Its

Not Just About How Much Electricity You Produce.

Learn to Read an Electric Bill
PVWatts + the Golden Ratio of Solar Performance
Identify Your Net-Metering Policy
How Much Are Solar Arrays Worth?
Fitting the Array on the Roof
Google Earth + Satellite Imagery
Shade Analysis
Developing a Rooftop Sketch
Solar Module Selection
Reading a Module Specification Sheet
Array Layout
Solar Inverters
Point of Interconnection
Racking Design
Interconnection Application
Budget and Payback
Revisiting the Design with CIGS + DC Optimizers
Design Conclusions
Design Resources
Its not just about how much electricity you produce.

Solar power is expensive. The average home in the United States uses 11 megawatt hours of
electricity per year, roughly equivalent to an 8kW solar array. In 2015, residential rooftop
installations averaged $3.50/W (over twice as expensive as utility-scale fixed arrays).
At this price, the average solar array needed to fully offset the energy of a home in the USA
would cost almost $30k and have a 16 year payback. But overseas in Germany, a global leader
in the solar industry, a solar array only needs to be 4kW to offset the typical electric bill. Solar
arrays are less productive in German vs the United States, but homes in German use less
electricity. The price of German electricity is over twice that of most homes in the USA
market. Additionally, residential solar installation prices in Germany is significantly lower, at
$2.40/W in 2013. The solar array required to offset 100% of a German home costs around
$10,000 and has a seven-year payback.
Solar economics are not just about how much energy is produced, but also how much that
production is worth. Based on what we know about international markets, cost reductions can
be achieved in residential solar in the United States. Education is necessary to improve system
payback.

A typical residential solar panel is roughly 5 1/3rd ft. tall and 3 1/3rd ft. wide. It weighs about
40 pounds, so it is about as large and heavy as what one able-bodied worker can pick up and
carry around. This example is what is called a 60 cell panel. You can count the cells, 6 cells
across by 10 cells long. In the utility-scale sector, a 72 cell panel would be 6 cells across by
12 cell long. Those extra two rows of cells result in a module 6 tall and roughly 50 pounds a
bit hazardous for a slanted rooftop.
Much like the differences between a Honda and a Lamborghini, there are value and top
shelf solar panels. Solar pricing is commonly measured as per watt and higher quality
modules often have a higher per watt pricing. Module efficiencies can range between
15%-21%, which means that 3x5 solar panel can range between 250-350 Watts. To
reduce project cost, its common to select a module on the low end of efficiency. However,
a more efficient module can squeeze more watts onto the same module frame. In markets
with high real estate costs or small roof space, a top shelf module may also make the
most economic sense. Likewise, its important to confirm cell count when pricing solar
modules. A 330W module might be either a 60 cell or larger 72 cell module. While I dont
recommend 72 cell modules for slanted roofs, they can often improve the economics of
ground mount systems.

A watt is a measurement of power. In traditional solar design, the first step would be to
make a list of every single electrical device you are attempting to power. My floor lamp
has 20W decorative incandescent bulb and a separate 13W CFL bulb. However, the 13W
CFL produces more light than the 20W incandescent because the CFL produces less heat.

My ceiling fan has a 100W incandescent bulb, producing a light that brightens the entire living
room. The fan itself requires 75W to spin the blades. I had two 60W incandescent bulbs in my
bathroom, but I replaced them with 8.5W LEDs. Even if I only use the lightbulb for one hour
per day, I should get a payback in under three years. Non-dimmable LED bulbs are
inexpensive nowadays.


Cost of Electricity Comparison

8.5W x 1 hr x 365 days x $0.11/kwh = $0.34/yr
60W x 1 hr x 365 days x $0.11/kwh = $2.41/yr
Cost Savings = >$2/year for moderate use

I pulled my refridgerator away from the wall, and grabbed its power rating off the manual
taped to the back. Standard AC circuits within a home are often refered to as 120V outlets.
My refridgerator is a 115-volt device, designed to accommodate a 5V voltage drop from
the outlet to my main electrical service panel. When on, it pulls 6.5 amps of current. A volt
times an amp is a watt. 115V x 6.5A = 750W.



Heres a summary of what Ive counted so far:

Would 1000W of solar panels actually power this load? Probably not. Temperature, sun
angle, and other environmental factors can reduce module performance. Panels are rated
under a standard test condition set that is not often met in the field. But its not just
about how large the power requirements are. You also have to consider energy.

Energy = Power x Time

The refridgerator may require a lot of power, but is it actually running 100% of the
time? Do you leave your ceiling fan on 24/7? Having enough power will make sure your
devices come on, but most residential bills are based on energy. Energy is also important
in off-grid design. Will your solar array produce enough power to refill your battery bank?
How many kilowatt hours are your devices burning?

A common starting point is to take your list of devices and estimate hours useage:


If I had four 250W solar panels, and they were on under full sun for 8 hours, Id
generate 8000 watt hours, enough energy to equal the energy usage for these products. But
inefficiencies including heat loss and off-angle incidence will reduce this process further.
But assuming a perfectly efficient process, how much would it cost in solar photovoltaics
to power this process?

1000W of Solar x $3.50/W (USA) = _________________
1000W of Solar x $2.40/W (Germany) = _________________

Conclusions:
1 typical 250W solar panel can power 1 ceiling fan and a handful of lightbulbs
Its not just about power, its also about energy (power x time)
To grow the USA solar industry, we need to bring USA installation prices down!

Note:

Energy efficiency is not the same as power generation. It may be obvious that
switching from incandescent to LED light bulbs results in a better payback than
installation a solar power generator to a home. But the LED bulb will still require
energy to run, and lighting is only a portion of the entire homes energy use. It may
also be easier to install one solar array than estimate and implement dozens of energy
efficiency measures to reduce a homes electric bill. Solar is often a costlier investment
with a lower payback than cherry-picked efficiency improvements, but it also produces
a more dramatic impact on the electric bill than those efficiency-improvements.

Learn to Read an Electric Bill
Here is a copy of my most recent electric bill of $189.90:

I used 1682 kilowatt hours of electricity over this billing cycle, resulting in a charge
of $175.40. I was also charged a $14.50 fixed fee. If I wanted to calculate the generation
of my solar array, Id have to be careful not to include this fixed fee. Assuming I get full
retail value for my electric generation, my solar array would generate at $0.10/kwh.

1682 kwh / $175.40 ~= 9.6 cents per kwh


However, not all electric bills are so straight forward. A small commercial company
might have an electric bill that looks like this:

In the above case, the cost of small commercial electricity is higher than residential
electricity. But most commercial rate payers are forced onto demand based billing
structures which look like this:

 This is where I might get into trouble with my solar array. On residential and small
commercial billing structutres, the price of electricity hovers around 10 cents per kwh. But
on demand-based billing structures, the cost of energy has fallen to 6 cents per kwh, plus a
demand charge.
The Demand charge is typically based on the maximum 15 minutes of sustained
demand over the billing cycle. Can solar reduce these demand charges? I installed a
monitor to track an offices electric useage throughout the day.

Technically, peak demand occurred in the early afternoon the hottest time of day
when a solar array would be at nearly full power. However, other mini peaks occurred
at the beginning and end of the day (when employees are entering and exiting the
building, wrecking havoc on HVAC control circuits).

Solar, absent any form of storage or energy controls, will not significantly impact
building demand charges, despite producing energy at peak times. So even if a
commercial client were averaging 10 cents per kilowatt hour for their electric bill, the
generation rate of the array would be closer to 6 cents per kwh. This explains why so
many large commercial rooftops are devoid of solar power. These customers solar
projects are stymied by utility billing policy. To be compensated for their peak energy
production, the commercial project may need to wait until cost-effective storage comes to
market.

On my electric bill, theres also a nice graphic on my bill where I can use to determine
my annual electricity usage:



I can this graph to estimate my monthly kilowatt hours useage, but some utilities
are providing this data in greater detail through their online account portals. Sometimes,
you can find very detailed data, such as the homes 15 minute interval data of their
instantaneous power draw from the grid.

If I didnt make any changes to my electric usage, Id need a solar array to generate
~10,000 kwh per year to offset 100% of my electric use. The next step is to see how large
of an array that might be.
PVWatts + the Golden Ratio of Solar Performance
PVWatts is a great tool for basic solar performance estimation. More professional solar
modeling software exists, but PVWatts is free and good enough for introductory rooftop
solar array design.

In most of the United States, the tilt angle and orientation of a solar array does not deviate
by more than 25% across a given rooftop surface, regardless if your orient the modules
north, south, east, or west. Compared to a south-facing rooftop surface, deviations to
southeast or southwest result in deviations of less than 5%. Its useful to determine a
conservative estimate for the annual energy production of a south-facing solar array for
developing rough estimates of solar production in preliminary planning. The industry
refers to this ratio as the watt per kilowatt hour peak ratio. My term is the Golden
Ratio of solar performance a scalar you can use to develop quick estimates of solar
production for your area. Lets use PVWatts to better understand how much annual energy
one watt of rooftop solar will produce in your area.

Activity: Use PVWatts to find the Golden Ratio of rooftop solar in your area:
1 DC kW ~= __________ kwh/yr
1 DC Watt ~= _________ kwh/yr

1. Start by visiting www.Pvwatts.nrel.gov and entering in your zip code. In Starkville,

Mississippi, Ill use 39759.

2. PVWatts will search for local weather stations for you to choose from. If you live in an
area with significant geographic diversity (mountains, large bodies of water, active
volcanoes), you may want to poke around and select a weather station that is a close match
to your jobsite. Also, each weather monitoring station is different (and prone to error). You
may want to run a few PVWatts simulations on multiple local weather stations, remove
any outliers, and average the outputs to result in a conservative energy estimate in your
area. My solar data defaulted to Meridian, MS which is 80 miles away from my location. I
re-selected data gathered from a local Air Force base, to bring the data closer to home.

The atmosphere is thinner at the top of a mountain compared to the valley below. This
impacts solar performance. Thick air will diffuse the energy we get from the sun, causing
less of it to hit your solar array at direct angles. Lake effect snowfall, coastal weather
patterns, El Nio, or even smoke from wildfires could significantly change your array
performance. PVWatts takes these factors, and additional degradation factors, into
consideration when developing its output. It reflects array output on a typical year, but that
typical year is as likely to change as the annual differences in weather.

