English For Radio Engineering and TV Broadcasting (Final)

VERETENNIKOVA V.P.
ZAVALEVSKAYA E.V.
ENGLISH
for
Radio Engineering and TV Broadcasting
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF UKRAINE
ODESSA NATIONAL A.S.POPOV ACADEMY OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS
VERETENNIKOVA V.P.
ZAVALEVSKAYA E.V.
ENGLISH
for
Radio Engineering and TV Broadcasting
-------------------------------
Student’s Book
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ODESSA 2015
2
УДК. 811.111: 621.396.97(075) План УМИ 2015г.
ББК 81.432.1
Рекомендовано Учёным советом ОНАС им. А.С.Попова

как учебное пособие.
(Протокол №3 от 27.11.14г.)
Рецензенты:
Мельник И.С. - к.п.н., доц. ЮНПУ им. К.Д.Ушинского.
Зукина Л.Б. - зав. каф. иностранных языков, к.п.н., доц. ОНАПТ.
Под редакцией: к.т.н., с.н.с. Каптура В.
Veretennikova V.P. English for Radio Engineering and TV broadcasting: учебное

пособ./ Veretennikova V.P., Zavalevskaya E.V. – Одесса: ОНАС им. А.С.Попова, 2015. -
с.212
Цель учебного пособия – совершенствование навыков чтения и перевода

современной научной литературы, а также развитие навыков устной и письменной
речи. Учебное пособие снабжено системой упражнений, списком слов и выражений,
характерных для стиля научного изложения.
Для студентов, обучающихся по направлению «Радиотехника», а также
аспирантов.
Одобрено на заседании кафедры и

рекомендовано к печати.
Протокол № 2 от 30.09.2014 г.
ISBN
3
CONTENTS
Lesson One
Text: Radio Engineering………………………………………………
Exercises………………………………………………………………
Material for Rendering and Discussion
Text: Radio Propagation………………………………………………..
Exercises………………………………………………………………
Lesson Two
Text: Development of Radio Technology………………………………
Exercises…………………………………………………………………
Text: History of Radio and Electronics. E.H. Armstrong…………………
Exercises…………………………………………………………………
Lesson Three
Text: Developers of Radio Communication (A, B)……………………
Exercises…………………………………………………………………
Text: Wireless Telegraphy………………………………………………
Exercises…………………………………………………………………
Lesson Four
Text: The Electromagnetic Spectrum……………………………………
Exercises…………………………………………………………………
Text: History of Electromagnetic Spectrum Discovery………………
Exercises…………………………………………………………………
Lesson Five
Text: Echo Location……………………………………………………
Exercises…………………………………………………………………
Text: Radar………………………………………………………………
Exercises…………………………………………………………………
Lesson Six
Text: James Clerk Maxwell……………………………………………
Exercises…………………………………………………………………
Text: Physical Sciences…………………………………………………
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Exercises……………………………………………………………….
Lesson Seven
Text: Wireless communication…………………………………………
Exercises…………………………………………………………………
Text: Types of Radio Systems...…………………………………………
Exercises…………………………………………………………………
Lesson Eight
Text: Internet ……………………………………………………………
Exercises ………………………………………………………………….
Text: Usage of the Internet………………………………………………..
Exercises…………………………………………………………………..
Lesson Nine
Text: Wi-Fi………………………………………………………………
Exercises…………………………………………………………………
Text: Radio-Frequency Spectrum…………………………………………
Exercises…………………………………………………………………
Lesson Ten
Text: Bluetooth Technology………………………………………………
Exercises…………………………………………………………………
Text: Bluetooth vs. Wi-Fi………………………………………………
Exercises…………………………………………………………………
Lesson Eleven
Text: Television…………………………………………………………
Exercises…………………………………………………………………
Text: History of Television………………………………………………
Exercises…………………………………………………………………
Lesson Twelve
Text: Microwave and Satellite Systems…………………………………
Exercises…………………………………………………………………
Text: Types of Satellite Systems………………………………………
Exercises…………………………………………………………………
Lesson Thirteen
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Text: Electronics Engineering…………………………………………
Exercises…………………………………………………………………
Text: Education and Training
Exercises…………………………………………………………………
Lesson Fourteen
Text: Frequency…………………………………………………………
Exercises………………………………………………………………
Text: Radio Communication Systems…………………………………
Exercises………………………………………………………………
Lesson Fifteen
Text: Voltage…………………………………………………………
Exercises……………………………………………………………
Text: Fermi Level………………………………………………………
Exercises………………………………………………………………
Lesson Sixteen
Text: Broadband………………………………………………………
Exercises……………………………………………………………
Text: Wireless broadband………………………………………………
Exercises………………………………………………………………
Lesson Seventeen
Text: Probabilities and Random Variables……………………………
Exercises………………………………………………………………
Text: Setting Global Standards……………………………………
Exercises………………………………………………………………
Lesson Eighteen
Text: Modulation………………………………………………………
Exercises………………………………………………………………
Text: Modulator and Demodulator Principles of Operation…………
Exercises…………………………………………………………….
Lesson Nineteen
Text: Multiplexing……………………………………………………
Exercises……………………………………………………………
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Text: Diversity Techniques……………………………………………
Exercises………………………………………………………………
Lesson Twenty
Text: Electronics………………………………………………………
Exercises………………………………………………………………
Text: Types of Circuits………………………………………………
Exercises……………………………………………………………
Lesson Twenty-One
Text: Integrated Circuit………………………………………………
Exercises……………………………………………………………
Text: Advanced integrated circuits……………………………………
Exercises………………………………………………………………
Lesson Twenty-Two
Text: Logic gate………………………………………………………
Exercises………………………………………………………………
Text: Electronic gates…………………………………………………
Exercises………………………………………………………………
Lesson Twenty-Three
Text: Antenna……………………………………………….................
Exercises………………………………………………………………
Text: Antenna Types……………………………………………………
Exercises………………………………………………………………
Lesson Twenty-Four
Text: Indoor and Outdoor Antennas…………………………………
Exercises………………………………………………………………
Text: The Internet of Things…………………………………………
Exercises……………………………………………………………
Lesson Twenty-Five
Text: Satellite Television………………………………………………
Exercises………………………………………………………………
Text: USB Wireless Adapter…………………………………………
Exercises……………………………………………………………
7
Lesson Twenty-Six
Text: Spread-Spectrum Telecommunications…………………………
Exercises………………………………………………………………
Text: Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum………………………………
Exercises………………………………………………………………
Lesson Twenty-Seven
Text: Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum…………………………
Exercises……………………………………………………………
Text: DECT Phones………………………………………………….
Exercises………………………………………………………………
Lesson Twenty-Eight
Text: Filter (Signal processing)………………………………………
Exercises………………………………………………………………
Text: Linear Continuous-Time Filters…………………………………
Exercises………………………………………………………………
Lesson Twenty-Nine
Text: High-Definition Television……………………………………
Exercises………………………………………………………………
Text: Analog Television vs. Digital Television………………………
Exercises………………………………………………………………
Lesson Thirty
Text: Packet Radio………………………………………………….
Exercises……………………………………………………………..
Text: Cellular Phones……………………………………………….
Exercises………………………………………………………………
Supplementary Reading……………………………………………….
Grammar Reference………………………………………………….
Appendix I……………………………………………………………
Appendix II…………………………………………………………..
Appendix III…………………………………………………………..
Reference Literature …………………………………………………
8
TEXT ONE
Read and translate Text One.
RADIO ENGINEERING
Radio engineering is the science dealing with electromagnetic oscillations and waves in
the radio-frequency range, that is, with methods of generating, amplifying, radiating,
receiving and using such waves. It is a branch of technology concerned with the use of
electromagnetic oscillations and waves in the radio-frequency range for the transmission
of information in such fields as radio communications, radio broadcasting, television,
radar, and radio navigation, control and regulation of machines, mechanisms, technological
processes and in various scientific investigations. The radio-frequency range encompasses
electromagnetic waves with wavelengths from tens of thousands of
kilometers to tenths of a millimeter.
The history of radio engineering began with the work of M. Faraday (1837–46), who
laid the foundation for the doctrine of electric and magnetic fields. Faraday advanced
the idea that the propagation of electric and magnetic effects occurs with a finite velocity
and constitutes a wave process. These ideas were further developed by J. C. Maxwell, who
in 1864 mathematically described known electric and magnetic phenomena through a
system of equations. These equations pointed to the possibility of the existence of an
electromagnetic field capable of propagating through space in the form of electromagnetic
waves.
The development of radio engineering has been closely associated with advances in
radio physics, electronics, the physics of semiconductors, electroacoustics, the theory of
oscillations, information theory, and various branches of mathematics.
This development has also been linked to advances in high-frequency measurements,
and vacuum and semiconductor technologies.
Radio engineering includes a number of divisions, among which are the generation,
amplification, conversion, and control of electric oscillations.
Other divisions include antenna technique, the propagation of radio waves in free
space, in various media (ionosphere, soil) and in guiding systems(cables, waveguides),
the filtration of electromagnetic oscillations, demodulation, and the reproduction of
transmitted signals (speech, music, images telegraph and other signals).
Monitoring, control, and regulation through electromagnetic waves and oscillations (by
means of electronic systems) are also divisions of radio engineering.
Radio frequency (RF) engineering is a subset of electrical engineering that deals with
devices that are designed to operate in the radio frequency spectrum. These devices operate
within the range of about 3 kHz up to 300 GHz.
RF engineering is incorporated into almost everything that transmits or receives a radio
wave, which includes, but is not limited to, mobile phones, radios, Wi-Fi, and two-way
radios.
Radio engineers create and troubleshoot wireless telecommunications equipment.
Called RF engineers, they develop schematics for cell phones and other broadcasting
devices, as well as set up wireless networks and maintain existing ones. RF engineers work
9
with broadcast stations in setting up their networks and performing maintenance on them
once they are operational.
TV engineers work to combine traditional forms of information technology with
emerging digital components in an effort to maintain the equipment that brings images to
TV screens across the country. They are involved in both the studio and the transmitter end,
that is, they maintain a working knowledge of audio/video instrumentation, baseband video,
studio acoustics, video compression and broadcast automation.
Broadcast engineering is the combined field of RT and TV engineering. These
professionals usually possess multiple degrees in computer engineering, systems
technologies, electrical engineering, among several others. Broadcast engineers set up,
maintain and operate equipment that maintains signal integrity, picture quality and sound for
television broadcasts. They also have the same working knowledge that RF engineers, have
to set up wireless networks and maintain radio frequencies for radio broadcasts.
WORD COMBINATIONS AND PHRASES

electromagnetic oscillations to deal with
radio-frequency range radio broadcasting
electromagnetic waves with wavelengths wireless networks
vacuum and semiconductor technologies generation and amplification
to maintain signal integrity to operate within the range
to develop the idea two-way radios
the propagation of radio waves emerging digital components
EXERCISES TO THE TEXT

I. Spell and transcribe the following words:
television, frequency, radio, oscillation, theory, guiding, maintain, equipment,
engineering, wavelength.
II. Find in Text One English equivalents for the following words and phrases and
write them out:
распространение радиоволн, наука, теория информации, радиочастотный
диапазон, электромагнитные колебания, указывать на возможность, магнитные поля,
заложить основу, выявлять неисправность оборудования, электрические и магнитные
явления, колебания, усиление, радиостанция для двусторонней связи, качество
изображения, радиотехника, научные исследования, заключать (в себе), с
ограниченной скоростью, полупроводник, прогресс в радиофизике, направляющие
системы, воспроизведение передаваемых сигналов, подгруппа электротехники.
III. Answer the following questions using the word combinations and phrases:
1. What is radio engineering dealing with? 2. What kind of electromagnetic waves does
the radio-frequency range encompass? 3. Whose work did the history of radio engineering
begin with? 4. What idea did Faraday advance? 5. Who developed his ideas further? 6. What
did Maxwell’s equations point to? 6. What has the development of radio engineering been
closely associated with? 7. What divisions does radio engineering include? 8. Is radio
frequency engineering a subset of mechanical or electrical engineering? 9. What is radio
frequency engineering incorporated into? 10. Do radio engineers troubleshoot wireless
telecommunications equipment? 11. What do radio frequency engineers work with? 12.
10
What do TV engineers work with? 13. Is broadcast engineering the combined field of RT
and TV engineering? Prove your point of view.
IV. Retell Text One.
VOCABULARY EXERCISES
I. Complete the following sentences using the words from the box:
waves engineering step over tubes are
1. The important ….. in the development of radio engineering was made by C.F. Braun,

who proposed (1899–1900) to separate the antenna from the spark discharger. 2. The
development and use of electron ….. brought fundamental changes to all areas of
radio engineering. 3. The development of radio engineering was accompanied by the use
of various frequency ranges of radio ….. . 4. Radar and radio navigation …..
special divisions of radio engineering. 5. Hertz was able to have some control ….. the
frequencies of his radiated waves by altering the inductance and capacitance of his
transmitting and receiving antennas. 6. Modern radio …..enters into practically all areas of
human activity.
II. Find in Text One and copy out sentences in which prepositions through, among
and within are used. Translate them.
III. Fill in prepositions:
1. The early period of radio development was characterized ….usage of strongly
damped waves. 2. The distance of radio communication gradually increased with the
transition to longer wavelengths and the increase …. the power of the transmitter and the
dimensions of the antenna. 3. Many of the systems for automatic control and data
processing are based … the techniques of radio engineering. 4. Radio engineering is
intertwined ….. various branches of science. 5. Investigations of atmospheric interference
with radio reception resulted in the science ….. radio astronomy. 6. ….. 1886 and
1888 Heinrich Rudolf Hertz studied Maxwell's theory and conducted scientific experiments
that validated it.
Keys: in, of, by, between, with, on.
SPEAKING:
Say what services you get by mobile phone.
MATERIAL FOR RENDERING AND DISCUSSION
I. Study the following text for more information.
RADIO PROPAGATION
Radio propagation is the behavior of radio waves when they are transmitted, or
propagated from one point on the Earth to another, or into various parts of
the atmosphere. As a form of electromagnetic radiation, like light waves, radio waves are
11
affected by the phenomena of reflection, refraction, diffraction,
absorption, polarization and scattering. Radio propagation is affected by the daily changes
of water vapor in the troposphere and ionization in the upper atmosphere, due to the Sun.
Understanding the effects of varying conditions on radio propagation has many practical
applications, from choosing frequencies for international short wave
broadcasters, to designing reliable mobile telephone systems, to radio navigation, to
operation of radar systems.
Radio propagation is also affected by several other factors determined by its path from
point to point. This path can be a direct line of sight path or an over-the-horizon path aided
by refraction in the ionosphere, which is a region between approximately 60 and 600 km.
Factors influencing ionospheric radio signal propagation can include solar flares,
geomagnetic storms, ionospheric layer tilts, and solar proton events. Radio waves at
different frequencies propagate in different ways. At extra low frequencies and very low
frequencies the wavelength is very much larger than the
separation between the earth's surface and the D layer of the ionosphere, so electromagnetic
waves may propagate in this region as a waveguide. Indeed, for frequencies below 20 kHz,
the wave propagates as a single waveguide mode with a horizontal magnetic field and
vertical electric field. The interaction of radio waves with the ionized regions of the
atmosphere makes radio propagation more complex to predict and analyze than in free
space. Ionospheric radio propagation has a strong connection to space weather. A sudden
ionospheric disturbance or shortwave fadeout is observed when the x-rays associated with
a solar flare ionize the ionospheric D-region. Enhanced ionization in that region increases
the absorption of radio signals passing through it. During the strongest solar x-ray flares,
complete absorption of virtually all ionospherically propagated radio signals in the sunlit
hemisphere can occur. These solar flares can disrupt HF radio propagation and affect GPS
accuracy. Since radio propagation is not fully predictable, such services as emergency
locator transmitters, in-flight communication with ocean-crossing aircraft, and
some television broadcasting have been moved to communications satellites. A satellite link,
though expensive, can offer highly predictable and stable line of sight coverage of a given
area.
(From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)
Commentary
D-layer: the lowest region of the ionosphere (35 to 50 miles up) that reflects low
frequency radio waves.
HF: High Frequency the 3–30 MHz RF frequency range (band).
GPS: The Global Positioning System is a space-based satellite navigation system that
provides location and time information in all weather conditions, anywhere on or near the
Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites.
II. Study the following words and word combinations:
radio propagation, from one point to another, a direct line of sight, reliable, accuracy,
electromagnetic radiation, to be affected by, refraction, scattering, short wave broadcasters,
solar flares, ionospheric layer tilts, low frequencies, the earth's surface, to propagate, a
waveguide, to predict, a sudden disturbance, shortwave fadeout, the absorption of radio
signals, to disrupt, water vapor, sunlit hemisphere.
12
III. Answer the following questions using the words and word combinations:
1. What can you say about radio propagation? 2. What are radio waves affected by? 3.
Does understanding the effects of varying conditions on radio propagation have many
practical applications? 4. What other factors is radio propagation affected by? 5. What do
you know about factors influencing ionospheric radio signal propagation? 6. How do radio
waves at different frequencies propagate? 7. When does the wave propagate as a single
waveguide mode with a horizontal magnetic field and vertical electric field? 8. What makes
radio propagation more complex to predict and analyze than in free space? 9. When is a
sudden ionospheric disturbance or shortwave fadeout observed? 10. What increases the
absorption of radio signals? 11. Can solar flares disrupt HF radio propagation and
affect GPS accuracy? 12. Why have such services as emergency locator transmitters, in-
flight communication with ocean-crossing aircraft, and some television broadcasting been
moved to communications satellites?
IV. Retell the above text.
V. Ask all types of questions to the sentences:
1. The ionosphere absorbs the energy of radio waves. 2. Radio engineering itself is a
vast field comprising radio communication, television, radiolocation, radioastronomy,
radiotelemetry, cybernetics, etc. 3. Radio communication has come to play an important part
in our life. 4. Radio communication network can also be used to control the operation of
power systems, gas and oil pipelines. 5. This article is about the story of radio. 6. They
offered me some radio receivers last week. 7. Electricity cables stretch over the fields. 8.
Lasers are now used for many scientific, medical and industrial purposes. 9. They will use
such devices for amplification of radio signals. 10. Radio devices perform various
communication tasks.
VI. Translate the following sentences into English:
1.Солнечная активность существенно влияет на состояние ионосферы. 2.
Радиоволны, излучаемые наземной станцией, распространяются прямолинейно, как и
все виды электромагнитных колебаний. 3. Существенное влияние на распространение
радиоволн оказывает магнитное поле Земли. 4. Радиоизлучение охватывает очень
широкий диапазон частот. 5. Дифракция радиоволн возникает при встрече радиоволн с
препятствиями. 6. В свободном пространстве радиоволны распространяются
прямолинейно и не испытывают поглощения. 7. Влияние среды на распространение
электромагнитных волн проявляется в изменении амплитуды поля волны, изменении
скорости и направления распространения волны, и в искажении передаваемых
сигналов.
VII. Fill in prepositions and then comment the text:

The clockwork radio
Trevor Baylis is an inventor. … 1991, he heard about the problem of bringing health
information to people in rural Africa. Radio was the best way but people had no electricity
and couldn’t pay … expensive batteries. So he invented a radio which doesn’t need mains
power or batteries. Instead, it consists … a spring, gears and a small generator.
13
So how does his clockwork radio actually function? As you turn the handle … the side
of the radio, you wind up a spring. It’s the same kind of steel spring used in car safety belts.
It takes 60 turns to wind … the spring fully.
When the spring starts to unwind, the gears engage. There are three 1:10 step-up gears.
The last step-up link is a pulley. Pulleys run more quietly than gears so this reduces noise.
Each time the first gear turns, the generator turns one thousand times. As it turns, it
generates electricity – a voltage of 3V … about 30 mA. The spring has enough power to run
the radio for 30 minutes … you have to wind it up again.
More than two million clockwork radios are in use all … the world. Trevor Baylis has
also invented an ‘electric shoe’. It charges batteries as you walk.
Keys: over, of, before, for, in, on, up, at.
TEXT TWO
Read and translate Text Two.
DEVELOPMENT OF RADIO TECHNOLOGY
Radio is based on the studies of James Clerk Maxwell who developed the mathematical
theory of electromagnetic waves, and Heinrich Hertz who devised an apparatus for
generating and detecting them. Guglielmo Marconi, recognizing the possibility of using
these waves for a wireless communication system, gave a demonstration (1895) of the
wireless telegraph, using Hertz’s spark coil as a transmitter and Edouard Branly’s coherer (a
radio detector in which the conductance between two conductors is improved by the passage
of a high-frequency current) as the first radio receiver. The effective operating distance of
this system increased as the equipment was improved, and in 1901, Marconi succeeded in
sending the letter S across the Atlantic Ocean using Morse code. In 1904, Sir John A.
Fleming developed the first vacuum tube, which was able to detect radio waves
electronically. Two years later, Lee de Forest invented the audion, a type of triode, or three-
element tube, which not only detected radio waves but also amplified them.
Radio telephony – the transmission of music and speech – began in 1906 with the work
of Reginald Fessenden and Ernst F.W. Alexanderson. In 1913 Edwin H. Armstrong patented
the circuit for the regenerative receiver and long-range radio reception became practicable.
In 1926 the first broadcasting network was formed, ushering in the golden age of radio.
Generally credited with creating the first modern broadband FM system, Armstrong built
and operated the first FM radio station.
The radio is probably the only invention which has found universal recognition and
application in a comparatively short time.
Radio supplies the communication service which is so essential to the modern world,
and meeting these needs it has become a rapidly developing industry itself. It is from radio
that the subject of electronics was born which, being applied to automation, brought such
remarkable changes to the technique of today.
Radios that combine transmitters and receivers are now widely used for
communications. Cellular telephones, despite the name, are another popular form of radio
used for communication.
14
Advances in radio communication and spectrum management have led to tipping points
in technology, for example the invention of the semiconductor and microprocessor, the shift
to a digital, converged, personalized, broadband world, and now the advent of spectrum
cognition in radio devices. During this period radio has moved from utility-based to
technology-based devices, and wireless has evolved from an exclusive technology to
become a core function embedded in every device.
to be based on the electronic (vacuum) tube

electromagnetic waves to detect radio waves
a wireless communication system the only invention
a spark coil to meet the needs
transmitters and receivers to be applied to
to improve the equipment long-range radio reception
cellular telephones to develop the mathematical theory
a broadband world the invention of the semiconductor
remarkable changes
I. Answer the following questions using the word combinations and phrases:
1. Whose studies is radio based on? 2. What theory did James Clerk Maxwell develop?
3. Who devised an apparatus for generating and detecting electromagnetic waves? 4. When
did Guglielmo Marconi give a demonstration of the wireless telegraph? 5. What happened in
1901? 6. Who developed the first vacuum tube? 7. Was it able to detect radio waves
electronically? 8. Did a three-element tube only detect radio waves? 9. When was the first
broadcasting network formed? 10. What did Armstrong build? 11. What do radios combine?
12. Are cellular phones a popular form of radio used for communication? 13. Why has the
radio found universal recognition and application in a comparatively short time? 14. What
have advances in radio communication and spectrum management led to?
II. Spell and transcribe the following words:
mathematical theory, wireless, coil, succeed, electronically, amplify, broadband,
receiver, invention, service, technique, microprocessor, every device.
III. Find in Text Two English equivalents for the following words and phrases and
write them out:
передача музыки и речи, электромагнитные волны, изобрести аппарат, система
беспроводной связи, ток высокой частоты, вакуумная (электронная) лампа,
обнаруживать радиоволны, усиливать, широковещательная сеть, передатчик, активная
проводимость, изобретение, за сравнительно короткое время, сотовые телефоны,
регенеративный приёмник, приём радиосигналов с большим радиусом действия,
быстро развивающийся, прогресс в управлении спектром, изобретение
полупроводников и микропроцессоров, устройства на основе вспомогательных
средств, переход к.
15
I. Translate the following sentences into English using word combinations and
phrases from Text Two.
1. Джеймс Максвелл разработал математическую теорию электромагнитных волн.
2. Радио является важным изобретением. 3. Этот прибор может обнаруживать
электромагнитные волны. 4. Эти волны используются для систем беспроводной
передачи. 5. Спектр радиочастот – важный естественный ресурс для беспроводных
соединений. 6. Маркони использовал код Морзе, чтобы послать букву S через
Атлантический океан.
II. Fill in prepositions:
1. Being used ….. measurement of distances, radio devices have greatly contributed to
the development of radio navigation. 2. The most reliable way to detect an artificial satellite
and to determine its orbit is ….. radio. 3. For more than a century, this process has proven to
be responsive to the accelerating growth ….. radio spectrum needs. 4. Speed and quality
vary widely ….. fixed and mobile networks. 5. Two-way radios operating …frequencies
near 27 megahertz, most typically used in vehicles for communication while traveling,
became popular in the 1970s. 6. The turn of the century saw a potential rebirth for radio as
mobile digital radio entered the market ….a satellite-based subscription service. 7.
Competition among different mobile broadband technologies is putting pressure on mobile
operators to continuously innovate in terms …..services.
Keys: in, of, for, among, with, by, at.
III. Complete the following text using the words from the box:
selection, analogue, frequency, allows, selects, mobility, single
WHAT IS DAB?
DAB stands for Digital Audio Broadcasting and is a method for the terrestrial digital
transmission of radio signals. DAB … for a much more efficient use of … spectrum than
traditional analogue radio. Instead of just one service per frequency as is the case on FM,
DAB permits up to nine (or more) services on a … frequency.
The interference that commonly disturbs … reception, which is caused by radio signals
bouncing off buildings and hills, is eliminated with DAB signals. Since DAB automatically
… the strongest regional transmitter, reception is much clearer.
DAB is broadcast on terrestrial networks and consumers are able to receive services,
with a … of over 1000 different devices. Since DAB was originally designed for … ,
consumers have the added advantage of listening to services in the car and while on the
move.
IV. Read the following text and put the verbs in brackets into the correct form:
RADIO SPORT: A SERIOUS BUSINESS
In Russian vocabulary the electronics enthusiasts … (to know) as "radio sportsmen". Radio
sport … (to be) a highly organized, serious activity supported and administered by the
government. The organization responsible for administering radio sport … (to call) the Radio
16
Sports Federation. In radio sport, the key word is competition. The highest award, one held by a
relatively few sportsmen, is "Master of Radio Sport".
One particularly interesting form of radio competition … (to call) "Fox Hunting". This … (to
be) a contest in which teams of "hunters" (young people carrying portable direction finders) race
against time to find "foxes" (hidden transmitters). The rules … (to call) for the three "foxes" to
take up positions one or two miles apart in a large wooded area. At the starting signal, the "foxes"
… (to begin) identifying themselves by voice announcements at one-minute intervals, each "fox"
therefore being on the air once every five minutes. The announcements, which … (to be) very
brief, … (to make) on amateur bands by means of low-powered transmitters, usually homemade.
The winning "hunter" … (to be) the one who first locates all three "foxes" in sequence. The kind
of competitive spirit that … (to characterize) radio sport is typical of electronics in general.
Whether it (to be) the technological state of the art, TV via communication satellite, or techniques
for electronic training, the people … (to be) fully aware of the importance of communications-
electronics in the space age, and they … (to intend) to remain competitive in every possible way.
Speaking:
Discuss the arguments for the following problems. Make use of the vocabulary of
the topic.
1. Development of radio technology.
2. The role of wireless communication.
I. Study the text and retell it.
HISTORY OF RADIO AND ELECTRONICS

Edwin Howard Armstrong
Edwin Armstrong was one of the great pioneers of early radio communications or
wireless technology, and also an inventor of the regenerative radio, superheterodyne radio
and wideband FM.
The biography of Edwin Armstrong reveals a man of great innovation, but one who was
exploited by the large companies of the time. He was primarily a scientist and inventor and
not a businessman.
In his life, Edwin H Armstrong was the first to develop the regenerative radio receiver;
to develop and construct superheterodyne receiver; the super-regenerative receiver; and he
also saw the benefits of wideband FM which he again pioneered. He pioneered more in the
field of radio communications, than most other inventors that had worked in this field.
Without Edwin H Armstrong, radio communications and broadcast technology would
have not developed as fast as it did.
Edwin Howard Armstrong was born on 18 December 1890 in the Chelsea district of
New York City. His parents were John and Emily Armstrong.
His father worked for the American branch of the British publishing organization,
Oxford University Press which published a variety of books including Bibles and classical
17
works. He eventually managed to work his way up the organization, finally reaching he
position of Vice President. His mother was a teacher in a public school.
When Edwin H Armstrong was only eight years old he contracted rheumatic fever and
as a result he was taken out of school for two years. In addition to this the rheumatic fever
left him with a twitch or "tic" that occurred particularly when he was excited or stressed.
As a result of his disability and time out of school, he became withdrawn and undertook
many solitary activities. He became particularly interested in mechanical and electrical
apparatus.
Having heard about the exploits of Marconi, Faraday and others as well as reading
books about inventions, the new radio communications technology fired his imagination.
He started by building crystal sets and he also erected a large antenna in the garden of
his parents' home. He also tried to investigate any new devices that were discovered and as a
result he investigated the new audion device developed by Lee De Forest.
Armstrong finished his studies at Yonkers high school and was admitted to Columbia
University in New York in 1909. Columbia is the oldest institution of higher learning in the
state of New York and the fifth oldest in the United States.
Edwin Armstrong entered the Department of Electrical Engineering and immersed
himself in his studies with a level of determination that characterized him for the rest of his
life.
Professor Michael Pupin, an experienced pioneer in the field of electrical science and
communications, supported Armstrong. He even gave him access to a basement laboratory
where he was able to develop and test some of his ideas.
One of the issues Armstrong had faced when making crystal sets was that he needed a
large antenna and even then the signals were weak and would not be easy to listen to.
Originally De Forest's audion had only been used for rectifying radio signals, i.e.
detecting them. However using this device Armstrong used it not only to amplify, but also
provide positive feedback. Armstrong had studied the audion of triode valve for a number of
years, and had a better understanding of its operation than the inventor himself.
Using the audion in an amplifying mode and with positive feedback, Edwin Armstrong
was able to achieve very high levels of gain, and listen to distant signals that would not have
been previously possible.
As his idea was revolutionary, Armstrong wanted to patent the idea. He tried to borrow
the money from his father to do this, but fearing it would impede the studies, Armstrong's
father refused. This meant Armstrong had to sell his beloved motorcycle and borrow from
relatives.
Accordingly Edwin Armstrong applied for his patent in 1913 and this was duly granted
the following year.
Armstrong invented the regenerative radio receiver while he was still a student at
Columbia University.
He managed to complete all his developments and what was effectively original
research while he was an undergraduate student. Armstrong completed his studies and
graduated with a degree in electrical engineering in 1913.
After graduating Armstrong was offered the position of assistant. During his time as a
postgraduate at Columbia he set up a large antenna and was able to demonstrate long
18
distance radio communications reception to his departmental head, Pupin, and then to many
others .
Once De Forest had seen the way Armstrong was using the audion. De Forest started to
claim the idea was his. Indeed he had observed the howling cause by feedback and had tried
to reduce it, but he had never harnessed it or included it in any patents.
It was also clear that De Forest did not properly understand the operation of his audion,
whereas Armstrong had a much better grasp.
(wwwRadio-electronics.com./ info)
Commentary
Audion: an electronic amplifying vacuum tube consisted of a partially evacuated glass
tube containing three electrodes, a heated filament and a grid.

the regenerative radio, superheterodyne radio, a man of great innovation, to reveal, to
see the benefits, broadcast technology, to pioneer in the field of, to work one’s way up the
organization, to contract rheumatic fever, solitary activities, to become interested in, to erect,
to immerse oneself in, to rectify radio signals, to amplify, positive feedback, a very high
level of gain, to borrow money, to impede the studies, to be duly granted, to graduate with a
degree in, to set up an antenna, exploits, the howling cause.
III. Write some problem questions to the above text for class discussion.
IV. Speak on the problem solved by Edwin Armstrong.
V. Study the following information. What is your opinion on the topic?
HOW THE RADIO SPECTRUM WORKS

You've probably heard about "AM radio" and "FM radio," "VHF" and
"UHF" television, "citizens band radio," "short wave radio" and so on. Have you ever
wondered what all of those different names really mean? What's the difference between
them?
A radio wave is an electromagnetic wave propagated by an antenna. Radio waves have
different frequencies, and by tuning a radio receiver to a specific frequency you can pick up
a specific signal.
In the United States, the FCC (Federal Communications Commission) decides who is
able to use which frequencies for which purposes, and it issues licenses to stations for
specific frequencies.
When you listen to a radio station and the announcer says, "You are listening to 91.5
FM WRKX The Rock!," what the announcer means is that you are listening to a radio
station broadcasting an FM radio signal at a frequency of 91.5 megahertz, with FCC-
assigned call letters of WRKX. Megahertz means "millions of cycles per second," so "91.5
megahertz" means that the transmitter at the radio station is oscillating at a frequency of
91,500,000 cycles per second. Your FM (frequency modulated) radio can tune in to that
specific frequency and give you clear reception of that station. All FM radio stations
transmit in a band of frequencies between 88 megahertz and 108 megahertz. This band of
the radio spectrum is used for no other purpose but FM radio broadcasts.
19
In the same way, AM radio is confined to a band from 535 kilohertz to 1,700 kilohertz
(kilo meaning "thousands," so 535,000 to 1,700,000 cycles per second). So an AM
(amplitude modulated) radio station that says, "This is AM 680 WPTF" means that the radio
station is broadcasting an AM radio signal at 680 kilohertz and its FCC-assigned call letters
are WPTF.
(by Marshall Brain)
TEXT THREE
Developers of Radio Communication
Read and translate Text Two (A and B).
A. A. S. Popov
During the Chicago World's Columbian Exhibition and the Third International

Electrical Congress, Alexander Stepanovich Popov of Kronstadt was a representative of
the Russian Torpedo School. Afterward, he worked on his wireless designs. Popov
conducted experiments along the lines of Hertz's research. In 1894-95 he built his first radio
receiver, an improved version of coherer-based design by Oliver Lodge. In 1895, he built
a coherer. Popov constructed a filings coherer, one form of which was used in some
surveying experiments by the Russian government. Early in 1895, he used the coherer auto-
tapping mechanism, and substituted for the galvanometer an ordinary telegraphic relay. He
operated this apparatus at a distance by means of a large radiator. One terminal of his
coherer was connected to a conductor fastened to a mast about 30ft. high on the top of the
Institute building and the other terminal of the coherer was grounded.
Popov presented his radio receiver to the Russian Physical and Chemical Society on
May 7, 1895 — the day has been celebrated in the Russian Federation as "Radio Day". On
this day, Popov performed a public demonstration of transmission and reception of radio
waves used for communication at the Russian Physical and Chemical Society, using his
coherer. The paper on his findings was published the same year (December 15, 1895).
Popov had recorded, at the end of 1895 that he was hoping for distant signaling with radio
waves. He did not apply for a patent for this invention. Popov's early experiments were
transmissions of only 600 yards (550 m). Popov was the first to develop a practical
communication system based on the coherer, and is usually considered by the Russians to
have been the inventor of radio.
In 1895-96 Popov and others utilized the coherer to show the existence of atmospheric
electricity, using for the purpose a vertical wire attached to the coherer. On March 24, 1896,
Popov demonstrated in public the transmission of radio waves, between different campus
buildings, to the Saint Petersburg Physical Society. Per other accounts, however, Popov
achieved these results only in December 1897, that is, after publication of Marconi's patent.
In 1898 his signal was received 6 miles (9.7 km) away, and in 1899 130 miles (210 km)
away.
20
His receiver proved to be able to sense lightning strokes at distances of up to 30 km,
thus functioning as a lightning detector. In late 1895, Popov built a version of the receiver
that was capable of automatically recording lightning strokes on paper rolls. Popov's system
was eventually extended to function as a wireless telegraph, with a Morse key attached to
the transmitter. There's some dispute regarding the first public test of this design. It is
frequently stated that Popov used his radio to send a Morse code message over a distance of
250 m in 26 March 1896 (three months before Marconi's patent was filed). However,
contemporary confirmations of this transmission are lacking. It is more likely that the
experiment took place in December 1897.
In 1900, a radio station was established under Popov's instructions on Hogland Island
(Suursaari) to provide two-way communication by wireless telegraphy between the Russian
naval base and the crew of the battleship General-Admiral Apraksin. By February 5
messages were being received reliably. The wireless messages were relayed to Hogland
Island by a station some 25 miles (40 km) away at Kymi (nowadays Kotka) on
the Finnish coast. Later Popov experimented with ship-to-shore communication. Popov died
in 1905 and his claim was not pressed by the Russian government until 1945.
Commentary
Coherer: A coherer is a device of a glass tube with two electrodes. Small metal filings
are placed in a tube. The action of the device is based on the effect of electrical discharges in
the metal powder.
Coherer auto-tapping mechanism: It functioned automatically after the detection of
each pulse of electromagnetic waves. The tapping mechanism was at the bottom, the coherer
was the glass tube on the right-hand side about half way up, and the relay was at the top.

his wireless design auto-tapping mechanism
to conduct experiments to operate the apparatus,
a radio receiver transmission and reception
coherer-based design to apply for a patent
to fasten to a mast a lightning detector
the inventor of the radio attached to
to provide two-way communication surveying experiments

representative, coherer, apply, galvanometer, relay, communication, lightning,
confirmation.
II. Find in the text the English equivalents for the following:
усовершенствованная версия, быть представителем, заменить что-либо,
атмосферное электричество, согласно другим оценкам, настаивать на правах
(претензии), существует полемика (спор), изобретатель радио, передача и прием
радиоволн, работать над, удары молнии, современное подтверждение,
двунаправленная связь, надёжно, проводить эксперименты, топографическое
21
определение, опилки (из-под напильника); таким же образом, как исследование Герца;
автоматическая система встряхивания когерера.
III. Find in text A the synonyms of the following words:
various, to carry out, concerning, remote, often, added to.
IV. Answer the following questions using the word combinations and phrases:
1. Where was A. S. Popov as a representative of the Russian Torpedo School? 2. What
experiments did he conduct? 3. When did he build his first radio receiver? 4. What kind of
version was it? 5. Who constructed a filings coherer? 6. How did his coherer operate? 7.
When and who to did Popov present his radio receiver? 8. What kind of demonstration did
he perform? 9. Did he apply for a patent? 10. Was Popov’s receiver able to sense lightning
strokes? 11. Why could it function as a lightning detector? 12. Could Popov’s system
function as a wireless telegraph? 13. Why is there a dispute regarding the first public test of
this design? 14. When was a radio station established to provide two-way communication?
15. When did Popov die?
V. Retell Text Three A.
I. Translate the following sentences into English using words and word
combinations of the topical vocabulary:
1. На выставке он познакомился с опытами Герца. 2. После командировки в
Чикаго А.С.Попов стал искать возможных приложений этих лучей для передачи
сигналов на расстояние. 3. В 1895 г. Попов продемонстрировал передачу знаков азбуки
Морзе без помощи проводов. 4. В качестве индикатора он выбрал радиокондуктор,
предложенный французским физиком Э.Бранли и названный позже когерером. 5.
Когерер представлял собой заполненную металлическими опилками небольшую
стеклянную трубку с двумя электродами на концах. 6. При проведении опытов он
заметил, что присоединение к когереру вертикального металлического провода
(антенны) приводило к увеличению расстояния приёма.
II. Choose the right word:
1. Popov’s (claim/ requirement) was not pressed by the Russian government until 1945.
2. This apparatus kept up wireless (connection / communication) for three weeks between
these stations. 3. Then he used a more reliable and (sensitive/sentimental) method for
detecting electromagnetic waves. 4. A new (design/project) of the transmitter played an
important role. 5. The (repulsed/reflected) oscillations produced in conductors by a capacitor
discharge gave rise to interference phenomena.
SPEAKING:
Discuss Popov’s contribution to science.
B. Guglielmo Marconi
22
Guglielmo Marconi studied at the Leghorn Technical School, and acquainted himself
with the published writings of Professor Augusto Righi of the University of Bologna. In
1894, Sir William Preece delivered a paper to the Royal Institution in London on electric
signaling without wires. In 1894 at the Royal Institution lectures, Lodge delivered "The
Work of Hertz and Some of His Successors". Marconi was said to have read, while on
vacation in 1894, about the experiments that Hertz did in the 1880s. Marconi also read about
Tesla's work. It was at this time that Marconi began to understand that radio waves could be
used for wireless communications. At first Marconi used a transmitter to ring a bell in a
receiver in his attic laboratory. He then moved his experiments out-of-doors on the family
estate near Bologna, Italy, to communicate further. He replaced Hertz’s vertical dipole with
a vertical wire topped by a metal sheet, with an opposing terminal connected to the ground.
On the receiver side, Marconi replaced the spark gap with a metal powder coherer, a
detector developed by Edouard Branly and other experimenters. Marconi transmitted radio
signals for about 1.5 miles (2.4 km) at the end of 1895.
Marconi was awarded a patent for radio with British patent No. 12,039, Improvements
in Transmitting Electrical Impulses and Signals. The complete specification was filed March
2, 1897. This was Marconi's initial patent for the radio, though it used various earlier
techniques of various other experimenters and resembled the instrument demonstrated by
others (including Popov). During this time spark-gap wireless telegraphy was widely
researched. In July, 1896, Marconi got his invention and new method of telegraphy to the
attention of Preece, who had for the previous twelve years interested himself in the
development of wireless telegraphy by the inductive-conductive method. On June 4, 1897,
he delivered "Signaling through Space without Wires". Preece devoted considerable time to
exhibiting and explaining the Marconi apparatus at the Royal Institution in London, stating
that Marconi invented a new relay which had high sensitiveness.
The Marconi Company Ltd. was founded by Marconi in 1897, known as the Wireless
Telegraph Trading Signal Company . Also in 1897, Marconi established the radio station
at Niton, Isle of Wight, England. Marconi's wireless telegraphy was inspected by the Post
Office Telegraph authorities; they made a series of experiments with Marconi's system of
telegraphy without connecting wires, in the Bristol Channel. In October of 1897 wireless
signals were sent from Salisbury Plain to Bath, a distance of 34 miles (55 km). Around 1900
Marconi developed an empirical law that, for simple vertical sending and receiving antennas
of equal height, the maximum working telegraphic distance varied as the square of the
height of the antenna. This became known as Marconi's law.
In 1898, Marconi opened a radio factory in Hall Street, Chelmsford, England,
employing around 50 people. In 1899, Marconi announced his invention of the "iron-
mercury-iron coherer with telephone detector" in a paper presented at Royal Society,
London. At the end of 1898 electric wave telegraphy established by Marconi had
demonstrated its utility, especially for communication between ship and ship, and ship and
shore. In 1899, he transmitted messages across the English Channel. Also in 1899, Marconi
delivered "Wireless Telegraphy" to the Institution of Electrical Engineers.
The Marconi Company was renamed Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company in 1900.
In 1901, Marconi claimed to have received daytime transatlantic radio frequency signals at
a wavelength of 366 metres (820 kHz). Marconi established a wireless transmitting station at
23
Marconi House, Rosslare Strand, Co. Wexford in 1901 to act as a link between Poldhu in
Cornwall and Clifden in Co. Galway. His announcement on 12 December 1901, using a
152.4-metre (500 ft) kite-supported antenna for reception, stated that the message was
received at Signal Hill in St John's, Newfoundland (now part of Canada) via signals
transmitted by the company's new high-power station at Poldhu, Cornwall. The message
received had been prearranged and was known to Marconi, consisting of the Morse letter 'S'
- three dots.
WORDS AND WORD COMBINATIONS

electric signaling designed for
to acquaint oneself with connected to the ground
a vertical dipole to be awarded
the spark gap to devote time to
the inductive-conductive method without connecting wires
to invent a new relay kite-supported antenna
Marconi’s law
Commentary
Niton: Niton is a village on the Isle of Wight.
William Henry Preece (1834-1913) is a Welsh electrical engineer and inventor.
Edouard Branly (1844-1940) is a French inventor, physicist.
Augusto Righi (1850- 1920): an Italian physicist and a pioneer in the study of
electromagnetism; the professor of G. Marconi.
Rosslare Strand, Co. Wexford is located in the South east of Ireland in the historic
county of Wexford.
Clifden in Co. Galway: the town was founded in 1812 and is located in the west of
County Galway (Ireland).
I. Put your own questions to text B. Let your classmates answer them.
II. Find in text B the English equivalents for the following words and word
combinations and memorize them:
лаборатория на мансарде, предоставил документы по, семейное имение,
первоначальный патент, иметь сходство с прибором, основал радиостанцию, длина
волны, без проводов, предыдущий; разноимённый зажим, соединённый с землёй;
объявить о своём изобретении, полученное сообщение, простой, вертикальная
антенна, в отпуске, связь между кораблем и берегом, радиочастотные сигналы,
интересоваться развитием, беспроводная передающая станция, змейковый аэростат.
III. Retell Text B.
aerial developed first spark jar transmitted discharge
24
1. Marconi ……. radio signals for about 1.5 miles (2.4km) at the end of 1895. 2.
Electromagnetic waves can be generated by the …… of a capacitor. 3. David Hughes ….. a
way to interrupt his induction balance to produce a series of sparks. 4. At …. Marconi used a
transmitter to ring a bell in a receiver in his laboratory. 5. In October, 1899, the progress of
the yachts in the international race was successfully reported by …… telegraphy. 6. B.W.
Feddersen succeeded in experiments with the Leyden ….. to prove that electric sparks were
composed of damped oscillations. 7. Marconi replaced the ….. gap with a metal powder
coherer.
II. Find in Text B and copy out sentences in which the prepositions on, for, with,
without are used. Translate them.
III. Complete the text about developments in radio and television. Put the verbs in
brackets in the correct form: Past Simple or Present Perfect.
In just over a hundred years, radio ….. (develop) into a major form of entertainment
and communication. Marconi ….. (invent) a wireless telegraph system in 1896. This …..
(be) the birth of radio. Voice transmission ….. (start) in 1909 following the invention of the
valve.
Semiconductors ….. (make) it possible to develop much smaller, portable radios. The
introduction in recent years of digital radios ….. (allow) us to enjoy much better sound
quality.
There ….. (be) many changes in television too. In the UK, the BBC ….. (start) daily TV
broadcasts in 1936. Colour broadcasts …. (begin) in the late 1960s. Since the 1970s satellite
broadcasting …. (allow) viewers a wider choice of programmes. The recent introduction of
digital TV ….. (mean) better picture and sound quality. Manufacturers …. now …..
(develop) entertainment systems which include television, radio, DVD recorder / player, and
computer. The Internet ….. (make) it possible to enjoy radio and television from around the
world on our PCs.
SPEAKING:
Do you agree with the following statement?
The world will be right placing Marconi’s name on the highest pinnacle, in relation to
aerial electric telegraphy.
I. Study the following text. Learn to speak about early attempts at wireless
communication.
Wireless telegraphy
Before the discovery of electromagnetic waves and the development of radio

communication there were many wireless telegraph systems proposed or tried out.
25
In April 1872 William Henry Ward received U.S. Patent 126,356 for a wireless
telegraphy system where he theorized that convection currents in the atmosphere could carry
signals like a telegraph wire. A few months after Ward received his patent, Mahlon
Loomis of West Virginia received U.S. Patent 129,971 for a "wireless telegraph" in July
1872. This claimed to utilize atmospheric electricity to eliminate the overhead wire used by
the existing telegraph systems. It did not contain diagrams or specific methods and it did not
refer to or incorporate any known scientific theory. It was similar to William Henry Ward's
patent.
Towards the end of 1875, while experimenting with the telegraph, Thomas Edison
noted a phenomenon that he termed "etheric force", announcing it to the press on November
28. He abandoned this research when E. Thomson, among others, ridiculed the idea. The
idea was not based on the electromagnetic waves described by Maxwell. In 1885, Edison
took out U.S. Patent 465,971 on a system of electrical wireless communication between
ships (which later he sold to the Marconi Company). The patent, however, was based on the
mutual-inductively coupled or magnetically coupled communication.
An alternative form of Wireless telephony is recorded in four patents for the
photophone, invented jointly by Alexander Graham Bell and Charles Sumner Tainter in
1880. The photophone allowed for the transmission of sound on a beam of light, and on June
3, 1880 Bell and Tainter transmitted the world's first wireless telephone message on their
newly invented form of telecommunication.
Nathan Stubblefield claimed to have developed radio between 1885 and 1892, but his
devices seemed to have worked by induction transmission rather than radio transmission.
Hughes
In 1879 the experimenter and inventor David Edward Hughes working in London

discovered that a bad contact in a Bell telephone he was using in his experiments seamed to
be sparking when he worked on a nearby induction balance (an early form of metal
detector). He developed an improved detector to pick up this unknown "extra current" based
on his new microphone design (similar to later detectors known as coherers or crystal
detectors) and developed a way to interrupt his induction balance to produce a series of
sparks. By trial and error experiments he eventually found he could pick up these "aerial
waves" as he carried his telephone device down the street out to a range of 500 yards
(460 m).
On February 20, 1880 he demonstrated his technology to representatives of the Royal
Society including President of the Society. Stokes was convinced the phenomenon Hughes
was demonstrating was merely electromagnetic induction, not a type of conduction through
the air. Hughes was not a physicist and seemed to have accepted Stokes observations and did
not pursue the experiments any further.
Heinrich Hertz
Between 1886 and 1888 Heinrich Rudolf Hertz studied Maxwell's theory and

conducted scientific experiments that validated it. He engineered a method of detecting
spark-gap radio waves by observing that another unpowered spark-gap, acting as an antenna,
26
would absorb the radio energy and convert it back into an electric spark. Hertz published his
results in a series of papers between 1887 and 1890, and again in complete book form in
1893.
The first of the papers published, "On Very Rapid Electric Oscillations", gives an
account of the chronological course of his investigation, as far as it was carried out up to the
end of the year 1886 and the beginning of 1887.
For the first time, electromagnetic radio waves ("Hertzian waves") were intentionally
and unequivocally proven to have been transmitted through free space by a spark-gap
device, and detected over a short distance.
Hertz was able to have some control over the frequencies of his radiated waves by
altering the inductance and capacitance of his transmitting and receiving antennas. He
focused the electromagnetic waves using a corner reflector and a parabolic reflector, to
demonstrate that radio behaved the same as light, as Maxwell's electromagnetic theory had
predicted more than 20 years earlier. He demonstrated that radio had all the properties of
waves, and discovered that the electromagnetic equations could be reformulated into
a partial differential equation called the wave equation.
Oliver Joseph Lodge
One of the first investigators to notice and measure stationary waves on wires produced
by direct coupling (resonance) with the coatings of a Leyden jar was Sir Oliver Lodge,
entitled "Experiments On The Discharge Of Leyden Jars" (1891). On June 1, 1894, Oliver
Lodge at the Royal Institution lectures, delivered "The Work of Hertz and Some of His
Successors". Lodge performed a transmission on August 14, 1894. Lodge did this at a
meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science at Oxford
University. Also in 1894, Lodge would state that Alexander Muirhead clearly foresaw the
telegraphic importance of the transmission of transverse Hertzian waves. A convenient
method of establishing stationary electric waves on wires is one which is generally
attributed to Ernst Lecher, and called the Lecher arrangement. As a matter of fact, it
originated with Lodge and Hertz.
On that day in August 1894, Lodge demonstrated the reception of Morse code signaling
via radio waves using a "coherer". He later improved Branly's coherer by adding a
"trembler" which dislodged clumped filings, thus restoring the device's sensitivity. In August
1898 he got U.S. Patent 609,154, "Electric Telegraphy". This patent utilized the concept of
"syntonic" tuning. In 1912 Lodge sold the patent to Marconi.
In 1894 Lodge showed that the Branly’s coherer could be employed to transmit
telegraphic signals, and in order that the filings should not remain "cohered" after the
cessation of the electric oscillations, he devised an electro-mechanical "tapper" on the
principle of the ordinary "buzzer," or electric door-bell, the hammer of which was caused to
tap the glass tube as long as the electric oscillations continued. The filings thus virtually take
the place of a key in the ordinary telegraph circuit. In the normal state the key is open; in the
presence of electrical oscillations the key is closed. Thus, by opening and closing the key for
a longer or shorter period, signals corresponding to dots and dashes may be produced. In
other words, by setting up electric oscillations for periods of time corresponding to dots and
dashes, messages may be transmitted from the sending station, and if, at the receiving
27
station, a recording instrument (controlled by the coherer), such as the ordinary Morse
register, be provided, a record of the message in dots and dashes may be obtained. Dr. Lodge
in fact used a tapper operated continuously by clockwork.
In 1894, with the help of the Branly’s filings tube, Lodge gave a couple of
demonstrations, one in June at the Royal Institution at Oxford and one in August at Oxford,
to the British Association, using Hertz oscillators for transmitting signals, using a Morse
key in connection with the sending coil, and a Thomson marine galvanometer for receiving
them—sending the signals from one room to another through walls, and so on. Lodge sent
them also across the quadrangle of Liverpool College, but he applied very small power and
did not try for big distances.
Edouard Branly
In 1890, Edouard Branly demonstrated what he later called the "radio-conductor”,

which Lodge in 1893 named the coherer, the first sensitive device for detecting radio waves.
Shortly after the experiments of Hertz, Branly discovered that loose metal filings, which in a
normal state have a high electrical resistance, lose this resistance in the presence of electric
oscillations and become practically conductors of electricity. Branly showed this by placing
metal filings in a glass box or tube, and making them part of an ordinary electric circuit.
According to the common explanation, when electric waves are set up in the neighborhood
of this circuit, electromotive forces are generated in it which appear to bring the filings more
closely together, that is, to cohere, and thus their electrical resistance decreases, from which
cause this piece of apparatus was termed by Sir Oliver Lodge a coherer. Hence the receiving
instrument, which may be a telegraph relay, that normally would not indicate any sign of
current from the small battery, can be operated when electric oscillations are set up. Branly
further found that when the filings had once cohered they retained their low resistance until
shaken apart, for instance, by tapping on the tube. The coherer, however, was not sensitive
enough to be used reliably as radio developed.

