Kurs Lekciy Po Kvantovoy Fizike

..
-

,

2006
530.145 (075.8)
22.31473
18
:

;
.-. ,
..
..
18 : . /
.. . : - . . . -, 2006.
196 .
ISBN 5-88151-585-4
,

.
,

.

,
.
150 ,
.
.

, .
530.145 (075.8)
22.31473
ISBN 5-88151-585-4
, 2006

......................................................................................... 6
1. ................... 7
1.1. . ........... 7
1.2. ..................... 9
1.3. . .................... 16
1.4. .................................... 18
1.5. ............................................................ 20
.............................................................................................. 26
2. ........................................ 34
2.1. ........................................... 34
2.2. ...... 36
2.3. ..................................... 39
2.4.
............................................. 42
2.5. .................... 45
2.6.
....................................................................... 49
.............................................................................................. 51
3. .................................................. 62
3.1. ............................................... 62
3.2. ... 64
3.3. ......................................... 66
3.4. . ........................ 68
3.5. .
..................................................... 70
3.6. ................................. 71
3.7. ............................................ 73
3.8. .................. 74
3.9. . ..................... 76
3.10. ............ 78
3.11. ................................... 80
3
3.12. ............................................. 81
3.13.
................................................. 82
3.14. ................................................................................ 83
3.15. ................................................. 85
.............................................................................................. 86
4. ................................................. 89
4.1. ....... 89
4.2. -. ....................... 93
4.3. . -........................ 96
4.4. ................... 99
............................................................................................ 102
5. ................ 104
5.1. ................................................ 104
5.2. ................................... 107
5.3. ..........109
5.4.
............................................ 114
5.5. ..................... 117
5.6. ..................................... 119
5.7. ................................. 122
5.8. ........................................ 124
5.9. .......................................................... 126
............................................................................................ 128
6. .................................................................. 129
6.1. .
........................................................... 129
6.2. ................. 133
6.3. . ....... 136
6.4. ........................................... 138
6.5. ....................... 139
6.6. . .............. 141
6.7. ......................................................................... 144
............................................................................................ 146
4
7.
................................................................. 148
7.1. .................... 148
7.2. ... 150
7.3.
..................................................................... 153
7.4. ..................................... 154
7.5. ..................................................... 157
7.6. ............................................ 162
7.7. ............. 164
7.8. ........................ 167
............................................................................................ 168
.................................................................... 169
................................................................ 195
-
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.).

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6
1.

1.1. .

1923 . ,

- ,
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:
,
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? 1924 , -
,
. , -
, ..
-
,
2 2
= = ,
p m
= E / , p = m . ,
.

-
.
7
-
(. 1.1) -
-
. -
-
,
. -
.
,
-
0
0 .
-
.
,
- 2d sin = k , d
,
. - (
d ) 1,65 1010 .
1,67 1010 !
, -

( :
,
).
-
(, ),
,
.
,
( -
),
,
.
, ; ,
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.
8
, , -.

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-
-
( -
).

(. 1.2)
-
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-
-
().

1. -

2.
,
1 2, 3.
.
,
.
, -
. , - ,
!
, (
, ).
1.2.
,
,
, 1927 . -
.
,
9
,
.
:
xpx ,
yp y ,
z pz ,
x x, px
x ( -
). :
E t ,
, -
, , -
-
. , -
. :
E
t / E .
-
, -
. -
, .

-

- -
, -
-
.
-
(. 1.3) -
-
.
-
-
10
. , -
. -

CC . -
()
,
,
( ). 84 % .
().
,
( )

lmin = 0,61 ,
sin
2 , -
( ), .

-
. lmin -
x . sin d / 2 f ,
d , f .
,
x f / d .

. , ,
, ,
, . ,
/ ,
,

px (1 cos ) .
c
, ,
. , ,
- (
XBC XBC ). ,
11
d / f , 90 ,
, ,
d
p .
c f

d f
px 2 ,
c f d
.
,
.
1. -
. , -
.
,

.
,
. -
. -
-

. , , ,
-
, -
, -
. ,
.
2. ,
.
3. -
.
, .
. E
,
.
12
-
. , ,
, ,
, -
.
-
: r r p p .
rp . -

m2 e 2 p 2 e 2 2
e2
E= = = .
2 r 2m r 2mr 2 r
.
-
:
2
e2
+ =0.
mr 3 r2
:
2
r0 = ,
me 2

2
me 2 me 2 me 4
Emin = ( 2
)2 e2 2
= .
2m 2 2
(-
!).
,
.
( x 1015 ),
p 197 / .
x
13
. -
:
E = c 2 p 2 + m0 2 c 4 m0 c 2 267
( , ,
500
). ,
,
, (
10 ).
-
.
, -
r << r0 , r0 = 2 / me 2
, r . -
:
me 2
p >> = ,
r r0
p = me 2 / . ,

.

. -
. -
, -
.
. , -
, . -
? -
, -
, ,
. -
!
.
14
,
. m -
A :
m2 A2
E= .
2
-

. , (
), -
, , , .
, ,
p0 2 2 2
m2
E0 =
2m mA2 mE0
( p0 A ).
E0 (
E0 = / 2 ). , -
,
.
,
T = 0 K. , -
,
, .
-
-
. -
( -
). ,
. -

. -
( 25
- !).
-
: -
15
,
.
, ..
.
1.3. .

,

( x, y, z , t ) . (-).
. -
, -
dV:
2
dP = A dV , A -
2
, A dV = A *dV = 1
v v
( * ). -
- ,
2
: dV = 1 .
v
- ,
.
,
. -
,
1926 .

. -
,
,
. -
:
2

+ U = i ,
2m t
16
2 2 2
= + + , m ,
x 2 y 2 z 2
U ( x, y, z , t ) , , ,
, . U
, .
, , -
, U ,

, ,
:
iEt
( x, y, z , t ) = ( x, y, z ) exp( ),
E (
). -
iEt
exp ( )
:
2
+ U = E .
2m
-
. :
2m
+ 2
( E U ) = 0 ,
U .
- ,
, .. -
. ,
,
, -
.
.
,
E,
17
,
. ( x, y, z ) -
.
1.4.
,
, * .
,
* ? -
-
, ,
.
, . -

, , ,
-
.
-
.
. -
. 1 2 -
, -
11 + 2 2
1 2 -
. -, 1 2
- ,
11 + 2 2 - .
f, -
. ,
,
,
.
, ,
( , ),
.
.
18
-
, -
; .
, f
, -
fn ( n = 0,1, 2...) .
, f fn n -
f. -
:
2
n dx = 1 .
-
,
f fn.

:
= Cn n , (1.1)
Cn
( , , Cn
). , -

.
2
, Cn -
(1.1)
fn f .
fn, ,
:
Cn
2
=1 (1.2)
( ,
(1.2)).
, (1.1) -
:
Cn = n * dx .
(1.3)
19
(1.1) ,
:
m n * dx = mn , (1.4)
nm = 1 n = m nm = 0 n m . ,
(1.4)
. , -
. -
, (1.4), -
. , n -

, , , -
.
1.5.
-

.
,
f. -
:
f = Q ,
Q . -
:
2 2 2
= 2 = + + (),
x 2 y 2 z 2

=i + j + k .
x y z
-
Q
f = Q .
20

2
+ U = E .
2m

2
+ U = E .
2m
-
:
H = E ,
2
H = + U (-
2m
) , E
.
-
. , ,
.
q , -
:
Q = q ,
Q , q, q -
.

. -
f f , -
. ,
f fn -
2
, Cn :
f = f n Cn .
2
(1.5)
Cn -
n,
fn.
21
(1.5) Cn -
, , -
f , ,
f * f :
f = * f dx .

-
. , -
.

( x) . ,
,
x = x * dx ,
* dx ,
x x + dx.
:
* dx = 1 .
x :
x = * xdx ,
x , x. -
:

f ( x) = * f dx ,
f .

, -
:
F ( x, p) = * ( x) F ( x , p ) ( x)dx ,
F ( x , p ) c F ( x, p ) , x
, p .
22
, ,
x = x .

p x = i , p y = i , p z = i .
x y z

p x = px ,

i = px . (1.6)
x

( px = p ). ,
(1.6)
( x, t ) = C (t ) exp(ipx / ) = C (t ) exp(ikx) , (1.7)
k , k = 2 / ( )
k = p / , C (t ) .
, -
:
E
( x, t ) = ( x) exp(i t ) = ( x)exp(it ) .
(1.7), , :
C (t ) = const exp(it ) ,
. :
= const exp i ( kx t ) ,
.. -
.
23
p x , -
-
, , . -
:
d
i ( kx t ) {i
px = * p x dx = exp
dx
exp(ikx it )}dx =
= k * dx = k .
(,
Z) :

L z = i ,

, -
Z (. 1.4). -
L z
L z = Lz ,

i = Lz .