3. The next step is to input your site-specific information.

Change the array size to 1kW. The default value is 4kW, but I like modeling at 1kW levels
for development of my self-titled Golden Ratio figure.
Change the array type to roof mount. PVWatts will account for less air flow under the
modules, and higher rooftop temperatures. Open Rack setting would be more
appropriate for ground mounts.
Leave everything else the same for the time being. A 20-degree tilt is roughly equivalent
to the standard 4:12 roof pitch.
PVWatts has advanced parameters, which allow you to explore inverter efficiency and
clipping losses, plus defaults the following losses. The default loss values are
conservative. The array may not be shaded, module-level electronics might eliminate
mismatch. Systems are not typically offline for 3% of the year.


When comparing against online monitoring data, Ive seen PVWatts system loss
factors come in at as low as 5% effectively. This number will vary by project. Only a solar
designer will know all the to calibrate the energy estimate into the most correct guess.
Even then, it will only be a guess, and typically, it pays to be conservative. Annual
differences in solar performance can be as great as 10%, with snowfall playing a large part
in that number. If youre going to be conservative with your energy estimates, PVWatts is
all the computing power you need. A default loss factor of 14% is conservative, and its
been my experience that its okay to adjust the loss factor to fit the specifications your
system design.

4. PVWatts will provide you with an energy estimate for your array, based on local
weather data including temperature, rainfall, cloud coverage, etc.

Due South
Starkville MS will produce roughly 1,370kwh per year. This will obviously change
based on annual changes in weather patterns, shade conditions, array orientation, array tilt,
and system components.

Southwest
Moving the array to a southwest orientation (225-degree orientation), barely reducing
the energy production.


Due West
I went back and changed the orientation to due west (270 degrees orientation). This
reduced my array performance by ~10%.

Heres where it gets interesting. Adjusting a rooftop solar array at a 20-degree tilt from
due south to due west only reduces array performance by around 10%. What about if the
solar array were to face north?

Due North
Due-north facing arrays produce only 25% less energy than due-south facing arrays,
when tilted 20 degrees. This difference shrinks the closer the tilt angle gets to zero.

It might be that a west-facing, or even north-facing, solar array is as valuable as the
more productive south-facing array. Winter arrays may have very little production,
because of the snow on top of them. Daylight electricity might be more valuable in the
summertime, when the sun is more up than south. The utility might not compensate
the homeowner for excess electricity, incentivizing the owner to maximize the system
design around summertime, rather than annual, electricity use. Or, solar prices might
simply get so cheap that north facing roof surfaces become an option. There are cost-
savings in economies of scale.

North-facing roof surfaces may be a bit extreme at this point in the industry, but its
perfectly reasonable to install a solar array on a west-facing roof surface. Check with your
utility to see if they have a time-of-day metering rate available, which rewards afternoon
and evening solar production, and helps lower your electric rate at night. Designing arrays
based around electric rate structure might be a competitive design advantage that not all
solar installers are considering.

5. Rounding off the numbers, I can see that 1kW of rooftop solar in North Mississippi will
conservatively produce 1,300 per year for a wide variety of roof orientations. Dividing by
1000, I get the Golden Ratio of rooftop solar for my region:

My Regions Golden Ratio of Solar
1W = 1.3 kwh/yr

Determine this ratio for your local area, and memorize it. Now you can perform off-
the-cuff solar production estimates! For instance, if a potential customer asks me how
many kwh a solar array produces in North Mississippi, I can respond with A 10 kW array
produces around 13,000 kwh. Or, if another customer says their home uses 15,000 kwh a
year, I can tell them they need around a 11.5kW solar array. If my turnkey installation rate
is $2.50/W, Id tell them to budget around $30,000.

In the previous section, we determined I needed about 10,000 kwh of array
production to offset my annual electricity use. Using my golden ratio, I know an 8kW
array would offset my electric use.
8kW x 1.3 kwh/yr = ~10,400 kwh/yr

Winter time production is often 1/3rd of summertime production, even with brooming
the snow off the solar array after each snowstorm. PVWatts will estimate for overcast
days, but will also assume you are maintaining your array free and clear of snowfall. In
areas of heavy snowfall, one way to mitigate against winter is to flatten your array,
skewing your production towards summer months. Certainly, on a tilted roof, the most
common practice is to adhere to the roof plane. However, on a flat room, it is common to
stay will a shallow tilt of 5-10 degrees, even in the Northern USA. Structural advantages
are also gained through shallow tilt angles.

Once you finish your PVWatts estimate, you get monthly production in addition to an
annual estimate. But tucked away into the bottom of the page is perhaps the most useful
design feature of PVWatts the hourly production data.

This hourly data, exportable to a spreadsheet, contains the raw weather station data
which is converted into your rooftop production estimate. Its useful for a variety of
reasons. For off-grid design, you can estimate how many overcast days you will
encounter in winter, such that your battery bank is not undersized. Hourly production
estimates will help you model time-of-use metering, determine your solar window for
summer and winter shade analysis, and right-sizing of inverter selection. Temperature
correction and insolation data can assist with module performance analytics.
Identify Your Net-Metering Policy
The Federal Public Utility Regulatory Policy Act of 1978 entitled 80MW micro-
generators to wholesale value for their exported electricity. Utilities could not obstruct grid
expansion of clean power generators, provided these generators did not significantly
impact electric rates. Net-metering applies to a smaller class of generators, typically under
2MW or smaller, whom are looking to generate up to 100% of their onsite energy use.
These generators, whom produce 100% clean power, are compensated for their surplus
electricity at near retail rates, with any excess credit given to the utility at wholesale
pricing at the end of the term.

Net-metering has been mandated by Federal energy policy since 2005, but is left to
each State to manage their own policies. Kansas City, KS has a different net-metering
policy than Kansas City, MO this impacts system design within those different
municipalities. States with weak net-metering policies strangle the solar industry in those
areas. But with each drop in solar installation prices, public support for clean electricity
increases. Policies which restrict solar industry growth may prove untenable. In the
meantime, solar policy remains volatile.

Not all public utility commissions are antagonistic toward solar. A handful of states
have developed aggressive virtual net-metering policies where net-metered credits can
be applied against off-site electric accounts. This allows for commercial rooftop and
community solar development, a useful tool in decongesting the electric grid of major
coastal cities. By in large, the Federal government has been reluctant to set state electricity
prices. Until such time, solar designers must consider their state and utility net-metering
policies before approaching any grid-connected project.

Net-metering policies must be evaluated in the following way:
Annual reconciliation can occur at the beginning of summer, negating any surplus credits
accumulated during the spring.
Reconciliation can occur monthly, negating credit value at the end of the month
System size can be restricted based on arbitrary numbers determined by the state
Special grid-access fees can be levied on solar owners
Customers can be pushed onto demand-based billing structures which reduce kwh
credits
The utility can refuse new applicants based on total installed capacity at the state-level

In the print edition of this book, we have a table with various state net-metering policies.
However, the table size does not format well as an e-book. Please visit www.dsireusa.org
to check your states net-metering policy.

Apply Net-Metering Policy to Your Design
At the end of a reconciliation period, excess energy credits are typically given to the
utility at little compensation. Whatever the reconciliation period is, significant excess
generation is not cost-effective. Annual reconciliations allow the owner to accumulate
credits during spring and fall months when solar production is high and electricity usage is
relatively low. These credits are then claimed in summer or winter months. But if the
reconciliation occurs at the end of spring, then excess credits generated at that time are
cashed out at avoided cost rates, rather than being credited during summer. Net-
metering policies which roll over credits indefinitely are best for the solar array owner.

Likewise, if the reconciliation period occurs on a month-to-month basis, it may be
uneconomic to design an array to produce 100% of the customers annual consumption. It
may be better to design the array to produce no more than the customers total bill in
March or April. This might only equal 70% of owners annual consumption.

It gets worse if youre in a state without a net-metering policy, or one which has
cancelled its net-metering policy. In these states, array owners may only receive
compensation per PURPA 1978 just a few cents per kwh. Solar customers are subject to
the whim of the utility to receive net-metering policies in these states. Even if net-metered
investments are offered today, long term investments are made at your peril.

If you are in a market with a discouraging net-metering policy, check with your local
utility. They may have a program for you. Market constraints do create niche market
opportunity. At the residential level, you might specialize in off-grid design. Energy-
efficient building design or a ground mount array can get you the energy you need. In
some cases, grid connection fees may justify the cost of an otherwise expensive battery
bank. For the commercial market, you might specialize in battery-based storage design
with smaller solar arrays, for demand reduction or load-leveling. Youll also have less
competition in these markets, giving you an easier path to market entry.

Heres a monthly print out of my electric usage, combined with different array
scenarios:



If I had an unlimited net-metering policy, the 8kW south-facing solar array would likely
be the most economic option for the customer. However, under a monthly net-metering
policy, my surplus credits would be cashed out at the net excess generation rate (NEG)
at end of the month about 1/3rd of the retail value of those kilowatt hours due to PURPA.
Even if I had an annual net-metering policy, reconciled on March 31st, 12% of my total
annual system production would be cashed-out at the NEG rate also called the avoided
cost rate. This reconciliation process makes it difficult to truly zero out your electric bill,
despite what the utility may claim about solar array owners free loading off the electric
grid. If I had zero net-metering policy, perhaps 80% of my production would be cashed
out at the avoided cost rate.

Solar incentive programs have pushed solar design to maximize total system
production, but more recent trends in incentivizing solar production have not looked
favorably on exported solar electricity. In markets where solar has become a major energy
resource, comprising a substantial market share of the electric grid such as in Hawaii, new
systems may not be allowed to export energy onto the grid without implementing some
sort of utility-managed storage technology. For many reasons, modern solar designers
should consider a comprehensive approach to solar design which considers the price of
exported electricity and how to more closely align solar production with onsite
consumption.

At the end of the day, solar has a maximum cost-benefit when installed at its point-
of-use. Net-metering polices may not be available to new home buyers. Exported
electricity rates might go negative, as they have in certain overcapacity instances in the
Texas wind market. At the very least, we can expect future rate policies to value exported
electricity less than electricity consumed onsite. This does not mean that a system design
must avoid exporting electricity to the grid at all cost. Nor does it necessarily mean
storage and load-shifting technologies will become cost-effective to the point where solar
customers disconnect from the grid entirely. But solar designers should consider all sides
of a building when approaching solar design. Project economies-of-scale, building power
consumption, time-variable energy rate structures, net-metering rates, and potential for
future grid disconnection can all impact which building surfaces are best for the design.