the discovery of electromagnetic waves, convection current, to carry signals, to claim,
to eliminate the overhead wire, a scientific theory, wireless communication, an inventor, to
be sparking, to pick up an extra current, to pursue the experiments, to validate the theory,
unpowered spark-gap, to absorb the radio energy, investigation, unequivocally, to be proven,
to have control over the frequencies, by altering the inductance and capacitance, to have
properties, an equation, to measure stationary waves, direct coupling with, the coating of a
Leyden jar, a coil, to originate with, to dislodge clumped filings, after the cessation, to tap
the glass tube, oscillations, dots and dashes, quadrangle, the first sensitive device, loose
metal filings, a high electrical resistance, an ordinary electric circuit.
III. Ask 10 questions to the above text using the words and word combinations
from Ex. II.
IV. Translate the following sentences into English:
1. Этот эксперимент Герца имел большое значение для науки, поэтому в Германии
немецкого физика Герца считают изобретателем радио. 2. Герц стремился
28
экспериментально подтвердить теорию Максвелла. 3. Английский физик и
изобретатель сэр Лодж решил найти возможность передавать информацию в
пространстве с помощью азбуки Морзе. 4. Для этой цели он использовал вибратор и
приёмник Герца. 5. Однако прибор Лоджа не был надёжен. 6. В 1895 году Попов
заинтересовался опытами Лоджа и построил аналогичный прибор. 7. 7 мая 1895 года
Попов продемонстрировал приёмник радиоволн, который был способен принимать
волны на расстоянии 60 метров. 8. Во Франции, Германии, США и России Г.
Маркони было отказано в патентовании со ссылкой на приоритет А. С. Попова. 9.
Когерер Лоджа, впервые продемонстрированный перед аудиторией Королевского
Института в 1894, позволял принимать сигналы кода Морзе, переданные
радиоволнами, и давал возможность их записи регистрирующим аппаратом.
V. Speak about one of the inventors of wireless communication. Say who of them
you find the most outstanding one and why.
TEXT FOUR
Read and translate the text.
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
The basis for all telecommunications channels, both wired and wireless, is the
electromagnetic spectrum.
Telephone signals, radar waves, and the invisible commands from a garage-door opener
all represent different waves on what is called the electromagnetic spectrum. The
electromagnetic spectrum consists of fields of electrical energy and magnetic energy, which
travel in waves.
The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible frequencies of
electromagnetic radiation. The “electromagnetic spectrum” of an object has a different
meaning, and is instead the characteristic distribution of an electromagnetic radiation
emitted or absorbed by that particular object.
All radio signals, light rays, X-rays, and radioactivity radiate an energy that behaves
like rippling waves. The waves vary according to two characteristics, frequency and
wavelength. The electromagnetic spectrum extends from below the low frequencies used for
modern radio communication to gamma radiation at the short-wavelength (high-frequency)
end, thereby covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to a fraction of the
size of an atom.
Frequency is the number of times a wave repeats (makes a cycle) in a second.
Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz), with 1Hz equal to 1 cycle per second. One thousand
hertz is called a kilohertz (KHz), 1 million hertz is called a megahertz (MHz), and 1 billion
hertz is called a gigahertz (GHz).
Ranges of frequencies are called bands or bandwidths. The bandwidth is the difference
between the lowest and highest frequencies transmitted. For example, cellular phones are on
the 800-900 megahertz bandwidth – that is, their bandwidth is 100 megahertz. The wider the
bandwidth, the faster data can be transmitted.
29
Low-frequency waves can travel far but can’t carry much information. High-frequency
waves can travel only a short distance before breaking up, but they can carry much more
information. Thus, different technologies are best suited to different purposes, depending on
the frequency range (bandwidth) they are in.
Waves also vary according to their length – their wavelength. At the low end of the
spectrum, the waves are of low frequency and of long wavelength (such as domestic
electricity). At the high end, the waves are of high frequency and of short wavelength (such
as cosmic rays).
(By Williams Sawyer Hutchinson. Using Information Technology.)

a communication channel the number of times
the electromagnetic spectrum ranges of frequencies
to consist of to be transmitted
rippling waves to depend on the bandwidth
light rays according to
wavelength emitted or absorbed
electromagnetic radiation

I. Answer the following questions:
1. What is the basis for wired and wireless communications channels? 2. What is called
the electromagnetic spectrum? 3. What does the electromagnetic spectrum consist of? 4. Is
the electromagnetic spectrum the range of all possible frequencies? 5. Do the waves vary
according to the frequency and wavelength? 6. How does the electromagnetic spectrum
extend? 7. What unit is frequency measured in? 8. How do we call the ranges of
frequencies? 9. When can data be transmitted faster? 10. Can low-frequency waves carry
much information? 11. Can high-frequency waves travel a far or short distance?
II. Make up your own sentences with the words and phrases given above.
III. Find in the text antonyms to the following words:
visible, wired, similar, long, low, narrow, little information, impossible, obsolete.
IV. Retell Text Four as if you were a member of a Study Group on electromagnetic
effects.
I. Find in the text the English equivalents for:

электрическая энергия, перемещаться волнами, иметь разное значение, число раз,
диапазоны частот, состоять из, электромагнитное излучение, разница между
частотами, сотовые телефоны, ширина полосы, простираться, передавать данные,
спектр электромагнитных волн, волны высокой частоты, космические лучи, покрывая
длину волн, пульсирующие волны.
II. Complete the following sentences using the words from the box:
30
have advances channel into frequencies infinite
1. Data may be sent not just on one frequency but on several …… within a particular
bandwidth, all at the same time. 2. These spectral efficiencies should be expected as a result
of …… in modulation techniques, antenna designs, coding efficiencies etc. 3. Maxwell’s
equations predicted an ……. number of frequencies of electromagnetic waves, all traveling
at the speed of light. 4. The amount of data that can be transmitted on a……depends on the
wave frequency. 5. Radiation of each frequency and wavelength (or in each band) will….. a
mixture of properties of two regions of the spectrum that bound it. 6. The types of
electromagnetic radiation are broadly classified ….. gamma radiation, X-ray radiation,
ultraviolet radiation, infrared radiation, radio waves and etc.
SPEAKING:
Discuss the problem. Share opinions.
Electromagnetic radiation interacts with matter in different ways across the spectrum.
These types of interaction are so different that historically different names have been applied
to different parts of the spectrum, as though they were different types of radiation.
History of electromagnetic spectrum discovery

The ancient Greeks recognized that light traveled in straight lines and studied some of
its properties, including reflection and refraction. Over the years the study of light continued
and during the 16th and 17th centuries there were conflicting theories which regarded light as
either a wave or a particle.
The first discovery of electromagnetic radiation came in 1800 when William Herschel
discovered infrared radiation. He was studying the temperature of different colors by
moving a thermometer through light split by a prism. He noticed that the highest
temperature was beyond red. He theorized that this temperature change was due to “calorific
rays” which would be in fact a type of light ray that could not be seen. The next year, Johann
Ritter worked at the other end of the spectrum and noticed what he called “chemical rays”
(invisible light rays that induced certain chemical reactions) that behaved similar to visible
violet light rays, but were beyond them in the spectrum. They were later renamed ultraviolet
radiation.
During the 1860s James Maxwell developed four partial differential equations for the
electromagnetic field. Two of these equations predicted the possibility of, and behavior of,
waves in the field. Analyzing the speed of these theoretical waves, Maxwell realized that
they must travel at a speed that was about the known speed of light.
Maxwell’s predicted waves included waves at very low frequencies compared to
infrared, which in theory might be created by oscillating charges in an ordinary electrical
circuit of a certain type. Attempting to prove Maxwell’s equations and detect such low
frequency electromagnetic radiation, in 1886 the physicist Heinrich Hertz built an apparatus
to generate and detect what is now called radio waves. Hertz found the waves and was able
31
to infer (by measuring their wavelength and multiplying it by their frequency) that they
traveled at the speed of light. Hertz also demonstrated that the new radiation could be both
reflected and refracted by various dielectric media, in the same manner as light. These new
types of waves paved the way for inventions such as the wireless telegraph and the radio.
древние греки, по прямым линиям, отражение и преломление, частица, быть
обусловленным (чем-л.), первое открытие, создать неполные дифференциальные
уравнения, со скоростью света, предсказать, на очень низких частотах, доказать
уравнение, при колебании зарядов, в электрической цепи, делать вывод, умножая на
частоту, проложить дорогу, изобретение.
III. Ask questions to the above text using the words and phrases from Ex. II.
IV. Retell the text.
V. Speak of your favourite physicist.
TEXT FIVE
Read Text Five and get ready to discuss it in the classroom:
ECHO LOCATION
Radar
A common method of obtaining information about a remote object is to bounce a wave
off of it. For example, radar operates by transmitting pulses of radio waves, and examining
the received signal for echoes from aircraft. In sonar, sound waves are transmitted through
the water to detect submarines and other submerged objects.
Radar is an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging. In the simplest radar system, a
radio transmitter produces a pulse of radio-frequency energy a few microseconds long. This
pulse is fed into a highly directional antenna, where the resulting radio wave propagates
away at the speed of light. Aircraft in the path of this wave will reflect a small portion of the
energy back toward a receiving antenna, situated near the transmission site. The distance to
the object is calculated from the elapsed time between the transmitted pulse and the received
echo. The direction to the object is found more simply; you know where you pointed the
directional antenna when the echo was received.
The operating range of a radar system is determined by two parameters: how much
energy is in the initial pulse, and the noise level of the radio receiver. Unfortunately,
increasing the energy in the pulse usually requires making the pulse longer. In turn, the
longer pulse reduces the accuracy and precision of the elapsed time measurement. It results
in a conflict between two important parameters: the ability to detect objects at a long range,
and the ability to accurately determine an object’s distance.
DSP (Digital Signal Processing) has revolutionized radar in three areas, all of which
relate to this basic problem. First, DSP can compress the pulse after it is received, providing
better distance determination without reducing the operating range. Second, DSP can filter
the received signal to decrease the noise. This increases the range, without degrading the
32
distance determination. Third, DSP enables the rapid selection and generation of different
pulse shapes and lengths.
Sonar
Sonar is an acronym for SOund NAvigation and Ranging. It is divided into two
categories, active and passive. In active sonar, sound pulses between 2 kHz and 40 kHz are
transmitted into the water, and the resulting echoes detected and analyzed. Uses of active
sonar include: detection and localization of undersea bodies, navigation, communication,
and mapping the sea floor. A maximum operating range of 10 to 100 kilometers is typical. In
comparison, passive sonar simply listens to underwater sounds, which include: natural
turbulence, marine life, and mechanical sounds from submarines and surface vessels. Since
passive sonar emits no energy, it is ideal for covert operations. The most important
application of passive sonar is in military surveillance systems that detect and track
submarines. Passive sonar typically uses lower frequencies than active sonar because they
propagate through the water with less absorption. Detection ranges can be thousands of
kilometers.
In one view, sonar is simpler than radar because of the lower frequencies involved. In
another view, sonar is more difficult than radar because the environment is much less
uniform and stable. Sonar systems usually employ extensive arrays of transmitting and
receiving elements, rather than just a single channel. By properly controlling and mixing the
signals in these many elements, the sonar system can steer the emitted pulse to the desired
location and determine the direction that echoes are received from.
(By Steven W. Smith. The Scientist and Engineer’s Guide to Digital Signal Processing.)
a common method of obtaining information the operating range

a remote object the distance to the object
by transmitting pulses to compress the pulse
the received signal to be divided into categories
to detect submerged objects in comparison
to produce a pulse to emit no energy
to propagate at the speed of light lower frequencies
the elapsed time to employ extensive arrays
echo location
I. Copy out from Text Five the sentences containing the word combinations and
phrases given above. Translate them.
II. Answer the following questions using the word combinations and phrases:
33
1. What is a common method of obtaining information about a remote object? 2. How
does radar operate? 3. What does the word radar mean? 4. What is the pulse of radio-
frequency energy fed into? 5. Will aircraft in the path of this wave reflect a small portion of
the energy back toward a receiving antenna? 6. What is the distance to the object calculated
from? 7. Why is the direction to the object found more simply? 8. How many parameters is
the operating range of a radar system determined by? 9. Does the longer pulse reduce the
accuracy and precision of the elapsed time measurement? 10. What does this result in? 11.
What kind of areas has DSP revolutionized radar in? 12. What stands for the acronym
sonar? 13. What categories is sonar divided into? 14. How are sound pulses transmitted? 15.
What maximum operating range is typical for active sonar? 16. What can you say about
passive sonar? 17. Why does passive sonar use lower frequencies than active sonar? 18.
Why is sonar more difficult than radar?
III. a) Find in Text Five six adjectives in the comparative degree and translate the
words into Russian. b) Find in Text Five two adjectives in the superlative degree and
use them in sentences of your own. c) Form the degrees of comparison of the following
adjectives:
accurate, capable, visible, low, little, stable, typical, thick, narrow, general,
bad, complete, specific, basic, different, rapid, uniform.
IV. Retell Text Five close to the text.
I. Find in the text the English equivalents for the following word combinations and
phrases:
получение информации, изучение полученного сигнала, распространяться со
скоростью света, расстояние к объекту, отражать небольшое количество энергии,
полученный эхо-сигнал, общее затраченное время, быть поделенным на категории,
удаленный объект, направленная антенна, определить ложный (эхо) сигнал, слушать
звуки под водой, обработка цифрового сигнала, производить импульсы, радиус
действия, уменьшать шумы, уровень шума, акустические системы.
II. Find in Text Five and copy out phrases in which the prepositions into, by, from
are used.
SPEAKING:
I. Name the spheres of human activities where radar and sonar are used.
II. What is your opinion on the following?
1. Science is really a great thing.
2. DSP allows oil to be found in difficult locations, such as under the ocean.
I. Read the text and retell it.
34
RADAR
Radar equipment is capable of determining by radio echoes the presence of objects,
their direction, range and recognizing their character.
There are several types of radar sets, all of them principally consisting of six essential
components, namely: a transmitter, a receiver, an antenna system, an indicator, a timer and,
of course, a power supply.
A radar set detects objects by sending out short powerful pulses of ultra-high frequency
radio wave energy from a high-power transmitter. The directional antenna takes this energy
from the transmitter and radiates it in a beam (similar to that of a searchlight).
As the transmitted energy strikes an object, a portion of it is reflected back. The
receiver picks up the returning echo through its antenna and translates into visual readable
signals on a fluorescent screen. The appearance of these signals shows the presence of an
object within the field of view of radar.
The timer is the synchronizer of the whole system that times the transmitter pulse and
the indicator. The use of these timed pulses and the fact that the radio waves travel at the
constant velocity of light gives a simple means of measuring range. The accuracy with
which time is measured determines the accuracy of waves.
The antenna may be rotated as the pulses are sent out and the strongest signal appears
on the screen when the antenna points directly at the object. The direction of the antenna
enables the determination of azimuth and elevation. Thus, with the help of a radar set we can
get a three-dimensional location of an object.
радиолокационная установка, направление, важные компоненты, наличие
объектов, источник питания, приёмник, обнаруживать объекты, регулятор выдержки
времени, синхронизировать, пучок лучей, пространственное (трёхмерное)
определение местонахождения, синхронизированные импульсы, с постоянной
скоростью, определять точность, указывать на, ловить эхо-сигналы, простой способ.
III. Ask questions to the above text using the words from Ex. II.
TEXT SIX
Read the text and outline its main ideas.
JAMES CLERK MAXWELL
In 1864 James Clerk Maxwell of Edinburgh announced his electromagnetic theory of

light, which was perhaps the greatest single step in the world's knowledge of electricity.
Maxwell had studied and commented on the field of electricity and magnetism as early as
1855/6 when On Faraday's lines of force was read to the Cambridge Philosophical Society.
The paper presented a simplified model of Faraday's work, and how the two phenomena
were related. He reduced all of the current knowledge into a linked set of differential
equations with 20 equations in 20 variables. This work was later published as On Physical
Lines of Force in March 1861. In order to determine the force which is acting on any part of
35
the machine we must find its momentum, and then calculate the rate at which this
momentum is being changed. This rate of change will give us the force. The method of
calculation that is necessary to employ was first given by Lagrange, and afterwards
developed, with some modifications, by Hamilton's equations. It is usually referred to as
Hamilton's principle; when the equations in the original form are used they are known
as Lagrange's equations. Now Maxwell logically showed how these methods of calculation
could be applied to the electromagnetic field. The energy of a dynamical system is
partly kinetic, partly potential. Maxwell supposed that the magnetic energy of the field
is kinetic energy, the electric energy is potential. Around 1862 while lecturing at King's
College, Maxwell calculated that the speed of propagation of an electromagnetic field is
approximately that of the speed of light. He considered it to be more than just a coincidence,
and commented "We can scarcely avoid the conclusion that light consists in the transverse
undulations of the same medium which is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena."
Working on the problem further, Maxwell showed that the equations predict the
existence of waves of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that travel through empty
space at a speed that could be predicted from simple electrical experiments. Using the data
available at the time, Maxwell obtained a velocity of 310,740,000 m/s. In his 1864 paper A
Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field, Maxwell wrote: “The agreement of the
results seems to show that light and magnetism are affections of the same substance, and
that light is an electromagnetic disturbance propagated through the field according to
electromagnetic laws.”
Faraday, Ampère and others had inklings that the luminiferous ether of space was also
the medium for electric action. It was known by calculations and experiments that the
velocity of electricity was approximately 186,000 miles per second; that is, equal to the
velocity of light, which in itself suggests the idea of a relationship between electricity and
light. A number of earlier philosophers or mathematicians of the 19th century held the view
that electromagnetic phenomena were explainable by action at a distance. Maxwell
following Faraday, contended that the seat of the phenomena was in the medium. The
methods of mathematicians in arriving at their results were synthetical while Faraday's
methods were analytical. Faraday in his mind's eye saw lines of force traversing all space
where the mathematicians saw centres of force attracting at a distance.
Both of these methods, as Maxwell pointed out, had succeeded in explaining the
propagation of light as an electromagnetic phenomenon while at the same time the
fundamental conceptions of what the quantities concerned are, radically differed. The
mathematicians assumed that insulators were barriers to electric currents, for instance, in a
Leyden jar or electric condenser the electricity was accumulated at one plate and that by
some occult action at a distance, electricity of an opposite kind was attracted to the other
plate.
Maxwell looking further than Faraday reasoned that if light is an electromagnetic
phenomenon and is transmissible through dielectrics such as glass, the phenomenon must be
in the nature of electromagnetic currents in the dielectrics. He therefore contended that in
charging of a condenser, for instance, the action does not stop at the insulator, but some
"displacement" currents are set up in the insulating medium, which currents continue until
the resisting force of the medium equals that of the charging force. An electric current is also
a displacement of electricity in a closed conductor circuit.
36
The conductor offers a certain resistance, akin to friction, to the displacement of
electricity, and heat is developed in the conductor, proportional to the square of the current.
The resistance of dielectric is of a different nature and has been compared to the
compression of multitudes of springs, which under compression yield with an increasing
back pressure, up to a point where the total back pressure equals the initial pressure. When
the initial pressure is withdrawn the energy returns to the circuit, to their original condition,
thus producing a reaction in the opposite direction. Consequently, the current due to the
displacement of electricity in a conductor may be continuous, while the displacement
currents in a dielectric are momentary and, in a circuit or medium which contains little
resistance compared with capacity or inductance reaction, the currents of discharge are of an
oscillatory or alternating nature.
Maxwell extended this view of displacement currents in dielectrics to the ether of free
space. Assuming light to be the manifestation of alterations of electric currents in the ether
and vibrating at the rate of light vibrations, these vibrations by induction set up
corresponding vibrations in adjoining portions of the ether, and in this way the undulations
corresponding to those of light are propagated as an electromagnetic effect in the ether.
Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light obviously involved the existence of electric waves
in free space, and his followers experimentally demonstrated the truth of this theory.

the greatest step a variable
to comment on the field of electricity momentum
a linked set to be necessary to employ
in the original form to determine
the electromagnetic field to calculate the rate
the force transverse undulation
the speed of light disturbance
in arriving at the results

electricity, luminiferous, ether, equation, propagation, circuit, undulation, insulator.
II. Find in Text Six English equivalents for the following word combinations and
phrases:
дифференциальные уравнения, количество движения, определить силу, скорость
изменения, кинетическая энергия, предполагать, скорость распространения, во время
чтения лекции, приблизительно, быть больше чем просто совпадение, с трудом
избежать, вывод (заключение), поперечный, быть причиной электрических и
магнитных явлений, колебательные электрические и магнитные поля, со скоростью,
соответствие результатов, светоносный (люминофорный) эфир, действия одного и
того же вещества, законы, имели слабое представление, равняться чему-л., в своём
воображении, распространение света, Лейденская банка, изоляторы, при некотором
37
скрытом действии, электромагнитные токи, похожий на трение, проявление
деформации, пружина, ток смещения, в противоположном направлении.
III. Answer the following questions using the word combinations and phrases:
1. When did James Clerk Maxwell announce his electromagnetic theory of light? 2.
Was it the greatest single step in the world’s knowledge of electricity? 3. Why had he
commented on the field of electricity as early as 1855/6? 4. What did the paper On
Faraday’s lines of force present? 5. How did Maxwell reduce all the current knowledge? 6.
When was this work published? 7. What must we find in order to determine the force which
is acting on any part of the machine? 8. Who was this method of calculation first given by?
9. Why is it usually referred to as Hamilton’s principle? 10. What did Maxwell want to show
with these methods? 11. What did Maxwell suppose concerning the magnetic energy and the
electric energy? 12. When did he calculate that the speed of propagation of an
electromagnetic field is approximately that of the speed of light? 13. What did Maxwell
show while working on the problem further? 14. What velocity did he obtain using the data
available at the time? 15. How did he know that there is a relationship between electricity
and light? 16. What view did a number of earlier philosophers and mathematicians of the
19th century hold? 17. Where was the seat of the phenomena according to Faraday and
Maxwell? 18. Were Faraday’s methods synthetical or analytical? 19. Who assumed that
insulators were barriers to electric currents? 20. Did Maxwell look further than Faraday? 21.
Is an electric current a displacement of electricity in a closed conductor circuit? 22. What is
the resistance of a conductor akin to? 23. What can we compare the resistance of dielectric
with? 24. Are the currents of discharge of an oscillatory or alternating nature? 25. Who
extended the view of displacement currents in dielectrics to the ether of free space? 26. Did
Maxwell’s followers demonstrate the truth of his electromagnetic theory of light?
IV. Read the text again and discuss Maxwell’s contribution to the electromagnetic
theory.
I. Find in Text Six and copy out phrases in which the prepositions in, into, from,
through are used. Translate the phrases.
theory graduated Scottish propagation fields appeared led
1. James Clerk Maxwell was a ……. mathematical physicist. 2. He formulated the

classical …… of electromagnetic radiation. 3. Maxwell demonstrated that electric and
magnetic ….. travel through space as waves moving at the speed of light. 4. The unification
of light and electrical phenomena ….. to the prediction of the existence of radio waves. 5. In
1854 Maxwell ….. from the University with a degree in mathematics. 6. At that time he
believed that the ….. of light required a medium for the waves, dubbed the luminiferous
ether. 7. His famous equations first ….. in fully developed form in 1873.
SPEAKING:
Develop the idea:
38
Would you like to be famous?
I. Read the text and discuss its message.
Physical Sciences
Physics (from Ancient Greek: φυσική (ἐπιστήμη) “knowledge of nature”) is the natural
science that involves the study of matter and its motion through space and time, along with
related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature,
conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.
Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its
inclusion of astronomy. Over the last two millennia, physics was a part of natural
philosophy along with chemistry, certain branches of mathematics, and biology, but during
the Scientific Revolution in the 17th century, the natural sciences emerged as unique
research programs in their own right. Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of
research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are
not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms of
other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics and
philosophy.
Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that
arise from theoretical breakthroughs. For example, advances in the understanding
of electromagnetism or nuclear physics led directly to the development of new products
which have dramatically transformed modern-day society, such
as television, computers, domestic appliances, and nuclear weapons; advances
in thermodynamics led to the development of industrialization; and advances
in mechanics inspired the development of calculus.
Physics can be divided into many branches. Scientists study the motion of objects, a
huge branch of physics known as mechanics that involves two overlapping sets of scientific
laws. The laws of classical mechanics govern the behavior of objects in the macroscopic
world, which includes everything from billiard balls to stars, while the laws of quantum
mechanics govern the behavior of the particles that make up individual atoms.
Other branches of physics focus on energy and its large-scale effects. Thermodynamics
is the study of heat and the effects of converting heat into other kinds of energy. This branch
of physics has a host of highly practical applications because heat is often used to power
machines. Physicists also investigate electrical energy and energy that is carried in
electromagnetic waves. These include radio waves, light rays, and X rays - forms of energy
that are closely related and that all obey the same set of rules.
Chemistry is the study of the composition of matter and the way different substances
interact - subjects that involve physics on an atomic scale. In physical chemistry, chemists
study the way physical laws govern chemical change, while in other branches of chemistry
the focus is on particular chemicals themselves. For example, inorganic chemistry
investigates substances found in the nonliving world and organic chemistry investigates
carbon-based substances. Until the 19th century, these two areas of chemistry were thought
39
to be separate and distinct, but today chemists routinely produce organic chemicals from
inorganic raw materials. Organic chemists have learned how to synthesize many substances
that are found in nature, together with hundreds of thousands that are not, such as plastics
and pesticides. Many synthetic medicinal compounds can be modified to make them more
effective than their natural counterparts, with less harmful side effects.
The branch of chemistry known as biochemistry deals solely with substances found in
living things. It investigates the chemical reactions that organisms use to obtain energy and
the reactions they use to build themselves up. Increasingly, this field of chemistry has
become concerned not simply with chemical reactions themselves but also with how the
shape of molecules influences the way they work. The result is the new field of molecular
biology - one of the fastest-growing sciences today.
Physical scientists also study matter elsewhere in the universe, including the planets
and stars. Astronomy is the science of the heavens in general, while astrophysics is a branch
of astronomy that investigates the physical and chemical nature of stars and other objects.
Astronomy deals largely with the universe as it appears today, but a related science called
cosmology looks back in time to answer the greatest scientific questions of all: how the
universe began and how it came to be as it is today.

the natural science, to involve, along with related concepts, over the last two millennia,
in one’s own right, to intersect, rigidly, to open new avenues of research, theoretical
breakthroughs, nuclear physics, domestic appliances, to inspire the development, to be
divided into, the motion of objects, overlapping sets of scientific laws, to govern the
behavior, to make up individual atoms, large-scale effects, a host of, to investigate, to be
closely related, to obey, raw materials, natural counterparts, less harmful side effects, to deal
solely with, to influence, to study matter, the science of the heavens, to deal largely with.
III. Ask questions to the above text using the vocabulary of Ex. II.
IV. Retell the above text using as many of the words and word combinations from
Exercise II as you can.
V. Read the text and then reproduce it in your own words.
HOW AMPLIFIERS WORK

The purpose of an amplifier is to receive a small electrical signal and enlarge or amplify
it. In the case of a pre-amplifier the signal must be amplified enough to be accepted by a
power amplifier. In the case of a power amplifier, the signal must be enlarged much more,
enough to power a loudspeaker. Although amplifiers appear to be a mysterious ‘black box’,
the basic operating principles are relatively simple. Simply stated, an amplifier receives an
input signal from a source (CD player or other source) and creates an enlarged replica of the
original smaller signal. The power required to do this comes from the 110-volt wall
receptacle. So, an amplifier has three basic connections: an input from the source, an output
to the speakers and a source of power from the 110-volt wall receptacle.
The power from the 110-volts is sent to the section of the amplifier known as the power
supply where it is converted from alternating current to direct current. Direct current is like
the power found in a battery - electrons, or electricity flows in one direction only
(alternating current flows in both directions). From the ‘battery’ or power supply the
40
electrical current is sent to a variable resistor, also known as a transistor. The transistor is
essentially a valve, like a water valve, that varies the amount of current flowing through the
circuit based on the input signal from the source. A signal from the input source causes the
transistor to reduce or lower its resistance and allowing current to flow. The amount of
current allowed to flow is based on the size of the signal from the input source. A large
signal causes more current to flow and results in more amplification than the smaller signal.
The frequency of the input signal also determines how quickly the transistor operates. For
example, a 100Hz tone from the input source causes the transistor to open and close 100
times per second and a 1,000Hz tone from the input source causes the transistor to open and
close 1,000 times per second. So, the transistor controls level (or amplitude) and frequency
of the electrical current sent to the speaker, like a valve, and this is how it achieves its
amplifying action.
Add a potentiometer, also known as a volume control to the system and you have an
amplifier. The volume control allows the user to control the amount of current that goes to
the speakers and thus the volume level. There are different types and designs of amplifiers,
but essentially they all operate in this manner.
TEXT SEVEN
Read Text Seven and get ready to discuss it in the classroom:
WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
Wireless communication means communication by radio, though ultrasound and
infrared light are also used occasionally. The term “wireless” has come to mean non-
broadcast communication, usually between individuals who use portable or mobile
equipment very often. Wireless communication is the transfer of information between two or
more points that are not connected by an electrical conductor.
Early wireless systems used crude, though often quite powerful, spark-gap transmitters,
and were suitable only for radiotelegraphy. The invention of the triode vacuum tube by De
Forest in 1906 allowed for the modulation of a continuous-wave signal and made voice
transmission practical. .
Early radio systems transmitted analog signals. Today most radio systems transmit
digital signals composed of binary bits, where the bits are obtained directly from a data
signal or by digitizing an analog signal.
The most basic possible wireless system consists of a transmitter, a receiver, and a
channel, usually a radio link. Since radio cannot be used directly with low frequencies such
as those in human voice, it is necessary to superimpose the information content onto a
higher frequency carrier signal at the transmitter, using a process called modulation. The use
of modulation allows more than one information signal to use the radio channel by simply
using a different carrier frequency for each. The inverse process, demodulation, is performed
at the receiver in order to recover the original information.
The information signal is called the modulating signal, or the baseband signal.
Most of the systems involve two-way communication. Sometimes communication can
take place in both directions at once. This is called full-duplex communication. An ordinary
telephone call is an example of full-duplex communication.
41
Some two-way communication systems do not require simultaneous communication in
both directions.
Half-duplex systems save bandwidth by allowing the same channel to be used for
communication in both directions.
The most common wireless technologies use electromagnetic
wireless telecommunications, such as radio. With radio waves distances can be short, such
as a few metres for television remote control, or as far as thousands or even millions of
kilometres for deep-space radio communications. It encompasses various types of fixed,
mobile, and portable applications, including two-way radios, cellular telephones, personal
digital assistants (PDAs), and wireless networking. Other examples of applications of
radio wireless technology include GPS units, garage door openers, wireless computer
mice, keyboards and headsets, headphones, radio receivers, satellite television, broadcast
television and cordless telephones. Cellular phones are rapidly supplanting antiquated wire
line systems in many developing countries.
In addition, wireless local area networks currently supplement or replace wired
networks in many homes, businesses, and campuses. Many new applications, including
wireless sensor networks, automated highways and factories, smart homes and appliances,
and remote telemedicine, are emerging from research ideas to concrete systems. The
explosive growth of wireless systems coupled with the proliferation of laptop and palmtop
computers indicate a bright future for wireless networks, both as stand-alone systems and as
part of the larger networking infrastructure. However, many technical challenges remain in
designing robust wireless networks that deliver the performance necessary to support
emerging applications.

communication by radio a continuous-wave signal
non-broadcast communication composed of
portable or mobile equipment by digitizing
the transfer of information a radio link
low frequencies carrier signal
to superimpose the information content in order to
to involve two-way communication in both directions

I. Copy out from Text Seven the sentences containing the word combinations and
phrases and translate them.
II. Find in Text Seven English equivalents for the following words and word
combinations:
искровый промежуток, инфракрасный свет, электрический проводник, мощный,
трёхэлектродная электронная лампа, незатухающая волна, передавать цифровые
сигналы, использовать канал радиовещания, обратный процесс, восстановить
первоначальную информацию, сигнал базовой полосы частот, изобретение,
одновременная связь, дуплексная связь, двусторонняя связь, полудуплексные системы,
ширина полосы, вытеснять, старомодные проводные системы, сотовые телефоны,
электронный секретарь, дистанционное управление телевизором, телефоны без
42
соединительного шнура, заменять проводные сети, приёмно-передающие
радиоустановки.
III. Answer the following questions:
1.What does wireless communication mean? 2. What transmitters did early wireless
systems use? 3. Who was the triode vacuum tube invented by? 4. Why did it make voice
transmission practical? 5. Did early radio systems transmit analog or digital signals? 6. What
are digital signals composed of? 7. What are bits obtained from? 8. What does a basic
wireless system consist of? 9. Why is it necessary to superimpose the information content
onto a higher frequency carrier signal at the transmitter? 10. What does the use of
modulation allow? 11. Where is demodulation performed? 12. How is the information signal
called? 13. What is called full-duplex communication? Give an example of full-duplex
communication. 14. Why do half-duplex systems save bandwidth? 15. Can distances be
short with radio waves? 16. What does radio wireless technology encompass? 17. What
indicates a bright future for wireless networks?
IV. Retell Text Seven.
I. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the words and word
combinations in italics:
1. Wireless communication is, by any measure, the fastest growing segment of the
communication industry. 2. Early communication networks were replaced first by the
telegraph network and later by the telephone. 3. Methods of achieving wireless
communications include the use of other electromagnetic wireless technologies, such as
light, magnetic, or electric fields or the use of sound. 4. Now the term “wireless” is used to
describe modern wireless connections such as in cellular networks and wireless broadband
Internet. 5. Radio is the radiation (wireless transmission) of electromagnetic signals through
the atmosphere or free space. 6. Wireless operations permit services, such as long-range
communications, that are impossible or impractical to implement with the use of wires. 7.
Today, the term "radio" specifies the actual type of transceiver device or chip, whereas
"wireless" refers to the lack of physical connections. 8. Demodulation is performed at the
receiver in order to recover the original information.
1. Light, colors, AM and FM radios, and electronic devices make use …..
the electromagnetic spectrum. 2. Wireless phones use radio waves to enable their users to
make phone calls ….. many locations worldwide. 3. Wi-Fi is a wireless local area
network that enables portable computing devices to connect easily ….. the Internet. 4. The
frequencies of the radio spectrum that are available for use for communication are regulated
….. national organizations. 5. The various available technologies differ ….. local
availability, coverage range and performance, and users must be able to employ multiple
connection types and switch between them. 6. Wireless communication is the transfer of
information ….. two or more points that are not connected by an electrical conductor. 7.
New wireless medical technologies such as mobile body area networks (MBAN) have the
capability to monitor blood pressure, heart rate, and body temperature, all ….. wireless
technologies.
43
Keys: to, with, between, of, in, from, by.
SPEAKING:
1. Discuss the advantages of applications of wireless technology. Share opinions.
2. Develop the situation:
Your friend studies the humanities. He believes that studying radio engineering is
useless. Argue the opposite viewpoint.
I. Study the text and retell it:
TYPES OF RADIO SYSTEMS
Most new radio systems are digital, including Digital TV, satellite radio, and Digital
Audio Broadcasting. The oldest form of digital broadcast was spark gap telegraphy, used by
pioneers such as Marconi. By pressing the key, the operator could send messages in Morse
code by energizing a rotating commutating spark gap. The rotating commutator produced a
tone in the receiver, where a simple spark gap would produce a hiss, indistinguishable from
static.
The next advance was continuous wave telegraphy, or CW (Continuous Wave), in
which a pure radio frequency, produced by a vacuum tube electronic oscillator was switched
on and off by a key. A receiver with a local oscillator would "heterodyne" with the pure
radio frequency, creating a whistle-like audio tone. CW uses less than 100 Hz of bandwidth.
CW is still used, these days primarily by amateur radio operators.
Radio teletype equipment usually operates on short-wave (HF) and is much loved by
the military because they create written information without a skilled operator. They send a
bit as one of two tones using frequency-shift keying. Groups of five or seven bits become a
character printed by a teleprinter.
Aircraft use a 1200 Baud radio teletype service over VHF to send their ID, altitude and
position, and get gate and connecting-flight data. Microwave dishes on satellites, telephone
exchanges and TV stations usually use quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). QAM
sends data by changing both the phase and the amplitude of the radio signal. Engineers like
QAM because it packs the most bits into a radio signal when given an exclusive (non-
shared) fixed narrowband frequency range.
Communication systems that limit themselves to a fixed narrowband frequency range
are vulnerable to jamming. A variety of jamming-resistant spread spectrum techniques were
initially developed for military use, most famously for Global Positioning System satellite
transmissions. Commercial use of spread spectrum began in the 1980s. Bluetooth, most cell
phones, and the 802.11b version of Wi-Fi each use various forms of spread spectrum.
Systems that need reliability, or that share their frequency with other services, may use
"coded orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing" (COFDM). COFDM breaks a digital
signal into as many as several hundred slower subchannels. The digital signal is often sent as
QAM on the subchannels. Modern COFDM systems use a small computer to make and
44
decode the signal with digital signal processing, which is more flexible and far less
expensive than older systems that implemented separate electronic channels.
COFDM resists fading and ghosting because the narrow-channel QAM signals can be
sent slowly. COFDM is used for Wi-Fi, some cell phones, and many other local area
network, digital TV and radio standards.
II. Translate and memorize the following words and word combinations:
cell phones, frequency-shift keying, to implement, to switch on/off, a whistle-like audio
tone, amateur radio, a spark gap, altitude, jamming, a fixed narrowband frequency range, to
break into subchannels, flexible, fading, ghosting, a skilled operator, a microwave dish,
indistinguishable from, reliability, digital broadcast, to be vulnerable to, to energize.
III. Translate and memorize the following definition:
Quadrature amplitude modulation: A digital modulation scheme in which the source
information is carried by the amplitude and by the phase of sinusoidal waveform.
IV. Put questions to the above text.
V. Retell the above text using the words and word combinations from Ex. II.
VI. Retell and discuss the following text.
RADIO WAVES
During the last few decades, a subtle change has occurred which none of our senses can
register. Radio waves, bearing messages in many tongues, flow ceaselessly around us,
through us and above us. We can only hear and see them if we convert them to other waves
to which our ears and eyes are receptive.
Radio waves are the longest members of the family of electromagnetic waves. In the
spectrum, in which the waves are arranged in order of increasing wavelength, they lie
beyond the infrared waves. Their wavelengths range from about three hundredths of a
centimetre to about 300 kilometres. Radio broadcasts today are made by two different
methods known as AM (amplitude modulation) and FM (frequency modulation). The
frequencies of the waves are expressed in kilocycles or megacycles. The vibrating current is
fed into an antenna from which the radio waves are broadcast into space.
Microwaves are the smallest radio waves. In the spectrum of electromagnetic waves
they lie between infrared rays and the long radio waves. The shortest microwaves have a
wavelength of about three hundredths of a centimetre and a frequency of one million
megacycles. The longest microwaves have a wavelength of about three metres and a
frequency of one hundred megacycles.
The first microwaves made by man were the two-foot waves produced by Heinrich
Hertz. It is interesting that they were the last to be put to a practical use. Long waves were
easier, to produce and send out over long distances. Scientists had to return to the use of
short waves in order to solve a problem that came up during World War II. The problem was
"How can you detect an approaching enemy plane while it is still far away?" A possible
answer to the problem was to send a beam of radio waves. Long radio waves could not be
used for this purpose because they fan out too quickly from the broadcasting antenna. Very
short waves were necessary to make the radar system work. So new transmitters and
receivers were designed to make and use microwaves.
VII. Translate the following word combinations and memorize them:
45
none of our senses, to convert them to other waves, to lie beyond, to send a beam, in
order of increasing wavelength, bearing messages in many tongues, two-foot waves, in order
to solve a problem.
VIII. Find in the above text English equivalents for the following words and
phrases and write them out:
чтобы решить проблему; непрестанно; несущие сообщения на многих языках;
заставить систему радара работать; в порядке увеличения длины волны; ни одно из
наших чувств; передатчики и приёмники; приближающийся вражеский самолет;
практическое использование; инфракрасные лучи; вибрирующий ток; амплитудная
модуляция; частотная модуляция; радиовещательная антенна.
IX. Answer the following questions using the word combinations and phrases:
1. Can we hear and see radio waves? 2. Do radio waves lie beyond the infrared waves?
3. What is the wavelengths range of radio waves? 4. What two different methods of radio
broadcasts do you know? 5. The frequencies of the waves are expressed in kilocycles or
megacycles, aren’t they? 6. What are the smallest radio waves? 7. What is the size of the
shortest and the longest microwaves? 8. Why did scientists have to return to the use of short
waves? 9. What was the main disadvantage of long radio waves? 10. Were transmitters and
receivers designed to make and use microwaves?
TEXT EIGHT
Read Text Eight and get ready to discuss it in the classroom:
THE INTERNET
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the
standard Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link several billion devices worldwide. It is an
international network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic,
business, and government packet switched networks, linked by a broad array of electronic,
wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range of
information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents
and applications of the World Wide Web (WWW), the infrastructure to support email,
and peer-to-peer networks for file sharing and telephony. At first most computers used a
dial-up telephone connection that worked through the standard telephone line. Common
methods of Internet access by users include dial-up with a сomputer modem via telephone
circuits, broadband over coaxial cable, fiber optic or copper wires, Wi-
Fi, satellite and cellular telephone technology. The Internet may often be accessed from
computers in libraries and Internet cafes. Internet access points exist in many public places
such as airport halls and coffee shops.
Wi-Fi provides wireless access to the Internet via local computer networks.
Hotspots providing such access include Wi-Fi cafes, where users need to bring their own
wireless-enabled devices such as a laptop or PDA.
The origin of the Internet dates back to research commissioned by the United States in
the 1960s to build robust, fault-tolerant communication via computer networks.
46
The funding of a new backbone in the 1980s, as well as private funding for other
commercial backbones, led to worldwide participation in the development of new
networking technologies, and the merger of many networks. Though the Internet has been
widely used by academia since the 1980s, the commercialization of what was by the 1990s
an international network resulted in its popularization and incorporation into virtually every
aspect of modern human life. As of June 2012, more than 2.4 billion people - over a third of
the world's human population - have used the services of the Internet; approximately 100
times more people than were using it in 1995.
Online shopping has boomed both for major retail outlets and small artisans and
traders. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply
chains across entire industries.
Most traditional communications media including telephone, music, film, and
television are being reshaped or redefined by the Internet, giving birth to new services such
as voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and Internet Protocol television (IPTV). Newspapers,
books, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped
into blogging and web feeds. The Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of human
interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking.
The Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or
policies for access and usage; each constituent network sets its own policies.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet)
Commentary
PDA: A personal digital assistant
TCP/IP: Transmission Control Protocol and the Internet Protocol
A web feed: (or news feed) is a data format used for providing users with
frequently updated content.
The Internet protocol suite: is the computer networking model and
communications protocols used in the Internet and similar computer
networks. It is commonly known as TCP/IP, because its most important
protocols were the first networking protocols defined in this standard.

protocol suite a broad array
packet switched networks networking technologies
fault-tolerant communication world wide participation
an extensive range a dial-up telephone connection
to provide wireless access a hotspot
to adapt to a backbone
virtually to give birth to
to accelerate new forms constituent network

suite, resource, accelerated, fault, governance, dial-up, coaxial, virtually, array, robust.
47
объединённые компьютерные сети, протокол передачи голоса через интернет,
стандартный набор протоколов, передача сообщений, сеть с коммутацией пакетов,
широкополосный, информационные ресурсы, вести начало от, доступ, через
компьютерные сети, устойчивый к повреждениям, централизованное управление,
широкое множество, сотовый, иметь результатом, участие, медные провода,
приблизительно, приспосабливать, среды передачи (информации), ускорять, сеть с
равноправным обменом данных, производить сенсацию, влиять, слияние многих
сетей, основные розничные рынки сбыта.
1. What is the Internet? 2. What does it consist of? 3. What does the Internet carry? 4.
Did most computers use a dial-up telephone connection at first? 5. What do common
methods of Internet access by users include? 6. Where may the Internet be accessed from
computers? 7. How does Wi-Fi provide access to the Internet? 8. What provides wireless
access to the Internet via local computer networks? 9. When was the research to build fault-
tolerant communication commissioned in the USA? 10. What led to worldwide participation
in the development of new networking technologies, and the merger of many networks? 11.
How many people have used the Internet since June 2012? 12. What has online shopping
boomed? 13. What are most traditional communications media being reshaped by? 14. In
what way has the Internet accelerated new forms of human interactions? 15. Does the
Internet have centralized governance?
IV. Retell Text Eight using as many of the words and word combinations from the
list as you can.
I. Find in Text Eight and copy out sentences in which the prepositions through, by
and to are used. Translate them.
II. Choose the right word:
1. High-end mobile phones such as smartphones in general come with Internet
(availability/access) through the phone network. 2. These terminals are widely
(accessed/available) for various usage, such as ticket booking, bank deposit, or online
payment. 3. An Internet access (provider/ supplier) differentiates the methods used to get
online. 4. The Internet standards describe a framework known as the Internet protocol
(suite/set). 5. The most prominent component of the Internet (structure/model) is the Internet
Protocol (IP), which provides addressing systems (IP addresses) for computers on the
Internet. 6. The Internet allows computer (subscribers/users) to remotely access other
computers and information stores easily, wherever they may be. 7. Web browsers such
as Opera are (accessed/available) on these advanced handsets, which can also run a wide
variety of other Internet software.
III. Read the text carefully, then fill the blank spaces:
Electronic mail, most commonly referred to as email or e-mail since ca. 1993, is a
method of ….. digital messages from an author to one or more recipients. Modern email …..
across the Internet or other computer networks. Some early email systems required that the
author and the recipient both …. online at the same time, in common with instant
messaging. Today's email systems are ….. on a store-and-forward model. Email servers….. ,
forward, deliver, and store messages. Neither the users nor their computers are ….. to be
online simultaneously; they need connect only briefly, typically to a mail server, for as long
48
as it takes to send or receive messages. Historically, the term electronic mail was …..
generically for any electronic document transmission. For example, several writers in the
early 1970s used the term …… fax document transmission. As a result, it is difficult to find
the first citation for the use of the term with the more specific meaning it ….. today.
(Missing words: accept, be, to describe, exchanging, used, based, has, operates,
required)
SPEAKING:
Express your opinion on the following points of view:
1. Internet is a drug: people get addicted to it and they simply can’t switch it off.
2. We can’t do without Internet nowadays.
3. Internet may be the cause of many disputes and conflicts in the family. Why?

I. Read and retell the text.
.USAGE OF THE INTERNET
The Internet allows greater flexibility in working hours and location, especially with the
spread of unmetered high-speed connections. The Internet can be accessed almost anywhere
by numerous means, including through mobile Internet devices. Mobile
phones, datacards, handheld game consoles and cellular routers allow users to connect to the
Internet wirelessly. Within the limitations imposed by small screens and other limited
facilities of such pocket-sized devices, the services of the Internet, including email and the
web, may be available. Service providers may restrict the services offered and mobile data
charges may be significantly higher than other access methods.
Educational material at all levels from pre-school to post-doctoral is available from
websites. Examples range from CBeebies, through school and high-school revision guides
and virtual universities, to access to top-end scholarly literature through the likes of Google
Scholar. For distance education, help with homework and other assignments, self-guided
learning, whiling away spare time, or just looking up more detail on an interesting fact, it
has never been easier for people to access educational information at any level from
anywhere. The Internet in general and the World Wide Web in particular are important
enablers of both formal and informal education. Further, the Internet allows universities, in
particular researchers from the social and behavioral sciences, to conduct research remotely
via virtual laboratories, with profound changes in reach and generalization of findings as
well as in communication between scientists and in the publication of results.
The low cost and nearly instantaneous sharing of ideas, knowledge, and skills has
made collaborative work dramatically easier, with the help of collaborative software. A
group can not only cheaply communicate and share ideas but the wide reach of the Internet
allows such groups more easily to form. An example of this is the free software movement,
which has produced, among other things, Linux, Mozilla Firefox, and OpenOffice.org.
Internet chat, whether using an IRC chat room, an instant messaging system, or a social
networking website, allows colleagues to stay in touch in a very convenient way while
working at their computers during the day. Messages can be exchanged even more quickly
49
and conveniently than via email. These systems may allow files to be exchanged, drawings
and images to be shared, or voice and video contact between team members.
Content management systems allow collaborating teams to work on shared sets of
documents simultaneously without accidentally destroying each other's work. Business and
project teams can share calendars as well as documents and other information. Such
collaboration occurs in a wide variety of areas including scientific research, software
development, conference planning, political activism and creative writing. Social and
political collaboration is also becoming more widespread as both Internet access
and computer literacy spread.
The Internet allows computer users to remotely access other computers and information
stores easily, wherever they may be. They may do this with or without computer security,
i.e. authentication and encryption technologies, depending on the requirements. This is
encouraging new ways of working from home, collaboration and information sharing in
many industries. An accountant sitting at home can audit the books of a company based in
another country, on a server situated in a third country that is remotely maintained by IT
specialists in a fourth. These accounts could have been created by home-working
bookkeepers, in other remote locations, based on information emailed to them from offices
all over the world. Some of these things were possible before the widespread use of the
Internet, but the cost of private leased lines would have made many of them infeasible in
practice. An office worker away from their desk, perhaps on the other side of the world on a
business trip or a holiday, can access their emails, access their data using cloud computing,
or open a remote desktop session into their office PC using a secure Virtual Private
Network (VPN) connection on the Internet. This can give the worker complete access to all
of their normal files and data, including email and other applications, while away from the
office.
Commentary
CBeebies: the brand used by the BBC for programming aimed at encouraging

"learning through play in a consistently safe environment for children aged 6 or under", and
providing "high quality, mostly UK-produced programmes".
Google Scholar: a freely accessible web search engine that indexes the full text of
scholarly literature across an array of publishing formats and disciplines.
Linux: (‘lɪnəks/ LIN-uks or, less frequently used, ‘laɪnəks/ LYN-uks) is a Unix-like
computer operating system assembled under the model of free and open-source software
development and distribution.
Mozilla Firefox: [moʊˈzɪlə ‘faɪ(ɹ)fɑks], (known simply as Firefox) a free and open-
source web browser developed for Windows, OS X, and Linux, with a mobile version for
Android, by the Mozilla Foundation and its subsidiary, the Mozilla Corporation. Firefox
uses the Gecko layout engine to render web pages, which implements current and
anticipated web standards.
IRC: Internet Relay Chat is an application layer protocol that facilitates transfer of
messages in the form of text. The chat process works on a client/server model of
networking. IRC clients are computer programs that a user can install on their system. These
clients are able to communicate with chat servers to transfer messages to other clients. It is
50
mainly designed for group communication in discussion forums, called channels, but also
allows one-to-one communication via private message as well as chat and data
transfer, including file sharing.
Cloud computing: it is internet-based computing in which large groups of remote
servers are networked to allow sharing of data-processing tasks, centralized data storage,
and online access to computer services or resources.
post-doctoral, flexibility, working hours, by numerous means, pocket-sized devices, to
restrict, significantly, to range from, in particular, revision guides, through the likes,
instantaneous, self-guided learning, to while away, remotely, to conduct research, profound,
findings, educational, at all levels, game consoles, wirelessly, skills, content management,
collaborative work, a messaging system, to stay in touch, to share drawings and images,
simultaneously, to destroy, in a wide variety of, computer literacy, to depend on the
requirements, authentication, to encourage, an accountant, infeasible, leased lines.
III. Ask questions to the above text using the words and word combinations from
Ex. II.
IV. Retell the text using the words and word combinations from Ex. II.
V. Fill the blank spaces with the missing words:
shared reducing resources access computing serves users
Cloud computing relies on sharing of ….. to achieve coherence and economies of scale,

similar to a utility (like the electricity grid) over a network.
Cloud …. , or in simpler shorthand just "the cloud", also focuses on maximizing the
effectiveness of the shared resources. Cloud resources are usually not only ….. by multiple
users but are also dynamically reallocated per demand. This can work for allocating
resources to ….. . For example, a cloud computer facility that …. European users during
European business hours with a specific application (e.g., email) may reallocate the same
resources to serve North American users during North America's business hours with a
different application (e.g., a web server). This approach should maximize the use of
computing power thus ….. environmental damage as well since less power, air conditioning,
etc. are required for a variety of functions. With cloud computing, multiple users can ….. a
single server to retrieve and update their data without purchasing licenses for different
applications.
VI. Translate the following sentences into English:
1. Интернет - это всемирная система объединённых компьютерных сетей для
хранения и передачи информации. 2. В настоящее время подключиться к Интернету
можно через спутники связи, радиоканалы, кабельное телевидение, телефон, сотовую
связь, специальные оптико-волоконные линии или электропровода. 3. Объединение
сетей разной архитектуры и топологии стало возможным благодаря протоколу IP и
принципу маршрутизации пакетов данных. 4. Интернет предоставляет широчайшие
технические возможности для общения. 5. Потребители облачных вычислений могут
значительно уменьшить расходы на инфраструктуру информационных технологий и
51
гибко реагировать на изменения вычислительных потребностей. 6. Один компьютер
может обслуживать нескольких абонентов.
VII. Comment on the following:
Psychologist Nicolas Carr believes that Internet use has other effects on individuals, for
instance improving skills of scan-reading and interfering with the deep thinking that leads to
true creativity.
TEXT NINE
Read Text Nine and get ready to discuss it in the classroom:
Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is the term very popular around the world which designates a high-frequency
wireless local network (WLAN). The word Wi-Fi is a pun on hi-fi and was invented to
replace the old long name "IEEE 802.11b Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum".
The Wi-Fi is a protocol of wireless data transmission which helps to connect some
computers in a network, or it is simple to connect them to the Internet, with a small radius of
the action, using radio waves.
To connect to a Wi-Fi LAN, a computer has to be equipped with a wireless network
interface controller. The combination of a computer and an interface controller is called a
station. All stations share a single radio frequency communication channel. Transmissions
on this channel are received by all stations within the range. The hardware does not signal
the user that the transmission was delivered and is therefore called a best-effort
delivery mechanism. A carrier wave is used to transmit the data in packets, referred to as
"Ethernet frames". Each station is constantly tuned in on the radio frequency communication
channel to pick up available transmissions.
Wi-Fi can be used for signal distribution in the apartment or a conference room, or even
on distance in some kilometers. One point of access of Wi-Fi can provide action radius to
100-200meters. Besides home and office networks, Wi-Fi was widely adopted in the sphere
of the organization of public Internet access.
Many devices can use Wi-Fi, e.g., personal computers, video-games consoles,
smartphones, some digital cameras, tablet computers and digital audio players. These can
connect to a network resource such as the Internet via a wireless network access point. Such
an access point (or hotspot) has a range of about 20meters (66feet) indoors and a greater
range outdoors. Hotspot coverage can comprise an area as small as a single room with walls
that block radio waves, or as large as many square kilometers achieved by using multiple
overlapping access points. Coverage in the larger area may require a group of access points
with overlapping coverage.
The Wi-Fi technology allows to solve three important problems:
1. to simplify communication with the mobile computer;
2. to provide comfortable conditions for work to the business partners who have come
to an office with the laptop;
3. to create a local network in rooms where laying of a cable is impossible.
52
Wi-Fi is a set of global standards. Unlike cell phones, the equipment can work with Wi-
Fi in different countries worldwide.
Wi-Fi can be less secure than wired connections (such as Ethernet) because an intruder
does not need a physical connection. Web pages that use SSL are secure but unencrypted
internet access can easily be detected by intruders. Because of this, Wi-Fi has adopted
various encryption technologies.
There are many different types of Wi-Fi ( IEEE 802.11 ) standards, some of the more
commonly known ones are Wireless A,B,G,N and now the newly suggested AC & AD. The
major difference between these standards is the distance which devices can connect to
the access points and the speed (bandwidth) at which these devices can go. Routers that
incorporate a digital subscriber line modem or a cable modem and a Wi-Fi access point,
often set up in homes and other buildings, provide Internet access and internetworking to all
devices connected to them, wirelessly or via cable.
Similarly, there are battery-powered routers that include a cellular mobile Internet radio
modem and Wi-Fi access point.
Most wireless networks use one of two frequency bands. These are not the only two
bands, but probably those used most widely, by common users. One of the bands is at
around 2.4 GHz, and the other is at 5 GHz. Both of these bands have benefits and
drawbacks: The 2.4 GHz band is widely used, and devices are usually cheaper. The main
problem is that only three or four devices can be used at the same time, without
their communication interfering. Another problem is that microwave ovens, baby
phones, DECT telephones and other wireless devices mostly use the 2.4 GHz band. Using
the 5 GHz band increases the number of devices to around 19, but there are more rules for
using it. In some places, the 5 GHz band may not be used outdoors. Because less devices use
the 5 GHz band, devices that do are often more expensive.
The World Health Organization says that Wi-Fi is not dangerous.
Notes:
IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
SSL: Secure Socket Layer
DECT: Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications

to be a pun on to have benefits and drawbacks
signal distribution without interfering
hotspot coverage to be dangerous
to comprise an area wired connections
overlapping access points to be detected by intruders
to be less secure a radius of the action
to replace the name frequency bands

53
frequency, wired, distribution, provide, audio, resource, simplify, secure, range,
equipment, drawback, interfering.
II. Put ten questions to the text.
III. Find in Text Nine English equivalents for the following words and word
combinations and write them out:
набор глобальных стандартов, высокочастотная сеть, спектр расширения, создать
локальную сеть, беспроводная передача данных, упростить связь, надёжный
(безопасный), физическое соединение, незашифрованный доступ, прокладка кабеля,
соединять с пунктом доступа, увеличить, ширина полосы, преимущества и
недостатки, пульт управления видеоигрой, покрытие специальными пунктами
доступа, технологии шифрования, заменить старое название, небольшой радиус
действия, передавать данные пакетами, несущая волна, постоянно настраиваться,
частично совпадающие точки доступа.
IV. Give a summary of Text Nine.
I. Find in Text Nine and copy out sentences in which the prepositions at and by are
used. Translate them.
1. Wi-Fi is a way of accessing the internet ….. using wires. 2. Most wireless networks
use one …. two frequency bands. 3. Wi-Fi is a wireless brand owned ….. the Wi-Fi Alliance.
4. Wi-Fi has the limited radius … the action. 5. Wi-Fi technology provides comfortable
conditions ….. work to the business partners. 6. Wi-Fi devices are widespread ….. the
market. 7. Devices of different producers can interact …. a basic level of services.
Keys: for, by, at, of, without, in, of.
SPEAKING:
Speak about advantages and shortcomings of Wi-Fi. Make use of the topical
vocabulary.
I. Study the article and retell it.
RADIO-FREQUENCY SPECTRUM
The radio-frequency spectrum is a powerful and important tool. Appropriate
frameworks for regulating spectrum on the national, regional and global levels are essential
to make spectrum available on a timely basis and its use as efficient as possible.
Spectrum harmonization reduces the cost of mobile hardware (for example, leading to
cheaper smartphones) and the cost of infrastructure, enables global roaming, decreases the
complexity of radio design, reduces interference with adjacent services, and helps in
managing cross-border interference.
54
Despite the advantages, mobile spectrum allocations are not harmonized throughout the
world as the consequence of uncoordinated national regulatory decisions on the use of the
new bands and the legacy allocations of spectrum bands.
Some spectrum management techniques depart from the traditional command-and-
control mechanisms used for most of the frequency bands.
Wireless access networks such as Wi-Fi, for example, have developed within
unlicensed spectrum. A plethora of wireless technologies to provide short-distance wireless
access to devices, including personal appliances, have been or are being developed within
the spectrum bands identified for unlicensed use. These include technologies that are
expected to create the next wave of the wireless revolution – known as the Internet of things,
because they concern mainly machine-to-machine connections. The techniques deployed to
enable this sharing of bands are within the general concept of cognitive radio.
The identification of additional spectrum has given rise to the advent of, on the one
hand, broader coverage with fewer base stations and on the other hand, higher capacity
wireless systems of the IMT family, which are becoming an effective way to provide the
greater part of world’s population with broadband access to the Internet.
(From ITU NEWS magazine, N6, 2013)
II. Find in the article the English equivalents for the following:
спектр радиочастот, мощный инструмент, использовать как можно эффективнее,
несмотря на эти преимущества, снизить стоимость, уменьшить помехи
(интерференции), соответствующие структуры, смежные сервисы,
нескоординированные решения, с одной стороны, методы управления спектром,
механизм «команда – контроль», беспроводные сети доступа, более широкое покрытие
(зона действия), диапазоны (полосы) частот, обеспечить беспроводной доступ на
короткие расстояния, соединение устройства с устройством.
III. Put questions to the above article.

