, she, it read?
We read Do we read?
You read Do you read?
They read Do they read?
Negative Negative – Interrogative
I do not (don’t) read Do I not (Don’t I) read?
He, she, it does not (doesn’t) read Does he, she, it not (Doesn’t he, she, it) read?
We do not (don’t) read Do we not (Don’t we) read?
You do not (don’t) read Do you not (Don’t you) read?
They do not (don’t) read Do they not (Don’t they) read?
The auxiliary do can be used in the affirmative form for the purpose of emphasis: I
say it again, I do know the fact.
THE USE OF THE PRESENT INDEFINITE TENSE
The Present Indefinite refers the action, which it denotes to the present time in a broad
sense. It is used to denote:
1. Habitual, repeated actions:
He always gets up very early.
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 Mary visits her parents every weekend.
Adverbs of frequency are used to indicate how often the action is repeated: always,
usually, often, sometimes, occasionally, seldom, rarely, hardly ever, never.
2. General rules, laws of nature, something that doesn't depend on time:
Ice melts at 0°C.
The sun rises in the East and sets in the West.
3. Actions and states presented as facts:
Now she lives in the South.
She plays the piano perfectly.
4. Actions and states in progress at the present moment with the verbs of sense
perception (see, hear, feel), mental activity (think, believe, suppose, know, understand),
existence (be, exist), some link verbs (be, seem), verbs denoting relation (have, belong,
depend), emotional state (like, love, hate), wish (want, wish, desire) and verbs of
declaring (declare, announce, proclaim):
I don't hear you, speak louder, please.
I think (suppose, believe) I like this story.
She is at home now.
She seems tired.
Now everything depends on you.
Do you want to have breakfast now or later?
Listen, they announce our flight.
5. A succession of actions:
Somebody knocks. Then the door opens and Ann enters.
6. Future actions:
(a) in adverbial subordinate clauses of time and condition after the conjunctions when,
as soon as, while, as long as, till, until, before, after, by the time (when), if, unless, in
case, on condition that, provided:
He will phone you when he learns the facts.
Do it as soon as you have time.
Don't go away until I come.
Will you help me if I need help?
We'll go to the country unless it starts raining.
(b) with the verbs of motion when the action is fixed and the future time is indicated:
The train starts in half an hour, let's hurry.
We arrive in Moscow next Sunday and stay there for a week.
7. Past actions
(a) in headlines, outlines, etc:
Champion Wins Again.
Jane Eyre leaves her aunt's house and her life at Lowood Institution begins.
(b) in narration to make it more vivid:
Last night I switched on the TV-set and there I see you.
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 I am so excited that I start phoning all my friends.
8. Completed actions with hear, be told, forget (not to remember a particular
detail):
I hear you are a student now.
I am already told the news.
Sorry, but I forget (don't remember) his name.

THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

(THE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE)
FORMATION
The forms of the Present Continuous are analytical. They are formed by means of the
present indefinite of the auxiliary verb be and participle I of the notional verb.
Affirmative Interrogative
I am standing Am I standing?
He, she, it is standing Is he, she, it standing?
We are standing Are we standing?
You are standing Are you standing?
They are standing Are they standing?
Negative Negative-Interrogative
I am not (I’m not) standing Am I not (Aren’t I) standing?
He, she, it is not (isn’t) standing Is he, she, it not (Isn’t he, she, it)
We are not (aren’t) standing standing?
You are not (aren’t) standing Are we not (Aren’t we) standing?
They are not (aren’t) standing Are they not (Aren’t they) standing?
THE USE OF THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE
The Present Continuous denotes an action which is in progress and refers to the
present.
The Present Continuous is used to denote:
1. An action going on at the moment of speaking.
– Can I talk to David?
– Not at the moment: he is sleeping.
2. An action taking place within more or less long period of time
Where is your brother? He is travelling.
I can't find “The Green Years” by A. Cronin at the library. They say the first-year
students are reading it.
3. A continual process (with the adverbs always, constantly, ever), referring to
any time
The Earth is constantly moving; it is rotating round the Sun.
4. The Present Continuous can be used to denote actions, states or qualities peculiar
to the person at the given moment.
You are being rude, Tom. Your behaviour is killing your aunt.
It's spring. Birds are returning from the South.
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 5. Actions characteristic of a certain person within more or less long period of time.
The action is usually represented as going on without an interval and there is an element
of exaggeration, which is called forth by emotions (irritation, disapproval, impatience
etc.). So such sentences are always emotionally coloured. The adverbs always and
constantly are often used in them.
You are constantly talking at the lessons!
She is always grumbling.
6. Future actions
(a) in adverbial clauses of time and condition after the conjunctions when, while, as
long as, if, in case, unless;
Will you make tea while I am finishing mу home task?
I'll pick you up at nine if you are still working at this time.
(b) mostly with the verbs of motion when the action is planned or intended and the
future time is indicated:
— Are you leaving tomorrow? – Yes, and I'm coming back on Monday.
Note 1: The Present Indefinite, not the Present Continuous is used to denote actions
going on at the present moment when the fact is more important than the process:
Why don't you answer? Why do you look at me so?
Note 2: The Present Continuous is not generally used with the verbs of sense
perception, mental activity or emotional states and with some relational verbs and link
verbs:
Do you hear me now? I think you are not right. I hate lemons.
The house now belongs to Mr. Sanford.
It can be used with the verb live to denote a temporary action:
She is living in London now.
Note 3: The Present Continuous is used in adverbial clauses of time after the
conjunctions while, when, as long as to denote a period of time.
Never talk while you are eating.'
THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
(THE PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE)
FORMATION
The forms of the Present Perfect are analytical. They are formed by means of the
Present Indefinite of the auxiliary verb have and participle II of the notional verb. There
are the following contracted forms of the auxiliary verb have: ’ve, and ’s.
Affirmative Interrogative
I have left (I’ve …) Have I left?
He, she, it has left (He’s …) Has he, she, it left?
We have left (We’ve …) Have we left?
You have left (You’ve …) Have you left?
They have left (They’ve …) Have they left?

53
 Negative Negative-Interrogative
I have not (haven’t) left Have I not (haven’t I) left?
He, she, it has not (hasn’t) left Has he, she, it not (hasn’t he, she, it) left?
We have not (haven’t) left Have we not (haven’t we) left?
You have not (haven’t) left Have you not (haven’t you) left?
They have not (haven’t) left Have they not (haven’t they) left?
THE USE OF THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
The Present Perfect denotes an action preceding the present moment but connected
with it. It is used to denote:
1. Actions or states, which took place in the past and are connected with the
present:
I have read the article (and can discuss it with you).
They have arrived (now we can go and see them).
It is frequently used with the adverbs already, before, ever, never, often, recently,
still, yet, just, of late, etc.:
It has already started raining. (Take an umbrella). They have never been to London.
They still haven't found an answer (There is no answer).
Note: In questions the adverb ‘already’ is used to express surprise that something has
happened so soon:
Have you met them already?
2. Actions or states when their results are obvious in the present:
I've broken the cup — look!
She has written the review — here it is.
3. Actions which take place in periods of time that are not over:
She has met a lot of people this week.
We have completed our research this year.
4. Actions completed before a definite moment in the future in adverbial clauses
of time after the conjunctions when, as soon as, till, until, before, after.
I am leaving as soon as I've got the answer.
He won't talk to you until you have apologized.
5. Actions which started in the past, continued up to the moment of speaking, and
are still going on. The preposition for is used to denote the whole period of duration; the
preposition since is used to denote the starting point of the action.
She has lived here for three years.
She has lived here since last October.
This use of the Present Perfect is called the Present Perfect Inclusive. The form is
translated into Russian by the Present or the Past imperfective. It is used:
(a) with the verbs which don't usually form continuous:
She has known about you for a week or so.
Она знает о тебе уже около недели.
(b) in negative sentences:
I haven't seen her since last week.
Я не вижу (не видела) ее с прошлой недели.
(с) with non-terminative verbs (to live, to study, to work, etc.):
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 I've worked at this problem for several months.
Я работаю над этой проблемой уже несколько месяцев.
Note 1: The Present Simple and not the Present Perfect is used in sentences of the
following kind:
How long is it since you came here? – It is 2 hours since I came here.
Note 2: Mind the use of tenses in the following sentence:
It is the second time you have been late.
THE PRESENT PERFECT AND THE PAST INDEFINITE
The Past Indefinite shows that the action belongs to the past while the Present Perfect
shows its connection with the present.
He often came here (but doesn’t any more).
He has often come here (so he may do it again).
The Present Perfect is never used with the adverbial modifiers of the past time
(yesterday, last week).
We didn't see him yesterday.
Both tenses can be used with the adverbial modifiers, denoting the period of time that
is not over,
I have talked to him today. I talked to him today.
With the adverb just the Present Perfect is used; with the expression just now the Past
Indefinite is used.
I have just heard the news. I heard the news just now.
The Present Perfect is used with the adverb lately (последнее время) while the Past
Indefinite is used with the adverbial phrase last time (последний раз):
I haven’t talked to him lately. Last time I saw him, he didn’t talk.
The Russian adverb “давно” can correspond to two different phrases in English: long
ago which is used with the Past Indefinite and for a long time which is usually used with
the Present Perfect:
I found it out long ago. I’ve known it for a long time.
The Past Indefinite not the Present Perfect is used in When-questions. Both tenses
can be used in Where-questions, but the Past Indefinite is more frequently used in them.
When did you come? Where did you find it? Where have you been?
THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
(THE PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE)
FORMATION
The forms of the Present Perfect Continuous are analytical. They are built by means
of the present perfect of the auxiliary verb be (have/has been) and participle I of the
notional verb.
Affirmative Interrogative
I have been reading Have I been reading?
He, she, it has been reading Has he, she, it been reading?
We have been reading Have we been reading?
You have been reading Have you been reading?
They have been reading Have they been reading?
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 Negative Negative-Interrogative
I have not (haven’t) been reading Have I not (Haven’t I) been reading?
He, she, it has not (hasn’t) been Has he, she, it not (Hasn’t he, she, it) been
reading reading?
We have not (haven’t) been reading Have we not (Haven’t we) been reading?
You have not (haven’t) been reading Have you not (Haven’t you) been reading?
They have not (haven’t) been reading Have you not (Haven’t you) been reading?
THE USE OF THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
The Present Perfect Continuous tense is used to denote:
1. Actions and states that begin in the past and continue into the present:
She has been reading since morning and she hasn't finished yet.
2. Actions that begin in the past and continue till the moment of speaking:
Here you are at last. I have been waiting for you all day.
3. Actions in progress that both begin and end before the moment of speaking but
are connected with the present:
I see you have been using my table again.
The Present Perfect and not the Present Perfect Continuous is used to denote a multiple
action:
I’ve ironed three shirts. How many music lessons have you had?
4. Future actions in progress before a certain moment in the future (in adverbial
clauses of time and condition):
You will get used to them after you have been sitting at table with them for a couple of
days.
THE PAST INDEFINITE TENSE
(THE PAST SIMPLE)
FORMATION
The verb be has two forms of the Past Indefinite — was for the singular and were for
the plural.
The affirmative forms of the Past Indefinite of other verbs are synthetic; they are
represented by the second form of the basic verb forms. The interrogative and negative
forms are analytical; they are built by means of the auxiliary verb do in the Past Indefinite
(did) and the Infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to.
Affirmative Interrogative
I came / danced Did I come / dance?
He, she, it came / danced Did he, she, it come / dance?
We came / danced Did we come / dance?
You came / danced Did you come / dance?
They came / danced Did they come / dance?

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 Negative Negative-Interrogative
I did not (didn’t) come / dance Did I not (Didn’t I) come / dance?
He, she, it did not (didn’t) come / Did he, she, it not (Didn’t he) come /
dance dance?
We did not (didn’t) come / dance Did we not (Didn’t we) come / dance?
You did not (didn’t) come / dance Did you not (Didn’t you) come / dance?
They did not (didn’t) come / dance Did they not (Didn’t they) come / dance?
The auxiliary did is used in affirmative forms to emphasize the statement:
I tell you the truth, I did see him yesterday.
THE USE OF THE PAST INDEFINITE TENSE
The Past Indefinite refers actions to the past cut off from the present. It is the tense of
narration. The reference of the context to the past is indicated by adverbials of time:
yesterday, the day before yesterday, last year, last week, a month ago, in 1999, on
the 1st of September, etc.
He left last Monday. Pushkin was born in 1799. She came back an hour ago.
The Past Indefinite Tense is used to denote:
1. Habitual (customary) actions in the past.
Mr. Sanford usually took an early train to town.
Note: Repeated, habitual actions are also expressed by ‘used to + Infinitive’ and
‘would + Infinitive’. They form a compound verbal aspect predicate:
He used to sit up late reading when he studied at college.
He would come every Sunday with toys and sweets for us.
Sometimes ‘used to’ denotes actions or states that lasted some time in the past:
They used to be friends.
There used to be a telephone-booth round the corner.
2. Simple facts in the past:
– When did you buy this dictionary? — I bought it a month ago.
They translated this novel ten years ago.
3. A succession of past actions.
She put aside the book and went out into the garden.
He locked the door and ran downstairs.
4. Actions future from the point of view of the past in adverbial clauses of time
and condition in the indirect speech, if the predicate of the principal clause is in the
past:
She said she would leave when she finished the work.
She said they usually went to the park in the afternoon, if it did not rain.
5. Actions in progress at a certain moment in the past, with the verbs that are not
usually used in Continuous forms:
He was not listening but still heard what they were speaking about.
She did not understand what they were speaking about.

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 THE PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE
(THE PAST PROGRESSIVE)
FORMATION
The forms of the Past Continuous are analytical. They are built by means of the past
forms of the auxiliary verb be (was, were) and participle I of the notional verb.
Affirmative Interrogative
I was reading Was I reading?
He, she, it was reading Was he’ she’ it reading?
We were reading Were we reading?
You were reading Were you reading?
They were reading Were they reading?
Negative Negative-Interrogative
I was not (wasn’t) reading Was I not (Wasn’t I) reading?
He, she, it was not (wasn’t) reading Was he, she, it not (Wasn’t he, she, it) reading?
We were not (weren’t) reading Were we not (Weren’t we) reading?
You were not (weren’t) reading Were you not (Weren’t you) reading?
They were not (weren’t) reading Were they not (Weren’t they) reading?

THE USE OF THE PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

The Past Continuous is used to denote:
1. Actions in progress at a certain moment in the past:
At nine he was still having breakfast.
It was raining heavily when he left.
The moment of time may be indicated by means of adverbials, adverbial clauses or
understood from the situation:
It was late but he was still working.
2. Actions and states characteristic of certain persons in the past:
She was leaving her things everywhere.
3. Actions thought of as continual processes:
He was writing a book that summer.
With the phrases the whole day, all day long both the Past Indefinite and the Past
Continuous may be used:
We were watching TV the whole day yesterday.
We watched TV the whole day yesterday.
The Past Indefinite emphasizes the fact while the Past Continuous emphasizes the
process.
4. Future actions viewed from the past with the verbs of motion if the action is
planned or expected:
She was leaving next morning and there wasn't much time left.
5. A period of time in the middle of which something happens:
I was reading when my friend called.

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 THE PAST PERFECT TENSE
(THE PAST PERFECT SIMPLE)
FORMATION
The forms of the Past Perfect are analytical. They are built by means of the past
indefinite of the auxiliary verb have (had) and participle II of the notional verb.

Affirmative Interrogative
I had left Had I left?
He, she, it had left Had he, she, it left?
We had left Had we left?
You had left Had you left?
They had left Had they left?
Negative Negative-Interrogative
I had not (hadn’t) left Had I not (Hadn’t I) left?
He, she, it had not (hadn’t) left Had he, she, it not (Hadn’t he, she, it) left?
We had not (hadn’t) left Had we not (Hadn’t we) left?
You had not (hadn’t) left Had you not (Hadn’t you) left?
They had not (hadn’t) left Had they not (Hadn’t they) left?
THE USE OF THE PAST PERFECT TENSE
1. The Past Perfect is used to denote an action prior to or completed before a certain
moment in the past. This moment may be indicated by an adverbial phrase or by another
past action expressed by a verb in the Past Indefinite or it may be understood from the
situation:
By this time we had discussed all the points of the plan.
When we came everybody had already left.
She had stopped eating and was sitting silently.
2. The Past Perfect can denote an action that began before a certain moment in the
past and continued up to that moment or into it. The starting point of the action may be
indicated by the preposition since and the period of duration may be indicated by the
preposition for. The Past Perfect denotes actions in progress with the verbs, which do
not admit of the continuous form, with non-terminative verbs, and in negative sentences:
He had been asleep for some time when a sudden noise awoke him.
He had learned English for several years and he spoke fluently.
He was tired though he hadn't done anything since morning.
3. In complex sentences with the adverbial clauses of time introduced by the
conjunctions until, before, after, when the Past Perfect can be used both in the principal
and subordinate clauses. The Past Indefinite in both clauses denotes a succession of
actions, while the Past Perfect in one of the clauses emphasizes the completion of the
action rather than its priority:
Mary left when we came (We came and Mary left).
Mary had left when we came (Mary wasn't there when we came).
We didn't ask questions until the speaker had finished his report.
He left before I had said anything.
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 The verbs of sense perception are usually used in the Past Indefinite as in this case
actions are practically simultaneous:
When he saw me he stopped.
If the conjunctions when and than are correlated with adverbs scarcely, hardly, no
sooner in the principal clause, the word order in the principal clause can be inverted and
the use of the Past Perfect is obligatory:
No sooner had he noticed us than he hurried away.
We had hardly left the house when it started raining.
Her head had scarcely touched the pillow when she was already sleeping.
The Past Perfect can be rendered into Russian by the past tense perfective and
imperfective.
He had discovered some very strange facts. - Он обнаружил несколько очень
странных фактов.
Не had looked at me silently for some time. - Некоторое время он молча смотрел
на меня.
THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
(THE PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE)
FORMATION
The forms of the Past Perfect Continuous are analytical. They are built by means of
the Past Perfect form of the verb be (had been) and participle I of the notional verb.
Affirmative Interrogative
I had been reading Had I been reading?
He, she, it had been reading Had he, she, it been reading?
We had been reading Had we been reading?
You had been reading Had you been reading?
They had been reading Had they been reading?
Negative Negative-Interrogative
I had not (hadn’t) been reading Had I not (Hadn’t I) been reading?
He, she, it had not (hadn’t) been Had he, she, it not (Hadn’t he) been
reading reading?
We had not (hadn’t) been reading Had we not (Hadn’t we) been reading?
You had not (hadn’t) been reading Had you not (Hadn’t you) been reading?
They had not (hadn’t) been reading Had they not (Hadn’t they) been reading?
THE USE OF THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
1. It is used to denote actions that began before a certain moment in the past and
continued up to that moment. The preposition for is used to denote the whole period of
duration, the preposition or the conjunction since is used to denote the starting point of
the action.
They had been walking for some time and then they stopped to have some rest.
Though she looked calm I knew she had been crying since morning.

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 2. The Past Perfect Continuous can denote actions that began before a certain
moment in the past and continued into it.
They couldn't go out because it had been raining since morning.
He had been travelling all his life and was full of amazing stories.
THE PAST CONTINUOUS AND THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
The Past Continuous denotes an action in progress at a definite moment in the past,
while the Past Perfect Continuous points at its progress before a certain moment in the
past.
He was walking when I met him.
He had been walking before I met him.
We had been walking for an hour when it started raining.
The Past Continuous and not the Past Perfect Continuous is used with the adverb still.
He was still reading when I came.
The Past Perfect Continuous is used when there is a preposition or conjunction since.
He had been reading since I left.

DIFFERENT WAYS OF EXPRESSING FUTURE ACTIONS

There are different ways of expressing future actions, and other tenses besides the
Future ones can be used.
The Present Indefinite is used to denote a fixed action with the verbs of motion:
Don't forget, we start in an hour.
The Present Continuous is used to denote a planned action:
We are meeting tonight.
The modal expression ‘be going to’ is used to denote intended or planned actions:
I'm going to start working on my report tomorrow.
It can also be used to make predictions – denote actions determined by something in
the present:
You are so slow! We are going to be late.
The semi-modal verb ‘be to’ is used to denote an officially arranged action:
The Glasgow delegation is to arrive next week.
The phrase ‘be about to’ means that something is going to happen very soon:
Let's hurry. They are about to close the shop.
Besides, the Present Indefinite, the Present Continuous, the Present Perfect, and
the Present Perfect Continuous are used to denote future actions in the adverbial
clauses of time and condition.
If you come tonight, we’ll discuss this question. I’ll help you while you are cooking.
You’ll stay here until you have finished the work.
They will learn how to do it when they have been practicing for some time.

Future tenses are not used in adverbial clauses of time and condition.