Heres how the net-excess generation rate varies in my community, representing higher
electric use in the summer rather than the winter:

Because of the higher summer rates, the economics of non-south-facing solar arrays
improved. An increase in air conditioning loads means more electricity is consumed onsite
rather than is exported. Shallower tilts, and even north-facing arrays, will skew
production towards the summer. Based on total system production, a south-facing solar
array wins the race. But after economic assessment is applied, you could determine that an
array which covers the entire rooftop may make the most economic sense.

PVWatts provides month-to-month and hourly energy estimates. Ive run simulations
for an 8kW array, which generates 100% of my energy use for the year. But that doesnt
paint the whole economic story. A south-facing array is the most cost-effective
configuration in an unlimited net-metering scenario. However, a west-facing or flat solar
array may be just as cost-effective under a month-to-month structure. The optimal array
might be a 6kW south-facing array, which would only generate 25% less energy.
Likewise, a north-facing 8kW array, which produces 25% less electricity, would only be
15% less valuable than its 8kW south-facing counterpart, because of the time-value of the
generation. This value gap might further close if you have no net-metering policy.

In short, your electric rate structure and net-metering policy will determine if its best
to orient your modules south, west, or even north! Even if you have an annual net-
metering policy, you need to check where the utility draws the cut-off line. Unsurprisingly,
many utilities draw the annual line at the end of March. Only with an unlimited carry-
forward can you receive full retail value for your net-metered array production.

Smart-grid technology can significantly boost the value of solar, by allowing the
consumer access to kwh-based time of day metering rates. What is less clear is how net-
metering policies compensate under time-of-day structures. Is the kwh credit given at its
time-of-day retail rate, or instead at its average retail rate?

How much are solar arrays worth?
Lets imagine you live in a state which does not have unlimited net-metering. Do you
need to install an array that powers 100% of your home? National Electric Code allows
you to install a small array today, and expand with another system in parallel later. If you
can only afford a small array, should you proceed?

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratories has studied real estate data consisting of
nearly 23,000 California homes. The results suggest a fixed cachet value for arrays of any
size the mental value a buyer makes when they see the home being green. The value
of the array decreases with size, hovering around the present value of its lifetime electric
generation. The result is that smaller arrays are worth more than large arrays. While larger
arrays are less expensive to install per watt, a smaller array might be the best route to go if
youre not invested in your property for the long term.

Source: Selling Into The Sun: Price Premium Analysis of a Multi-State Dataset of
Solar Homes. Hoen, Adomatis, Jackson, Graff-Zivin, Thayer, Klise, Wiser. Lawernce
Berkeley National Laboratory. 2015. Survey Size: 18,871 homes + 3951 solar homes.

Note:

If you have less than $5,000 to spend on a home solar array, I suggest you select micro-
inverters. An advantage of micro-inverter systems is that small arrays are easy to install.
You might be able to install a 2kW system on a single 20A branch circuit for that budget.

Fitting the Array on the Roof
Halfmoon Education Inc. is in Eau Claire, WI and uses 40,381 kilowatt hours per year
in electricity. If you assume Halfmoon will receive full retail value for all their production,
use PVWatts to estimate a system size to offset 100% of their use:

40,381 kwh / _______ kwh/Wp/year / 1000W/kW = _____ DC kW

In the United States, 224 billion square feet of residential real estate burn 1.4 trillion
kilowatt hours of electricity per year. In other words, the typical home burns 6 kilowatt
hours of electricity per square foot.
A typical solar module is 3.3 feet wide, by 5.3 feet tall, about 17 square feet. On average
across the United States, a typical 260W solar module produces over 19 kilowatt hours
per square foot per year. This means that if even half the rooftop is available for solar
power, it is possible for one and two story buildings to generate as much power as they
consume by installing rooftop solar.

Halfmoons facility is a single-story building, and is completely unshaded. Its very likely
we can fit the 32kW array required to offset 100% of its electric use onto its rooftop.
Using Google Earth, we can obtain an overhead picture of the rooftop.
It might be that we must use the East-West roof surfaces to fit the entire 31kW array. If we
run a PVWatts calculation, well realize that due east + west surfaces produce about 14%
less energy than due south surfaces. Of course, wed want to use the southern mounting
surface first. But deviating from South to due west or due east isnt as bad as you might
think. After all, the sun is mostly up. On flat commercial roofs, its common to give
modules a very shallow tilt, simply because the performance loss is relatively
insignificant, it optimizes summer production (when electric rates are higher), results in
less empty space, and has structural benefits.
For the time being, lets just see how much solar we can fit on the south facing roof
surface, and see where we end up.
Roof Clearance Requirements
Many solar arrays look like this, riding nice and high along the roof ridge, all the way to
the roof edge:

or even like this array (under construction), covering every inch of roof real estate:
But when your house is burning down, firemen want to do this:

Do you see the problem? The fireman needs three things:

Roof Access
Ability to cut ventilation holes in the roof
A secondary escape route on the same roof plane

While your local jurisdiction may not have solar design standards which accommodate
fireman access, International Building Code 2012 stipulates the following for residential
rooftops:
3 clearance from the side of the roof.
3 clearance from the top of the roof.
There are additional rules, clearance distances, and guidelines for especially long arrays,
for commercial arrays, and flat roof arrays. Here are some illustrative examples from the
Solar Photovoltaic Installation Guide (2008) prepared for the Office of the California State
Fire Marshal:

Hip Roofs have more clearance flexibility as the fireman can escape down the other side
of the hip.
Additionally, there are well established roofing clearance guidance for flat commercial
rooftops, which generally require 6 clearance from roof edges, walkways along structural
beams every 150, and 4 path access to HVAC, other roof-mounted equipment, skylights,
access hatches, etc.

Theres even a specified 10 clearance requirement for brush surrounding ground-mount
arrays!
There are additional fire code considerations, such as the ability to de-energize the array at
each module during a power outage, so the fireman does not electrocute himself if he cuts
through a solar conduit (solar panels during the day are hot even if the inverter is
offline). Then there is the conduit run itself, which could be a trip hazard if external to the
roof (and is aesthetically unsightly). Well cover these topics in more detail later.
There is another reason to stay off the edges of the roof, as illustrated by this Unirac
Design Manual.
Wind speed is greater at the edges of a building, than in the middle of the roof surface. So,
you might want to stay 3 off the bottom edge of the roof as well, even though fire code
may not require it. Itll be easier on your roof structure during that once-a-decade wind
storm. Also, it will be easier to move around on the roof when it comes time to service the
array.
In short, your solar installer may want to fill up every square inch of your rooftop with
solar panels. Dont let them! Only New Jersey has a good excuse for ignoring rooftop
access requirements the State Fire Marshall has directed his firemen not to get up on the
truss of any burning building solar or otherwise! Solar arrays are intended to last. There
are too many reasons not to install to the latest safety codes, even if they arent yet
required by your local jurisdiction.
This picture illustrates the final product, an aesthetically pleasing array with appropriate
fire code clearances around the array edges, and no obstructive external conduit runs.

Google Earth + Satellite Imagery
Google Earth is a great tool to dimension out your rooftop. Not only does it provide
decent overhead site photography (useful for identifying potential shade structures), but it
can even help with building height and tree shading estimates. Lets assume your client
lacks building blueprints. Using the Google Earth ruler tool, one can quickly develop a
rooftop sketch with adequate dimensions (keeping in mind we need those rooftop
clearances, so we cant get right up to the edge of the roof anyway).

This
graphic
shows the
Halfmoon
roof is 23.5
long.
Adjusting for
a 4:12 roof
pitch, we
have almost 25 from the roof ridge to the gutter. Subtracting the 3 from the top and
bottom of the roof line., were left with 19 from ridge to gutter.

If were utilizing solar modules roughly 5.3 tall, then we can fit three rows of
modules in portrait orientation across the roof line. Which is fine, because I find 3 off the
roof line to be not quite as much space as Id prefer. Its much easier to navigate the roof a
4 offset around the edges.

By no means is Google Earth the only overhead imaging software to use. For
example, Bing Maps (by Microsoft) has a completely different image set, which is often
more clear than Google Earth. Its good to check out different image sets because they
may give you a seasonal or time-of-day variance. Likewise, there are commercial
companies online that can give you over
head dimensional analysis of rooftops by you simply sending them the site address.
Sometimes, Google Earth can smudge roof penetrations such as plumbing and attic
vents. Still, many of these obstacles can be identified by simply asking your client to take
a picture of the roof from the road, to cross reference against your Google Earth image.




 Note:

I prefer a portrait orientation, because it allows underlying solar racking systems to

run parallel with the roof ridge and gutter. This gives me the ability to run my racking
attachment points evenly across the truss chord - typically 4 offsets staggered every 2
between top and bottom rails. This arrangement is not possible when the attachments run
up the roof, rather than across the roof. Some installers who mount in landscape will still
run the rails parallel to the ridge and gutter. This increases racking budgets by ~30%, but
is likely cheaper than sistering rafters together underneath the roof deck.

Often, racking manufacturers will provide aluminum solar rails robust enough to support
6 spacing between positive roof attachments. However, every so often, Ill encounter a
project where the structural engineer specifies a 2 spacing between attachment feet. The
best practice is to get every project reviewed by a structural engineer.

Shade Analysis
Shade analysis has had some major changes in the solar industry. It used to be that
extensive onsite analysis was a prerequisite for solar design. A sun path and reflective
dome were used to visually determine how surrounding objects cast their shadows,
depending upon the month and time-of-day. The Solar Pathfinder is one such example.

But partial shading issues can now be overcome through module-level electronics
such as AC micro-inverters or DC voltage regulators. These devices, commonly installed
behind each solar panel, allow each module on the roof to operate independently of each
other. While such devices add cost, they also meet increasingly demanding NEC
requirements, such as the rapid shutdown and de-energization of all array conductor cables
in the event of a power outage.

Without module-level electronics, you must avoid shade at all cost. Solar panels are
traditionally wired in series, with each module plugging into its neighbor positive-to-
negative. This wiring is like Christmas tree lights, where if one light burns out, the rest of
the string goes down with it. A single shaded solar module on a rooftop can impact the
production of its entire DC string circuit.