IV. Retell the article.
V. Comment on the following:
1. Expanding the availability of spectrum for innovative and flexible commercial uses,
including for broadband services, will further promote economic development by providing
citizens and businesses with greater speed and availability of coverage, encourage further
development of cutting edge wireless technologies, applications and services.
2. What will be left for the next generation?
3. The allocation of spectrum to different radio services.
TEXT TEN
BLUETOOTH TECHNOLOGY
55
Bluetooth wireless technology is a short- range communications technology intended to
replace the cables connecting portable and/or fixed devices while maintaining high levels of
security. The key features of Bluetooth are low power, and low cost. The Bluetooth
specification defines a uniform structure for a wide range of devices to connect and
communicate with each other over short distances (using short-wavelength UHF radio
waves in the ISM band from 2.4 to 2.485 GHz) from fixed and mobile devices. It was
invented by telecom vendor Ericson in 1994.
The word “Bluetooth “ is an anglicized version of the Scandinavian Blâtand, the epithet
of the tenth-century king Harald Bluetooth who united dissonant Danish tribes into a single
kingdom, according to the legend, introducing Christianity as well. The idea of this name
was proposed in 1997 by Jim Kardach who developed a system that would allow mobile
phones to communicate with computers. At the time of this proposal he was reading Frans
Gunnar Bengtsson’s historical novel The Long Ships about Vikings and king Harald
Bluetooth.
Bluetooth technology has achieved global acceptance such that any enabled device,
almost everywhere in the world, can connect to other Bluetooth enabled devices in
neighbourhood. Bluetooth enabled electronic devices connect and communicate wirelessly
through short-range, ad hoc networks known as piconets. Each device can communicate
with up to seven other devices within a single piconet at the same time. Each device can also
belong to several piconets simultaneously. Piconets are established dynamically and
automatically as Bluetooth enabled devices enter and leave radio proximity.
A fundamental Bluetooth wireless technology strength is the ability to simultaneously
handle both data and voice transmissions. This enables users to enjoy variety of innovative
solutions such as hands-free headset for voice calls, printing and fax capabilities, and
synchronizing PDA, laptop, and mobile phone applications to name a few.
Bluetooth operates in the range of 2400- 2483.5 MHz. Bluetooth uses a radio
technology called frequency-hopping spread spectrum. The transmitted data are divided into
packets and each packet is transmitted on one of the 79 designated Bluetooth channels. Each
channel has a bandwidth of 1 MHz. Bluetooth 4.0 uses 2 MHz spacing which allows for 40
channels. The first channel starts at 2402 MHz and continues up to 2480 MHz in 1 MHz
steps. It usually performs 1600 hops per second.
The operating range depends on the device class:
Class 3 radios – have a range of up to 1 meter or 3 feet.
Class 2 radios – most commonly found in mobile devices – have a range of 10 meters
or 33 feet.
Class 1 radios – used primarily in industrial use cases – have a range of 100 meters or
300 feet.
The most commonly used radio is Class 2 and uses 2.5 mW of power. Bluetooth
technology is designed to have very low power consumption. This is reinforced in the
specification by allowing radios to be powered down when inactive.
Commentary
Piconet: A piconet is a network that is created using a wireless Bluetooth connection.
The term "piconet" is derived from the words "pico", which means “very small” (technically,
56
one trillionth, pico=10-12), and “net”, which is short for “network”. Therefore, the word
“piconet” literally means “very small network”.
Bluetooth [‘blu: ‘tu:θ] : Wireless personal area network, WPAN.
mW: stands for “ milliwatt “.
ISM band: (Industrial, Scientific and Medical band) is a part of the radio spectrum that
can be used by anybody without a license in most countries.
WORD-COMBINATIONS AND PHRASES

wireless technology to communicate with each other
to replace the cables ad hoc networks
high levels of security innovative solutions
low power consumption data and voice transmissions
the key features to be powered down
a hands-free headset an enabled device
a single piconet radio proximity
to be divided into packets hops per second

I. Answer the following questions:
1. What is Bluetooth wireless technology? 2. What are key features of it? 3. What
defines a uniform structure? 4. Who was Bluetooth invented by? 5. What can you say about
the origin of the word Bluetooth? 6. In what way do Bluetooth enabled electronic devices
connect and communicate wirelessly? 7. How many devices can each device within a single
piconet communicate with? 8. What is a piconet? 9. How are piconets established? 10. What
is a fundamental Bluetooth wireless technology strength? 11. What radio technology does
Bluetooth use? 12. How is each packet transmitted? 13. How many hops per second does it
perform? 14. What does the operating range depend on? 15. How many classes are there?
16. What is the most commonly used class? 17. Is Bluetooth technology designed to have
very low power consumption?
II. Retell Text Ten using as many of the word combinations from the list as you
can.
III. Give a summary of Text Ten.
I. Choose the right word:
1. Each (device/ equipment) can belong to several piconets simultaneously. 2. Data in
the form of emails, photos, addresses, and more needs to be sent (securely/safely). 3.
Developers have several (ranges/options) for implementing security. 4. The operating range
depends on the device (requirement/class). 5. There are three modes of security for
Bluetooth (access/consumption) between two devices. 6. Class 1 radios have a
(distance/range) of 300 feet. 7. Bluetooth can (connect/wire) several devices, overcoming
57
problems of synchronization. 8. Bluetooth is in the globally unlicensed (short/small) - range
radio frequency band.
II. Find in Text Ten and copy out sentences in which the prepositions or adverbs
up and down are used. Translate them.
SPEAKING:
Why must Bluetooth wireless technology put an emphasis on security while
making connections among devices?
I. Study the following article for more information.
BLUETOOTH vs. Wi–Fi

Bluetooth and Wi-Fi (the brand names for products using IEEE 802.11 standards) have
some similar applications: setting up networks, printing, or transferring files.
Wi-Fi is intended as a replacement for high speed cabling for general local area
network access in work areas. This category of applications is sometimes called wireless
local area networks (WLAN).
Bluetooth was intended for portable equipment and its applications. The category of
applications is outlined as the wireless personal area network (WPAN). Bluetooth is a
replacement for cabling in a variety of personally carried applications in any setting and also
works for fixed location applications such as smart energy functionality in the home.
Wi-Fi and Bluetooth are to some extent complementary in their applications and usage.
Wi-Fi is usually access point-centered, with an asymmetrical client-server connection with
all traffic routed through the access point, while Bluetooth is usually symmetrical, between
two Bluetooth devices. Bluetooth serves well in simple applications where two devices need
to connect with minimal configuration like a button press, as in headsets and remote
controls, while Wi-Fi suits better in applications where some degree of client configuration
is possible and high speeds are required, especially for network access through an access
node. However, Bluetooth access points do exist and ad-hoc connections are possible with
Wi-Fi though not as simply as with Bluetooth. Wi-Fi Direct was recently developed to add a
more Bluetooth-like ad-hoc functionality to Wi-Fi.
II. Find in the above article the English equivalents for the following:
название торговой марки, подобные приложения, замена, нагрузка (линии связи),
высокоскоростная кабельная сеть, беспроводная локальная сеть, переносное
оборудование, выбранное направление нагрузки, соединять с, предназначаться для,
узел доступа, специальные соединения, до некоторой степени.
III. Discuss the problems dealt with in the article given above using the words
from Exercise II.
58
TEXT ELEVEN
TELEVISION
The invention of the cathode ray tube in 1897 by Ferdinand Braun quickly made
possible the technology that we call television. Indeed, by 1907, the cathode ray tube was
supplying television images. Within 50 years, television had become a dominant form of
entertainment and an important way to acquire information. This remains true today, as an
average individual usually spends between two and five hours each day watching television.
The name television means distance seeing. Television, or TV, is the technology used to
transmit pictures with sound using radio frequency and microwave signals or closed-circuit
connections. Television operates on two principles that underlie how the
human brain perceives the visual world. First, if an image is divided into a group of very
small colored dots (called pixels), the brain is able to reassemble the individual dots to
produce a meaningful image. Second, if a moving image is divided into a series of pictures,
with each picture displaying a successive part of the overall sequence, the brain can put all
the images together to form a single flowing image. The technology of the television (as
well as computers) utilizes these two features of the brain to present images. The dominant
basis of the technology is still the cathode ray tube.
The cathode ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube containing one or more electron guns (a
source of electrons or electron emitter) and a fluorescent screen used to view images. It has a
means to accelerate and deflect the electron beam(s) onto the screen to create the images.
The images may represent electrical waveforms (oscilloscope), pictures
(television, computer monitor), radar targets or others. CRTs have also been used as memory
devices, in which case the visible light emitted from the fluorescent material (if any) is not
intended to have significant meaning to a visual observer (though the visible pattern on the
tube face may cryptically represent the stored data).
The CRT uses an evacuated glass envelope which is large, deep (i.e. long from front
screen face to rear end), fairly heavy, and relatively fragile. As a matter of safety, the face is
typically made of thick lead glass so as to be highly shatter-resistant and to block most X-
ray emissions, particularly if the CRT is used in a consumer product.
The vacuum level inside the tube is high vacuum on the order of 0.01 Pa to133 nPa.
In television sets and computer monitors, the entire front area of the tube is scanned
repetitively and systematically in a fixed pattern called a raster. An image is produced by
controlling the intensity of each of the three electron beams, one for each additive primary
color (red, green, and blue) with a video signal as a reference. In all modern CRT monitors
and televisions, the beams are bent by magnetic deflection, a varying magnetic field
generated by coils and driven by electronic circuits around the neck of the tube,
although electrostatic deflection is commonly used in oscilloscopes, a type of diagnostic
instrument.
Plasma televisions do not have a cathode ray tube. Thus, the screen can be very thin.
Typically television screens are about 6 in (15 cm) thick. This allows the screen to be hung
from a wall. In a plasma television, fluorescent lights are present instead of phosphors. Red,
green, and blue fluorescent lights enable a spectrum of colors to be produced, in much the
59
same way as with conventional television. Each fluorescent light contains a gas called
plasma. Plasma consists of electrically charged atoms (ions) and electrons (negative in
charge). When an electrical signal encounters plasma, the added energy starts a process
where the particles bump into one another. This bump releases a form of energy called
a photon. The release of ultraviolet photons causes a reaction with phosphor material, which
then glows.
NOTES:
Pa: (pascal), unit of pressure in the metre-kilogram-second system.
A pascal is a pressure of one newton per square metre.
nPa: (nanopascal), 1 nanopascal= 10-9 pascals.

the cathode ray tube as an average individual
to supply television images to transmit pictures
to acquire information closed-circuit connections
small colored dots to divide into
the overall sequence an electron gun
to utilize features to deflect the electron beams
an evacuated glass envelope to bump into

cathode, ray, emission, image, circuit, fluorescent, oscilloscope, generated.
II. Find in Text Eleven equivalents for the following words and word
combinations:
сделать возможным, электроннолучевая трубка, передавать картинки и звук, цель
для радара, работать по принципу, лежать в основе, составить отдельное изображение,
экран, светиться, сохраняемые данные, тоновые точки, особенности, электронный
прожектор, излучатель, катушка, ускорять электронный луч, растр, ударяться друг о
друга, небъющийся, экран (кинескопа), горловина трубки, удалённый конец,
свинцовое стекло, управлять интенсивностью, очень тонкий, последующая часть
общей последовательности.
III. Pick out from Text Eleven all the words and word combinations belonging to
the cathode ray tube and use them to describe it.
IV. Answer the following questions:
1. Who invented the cathode ray tube? 2. When was the cathode ray tube supplying
television images? 3. Why had television become a dominant form of entertainment and an
important way to acquire information? 4. What does the name television mean? 5. What kind
of technology is it? 6. How many principles does television operate on? 7. What principles
are these? 8. What is the cathode ray tube? 9. How does it create the images? 10. Where
have CRTs also been used? 11. Is an evacuated glass envelope fragile? 12. Why is the face
typically made of thick lead glass? 13. What is a raster? 14. What way is an image produced
60
in? 15. Are the beams bent by magnetic deflection? 16. Do plasma televisions have a
cathode ray tube? 17. How thick are the screens of plasma televisions? 18. Are fluorescent
lights or phosphors present there? 19. What enables a spectrum of colors to be produced? 20.
What does each fluorescent light contain? 21. What does plasma consist of? 22. What
happens when an electrical signal encounters plasma? 23. When is a reaction with phosphor
material caused?
V. Retell Text Eleven using as many of the word combinations from the list as you
can.
I. Find in Text Eleven and copy out sentences in which the prepositions into, on,
onto are used. Translate them.
1. The disk revolved ….. a rate of 18 frames per second, capturing one frame about
every 56 milliseconds. 2. Television is a telecommunication system for broadcasting and
receiving moving pictures and sound ….. a distance. 3. The earliest television sets were
radios with the addition of a television device consisting …. a neon tube with a
mechanically spinning disk that produced a red postage-stamp size image. 4. Along …. the
pictures, the sets also received synchronized sound. 5. The word television is a hybrid word,
coming ….. both Greek and Latin. 6. Television in its original and still most popular form
involves sending images and sound over radio waves in the VHF and UHF bands, which are
received ….. a receiver (a television set).
Keys: of, by, with, at, over, from.
III. Translate the following sentences into English:
1. Электроннолучевая трубка представляет собой стеклянную колбу, в которой
создаётся вакуум. 2. Электронный прожектор (пушка) формирует электронный луч
или пучок лучей и управляет его интенсивностью. 3. Электроннолучевая трубка
предназначена для различного рода преобразований электрических или световых
сигналов. 4. Электронный прожектор (пушка) испускает пучок электронов, которые
фокусируются анодами. 5. Электроны ударяются о флуоресцентный экран и создают
световое пятно. 6. Когда электроны ударяются о люминофор, они вызывают его
свечение. 7. Электроннолучевая трубка преобразует электрический сигнал в точки
видимого изображения.
IV. Learn to speak about the invention of a cathode ray tube. Make use of the
following article:
Operation of the cathode ray tube

A cathode ray tube contains a positively charged region (the anode) and a negatively
charged region (the cathode). The cathode is located at the back of the tube. As electrons exit
the cathode, they are attracted to the anode. The electrons are also focused electronically
into a light beam, which passes into the central area of the television screen. The central
region is almost free of air, so that there are few air molecules to deflect the electrons from
their path. The electrons travel to the far end of the tube where they encounter a flat screen.
The screen is coated with a molecule called phosphor. When an electron hits a phosphor, the
61
phosphor will glow. The electron beam can be focused in a coordinated way on different part
of the phosphor screen, effectively painting the screen (a raster pattern). This process occurs
very quickly—about 30 times each second—producing multiple images each second. The
resulting pattern of glowing and dark phosphors is what is interpreted by the brain as a
moving image.
Black and white television was the first to be developed, as it utilized the simplest
technology. In this technology, the phosphor is white. Color television followed, as the
medium became more popular, and demands for a more realistic image increased. In a color
television, three electron beams are present. They are called the red, green, and blue beams.
Additionally, the phosphor coating is not just white. Rather, the screen is coated with red,
green, and blue phosphors that are arranged in stripes. Depending on which electron beam is
firing and which color phosphor dots are being hit, a spectrum of colors is produced. As with
the black and white television, the brain reassembles the information to produce a
recognizable image.
(http://science. jrank.org/)
HISTORY OF TELEVISION
The history of television comprises the work of numerous engineers and inventors in

several countries over many decades.
The first practical demonstrations of television, however, were developed using
electromechanical methods to scan, transmit, and reproduce an image. As electronic camera
and display tubes were perfected, electromechanical television gave way to all-electronic
systems in nearly all applications.
The beginnings of mechanical television can be traced back to the discovery of the
photoconductivity of the element selenium by Willoughby Smith in 1873, the invention of
a scanning disk by Paul Gottlieb Nipkow in 1884 and John Logie Baird's demonstration of
televised moving images in 1926.
As a 23-year-old German university student, Nipkow proposed and patented the first
electromechanical television system in 1884. Although he never built a working model of
the system, variations of Nipkow's spinning-disk "image rasterizer" for television became
exceedingly common, and remained in use until 1939. Constantin Perskyi had coined the
word television in a paper read to the International Electricity Congress at the International
World Fair in Paris on August 25, 1900. Perskyi's paper reviewed the existing
electromechanical technologies, mentioning the work of Nipkow and others. However, it
was not until 1907 that developments in amplification tube technology, by Lee de
Forest and Arthur Korn among others, made the design practical.
The first demonstration of the instantaneous transmission of images was by Georges
Rignoux and A. Fournier in Paris in 1909. A matrix of 64 selenium cells, individually wired
to a mechanical commutator, served as an electronic retina. In the receiver, a type of Kerr
62
cell modulated the light and a series of variously angled mirrors attached to the edge of a
rotating disc scanned the modulated beam onto the display screen. A separate circuit
regulated synchronization. The 8x8 pixel resolution in this proof-of-concept demonstration
was just sufficient to clearly transmit individual letters of the alphabet. An updated image
was transmitted "several times" each second.
In 1911, Boris Rosing and his student Vladimir Zworykin created a television system
that used a mechanical mirror-drum scanner to transmit, in Zworykin's words, "very crude
images" over wires to the "Braun tube" (cathode ray tube or "CRT") in the receiver. Moving
images were not possible because, in the scanner, "the sensitivity was not enough and the
selenium cell was very laggy".
On March 25, 1925, Scottish inventor John Logie Baird gave the first public
demonstration of televised silhouette images in motion, at Selfridge's Department Store in
London. AT&T's Bell Telephone Laboratories transmitted halftone still images of
transparencies in May 1925. On June 13 of that year, Charles Francis Jenkins transmitted the
silhouette image of a toy windmill in motion, over a distance of five miles from a naval
radio station in Maryland to his laboratory in Washington, D.C., using a lens disk scanner
with a 48-line resolution.
However, if television is defined as the live transmission of moving images with
continuous tonal variation, Baird first achieved this privately on October 2, 1925. But
strictly speaking, Baird had not yet achieved moving images for his scanner worked at only
five images per second, below the threshold required to give the illusion of motion, usually
defined as at least 12 images per second. By January, he had improved the scan rate to 12.5
images per second. Then in January 1926 Baird gave what is widely recognized as being the
world's first demonstration of a working television system, to members of the Royal
Institution. Unlike later electronic systems with several hundred lines of resolution, Baird's
vertically scanned image, using a scanning disk embedded with a double spiral of lenses,
had only 30 lines, just enough to reproduce a recognizable human face.
In 1927, Baird transmitted a signal over 438 miles (705 km) of telephone line between
London and Glasgow. In 1928, Baird's company (Baird Television Development
Company/Cinema Television) broadcast the first transatlantic television signal, between
London and New York, and the first shore-to-ship transmission. He also demonstrated an
electromechanical color, infrared (dubbed "Noctovision"), and stereoscopic television, using
additional lenses, disks and filters. In parallel, Baird developed a video disk recording
system dubbed "Phonovision"; a number of the Phonovision recordings, dating back to
1927, still exist. In 1929, he became involved in the first experimental electromechanical
television service in Germany. In November of the same year, Baird and Bernard Natan of
Pathé established France's first television company, Television-Baird-Natan. In 1931, he
made the first outdoor remote broadcast, of the Epsom Derby. In 1932, he
demonstrated ultra-short wave television. Baird's electromechanical system reached a peak
of 240-lines of resolution on BBC television broadcasts in 1936 though the mechanical
system did not scan the televised scene directly. Instead a 17.5mm film rapidly developed
and then scanned while the film was still wet. On November 2, 1936 the BBC began
transmitting the world's first public television service from the Victorian Alexandra
Palace in north London following alternate daily test broadcasts of the Baird and Marconi
systems to the Radio Show at Olympia at the end of August. It therefore claims to be the
63
birthplace of television broadcasting as we know it today. The intermediate film system was
discontinued within three months in favour of a 405-line all-electronic system developed
by Marconi-EMI.
заключать в себе, на протяжении многих десятилетий, воспроизводить
изображение, усовершенствовать индикаторную трубку, восходить к,
фотопроводимость, работающая модель, сканирующий диск, вращающийся диск,
создал слово “телевидение”, стать чрезвычайно распространённым, «преобразователь
изображения с помощью растра» Нипкова, лампа усиления, селеновый фотоэлемент,
быть запаздывающим, изображения в движении, развёртывающее устройство
(сканнер) с линзовым диском, механический переключатель, зеркала под разным
углом; записывающая система, получившая прозвище; ниже требуемого порога,
развёртывать модулированный луч, разрешающая способность, обновлённое
изображение, скорость развёртывания, в пользу (чью-либо).
III. Put questions to the above text using the words and word combinations from
Ex. II.
IV. Write 10 questions to the following text and let your classmates answer them.
TELEVISION: FOR AND AGAINST

Public interest to world current events and some other reasons were the keys to
emergence of TV. After the Second World War television invaded people’s homes. At first it
was the main source of information and then the process of watching TV became a social
ritual. Also TV was a profitable enterprise for various firms and corporations, as it provided
large audience for advertisers.
The name «Television» comes from Greek word meaning «far», and a Latin word
meaning «to see», so the word «television» means «to see far».
Television divided our society into several groups: some people are against TV and
some approve it. No doubt, television is harmful in some way, but those who are against it
watch TV too. The fact is that nothing in the world is useful or harmful: usually these quali-
ties are combined.
Many people think that TV occupies our time and that we have substituted our hobbies,
friends, and sports for it. But it seems to me that nobody makes you watch it. Everything is
good in average quantities. If you aren’t firm and strong — willed enough to switch your TV
off — then don’t switch it on. Reasonable people get aware of this fact and choose the way
of spending time wisely.
If you need, TV will give you a great amount of information. TV is a means of passive
relaxation when you are tired and aren’t able to read.
But still there is a great variety of problems connected with television: it’s said that
children are glued to a TV set and you need to share it when your choice doesn’t satisfy the
members of your family. I disagree entirely. Those problems are the problems of mutual
understanding and upbringing. Modern teenagers, for example, have no time for watching a
TV set, we are deeply immersed in lessons, so our spare time is devoted to books, friends
and fresh air. Children, who really want to get education, don’t watch TV.
64
The only point of “against” I agree with is that TV may lead to poor health due to
rushed meals, lack of sleep and eyestrain. But even this problem can be solved by self-
control.
V. Write out sentences with the following word combinations from the above text
and translate them:
to invade people’s homes, mutual understanding and upbringing, to be good in, useful
or harmful, to be devoted to, to disagree entirely, a profitable enterprise, to be glued to.
VI. Answer the following questions using the word combinations and phrases of
the topical vocabulary:
1. Television has a powerful effect on all of us. It makes us laugh, cry, get angry or feel
happy. But what do you get if you watch it all day and all night? 2. Say what problems are
raised by television and speak about yourself as a TV viewer. 3. There are a lot of scientific
studies that prove that films and television contain much violence. The surveys suggest a
direct link between screen violence and real life crimes. What’s your opinion? 4. What does
the word television mean?
VII. Comment on the following:

1. Television was not invented by a single inventor, instead many people working
together and alone over the years, contributed to the evolution of television.
2. Radio and television have made newspapers unnecessary.
3. The good and harm done by television.
VIII. Speak on the life and work of an outstanding television inventor. You can use
additional material.
TEXT TWELVE
Read Text Twelve and get ready to discuss it in the classroom:
Microwave and Satellite Systems

Microwave systems transmit voice and data through the atmosphere as super-high-
frequency radio waves.
Microwave systems transmit microwaves, of course. Microwaves are the
electromagnetic waves that vibrate at 1 gigahertz (1 billion hertz) per second or higher.
These frequencies are used not only to operate microwave ovens but also to transmit
messages between ground-based earth stations and satellite communications systems.
Today you see dish- or horn-shaped microwave antennas nearly everywhere – on
towers, buildings, and hilltops. Microwaves cannot bend around corners or around the
earth’s curvature, they are “line-of-site”. Line-of-site means there must be an unobstructed
view between transmitter and receiver.
Thus, microwave stations need to be placed within 25 – 30miles of each other, with no
obstructions in between. The size of the dish varies with the distance (perhaps 2-4 feet in
diameter for short distances, 10 feet or more for long distances). A string of microwave relay
65
stations will each receive incoming messages, boost the signal strength, and relay the signal
to the next station.
The airwaves are becoming so saturated with microwave signals that future needs will
have to be satisfied by other channels, such as satellite systems. In due course,
communication may thus need to be transferred to ground-based cellular mobile networks.
Satellite technology is particularly suited to cover rural, sparsely populated areas. Moreover
satellite systems have the important ability to offer an early service which only later
becomes available in the standard fixed infrastructure. Earlier examples of this have been
international satellite television program distribution and video conferencing, now also
possible by broadband optical cables, intercontinental digital leased lines and 'hot lines' for
journalists and statesmen travelling in less developed regions.
Satellites have successfully served telephony and broadcasting covering large
geographical areas using single-beam transmission.
Traditional satellite technology uses a broad single beam to cover entire continents and
regions. The use of multiple narrowly focused spot beams and the reuse of frequencies have
made it possible to increase bandwidth by a factor of 20 or more.
Satellite broadband services are offered in five basic technology categories: C-band (4-
6GHz), Ku-band (11-14GHz), Ka-band (20-30GHz), L-band (1.5-1.6GHz). Mobile satellite
communication has the potential to provide an infrastructure independent of terrestrial
systems. Mobile satellite systems work like terrestrial cellular systems, except that the base
stations (i.e., satellites) move as well as mobile devices.
(By William Sawyer Hutchinson. Using Information Technology.)

ground-based earth stations in due course
an unobstructed view sparsely populated areas
to boost the signal strength spot beams
to relay the signal to transmit microwaves
by a factor of mobile communication
a dish-shaped antenna terrestrial cellular systems
a horn-shaped antenna
to bend around corners or around the earth’s curvature

I. Use as many of the word combinations from the list as you can in the sentences
of your own.
II. Answer the following questions:
1. In what way do microwave systems transmit voice and data? 2. What do we call
microwaves? 3. What frequencies are used to transmit messages between ground-based
earth stations and satellite communications systems? 4. Where can we see dish- or horn-
shaped microwave antennas today? 5. Can microwaves bend around corners or around the
earth’s curvature? 6. What does line- of- site mean? 7. How are microwave stations usually
placed? 8. What does the size of the dish vary with? 9. How do microwave relay stations
operate? 10. Why are satellite systems very important now? 11. What kind of transmission
are satellites using? 12. How many basic technology categories are satellite band services
66
offered in? 13. What is the difference between mobile satellite systems and terrestrial
cellular systems?
III. Find in Text Twelve English equivalents for the following words and word
combinations:
коротковолновая система, электромагнитные волны, параболическая антенна,
рупорная антенна, передавать сообщения, линия вне поля зрения, в особенности,
беспрепятственная (свободная) перспектива, ретрансляционная радиорелейная
станция, получать входящие сообщения, повышать силу сигнала, покрывать сельские
районы, широкий отдельный луч (пучок), увеличить ширину полосы, независимо от.
IV. Find in Text Twelve and copy out sentences in which the prepositions by and
with are used. Translate them.
V. Give a summary of Text Twelve.
I. Translate the following sentences. Pay attention to the words and word
1. International fleet management systems employ satellite links for the exchange of
messages. 2. Fiber-optic cables can transmit data 10,000 times faster than microwave and
satellite systems can. 3. Now there is demand for two-way broadband access over large
geographical areas not served by telecommunications infrastructure. 4. The user beams
operate in the Ku-band and the gateway services operate in the Ka-band. 5. These
deployments will contribute to broadband wireless connectivity. 6. Dependent upon the type
of a satellite communications system, and the orbits used, it is possible to provide complete
global coverage. 7. Satellites cell phones relay your call to a satellite and down through a
hub to the end user. 8. Unlike wired communication wireless communication is influenced
by physical obstructions, climatic conditions, interference from other wireless devices.
1. An active satellite communication is one that amplifies the radio signal before it is
transmitted …. the earth. 2. Satellite broadband services are offered …. five basic
technology categories. 3. Satellite systems are optimized …. services such as Internet
access, virtual private networks and personal access. 4. Satellite signals may be attenuated
…. rain or other atmospheric conditions. 5. First generation satellite broadband made use ….
the Ku-band fixed-satellite service to provide two-way connections using a single satellite
beam. 6. Intelsat operates a fleet of more than 50 communications satellites, and manages its
customer network across multiple satellites and regions …. the use of only one hub station.
Keys: for, to with, in, of, by.
SPEAKING:
Do you agree with the following statement: Wired forms of communications will not
disappear any time soon, if ever.
Share opinions.
67
TYPES OF SATELLITE SYSTEMS
The basic types of satellite systems include geostationary (GEO), Low Earth Orbit (LEO),
Medium Earth Orbit (MEO), and Highly Elliptical Orbit (HEO) satellites. There are also
public and private satellite systems such as Television Receive Only (TVRO), Direct
Broadcast Satellite (DBS), Global Positioning System (GPS) and the multi-beam satellite
operation.
Geosynchronous satellites orbit the Earth on repeatedly regular points over time. Each
GEO satellite is stationary over one spot above the equator and therefore does not need any
tracking from receiving and transmitting antennas on the Earth. GEO satellites enable the
coverage of weather events. They are especially useful for monitoring severe local storms
and tropical cyclones. They are best for television transmission and high-speed data
transmission.
Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite systems fly very closely to the surface of the Earth, up
to 1,500 kilometers in altitude. They deliver more significant voice quality over GEOs and
transmit signals with a small margin of delay. Some LEO systems are designed for satellite
phones or global mobile personal communications systems. They can carry voice traffic
among other data formats.
Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellite systems operate at about 10,000 kilometers above
the Earth, making it lower than GEO orbits but higher than LEO orbits. They have a larger
capacity than LEOs. This enables them more flexibility in satisfying shifting market
demands for voice or data services.
Highly-elliptical orbit (HEO) satellite systems orbit the Earth in an elliptical path unlike
the LEO’s and GEO’s circular paths. Its elliptical orbit allows a wider view of the Earth and
maximizes the amount of time each satellite spends in viewing populated areas. It therefore
requires fewer satellites than LEOs while providing an excellent line of sight.
TVRO (Television Receive-Only) and DBS (Direct Broadcast Satellite) are satellite TV
systems. TVRO relies on unencrypted feeds transmitted using open standards. They are also
often referred to as C-Band Satellite TV, Big Dish TV, or Big Ugly Dish (BUD).
DBS works on higher frequencies. It is capable of transmitting higher power signals.
DBS was primarily intended for home reception. This is why it is also known as Direct to
Home satellite.
DBS satellites are owned by satellite TV providers. This means it is restricted to
provide free channels.
A global positioning satellite system receives and compares the signals from
orbiting GPS satellites to determine geographic location. Each satellite can transmit its exact
location with a timed reference signal which the GPS uses to determine the distance between
satellites. The location can be marked by calculating the point at which all distances cross.
The information can be displayed in latitude or longitude format, or as a position on a
computer map.
The multi-beam satellite operation uses Spatial Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
technology. This allows a single satellite to simultaneously communicate to 2 different
satellites using several directional antennas.
68
низкая околоземная орбита, высокоапогейная эллиптическая орбита, средняя
околоземная орбита, система глобального позиционирования, над экватором,
слежение, принимающие и передающие антенны, поверхность Земли, по высоте, с
небольшим пределом запаздывания, передавать голосовую информационную нагрузку,
круговая траектория, незашифрованный передаваемый материал, предоставлять
свободные каналы, в формате широты или долготы, пространственный.
Ex. II.
IV. Speak about different types of satellite systems. Do you know the possible ways
of improvement of satellite systems operation?
TEXT THIRTEEN
Read and translate Text Thirteen.
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Electronics engineering, or electronic engineering, is an engineering discipline where
non-linear and active electrical components such as electron tubes, and semiconductor
devices, especially transistors, diodes and integrated circuits, are utilized to design electronic
circuits, devices and systems, typically also including passive electrical components and
based on printed circuit boards. The term denotes a broad engineering field that covers
important subfields such as analog electronics, digital electronics, consumer electronics,
embedded systems and power electronics. Electronics engineering deals with
implementation of applications, principles and algorithms developed within many related
fields, for example solid-state physics, radio engineering, control systems,
telecommunications, signal processing, systems engineering, computer engineering,
instrumentation engineering, electric power control, robotics, and many others.
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is one of the most
important and influential organizations for electronics engineers.
Electronics is a subfield within the wider electrical engineering academic subjects. An
academic degree with a major in electronics engineering can be acquired from some
universities, while other universities use electrical engineering as the subject. The term
‘electrical engineer’ is still used in the academic world to include electronic engineers.
However, some people consider the term 'electrical engineer' should be reserved for those
having specialized in power and heavy current or high voltage engineering, while others
consider that power is just one subset of electrical engineering and (and indeed the term
'power engineering' is used in that industry) as well as 'electrical distribution engineering'.
Again, in recent years there has been a growth of new separate-entry degree courses such as
'information engineering', 'systems engineering' and 'communication systems engineering',
often followed by academic departments of similar name, which are typically not considered
as subfields of electronics engineering but of electrical engineering.
69
Beginning in the 1980s, the term “computer engineer” was often used to refer to a
subfield of electronic or information engineers. However, Computer Engineering is now
considered as a subset of Electronics Engineering and computer science.
Electronic engineering as a profession sprang from technological improvements in the
telegraph industry in the late 19th century and the radio and the telephone industries in the
early 20th century. People were attracted to radio by the technical fascination it inspired,
first in receiving and then in transmitting. Many who went into broadcasting in the 1920s
were only 'amateurs' in the period before World War I.
To a large extent, the modern discipline of electronic engineering was born out of
telephone, radio, and television equipment development and the large amount of electronic
systems development during World War II of radar, sonar, communication systems, and
advanced munitions and weapon systems. In the interwar years, the subject was known as
radio engineering and it was only in the late 1950s that the term ‘electronic engineering’
started to emerge.

television equipment an engineering discipline
printed circuit boards non-linear
solid-state physics the term denotes
to cover subfields to deal with implementation
an academic subject many related fields
to acquire from recent years
to refer to the technical fascination

engineering, broadcasting, discipline, electronics, algorithm, voltage, science.
II. Find in Text Thirteen English equivalents for the following words and word
combinations:
нелинейные компоненты, технологические усовершенствования, инженерная
дисциплина, физика твёрдого тела, передовое военное имущество, академические
предметы, интегральные схемы, полупроводник, большое количество электронных
систем, подгруппа в области электрической инженерии, подобное название,
академическая степень со специализацией по, обозначать широкую область
инженерии, содержать в себе, до некоторой степени.
III. Answer the following questions using words and word combinations of the
topical vocabulary:
1. What kind of discipline is electronics engineering? 2. What does electronics
engineering deal with? 3. Which institute is one of the most important and influential
organizations for electronic engineers? 4. Is electronics a subfield within electrical
engineering academic subjects? 5. Where is the term ‘electrical engineer’ used? 6. How do
some people consider this term? 7. When was the term “computer engineer” used to refer to
a subfield of electronic or information engineers? 8. Where did electronic engineering as a
profession spring from? 9. What were people attracted to radio by? 10. What discipline was
70
born out of telephone, radio and television equipment development? 11. When did the term
‘electronic engineering’ start to emerge?
I. Find in Text Thirteen and copy out sentences in which prepositions within, by,
out of are used. Translate them.
discrete a major equipment printed vacuum tube electronic engineering
1. Electronics engineering technicians help engineers design and develop various

electrical and electronic……… . 2. Electronics is often considered to have begun when Lee
De Forest invented the …….. in 1907. 3. Before the invention of the integrated circuit in
1959, electronic circuits were constructed from …….. components that could be
manipulated by hand. 4. In the field of…….. , engineers design and test circuits that use the
electromagnetic properties of electrical components such as resistors, capacitors,
inductors, diodes and transistors to achieve a particular functionality. 5. Integrated circuits
and other electrical components can then be assembled on ……….. circuit boards to form
more complicated circuits. 6. Electronics engineers typically possess an academic
degree with …….. in electronic engineering.
III. Match the following English word combinations with the Russian ones:
a non-linear component - высокое напряжение

semiconductor devices - система оружия
integrated circuits - нелинейный компонент
can be acquired - начали появляться
an influential organization - можно приобрести
high voltage - полупроводниковые устройства
a weapon system - влиятельная организация
started to emerge - интегральные схемы
IV. Study the following information. What is your opinion on the topic?
Vacuum Tubes
The science of electronics now deals almost exclusively with
transistors and other solid-state devices. However, vacuum tubes were
the principal building blocks of electronic circuits until approximately
1955. Briefly, a vacuum tube consists of several metal electrodes of various shapes all
packaged inside a glass or metal envelope which is
highly evacuated. Vacuum tubes are often called thermionic "valves". A
red hot metallic electrode, (the filament or cathode) emits electrons
which are attracted to a positively charged electrode called the plate or anode. The electrons
pass through the spaces in a metallic grid electrode on their way to the plate, and the voltage
on the grid controls how many electrons reach the plate. A simple thermionic valve is called
71
a diode because it has two electrodes. A triode is a valve with three electrodes, an anode, a
cathode and a control grid. A triode has four, and a pentode – five electrodes.
Vacuum tubes are still widely used in oscilloscopes, television sets,

high power high frequency radio-transmitters, and in some special low
noise amplifiers. However, every year sees a larger number of applications being
transistorized. It is probably safe to say that this trend will continue in the future,
as there is presently a great deal of technological development being put into solid state
electronics and rather little put into vacuum tube electronics.
As a general rule, vacuum tubes are inferior to modern solid state devices in many
ways. Vacuum tubes are much larger. They require considerably more electric power to
operate. However, they can handle high voltages and high powers at high frequencies some-
what more easily than solid state devices. They are also capable of withstanding temporary
overloads in voltage or current which would permanently destroy a solid state device and
then returning to normal operation.
V. Find in the above text English equivalents for the following words and phrases
and write them out:
неизменно разрушает, оперировать высоким напряжением и высокой мощностью,
выдерживать временные перегрузки, заключенный в баллон, основные стандартные
блоки, уступают современным твердотельным приборам.
SPEAKING:
How do you imagine electronics engineering of the future?
EDUCATION AND TRAINING

Electronics engineers typically possess an academic degree with a major in electronic
engineering. The length of study for such a degree is usually three or four years and the
completed degree may be designated as a Bachelor of Engineering, Bachelor of Science,
Bachelor of Applied Science, or Bachelor of Technology depending upon the university.
Many UK universities also offer Master of Engineering (MEng) degrees at undergraduate
level.
The degree generally includes units covering physics, chemistry, mathematics, project
management and specific topics in electrical engineering. Initially such topics cover most, if
not all, of the subfields of electronic engineering. Students then choose to specialize in one
or more subfields towards the end of the degree.
Some electronics engineers also choose to pursue a postgraduate degree such as a
Master of Science (MSc), Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering (PhD), or an Engineering
Doctorate (EngD).
72
The Master degree is being introduced in some European and American Universities as
a first degree and the differentiation of an engineer with graduate and postgraduate studies is
often difficult. In these cases, experience is taken into account.
The Master's degree may consist of either research coursework or mixture of the two. The
Doctor of Philosophy consists of a significant research component and is often viewed as the
entry point to academia.
In most countries, a Bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards
certification and the degree program itself is certified by a professional body. After
completing a certified degree program the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements
(including work experience requirements) before being certified.
Once certified the engineer is designated the title of Professional Engineer (in the United
States, Canada and South Africa), Chartered Engineer or Incorporated Engineer (in the United
Kingdom, Ireland, India and Zimbabwe), Chartered Professional Engineer (in Australia) or
European Engineer (in much of the European Union).
Fundamental to the discipline are the sciences of physics and mathematics as these help
to obtain both a qualitative and quantitative description of how such systems will work.
Today most engineering work involves the use of computers and it is commonplace to use
computer-aided design and simulation software programs when designing electronic systems.
Although most electronic engineers will understand basic circuit theory, the theories employed by
engineers generally depend upon the work they do. For example, quantum mechanics and solid
state physics might be relevant to an engineer working on VLSI but are largely irrelevant to
engineers working with macroscopic electrical systems.

to possess an academic degree, a major in, computer-aided design, a Bachelor of
Engineering, irrelevant to, a qualitative and quantitative description, graduate and
postgraduate studies, to be relevant to, solid state physics, Doctor of Philosophy in
Engineering, work experience requirements, to pursue a postgraduate degree, to take into
account, simulation software programs, to obtain, significant, research coursework.
III. Write some problem questions to the above text for class discussion.
IV. Translate the following sentences into English using words and word
1.Радиоэлектроника - это термин, который объединяет обширный комплекс
областей науки и техники, связанных главным образом с проблемами передачи,
приёма и преобразования информации с помощью электромагнитных волн. 2.Методы
и средства радиоэлектроники применяются в большинстве областей современной
техники и науки. 3. Термин «твердотельная электроника» появился в литературе в
середине XX века для обозначения устройств на полупроводниковой элементной базе:
транзисторах и полупроводниковых диодах. 4. Сейчас в аналоговых цепях
используются цифровые или даже микропроцессорные технологии, позволяющие
увеличить их производительность. 5. Электронная инженерия имеет дело с дизайном,
развитием, производством и применением электронных приспособлений, схем и
систем. 6. Обучение основам электроники - достаточно сложный и долгий процесс.
V. Retell the above text using words and word combinations from Ex. II.
VI. Discuss the following statement:
73
The engineering sector recognizes it has an urgent need to up-skill its
workforce. Education and training is a rapidly developing area for the engineering sector.
There is a move towards higher level professional and technician occupations and a decrease
in the craft and operator/assembler occupations. This means that there is a growing need for
people qualified as graduate engineers and higher level technicians with.
TEXT FOURTEEN
FREQUENCY
Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time. It is also
referred to as temporal frequency, which emphasizes the contrast to spatial
frequency and angular frequency. The period is the duration of one cycle in a repeating
event, so the period is the reciprocal of the frequency. For example, if a newborn baby's
heart beats at a frequency of 120 times a minute, its period – the interval between beats – is
half a second (60 seconds (i.e. a minute) divided by 120 beats).
In some fields, especially where frequency-domain analysis is used, the concept of
frequency is applied only to sinusoidal phenomena, since in linear systems more complex
periodic and non-periodic phenomena are most easily analyzed in terms of sums of
sinusoids of different frequencies.
For cyclical processes, such as rotation, oscillations, or waves, frequency is defined as a
number of cycles per unit time. In physics and engineering disciplines, such
as optics, acoustics, and radio, frequency is usually denoted by a Latin letter f or by the
Greek letter ν (nu). Note, the related concept, angular frequency, is usually denoted by the
Greek letter ω (omega), which uses the SI unit radians per second (rad/s).
Calculating the frequency of a repeating event is accomplished by counting the number
of times that event occurs within a specific time period, then dividing the count by the
length of the time period.
For counts per unit of time, the SI unit for frequency is hertz (Hz), named after the
German physicist Heinrich Hertz; 1 Hz means that an event repeats once per second. A
previous name for this unit was cycles per second (cps).
The frequency range of a system is the range over which it is considered to provide a
useful level of a signal with acceptable distortion characteristics. A listing of the upper and
lower limits of frequency limits for a system is not useful without a criterion for what the
range represents.
Many systems are characterized by the range of frequencies to which they respond.
Musical instruments produce different ranges of notes within the hearing range.
The electromagnetic spectrum can be divided into many different ranges such as
visible light, infrared or ultraviolet radiation, radio waves, X-rays and so on, and each of
these ranges can in turn be divided into smaller ranges. A radio communications signal must
occupy a range of frequencies carrying most of its energy, called its bandwidth. Allocation
of radio frequency ranges to different uses is a major function of radio spectrum allocation.
For periodic waves in non-dispersive media (that is, media in which the wave speed is
independent of frequency), frequency has an inverse relationship to
74
the wavelength, λ (lambda). Even in dispersive media, the frequency f of a sinusoidal wave
is equal to the phase velocity v of the wave divided by the wavelength λ of the wave.
Visible light is an electromagnetic wave, consisting of oscillating electric and magnetic
fields traveling through space. The frequency of the wave determines its color: 4х1014 Hz is
red light, 8х1014 Hz is violet light, and between these (in the range 4-8х1014 Hz) are all the
other colors of the rainbow. An electromagnetic wave can have a frequency less
than 4х1014 Hz, but it will be invisible to the human eye; such waves are called infrared (IR)
radiation. At even lower frequency, the wave is called a microwave, and at still lower
frequencies it is called a radio wave. Likewise, an electromagnetic wave can have a
frequency higher than 8х1014 Hz, but it will be invisible to the human eye; such waves are
called ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Even higher-frequency waves are called X-rays, and higher
still are gamma rays.
All of these waves, from the lowest-frequency radio waves to the highest-frequency
gamma rays, are fundamentally the same, and they are all called electromagnetic radiation.
They all travel through a vacuum at the same speed (the speed of light), giving
them wavelengths inversely proportional to their frequencies.

the number of occurrences in terms of
per unit time to be defined as
the duration of one cycle to be denoted by
the related concept by counting
to accomplish to respond to
to provide a useful level spatial
distortion characteristics the upper and lower limits
allocation to be applied to
to occupy a range of frequencies

occurrence, frequency, sinusoidal, cyclical, oscillation, ultraviolet, spatial, occupy,
acoustics.
II. Find in Text Fourteen equivalents for the following words and word
combinations:
повторяющееся явление за единицу времени, невидимый для человеческого глаза,
угловая частота, продолжительность одного цикла, обратная величина частоты,
диапазон, анализ области частот, вращение, обозначать, рассеивающие среды,
видимый свет, число раз, предыдущее название, определять цвет, физик, фазовая
скорость, циклическая (периодическая) волна, инфракрасное излучение, в пределах
диапазона слышимости, искажение, обратно пропорциональный, даже при более
низкой частоте, в терминах, радуга.
75
1. What is frequency? 2. What does temporal frequency emphasize? 3. How do we call
the duration of one cycle in a repeating event? 4. Why is the concept of frequency applied
only to sinusoidal phenomena? 5. What cyclical processes do you know? 6. How is
frequency for cyclical processes defined? 7. What letter is angular frequency denoted by? 7.
How is calculating the frequency of a repeating event accomplished? 8. What is the SI unit
for frequency? 9. Who is it named after? 10. What is the frequency range of a system? 11.
Are many systems characterized by the range of frequencies? Give examples.12. What kind
of ranges can the electromagnetic spectrum be divided into? 13. What is called a bandwidth?
14. For which waves does frequency have an inverse relationship to the wavelength? 15.
What is the frequency f of a sinusoidal wave equal to in dispersive media? 16. Is visible
light an electromagnetic wave? 17. What determines the color of the wave? 18. What waves
are called infrared radiation? 19. How do we classify waves according to their frequencies?
20. What waves are called electromagnetic radiation?
IV. Retell Text Fourteen using as many of the word combinations and phrases as
possible.
I. Choose the right word:
1. When waves from a monochrome source travel from one (medium/environment) to
another, their frequency remains the same - only their wavelength and speed change. 2. If
the number of counts is not very large, it is more accurate to (evaluate/measure) the time
interval for a predetermined number of occurrences. 3. Higher frequencies are usually
measured with a (frequency/regularity) counter. 4. In many media, such as air, the speed of
sound is approximately independent of frequency, so the wavelength of the sound waves is
approximately (back/inversely) proportional to frequency. 5. As time elapses sinusoidal
waves (change/vary) regularly (i.e. cycle), but at different rates. 6. A traditional unit of
(measure/dimension) used with rotating mechanical devices is revolutions per minute.
II. Translate the following sentences:
1. Вычисление частоты повторяющегося события осуществляется посредством
учёта количества появлений этого события в течение заданного периода времени.
2.Чaстота - это физическая величина, которая равна количеству повторений или
возникновений событий (процессов) в единицу времени. 3. Если полученное
количество отсчетов невелико, то более точным приёмом является измерение
временного интервала для заданного числа появлений рассматриваемого события. 4.
Счётчик частоты представляет собой электронный прибор, который измеряет частоту
применяемого электронного сигнала и отражает результат в герцах на цифровом
экране. 5. Электромагнитный спектр можно разделить на несколько разных
диапазонов, таких как видимый свет, инфракрасное или ультрафиолетовое излучение
и радиоволны.
III. Reproduce the text in your own words.
SPEAKING:
76
Explain and expand on the following:
The unit of frequency in the International System of Units (SI) is named for Heinrich
Rudolf Hertz (1886–89), who was the first to conclusively prove the existence of
electromagnetic waves. Hertz was able to generate and radiate waves with the aid of an
oscillator excited by a spark discharge. He showed that such waves, just as light waves, were
capable of reflection, refraction, interference, and polarization, but he did not foresee
the possibility of using electromagnetic waves to transmit information.
RADIO COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
A radio communication system sends signals by radio. Types of radio communication

systems deployed depend on technology, standards, regulations, radio spectrum
allocation, user requirements, service positioning, and investment.
The radio equipment involved in communication systems includes a transmitter and a
receiver, each having an antenna and appropriate terminal equipment such as
a microphone at the transmitter and a loudspeaker at the receiver in the case of a voice-
communication system. The power consumed in a transmitting station varies depending on
the distance of communication and the transmission conditions. The power received at the
receiving station is usually only a tiny fraction of the transmitter's output, since
communication depends on receiving the information, not the energy, that was transmitted.
Each system contains a transmitter. This consists of a source of electrical energy,
producing alternating current of a desired frequency of oscillation. The transmitter contains
a system to modulate (change) some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on
it. This modulation might be as simple as turning the energy on and off, or altering more
subtle properties such as amplitude, frequency, phase, or combinations of these properties.
The transmitter sends the modulated electrical energy to a tuned resonant antenna; this
structure converts the rapidly changing alternating current into an electromagnetic wave that
can move through free space.
Amplitude modulation of a carrier wave works by varying the strength of the
transmitted signal in proportion to the information being sent. For example, changes in the
signal strength can be used to reflect the sounds to be reproduced by a speaker, or to specify
the light intensity of television pixels. It was the method used for the first audio radio
transmissions, and remains in use today. "AM" is often used to refer to the medium
wave broadcast band.
Frequency modulation varies the frequency of the carrier. The instantaneous frequency
of the carrier is directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the input signal. Digital
data can be sent by shifting the carrier's frequency among a set of discrete values, a
technique known as frequency-shift keying.
FM is commonly used at VHF radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of music
and speech. Normal (analog) TV sound is also broadcast using FM.
77
Angle modulation alters the instantaneous phase of the carrier wave to transmit a
signal. It is another term for phase modulation.
The electromagnetic wave is intercepted by a tuned receiving antenna; this structure
captures some of the energy of the wave and returns it to the form of oscillating electrical
currents. At the receiver, these currents are demodulated, which is conversion to a usable
signal form by a detector sub-system. The receiver is "tuned" to respond preferentially to the
desired signals, and reject undesired signals.
Early radio systems relied entirely on the energy collected by an antenna to produce
signals for the operator. Radio became more useful after the invention of electronic devices
such as the vacuum tube and later the transistor, which made it possible to amplify weak
signals. Today radio systems are used for applications from walkie-talkie children's toys to
the control of space vehicles, as well as for broadcasting, and many other applications.
A radio receiver receives its input from an antenna, uses electronic filters to separate a
wanted radio signal from all other signals picked up by this antenna, amplifies it to a level
suitable for further processing, and finally converts through demodulation and decoding the
signal into a form usable for the consumer, such as sound, pictures, digital data,
measurement values, navigational positions, etc.
Classical radio communications systems use frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
as a strategy to split up and share the available radio-frequency bandwidth for use by
different parties communications concurrently. Modern radio communication systems
include those that divide up a radio-frequency band by time-division multiplexing (TDM)
and code-division multiplexing (CDM) as alternatives to the classical FDM strategy. These
systems offer different tradeoffs in supporting multiple users, beyond the FDM strategy that
was ideal for broadcast radio but less so for applications such as mobile telephony.
A radio communication system can send information only one way. For example, in
broadcasting a single transmitter sends signals to many receivers. Two stations may take
turns sending and receiving, using a single radio frequency; this is called "simplex." By
using two radio frequencies, two stations may continuously and concurrently send and
receive signals - this is called "duplex" operation.