THE FUTURE INDEFINITE TENSE

(FUTURE SIMPLE)
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 FORMATION
The forms of the Future Indefinite are analytical. They are built by means of the
auxiliary verb will for all persons and the infinitive of the notional verb without the
particle ‘to’. The auxiliary shall is sometimes used with the first person singular and
plural.
Affirmative Interrogative
I will (I’ll) go Will I go?
He, she, it will (he, she, it’ll) go Will he, she, it go?
We will (we’ll) go Will we go?
You will (you’ll) go Will you go?
They will (they’ll) go Will they go?
Negative Negative-Interrogative
I will not go Will I not (Won’t I) go?
He, she, it will not go Will he, she, it not (Won’t he, she, it) go?
We will not go Will we not (Won’t we) go?
You will not go Will you not (Won’t you) go?
They will not go Will they not (Won’t they) go?
THE USE OF THE FUTURE INDEFINITE TENSE
The Future Indefinite is used to denote:
1. Simple facts in the future:
It will snow in winter. They will come pretty soon. I’ll help you.
2. A succession of actions in future:
We’ll have breakfast, watch TV, and then you will come.
Very often will and shall have modal meaning besides that of futurity. Thus the verb
‘will’ can denote:
- Decisions made at the moment of speaking:
All right, I will phone you at nine.
- Requests:
Will you do me a favour?
- Promises:
I will come as soon as you call me.
- Offers and invitations:
Will you come to lunch?
The verb ‘shall’ can express:
- Offers and suggestions:
Shall I make tea for you? Shall we start now?
- Asking for advice:
What shall I do if he comes again?
Note: Will and be going to
1. The auxiliary ‘will’ is used when we know or think about future; ‘be going to’ is
used to express an intention while ‘will’ can be used to express details and comments:
We are going to spend summer near a river. We’ll live in a tent and fish a lot.

62
 2. We use ‘will’ to express an instant decision, while we use ‘be going to’ to show
that we have already decided:
He is late. I’ll call him and find out where he is.
I’m going to call her tonight and congratulate her.
THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE
(THE FUTURE PROGRESSIVE TENSE)
FORMATION
The forms of the Future Continuous are analytical. They are built by means of the
Future Indefinite form of the auxiliary verb be (will be) and participle I of the notional
verb.
Affirmative Interrogative
I will (I’ll) be reading Will I be reading?
He, she, it will (’ll) be reading Will he, she, it be reading?
We will (’ll) be reading Will we be reading?
You will (’ll) be reading Will you be reading?
They will (‘ll) be reading Will they be reading?

Negative Negative-Interrogative
I will not be reading Will I not (Won’t I) be reading?
He, she, it will not be reading Will he, she, it not (Won’t he) be reading?
We will not be reading Will we not (Won’t we) be reading?
You will not be reading Will you not (Won’t you) be reading?
They will not be reading Will they not (Won’t they) be reading?
THE USE OF THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS
The Future Continuous tense is used to denote:
1. An action that will be in progress at a definite moment or during a definite period
of time in the future:
At this time tomorrow my plane will be taking off.
2. An action that will happen as part of a routine:
I will be cleaning the house tomorrow – I always do it on Saturday.
3. An action that is planned or expected:
We 'II be staying at a hotel, I believe.
THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
(THE FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE)
FORMATION
The forms of the future perfect are analytical. They are built by means of the future
indefinite of the auxiliary verb have (will have) and participle II of the notional verb.

Affirmative Interrogative
I will (’ll) have spoken Will I have spoken?
He, she, it will (’ll) have spoken Will he, she, it have spoken?
We will (’ll) have spoken Will we have spoken?
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 You will (’ll) have spoken Will you have spoken?
They will (’ll) have spoken Will they have spoken?
Negative Negative-Interrogative
I will not have spoken Won’t I have spoken?
He, she, it will not have spoken Won’t he, she, it have spoken?
We will not have spoken Won’t we have spoken?
You will not have spoken Won’t you have spoken?
They will not have spoken Won’t they have spoken?
THE USE OF THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
The Future Perfect is used to denote:
1. An action that is completed before a certain moment in the future:
I will have returned before you receive my letter.
2. An action that begins before a certain moment in the future and continues up to
this moment or into it; it is used with the verbs that do not admit of the continuous form:
Next year she will have been a teacher for twenty years.
THE FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
(THE FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE)
FORMATION
The forms of the Future Continuous are analytical. They are built by means of the
Future Perfect form of the auxiliary verb be (will have been) and participle I of the
notional verb.
Affirmative Interrogative
I’ll have been reading Will I have been reading?
He, she, it’ll have been reading Will he, she, it have been reading?
We’ll have been reading Will we have been reading?
You’ll have been reading Will you have been reading?
They’ll have been reading Will they have been reading?
Negative Negative-Interrogative
I’ll not (won’t) have been reading Won’t I have been reading?
He, she, it’ll not (won’t) have been reading Won’t he, she, it have been reading?
We’ll not (won’t) have been reading Won’t we have been reading?
You’ll not (won’t) have been reading Won’t you have been reading?
They’ll not (won’t) have been reading Won’t they have been reading?
THE USE OF THE FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
The Future Perfect Continuous is rarely used. It denotes an action that begins before
a certain moment in the future and continues up to that moment or into it:
Next March they will have been building this house for two years. –В марте будет
уже два года, как мы строим этот дом.

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 FUTURE TENSES IN THE PAST
The future tenses in the past express actions which are future from the point of view
of a past moment. They are mostly used to render reported speech. All the future in the
past forms are analytical.
THE FUTURE INDEFINITE IN THE PAST
(THE FUTURE SIMPLE IN THE PAST)
FORMATION
The forms are built by means of the auxiliary verb would and the infinitive of the
notional verb without the particle ‘to’.
Affirmative Interrogative
I’d (would) read Would I read?
He, she, it’d (would) read Would he, she, it read?
We’d (would) read Would we read?
You’d (would) read Would you read?
They’d (would) read Would they read?
Negative Negative-Interrogative
I would not (wouldn’t) read Wouldn’t I read?
He, she, it would not (wouldn’t) read Wouldn’t he, she, it read?
We would not (wouldn’t) read Wouldn’t we read?
You would not (wouldn’t) read Wouldn’t you read?
They would not (wouldn’t) read Wouldn’t they read?
THE USE OF THE FUTURE INDEFINITE IN THE PAST
It is used to denote simple facts and habitual actions that are future from the point of
view of the past:
He promised he would come as soon as he could.
We thought we would go to the beach every morning before breakfast.
Note: In complex sentences with the subordinate clauses if time and conditions one of
past tenses is used in the subordinate clause:
She said she would call us when she was ready.
THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS IN THE PAST
(THE FUTURE PROGRESSIVE IN THE PAST)
FORMATION
The forms of the future continuous in the past are built by means of the auxiliary verb
be in the future indefinite in the past (would be) and participle I of the notional verb.
Affirmative Interrogative
I’d be reading Would I be reading?
He, she, it’d be reading Would he, she, it be reading?
We’d be reading Would we be reading?
You’d be reading Would you be reading?
They’d be reading Would they be reading?

65
 Negative Negative-Interrogative
I wouldn’t be reading Wouldn’t I be reading?
He, she, it wouldn’t be reading Wouldn’t he, she, it be reading?
We wouldn’t be reading Wouldn’t we be reading?
You wouldn’t be reading Wouldn’t you be reading?
They wouldn’t be reading Wouldn’t they be reading?
THE USE OF THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS IN THE PAST
It is used to denote actions in progress at a definite moment that is future from the
point of view of the past:
She thought that an hour later she would be answering their questions.
THE FUTURE PERFECT IN THE PAST
(THE FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE IN THE PAST)
FORMATION
The forms of the Future Perfect in the Past are built by means of the auxiliary verb
have in the Future Indefinite in the Past (would have) and participle II of the notional
verb.
Affirmative Interrogative
I’d have spoken Would I have spoken?
He, she, it’d have spoken Would he, she, it have spoken?
We’d have spoken Would we have spoken?
You’d have spoken Would you have spoken?
They’d have spoken Would they have spoken?
Negative Negative-Interrogative
I wouldn’t have spoken Wouldn’t I have spoken?
He, she, it wouldn’t have spoken Wouldn’t he, she, it have spoken?
We wouldn’t have spoken Wouldn’t we have spoken?
You wouldn’t have spoken Wouldn’t you have spoken?
They wouldn’t have spoken Wouldn’t they have spoken?
THE USE OF THE FUTURE PERFECT IN THE PAST
It is used to denote actions completed before a certain moment which is future from
the point of view of the past:
He was sure he would have achieved his goal before the end of the year.
THE FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS IN THE PAST
(THE FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE IN THE PAST)
FORMATION
The forms of the Future Perfect Continuous in the Past are built by means of the
auxiliary verb be in the Future Perfect in the Past form (would have been) and participle
I of the notional verb.

66
 Affirmative Interrogative
I’d have been working Would I have been working?
He, she, it’d have been working Would he, she, it have been working?
We’d have been working Would we have been working?
You’d have been working Would you have been working?
They’d have been working Would the have been working?
Negative Negative-Interrogative
I wouldn’t have been working Wouldn’t I have been working?
He, she, it wouldn’t have been working Wouldn’t he, she, it have been working?
We wouldn’t have been working Wouldn’t we have been working?
You wouldn’t have been working Wouldn’t you have been working?
They wouldn’t have been working Wouldn’t they have been working?
THE USE OF THE FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS IN THE PAST
It is used to denote an action in progress before a certain moment that is future from
the point of view of the past:
She said she would have been playing the piano for an hour before we came.

SEQUENCE OF TENSES
The sequence of tenses is a dependence of the tense of the verb in a subordinate clause
on that of the verb in the principal clause. If the verb in the principal clause is used in
one of the past tenses, a past tense or future in the past is used in the subordinate clause.
The sequence of tenses is generally observed in object, subject, and predicative
clauses. It is not observed if the object clause expresses something ‘timeless ’ or a general
truth:
He said he knew the fact (object clause).
What he knew was not important (subject clause).
The question was where we could find water (predicative clause).
But: We knew that winter is usually severe in the North.
If the action expressed in the subordinate clause is simultaneous with the past action
expressed in the principal clause, the Past Indefinite or the Past Continuous is used in
the subordinate clause:
They thought they had enough time.
If the action expressed in the subordinate clause is prior to the past action expressed
in the principal clause, the Past Perfect is used in the subordinate clause:
They thought they had done everything.
If the action expressed in the subordinate clause was in progress before the past action
expressed in the principal clause the Past Perfect or the Past Perfect Continuous is
used in the subordinate clause:
He realized he had seen too much of it.
He was sure he had been walking in the right direction.
If the action expressed in the subordinate clause is future in relation to the past
action of the principal clause, the Future in the Past tenses are used:
He saw what would happen next.
John knew he would be still trying to solve the problem when they came.
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 He realized he wouldn't have solved it until evening.
The sequence of tenses is observed in the reported speech if the action expressed in
the principal clause refers to the past.
TENSE CHANGES
Present Indefinite — Past Indefinite
“I want this book”. — He said he wanted that book.
Present Continuous — Past Continuous
“I am waiting for you.” — She said she was waiting for me.
Present Perfect — Past Perfect
“I've come to meet you.” — He said he had come to meet me.
Present Perfect Continuous — Past Perfect Continuous
“I've been reading since morning.” — He said he had been reading since
morning.
Past Simple — Past Perfect
“I talked to you sister.” — He said he had talked to my sister
Past Continuous — Past Perfect Continuous
“I was trying to help.” — He said he had been trying to help.
Future Indefinite — Future Indefinite in the Past
“I'll help you.” — He said he would help me.
Future Continuous — Future Continuous in the Past
“I’ll be talking to him at two — She said she would be talking to him the
tomorrow.” next day at two.
Future Perfect — Future Perfect in the Past
“The work will have been done by — He said the work would have been done
5”. by 5.
Words related to time and place are also changed:
here —there
“I’ll wait for you here.” —He said he would wait for me there.
ago —before
“I met her two years ago.” —He said he had met her two years before.
before —earlier
“I’ve never been there before.” —He said he had never been there earlier.
last week (month, year) —the week (month, year) before
“I saw her last week.” —He said he had seen her the week before.
next week (month, year) —the next week (month, year), the week
(month, year) after, the following week
(month, year).
“We will meet next week.” —He said we would meet the next week /the
week after I the following week.
now —then / that day / at the moment
“I am watching TV now.” —He said he was watching TV at that moment.
this —that, the
“This book is interesting.” —He said that book was interesting.
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 He said the book was interesting.
these —those, the
“I like these strawberries.” —She said she liked those (the) strawberries.
that —that, the
“I’ve read that story of hers.” —He said he had read that story of hers. He said
“That story is nice.” the story was nice.
this morning (evening, etc.) —that morning (evening, etc.)
“The morning we’ll get out of —He said they would get out of town that
town.” morning.
today —that day
“There is nothing to do today.” —He said there was nothing to do that day.
tomorrow —the next day, the following day.
“We’ll leave tomorrow.” — She said they would leave the next day/ the
following day.
tonight —that night
“We’re going to the theatre —She said they were going to the theatre that
tonight.” night.
yesterday —the day before / the previous day
“I met him yesterday.” —She said she had met him the day before / the
previous day.
Sequence of tenses doesn’t concern sentences with the Subjunctive Mood in the
reported speech:
“If I could I would help you.” — She said she would help me if she could.
“You look as if you were frightened.” – She said that I looked as if I were frightened.
Note: Sequence of tenses doesn’t concern attributive relative clauses and adverbial
clauses:
He looked at the house that will still be here long after his death.
I wanted to have a rest yesterday because I have a hard day today.
ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN TENSES
There is no sequence of tenses in Russian, that’s why Present tenses are used in the
subordinate clause if the action expressed in it is simultaneous with the action expressed
in the principal clause.
Everybody knew he planned such trips.
Все знали, что он планирует такие поездки.
Everybody knew he was planning a trip.
Все знали, что он планирует поездку.
Everybody knew he had been planning it for a long time.
Все знали, что он уже давно планирует ее.
If the action expressed in the subordinate clause is prior to that in the principal
clause, past tenses are used in Russian:
Everybody knew who had planned the trip.
Все знали, кто спланировал поездку.
Everybody knew he had been planning (had planned) such trips before.
Все знали, что он планировал такие поездки раньше.
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 The action, that is future in relation to the action of the principal clause, is expressed
by a future tense in Russian:
Everybody knew who would plan the trip.
Все знали, кто будет планировать поездку.

PASSIVE VOICE
Voice is the grammatical category of the verb denoting the relationship between the
action or state expressed by the predicate and the person or thing expressed by the subject.
The Active Voice shows that the subject denotes the doer (the agent) of the action
expressed by the predicate.
The Passive Voice shows that the subject of the sentence denotes a person or a thing
affected by the action of the predicate.
THE PASSIVE VOICE FORMS
Verbs in the passive voice have the same tense forms that occur in the active voice,
except for the Future Continuous and Perfect Continuous forms. The passive forms are
built according to the pattern:

be + participle II

The form of the verb be shows the tense of the passive form.
Present Indefinite: am/is/are + participle II
Past Indefinite: was/were + participle II
Future Indefinite: will be + participle II
Future Indefinite in the Past: would be + participle II
Present Continuous: am/is/are being + participle II
Past Continuous: was/were being + participle II
Present Perfect: have/has been + participle II
Past Perfect: had been + participle II
Future Perfect: will have been + participle II
Future Perfect in the Past: would have been + participle II
Books are sold here.
The letter was received yesterday.
The rule will be explained tomorrow.
He promised that the tickets would be booked.
The article is still being translated.
This district was being built when we came to work here.
This book has been translated in many languages.
He started eating before the table had been laid.
When we get there at last, everything will have been already discussed.
She said the project would have been completed by summer.
In compound verbal modal predicates the passive form of the infinitive is used:
This letter must be sent immediately.
This question cannot be answered.
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 The work is to be finished on time.
THE USE OF THE PASSIVE VOICE
Transitive verbs are usually used in the Passive Voice:
All the questions were answered.
The Passive Voice is used when the agent is obvious or not important:
She was born in 1982.
The time-table has been changed.
It may be used to avoid mentioning the person performing the action:
The job will be done.
It is often used in reports and official announcements:
The refugees were fed and settled.
Delegates are registered downstairs.
The Passive Voice is used to describe processes:
The vegetables are washed and then they are frozen.
The Passive Voice is often used in scientific texts:
The construction is used after a number of verbs.
There are some peculiarities concerning the use of the Passive Voice:
1. The verbs report, announce, say are often used with the introductory it:
It was announced that our flight was delayed.
2. When we use verbs that have both the direct and the indirect object, either object
can be the subject of the passive sentence:
He gave me this book. The book was given to me.
I was given the book.
However, the subject denoting a person is more common:
He was taught English.
She will be told the news when she comes.
If the preposition to with the indirect object is obligatory (explain to, describe to,
suggest to), only the direct object can become the subject of the passive sentence:
The reasons were explained to them many times.
If the direct object is expressed by a subordinate clause or an infinitive phrase, the
introductory ‘it’ is used as the formal subject:
It was explained to us how to get to the station.
3. When we use verbs having prepositional and non-prepositional objects, only the
non-prepositional object can become the subject of a passive sentence:
I haven't been told about their arrival yet.
4. We mention the agent only when this information is important:
The book was written by the man who is absolutely unknown.
5. When the agent is mentioned, the preposition by is used if the agent is responsible
for the action:
The door was opened by an old woman.
The preposition with is used when the instrument of the action is mentioned:
The letter was written with a pencil.
Some verbs make it possible to use either by or with:
The building was surrounded by policemen.
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 The building was surrounded with policemen.
6. Intransitive verbs used with prepositions can form the passive voice:
He is often laughed at.
Other verbs are:
account for depend on look after send for
agree upon hear of look at speak about/of
arrive at (an insist on look for stare at
agreement) interfere with put up with talk about/to
call for laugh at rely on think of
deal with listen to refer to write about
7. Phraseological units such as find fault with, make fun of, pay attention to, take
care of can be used in the passive voice too:
Don't worry; everything will be taken care of.
8. The subject of a passive construction can correspond to the adverbial modifier of
place of the active construction:
This house is not lived in.
9. A number of transitive verbs are not used in the passive voice. They are have, lack,
fit, suit, resemble.
PASSIVE VOICE AND THE COMPOUND NOMINAL PREDICATE ‘BE + PARTICIPLE II’
The simple verbal predicate expressed by a verb in the Passive Voice can be
homonymous with the compound nominal predicate expressed by the link verb be +
Participle II.
The simple verbal predicate expresses an action, while the compound nominal
predicate expresses the state of the subject.
We left the house and the door was closed behind us.
The door was closed and we had to knock.
The simple verbal predicate is translated into Russian by a verb denoting an action,
while the compound nominal predicate can be translated by the verb “быть” and the short
form of the participle (e.g. “закрыли”, “была закрыта”). If it refers to the Present the
verb “be” is not translated into Russian.
The use of tenses is connected with the type of predicate. Perfect forms are more
common if the predicate is simple verbal.
The door had been already locked when we came. (S. V. Pr.)
The door was locked when we came. (C. N. Pr.)
The predicate is simple verbal expressed by the verb in the Passive Voice in the
following cases:
a) When the doer of the action is indicated:
They were shown into the room by the maid.
b) When there is an adverbial modifier of place, frequency or time:
The newspaper is published in Rostov.
They are always invited to these parties.
This book was written several years ago.
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 c) When the verb is used in a Continuous or Perfect form:
The breakfast is being cooked. The breakfast has been cooked.
We have the compound nominal predicate in the following cases:
a) The verb has the form of the Present, Past or Future Indefinite:
The door is (was, will be) locked.
b) The verb is in the Present or Past Perfect, while to denote an action we need a
Perfect Continuous form:
The suit cases had been packed for three hours but we still couldn’t leave. We had
been packing the suit-cases for three hours before we finished.
c) Participle II denotes a state of mind and the object introduced by the preposition
by denotes the cause of the state but not the doer of the action:
We were frightened by the perspective.
TRANSLATION OF THE SENTENCES WITH THE PASSIVE VOICE INTO RUSSIAN
1. In some cases the structure of Russian and English passive sentences is the same:
The book was written a couple of years ago. –
Книга была написана пару лет назад.
2. The English Passive sentence can have the Russian equivalent with the Active
Voice:
He was born in London. — Он родился в Лондоне.
3. The subject of the Passive predicate in English may correspond to the adverbial
modifier in Russian:
The house was not lived in. – В доме не жили.
В доме никто не жил.
4. A number of transitive verbs in English correspond to intransitive verbs in Russian.
In these cases English Passive constructions have no Russian Passive equivalents:
The questions were answered. — На вопросы ответили.
The lecture was followed by demonstration. – За лекцией последовал показ.
5. Passive constructions with the verbs like report, announce, say, explain are often
translated into Russian by means of the indefinite personal constructions:
It was reported that the victims of the accident were taken to hospital. –
Сообщалось,... Сообщили,...

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 MODAL VERBS
GENERAL NOTION
There is a group of verbs, which are called modal verbs or modal auxiliaries. They are
used to express speakers’ judgement, attitude or interpretation of what they are speaking
about. Modal verbs can perform different communicative functions. They can express
requests, offers, advice, suggestions, invitations, asking for or granting permission,
commands, prohibitions, etc. Modal verbs can also present a situation as possible,
probable, obvious, doubtful, necessary, unnecessary, desirable, etc.
What meaning modal verbs express very often depends on the context: on the sentence
structure, on the form of the infinitive of the notional verb, on the situation described in
the sentence, and on the situation in which the sentence is uttered. Even intonation can
sometimes change the meaning of the modal verb. We will show it detail when we deal
with separate modal verbs.
There are pure modal verbs, which can express only modal meanings - can, could,
may, might, must, shall, should, ought, will, would. There are also semi-modal verbs
and phrases, which can also function as notional verbs - have to, be to, need, dare, be
able to, had better, be going to.
Pure modal verbs have the following morphological characteristics:
1) They don't take the ending ‘-s’ for the 3d person singular, Present Simple;
2) They are followed by the bare infinitive of the notional verb, with the exception
of ‘ought’;
3) The negative form is built by adding the negative particle ‘not’ to the modal verb;
4) Modal verbs are inverted with the subjects to form questions;
5) Only the modal verbs can, may and will have past forms (could, might and would
respectively), while the other modal verbs have no past forms.
Semi-modal verbs have to, and the phrase be able to have the same paradigm as
notional verbs and they are followed by an infinitive with the particle ‘to’. The verb be
to and the phrase be going to are not used in future tenses. The verbs need and dare
combine the morphological features both of modal verbs and those of the notional verbs.
The phrases had better and would rather have only one form each.