Shadows cast from telephone poles, distant trees in the morning and evening,
chimneys, roof-mounted electrical equipment, and neighboring buildings can all impact
system design. But the impact of these objects is severely reduced with the use of module-
level electronics. In that sense, module-level electronics lessen the importance of a
thorough on-site shade analysis.

There are also problems with on-site shade analysis. Even the most advanced on-site
analysis fails to account for tree growth. An unshaded system today might be a shaded
system tomorrow. What might the shade look like in the years to come? Generous height
assumptions, plus regional sun altitude charts and trigonometry, may be sufficient for
shade analysis.

If your roof is shaded, you could consider ground mounting the array nearby. Arrays
can be installed hundreds, if not thousands, of feet away from the point of interconnection
you simply will pay a little bit more for larger wire and trenching equipment rental. In
general, a good jobsite has a six-hour solar window, held constant throughout the year
without shade.

In addition to shade benefits, module-level electronics increase installation safety.
Solar panels are hot during installation, and system voltages on an individual circuit
commonly exceed 400V. Module-level electronics ensure that an inexperienced
installation crew wont shock themselves through accidental contact with solar leads (such
as found in a roof-mounted DC combiner box).

National Renewable Energy Laboratories recently determined 3-D modeling of the
jobsite to be within 4% accurate of the most rigorous on-site analysis, which can further
improve with the use of topographical LIDAR data. Beyond that, shadows change with the
season and time-of-day, as do electric rate structures. A shaded array in the winter may not
be as significant as having those same panels productive in the summer. Computer
software is now essential in providing the most cost-effective solar preliminary
assessment, and can often be performed from the comfort of your home!

Solar power production is a function of shadows, rooftop temperature, location of the
sun, material specifications, wire size, air flow, intensity of sunlight, and even air
thickness. PVWatts accounts for these variables, except for shading. Theoretically, you
could extract the hourly performance data within PVWatts and manually carve out the
production from when the array is shaded. But a shaded module still produces some
energy. The assumptions become wilder when using micro-inverters to mitigate shade
impact. A computer, able to perform repetitive calculations quickly, can perform this
estimation down to the individual performance of each module on the roof under a variety
of shade conditions, and then calculate the value of every electron produces throughout
the year under a variety of economic conditions. The whole process can be quickly
replicated with a variety of designs to determine the optimal configuration and the solar
design software companies are working on those optimization algorithms!
Developing a Rooftop Sketch
Using the ruler tool in Google Earth, I sketched the south-facing roof of Halfmoon
Seminars building. We previously determined Halfmoon could use a ~31kW array to
offset their electric bill. Now we want to determine how large of an array could fit on their
roof.

Our jobsite is unique: A commercial array under 150 long with a 4:12 roof pitch. But
because its like a residential roof (i.e. tilted roof, less than 120 across), we can ask the
AHJ to allow us to design per residential clearance requirements instead of more robust
commercial requirements.

As such, our constraints are:
3 clearance off the building rakes (the side edges of the building).
3 clearance from the ridge of the building.
Access to skylights.
No building code constraint required along the gutter, but lets keep 3 offset to reduce
wind load. In areas of heavy snow, you might also consider how snow might
avalanche off the roof. It might be best to install a snow guard along the bottom edge
of the roof to prevent such avalanches.
Before and after accounting for fire code clearance requirements:















Solar Module Selection
Now that you have determined your useable roof area, its time to choose a solar
module for your layout! Take a minute to scan the $/W pricing of this solar distributor.
The price range on solar modules can vary between $0.60/W - $1.50/W, depending on
efficiency and manufacturer.

And if you want to go bargain bin hunting, the price differential can get even greater!
You can find markets for lesser known manufacturers, bankrupted manufacturers, used
modules, blemished modules, etc.

The solar panel is only one part of the system. I dont think its the most important
part of the system. Ive installed thousands of solar panels in the field and have only seen
a handful of panels fail right out of the box. My tendency is to go with a recognized
manufacturer basically a solar manufacturer whom has 3rd party insurance on its product
warranty or otherwise a name brand manufacturer. Ill price out a quality Made in USA
option such as Stion. Some installers dont find it worthwhile to price out the most
premium module options such as SunPower, but others do. In addition to luxury
customers, high efficiency modules can be compelling in areas of limited real estate space.

In my opinion, top-shelf modules are Ferraris, whereas most customers prefer to
buy Hondas. But not all solar installers nor customers would agree with me. I tend to
advocate more involvement with existing contractors to perform the solar installation, but
specialty solar installers might differentiate themselves by participating in top-shelf dealer
networks.

Audience members often ask how I research the material supply chain. When you are
ready to begin your project, I suggest going online to multiple online distributor websites,
to sign up for their emailed newsletters. The price listed on the internet is retail, so get on
the email marketing list for monthly specials. Some distributors have contractor programs,
but even so, not too many distributors have hard and fast prequalification requirements to
join their networks. Patience and the ability to be module agnostic can net you a good
enough module for around 70 cents per watt.

In my case, I found a manufacturer willing to sell direct. I went with 83 modules at
255W each, for a total of 21 kW of solar on the south side of the building. To generate
100% of Halfmoons building, Ill have to look beyond the south side of the building.
Halfmoon has higher than typical electric use for a commercial building, largely due to
their printing machines and computer workstations.


To illustrate the variety of solar modules available within the same price class, Ive
picked between two similarly priced modules. One is a traditional foreign-made silicon
module, and the other USA-made module doesnt contain any silicon at all! Before we
begin, I will not cover CdTe modules made by FirstSolar, because they are not generally
available to the new-to-solar installers. I will also not cover flexible thin-film modules, nor
solar shingles. These products are viable within certain niche market applications. My
selection was driven by choosing a typical entry-level module, and the nearest-priced,
substantially different alternative.

Note:
Solar panels are commonly bought by the pallet. You can save money on your project if
you design the system based on a pallet of solar panels, a quantity which can be found on
the module specification sheet.
Reading a Module Specification Sheet
Compare these two near-equivalent priced solar modules of different technology
types:

Module Wattage/Dimensions/Efficiency: At the end of the day, module efficiency is
what counts. A 15.3% module takes up 10% less space than a 14% efficient module to
produce the same amount of power under the same standard test conditions.

Cell Material: Different materials absorb light along different bandwidths. Ultimately,
this material is responsible for differences in voltage, amperage, and PID/LID degradation.

PID/LID degradation: Beyond normal cell degradation (typically modeled at 0.5% per
year), additional degradation can result from current leaking from the modules due to
humidity, module frames, heat, inverter control circuits, and initial exposure to the sun.
Ive measured combined PID/LID degradation to be as much as 5% in year one (at which
point it tends to stabilize). It doesnt uniformly affect all modules, but module-level
electronics tend to mitigate this effect such that weaker modules do not drag down
stronger modules.

 Frame/Frameless: Frameless modules are a relatively new trend. They tend to have
higher aesthetic value and less PID issues, and require specific frameless racking
systems. Frameless modules are desirable to reduce cost, and their strength may be
improved as frameless racking systems evolve. But you should handle them with care!

Warranty: Typical modules have a 25-year performance warranty at 80%. Some
warranties are step-down with separate performance levels for year 10 and year 25.
Other warranties are linear, with uniform step-down from year 1 to year 25.
Workmanship warranties cover manufacturing issues such as frames and seals.

Country of Manufacturer: Some owners prefer American-made modules for grant
purposes, national pride, or environmental concerns. However, not all American Made
modules are 100% American made.

Appearance: Some customers prefer a black sheen appearance to a blueish, metallic
grid-line appearance. Pictured is a Stion Frameless CIGS panel.


Open Circuit Voltage + Short Circuit Current: These values are typically used in
electrical design, but the module is more likely to operate below these values.

Wind Load: You might desire a module with a higher wind load if you live along a
coastline prone to hurricanes, such as Florida. Frameless modules may gain additional
strength through specific racking systems.

Modules Per Pallet: Often you get price breaks if you order by the pallet, so you
might want to incorporate that into your design.

Hail Impact Speed: The IEC requires hail impact testing, but certain modules might
be optionally rated at above-standard ratings to showcase their robustness.

Temperature Coefficient of Power: Modules are rated under a standard test condition
of ambient temperature of 25C (77F). However, rooftop temperatures can be much higher
than ambient. The temperature coefficient of power is a percentage degradation for each
degree Celsius the cell temperature is above STC temperature. Modules might also be
rated at NOCT under a separate set of Performance Test Conditions. PTC conditions
better simulates rooftop conditions on a typical sunny day in the 70s F, and commonly
reflect an 8% performance drop at these temperatures. Less efficient modules with
smaller temperature coefficients of power will outperform more efficient modules at high
temperatures.

Standard Test Condition is performed at 25C (77F) and 1000W/m^2, and an

allowance for some air flow. To complicate things, another benchmark called NOCT is
taken at Performance Test Conditions, performed at 20C and 800W/m^2. Increasing the
ambient and solar insolation to Standard test conditions, and given that both modules have
NOCTs of 45, the cell temperature on the roof could climb to climbs to above 60C on a
25C day.

How do our two modules stack up on that 25C day at a high insolation level? Heres
how our two modules stack up, regarding power loss due to temperature degradation:

Silicon 255W = 15.33% @ STC x 85% derate = 13.0% efficient
255W x -0.429%/C x (60-25) = 216W /255W = 85% STC Power,

CIGS 150W = 14% efficient STC x 90% derate = 12.6% efficient
150W x -0.26%/C x (60-25) = 135W /150 W = 90%, STC Power

The efficiency gap between CIGS and Silicon technologies shrinks when considering field
test conditions, as compared to the standard test conditions listed on the module
specification sheet. In climates that reach 120F throughout the summer, the efficiency of
CIGS technology and other thin films can surpass that of value-priced silicon. In other
words, a CIGS module with a lower efficiency might be as a silicon module rated at a
higher efficiency, if the operating conditions are typically hotter and sunnier than Standard
Test Conditions. The use of CIGS modules might be more cost-effective in the southwest
United States vs. Canada.