radio spectrum allocation, deployed systems, the power consumed in, alternating
current, to amplify signals, high fidelity, to be directly proportional to, to take turns,
concurrently, appropriate terminal equipment, a loudspeaker, depending on the distance, the
transmitter’s output, a source of electrical energy, oscillation, to alter, subtle properties, to
intercept, the input signal, frequency-shift keying, to reject undesired signals, frequency-
division multiplexing, a tuned antenna, to convert, through free space, the signal strength,
the instantaneous value, a set of discrete values, angle modulation.
III. Complete the following sentences using the words from the box:
antenna than different computing remote strike
1. Wireless data communications are an essential component of mobile….. . 2 . A radio

receiver receives its input from an ….. . 3. Mobile Satellite Communications may be used
78
where other wireless connections are unavailable, such as in largely rural areas or ……
locations. 4. There are two …… fundamental methods for wireless energy transfer. 5. When
radio waves …… an electrical conductor, the oscillating fields induce an alternating
current in the conductor. 6. The use of modulation allows more …… one information signal
to use the radio channel by simply using a different carrier frequency for each.
IV. Ask your own problem questions to the above text.
V. Translate the following sentences into English:

1. Беспроводная связь осуществляется путём передачи сигналов на расстояние с
помощью электромагнитных волн. 2. Электромагнитные волны излучаются
передатчиком и принимаются радиоприёмником. 3. Беспроводные технологии служат
для передачи информации на расстояние между двумя и более точками, не требуя
соединения их проводами. 4. Радиоприёмник использует электронные фильтры для
отделения нежелательного радиосигнала от остальных сигналов, которые ловит
антенна. 5. Настроенная принимающая антенна перехватывает электромагнитную
волну.
VI. Discuss the problems dealt with in the text given above using the words and
word combinations from Ex. II.
VII. a) Render the text in English. b) Comment on the peculiarities of radio
communication:
Радиосвязь представляет собой передачу сообщений в виде электрических

сигналов без использования проводов.
Она бывает односторонняя и двухсторонняя. С помощью односторонней
радиосвязи обеспечивается передача сообщения в прямом направлении, а
двухсторонней - в прямом и обратном направлениях.
Радиосвязь бывает симплексная и дуплексная. Симплексная радиосвязь
предусматривает поочередный (только передача и только приём) обмен информацией,
при этом переключается приёмопередающая аппаратура и требуется одна рабочая
частота. Дуплексная радиосвязь предусматривает одновременный двухсторонний
(приём и передача) обмен информацией, без переключения аппаратуры, но требуется
две разных несущих частоты.
Канал радиосвязи – это совокупность технических средств и среды распростра-
нения радиоволн, обеспечивающих передачу сигналов от источника к получателю.
TEXT FIFTEEN
Read Text Fifteen and get ready to discuss it in the classroom:
VOLTAGE
Voltage, electrical potential difference, electric tension or electric pressure
(denoted ∆V and measured in units of electric potential: volts, or joules per coulomb) is the
electric potential difference between two points, or the difference in electric potential
79
energy of a unit charge transported between two points. Voltage is equal to the work done
per unit charge against a static electric field to move the charge between two points. A
voltage may represent either a source of energy (electromotive force), or lost, used, or stored
energy (potential drop). A voltmeter can be used to measure the voltage (or potential
difference) between two points in a system; often a common reference potential such as the
ground of the system is used as one of the points. Voltage can be caused by static electric
fields, by electric current through a magnetic field, by time-varying magnetic fields, or some
combination of these three.
Historically this quantity has also been called "tension" and "pressure". Pressure is now
obsolete but tension is still used, for example within the phrase "high tension" (HT) which is
commonly used in thermionic valve (vacuum tube) based electronics.
Voltage is defined so that negatively charged objects are pulled towards higher
voltages, while positively charged objects are pulled towards lower voltages. Therefore,
the conventional current in a wire or resistor always flows from higher voltage to lower
voltage. Current can flow from lower voltage to higher voltage, but only when a source of
energy is present to "push" it against the opposing electric field. For example, inside
a battery, chemical reactions provide the energy needed for current to flow from the negative
to the positive terminal.
Technically, in a material the electric field is not the only factor determining charge
flow, and different materials naturally develop electric potential differences at equilibrium
(Galvani potentials). The electric potential of a material is not even a well defined quantity,
since it varies on the subatomic scale. A more convenient definition of 'voltage' can be found
instead in the concept of Fermi level. In this case the voltage between two bodies is the
thermodynamic work required to move a unit of charge between them. This definition is
practical since a real voltmeter actually measures this work, not differences in electric
potential.
Instruments for measuring voltages include the voltmeter, the potentiometer, and
the oscilloscope. The voltmeter works by measuring the current through a fixed resistor,
which, according to Ohm's Law, is proportional to the voltage across the resistor. The
potentiometer works by balancing the unknown voltage against a known voltage in a bridge
circuit. The cathode-ray oscilloscope works by amplifying the voltage and using it to deflect
an electron beam from a straight path, so that the deflection of the beam is proportional to
the voltage.
Commentary
Fermi level: (in physics) a measure of the energy of the least tightly held electrons
within a solid, named for Enrico Fermi, the physicist who first proposed it.

towards lower (higher) voltages to be proportional to
the electric potential difference tension
according to electromotive force
the work done per unit charge potential drop
to measure to be caused by
80
by amplifying the voltage against the opposing electric field
equilibrium a bridge circuit
to deflect

I. Copy out from Text Fifteen the sentences containing the word combinations and
phrases given above.
II. Find in Text Fifteen equivalents for the following words and word combinations
and write them out:
обозначенный, определяющий поток зарядов, между двумя точками, цепь
(электро)измерительного моста, на единицу заряда, электрический ток, переменный
по времени, условный ток, положительно заряженные тела, электрическое поле,
двигать, следовательно, преломлять электронный луч, равновесие, обеспечивать
энергию, электродвижущая сила, падение напряжения, граница (энергетический
уровень) Ферми.
III. Find in Text Fifteen antonyms to the following words:

similarity, seldom, potential increase, to exclude, uncharged, time-independent.
IV. Put ten questions to the text.
V. Retell Text Fifteen.
I. Find in Text Fifteen and copy out sentences in which the prepositions towards,
by, from are used. Translate them.
electric voltmeter between drop to measure corresponds per
1. Voltage is electric potential energy…….. unit charge, measured in joules per

coulomb (= volts). 2. When using a voltmeter ……. potential difference, one electrical lead
of the voltmeter must be connected to the first point, another to the second point. 3. The
voltage …….. the two ends of a path is the total energy required to move a small electric
charge along that path, divided by the magnitude of the charge. 4. When a …… is connected
between two different types of metal, it measures not the electrostatic potential difference,
but instead something else that is affected by thermodynamics. 5. Two points in an ……
circuit that are connected by an ideal conductor without resistance and not within a changing
magnetic field have a voltage of zero. 6. Potential difference between two points …… to
the pressure difference between two points. 7. The voltage …... across the device can be
understood as the difference between measurements at each terminal of the device with
respect to a common reference point (or ground).
SPEAKING:
Develop the situation.
81
Your parents don’t want you to study radio engineering. Persuade them that it is your
real calling.

FERMI LEVEL
The Fermi level is the total chemical potential for electrons (or electrochemical
potential for electrons) and is usually denoted by µ or EF. The Fermi level of a body is
a thermodynamic quantity, and its significance is the thermodynamic work required to add
one electron to the body (not counting the work required to remove the electron from
wherever it came from). A precise understanding of the Fermi level - how it relates
to electronic band structure in determining electronic properties, how it relates to the voltage
and flow of charge in an electronic circuit - is essential to an understanding of solid-state
physics.
In a band structure picture, the Fermi level can be considered to be a hypothetical
energy level of an electron, such that at thermodynamic equilibrium this energy level would
have a 50% probability of being occupied at any given time. The Fermi level does not
necessarily correspond to an actual energy level (in an insulator the Fermi level lies in
the band gap), nor does it even require the existence of a band structure. Nonetheless, the
Fermi level is a precisely defined thermodynamic quantity, and differences in Fermi level
can be measured simply with a voltmeter.
In oversimplified descriptions of electronic circuits it is said that electric currents are
driven by differences in electrostatic potential (Galvani potential), but this is not exactly
true. As a counterexample, multi-material devices such as p–n junctions contain internal
electrostatic potential differences at equilibrium, yet without any accompanying current; if a
voltmeter is attached to the junction, one simply measures zero volts. Clearly, the
electrostatic potential is not the only factor influencing the flow of charge in a material -
Pauli repulsion and thermal effects also play an important role.
In fact, the quantity called "voltage" as measured in an electronic circuit has a simple
relationship to the chemical potential for electrons (Fermi level). When the leads of
a voltmeter are attached to two points in a circuit, the displayed voltage is a measure of
the total work that can be obtained, per unit charge, by allowing a tiny amount of charge to
flow from one point to the other. If a simple wire is connected between two points of
differing voltage (forming a short circuit), current will flow from positive to negative
voltage, converting the available work into heat.
The Fermi level of a body expresses the work required to add an electron to it, or
equally the work obtained by removing an electron.
II. Find in the text the English equivalents for following words and word
combinations:
тем не менее, противоположный пример, небольшое количество заряда, общий
химический потенциал, термодинамическое равновесие, переход p-n, устранять,
чёткое понимание, быть связанным с, отталкивание Паули, сверх упрощённое
82
описание, присоединять к, можно просто измерить, вероятность, в любое заданное
время, цепь короткого замыкания, без сопутствующего тока, добавить электрон,
структура электронной области, физика твёрдых тел, питающие провода вольтметра.
1. What is the Fermi level? 2. What is it usually denoted by? 3. What is the significance
of a thermodynamic quantity? 4. Why is a precise understanding of the Fermi level essential
to an understanding of solid-state physics? 5. How can the Fermi level be considered in a
band structure picture? 6. Does the Fermi level necessarily correspond to an actual energy
level? 7. What can differences in Fermi level be measured with? 8. What is Galvani
potential? 9. What do p-n junctions contain? 10. Is the electrostatic potential the only factor
influencing the flow of charge in a material? 11. What does the quantity called “voltage”
have a simple relationship to? 12. What happens when the leads of a voltmeter are attached
to two points in a circuit? 13. When will current flow from positive to negative voltage
converting the available work into heat? 14. What does the Fermi level of a body express?
IV. Characterize the Fermi level.
TEXT SIXTEEN
Read and translate Text Sixteen.
BROADBAND
In telecommunications, broadband is wide bandwidth data transmission with an ability
to simultaneously transport multiple signals and traffic types. The medium can be coaxial
cable, optical fiber, twisted pair, DSL local telephone networks or wireless broadband. In
contrast, baseband describes a communication system in which information is transported
across a single channel. Different criteria for "broad" have been applied in different contexts
and at different times. Its origin is in physics, acoustics, and radio systems engineering,
where it had been used with a meaning similar to "wideband". Later, with the advent of
digital telecommunications, the term was mainly used for transmission over multiple
channels. Whereas a passband signal is also modulated so that it occupies higher frequencies
(compared to a baseband signal which is bound to the lowest end of spectrum), it is still
occupying a single channel. The key difference is that what is typically considered a
broadband signal in this sense is a signal that occupies multiple (non-masking, orthogonal)
passbands, thus allowing for much higher throughput over a single medium but with
additional complexity in the transmitter/receiver circuitry. Finally, the term became
popularized through the 1990s as a marketing term for Internet access that was faster
than dial-up access, the original Internet access technology, which was limited to 56kbit/s.
This meaning is only distantly related to its original technical meaning.
Broadband refers to a communication bandwidth of at least 256 kbit/s. Each channel is
4 MHz wide, and it uses an extensive range of frequencies to effort less relay and receive
data between networks. In telecommunications, a broadband signaling method is one that
handles a wide band of frequencies. Broadband is a relative term, understood according to
its context. The wider (or broader) is the bandwidth of a channel, the greater is the
information-carrying capacity, giving the same channel quality.
83
In radio, for example, a very narrow band will carry Morse code, a broader band will
carry speech, and a still broader band will carry music without losing the high audio
frequencies required for realistic sound reproduction. This broad band is often divided into
channels or frequency bins using passband techniques to allow frequency-division
multiplexing instead of sending a higher-quality signal.
A television antenna may be described as "broadband" because it is capable of
receiving a wide range of channels, while a single-frequency or Lo-VHF antenna is
"narrowband" since it receives only 1 to 5 channels.
In data communications a 56k modem will transmit a data rate of 56 kilobits per second
(kbit/s) over a 4-kilohertz-widetelephone line (narrowband or voice band). The various
forms of digital subscriber line services are broadband in the sense that digital information is
sent over multiple channels. Each channel is at higher frequency than the baseband voice
channel, so it can support plain old telephone service on a single pair of wires at the same
time. However, when the same line is converted to a non-loaded twisted-pair wire (no
telephone filters), it becomes hundreds of kilohertz wide (broadband) and can carry up to 60
megabits per second using very-high-bit rate digital subscriber line (VDSL or VHDSL)
techniques.
In the late 1980s, the Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network (B-ISDN) used
the term to refer to a broad range of bit rates, independent of physical modulation details.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadband)
Commentary
DSL: Digital Subscriber Line

wide bandwidth data transmission to support
simultaneously twisted pair
plain old telephone service multiple signals and traffic
a single channel with the advent
to occupy higher frequencies a baseband signal
a broad range of bit rates to be bound to
throughput dial-up access
a broadband signaling method the information-carrying capacity
sound reproduction frequency bins

acoustics, frequency, bandwidth, channel, support, simultaneously, popularized.
1. What does broadband mean in telecommunications? 2. What kind of medium do you
know? 3. What is the origin of the term “broad”? 4. When was this term mainly used for
transmission over multiple channels? 5. Why does a passband signal occupy higher
frequencies? 6. What is a baseband signal bound to? 7. What is the key difference between a
passband signal and a broadband signal? 8. When did the term become popularized? 9. What
bandwidth does broadband refer to? 10. How wide is each channel? 11. Why does it use an
84
extensive range of frequencies? 12. When is the information-carrying capacity of a channel
greater? 13. What band will carry Morse code in radio? 14. In what way is a broad band
divided into channels or frequency bins? 15. How may a television antenna be described?
16. How many channels does a single frequency antenna receive? 17. What is a data rate of
a 56k modem? 18. What channels is digital information sent over? 19. When can the same
line carry up to 60 megabits per second. 20. What happened in the late 1980s?
III. Find in Text Sixteen English equivalents for the following words and phrases
and write them out:
более высокая пропускная способность, метод передачи сигналов, традиционная
услуга телефонной связи, принимать данные, скорость передачи данных, абонент,
обширный диапазон частот, типы информационной нагрузки, одновременно,
коаксиальный кабель, скорость передачи битов, в смысле, витая пара (проводов),
подобный, сигнал базовой полосы частот, занимать более высокие частоты, с
приходом цифровых телекоммуникаций, немаскирующий, схема, быть связанным с,
широкий диапазон, в соответствии с, способный принимать, сравнивая с, применять в
разных контекстах, основное различие, через отдельную среду, независимо от,
обеспечивать услугу.
IV. Retell Text Sixteen.
I. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the words in italics:
1. Broadband is at the core of telecommunication services and network convergence. 2.
Broadband video in the context of streaming Internet video has come to mean video files
that have bit rates high enough to require broadband Internet access for viewing. 3. Cable
companies use a hybrid system using fiber to transmit the signal to neighborhoods and then
change the signal from light to radio frequency to be transmitted over coaxial cable to
homes. 4. Although some systems for remote control are based on narrowband signaling,
modern high-speed systems use broadband signaling to achieve very high data rates. 5.
Networks that use cable modems on standard cable television infrastructure are called
broadband to indicate the wide range of frequencies that can include multiple data users as
well as traditional television channels on the same cable. 6. Broadband systems usually use a
different radio frequency modulated by the data signal for each band. 7. The term
“broadband” refers to the wide bandwidth characteristics of a transmission medium and its
ability to transport multiple signals and traffic types simultaneously. 8. Broadband wireless
access is the most challenging segment of the wireless revolution since it has to demonstrate
a viable alternative to the cable modem and DSL technologies.
II. Translate the following sentences into English:

1. Способ передачи сообщений широкополосными сигналами заключается в том,
что передаётся информационный сигнал, модулированный псевдослучайной
последовательностью. 2. Широкополосные системы передачи данных отличаются
друг от друга способом и скоростью передачи данных, типом модуляции и дальностью
передачи. 3. Широкополосные сигналы, получаемые методом прямой
последовательности, с ортогональной модуляцией известны уже давно. 4. Если
каждый абонент работает на своей собственной частоте по одному каналу, то такой
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канал называется широкополосным (пропускает много частот). 5. Широкополосной
называется система, которая передает сигнал, занимающий очень широкую полосу
частот, значительно превосходящую ту минимальную ширину полосы частот, которая
фактически требуется для передачи информации. 6. В широкополосной системе
исходный модулирующий сигнал (например, сигнал телефонного канала) с полосой
всего несколько килогерц распределяется в полосе частот, ширина которой может
быть несколько мегагерц. 7. Этот способ пригоден для любой широкополосной
системы, в которой для расширения спектра высокочастотного сигнала применяется
цифровая последовательность.
SPEAKING:
Originally the word "broadband" had a technical meaning, but became a marketing
term for any kind of relatively high-speed computer network or Internet access technology.
According to the 802.16-2004 standard, broadband means "having instantaneous
bandwidths greater than 1 MHz and supporting data rates greater than about 1.5 Mbit/s”.
WIRELESS BROADBAND
Wireless broadband is a technology that provides high-speed wireless Internet
access or computer networking access over a wide area. Wireless networks can feature data
rates roughly equivalent to some wired networks, such as that of asymmetric digital
subscriber line (ADSL) or a cable modem. Wireless networks can also be symmetrical,
meaning the same rate in both directions (downstream and upstream), which is most
commonly associated with fixed wireless networks. A fixed wireless network link is a
stationary terrestrial wireless connection, which can support higher data rates for the same
power as mobile or satellite systems.
Few wireless Internet service providers (WISPs) provide download speeds of over 100
Mbit/s; most broadband wireless access (BWA) services are estimated to have a range of
50 km (31 mi) from a tower.
Technologies used include LMDS and MMDS, as well as heavy use of the ISM
bands and one particular access technology was standardized by IEEE 802.16, with products
known as WiMAX.
WiMAX is highly popular in Europe but has not met full acceptance in the United
States because cost of deployment does not meet return on investment figures.
Providers of fixed wireless broadband services typically provide equipment to
customers and install a small antenna or dish somewhere on the roof. This equipment is
usually deployed as a service and maintained by the company providing that service. Fixed
wireless services have become particularly popular in many rural areas where Cable, DSL or
other typical home Internet services are not available.
Called mobile broadband, wireless broadband technologies include services
from mobile phone service providers which allow a more mobile version of Internet access.
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Consumers can purchase a PC card, laptop card, or USB equipment to connect their PC or
laptop to the Internet via cell phone towers. This type of connection would be stable in
almost any area that could also receive a strong cell phone connection. These connections
can cost more for portable convenience as well as having speed limitations in all but urban
environments.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WISP)
Commentary
LMDS: Local Multipoint Distribution service
MMDS: Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service
ISM band: The industrial, scientific and medical radio bands are radio bands
(portions of the radio spectrum).
WiMAX: Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access is a wireless
communications standard designed to provide 30 to 40 megabit-per-second data rates, with
the 2011 update providing up to 1 Gbit/s for fixed stations.

high-speed access, a laptop card, speed limitations, over a wide area, to be deployed as,
roughly equivalent, wired networks, fixed wireless networks, terrestrial, to provide
download speeds, to estimate, from a tower, to meet return on investment, to install an
antenna on the roof, rural areas, to purchase.
III. Ask questions to the above text using words and word combinations from Ex.
II.
IV. Discuss the problems mentioned in the text.

Local Multipoint Distribution Service is a broadband wireless access technology
originally designed for digital television transmission (DTV). It was conceived as a fixed
wireless, point-to-multipoint technology for utilization in the last mile. LMDS commonly
operates on microwave frequencies across the 26 GHz and 29 GHz bands.
Throughput capacity and reliable distance of the link depends on common radio link
constraints and the modulation method used - either phase-shift keying or amplitude
modulation. Distance is typically limited to about 1.5 miles (2.4 km) due to rain fade
attenuation constraints. Deployment links of up to 5 miles (8 km) from the base station are
possible in some circumstances such as in point-to-point systems that can reach slightly
farther distances due to increased antenna gain.
Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service (MMDS), formerly known as Broadband
Radio Service (BRS) and also known as Wireless Cable, is a wireless
telecommunications technology, used for general-purpose broadband networking or, more
commonly, as an alternative method of cable television programming reception.
It is most commonly used in sparsely populated rural areas, where laying cables are not
economically viable, although some companies may also offer MMDS services in urban areas.
V. Collect all the information and write down an abstract under the title “Wireless
broadband”.
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TEXT SEVENTEEN
Read the text and translate it.
PROBABILITIES AND RANDOM VARIABLES
Probability theory is used in communication theory and signal processing of random

waveforms. All first- and second-order time averages are visualized statistically. The topics
covered with some highlights are as follows:
1. Discrete probability theory. The theorem of total probability, which subdivides
compound problems into weighted subproblems, is highlighted along with Bayes’ theorem.
2. The theory of one random variable.
3. The theory of two random variables. Joint distribution, density, and mass functions
give complete probabilistic information about two random variables and are the key to
solving most applications involving continuous and discrete random waveforms and later
random processes. The bridge from theory to application is short as in the relationship
between finding the density or mass function of a function of two random variables and the
communication problem of finding statistics of a system’s random output when two random
inputs are combined by operations such as summing or multiplying (modulation).
The elements of probability and random variable theory should be presented as a
prerequisite to the study of random processes and communication theory.
Probability theory concerns itself with assumed random phenomena, which are
characterized by outcomes which occur with statistical regularity. These statistical
regularities define the probability p(A) of any outcome A and the conditional probability of
A given B. In order to use these definitions it is required to know counting theory or
permutations and combinations.
From basic counting formulae, which are inductively developed, plus an understanding
of counting factors, probabilities of complex outcomes may be found.
The axioms of probability state that a probability is between zero and one and that the
probability of the union of mutually exclusive outcomes is the sum of their probabilities. A
historically elegant theorem which simplifies compound problems is Bayes’ Theorem.
Consider a random phenomenon where one trial consists in performing a trial of one of m
random phenomena B1, B2…, Bm where the probability of performing a trial of B1 is P(B1)
and so on until P(Bm) is the probability of performing a trial of Bm. This is the theorem of
total probability.
Whenever many probabilistic questions are asked about a random phenomenon, a
structured outline is given for the solution in three steps.
In step 1 an appropriate event space or the sample description space of the phenomenon
is listed. The sample description space is the set of finest grain, mutually exclusive,
collectively exhaustive outcomes, whereas an event space is a listing of mutually exclusive,
collectively exhaustive outcomes. In step 2, a probability is assignment to each outcome of
the chosen space using the relative frequency or axiomatic formulae. In step 3, any desired
probabilities are found by using the axiomatic formulae.
Density and mass functions allow for the use of integration and summations to answer
probabilistic questions about a random variable.
88
A finite-power random or noise waveform is defined as being nondeterministic and
such that statistics of a large section or of the whole waveform exist. Any time average may
be found by the statistical formula.
When ergodic random processes are later encountered the time averages for any one
member of the ensemble will be equivalent to the corresponding ensemble averages. A
future task is to approximate time averages on a computer.
(By Michael O’Flynn. San Jose State University)

probability theory signal processing
a random waveform to highlight
the first-order time average along with
random variables summing or multiplying
to concern with with statistical regularity
to subdivide into complex outcomes
permutation and combination to approximate
corresponding ensemble

axiom, phenomenon, probability, variable, simplify, exhaustive, continuous, average.
II. Copy out from Text Seventeen the sentences containing the words and word
combinations given above and translate them.
III. Find in Text Seventeen equivalents for the following words and word
combinations and memorize them:
плотность, результат вычисления, теория подсчёта, предпосылка к изучению,
заниматься чем-либо, исчерпывающий, интервал между характеристиками дискрета,
попытка, формулировать, мысленно представить себе, основные формулы подсчёта,
взаимоисключающий результат, условный результат, случайная волнообразная кривая
ограниченной мощности, функции плотности и массы, шум, найти с помощью
статистических формул, предполагаемые (допускаемые) случайные явления,
перестановка и комбинация, сложные задачи, случайные переменные величины,
средние значения множества, теорема суммарной вероятности, среднее значение
времени второго порядка, теория дискретной вероятности, относительная частота,
выбранное пространство.
IV. Explain in English the meaning of the following:
probabilities, random, the axiom, mutually exclusive outcomes, noise.
V. Answer the following questions:
1. Where is probability theory used? 2. What does probability theory deal with? 3.
What is the definition of discrete probability theory? 4. What can you say about the theory
of two random variables? 5. What are random phenomena characterized by? 6. Do statistical
regularities define the probability p(A) of any outcome A and the conditional probability of
A given B? 7. How may probabilities of complex outcomes be found? 8. What do the
axioms of probability state? 9. What can you say about Bayes’ theorem? 10. How many
steps is a structured outline for the solution given in? 11. What is listed in step 1? 12. What
89
is a probability assigned to in step 2? 13. How are any desired probabilities found in step 3?
14. What do density and mass functions allow for the use of integration and summations?
15. How is a finite-power random or noise waveform defined? 16. Which formula may any
time average be found by? 17. When will the time averages for any one member of the
ensemble be equivalent to the corresponding ensemble averages?
VI. Outline the main ideas of Text Seventeen and write a summary.
I. Complete the following sentences:
1. The theorem of total probability is highlighted along with …….. . 2. ….. any desired
probabilities are found by using the axiomatic formula. 3. Density and mass functions allow
to answer ….. . 4. A historically elegant theorem which simplifies ….. problems is Bayes’
theorem. 5. Any time average ….. by the statistical formula. 6. Random phenomena are
characterized by outcomes which occur ….. . 7. Random phenomena are characterized by
…… which occur with statistical regularity.
II. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the words and word
1. Bayes’ theorem shows the relation between a conditional probability and its reverse
form. 2. The theorem can be used directly as part of a particular approach to statistical
interference. 3. Bayes’ theorem is named after Thomas Bayes. 4. The French mathematician
Pierre-Simon Laplace reproduced and extended Bayes’ results in 1774. 5. Bayes’ theorem
has applications in a wide range of calculations involving probabilities. 6. The theorem
provides a way to revise existing predictions or theories given new or additional evidence.
III. Translate the following sentences into English using the words and word
1. Математические интересы Байеса относились к теории вероятностей. 2. Он
сформулировал и решил одну из основных задач этого раздела математики (теорема
Байеса). 3. По формуле Байеса можно более точно пересчитать вероятность, беря в
расчет как ранее известную информацию, так и данные новых наблюдений. 4. Теорема
Байеса названа в честь её автора Томаса Байеса (1701—1761) . 5. Математически
теорема Байеса показывает взаимоотношения между вероятностью события A и
вероятностью события B. 6. В частотной интерпретации теорема Байеса фиксирует
количество произошедших событий (выходов) и определяет их вероятность.
SPEAKING:
Characterize Bayes’ Theorem and its role in mathematics.

I. Study the following text.
SETTING GLOBAL STANDARDS

New standards that will enable cost-effective smart grid applications such as
distribution automation, smart appliances and advanced recharging systems for electric
90
vehicles have been approved by ITU Study Group. These include Recommendations which
define a family of narrowband power line communication standards.
These Recommendations are optimized for the various topologies and characteristics of
power grids around the world, and will provide a “smart” link between electricity and
communication networks through their support of the use of power lines as a
communication medium.
Recommendation ITU-T Y.2291 provides an architectural overview of next-generation
home networks, identifying their overall features and functions.
Recommendation ITU-T K.85, developed by Study Group (Environment and climate
change), describes the requirements for home network equipment and installations in
customer premises.
Recommendation ITU-T Y.1565 describes the performance parameters for generic
home networks and their interfaces to operators’ broadband access networks. IPv4 and IPv6
are both within its scope, as well as the possibility to perform network address and port
translation, allowing the use of private address space in the home network.
A home gateway, incorporated in the advanced cable set-top box, enables the
deployment of a home network. Recommendation ITU-T J.295 defines functional
requirements for the advanced cable set-top box to enable cable television operators to
provide advanced services to their subscribers.
Study Group 15 is responsible for studies on optical transport networks and access
network infrastructure, providing higher speed broadband access and core-network transport
Recommendations required for IP-based networks, future networks and next-generation
networks. This work includes studies focusing on timing, synchronization, measurement,
performance, speed, reliability, installation and maintenance.
A key standard outlining objectives and design goals for future networks was approved
and further details were worked out in the series of Recommendations. These include
frameworks for network virtualization and energy saving. New elements including mobility,
content delivery, and access for service providers and identity management services were
added to a key next-generation network architecture Recommendation.
Intelligent transport systems are a topic that cuts across the work programmes of
different ITU activities, such as multimedia, future networks, security, quality of service,
environment and climate change, and the Internet of Things. Numerous standards
organizations are working on intelligent transport systems. The intent of the collaboration is
to create an internationally accepted, globally harmonized set of intelligent transport system
communication standards by promoting and cross-referencing existing standards
(independent of source), modifying and extending existing standards where appropriate, and
developing new standards are necessary.
(ITU NEWS magazine, № 9, 2012)
power grids, overall features, to focus on, smart appliances, narrowband power line
communication, internationally accepted, cross-referencing standards, customer premises,
the intent, recharging systems, gateway, to outline objectives, maintenance, content delivery,
set-top box, to be approved by, private address space, generic.
III. Put down problem questions to the above text.
91
V. Translate the following sentences into English using words and word
1. В 1989 году Европейский институт телекоммуникационных стандартов (ETSI)
взял ответственность за дальнейшее развитие GSM. 2. Стандартизация - это
деятельность по установлению правил и характеристик в целях их добровольного
многократного использования, направленная на достижение упорядоченности в
сферах производства и повышение конкурентоспособности продукции, работ или
услуг. 3. Отраслевой стандарт – стандарт, относящийся к процессам, продуктам и
другим аспектам определенной области деятельности. 4. Международная
стандартизация – это совокупность международных организаций по стандартизации
продуктов их деятельности – стандартов, рекомендаций, технических отчетов и
другой научно-технической продукции. 5. Процессы и услуги, в частности,
материалы, составляющие оборудование, системы, их совместимость, процедуры,
функции, а также методы их деятельности являются объектами стандартизации. 6. В
работе сектора стандартизации принимают участие 10 исследовательских групп (Study
Groups), в обязанности которых входит рассмотрение широкого круга вопросов,
связанных с организацией стабильного и эффективного функционирования
телекоммуникационного оборудования и служб. 7. Сектор радиосвязи
(Radiocommunication Sector) объединяет функции комитета по радио и задачи по
регистрации частот. 8. Этот сектор отвечает за управление использованием
радиочастотного спектра, изучает распространение радиоволн, работу различных
служб радиосвязи, характеристики и показатели качества функционирования систем
радиосвязи. 9. Сектор развития телекоммуникаций (Telecommunication Development
Sector - ITU-D) разрабатывает стратегию и политику развития инфраструктуры связи,
отвечает за гармонизацию, управление и технологическое обслуживание сетей и
служб электросвязи. 10. Они разрабатывают технические и эксплуатационные
стандарты с их последующим согласованием на международном уровне.
VI. Choose the necessary verb form from the box and translate the sentences:
to overcome expected depends protected providing accepted provide
1. No proposals will be ….. if they are not agreed by consensus. 2. We will ….. an
impartial forum where all of the substantive issues can be debated. 3. The future of such
innovations ….. upon the availability international ICT standards that are purpose built to
meet the needs of vertical markets. 4. Advancing the roll-out of international standards for e-
health and telemedicine services will help ….. interoperability problems. 5. Standard-
essential patents are patents whose ….. technology is necessary for the implementation of a
standard adapted by a standard development organization, such as ITU. 6. ….. market
players with clear, transparent, effective and up-to-date patent policies works for the benefit
of the industry as a whole. 7. The new standard is ….. to be agreed at the meeting in April -
May.
VII. Discuss the problems of the present-day development and maintenance of
international ICT standards.
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VIII. Reproduce the following text in your own words.
THE FIRST INTERNATIONAL RADIOTELEGRAPH CONFERENCE
The very nature of radio made it international, right from its beginning. Unlike the
cables of the telephone or the wires of the telegraph, electromagnetic waves know no man-
made frontiers; once emitted from their antenna, only their strength decides to what distance
they travel. Throughout the history of radio it has always been the aim to choose and assign
appropriate frequencies by international agreement, to lay down the rules for the operation
of radio stations and to approve standards for apparatus and their operators.
Preliminary International Conference on Radio took place in Berlin as early as 1903.
A.S.Popov was one of the chief Russian delegates. Nine countries met to undertake
preliminary studies for the international regulation of radio. Part of the reason, if not the
major one, for calling this conference was to stop the attempt of Marconi to monopolize
radio. In order to establish his monopoly, he had given instructions to his operators only to
exchange wireless signals with other stations also manned by Marconi operators, and it was
this action by a private company which stirred up most opposition.
In the Final Protocol of the Preliminary Berlin Conference it was laid down that "Coast
stations should receive and transmit telegrams originating from or destined for ships at sea
without distinction as to the system of radio used by latter". In spite of the very elementary
state of radio in 1903, this principle and the others of the Final Protocol became the basis for
the regulation of radio communication.
29 nations came to the First International Radiotelegraph Conference in Berlin, 1906. It
accepted the Radio Convention, Radio Regulations and the fundamental structure for all
subsequent conferences.
IX. Find in the above text the word combinations corresponding to their Russian
equivalents given below:
сама природа радио, искусственные преграды, несмотря на, еще в 1903 году,
установить правила, именно этот поступок; одна из причин, если не самая главная.
X. Topic for discussion:
From a regulatory perspective – in a networked society – it seems clear that
Telecommunication companies do not want heavy-handed regulation or a return to the old
days of accounting rates and government-controlled telecommunications. But they do seem
to be in agreement that new high-level principles are needed, and that there should be
coordination and consolidation between companies at both the national and international
levels.
TEXT EIGHTEEN
Read Text Eighteen and get ready to discuss it in the classroom:
MODULATION
In electronics and telecommunications, modulation is the process of varying one or
more properties of a periodic waveform, called the carrier signal (high frequency signal),
with a modulating signal that typically contains information to be transmitted.
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In telecommunications, modulation is the process of conveying a message signal, for
example a digital bit stream or an analog audio signal, inside another signal that can be
physically transmitted. Modulation of a sine waveform transforms a baseband message
signal into a pass-band signal.
A modulator is a device that performs modulation. A demodulator (sometimes detector
or demod) is a device that performs demodulation, the inverse of modulation.
A modem (from modulator–demodulator) can perform both operations.
The aim of digital modulation is to transfer a digital bit stream over an analog band-
pass channel, for example over the public switched telephone network (where a band-pass
filter limits the frequency range to 300–3400 Hz), or over a limited radio frequency band.
The aim of analog modulation is to transfer an analog baseband (or low-pass) signal,
for example an audio signal or TV signal, over an analog band-pass channel at a different
frequency, for example over a limited radio frequency band or a cable TV network channel.
Analog and digital modulation facilitate frequency division multiplexing (FDM), where
several low pass information signals are transferred simultaneously over the same shared
physical medium, using separate pass-band channels (several different carrier frequencies).
The aim of digital baseband modulation methods, also known as line coding, is to
transfer a digital bit stream over a baseband channel, typically a non-filtered copper wire
such as a serial bus or a wired local area network.
The aim of pulse modulation methods is to transfer a narrowband analog signal, for
example a phone call over a wideband baseband channel or, in some of the schemes, as a bit
stream over another digital transmission system.
the carrier signal a digital bit stream

to contain information a pass-band signal
digital transmission over a baseband channel
to be transferred simultaneously to limit the frequency range
to perform demodulation at a different frequency
public switched telephone network a band-pass filter
a sine waveform to convey a message signal
to facilitate frequency-division multiplexing

I. Answer the following questions using the word combinations and phrases:
1. What is modulation? 2. What signal does modulation of a sine waveform transform
a baseband message signal into? 3. Does a modulator perform modulation? 4. What is
demodulation? 5. Can a modem perform both operations? 6. Where is the frequency range
limited to 300-3400 Hz? 7. What is the aim of analog modulation? 8. What is frequency-
division multiplexing? 9. Which methods are known as line coding? 10. What is the aim of
digital baseband modulation methods? 11. What can you say about pulse modulation
methods?
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II. Find in the text words that can be referred to international words.
III. Spell and transcribe the following words:
modulation, process, narrowband, device, switched network, simultaneously, frequency.
IV. Retell Text Eighteen using as many of the word combinations from the list as
you can.
I. Translate the following sentences into English using word combinations and
phrases from Text Eighteen:
1. Длительность импульсов определяет полосу пропускания сигналов. 2.
Модуляция сигналов позволяет выполнить преобразование сигналов с целью
повышения эффективности процесса передачи информации. 3. Если значения
параметра закодированы и передаются в цифровой форме, то соответствующие виды
модуляции называются цифровой модуляцией. 4. При частотной модуляции
(frequency shift keying) значениям «0» и «1» информационной последовательности
cooтветствуют определённые частоты синусоидального сигнала при неизменной
амплитуде. 5. При использовании широкополосных линий связи исходные сигналы
нуждаются в преобразовании для передачи по физическому каналу. 6. При цифровой
модуляции цифровой поток битов передаётся по аналоговому частотному каналу или
по ограниченной радиочастотной полосе. 7. Модулятор является одной из составных
частей передающих устройств радиосвязи, радио- и телевещания.
II. Choose the necessary verb form from the box to complete the following
sentences:
to convey modulated given uses facilitate be used may be carried
1. Modulation is that process by which a property or a parameter of a ….. signal is

varied in proportion to a second signal. 2. Analog and digital modulation ……frequency
division multiplexing. 3. The shaping of a signal …… information is known as modulation.
4. Modulation can also ….. to transmit the information of low-frequency analog signals at
higher frequencies. 5. The Bluetooth system ….. phase-shift keying to exchange information
between various devices. 6. A low-frequency message signal …….by an AM or FM radio
wave. 7. In digital modulation, an analog carrier signal is ….. by a discrete signal.
SPEAKING:
Share your opinions of different kinds of modulation. Make use of the following
information.
The most fundamental digital modulation techniques are based on keying:
PSK (phase-shift keying): a finite number of phases are used.
FSK (frequency-shift keying): a finite number of frequencies are used.
ASK (amplitude-shift keying): a finite number of amplitudes are used.
QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation): a finite number of at least two phases and at
least two amplitudes are used.
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Modulator and demodulator principles of operation
PSK and ASK, and sometimes also FSK, are often generated and detected using the
principle of QAM. The I and Q signals can be combined into a complex-
valued signal I+jQ (where j is the imaginary unit). The resulting so called equivalent low-
pass signal or equivalent baseband signal is a complex-valued representation of the real-
valued modulated physical signal (the so-called pass-band signal or RF signal).
These are the general steps used by the modulator to transmit data:
1. Group the incoming data bits into code words, one for each symbol that will be
transmitted.
2. Map the code words to attributes, for example amplitudes of the I and Q signals
(the equivalent low-pass signal), or frequency or phase values.
3. Adapt pulse shaping or some other filtering to limit the bandwidth and form the
spectrum of the equivalent low-pass signal, typically using digital signal processing.
4. Perform digital to analog conversion (DAC) of the I and Q signals (since today
all of the above is normally achieved using digital signal processing, DSP).
5. Generate a high frequency sine carrier waveform, and perhaps also a cosine
quadrature component.
6. Carry out the modulation, for example by multiplying the sine and cosine
waveform with the I and Q signals, resulting in the equivalent low-pass signal being
frequency shifted to the modulated pass-band signal or RF signal. Sometimes this is
achieved using DSP technology, for example direct digital synthesis using a waveform table,
instead of analog signal processing. In that case the above DAC step should be done after
this step.
7. Amplification and analog band-pass filtering to avoid harmonic distortion and
periodic spectrum.
At the receiver side, the demodulator typically performs: band-pass filtering, automatic
gain control to compensate for attenuation, for example fading, frequency shifting of the RF
signal to the equivalent baseband I and Q signals, or to an intermediate frequency (IF)
signal, by multiplying the RF signal with a local oscillator sine wave and cosine wave
frequency, sampling and analog-to-digital conversion (ADC), equalization filtering, for
example a matched filter, compensation for multipath propagation, time spreading, phase
distortion and frequency selective fading to avoid inter-symbol interference and symbol
distortion.
As it is common to all digital communication systems, the design of both the modulator
and demodulator must be done simultaneously. Digital modulation schemes are possible
because the transmitter-receiver pair have prior knowledge of how data is encoded and
represented in the communications system. In all digital communication systems, both the
modulator at the transmitter and the demodulator at the receiver are structured so that they
perform inverse operations.
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II. Give English equivalents for the following words and word combinations:
частотная модуляция, объединять в, основные этапы (шаги), обработка цифрового
сигнала, сигнал низких частот, фазовая манипуляция, амплитудная манипуляция,
аналогово-цифровое преобразование, сигнал совокупной (комплексной) величины,
воображаемая единица, синусоидальная несущая волна, квадратурная модуляция,
отображать кодовые слова, характеристики (атрибуты), избегать гармонического
искажения, полосовая фильтрация, частота косинусной волны, выравнивание
(компенсация), сигнал полосы пропускания частот, модулирующий сигнал (основной
полосы).
III. Read and translate the following defining terms:

Amplitude modulation: a continuous-wave modulation using amplitude variations in
proportion to the amplitude of the input signal.
Frequency modulation: a continuous-wave modulation using instantaneous frequency
variations from carrier in proportion to the amplitude of the input signal.
Frequency-division multiplexing: multiplexing technique that requires that signals be
confined to assigned, non-overlapping frequency bands.
IV. Discuss the problems dealt with in the text given above using the words and
TEXT NINETEEN
Read Text Nineteen and get ready to discuss it in the classroom:
MULTIPLEXING
The process of sending multiple signals on a single channel is called multiplexing.
In telecommunications and computer networks, multiplexing is a method by which
multiple analog message signals or digital data streams are combined into one signal over
a shared medium.
Multiplexing originated in telegraphy in the 1870s, and is now widely applied in
communications. In telephony, George Owen Squier is credited with the development of
telephone carrier multiplexing in 1910.
The multiplexed signal is transmitted over a communication channel, which may be a
physical transmission medium (e.g. a cable). The multiplexing divides the capacity of the
high-level communication channel into several low-level logical channels, one for each
message signal or data stream to be transferred. A reverse process, known as demultiplexing,
can extract the original channels on the receiver side.
A device that performs the multiplexing is called a multiplexer (MUX), and a device
that performs the reverse process is called a demultiplexer (DEMUX or DMX).
Inverse multiplexing (IMUX) has the opposite aim as multiplexing, namely to break
one data stream into several streams, transfer them simultaneously over several
communication channels, and recreate the original data stream.
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Multiplexing technologies may be divided into several types, all of which have
significant variations: space-division multiplexing (SDM), frequency-division multiplexing
(FDM), time-division multiplexing (TDM), and code-division multiplexing (CDM).
In wireless communications, multiplexing can also be accomplished through
alternating polarization (horizontal/vertical or clockwise/counterclockwise) on
each adjacent channel and satellite, or through phased multi-antenna array combined with a
multiple-input and multiple-output communications (MIMO) scheme.
In wireless communication, space-division multiplexing is achieved by multiple
antenna elements forming a phased array antenna. Examples are multiple-input and
multiple-output (MIMO), single-input and multiple-output (SIMO) and multiple-input and
single-output (MISO) multiplexing. For example, an IEEE 802.11n wireless router
with k number of antennas makes it in principle possible to communicate with k multiplexed
channels, each with a peak bit rate of 54 Mbit/s, thus increasing the total peak bit rate with a
factor k. Different antennas would give different multi-path propagation (echo) signatures,
making it possible for digital signal processing techniques to separate different signals from
each other. These techniques may also be utilized for space diversity (improved robustness
to fading) or beam forming (improved selectivity) rather than multiplexing.
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is inherently an analog technology. FDM
achieves the combining of several signals into one medium by sending signals in several
distinct frequency ranges over a single medium.
One of FDM's most common applications is the old traditional radio and television
broadcasting from terrestrial, mobile or satellite stations, using the natural atmosphere of
Earth, or the cable television. Only one cable reaches a customer's residential area, but the
service provider can send multiple television channels or signals simultaneously over that
cable to all subscribers without interference. Receivers must tune to the appropriate
frequency (channel) to access the desired signal.
A variant technology, called wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is used
in optical communications.
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital (or in rare cases, analog) technology
which uses time, instead of space or frequency, to separate the different data streams. TDM
involves sequencing groups of a few bits or bytes from each individual input stream, one
after the other, and in such a way that they can be associated with the appropriate receiver. If
done sufficiently quickly, the receiving devices will not detect that some of the circuit time
was used to serve another logical communication path.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplexing)

digital data streams to be credited with
sequencing groups a communication channel
over a shared medium a reverse process
to originate simultaneously
inverse multiplexing space-division multiplexing
time-division multiplexing an adjacent channel
frequency-division multiplexing to be inherently
code-division multiplexing
98
I. Find in Text Nineteen the English equivalents for:
на отдельном канале, мультиплексный сигнал, пропускная способность, разбивать
на несколько потоков, противоположная цель, широко применяться в, через
используемую среду, канал связи высокого уровня; поток данных, которые нужно
передать; обратное мультиплексирование, можно разделить на, абонент, частотное
уплотнение, многократный входной сигнал, наземная станция; находящаяся в фазе
антенная решётка; по часовой стрелке, уплотнение с кодовым разделением каналов,
многолучевое распространение, против часовой стрелки, единственный выходной
сигнал, в нескольких диапазонах различимых частот, настраивать на, приписывать
создание мультиплексирования.
1. What is called multiplexing? 2. What kind of method is multiplexing? 3. When did
multiplexing originate? 4. What is George Owen Sqier credited with? 5. What is the
multiplexed signal transmitted over? 6. How does the multiplexing divide the capacity of the
high-level communication channel? 7. What is known as a reverse process? 8. What is called
a multiplexer? 9. What process does a demultiplexer perform? 10. Does inverse
multiplexing break one data stream into several streams? 11. How many types may
multiplexing technologies be divided into? Name them. 12. Where can multiplexing be
accomplished through alternating polarization in wireless communications? 13. What is
space-division multiplexing achieved by? Give examples. 14. What makes it possible to
communicate with k multiplexed channels, each with the peak bit rate of 54 Mbit/s? 15.
Would different antennas give different multi-path propagation signatures? 16. Is frequency-
division multiplexing inherently an analog or digital technology? 17. What does FDM
achieve the combining of several signals into one medium by? 18. What is one of its most
common applications? 19. What must receivers do to access the desired signal? 20. Where is
wavelength-division multiplexing used? 21. Is time-division multiplexing a digital or analog
technology? 22. What is it used for? 23. Why will not the receiving devices detect that some
of the circuit time was used to serve another logical communication path?
III. Outline the main ideas of Text Nineteen and write a summary. Present it to
your classmates.
I. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the words and word
1. Electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios allows individual stations to be
selected. 2. Digital bit streams may be transferred efficiently over a single
fixed bandwidth channel by means of statistical multiplexing, for example packet
mode communication. 3. Packet mode communication is an asynchronous mode time-
domain multiplexing which resembles time-division multiplexing. 4. Digital bit streams can
be transferred over an analog channel by means of code-division multiplexing techniques. 5.
In digital television and digital radio systems, several variable bit-rate data streams are
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multiplexed together to a fixed bit rate transport stream by means of statistical multiplexing.
6. Code Division Multiplexing is a technique in which each channel transmits its bits as a
coded channel-specific sequence of pulses. 7. A multiple access method makes it possible
for several transmitters connected to the same physical medium to share its capacity. 8.
Code division multiplexing or spread spectrum is a class of techniques where several
channels simultaneously share the same frequency spectrum, and this spectral bandwidth is
much higher than the bit rate or symbol rate.
II. Find in Text Nineteen and copy out phrases in which the prepositions for, over,
through are used. Translate the phrases.
III. Translate and memorize the following defining terms:
Multiplexing: The process of combining signals for transmission on a single channel.
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM): Multiplexing technique that requires that
signals be confined to assigned, nonoverlapping frequency bands.
Space-division multiplexing: Sharing of a channel by concentrating individual signals
in nonoverlapping narrow beams.
Time-division multiplexing (TDM): Multiplexing technique which requires that
signals be confined to assigned, nonoverlapping portions of the time axis.
SPEAKING:
Discuss the problems of multiplexing technologies.
I. Read the text and discuss its message.
DIVERSITY TECHNIQUES
Diversity is a commonly used technique in mobile radio systems to combat signal

fading. The basic principle of diversity is as follows.
If several replicas of the same information carrying signal are received over multiple
channels with comparable strengths and that exhibit independent fading, then there is a good
likelihood that at least one or more of these of the received signals will not be in a fade at
any given instant in time, thus making it possible to deliver adequate signal level to the
receiver. Without diversity techniques, in noise limited conditions, the transmitter will have
to deliver a much higher power level to protect the link during the short intervals when the
channel is severely faded.
In mobile radio, the power available on the reverse link is severely limited by the
battery capacity in handheld subscriber units. Diversity methods play a crucial role in
reducing transmitting power needs. Cellular communication networks are also mostly
interference limited and once again mitigation of channel fading through use of diversity can
translate into improved interference tolerance, which in turn means greater ability to support
additional users and therefore higher system capacity.
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There are many techniques for obtaining independently fading branches, and these can
be subdivided into two main classes. The first class called explicit techniques uses redundant
signal transmission to exploit diversity channels. Use of dual polarized signal transmission
and reception in many point-to-point radios is an example of explicit diversity. Clearly, such
redundant signal transmission involves a penalty in frequency spectrum or additional power.
On the other hand, in the second main class called implicit techniques, the signal is
transmitted only once, but the decorrelating effects in the propagation medium, such as
multipaths, are exploited to receive signals over multiple diversity channels. A good
example of implicit diversity is the RAKE receiver in code division multiple access systems
that use independent fading of resolvable multipaths to achieve diversity gain.
Exploiting diversity needs careful design of the communication link. In explicit
diversity, multiple copies of the same signal will have to be transmitted in channels using
either frequency, or time, or polarization dimension. At the receiver end we need
arrangements to receive the different diversity branches (this is true for both explicit and
implicit diversity). The different diversity branches are then combined to reduce signal
outage probability or bit-error rate.
In practice, the signals in the diversity branches may not show completely independent
fading. The envelope cross correlation p between these signals is a measure of their
independence. Depending on the type of the diversity employed, these diversity channels
must be sufficiently separated along the appropriate diversity dimension. For spatial
diversity, the antennas should be separated larger than the coherence distance to ensure a
cross correlation less than 0.7. Likewise, in frequency diversity, the frequency separation
must be larger than the coherence bandwidth, and in time diversity the separation between
channel reuse in time should be larger than the coherence time. These coherence factors, in
turn, depend on the channel characteristics.
(By A. Paulraj. Stanford University.)
Commentary
Fading: Fluctuation in the signal level due to shadowing and multipath effects.
RAKE receiver: A receiver used in direct sequence spread spectrum signals. The
receiver extracts energy in each path and then adds them together with appropriate
weighting and delay.
II. Find in the above text the English equivalents for the following:
частотный разброс, затухание сигнала, по крайней мере, значительная
вероятность, в любой данный момент, соответствующие размеры разброса,
огибающая, шум, уровень сигнала, защитить линию связи, взаимная корреляция
отделения частоты, в зависимости от, играть решающую роль, мультиканал, допуск на
интерференции, время когерентности, ширина полосы частот, среда распространения,
более высокая пропускная способность системы, множественный доступ с кодовым
разделением (каналов), передача избыточных сигналов, явный и неявный разброс.
Ex. II.
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IV. Discuss the problems dealt with in the above text using the words and word
combinations from Ex. II.
TEXT TWENTY
Read Text Twenty and get ready to discuss it in the classroom:
ELECTRONICS
Electronics deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such
as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits, and associated passive
interconnection technologies. Commonly, electronic devices contain circuitry consisting
primarily or exclusively of active semiconductors supplemented with passive elements; such
a circuit is described as an electronic circuit.
The nonlinear behaviour of active components and their ability to control electron
flows makes amplification of weak signals possible and electronics is widely used
in information processing, telecommunication, and signal processing. The ability of
electronic devices to act as switches makes digital information processing possible.
Interconnection technologies such as circuit boards, electronic packaging technology, and
other varied forms of communication infrastructure complete circuit functionality and
transform the mixed components into a regular working system.
Electronics is distinct from electrical and electro-mechanical science and technology,
which deal with the generation, distribution, switching, storage, and conversion of electrical
energy to and from other energy forms using wires, motors,
generators, batteries, switches, relays, transformers, resistors, and other passive components.
This distinction started around 1906 with the invention by Lee De Forest of the triode,
which made electrical amplification of weak radio signals and audio signals possible with a
non-mechanical device. Until 1950 this field was called "radio technology" because its
principal application was the design and theory of radio transmitters, receivers, and vacuum
tubes.
Today, most electronic devices use semiconductor components to perform electron
control. The study of semiconductor devices and related technology is considered as a
branch of solid-state physics, whereas the design and construction of electronic circuits to
solve practical problems come under electronics engineering.
An electronic component is any physical entity in an electronic system used to affect
the electrons or their associated fields in a manner consistent with the intended function of
the electronic system. Components are generally intended to be connected together, usually
by being soldered to a printed circuit board (PCB), to create an electronic circuit with a
particular function (for example an amplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator). Components may
be packaged singly, or in more complex groups as integrated circuits. Some common
electronic components are capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes, transistors, etc.
Components are often categorized as active (e.g. transistors and thyristors) or passive (e.g.
resistors, diodes, inductors and capacitors).
Vacuum tubes (thermionic valves) were one of the earliest electronic components. They
were almost solely responsible for the electronics revolution of the first half of the Twentieth
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Century. They gave us radio, television, phonographs, radar, long distance telephony and
much more. They played a leading role in the field of microwave and high power
transmission as well as television receivers until the middle of the 1980s. Since that time,
solid-state devices have all and completely taken over. Vacuum tubes are still used in some
specialist applications such as high power RF amplifiers, cathode ray tubes, special audio
equipment, guitar amplifiers and some microwave devices.
In April 1955 the IBM 608 was the first IBM product to use transistor circuits without
any vacuum tubes. The 608 contained more than 3,000 germanium transistors. From that
time on transistors were almost exclusively used for computer logic and peripherals.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/electronics)
Commentary
Thyristor: A thyristor is a two- to four-lead solid-state semiconductor device with
four layers of alternating N and P-type material.
IBM: International Business Machines Corporation is an American multinational
technology and consulting corporation.
Germanium: Germanium is a chemical element with symbol Ge and atomic number
32.
to deal with to contain circuitry
integrated circuits supplemented with
amplification of weak signals to be distinct from
a switch distribution of electrical energy
circuit boards switching
to perform electron controls consistent with
solid-state devices an amplifier
by being soldered