.
-
-
, -
.
:
f ( + ) = f + f .
1 2 1 2
-
.
f (a ) = af ,
a -
.
24
-
,
. -
, gf
: fg
, -
. ,
f g
( ) -

. p x = i
x
x = x .

:

( p x x xp
x ) = i ( x ) + i x = i ,
x x
.. p x x xp
x = i . , px
x
.

, .
-
, :

i = H , (1.8)
t
H .

( ,
), ,
,
{ } :
(t ) = C (t ) .

(1.8):

i
t
C (t ) = H ( C (t ) ) . (1.9)
25
(1.9) *
x:

i * C (t ) dx = *H (C )dx .
t
-
:
C
i = H C , (1.10)
t
H = *H dx .
, H ,
H , -
. C (t )
2
, C
.

.
1.1. E = 200
= 2,0 . -
.
1.2. -
, .. , -
, T = 300 .
1.3.
,
. 1.5. -
, U 0 = 15 ,

E = 20 .

?
26
1.4. ,
, -,
B = 25104 (B -
, ).
1.5.
15 /,
50 (c )?
1.6. = 1,7
90
n = 4,0 .
.
1.7. E = 0,25

4
He. - (
, )
.
1.8. , 1H 4He,
= 60 , .
-.
1.9.
.
1 2 . -
-.
1.10. m -
E. :
) ; ) ,
, -
, .
1.11. ,
.
1.12. -
, -
l 1015?
1.13. , -
,
-
k = 10,0 .
27
1.14. ,

. m, T.
= 300 .
1.15.
:
f (u ) u 3 exp(u 2 ) ,
u
= 2kT / m . -
.
300 .
1.16. -
b = 2,0 . -
, , -
l = 50 ,
x = 0,36 .
1.17. ,
, ,
l = 75 , ,
x = 7,5 .
d = 25 .
1.18.
= 30
. -
, , d = 0,20 .
U 0 -
. U 0 , , -
-
= 2,25 .
1.19. E = 180
. -
, = 55 ,
.
, .
28
1.20. E = 10

,
l = 10,0 . ,

r = 1,6 .
1.21. -
E =100
= 30

,
-
U = 51 (. 1.6). :
)
2 -
1;
) U,

2.
1.22. , -
sin / sin = n . . -

.
1.23. , U = 150 ,
,
U i = 15 ( -
, , -
). .
1.24. E = 60
,
U i = 12 . = 60. .
1.25. , - -
:
2d n 2 cos 2 = k , d , n -
, , k .
,
29
. -
, ,
U = 85 ,
-
d = 204 = 30.
1.26. m
l.
, ,
,
.
1.27. , -

. n.
1.28. -
u,
w, -
E = m2 / 2 v.
1.29.
= 11
b = 0,10 .
.
1.30.
, 0,1 . -
.
1.31.
x0 = 0,10 .
1 .
1.32. -
, l = 0,1 .
1.33. E = 10 -
l = 1,0 . -
.
1.34. m l.
E , -
1 %.
1.35. -
U = 10 . l = 20 .
30
,
d = 0,5 .
1.36. = 0,58
=108 . x , -
,
.
1.37.
l . -

E .
1.38. E -
m = k / m ,
U ( x) = kx 2 / 2 .
1.39.
.
1.40.

1,6 104. ,
.
1.41.
=1,2 / ,
l = 100 .
b,
.
1.42.
108 .
,
= 500 . -
/ ,
(
).
1.43. -
E = 100 .
L = 100
.
31
1.44. -
d. ,
D ,
L ,
r,
B.
1.45. d ,
,
= 108 .
1.46. d ,
, -
t = 1200 .
L = 1 . :
) ,
;
) . -
.
1.47. -
m
. , ,
,
, ,
, , E0
.
1.48. ( x, t ) ,
, -
U ?
1.49.
, p
.
1.50. ( x, t )
( x, t ) , -
m K- K'- ,
32
K'- 0
X K-. K'-
0 .
1.51. , , -
U ( x) ,
, .. .
1.52. m -
U ( x) , -
( x) = A exp(x 2 ) , A -
( > 0 ). U ( x) = 0 x = 0,
U ( x) E .
1.53. m
U ( x) , -
: ( x) = Ax exp(x) x > 0 = 0 x < 0 .
U ( x) 0 x , U ( x) E .
1.54. -
(r ) =
= 1/( r 2a ) exp( r / a ) , a , r -
. r .
1.55. m -
U ( x) = kx 2 , k .
U ( x) = A exp(x 2 ) ,
A ( > 0 ).
1.56. , -
, :
2
i
+ divj = 0 , j =(grad * * grad ) -
t 2m
. . -
.
1.57. -
, , -
.
33
2.
2.1.
X
.
U = 0. , -

( x, t ) = a exp [ i (t kx) ] ,
a ( )
, ,
, k . -
E p :
E 2 p
= , k= = .
h h
-
r r
p = hk . -
sin(t kx)
cos(t kx) .
exp(ix) = cos x + i sin x
-
.
,
U = 0:
h2 2
= ih .
2m x 2
t

2 E
= k 2 , = i = i
x 2
t h
34
. :
2
E
( )k 2 = i (i ) = i (i ) .
2m
, p = k . -
p2
, : = E .
2m
,
.
, X, :
i
= a exp [ i (t + kx) ] = a exp ( Et + px) .

,
.
:
* -
.
:
* = a exp [ i (t kx) ] a * exp [i (t kx) ] = a 2 f ( x, y, z ) .
?
! . -
p ( p = 0 )
(px ) -
, x .
, .
, -
- .
, . -
, -
, -
. E > 0
.
35
2.2.

,

(. 2.1). ?
, -
,

. -
? -
E
U0,

( -
). , -
(
E < U0 ).
? E >U0 -
, -
! E < U0
, !
, -
,
.
, -
.
-
.

-
-
.
, :
-
, E < U0
(. 2.2).
36
-
:
d 2 2m
+ 2 ( E U ) = 0 ,
dx 2
U(x) , . 2.2.
I III :
d 2 2m
+ 2 E = 0 .
dx 2
II:
d 2 2m
2 (U 0 E ) = 0 .
dx 2
:
2m 2m
k2 = 2
E , 2 = 2
(U 0 E ) .
-
:
d 2 d 2
I, III + k 2
= 0 , II 2 = 0 .
dx 2 dx 2
, ,
:
1 = A1 exp(ikx) + B1 exp(ikx) I,
2 = A2 exp( x) + B2 exp( x) II,
3 = A3 exp(ikx) + B3 exp(ikx) III.
1 , X,
.. (,
). ,
X, , .
3 , ,
, X. ,
B3 = 0.
37
-
.
1 , A1=1, D = 3
2

2
. R = B1
. , D + R = 1.
A3, D?
-, , -
, :
1 (0) = 2 (0) , 2 (l ) = 3 (l ) .
, ,
,
1 (0) = 2 (0) , 2 (l ) = 3 (l ) .
,
A B :
1 + B1 = A2 + B2
A2 exp(l ) + B2 exp( l ) = A3 exp(il )
i iB1 = A2 B2
A2 exp(l ) B2 exp( l ) = iA3 exp(il )

, -
D. l >> 1 -
( [1]):
2
D exp 2m(U 0 E )l .

38

-
. -

(. 2.3) -
D
2b
D exp 2m(U E )dx . (2.1)
a
-
.
.
2.3.

-. ,
-. ,
-
. -
r = R ( R , -
-
),
(. 2.4).
, -
-
-
(E << U0).

-
!
-

- .
39
, -
,
- 1-n -
D:
= nD .
-
:
n / 2R ,
- m .
:
p
= .
m m R
,
:
D
.
2m R 2
- -
. - q = 2e , -
Z q = ( Z 2)e .

-
( )
qq
U (r ) = .
r
, (2.1)
2 R1 qq
D exp 2m ( E )dr .
R
r
40

E . :
R1 1 R
2 2m qq 2
I = r
dr = 2m qq r 1/ 2 dr .
R R
qq qq
, . 2.4 , = E , R1 = .
R1 E
I :
4 R
I = 2m qq R1 (1 ).
R1
R1 >> R ,
qq
R1 = , D -
E
:
4 2m
D exp( qq ).
E
T, , -
:
ln 2
T= .

:
2m R 2 ln 2 2m R 2 ln 2 4 2m
T exp( qq ).
D E

:
B
ln T A + ,
E
A B .
41
,
- -
, .
:
1. -
-
.
2.
, .
3. .
4. ..
, , -
(.. -
)
( ).
2.4.

-
.
X. -
0 x l -
(. 2.5).
-
-
.

:
d 2 2m
+ 2 (E U ) = 0 .
dx 2
42
, -

.
, .
,
d 2 2m
+ 2 E =0
dx 2
(0) = (l ) = 0 . :
2m
k2 = 2
E,
k
.
:
( x) = a sin(kx + ) ,
a , .
(0) = 0 = 0,
(l ) = 0 , a sin(kl ) = 0 .
,
kl = n, n = 1, 2,3...
, :
( x) = a sin(nx / l ) .

l
( x)dx = 1 .
2
a = 2 / l . , -
:
2
n ( x) = sin(nx / l ), n = 1, 2,3... .
l
43
. 2.6 -
-

. ,
, n = 2
-
. -
-
-
( ,

!).