Other hidden specification sheet items might hint that at other advantages of less
efficient CIGS technology. The higher voltages of CIGS modules cause the array to
wake up slightly earlier in the morning and stay on slightly later in the evening. A
manufacturer might pre-soak the modules in sunlight before labeling to reduce LID
degradation effects. PID degradation can be reduced through frameless module utilization,
removing a path for an errant electron to leech out to ground.

Aesthetics can vary with module technology. CIGS modules emulate the aesthetic
quality of the highest priced silicon modules, a black sheen appearance without silver grid
lines, aluminum frame, or empty white spaces. CIGS are also fully manufactured in the
USA, and adhere to cleaner manufacturer processes. These points might be valued by
certain clients. I mention this because CIGS modules are typically a few pennies per watt
more than their silicon counterparts, but may initially appear to be the worse economic
deal. Depending on your client and jobsite, that assumption might be a mistake!

However, due to its voltage and amperage differences, CIGS modules are not
compatible with most micro-inverters. DC optimizers combined with string inverter
systems are often a good solution when using CIGS technology. Theyre also heavier at
least per square foot. They also require significantly greater care on a jobsite. Without an
aluminum frame, the modules can easily shatter before being clamped to the racking truss.
In short, CIGS modules may require experience in solar design skill + installation labor.
While I recommend new-to-market installers to start with micro-inverters + traditional
modules, there is certainly room in the market for an experienced installer to
competitively offer Made-In-America product at a competitive price point. This
certainly is an exciting time to be in the solar industry!
Array Layout
Lets perform two rooftop sketches, one for silicon and then one for CIGS, on
Halfmoons south-facing roof surface, to determine our south-facing array wattage.
Afterwards, well repeat the design exercise with the CIGS module.

First, lets start with the silicon module. Use portrait orientation for silicon modules,
so that the racking runs across, rather than up the rooftop. Having the rack run
perpendicular to the underlying rafters allows you to best distribute the load along all
rafters.

Module Dimensions:

Length: 65.55 inches + inch gap between rows = 66 inches = 5.5 feet. The 1/2
gap allows for module expansion due to heat.

Width: 39.33 + inch gap between columns = 39.58 = 3.3 feet. The gap
allows for spacing for module attachment points, known as clips. Clip dimensions can
vary between -1, so you should check this before heading into final design.

Ive blocked out the appropriate areas for roof clearance (see previous exercise), and
given you extra charts in case you want to make revisions. You should be able to fit
around 83 modules on the roof.

Use the roof sketches below to fit the 255W silicon solar module onto the roof:

______ modules x 255 Watts = ______ DC Watts



If we repeated the same exercise as above, but using CIGS module, the racking
system may require landscape orientation for our frameless modules. Be careful with
running the rails up the roof, rather than across it. Common solar racks attach to rafters,
rather than just the decking. When the solar rail runs up the rooftop, it becomes hard to
locate those attachments. Traditional modules have a cantilever tolerance, regarding the
location of the module attachment clips. But with frameless glass-on-glass modules, the
clips must be more closely located.

For the Halfmoon rooftop, we have horizontal pine 2x4 purlins laid flat, on top of the
rafters, running horizontal to the roof, 2 on center. Anchoring to these purlins makes
locating the L-foot attachment points a bit easier than if we were to land on the narrower
rafters running up the roof.

No matter how we cut it, the fixed locations of the attachment points will result in any
dynamic loads being unevenly spread throughout the truss. The best course of action is to
distribute the attachment points evenly across the inner load bearing members of the truss,
keeping the array from the roof edges. But our modules, when laid in landscape, are
roughly 5 5. So,each grouping of support rails will be spaced a little more than 55
apart. This means the attachments will skip over a truss, which will significantly increase
the point load applied onto its neighbors. One solution would be to sister the trusses
together east-to-west underneath the roof deck. Another solution would be to select a
racking system with portrait orientation where the 2 or 4 spaced support footings could
be more evenly distributed. Ultimately, we went with the latter solution, installing silicon
modules with micro-inverters instead of CIGS modules with DC optimizers.

Note: Solar design software can help automate array layouts, shade analysis, and
electrical design. Aurora Solar is pictured.

Solar Inverters
I feel comfortable installing almost any listed solar module in the field. Foreign-made
solar modules have lower failure rates than US-made inverters. Id much rather use a
cheap module, if it meant I had the budget to boost inverter quality. It doesnt have to be
an either-or decision, but we do have to be budget conscious for solar to grow as an energy
resource.

The inverter is the work horse of the system. The inverters job is to take the direct
current generated by the solar module, and convert it into alternating current which can be
used by our buildings and electric grid. In a sense, its likeyour cell phone charger, which
plugs into your homes AC power yet charges your phones DC battery. Except its larger,
has greater safety provisions, and works in the opposite direction.

When sizing an inverter, its important to keep in mind temperature coefficient of
power. Typically, our traditional silicon modules are losing over >18% of their power
during field performance: due to temperature losses, long-term performance degradation,
or because the modules are not directly facing the sun at the time. Therefore, you dont
need a 1-for-1 match of DC array wattage and AC inverter wattage.


Its common to undersize the inverter by 15-20% (or in hotter-than-average climates).
I might not undersize so much if I were using CIGS modules, which experience less
temperature degradation. Under-sizing the inverter too much can cause clipping. But
erring on the side of caution with a larger inverter isnt all bad, as you wont be pushing
the inverter to its extreme each day.

But a small amount of inverter clipping a few hours a year isnt a bad thing either. If a
solar array produces more power than what an inverter can output, the inverter simply
clips off the surplus power. That untapped power remains up in the module as voltage,
with the inverter taking all the load it can.

An emerging trend is to place a micro-inverter behind every single solar module.
Buying and installing a bunch of smaller inverters is costlier than installing a larger
inverter. But there are significant advantages. Because of how solar arrays are wired,
weaker modules can drag down the performance of their neighbors. Not only do micro-
inverters mitigate the performance disadvantages of cheaper solar modules, they also
provide benefits for intermittent shading conditions (such as a shadow cast by a chimney,
tree, or utility power pole).
 Every solar installer is going to have a different opinion on which modules and
equipment to use. Client considerations, import tariffs, building code, installer preference,
setting, and environmental impact are just a few factors that drive material selection.

One common inverter size on the market is 215W AC. This fits in well with a 255W
DC value silicon module, with the module being roughly 20% oversized. Alternately,
another common micro-inverter size is a 250W AC. You could pair such an inverter with a
higher efficiency 295W module.

DC optimizers are like micro-inverters, except that the module-level electronics are
still plugged into a string inverter down the line. Rather than perform a DC-to-AC
conversion, optimizers perform a DC-to-DC conversion, stepping up the output voltage of
the module while dropping the amperage. The benefit is that the power is controlled at the
module-level, which mitigates partial shade like micro-inverter. But because the power is
passed onto one inverter for the entire system, there is less inverter cost and reduced
inverter clipping. There are also more options for future battery-bank additions, as most
battery-banks are designed with string inverters in mind.

The challenge in DC optimizer systems is simply that you add another step to the
installation process. Theres a lot more wiring than with micro-inverter systems. The
commissioning of these arrays is slightly more complex. But largely because of the cost
benefit compared to micro-inverters, many solar contractors are becoming huge supporters
of DC optimizers.
Basic string inverters are the lowest cost option for installing solar onto unshaded
surfaces. However, updates to National Electric Code have raised concerns about
traditional string inverter designs for rooftop application. The issue regards long, high
voltage cable runs which fail to de-energize during emergency power shutdowns (because
solar is always on when the sun is out). Failing, energized wires can become a major
safety hazard if the building is on fire, for instance. However, string inverters are a
common solution for ground-mount application. Also, many string inverters now have
multiple power point tracking, making them more shade resistance than what their
reputation may suggest. Often, string inverters want every module on the array to be free
of shade, the same module type, face the same direction, and have the same number of
modules per circuit. Inverter manufacturer want to make it as easy as possible for you to
design a solar array using their product. You can almost always find design software on
their websites to help you adjust the circuit sizes to your location.

The reason I dont recommend string inverters for rooftop use is that they fail to
adhere to modern National Electric Code rapid-shutdown requirements, which requires the
de-energization of any solar conductors which stick out from underneath the array
during times of grid failure. Whereas micro-inverters and DC optimizers can regulate and
kill the array production at the module level, string inverters are typically located away
from the array on the side of the building. Proposals for NEC 2017 are stricter than NEC
2014, creating a 1 zone around each array subsection, outside of which will be subject to
rapid shut down compliant combiner boxes (such as the SolaDeck flashed string comber
pictured). But spending an extra $0.10/W to install a DC-optimizer system isnt that much
more of a stretch and comes with some performance advantages. Spending an additional
$0.10/W on top of that for a micro-inverter system isnt such a bad trade-off either.
Making the right component selection depends on your project owner and installation
strategy.


Note: String inverters commonly providing online monitoring graph of the entire system
production. The use of DC optimizers or AC micro-inverters allows for the online
monitoring of every single solar module on the rooftop.
Micro-Inverter Circuit Configurations
For this design, were choosing a 215W micro-inverter with a 255W solar module.
Looking at the micro-inverter specification sheet + wiring diagram, I can see the
manufacturer has limited us to 17 micro-inverters per 20-amp circuit. Lets review our 83-
module array layout and considering how it impacts our 17-module max circuit
configuration.
The cable that connects the micro-inverters to each other doesnt have much wiggle room,
and its expensive to cut.
My goal is to snake the array circuitry through the array in a manner which minimizes
cable cutting. With micro-inverters, I can have circuits with an uneven number or
modules.
I might locate smaller circuits further away from the array, to mitigate voltage drop. I
might arbitrarily stop a circuit, if its at a logical point which will make installation easier.
I might have more circuits than necessary if it makes installation easier
.



Its possible (albeit expensive) to build jumper cables to span between array subsections.
Each micro-inverter is mounted along the solar rail, located behind the module. There is
enough stretch in the solar module wire leads to give you some flexibility on the micro-
inverter placement.


However, the cable that the micro-inverter plugs into is not flexible. You need to
specify portrait or landscape configuration, and you only get a fraction of an inch of
wiggle room which is necessary to keep the somewhat bulky wire tight up on the roof.