CAN
The modal verb can has two forms - can for the present and could for the past.
The modal verb can is used to express the following meanings.
1. The verb can is used with non-perfect infinitive of the notional verb to denote
physical or mental ability of the subject of the sentence to perform the action denoted
by the notional verb. The form could is used to express ability in the past:
We can read this text, as it isn't difficult.
We could read English books last year.
The modal phrase be able to is used to supply the missing tense forms of the infinitive:
We have been able to come in time because we took a bus.
We'll be able to help you as soon as we finish this exercise.
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 I'd like to be able to help you.
The phrase be able to differs from the verb can in its meaning. The verb can expresses
permanent ability, while be able to combines ideas of ability and achievement; it also
expresses ability due to circumstances:
We could do it, but didn't want to.
We were able to do it, because you helped us.
The phrase ‘used to be able to do something’ means ‘could before but can no longer’:
When a boy, he used to be able to run faster than anybody.
The phrase able to and the verb manage can be used when speaking about one
specific action in the past:
He was able (managed) to come yesterday because he was free.
The form ‘could + non-perfect infinitive’ is used to express hypothetical ability in
the present or future. The form ‘could + perfect infinitive’ is used to express
hypothetical ability in the past:
I could come earlier if there were a train in the morning.
He could have written to you if he had known your address.
2. The verb can is used with non-perfect infinitive to denote possibility:
a) General possibility
In this case we say that situations are possible theoretically or in general:
Don’t get upset – the weather can change for the better.
We thought he could be busy and didn’t call him.
b) Possibility due to circumstances:
His pictures cannot be exhibited here, as they are too extravagant.
John can be on his way home already. He doesn’t stay in the office after 5.
c) Possibility due to the existing laws, rules, regulations:
You can borrow books from the library if you need them.
d) Phrases “can’t help something” and “can’t help doing something” are used when
we want to say that we do something in spite of ourselves:
I was late again. But I couldn’t help it.
I couldn’t help overhearing them – they were talking too loudly.
Phrases “cannot do but” and “could not do but” are used to emphasize the only
possible thing to do:
What could we do but tell her the truth?
3. The verb could is used to express hypothetical possibility and the time reference is
expressed by the form of the infinitive of the notional verb:
You could still see them here walking hand in hand.
You could have heard her singing there.
4. The verb can with non-perfect infinitive is used when asking for permission,
granting or denying permission:
- asking for permission: Can I pass here?
- granting permission: Yes, you can. Everybody goes this way.
- denying permission: No, you can't. The path is to your left.
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 Both can and could are used in reported speech when we talk about the permission
already given or refused, and about things that are (or are not) allowed by laws or rules:
They said we could enter whenever we came.
I don’t think we can park here – there is a sign.
The past form of the phrase be allowed is used when we talk about permission for one
particular action in the past:
We were allowed to enter though we were late.
5. The negative form of can with non-perfect infinitive is used to express prohibition,
which is determined by laws, situation or natural state of things:
You cannot cross the street when the street light is red.
6. Both can and could are used to express request, could being more polite:
Can you help me now? Could you do me a favour?
7. Both can and could with non-perfect infinitive are used in questions and statements
to express offers and suggestions. These meanings can be further particularized as
offering help, offering something, suggesting some arrangement, invitation etc.:
Offer:
Can / Could I make tea for you?
I could make tea if you want some.
Suggestion:
He could go out with us if he has nothing better to do.
Invitation:
You could join us at one of the weekends.
8. Could is used to express criticism or reproach for failing to do something that is
expected. ‘Could + indefinite infinitive’ is used if reproach refers to the present
situation, ‘could + perfect infinitive’ is used to express reproach for a past situation:
You could help me. You certainly could have told me about it.
9. Both can and could are used to express supposition (speculation) implying doubt
and incredulity in interrogative sentences or surprise in special questions and almost
assurance in negative statements. Indefinite and non-perfect continuous infinitives of
the notional verb refer the action denoted by this verb to the present or future, while
perfect forms of the infinitive refer the action denoted by the notional verb to the past:
Can you really believe it? How could you believe it?
Could she have really told him the details?
She cannot be working now. It's too late.
He couldn't have done it so quickly. It's absolutely impossible.
When the action denoted by the notional verb refers to the present, we often use the
continuous infinitive to avoid ambiguity:
She can't work now.
(I am sure that she doesn't work now. She is not able to work now.)
She can't be working now. (I am sure she doesn't work now.)
As the negative form of the infinitive is not used in sentences expressing doubt and
incredulity, other ways expressing negation are used. We can use phrases can it be that
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and it cannot be that or the verb fail followed by the indefinite infinitive of the notional
verb:
Can it be that he doesn't know the facts yet?
It cannot be that she didn't want to see you.
Can he fail to understand what I mean?
She couldn't have failed to pass the test.
You can also express negation lexically:
Can she forget it (fail to remember)?
She couldn't have refused (not wanted) to help you.
Can you know nothing (not know anything) about it?
Depending on the situation the modal verb can have different meanings and the
sentence can perform different communicative functions:
We could help you. Why didn’t you ask us? – Possibility
We could help you if we knew what you want. – Hypothetical possibility
We could help you. We are absolutely free now. – Suggestion
The form of the infinitive of the notional verb is closely connected with the meaning
of the verb:
Could you do him a favour? – Request
Could you be doing him a favour? – Doubt
You cannot talk about it with strangers. – Prohibition
You cannot be talking about it with strangers. – Negative assurance

MAY
The modal verb may has two forms - may for the present and might for the past.
The modal verb may is used to express the following meanings.
1. The verb may is used with non-perfect infinitive to express formal permission
when a speaker is asking for, granting or denying permission:
- asking for permission:
May I use the phone here?
- granting permission:
Yes, you may, if it is an emergency.
- denying permission (prohibition):
No, you may not. You may not use the telephone in my office.
The form might is used to express permission in clauses following the rule of the
sequence of tenses:
The conductor said we might take the dog along.
Permission in the past is expressed by the verbs allow, permit and let:
The teacher allowed us to use dictionaries. He didn't let us enter.
2. May with non-perfect infinitive expresses polite request in interrogative sentences
if the subject is the personal pronoun 1st person:
May I trouble you? May I sit here for a while?

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 3. May with non-perfect infinitive expresses an offer in interrogative sentences if the
subject is the personal pronoun 1st person:
May I help you?
4. Might with non-perfect infinitive is also used to express suggestions:
We might start right now. There is an earlier train, I’m sure.
5. May with non-perfect infinitive is used to express possibility due to circumstances
(absence of obstacles to the action):
It isn't late and he may still come.
The form might is used according to the rule of the sequence of tenses:
I thought he might still come.
6. The form might is used to express hypothetical possibility and the form of the
infinitive of the notional verb shows the time reference, i.e. whether it refers to the present
or to the past:
If it were not so late he might come.
If it hadn't rained yesterday, we might have gone out of town.
7. The form might is used to express criticism or reproach and disapproval;
a) ‘might + indefinite infinitive’ expresses a request made in the tone of disapproval:
You might help me to carry this bag. Don't you see it's heavy?
b) ‘might + perfect infinitive’ expresses reproach for failing to do what was in one’s
power:
He might have helped you; he saw that you needed help.
8. Both may and might are used in statements to express the meaning of supposition
(speculation) implying doubt or uncertainty. Might means the higher degree of doubt.
The form of the infinitive of the notional verb shows the time reference:
He may (might) come in the evening. He usually does.
He might be happy, but he doesn't look it.
9. Phrases ‘may as well’, ‘might as well’ are used to show that you will do something
you do not really want to do:
I may as well watch TV if there is nothing more to do.

MUST
The modal verb must has only one form that refers to the present. The verbs have to,
be to, and be obliged are used to supply the missing forms:
We'll have to look through these papers again. They had to admit the truth. We are to
meet tomorrow. She was obliged to do it this way.
The modal verb must has the following meanings:
1. It is used to express obligation, necessity, and duty implying no freedom of
choice. In this meaning, it is followed by the indefinite infinitive only:
Children must obey their parents,
The verb have to is more commonly used to express necessity and obligation arising
out of circumstances, while must expresses obligation imposed by the speaker:
I have to hurry, or I'll be late.
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 You must hurry. I'm not going to wait for you forever.
The verb must is replaced by the verb have to in the indirect speech according to the
rule of the sequence of tenses:
He said we had to go immediately.
In public notices must expresses an obligation imposed by some authorities:
Passengers must cross the railway line by the footbridge.
The verb must denotes necessity arising out of the nature and consequently inevitable.
The same meaning can be also expressed by the verb be to:
Bad seeds must produce bad corn.
The absence of obligation or necessity is expressed by the negative form of the verbs
need, have to and have got to:
You needn't say it again. We don't have to write this essay. He hasn't got to leave
now.
2. The verb must is used to express commands, orders, urgent and emphatic
requests and suggestions. It is followed by the indefinite infinitive only and doesn’t
change according to the rule of the sequence of tenses:
You must leave the room at once.
You must visit us as soon as possible.
He said we must leave the room at once.
3. The negative form of must is used to express prohibition that is rather a command
or an order not to do something. The indefinite infinitive of the notional verb is used:
Visitors must not feed animals at the zoo.
You must not discuss this question now.
4. The verb must is used in affirmative statements to express supposition
(speculation), implying strong probability, bordering on assurance or almost a
conviction. As the modal verb must has only one form, the form of the infinitive of the
notional verb expresses the time reference. Indefinite and non-perfect continuous
infinitives refer the action of the notional verbs to the present, while perfect infinitives
refer the action of the notional verb to the past:
You must know her as she was in your group. They must be waiting for us.
They must have heard the news already.
When the action expressed by the notional verb refers to the present we often use the
continuous infinitive to avoid ambiguity:
He must work hard. He must be working hard.
We usually don’t use the negative form of the infinitive after the verb must to express
supposition. Modal words and phrases are used instead:
He is not likely to come today.
Probably, he didn't know about your arrival.
The verb must is not used to express supposition about future actions, but modal
words and phrases are:
He will evidently come at nine. It's likely to rain tonight.
5. The phrase ‘if you must’ is used when you allow something you don't approve of:
If you must talk, do it outside please.
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 HAVE (TO)
The verb have to is a semi-modal verb and it has a full morphological paradigm. It
forms interrogatives and negatives with the help of auxiliary verbs as all notional verbs
do:
Do you really have to stay there so late?
He didn't have to tell us the news. We knew it already.
The verb have to can express the following meanings:
1. The verb have to is used to express necessity or obligation arising out of
circumstances. The phrase have got to can be also used to express necessity or
obligation referring to the present:
I've missed the train, now I'll have to wait for the next one.
I've got to go by train; there is no other way to get there.
I have to go there by train. I had to hurry to catch the train.
2. The verb have to is used to express absence of necessity in negative sentences.
The phrase have got to can be used if the situation refers to the present:
I don't have to go there because they have telephoned.
I haven't got to go there.
I didn't have to wait long at the doctor's yesterday.
You won't have to do anything there.
3. The verb have to is used to give instructions and recommendations when telling
how to do something:
You have to mix flour and butter first.
Sometimes these sentences may sound like advice.
4. The verb have to is used in affirmative statements to express supposition
(speculation) implying strong probability when you are sure that something is
happening or will happen:
There has to be an answer to this question.
The price of houses has to go up sooner or later.
BE (TO)
The verb be to is a semi-modal verb. Its present and past forms can express modal
meanings.
1. The verb be to expresses obligation or necessity arising out of arrangement or
plan. The non-perfect forms of the infinitive are used:
Where are we to meet? - We are to meet at the station.
You are to finish the work and then you may go.
In this meaning the phrase “be supposed to do sth” can be synonymous to the verb
“be to” meaning that something is expected or required according to a rule, custom or
arrangement:
We were supposed to meet at 5 o’clock.
When the previously arranged action is not carried out the perfect infinitive is used:
He was to have made a speech at the meeting, but he fell ill.
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 2. The verb be to is used to express official instructions, commands, orders with
the non-perfect forms of the infinitive of the notional verb:
You are to cross the street under the green light.
Students are to return the books by the end of the school year.
3. The verb be to is used in interrogative sentences to ask about a person’s order or
wish:
What am I to do next?
How many times a day am I to take this medicine?
4. The verb be to is used in negative sentences to express strict prohibition:
You are not to leave the room without permission.
5. The verb be to followed by the non-perfect passive infinitive is used to express
possibility:
Nothing was to be done under the circumstances.
The key was nowhere to be found.
6. The verb be to followed by the non-perfect infinitive is used to express something
thought of as unavoidable, something that is destined to happen:
He was never to see his native town again.
NEED
The verb need can be used both as a modal and as a notional verb. If it is used as a
modal verb, the negative and interrogative forms of the present simple can be built with
the help of the auxiliary do or without it; it can also take the ending ‘-s’ in the 3rd person
singular:
You needn't do it. You don't need to do it.
Need I come? Do I need to come?
She hardly needs to tell you about it, does she?
The modal verb need has the following meanings:
1. The verb need is mostly used to express the absence of necessity to fulfill the
action of the notional verb. The indefinite infinitive of the notional verb is used:
She needn't hurry, there's plenty of time.
We don't need to go shopping now; there is enough food at home.
The modal verb need is seldom used in affirmative sentences, except with such
adverbs as ‘hardly’, ‘scarcely’ which are half-negative in meaning:
He hardly needs to be helped.
I hardly need to explain anything.
When the verb need is used in affirmative sentences it refers to immediate necessities:
I’m hungry; I need to eat something immediately.
The past form negative of the verb need followed by the indefinite infinitive is used
to express the absence of necessity in the past, implying that the action of the notional
verb was not carried out:
They didn't need to buy anything (and they didn't buy anything).

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 The present form negative of the verb need followed by the perfect infinitive is used
to say that the action of the notional verb was performed though there was no necessity:
He needn't have come so early.
Note: In Modern English ‘didn't need + indefinite infinitive’ is sometimes used in
oral speech to denote an action that was performed though it was not necessary (the verb
need is stressed), while ‘didn't have to + indefinite infinitive’ is used to say that the
action was not necessary and wasn't performed:
You didn’t need to water the flowers because the ground was wet enough.
I didn’t have to water the flowers because it suddenly started raining.
2. In questions need is used to ask for permission not to do something and it is a
replacement for must when a negative answer is expected:
Need I go? - No, I don't think so.
3. The verb need is used in negative sentences to express permission not to do
something:
Must I learn it by heart? - No, you needn't. Just read it.

SHOULD, OUGHT (TO)

The modal verbs should and ought to are very close in meaning which can be
characterized as advisability. They can express the following meanings.
1. The verbs should and ought to followed by a non-perfect infinitive are used to
express the meaning of obligation or duty referring to the present or future (which may
not be fulfilled):
Students should take their examinations twice a year.
You ought to spend more time in the library.
2. They are used to express advice, which is a tactful way of giving command.
Should means that someone should do something because it is morally right, fair or
honest; ought means that someone should do something because it is the best or the most
sensible thing to do or because it is right.
Should usually expresses advice referring to the present, while ought expresses
advice referring to the future:
You should be more attentive.
You ought to call her and apologize.
The modal phrase “had better” is synonymous as it is used to tell somebody what
you think they should do in a particular situation:
You’d better start working now, there isn’t much time left.
In the interrogative sentences these modal verbs have the meaning of “asking for
advice or instruction”:
Should I call him now or later?
In this case the meaning of the verbs should and ought to is close to that of have to
when it is used to express recommendation.

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 The phrase be supposed to can be also used when we speak about a normal thing to
do in some particular situation or normal behaviour:
How are we supposed to address this lady?
You are supposed to say “please” when you ask a favour.
3. The verbs should and ought are used in negative sentences to express a weakened
prohibition, which sounds more like negative advice:
You shouldn't waste any more of your time.
Children oughtn't to watch this kind of films.
4. The verbs should and ought to followed by perfect infinitives are used to express
criticism of past actions or regret:
You should have let me know that you were going to be late.
He oughtn't to have said that. I should have been more careful.
5. The verbs should and ought followed by indefinite infinitives are used to express
probability when speaking about something that can be naturally expected. The action
denoted by the infinitive refers to the present or future:
He should be easy to deal with. He looks so good-natured.
Flowers ought to grow well there.
Who should it be?
When the perfect infinitive is used, it denotes something that could have been
naturally expected in the past:
He should have won that prize but somehow it didn’t happen.
6. The verb should is used in why-questions to express emotional colouring:
Why should I do it instead of you?
If she wants to marry him, why shouldn't she?
7. The verb should can be also used in the following clauses:
a) in the object subordinate clauses after the verbs to demand, to recommend, to
order, to suggest, to insist, etc.:
I suggest that you should go there immediately.
b) in the subject subordinate clauses after the expressions ‘it is necessary’, ‘it is
proper’, ‘it is vital’, ‘it is normal’, etc.:
It is necessary that the books should be returned on time.
c) in the predicative clauses where the subject is expressed by the nouns order,
demand, suggestion, wish, request, etc.:
My suggestion is that you should start working immediately.
d) in the conditional clauses referring to the future; in these clauses it expresses
hypothetical possibility:
Should you meet her tonight, please ask her to call.

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 WILL and WOULD
The verbs will and would usually express volition of the person expressed by the
subject. The meaning of volition is realized as willingness or unwillingness of different
degree.
When used with inanimate subjects they express possibility, impossibility or
probability of the action expressed by the infinitive of the notional verb.

WILL
The modal verb will is followed by non-perfect infinitives without the particle ‘to’
and has the following meanings.
1. It is used to express volition or willingness in affirmative sentences:
I'll be waiting until you come.
When the verb will is used in subordinate clauses of condition it usually expresses this
meaning:
I’ll go to the theatre if you will.
2. It is used to express refusal (unwillingness) in negative sentences:
I won't come each time you call me.
3. It is used to express persistence referring to the present or future and is pronounced
with a strong stress. It can be used to describe someone's habits, especially when you find
them strange:
She asked him to forget her, but he will come again and again.
He will always leave without saying good-bye.
4. It is used in interrogative sentences to express request, offer, invitation:
Will you come, please?
Will you have some coffee with us?
To express request the verb will can be used in subordinate clauses of condition:
If you will make coffee I’ll have a cup with pleasure.
5. It is used to express one's intention when the speaker is definite about the
fulfillment:
Wait for me. I will go too.
6. It is used to express possibility, in which case it is synonymous to the modal verb
can:
The car will hold five people comfortably.
We won’t enter – the door is locked.
7. With inanimate subjects it can express impossibility:
I try but the door won’t open.
8. It is used to express certainty as logical deduction, in which case it is synonymous
to the modal verb must:
Who is knocking? - That will be Tom coming home now.

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 WOULD
The modal verb would is followed by the indefinite infinitive without the particle ‘to’
and has the following meanings.
1. It is used to express volition and willingness:
She would help you eagerly. I said I would go to the museum too.
2. It is used to express a customary action in the past. In this case the verb would
combines the modal meaning with that of an aspect verb:
Last summer they met again and would spend a lot of time together.
3. It is used to express a refusal in the past to perform an action:
We asked him to tell the truth, but he wouldn't.
4. It is used to express impossibility of fulfilling an action when talking about lifeless
things:
I tried to open the door again and again, but it wouldn't.
5. It is used to express disapproval when talking about someone's annoying habits.
Disapproval is the speaker’s attitude to the behaviour of the person expressed by the
subject:
You would go and spoil everything, wouldn't you?
6. In spoken language it can be used to express advice:
I would phone John and explain everything (if I were you).
7. It is used to express polite requests, offers, and invitations:
Would you wait for me, please? Would you have lunch with us tomorrow?
To express request the verb would is often used in subordinate clauses of condition
while the form of the subjunctive mood is used in the main clause:
We would be greatly obliged to you if you would help us.
8. The phrase “would rather” is used to show that you would rather do or have one
thing than another:
I would rather have tea. I don't like the coffee here.
SHALL
The modal verb shall is always followed by the indefinite infinitive without the
particle ‘to’. It can have the following meanings in a sentence:
1. The verb shall is used to express formal compulsion and obligation limited to
official regulations. The use of the verb shall to express this meaning is mostly limited
to legal texts, contracts, etc.:
The afore-said reservation shall be included by the Sellers in the collection statement.
If the verb shall is used in technical instruction it shows that the instruction should be
followed obligatory and strictly:
The device shall be unplugged before cleaning.
2. It is used after the subject in the 2nd and 3rd person to express threat or warning:
He shall be punished.
In Modern English this use is old-fashioned and the verb will is used instead of shall.
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 3. It can also express promise or determination with the subject in the 2nd and 3rd
person, though in Modern English it sounds old-fashioned or formal:
You shall get what you want.
4. It is used in interrogative sentences with the subject in the 1 st person to express
suggestions, offers, asking for instruction:
Shall we wait for them a little more? Shall I open the window?
5. The phrase ‘We shall see’ is used when you don't know what will happen in the
future or do not want to give a definite answer:
Let's have a picnic on Sunday. - We shall see.
DARE
The semi-modal verb dare is followed by the indefinite infinitive with or without the
particle ‘to’.
1. The verb dare means to be brave enough to do something:
She wouldn't dare (to) enter this house again.
2. It is also used when the infinitive of the notional verb denotes something rude or
shocking:
I wouldn't dare tell her this.
3. The phrase ‘How dare you’ is used in the spoken language to show that you are
very angry:
How dare you accuse me of lying!
4. The phrase ‘Don't you dare’ is used in the spoken language to warn someone not
to do something because it makes you angry:
Don't you dare talk to me like that!
5. The phrase ‘I dare say’ is used in the spoken language when one says or agrees
that something may be true:
I dare say that things will improve.