-
-
:
2 2 2
En = n , n =1,2,3,
2ml 2
..
-
(. 2.7). -
-

.
n -
,
,
-
. n = 1
(-
), -
.
44
2.5.

U0 (. 2.8).

. ,
E -
.
-
:
d 2 2m
+ 2 ( E + U 0 ) = 0 , x l,
dx 2
d 2 2m
+ 2 E = 0 , x >l.
dx 2
:
2m 2m
2
(E + U0 ) = k 2 , 2
E = 2 .

+ k 2 = 0 ,
2 = 0 .
:
1 ( x) = A cos kx + B sin kx , ;
2 ( x) = C exp(x) , x > l ;
3 ( x) = D exp(x) , x < l .

. , -
2 -
x = 0. ,
A = 0 , B = 0 . , ,
45
C 2 = D 2 . , C = D , C = D . -
A, B, C , D
x = l :
1 (l ) = 3 (l ), 1 (l ) = 2 (l ), 1 (l ) = 3 (l ), 1 (l ) = 2 (l ) .
-
A, B, C , D :
A cos kl + B sin kl = C exp(l ) (2.2)
kA sin kl + kB cos kl = C exp(l ) (2.3)
A cos kl B sin kl = D exp(l ) (2.4)
kA sin kl + kB cos kl = D exp(l ) (2.5)
-
, -
, , -
.
(2.2) (2.4):
2 A cos kl = (C + D ) exp(l ). (2.6)
(2.2) (2.4):
2 B sin kl = (C D) exp(l ). (2.7)
(2.3) (2.5):
2kB cos kl = ( D C ) exp(l ). (2.8)
(2.3) (2.5):
2kA sin kl = (C + D) exp(l ). (2.9)
A 0 C = D, (2.9) (2.6) -
ktgkl = . (2.10)
B 0 C = D , (2.8) (2.7)
kctgkl = . (2.11)
46
,
k 2 = 2 , k
. , -
- (2.10) -
( A 0, B = 0, C = D ),
(2.11) -
( A = 0, B 0, C = D ).
, , ,
( ),
.

= kl = l.

tg = , (2.12)

ctg = . (2.13)
, -
:
2m
2 + 2 = 2
U 0l 2 .

k . . 2.9 tg =
( , > 0 ) ctg = .
, 2 + 2 =
2m
= 2 U 0l 2 = const. -
, k
, , .
2.9 , -,
( ), -,
( )
. ,
.
47
.
= 2mE / 2 .
= i . :
+ 2 = 0.

( x) = A cos x + B sin x, x > l
( x) = A cos x + B sin x, x < l.
x < l ( ):
( x) = A cos kx + B sin kx .
A, B, A, B
-
. B -
, , , A, B, A, B -
. , -
.
,
. ,

, .. !
48
-
,
(
). :
(,
-). -
. , -
, -
, ! -
( ).
2.6.

-

.
, U , -
.
, ,
,
.
. -
-
U (r ) .

r, . -
, ..
r (r ) . -
-
:
1 d 2 d 2m
(r ) + 2 [ E U (r )] = 0 .
r 2 dr dr
= r . -
:
d 2 2m
+ 2 [ E U (r )] = 0 . (2.14)
dr 2
49
-
. , .
r = 0 ,
= / r .

, -
, -
,
(. 2.10).

:
U (r ) = U 0 r < l ,
r > l . ,

(2.14), r = 0 -
r ,
:
= B sin kr r l ,
= C exp(r ) r > l ,
2 m( E + U 0 ) 2mE
k= 2
, = 2
( ,
, , E < 0 ). , -
-
, ,
. ,
-
. -
(2.12) (2.13)
:
= ctg ,
: = kl , = l .
50

,
, ,
.
.
2m
2 + 2 = 2 U 0l 2 , ( / 2) > 2mU 0l 2 / 2 , ..
U 0 < 2 2
/(8ml 2 ) , (2.15)
, = ctg ,
2m
, 2 + 2 = 2 U 0l 2 . -
, (2.15)
(-
, ).

2.1. -
, m
E, -
(. 2.11): U ( x) = 0
x > 0 U ( x) x 0 .

-
w( x) -
w( x) . -
w( x) .
2.2. m -
U0 (. 2.12). ,
E U 0 . -
R -
D .
,

.
2.5. m

U0 (. . 2.13).
E > U 0 . -

w(x)
E = 4U 0 / 3 .
w(x).
2.6. m
,
x = 0
U0 (. 2.14).
x = 0 E.
R E <> U 0 .
2.7. m -
l U0 (. 2.15). -
52
E. D
E = U 0 = 1,0 l = 0,10 .
2.8. m -
l U0 (. . 2.15).
E. ,
. ,
,
.
Emin U0 = 10 l = 0,25 .
2.9. , -
-
E = 0,6 ( -
).
. ,

U0 = 2,5 (. . 2.15),
.
2.10. m -
-
l -
U0 (. . 2.15).
E.
l, -
.
2.11. m -
-
U0 (. 2.16).
E > U 0 .
-
D E U 0 .
E,
-

.
2.12. m -
-
U0
53
(. 2.17). E E , -

,
. 2.18.
2.16.

b
2
D exp( 2m(U E )dx) ,
a
a b ,
U > E , -

,
U ( x) = U 0 (1 x 2 / l 2 )
(. 2.19).
54

2.17. m -
l -
. -
,
(l / 2 x l / 2) .
2.18. m, -
l
, ,
( n + 1) n.
En .
2.19. m

.
d / dx = a . .
2.20. m -
l -
. E :
) = a sin kx , a k
, x ;
) ( x) N .
2.21. m -
l
. :
) , 3- 2- -
E ;
) n ,
( -
) :1, = 1,4.
2.22. m -
l
. dN
( E , E + dE ) , .
55
2.23. m
l
. :
) ;
) , ,
.
2.24. l -
N .
Emin
. .
N
N ( N + 1)( N + 2)
. , n 2 = .
n =1 6
2.25. m
l
.
l / 3 < x < 2l / 3 .
2.26. m

. -
Pm . l -
E .
2.27. m
.
0 < x < a, 0 < y < b , a b -
. -
.
2.28. m -
. -
0 < x < a, 0 < y < b , a
b .
0 < x < a / 3, 0 < y < b / 3 .
2.29. m
.
l. E
.
56
2.30. m

. E, -
Pm .
2.31. m -
: U (r ) = 0 r < r0 U = , r = r0,
r0 . -
, r.
.
= / r .
2.32. m -
: U(r) = 0 r < r0 U = , r = r0,
r0 . r
w r < r -
, r.
2 (r ) r 2 2 (r ) .
2.33. 2.31, -
r , r 2
(r r )
2
, n.
2.34. m -
: U(r) = 0 r < r0 U = U0 r r0 ,
r0 . = / r
, -
, r, E < U0,
:
sin kr0 = kr0 2
/ 2mr0 2U 0 , k = 2mE / .
r0 2U 0 (
), .
2.35. m
.
l.
( E , E + dE ) , .
57
2.36. m -
.
a, b, c . -
.
2.37. m
l
. :
) 3- 4- ;
) 6- -
( ).
2.38. m -
-
. a, b, c .
( E , E + dE ) , -
.
2.39. m -
U ( x) , . 2.20, U (0) = .
,
E U 0 -
, -
, :
k2 tgk1l = k1tgk2l ,
k1 = 2mE / ,
k 2 = 2 m( E U 0 ) / .
2.42. m
,
. 2.21, U (l ) = . -
, E < U 0 , -
, tgkl = kthl , = 2m(U 0 E ) / ,
k = 2mE / , th .
2.43. m -
, . 2.22. ,
-
E a , , -

( x = a )
= 3 / 2 .
2.47.

,
a (. 2.24). -

U 0 ,
. -
?
2.48.
,
. 2.25,
E = 1,5 ( U (0) = ) .
d = 3108 .

U D.

-
? -
-
-
. .
(
) -
n
D: = nD . T = ln2 / .
60
2.49.
,
. 2.26,
E = 0,9999 ( U (0) = ) .

U = 1 . ,

.
.