Each micro-inverter plugs into a drop in the specialty cable -> which is priced by
the drop and is fairly pricey at ~$22/ft. The cable is also pricey to cut. While you can
buy the right kind of TC-ER cable to make jumpers between cuts, splices need to be
performed inside a listed box. The micro-inverter manufacturer will sell you a listed box
that makes the splice relatively easy, but the box costs $20 and you need one for each end!
So you want to keep your cuts to a minimum.

 Here is the micro-inverter system circuit #1 and #2. Note the placement of the middle
section of inverters, which allows us to jump between rows of modules in circuit #1
without the need for additional cable lengths. You might also notice the solar rail hangs
over the final roof attachment L-foot. This allows us to keep the racking underneath the
array, which has an aesthetically pleasing result.

The cable really isnt that special. Its #12AWG Tray Cable with a special TC-ER
rating, meaning that its sunlight resistant. You need to specify either a 240V service or
208V three-phase service, so that you have the right number of conductors inside the
cable.

When you approach the end of a circuit, you install a termination cap to weatherproof
the wire termination. The other end of the circuit returns to your electric service panel. We
went into a pull box into the attic, such that we could convert to ROMEX to make our
retro-fitted internal wire runs easy. DC cabling is required to go into metal conduit, which
would have been extremely difficult to retrofit.
We hid our pull box underneath the array, which your local inspector may not like.
Pull-boxes need to be accessible, and there is some debate as to whether the solar module
is a removable or permanent part of the building faade, which would impact pull box
accessibility. I think the aesthetics of a hidden pull box are too great to not attempt.
However, since array is only inches above the roof surface, we had to pay special attention
to the height of the junction box, as well as the size of the penetration and weather-
proofing boot.

Heres
how the
finished
product
looks, with
all racking,
inverters,
and pull
boxes hidden underneath the array. Not bad for retrofits!

I usedthe same technique on this residential system: After going into the attic, its a
simple task to get back to an electric service panel, an additional local jurisdictionally
required AC-knife switch disconnect, and our point of interconnection with the utility
electric service. Time to run ROMEX back to the service AC panel.



Point of Interconnection
If we visit our micro-inverter manufacturer website, we find the wiring diagram for
their micro-inverter system. We see the array interconnected to the grid at the bottom of
the electric service panel. This is a common, but not absolutely required, practice based on
NEC 2014 705.12.D.2.3.b which states:

Where two sources, one a utility and the other an inverter, are located on opposite
ends of a busbar that contains loads, the sum of 125% of the inverter(s) output circuit
current and the rating of the overcurrent protection device protecting the busbar shall not
exceed 120% of the busbar.

If you fail to locate the solar array at the bottom of the busbar, you can still connect
the array to your existing service panel. However, you lose the extra 20% busbar space
allowance. NEC 2014 705.12.D.2.3.a would cover this configuration, stating, The sum of
125% of the inverter(s) output circuit current and the rating of the overcurrent protection
device protecting the busbar shall not exceed the ampacity of the busbar.

In other words, if you connect the solar array to the bottom of the busbar, you can
install ~40 amps on a typical 200-amp electric service. This is roughly an 8kW solar array.
But you would have to limit the main service breaker to 160 amps. You can use the same
philosophy with the 120% rule, connecting the array at the bottom of the busbar while
downsizing the main breaker. Perhaps this could allow you to interconnect up to an 80-
amp array on a 200-ampresidential service.

Rather than downside the main breaker, it might pay to have your electrician check
the busbar rating of the service panel. Sometimes the busbars on 200A residential panels
are rated for 225A. You could swap out the service panel with a 400 Amp panel,
interconnecting a large solar array while maintaining your utility 200A service.

 But what about older homes with 100A service panels or homes which require
significantly large arrays to fully offset their electrical usage? Some contractors would
prefer not to touch your service panel. Many commercial buildings require significantly
larger arrays to offset their usage. What are the options? To connect our solar array to the
grid, were going to use a line side connection, which intercepts the cables between the
utility meter and the electric service panel. This will require powering down the building.
Were going to minimize that shutdown time using an insulated piercing tap connector,
but terminal blocks or other tap connectors could also be used.

In almost all circumstances, line-side connections will allow you to connect an array
which can offset 100% of your electric use, regardless of the status of your existing
electric service panel. You will likely have to install an AC knife-switch disconnect on
your building wall, even though it is not required by National Electric Code.

This allows an array owner to connect significantly larger arrays to their electric
service. If you have a 200A utility service, you can connect as large as a 200A solar array
to your home (i.e. ~50kW) without any major modification to your electric service panel.

The only inconvenience to line-side connections is that your building needs to lose
power for a few minutes to make this connection. However, you may need to lose power
anyway -> many installers will not work with hot service panels. So, its not much of an
additional inconvenience to perform a line-side connection and most of the work can be
performed ahead of the array installation.

In short, line side connections will allow you to arrays to your building which are
large enough to offset your entire buildings electric use. Their major downside is that they
are more difficult to retrofit with battery-banks vs. load-side arrays. If youre not
considering batteries in the future, a line side connection may be the simplest way to go.

I encountered a logistical challenge when connecting our array to Halfmoon
Education Inc.s building. Halfmoon runs continuing education seminars daily. Their
building contains a large support staff who coordinate the daily programs across the
country. Its difficult for them to lose power during the week. Halting business operation
can be costly. Theyd lose phone connectivity as well, due to their VoiP system. We dont
want their support staff out of touch with their off-site business operations.
Recommending a power shut-down is something we must do, but we dont want it to last
for hours in the middle of the week.


Another problem is evident when entering the electrical closet. Even if I had the space
on their existing service panels to land the array, I wasnt thrilled about the prospect of
bringing the room up to code, something an electrical inspector might insist on if working
with those service panels. I would prefer their electrician manage that scope.

I also had a logistical problem. I was traveling up from Mississippi to assist the
electrical contractor with onsite quality control. I wanted to power down the building on a
Saturday to avoid skipping business operation. I didnt know exactly when wed finish up
the installation, and I didnt want to burn schedule to wait a few days for a weekend
commissioning. What if it rained? Im not looking for a long, drawn out schedule. Might it
be possible to perform most of the interconnection work ahead of array commissioning?

Ultimately, our solar array was 140 Amps, which was too large to interconnect on the
load side of the two 200A service panels. But 140A is small enough to line-side connect
between the utility meter and one 200A panel. All I had to do was replace the entry pull
box where the service panel conductors entered the building with a larger junction box,
where I could perform my tap the day of commission in a matter of minutes, using pierced
insulating conductors.

I sent this scope to the electrical contractor, performed on a Saturday well ahead of
the project:

You can see two LB pull boxes going into the wall of the building. The conduit run
connects the electric service panel to the two 200A panels inside the building (pictured
above).

On Saturday, the electrical contractor swapped out one of the LBs with a larger
junction box, which involved de-energizing the building, pulling the 200A feeders,
swapping the box, and reinstalling the feeders into the main.

All the contractor did that Saturday was swap out the LB box with a larger junction
box. However, this was all that needed to be done. We installed the array, and then made
the connection in the middle of the week, crimping the array feeder conductors onto the
utility service entrance conductors, by de-energizing the building and cranking down the
piercing insulated tap connectors. The whole process took less than 15 minutes, making
the power loss a manageable, planned event.

The final wire diagram looked like the one line pictured, except that instead of a
string inverter + fused disconnect, we used an unfused disconnect, service panel with main
breaker, and a multi-branch micro-inverter array plugged into the service panel.

I had a great experience with the line-side tap connection. Commissioning was
painless. The utility popped the meter out of the meter base, disconnecting the building
from the grid. Next, the pierced insulation tap connectors were cranked down (pictured
inside the new junction box). The connection was made, the lid put back on the junction
box, the disconnect switch thrown. At the end of the day, it should be an uneventful
process.

I recommend line-side connections for ease of design and installation, and load-side
connections for clients whom want to add batteries to their system at some point.
Lastly, take special note of the micro-inverter wiring diagram, once again. Notice how
there is no AC knife switch in the one line diagram on the right. National Electric Code
requires solar arrays to have a disconnecting means. The breaker on your electric service
panel meets the requirements of NEC. However, many utilities go beyond NEC, citing
OSHA guidelines for power sources which require a knife-switch style AC disconnect.

Usually, it is the experienced solar jurisdictions such as Florida and California which
exempt the knife-switch disconnect. In under-developed markets, utilities typically require
this redundancy, so beware that manufacturer provided specifications may not be
consistent with your local jurisdictional requirements.

W ire Sizing Considerations

Your electrical designer should have little issue with wire sizing micro-inverters.
Theyre AC electrical devices. Aside from finding a distributor of TC-ER cable, theres
not much special about the remaining electrical system design. Based on our specification
sheet, each micro-inverter on a 240V circuit outputs .9A. Weve pretty much filled up each
circuit with 16 or 17 modules.

Every AC cable needs to be sized to meet 125% of its load (amperage), with no more
than a 5% voltage drop per code. This result in wire sizes such as #14 AWG, #12AWG,
etc. We see in the roof-mounted micro-inverter tray cable is #12AWG.
 However, many solar designers aim for a 2% voltage drop from array to point-of-
interconnection. Its not uncommon to upsize residential cable to #12 or #10AWG. Ill
upsize it even further for small commercial. Spending an extra $100 on thicker cable is
worthwhile product upgrade.

However, you should be cognizant of the limits of your terminal blocks. For instance,
we used #8AWG ROMEX for the wire run from the roof to the electric service panel. But
for jumper cables, we cant use #8 cable. This micro-inverter manufacturers jumper cable
connector box takes a maximum of #10AWGW cable.

Bur even if youve never used TC-ER cable before, it can still be passed through
strain relief, like any other exposed cable being fed directly into a junction box. You
simply need to check the cable diameter meets your NPT strain relief connector.

You need to check the temperature ratings of your conductors and terminals. While
solar cables are often rated at 90C, its difficult to find 90C rated terminals., so its
common to design around 75C temperature ratings when correcting for ambient
temperature in NEC Tables 310.15(B). For example, THHN wiring may have a 90C
rating, but if its landed on a 75C terminal in a junction box, youll fail a rigorous
electrical review if you sized the value off the 90C rating.