I. Find in Text Twenty equivalents for the following words and word
combinations:
целиком и полностью, электрические цепи, электронные (вакуумные) лампы,
пассивные технологии для соединения, полупроводники, нелинейное поведение,
обработка сигнала, действовать как переключатели, управлять потоком электронов,
усиление слабых сигналов, коммутация, основное применение, выполнять, физика
твёрдых тел, решить; предназначенные для того, чтобы быть соединёнными вместе;
печатная плата, интегральные (объединённые) схемы, конденсатор, играть ведущую
роль, передача высокой мощности, твёрдотельные устройства, периферийные
устройства, быть припаянным.
II. Answer the following questions using the words and word combinations:
1. What does electronics deal with? 2. What do electronic devices contain? 3. What
makes amplification of weak signals possible? 4. Where is electronics widely used? 5. What
transforms the mixed components into a regular working system? 6. Is electronics distinct
from electrical and electro-mechanical science and technology? Why? 7. When did this
distinction start? 8. Why was this field called “radio technology” until 1950? 9. What do
103
most electronic devices use semiconductor components for? 10. How is the study of
semiconductor devices and related technology considered? 11. Is the design and construction
of electronic circuits considered as a branch of solid-state physics too? 12. How can
components be connected together? 13. What are common electronic components? 14. How
are they often characterized? 15. Which of the earliest electronic components do you know?
16. What did vacuum tubes give us? 17. What played a leading role in the field of
microwave and high power transmission until the middle of the 1980s? 18. Where are
vacuum tubes still used? 19. What was the first product to use transistor circuits without any
vacuum tubes in April 1955? 20. How many germanium transistors did it contain? 21. What
were the transistors used for?
III. Retell Text Twenty.
I. Find in Text Twenty and copy out sentences in which prepositions for, into, by
are used. Translate the sentences.
years printed the ability generation attached circuit associated
1. Today's electronics engineers have ….. to design circuits using pre-manufactured

building blocks such as power supplies, semiconductors (such as transistors), and integrated
circuits. 2. Electronic design automation software programs include schematic
capture programs and printed ….. board design programs. 3. Many different methods of
connecting components have been used over the ….. .4. Early electronics often used point to
point wiring with components ….. to wooden breadboards to construct circuits. 5. Most
modern day electronics now use ….. circuit boards made of materials such as FR4. 6. Health
and environmental concerns ….. with electronics assembly have gained increased attention
in recent years. 7. Next- …… networks are being developed with a number of different
technologies, including wireless.
III. Translate the following sentences into English:
1. Электроника – это наука о взаимодействии электронов с электромагнитными
полями и о методах создания электронных приборов. 2. Электроника опирается на
электродинамику, физику твёрдого тела, а также на другие науки. 3. Изобретение
транзистора определило развитие полупроводниковой электроники. 4. Тиристор
можно рассматривать как электронный выключатель (ключ). 5. Интегральные схемы
относятся к полупроводниковым приборам. 6. Транзисторы – это полупроводниковые
приборы, предназначенные для усиления, генерирования и преобразования
электрических колебаний.
SPEAKING:
Speak about advantages of transistor circuits over vacuum tubes.
104
I. Read and translate the text.
TYPES OF CIRCUITS
Circuits and components can be divided into two groups: analog and digital. A
particular device may consist of circuitry that has one or the other or a mix of the two types.
Most analog electronic appliances, such as radio receivers, are constructed from
combinations of a few types of basic circuits. Analog circuits use a continuous range of
voltage as opposed to discrete levels as in digital circuits.
The number of different analog circuits so far devised is huge, especially because a
'circuit' can be defined as anything from a single component, to systems containing
thousands of components.
Analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits although many non-linear effects
are used in analog circuits such as mixers, modulators, etc. Good examples of analog
circuits include vacuum tubes and transistor amplifiers, operational amplifiers and
oscillators.
One rarely finds modern circuits that are entirely analog. These days analog circuitry
may use digital or even microprocessor techniques to improve performance. This type of
circuit is usually called "mixed signal" rather than analog or digital.
Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits as
they have elements of both linear and non-linear operation. An example is the comparator
which takes in a continuous range of voltage but only outputs one of two levels as in a
digital circuit. Similarly, an overdriven transistor amplifier can take on the characteristics of
a controlled switch having essentially two levels of output.
Digital circuits are electric circuits based on a number of discrete voltage levels. Digital
circuits are the most common physical representation of Boolean algebra, and are the basis
of all digital computers. To most engineers, the terms "digital circuit", "digital system" and
"logic" are interchangeable in the context of digital circuits. Most digital circuits use a
binary system with two voltage levels labeled "0" and "1". Often logic "0" will be a lower
voltage and referred to as "Low" while logic "1" is referred to as "High". However, some
systems use the reverse definition ("0" is "High") or are current based. Quite often the logic
designer may reverse these definitions from one circuit to the next as he sees fit to facilitate
his design. The definition of the levels as "0" or "1" is arbitrary.
Computers, electronic clocks, and programmable logic controllers (used to control
industrial processes) are constructed of digital circuits. Digital signal processors are another
example.
Heat generated by electronic circuitry must be dissipated to prevent immediate failure
and improve long-term reliability.
Electronic noise is defined as unwanted disturbances superposed on a useful signal that
tend to obscure its information content. Noise is not the same as signal distortion caused by
a circuit. Noise is associated with all electronic circuits. Noise may be electromagnetically
or thermally generated, which can be decreased by lowering the operating temperature of the
circuit.

a particular device, analog electronic appliances, levels of output, voltage, as opposed
to, so far devised, linear circuits, non-linear effects, to improve performance, to differentiate,
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microprocessor techniques, to take on the characteristics, to be interchangeable, a binary
system, the reverse definition, to facilitate, arbitrary, digital circuits, to be dissipated, to
prevent immediate failure, long-term, electronic noise, to obscure the information content,
signal distortion, to decrease, unwanted disturbances.
Ex. II.
TEXT TWENTY-ONE
Read Text Twenty-One and get ready to discuss it in the classroom:
INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as an IC, a chip,
or a microchip) is a set of electronic circuits on one small plate ("chip") of semiconductor
material, normally silicon. This can be made much smaller than a discrete circuit made from
independent components. ICs can be made very compact, having up to several
billion transistors and other electronic components in an area of the size of a fingernail. The
width of each conducting line in a circuit can be made smaller and smaller as the technology
advances; in 2008 it dropped below100 nanometer, and now it is tens of nanometers.
ICs were made possible by experimental discoveries showing that semiconductor
devices could perform the functions of vacuum tubes and by mid-20th-century technology
advancements in semiconductor device fabrication. The integration of large numbers of
tiny transistors into a small chip was an enormous improvement over the manual assembly
of circuits using discrete electronic components. The integrated circuit's mass
production capability, reliability, and the building-block approach to circuit design ensured
the rapid adoption of standardized integrated circuits in place of designs using discrete
transistors.
There are two main advantages of ICs over discrete circuits: cost and performance.
Cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit
by photolithography rather than being constructed one transistor at a time. Furthermore,
much less material is used to construct a packaged IC die than to construct a discrete circuit.
Performance is high because the components switch quickly and consume little power
(compared to their discrete counterparts) as a result of the small size and close proximity of
the components. As of 2012, typical chip areas range from a few square millimeters to
around 450 mm2, with up to 9 million transistors per mm2.
Integrated circuits are used in virtually all electronic equipment today and have
revolutionized the world of electronics. Computers, mobile phones, and other digital home
appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies, made possible by
the low cost of producing integrated circuits.
A circuit in which all or some of the circuit elements are inseparably associated and
electrically interconnected so that it is considered to be indivisible for the purposes of
construction and commerce.
Circuits meeting this definition can be constructed using many different technologies,
for example thin-film transistor, thick film technology, or hybrid integrated circuit.
106
In the early days of integrated circuits, only a few transistors could be placed on a chip,
as the scale used was large because of the contemporary technology, and manufacturing
yields were low by today's standards. As the degree of integration was small, the design
process was relatively simple. Over time, millions, and today billions of transistors could be
placed on one chip, and a good design required thorough planning. This gave rise to new
design methods.
Only a half-century after their development was initiated, integrated circuits can be
found everywhere. Computers, cellular phones, and other digital appliances are now
entangled parts of the structure of modern technological societies. In other words, modern
computing, communications, manufacturing, and transport systems, including the Internet,
all depend on the existence of integrated circuits. Indeed, many scholars believe that the
digital revolution that is based on integrated circuits is one of the most significant
developments in the history of mankind.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated circuit)

an integrated circuit silicon
discrete components to drop below
the size of a fingernail device fabrication
an improvement over the manual assembly technology advancements
the building-block approach a packaged IC die
to consume little power a counterpart
close proximity inextricable parts

circuit, required, technology, cellular, equipment, manual, hybrid, reliability.
II. Answer the following questions using the word combinations and phrases:
1. What is an integrated circuit? 2. What material is normally used to fabricate an
integrated circuit? 3. How many transistors can it have in the area of the size of a fingernail?
4. Why were ICs made possible? 5. What ensured the rapid adoption of standardized
integrated circuits? 6. What are the main advantages of ICs over discrete circuits? 7. Do the
components switch quickly and consume little power? 8. What can you say about typical
chip areas of 2012? 9. Where are integrated circuits used today? 10. What technologies can
be used to construct circuits? 11. How many transistors could be placed on a chip in the
early days of integrated circuits? 12. Does the Internet depend on the existence of integrated
circuits?
III. Find in Text Twenty-One equivalents for the following words and word
combinations:
стоимость и характеристики, независимые компоненты, существование
интегральных схем, надёжность, полупроводниковые приборы, неотъемлемые части
структуры, считаться нераздельным для, подход с использованием готового
сборочного элемента, разместить на чипе, относительно простой, домашние приборы,
107
выполнять функции, ручная сборка, полупроводник, сотовый, стандартизированные
интегральные схемы, тонкоплёночный транзистор, толстоплёночная технология.
IV. Retell Text Twenty-One using words of the topical vocabulary.
I. a) Find in Text Twenty-One three adjectives and an adverb with the negative
prefix in- and use them in sentences of your own. b) Add the negative prefix in- to the
following stems and translate them:
capable, complete, visible, vulnerable, accurate, coherent, valid, efficient, sensitive,
direct, distinctive, significant, secure.
II. Find in Text Twenty-One and copy out sentences in which the prepositions on,
by, over are used. Translate them.
III. Translate the following sentences. Pay attention to the words and word
1. A die in the context of integrated circuits is a small block of semiconducting
material, on which a given functional circuit is fabricated. 2. A system-on-a-chip is an
integrated circuit in which all the components needed for a computer or other system are
included on a single chip. 3. Digital ICs, typically microprocessors and microcontrollers,
work using binary mathematics to process "one" and "zero" signals. 4. A three-dimensional
integrated circuit has two or more layers of active electronic components that are integrated
both vertically and horizontally into a single circuit. 5. ICs can also combine analog and
digital circuits on a single chip to create functions such as A/D converters and D/A
converters. 6. In current research projects, integrated circuits are also developed
for sensoric applications in medical implants or other bioelectronic devices.
SPEAKING:
Discuss the problem of different types of integrated circuits. Find additional
information on present-day ICs.

I. Study the text and discuss it.
TEXT
ADVANCED INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
Among the most advanced integrated circuits are the microprocessors, that control
everything from computers to cellular phones and digital microwave ovens. Digital memory
chips are another family of an integrated circuit that is crucially important to the modern
information society. While the cost of designing and developing a complex integrated circuit
is quite high, when spread across typically millions of production units the individual IC
cost is minimized. The performance of ICs is high because the small size allows short traces
which in turn allows low power logic (such as CMOS) to be used at fast switching speeds.
ICs have consistently migrated to smaller feature sizes over the years, allowing more
circuitry to be packed on each chip. This increased capacity per unit area can be used to
108
decrease cost and/or increase functionality. Moore's law, in its modern interpretation, states
that the number of transistors in an integrated circuit doubles every two years.
Digital integrated circuits can contain anything from one to millions of logic gates, flip-
flops, multiplexers, and other circuits in a few square millimeters. The small size of these
circuits allows high speed, low power dissipation, and reduced manufacturing cost
compared with board-level integration. These digital ICs, typically microprocessors, digital
signal processors, and microcontrollers work using binary mathematics to process "one" and
"zero" signals.
Analog ICs, such as sensors, power-management circuits, and operational amplifiers
work by processing continuous signals. They perform functions like amplification, active
filtering, demodulation, mixing, etc.
A random access memory is the most regular type of integrated circuit; the highest
density devices are thus memories; but even a microprocessor will have memory on the
chip. Although the structures are intricate – with widths which have been shrinking for
decades – the layers remain much thinner than the device widths. The layers of material are
fabricated much like a photographic process, although light waves in the visible
spectrum cannot be used to "expose" a layer of material, as they would be too large for the
features. Thus photons of higher frequencies (typically ultraviolet) are used to create the
patterns for each layer. Because each feature is so small, electron microscopes are essential
tools for a process engineer who might be debugging a fabrication process.
Wafer-scale integration (WSI) is a system of building very-large integrated circuits that
uses an entire silicon wafer to produce a single "super-chip". Through a combination of large
size and reduced packaging, WSI could lead to dramatically reduced costs for some systems,
notably massively parallel supercomputers. The name is taken from the term Very-Large-
Scale Integration, the current state of the art when WSI was being developed.
The design of such a device can be complex and costly, and building disparate
components on a single piece of silicon may compromise the efficiency of some elements.
Commentary
CMOS: complementary metal-oxide semiconductor logic.
Moore’s law: Moore's law is the observation that, over the history of computing
hardware, the number of transistors in a dense integrated circuit doubles approximately
every two years. The law is named after Gordon E. Moore, co-founder of Intel Corporation,
who described the trend in his 1965 paper.

advanced, digital memory chips, at fast switching speeds, low power logic, to be
packed, feature, logic gates, flip-flops, power dissipation, compared with, a random access
memory, intricate, the current state, to debug the fabrication process, essential tools, a layer,
an operational amplifier, the device width, a silicon wafer, short traces, the state of the art,
board-level integration.
III. Find in the text equivalents for the following words and word combinations:
запоминающее устройство со случайной выборкой, триггер, сокращать,
логические вентили, несоизмеримые компоненты, интегральная схема на заготовке
(вафле), очень большая интегральная схема, двоичная математика, вычислительное
109
аппаратное обеспечение, квант с более высокими частотами, удваивать, слои
материала, очень большой уровень интеграции, необходимые инструменты,
уменьшенная стоимость на изготовление, заполнять на один кристаллик (чип),
изготовление.
IV. Put questions to the above text.
V. Translate the following sentences into English using words and word
1. Цифровые интегральные микросхемы по большей части состоят из
транзисторов. 2. Аналоговые интегральные схемы также содержат резисторы и
конденсаторы. 3. Благодаря развитию технологии постоянно уменьшаются размеры
компонентов. 4. Основным элементом аналоговых микросхем являются транзисторы.
5. Часто под интегральной схемой (ИС) понимают собственно кристалл или плёнку с
электронной схемой. 6. Триггеры предназначены для запоминания двоичной
информации. 7. Использование триггеров позволяет реализовывать устройства
оперативной памяти (то есть памяти, в которой информация хранится только на время
вычислений). 8. В связи с непрерывным развитием и совершенствованием как
полупроводниковой, так и тонкопленочной технологий следует ожидать, что в
ближайшем будущем большинство сложных ИС будут изготовляться на основе
совмещенной технологии.
V. Discuss the problems dealt with in the text given above using the words and
TEXT TWENTY-TWO
LOGIC GATE
In electronics, a logic gate is an idealized or physical device implementing a Boolean
function; that is, it performs a logical operation on one or more logical inputs, and produces
a single logical output. Depending on the context, the term may refer to an ideal logic gate,
one that has, for instance, zero rise time and unlimited fan-out, or it may refer to a non-ideal
physical device.
Logic gates are primarily implemented using diodes or transistors acting as electronic
switches, but can also be constructed using electromagnetic relays (relay logic), fluidic
logic, pneumatic logic, optics, molecules, or even mechanical elements. With amplification,
logic gates can be cascaded in the same way that Boolean functions can be composed,
allowing the construction of a physical model of all of Boolean logic, and therefore, all of
the algorithms and mathematics that can be described with Boolean logic.
Logic circuits include such devices as multiplexers, registers, arithmetic logic
units (ALUs), and computer memory, all the way up through complete microprocessors,
which may contain more than 100 million gates. In practice, gates are made from field-effect
transistors (FETs), particularly MOSFETs (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect
transistors).
110
Compound logic gates AND-OR-Invert (AOI) and OR-AND-Invert (OAI) are often
employed in circuit design because using MOSFETs their construction is simpler and more
efficient than the sum of individual gates.
A three-state logic gate is a type of a logic gate that can have three different outputs:
high (H), low (L) and high-impedance (Z). The high-impedance state plays no role in the
logic, which is strictly binary. These devices are used on buses of the CPU to allow multiple
chips to send data. A group of three-states driving a line with a suitable control circuit is
basically equivalent to a multiplexer, which may be physically distributed over separate
devices or plug-in cards.
In electronics, a high output would mean the output is sourcing current from the
positive power terminal (positive voltage). A low output would mean the output is sinking
current to the negative power terminal (zero voltage). High impedance would mean that the
output is effectively disconnected from the circuit.
The output of one gate can only drive a finite number of inputs to other gates, a number
called the 'fan-out limit'. There is also always a delay, called the 'propagation delay', from a
change in input of a gate to the corresponding change in its output. When gates are
cascaded, the total propagation delay is approximately the sum of the individual delays, an
effect which can become a problem in high-speed circuits. Additional delay can be caused
when a large number of inputs are connected to an output, due to the
distributed capacitance of all the inputs and wiring and the finite amount of current that each
output can provide.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic gate)
Commentary
Boolean function: A Boolean function describes how to determine a Boolean value
output based on some logical calculation from Boolean inputs. Such functions play a basic
role in questions of complexity theory as well as the design of circuits and chips for digital
computers. The properties of Boolean functions play a critical role in cryptography,
particularly in the design of symmetric key algorithms.
Boolean logic: Boolean logic is defined as the use of words and phrases such as
"and," "or" and "not" in search tools to get the most related results.

a logic gate electronic switches
logical inputs high-speed circuits
to be equivalent to propagation delay
high impedance approximately
unlimited fan-out a symmetric key algorithm
a plug-in card to be cascaded
field-effect transistors fan-out
multiple chips wiring
111
I. Use as many of the words and word combinations from the list as you can in the
sentences of your own.
II. Find in Text Twenty-Two equivalents for the following words and word
combinations:
полевой транзистор, логический вход, полевой транзистор типа металл-окисел-
полупроводник, функция Буля, выход, общая задержка распространения, усиление,
электронные переключатели, электромагнитные реле, логические схемы, более
эффективный, обусловленный чем-л., арифметический логический блок, отдельный
логический выход, неограниченное число выходов, логическая схема реле, состав,
построение схемы, логический вентиль, сумма отдельных задержек, ограниченное
число входов, состояние полного высокого сопротивления, распределённая ёмкость,
логический элемент И-ИЛИ, разъединять от сети, логическая схема с тремя
состояниями, вывод (зажим) с положительной мощностью, предел числа выходов.
III. Answer the following questions using the words and word combinations from
Ex. II.
1. What function does a logic gate implement in electronics? 2. What does it mean? 3.
How can logic gates be constructed? 4. In what way can logic gates be cascaded with
amplification? 5. What devices do logic circuits include? 6. How many gates may these
devices contain? 7. What are gates made from? 8. Why are compound logic gates often
employed in circuit design? 9. What is a three-state logic gate? 10. Does the high-impedance
state play any role in the logic? 11. Where are these devices used? 12. What are they used on
buses of the CPU for? 13. What is a group of three states equivalent to? 14. What would a
high output mean in electronics? 15. Would a low output mean current to the positive or
negative power terminal? 16. What would high impedance mean in this case? 17. What do
we call the fan-out limit? 18. What is the propagation delay? 19. When is the total
propagation delay approximately the sum of the individual delays? 20. Can this effect
become a problem in high-speed circuits? 21. When can additional delay be caused?
IV. Retell Text Twenty-Two.
I. Find in Text Twenty-Two and copy out sentences in which the prepositions to,
over, with are used. Translate them.
1. A logic gate is an electronic component that can be used to conduct electricity
based ….. a rule. 2. The NOT logic gate simply changes the signal from On …. Off or from
Off to On. 3. The On state usually uses a voltage in the range ….. 3.5 to 5 volts. 4. …..
electronics a NOT gate is more commonly called an inverter. 5. The number of inputs to a
gate can be reduced ….. connecting two or more inputs together. 6. In practice, gates are
made ….. field-effect transistors.
Keys: of, by, in, to, from, on.
III. Translate the following sentences using the words and word combinations of
the topical vocabulary.
1. Из вентилей составляют более сложные схемы, которые позволяют выполнять
арифметические операции и хранить информацию. 2.Логические схемы, содержащие
минимальное количество элементов, обеспечивают большую скорость работы и
112
увеличивают надёжность устройства. 3. Для быстродействующих логических схем
большое значение имеет выбор конструкции. 4. Триггер - это логическое устройство с
двумя устойчивыми состояниями “0” и “1”, которые имеют несколько входов и два
выхода: один прямой, а другой инверсный. 5. При создании цифровой схемы вентили
соединяют между собой, при этом выход используемого вентиля подключён к одному
или к нескольким входам других вентилей. 6. В цифровой электронике логический
уровень сигнала представлен в виде уровня напряжения или в виде значения тока. 7. В
настоящее время в цифровых устройствах доминируют электронные логические
вентили на базе полевых транзисторов, однако в прошлом для создания вентилей
использовались и другие устройства, например, электромагнитные реле,
гидравлические устройства, а также механические устройства.
SPEAKING:
Express your opinion on the following point of view.
The problem about a logic gate and its effect in electronics is very important.

Electronic gates
To build a functionally complete logic system, relays, valves (vacuum tubes), or
transistors can be used. The simplest family of logic gates using bipolar transistors is
called resistor-transistor logic (RTL). Unlike simple diode logic gates (which do not have a
gain element), RTL gates can be cascaded indefinitely to produce more complex logic
functions. RTL gates were used in early integrated circuits. For higher speed and better
density, the resistors used in RTL were replaced by diodes resulting in diode-transistor
logic (DTL).
Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) then supplanted DTL. As integrated circuits became
more complex, bipolar transistors were replaced with smaller field-effect
transistors (MOSFETs). To reduce power consumption still further, most contemporary chip
implementations of digital systems now use CMOS logic. CMOS uses complementary
(both n-channel and p-channel) MOSFET devices to achieve a high speed with low power
dissipation.
For small-scale logic, designers now use prefabricated logic gates from families of
devices such as the TTL 7400 series by Texas Instruments, the CMOS 4000 series by RCA,
and their more recent descendants. Increasingly, these fixed-function logic gates are being
replaced by programmable logic devices, which allow designers to pack a large number of
mixed logic gates into a single integrated circuit. The field-programmable nature
of programmable logic devices such as field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) has
removed the 'hard' property of hardware; it is now possible to change the logic design of a
hardware system by reprogramming some of its components, thus allowing the features or
function of a hardware implementation of a logic system to be changed.
A field-programmable gate array (FPGA) is an integrated circuit designed to be
configured by a customer or a designer after manufacturing – hence "field-programmable".
The FPGA configuration is generally specified using a hardware description
113
language (HDL), similar to that used for an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC).
Contemporary FPGAs have large resources of logic gates and RAM blocks to implement
complex digital computations. As FPGA designs employ very fast I/Os and bidirectional
data buses it becomes a challenge to verify correct timing of valid data within setup time and
hold time.
FPGAs contain programmable logic components called "logic blocks", and a hierarchy
of reconfigurable interconnects that allow the blocks to be "wired together" – somewhat like
many (changeable) logic gates that can be inter-wired in (many) different configurations.
Logic blocks can be configured to perform complex combinational functions, or merely
simple logic gates like AND and XOR. In most FPGAs, the logic blocks also include
memory elements, which may be simple flip-flops or more complete blocks of memory.
Technically speaking an FPGA can be used to solve any problem which is computable.
This is trivially proven by the fact FPGA can be used to implement a Soft microprocessor.
Their advantage lies in that they are sometimes significantly faster for some applications due
to their parallel nature and optimality in terms of the number of gates used for a certain
process.
Specific applications of FPGAs include digital signal processing, software-defined
radio, ASIC prototyping, medical imaging, computer vision, speech recognition,
cryptography, bioinformatics, computer hardware emulation, radio astronomy, metal
detection and a growing range of other areas.
Electronic logic gates differ significantly from their relay-and-switch equivalents. They
are much faster, consume much less power, and are much smaller (all by a factor of a
million or more in most cases). Also, there is a fundamental structural difference. The switch
circuit creates a continuous metallic path for current to flow (in either direction) between its
input and its output. The semiconductor logic gate, on the other hand, acts as a high-gain
voltage amplifier, which sinks a tiny current at its input and produces a low-impedance
voltage at its output. It is not possible for current to flow between the output and the input of
a semiconductor logic gate.
Another important advantage of standardized integrated circuit logic families, such as
the 7400 and 4000 families, is that they can be cascaded. This means that the output of one
gate can be wired to the inputs of one or several other gates, and so on. Systems with
varying degrees of complexity can be built without great concern of the designer
for the internal workings of the gates, provided the limitations of each integrated circuit are
considered.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fpga)
NOTES:
RAM/ræm/ : (random-access memory) is a form of computer data storage. A random-
access memory device allows data items to be read and written in roughly the same amount
of time regardless of the order in which data items are accessed.
ASIC/’eɪsɪk/: (an application-specific integrated circuit) is an integrated circuit(IC)
customized for a particular use, rather than intended for general-purpose use.
114
electronic gates, a bipolar transistor, a gain element, indefinitely, density, to supplant, to
become more complex, low power dissipation, logic blocks, to solve a problem, a high-gain
voltage amplifier, an important advantage, small-scale logic, recent descendants,
programmable logic devices, gate arrays, field-programmable nature, to sink a tiny current,
hardware implementation, similar, to verify, valid data, to employ, correct timing, within
setup time, to be wired, simple flip-flops, to be trivially proven, due to, emulation, to differ
from, relay-and-switch equivalents, to consume much less power, on the other hand, a low-
impedance voltage, provided.
III. Match the following English words and word combinations with the Russian
ones:
bipolar transistor - современный
diode-transistor logic - триггеры
field-effect transistor - биполярный транзистор
contemporary - выполнять сложные цифровые вычисления
small-scale logic - запоминающее устройство со случайным
доступом
RAM - диодно-транзисторная логика
field-programmable gate array - логические вентили с фиксированной
функцией
flip-flops - полевой транзистор
fixed function logic gates - логическая схема с малым уровнем
интеграции
to implement complex digital - полевая программируемая вентильная
computations матрица
IV. Ask questions to the above text using the words and word combinations from
Ex. II.
V. Retell the above text.
VI. Choose the proper verb-form and translate the text:

to be connected carries have to set loaded allowing
Some FPGAs ….. analog features in addition to digital functions. The most common
analog feature is programmable slew rate and drive strength on each output pin, allowing the
engineer …… slow rates on lightly loaded pins that would otherwise ring unacceptably, and
to set stronger, faster rates on heavily…… pins on high-speed channels that would otherwise
run too slowly. Another relatively common analog feature is differential comparators on
input pins designed…….to differential signaling channels. A few "mixed signal FPGAs"
have integrated peripheral analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) and digital-to-analog
converters (DACs) with analog signal conditioning blocks……them to operate as a system-
on-a-chip. Such devices blur the line between an FPGA, which……digital ones and zeros on
its internal programmable interconnect fabric, and field-programmable analog array (FPAA),
which carries analog values on its internal programmable interconnect fabric.
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VII. Render the text in English and comment on the peculiarities of the FPGAs.
Типовая схема программируемой интегральной микросхемы полевой
программируемой вентильной матрицы (ППВМ) состоит из трех видов блоков:
логические блоки, блоки ввода-вывода, предназначенные для обмена сигналами через
внешние выводы микросхемы и программируемые электронные ключи,
предназначенные для создания соединений между внутренними блоками микросхемы
ППВМ. Логические блоки размещаются в узлах решетки вертикальных и
горизонтальных шин проводников. Благодаря возможности соединения проводников
друг с другом при помощи электронных ключей, можно создавать нужные нам
соединения между логическими блоками. Соединения, осуществляемые
электронными ключами, можно программировать, замыкая и размыкая эти ключи.
Матрица соединений хранится в программируемом запоминающем устройстве
конфигурации.
Соединение внутренней цифровой схемы с блоками ввода-вывода также
программируется электронными ключами. У различных микросхем ППВМ реальное
число программируемых внутренних соединений значительно отличается. Эти
особенности необходимо учитывать в процессе проектирования цифрового устройства
при выборе фирмы-изготовителя и конкретных микросхем ППВМ, предназначенных
для реализации этого устройства.
TEXT TWENTY-THREE
Study the following text. Be ready to speak about antennas.
ANTENNA
An antenna, or aerial, is a device to send or receive signals. Antenna comes from a

Latin word meaning “sail yard,” and it has two plurals: antennae and antennas. There are
many antenna types and many ways of categorizing them.
The two major antenna types that we first learn about and many people learn to
distinguish as children are the antennae that are a body part for some animals on the one
hand, as distinguished from all the antenna types that are made by people on the other hand.
Many people are familiar with insect antennae, but crustaceans—including the lobster—and
myriapods have them, too. For animals, antennae function as a sensory organ. Antennas
made by people are often metal and have many different designs.
The second major categorical division of antenna types is between those that transmit
signals, known as transmitting antennas, and those that receive signals, called receiving
antennas. It is also possible to have antennas that are made to both transmit and receive.
Usually, transmitting antennas handle a good deal more electrical energy than receiving
antennas.
Antenna types can also be used to differentiate antennas for radio, television, and radar
systems. Because antennas can be built for transmission of different frequencies, another
way to categorize antenna types is by their frequency. For radio antennas, it’s important to
know whether they are built for, say, frequency modulation (FM) broadcasting at 88–108
MHz (megahertz) or amplitude modulation (AM) broadcasting at 535-1605 kHz (kilohertz).
116
For television antennas, one distinguishes between Ultra High Frequency (UHF) antennas,
and Very High Frequency (VHF) antennas, or antennas that pick up both.
Antenna types can also be categorized in terms of customers’ needs. The range of
antennas can be categorized as short, medium, or long. For customers buying a television
antenna, the decision is dependent on how close they are to the transmitting towers that they
wish to pick up a signal from. If the range is well matched to the distance, it will help avoid
the antenna picking up unwanted signals.
Location is another way of looking at antenna type. Antennas can be made for indoor
installation, outdoor installation, or attic installation. Indoor antennas are easy to install, but
usually do not have the elevation to provide the best signal, particularly for customers who
are far from the transmission. It used to be that outdoor antennas were primarily made for
rooftops, but more are being designed to mount on the side of a house, or on a pole or deck.
The attic can be a useful installation point for those who do not want their antenna inside or
outside for aesthetic or other reasons.
Another set of antenna types is differentiated by style. Style can speak to the antennas
appearance in terms of design. It can also address whether the antenna is directional and
gather signals from a central location or whether it is multidirectional, seeking signals from
towers transmitting from different locations.

to send and receive signals to pick up signals
to distinguish a good deal more
to be made by people to avoid
a sensory organ to have the elevation
to match to to mount
to be made for rooftops a multidirectional antenna
attic installation to differentiate for

I. Put 10 questions to the text.
II. Find in Text Twenty-Three the English equivalents for the following words and
word combinations:
от латинского слова, основные типы антенн, часть тела; антенна, находящаяся на
улице; амплитудная модуляция, ловить нежелательные сигналы, обеспечивать лучший
сигнал, для передачи разных частот, устанавливать на опоре, комнатная антенна,
многонаправленный, передающая вышка, решение зависит от, место установки,
антенна для высоких частот.
II. Retell the text if you were an aerial fitter.
I. Translate the following sentences into English:
1. Любую антенну можно использовать как для передачи, так и для приёма. 2.
Антенны используют в диапазонах длинных, средних и коротких волн. 3. Для связи на
коротких волнах антенны должны быть однонаправленными, т.е. излучать и
принимать радиоволны только с одного направления. 4. Направленная антенна – это
117
антенна для получения и передачи сигналов в одном преимущественном направлении.
5. Спутниковое телевидение использует антенну как механизм, способный передать и
принять сигнал. 6. Антенна – это устройство для излучения и приёма
электромагнитных волн. 7. Многонаправленные антенны обеспечивают двухточечную
связь на более длинные расстояния. 8. Комнатным антеннам не нужны никакие
возвышенности для обеспечения лучшего сигнала.
II. Find in Text Twenty-Three and copy out sentences in which the prepositions for
and by are used. Translate them.
III. Discuss the message of the text.
SPEAKING:
Speak about advantages and disadvantages of an indoor TV antenna.
I. Study the following article for more information.
ANTENNA TYPES
In antenna engineering, a dipole is the most basic type of an antenna and serves as basic
framework for all other antennas.
Dipoles consist of a metal rod that acts as a conductor with a radio feed line at its core.
The conductor splits the signal and creates a positive electrical charge on one end of the
dipole and a negative electrical charge on the other end. Thus, a dipole is an antenna with
two (di)poles. This allows the dipole to create an electromagnetic wave that can be picked
up by other dipoles. Because of this, dipoles are able to both transmit and receive radio
frequencies.
Depending on the shape of the dipole, radio frequencies may be more receptive in some
areas and less receptive in other areas.
When transmitting radio frequencies, it is important for the user to know whether
he/she has a semi-directional antenna or an omni-directional antenna. While both semi-
directional and omni-directional antennas can be used by radio broadcast systems, each have
their own advantages and disadvantages. A semi-directional antenna broadcasts a radio
frequency in a specific direction and often has a very good range. In contrast, an omni-
directional antenna broadcasts a radio frequency in all directions but usually has less range
than semi-directional antennas.
A twin-lead is a type of cable that can be used to transfer radio frequencies. While a
twin-lead is not able to actually broadcast a signal, it can carry a signal from one point to
another. This is most useful in radio broadcasting stations where a radio frequency must be
transferred from a server to a transceiver before it can be broadcast.
Twin-lead cables are made up of two copper wires that run exactly parallel to each
other and are separated by a flexible, yet firm, sheet of plastic. The plastic sheet is what
keeps the copper wires parallel and is a very crucial piece because radio frequencies could
be reflected back at the source if the copper wires become bent.
A parabolic dish antenna, or satellite dish, is a type of antenna that focuses a radio
frequency in a precise beam so that it is able to travel very far distances and accurately reach
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its intended destination. Parabolic dish antennas are made up of a conducting rod in the
center that is attached to a radio feed line with a round encasing that serves as a parabolic
reflector. The center piece acts as a regular dipole would but then bounces the signal against
the sides of the dish and broadcasts it to a specific area. Parabolic dish antennas are semi-
directional but offer a very good range and accuracy.
(www. Tech-faq.com/ antenna types.)
II. Find in the above article the English equivalents for the following:
вибратор (диполь), состоять из, металлический стержень, питающая линия,
положительный электрический заряд, расщеплять сигнал, создать электромагнитную
волну, ловить сигнал другими вибраторами, в зависимости от формы, ненаправленная
антенна, полунаправленная антенна, радиопередающие системы, передавать
радиочастоты, изогнуться, двухжильный освинцованный кабель, на другом конце,
гибкий, отражать, круглая оболочка, параболический отражатель, предоставлять
хороший диапазон и точность.
III. Choose the proper verb form and translate the text.
Multiple antennas, rotators

It is sometimes ….. to receive signals from transmitters which are not in the same
direction. This can ….. achieved, for one station at a time, by using a rotator operated by an
electric motor to turn the antenna as desired. Alternatively, two or more antennas, each …..
at a desired transmitter and coupled by appropriate circuitry, can be used ….. the antennas
interfering with each other, the vertical spacing between the booms must be at least half the
wavelength of the lowest frequency to be received (Distance=λ/2). The wavelength of
54 MHz (Channel 2) is 5.5 meters (λ x f = c) so the antennas must be a minimum of 2.25
metres, or about 89 inches apart. It is also important that the cables ….. the antennas to the
signal splitter/merger be exactly the same length, to prevent phasing issues, which cause
ghosting with analog reception. That is, the antennas might both ….. the same station; the
signal from the one with the shorter cable will reach the receiver slightly sooner, supplying
the receiver with two pictures slightly offset. There may be phasing issues even with the
same length of down-lead cable. Bandpass filters or "signal traps" may ….. to reduce this
problem.
Keys: pointing, help, desired, connecting, be, to prevent, pick up.
III. Describe each of these antenna types and discuss its advantages.
TEXT TWENTY-FOUR
INDOOR AND OUTDOOR ANTENNAS

Simple half-wave dipole antenna for VHF or UHF loop antennas that are made to be
placed indoors are often used for television (and VHF radio); these are often called "rabbit
ears" or "bunny aerials" because of their appearance. The length of the telescopic "ears" can
be adjusted by the user, and should be about one half of the wavelength of the signal for the
119
desired channel. These are not as efficient as an aerial rooftop antenna since they are less
directional and not always adjusted to the proper length for the desired channel. Dipole
antennas are bidirectional, that is, they receive evenly forward and backwards, and also
cover a broader band than antennas with more elements. This makes them less efficient than
antennas designed to maximize the signal from a narrower angle in one direction. Coupled
with the poor placing, indoors and closer to the ground, they are much worse than multi-
element rooftop antennas at receiving signals which are not very strong, although often
adequate for nearby transmitters, in which case they may be adequate and cheap. These
simple antennas are called set-top antennas because they were often placed on top of
the television set or receiver.
The actual length of the ears is optimally about 91% of half the wavelength of the
desired channel in free space. Quarter-wave television antennas are also used. These use a
single element, and use the earth as a ground plane; therefore, no ground is required in
the feed line.
Soon after television broadcasting switched from analog to digital broadcasting, indoor
antennas have evolved beyond the traditional "rabbit ears." RCA is one manufacturer which
has commercially sold a flat antenna. Flat antennas are very lightweight, very thin, and
square-shaped like a thin notebook. They connect to televisions, or to digital converter
boxes, with a single coaxial cable, and may be sold with an optional signal amplifier. The
amplifier must be plugged into a power source, but the flat antenna does not require a power
source. The flat antenna may need some moving around to achieve an optimum reception,
but it eliminates a lot of manual manipulation which is inherent in use of the "rabbit ears".
An outdoor TV antenna generally consists of multiple conductive elements that are
arranged such that it is a directional antenna. The length of the elements is about one half of
the signal wavelength. Therefore, the length of each element corresponds to a certain
frequency.
In a combination (combo) VHF/UHF antenna the longer elements (for picking up
VHF frequencies) are at the "back" of the antenna, relative to the device's directionality, and
the much shorter UHF elements are in the "front", and the antenna works best when
"pointing" to the source of the signal to be received. The smallest elements in this design,
located in the "front", are UHF and use Yagi antenna principles. The longest elements,
located in the "back" of the antenna use VHF Log-periodic principles. Combining these two
types of antenna creates the combination VHF/UHF antenna commonly used.
An antenna can have a smaller or larger number of directors; the more directors it has
(requiring a longer boom), and the more accurate their beam width the higher its gain will
be. For the commonly used Yagi antenna this is not a linear relationship. Antenna gain is the
ratio of the signal received from the preferred direction to the signal from an ideal omni-
directional antenna. Gain is inversely proportional to the antenna's acceptance angle.
Two or more directional rooftop antennas can be set up and connected to one receiver.
Antennas designed for rooftop use are sometimes located in attics.
Sometimes television transmitters are organized such that all receivers in a given
location need receive transmissions in only a relatively narrow band of the full UHF
television spectrum and from the same direction, so that a single antenna provides reception
from all stations.
(www. Tech-faq.com/ antenna types.)
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Commentary
VHF: Very high frequency is the ITU designation for the range of radio
frequency electromagnetic waves from 30 MHz to 300 MHz, with corresponding
wavelengths of one to ten meters. Frequencies immediately below VHF are denoted high
frequency (HF), and the next higher frequencies are known as ultra high frequency (UHF)
wavelengths of one to ten meters.
Rabbit ears [´ræbit¸iəz]: In radio and telecommunications a dipole antenna or
doublet is the simplest and most widely used class of antenna. It consists of two identical
conductive elements such as metal wires or rods, which are usually bilaterally symmetrical.
The driving current from the transmitter is applied, or for receiving antennas the output
signal to the receiver is taken, between the two halves of the antenna. Each side of the feed
line to the transmitter or receiver is connected to one of the conductors. A common example
of a dipole is the "rabbit ears" television antenna found on broadcast television sets.
UHF loop antenna: A UHF television band antenna includes two or more conductive
loops, at least one of which is broken and is provided with terminals adapted for connection
to a television receiver. One of the loops has a perimeter equal to one wavelength at a
frequency within the UHF band. The loops are positioned and interconnected in such a
fashion that no subloop, formed by unbroken lengths of wires defining two or more of
loops, has a perimeter equal to the wavelength corresponding to any frequency within the
UHF band.
RCA: (the Radio Corporation of America) was an American electronics company in
existence from 1919 to 1986.
A Yagi antenna: A Yagi-Uda array, commonly known simply as a Yagi antenna, is
a directional antenna consisting of a driven element (typically a dipole or folded dipole) and
additional parasitic elements (usually a so-called reflector and one or more directors). The
reflector element is slightly longer (typically 5% longer) than the driven dipole, whereas the
so-called directors are a little shorter. This design achieves a very substantial increase in the
antenna's directionality and gain compared to a simple dipole.
A log-periodic antenna: (also known as a log-periodic array or aerial) is a multi-
element, directional, narrow-beam antenna that operates over a broad band of frequencies.
The antenna normally consists of a series of dipoles positioned along the antenna axis,
spaced at intervals following a logarithmic function of the frequency.

half-wave dipole antenna an acceptance angle
beam width multiple conductive elements
indoor and outdoor antennas to provide reception
antenna gain for rooftop use
set-top antennas adjusted
a narrower angle an amplifier
a flat antenna inversely proportional
to be plugged into to eliminate
121
I. Write some problem questions to Text Twenty-Four for class discussion.
II. Find in Text Twenty-Four English equivalents for the following words and
word combinations:
телевизионный передатчик, относительно низкая полоса частот, рамочная антенна
для ультравысоких частот, комнатная антенна, желаемый канал, пассивный диполь
(директор), внешний вид, множественные проводящие элементы, соответствовать
определённой частоте, половина длины волны, направляемость устройства, лёгкий по
весу, линейная зависимость, вставлять штепсель (в гнездо), антенна на крыше,
источник мощности, получить оптимальный приём, наружная антенна, надлежащая
длина, усилитель, коэффициент направленности антенны, логопериодические
принципы, свойственный, ручное управление.
III. Retell Text Twenty-Four using as many of the words and word combinations
from the list as you can.
analog gain to elevate antennas attenuates weather the better plugged
1. Aerials are attached to roofs in various ways, usually on a pole ….. it above the roof.
2. The higher the antenna is placed, the ….. it will perform. 3. ….television is being replaced
by digital, which is not subject to ghosting. 4. Placing an antenna indoors significantly ……
the level of the available signal. 5. The antenna is simply ….. into the television receiver
and placed conveniently, often on the top of the receiver ("set-top"). 6. An antenna of higher
…… will be able to receive weaker signals from its preferred direction. 7. There are
physical dangers inherent to high or complex antennas, such as the structure falling or being
destroyed by ….. . 8. The most common types of ….. used are the dipole ("rabbit ears")
and loop antennas, and for outdoor antennas the yagi and log periodic.
II. Find in Text Twenty-Four and copy out sentences in which the prepositions for,
with, to are used.
SPEAKING:
Careful positioning of the antenna can produce a compromise position which minimizes
the ghosts on different channels.

I. Study the article and retell it.
THE INTERNET OF THINGS
The intriguing Internet of Things is the centre of a conglomeration of bustling activities,

from education, research and standardization to economic planning. While there is no
generally accepted definition of “Internet of Things”, it can be viewed as the ability for
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things and people to remotely interact through the Internet anywhere, anytime, thanks to the
timely convergence of many technologies.
Machines, everyday objects and virtual elements (such as digital pictures) now have the
possibility to be identified in the same way as individuals on the Internet of people. As a
result, things can be integrated into a vast web of interrelations where they can communicate
with each other or with people. Essentially, in the world of the Internet of Things, things are
now on par with people.
In most cases, thing-to-thing communications will be found in the business-to-business
arena and thing-to-person communications in the business-to-consumer arena.
ITU defines the Internet of Things as a “global infrastructure for the information
society, enabling advanced services by interconnecting (physical and virtual) things, based
on existing and evolving interoperable information and communication technologies.” ITU’s
foundational definition offers useful insight and a sound springboard for further analysis and
research into the Internet of Things. ITU points out that the Internet of Things is a “vision”,
not a single technology, and that it has “technological and societal implications.”
There are many more things than people on Earth – the tally of things that could be part
of the Internet of Things varies enormously according to experts. No matter what the exact
number is, it is big! For example, according to estimates made by Cisco’s Internet Business
Solutions Group, some 25 billion devices will be connected to the Internet by 2015, and 50
billion by 2020. These things include mobile devices, parking meters, thermostats, cardiac
monitors, tyres, roads, cars, supermarket shelves and even cattle.
The Internet-of-Things galaxy encompasses ubiquitous computing, radio-frequency
identification, cyber-physical systems, wireless sensor networks, and machine-to-machine
communications. Other clusters, such as those centred on pervasive computing, autonomic
computing, human-computer interaction, ambient intelligence, and, more generally, on smart
objects, systems and technologies are also intrinsically connected to the Internet of Things.
The concepts of cyber-physical systems and the Internet of Things are undeniably
intertwined. Cyber-physical systems are physical, biological, and engineered systems whose
operations are integrated, monitored, and/or controlled by a computational core.
Components are networked at every scale. Computing is deeply embedded into every
physical component, possibly even into materials. The computational core is an embedded
system, usually demands real-time response, and is most often distributed.
Wireless sensor networks are a fundamental constituent of the Internet of Things. This
domain has strong scientific, technological and industry backing, and the link with the
Internet of Things is immediate. The research of smart dust (a collection of countless tiny
micro-electromechanical systems) and of the Internet of nano-things provides a window into
the future shape of the Internet of Things.
Machine-to-machine communications are the earliest manifestation of the Internet of
Things.
Pioneering data transmission technologies, such as basic telemetry and industrial
control systems can legitimately be seen as machine-to-machine precursors. Over the years,
machine-to-machine communication has evolved towards advanced remote monitoring and
control. Machine-to-machine communication has begun to offer enabling platforms,
integrating mobile and/or fixed, wired and/or wireless networking architectures (such as
123
wireless personal area networks), and cellular and satellite (including global positioning
system) services.
(ITU News magazine, №6, 2013)
Commentary
ITU: The International Telecommunication Union, originally the International
Telegraph Union (French: Union Internationale des Télécommunications), is a specialized
agency of the United Nations (UN) that is responsible for issues that concern information
and communication technologies.
Cisco: Cisco Systems, Inc. is an American multinational corporation headquartered in
San Jose, California, that designs, manufactures, and sells networking equipment.

bustling activities, an accepted definition, the Internet of Things, a global positioning
system, the earliest manifestation, to remotely interact, radio-frequency identification,
convergence, to encompass, a vast web of interrelations, a precursor, essentially, to be on
par, existing and evolving, a springboard, at every scale, interoperable, implications, the
tally of, an estimate, ubiquitous, advanced remote monitoring, ambient intelligence, an
embedded system, a computational core, a cluster, pervasive, a fundamental constituent,
technological backing, smart dust, tiny, cellular and satellite services.
III. Answer the questions to the above article:
1. What is the centre of a conglomeration of bustling activities, from education,
research and standardization to economic planning? 2. How can the definition of the Internet
of Things be viewed? 3. What possibility do machines, everyday objects and virtual
elements have? 4. Can things be integrated into a vast web of interrelations? 5. Are things on
par with people now? 6. How does ITU define the Internet of Things? 7. What does ITU’s
foundational definition offer into the Internet of Things? 8. How many devices will be
connected to Internet by 2020? 9. What do these things include? 10. What does the Internet
of Things galaxy encompass? 11. What concepts are undeniably intertwined? 12. What are
cyber-physical systems? 13. Is computing embedded into every physical component? 14.
What are wireless sensor networks? 15. What is the earliest manifestation of the Internet of
Things? 16. What can be seen as machine-to-machine precursors? 17. Has machine-to-
machine communication evolved over the years? 18. What has it begun to offer?
IV. Retell the above article using the words and word combinations from Ex. II.
V. Render the text in English:
«Интернет вещей», - это модное сегодня словосочетание является одним из
наиболее цитируемых терминов в разных публикациях.
Интернет вещей - это очень важное направление развития человечества и
технологического прогресса в целом. Под термином «Интернет вещей» скрывается
концепция информационной коммуникационной сети между большим количеством
различных физических объектов (вещей), которые будут оснащены необходимым
оборудованием для связи с внешней средой или друг с другом. В таком виде данная
сеть может полностью исключить человека из части операций и действий.
В настоящее время Интернет вещей не ограничен только лишь связью с вещами,
которые имеют специальные метки радиочастотной идентификации, он
124
рассматривается уже в контексте объединения таких современных концепций, как
интеллектуальная окружающая среда и всепроникающие компьютерные системы.
Интернет вещей позволит разработать такие динамические сети, которые будут
состоять из миллиардов и триллионов различных устройств, которые смогут
обмениваться информацией друг с другом. Все это позволит обеспечить некий сплав
физического и цифрового миров. Все эти цифровые аналоги будут в состоянии
воспринимать информацию, поступающую из окружающего мира, вступать во
взаимодействие с различными предметами, обмениваться информацией. В результате
может возникнуть совершенно новая среда, в которой интеллект, реализованный через
программные приложения, сможет оценивать вещи, происходящие в физическом
мире, учитывать накопленный ранее опыт и сведения для поддержки принятия
решений.
TEXT TWENTY-FIVE
SATELLITE TELEVISION
Satellite television is television delivered by the means of communications satellite and
received by an outdoor antenna, usually a parabolic mirror generally referred to as a satellite
dish, and as far as household usage is concerned, a satellite receiver either in the form of an
external set-top box or a satellite tuner module built into a TV set. Satellite TV tuners are
also available as a card or a USB stick to be attached to a personal computer. In many areas
of the world satellite television provides a wide range of channels and services, often to
areas that are not serviced by terrestrial or cable providers.
Direct broadcast satellite television comes to the general public in two distinct forms –
analog and digital. Analog satellite television is being replaced by digital satellite television
and the latter is becoming available in a better quality known as high-definition television.
The first satellite television signal was relayed from Europe to the Telstar satellite over
North America in 1962. The first geosynchronous communication satellite, Syncom 2, was
launched in 1963.
In 1967 the network of satellite television called Orbita was created and it was based on
the principle of using the highly elliptical Molniya satellite for rebroadcasting and delivering
of TV signal to ground downlink stations.
Satellites used for television signals are generally in either naturally highly elliptical
(with inclination of +/- 63.4 degrees and orbital period of about 12 hours, also known as
Molniya orbit) or geostationary orbit of 37,000 km (22,000 miles) above the earth’s equator.
Satellite television, like other communications relayed by satellite, starts with a
transmitting antenna located at an uplink facility. Uplink satellite dishes are very large, as
much as 9 to 12 meters (30 to 40 feet) in diameter. The increased diameter results in more
accurate aiming and increased signal strength at the satellite. The uplink dish is pointed
toward a specific satellite and the uplinked signals are transmitted within a specific
frequency range, so as to be received by one of the transponders tuned to that frequency
range, aboard that satellite. The transponder ‘retransmits’ the signals back to Earth but at a
different frequency band (a process known as translation, used to avoid interference with the
125
uplink signal), typically in the C-band (4-8 GHz) or Ku-band (12-18 GHz) or both. The leg
of the signal path from the satellite to the receiving Earth station is called the downlink.
A typical satellite has up to 32 transponders for a Ku-band and up to 24 for a C-band, or
more for hybrid satellites. Typical transponders each have a bandwidth between 27 MHz and
50 MHz. Each geostationary C-band satellite needs to be spaced 2 degrees from the next
satellite (to avoid interference). For Ku the spacing can be 1 degree. This means that there is
an upper limit of 360/2=180 geostationary C-band satellites and 360/1=360 geostationary
Ku-band satellites. C-band transmission is susceptible to terrestrial interference while Ku-
band transmission is affected by rain (as water is an excellent absorber of microwaves at this
particular frequency).
The down-linked satellite signal, quite weak after traveling over the great distance, is
collected by a parabolic receiving dish, which reflects the weak signal to the dish’s focal
point. The dish’s focal point is a device called a feedhorn. This feedhorn is essentially the
flared front-end of a section of a waveguide that gathers the signals at or near the focal point
and conducts them to a probe or pickup connected to a low-noise block down-converter
(LNB). The LNB amplifies the relatively weak signals, filters the block of frequencies in
which the satellite TV signals are transmitted, and converts the block of frequencies to a
lower frequency range in the L-band range.
The original C-band satellite TV systems used a Low Noise Amplifier connected to the
feedhorn at the focal point of the dish. The amplified signal was then fed via coaxial cable to
an indoor receiver or, in other designs, to a downconverter (a mixer and a voltage tuned
oscillator with some filter circuitry) for downconversion to an intermediate frequency. The
channel selection was controlled typically by a voltage tuned oscillator with the tuning
voltage being fed via a separate cable to the head-end.
Commentary
USB stick: generally refers to a flash-based USB (Universal Serial Bus) drive,
but may refer to a USB-based device that performs some other function such as a wireless
adapter or authentication token.
by the means of a probe or pickup
a waveguide an outdoor antenna
to be attached to a tuner
high-definition television a feedhorn
to reflect weak signals to feed via
an indoor receiver the focal point
an intermediate frequency to avoid interference
with inclination of a section of a waveguide

I. Copy out from Text Twenty-Five the sentences containing the word
combinations and phrases given above. Translate them.
II. Find in Text Twenty-Five English equivalents for the following words and word
126
параболический рефлектор; кабельный шкаф, установленный на кровле;
типичный импульсный повторитель, приспособление для настройки, более точное
наведение на цель, фокальная точка, малошумящий конвертер-моноблок,
чувствительный к наземным помехам, отражать, наружная антенна, спутниковый
отражатель (тарелка), предоставлять широкий диапазон, телевидение с высокой
чёткостью, передавать со спутника на наземные станции, передающий на спутник
отражатель, наклон, отрезок пути сигнала, волновод, усиленный сигнал, зонд или
датчик, питающий штырь, расширяющаяся передняя оконечность, запускать спутник,
комнатное принимающее устройство, понижающий конвертер.