.
2.50.
, -
( ).
, -
a = 1010 ,
U0 = 10 , d
(d 1010 ), -
.
2.51. ,
. , -
, E = 2,225 . -

,
U0, .
l = 1,61013 .
2.52. -

.
61
3.
3.1.
-
, -
F = kx .
U = 1/ 2kx 2 , k , x
. -
U = 1/ 2m2 x 2 ,
m , . -
, , -
.
-
:
d 2 2m m2 x 2
+ ( E ) = 0 . (3.1)
dx 2 2
2

E.
.
. x E ,
(3.1) :
d 2
= constx 2 . (3.2)
dx 2
, (3.2) -

= exp(x 2 ) . (3.3)
(3.1)
(3.3). (3.1) :
2mE m 2 2
(2 + 4 2 x 2 ) = ( 2
+ 2
x 2 ) .
62

x, :
2mE m 2 2
2 = 2
, 4 2 = 2
.
E:
m
= , E= .
2 2
, -

m 2
0 ( x) = exp( x ).
2
, 0
. 1 ( x) = x 0 ( x) =
3
= x exp( mx 2 / 2 ) , E = .
2
, , -
, , -
n ( x) . -
!
E.
() :
En = (n + 1/ 2) , n = 0,1, 2...
n = 0 () -
E0 , . -
:
E = .

, . -
, n

1 , .. n = 1 ( ). -
,
63
, = .
.
, -
.
3.2.

: + Ze
( Z = 1 , Z
).

:
U (r ) = kZe 2 / r ( k = 1/ 40 ).

2m Ze 2
2 + 2
(E + k ) = 0 .
r
-
. -
r, , (. 1.4).
,
, .. r.
.

, , .
-
, -
.
:
1 1
2 = 2 (r 2 ) + 2 (, ) ,
r r r r
(, ) 2 ,
, . -
:
64
1 2 1 2m Ze 2
( r ) + + ( E + k ) = 0 .
r 2 r r r2 2
r

.
, ,
, -
. -, -
( ), ..
. -
:
1 2 (r ) 2m Ze 2
( r ) = ( E + k ) ( r ) . (3.4)
r 2 r r 2
r
-
(r ) = exp( r / r0 ) , r0 , -
.
(3.4)

1 r 2 2r 2m Ze 2
( ) = ( E + k ).
r 2 r0 2 r0 2
r
r,
, :
2
Z 2 k 2 me 4
r0 = E= .
kmZe 2 2 2
,
r0 E. -
, .
, .
m, k , e, Z = 1 E = Ei = 13,6
(Ei , .. ,
). -
r0.
dr:
65
2
dP = dV = 4r 2 dr = W (r )dr ,
2
W (r ) = 4r 2 exp(2r / r0 )
r . W(r) -
. 3.1. , -
r = r0 = 2 / kme 2 = 51011.
, r0 -
.
,
E2 = E1 / 4, E3 = E1 / 9 .
-
:
me 4 Z 2 k 2
En = (n = 1, 2, 3 ).
2 2 n2
-
. 3.2.
3.3.

. -
.
, .. . ,
.
66
n.
.
Lz.
, Lz
:

Lz = Lz , i = Lz .

, = exp() , -
.
,

i exp() = Lz exp() .

iLz
= . -
, :
iLz
= const exp( ) .
, -
() = ( + 2) ,
iLz iLz
exp( ) = exp( ( + 2)) .
Lz
, = m , m
, 0, 1, 2... .
,
:
Lz = m , m = 0, 1, 2, 3.... ,
..
, -
, m . -
, , L,
L.
67
, -
:
Ll = l (l + 1) , l = 0,1, 2... .
l () .
, m = l , ,
Lz < L. :
-
, .. -
, , ,
, .
. l = 2.
L = 2(2 + 1) = 6 , m = 0, 1, 2 , Lz = 0, , 2 .

-
-

Z (. 3.3).

. -
: -
-
-
.
,
-
-
-
.
3.4. .

.
,
,
68
. ,
, -
.

-

-
(. 3.4).

, -

, , -
.
-
, -

. .
,
, -
. -
.
-
. .
. -
-
,
, ,
.
, -
n = 1 , .. -
. -
. . -
, , ,
.
. -
,
. :
-
69
?
,

. -
. , , .
,
,
.

Ls = s ( s + 1) ,
s 1/2. -
:
Lsz = ms , ms = 1/ 2 .
,
: . ,
(,
.). .
3.5. .

. -
n, l , m ,
= nlm (r , , ). n,
, . -
l m -
, -
Z. n
l
n :
l = 0,1, 2,...n 1 .
, l m -
2l + 1 :
m = l , l + 1,...0,1,...l 1, l .
70
-
. , En
( E1) nlm ,
l m. ,
,
. -
,
- -
. -
, Z n :
n 1
Z n = (2l + 1) = n 2 .
l =0
:
l = 0 s- (s-),
l = 1 p- (p-),
l = 2 d- (d-),
l = 3 f- (f-), g-, h-
..
l. ,
n = 3, l = 1 3p. ,
:
1s
2 s, 2 p
3s,3 p,3d
4 s, 4 p, 4d , 4 f .
3.6.

, . 3.2.
(. 3.5), -
. ,
-
.
71
-

.
-

, -
. -

(), -
.
-
,

-
. ,
-
.
:
l = 1 .
. 3.5 ,
. (-
) : np 1s (n = 2,3, 4...) .
() : ns 2 p, nd 2 p
(n = 3, 4,5...) .
(, ..)
1s ().
.
-
(
),
( ),
. -
, -
: 1s np (n = 2,3, 4...) . -
.
72
3.7.

. ,
(
) . . 3.6
-
( , n = 3,
.. ).
-

, -
-
,
l,
.
,

-
n, -
l,
..
,
!
,

. -
1/r2, . -

, ,
, .
, -
. l -
n . ,
( ,
) .

. ,
73
l = 1, -

.
3.8.
-
,
(). ,
, .
, , -
(, , , ).
.
-
( ),
, (1925 .) -
, , ,
.

: L = rm . ,
(. 3.7) -
e
: pm = JS = r 2 (
T
r ). , = 2r / , -
pm= er /2.
pm / L .
e
pm/L = ( -
2m
, pm L
).
, -

Ls
s. -
s/Ls -
, -
: s / Ls = e / m .
74

. , -
, -
. ,
, -
.

s = 1/ 2
3
Ls = s ( s + 1) =
.
2
-

Lsz = ms = / 2 .
:
e e e
s = Ls = s ( s + 1) = 3.
m m 2m
e
( ).
2m
e
= = 0,93 10 23/T.
2m
-

e e
sz = Lsz = ( ) = .
m m 2

. , , . ,
,
, . ,
.
:
Lj = j ( j + 1) ,
j ,
:
75
j = l + s, l s ,
l , s .
l = 0 j :
j = s = 1/ 2 . l 0 : j = l + 1/ 2,
j = l 1/ 2 , -
.
..
. .. -
, -
. (
-)
. , -
j -
.
-
. -
-
:
2
E = Ei ,
16
Ei , -
,
= e 2 / c 1/137 .
, -
. ..
, -
e.
3.9. .
-
:
n = 1, 2,3... (
),
76
l = 0,1, 2...n 1
,
ml = 0, 1, 2,... l
,
ms = 1/ 2 -
.
n l.
, ml ms
(- ). , ,
n l .
() -
-
. , , -

1s (n = 1, l = 0) . , . -

, :
( ) -
, -
. , ,
.
, -
n n 2 , -
l m. , ,
.
n Z n = 2n 2
. , n = 1
, n = 28 , n = 318 ..
,
n, :
n 1 2 3 4 5 6
K L M N O P

.
77
3.10.

-
.
.
,
,
.
. -
n = 1 , 1s-
. (
) 13,6 .
. +,
(2 2 ) 1
. :
Z2
En = 13,6 .
n2
(Z = 2)
22
Ei = 13,6 = 54, 4 .
1
. -
+ . (. 3.8) +1,
, -, -

Z = +1,
Z = +2.
Z= 1,5.
:
Ei = 13,6Z 2 / n 2 = 30 .
- -

, 30 .
: Ei = 24,6 .
78
. - -
-
3- .
24,6 , -
+. ,
L- n = 2.
, Z= 0!
. 1s2
( 1s ).
-.
(Z = 3). Li
L- n = 2.
Z= 1.
13,612/22 = 3,4 ( 5,4 ). -
(.. ,
Z= 2,5 n = 1) 76 !
+1 (.. )
+2. 1s22s.
L- Ne. - L-
. Ne ,
, ; Ne .
Ar ( Na) -
( 18). ,
+1 19-. , -
-,
N-. , --
-
, - , ..

, .
. -
, -

.
79
3.11.

.
.
, ,
-
. , , +1,
1. -
-
.
.
, -
-
. -
-
.
. -
. ,
.
2.
2+ (. 3. 9). -
, . -
.
-
.
, .
, 2. - -

; 2.
-

.
-
.
4
,
L- n = 2.
, , 4.
80
3.12.

(. 3.10):
1) ()
;
2)
.

. (-
) .
()
,
.
, , -
-
( ,
).
-
,
(
). , -
, -
. -

(). , -
, ,
.
81

. -
,
. ,
, ..
.

. ,
-
.
3.13.

= ( En Em ) / n > m ,
:
1) m n ,
2) n m
,
.. , .
, .
.

:
E
N n = C exp( n ) ,
kT
N n , En .
n m
, .. . ,
,
.