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 NON-FINITE FORMS

INFINITIVE
GENERAL NOTION
There are three non-finite forms of the verb or verbals in the English language – the
Infinitive, the Participle and the Gerund. They developed from nominal parts of speech,
gradually acquiring verbal features. Thus the Infinitive and Gerund developed from
verbal nouns, while Participles developed from verbal adjectives.
They are called non-finite forms because they don’t express person, number or mood
and cannot be used as a predicate. Like finite forms they have tense and voice
distinctions, but their tense distinctions differ from those of a finite verb, as they do not
refer an action or state to any particular time.
The marker of the infinitive is the particle ‘to’: to go, to write, though in certain cases
the particle ‘to’ is not used.
FORMS OF THE INFINITIVE
TENSE, ASPECT / VOICE Active Passive
Non-perfect Indefinite to do to be done
(Simple)
Non-perfect Continuous to be doing -
Perfect Simple to have done to hаvе bееn done
Perfect Continuous to have been doing -

The negative forms are made by putting the negative particle ‘not’ before the
Infinitive:
You are silly not to trust them.
ТHE USE OF ТHE INFINIТIVE WIТHOUT ТHE PARТICLE ‘ТО’
(BARE INFINIТIVE)
The particle ‘to’ is the marker of the Infinitive and in most cases the Infinitive is used
with the particle ‘to’. However there are cases when the Infinitive is used without the
particle ‘to’. The Infinitive without the particle ‘to’ is called ‘bare Infinitive’. There are
also verbs after which the Infinitive can be used both with or without the particle ‘to’.
The bare Infinitive is used in the following cases:
1. After auxiliary verbs such as do, will, etc.:
He doesn’t like to speak about these things.
2. After modal verbs except the verb ought:
If you cannot have what you want, have what you can.
3. After verbs of sense perception such as see, hear, feel, etc. if the Infinitive is а part
of the Objective-with-the-Infinitive construction:
We saw him enter the room.

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 4. After the verb let if the Infinitive is а part of the Objective-with-the-Infinitive
construction:
Let him say it.
5. After the verbs make and have in the meaning “заставлять” if the Infinitive is а
part of the Objective-with-the-Infinitive construction:
We made him come on time.
They had her decorate the house.

Note: When the verbs see, hear, feel, let, make have passive forms, the
Infinitive is used with the particle ‘to’:
He was seen to enter the house.
They were made to accept the plan.

6. After the expressions had better, would rather, would sooner, rather than, cannot
but, nothing but:
She had better see а doctor if it gets any worse.
Which would you rather do, go to the cinema or stay here?
I’d sooner die than marry you!
Rather than cook dinner why don’t we finish what we have?
One cannot but admire her determination.
There is nothing left for us to do but go there.
7. After the verb bid both the bare Infinitive and the Infinitive with the particle ‘to’
can be used:
The queen bade us (to) enter.
8. After the verb help the Infinitive can be used either with or without the particle ‘to’:
Can you help me (to) understand what is going on here?
9. In suggestions beginning with why:
Why not make your own Christmas cards?
Why argue about it now?
Questions in which why is followed by the affirmative Infinitive are used to suggest
that the action is not necessary.
10. In sentences where the Infinitive phrase is used as predicative to emphasize the
idea:
What we should do is try to explain it to him.
The thing to do now is find a hotel to stay at.
11. When two infinitives or infinitive phrases are joined by and, or, but, than, as, the
second Infinitive is often used without ‘to’:
I’d like to go and tell him the truth.
Do you want to eat now or wait for Mary?
I agree to do anything but wash the dishes.
It’s better to call him now than wait for his call.
Is it as interesting to see a movie as read a book?
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 SYNTACTIC FUNCТIONS OF ТHE INFINIТIVE IN A SENTENCE
The Infinitive can be used in different syntactic functions. In most cases it takes an
object or is modified by an adverb and forms an Infinitive phrase which performs a
syntactic function.
1. Subject. Non-perfect infinitives are more common in this function.
To tell her the details is not necessary.
The subject expressed by the Infinitive can be introduced by the introductory
(anticipatory) it:
It is not necessary to tell her the details.
It takes me a couple of hours to cook this dish.
2. Predicative. Non-perfect infinitives are used in this function.
Her job was to bring the mail.
Her wish is to be left alone.
3. Secondary Predicative. The Infinitive can be a secondary predicative when it is
used as a part of the predicative after the adjectives nice, hard, pleasant, interesting,
easy, impossible, and others of the kind. The peculiarity of these sentences is that the
subject of the sentence is the object of the action expressed by the Infinitive:
She is easy to deal with. (It is easy to deal with her)
This story is impossible to believe. (It is impossible to believe this story.)
4. А part of a compound verbal predicate.
а) The Infinitive is a part of а compound verbal modal predicate when it is used with
modal verbs, semi-modal verbs and modal expressions, and other verbs expressing
modality such as want, like, hate, etc.
He’s so tall he can touch the ceiling.
First of all you have to mix the flour and the butter.
We are going to consider our chances.
I like to see the children enjoying themselves.
b) The Infinitive is a part of а compound verbal aspect predicate when it follows verbs
denoting the beginning, duration, cessation or repetition of an action, such as begin, start,
commence, continue, cease, used to, would, etc.
We began to wonder if the train would ever arrive.
The town which Joyce wrote about has long ceased to exist.
They continued to work as if nothing had interrupted them.
She used to come here every evening.

Note: After the verbs stop, finish, go on, keep on we use gerund as a part of a
compound verbal aspect predicate while infinitives perform a different
syntactic function. After the verbs finish and stop the infinitive is used
in the function of the adverbial modifier of purpose; after the verbs go
on and keep on it is used as an object.

5. Object. All forms of the Infinitive are used in this function.

I’m glad to meet you.
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 I’m glad to have met you.
I’m glad to be told the news.
A number of adjectives (especially adjectives describing feelings) are commonly
followed by an infinitive. They are: able/unable, afraid, anxious, ashamed, bound,
careful, certain, crazy, curious, due, eager, fit, happy, likely, lucky, pleased, right,
shocked, stupid, sure, surprised, thrilled, welcome, wrong.
Mary was surprised to meet her sister there.
I’m lucky to have met you there.
He is eager to help us.
In some sentences the object expressed by an infinitive is introduced by the
introductory it (a preparatory object):
We find it impossible to accept your offer.
He considered it necessary to consult a doctor.
I find it difficult to talk to you.
Infinitive phrases “a conjunctive pronoun / adverb + Infinitive” are often used in the
function of object after the verbs introducing indirect speech:
I don’t know what to do.
Tell me where to go.
The Infinitive is а part of а complex object when it is а part of the Objective-with-the
Infinitive construction.
We stood and watched them approach.
6. Attribute. Infinitives in this function are used in post-position. Both active and
passive forms of the Indefinite are used. Though indefinite active forms are more
common, in most cases active and passive infinitives are used without any difference in
meaning:
Who was the first to mention it?
There is nothing to see in this town.
There is a lot of work to do / to be done.
In the following sentence the use of the passive infinitive has modal meaning:
There is nothing to be done. – Ничего не поделаешь.
There are a number of nouns that are often followed by infinitives, such as: attempt,
decision, desire, need, opportunity, place, pleasure, reason, time, wish.
I have no desire to see him again.
It’s a nice opportunity to see London.
The best time to meet them is tomorrow evening.
7. Adverbial modifier.
а) Of purpose (Indefinite infinitives are used).
The infinitive can be introduced by the conjunctions in order, so as.
She went to London (in order) to see its museums.
They hurried so as to be there first.
b) Of result (all forms of the infinitives are used).

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 It performs this function after adjectives and adverbs modified by the adverbs too,
enough and their synonyms.
She is too young to understand these things.
She is old enough to have grandchildren.
It can also be introduced by the conjunction as.
The water was so cold as to make swimming quite impossible.
How could he have been such an idiot as to trust them in the first place?
Will you be so kind as to let me in?
The infinitive can also describe a result or something surprising, especially with only
and verbs such as find, discover, realise, etc.
He looked around only to discover that he was alone.
с) Of comparison or manner (Indefinite infinitives)
The infinitive is introduced by the conjunctions as if, as though.
He shook his head as if to say “don’t trust her”.
d) Of condition (Indefinite infinitives are used).
The infinitive can be introduced by the conjunction if.
To hear him talk, you will take him for a boss.
If to do it properly the result will be better.
8. Parenthesis.
The following infinitive phrases are used in this function: to cut а long story short, to
say the least (of it), to tell (you) the truth, to speak the truth, to say nothing of, to crown
it all, to begin with, so to speak, to put it bluntly, to put it mildly, to put it in another
way, and others.
Well, to begin with, he shouldn’t even have been driving my car.
To put it bluntly, Robert’s just not good enough for the job.

PREDICATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS WITH THE INFINITIVE

Together with a noun or a pronoun infinitives can form predicative constructions.
There are three types of Infinitive predicative constructions:
1. The-Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction
2. The Subjective Infinitive Construction
3. The For-to-Infinitive Construction
THE OBJECТIVE- WIТH- THE-INFINIТIVE CONSTRUCТION
It is а construction in which the infinitive is in predicate relation to а noun in the
Common case or а pronoun in the Objective case. In a sentence it is used as a complex
object.
1. It is used after verbs denoting sense perception, such as hear, see, watch,
observe, notice, feel, etc. The Infinitive is used when the subject of the action expressed
by these verbs sees or hears the action expressed by the Infinitive from beginning to end.
Pat saw her drive off about an hour later.
Ralf watched his friend walk away.
After verbs of sense perception only the Indefinite Infinitive Active is used.
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 2. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive construction is used after the verbs denoting
mental activity, such as know, think, consider, believe, suppose, expect, find, feel, etc.
He expected his girlfriend to drive him home.
Mr. Graham found his partner to be very efficient.
The infinitive of the link verb ‘to be’ is easily dropped after the verbs think, consider,
find if it is followed by an adjective and sometimes (especially after the verb consider)
by a noun:
I found her very interesting.
We considered him а good teacher.
But: They considered him to be working at the project.
After the verbs know and think a subordinate clause is more common while the
Objective-with-the-Infinitive construction is used in a formal style:
We knew him to be an honest person. –
We knew that he was an honest person.
They thought the expedition to be over. –
They thought that the expedition was over.
The Perfect Infinitive is seldom used after the verbs of mental activity.
3. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive construction is used after verbs of declaring,
such as announce, pronounce, declare. The infinitive of the verb ‘be’ can be dropped.
He pronounced the victim to be dead.
I now pronounce you man and wife.
The government declared this territory (to be) а national park.
4. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive construction is used after verbs denoting wish
and intention, such as want, wish, desire, mean, need, intend, etc.
I don’t want her to hear about this.
I didn’t mean her to read this paper.
I need him to look into the matter.
5. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive construction is used after verbs denoting
feeling and emotion, such as like, dislike, love, hate, etc.
I’d hate you to go.
I’d like you to tell me the truth.
We like our students to take part in college social activities.
6. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive construction is used after verbs denoting order
and permission, such as allow, suffer (old use) in the meaning ‘позволять, допускать’
and order in the meaning ‘распорядиться’.
А two-hour break allowed the papers to be printed.
Mr. Dombey suffered Florence to play with Paul.
He ordered the books to be delivered at once.
In modern English а subordinate clause is preferable after the verb ‘order’:
He ordered that the report should be ready by morning.

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 Note: The verb have in this meaning (допускать, позволять) is used in
negative sentences and is followed by а gerundial complex:
I won’t have you walking there alone.

7. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive construction is used after verbs denoting

compulsion: make, cause, get, have.
O’Henry’s stories make everybody laugh.
The disease caused his temperature to go up.
They had Mother decorate the house.
8. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive construction is used after the verb let:
She let her horse carry her home.
Don’t let him go without breakfast.
9. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive construction is used after the verb rely on
(upon).
We can rely on him to keep the secret.
THE SUBJECTIVE INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTION
It is а construction in which the infinitive is in predicate relation to а noun in the
Common case оr а pronoun in the Nominative case. In a sentence it is used as a complex
subject.
1. It is used with the following verbs in the Passive Voice:
а) Verbs denoting sense perception:
He was never seen to leave the house again.
b) Verbs denoting mental activity:
He is considered to be а great man.
You are supposed to have finished the work.
с) With the verb make:
He was made to confess.
d) With the verbs say, report:
They are said to be making progress.
The competition was reported to be postponed.
2. The Subjective Infinitive construction is used with the verbs seem, appear,
happen, chance, prove, turn out:
I happened to meet her again some time later.
She seemed to have completely forgotten about her promise.
He appeared to be in his fifties but turned out to be much younger.
3. The Subjective Infinitive construction is used with adjectives likely, sure, certain:
They are not likely to come.
They are sure to marry.
It is certain to rain tonight.

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 THE FOR-TO-INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTION
The for-to-Infinitive construction is а construction in which the Infinitive is in
predicate relation to а noun in the Common case or а pronoun in the Objective case
preceded by the preposition for.
The construction can have different syntactic functions in the sentence.
1. Subject
It is а shame for you to be so careless.
The construction ‘there to be’ can be also introduced by the preposition for:
It is important for there to be a fire escape in every building.
After the adjectives nice, kind, sensible, silly, stupid, tactless, etc. the preposition of
is used. It can be regarded as а variant of the for-to-Infinitive construction.
It’s so nice of you to have come.
2. Predicative
This is for you to decide.
3. Object
Usually this construction is used after the verbs which take the preposition ‘for’ (ask,
arrange, hope, pay, wait and others):
He didn’t mean for you to get hurt.
Wе waited for her to come, but she didn’t.
He made it difficult for us to agree.
4. Attribute
There is nothing for us to discuss.
It is not the right time for you to speak about it.
5. Adverbial modifier:
а) of purpose:
He stepped aside for us to pass.
b) of result:
The offer was too good for us to refuse.
The proposal was interesting enough for us to consider it.

GERUND
GENERAL NOTION
The Gerund is а non-finite form or a verbal. It doesn’t express person, number or
mood and cannot be used as a predicate. Like a finite form it has tense and voice
distinctions, but its tense distinctions differ from those of a finite verb. There is no
Gerund in the Russian language.

FORMS OF THE GERUND

TENSE / VOICE Active Passive
Non-perfect Simple
doing being done
(Indefinite)
Perfect Simple having done having been done
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 Negative forms are made by putting the negative particle ‘not’ before the gerund:
She is unhappy about not being invited to your parties.
NOTE:
1. After the verbs remember, forget, excuse, forgive, regret, thank, the phrase be
sory, and after the prepositions on, upon, after, without the Indefinite Gerund is used to
denote а prior action in most cases.
I remember him doing the same for me as а child.
He thanked us for helping him.
She felt better after talking to them.
On seeing the child she smiled.
The Indefinite Gerund is used to denote а prior actions when the context makes the
meaning of priority clear.
Didn’t they tell you about his leaving his wife?
2. After the verbs want, need, deserve, require and the adjective worth the active
form of the Gerund is used though it is passive in meaning.
This room needs cleaning.
This sight is worth seeing.
SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS OF THE GERUND
In а sentence the Gerund is often used as a part of a gerundial phrase or a gerundial
construction. They can perform the following syntactic functions:
1. Subject
Reading books will do you а lot of good.
Your trying to help pleased him a lot.
It can be introduced by it or there:
It’s no use trying to persuade him.
There is no smoking here.
There is no use arguing now.
2. Predicative
This was sharing а dream, and yet it wasn’t as silly as dreaming.
His only duty was keeping the yard clean.
3. A part of а compound verbal predicate
а) as а part of а compound verbal modal predicate with the verbs or expressions having
modal meaning:
She felt like telling everybody the truth about the accident.
b) as а part of а compound verbal aspect predicate with the verbs denoting the
beginning, duration or cessation of the action begin, start, continue, go on, keep, keep
on, stop, finish, give up and others:
She had stopped shivering too, in the last few minutes.
4. Object
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 а) Gerunds and / or gerundial constructions can be used as а direct object after the
following verbs:
Avoid, enjoy, excuse, forget, forgive, hate, (cannot) help, imagine, like, mind (in
interrogative and negative sentences), need, postpone, prefer, prevent, prohibit,
recommend, regret, remember, (cannot) stand, suggest, want, and the adjectives busy
and worth.
I couldn’t avoid speaking to him.
Imagine standing there, mouth open.
They don’t mind paying for driving lessons.
The skirt needs pressing.
The book is worth reading.
b) Gerunds can be used as а prepositional object after the following verbs:
accuse (sb) of, burst out, excuse (sb) for, forbid sb from, forgive smb for, get round
to, give up, keep from, prevent smb from, stop (sb) from, succeed in, suspect (sb) of, talk
into / out of, thank (sb) for;
Don’t give up trying.
Some of the verbs take a direct object besides the object expressed by a gerund:
Don’t blame him for being late.
They suspected him of hiding the facts.
She suspects David of having read her diary.
I thanked him again for lending me а car.
Both gerunds and/or gerundial constructions can be used after the following verbs and
phrases:
Verbs: apologize for, approve of, count on, blame (sb) for, complain about / of, insist
on, look forward to, object to, put off, think of;
Phrases like be aware of, be afraid of, be ashamed of, be capable of, be clever at, be
excited about / at, be fond of, be good at, be grateful for, be happy about, be interested
in, be proud of, be sorry for / about, be sure of, be surprised at, be tired of, be used to,
get used to, etc.
She was aware of being manipulated.
You should apologize for (his) coming late.
5. Attribute
In this syntactic function gerunds are used in post-position to the noun they modify
and are preceded with the prepositions of, for, in, to, about, at and others:
She had no intention of allowing the knowledge to mar her joy.
There’s no harm in asking her about it.
I didn’t have а good excuse for being late.
This is your clue to solving the problem.
He couldn’t hide his surprise at meeting his sister in that company.
The choice of the preposition can depend on the noun: surprise at, reason for, excuse
for, danger in/on, etc.
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 6. Adverbial modifier
а) of time
In this syntactic function gerunds are preceded by the prepositions after, before, on
(upon), in, at, since (the perfect forms of the gerund are not, as a rule, used in this
syntactic function as the prepositions show the time correlation of the action denoted by
the gerund and that denoted by the finite form of the verb):
After waiting all that dark November morning in the overcrowded surgery, Milly had
in the end seen the exhausted young doctor.
On entering the dark alley she stopped puzzled.
At seeing the roses Judy felt absolutely happy.
She has been sad since receiving this letter.
b) of manner
In this syntactic function gerunds are preceded by the prepositions by, in:
By creeping into the furthermost corner, Milly found а little protection from the spray.
She spent the whole day in cleaning and scrubbing.
с) of attendant circumstances
In this syntactic function gerunds are preceded by the preposition without, besides, in
addition to, instead of:
And without waiting for an answer she darted off into the damp, windowless cavern.
Besides trying to become a writer she also worked with a small law firm.
You’d better think it over instead of arguing.
d) of purpose
The gerund is used to speak about the purpose in general. In this syntactic function
gerunds are preceded by the preposition for:
Half-glasses hung around her neck, for reading the menu.
е) of condition
In this syntactic function gerunds are preceded by the preposition without or the
phrase in case of:
I can’t defend this case without telling the truth.
In case of changing your plans, please, inform us immediately.
f) of cause
In this syntactic function gerunds are preceded by the prepositions for, for fear of,
owing to, because of, through:
For fear of making the same mistake again she avoided their company.
He was desperate because of the weather, of losing his way, of night coming so fast.
But I came to it at last through pursuing the rule I have just mentioned.
(A. Christie)
g) of concession
In this syntactic function gerunds denote some obstacles in spite of which the action
of the finite form is carried out and are preceded by the preposition in spite of, despite:

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In spite of being exhausted and hungry she went on walking along the crowded street.
Despite sending his applications regularly, he couldn’t get a job.
7. Parentheses
In this syntactic function the gerund is preceded by the conjunction as and the
preposition for (as for):
As for giving you an answer, I’ll take my time.

PARTICIPLE
GENERAL NOTION
The Participle is а non-finite form or a verbal. It doesn’t express person, number or
mood and cannot be used as a predicate. There are two participles in the English language
– Participle I and Participle II. Like a finite form Participle I has tense and voice
distinctions, but its tense distinctions differ from those of a finite verb. Participle II has
neither tense nor voice distinctions, though Participles II of transitive verbs can have
passive meaning.