1. What is satellite television? 2. What forms does a satellite receiver have? 3. Are
satellite TV tuners available as a card or a USB stick? 4. Does satellite television provide a
wide range of channels and services? 5. What forms does direct broadcast satellite television
come to general public in? 6. Is analog or digital satellite television becoming available in a
better quality known as high-definition television? 7. When was the first satellite television
signal relayed from Europe to the Telstar satellite? 8. When was the first geosynchronous
satellite launched? 9. What principle was the network of satellite television called Orbita
based on? 10. What orbit are satellites used for television signals generally in? 11. What
does satellite television start? 12. What are uplink satellite dishes in diameter? 13. What
does the increased diameter result in? 14. How are the uplinked signals transmitted? 15.
What retransmits the signals back to Earth? 16. What is a process known as translation used
for? 17. What is called the downlink? 18. How many transponders does a typical satellite
have for a Ku-band and C-band? 19. What kind of bandwidth do typical transponders have?
20. Why does each geostationary C-band satellite need to be spaced 2 degrees from the next
satellite? 21. What does this spacing mean? 22. What is C-band transmission susceptible to?
23. Is C-band or Ku-band transmission affected by rain? 24. What is the down-linked
satellite signal collected by? 25. What is called a feedhorn? 26. Where does the feedhorn
conduct the signals to after gathering them at or near the focal point? 27. What is the
function of a low-noise block downconverter? 28. What did the original C-band satellite TV
systems use? 29. Where was the amplified signal fed via a coaxial cable to? 30. What was
the channel selection controlled by?
IV. Retell Text Twenty-Five using the words and word combinations from Ex. II.
set-top fed providers downcoversion receivers dishes launched

1. Some service ……. use the intermediate frequency ranges of 950 – 2150 MHz to
carry the signal to the receiver. 2. The satellite receiver or ….. box demodulates and converts
the signals to the desired form. 3. If several satellite ….. are to be attached to a single dish, a
so-called multi-switch will have to be used in conjunction with a special type of LNB. 4.
The world’s first commercial satellite was ….. into synchronous orbit on April 6, 1965. 5.
127
A low-noise block downconverter (or LNB) is the receiving device mounted on satellite
…… used for satellite TV reception, which collects the radio waves from the dish. 6. The
microwave signal from the dish is picked up by a feedhorn on the LNB and is ….. to a
section of waveguide. 7. The …… allows the signal to be carried to the indoor satellite TV
receiver using relatively cheap coaxial cable.
II. Translate the following sentences into English using the topical vocabulary:
1. Спутниковый малошумящий конвертер-моноблок представляет собой
приёмное устройство, объединяющее в себе предусилитель сигнала (Low-Noise
Amplifier), принимаемого со спутника, и понижающий конвертер. 2. Конвертер
устанавливается в фокусном центре спутниковой антенны. 3. Электромагнитные
колебания частот спутникового сигнала испытывают очень сильное затухание в
кабельных линиях. 4. В конвертере происходит не только усиление колебаний, но и
преобразование частоты. 5. Современные конвертеры могут работать с различными
поляризациями сигнала.
III. Write a summary of Text Twenty-Five.
IV. Supply a heading for the text. Translate it in the written form.
A worldwide system of satellites has been created and it is possible to transmit signals
around the globe by bouncing them from one satellite to an earth station and then to another
satellite and so on.
Originally designed to carry voice messages, they are able to carry hundreds of
thousands of separate simultaneous calls. These systems are being adopted to provide for
business communications, including the transmission of voice and facsimile messages, data
and video data.
It is probable that future wide use of satellites in the area of telecommunications will
provide a great variety of information services to transmit directly into our homes, possibly
including personalized electronic mail. The electronic computer is at the heart of many such
systems, but the role of telecommunications is not less important. There will be a further
convergence between the technologies of computing and telecommunications. The change
of this kind will lead us to the database culture, the cashless society, the office at home, the
gigabit-per-second data network.
One cannot doubt that the economic and social impact of these concepts will be very
significant. Already, advanced systems of communication are affecting both the layman and
the technician.
SPEAKING:
Prepare arguments for the following statement or against it.
Television should not be commercial, the public should own TV companies.

USB wireless adapter
A wireless access point (WAP) connects a group of wireless devices to an adjacent
wired LAN. An access point resembles a network hub, relaying data between connected
128
wireless devices in addition to a (usually) single connected wired device, most often an Eth-
ernet hub or switch, allowing wireless devices to communicate with other wired devices.
Wireless adapters allow devices to connect to a wireless network. These adapters con-
nect to devices using various external or internal interconnects such as PCI,
miniPCI, USB, Express Card, Cardbus and PC Card. Most newer laptop computers come
equipped with built-in internal adapters.
Wireless routers integrate a Wireless Access Point, Ethernet switch, and internal router
firmware application that provides IP routing, NAT, and DNS forwarding through an inte-
grated WAN-interface. A wireless router allows wired and wireless Ethernet LAN devices to
connect to a (usually) single WAN device such as a cable modem or a DSL modem. A wire-
less router allows all three devices, mainly the access point and router, to be configured
through one central utility. This utility is usually an integrated web server that is accessible
to wired and wireless LAN clients and often optionally to WAN clients. This utility may also
be an application that is run on a computer, as is the case with as Apple's AirPort, which is
managed with the AirPort Utility on Mac OS X.
Wireless network bridges connect a wired network to a wireless network. A bridge dif-
fers from an access point: an access point connects wireless devices to a wired network at
the data-link layer. Two wireless bridges may be used to connect two wired networks over a
wireless link, useful in situations where a wired connection may be unavailable, such as be-
tween two separate homes.
Wireless range-extenders or wireless repeaters can extend the range of an existing wire-
less network. Strategically placed range-extenders can elongate a signal area or allow for the
signal area to reach around barriers such as those pertaining in L-shaped corridors. Wireless
devices connected through repeaters will suffer from an increased latency for each hop, as
well as from a reduction in the maximum data throughput that is available. In addition, the
effect of additional users using a network employing wireless range-extenders is to consume
the available bandwidth faster than would be the case where a single user migrates around a
network employing extenders. For this reason, wireless range-extenders work best in net-
works supporting very low traffic throughput requirements, such as for cases where a single
user with a Wi-Fi equipped tablet migrates around the combined extended and non-extended
portions of the total connected network. Additionally, a wireless device connected to any of
the repeaters in the chain will have a data throughput that is also limited by the "weakest
link" existing in the chain between where the connection originates and where the connec-
tion ends. Networks employing wireless extenders are also more prone to degradation from
interference from neighboring access points that border portions of the extended network
and that happen to occupy the same channel as the extended network.
The security standard, Wi-Fi Protected Setup, allows embedded devices with limited
graphical user interface to connect to the Internet with ease. Wi-Fi Protected Setup has 2
configurations: The Push Button configuration and the PIN configuration. These embedded
devices are also called The Internet of Things and are low-power, battery-operated embed-
ded systems. A number of Wi-Fi manufacturers design chips and modules for embedded Wi-
Fi, such as GainSpan.
NOTES:
129
USB: Universal Serial Bus
PCI: Peripheral Component Interconnect
LAN: Local Area Network
DSL: Digital Subscriber Line
WAN: Wide Area Network
DNS: Domain Name System

a wireless access point, adjacent, to occupy the channel, through repeaters, a hub, a
wired device, to be prone to, external and internal interconnects, forwarding, a central utility,
optionally, to be run on a computer, the data-link layer, over a wireless link, to extend the
range, to elongate, a battery-operated embedded system, to suffer from, a latency for each
hop, to consume the available bandwidth, traffic throughput, a tablet, in the chain, the
security standard.
Ex. II.
TEXT TWENTY-SIX
SPREAD-SPECTRUM TELECOMMUNICATIONS
In telecommunication and radio communication, spread-spectrum techniques are
methods by which a signal (e.g. an electrical, electromagnetic, or acoustic signal) generated
with a particular bandwidth is deliberately spread in the frequency domain, resulting in a
signal with a wider bandwidth. These techniques are used for a variety of reasons, including
the establishment of secure communications, increasing resistance to
natural interference, noise and jamming, to prevent detection, and to limit power flux
density (e.g. in satellite downlinks).
Spread-spectrum telecommunications is a technique in which a telecommunication
signal is transmitted on a bandwidth considerably larger than the frequency content of the
original information. Frequency hopping is a basic modulation technique used in spread
spectrum signal transmission.
Spread-spectrum telecommunications is a signal structuring technique that
employs direct sequence, frequency hopping, or a hybrid of these, which can be used for
multiple access and/or multiple functions. This technique decreases the potential
interference to other receivers while achieving privacy. Spread spectrum generally makes
use of a sequential noise-like signal structure to spread the normally
narrowband information signal over a relatively wideband (radio) band of frequencies. The
receiver correlates the received signals to retrieve the original information signal. Originally
there were two motivations: either to resist enemy efforts to jam the communications (anti-
jam, or AJ), or to hide the fact that communication was even taking place, sometimes
called low probability of intercept (LPI).
Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS),
time-hopping spread spectrum (THSS), chirp spread spectrum (CSS), and combinations of
130
these techniques are forms of spread spectrum. Each of these techniques employs
pseudorandom number sequences — created using pseudorandom number generators — to
determine and control the spreading pattern of the signal across the allocated bandwidth.
Ultra-wide band (UWB) is another modulation technique that accomplishes the same
purpose, based on transmitting short duration pulses. Wireless standard IEEE 802.11 uses
either FHSS or DSSS in its radio.
In telecommunications, direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) is a
modulation technique. As with other spread spectrum technologies, the transmitted signal
takes up more bandwidth than the information signal that modulates the carrier or broadcast
frequency.
The name 'spread spectrum' comes from the fact that the carrier signals occur over the
full bandwidth (spectrum) of a device's transmitting frequency. Certain IEEE
802.11 standards use DSSS signaling.
NOTES
FHSS: Frequency-hopping spread spectrum – псевдослучайная перестройка рабочей
частоты (ППРЧ)
DSSS: Direct-sequence spread spectrum – расширение спектра методом прямой
последовательности (ПРС)
CSS: Chirp spread spectrum – расширение спектра методом линейной частотной
модуляции (ЛЧМ)

spread-spectrum allocated bandwidth
frequency domain resistance to
secure communications jamming
chirp spread-spectrum on a bandwidth
frequency hopping multiple access
to retrieve the signal to take up more bandwidth
to jam the communications carrier frequency
low probability of intercept

secure, pseudorandom, interference, frequency, spread spectrum, technique, duration.
1. What methods are spread-spectrum techniques? 2. Where are these techniques used?
3. What is a basic modulation technique used in spread spectrum signal transmission? 4.
What does a signal structuring technique employ? 5. What decreases the potential
interference to other receivers? 6. When can spread spectrum spread the normally
narrowband information signal over a relatively wideband radio-band of frequencies? 7.
Why does the receiver correlate the received signals? 8. What forms of spread spectrum do
you know? 9. What do they employ? 10. What is ultra-wide band based on? 11. What
131
spectrums does wireless standard IEEE 802.11 use in its radio? 12. What can you say about
direct-sequence spread spectrum?
III. Find in Text Twenty-Six English equivalents for the following words and word
combinations:
расширение спектра, специфическая ширина полосы, безопасная связь, поток
энергии (мощности), сопротивление, скачкообразное изменение частоты,
ограничивать, уменьшать потенциальную интерференцию, заглушение (помехи при
приёме от работы других станций), узкополосный информационный сигнал, низкая
вероятность, занимать большую ширину полосы чем, длительность импульса,
псевдослучайный, основной метод модуляции, прямая последователь- ность,
скачкообразное изменение времени, сигнал-носитель, спутниковые линии связи.
I. Translate the following sentences into English:
1. Расширение спектра является одним из способов повышения эффективности
передачи информации с помощью модулированных сигналов через канал с сильными
линейными искажениями (замираниями). 2. Эти методы также используются для
установления безопасной связи. 3. Для этой цели обычно используются три метода. 4.
Суть метода ППРЧ заключается в периодическом скачкообразном изменении несущей
частоты. 5. Метод ППРЧ применяется в технологии Bluetooth. 6. Метод ЛЧМ обычно
используют в радиолокации. 7. Скачкообразное изменение частоты является основным
методом модуляции при передаче сигналов с помощью расширения спектра.
II. Find in Text Twenty-Six and copy out phrases in which the prepositions to, with,
on are used. Translate the phrases.
III. Retell Text Twenty-Six using as many of the words and word combinations
from the list as you can.
I. Learn to speak about direct-sequence spread spectrum. Make use of the

following text.
DIRECT-SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM

DSSS uses a signal structure in which the sequence of chips produced by the
transmitter is already known by the receiver. The receiver can then use the same PN
(pseudo-noise) sequence to counteract the effect of the PN sequence on the received signal
in order to reconstruct the information signal.
Direct-sequence spread-spectrum transmissions multiply the data being transmitted by a
"noise" signal. This noise signal is a pseudorandom sequence of 1 and −1 values, at a
frequency much higher than that of the original signal.
The resulting signal resembles white noise, like an audio recording of "static".
However, this noise-like signal is used to exactly reconstruct the original data at the
132
receiving end, by multiplying it by the same pseudorandom sequence (because 1 Ч 1 = 1,
and −1 Ч −1 = 1). This process, known as "de-spreading", mathematically constitutes
a correlation of the transmitted PN sequence with the PN sequence that the receiver already
knows the transmitter is using.
The resulting effect of an enhancing signal to noise ratio on the channel is
called process gain. This effect can be made larger by employing a longer PN sequence and
more chips per bit, but physical devices used to generate the PN sequence impose practical
limits on attainable processing gain.
If an undesired transmitter transmits on the same channel but with a different PN
sequence (or no sequence at all), the de-spreading process has reduced processing gain for
that signal. This effect is the basis for the code division multiple access (CDMA) property of
DSSS, which allows multiple transmitters to share the same channel within the limits of
the cross-correlation properties of their PN sequences.
As this description suggests, a plot of the transmitted waveform has a roughly bell-
shaped envelope centered on the carrier frequency, just like a normal AM transmission,
except that the added noise causes the distribution to be much wider than that of an AM
transmission.
In contrast, frequency-hopping spread spectrum pseudo-randomly retunes the carrier,
instead of adding pseudorandom noise to the data, the latter process results in a uniform
frequency distribution whose width is determined by the output range of the pseudorandom
number generator.
The benefits of DSSS are as follows:
-resistance to intended or unintended jamming;
-sharing of a single channel among multiple users;
-reduced signal/background-noise level hampers interception.

the sequence of chips, produced by the transmitter, pseudo-noise, in contrast, to
counteract the effect, to multiply, cross-correlation properties, the received signal, to
resemble white noise, to constitute the correlation, process gain, chips per bit, a plot, an
enhancing signal, noise ratio, attainable, a bell-shaped envelope, multiple access, to retune, a
uniform frequency distribution, the output range, jamming, to hamper interception.
Ex. II.
V. Collect all the information and write down an abstract about spread-spectrum
communications.
TEXT TWENTY-SEVEN
Read the text and get ready to discuss it in the classroom:
FREQUENCY-HOPPING SPREAD SPECTRUM
133
Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) is a method of transmitting radio signals
by rapidly switching a carrier among many frequency channels, using a pseudorandom
sequence known to both a transmitter and a receiver.
A spread-spectrum transmission offers three main advantages over a fixed-frequency
transmission:
1. Spread-spectrum signals are highly resistant to narrowband interference. The
process of re-collecting a spread signal spreads out the interfering signal, causing it to
recede into the background.
2. Spread-spectrum signals are difficult to intercept. An FHSS signal simply
appears as an increase in the background noise to a narrowband receiver. An eavesdropper
would only be able to intercept the transmission if they knew the pseudorandom sequence.
3. Spread-spectrum transmissions can share a frequency band with many types of
conventional transmissions with minimal interference. The spread-spectrum signals add
minimal noise to the narrow-frequency communications, and vice versa. As a result,
bandwidth can be utilized more efficiently.
The overall bandwidth required for frequency hopping is much wider than that required
to transmit the same information using only one carrier frequency. However, because
transmission occurs only on a small portion of this bandwidth at any given time, the
effective interference bandwidth is really the same. Whilst providing no extra protection
against wideband thermal noise, the frequency-hopping approach does reduce the
degradation caused by narrow band interferers.
One of the challenges of frequency-hopping systems is to synchronize the transmitter
and receiver. One approach is to have a guarantee that the transmitter will use all the
channels in a fixed period of time. The receiver can then find the transmitter by picking a
random channel and listening for valid data on that channel. The transmitter's data is
identified by a special sequence of data that is unlikely to occur over the segment of data for
this channel and the segment can have a checksum for integrity and further identification.
The transmitter and receiver can use fixed tables of channel sequences so that once
synchronized they can maintain communication by following the table. On each channel
segment, the transmitter can send its current location in the table.
In a real multipoint radio system, space allows multiple transmissions on the same
frequency to be possible using multiple radios in a geographic area. This creates the
possibility of system data rates that are higher than the Shannon limit for a single channel.
Spread spectrum systems do not violate the Shannon limit. Spread spectrum systems rely on
an excess signal to noise ratios for sharing of spectrum. This property is also seen in MIMO
and DSSS systems. Beam steering and directional antennas also facilitate increased system
performance by providing isolation between remote radios.
(http://en.academic.ru/dic.)
Commentary
MIMO: Multiple input multiple output communications; in electrical engineering it
usually refers to wireless communication systems using an array of antennas at both the
transmitter and receiver.
DSSS system: (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum System). In telecommunications,
direct-sequence spread spectrum is a modulation technique. As with other spread spectrum
134
technologies, the transmitted signal takes up more bandwidth than the information signal
that modulates the carrier or broadcast frequency.

to maintain communication a checksum for integrity
frequency-hopping spread spectrum a multipoint radio system
a pseudorandom sequence narrowband interference
to recede into the background to violate the limit
to intercept an eavesdropper
to share a frequency band at any given time
valid data integrity
fixed tables a multipoint radio system

I. Find in Text Twenty-Seven English equivalents for the following words and
word combinations and write them out:
путём быстрой коммутации несущей частоты, частота радиовещательного
диапазона, расширение спектра скачкообразной перестройкой частоты, нарушить
предел Шеннона, псевдослучайная последовательность, перехватывать, ширина
полосы частот, устойчивый к, контрольная сумма целостности, тепловой шум,
фиксированная таблица, подслушивающий, давать преимущества, избыточный сигнал,
направленная антенна, характеристика системы, выбирая случайный канал.
II. Answer the following questions using words and word combinations of the
topical vocabulary:
1. What kind of method is frequency-hopping spread spectrum? 2. How many
advantages does it offer? Name them. 3. Why can bandwidth be utilized more efficiently? 4.
Which bandwidth is much wider? 5. What is one of the challenges of frequency-hopping
systems? 6. How can the receiver then find the transmitter? 7. What is the transmitter’s data
identified by? 8. Can the transmitter and receiver use fixed tables of channel sequences? 9.
Where can the transmitter send its current location in the table? 10. Why does space allow
multiple transmissions on the same frequency to be possible in a real multipoint radio
system? 11. Are system data rates higher than the Shannon limit for a single channel? 12. Do
spread spectrum systems violate the Shannon limit? 13. What do spread spectrum systems
rely on for sharing of spectrum? 14. What systems is this property seen in? 15. What
facilitates increased system performance?
III. Retell Text Twenty-Seven.
transmitter electromagnetic channels rate spectrum in established

1. One approach is to have a guarantee that a transmitter will use all the …… in a fixed
period of time. 2. Frequency hopping is one of two basic modulation techniques used in
spread …… signal transmission. 3. The transmitter "spreads" the energy, originally
concentrated in narrowband, across a number of frequency band channels on a wider …….
135
spectrum. 4. In an FH-CDMA system, a ……. "hops" between available frequencies
according to a specified algorithm, which can be either random or preplanned. 5. The
biggest advantage of frequency hopping lies in the coexistence of several access points …..
the same area, something not possible with direct sequence. 6. A hopping sequence can be
…… for a particular FHSS wireless network by defining a random sequence of
channel numbers using all available channels or selected channels from a specific set. 7. The
minimum hopping …… is 2.5 hops per second.

1. Методы расширения спектра скачкообразной перестройкой частоты
используются в беспроводных технологиях. 2. Суть метода заключается в
периодическом скачкообразном изменении несущей частоты по некоторому
алгоритму, известному приёмнику и передатчику. 3. Недостаток этого метода состоит
в задержке потока данных при каждом скачке. 4. Коды расширенного спектра можно
использовать для мультиплексирования нескольких каналов в широком диапазоне. 5.
Для того, чтобы радиообмен нельзя было перехватить или подавить узкополосным
шумом, было предложено вести передачу с постоянной сменой несущей в пределах
широкого диапазона частот. 6. В течение фиксированного интервала времени передача
ведется на неизменной несущей частоте. 7. Несущая частота меняется в соответствии
с номерами частотных подканалов, вырабатываемых алгоритмом псевдослучайных
чисел.
III. Outline the main ideas of the text and write a summary.
IV. Speak about advantages of different techniques in spread spectrum.
I. Study the text and discuss it.
DECT PHONES
The DECT standard fully specifies a means for a portable unit, such as a cordless
telephone, to access a fixed telecoms network via radio. But, unlike the GSM standards,
does not specify any internal aspects of the fixed network itself. Connectivity to the fixed
network (which may be of many different kinds) is done through a base station or "Radio
Fixed Part" to terminate the radio link, and a gateway to connect calls to the fixed network.
In most cases the gateway connection is to the public switched telephone network or
telephone jack, although connectivity with newer technologies such as Voice over IP has
become available. There are also other devices such as some baby monitors utilizing DECT,
and in these devices there is no gateway functionality.
The DECT standard originally envisaged three major areas of application:
- Domestic cordless telephony, using a single base station to connect one or more
handsets to the public telecoms network.
- Enterprise premises cordless PABXs and wireless LANs, using many base
stations for coverage. Calls continue as users move between different coverage cells,
through a mechanism called handover. Calls can be both within the system and to the public
telecoms network.
136
- Public access, using large numbers of base stations to provide high capacity
building or urban area coverage as part of a public telecoms network.
Of these, the domestic application (cordless home telephones) has been extremely
successful. The enterprise PABX market had some success, and all the major PABX vendors
have offered DECT access options. The public access application did not succeed, since
public cellular networks rapidly out-competed DECT by coupling their ubiquitous coverage
with large increases in capacity and continuously falling costs. There has been only one
major installation of DECT for public access: in early 1998 Telecom Italia launched a DECT
network known as "Fido" after much regulatory delay, covering major cities in Italy.
DECT has also been used for Fixed Wireless Access as a substitute for copper pairs in
the "last mile" in countries such as India and South Africa. By using directional antennas
and sacrificing some traffic capacity, cell coverage could extend to over 10 km. In Europe
the power limit laid down for use of the DECT spectrum (250 mW peak) was expressed in
ERP, rather than the more commonly used EIRP, permitting the use of high-gain directional
antennas to produce much higher EIRP and hence long ranges.
The standard is also used in electronic cash terminals, traffic lights, and remote door
openers.
To facilitate migrations from traditional PBXs to VoIP, manufacturers such as Gigaset
(formerly Siemens), Lantiq, Ascom, Astra, Philips, and Spectralink developed IP-DECT
solutions where the backhaul from the base station is via VoIP (H.323 or SIP) over Ethernet,
while communications between base and handsets is via DECT.
For enterprises, DECT-plus-(cabled)VoIP has several significant advantages and
disadvantages in comparison to VoIP-over-Wi-Fi, where, typically, the handsets are directly
Wi-Fi-VoIP-enabled (instead of having the DECT-handset communicate via an intermediate
VoIP-enabled base). On the one hand, VoIP-over-Wi-Fi has a range advantage given
sufficient access-points, while a DECT phone must remain in proximity to its own base (or
repeaters thereof). On the other hand, for large networks VoIP-over-Wi-Fi imposes
significant design and maintenance complexity to ensure roaming facilities and high quality-
of-service.
Notes:
DECT: Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications
EIRP: Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power
ERP: Effective Radiated Power
GSM: Global System for Mobile communications
IP: Internet Protocol
LAN: Local Area Network
PABX: Private Automatic Branch eXchange
PBX: Private Branch eXchange
VoIP: (Voice over IP), Voice-over-Internet Protocol is a methodology and
a group of technologies for the delivery of voice communications and multimedia sessions
over Internet Protocol networks, such as the Internet.
137
to specify a means, a portable unit, a cordless telephone, via radio, connectivity, the
fixed network, to terminate the radio link, a gateway, a jack, to envisage, a handset, coverage
cells, a handover, ubiquitous coverage, the public switched telephone network, a substitute
for, backhaul, to remain in proximity, a repeater, to ensure quality-of-service, roaming
facilities, a high-gain directional antenna.

1. What does the DECT standard specify? 2. What is the difference between the DECT
and GSM standards? 3. How is connectivity to the fixed network done? 4. In what devices is
there no gateway functionality? 5. What three major areas of application did the DECT
standard originally envisage? 6. Which application has been successful? 7. Why did not the
public access application succeed? 8. How long could cell coverage extend using directional
antennas and sacrificing traffic capacity? 9. Why did different manufacturers develop IP-
DECT solutions? 10. What kind of solutions were these? 11. What advantages and
disadvantages does DECT-plus-(cabled)-VoIP have in comparison to VoIP-over-Wi-Fi?
IV. Discuss if the invention of the DECT standard is really something of greatness.
V. Speak about the functions of your mobile phone. Recall the day when your
telephone turned out to be of great help to you.
TEXT TWENTY-EIGHT
Read the text and get ready to discuss it in the classroom:
FILTER (SIGNAL PROCESSING)

In signal processing, a filter is a device or process that removes from a signal some
unwanted component or feature. Filtering is a class of signal processing, the defining feature
of filters being the complete or partial suppression of some aspect of the signal. Most often,
this means removing some frequencies and not others in order to suppress interfering signals
and reduce background noise. However, filters do not exclusively act in the frequency
domain; especially in the field of image processing many other targets for filtering exist.
Correlations can be removed for certain frequency components and not for others without
having to act in the frequency domain.
There are many different bases of classifying filters and these overlap in many different
ways; there is no simple hierarchical classification. Filters may be:
- linear or non-linear;
- time-invariant or time-variant, also known as shift invariance. If the filter operates
in a spatial domain then the characterization is space invariance.
- causal or not-causal: depending if present output depends or not on "future" input;
of course, for time related signals processed in real-time all the filters are causal; it is not
necessarily so for filters acting on space-related signals or for deferred-time processing of
time-related signals.
- analog or digital;
- discrete-time (sampled) or continuous-time;
- passive or active type of a continuous-time filter;
138
- infinite impulse response (IIR) or finite impulse response (FIR) type of discrete-
time or digital filter.
Filters can be built in a number of different technologies. The same transfer function
can be realized in several different ways, that is the mathematical properties of the filter are
the same but the physical properties are quite different. Often the components in different
technologies are directly analogous to each other and fulfill the same role in their respective
filters. For instance, the resistors, inductors and capacitors of electronics correspond
respectively to dampers, masses and springs in mechanics. Likewise, there are
corresponding components in distributed element filters.
Electronic filters were originally entirely passive consisting of resistance, inductance
and capacitance. Active technology makes design easier and opens up new possibilities in
filter specifications.
Digital filters operate on signals represented in digital form. The essence of a digital
filter is that it directly implements a mathematical algorithm, corresponding to the desired
filter transfer function, in its programming or microcode.
Mechanical filters are built out of mechanical components. In the vast majority of cases
they are used to process an electronic signal and transducers are provided to convert this to
and from a mechanical vibration. However, examples do exist of filters that have been
designed for operation entirely in the mechanical domain.
Distributed element filters are constructed out of components made from small pieces
of transmission line or other distributed elements. There are structures in distributed element
filters that directly correspond to the lumped elements of electronic filters, and others that
are unique to this class of technology.
Waveguide filters consist of waveguide components or components inserted in the
waveguide. Waveguides are a class of transmission line and many structures of distributed
element filters, for instance the stub (electronics), can be also implemented in waveguides.
Crystal filters use quartz crystals as resonators, or some other piezoelectric material.
Optical filters were originally developed for purposes other than signal processing such
as lighting and photography. With the rise of optical fiber technology, however, optical
filters increasingly find signal processing applications and signal processing filter
terminology, such as long-pass and short-pass, are entering the field.
(http://wikipedia.sfstate.us/Filter)

waveguides signal processing
in the mechanical domain partial suppression
to remove from a signal to suppress interfering signals
a continuous-time filter space invariance
deferred-time processing infinite impulse response
the transfer function respective
to open up new possibilities the lumped elements
139
I. Find in Text Twenty-Eight English equivalents for the following words and word
нежелательный компонент, помещённые в волновод, обеспечивать
математический алгоритм, непосредственно соответствовать, инвариантность
смещения, шумы фона, волноводный фильтр, сосредоточенные элементы электронных
фильтров, полное или частичное заграждение, импульсная характеристика, устранять,
шлейф, амортизатор (демпфер), ёмкость, дискретный фильтр, обработка сигнала,
область (домен), преобразователь, исключительно, физические свойства, пружины в
механике, в огромном большинстве, замедленный по времени, частично совпадать
разными способами, преобразующая функция.
II. Write some problem questions to Text Twenty-Eight for class discussion.
III. Retell the text.
I. Find in Text Twenty-Eight sentences in which prepositions in, from, out of are
used. Translate them.
II. Insert the prepositions:
Signal processing deals …. the analysis and manipulation of signals. Signals can be
either analog, in which case the signal varies continuously according …. .. the
information, or digital, …. which case the signal varies according to a series of discrete
values representing the information.
For analog signals, signal processing may involve the amplification and filtering signals
….. audio equipment or the modulation and demodulation of audio signals for
telecommunications.
For digital signals, signal processing may involve the compression, error checking
and error detection ….. digital signals.
Keys: for, of, with, in, to.
III. Translate the following sentences into English using words and word
1. Цифровые фильтры на сегодняшний день применяются практически везде, где
требуется обработка сигналов, в частности в спектральном анализе, обработке
изображений, обработке видео, обработке речи и звука и многих других приложениях.
2. Любой непрерывный (аналоговый) сигнал может быть подвергнут дискретизации
по времени и квантованию по уровню (оцифровке), то есть представлен в цифровой
форме. 3. Процесс преобразования сигналов называется фильтрацией, а устройство,
выполняющее фильтрацию, называется фильтр. 4. Для обработки сигналов
(фильтрации) в реальном времени применяют специальные вычислительные
устройства — цифровые сигнальные процессоры. 5. При использовании метода
инвариантной импульсной характеристики происходит дискретизация импульсной
характеристики аналогового прототипа. 6. Цифровые методы фильтрации широко
используются для решения задач анализа и синтеза радиолокационных сигналов,
определения параметров траектории движения объектов, спектрального анализа и т.п.
140
7. Для представления сигналов в частотной области используются цифровые
анализато- ры спектра.
SPEAKING:
Discuss the problems of filtering.
I. Learn to speak about linear continuous-time filters. Make use of the following
text.
TEXT
LINEAR CONTINUOUS-TIME FILTERS
Linear continuous-time circuit is perhaps the most common meaning for filters in the
signal processing world, and simply "filter" is often taken to be synonymous. These circuits
are generally designed to remove certain frequencies and allow others to pass. Circuits that
perform this function are generally linear in their response, or at least approximately so. Any
nonlinearity would potentially result in the output signal containing frequency components
not present in the input signal.
The modern design methodology for linear continuous-time filters is called network
synthesis. Some important filter families designed in this way are:
- Chebyshev filter has the best approximation to the ideal response of any filter for a
specified order and ripple.
- Butterworth filter has a maximally flat frequency response.
- Bessel filter has a maximally flat phase delay.
- Elliptic filter has the steepest cutoff of any filter for a specified order and ripple.
The difference between these filter families is that they all use a different polynomial
function to approximate to the ideal filter response. This results in each having a
different transfer function.
Another older, less-used methodology is the image parameter method. Filters designed
by this methodology are archaically called "wave filters". Some important filters designed
by this method are:
- constant k filter, the original and simplest form of wave filter.
- m-derived filter, a modification of the constant k with improved cutoff steepness
and impedance matching.
The frequency response can be classified into a number of different band forms
describing which frequency bands the filter passes (the pass-band) and which it rejects (the
stop-band):
Low-pass filter – low frequencies are passed, high frequencies are attenuated.
High-pass filter – high frequencies are passed, low frequencies are attenuated.
Band-pass filter – only frequencies in a frequency band are passed.
Band-stop filter or band-reject filter – only frequencies in a frequency band are
attenuated.
Notch filter – rejects just one specific frequency - an extreme band-stop filter.
141
Comb filter – has multiple regularly spaced narrow pass-bands giving the band form
the appearance of a comb.
All-pass filter – all frequencies are passed, but the phase of the output is modified.
Cutoff frequency is the frequency beyond which the filter will not pass signals. It is
usually measured at a specific attenuation such as 3dB.
Roll-off is the rate at which attenuation increases beyond the cutoff frequency.
Transition band is the (usually narrow) band of frequencies between a pass-band and
stop-band. The transition band is a range of frequencies, which allows a transition between
a pass-band and a stop-band of a signal processing filter. The transition band is defined by a
pass-band and a stop-band cutoff frequency or corner frequency.
This is the area between where a filter "turns the corner" and where it "hits the bottom".
An example of this can be taken from a low-pass filter, commonly used in audio
systems to allow the bass signal to pass through to a subwoofer, and cut out all unwanted
frequencies above a defined point. If the cutoff point for such a filter is defined as 200 Hz,
then in a perfect system, all frequencies above 200 Hz will be stopped and all frequencies
below 200 Hz will be allowed to pass through.
Ripple is the variation of the filter's insertion loss in the pass-band.
The order of a filter is the degree of the approximating polynomial and in passive filters
corresponds to the number of elements required to build it. Increasing order increases roll-
off and brings the filter closer to the ideal response.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.Filter)
linear continuous-time circuit, polynomial, to remove frequencies, the cutoff point, the
output signal, ripple, approximation, a transfer function, a wave filter, impedance matching,
an extreme band-stop filter, regularly spaced, a transition band, a low-pass filter, a
subwoofer, insertion loss, the order of the filter, to increase roll-off.
III. Ask your own problem questions to the above text.
IV. Match the following English words and word combinations with the Russian
ones:
the ideal response - отклонять
a flat phase delay - прерывать частоты
the steepest cutoff - предельная частота
a specific attenuation - угловая частота (сопряжения)
to reject - идеальная характеристика
Notch filter - гребенчатый фильтр
comb filter - очень крутой срез
corner frequency - характерное ослабление
to cut out frequencies - полосно-заграждающий фильтр
cutoff frequency - задержка прямолинейной фазы
V. Retell the above text using words of the topical vocabulary.

VI. Render the text in English:
142
Полосно-заграждающий фильтр (проф. жаргон - фильтр-пробка) представ- ляет
собой электронный или любой другой фильтр, не пропускающий колебания некоторой
определённой полосы частот, и пропускающий колебания с частотами, выходящими за
пределы этой полосы. Эта полоса подавления характеризуется шириной полосы
заграждения. Для реальной амплитудно-частотной характеристики частоты ωL и
ωU представляют собой нижнюю и верхнюю частоты полосы подавления.
Заграждающий фильтр, предназначенный для подавления одной определённой
частоты, называется узкополосным заграждающим фильтром или фильтром-
пробкой (notch filter).
VII. Complete the following sentences using the words from the box:
of fallen processing two lower frequency
1. In signal ….. , a comb filter adds a delayed version of a signal to itself, causing

constructive and destructive interference. 2. The frequency response of a comb filter consists
….. a series of regularly spaced spikes, giving the appearance of a comb. 3.
In physics and electrical engineering, a cutoff ….. , corner frequency, or break frequency is a
boundary in a system's frequency response at which energy flowing through the system
begins to be reduced (attenuated or reflected) rather than passing through. 4. In the case of
a waveguide or an antenna, the cutoff frequencies correspond to the ….. and upper cutoff
wavelengths. 5. In electronics, cutoff frequency or corner frequency is the frequency either
above or below which the power output of a circuit, such as a line, amplifier, or electronic
filter has ….. to a given proportion of the power in the passband. 6. Comb filters exist in …..
different forms, feedforward and feedback; the names refer to the direction in which signals
are delayed before they are added to the input.
TEXT TWENTY-NINE
Read Text Twenty-Nine and get ready to discuss it in the classroom.
HIGH DEFINITION TELEVISION

High-definition television (HDTV) is a digital television broadcasting system with
higher resolution than traditional television systems (standard-definition TV). HDTV is
digitally broadcast because digital television (DTV) requires less bandwidth if sufficient
video compression is used. HDTV broadcast systems are identified with three major
parameters:
-Frame size in pixels is defined as number of horizontal pixels x number of vertical
pixels, for example 1280 x 720 or 1920 x 1080. Often number of horizontal pixels is implied
from context and is omitted.
-Scanning system is identified with the letter p for progressive scanning or i for
interlaced scanning.
-Frame rate is identified as number of video frames per second. For interlaced
systems an alternative form of specifying number of fields per second is often used.
143
Recently the uniform notation of specifying number of frames per second both for
progressive and interlaced video became increasingly popular.
Conventional television transmits signals in analog form. Digital HDTV systems, by
contrast, transmit pictures and sounds in the form of digital data. These numerical data are
broadcast using the same high radio frequencies that carry analog waves, and computer
processors in the digital television set then decode the data. Digital HDTV can provide
sharper, clearer pictures and sound with very little interference or other imperfections. Of
perhaps greater importance, digital television sets will potentially be able to send, store, and
manipulate images as well as receive them, thereby merging the functions of the television
set and the computer.
The amount of details shown in a television picture is limited by the number of lines
that make it up and by the number of picture elements on each line. The latter is mostly
determined by the width of the electron beam. To obtain pictures closer to the quality
associated with 35-millimeter photography, a new television system, high-definition
television, will have more than twice the number of scan lines with a much smaller picture
element.
The HDTV screen uses a 16:9 aspect ratio. The high resolution images (1920 pixels x
1080 lines or 1280 pixels x 720 lines) allow much more detail to be shown. MPEG-2 is used
as the compression codec. The images are expected to be at least 6 times as sharp
as standard definition television or analog television. Like NTSC and PAL, most 1920 x
1080 broadcasts use interlacing to reduce bandwidth demands. Alternating scan lines are
broadcast 60 times a second, similar to NTSC's 60 Hz interlacing. This format is
entitled 1080i, or 1080i60. In areas traditionally using PAL 50 Hz (1080i50) is also used.
A progressive scan format is available, but usually with reduced number of frames per
second of 24 (1080p24 for movies) or 30 (1080p30), although 25, 50 and 60 was also
possible. The 1280 x 720 format in practice is always progressive scan (with the entire
frame refreshed each time) and is thus termed 720p.
Digital HDTV transmission is designed to occupy the same 6 MHz terrestrial band now
used in the US for analog NTSC broadcasts. A single NTSC 6 MHz channel can carry 19.2
Mbit/s of information using ATSC's standard 8-VSB (8-level Vestigial Side Band)
modulation method. This is sufficient to carry up to 6 standard definition TV channels, or a
single HDTV channel.
Due to technical reasons having to do with the video equipment, recording
technologies, and the 19.2 Mbit/s-limited ATSC channel, some HDTV signals will not reach
their nominal resolution. Most notably, 1080i60 is impossible to broadcast without artifacts
at this bandwidth using ATSC. Most 1080i broadcast signals actually are filtered to 1440
horizontal samples to allow adequate compression, and most current consumer HDTVs
based on CRTs cannot resolve even 1440 horizontal samples (most rear-projection CRTs will
resolve 1200-1300 at best, unless based on 9" guns).
Commentary
MPEG: The Moving Picture Experts Group is a working group of
authorities that was formed by ISO and IEC to set standards for audio and video
compression and transmission.
144
NTSC: named after the National Television System Committee, is the
analog television system that was used in most of the Americas (except Brazil, Argentina,
Paraguay, Uruguay and French Guiana); Myanmar; South Korea; Taiwan; Japan;
the Philippines; and some Pacific island nations and territories.
PAL: short for Phase Alternating Line, is a colour encoding system for
analogue television used in broadcast television systems in most countries broadcasting at
625-line / 50 field (25 frame) per second (576i).
ATSC: Advanced Television Systems Committee developed a set of
standards for digital television transmission over terrestrial, cable, and satellite networks.

high definition resolution
video compression to be omitted
interlaced scanning frame rate
to provide sharper pictures imperfection
to merge the functions conventional television
by contrast an aspect ratio
vestigial side band to occupy a terrestrial band
to resolve horizontal samples to be digitally broadcast

I. Find in Text Twenty-Nine English equivalents for the following words and word
достаточный, размер (резистора), частота кадров, телевидение с высокой
чёткостью, линия развёртки, наземные сети, перемежающееся развёртывание,
дефекты, управлять изображениями, частично заглушенная боковая полоса, занимать
ту же самую полосу, прогрессивная развёртка, электронный луч, высокие радио
частоты, подправленный кадр, сжатие, обусловленный, поглощать функции,
расшифровывать данные.
II. Answer the following questions using words and word combinations of the
topical vocabulary:
1. What kind of resolution does high-definition television have? 2. When does digital
television require less bandwidth? 3. How many major parameters are HDTV broadcast
systems identified with? 4. How is frame size defined? 5. What is scanning system identified
with? 6. What can you say about the frame rate? 7. Does conventional television transmit
signals in digital or analog form? 8. What decodes the data in the digital television set? 9.
What kind of pictures and sound can digital HDTV provide? 10. Why are the functions of a
television set and a computer merging nowadays? 11. What is the amount of details shown
in a television picture limited by? 12. What aspect ratio does the HDTV screen use? 13.
What do high resolution images allow? 14. Is MPEG-2 used as the compression codec? 15.
Why do most 1920 x 1080 broadcasts use interlacing? 16. What format is termed 720p? 17.
What terrestrial band does digital HDTV transmission occupy? 18. How much information
can a single NTSC 6 MHz channel carry? 19. Why will not some HDTV signals reach their
nominal resolution? 20. Why are most 1080i broadcast signals filtered to 1440 horizontal
samples?
145
III. Translate the following sentences into English using words and word
1. Буква " i ” означает, что изображение сменяется с частотой 25 или 30 кад- ров в
сек. (чересстрочное сканирование). 2. Буква " p ” означает, что скорость смены кадров
составляет 24 либо 25, либо 30, либо 60 кадров в сек. (построчное или прогрессивное
сканирование). 3. Разрешающая способность в телевизионных линиях обозначает
количество элементов в строке телевизионного изображения, передаваемых тем или
иным устройством телевизионного тракта. 4. В отличие от аналогового телевидения,
сигнал которого непрерывен вдоль строки, в цифровом телевидении горизонтальная
чёткость строго регламентирована и зависит от частоты дискретизации видеосигнала.
5.Горизонтальная чёткость в телевидении и видеозаписи представляет собой
способность устройства передавать максимальное количество деталей изображения. 6.
Вертикальная разрешающая способность в аналоговом и цифровом телевидении
заложена в стандарте разложения. 7. В системах HDTV горизонтальная чёткость
соответствует 1920 пикселям при частоте дискретизации 74,25 МГц для
чересстрочных систем 1080i.
IV. Retell Text Twenty-Nine.
improved errors resolution picture flat digital definition
1. This method has higher bandwidth than 8-VSB, allowing two 19.2 Mbit/s channels
in a 6 MHz bandwidth, due to its lower tolerance for ….. . 2. The digital television transition
to high- ….. television receivers and the replacement of CRTs with flat screens are all
factors in the increasing number of discarded analog CRT-based television receivers. 3.
Cable television companies often offer HDTV broadcasts as part of their ….. broadcast
service. 4. High-definition television yields a better-quality image than standard television
does, because it has a greater number of lines of ….. . 5. The quality of television pictures
has ….. dramatically since the early days of black and white screens. 6. Now ….. panel
displays offer sparkling high-definition colour. 7. Ultra high-definition ….. quality is
accompanied by improved colour fidelity, and options for higher numbers of pictures per
second.
II. Read the text carefully, then fill the blank spaces with prepositions or
conjunctions:
over, before, for, in, within, toward, to, of, with, since
ATV
ATV stands …. advanced television, the television system expected to replace the
current system. Television technology is rapidly moving ….. the ATV digital system planned
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to replace the aging analog process. ATV is a digital-television system, where the aspects
that produce the image are processed as computer-like data. Digitally processed TV offers
several tremendous advantages ….. analog TV methods. In addition …. sharper pictures
with less noise, a digital system can be much more frugal in the use of spectrum space.
Most TV frames are filled ….. information that has not changed from the previous
frame. A digital TV system can update only the information that has changed ….. the last
frame. The resulting picture looks to be as normal as the pictures seen for years, but many
more images can be transmitted ….. the same band of frequencies.
TV audiences have been viewing images processed digitally in this way for years, but
the final product has been converted to a wasteful analog signal …. it leaves the television
transmitter. Satellite relays have relayed TV as digitally compressed signals to maximize the
utilization …. the expensive transponder equipment in orbit. The small satellite “dishes”
offered for home reception receive digitally-encoded television signals.
ATV will not be compatible with current analog receivers, but it will be phased in
gradually ….. a carefully considered plan that will allow older analog receivers to retire
gracefully over time.
SPEAKING:
I. Study the following passages. Be ready to speak about some problems of HD
televisions.
Mosquitoes
Digital mosquitoes are picture artifacts or distortions that appear as clouds of static
around fast-moving onscreen objects. The mosquitoes occur due to poor digital signal
compression, which is the fault of a broadcaster or a satellite or cable provider, not the
television. You can help eliminate the appearance of digital mosquitoes on an HD television
by installing an outboard digital noise processor. This device increases signal compression
by filtering out interference.
Pixelation
When digital video signals are weak, HD televisions can suffer from pixelation issues.
Pixelation is the dividing or breaking up of a screen's image into hundreds of small,
illuminated squares, known as pixels. If an HD television is regularly pixelating and then
returning to normal, this is an indication that your cable or satellite television signal is
dropping in and out. To correct the problem, you can connect an inline amplifier or
preamplifier to your HD television's reception box. These devices will increase signal
strength.
White Outlines
Another problem that can wreak havoc with an HD television's video quality is the
appearance of white outlines. These outlines will typically surround onscreen objects and
people, contributing to unnatural-looking video. To remedy the problem, go to your HD
television's control menu and turn down the sharpness setting. If this fails to eliminate white
outlines, you will need to completely disable the television's edge enhancement function.
This latter process typically requires the assistance of a qualified television technician.
Jagged Edges
The appearance of jagged edges surrounding onscreen objects and people is a separate
HD television problem from the appearance of white outlines. Jagged edges only occur with
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HD televisions that utilize interlacing, which is a process that helps conserve bandwidth.
The process entails dividing frames into odd-numbered and even-numbered lines and then
re-combining those lines on screen. Unfortunately, sometimes these lines fail to interlace
flawlessly, which causes onscreen jaggedness. To correct this problem, contact a television
technician or your television's manufacturer. Alternatively, you may want to switch to an HD
television that uses progressively scanned line technology.
Dynamic False Contouring
Some HD televisions, especially older models, will produce crawling shapes that
appear in the dark portions of a television program or movie. This phenomenon is known as
dynamic false contouring and is the result of poor signal processing. Unfortunately you
cannot correct this problem, so if you purchase an HD television that exhibits dynamic false
contouring, return it.
II. Comment on the following:
High-definition televisions provide wider screens and higher resolutions than standard
television formats. HD televisions have screen aspect ratios of 16 to 9, as opposed to the
standard 4 to 3, and can provide either 720 progressively scanned lines or 1,080 interlaced
lines of resolution. Despite these statistical advantages, HD televisions can still suffer from
several problems that impair video quality.
I. Study the text and retell it:

TEXT
ANALOG TELEVISION vs. DIGITAL TELEVISION
Digital television (DTV) is the transmission of audio and video by digitally processed
and multiplexed signals, in contrast to the totally analog and channel separated signals used
by analog television. Digital TV can support more than one program in the same channel
bandwidth. It is an innovative service that represents the first significant evolution in
television technology since color television in the 1950s. Many countries are replacing
broadcast analog television with digital television and allowing other uses of the television
radio spectrum. Several regions of the world are in different stages of adaptation and are
implementing different broadcasting standards.
DTV has several advantages over analog TV, the most significant being that digital
channels take up less bandwidth, and the bandwidth needs are continuously variable, at a
corresponding reduction in image quality depending on the level of compression as well as
the resolution of the transmitted image. This means that digital broadcasters can provide
more digital channels in the same space, provide high-definition television service, or
provide other non-television services such as multimedia or interactivity. DTV also permits
special services such as multiplexing (more than one program on the same channel),
electronic program guides and additional languages (spoken or subtitled).
Digital and analog signals react to interference differently. For example, common
problems with analog television include ghosting of images, noise from weak signals, and
many other potential problems which degrade the quality of the image and sound, although
the program material may still be watchable. With digital television, the audio and video
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must be synchronized digitally, so reception of the digital signal must be very nearly
complete; otherwise, neither audio nor video will be usable. Short of this complete failure,
"blocky" video is seen when the digital signal experiences interference.
Analog TV started off with monophonic sound, and later evolved to stereophonic sound
with two independent audio signal channels. DTV will allow up to 5 audio signal channels
plus a sub-woofer bass channel, with broadcasts similar in quality to movie theaters and
DVDs.
Television sets with only analog tuners cannot decode digital transmissions. When
analog broadcasting over the air ceases, users of sets with analog-only tuners may use other
sources of programming (e.g. cable, recorded media) or may purchase set-top converter
boxes to tune in the digital signals.
digitally processed, to permit special services, in contrast to, the level of compression,
in the same channel bandwidth, stages of adaptation, to take up less bandwidth, to
implement standards, subtitled, the most significant, ghosting of images, weak signals, to
tune, to be watchable, short of, a sub-woofer bass channel, an analog tuner, to cease, a set-
top converter box.
III. Ask your own problem questions to the above text.
IV. Complete the following sentences using the words from the box:
interfere simply combination transmits incompatible signals binary
1. The adoption of a broadcast standard ….. with existing analog receivers has created
the problem of large numbers of analog receivers being discarded during digital television
transition. 2. Digital television supports many different picture formats defined by
the broadcast television systems which are a ….. of size, aspect ratio (width to height ratio).
3. Digital television signals must not ….. with each other, and they must also coexist with
analog television until it is phased out. 4. The key concept that distinguishes digital TV is
the ….. method of transmission. 5. Analog television ….. programming in a continuous
signal. 6. Digital TV systems operate on digital….. , as well as analog signals, but analog
TV systems only operate on analog signals. 7. Digital TV broadcasting has the ability to be
transmitted in wide screen, so watching a wide screen digital TV program is more like being
at the movie theater, whereas a big screen analog TV ….. displays a stretched-out picture.
V. Collect all the material about HD televisions and write down a short abstract.
TEXT THIRTY
PACKET RADIO
Radio can transmit a continuous bit stream or it can group the bits into packets. This
type of radio is called a packet radio and is characterized by burst transmissions: the radio is
149
idle except when it transmits a packet. The first network based on packet radio,
ALOHANET, was developed at the University of Hawaii in 1971. This network enabled
computer sites at seven campuses spread out over four islands to communicate with a central
computer on Oahu via radio transmission. The network architecture used a star topology
with the central computer at its hub. Any two computers could establish a bi-directional
communications link between them by going through the central hub. ALOHANET
incorporated the first set of protocols for channel access and routing in packet radios
systems, and many of the underlying principles in these protocols are still in use today.
Packet radio networks found commercial application in supporting wide-area wireless
data services. These services, first introduced in the early 1990’s, enable wireless data access
(including email, file transfer, and web browsing) at fairly low speeds, on the order of 20
Kbps. A strong market for these wide-area wireless data services never really materialized,
due mainly to their low data rates, high cost, and lack of “killer applications”. These services
mostly disappeared in the 1990s, supplanted by the wireless data capabilities of cellular
telephones and wireless local area networks (LANs). The introduction of wired Ethernet
technology in the 1970’s steered many commercial companies away from radio-based
networking. Ethernet’s 10 Mbps data rate far exceeded anything available using radio, and
companies did not mind running cables within and between their facilities to take advantage
of these high rates. In 1985 the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) enabled the
commercial development of wireless LANs by authorizing the public use of the Industrial,
Scientific, and Medical (ISM) frequency bands for wireless LAN products. The ISM band
was very attractive to wireless LAN vendors since they did not need to obtain an FCC
license to operate in this band. However, the wireless LAN systems could not interfere with
the primary ISM band users, which forced them to use a low power profile and an inefficient
signaling scheme. Moreover, the interference from primary users within this frequency band
was quite high. As a result these initial wireless LANs had very poor performance in terms
of data rates and coverage. This poor performance, coupled with concerns about security,
lack of standardization, and high cost (the first wireless LAN access points listed for $1,400
as compared to a few hundred dollars for a wired Ethernet card) resulted in weak sales. Few
of these systems were actually used for data networking: they were relegated to low-tech
applications like inventory control. The current generation of wireless LANs, based on the
family of IEEE 802.11 standards, have better performance, although the data rates are still
relatively low (maximum collective data rates of tens of Mbps) and the coverage area is still
small (around 150 m.).Wired Ethernets of today offer data rates of 100 Mbps, and the
performance gap between wired and wireless LANs is likely to increase over time without
additional spectrum allocation. Despite the big data rate differences, wireless LANs are
becoming the preferred Internet access method in many homes, offices, and campus
environments due to their convenience and freedom from wires. However, most wireless
LANs support applications such as email and web browsing that are not bandwidth-
intensive. The challenge for future wireless LANs will be to support many users
simultaneously with bandwidth-intensive and delay-constrained applications such as video.
Range extensions are also a critical goal for future wireless LAN systems. By far the most
successful application of wireless networking has been the cellular telephone system. The
roots of this system began in 1915, when wireless voice transmission between New York
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and San Francisco was first established. In 1946 public mobile telephone service was
introduced in 25 cities across the United States.

a continuous bit stream to group into packets
burst transmission idle except
to spread out over islands to be still in use
web browsing to be supplanted by
in terms of data rate and coverage the performance gap
wired and wireless LANs delay-constrained application
by far despite the differences

I. Find in Text Thirty the English equivalents for the following words and word
combinations and use them in sentences of your own:
отсутствие стандартизации, быть привлекательным для, исчезнуть, связанный с
вопросами безопасности; принципы, лежащие в основе этих протоколов; без
дополнительного распределения спектра, наиболее успешное применение, полоса
частот, одновременно, беспроводная организация сети, установить двунаправленную
линию связи; локальные сети, выполненные внешним монтажом.