, -
, , .. -
.
82
. -
, , ,
N n / N m . :
Nn
= exp [ ( En Em ) / kT ] .
Nm

. .. En > Em , , < 0.
-
.
l -
k
:
I = I 0 exp( kl ) .
-
, I > I 0
, , k < 0 . -

.
3.14.
-
. -
, E1
E2
= ( E2 E1 ) / . ,
(-
). .
, -
, ,
108
. ,
-
. -
.
83
,
, 1939 .
. . 1953 . .. , .. -
,
,
( Microwave Amplification by Stimu-
lated Emission of Radiation). 1960 . -
, (Light Amplifi-
cation by Stimulated Emission of Radiation).
.

1 5 (. 3.11).

-
( 8 %
).
.
-
(Al2O3),
-

. -
( = 560 )
Cr+++ (. 3.12)
3.
-
1 -
.

-
( -
) -
2, -
103 ,
105
-
.
84
,
( = 694,3 ). -
,
..
. ,
, ,
,
. -

.
,
,
.
-
:
1) ,
2) ,
3) ,
4) .

.
,
(),
.
3.15.
. -
(H, F), (D, F). -
. 106 .
: 104 -
6 .
. -
() ,
( -
).
1 104 (-
, ).
85
.
,
,
. -
, -
. -
,
. 1
106 .
.
, -
. ,
,
.
, , . - -

80 , , -
.
3.1. -
,
:
) ( x) = A exp( a 2 x 2 ) ,
) ( x) = Bx exp( a 2 x 2 ) , A, B, a .
3.2. -
+ ( 2 ) = 0 ,
= x, , . , -
2n + 1 , n = 0,1, 2... ,
.
86
3.3. -
:
0 = A0 exp( 2 x 2 / 2), 1 = A1 x exp( 2 x 2 / 2),
2 = A2 (2 2 x 2 1) exp( 2 x 2 / 2),
.
A0 , A1 , A2 .
3.4. x
1(x) =
= A1 x exp( 2 x 2 / 2) -
x.
3.5. x
2(x) =
= A2 (2 2 x 2 1)exp( 2 x 2 / 2) -
x.
3.6. xc.
0(x) =
= A0 exp( 2 x 2 / 2) x
1 ( x) = A1 x exp( 2 x 2 / 2) .
3.7. -
0 ( x) = A exp( 2 x 2 / 2) -
U ( x) = kx 2 / 2 . :
) x0,
;
) -
.
3.8. -
,
m,
, U ( x) = kx 2 / 2 x > 0 U = x 0.
3.9. m
U ( x) = (k / 2)( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) , k -
. -
n- . : -
.
87
3.10.
(r) = A exp(r / r0), A, r0 .
.
3.11. -
(r ) = A(1 + ar ) exp(r ) , A, a, .
3.12. -
(r) = A exp(r / r0), A, r0
(r0 ). -
r
r < r.
3.13.
(r r )
2
r , r 2 .
3.14.
(r) = A exp(r / r0) r
r.
3.15. -
(r) = A exp(r / r0) -
.
3.16. -
(r) = A exp(r / r0), A, r0 -
(r0 ).
-
.
3.17.
,
R (r ) r exp( r / 2r0 ) , r0 .
-
r r .
3.18. , -
, -
(r) = A exp(r / r0), A, r0 -
(r0 ).
3.19. -
.
88
4.
4.1.

-

. :
?
. ,
, -
.
(-
1010 ).
.
, -
( !),
- .
, , ,
, -
, . ,
, . -
(, -
, ..) ,
. .
.
L . V = L3 .
.
, -
( U = 0 ).
:
2m
+ 2
( E U ) = 0 .
89
U = 0 :
2 2 2 2m
( + + ) + 2 E = 0 .
x 2 y 2 z 2
2m / 2 = k 2 . k
, k = p .
:
= C exp i ( k x x + k y y + k z z ) ,
i , C ,
.
,
-
( , -
):
( x ) = ( x + L ), ( y ) = ( y + L ), ( z ) = ( z + L ) .
, -
k :
2 2 2
kx = n1 , k y = n2 , k z = n3 ,
L L L
n1, n2, n3 0, 1, 2, 3, .
, -
:
exp(ik x x) = exp [ik x ( x + L)] exp(ik x L) = 1 k x L = 2n .
, , -
, , . -
:
2
2
2
E= ( n1 + n2 + n3 ) = Ek .
2 2 2
2m L
( -
) k
. -
{n1 , n2 , n3 } , , {n1 , n2 , n3 } , -
.
90
,
(:
, ).

, -
{n1 , n2 , n3 } (. 4.1). ,
, .

(..
n = 1 ).
n0 = n12 + n2 2 + n32 (. 4.2).
,
( , -
E). vE.
,
,
( , -
):
3/ 2 3
4 8 8 2m L 3/ 2
E = 2 n03 = (n12 + n2 2 + n32 )3/ 2 = 2 E .
3 3 3 2
, L3 V, -
:
E =
8 ( 2m )3/ 2 E 3/ 2V .
3 (2 )3
91
(
). ,
.
, . ..
-
, .
, .

(..
). ,
, ,
, , .
EF (0) -
. , EF (0)

. ,

:
8 ( 2m )
3/ 2
nV = E = E (0)3/ 2 V .
3 (2 )3 F
:
2
EF (0) = (32 n) 2 / 3 ;
2m
n .
EF (0). -
51022 1/3. EF (0) 5 .
? -
,
104 ( -
). -
1/40 .
,
. . ,
, -
. , .
92
4.2. -.
-
E EF (0) , E > EF (0)
. -
T 0 -
:
dN
f (E) = ,
d
dN ,
+ d , d ,
E E + dE . d -
: d = g ( E )dE , g ( E )
,
. g ( E ) -
:

f ( E ) g ( E )dE = nV ,
0
, , f (E).
f (E),
, E .
:
f (E) = 1 E EF (0) f (E) = 0 E > EF (0) (. 4.3).
f (E) : -
EF (0) -
,
(. 4.4).
93

,
,
:
1
f (E) = ,
exp [ ( E ) / kT ] + 1
f (E) -,
. EF (T)
. = 0 EF EF (0) . -
- :
1
f (E) = .
exp [ ( E EF ) / kT ] + 1
, -
- .
, -,
. , -
, .. .
, ,
- . , -
.
-
: , -
E.
, , -
,
E = EF f ( E ) = 1/ 2 . .. ,
, 1/2.
, E EF >> kT , -
- ,
-
:
f ( E ) exp [ ( E EF ) / kT ] = const exp( E / kT ) .
94
-
,
EF / k. :
1) kT << EF ; -
;
2) kT >> EF ; .

104 . , , -
.
, , -
. -

.
EF (T ) :
EF (T ) EF (0)(1 T 2 ) .
, -
EF EF (0) , ..
. -
, , ,
.

, .
dn(E) -
E E +dE:
dN f ( E )d
dn( E ) = = .
V V
, , E,
:
8 ( 2m )
3/ 2
E = E 3/ 2V .
3 (2 ) 3
dn(E):
2m3
dn( E ) = E f ( E )dE .
2 3
95
- :
2m3 EdE
dn( E ) = . (4.1)
2 3
exp [ ( E EF ) / kT ] + 1

g ( E ) :
d 2m3
g (E) = = 2 3 EV . (4.2)
dE
4.3. . -
( )
. -
, , N ,
3N ,
kT. -
.
-
.
, :
n = ( n + 1/ 2) ( n = 0,1, 2... ).
. ,

, -
:

n exp( n / kT )

n =0
=
+ . (4.3)
2
exp(n / kT )
n =0

. , -
. -
96
(4.3) = 1/ kT .
:
n exp(n ) = ln exp(n 1

) = ln .
exp(n ) 1 exp( )
,
:

= + .
2 exp( / kT ) 1

kT ( ).
.
. -

.
, -
. : -
,
.
(i) . ,
U
:
3N
U = i (ni + 1/ 2).
i =1 ni = 0
ni , -
i, N .
i -

i = i .
() , -
( , -
).
p= k
k .
97
,
k . ,
(, ),
. ,
.
.
i. -
:
(ni + 1/ 2) i = ni i + i / 2 .
, -
:
i
ni i = = ni i .
exp( i / kT ) 1
:
1
ni = .
exp( i / kT ) 1

. ()
.
, -
. , ,
, .
.
: , -
.
-, -
, :
1
ni = ,
exp(( Ei ) / kT ) 1
ni , -
Ei, ( < 0),
ni = N .
N . -
= 0. , , -
98
. , -
, n , -
. .. , , -
.
4.4.
,
(, , .)
. :
? ,
, , .
,
,
.
, ,
, -
, ; .. -
.
.