If you have more than three conductors in a raceway or Cable (as we do, in our
conduit run out of the attic into the electric service panel), you need to adjust ampacity per
NEC 310.15.B(3)(a). Its also a common error omit additional temperature correction
factors to run your solar cables into roof-mounted conduit, if you need an exposed run
across the roof. NEC 310.15.B(3)(c). Conduit fill is still governed by Table C in the back
of NEC. Still, keep in mind we have upsized to at least #10-gauge wire for voltage drop,
which starts the design out with 35A of capacity to play with, on a circuit regulated by a
20A breaker. We have a decent amount of amperage to play with.

Section 690 is the part of NEC dedicated to solar circuits, but the rest of NEC still
applies and should be relied upon heavily by your electrical designer. Likewise, electrical
designers should feel confident following the provisions of the entire NEC after all, solar
is an electrical device governed by an electrical permit!

Racking and Grounding

Since were on the subject, lets explore the components that connect the modules and
racking to ground. Modules are connected to solar rail through special clips. These clips
may be listed for grounding (having teeth which bite into the module frame). Alternately,
grounding washers are used between the clip and module frame (the clip itself is usually
part of the racking system, and is listed as ground path to the underlying rails).

Module rails are commonly made from extruded aluminum. They contain top
channels for the module clips to clamp into. Racking is uniform amongst manufacturers.
Systems typically consist of mid clips and end clips which press the solar array down
onto the underlying racking structure. The racking is then secured to the roof deck with
flashed and sealed L-feet or positive roof attachments.

Rails are not infinite in length, and can be spliced together. But often, the splice is not
listed as a ground path. Either the module (whose grounded frames serve as a ground path)
needs to bridge the spliced rails, or the rails need to be spliced with a bonding jumped.
Of course, you might want to splice the rails anyway, as the goal is to get any short circuit
current away from the array and into ground!


The rails are finally bonded to either the DC GEC or the AC EGC through a
grounding lug. This is commonly accomplished through running bare #6 copper wire up to
the rooftop.

Note: Solar design software can assist the electrical design process, providing
valuable one line diagrams and National Electric Code reviews. SolarDesignTool is
pictured.


Racking Design
It used to be that youd need to thumb your way through a racking design manual
about as thick as this program to determine all the racking components and engineering
calculations. Instead, we can use manufacturer design software to tabulate this data for us.
Like inverter manufacturers, racking manufacturers want to make their system design as
easy as possible. Almost all have design software available on their websites. Some
manufacturer software provides preliminary engineering analysis. Ironridge has integrated
some of its commercial racking into Helioscopes PV design software, resulting in even
more automated solar racking design.

Lets revisit our solar layout to convert it into a racking bill of

material. I see the following breakout:


1 Row of 13 modules, 1 Row of 14 modules.
1 Row of 30 modules, 1 Row of 17 modules,
1 Row of 4 modules, 1 Row of 5 modules.

Jumping onto one racking manufacturers website (in this case, I selected IronRidge),
I found racking design software which asked for module dimensions, array data, and site
location, to generate a racking balance of system material list + engineering data.

By entering the row values above, I generated this report in a matter of minutes:

The racking design software also asks for site data:

The racking design software completed its analysis, providing us a selection of

products to choose from, with varying degrees of span between L-foot attachment points.
Ive selected the racking with the shortest span, for reasons explained below.

After making a racking selection with 2 on center attachments, the following
engineering data is provided. By staying away from the edges of the roof, our array is
squarely within Roof Zone 1, weighing 2.7 lbs per sq ft with an uplift of 44 lbs per
attachment.

During the projects remote site assessment, Halfmoon provided photos of their attic
space and technical drawings where I noticed 2x4 horizontal purlins running above
support rafters. We also tracked down some building documents, which helped me
assemble some information for the structural review:

 Even though the design software recommended a 4 spacing between attachment
points, our engineering review recommended 2 spacing to evenly distribute the load
amongst all rafters (which were located 2 on center). Its possible to purchase the L-
foot attachments with flashing integrated into it. However, our roof is a metal corrugated
roof, so we need another mounting option.

The S-5 VersaBracket is an example of a solar metal roof mounting bracket, in this
case made for corrugated metal roofs. This nifty bracket has butyl tape to seal the
penetration, using a standard roofing screw. It peels and sticks onto the roof surface.

I found even found engineering data for my 2x4 purlins, laid flat, on the manufacturer
website. After all this, we have the engineering data we need! Time to prepare the scope
document for engineering review.


I tracked down the structural engineer responsible for the original building
construction. He provided roofing cut sheets, stamped the project, and wrote the following
snippet:

 Many jurisdictions do not require an engineering stamp for flush mount residential
solar arrays. Remember, the racking manufacture recommended 4 on center spacing for
our attachment points. Racking manufacturers do not validate site engineering, but only
the engineering of the racking system itself! If I had taken the manufacturers
calculations at face value, I might have installed my L-feet 4 or 6 on center, as is the
standard practice. If I hadnt gone through the engineering process, this design
assumption would and
then would never have been corrected. This is why it is important to have a qualified
team build the project, representing structural, electrical, and roofing expertise.



Like all niche market services, solar structural engineering is an in-demand skill
required by all commercial projects. However, its a good practice to get residential
projects stamped some jurisdictions require it. One such example, solar-roof-
check.com, provides structural analysis and engineering stamps for residential projects at
under $500. At those budgets, its irresponsible not to get your project structurally
validated by an engineering professional, even if your jurisdiction doesnt require it.

Many solar installers shy away from roof penetrations because they dont want to
poke unnecessary holes in the roof. That is a concern, but if I had to choose, Id prefer
catastrophic building failure vs. water damage. Solar installers are not roofers. On
commercial buildings, we often utilize manufacturer approved roofing contractors to
perform roof penetrations and sealing. This process does not need to increase your project
budget roofing labor is often cheaper than solar specialty labor. In fact, it may be that
multiple penetrations are better for water-proofing, as less uplift force is being placed on
each lag screw + associated flashing and sealant.

Selecting the 2 attachment point spacing also meant we could go with a cheaper rail
system, as our spans were not particularly long.


This particular manufacturer provided custom cut rails, module clips with integrated
grounding, and a variety of other hardware options to make procurement easy. After the
bill of material is complete, I strongly recommend increasing the number of mid-
clamps, end-clamps, and T-bolts. These are racking-specific specialty hardward
pieces that are not designed for frequenty removal. Keep some spares in storage in case
you need to remove panels for maintenance and strip some of these specialty screws.
Interconnection Application
Before we order the material, we want to make sure the utility will approve our
application. Some utilities, particularly in solar-heavy markets, might deny an application
if too many solar arrays have been installed on a circuit of the distribution grid.

Our final interconnection packet consisted of the following:

Public Service Commission of Wisconsin Utility Distributed Generation
Application Form
One Line Electrical Diagram
Structural Engineering Stamp and Calculations
Inverter Manufacturer Certificate of Compliance (UL 1741)
Site Plan with Array Layout
Certificate of Liability Insurance for Array Owner per state interconnection
requirements
Module, Inverter, Racking, Roofing Material Specifications
Electrical Calculations
12-month electric usage history
I went ahead and added east + west arrays to the back of the roof, increasing the total
system size to 29kW.

Here are my final electrical diagram and calculations:







Budget and Payback
Here are the budget actuals from the 29.6kW Halfmoon solar project in 2014:

If we were to repeat the same project in 2017, wed likely see a 10 cent per watt
drop in module pricing and 15 cents per watt price drop in micro-inverters. Its not
impossible to achieve a professional, turnkey project budget of $2.63/W or less using the
most expensive inverter system available. However, this project did enjoy some
economies of scale, as a 30kW project will have a lower per watt install budget than,
say, a 6kW project. At the residential level, solar project costs can swing wildly between
contractors. Price differences do not necessarily reflect a difference in installation quality.
Solar is a volatile market the best solar installers can be the lowest cost or the highest
bidder. Companies with longer track records may command a higher price than newer
start-ups. It may be cost effective to go with the lowest bid, or the highest cost bid from
the best-established installation company.

My preference is to use well-established electrical contractors with whom the client
already has a pre-existing relationship. In these cases, I might spend more money on
micro-inverter system, to achieved a reduced labor budget from a new-to-solar installer.
Just because a contractor may be new-to-solar does not mean they are new-to-
construction. Id much prefer an experienced roofer and experienced electrician to a new-
to-construction solar installer for my system. Another personal preference is a lower
installation price, paying for maintenance issues as they arise. A higher priced solar start-
up may include a more comprehensive warranty but how long has the installer been in
business? Its important to understand the payback requirements and risk tolerance of your
client before getting too far into the project development process.

Micro-inverters are the most expensive inverter system on the market and face
increased competition from DC optimizers, as well as rapid-shutdown compliant string
inverters. If you approach the project as a DIY, it may be possible to subcontract out the
entire project for under $2/W.

Simple Payback
Halfmoon pays an average of 13 cents per kwh for their electricity, has a suitable net-
metering policy, and has a state sales tax exempt, resulting in a project budget of $2.67/W.

$2.67/W / $0.169W/yr = 15 year payback.
$0.13/kwh x 1.3 kwh/yr/W x 1W = $0.169 W/yr.

With the Federal Tax Credit of 30%, this payback shrinks to 11 years.

$2.67/W x 70% / $0.169/W/yr = 11 year payback

The system has a 25 year performance warranty and 25 year inverter warranty. The
expected life of the array is over 30 years.

Moving Forward
We plan to sell Halfmoons renewable energy credits for $0.02/kwh through our
voluntary REC sales website: www.Community.Solar If successful, this will reduce
Halfmoons payback to under 10 years. We are also analyzing Halfmoons time-of-day
energy usage, as compared to their solar production, to determine if their utility time-of-
day metering rate could further increase their payback.

Despite being covered in snow for most of January and February, Halfmoons array is
producing 97% of its default PVWatts estimate to date.

Yet again, solar design software can assist your project by connecting solar
production data with your project costs and utility rate structures. EnergyToolBase is
pictured.
Revisiting the Design with CIGS + DC Optimizers
CIGS modules have unique electro-chemical properties, operating at significantly
higher voltages and lower amperages than crystalline silicon modules. Micro-inverters are
not an option for CIGS, because CIGS exceed typical micro-inverter voltage input
requirements. Remaining options for CIGS include traditional inverters and traditional
inverters with DC optimizers. For this project, we will consider DC optimizers to meet
NEC 2017rapid shutdown requirements and IFC fire safety provisions.