FORMS OF PARTICIPLES
PARTICIPLE I
TENSE / VOICE Active Passive
Non-perfect Simple
doing being done
(Indefinite)
Perfect Simple having done having been done
The negative forms are made by putting the negative particle ‘not’ before the
participle.
PARTICIPLE II
Participle II has only one form as it has no tense or voice distinctions.
SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS OF РARТICIPLES
Participles are used in different syntactic functions. It can be used as attribute,
predicative, adverbial modifier and parentheses. If it takes an object or is modified by an
adverb, the whole participle phrase performs the syntactic function.
1. Attribute.
As an attribute Participle I denotes а feature belonging to the object at the present time
or simultaneous to the action denoted by the finite verb form or some permanent feature.
That’s why Participle I Indefinite is used in this syntactic function.
Do you know the law explaining this phenomenon?
Participle I Indefinite Passive is seldom used as an attribute.
The equipment being used now is out-of-date.
Participle II or a subordinate clause will be preferable:
The unopened letter was from my father.
The equipment used now is out-of-date.
The equipment that is used now is out-of-date.
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 Participle I Perfect is not used in this syntactic function. An attributive subordinate
clause is used to denote а feature which belonged to the object prior to the action of the
finite verb.
2. Predicative
As a rule, it denotes a state of the subject and only Participle I Indefinite Active or
Participle II is used.
She was so happy, so enjoying herself.
It didn't sound promising, but she thanked the clerk all the same.
He tried to enter, but the door was locked and nobody answered his knock.
3. Adverbial modifier:
Participles and participle phrases can be used in this function. When used as an
adverbial modifier Participle II is, as a rule, preceded by a conjunction.
а) of time
To express the simultaneity or succession of the actions denoted by Participle I and
the finite verb, Participle I Indefinite is used; the conjunctions when and while are often
used to empathize the simultaneity.
Walking through the forest they noticed some broken trees.
While walking through the forest they noticed some broken trees.
Participle I of the verb ‘be’ is not used in this syntactic function and is replaced by the
phrases of the type: When а child, When in London, or by the subordinate clause of
time.
When in Rome, do as Romans do.
When a student, he studied law.
Participle II it is used with the conjunction when or while, until and others:
When pronounced the words sounded harsh and hurting.
Don’t say anything until asked.
b) of cause
Both Participle I and Participle II can be used in this syntactic function.
Being aware of the danger he took some steps.
Wishing to see her as soon as possible he hurried outside.
Left alone on an uninhabited island the pirate had nobody to count on.
с) of manner and attendant circumstances
As а rule, Participle I Indefinite is used in this syntactic function. It usually indicates
the manner of the action if the predicate is expressed by the verbs and phrases like spend,
have a good time, enjoy oneself, etc.
She dressed by the light of the stars, taking the first things that came to hand.
He sat there smiling to show that he was pleased... (S. Maugham)
In the syntactic function of the adverbial modifier of manner, Participle II is used
with the conjunction as:
Take the medicine as prescribed.
In the syntactic function of the adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances no
conjunction is used, but the participle or the participle phrase is usually separated by a
comma:
They reluctantly entered the building, observed by the excited onlookers.
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 d) of comparison
The conjunctions as if or as though are used to introduce Participles in this syntactic
function.
He pronounced the words slowly, as if carefully selecting them.
As if persuaded, she was suddenly silent.
e) of concession
The conjunction though is used to introduce the participle in this syntactic function.
Though meaning no harm he ruined the peaceful atmosphere with his words.
Though carefully avoided, this subject came out in their conversation again and again.
f) of result
Participle I shows the result of the action denoted by the predicate; the result is
unintended. In this case, as a rule, the participle phrase is separated by a comma.
I stayed at the office rather late, missing my bus home.
g) of condition
Participles are not often used in this function. In such sentences there is usually some
kind of alternative expressed or implied:
Speaking politely, you’ll achieve more than if you shout at them.
Turning right, you’ll get to the waterfront, turning left, you’ll find yourself in
front of the cathedral.
Participle II is usually used with the conjunction if; in some cases the conjunction may
be omitted:
If discovered, this information will upset their plans.
Considered from this point of view, her behaviour won’t seem so strange.
4. Parentheses. participle phrase is used, for example: Generally speaking, Frankly
speaking, Judging by..., Considering..., Taking into consideration...:
Frankly speaking, it is not exac
In this syntactic function а tly what I wanted.

PREDICATIVE СОNSТRUСIONS WITH ТHE PARТICIPLE

Together with a noun or a pronoun Participles can form the following predicative
constructions:
1. The Objective Participle Construction.
2. The Subjective Participle Construction.
3. The Nominative Absolute Participle Construction.
4. The Prepositional Absolute Participle Construction.
THE OBJECTIVE PARTICIPLE CONSTRUCTION
It is а construction in which the Participle is in predicate relation to а noun or a
pronoun (indefinite, defining, negative) in the common case or а personal pronoun in the
objective сasе. Reflexive pronouns may be used too.
We watched the boy crossing the street.
I felt myself shivering.
In the sentence this construction has the function of а complex object and is used after
certain groups of verbs.
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 а) After the verbs of sense perception see, hear, watch, feel, notice, etc. Participle I
is mostly used, though Participle II is also possible.
He watched the girl walking away forever.
She felt the water growing colder.
She heard the words said but didn't comprehend the meaning.
b) After the verbs of mental activity expect, consider, understand, etc. Participle II is
mostly used.
Theу considered him involved in the business.
с) After the verbs denoting wish want, wish, etc. Participle II is used.
He wants this letter typed as soon as possible.
d) After the verbs have, get Participle II is used when we speak about arranging for
things to be done:
He had his hair cut.
He got his dinner delivered.
After the verb make Participle II is used and it usually follows a reflexive pronoun:
They made themselves understood.
THE SUBJECTIVE PARTICIPLE CONSTRUCTION
It is а construction in which the Participle is in predicate relation to а noun in the
common сasе or а pronoun in the nominative сasе. In the sentence it is used as а complex
subject. It is mostly used with the verbs of sense perception see and hear.
Manу times they were seen walking in Hyde Park.
The verbs watch and notice are not used with this construction.
Participle II can be also used to express the passive meaning:
Theу were seen stopped by а policeman.

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 THE INTERJECTION
The Interjection is a word or a phrase used to express strong emotions. They are ah,
oh, alas, well, dear me, etc. If an interjection stands by itself, it is followed by an
exclamation mark. Within a sentence it is set off with a comma. Interjections are used as
independent elements of a sentence, i.e. they are not connected grammatically with any
part of the sentence:
Ah! Here you are!
Why, you don't look like your brother.
Well, you can try again.

THE PREPOSITION
A preposition is used to express a relationship between a noun, a pronoun, or a gerund
and other words in a sentence. Usually it stands before a word it refers to:
A friend of mine told me the news.
The door of the house was wide open.
The person behind you wants to say something.
After sleeping she felt much better.
A preposition can be separated from the word it refers to:
Who do you want to talk to?

Prepositions have the following morphological structure:

Simple Derivative Compound Composite
in, on, at, to, across, along, inside, in front of, because of,
with, etc. below, etc. outside, etc. instead of, in spite of, etc.
According to their meaning prepositions are divided into those of place, direction,
time, and abstract relations:
She is at home now. There is nothing on the table. Let's go to the park.
She gets up at 7 o'clock. After breakfast she leaves for work.
I'll do it with pleasure. She'll be upset because of you.
Some prepositions are polysemantic and are used to express different relations, e.g.
at, for:
She is at school. She comes home at noon.
She'll do it for you. She has lived there for two months.
Some prepositions are homonymous with conjunctions (since, after, before) and
adverbs (after, before).
Prepositions Conjunctions Adverbs
I have known them I have known them since She has never talked
since last year. we moved here. about it since.
After dinner he used We'll go for a walk after But I have never met
to walk. we have dinner. them after.
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 Brush your teeth every
Brush your teeth I knew them before but
evening before you go to
before going to bed. it was really long ago.
bed.
Prepositions are not used as independent parts of the sentence. A preposition and the
word, to which it refers, form a prepositional phrase that can perform the function of a
prepositional object, attribute, predicative, or adverbial modifier:
Prepositional Object – Let’s go with them.
Attribute – I didn’t recognize the person in front of me.
Predicative – It is of no importance.
Adverbial modifier – He is in the park now.

THE CONJUNCTION
A conjunction is used to connect parts of sentences, phrases, or clauses:
You can do it but not now.
Trees and bushes were in blossom.
She will cope because she is smart.
Conjunctions have the following morphological structure.
simple derivative compound composite
as, and, or, but, till,
until, unless, however, as well as, as long as, in
after, that, so,
because whenever, etc. case, for fear that, etc.
where, etc.
There are three types of conjunctions: coordinating, correlative and subordinating.
Coordinating: and, but, for, nor, or, yet
Correlative: both ... and, either ... or, neither ... nor, not only ... but, whether ...
or
Subordinating: (of time) - after, as, as soon as, as long as, before, since, until,
when, whenever, while;
(of manner) - as, as if, as though;
(of cause) - because;
(of condition) - as long as, if, unless, provided, while;
(of concession) - although, though, even if, even though;
(of comparison) - as, than;
(of purpose) - in order that, so that, that.
A coordinating conjunction connects words, phrases and clauses that perform the
same function in the sentence:
He likes to run and play football.
She is not going to help you or anybody else.
The sun was shining and the air was getting warmer.

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 A correlative conjunction is a conjunction that consists of two or more words that
function together. Correlative conjunctions connect words and phrases that perform the
same function in the sentence:
He likes both football and volleyball.
You can either play in the yard or watch TV.
They neither work nor study.
Whether you stay or go, the life will go on its own way.
A subordinating conjunction introduces a subordinate clause and connects it to the
main clause expressing various types of relationship:
They will come after you invite them.
Somebody will answer you if you ask.
Since you know the facts, I'm not going to repeat them again.
John already knew about the latest developments because they were on TV.
Do it as I do.
She walked as if her feet were of stone.
Though she didn't like her neighbour, she couldn't refuse to help him.
Come earlier, so that we could have tea and talk a little.

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 PART II: SYNTAX

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

GENERAL NOTION AND CLASSIFICATION
OF SIMPLE SENTENCES
A sentence is a unit of speech whose grammatical structure conforms to the laws of
the language and which serves as the chief means of conveying a thought. A sentence is
not only a means of communication but also a means of showing the speaker’s attitude.
The classification of the simple sentences is based on 2 principles:
According to the purpose of utterance we distinguish 4 kinds of sentences:
1. A declarative sentence states a fact in the affirmative or negative form
Children are fond of going to the Zoo. This is not my pen.
2. An interrogative sentence asks a question. It is formed by means of inversion.
There are 4 kinds of questions: general, special, alternative and disjunctive.
Have you chosen teaching as a career?
Where is the library?
Is it your bag or mine?
You don’t think so, do you?
3. An imperative sentence is used to induce a person to do something, so it expresses
commands, requests, etc.
Put it on the table.
Do have some more tea.
4. An exclamatory sentence expresses some kind of emotion. These sentences
usually begin with the words what or how, but there is no inversion in them.
What a good time we've had today!
How delightful her manners are!
An exclamatory sentence can also have the form of a general question.
Hasn't she grown!
Is she gorgeous!
A to the structure simple sentences are divided into two-member and one-member
sentences.
A two-member sentence has two principal members – a subject and a predicate. If
one of them is missing it can be easily understood from the context. A two-member
sentence may be complete or incomplete. It is complete when it has a subject and a
predicate.
He was thinking.
It is incomplete when one of the principle parts or both of them are missing, but can
be easily understood from the context. Such sentences are called elliptical and are mostly
used in colloquial speech and especially in a dialogue.
What are we doing? - Speaking.
A one-member sentence is a sentence having only one member which is neither the
subject nor the predicate. This doesn’t mean, however, that the other member is missing,
for the one member makes the sense complete.

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 One-member sentences are used mostly in descriptions and in emotional speech. If
the main part of a one-member sentence is expressed by a noun, the sentence is called
nominal. The noun may be modified by attributes
Freedom! Bells ringing out, flowers, kisses, wine.
The main part of a one-member sentence is often expressed by an infinitive.
No! To have his friendship, but not at that price.
Simple sentences, both one-member and two-member, can be unextended and
extended. The sentence consisting only of the primary or principle parts is called an
unextended sentence.
Birds fly.
An extended sentence is a sentence consisting of a subject, a predicate and one or
more secondary parts (objects, attributes, and adverbial modifiers).
The two native women stole glances at Sarie.
WORD ORDER
DIRECT WORD ORDER
Word order in English is more important than it is in Russian. The place of a word in
a sentence shows its relation to other words. Word order in English is fixed. Every
position in a sentence has a certain functional significance. Thus the place of a noun
before a finite verb shows that the noun is the subject while the place of a noun after a
verb shows that it is an object. The word order is the only means of distinguishing
between a subject and a direct object expressed by a noun. That’s why a subject and a
direct object cannot exchange places without the change of meaning.
Compare the following Russian and English sentences with different word order:
(R) Коты едят мышей. Мышей едят коты.- The meaning of sentences (1) and
(2) is the same.
(E) Cats eat mice. Mice eat cats. – The change of the subject and object positions
determines the change of meaning of the whole sentence. So the word order in an English
declarative sentence is fixed and direct.
In most cases it is as follows:
Adv. Subject Predicate Object Adv.
modifier modifier
Attributes Attributes
Attributes can be in pre-position and in post-position to the modified words. In the
sentence they can modify subject, object and predicative.
Another day of waiting was over.
She will give you the further instructions.
She was a lovely child of five or six.
The position of an adverbial modifier is relatively free. It can occupy the following
positions in a sentence:
1) Initial position ( at the beginning of a sentence)
Sometimes it gets really hot here.
2) Interposition (between the subject and the predicate or between the auxiliary and
the notional verb).
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 He often comes to this place. He has never said anything of the kind.
3) Post position ( immediately after the finite verb)
She won’t come here with us.
4) Final position ( at the end of the sentence)
She is making this report tomorrow.
If there are several adverbial modifiers, they stand in the following order:
a) after the verbs of motion:
Adv. Modifier of Adv. Modifier of Adv. Modifier of
Place Manner Time
b) after other verbs
Adv. Modifier of Adv. Modifier of Place Adv. Modifier of
Manner Time
INDIRECT WORD ORDER / INVERSION
Inversion or inverted word order is the order of words in which the subject is placed
after the predicate. The inversion is partial when only a part of the predicate is placed
before the subject
The inverted word order is used in
1. Questions:
(General) Do you want to help him?
(Alternative) Would you like tea or coffee?
(Special) What are you doing?
(Tag) She is smart, isn’t she?
Questions to the subject or subject group have the direct word order :
Who is helping you?
How many people have already come?
2. Declarative sentences beginning with the adverbs there, neither, so, thus, etc.:
There is somebody in the room.
I like it. – So do I.
I don’t know him. – Neither do I.
Thus thought Mr. Brown but it was never confirmed.
3. Declarative sentences beginning with the adverbial modifier of place or direction,
especially when it is expressed by the adverbs here, down, out, etc.:
Not very far away stood another brick house.
Here comes Helen!
Down came the tree.
The inverted word order can be used for the purpose of emphasis:
Only once did they meet but he has never forgotten the day. Clever he wasn’t.
4. Exclamatory sentences expressing wish:
Be it so! May it happen!
5. Subordinate clauses of condition joined to the principal clause asyndetically when
the predicate contains the verbs was, were, had, could, should:
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 Had you come in time, you would know the facts.
Should you meet him again, ask him to write to us.
6. Inversion can be also used for emphasis in the following cases:
It can occur in sentences which have adverbial modifier at the beginning:
 An adverbial modifier of place
In the far corner stood a large gloomy wardrobe.
 An adverbial modifier with a negative meaning
Never again will I tell you anything
 An adverbial modifier expressed by one of the following adverbs: so, thus, now,
then etc. The subject in these cases is expressed by a noun.
Then came disappointment and despair and there was no way to cope with them
 An adverbial modifier of manner.
Slowly and patiently did he explain it again and again.
Note: The use of an auxiliary verb is obligatory in such sentences.
 An adverbial modifier preceded by the adverb only.
Only later did he realize the truth. Only there will you find the answer.
Note: The use of an auxiliary or modal verb is obligatory in such sentences.
 Partial inversion occurs in clauses introduced by the adverbs hardly or scarcely
correlated with the conjunctions when, and the adverb no sooner correlated with the
conjunction than
Hardly had they made up their mind when the problems began to arise one after
another.
No sooner had she started to explain, than she was told to wait.
 Partial inversion can occur in sentences beginning with the conjunction nor
I haven’t met him since. Nor do I want to see him again.
 Inversion takes place in sentences beginning with the adverb here which is not the
adverbial modifier of place.
Here was the paper he had been looking for.
Note: If the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun, the word order is direct:
Here you are at last!
 Inversion can occur in sentences beginning with postpositions denoting direction:
Away moved the train and soon disappeared completely
If the subject is expressed by a pronoun, the word order is direct.
Out he went, silently closing the door.
 Partial Inversion can occur in sentences, which begin with an object or an adverbial
modifier expressed by a group of words: not a N, many a N:
Not a word did he say about you.
Many a time had they tried to persuade him.

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  Inversion can occur in sentences which begin with the predicative expressed by
the demonstrative pronoun such, by an adjective or a noun modified by an adjective
Such are the facts and we can do nothing about it.
Horrible was the suggestion he made.
Note: If the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun, the link verb follows it: A
gloomy place it was
PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
A sentence can contain principal parts, secondary parts and independent elements.
The principal parts of the sentence are the subject and the predicate. The secondary parts
are the object, the attribute, and the adverbial modifier. The independent elements of a
sentence are interjections, parenthesis, and direct address.
THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
THE SUBJECT
The subject is the principal part of a two-member sentence which is grammatically
independent of the other parts of the sentence and on which the predicate is
grammatically dependent, i.e. in most cases it agrees with the subject in number and
person. The subject can denote a living being, a lifeless thing or an idea. It can be
expressed in the following way:
MEANS OF EXPRESSING THE SUBJECT

PARTS OF SPEECH EXAMPLES

NOUN
(common case) The waiter brought what we ordered.

PRONOUN They invited you to the party, didn’t they?

(personal, possessive, His dog is in the yard and ours is there too.
demonstrative, defining, What is this?
indefinite, negative, Everybody already knows about his arrival.
interrogative) Somebody has broken the news to the papers.
Nobody will mention it.
Who has torn this book?
ADJECTIVE
(substantivized) The poor were under oppression

NUMERAL Two are company and three are not.

(cardinal and ordinal) The second will be yours.
QUOTATION (or “On” is a preposition.
quotation group) This “Why, Tom?” makes me furious.

GROUP OF WORDS as
one part of sentence The needle and thread is lost.

INFINITIVE To live is to work.

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 INFINITIVE PHRASE To be here is dangerous.
INFINITIVE For him to come was impossible.
CONSTRUCTION

GERUND Reading is a good hobby.

GERUNDIAL PHRASE Reading books in the original is difficult.
GERUNDIAL
Tom’s coming is out of the question.
CONSTRUCTION

PARTICIPLE The wounded were taken good care of.

(substantivized)

The subject is called compound when it consists of two components combined by the
conjunction and
The manager and the staff are at the meeting now.
It AS THE SUBJECT OF THE SENTENCE
When the pronoun it is used as the subject of a sentence and represents a living being
or a thing, it is a notional subject. Sometimes, however, it doesn’t represent any living
being or thing and performs a purely grammatical function. In this case it is a formal
subject.
When it is a notional subject the pronoun it has the following meanings:
1) It stands for a definite thing or some abstract idea – the personal it.
The door opened. It was opened by a young girl.
2) It points out some person or thing expressed by a predicative noun, or it refers to
the thought contained in a preceding statement, thus having a demonstrative meaning –
the demonstrative it.
It is John. It was a large room with a great window.
In the last two cases it is close to this and is usually translated into Russian by это.
Sometimes the pronoun it is a formal subject, i.e. it does not represent any person or
thing.
Here we must distinguish:
1) the impersonal it, 2) the introductory or anticipatory it and 3) the emphatic it.
1) The impersonal it is used:
 to denote the state of the weather or the state which characterizes the
environment. In such sentences the predicate is either a simple one, expressed by a verb
denoting the state of the weather, or a compound nominal one, with an adjective as
predicative.
It often rains in autumn. It is often cold in winter.
 to denote time and distance.
It is five minutes past six. How far is it from your office to the bank?
NOTE: Sentences with the impersonal it as subject very often correspond to Russian
impersonal one-member sentences: It is late – Поздно.
The following sentences, however, correspond to Russian two-member personal
sentences: It is snowing. – Идет снег.