,
. - -
, ,
: -
, -
. ,
, -
. -
, -
.
!
, -
. -
: -
, -
.
99
.
, , -
(q1, q2). q -
-
. , -
,
, ,
. -
.
(q2, q1). -
(q1, q2) P ,
:
( q , q ) = P ( q , q ) .
2 1 1 2

(q1 , q2 ) :
( q1 , q2 ) = P ( q2 , q1 ) = P 2 ( q1 , q2 ) .
, P = 1 . , -
:
s (q1 , q2 ) = s (q2 , q1 ) ,
a (q1 , q2 ) = a (q2 , q1 ) .

,
-
.
,
.
, ,

.
, -
, -, ,
.
(
). ,
, -, ,
100
. -
(,
, , .).
, -
, .. , .

.
, -: -
, 1/2.

0 ( ), 1
( ). -
.
. 4 -
. , ..
. 4 .
3 1/2
. ,
. 4
, 3
( , , , 4
, 3 ).

.
-
:
H = ( H + H ) = E ,
1 2
H 1 H 2 -
, . -
(
)
: = (1) (2) ,
, -
, 1 2
.
(1) ( 2) .
101

. -
, :
s = (1) ( 2) + ( 2) (1) (4.4)

a = (1) ( 2) ( 2) (1) . (4.5)
, s,
, a -
.

, -
. , , -
, .
, .
-
, .
(4.5), =
, -
. -
, .
, -
,
.
.
4.1. (4.1) -
-
0 , Emax .
4.2. -
, dn( p ) .
0 .
102
4.3. -
0 ,
.
4.4. ,

0 . -
, .
4.5.
0 ,
V = 1,00 3 -
n = 2,01022 3.
4.6. -
0 ,
8,51022 3.
4.7.
0 .
4.8. -
0 2,51022 3.
, 2/3 -
( , -
).
4.9. -
,
+ d :
n()d 3 = 2(m / 2 )3 (1 + exp [ ( E EF ) / kT ]) 1 d 3 ,
d 3 = d x d y d z .
. -
.
4.10.
.
, ,
.
103
5.

5.1.
-
. ,
,
,
. , -
, -
,
.
. -
, .

NaCl, .
Na+ Cl. -
Na+ Cl
(..
). , -
NaCl
.
NaCl , -
.
Na+ Cl -
. -
.
. ( -
, )
. -
CH4, -
, .. -
, .
104
,
, .

, ,
( , ),
.
,
, .
CH4 ,
. , -
, -
: , , .
,
, -
.
,
.
. , -

. ,
. -
.
, -
, -
. -
,
(). -
,
,
.
,
, (, ,
.). -
. ,
.
,
, .
105
-
.
, ,
.
,
, ,
.
,

.
, ,
, .

!
,
. , ,
, , -
.
( ) -
- -
.

.

( ),
, .
-
. --
. -
.
,
. ,
, H2, N2, O2, CO2, H2O. ,
.
-
, , .
106
5.2.
, -
,
, ,
. .
-
. ,
: a , b , c , ()

l = n1a + n2b + n3c
( n1 , n2 , n3 ,
). a , b , c
,
,
a , b , c () ,
.
a , b , c -
.
a , b , c .
,
,
. -
.
, ,
, -
.
;
, ,
-
. , -
. , -
(r )
,
107
r r + l , -
(r ) ( l ).
-
, ,
, , -

:
k (r + l ) = exp(ikl ) k (r ) , (5.1)
k . (5.1)

k (r ) = exp(ikr ) .
, ..
,
.

k ,
.
(r )
k (r ) = exp(ikr )uk (r ) , (5.2)

, uk (r ) . -
(5.2) (5.1) , (r )
l :
uk ( r + l ) = uk ( r ) .
, (5.1) , -

(5.2), uk ( r ) , -
, .. . (5.2)
,
(5.2).
108
b (5.1)

k ( x + b) = exp(ikb) k ( x) , (5.3)
, k
. , k
2
k = k0 + n,
b
n , (5.3) :
2n
k ( x + b) = exp i k0 + b k ( x) =
b
= exp(ik0b) exp(i 2n) k ( x) = exp(ik0b) k ( x).
, k -
,
k0. k
, 2n / b . -
,
. -
. ,
, k = 0
. , -
k ,

<k< .
b b
. -
.
5.3.

-
.
. -
-
(. 5.1). .
109

-
:
U ( x ) = U ( x + b).
-
-
-
.
, .
-
. ?
,
.
-
:

i = H .
t
H ( ),
2 2
2
H = +U = + U ( x) ,
2m 2m x 2
U ,
,
:
U ( x) = U ( x + b) .
:
...n 2, n 1, n, n + 1, n + 2...
, -
-
.

.
,
.
110
, n n . -

, n , -
.
-
n :
= Cn n .
n
, ,
,
. [3],
, -
,
. ,
(1.10), - n,
-
( ,
). , , -
, :
Cn
i = H n,n 1Cn 1 + H nn Cn + H n,n +1Cn +1 , (5.4)
t
H nm
H nm = n * H m dx .
: , -
H nm (5.4). -
. ,
- -
. H nm = 0 n m ,
H nn E0 , -
,
. ,
E0 , , .
H n,n 1 H n,n +1 ,
111
,
,
:
H n,n 1 = H n,n +1 = A .

(5.4)
Cn
i = E0Cn ACn +1 ACn 1 . (5.5)
t

n (5.5).
-
! :
Cn 1
i = E0Cn 1 ACn 2 ACn
t
Cn
i = E0Cn ACn +1 ACn 1 (5.6)
t
Cn +1
i = E0Cn +1 ACn ACn + 2
t
(5.6), -
E.
:
iEt
Cn = n exp( ) . (5.7)
n -
, n-
. (5.7) (5.6)
:
E n = E0 n An +1 An 1 . (5.8)
, n- xn ,
(n +1)- xn +1 = xn + b ,
(5.8)
E ( xn ) = E0 ( xn ) A( xn + b) A( xn b) . (5.9)
112
(5.9) -

( xn ) = a exp(ikxn ) ; (5.10)
k
, exp(ikxn ) -
(
). (5.10) (5.9)
exp(ikxn ) , :
E = E0 2 A cos kb . (5.11)
, .
.
1. , -
,
iEt
Cn exp ( ikxn ) exp .

, X,
X, k. -
k, -
E.

. ..
. ,

, .
.. -
. , -
. , -
( ).
2. -
: E = 2 k 2 / 2m .

E ( k )
113

k (. 5.2).
, -
(5.11) k.
, ,
A -
(5.11)
.
E0
,
-
( ).
,
E , ..
. -
E -
,
. ,
, / b , ,
- , -
, k.
k .
5.4.

, -
, ..
.

. , , , ,
,
. .
. (
) , .
E0 + F . ,
114
(5.8), : n = 0
.
E 2 = E0 2 A1 A3
E 1 = E0 1 A0 A2
E 0 = ( E0 + F )0 A1 A1 (5.12)
E 1 = E0 1 A2 A0
E 2 = E0 2 A3 A1 .
, A, -
,
,
.
( xn ) = a exp(ikxn ) , , -
, -
, .

:
n = exp(ikxn ) exp(ikxn ), (n < 0)
(5.13)
n = exp(ikxn ), (n > 0)
( -
).
, (5.13) -

(5.12), , , -
, ,
E = E0 2 A cos kb .
, -,
, , , -
, ( )
. , , -
. ,
115
= 1 .
F :
F
= .
F 2iA sin kb
-
, . -, -
, ,
, .
. ,
( n = 0 ) , - .
.
, E0 + F
(, E0 2 A ),
E < E0 2 A .
, exp(ikxn ) -
k -
. , k
. k = i . n < 0
:
n (n < 0) = a exp(xn ) . (5.14)
,
xn . -
, n > 0 :
n (n > 0) = a exp(xn ) . (5.15)
(5.12), -
, , :
E = E0 A[ exp(b) + exp(b) ] . (5.16)
(5.12) ,
a = a , -
:
A[ exp(b) exp(b)] = F . (5.17)
116
(5.16) (5.17) -
:
E = E0 4 A2 + F 2 . (5.18)
, -
, E0 2 A , (5.18)
. ,
! ,

E = E0 4 A2 + F 2 .
, -,
- , ,
.
-, (5.14) (5.15)
, -
. -
, -
.

. .
,
, .
5.5.
.
-
. ,
.
-
x . , -
, p
k .