First, we enter our location of Eau Claire, WI into the inverter string sizing software.
The inverter manufacturer is also the manufacturer of the DC optimizers, which are sized
together in the same software-assisted sizing process.

Next, we select our solar module.






A list of compatible products is displayed.

A product configuration is recommended:


A report is generated.

The circuit configuration can be found here. Three strings or circuits of 11 DC
optimizers on two modules each. 3 x 2 x 11 x 2 inverters = 132 modules. An energy
estimate is given
:

Electrical Considerations

The inverter sizing software for this south side of the building calls for two 10kW
string inverters with three circuits each. The circuit layout will look like this:





 One issue Ive had with DC optimizers is a significant amount of surplus cable
length coming out of the optimizers cable leads. Its not a tight cable system like the
Enphase. To avoid surplus cable, wire management becomes necessary. Metal clips which
are pressed onto the module frame can help tidy up any excess slack in the cable.

In DC systems, it often becomes necessary to build a jumper cable, to allow the

installation to move from one roof surface to the next. It is less costly to build these
jumper cables as compared to micro-inverter systems, but it requires specialty MC4
crimping tools, which are expensive.

Most solar installers will own an MC4 connector crimp tool and a set of replacement
blades, plus extra MC4 connector ends to custom build any required jumper cables on site.
Theyll also purchase a spool of #10 PV Wire, which is a single conductor cable like
USE-2 cable, but rated for higher voltages and better weather protection. These tools cost
around $750, but its a good investment for solar installation.

MC4 is both a company and a connector standard. I prefer the Weiland brand MC4
connector, so Ill need the Weiland brand crimp tool for their slightly different MC4
connectors. The Weiland connector is a bit higher quality and in the same price range as
the MC4 connector.

I prefer micro-inverter systems because I like going in RPMEX in the attic. But you
can do internal wire runs with DC circuits. However, DC conduit needs to be protected in
a metal raceway or conduit. This is possible to do, but its not quite so easy as ROMEX.

Finally, dont just follow the DC optimizer / Inverter installation manual to the letter.
The optimizer cable whips should not be left exposed to the elements before module
installation. If you break for the day without installing the modules, you need to plug the
whips together. If it rains, water can wick up the cable leads and short out the optimizers.
Removing modules to service module level electronics is possible, but its certainly not
enjoyable.

CIGS Frameless Racking Layout
Planning the racking layout for horizontal oriented CIGS modules is not as easy as
with traditional silicon modules, because its harder to find a racking system for frameless
modules. But once you find the racking system, you can typically generate the racking
design in a similar fashion to traditional framed modules. Glass-on-glass modules are
typically considered to be higher quality than framed modules but they are also much
easier to break! Well still use the S5-Versa brackets to attach the racking L-feet to the
roof. Additional roof clearance never hurt a module, as hot air can better escape from
underneath an array.

After checking online with a variety of racking manufacturer websites, I couldnt find
a frameless rooftop racking system with an online bill of material tabulator! I called my
frameless module distributor and he was able to point me to Renusol, whom makes a
frameless racking for Stion CIGS modules with sizing software available. Its not so much
that racking components cant be calculated with pen + paper they can! But Ive found
the more computer-assisted the solar design can become, the less prone it is to human
error. Its also much easier to assemble the engineering scope if the software provides
some pre-engineering functionality.
1. Start by selecting your module:

2. Continue inputting in project data:

This configure asks for additional site information. Remember our support beams run
East-West, which forces us into a horizontal module orientation.

Grounding Bill of Material and DC optimizers mounting hardware is also figured in.


Its quite easy to build this arrray layout. We dont need to count the rows and
columns. Instead we put in a large, rectangular array and then remove modules from the
equation:

Our Bill of Material is complete. Thanks free design software!
 I dont see any engineering calculations included in the software, but it did produce
some construction documents. The next step would be to provide the mounting locations,
building, and site data to the structural engineer.. The 30 spacing between clips (running
east-west) is larger than his recommended 24 spacing from the micro-inverter design.
This means we might need to sister some of the support rafters together (depending on the
clip strength between the north-south underlying rafters and the east-west purlins). Just as
before, you will need to order 1 corrogated metal roof stand-off (i.e. S5 bracket) to support
each L-foot attachment coming off the metal roof deck. This program even provides some
details handy for construction documents:

Final 29kW CIGS Budget 2016 (Estimate)

This CIGS project, with premium aesthetics and made in USA modules, can be
delivered for a similar price as the generic silicon modules and AC micro-inverters.
Balance of system material for DC systems is a bit less than AC systems, because you do
not need as many service panels. The optimizer inverter system itself is less expensive
than AC micro-inverters. But the labor costs a bit more to install those glass-on-glass
CIGS modules. With the smaller form factor, there are more modules to install. Also, there
is not as much bargain hunting opportunity with CIGS modules.

I didnt model any additional engineer costs that might become necessary to reinforce
the rooftop with an unconventional racking configuration. The system weighs a bit more
with the glass-on-glass modules, and the rail runs up the rooftop. The racking
manufacturer selected also did not provide any engineering data local to the project site.
So, engineering costs may be higher than what is modeled. Its also harder to find an
installer with CIGS experience. You might need to use a specialty contractor, for a greater
increase in the profit/OH budget than what is modeled. However, the larger point is that
these budgets are close enough to be viable options for the client to consider whereas
upgrading to top shelf silicon modules might reflect an additional $0.50/W price
increase).

In the long run, the CIGS / DC optimizer approach might be the most cost-effective
design of the two systems. But its a closer race that boils down to a choice between
premium aesthetics verses your ability to manage the project yourself. A cheaper option
might be to stick with low cost silicon modules, use of a cheaper inverter combined with a
rapid shutdown compliant combiner. While it remains in the same price range as the
micro-inverter system, the benefits of the higher quality modules and near-equivalent
inverter system become apparent, in the annual degradation, higher temperature
performance, and reduced inverter clipping. However, such a design requires an
experienced installation team.

This is good news for everyone involved. Not only can new-to-solar building
professionals compete within the existing solar installation market, but experienced
installers can differentiate themselves to remain competitive by adopting to new, cost-
effective technologies.
Design Conclusions
Track A: Micro-Inverters with Traditional Modules
This track is recommended for:
Anyone new to the solar industry. Micro-inverter systems are significantly easier to
design and install.
Project Managers wanting to use their new-to-solar contractor and engineers. For
example, the Halfmoon Education Inc. project was installed by the electrical
contractor responsible for the building, but they were new to solar.
Small projects 4kW or less. Micro-inverters allow you to easily install systems with
just a handful of modules -> even one or two!
Designers seeking to avoid external wire runs, particularly on retrofits. AC wiring
allows for ROMEX runs through the attic.
Designers unfamiliar with DC NEC provisions. Certain DC equipment such as
combiner boxes, DC disconnects, and additional overcurrent NEC provisions will
not be covered in this program, so its best to avoid what you dont know.
Designers wanting to minimize wall-mounted equipment. Because the inverter is on
the roof, the only wall-mounted equipment necessary is an AC knife-switch
disconnect (which might not be required by your jurisdiction).

Track B: DC Optimizers with Modern CIGS Modules
This track is recommended for:
Solar installers seeking something new. CIGS modules are surprisingly
inexpensive, frameless, and have similar aesthetics and performance as costlier
modules such as SunPower. Their performance degradation curves are also
surprisingly flat compared to traditional modules, and cost-benefits are like value-
modules.
Clients wanting 100% American Made modules made with upmost
environmental responsibility. Other modules have less supply chain responsibility.
Job sites in very hot climates.
Solar installers seeking to compete on cost. DC optimizer/inverter systems are
significantly less expensive than AC micro-inverter systems, in terms of hard cost.
Owners looking to install battery banks and electric vehicle charging stations.
Leading DC optimizer/inverter manufacturers have embraced storage technologies
more rapidly than micro-inverter manufacturers.

Both tracks accommodate for:
Robust safety provisions which require rapid shutdown + de-energization of
rooftop modules during power outages such as inclement weather or building fires.
 Mitigation of temporary shadows such as nearby trees, chimneys, utility poles.
Solar panels directly in the shade will have their performance significantly reduced,
but will not impact the performance of neighboring modules.
Performance increases of ~5%, compared to arrays which lack module-level
electronics, due to mitigating the module-to-module mismatched inherent to the
manufacturing process + long-term field operation.

These are just my current thoughts on competing design philosophies. Even if simple
payback was the sole factor in your component selection, you would still have installers
embroiled in debate as to this decision process!


Visit www.community.solar for additional project planning resources, educational content,
solar production incentives, and renewable energy offsets.

Design Resources

Community.Solar Solar design resources, classes, incentives, and energy
www.community.solar

DSIRE Database of Federal, State, and Local energy incentives and policies
www.dsireusa.org

Google Earth Software download for site imagery and measurements. Photo date-stamp,
ruler tool, and shadow azimuth can be used to reverse calculate tree and object heights.
https://earth.google.com

USA Naval Office Sun-Angle Azimuth Chart Useful for determining angle of inclination
of the sun during summer/winter solstice + Google Earth photo date-stamp.
http://aa.usno.navy.mil/data/docs/AltAz.php

PVWatts An easy-to-use, yet surprisingly robust solar performance estimate tool.
http://pvwatts.nrel.gov/pvwatts.php

System Advisor Model Another free to use software published by National Renewable
Energy Labs. Has more advanced features than PVWatts with a steeper learning curve.
https://sam.nrel.gov/

Commercial Solar Design Software
Aurora Solar 3D modeling, LIDAR data, solar performance estimates, array
layouts, construction documentation. http://www.aurorasolar.com/
Helioscope - 3D modeling, LIDAR data, solar performance estimates, construction
documentation. https://www.helioscope.com/

SolarDesignTool Solar construction documentation and national electric code
reports. http://get.solardesigntool.com/

EnergyToolBase Robust economic modeling, demand management modeling,
and battery bank sizing software. https://www.energytoolbase.com/

Solar-Roof-Check A residential structural engineering software review which
offers engineering stamping in many states. http://solar-roof-check.com/

NABCEP North American Board of Certified Energy Practitioners. Provides solar
knowledge testing and experience certifications. http://nabcep.org/

For comments, suggestions, corrections, plus content and resource submission, email
john@community.solar