1. Can radio group the bits into packets? 2. What is this type of radio characterized by?
3. Where was the first network based on packet radio developed? 4. How many campuses
did this network enable computer sites to communicate with a central computer on Oahu via
radio transmission? 5. What topology did this network architecture use? 6. What did
ALOHONET incorporate for channel access and routing in packet radios systems? 7. Are
underlying principles in these protocols still in use today? 8. Where did packet radio
networks find commercial application? 9. What do these services enable? 10. Why did these
services mostly disappear in the 1990s? 11. What were they supplanted by? 12. Why didn’t
companies mind running cables within and between their facilities? 13. Why was the ISM
band very attractive to wireless LAN vendors? 14. Did the initial wireless LANs have very
poor performance in terms of data rates and coverage? Explain why. 15. What family
standards is the current generation of wireless LANs based on? 16. What data rates do wired
Ethernets of today offer? 17. Why are wireless LANs becoming the preferred Internet access
method everywhere despite the big data rate differences? 18. What can you say about the
challenge for future wireless LANs? 19. What has the most successful application of
wireless networking been?
III. Retell Text Thirty using word combinations and phrases of the topical
vocabulary.
151
modem controlled operating consists for to transmit intercell

1. In the 1980s, the term 'data burst' was used …. a technique used by some TV
programmes to transmit large amounts of primarily textual information. 2. Burst
transmission, however, enables communications between data terminal equipment and a data
network ….. at dissimilar data signaling rates. 3. The interference caused by users in
different cells operating on the same channel set is called ….. interference. 4. Operation
within a cell is ….. by a centralized base station. 5. Packet radio is a form of packet
switching technology used ….. digital data via radio or wireless communications links. 6.
Traditionally, the computer and ….. are combined in one unit, the terminal node controller,
with a dumb terminal (or terminal emulator) used to input and display data. 7. A basic packet
radio station ….. of a computer or dumb terminal, a modem, and a transceiver with
an antenna.

1. Пакетная радиосвязь - это цифровая автоматизированная радиосвязь между
двумя или несколькими корреспондентами на одной частоте с использованием
пакетной коммутации. 2. Сетевой уровень пакетной радиосвязи обеспечивает
прохождение пакетов по сети через ретрансляторы пакетов, сетевые узлы и шлюзы. 3.
Логика построения сетей передачи данных на базе пакетного радио изменялась и
эволюционировала вместе с представлением о сегодняшнем дне компьютерных
сетей. 4. После передачи каждой порции передающая станция выключается и ждет
подтверждения правильности принятого пакета. 5. В системах радиосвязи
информация передается с помощью электромагнитных волн через интерфейс
радиосвязи между передающей и приемной станцией (базовой станцией и
соответственно мобильной станцией). 6. Для передачи информация разбивается на
пакеты данных. 7. При пакетной радиосвязи (Packet Radio) пакет информации
содержит не 5 символов, а может менять свою длину, максимальная длина пакета
может быть 256 символов.
III. Choose the proper verb form and translate the text.
GENERAL PACKET RADIO SERVICE (GPRS)
Wireless communication lets people live and work in ways never before possible. With
over two hundred million cellular subscribers worldwide, users have overwhelmingly
embraced the concept of ….. telephone that is always with them. And now business users
also want a data connection with the office wherever they…. , so that they can have access
to e-mail, the Internet, their files, faxes and other data wherever and whenever it is needed,
giving them a competitive advantage and more flexible lifestyles. A number of wireless data
services are available today, but none are as exciting as a forthcoming data service for GSM
networks ….. General Packet Radio Service (GPRS).
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GPRS ….. to a high-speed packet data technology. Its main innovations are that it is
packet based, that it will …… data transmission speeds from the current 9.6 Kbps to over
100 Kbps and that it supports the world’s leading Internet communications protocols.
Why is packet data technology important? Because packet …. a seamless and
immediate connection from a mobile PC to the Internet or corporate intranet allowing all
existing Internet applications such as e-mail and Web browsing to operate smoothly without
even needing to dial into an Internet service provider. This means that multiple users can
….. the same radio channel very efficiently.
GPRS uses the same radio channel as voice calls, a channel that … 200 KHz wide. This
radio channel carries a raw digital radio stream.
(By Peter Rysavy. GSM Data Today online journal.)
Keys: called, share, having, is, refers, provides, go, increase.
IV. Have a group discussion of the following text.
FINE-TUNING RADIO SIGNALS

New wireless technologies such as DECT and PCS have boosted demand for voice and
data transmission both indoor and outdoor. But, as Davood Molkdar reports, signal strength
measurement is a difficult science.
The demand for radio services for transmitting data and voice, both within buildings
and outside, has taken an upward surge in recent years, especially with the emergence of
new technologies such as DECT and PCN. This demand is also evident in LANs, where the
inconvenience and cost of installing hardwire connections have made radio networks
attractive.
Demand has been greatest in the private sector, where radio systems have traditionally
been based on a single high- powered transmitter, usually situated high up on a hill or
headland. In this scenario, overall coverage is wide, but there can be local spots of poor
coverage, such as in the shadow of high buildings and in valleys. The new generation of
radio systems is based on having many low-powered transmitters spread throughout the
coverage area, which can be positioned specifically to eliminate ‘blind spots’.
However, knowing just where to site a transmitter is a complex problem and a very
exact science. First it is necessary to conduct a detailed survey of the area to be served using
a device to measure signal strength. This is time-consuming process, and it is made much
harder by the relative inexactitude and inefficiency of hand-portable radio units and the fact
that modern buildings often have anti-RF radiation glass built-in.
(From English for a Changing World)
SPEAKING:
Express your opinion on the following points of view.
1. Packet has three great advantages over other digital modes: transparency, error
correction and automatic control.
2. Many scientists state that it is important to formulate a possible solution to the
problem before starting experiments.
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CELLULAR PHONES
A mobile phone (also known as a cellular phone, cell phone, hand phone, or simply a
phone) is a phone that can make and receive telephone calls over a radio link while moving
around a wide geographic area. It does so by connecting to a cellular network provided by a
mobile phone operator, allowing access to the public telephone network. By contrast, a
cordless telephone is used only within the short range of a single, private base station.
In addition to telephony, modern mobile phones also support a wide variety of other
services such as text messaging, MMS, email, Internet access, short-range wireless
communications (infrared, Bluetooth), business applications, gaming, and photography.
Mobile phones that offer these and more general computing capabilities are referred to
as smartphones.
A hand-held mobile radiotelephone is an old dream of radio engineering. One of the
earliest descriptions can be found in the 1948 science fiction novel Space Cadet by Robert
Heinlein. The protagonist, who has just traveled to Colorado from his home in Iowa,
receives a call from his father on a telephone in his pocket. Before leaving for earth orbit, he
decides to ship the telephone home "since it was limited by its short range to the
neighborhood of an earth-side [i.e. terrestrial] relay office." Ten years later, an essay
by Arthur C. Clarke envisioned a "personal transceiver, so small and compact that every
man carries one." Clarke wrote: "the time will come when we will be able to call a person
anywhere on Earth merely by dialing a number." Such a device would also, in Clarke's
vision, include means for global positioning so that "no one need ever again be lost." Later,
in Profiles of the Future, he predicted the advent of such a device taking place in the mid-
1980s.
Radio spectrum coupled with the state of radio technology of the past severely limited
the system capacity. A solution to this capacity problem emerged during the 50’s and 60’s
when researchers at AT&T Bell Laboratories developed the cellular concept. Cellular
systems exploit the fact that the power of a transmitted signal falls off with distance. Thus,
two users can operate on the same frequency at spatially-separate locations with minimal
interference between them. This allows very efficient use of cellular spectrum so that a large
number of users can be accommodated.
In 1947 AT&T requested spectrum for cellular service from the FCC. The design was
mostly completed by the end of the 1960’s, the first field test was in 1978, and the FCC
granted service authorization in 1982, by which time much of the original technology was
out-of-date. The first analog cellular system deployed in Chicago in 1983 was already
saturated by 1984, at which point the FCC increased the cellular spectral allocation from 40
MHz to 50 MHz. The explosive growth of the cellular industry took almost everyone by
surprise.
Throughout the late 1980’s, as more and more cities became saturated with demand for
cellular service, the development of digital cellular technology for increased capacity and
better performance became essential. The second generation of cellular systems, first
deployed in the early 1990’s, were based on digital communications. The shift from analog
to digital was driven by its higher capacity and the improved cost, speed, and power
efficiency of digital hardware. While second generation cellular systems initially provided
154
mainly voice services, these systems gradually evolved to support data services such as
email, Internet access, and short messaging. Unfortunately, the great market potential for
cellular phones led to a proliferation of second generation cellular standards: three different
standards in the U.S. alone, and other standards in Europe and Japan, all incompatible.
The fact that different cities have different incompatible standards makes roaming
throughout the world using one cellular phone standard impossible. Moreover, some
countries have initiated service for third generation systems, for which there are also
multiple incompatible standards. As a result of the standards proliferation, many cellular
phones today are multi-mode: they incorporate multiple digital standards to facilitate
nationwide and worldwide roaming, and possibly the first generation analog standard as
well.
Commentary
FCC: The Federal Communications Commission regulates interstate
and international communications by radio, television, wire, satellite and cable.
MMS: Multimedia Messaging Service is a standard way to send messages that
include multimedia content to and from mobile phones.
over a radio link, incompatible standards, proliferation, by contrast, a cordless
telephone, a wide variety of, to be out-of-date, computing capabilities, to envision, to fall off
with distance, the public telephone network, by dialing a number, to exploit the fact,
spatially-separate locations, to accommodate, to be saturated, to deploy the cellular system,
the shift, to support data services, unfortunately.
Ex. II.
IV. Reproduce the above text in your own words.
V. Write a summary about cellular phones.
155
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
Text 1
I. Study the following text.
COMMUNICATING THROUGH THE EARTH

How do we communicate with people beyond the horizon? What can be made to follow
the curve of earth's surface?
Of course, we can send electrical signals through wires around any curves. In the
Nineteenth Century, copper wires were strung across the continents and ocean floors and the
world was united through telegraphy. That takes a lot of copper, though, and a lot of
maintenance.
We could send light-wave signals and do away with wires, but light waves move in a
straight line and won't curve around the earth's bulge. We would have to set up relay stations
or place mirrors in orbit to make that work.
Radio waves, like light waves but a million times longer, do better. They travel in
straight lines, too, but the upper atmosphere contains regions rich in charged particles (the
ionosphere) that tend to reflect the radio waves. It is as though there were natural mirrors in
the sky. That makes it possible to send radio signals long distances, and in the Twentieth
Century the world was united without wires.
156
However, the ionosphere is affected by the solar wind. When the sun produces flares,
an electrical storm can take place that will disrupt radio communications.
But short radio waves (microwaves) can go right through the ionosphere and be
amplified and sent on by communications satellites. As communications satellites improve,
signals will be sent from place to place on earth with so little trouble that it would seem
unreasonable to ask for anything better.
What can go through the earth itself? Light certainly can't. Radio waves can't. We can't
even string wires through the earth to carry electrical signals.
One thing that does travel through the body of the earth is an earthquake wave, but it
takes a very hard blow to set the earth to vibrating perceptibly.
On the other hand, certain massless subatomic particles called neutrinos travel at the
speed of light and go through matter as though it weren't there. A beam of neutrinos could
travel through trillions of miles of solid lead and come out the other end just about
unaffected. Neutrinos reach us from every direction and almost every neutrino that does so
passes right through the earth in less than a 20th of a second (and through us if we are in
their paths).
This doesn't mean that neutrinos can't be detected. Out of many trillions, one neutrino
may occasionally combine with an atomic nucleus and induce a detectable change.
Thus, huge vats of cleaning fluid made up of molecules that include chlorine atoms can
serve as a "neutrino telescope". Such neutrino telescopes can be placed in mines, a couple of
miles under the earth's crust. In that case, nothing can reach them but neutrinos, and, in this
way, neutrino-producing reactions deep in the sun's core can be studied.
Scientists can produce neutrino beams without much trouble. Some day it might be
possible to send them out in Morse code or in more complicated modulation. The day may
come when improved neutrino telescopes, using water rather than cleaning fluid, will be
placed all over the earth. Eventually television sets might be built that would incorporate the
equivalent of neutrino telescopes and convert the signals directly into sight and sound.
If this could be done, communications satellites would be unnecessary and so would
relay stations of any sort. Any two points on earth's surface (or in mines, or under the sea)
would be connected by a mathematically straight line along which neutrinos would move at
the speed of light. There is no way of communicating more quickly.
For that matter, neutrinos move in a straight line throughout the universe. They are
unaffected by the electromagnetic fields and dust clouds that can disrupt or block
microwaves and light.
In the end, then, it may be that communications among worlds would be carried out
through neutrino beams.
Perhaps that is why we aren't detecting signals from other intelligent civilizations out
there. We're looking for beams of microwaves, but perhaps we should be looking for beams
of neutrinos.
II. Memorize the following word combinations and phrases:
copper wires were strung across the continents – медные провода опоясывали
континенты
the world was united through telegraphy – связь в мире осуществлялась по
телеграфу
157
tend to reflect – имеют тенденцию (обыкновение) отражать
can go right through the ionosphere – могут проходить непосредственно через
ионосферу
but it takes a very hard blow to set the earth to vibrating perceptibly – но для того,
чтобы привести землю в состояние сильной вибрации, необходим очень сильный удар
on the other hand – с другой стороны
a beam of neutrinos – луч нейтрино
for that matter – поэтому
in the end – в конце концов
Text 2
I. Read the text and discuss the problems mentioned in it.
FROM RADIO VALVES TO COSMIC COMMUNICATIONS

The reduction of radio instruments to miniature proportions and even smaller – is a
major trend in modern radio electronics. The significance of this research has grown
especially in connection with space research. It is impossible to equip a rocket for flights to
other worlds without light, small and economical electronic apparatuses. The space rockets
will carry a large amount of miniature equipment, systems for contact with the Earth, radars,
computers for calculating flight trajectories, life-support systems, etc.
Bulky electronic equipment will have no place in the future. It will be unsuitable for
automation of production, transport or domestic use.
Semiconductors and printed circuits have helped to reduce the size of apparatus
considerably. The semiconducting instruments which have replaced electronic valves are
much smaller and lighter, consume less power, are reliable and more durable.
The development of micromodules – tiny ceramic plates with a metallized coating – has
opened up big possibilities for making miniature electronic instruments. Semiconductors
compressed into this plate are hundreds of times smaller than electronic valves. A radio
receiver assembled of micromodules does not weigh more than 50 grammes.
Molecular electronics opens up new possibilities. The crystalline lattice can be changed
by tantalum or titanium being added to semiconductors to obtain crystals with the required
electrical properties.
At present, a radio-receiving set is assembled of separate, ordinary-size parts. The radio
sets based on semiconductors or micromodules are also assembled of separate parts but tens
and hundreds of times as small. The germanium or silicon plates will not operate like
separate resistors or condensers, but as complete circuits – as generators or amplifiers.
All this might sound fantastic, but a scientist is looking still further ahead. Present
research programmes are taking the development of even more miniature parts. We can say
that when superminiature elements are developed, it will become possible to place
approximately 200 million of these "parts" within one cubic centimetre. The density is
approximately that of the human brain.
Cybernetics machines assembled of these units will memorize tremendous volumes of
information and will give man invaluable assistance in diverse fields of life.
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Text 3
I. Study the text. Learn to speak about light-wave systems.
MODERN LIGHT-WAVE COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY
Some time ago, the concept of using light pulses instead of electrical signals to transmit
information was only that – a concept. Today, light-wave communications systems are
among the most sophisticated transmission systems in the telecommunications network.
They are at once efficient, versatile and relatively inexpensive to install and maintain.
The efficiency of light-wave systems is perhaps their most renowned quality. They
carry enormous amounts of information over long distances at very high speeds. Consider,
for example, the speed and capacity of the Bell System's long distance light-wave system.
Light pulsing through a single, hair-thin glass fiber in this system can transmit the entire
contents of Webster's unabridged dictionary – more than 2700 pages – over thousands of
miles in only six seconds.
No less impressive than this tremendous speed and capacity is the versatility of light-
wave systems. Because they are digital systems, they can transmit easily any of these types
of information: voice signals, high-speed data signals, and television signals. Without
undermining quality or efficiency, a single system can accommodate thousands of telephone
conversations, and alternately handle data or video signals.
Finally, light-wave systems are inexpensive to install and operate compared to their
wire-and-cable counterparts. Moreover, they allow considerable savings.
The reasons for such savings stem from the technology of light-wave communications.
Conventional telecommunications transmission is based on the conduction of electrons
through metal (usually copper wires). Light-wave systems, however, substitute protons for
electrons and glass fibers for copper. These technological differences translate into big
savings, the most significant of which is in construction costs. Because light guide cables are
only a fraction of the diameter and weight of copper cables, they are easy to handle and take
up far less space. They can be installed in existing underground ducts and rights-of-way,
sometimes right next to copper cables.
In addition, light-wave systems eliminate certain equipment and operating costs. They
are immune to electromagnetic interference, and therefore require no protection from it.
Also, light can travel much farther through light-wave cables without regeneration than can
electrons through copper carrier systems. This is because the light encounters little
resistance from the very pure glass fibers through which it travels. Light-wave systems
require significantly fewer signal regenerators than do electrical digital carrier systems:
typically one every ten miles instead of one every mile.
II. Memorize the following word combinations and phrases:

the concept of using light pulses instead of electrical signals – идея использования
световых импульсов вместо электрических сигналов
their most renowned quality – их самое известное свойство
over long distances – на большие расстояния
the entire contents of Webster's unabridged dictionary – полное содержание
неадаптированного словаря Вебстера
translate into big savings – приводят к большой экономии
159
only a fraction of the diameter and weight – только частица в диаметре и по весу
right-of-way – полоса отчуждения
are immune to electromagnetic interference – невосприимчивы к электромагнитной
интерференции
Text 4
I. Reproduce the article in your own words.
THE AGE OF ELECTRONICS
The discovery of the electron, and the investigations into its

nature which followed, led to a revolution in physical science.
The revolution in pure; science rapidly bore fruit in many fields of applied science and
technology, especially in the applied science of electronics. The vacuum techniques
developed for the study of free electrons and cathode rays led directly to the radio valve and
the television receiver. The new electronics combined with the older techniques telephone
produced a revolution in communications on a world scale. If the discovery of the electron
had led only to radio and television it would still represent a decisive factor in the shaping of
our civilization — but it led to much more.
Electronics produced radar. It led to nucleonics and hence to the exploitation of the
immense store of energy locked in the atom. It gave birth to the electronic computer. By the
middle of the twentieth century a rapidly expanding, world-wide electronics industry was
pouring out millions of parts for radio and television receivers and instruments for every
branch of science and technology - instruments capable of unprecedented speed and
sensitivity.
Electronic devices give immense extension to our senses. We can now examine
structures too small to be visible in even the most powerful optical microscope and receive
signals from radio stars which started their long journey through space ages before there was
any life on our planet. Electronics combined with rocketry has enabled scientists to take
close-up pictures of the moon. Electronics applied to medicine has already produced
significant advances in diagnosis and treatment.
Electronics plays the leading role in automation which is generating a second industrial
revolution of wider social significance than the first.
Electronics has also given birth to cybernetics which offers, for the first time in history,
an effective science of government based on adequate information and communication.
It seems very probable that electronics will dominate technology even in the distant
future.
II. Find in the article the English equivalents for the following word combinations
and write them out:
приносить плоды (давать результаты), породить электронный компьютер,
небывалая скорость и чувствительность, делать снимки с близкого расстояния, в
мировом масштабе, прогресс в диагностике и лечении.
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Text 5
ELECTRONICS
I. Read the text and speak about the role of electronics in our life.
Electronics is the science or practice of using electricity in devices similar to transistors
and radio tubes so as to get results not possible with ordinary electrical equipment.
Most persons know how electric current flows in motors and transformers; here the
electricity always flows in the copper wire or other metal parts. When electricity passes
through space as occurs within a tube, such action is called electronic. More recently, when
layers of semiconductor metals are joined together so that current flows through the junction
in one direction only, as in a solid-state diode or a transistor, such action is also called
electronic! If a device passes its stream of electrons through internal space, or through the
junction where certain different metals meet, the device is called electronic.
Without electronics there might be no radio, television, sound pictures or long-distance
telephone calls. Most of these familiar equipments serve to carry or give information; so
communication early was a main purpose of electronics and still holds interest of many
workers and students in this field.
Meanwhile industry seeking faster and more accurate methods of production has
adapted electronic equipment to its own needs. Gradually during the past fifty years
industrial plants have installed electronic equipment to give better operation of motors along
with control of varied operations.
Some people believe that electronic devices can hear, see, feel, smell or even think; this
is true only when the sound, image, feeling or thought can be changed into an electrical
signal, to which the transistor or tube-operated device can then respond. Much of the success
of electronics depends on the methods used to obtain an electric signal that can be used to
stimulate the electronic device into action. The electronic circuit can be made to detect such
a signal, increase its strength and put it to useful work.
II. Memorize the following word combinations and use them in the sentences of
your own:
tube-operated device — прибор, управляемый электронной лампой
to stimulate into action — побуждать к действию
to put to useful work — заставить выполнять полезную работу
long-distance telephone calls – телефонные звонки на большие расстояния
Text 6
I. Learn to speak about picture information systems. Make use of the following text.
INTERACTIVE PICTURE INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Two types of picture information systems, TELETEXT and VIDEOTEX, have come
into existence within the past decade. Both were originally aimed at displaying still frames
of information from a remote data base on a home TV set. The TV is augmented by special
terminal memory and logic.
161
In TELETEXT, a broadcast television channel with data signals describing pictures
embedded in lines in the vertical interval is used to send a magazine of frames (see Fig.
below) The frames are repetitively broadcast. A typical magazine might have 100 frames,
and 20 seconds are required to cycle through them. A customer of the service uses a small
number pad to indicate the frame he desires to see, and the next time that frame is broadcast,
its description is stored in memory in the terminal, and the frame is refreshed on the
customer's TV. At least one of the frames of the magazine is an index to the remaining
frames, so a customer will have knowledge of what can be selected. Provision is also made
for mixing data display with the normal TV picture to give subtitles or news flashes.
In VIDEOTEX (originally called VIEWDATA), the transmission medium is the
switched telephone network. A customer calls up a database computer and requests a frame
of information to be sent to his terminal for storage and display. Table of contents frames tell
a customer the numbers of frames that he can select, including more specialized table of
contents frames.
public
switched
modem modem
videotex decoder and storage
data data data home

base base base TV
The principal difference between Teletext and Videotex is that videotex service uses the
public switched telephone network to transmit the coded textual information. Because of
this two-way communications can be used, rather than the one-way broadcasting of teletext.
This means that a dialogue can be set up between the user and the videotex center so that
sophisticated service requirements of the user may be satisfied. Another feature of the
interactive type of service is that it may be used for data gathering (for which the term
"ingathering" has been coined) as well as data distribution. There are many exciting new
possibilities for ingathering like electronic shopping for goods and tickets and some others.
The digitally coded frames of videotex are transmitted along the telephone line in the
form of modulated tone that is contained within the audio band passed by long distance
telephone lines. This means that it is possible to use videotex systems in offshore vessels
over a radio telephone channel which has, in fact, about the same bandwidth capability as a
long distance telephone line. Thus, mariners would be able to receive any of the services of
a videotex base, for example, weather forecasts.
Text 7
162
I. Outline the main ideas of the text and write an abstract.
THE MAGNITUDE OF INVENTION
The electric telegraph was the beginning of the whole vast telecommunications
industry, the forerunner of the telephone, radio, television, communications satellites — in
fact, a direct ancestor of everything now united under the convenient heading of
"electronics".
But as with most other great inventions, the idea had been around for a long time. As
early as 1747 electrical impulses had been transmitted along a wire laid across Westminster
Bridge, and detected at the other end by the crude but effective method of having someone
hold on to the wire.
Strangely enough, the man who put most effort into developing the telegraph was a
successful American painter and sculptor, Samuel Morse. On April 1, 1845, the world's first
telegraph line between Baltimore and Washington has been opened for public use, and after
that the telegraph spread rapidly across Europe and America.
Joining the continents proved a much more difficult job, but in 1856 the Atlantic
Telegraph Company was organized to attempt the most demanding technical feat of the age
and, in 1859, the Atlantic cable was completed.
But the inventors were already striving to transmit something more than the clicks of a
Morse key. Wheatstone had coined the word telephone in 1821, when he was only 19. Many
others contributed ideas, but it was the energy and persistence of Alexander Graham Bell
which made the telephone a practical instrument. Bell first realized how a telephone could
be made to work in June 1875. After that progress was very rapid. The first permanent
telephone line was opened in April 1876 in Boston.
Twenty years later, the invention of the wireless telegraph was to follow a very similar
pattern. Guglielmo Marconi was only 21 years old when he succeeded in transmitting
signals by radio waves for nearly a mile.
A much more effective way of producing radio waves, and a more sensitive means of
detecting them, were essential for progress, and were soon discovered. The invention of
Edison, Fleming, and Lee de Forest were the beginning of electronics, exploiting the newly-
made discovery that the electric current was actually a stream of particles, or electrons. They
made wireless telephony possible, as distinct from telegraphy. By 1919 there were a large
number of amateur wireless enthusiasts and conditions were ripe for the beginning of
broadcasting services.
II. Memorize the following word combinations:

communications satellites – спутники связи
who put most effort — который внес наибольший вклад
for public use — для общественного пользования
proved a much more difficult job — оказалась намного более трудной задачей
had coined the word — создал (придумал) слово
succeeded in transmitting signals — добился успеха в передаче сигналов
wireless telephony — беспроводная телефонная связь
amateur wireless enthusiasts — радиолюбители
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Text 8
I. Study the following information. What is your opinion on the topic?
THE RECORD - PLAYER. HOW DOES IT WORK?
You may know a lot about music: you may have a good knowledge of modern records:
but how much do you know about the machine that plays your records? How, for example,
does it work? It will help you to understand how record-players work, if you go back to the
person who invented the first phonograph, Thomas Edison.
He had been experimenting on ways of sending Morse Code signal more quickly by
telegraph in order to do this, he built a machine (which cut out small marks, representing the
Morse symbols into a strip of paper. By running the paper through the transmitting machine
at a very fast speed, he could send messages much more quickly than by the manual method.
He noticed that the machine was making a noise which sounded like human voices in
conversation! Edison was a true scientist: if something unusual happened he wanted to find
out why: so he decided to fit a diaphragm to the machine, to see what this would do.
After a few experiments, Edison devised a machine which consisted of two diaphragms
on either side of a drum of tinfoil. Each diaphragm was attached to a needle, which rested on
the foil. Edison turned the drum by hand and shouted a poem into one of the diaphragms —
the recording unit — which then cut a pattern into the tinfoil. This is because the diaphragm
vibrations moved the needle in certain directions, which were recorded on the foil.
Edison then reversed the process so that the reproducing needle was at the start of the
newly-cut needle path and started winding the drum again. He then heard his own voice
repeating the poem: the needle, following the path in the foil, vibrated its diaphragm which
then reproduced the sounds that the other diaphragm had recorded.
This all happened in 1877, more or less by accident. In a hundred years of development
and experimentation, the phonograph has developed into what we know now as the record-
player. The principle is still the same, however, sound waves hitting a microphone
(diaphragm) are then converted onto a record by mechanical or electronic means. The sound
is then stored, it is released as vibration when the needle follows the path that has been cut,
and reproduces the original message. Stereo sound is a little more complicated. Two
microphones, each attached to its own recording systems, record the sound that is produced
from the loudspeakers. It appears very similar to the original sound. Nowadays, by "mixing"
the sound, and by changing it from one channel to the other, you can make the sound travel
from one loudspeaker to the next one.
II. Find in the text the English equivalents for the following word combinations
and write them out:
посредством пропускания бумаги, азбука Морзе, диафрагма была при- креплена к
игле, подобно человеческим голосам, с обеих сторон, настоящий учёный, только что
прорезанная дорожка.
Text 9
164
I. Read and discuss the following text.
LASERS AND MASERS
A laser is a machine for making and concentrating light waves into a very intense beam.
The letters LASER stand for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. The
light made by a laser is much more intense than ordinary light. With ordinary light, all the
light waves are different lengths. With lasers, all the light waves have the same length, and
this increases the intensity.
Atoms are made up of neutrons, electrons and protons. The electrons circle round the
protons and neutrons. In a laser, the electrons are "excited" to a high energy level. As the
electrons fall back from their “excited” state to their normal state, they give off energy. This
energy is given off as light which can be seen. A number of materials have this property
including some gases, liquids, solids and semiconductors. Thus a number of different types
of lasers have been developed.
Lasers are now used for many scientific, medical and industrial purposes. The thin
beam of light gives a lot of heat and it is used to join metal when a very small joint is
needed. The beam can also be used as a drill, to make holes in steel, or even in diamonds.
Because the beam is so small, it's very important in delicate surgery and is used in eye
operations.
Lasers are also used in holography. A hologram is a three-dimensional image, a bit like
a photograph. It's different from a photograph because it looks solid. As you walk round a
hologram, it changes, as if it were real. Now holography is used for testing engineering
ideas. An engineer can use a hologram to build up and check a new building such as a
bridge. He can find out all about it before he builds it.
The word MASER is also an acronym - for Microwave Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation. The maser is operated on the same principle as the laser except that
the wavelengths generated are much longer and therefore the energy jumps involved are
smaller. The excited bodies in a maser are molecules rather than atomic electrons and the
beam generated is a coherent beam of microwaves which is not visible to the eye.
Masers have made revolutionary advance possible in a number of different fields. They
are up to 1.000 times more sensitive than any other type of amplifiers. Maser amplifiers
mounted on radio telescopes can increase even their great range by a factor of 10, allowing
us to reach out to the bounds of the known universe. Because of the very constant frequency
with which masers can be made to oscillate they can be used as master controls for atomic
clocks of unbelievable accuracy: an error not exceeding 1 second in 10.000 years has
already been achieved.
The idea of using stimulated emission of radiation for amplification of very short waves
came from A. Prokhorov and N. Basov of the Lebedev Institute in Moscow.
II. Find in the text the English equivalents for the following word combinations
and write out the sentences with them:
может использоваться как сверло, немного напоминающий, невидимый для глаза,
работает на том же принципе, в 1000 раз более чувствительный, любой другой тип
усилителей.
165
Text 10
I. Read the text and comment.
RECEIVING AN AM SIGNAL
Here's a real world example. When you tune your car's AM radio to a station -- for
example, 680 on the AM dial -- the transmitter's sine wave is transmitting at 680,000 hertz
(the sine wave repeats 680,000 times per second). The DJ's voice is modulated onto that
carrier wave by varying the amplitude of the transmitter's sine wave. An amplifier amplifies
the signal to something like 50,000 watts for a large AM station. Then the antenna sends the
radio waves out into space.
So how does your car's AM radio -- a receiver -- receive the 680,000-hertz signal that
the transmitter sent and extract the information (the DJ's voice) from it? Here are the steps:
Unless you are sitting right beside the transmitter, your radio receiver needs
an antenna to help it pick the transmitter's radio waves out of the air. An AM antenna is
simply a wire or a metal stick that increases the amount of metal the transmitter's waves can
interact with.
Your radio receiver needs a tuner. The antenna will receive thousands of sine waves.
The job of a tuner is to separate one sine wave from the thousands of radio signals that the
antenna receives. In this case, the tuner is tuned to receive the 680,000-hertz signal. Tuners
work using a principle called resonance. That is, tuners resonate at, and amplify, one
particular frequency and ignore all the other frequencies in the air. It is easy to create
a resonator with a capacitor and an inductor.
The tuner causes the radio to receive just one sine wave frequency (in this case,
680,000 hertz). Now the radio has to extract the DJ's voice out of that sine wave. This is
done with a part of the radio called a detector or demodulator. In the case of an AM radio,
the detector is made with an electronic component called a diode. A diode allows current to
flow through in one direction but not the other, so it clips off one side of the wave, like this:
The radio next amplifies the clipped signal and sends it to the speakers (or a
headphone). The amplifier is made of one or more transistors (more transistors means more
amplification and therefore more power to the speakers).
What you hear coming out the speakers is the DJ's voice!
In an FM radio, the detector is different, but everything else is the same. In FM, the
detector turns the changes in frequency into sound, but the antenna, tuner and amplifier are
largely the same.
Text 11
I. Speak about any great scientific discovery. Make use of the following text.
RADAR: A SILENT EYE IN THE SKY

Today's society relies heavily on an invention taken for granted: radar. Just about
everybody uses radar, whether they realize it or not. Tens of thousands of lives rely on the
166
precision and speed of radar to guide their plane through the skies unscathed. Others just use
it when they turn on the morning news to check the weather forecast.
While radar seems to be an important part of our everyday lives, it has not been around
for long. It was not put into effect until 1935, near World War II. The British and the
Americans both worked on radar, but they did not work together to build a single system.
They each developed their own systems at the same time. In 1935, the first radar systems are
installed in Great Britain, called the Early Warning Detection system. In 1940, Great Britain
and the United States install radar aboard fighter planes, giving them an advantage in plane-
to-plane combat as well as air-to-ground attacks.
Radar works on a relatively simple theory. It's one that everybody has experienced in
their lifetime. Radar works much like an echo. In an echo, a sound is sent out in all
directions. When the sound waves find an object, such as a cliff face, they will bounce back
to the source of the echo. If you count the number of seconds from when the sound was
made to when the sound was heard, you can figure out the distance the sound had to travel.
The formula is: (S/2) X 1100 = D.
(Half of the total time times 1100 feet per second equals the distance from the origin to
the reflection point)
Of course, radar is a much more complicated system than just somebody shouting and
listening for the echo. In fact, modern radar listens not only for an echo, but where the echo
comes from, what direction the object is moving, its speed, and its distance. There are two
types of modern radar: continuous wave radar, and pulse radar.
Pulse radar works like an echo. The transmitter sends out short bursts of radio waves. It
then shuts off, and the receiver listens for the echoes. Echoes from pulse radar can tell the
distance and direction of the object creating the echo. This is the most common form of
radar, and it is the one that is used the most in airports around the world today.
Continuous wave radar works on a different theory, the Doppler Theory. The Doppler
Theory works on the principle that when a radio wave of a set frequency hits a moving
object, the frequency of the wave will change according to how the object is moving. If the
object is moving toward the Doppler radar station, the object will reflect back a higher
frequency wave. If it is moving away, the frequency of the wave will be lower. From the
change in frequency, the speed of the target can be detected. This is the type of radar that is
used to track storms, and the type of radar used by policemen in radar guns.
These are the basics of radar. But, there is a lot of machinery and computer technology
involved in making an accurate picture of what is in the sky, on the sea, or on the road. Most
radar systems are a combination of seven components. Each component is a critical part of
the radar system.
The oscillator creates the actual electric waves. It then sends the radio waves to the
modulator.
The modulator is a part of the timing system of a radar system. The modulator turns on
and off the transmitter, creating the pulse radar effect. It tells the transmitter to send out a
pulse, then waits for four milliseconds.
The transmitter amplifies the low-power waves from the oscillator into high-power
waves. These high-power waves usually last for one-millionth of a second.
The antenna broadcasts the radar signals and then listens for the echoes.
167
The duplexer is a device that permits the antenna to be both a sending device, and a
receiving device. It routes the signal from the transmitter to the antenna, and then routes the
echoes from the objects to the receiver.
The receiver amplifies the weak signals reflected back to the antenna. It also filters out
background noise that the antenna picks up, sending only the correct frequencies to the
signal processor.
The signal processor takes the signals from the receivers, and removes signals from
stationary objects, such as trees, skyscrapers, or mountains. Today, this is mostly done by
computers.
And last, but not least, we come to the display screen. For many years, this was a
modified TV tube with an electroluminescent coating, which lights up when hit by electrons,
and retained the glow for a few seconds. This is what creates the "blips" on the radar screen,
that flash about every ten seconds, then fade. In newer systems, the signal processor and the
display screen are combined into a single computer. With the power of today's computers,
this information is transmitted around the world, to other airports, to the government, and to
TV stations, where weather broadcasts are made.
Today, radar systems are standard around the country. The United States has the most
sophisticated radar system, both on the ground and in the sky. On the ground, we track
planes, weather, ships, and many Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles. From space, we use
satellites with radar to map the globe, spy on foreign countries, and track over the oceans. In
each instance, radar plays a key role in our day-to-day lives.
Text 12
I. Read the text about digital radio and outline its main ideas.
What is Digital Radio?
Since the early days of broadcasting, analogue systems have been used to carry
programmes from the studios to the listeners. Now, due to the growing number of
broadcasters and programme services, the frequency bands allocated to AM and FM radio in
many regions of the world are full. The resulting congestion in the radio spectrum has led to
a decline in reception quality and is a real constraint to further growth. Furthermore, in
densely populated areas, FM reception on car radios and portables can be very poor. This is
due to the effect of severe multipath propagation caused by signal reflections and shadowing
due to high buildings.
Digital transmission technology can offer much improved coverage and availability. It
is expected to replace analogue transmissions in many areas, but as digital systems are
incompatible with current AM and FM broadcasting systems, new receivers will be needed.
In basic form, digital radio is an application of the technology in which sound is
processed and transmitted as a stream of binary digits. The principle of using digital
technology for audio transmission is not new, but early systems used for terrestrial television
sound (such as NICAM 728) need considerable bandwidth and use the RF spectrum
inefficiently, by comparison with today's digital systems.
The development of digital radio has been helped by the rapid progress that has been
made in digital coding techniques used in RF and audio systems. This has led to improved
168
spectrum efficiency, more channel capacity, or a combination of these benefits. Digital
compression techniques used in audio systems have improved sound quality at low bit rates
to the extent that radio broadcasts can be made on location and then transmitted to the
broadcaster's production studios over telephone circuits in high quality.
Ideally, to reach the widest range of listeners, a genuinely universal digital radio system
should be capable of being transmitted via terrestrial, satellite and cable systems.
There are new digital radio systems in operation throughout the world. The great
strength of the present analogue transmission systems is the world-wide standardisation on
just two systems (FM and AM). This enables listeners to use one radio to receive
programmes at any location. But in the development of digital systems, it is now clear that
similar standardisation will not be so easily achieved. Differing market requirements are
driving digital systems to be more specialised and tailored to meet regional, national, or
application-oriented needs. Furthermore, the complexity of digital systems compared to
existing analogue techniques fosters this differentiation.
Text 13
I. Read the text and comment.
WHY DIGITAL RADIO?
The existing AM and FM analogue systems suffer from inherent short-comings and
neither can offer uniform reception quality throughout the coverage area. AM radio
reception is constrained by bandwidth limitations, which restrict the audio quality and by
interference from other co-channel and adjacent channel transmissions. This is particularly
troublesome during the hours of darkness. The start of FM services in the 1950's improved
the audio bandwidth and overcame the night-time interference, but the broadcasts were
designed to be received using fixed receivers with external antennas. When listened to in
vehicles or on portables, reception suffered from the effects of reflected signals (multipath)
and other forms of interference, particularly in suburban and city areas.
Another aspect of AM and FM analogue transmissions is the inefficient use of the
spectrum (relative to what is possible using digital technology). As pressure on the radio
spectrum rises, this finite resource becomes more scarce. Digital radio is seen by some
administrations as a potential source of income and spectrum, as a way to encourage the
resource to be used more efficiently.
There are many ways in which digital radio systems can improve upon analogue
systems:
Digital signals are more robust than analogue and can be transmitted successfully at
lower transmitter powers.
Digital systems using coded multicarrier modulation offer much improved reception on
mobile car radios and portables.
Advanced digital compression techniques enable low bit rates to be used successfully,
whilst still producing sound of near CD quality. This makes digital systems more spectrum
efficient.
169
The digital bit-stream can be used for transmitting both audio and data. A digital radio
is much easier to use/tune than is an AM/FM radio.
There is increasing competition for the public's time from the non-broadcast media such
as the CD. By comparison, many AM (in particular) and FM services offer poor audio
quality.
The data capability of digital radio can be used directly or, with some modification, for
other related broadcasting activities such as Internet radio.
Text 14
I. Read the following text and discuss the questions after it.
EFFECTS OF ATMOSPHERE ON RADIOWAVE PROPAGATION

Radiowaves emitted by an aerial are propagated in the surrounding space. Depending
on the directional properties of the aerial, these waves may be propagated along the Earth’s
surface or at a certain angle to it. Consequently, propagation of radiowaves is affected both
by the properties of the Earth’s surface and those of the atmosphere.
Wave propagation along the surface of the Earth is to a great extent influenced by the
terrain, the electric properties of the soil, and the operating wavelength.
If the soil were an ideal conductor, the waves would be reflected from it without any
loss in the signal power, similar to the light reflected from an ideal mirror. The soil acts as a
screen preventing radiowaves from propagating through it.
Actually, the soil is neither an ideal conductor, nor an ideal insulator and radiowaves
propagated along the surface of the Earth are partly reflected and partly absorbed in the soil.
The degree of absorption is a function of the wavelength: the longer the wave, the lower is
the energy absorption.
Let us examine the effects of the atmosphere on wave propagation. The atmosphere
surrounding the Earth is a gaseous envelope with a thickness of about 1,000-2,000 km. The
lowest atmospheric layer, the troposphere, is at 10 to 12 km from the surface of the Earth.
The troposphere is the layer where most meteorological processes such as cloud
formation, precipitation, and air currents take place. Tropospherical conditions are
characterized by air pressure, temperature, and humidity. The values of these parameters
decrease as height increases. However, sometimes, the temperature parameters and humidity
increase as height increases, and this effects ultrahigh frequency (UHF) radiowave
propagation. Above the troposphere, to a height of about 60 km, is a layer called the
stratosphere.
Stretching for thousands of kilometres past the stratosphere is the ionosphere. Here,
under the influence of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun and stars, electron streams from the
Sun and cosmic rays, the gas in the upper layers of atmosphere is ionized, thus forming the
ionosphere. At the same time, a recombination takes place, i.e. molecules recombine. At
night, the degree of ionization is weaker due to the absence of the Sun rays.
The degree of ionization is not constant at different heights. At certain heights,
ionization is greatest due to the nonuniform structure of the atmosphere. In the daytime, four
170
distinct layers are formed, these are D, E, F1 and F2 while at night, layers D and F1, disappear
and only layers E and F2 remain. The condition of the ionosphere changes constantly, and
periodic or irregular changes are observed. Besides diurnal variations, seasonal changes are
observed. In the summertime, the ionization of layers D, E and F 1, is greater than in winter,
while in layer F2, on the contrary, ionization is greater in winter.
Ionization depends on the number of Sun spots which are gigantic funnels on the
surface of the Sun. The greater the number of Sun spots, the higher solar activity and, conse-
quently, the higher the degree of ionization. Years of maximum solar activity occur on an
average at 11-year intervals.
The irregular changes that take place in the ionosphere are called ionospheric storms,
which occur most frequently in the polar regions. These storms are caused by charged par-
ticles emitted by the Sun, and may last for a month. They disturb the structure of the
atmosphere and may destroy layer F2.
The ionosphere absorbs the energy of radiowaves. This is explained by the fact that
when a radiowave invades the ionosphere it causes the oscillation of all the ions. These par-
ticles collide with each other and with neutral atoms, and thus give up the energy acquired
from the radiowave and transform it into heat.

1. Are radiowaves emitted by an aerial propagated in the surrounding space? 2. What is
radiowaves propagation affected by? 3. What is the function of the wavelength? 4. Is the soil
an ideal conductor? 5. What meteorological processes take place in the troposphere? 6. Why
is the degree of ionization weaker at night? 7. Is the degree of ionization constant at different
heights? 8. What does ionization depend on? 9. What is the cause of atmospheric storms?
10. The ionosphere absorbs the energy of radiowaves, doesn’t it?
III. Find in the text English equivalents for the following words and phrases and
write them out:
определенный угол; зависит от; соответственно; частично отражаются и частично
поглощаются почвой; под определённым углом; давайте рассмотрим;
большая протяженность; постоянно; четкие слои; рельеф; без потери; предотвращение
радиоволн; в действительности; распространяться на тысячу километров; наоборот;
исчезать; суточные вариации; в среднем; колебание всех ионов.
Text 15
I. Study and discuss the following text.
SYSTEM PLANNING INSIDE BUILDINGS
Research in characterising VHF-UHF radio signals in and around buildings has been
going on since the 1950s. Although various measuring methodologies have been developed,
it has remained very difficult to isolate and obtain the information needed to set up an
inside-building radio channel using conventional equipment.
Researchers have even proposed the use of ray-tracing techniques to simulate radio
waves travelling inside a structure. However, the complexities involved in mapping a whole
171
building make such a proposal impractical. The problem is the sheer number of high-density
measurements that must be made throughout the building (under properly controlled
conditions) for a simulation.
The absence of predictive tools further compounds problems. Measurements to
highlight the areas of poor signal for a given transmitter position need to be made, but data
on field strength collected by conventional means is very tedious to analyse, especially in
complex buildings. Moreover, results may not necessarily show the overall degree of
coverage and, thus, a resultant new building design might well have inherent deficiencies.
NTL has developed a tool to get around these problems. The NTL Portable Receiving
System (PRS) samples at equal intervals, noting the location at each point which enables it
to build up a highly accurate map of signal strength throughout a building.
The system is based on the standard vehicle-mounted survey equipment manufactured
by Chase Electronics, modified to fit on a wheeled trolley that can be rolled around a
building. The PRS can measure signal levels at up to ten frequencies by scanning within one
metre of the unit. The scanning period is such that the measurement taken represents the
variation in the signal over a small area. This allows the coverage of a number of sites to be
compared by surveying them just once.
The measured field strengths are then overlaid electronically on the route surveyed and
the end result is a direct one-to-one relation between a sampled field strength and a point at
a given location. The data measured can be manipulated on a PC which allows the
pinpointing of locations not covered by the main base site.
Systems can then be designed to provide a consistently high signal strength throughout
a given building by positioning discrete antennae or radiating-cables at optimum locations.
The system also permits the fine-tuning of the predictive tools themselves. It comprises
a Rohde & Schwarz receiver and a positioning system — GPS or Datatrak — to provide a
location reference. The system can be used in any type of vehicle, including buses and
trains. Signal levels of up to ten frequencies can be measured within the bandwidth of the
receiving antenna. A distance transducer system is currently being developed to provide a
means of sampling the field uniformly if required.
Software tools for planning radio systems in the great outdoors are also becoming
increasingly sophisticated. The inclusion of databases with information on clutter — such as
buildings and other obstacles — and terrain databases with higher resolutions are providing
more accurate coverage. There is still a need for physical radio surveys because:
- Predictions based on one particular geometrical model are subject to errors when the
degree of coverage is extended to other locations. They also become limited for predicting
coverage when small areas are considered.
- Prediction algorithms need to be improved by accounting for as much data as possible
from measurements.
- Users will always need to validate performance by assessing the degree of coverage
provided in practice.
More accurate predictions would give users more confidence in reducing the practical
measurements to representative samples. The measuring system should therefore provide
data for two reasons: to use in designing a system and for fine-tuning the predictive tools
themselves.
172
In a competitive market, planning mistakes are costly both immediately and in the long-
term. The use of versatile measurement tools in planning a system infrastructure obviates the
sort of ad hoc planning which not only pollutes the radio spectrum but can also result in the
deployment of a sub-standard system.
Text 16
I. Read the text and put down problem questions to it.
MICROPROCESSOR
A microprocessor incorporates the functions of a computer's central processing
unit (CPU) on a single integrated circuit (IC), or at most a few integrated circuits. All
modern CPUs are microprocessors making the micro- prefix redundant. The microprocessor
is a multipurpose, programmable device that accepts digital data as input, processes it
according to instructions stored in its memory, and provides results as output. It is an
example of sequential digital logic, as it has internal memory. Microprocessors operate on
numbers and symbols represented in the binary numeral system.
The integration of a whole CPU onto a single chip or on a few chips greatly reduced the
cost of processing power. The integrated circuit processor was produced in large numbers by
highly automated processes, so unit cost was low. Single-chip processors increase reliability
as there are many fewer electrical connections to fail. As microprocessor designs get faster,
the cost of manufacturing a chip (with smaller components built on a semiconductor chip of
the same size) generally stays the same.
Before microprocessors, small computers had been implemented using racks of circuit
boards with many medium- and small-scale integrated circuits. Microprocessors integrated
this into one or a few large-scale ICs. Continued increases in microprocessor capacity have
since rendered other forms of computers almost completely obsolete, with one or more
microprocessors used in everything from the smallest embedded systems and handheld
devices to the largest mainframes and supercomputers.
The internal arrangement of a microprocessor varies depending on the age of the
design and the intended purposes of the microprocessor. The complexity of an integrated
circuit is bounded by physical limitations of the number of transistors that can be put onto
one chip, the number of package terminations that can connect the processor to other parts
of the system, the number of interconnections is possible to make on the chip, and the heat
that the chip can dissipate. Advancing technology makes more complex and powerful chips
feasible to manufacture.
A minimal hypothetical microprocessor might only include an arithmetic logic unit
(ALU) and a control logic section. The ALU performs operations such as addition,
subtraction, and operations such as AND or OR. Each operation of the ALU sets one or
more flags in a status register, which indicate the results of the last operation (zero value,
negative number, overflow, or others). The control logic section retrieves instruction
operation codes from memory, and initiates whatever sequence of operations of the ALU
requires to carry out the instruction. A single operation code might affect many individual
data paths, registers, and other elements of the processor.
173
As integrated circuit technology advanced, it was feasible to manufacture more and
more complex processors on a single chip. The size of data objects became larger; allowing
more transistors on a chip allowed word sizes to increase from 4- and 8-bit words up to
today's 64-bit words. Additional features were added to the processor architecture; more on-
chip registers speed up programs, and complex instructions could be used to make more
compact programs. Floating-point arithmetic, for example, was often not available on 8-bit
microprocessors, but had to be carried out in software. Integration of the floating point
unit first as a separate integrated circuit and then as part of the same microprocessor chip,
sped up floating point calculations.
Occasionally, physical limitations of integrated circuits made such practices as a bit
slice approach necessary. Instead of processing all of a long word on one integrated circuit,
multiple circuits in parallel processed subsets of each data word. While this required extra
logic to handle, for example, carry and overflow within each slice, the result was a system
that could handle, say, 32-bit words using integrated circuits with a capacity for only
four bits each.
With the ability to put large numbers of transistors on one chip, it becomes feasible to
integrate memory on the same die as the processor. This CPU cache has the advantage of
faster access than off-chip memory, and increases the processing speed of the system for
many applications. Processor clock frequency has increased more rapidly than external
memory speed, except in the recent past, so cache memory is necessary if the processor is
not delayed by slower external memory.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor - mw-navigation)
Text 17
TELEVISION
Television provides a means of viewing the images of objects that are out of sight, i.e.
far removed from the observer.
The images of moving or stationary objects are converted into electric signals and these
signals are transmitted by a television transmitter. The television receiver (TV-set) picks up
these signals and performs the reverse conversion of electrical signals into the image
displayed on the screen of a cathode ray tube (CRT). Television signals can be transmitted
by means of transmission lines as well as by radio.
The transmission of video signals is more complicated than the transmission of audio
signals by means of radio waves. There is a difference between the perception of audio
signals and video signals by the human being. No matter how complex the audio signal is,
the human ear interprets it as the sum total of all its components, i.e. as a single sound. The
human eye, on the other hand, can perceive many different objects at one and the same time.
Modern television techniques have taken all the peculiarities of human sight into
consideration.
The iconoscope camera tube was developed as far back as the early thirties. Later, other
types of camera tubes came into use, such as the supericonoscope which is more commonly
known as the image iconoscope. The tube in the television receiver, that provides picture
display, is called the picture tube or kinescope.
174
The image of an object is projected onto the camera tube. The electron beam of this
tube scans the image point by point. The beam scanning is controlled by a scan unit. At the
tube output, pulses corresponding to the image are generated. These signals are usually
termed the picture signals.
These pulses are amplified and used to drive the television transmitter, where they
modulate the transmitter carrier. Transmission is usually achieved by amplitude-modulation
techniques. The resulting radio-frequency vision signals are transmitted by the aerial and
picked up by the receiving aerial, in which they induce an e. m. f. corresponding in fre-
quency and waveform to the transmitted signals. Received signals are fed to the video
channel amplifier, that is essentially a pulse receiver. Here the signals are amplified and de-
tected; the picture signals from the detector output are amplified and used to drive the
television tube brightness control electrode.
The movement of the electron beam in the television tube must be strictly synchronous
and in phase with the electron beam of the camera tube. This phasing is accomplished by
transmitting special sync pulses, provided by a synchronization generator (timer). These
sync pulses control the scan of the camera tube and are transmitted along with the picture
signals. At the receiver, these sync pulses are extracted from the composite video signal and
used to control the operation of the scan.
In television broadcasting, the sound signal is transmitted simultaneously with the
video signal. The audio signal from a microphone is amplified and used to modulate the
frequency sound channel carrier. Both transmitters feed one common aerial through a special
coupling filter. The receiver aerial picks up the sound and vision radio frequency signals.
After amplification, the sound signal is separated from the composite signal, amplified, and
used to drive a loudspeaker.
Note:
e.m.f.: electromotive force