117
= a exp [ i(t kx)] . -
:
= a exp [ i (t kx) ] .
k
, -
.
-
:
d
= .
dk

. ,
. :
d 1 dE ( k )
= = .
dk dk
d
:
dt
d 1 d dE 1 d 2 E dk
= ( )= .
dt dt dk dk 2 dt
dk 1 dp
k = p / , = . -
dt dt
,
1
dk d 2 E d
F= = 2
2 .
dt dk dt
d 2 E 1
m* = 2
( ) (5.19)
dk 2
.
118
, , -
( ), -
.
-
,
, .
,
.
E ( k ) . -
, .. ,
k 2 . d 2 E / dk 2 = const m* m .
d 2 E / dk 2 = 0 m* , ..
( -
E0 ,
).
d 2 E / dk 2 < 0 , ,
,
,
( ).
5.6.
, -
.
a, b, c ( -
a = b = c). ,

x = n x a , y = n y b, z = n z c ,
nx , n y nz .
, , -
,
X, Y, Z
, , , :
U ( x ) = U ( x + a ), U ( y ) = U ( y + b), U ( z ) = U ( z + c ) .
119
(5.6)
:
C ( x, y, z )
i = E0C ( x, y, z ) Ax C ( x + a, y, z )
t
Ax C ( x a, y, z ) Ay C ( x, y + b, z ) Ay C ( x, y b, z ) (5.20)
Az C ( x, y, z + c) Az C ( x, y, z c),
, , C , -
Ax , Ay , Az -
X, Y, Z.
, -
:
iEt
C ( x, y, z ) = exp( ) exp(ik x x + ik y y + ik z z ) , (5.21)
k x , k y , k z k .
, (5.21) -
:
iEt
C = exp( ) exp(ikr ) .
(5.21) (5.20)
:
E = E0 2 Ax cos k x a 2 Ay cos k y b 2 Az cos k z c . (5.22)
,
k x , k y , k z
. -
Ax , Ay , Az ,

,
.
120
Ax, Ay, Az
r
k , , , ,
:
E = Ax a 2 k x 2 + Ay b 2 k y 2 + Az c 2 k z 2
( ).
a = b = c, ,
Ax, Ay, Az .
r
k .

a = 31010 ,
(5.22). E0 > 0 m*
-
. (5.22)
:
E (k ) = E0 3 cos k x a cos k y a cos k z a .
( ) -
k x = / a, k y = / a, k z = / a ,
( ) k = 0 . Emax = 6 E0 ,
Emin = 0 . E = Emax Emin = 6 E0 .
(5.19) :
1
2 E
mi * = 2 ki 0(i = { x, y, z}) .
h ki
: m* = me = h 2 / E0 a 2 , E = 6h 2 / me a 2 =5 .

Ax, Ay, Az ,
.
, , -
.
!
,
.
, -
.
121

,
-
.
, -
! ..

,
.
5.7.
,
.
, ,
( -
-
). ,
,
( ).
, -
, ..
. -
, -
, . -
-
,
.
N
N , -
.
-
(. 5.3), ..
,
. -
-

122
-. 1023 -
, -
1023 . . 5.3 1 3
, 2
( E ).
,

, .. , -
.
-

:
1. . -
1023 ,
. , ,
( 1
104). -
,
, .
.
.
( ).
2. .
, -
. E
( E <1 ),

(
;
). .
3. E -
-. .
, -
, -
; . ,
,
. -
.
123
5.8.
,
-

. ,
,

.

.
-
: ,
(), ,
():
= + .
, -
, -
, .
:
1
=
n
i , (5.23)
(n ).

.

. ( eE ),
, -
:
F = r ,
r -
.
124

m * , :
d
m* = eE r .
dt
( E = 0 )
:
r
= const exp t .
m*
m*
= -
r
, -
.

eE
= .
m*
( j = ne )
ne 2
j= E.
m*
-
,
.

, -
(
!).
,
, -
. -
,
. , (5.23) -
, . -

,
125
. , ,
, (5.23) .
,
, .
5.9.

(. 5.4) ( 1),
.
, 0 .
(Hg, Sn, Al,
Pb) ( 2).

() -
. -
;
-
1911 . -
: -
1023 (,
20 ,
1017 ). , ,
, !
, -
.
,
, -
. ,
,
,
, .
, ,
.

, .
126
1957
, , . -
.
:
.
, (-
). ,

. , -
.
.
.
-
, -
. -
, ,
, -
. -
, -
.
,
, E,
.
(
), -
.
-

.
. , -
( -
,
..). .. , -
, -
,
(
20
, ).
127
,
. ,
, (77 ).
75
23 ( !). -
1986 . -

(La, Ba, Cu, O) (Y, Ba, Cu, O)
40 . -
. 1987 . -
Bi-Ba-Ca-Cu-O Tl-Ba-Ca-Cu-O -
105125 . , -
,
, -, -
, .
5.1. ,
, ,
n = exp(ikxn ) exp(ikxn ), (n < 0) n = exp(ikxn ), (n > 0)
(5.12)
, E = E0 2 A cos kb .
5.2. , -
F
E0 + F = .
F 2iA sin kb
5.3. ,
-
, n (n < 0) = a exp(xn )
n (n > 0) = a exp(xn ) a = a
(5.12),

E = E0 4 A2 + F 2 .
128
6.
6.1.
.

B, C, Si, P, S, Ge, As.

(, ,
, ..). ,
293
973 6105 .
, -
, -
, E .
, E 1,1 , E
0,72 .
.
-
.

.

.
, -
(. 6.1). -
-

.

-
.
, - -
( ) -
-
.
129
,

. ,
. , -
.

(.. -
)

(. 6.2).
. ,
m* -
.

( e )
-
.. -
!
-
, .. , -
. , i = 0
( ). -
k
:
(i + k ) = 0 i = k ,
ik ik
,
-
, .
, J = (e)(k ) = ek . -
, +e
,
. ( -
).
130
,
, .
, -
.
, -

.
? -
. .
-
(-). E
( ),
.
. ,
,
.
-
(, ).
,
.

.

. , ,
.

. .. , ,
, -
. .
P -
, -
, E.
,
P exp(E / kT ) .

,
.
131
. P
, : P nn n p ( nn
, ,
n , ).

. :
n p nn = const exp(E / kT ) ,
const .
, -
.
,
n exp(E / 2kT ) .
-
,
= 0 exp(E / 2kT )
. -

(. 6.3).
,
E.
. 6.4
(. 6.4, ),
(. 6.4, ).
1 -,
3 , 2 -
.
132
6.2.
, -
. , -
-
,
.

Ge As (. 6.5).
,
. -
Ge

, .
, -

. -
.
As ,
.
, ,
,
. , -
, ,
-
n- (negative).
. ..
, -
-
.

, -
,
(. 6.6). -
n- -
. GeAs E 0,05
(: E 0,72 ).

133
.
, -
,
.

-
, , -
(. 6.7).

,
.

-

Ge. ,
, , , -
Ge .
, , . -

.
, ,
, -
. ,
, , -
, -
p- (positive).
-
(. 6.8). Ge-B:
E 0,08 . -
-
.
-
-
-
(.
-
). ,
-
134
(5.18) .
, -
,
.
,
A (5.16) (5.17) (

).
, -
.
-
p- n- .
(
)
.
, Ge -
T ~ 293 K np,
nn ~ 2,51013 1/3. Ge ~ 4,51022 1/3. -
, ,
106 Ge -
:
n ~ 4,51022106 ~ 4,51016 1/3
( ).
, -
.
-
(..
),
-
-
. 300 -
.
135
6.3. .

-
. ,

. , -
. , -
, -
, , .
E p ,
. .. -
E p 0
(. 6.9). , -
, -
, E p 0 /e (. 6.10).

, .
, , -
(. 6.11). -
(. 6.12).
136
-
.
, E p 0 .

EF (-
, EF ).
,
.
A = E p 0 EF = e .
.
, -
,
.
(,

4,5 1,52 ).
. , -
, ,
(. 6.13). -

-
. ,
. ,
, (. 6.14).
( -
, ),
137
, .

, -
, e2 e1 .

(, ):
U12 = (e2 e1 ) / e .
,
. -
:
= ( EF 1 E F 2 ) / e .
U12
,
.
6.4.

(. 6.15).
, , .
( !).
,
( , 1821 .).
: ,
( )
. -

. -
, -

. -
, -
:
= ( ) , -
( 105 104 /).

138
( -
) .
, -
( 0,01 ).

( 0,5 % , 10 %).
-
.
, ,
1834 . , -
,
, . ..,
, , .
. -
, .. ,
, , .
-
( , n-,
p- n-) (
) .
, -
, -
.
, .

,
, , ;
-
. -
, , .
6.5.
, ,
,
. , Ge -
p- n- (. 6.16, ).

139
. .
, -
,
.
, -
. p-n
, 104 .
n- , -
. -
.
,
n- -, -
- n-.
, -
(. 6.16, ).

. ,

- n- (. 6.16, ).
p- n--
( n ). -

( n ~ exp [ E / kT ] ):
n p (n-) q p
= exp( ),
n p ( p -) kT
qp , qp , ,
qp . -
n-:
140
nn (n-) q
= exp( n ) .
nn ( p-) kT
qn = q p . ,

. , nn n p const ( p- n-).
(. 6.1: -
).
, , ,
. , ..
. n ?
n
. n
p-, n-,
!

.
( ).
6.6. .
-
-
p- n- -
:
(. 6.17).