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 2) The introductory or anticipatory it introduces the real subject.
It was curious to observe that child.
3) The emphatic it is used for emphasis.
It was he who brought back George to Amelia.
THE PREDICATE
The predicate is the second principal part of the sentence, which expresses an action,
state, or quality of the person or thing denoted by the subject. It is grammatically
dependent upon the subject.
Note: This definition does not cover sentences with the formal it as the subject. In
these sentences the predicate expresses the state of weather, time or distance, and the
subject only makes the sentence structurally complete.
As a rule the predicate contains a finite verb form, which may express tense, voice,
mood, aspect and sometimes person and number. According to the structure and the
meaning of the predicate we distinguish two main types: the simple predicate and the
compound predicate.
THE SIMPLE PREDICATE
The simple verbal predicate is expressed by a finite verb in a simple or compound
tense form. It generally denotes an action but sometimes it denotes a state, which is
represented as an action.
He arrived at the lab next morning full of excitement.
She hates parties.
There is a special kind of predicate expressed by a phraseological unit such as get rid,
get hold, take care, take part, take place, make fun, make up one’s mind, change one’s
mind, pay attention, lose sight, have a wash, give a push, etc.
When we clear the forests we’ll get rid of such inconveniences.
The characteristic feature of this predicate is that the first component, i.e. the finite
verb, has lost its concrete meaning to a great extent and forms one unit with the noun,
consequently the noun cannot be treated as an object to the verb. This can also be easily
proved by the impossibility of putting a question to the second component.
Compare: My friend gave me an interesting book to read.
The man gave a violent start.
We shall treat this kind of predicate as a subdivision of the simple predicate – a
phraseological predicate.
We distinguish 2 types of phraseological predicates:
1) Word combinations of the following type: have a smoke, have a swim, have a run,
give a laugh, give a push, take a look, make a move, etc. These combinations consist
of a finite verb, which has to a great extent lost its concrete meaning and a noun formed
from a verb and mostly used with the indefinite article.
The predicate denotes a momentary action. In Russian this shade of meaning is
rendered by different prefixes and suffixes which express a momentary action.
He had a smoke. – Он покурил.
He gave a cry. – Он вскрикнул.
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 This type of phraseological predicate is characteristic of colloquial speech.
2) Word combinations of the following type: get rid of, get hold, make use, take care,
lose sight, make fun, pay attention, make up one’s mind, change one’s mind, take part,
etc.
The second component of these combinations is in most cases an abstract noun used
without any article.
Then he caught his breath, suddenly reminded of something else.
THE COMPOUND PREDICATE
The compound predicate consists of two parts: a) a finite verb and b) some other part
of speech: a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, a verbal (a participle, a gerund, an infinitive).
The second component is the significant part of the predicate that refers to the state or
the action performed by the subject.
The first part expresses the verbal categories of person, number, tense, aspect, mood
and voice; besides it can have a certain lexical meaning of its own. The compound
predicate can be nominal and verbal.
THE COMPOUND NOMINAL PREDICATE
The compound nominal predicate denotes the state or quality of the person or thing
expressed by the subject, or the class of persons or things to which this person or thing
belongs. The compound nominal predicate consists of a link verb and a predicative.
THE LINK VERB expresses the verbal categories of person, number, tense, aspect,
mood, sometimes voice. The following are the most common link verbs: be, appear, get,
grow, continue, feel, keep, look, turn, hold, prove, turn out, rank, remain, run, seem,
to smell, taste, fall, stand, go, work.
His wife sighed and remained silent.
Many of these verbs can be used both as verbs of complete predication fully
preserving their concrete meaning and as link verbs.
The tree grew large. – Дерево выросло большим.
It grew dark. – Стемнело.
Some verbs though fully preserving their concrete meaning perform the function of
link verbs: they are used with a predicative and form a compound nominal predicate: lie,
sit, die, marry, return, leave, come, stand, fall, go, etc.
The poor woman sat amazed.
Sometimes the predicative does not immediately follow these verbs but is separated
from them by an adverbial modifier.
One evening she came home irritated.
According to their meaning link verbs can be divided into two large groups: link verbs
of being and remaining and link verbs of becoming.
1) Link verbs of being and remaining describe some permanent quality of the subject
or the state or quality that it has at a certain time. The following link verbs belong to this
group: be, remain, keep, continue, look, smell, stand, sit, lie, shine, seem, prove, appear,
etc.
2) Link verbs of becoming show the change of quality or state of the subject; they are
become, get, grow, come, go, leave, run, turn, make, etc.

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 THE PREDICATIVE is a significant part of the compound nominal predicate and
denotes the state or quality of the person or thing expressed by the subject, or the class
of persons or things to which this person or thing belongs It can be expressed by:
1. A noun in the common case, occasionally by the noun in the genitive case:
She is a pretty child. The book is my sister’s.
2. An adjective:
He is awfully dear and unselfish.
Very often the predicative after the verbs be, look, feel, sound, smell, taste expressed
by an adjective in English doesn’t correspond to an adjective in Russian. It often
corresponds to an adverb, serving as an adverbial modifier.
The dinner smells delicious. – Обед пахнет восхитительно.
Sentences describing weather correspond to Russian one-member sentences.
It’s dark. – Темно. It’s hot. – Жарко.
3. A pronoun – personal, possessive, negative, interrogative, reflexive:
It was he. The privilege was his. Oh, she is just nobody.
What is your idea? She was herself again.
4. A word of the category of state:
But I’m afraid I can’t keep the customer so long.
5. A numeral, cardinal or ordinal:
I’m only 16. Mrs. Snow was the first to break the astonished silence.
6. A prepositional phrase:
These things were outside her experience.
7. An infinitive, infinitive phrase or infinitive construction:
His only wish was to win.
Jane’s first thought was to leave immediately.
It is for you to decide.
8. A gerund, gerundial phrase or gerundial construction:
My favourite sport is swimming.
Her duty is meeting people at the reception.
The greatest problem was our getting their in time.
9. Participle I or Participle II:
Her behaviour is irritating.
He was surprised at the sound of his own voice.
10. An adverb:
It was enough.
THE OBJECTIVE PREDICATIVE
Besides the predicative referring to the subject, another type of predicative referring
to the object can be found in English. It is called the Objective predicative. It expresses
the state or quality of the person or thing denoted by the object and is generally expressed
by a noun, an adjective, a word denoting state or a prepositional phrase.
They painted the door green.
The Objective Predicative doesn’t form a part of the predicate, and the predicate in
this case is simple.

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 THE COMPOUND VERBAL PREDICATE
The compound verbal predicate can be divided into two types according to the
meaning of the finite verb:
1) The compound verbal modal predicate,
2) The compound verbal aspect predicate.
THE COMPOUND VERBAL MODAL PREDICATE
The compound verbal modal predicate shows whether the action expressed by a non-
finite form of the verb is considered as possible, impossible, obligatory, necessary,
desirable etc. These meanings are expressed by the first component of the predicate.
The compound verbal modal predicate may consist of the following components:
1. A modal verb /can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would, ought/ and
an infinitive.
You can prove everything.
2. A semi-modal verb /dare, need, be, have/ and an infinitive.
I have to work for my living.
3 A modal expression / be able to, be obliged to, be bound, be willing, be anxious, be
going/ and an infinitive.
I am going to leave Paris.
4. A verb with a modal meaning /hope, expect, intend, endeavour, long, wish, want,
desire, feel/ and an infinitive or a gerund.
He wanted to throw himself into the river.
I feel like telling him everything.
THE COMPOUND VERBAL ASPECT PREDICATE
The compound verbal aspect predicate expresses the beginning, repetition, duration,
or cessation of the action, expressed by the non-finite form of the verb – a gerund or an
infinitive. It consists of such verbs as begin, start, commence, fall, set about, go on, keep
on, proceed, continue, stop, give up, finish, cease, come and an infinitive or a gerund.
In the morning it began to rain again.
He started writing his composition a week ago.
At last I came to realize the problem facing me.
After the verbs go on, keep on, stop, give up, finish only the gerund is used as a part
of a compound verbal predicate, while the infinitive performs a different syntactic
function.
He went on talking without looking at us.
She cleaned the hall and went on to clean the kitchen. – Object
They stopped talking and looked at us.
Suddenly they stopped to look at the view. – Adverbial modifier of purpose.
Here also belong phrases would and used + Infinitive, which denote a repeated action
in the past.
When he was a student he used to come to our café rather often.
He would take a cup of coffee and sit at that table near the window.
MIXED TYPES OF PREDICATE
Such predicates contain several components.
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 1. The compound modal nominal predicate.
He wanted to be the next heir himself.
2. The compound aspect nominal predicate.
I began to feel rather hungry
3. The compound modal aspect predicate
You ought to stop doing this.
4. The compound modal aspect nominal predicate
He must have begun to feel sorry for that.
MEANS OF EXPRESSING THE PREDICATE
PREDICATES
TYPE OF WAYS OF EXPRESSION EXAMPLES
PREDICATE
The simple verbal 1) a finite verb in a simple or a He works a lot.
predicate compound tense form He has been working at the
project since summer.
1) word combinations: have a
smoke, have a swim, have a
run, give a laugh, give a push She’ll have a swim with
The simple take a look, make a move; pleasure.
phraseological 2) a phraseological unit:
predicate get rid, get hold, take care, pay Soon we lost sight of the ship.
attention, lose sight, have a
wash, give a push and others;
1) link verbs of being and
remaining: be, remain, keep,
continue, look, smell, stand, sit, The girl looks really seek.
The compound lie, shine, seem, prove, appear,
nominal predicate etc. + predicative
2) link verbs of becoming:
become, get, grow, come, go, It grows dark early now.
leave, run, turn, make, etc. +
predicative
1. A modal verb + an infinitive They can help you.
2. A semi-modal verb +
an infinitive You are to come tomorrow.
The compound 3. A modal expression + an She isn’t able to talk now.
verbal modal infinitive
predicate 4. A verb with a modal We want to see her again.
meaning + an infinitive or a
gerund
A verb (to begin, to start, to He began working early
commence, to fall, to set about, yesterday.
The compound to go on, to keep on, to proceed, He began to work early
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 verbal aspect to continue, to stop, to give up,
predicate to finish, to cease, to come,
used to, would+ Inf)
+ an infinitive or a gerund.
MIXED TYPES OF PREDICATES
They stopped talking at once.
They used to come here
rather often.

The compound 3 elements:

modal nominal 1 )a modal verb (expression)
predicate 2) a link verb You must be tired.
3) a predicative
The compound 3 elements
aspect nominal 1) an aspect verb
predicate 2) a link verb She began to feel excited.
3) a predicative
The compound 3 elements
modal aspect 1) a modal verb You should start thinking
predicate 2) an aspect verb about such things.
3) an infinitive or a gerund
4 elements
The compound 1) a modal verb
modal aspect 2) an aspect verb Mary must stop being a
nominal predicate 3) a link verb nuisance.
4) a predicative

SUBJECT – PREDICATE AGREEMENT

Predicates agree with the subject in person and number – singular subjects take
singular verb forms, and plural subjects take plural verb forms. The predicates built by
means of the verb be (notional, auxiliary, semi-modal or link-verb) have singular and
plural forms. All the other verbs (except modal ones) take only one ending (-s/-es) to
agree with the subject in the 3rd person singular. That’s why it is important to know
whether to treat the subject as singular or plural.
1. Singular verb forms are used with the subject expressed by the singular form of a
countable noun, by a personal pronoun 3rd person singular, by the singular forms of
demonstrative pronouns:
My friend likes to talk. She talks a lot.
This is exactly what I want.
Subjects expressed by countable nouns in plural form, by a personal pronoun plural
or by the plural form of demonstrative pronouns take plural verb forms.
My friends do well at University.
You were absent from class, weren’t you?
Those were the years of Great Depression.
Uncountable material and abstract nouns always take singular verb forms:
Her hair is long and thick.
Her success is unbelievable.

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 NOTE: the following nouns are always singular: money, luggage, information,
knowledge, progress, success, advice, scenery.
2. Two or more homogeneous subjects and compound subjects joined by and are
usually plural.
All the cars, trucks and bicycles are moving in the same direction.
The house and the garden need attention.
Swimming and walking are good exercise.
If homogeneous subjects are expressed by infinitives the predicate is in the singular:
To wait and to worry was everything she could do.
3. In sentences with the construction there is/there are the predicate precedes the
notional subject and agrees with the first noun:
There is a chair and a table in the room.
There is a chair and two tables in the room.
There are two chairs and a table in the room.
In American English homogeneous subjects in these sentences are treated as plural:
There are a bakery and a pharmacy down the street. (Two things are down the street)
4. When two homogeneous subjects are joined by or, either… or, neither… nor, not
only… but also, the verb agrees with the subject closest to it:
Mary or Steve is going to help me.
My friend or my two brothers are going to help me.
My friends or my brother is going to help me.
Note: Words introduced by along with, as well as, as much as, rather than, more
than, except, in addition to, including, plus, together with, form prepositional phrases
and that’s why they cannot be the subject. The predicate agrees with the subject which,
as a rule, precedes these phrases:
The Don as well as other rivers freezes over in winter.
The Siberian rivers as well as Lake Baikal freeze over in winter
5. If the subject is expressed by a collective noun denoting a group of similar
individuals or objects taken as a whole (mankind, humankind, humanity, assembly,
etc.), the predicate-verb is in the singular:
Mankind is all of us.
If the subject is expressed by a noun of multitude (people, police, gentry, cattle, etc.),
the predicate-verb is in the plural:
The police are here.
The people have come and are waiting for you.
There are collective nouns that may be both singular and plural – audience, board,
class, club, committee, council, crowd, family, faculty, government, jury, group, herd,
panel. We choose a singular verb when we refer to a unified ‘body’ and we choose a
plural verb when we refer to people who make it up:
The audience was/were clapping enthusiastically.
The club has/have voted to admit new members.
The army provides an excellent career.
The army are investigating the accident.

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 6. The nouns that have invariable plural form such as goods, contents, clothes, wages,
scissors, tweezers, fireworks, pants, etc. always take a plural verb.
The goods were delivered on time.
His wages were only 15 shillings a week.
Subjects expressed by invariable nouns ending in –s such as politics, linguistics,
news, measles, economics, headquarters, etc. take a singular verb.
No news is good news.
Measles is a catching disease.
Nouns ending in –ics (statistics, tactics, politics) may have a plural verb when
denoting qualities, practical applications, different activities.
These statistics show a steady growth in this field.
(In this sentence ‘statistics’ means figures representing facts)
7. Subjects expressed by nouns denoting measure, time, distance, weight, numerical
expressions, take a singular verb:
Ten years is a long time.
Tow plus tow is four.
8. Subjects expressed by nouns in the plural which are titles of books, names of
newspapers, etc. take a singular verb:
“Fathers and Sons” is Turgenev’s most popular novel.
Note: the titles of some works that are collections of stories may have either a
singular or a plural verb:
“The Canterbury Tales” consist of about seventeen thousand line of verse.
9. Subjects expressed by word-groups as a/the number of…, a/the amount of…,
a/the majority of…, a variety of….take either a singular or a plural verb depending on
their meaning in a sentence.
The number of people who know foreign languages is growing. –
Количество людей, знающих иностранные языки, растет.
It was Sunday, and a number of people were walking idly about the park. – Было
воскресенье, и (многие) люди лениво прогуливались по парку.
10. Indefinite, defining and negative pronouns ending in -one, -body, -thing (anyone,
anybody, anything, someone, somebody, something, everyone, everybody,
everything, no one, nobody and nothing) as well as either, another, each, and neither
always take singular verb forms:
Something bothers me.
Does anyone know about your plans?
Everybody is going to talk about it.
Nobody ever tells me anything.
Here are a couple of books but neither is interesting.
Each of the boys is talented.
11. The pronouns both and several and the quantifiers (a) few and many always take
plural verb forms:
Which film do you want to see? Both are good.
Very few know these facts.

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 12. The quantifiers (a) little, less, much, a great deal of, and a large amount of take
a singular verb form:
Little was done to help them.
A great deal of snow has already melted.
13. The pronouns any, none, no, all, some, and the quantifiers more, most, a lot of
take a singular verb when they refer to an uncountable noun and a plural verb when they
refer to a plural countable noun; none can take a plural and singular verb:
All of the furniture needs to be replaced.
There are fifteen students in the group. All are present.
Some water has been delivered but there is more on the way.
Several problems were settled but more remain.
None of the books is interesting.
None of the books are interesting.
14. When the subject is expressed by the interrogative pronouns who or what the
predicate usually has the singular form:
Who knows the answer?
What was done to save them?
When the question refers to more than one person the predicate may be used in the
plural form:
Who were to take part in the discussion?
15. When the subject is expressed by a relative pronoun (who, that, or which) the
predicate may be singular or plural as it agrees with the pronoun’s antecedent:
She has cooked my favourite dish which is delicious.
She has cooked some dishes which are delicious.
16. If the subject is expressed by the emphatic it the predicate is in the singular:
It is only Russian people who can endure such frost.

THE SECONDARY PARTS OF THE SENTENCE

THE OBJECT
The Object is a secondary part of the sentence which completes or restricts the
meaning of a verb or sometimes an adjective, a word denoting state, or a noun.
There are three kinds of objects in English: the direct object, the indirect object, and
the cognate object.
THE DIRECT OBJECT is used after transitive verbs with which it is closely
connected as it denotes a person or thing directly affected by the action of the verb. It is
used without any preposition.
I moved my head negatively.
If a transitive verb takes only one object expressed by a noun or a pronoun without a
preposition, it is always a direct object.
I helped him.
There are a few English verbs, which can have two direct objects.
I asked him his name.
Forgive me this question.
She taught them French.
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 THE INDIRECT OBJECT denotes a living being to whom the action of the verb is
directed. There are also cases when it denotes a thing. There are two types of indirect
object:
1. The indirect object of the first type expresses the addressee of the action. There
can’t be an indirect object without a direct one in a sentence, if the predicate is expressed
by a transitive verb.
She gave me an interesting book to read.
Note: There are three transitive verbs which may take an indirect object without
any direct one: read, write, sing. In this case the indirect object is used with the
preposition to:
Won’t you sing to me?
As a rule the indirect object comes before the direct object. In this case it is used
without a preposition.
She sent Mike the telegram.
When the direct object precedes the indirect object, the latter is used chiefly with the
preposition to and sometimes for.
She was giving an interview to a couple of journalists.
I’ve brought it for you.
When the direct object is expressed by a pronoun, it always precedes the indirect
object.
Compare: I sent him a letter. I sent a letter to him.
I sent it to her. I sent him to my mother.
After a number of verbs such as explain, dictate, suggest, relate, announce, attribute,
communicate, introduce, repeat, dedicate, disclose, interpret, point out the indirect
object is always used with the preposition to even if it comes before the direct object.
Can you explain this rule to me?
I shall dictate to you the telephone number.
2. The indirect prepositional object doesn’t always express the addressee of the action
and is more frequently used with intransitive verbs than with transitive ones. It can be
used with any preposition.
The idea had occurred to Soams.
The prepositional indirect object is used not only with verbs but also with adjectives,
words denoting state, and nouns of verbal origin.
She was not aware of his being there.
My daughter is afraid of dogs.
The direct and the prepositional indirect object may be simple and complex. THE
COMPLEX OBJECT consists of two components; the second stands in predicate
relation to the first. The two components form an indivisible unit and consequently must
be regarded as one part of the sentence. The complex object can be non-prepositional and
prepositional.
We have a complex object expressed by the Objective Participial construction, the
Objective-with-the-Infinitive construction, the For-to-Infinitive construction and a
gerundial construction.
The friends saw Tom approaching them.
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 We considered him to be a sincere person, but we were mistaken.
He didn’t mean for you to get hurt.
I insist on your learning this rule.
THE COGNATE OBJECT is a special kind of object that has some peculiarities:
1. It is used with intransitive verbs though it has no preposition.
2. It is expressed by a noun, which either has the same root as the verb or is similar to
it in meaning.
3. It is almost regularly modified by an attribute with which it forms a phrase that is
close in meaning to an adverbial modifier: to live a happy life - to live happily.
The cognate object is generally used in such combinations as: smile a sad smile, laugh
a bitter laugh, die a violent death and others of the kind.
For the next four days he lived a simple and blameless life ...
MEANS OF EXPRESSING THE OBJECT

PARTS OF SPEECH EXAMPLES

NOUN
(in the common case) He wrote a book 20 years ago.

PRONOUN Who told you the news? It isn’t my book. Give me mine.
personal, possessive, Do you want anything? He has done everything.
indefinite, defining, Be careful and don’t hurt yourself.
reflexive, demonstrative Look at this.
ADJECTIVE
(substantivized) People dealing with charity help the poor.

NUMERAL How many do you want? – I want two.

QUOTATION (or They shouted “Herman, come back!” several times, but
quotation group) got no reply.
PREPOSITIONAL He was prevented from making a great mistake.
PHRASE with noun or
What can you say about it?
gerund

GROUP OF WORDS as
one part of sentence They found a great number of books in the library.

INFINITIVE  They ordered to stop.

INFINITIVE PHRASE
 They tried to shut the door.
INFINITIVE
CONSTRUCTION  The company waited for the lecture to be over.

GERUND  Stop smoking!

GERUNDIAL PHRASE
 Do you remember seeing him on Tuesday?
GERUNDIAL
CONSTRUCTION  I don’t like his doing it.

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 PARTICIPLE
(substantivized) The Germans left the dying behind.

THE ATTRIBUTE
The attribute is a secondary part of the sentence, which qualifies a noun, a pronoun,
or any other part of speech that has a nominal character.
MEANS OF EXPRESSING THE ATTRIBUTE

PARTS OF EXAMPLES
SPEECH
NOUN
(in the common He was a village painter.
case, genitive Captain’s appearance left much to be desired.
case)
PRONOUN
(possessive, His eyes were shining.
defining, I know every word in this letter.
demonstrative, This story is really interesting.
interrogative,) Which book would you like to take?

ADJECTIVE His enormous nose identified his curiosity.

NUMERAL
(cardinal, Each of these four brothers was different from the others.
ordinal) It was her second job.
(pre-position)In the light of after events the news was not
ADVERB interesting.
(post-position) The room above is of latest fashion design.
QUOTATION (or
quotation group) I don’t like his “I swear...”lies.
PREPOSITIONAL
PHRASE with a The letter from her sister was received yesterday.
noun
INFINITIVE  Here’s a book to read.
INFINITIVE
 They must fin time to master the language.
PHRASE
INFINITIVE  The best thing for you to do is to hide away.
CONSTRUCTION
GERUND  The idea of leaving is silly.
GERUNDIAL
 The thought of bursting out crying came suddenly.
PHRASE
GERUNDIAL  I didn’t like the idea of her going there alone.
CONSTRUCTION

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 PARTICIPLE I I think it’s only a passing shower.
That guy, sitting there, isn’t familiar to me.
PARTICIPLE II You can see a broken tree on the opposite side.
THE APPOSITION
An apposition is a special kind of attribute which is expressed by a noun (with or
without accompanying words) which characterizes or explains the word modified by
giving the person or thing another name. There are two kinds of apposition.
THE CLOSE APPOSITION is not separated by commas and stands in close
connection with the word modified. These word-groups generally consist either of the
name of a person and a noun denoting a title, rank, profession, or the name of a person
and a noun, denoting relationship, or a geographical name and some common noun:
Professor Higgins, Aunt Polly, President Clinton, Lake Ontario.
Even Aunt Polly was there.
In these word-groups the noun modified is the name of a person or a geographical
name, the first component is a noun in apposition.
Sometimes the apposition consists of the preposition of + noun: the town of York.
THE LOOSE OR DETACHED APPOSITION is not so closely connected with the
noun. It is always separated by commas and has a stress of its own.
She lived in the house of Timothy, her younger brother.