1. What kind of means of viewing object images does television provide? 2. What does
the television receiver do? 3. By what means can television signals be transmitted? 4. What
is the difference between the audio signals and video signals? 5. How many different objects
can the human eye perceive at one and the same time? 6. What does the electron beam of the
tube do? 7. Where are signals amplified and detected? 8. Why must the movement of the
electron beam in the tube be strictly synchronous with the beam in the camera tube? 9. What
is the role of sync pulses? 10. What does the receiver aerial pick up?
Text 18
I. Put down problem questions to the text.
TRANSISTORS AND SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
175
Devices consisting of solid pieces of crystalline material which allowed alternating
current to flow more readily in one direction than the other were known long before the
invention of the thermionic valve. The crystal set which became so well known in the early
days of radio depended on the rectifying action at the point of contact between the surface of
certain crystals and a fine wire. Crystal valves, using silicon crystals, were found to be more
efficient for the very high frequency signals reaching radar receivers than any thermionic
valves. The action of these devices was not understood, but they were all made from
materials which we now classify as semiconductors: substances which let electric current
pass through them more easily than insulators do but much less easily than do true
conductors. These semiconductor devices were used as rectifiers although by 1924 a
scientific worker at the laboratory headed by Bonch-Bruyevich in Nizhni Novgorod Oleg
Losev for the first time in the history of electronics had achieved amplification using a
semiconductor crystal. Unfortunately, Losev's discovery did not receive due attention.
In 1948 Bardeen and Brattain invented the point-contact transistor and Shockley
invented the junction transistor shortly after. The transistor is a semiconductor triode
possessing characteristics which are similar in many respects to those of thermionic triodes.
At present transistors are widely used in amplifiers, receivers, transmitters, oscillators, TV
sets, measuring instruments, pulse circuits, computers, and many other types of radio
equipment.
The invention of transistors and solid-state devices led to an acceleration in the growth
of electronics. Why were these new devices so important and why are they steadily
replacing their older equivalents? A brief review of their advantages compared with
thermionic devices will provide the answers to these questions. Transistors are made from
parts which do not wear out. Transistors waste very little power. They require no heating to
generate their free electrons. This means that equipment made with transistors is more
efficient, lighter than comparable valve equipment.
Since no heating is required there is no delay in transistor equipment waiting for things
to warm up, as there is with thermionic valves. This is a great advantage with 'entertainment'
equipment, such as radio and television receivers, and it may be vital with some kinds of
measuring or recording equipment.
Their very small size and weight, combined with low heat dissipation, permits very
high density packing of components and, in combination with their reliability, this has made
possible the design of the very compact circuits which are essential for such applications as
computers, portable measuring instruments, satellite instrumentation, etc.
II. Find in the above text English equivalents for the following words and phrases
and write them out:
детекторный приёмник, рассеяние тепла, кристаллический прибор, совместимый,
приложения, развлекательное оборудование, полупроводниковые устройства,
требовать, в сочетании с, сравнивать, достигать, кристаллический материал, зависеть
от, полупроводники, значительный (существенный), переносной, изнашивать(ся),
замещая, прогреть(ся).
Text 19
176
I. Study the following text. Be ready to speak about the digital dividend.
DIGITAL DIVIDEND
The digital dividend refers to the spectrum which is released in the process of digital
television transition. When television broadcasters switch from analog platforms to digital
only platforms, part of the electromagnetic spectrum that has been used for broadcasting will
be freed up because digital television needs less spectrum than analog television. The reason
is that new digital compression technology can transmit eight digital TV channels by using
the same amount of spectrum used to transmit one analogue TV channel.
The digital dividend usually locates at frequency bands from 174 to 230 MHz (VHF)
and from 470 to 862 MHz (UHF). However, the location and size of digital dividend vary
among countries due to the factors including geographical position and penetration of
satellite/cable services.
In countries where the digital television transition has not yet finished, over-the-air
broadcasting services are still using radio-frequency spectrum in what is known as the Very
High Frequency (VHF) and Ultra High Frequency (UHF) bands. After the completion of
digital transition, part of this spectrum will be released as digital dividend to provide a range
of new communication services. Proposed utilization of the released spectrum includes:
-Digital Terrestrial TV;
-Advanced Mobile Services;
-Broadcast Mobile TV;
-Commercial Wireless Broadband services, both to fixed locations and
mobile devices;
-Wireless Broadband services for public safety and disaster relief (PPDR);
-Services ancillary to broadcasting and programming (SAB/SAP).
Analog television spectrum in the UHF bands is valuable to potential purchasers
because of its ability to carry signals over long distances, penetrate buildings and carry large
amounts of data.
Lots of countries are in favour of using a part of the digital dividend for electronic
communications services, such as mobile communications and wireless broadband. These
new services would utilize the upper part of the UHF band (790-862 MHz).
One proposal to utilize the digital dividend is to develop an international mobile service
using frequencies which will be released after the completion of digital transition in a global
range. This part spectrum suits for 3G mobile telecommunication service. However, it would
be difficult to fully realize the potentials of the digital dividend because countries in the
world will not finish the switch to digital TV simultaneously. Further it is an issue involving
factors such as topography, penetration of satellite/cable services, the requirements for
regional service, spectrum usage in neighboring countries, etc.
In 2007, the World Radiocommunication Conference revised the allocation of a portion
of UHF spectrum for mobile broadband services and advanced mobile services. Although
the allocations set a framework, they do not dictate member countries how to allocate digital
dividend spectrum.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_dividend)
177
Text 20
I. Read the text and outline its main ideas.
RADIO NAVIGATION
Radio navigation or radionavigation is the application of radio frequencies to determine
a position on the Earth. Like radiolocation, it is a type of radio determination.
The basic principles are measurements from/to electric beacons, especially
- directions, e.g. by bearing, radio phases or interferometry,
- distances, e.g. ranging by measurement of travel times,
- partly also velocity, e.g. by means of radio Doppler shift.
Bearing-measure systems used some form of directional radio antenna to determine the
location of a broadcast station on the ground. Conventional navigation techniques are then
used to take a radio fix. These were introduced prior to WWI, and remain in use today.
The first system of radio navigation was the Radio Direction Finder, or RDF. By tuning
in a radio station and then using a directional antenna, one could determine the direction to
the broadcasting antenna. A second measurement using another station was then taken.
Using triangulation, the two directions can be plotted on a map where
their intersection reveals the location of the navigator. Commercial AM radio stations can be
used for this task due to their long range and high power, but strings of low-power radio
beacons were also set up specifically for this task, especially near airports and harbours.
Early RDF systems normally used a loop antenna, a small loop of metal wire that is
mounted so it can be rotated around a vertical axis. At most angles the loop has a fairly flat
reception pattern, but when it is aligned perpendicular to the station the signal received on
one side of the loop cancels the signal in the other, producing a sharp drop in reception
known as the "null". By rotating the loop and looking for the angle of the null, the relative
bearing of the station can be determined. Loop antennas can be seen on most pre-1950s
aircraft and ships.
The main problem with RDF is that it required a special antenna on the vehicle, which
may not be easy to mount on smaller vehicles or single-crew aircraft. A smaller problem is
that the accuracy of the system is based to a degree on the size of the antenna, but larger
antennas would likewise make the installation more difficult.
During the era between World War I and World War II, a number of systems were
introduced that placed the rotating antenna on the ground. As the antenna rotated through a
fixed position, typically due north, the antenna was keyed with the Morse code signal of the
station's identification letters so the receiver could ensure they were listening to the right
station. Then they waited for the signal to either peak or disappear as the antenna briefly
pointed in their direction. By timing the delay between the Morse signal and the peak/null,
then dividing by the known rotational rate of the station, the bearing of the station could be
calculated.
The first such system was the German Telefunken Kompass Sender, which began
operations in 1907 and was used operationally by the Zeppelin fleet until 1918. An
improved version was introduced by the UK as the Oxfordness Beacon in 1929 and used
until the mid-1930s. A number of improved versions followed, replacing the mechanical
178
motion of the antennas with phasing techniques that produced the same output pattern with
no moving parts. One of the longest lasting examples was Sonne, which went into operation
just before World War II and used operationally under the name Consol until 1991. The
modern VOR system is based on the same principles.
A great advance in the RDF technique was introduced in the form of phase comparisons
of a signal as measured on two or more small antennas, or a single highly
directional solenoid. These receivers were dramatically smaller, more accurate, and simpler
to operate. Combined with the introduction of the transistor and integrated circuit, RDF
systems were so reduced in size and complexity that they once again became quite common
during the 1960s, and were known by the new name automatic direction finder or ADF.
This also led to a revival in the operation of simple radio beacons for use with these
RDF systems, now referred to as non-directional beacons (NDB). As the LF/MF signals
used by NDBs can follow the curvature of earth, NDB has a much greater range
than VOR which travels only in line of sight. NDB can be categorized as long range or short
range depending on their power. The frequency band allotted to non-directional beacons is
190–1750 kHz, but the same system can be used with any common AM-band commercial
station.
VHF omnidirectional range, or VOR, is an implementation of the reverse-RDF system,
but one that is more accurate and able to be completely automated.
Instead of a single signal, the VOR transmitter sends out three signals – one is a simple
voice channel that sends Morse code to identify the station, another is a continuous signal
sent in all directions, and the last is a signal that is rotated at 30 RPM.
As VOR required two VHF receivers as well as a conventional radio for station
identification, the system did not become popular until the era of miniaturized electronics,
first with small tubes in the 1950s, and then transistorized systems in the 1960s. During this
period it quickly took over from the older Radio Range system. The signals from the stations
could be received anywhere, as opposed to the beams which were only broadcast in certain
directions, so in theory the VOR system could be used for free navigation from any to any
point. In practice, the older Radio Range procedures were so widely used and standardized
that VOR was used to produce a similar set of airways that remain in use today.
Beam systems broadcast narrow signals in the sky, and navigation is accomplished by
keeping the aircraft centred in the beam. A number of stations are used to create an airway,
with the navigator tuning in different stations along the direction of travel. These systems
were common in the era when electronics were large and expensive, as they placed
minimum requirements on the receivers – they were simply voice radio sets tuned to the
selected frequencies. However, they did not provide navigation outside of the beams, and
were thus less flexible in use. The rapid miniaturization of electronics during and after
WWII made systems like VOR practical, and most beam systems rapidly disappeared.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_navigation)
179
GRAMMAR REFERENCES
ENGLISH TENSES (ACTIVE VOICE)
INDEFINITE CONTINUOUS PERFECT PERFECT

CONTINUOUS
verb be + -ing have + III form have been + -ing
I/You/we/they ask am have have
He/she/it asks is asking asked been asking
are has has
*Repeated, customary
action. *Action (process) *Completed action *Action (process) which
PRESENT
going on at the connected with the began in the past and is

usually/generally present moment. present; result. still going on now.
always/never for a month
often/seldom now, at present, already/yet a long time
sometimes at the moment ever/never since 5 o’clock
lately/recently how long
*Fact this week/today since when
*Future action (to a *Future action by now
timetable, schedule) planned before
180
asked was had asked had been asking
took asking
were
*Action (succession of *Action (process) * Action completed *Action (process) which
actions) in the past. taking place at a given before a certain began before a definite
moment in the past. moment in the past moment in the past and
was still going at the
PAST
yesterday moment.
last week at 5 yesterday by 5 o’clock He had been working for
3 days ago from 5 to 6 yesterday yesterday 2 hours, when my
for 3 days last week before he came brother came.
all day long by the end of last
the whole day year
when he came
*At sequence of
tenses.
will ask will be asking will have asked will have been asking
*Future action. *Action (process) *Action completed *Action (process) which

taking place at a given before a definite will begin before a
moment in the future. moment in the future. definite moment in the
FUTURE
future and will be going

on at that moment.
tomorrow at 5 tomorrow by 5 o’clock When you come, I’ll
next week from 5 to 6 tomorrow tomorrow have been working for 2
in 3 days for 3 days next week when he comes hours.
in 2037 all day long tomorrow by next summer
when he comes
ENGLISH TENSES (PASSIVE VOICE)
INDEFINITE CONTINUOUS PERFECT

to be + III form to be being + III form to have been + III form
PRESENT
*Customary action *Action (process) taking place *Completed action connected

at a given moment in the past. with the present.
He is answered the The cake is being cooked now. The work has been done today.
questions every day.
*Action (succession of *Action (process) taking * Action completed before a

actions) in the past. place at a given moment in the certain moment in the past
past.
PAST
He was answered the The cake was being cooked the He said his car had been bought
questions yesterday. whole evening. yesterday.
They were taken home The work had been done by 5
yesterday. pm yesterday.
181
*Future action
*Action completed before a
definite moment in the future.
FUTURE
I will be taken there The work will have been done by

tomorrow. 5 pm tomorrow.
FUTURE-in-the
He said that I would be He said that the work would

taken there the next day. have been done by 5 pm the next
PAST
day.
ИМЯ ЧИСЛИТЕЛЬНОЕ (THE NUMERAL).

Образование количественных и порядковых числительных
В английском языке, так же как и в русском числительные делятся на
количественные числительные (Cardinal Numerals) и порядковые числительные
(Ordinal Numerals).
Количественные Порядковые
1 one first
2 two second
3 three third
4 four fourth
5 five fifth
6 six sixth
7 seven seventh
8 eight eighth
9 nine ninth
10 ten tenth
11 eleven eleventh
12 twelve twelfth
13 thirteen thirteenth
14 fourteen fourteenth
15 fifteen fifteenth
16 sixteen sixteenth
17 seventeen seventeenth
18 eighteen eighteenth
19 nineteen nineteenth
20 twenty twentieth
21 twenty-one twenty-first
22 twenty-two twenty-second
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30 thirty thirtieth
40 forty fortieth
50 fifty fiftieth
60 sixty sixtieth
70 seventy seventieth
80 eighty eightieth
90 ninety ninetieth
100 a (one) hundred a (one) hundredth
101 a (one) hundred and one a (one) hundred and first
102 a (one) hundred and two a (one) hundred and
second
200 two hundred two hundredth
253 two hundred and fifty-three two hundred and fifty-
third
1,000 a (one) thousand a (one) thousandth
1,001 a (one) thousand and one a (one) thousand and first
2,250 two thousand two hundred and two thousand two
fifty hundred and fiftieth
3,000 three thousand three thousandth
100,00 a (one) hundred thousand a (one) hundred
0 thousandth
1,000,0 a (one) million a (one) millionth
00
2,000,0 two million two millionth
00
Образование количественных числительных:

1. Количественные числительные от 13 до 19 включительно образуются
прибавлением суффикса -teen к соответствующим названиям единиц первого десятка:
four- fourteen, seven-seventeen.
Примечание. Числительные с суффиксом -teen имеют два ударения ('four'teen,
'fifteen и т. д.), причём ударение на последнем слоге сильнее, чем на первом. Когда эти
числительные употребляются с существительными, ударение падает на первый слог, а
второй слог становится неударным: 'fourteen 'pens, 'fifteen 'pencils.
2. Названия количественных числительных, обозначающих десятки, образуются
добавлением суффикса -ty к названиям единиц: six-sixty, seven-seventy.
Некоторые числительные образуются со следующими отклонениями от общего
правила:
two-twelve-twenty three-thirteen-thirty
five—fifteen—fifty eight—eighteen—eighty
Числительное forty отличается в написании от four, fourteen.
3. Десятки с единицами образуются таким же способом, как и в русском языке:
22 twenty-two; 48 forty-eight
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4. При обозначении количественных числительных разряды многозначных чисел
разделяются запятой: 7,000 5,550,000.
5. Между сотнями (или тысячами и миллионами) следующими за ними десятками
(или единицами, если нет десятков) в любом разряде всегда ставится союз and:
246 two hundred and forty-six 206 two hundred and six
5,050 five thousand and fifty 5,005 five thousand and five
3,525,250 three million five hundred and twenty-five thousand two hundred and fifty
6. Числительные 100; 1,000; 1,000,000 употребляют с неопределенным артиклем а
или с числительным оne
100 a hundred \ one hundred
1,002 a thousand and two \one thousand and two
7. Числительные hundred, thousand, million не принимают окончания -s во
множественном числе:
three hundred
four thousand
five million
3,005,240 three million five thousand two hundred and forty
Примечание. Числительные hundred, thousand и million переходят в разряд
существительных и принимают окончание если они употребляются для обозначения
неопределенного количества сотен, тысяч или миллионов. В этом случае за ними
следует существительное с предлогом of.
Thousands of workers were streaming out of the plants. -- Тысячи рабочих потоками
выходили из заводов.
8. Существительное, которое следует за числительным употребляется без
предлога и соответствует в русском языке существительному в родительном падеже:
three thousand books – три тысячи книг
ten students – десять студентов

Образование порядковых числительных:
I. Порядковые числительные образуются прибавлением суффикса -th к
количественным числительным:
four—fourth thirteen —thirteenth seven—seventh fifteen—fifteenth
Образование трех первых числительных составляет исключение из этого правила:
one —first two —second three—third
При образовании порядковых числительных fifth пятый и twelfth двенадцатый
буква v в названиях количественных числительных (five, twelve) меняется на f и
опускается буква е; в числительном eight выпадает буква t, а в числительном nine
опускается буква е:
five -fifth twelve—twelfth eight —eighth nine —ninth
При образовании порядковых числительных, обозначающих десятки, начиная с
20, конечная буква у меняется на i и добавляется е перед суффиксом -th для
обозначения дополнительного звука [i]:
twenty—twentieth thirty —thirtieth
2. При образовании составных порядковых числительных, состоящих из двух или
более чисел, только последнее число приобретает форму порядкового числительного,
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а предшествующие числа выражаются количественными числительными, так же как и
в русском языке:
twenty-third —двадцать третий five hundred and eighty-seventh —пятьсот
восемьдесят седьмой.
Имена существительные, определяемые порядковым числительным,
употребляются с определенным артиклем. Артикль сохраняется перед порядковым
числительным, если даже существительное не выражено, а лицо подразумевается.
The first law of motion has the idea of motion and the idea of force. -- Первый закон
движения cодержит понятие движения и понятие силы.
The second basket was the same size as the first. -- Вторая корзина была такого же
размера, как и первая.
Примечание. Употребление неопределенного артикля с порядковым именем
числительным придает порядковому числительному дополнительное значение,
соответствующее русскому еще один:
Under certain circumstances, a second electron may enter the outer orbit -- При
некоторых обстоятельствах второй (еще один) электрон может войти во внешнюю
орбиту.
ДРОБНЫЕ И СМЕШАННЫЕ ВЕЛИЧИНЫ

Простые дроби выражаются посредством количественных числительных в
числителе и порядковых в знаменателе:
1/3 a (one) third
1/5 a (one) fifth
1/6 a (one) sixth
1/100 a (one) hundredth
Дробные величины 1/2 и 1/4 передаются особыми словами: a (one) half (l/2), a
(one) quarter (1/4).
Примечание. Если имени существительному предшествует слово half, то артикль
ставится непосредственно перед существительным:
half a kilometre полкилометра
half an hour полчаса
half the distance половина расстояния.
Но:
a kilometre and a half полтора километра
an hour and a half полтора часа.

Если в числителе стоит число более единицы, то к слову, обозначающему
знаменатель, прибавляется окончание -s:
2/3 two thirds
4/9 four ninths
3/5 three fifths
9/10 nine tenths
Существительное, которое следует за дробным числительным, стоит в
единственном числе:
5/8 inch -- 5/8 дюйма (читается: five eighths of an inch);
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3/5 foot -- 3/5 фута (читается: three fifths of a foot).
Существительное, которое следует за смешанным числом, стоит во
множественном числе:
2 1/4 metres 2 1/4 метра (читается: two and a quarter metres или two metres and a
quarter).
Десятичные дроби отделяются от целого числа точкой, а не запятой, как в русском
языке: 1.34; 0.8 (или .8).
Десятичные дроби читаются следующим образом:
0.8 или .8 point eight (точка восемь) или nought point eight (ноль точка восемь) или
о [ou] point eight (ноль точка восемь)
0.006 point nought nought six или nought point two oes [ouz] six или о [ou] point two
oes six
1.02 one point nought two или one point о [ou] two
4.25 four point twenty-five или four point two five
Существительное, которое следует за десятичной дробью, стоит в единственном
числе, если в дробном количестве нет целых единиц, и во множественном числе, если
в дробном количестве есть целые единицы:
0.5 centimetre читается: nought point five of a centimetre 5.2 centimetres читается:
five point two centimetres.
Примечание. При чтении десятичных дробей между числительным,
обозначающим целое число, и словом point делается короткая пауза.
КОЛИЧЕСТВЕННЫЕ и ПОРЯДКОВЫЕ ЧИСЛИТЕЛЬНЫЕ в ДАТАХ

1. Обычно дату читают в виде двух двузначных чисел, соответствующих двум
первым и двум последним цифрам. Например, "1855 год" произносится как "eighteen
fifty-five", а 1147 - как "eleven forty-seven". Если в дате есть нули, то она произносится
так: 1900- "niniteen hundred" (варианты: "nineteen oo", "nineteen zero-zero"); 1905 -
"nineteen o (или zero) five".
Т.е., при чтении четырёхзначных чисел, обозначающих годы, сначала читаются
две первые цифры, а затем две последние:
1992 - nineteen ninety – two
1853 - eighteen fifty – three
Даты с 2000 года по 2010 читаются немного по-другому (например: 2005 - "two
thousand (and) five"), а начиная с 2011 - уже "как положено", в виде двух двузначных
чисел (например, 2013 - "twenty thirteen").
2000 – two thousand
2015 – twenty fifteen
2. Даты пишутся так: 2nd Jan., или Jan. 2nd., или 2.1. - и читаются: the second of
January или January the second.
Часто указывается также и год. Пишется: May 15th, 1943 или 15.5.43.
Читается: May the fifteenth nineteen forty - three.
В письмах обычно названия следующих месяцев пишутся сокращённо:
January - Jan.
September - Sept.
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February - Feb.
October - Oct.
March - Mar.
November - Nov.
April - Apr.
December - Dec.
August - Aug.
3. Американцы пишут даты по - другому. Они вначале указывают месяц, а затем
число: 15th of May - 5.15.
Так, the fifteenth of May nineteen forty-three в американском варианте будет 5.15.43.
4. Когда необходимо указать в дате день недели, то пишется так: Monday, 9th
November.
Таким образом, обычно записывается число на классной доске и в тетради, а
читается так: Today is Monday, November the ninth (или the ninth of November).
IRREGULAR VERBS
Infinitive Past Past Translation
Indefinite Participle
awake awoke / awoke / будить; просыпаться

awaked awaked
be was / were been быть
bear bore born(e) носить, выносить
beat beat beaten бить
become became become становиться
begin began begun начинать, -ся
bite bit bitten кусать
blow blew blown дуть
break broke broken ломать
bring brought brought приносить
broadcast broadcast broadcast передавать по радио

(телевидению)
build built built строить
burn burnt burnt гореть, жечь
buy bought bought покупать
catch caught caught ловить, схватывать
choose chose chosen выбирать
come came come приходить
cost cost cost стоить
cut cut cut резать
do did done делать
draw drew drawn тащить; рисовать
187
drink drank drunk пить
drive drove driven гнать; везти; ехать
eat ate eaten есть (принимать
пищу)
fall fell fallen падать
feel felt felt чувствовать
fight fought fought бороться, сражаться
find found found находить
fly flew flown летать
forbid forbade forbidden запрещать
forget forgot forgotten забывать
forgive forgave forgiven прощать
freeze froze frozen замерзать,
замораживать
get got got получать;
становиться
give gave given давать
go went gone идти, ехать
grow grew grown расти, выращивать
hang hung hung висеть, вешать
have had had иметь
hear heard heard слышать
hide hid hid / hidden прятать
hit hit hit ударять; поражать
hold held held держать
hurt hurt hurt повредить, ушибать
keep kept kept держать, хранить
know knew known знать
lay laid laid класть
lead led led вести
learn learnt / learnt / учиться
learned learned
leave left left оставлять, уезжать
lie lay lain лежать
light lit / lighted lit / lighted зажигать, освещать
lose lost lost терять
make made made делать; заставлять
meet met met встречать
pay paid paid платить
put put put класть
read read read читать
ride rode ridden ездить верхом
ring rang rung звонить; звенеть
188
rise rose risen подниматься
run ran run бежать
say said said говорить, сказать
see saw seen видеть
sell sold sold продавать
send sent sent посылать
shine shone shone сиять, светить
show showed shown показывать
shut shut shut закрывать
sit sat sat сидеть
sleep slept slept спать
speak spoke spoken говорить
speed sped sped спешить; ускорять
stand stood stood стоять
string strung strung привязывать

sweep swept swept мести
swim swam swum плавать
take took taken брать
teach taught taught обучать, учить
tell told told рассказывать
think thought thought думать
throw threw thrown бросать
understand understood understood понимать
wake woke / woken / будить; просыпаться
waked waked
wear wore worn носить
win won won выигрывать
write wrote written писать
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APPENDIX I
НАЗВАНИЕ И ПРОИЗНОШЕНИЕ БУКВ ГРЕЧЕСКОГО АЛФАВИТА ПРИ ЧТЕНИИ

ФОРМУЛ НА АНГЛИЙСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ
Соответствую Гречес
Пропис Строч щая кая
Греческое название по-английски с
ная ная английская буква
транскрипцией
буква буква буква (в по-
математике) русски
Α α Alpha [′ælfə] a альфа
Β β Beta [′bi:tə] b бета
Γ γ Gamma [′gæmə] g гамма
Δ δ Delta [′deltə] d дельта
эпсило
Ε ε Epsilon [′epsəֽlɔn], Brit:[ep′sailən] e
н
Ζ ζ Zeta [′zeitə], [′zi:tə] z дзета
Η η Eta [′eitə],[′i:tə] h эта
Θ θ Theta [′θeitə],[′θi:tə] th тета
Ι ι Iota [ai′outə] i йота
Κ κ Kappa [′kæpə] k каппа
Λ λ Lambda [′læmdə] l ламбда
Μ μ Mu [mju:], [mu:] m мю
Ν ν Nu [nju:], [nu:] n ню
Ξ ξ Xi [zai], [sai], [ksi:] x кси
омикро
Ο ο Omicron [′ɔməֽkrɔn] o
н
Π π Pi [pai] p пи
Ρ ρ Rho [rou] r ро
190
Σ ς Sigma [′sigmə] s сигма
Τ τ Tau [tɔ:], [tou] t тау
Upsilon [′ju:psəֽlɔn],[′ʌpsəֽlɔn], Brit : [jup ипсило
Υ υ u
′sailən] н
Φ φ Phi [fai], [fi:] ph фи
Χ χ Chi [kai] ch хи
Ψ ψ Psi [sai], [psi:] ps пси
Omega [ou′mi:gə],[ou′meigə],[ou′megə],
Ω ω o омега
[′oumegə]

Греческий алфавит в коде html
alpha (a). html: a
beta (b). html: b
chi (c). html: c
delta (d). html: d
epsilon (e). html: e
eta (h). html: h
gamma (g). html: g
iota (i). html: i
kappa (k). html: k
lambda (l). html: l
mu (m). html: m
nu (n). html: n
omega (w). html: w
omicron (o). html: o
phi (f). html: f
pi (p). html: p
psi (y). html: y
rho (r). html: r
sigma (s). html: s
tau (t). html: t
theta (q). html: q
upsilon (u). html: u
xi (x). html: x
zeta (z). html: z
ABBREVIATIONS
A.C., a.c. alternating current переменный ток
a.f. audio-frequency звуковая частота
c.p.s. (c/s) cycle per second (столько-то) герц
D.C., d.c. direct current постоянный ток
e.g. ( лат. exempli gratia) for example например
e.m.f., emf electromotive force электродвижущая сила
etc. and so on и так далее
HF, h.f. high frequency высокая частота
191
hr hour час
HT high tension высокое напряжение
i.e. ( id est) that is то есть
LF low frequency низкая частота
kc/s kilocycles per second (столько-то) килогерц
mc megacycle мегагерц
p.h. per hour в час
p.m. per minute в минуту
p.s. per second в секунду
RF, r.f. radio frequency радиочастота
V velocity скорость
V volt вольт
vs. (versus) против
V.T. vacuum-tube электронная лампа
Английские и американские деньги

GB: Ј - pounds and р - реnсе (фунты и пенсы)
I pound (Ј 1) = 100 реnсе (100 р)
Amount (сумма) Coin (монета)
1 р - a penny (one p [pi:] (slang) a penny - пенни, пенс
2 р - twopence ['tʌpəns] two p [pi:] (slang) a two penny piece - двухпенсовик
5 p - five pence a five penny piece - пятипенсовик
10 p - ten pence a ten penny piece - десятипенсовик
50 p - fifty pence a fifty pence piece - монета в 50 пенсов
1 a pound, (a quid [kwid] (slang) a pound coin - монета в один фунт
фунт (slang) note - банкнота a pound note
Ј1 a pound, a quid (slang) a five/ten/twenty pound note, a fiver
Ј5 / Ј10 / Ј20 five / ten / twenty / quid (sl.) (tenner) (sl.) - пятерка, десятка (разг.)
Ј3.82 = three pounds eighty- two pence
US: $ - dollars, c - cents – доллары и центы

$1 – 1 dollar = 100 cents (100 c)
Линейные меры
inch (in) — дюйм
millimetre (mm) — миллиметр
foot (ft) — фут (feet — мн. число от foot)
centimetre (cm) — сантиметр
yard (yd) — ярд
metre (m) — метр
rod, pole or perch — мерный шест
chain (ch) — мерная цепь
furlong (fur) — фарлонг
mile — миля
league — лига
192
1 inch (in) = 25.4 millimetres (mm)
1 foot (ft) = 12 inches = 30.5 centimetres (cm)
1 yard (yd) - 3 feet = 0.9 metres (m) - 91 cm
1 rod, pole, or perch = 5.5 yards = 5.03 metres
1 chain (ch) = 22 yards = 201.17 metres
1 mile = 1700 yards = 8 furlongs = 1.6093 km 1 league = 3 miles = 4.8279 km
1 sea mile = 1.151 statute miles = 1.852 km
pint (pt) — пинта
quart (qt) — кварта
gallon (gal) — галлон
litre (GB) liter (US) — литр
1 pint (pt) = 0.5679 litres
1 quart (qt) = 2 pints = 1.1359 litres
1 gallon (gal) = 4 quarts = 4.5435 litres
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APPENDIX II
WORDS AND PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS OF GENERAL SCIENTIFIC
VOCABULARY
A
а также (и) - as well as
Б
без доказательства – for granted
без подготовки – off hand
без сомнения – it can hardly be doubted
бесспорные факты – indisputable facts, facts without contradiction
более того – what is more
брать на себя задачу - to undertake the task of
будет полезно иметь в виду – it may be useful to keep in mind
быть бесполезным – to be of no use
быть в центре внимания – to be in the highlight
быть действительным (справедливым) – to be valid, to be true, to hold true
быть общеизвестным – to be a matter of common knowledge (observation)
быть полезным – to be of use
быть уверенным – to be sure of smth.
В
в более узком смысле - in a more restricted sense
в виду того, что – as, in view of the fact that, on the account of
в дальнейшем – from now on, in the following, in what follows
в данном исследовании – in the present study
в действительности – as a matter of fact, in fact
в терминах – in terms of
весьма показательно – it is highly symptomatic
в заключение – in conclusion
в конце концов – after all
в любом случае – in either case
в области (науки) – in the field of
в общем – on the whole
в общих чертах – in general terms, in outline
во всех отношениях – in every way
вообще говоря – generally speaking
в первую очередь – primarily
в первый раз – for the first time
в принципе – in principle
в противоположность чему-либо – as opposed to, by contrast to (with), in contrast with
в результате – as a consequence, as a result
время от времени - from time to time, on and again, now and then
в связи с – in connection with
все это не противоречит – all this is not contradictory to
в смысле – in the sense of
в соответствии – in accordance with, in keeping with, in response to
194
в среднем – on the average
в частности – in particular
вызывать сомнение – to raise doubt
Вы проводили исследование по…? - Have you done any studies on…?
Г
главное значение – principal value
главным образом – chiefly, mainly
говорить на авось – to speak at random
грубо говоря – in rough outline
дальнейшее изучение – further study

данные по – data on
дать понять – to make clear
действовать от имени – to act on the authority of
делать попытку – to make an attempt
делать усилие – to make an effort
делиться опытом – to share the experience
дело в том, что – the fact of the matter is, the point is that
для того, чтобы – in order that, for the purpose of , in order to
довольно подробно – in some detail
до известной (некоторой) степени – to a certain degree, to a certain extent
до настоящего времени – up to the present
до недавнего времени - until recently
до сих пор – so far
другая точка зрения – alternative point of view
другими словами – to put it in another way, to put it the other way round, in other terms
Е
если бы не – but for
есть основания сомневаться в том, что – it is doubtful that
З
за исключением – all but, except for, other than, with the exception of
заниматься проблемой – to take up a problem
заниматься чем-либо – to be concerned with, to deal with
заслуживающий внимания – worthy of note
И
и так далее – and so forth, and so on
из-за отсутствия – for lack of
изменяться в пределах от….до – to be variable from….to, to vary between
именно в этом и заключается трудность – this, of course, is where the difficulty lies
иметь дело с – to be concerned with, to deal with
иметь общее с – to have in common with
иметь применение – to be of use
интересно, что – it is curious that
исходя из опыта – as a matter of experience
195
исходя из предположения – on the assumption of
К
как бы ни – no matter how
как показано – as shown
как это обычно имеет место – as it is usually the case
косвенное доказательство – indirect evidence
к сожалению, я должен сказать, что – I am sorry to say that
кроме того – in addition to
Л
лучший способ понять, как – the best way to understand how
любыми способами – by any means
М
между прочим – by the way
мне трудно согласиться с – I can hardly agree with
много раз – over and over again
Н
надежные данные – reliable data
наоборот – on the contrary
на практике – in practice
например – for example, for instance
насколько мне (нам) известно – as far as I (we) know
настоятельная потребность – urgent need
на том основании, что – on the ground that
научная общественность – scientific community
научный вклад – scientific contribution
находиться на правильном (неправильном) пути – to be on the right (wrong) lines
не без основания – with reason
не иметь ничего общего с – to have nothing to do with
нельзя сказать, что – one cannot say that
непосредственная связь – direct relationship
несмотря на – in spite of
неясная идея – vague idea
ни в коем случае – by no means
О
обоснованный метод – valid method
обратное справедливо, когда - the converse is true when
обращать внимание на – to pay attention to
обычное объяснение – routine interpretation
обычные явления – ordinary phenomena
об этом не может быть и речи – it is out of the question
один многообещающий путь исследования – one promising line of research
оставлять без внимания – to leave aside
остается только – there remains only
196
отдать должное – to give credit for
очевидно, что – it is obvious that
ошибочное предположение – erroneous assumption
П
первоисточник исследования – fountainhead of research
перевернуть вверх дном – to turn upside down
по ассоциации – by association
поднимать вопрос – to open a question, to raise a question
позднее – later on
полагая, что – assuming that
положить конец – to put an end to
получить признание – to gain acceptance
по меньшей мере – to say the least
по методу – after the fashion of, after the fashion of
по мнению – in the opinion of
по причине – because of, by reason of, by virtue of, due to, owing to
по сравнению – as against, as compared to (with), in comparison to (with)
по существу – in principle
предварительная работа (исследования) – preliminary work
предмет обсуждения – the point at issue, the subject matter
предположим, что – let us suppose that
прежде всего – above all, first and foremost, first of all
привлекать внимание к – to attract attention to, to draw attention to
придавать значение – to attach importance to, to place emphasis on
при данных обстоятельствах – under the circumstances
придерживаться мнения – to adhere to the opinion, to be of the opinion
принимать во внимание – to take into account, to take into consideration
при помощи – with the assistance
приступать к разрешению проблемы – to attack the problem
при условии, что – on condition that, under conditions
приходить к заключению (выводу) – to arrive at a conclusion
при этих условиях – under these conditions
проблема, которой мы занимаемся – the subject we are dealing with
проблема, о которой идет речь – the problem in question
прямое доказательство – direct evidence
Р
рабочая теория – working theory
разрешать проблему – to solve a problem, to tackle a problem
ранее поставленный вопрос – the question posed above
С
само собой разумеется – it goes without saying
слабое место – weak point
сложное понятие – sophisticated concept
соблюдать условия – to observe conditions
совместная работа – joint work
197
современное исследование – current study
современный метод – current method (technique, procedure)
с одной (другой) стороны – on the one (other) hand
сомнительная теория – ambiguous theory

соответствующее объяснение – adequate explanation
с помощью – by means of, with the aid of , with the help of
с самого начала – from the very beginning
сталкиваться с проблемой – to face a problem
с точностью до – with the accuracy of
строго говоря – strictly speaking
суммируя результаты – summing up the results
считать доказанным – to take for granted
Т
таким образом – in such a manner
тем более, что – especially as, the more so
теперь можно понять – one can now grasp
теперь мы можем – we are now in a position
то есть – that is
точка зрения – point of view, view point
точнее говоря – to be more exact
точно такой же – just the same
тщательное изучение – thorough study
У
убедительное свидетельство – convincing evidence
убедительные данные – convincing data
уделять внимание – to give attention to, to pay attention to
удовлетворять требованиям – to meet the demands, to meet the requirements
упоминать о – to take mention of
установить предел – to place the limit, to set the limit
учитывать (принимать во внимание) – to take into account, to take into consideration, to
take account of
Ф
фоновые знания – background knowledge
Ч
что касается – as far as smth. is concerned, as for, as regards, as to
Э
экспериментальные данные – experimental results
экспериментальный метод – trial and error method
эмпирический подход – empirical approach
эти идеи были поддержаны – these ideas were taken up
это вполне согласуется с – this is in relation to
это не исключает – this does not preclude
Я
198
являться следствием – to be due to
являться результатом – to be the result of, to result from
я возражаю – I object to
я заканчиваю словами – I close with the words
я разделяю ваше мнение – I share your opinion

я убежден, что – I am convinced that
199
APPENDIX III
Glossary of Acronyms
AAC Advanced Audio Coding
AAS Advanced Application Services
ADR Astra Digital Radio
AM Amplitude Modulation
API Advanced Programming Interface
ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode
BBC British Broadcasting Corporation
BER Bit Error Rate
Bit Binary digit
Bitrate Rate of flow of bits per second
BSS(S) Broadcast satellite services (Sound)
BWS Broadcast Website
CA Conditional Access
CBC Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
CD Compact Disc
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
CEG Consumer Equipment Group
CELP Code Excited Linear Prediction
CEMA Consumer Electronics Manufacturers Association
CEPT European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications
Administrations
codec Coder / Decoder
COFDM Coded Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex
CP Continual Pilot
CRC Communications Research Centre Canada
Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications
CRTC
Commission
DAB Digital Audio Broadcasting
DARS Digital Audio Radio Service
DAT Digital Audio Tape
DAW Digital Audio Workstation
DMB Digital Multimedia Broadcasting
DQPSK Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
DRB Digital Radio Broadcasting
DRDB Digital Radio Development Bureau
DRM Digital Radio Mondiale
DRP Digital Radio Promotion
DSB Double Side Band
DSL Digital Subscriber Line
200
DSR Digital Satellite Radio
DTH Direct to Home
DTS Digital Theatre System
DTT Digital Terrestrial Television
DVB Digital Video Broadcasting
DVB-H Digital Video Broadcasting - Handheld
DVB-T Digital Video Broadcasting - Terrestrial
DXB Digital Extended Broadcasting, a German-funded project
EBU European Broadcasting Union
Electronic Industries Alliance (formerly Electronic Industries
EIA Association)
EMK Electronic Media Kiosk
EPG Electronic Program Guide
ETI Ensemble Transport Interface
ETS European Telecommunications Standard
ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute
Eureka European R and D programme
FAC Fast Access Channel
FCC Federal Communications Commission (US)
FIC Fast Information Channel
FM Frequency Modulation
FDMA Frequency division multiple access
FHG Fraunhofer Institute (Germany)
FIC Fast Information channel
GPS Global Positioning System
GSO Geostationary (Satellite) Orbit
GSM Global System for Mobile Communications
HEO Highly Elliptical Orbit
HVXC Harmonic Vector Excitation Coding
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IFPI International Federation of the Phonographic Industry
iMP Integrated Media Player
Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting - Terrestrial for Sound
ISDB-TSB Broadcasting
ITU International Telecommunications Union
ITU-R ITU Radiocommunications Sector
IBAC In-Band Adjacent Channel
IBOC In-Band / On-Channel
JPEG Joint Photographic Experts Group
kbps 1000 bits per second
LCD Liquid Crystal Display
LF Low Frequency
LW Long wave
LEO Low earth orbit (satellite)
MATS Mobile Aeronautical Telemetry Services
MCI Modular Control Interface
MDI Multiplex Distribution Interface
MF Medium Frequency
201
MHP Multimedia Home Platform
MLC Multi-Level Coding
MP3 MPEG Audio Layer 3 (see MPEG)
MPEG Moving Pictures Expert Group
MPS Main Program Service
MOT Multi-media Object Transfer
MSC Main Service Channel
MW Medium wave
NAB National Association of Broadcasters (US)
NHK Nippon Hoso Kyokai (Japan Broadcasting Corporation)
NICAM 728 Near-Instantaneously Companded Audio Multiplex (728 is bit
rate in kbps)
National Radio Systems Committee (an industry sponsored
NRSC technical standard setting body, co-sponsored by CEMA and NAB in
the US)
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
OFDM Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
P2P Peer-to-Peer Networking
PAD Programme Associated Data
A plug in card for a Personal Computer, which allows it to
PC card receive DAB.
PDA Personal Digital Assistant
PNG Portable Network Graphics
POF Point of Failure
PTY Programme Type Codes
PVR Personal Versatile Recorder
QAM Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
RAM Random Access Memory
RDS Radio Data System
RDI Receiver data Interface
RF Radio Frequency
RSCI Receiver Status and Control Interface
SBR Spectral Band Replication
SCA Subsidiary Communications Authorization
SDC Service Description Channel
SDI Service Distribution Interface
SFN Single Frequency Network
S-DAB Satellite DAB
SDARS Satellite Digital Audio Radio Service
S-DMB Satellite Digital Multimedia Broadcasting
SIS Service Information Service
SLS Slideshow
SMIL Synchronized Multimedia Integration Language
SR Sveriges Radio (Swedish Radio)
SSB Single Side-Band
STL Studio-to-Transmitter Link
SW Short-wave
202
Simulcasting Simultaneous transmission of a programme
T-DAB Terrestrial DAB
TCM Trellis coded Modulation
TDC Transparent Data Channel
TDM Time Division Multiplex
TDMA Time Division Multiple Access
T-DMB Terrestrial Digital Multimedia Broadcasting
TMC Traffic Message System
TMCC Transmission and Multiplexing Configuration Control
TOA Threshold of Audibility
TPEG Transport Protocol Experts Group
TTSL Total Time Spent Listening
UEP Unequal Error Protection
USB Universal Serial Bus
VHF Very high Frequency
VPN Virtual Private Networks
VRT Belgian Public Service Broadcaster
W(A)RC World (Administrative) Radio Conference
WiFi Wireless technology brand (coined by WiFi Alliance)
WiMAX Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
WMA Windows Media Audio
Organisation for promoting digital radio (DAB) based on the
WorldDAB Eureka 147 system
Relevant World Wide Websites

Advanced Television Systems Committee www.atsc.org
(ATSC)
Asia DAB www.asiadab.org
Asia-Pacific Broadcasting Union (ABU) www.abu.org.my
Audio Engineering Society (AES) www.aes.org
BBC (DAB) www.bbc.co.uk/digitalradio
BBC (Research and Development) www.bbc.co.uk/rd
BBC Training (Centre for Broadcasting www.bbc.co.uk/woodnorton
Skills)
BBC World Service (Radio) www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice
Commonwealth Broadcasting Association www.cba.org.uk
(CBA)
Crown Castle International www.crowncastle.com
Crown Castle UK www.crowncastle.co.uk
DAB Canada www.digitalradio.ca
Dalet www.dalet.com
Digital Radio Mondiale (DRM) www.drm.org
Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) www.dvb.org
European Broadcasting Union (EBU) www.ebu.ch
203
Financial Times (Media and Telecoms.) www.ftmedia.com
Ibiquity (HD Radio) www.ibiquity.com
International Telecommunications Union www.itu.int
Lucent Technologies (Lucent Digital www.lucent.com
Radio)
National Association of Broadcasters (US) www.nab.org
National Association of Shortwave www.shortwave.org
Broadcasters US (NASB)
National Radio Systems Committee US www.nrscstandards.org
(NRSC)
National Transcommunications Ltd. (NTL) www.ntlradio.com
North American Broadcasters Association www.nabanet.com
(NABA)
Office of Communications UK (Ofcom) www.ofcom.org.uk
Radio Academy (UK) www.radioacademy.org
Real Audio www.real.com
Roke Manor Research (UK) www.roke.co.uk
Sadie www.sadie.com
Sirius Satellite Radio www.siriusradio.com
Thales Broadcast www.thales-bm.com
Public stations in Ukraine

National Radiocompany of Ukraine
UR-1 Ukrainian Radio (http://radioukr.com.ua)
UR-2 Radio "Promin" (http://radioukr.com.ua)
UR-3 Radio "Kultura" (http://radioukr.com.ua)
Radio Ukraine International (http://radioukr.com.ua)
Regional State Broadcasting
Regional programms on frequency UR-1
Regional FM-stations: "Radio Lutsk", "Zhytomyrs'ka hvyla", "Tisa FM", Zaporizhia
FM", "Lvivske oblasne radio", "Vasha Hvyla", "Rivne FM", "Sloboda FM", "Radio
Tavria", "Radio Podylla-Tsentr", "Radio Ros"
Non-commercial radio stations in Ukraine
Radio Emmanuil (http://svitle.org)
Radio Maria Ukraine (http://radiomaria.org.ua)
Commercial radio stations in Ukraine
Super Radio (http://super-radio.com.ua)
Nashe Radio (http://nashe.ua)
Avtoradio (http://avtoradio.ua)
Retro FM (http://retro.ua)
Europa Plus (http://europaplus.ua)
Jam FM (Kyiv 95.6 FM) (http://jamfm.com.ua)
Lounge FM (Kyiv 99.4 FM) (http://www.loungefm.com.ua)
Voice of the Capital (Kyiv 106.0 FM) (http://newsradio.com.ua)
Hit FM (http://hitfm.ua)
Russian Radio (http://rusradio.ua)
204
Radio Roks (http://radioroks.ua)
Radio Melodiya (http://www.radiomelodia.ua/)
Kiss FM (http://kissfm.ua)
Radio Relax (http://www.radiorelax.ua)
Radio Shanson (http://shanson.ua)
Ulyublene radio
DJ FM (http://djfm.ua)
Business Radio (Kyiv 93.8 FM, Kharkiv 106.6 FM, Cherkasy 68,15 UKV)
(http://www.bfm.com.ua/)
Perec FM (http://perec.fm)
Best FM (Kharkiv 104.0 FM, Kirovograd 104.2 FM, Donetsk 105.5 FM, Mariupol
102.8 FM) (http://bestfm.ua)
M-FM (Kharkiv 91.2 FM) (http://mfm.ua)
Group company "Prosto"
Prosto Radi.O (http://prosto.fm)
Prosto Rock (Odessa 89.7 FM, Izmail 101.2 FM) (http://prostorock.info)
Narodnoe Radio (Odessa 103.2 FM, Kyiv 100.5 FM) (http://narodnoe.fm)
Radio 24 (http://radio24.ua)
Lux FM (http://lux.fm)
Era FM (http://eramedia.com.ua)
Gala Radio (http://galaradio.com)
Radio Vesti (Kyiv 104.6 FM, Kharkiv 100.5 FM, Dnipropetrovsk 107.7 FM,
Sevastopol 87.7 FM) (http://radio.vesti.ua)
and over 100 other local stations in Ukraine
205
Reference Literature
1. Alexander L.G. Longman. English Grammar Practice for Intermediate Students/
Alexander L.G. Longman. – Longman Group UK Limited, 1990.
2. English for Radioengineering Students: учебное пособие по английскому языку для
студентов ДО I-II курса радиотехнических специальностей / Е. В. Тихонова.,
Е.В. Янушкевич. – Омск: Изд-во ОмГТУ, 2010. – 80 с.
3. English-Russian Dictionary of Telecommunications and Data Security. - Oдесса:
ОНАС им. А.С. Попова, 2012.
4. English-Russian Polytechnical Dictionary. Edited by A.E. Chernukhin. - Moscow:
Russian Language, 1979.
5. Gibson, J.D. 1993. Principles of Digital and Analog Communications. - [2 nd ed.],
Macmillan, - New York.
6. ITU NEWS magazine. - № 9, 2012.
7. ITU News magazine. - №6, 2013.
8. Michael West and P.F. Kimber. Deskbook of Correct English. A Dictionary of Spelling,
Punctuation, Grammar and Usage. Государственное учебно-пед. изд. - Ленинград.
1983.
9. Peter Rysavy. GSM Data Today online journal. September, 30, 1998.
10. Steven W. Smith. The Scientist and Engineer’s Guide to Digital Signal Processing.
California Technical Publishing, 1997.
11. Close R.A. A Reference Grammar for Students of English. Longman Group Ltd,
1985.
12. William Sawyer Hutchinson. Using information technology. – [3d edition]. - Irwin
Mc-Graw Hill Companies, Inc., 1997.
13. Английский язык для студентов радиотехнических специальностей вузов.
[Е.П.Тарасова, Т.Г. Шелягова, В.П. Киселева и др.] - Мн.: БГУИР, 2006.− 213 с.
14. Новый большой англо-русский словарь. В 3-х т. – М.: Русский язык,1998.
Electronic resources:
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
www.Radio-electronics.com./ info
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet
http://science. jrank.org.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadband
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WISP
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.Filter
http://en.academic.ru/dic.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplexing
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/electronics
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated circuit
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic gate
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fpga
www. Tech-faq.com/ antenna types
http://wikipedia.sfstate.us/Filter
206

English For Radio Engineering and TV Broadcasting (Final)

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VERETENNIKOVA V.P.

ODESSA NATIONAL A.S.POPOV ACADEMY OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS

Рекомендовано Учёным советом ОНАС им. А.С.Попова

Под редакцией: к.т.н., с.н.с. Каптура В.

Veretennikova V.P. English for Radio Engineering and TV broadcasting: учебное

Цель учебного пособия – совершенствование навыков чтения и перевода

Одобрено на заседании кафедры и

Read and translate Text One.

WORD COMBINATIONS AND PHRASES

EXERCISES TO THE TEXT

waves engineering step over tubes are

1. The important ….. in the development of radio engineering was made by C.F. Braun,

MATERIAL FOR RENDERING AND DISCUSSION

I. Study the following text for more information.

VII. Fill in prepositions and then comment the text:

DEVELOPMENT OF RADIO TECHNOLOGY

WORD COMBINATIONS AND PHRASES

to be based on the electronic (vacuum) tube

EXERCISES TO THE TEXT

selection, analogue, frequency, allows, selects, mobility, single

MATERIAL FOR RENDERING AND DISCUSSION

I. Study the text and retell it.

HISTORY OF RADIO AND ELECTRONICS

II. Study the following words and word combinations:

HOW THE RADIO SPECTRUM WORKS

Developers of Radio Communication

Read and translate Text Two (A and B).

During the Chicago World's Columbian Exhibition and the Third International

WORD COMBINATIONS AND PHRASES

EXERCISES TO THE TEXT

I. Spell and transcribe the following words:

V. Retell Text Three A.

WORDS AND WORD COMBINATIONS

EXERCISES TO THE TEXT

aerial developed first spark jar transmitted discharge

MATERIAL FOR RENDERING AND DISCUSSION

Before the discovery of electromagnetic waves and the development of radio

In 1879 the experimenter and inventor David Edward Hughes working in London

Between 1886 and 1888 Heinrich Rudolf Hertz studied Maxwell's theory and

Oliver Joseph Lodge

In 1890, Edouard Branly demonstrated what he later called the "radio-conductor”,

II. Study the following words and word combinations:

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

WORD COMBINATIONS AND PHRASES

EXERCISES TO THE TEXT

I. Find in the text the English equivalents for:

MATERIAL FOR RENDERING AND DISCUSSION

I. Study the text and retell it.

History of electromagnetic spectrum discovery

Read Text Five and get ready to discuss it in the classroom:

WORD COMBINATIONS AND PHRASES

a common method of obtaining information the operating range

EXERCISES TO THE TEXT

MATERIAL FOR RENDERING AND DISCUSSION

I. Read the text and retell it.

JAMES CLERK MAXWELL

In 1864 James Clerk Maxwell of Edinburgh announced his electromagnetic theory of

WORDS AND WORD COMBINATIONS

EXERCISES TO THE TEXT

I. Spell and transcribe the following words:

theory graduated Scottish propagation fields appeared led

1. James Clerk Maxwell was a ……. mathematical physicist. 2. He formulated the

MATERIAL FOR RENDERING AND DISCUSSION