THE ADVERBIAL MODIFIER

The adverbial modifier is a secondary part of the sentence, which modifies a verb, an
adjective or an adverb. According to their meaning we distinguish the following
adverbial modifiers:
1. The adverbial modifier of time (it shows the time of the action or state expressed
by the predicate):
We shall try it tomorrow.
2. The adverbial modifier of frequency (it shows how often or how regularly the action
or the state expressed by the subject takes place):
They often ask silly questions.
3. The adverbial modifier of place and direction (it shows the place of the action or
the direction of the movement expressed by the predicate):
Gains had spies everywhere.
4. The adverbial modifier of manner (it expresses the way or the manner in which the
action expressed by the predicate is performed)
Their conversations were conducted with icy formality.
5. The adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances (it shows another action
performed together with the action expressed by the predicate):
Now I can go to bed without dreading tomorrow.

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 6. The adverbial modifier of degree and measure (it shows the degree, measure or
level of a quality or state):
It’s rather good.
You are absolutely right.
7. The adverbial modifier of cause (it shows the cause or the reason of the action or
state expressed by the predicate):
Mr. Snow being in difficulty, all considerations of private feelings must give way.
Because of the snow we couldn’t continue our trip.
8. The adverbial modifier of result or consequence (it shows the result or the
consequence of the action or state expressed by the predicate); adverbs too and enough
are often used:
She is too fond of a child to leave it.
He is clever enough to solve such problems himself.
9. The adverbial modifier of condition (it is very rare and it shows the condition under
which the action or state expressed by the predicate takes place):
She never would have been able to make such success, but for the kindness and
assistance of the men.
Without working hard you will achieve nothing.
10. The adverbial modifier of comparison (it gives characteristic to states and actions
comparing them with some other states, qualities or actions):
Kathy is as white as wool.
11. The adverbial modifier of concession (it is very rare and it shows that the action
or state expressed by the predicate is unexpected because there is an obstacle):
Though frightened, he carried it off very well.
Despite the mistakes her work is good.
12. The adverbial modifier of purpose (it shows the purpose of the action or state
expressed by the predicate):
I’ve come here to tell you the truth.
They opened the way for her to come to him.
MEANS OF EXPRESSING THE ADVERBIAL MODIFIER

WAYS OF EXPRESSION EXAMPLES

Rachel turned instinctively to prevent a possible intruder
ADVERB
from entering.
NOUN
Next day the morning hours seemed to pass very slowly.
(with or without
They walked miles without any rest.
accompanying words)
PREPOSITIONAL I walked straight up the lane.
PHRASE
NOUN, PRONOUN,
ADJECTIVE, Mary swims better than her sister.
PARTICIPLE OR
Use it as prescribed.
PREPOSITIONAL
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 PHRASE introduced by a It’s cooler in the garden than in the house.
subordinating
conjunction
PARTICIPLE Turning away, she caught sight of a new copy of the
PARTICIPIAL PHRASE newspaper.
ABSOLUTE
CONSTRUCTIONS
 The Nominative  The night being cold, we decided to make a fire.
Absolute Participial
Construction
 The Nominative  He stopped and looked at us, his eyes very serious.
Absolute Construction
without a participle
 The Prepositional
Absolute Participial  Mike looked at her attentively, with his heart beating
Construction fast.
 The Prepositional
Absolute Construction  He rushed forward, with a stick in his hand.
without a participle
GERUND His father looked up without speaking.
GERUNDIAL PHRASE In spite of never liking her, he agreed to help.
GERUNDIAL
I left the room without Mike’s noticing me.
CONSTRUCTION

INFINITIVE He is too smart to fail.

INFINITIVE PHRASE They rose to go into the drawing -room.
INFINITIVE
He stepped aside for us to enter.
CONSTRUCTION

DETACHED (LOOSE) PARTS OF THE SENTENCE

Detached parts of the sentence are those secondary parts which assume a certain
grammatical and semantic independence. This phenomenon is due to their loose
connection with the words they modify. Loose connection may be due to the position of
these words, the way they are expressed, their meaning, or the speaker’s desire to make
them prominent. In spoken language detached parts of the sentence are marked by
intonation, pauses and special stress; in written language they are generally separated by
commas or dashes. Adverbial modifiers, attributes and prepositional indirect objects may
stand in loose connection to the word they modify, i.e. they may be detached (loose) parts
of the sentence. The adverbial modifier is more apt to stand in loose connection than any
other part of the sentence.
THE DETACHED ADVERBIAL MODIFIER: Any part of speech used in the function of
an adverbial modifier may be detached, which accounts for a comma that separates a
construction from the rest of the sentence.
In her excitement, Maria jammed the bedroom-door together.

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 An adverbial modifier expressed by the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction
or any other absolute construction is generally detached.
With his hands buried in his hands, he didn’t see her enter the room.
Of all the kinds of adverbial modifiers that of attendant circumstances is most apt to
become detached.
He came in, with a large parcel under his arm.
THE DETACHED ATTRIBUTE: A detached attribute can modify not only a common
noun as an ordinary attribute does, but also a proper noun and a pronoun.
Dumb with amazement, Mr. Gradgrind crossed to the spot where his family was.
THE DETACHED OBJECT: The prepositional indirect object is often detached.
She doesn’t change - except her hair.
THE INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE
The independent elements of the sentence are words and word-groups which are not
grammatically dependent on any part of the sentence.
They are:
1. Interjections such as ah, oh, hurrah, eh, hallo, goodness gracious, good heavens,
etc.
2. Direct address. Good morning, sweet child!
3. Parenthesis.
A PARENTHESIS either shows the speaker’s attitude towards the thought expressed in
the sentence or connects a given sentence with another one, or summarizes what is said
in the sentence. A parenthesis is connected with the rest of the sentence rather
semantically than grammatically. No question can be put to it. Very often it is detached
from the rest of the sentence and consequently it is often separated from it by commas or
dashes.
Besides, you know, I’m a pensioner, anyway.
A Parenthesis can be expressed by:
1. Modal words such as indeed, certainly, assuredly, decidedly, in fact, truly,
naturally, surely, actually, possibly, perhaps, evidently, obviously, maybe.
Luckily, they found what they had been looking for.
2. Adverbs, which to a certain extent serve as connectives such as firstly, secondly,
finally, thus, consequently, then, anyway moreover, besides, still, yet, nevertheless,
otherwise, notwithstanding, therefore, etc.
He was loosing money. Furthermore, he was ruined.
3. Prepositional phrases such as in a word, in truth, in my opinion, in short, by the
by, on the one hand, on the contrary, at least, etc.
By the way, Harry, this is a report.
4. Infinitive and participial phrases such as to be sure, to tell the truth, to begin with,
generally speaking, strictly speaking, etc.
To tell you the truth, I don’t want to go there.
SENTENCES WITH HOMOGENEOUS PARTS

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 Two or more parts of the sentence having the same function and referring to the same
part of the sentence are called homogeneous parts of the sentence. They are linked either
by means of coordinating conjunctions or asyndetically. There can be:
1. Two or more homogeneous subjects to one predicate.
Spoons, forks and knives were already on the table.
2. Two or more homogeneous predicates to one subject.
a) Simple predicates:
He went away and came back without informing anybody.
b) A compound verbal modal predicate with homogenous parts within it:
He could run and jump better than anybody.
c) A compound verbal aspect predicate with homogeneous parts within it:
He began to take the things away and put them into the cupboard.
d) A compound nominal predicate with several predicatives within it:
She was smart, pretty and sensitive.
It became gloomy and cold.
3. Two or more attributes, objects, or adverbial modifiers to one part of the sentence.
Red, brown and yellow leaves covered the ground.
I want to take some newspapers and magazines.
It often rains here in autumn and in winter.

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 INDIRECT SPEECH
Indirect Speech is a form of utterance in which the words of the speaker are reported
(but not reproduced exactly).
When direct speech is converted into indirect the following changes are necessary:
1. The quotation marks and the comma are omitted.
She says: “I’m glad to see you.” – She says she is glad to see me.
2. If the speaker reports somebody else's words, the pronouns are correspondingly
changed:
Ann says: “I’ll help you.” – Ann says she’ll help us.
3. As the reported speech is a subordinate clause in the sentence, the word order
in it is direct:
“Where’s Mary?” he asks. – He asks where Mary is.
4. If the verb in the principal clause is in a past tense the tenses in the subordinate
clause are changed according to the general rules of the sequence of tenses. It may be
necessary to replace the adverbs and demonstrative pronouns expressing 'nearness' by
those denoting 'distance'.
John said: “These people here are my friends” –
John said those people there were his friends.
INDIRECT STATEMENTS
Indirect Statements are generally introduced by the verbs say, tell, inform, announce.
With the verbs tell, inform the person addressed is always mentioned.
He informed us that the manager was busy.
He will tell them that he doesn’t want to go there.
Note: In the phrase “the book tells of …” the verb ‘tell’ is used without mentioning
the person addressed.
With the verbs say, announce the person addressed may or may not be mentioned. If
it is mentioned, the preposition 'to' is used,
He said to us that the manager was busy.
Note: The verbs speak, talk are not used to introduce indirect speech.
There are some other verbs which introduce indirect speech: reply that, declare,
remind, remark, deny, promise, assure, admit, explain to, report, boast, whisper,
insist, shout etc.
INDIRECT IMPERATIVES (OREDERS, COMMANDS, REQUESTS, ADVICE)
An order, command or request is rendered in indirect speech by an infinitive, used
after a reporting verb.
You mention the person addressed as the object of the verb before the infinitive:
Jim told me to ring him up. He asked her to marry him.
He advised his client to buy the car.
If the person addressed is not indicated in direct speech it can be supplied from the
context.
Orders, requests, etc. in indirect speech are introduced by the verbs: tell, order, ask,
beg, command, persuade, warn, request, remind, invite, advise.
They begged to be let in. He ordered to let them in.
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 If the order, request or command is negative, you put ‘not’ before the to-infinitive:
He begged not to blame him.
She told the children not to touch anything in the room.
To express an emphatic and urgent request the verbs urge and implore are used.
She urged the lawyer to send the paper.
Note: a to-infinitive can also be used after the verbs intend, plan, want, hope,
decide, prefer, forget, to report statements.
She hoped to marry him soon. He didn't want to leave.
They planned to marry in June.
INDIRECT QUESTIONS
If a general question is reported, the object clause reporting it in indirect speech is
joined to the principal one by the conjunctions if or whether. The word order in the
subordinate clause is direct.
“Did you see Ann?” he asked me. – He asked me if (whether) I had seen Ann.
I asked if (whether) I could stay.
Only whether is used if an alternative question is reported:
“Do you want coffee or tea?” – She asks whether I want coffee or tea.
An indirect special question is introduced by the same adverb or pronoun as that used
in the direct question. In this case it is treated as a conjunctive word. The word order in
the object subordinate clause becomes direct.
“What are you doing?” she asks me. – She asks me what I am doing.
“Where is John?” he asks his sister. – He asks his sister where John is.
Indirect questions are introduced by the verbs: ask, inquire, wonder, doubt, know,
want to know and others.
The person addressed is usually mentioned in the sentence itself, or in a broader
context, or can be understood from the situation. In indirect speech the person addressed
is expressed by the object to the verb introducing indirect speech.
“What are you going to do?” she asks. – She asks us what we are going to do.
In rendering answers the verbs answer, reply, assure, say in reply and others of the
kind are used.
He asked us if we knew the way and we assured him that we did.
INDIRECT EXCLAMATIONS
When exclamations are converted into indirect speech, the adverbial modifier shows
the character of the exclamation such as joy, sorrow, surprise, doubt, astonishment etc.
The verbs cry, say, exclaim, ask, apologize, beg, thank and others are used.
“What fine weather!” she exclaimed. –
She exclaimed joyfully (cried, shouted, said) that the weather was fine.
“It's a pity you are leaving so soon!” she said. –
She said with pity that we were leaving soon.
GREETINGS AND LEAVE-TAKINGS IN INDIRECT SPEECH

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 When converting greetings and leave-takings into indirect speech we use the verbs
greet, welcome, exchange greetings, return one's greeting, say hallo, say good bye, bid
good morning (bade / bid, bidden), wish good night.
“Hello,” she said entering the room. – Entering the room she greeted us.
INDIRECT OFFERS, SUGGESTIONS AND ADVICE
Offers, suggestions and advice are introduced in indirect speech by the verbs advise,
offer, suggest, propose, remind.
Note:
‘offer’ is used to say that you are willing to give, to pay, or to do something;
‘suggest’ is used to tell somebody your idea what they should do; after the verb
‘suggest’ gerund or a subordinate clause with subjunctive mood is used (but not an
infinitive);
‘propose’ is more formal than ‘suggest’.
If after the verbs ‘suggest’ and ‘propose the person addressed is mentioned, the
preposition ‘to’ is used.
“Would you like a cup of coffee?” he said. – He offered me a cup of coffee. “Let’s walk
a little.” – She suggested walking a little. She suggested to us that we walk (should
walk) a little.

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 THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE
A compound sentence is a sentence, which consists of two or more clauses
coordinated with each other. A clause is a part of a sentence which has a subject and a
predicate of its own.
In a compound sentence the clauses may be connected:
a) SYNDETICALLY, i.e. by means of coordinating conjunctions (and, or, else, but,
etc.) or conjunctive adverbs (otherwise, however, nevertheless, yet, still, therefore).
He knew there were excuses for his father, yet he felt sick at heart.
b) ASYNDETICALLY, i.e. without a conjunction or conjunctive adverb.
The rain fell softly, the house was quiet.
We can distinguish the following types of coordination:
1. COPULATIVE COORDINATION (соединительная связь) expressed by the
conjunctions and, nor, neither... nor, not only... but (also). With the help of these
conjunctions the statement expressed in one clause is simply added to that expressed in
another.
Not only did he speak more correctly, but he spoke more easily.
2. DISJUNCTIVE COORDINATION (разделительная связь) expressed by the
conjunctions or, else, or else, either... or, otherwise. By these a choice is offered between
the statements expressed in two clauses.
Don’t come near me with that look, else I’ll knock you down.
3. АDVERSATIVE COORDINATION (противительная связь) expressed by the
conjunctions but, only, whereas, while, yet, still, nevertheless. These are conjunctions
and adverbs connecting two clauses contrasting in meaning.
The room was dark, but the street was light because of its lamps.
4. CAUSATIVE-CONSECUTIVE COORDINATION (причинно-следственная связь)
expressed by the conjunctions for, therefore, so, consequently, hence, accordingly.
Hers (Lillian’s) wasn’t a soul that ever loved passionately, hence she could not suffer
passionately.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
A complex sentence consists of a principle clause and one or more subordinate
clauses. Clauses in a complex sentence may be linked in two ways:
1. SYNDETICALLY, i.e. by means of subordinating conjunctions or connectives.
There is a difference between a conjunction and a connective. A conjunction serves only
as a formal element connecting separate clauses, whereas a connective serves as a
connecting link and has at the same time a syntactic function in the subordinate clause it
introduces.
What he had achieved seemed suddenly to have no meaning. – (connective).
2. ASYNDETICALLY, i.e. without a conjunction or connective.
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 I wish you had come earlier.
A subordinate clause may follow, precede, or interrupt the principle clause. A
complex sentence may contain two or more homogeneous clauses coordinated with each
other. A subordinate clause may be subordinated to the principle clause or to another
subordinate clause. Accordingly we distinguish subordinate clauses of the first, second,
third, etc. degree of subordination.
I think I have noticed that they have an inconsistent way of speaking about her, as if she
had made some great success in marrying Mr. Gowan.
According to their grammatical function subordinate clauses are divided into subject,
predicative, object, attributive and adverbial clauses
SUBJECT CLAUSES
Subject clauses perform the function of a subject to the predicate of the principal
clause. Attention should be paid to the peculiar structure of the principal clause, which
in this case has no subject, the subordinate clause serving as such.
What I want to do is to get ready for the exams.
If a subject clause follows the principal clause the so-called introductory it is used in
the principle clause.
It was always possible that they might rely upon someone.
NOTE: There is another view of the analysis of sentences of this type, according to
which it is the subject of the principal clause, and the subordinate clause is a predicative
clause.
Subject clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following way:
 by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether:
It was fortunate that the patient was brought in time.
 by means of the connectives who, which, what, whoever, whatever (conjunctive
pronouns); where, when, how, why ( conjunctive adverbs):
What was done could not be undone.
It’s a grand thing when you see the working class in action.
 asyndetically:
It’s a pity her brother is quite a stranger to her.
Subject clauses are not separated from the principal clause by a comma except when
we have two or more subject clauses coordinated with each other.
NOTE: Formally it is possible to distinguish a subject clause in sentences with an
emphatic construction; however in meaning they are equivalent to simple sentences.
It was his uncle who spoke first.
PREDICATIVE CLAUSES
Predicative clauses perform the function of a predicative. The peculiarity of complex
sentences with a predicative clause is that in the principal clause we find only part of the
predicate, i.e. a link verb, which together with the predicative clause forms a compound
nominal predicate.
Predicative clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following ways:

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  by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether, as if:
Our attitude simply is that facts are facts.
It was as if these men and women had recognized each other.
I felt as if death had laid a hand on me.
 by means of the connectives who, which, what (conjunctive pronouns), where,
when, how, why ( conjunctive adverbs):
The problem was how the matter was to be kept quiet.
That was why you were not one bit frightened.
As a rule, predicative clauses are not separated by a comma; a comma is used if we
have two or more predicative clauses coordinated with each other.
NOTE: In a sentence containing a subject clause and a predicative clause the principal
clause is represented only by the link verb.
What we are going to do is what we were told to.
OBJECT CLAUSES
Object clauses perform the function of an object to the predicate verb of the principal
clause.
I don’t know what you are talking about.
An object clause may also refer to a non-finite form of the verb, to an adjective, or to
a word belonging to the part of speech expressing state.
She looked my way wondering whether I did or did not mean to leave him alone with
my aunt.
She was aware that someone else was there.
Object clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following way:
 by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether:
She wondered if (whether) Brian and Margaret were really suited for one another.
 by means of the connectives who, which, what, whatever, whoever, whichever
(conjunctive pronouns); where, when, how (conjunctive adverbs):
I’ll do just what I say.
 asyndetically:
He said there was nothing much the matter with me.
An object clause may be introduced by a preposition.
I am always ready to listen to whatever you may wish to share with me.
There are some types of complex sentences with an object clause:
1. An object clause may directly follow the verb it refers to:
I know what I have done.
2. An object clause refers to the formal introductory "it" followed by the objective
predicative:
I think it necessary that you should go there at once.
3. There are also cases when an object clause functions like a cognate object to a verb:
He and his mamma knew very few people and lived what might have been thought
very lonely there.

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 As a rule object clauses are not separated by a comma from the principal clause. A
comma may or may not be used if the object clause precedes the principal clause.
What I used not to like, I long for now.
What happened then I don’t know.
If we have two or more homogeneous object clauses they are separated from each
other by a comma.
ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSES
Attributive clauses serve as an attribute to a noun (pronoun) in the principal clause.
The noun or pronoun is called the antecedent of the clause. According to their meaning
and the way they are connected with the principal clause attributive clauses are divided
into relative and appositive ones
Attributive relative clauses qualify the antecedent, whereas attributive appositive
clauses disclose its meaning.
Attributive relative clauses are joined to the principal clause syndetically – by means
of connectives, and asyndetically; attributive appositive clauses are joined only
syndetically – by means of conjunctions.
Attributive Relative Clauses
Attributive relative clauses can be restrictive and non-restrictive or descriptive.
1. A restrictive relative clause restricts the meaning of the antecedent. It cannot be
removed without destroying the meaning of the sentence. They are introduced in the
following way:
 relative pronouns (who, whose, which, that, as)
 relative adverbs ( where, when)
 asyndetically
All that could be done had been done.
I think my father is the best man I have ever known.
2. An attributive relative non-restrictive clause does not restrict the meaning of the
antecedent; it gives some additional information about it. It can be left out without
destroying the meaning of the sentence. They in most cases are introduced syndetically
by means of
 relative pronouns ( who, which)
 relative adverbs
Mr. Prusty, who kept no assistant, slowly got off his stool.
A variant of the attributive non-restrictive clauses is the continuative clause, whose
antecedent is not one word but a whole clause. It is introduced by a relative pronoun
which , translated into Russian by the pronoun что.
Mr. Manson was not indoors, which was a relief to her.
Attributive Appositive Clauses
Attributive appositive clauses disclose the meaning of the antecedent, which is
expressed by an abstract noun. They are chiefly introduced by the conjunction whether
or by the adverb how and why. They are not joined to the principal clause asyndetically.
He stopped in the hope that she would speak.
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
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 An adverbial clause performs the function of an adverbial modifier. It can modify a
verb, an adjective or an adverb in the principal clause.
He stopped as Kravat came rushing out. (Heym)
According to their meaning we distinguish the following kinds of adverbial clauses:
adverbial clauses of time, place, cause (reason), purpose, condition, concession,
result, manner, and comparison.
Adverbial clauses are joined to the principal clause by means of subordinating
conjunctions; they are not joined to the principal clause asyndetically except, sometimes,
adverbial clauses of condition.
An adverbial clause may precede the clause to which it is subordinated or follow it.
In the first case it is separated by a comma, in the second, as a rule, no comma is used.
An adverbial clause may also interrupt the principal clause, in which case a comma is
used at the beginning and at the end of it.
When things are at the worst, they’re sure to mend. (Collins)
If we have two or more homogeneous adverbial clauses they are separated from each
other by a comma.
Adverbial Clauses of Time
An adverbial clause of time shows the time of the action expressed in the principal
clause.
Adverbial clauses of time are introduced by the following conjunctions: when, while,
whenever (когда бы ни), as, till, until, as soon as, as long as, since, after, before, now
that (теперь, когда)
My mother died when I was eight years old... (Eliot)
In some cases an adverbial clause of time introduced by the conjunction as has the
meaning of the gradual development of a process.
As dark night drew on, the sea roughened. (Ch. Bronte)
There are sentences in which the conjunctions when and than introducing adverbial
clauses of time are correlated with the adverbs scarcely, hardly and no sooner in the
principal clause.
They had hardly reached the camp when it started pouring.
No sooner had I closed the door than somebody knocked again.
NOTE 1 – The conjunction when introducing adverbial clauses of time should not be
confused with the adverb when introducing predicative clauses, object clauses, and
attributive clauses.
Compare the following examples:
And people love their homes, even when things are tough. –
(adverbial clause of time)
The next thing to discover is when the paint was last seen without that smear. –
(predicative clause)
NOTE 2 – Adverbial clauses of time introduced by the subordinating conjunction
while should not be confused with the coordinating conjunction while.
There was a pause while he raised his cup and drank some tea. – (adv. clause of time)
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His face was disturbed and troubled, while his clothes were disarranged and untidy.
– (independent clause)
Adverbial Clauses of Place
Adverbial clauses of place show the place or direction of the action expressed in the
principal clause. Adverbial clauses of place are introduced by the conjunctions where
and whenever (где бы ни, куда бы ни)
I am quite comfortable where I am (Wilde)
Note: One should not confuse the conjunction where introducing adverbial clauses
of place with the adverb where introducing predicative clauses, object clauses, and
attributive relative clauses.
Derona placed himself where he could see her... – (adv. clause of place)
Adverbial Clauses of Cause
An adverbial clause of cause (reason) shows the cause or motivation of the action
expressed in the principal clause. Adverbial clauses of cause are introduced by the
conjunctions as, because, since, for fear (that); in official style they may also be
introduced by the conjunctions on the ground that, for the reason and some others.
As he had a liking for the spot,
he seldom let a week pass without paying it a visit. (Dickens)
Subordinate clauses of cause introduced by the conjunction because denote a general
reason of the action expressed in the principal clause; those introduced by since denote
a reason or grounds for the action of the principal clause, clauses with as denote a well-
known or evident reason, clauses with for denote grounds, explanation or some
additional idea providing for the action expressed in the principal clause to take place.
I think he must have had some talent, for I have even now a very vivid recollection of
the portrait he painted of Rosie Driffield.
Adverbial Clauses of Purpose
Adverbial clauses of purpose state the purpose of the action expressed in the principal
clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions that, in order that, so that, lest (чтобы
не) and some others.
She kept her back to the window that he might not see her rising colour. (Hardy)
When the subordinate clause is introduced by the conjunction so that the Future
Indefinite or the modal verb can are used in it if the predicate of the principal clause is
in a Present Tense; the Future Indefinite in the Past or the modal verb could are used if
the predicate of the principal clause is in a Past Tense.
I’m buying plenty of coal so that the house will be warm.
He left the key under a stone so that she could get to the house whenever she wanted.
The use of the modal verbs "shall", "should", "may/might" in the clauses introduced
by the conjunctions "that", "so that", "in order that" makes the utterance more formal.
The supply is rationed so that everyone may have a share.
Though adverbial clauses of purpose with the predicate in the negative form are used,
it is preferable to use gerundial or infinitive phrases or constructions.
He often changes his address so that the enemies won't find him.
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 He dyed his beard to avoid being recognized.
When the principal clause denotes an action which is a precaution against possible
future events denoted in the subordinate clause, conjunctions in case, lest are used. In the
subordinate clause introduced by the conjunction in case the Present Indefinite, the Past
Indefinite, or the analytical form of the Subjunctive Mood with the auxiliary should +
Indefinite Infinitive may be used. In the subordinate clause introduced by the
conjunction lest the form of the Subjunctive Mood with the auxiliary should + Indefinite
Infinitive is used irrespective of the tense form of the predicate in the principal clause.
I’ll leave out some cold meat in case you are hungry when you come in.
He took a torch in case it got dark before he returned. She doesn't let him leave the
train lest he should get lost.
Adverbial Clauses of Condition
Adverbial clauses of condition state the condition which is necessary for the
realization of the action expressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the
conjunctions if, unless (если не), suppose, in case (в случае если), on condition that,
provided (при условии что), etc.
If he is not here by the end of the week, I shall go after him (Austen)
You won’t master the language unless you work hard.
Adverbial clauses of condition can be joined to the principal clause asyndetically. In
this case we find inversion in the subordinate clause.
...should Frank marry to-morrow, I shall have no ground for blaming him (Trollope)
Adverbial Clauses of Concession
An adverbial clause of concession denotes the presence of some obstacle which
nevertheless does not hinder the action expressed in the principal clause.
Adverbial clauses of concession are introduced by the following conjunctions:
though, although, as, no matter how, however, whoever, whatever, whichever. In
official style they may also be introduced by the conjunctions notwithstanding that, in
spite of the fact that.
I enjoyed that day, though we travelled slowly, though it was cold, though it
rained(Ch. Bronte)
If the subordinate clause of concession expresses a pure supposition, the forms of the
Subjunctive Mood with the modal verb may/might are used in it.
However rich one may be there is always something one wants.
When the subordinate clause of concession is introduced by even if the modal verb
should may be used to show that the action expressed by the infinitive of the notional
verb is unlikely to happen.
Even if he should find out he won't do anything about it.
Adverbial Clauses of Manner
Adverbial clauses of manner characterize the action or some other aspect of the
situation denoted in the principal clause. They may refer to a verb, a verbal, an
adjective or an adverb in the principal clause. Adverbial clauses of manner are
introduced by the conjunction as.
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 He could do it as no one else could have done.
In their meaning adverbial clauses of manner are very close to the adverbial clauses
of comparison.
Adverbial Clauses of Comparison
Adverbial clauses of comparison denote an action or a state with which the action,
the state or the manner of the action of the principal clause are compared.
They are introduced by the conjunctions: than, as, as … as, not so ... as, as if, as
though.
I wish I could make you as happy as you make me.
But at last, raising herself from the sofa with difficulty, as though she had had an
illness and were still weak, she found her feet.
Adverbial Clauses of Result
Adverbial clauses of result denote the result of the action, or state expressed in the
principal clause.
They are introduced by the conjunctions so that or that. In the second case the adverb
so or the demonstrative pronoun such is used in the principal clause.
It was so hot that nobody wanted to do anything.
It was such a hot day that nobody wanted to do anything.
THE COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE
It is a sentence which consists of two or more coordinate clauses one of which at least
includes one or several subordinate clauses,
There was a song in every heart; and if the heart was young the music issued at the
lips.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH HOMOGENEOUS SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
It is a sentence which consists of a principal clause and two or more subordinate
clauses.
The details were vague, for neither my uncle nor my aunt knew anything of
business matters, nor had I the knowledge to make what they told me comprehended.
FORMAL INDICATORS OF SUBORDINATION
CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTORS
TYPES OF CONNECTIVES
SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS CONJUNCTIVE RELATIVE
CLAUSES PRON ADV PRON ADV
Who, what, Where,
which, when,
SUBJECT
CLAUSE
That, if, whether whoever, how, why,
whatever wherever
whenever

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 That, if, whether, Who, Where,
PREDICATIVE as if which, when,
CLAUSES what how,
why
Who, what,
which, Where,
OBJECT That, if, whether whoever, when,
CLAUSES
whatever, how,
whichever why
Who, Where
ATTRIBUTIVE That, whether whose, when,
CLAUSES which, how,
that why
When, while, as,
whenever, till,
ADVERBIAL
until, as soon as,
CLAUSES OF
TIME as long as, since,
after, before, now
that
Where, wherever
OF PLACE
As, because, for,
OF CAUSE for fear (that), for
the reason (that)
That, in order that,
OF PURPOSE
so that, lest
If, unless, in case,
suppose, on
OF CONDITION
condition that,
provided that
Though, although, Whoever,
No matter
OF not-withstanding whatever,
CONCESSION
how,
that, in spite of the whichever
however
fact that
OF RESULT So that
OF MANNER As
Than, as, as…as,
OF
COMPARISON
not so …as, as if,
as though
PATTERNS OF GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS

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 In a compound sentence syntactic units combined by means of coordination are
regarded as independent: there is no hierarchy in the syntactic relationship. It is based on
the symmetric relationship of coordination. For example:
 (1) All the rooms were brightly lighted, (2) all the tiny nooks were beautifully
decorated, (3) but there seemed to be complete silence in the house.
In this sentence the first two clauses are joined asyndetically and the third is
introduced by means of the coordinating conjunction but. It can be graphically
represented in the following way:
1 2 3

1-2; asyndetic coordination

2-3: syndetic coordination
A complex sentence is based on a hierarchical syntactic structure and has
asymmetrical relationship of subordination. For example:
 (1) I want you to sit here beside me and listen to (2) what I am going to say.
In this sentence the first clause (1) is an independent main clause and the second (2)
object clause is grammatically dependent upon it. It can be graphically represented in the
following way:
1

What 2

1-main clause
2-subordinate clause
ARRANGEMENT OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES
If a sentence has two or more dependent clauses, they can be arranged in various ways.
Dependent clauses can be homogeneous. For example:
 (1) A classic is something (2) that everybody wants to have read (3) and nobody
wants to read.
This sentence can be graphically represented in the following way:
1

2 3

Secondly, a dependent clause may be subordinated directly to the main clause, thus
becoming a clause of first degree of subordination, or another dependent clause, in which
case it becomes a clause of third degree of subordination. For example:
 I sometimes wonder (2) how you behave (3) when you are alone.

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 (1) – main clause
(2) - object subordinate clause (1st degree of subordination)
(3) - adverbial clause of time (2nd degree of subordination)

Pattern of syntactic analysis

 (1) Of course, he read the reviews, (2) but he read summarily, without paying much
attention, (3) till he came to the remarks (4) the critics made about him.
This is a compound-complex sentence. The independent clauses are: (1) “Of course,
he read the reviews”… and (2) …"but he read summarily, without paying much attention
". They are linked by means of adversative coordination expressed by the conjunction
but. The second independent clause has two subordinate clauses – (3) “…till he came to
the remarks” (an adverbial clause of time, of the first degree of subordination, joined by
means of the conjunction till) and (4) “…the critics made about him” (an attributive
relative limiting clause of the second degree of subordination, joined asyndetically).
Study the graphical representation of this sentence structure:

1 2

1 & 2 – independent clauses connected by adversative conjunction but

3 – adverbial clause of time (1st degree of subordination)
4 – attributive relative limiting clause (2nd degree of subordination)
 (1) The travelers were so tired (2) and the day was so gloomy (3) that there was no
point in moving any further.
1 2

 (1) No one can tell me, (2) nobody knows, (3) where the wind comes from, (4) where
the wind goes.

1 2

3 4

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1& 2 – independent clauses (asyndetic connection)
3&4 – homogeneous object clauses (asyndetic connection)

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 PUNCTUATION
Eight Basic Rules to Use a Comma
The tendency now in English is to use fewer commas than in the past. There is no one
complete set of rules on which everyone agrees. There are four main ways to use a
comma, as well as four other less important ways. If you memorize eight basic uses of
the comma, you will be more confident and correct in your punctuation.
1. Use a comma to separate items in a series (to list more than two items). These
items can be words, phrases, or clauses:
I was angry, fretful, and impatient.
NOTE:
A. A group of adjectives may not be regarded as a series if some of the words "go
together":
I put on my old, dark blue coat.
I looked for my ring under the table, between the sofa cushions, and behind the TV-set.
Last year he graduated from college, went into business, and he won the lottery.
B. The comma before and is optional, but most writers use it.
2. Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction to link two independent clauses
(as a linker). The coordinating conjunctions are and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so.
The house was on fire, but I decided not to leave my shelter.
The speaker rose to his feet, and the room became quiet.
3. Use a comma after introductory words, expressions, phrases, or clauses.
Yes, I agree with you on this issue.
In the long run, I made up my mind to quit the job.
If you drop a line, your parents will be pleased.
NOTE:
A. Introductory words (such as yes, oh, no, well)
Oh, I never thought he would win.
B. Introductory expressions (such as a matter of fact, finally, secondly,
consequently)
As a matter of fact, I'm not involved in this project.
C. Introductory phrases:
In the beginning of the year, he thought he would never cope with this task.
Walking on tiptoe, I made my way for the exit.
To be quite honest, I don't believe in his power to change anything.
D. Introductory dependent clause beginning with a subordination conjunction:
After the game was over, we all went for a drink.
4. Use a comma as an inserter. Put a comma on both sides of the inserted material
if the word or group of words interrupts the main idea.
My grades, believe it or not, were the highest in the class.
Ann, the girl with the braids, has a wicked sense of humour.
NOTE:
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 If the inserted clause is not essential to the main idea of the sentence, use commas
around it (relative non-defining clause).
If it is essential to the main idea, do not use commas (relative defining clause).
My sister, who wears braids, has a wicked sense of humour.
The girl who wears braids is my sister.
5. Use commas with quotations:
My mother told me," Money does not grow on trees."
"Let them," she said, "be on their own."
6. Use commas with dates, addresses, and direct address.
September 11, 2001, is the gravest day in the history of America.
We lived at 135 Hillcrest Road, Lake Avenue, Pennsylvania, before we moved to
Florida.
I thought, James, that I saw your picture in the newspaper.
7. Use commas with numbers (of one thousand or larger):
The price of equipment was $ 1,238.
8. Use commas where it is necessary to prevent misunderstanding:
Before eating, the cat prowled through the barn.
Whoever it is, is abound to be punished.
How to Use Other Marks of Punctuation
If you want to join two simple sentences that are related in their ideas and do not use
a coordinating conjunction, you can combine them with a semicolon.
Three Uses of the Semicolon
1. To join two independent clauses whose ideas and sentence structure are
related:
He decided to consult the map; she decided to ask the next pedestrian she saw.
2. To combine two sentences using an adverbial conjunction (conjunctive
adverb).
Here is the generally accepted rule:
Put a comma after a conjunctive adverb if it is more than one
syllable long.
I saw her rudeness to her parents; then I lost respect for her.
He decided to consult the map; however, she decided to ask the next pedestrian she
saw.
Some Common Conjunctive Adverbs:
Also furthermore nevertheless
Anyway however on the other hand
as a result in addition undoubtedly
besides in fact therefore
certainly incidentally similarly
consequently meanwhile indeed
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 finally otherwise then
3. To separate items in a series when the items themselves contain commas:
I had lunch with Linda, my best friend; Mrs. Smith, my English teacher; and Jan, my
sister-in-law.
Four Uses for the Colon
1. After a complete sentence when the material that follows is a list, an
illustration, or an explanation:
A. a list:
Please order the following items: five dozens pencils, twenty rulers, and five rolls of
tape.
Notice that in the sentence below, no colon is used because the sentence before the
list is not complete.
The courses I am taking this semester are Freshman Composition, Introduction to
Psychology, Art, and American Literature.
B. an explanation or illustration:
The room was in a mess: dirty clothes were piled on the chairs, wet towels were
thrown on the floor, and an empty pizza box was tossed in the wastepaper basket.
(In this sentence, all the words after the colon explain what the mess was like.)
2. For the salutation of a business letter:
To whom it may concern:
Dear Madam President:
3. In telling time:
We will eat at 5:15.
4. Between the title and subtitle of a book:
Plain English Please: A Rhetoric

The Exclamation Mark:

The exclamation mark is used at the end of sentences that express strong emotion:
Appropriate: You've won the lottery!
Inappropriate: We had a great time! (Great already implies excitement.)
Be careful not to overuse the exclamation mark. If your choice of words is descriptive,
you should not have to rely on the exclamation mark for emphasis. Use it sparingly, for
it is easy to rely on exclamation instead of using better vocabulary.
The Dash and Parentheses
Dash and parentheses can be used to show an interruption of the main idea. The
particular form you choose depends on the degree of the interruption.
Use the dash for a less formal and more emphatic interruption of the main idea.
I picked up the crystal bowl carefully, cradled it in my arms, walked softy--and tripped,
sending the bowl flying.
Use two dashes to set off dramatic words that interrupt a sentence.
She arrived--I know it for a fact--in a pink Cadillac.
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 Use parentheses to insert extra information and afterthoughts. Such information
is not emphasized.
Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) composed the "Preludes and Fugues".
Her name (which I have just remembered) was Celestine.
NOTE: Commas in pairs, dashes in pairs, and parentheses are all used as inserters.
They set off material that interrupts the flow of the sentence. The least dramatic and
smoothest way to insert material is to use commas.
Four Uses for Quotation Marks
1. For a Direct Quotation:
"Please," I begged, "don't go away."
My mother told me, "There are plenty of fish in the sea."
"I'm never going there again," said Irene.
If the quotation is not written as one unit, the punctuation changes:
"Stay away from that guy," my best friend warned me. "He will break your heart."
2. For material copied word for word from a source:
According to Science magazine, "In an academic achievement test given to 600 sixth
graders in eight countries, U.S kids scored last in mathematics, sixth in science, and
fourth in geography."
3. For titles of shorter works, such as short stories, an essay, a newspaper or
magazine article, a poem or a song, chapters of books:
"A Modest proposal," an essay by Jonathan Swift, is a masterpiece of satire.
If you are writing the title of a longer book, movie, magazine, play, television show,
underline the title or put in italics (in print):
Many famous short stories have first appeared in the New Yorker.
Many famous short stories have first appeared in the New Yorker.( in handwriting)
4. For words used in a special way:
When you said "never", did you mean it?
If you are using a quotation within a quotation, use single quotation marks:
My brother complained, "Every time we get in trouble, Mom has to say 'I told you so.' "
Ten Basic Rules for Capitalization
1. Capitalize the first word of every sentence.
Yesterday we saw our first soccer game.
2. Capitalize the first word of a direct quotation.
The teacher said, "You have been chosen for the part."
3. Capitalize the names of persons and the titles of persons.
Proper names:
George Hendrickson
Professional titles when they are used with proper names;
I was a patient of Dr. Wilson. But: I was a patient of that doctor.
Term for a relative when it is used in the place of the proper name.
I told Grandfather I would meet him later.
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 But: terms for relatives are not capitalized if a pronoun, article, or adjective is
used with the name.
I told my grandfather I would meet him later.
4. Capitalize the names of specific things and places.
Specific buildings:
I went to the Jamestown Post office. But: I went to the post office.
Specific streets, states, countries:
She lives on Park Avenue. But: She lives in the same street as my Mum and Dad.
Specific institutions:
The loan is from the First National Bank.
5. Capitalize days of the week, months of the year, and holidays. Do not capitalize
the names of seasons.
The last Thursday in November is the Thanksgiving Day.
But: I cannot wait until spring.
6. Capitalize the names of all the languages, nationalities, races, religions,
sacred terms.
My friend, who is Ethiopian, speaks very little English.
7. Capitalize the first word and every important word in a title. Do not capitalize
articles, prepositions, or short connecting words in the title.
For Whom the Bell Tolls is a famous novel by Ernst Hemingway.
8. Capitalize historical events, periods, and documents.
The American Revolution, the Bill of Rights, the Colonial period
9. Capitalize the north, south east, and west when they are used as places rather
than directions.
He comes from the Midwest.
But: The farm is about twenty miles west of the city.
10. Capitalize brand names.
Lipton's Noodle Soup
But: noodle soup
A REVIEW OF THE METHODS FOR COMBINING SENTENCES AND CLAUSES
Coordination
Method I: Using a Comma with a Coordinating Conjunction
He cooked the dinner, and she washed the dishes.
Method II: Using a Semicolon between two simple sentences
Rain can be dangerous; it makes the roads slippery.
Method III: Using a semicolon and an adverbial conjunction:
My parents checked my homework every night; thus I did well at school.
She gave me good advice; moreover, she was always ready to help.
(Put a comma after the conjunctive adverb if the conjunctive adverb is more than one
syllable long.)
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 Subordination
Method IV: Using a dependent Clause to Begin a Complex Sentence:
Because my car had a flat tire, I was late for work.
Method V: Using a Dependent Clause to End a Complex sentence:
I was late for work because my car had a flat tire.

Punctuating Relative Clauses (defining and non-defining)

Method VI: Relative Clauses that are essential to the meaning of the sentence do
not require commas (Defining Relative Clause):
The poem that my classmate read in class was very powerful.
Method VII: Relative Clauses that are not essential to the meaning of the
sentence require commas (Non-Defining Relative Clause)
Mother's fruit salad, which consisted of apples, grapes, and pears, was delicious.

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