(
p-, ,
n-, n-
p-). -

Ek
.
,
.
(. 6.18). -
141
n-,
p- -
. ,
,
.
(, , ,
).
p-,
n- (. 6.19)
,
n ( ).
(.. )
. -
.
,
n . p-
.
n (. 6.20),

(
J1 ). -
,
q . ( n--
) (-
) n .
J 0 -
n-.
n ,
. -
:
J 0 ( n p ) = J1 ( p n )
J 0 -
n-. -
,
142
n p (n-) ~ n p ( p-)exp(q / kT ) p .
, p- n--

J1 ~ n p ( p -) exp( q / kT ) .
, J0.
(..
U). -
U. p- n-
, .. :
J1 ~ n p ( p -) exp( q ( U ) / kT ) .
, J0:
J1 ( p n) = J 0 exp(qU / kT ) .
.. p- n- -
, n- p-
( , U < ).
n
J = J1 J 0 = J 0 [ exp(qU / kT ) 1] .
J0
n- . -
.
, -
, J0
,
p-.
n
J = J 0 [ exp(qU / kT ) 1] ,
J0 , n
( ).
:
J = J 0 [ exp(qU / kT ) 1] .
143
,
, -
.
. 6.21 -
-
.
6.7.
, -
. -
, .
,
, .
,
, nn n -
. .
-
.
. 6.22 nn.
-
U ,
U .
U
R . -
U R. -

-
, -
, -
, .
-
R -
.
144
. 6.23, -
-

( )
() -

(, -
, ). -
-
U -

,
U,
, -

(. 6.23, ). -
.
-
. ,
,
, .
U
J, ,
, ,
. J J .
:
U R
.
U R
R >> R , -
. , -
, ,
.
n -
nn.
, .
145

, ,
.
6.1.
, , -
-
.
6.2.
n- :
nn = 2n0 (mkT / 2 2 )3/ 4 exp(E / 2kT ) ,
n0 , E -
. :
) (4.1);
) .
6.3. -

0 1,7 . -
1 d
= = 300 K.
dT
6.4. , -
0 K,
, = 5, 2
T1 = 300 K T2 = 400 K .
6.5. -
0 = 50 .
1 = 40 , = 8,0
2 = 45 .
.
146
6.6.
0 10 ? (
1,1 .)
6.7. ,
.
6.8. , , -
-
, + d ,
dN () = 2(m / 2 )3 exp [ ( A + E ) / kT ] 3 d ,
,
. , A >> kT .
6.9. 6.8 -
-
.
147
7.

7.1.
,
, . -
,
, .
,
, , -
. ,
-
,
.
,
,
,
. - -

. ,
.
,
, .
. -
A , :
B = rotA ( B ). -
,
q m :
1
i = H = + U ,
t 2m i i
, U = q
i
.
148

, p = -
i
p qA . .
, -
1 . t = 0
,
, :
B
rotE = .
t
A :
A
rotE = rot .
t
-
( ):
A
E= .
t
t :
A
t t
m2 = m1 + qEdt = m1 q dt = m1 qA .
0 0
t
, m2 + qA = m1 . ,
m + qA ,
.
E m ,
E = f (m) ,
E = f ( p qA) .
, , -
p = qA .
i i
149
, -
q A, :
1
i = qA qA + q . (7.1)
t 2m i i
7.2.

-
,
-
. -
,
( ).
.

:
2
*
= +* . (7.2)
t t t
* :

i = H
t
(7.3)
*
i = H * *,
t
2
H = H * = + U ( x, y, z ) (
2m
*
). (7.2) (7.3)
t t

* * = div ( * * ) ,
150
, -
:
2

= divj , (7.4)
t
j :
i
j= ( * * ) ,
2m
-
. , -
, qA . -
i i
:
1
j= * qA + qA * . (7.5)
2m i i
(7.4) , ,
, -
. , -
, -
.
,
, (7.4)
2
. ,
, j
.
, ,
, -
. ,
( x, y, z ) -
. , -
, .
,

151
. -
-
2
. ,
2
dV dV
2
.
q, -
2
.
2
, q. ,

* .
j , (7.5),
.
, -
, -
.
,

, -
.
,
, . , -
-
. -
, -
-,
.
, -
.
, -
, ,
,
. -
.
152
7.3.

,
-
.
- ,
-

( ).
-. -,
, -
.
(7.1).
, q -
qe .
.
exp( E / kT ), -

( -
).
,
, (-
).
,
, n , n.
, -
,
. -
,
.
-
. - , *
,
,
:
153
(r ) = (r ) exp [i(r ) ] , (7.6)
(r ) (r ) ( ,
, ).
,
(7.6) (7.5).
, :
h q r
j = A . (7.7)
m h
r
j ,

, (7.7) ,
, , !
-
.
7.4.
-
.

, . -
, -
,
, .
,
, ,
.
.
,
( -
).
. , -
,
, .

154
exp(x)
1/ 2106 .
,
, .
, -
1/ .
,
. . 7.1
. -
() ,
, , -
, , -
. -
, -
! .
, ,
(7.7), ,
= qA . (7.8)

L ,
:
dl = q Adl .
L L
155

:
Adl = rotAds ,
L S
S L ,
. -
( B = rotA ) :
q q
dl = Bds = , (7.9)
L S
,
.
(7.9)
n
. ,

(r ) = (r ) exp [i(r ) ] , , -
, -
,
2n (n ). ,
(7.9) :
dl = 2n .
L

2n
= , n = 0,1, 2,... ,
q
..
2 / q . -
().
, q -
qe , -
0 :

0 = 2,071015 . (7.10)
qe
156

.
, ,
.

, . -
,
-
. .

.

,
.
-
. ,
.
, , ,

.

,
(r ) = (r ) exp [i(r ) ] ,
, .
- -
( )
. -

, .
7.5.
,
(. 7.2). -
(<107 ) -
.
157
-
, -
,
.

-
.

-
[3].
1
, 2
.

(1.10):
C1
i = H11C1 + H12C2
t
(7.11)
C2
i = H 22C2 + H 21C1.
t
H11 H 22
1 2, H12 H 21 -
. , -
H12 = H 21 = A ( !).
1 2
V . H11
qV / 2 , H 22 qV / 2 . -
(7.11) :
C1 qV
i = C1 + AC2
t 2
(7.12)
C2 qV
i = C2 + AC1.
t 2
158
--
. :
C1 = 1 exp(i1 ), C2 = 2 exp(i2 ), (7.13)
1 2 , 1 2
. (7.13) (7.12)
:
qV
i (1 + i11 ) = 1 + A 12 exp(i)
2
(7.14)
qV
i (2 + i2 2 ) = 2 + A 12 exp(i),
2
= 2 1 , , ,
.
,
, :
2
1 = A 12 sin
2
2 = A 12 sin
(7.15)
qV A 2
1 = cos
2 1
qV A 1
2 = cos .
2 2
(7.15) ,
,
( ).
1 ( 2 ),
:
2A
j= 12 sin .
,
,
159
. -
-
. 1 = 2 = 0 , -
:
j = jc sin , (7.16)
jc = 2 A0 / , , -
A , .
(7.16) -
. -
, (7.16) ,
= 2 1 .
(7.16) , -
-
, jc . -
.
(7.15) :
qV
= (2 1 ) = . (7.17)
:
q
(t ) = (0) + V (t )dt , (7.18)
(0) t = 0 ,
, q .
(7.16) (7.17) .
-
V0 .
qV0
(t ) = (0) + t.
q / , -
(7.16) ,
. ,
, -
160
(
). ,
, !
. -
-
, .

1963 .
,
, ,
.
-
. , -
, -
, .
, ,
(
D) , .
, -
, -
, .
.
:
V (t ) = V0 + v cos t .
(7.18) :
qV qv
(t ) = (0) + 0 t + sin t .

v << V0 ,
qV qv qV
j = jc sin (0) + 0 t + sin t cos (0) + 0 t .

,
,
= qV0 , (7.19)
.. (7.19) !
- .
161

. T = 0 -
,
jc , -
,
V0 :
qV
j = jc sin 0 t + (0) .

. -
, , ,

, . -
.
7.6.
,
,
, ( j > jc ).
jc ,
. -
,
.
, [9].
:
V
j = jc sin + , (7.20)
RT
V , RT
, -

T 0 . (7.20)
-
. -
.
162
(7.17)
j = jc sin + . (7.21)
qRT
(7.21)
, .
. -
-
(

[9]). (7.21) ,
= 2 1 :
j +
c
= 2arctg
j 2 jc 2 tg qRT( j 2 jc 2 t / 2 ) . (7.22)
j

(7.22)
(7.17) :
V (t ) =
(j 2
jc 2 RT ) , (7.23)
j + jc cos(t )
= arctg( jc / j 2 jc 2 ) ,
= j 2 jc 2 qRT / . (7.24)
(7.23) -
.
,
, .
(
.. , .. ..
1964 .), .
(7.23), :
q V = . (7.25)
(7.25)
. V
163
, 1 2 -
.

E = qV , = E / .
, ,
-
. (7.25)
.
, -
.
,
, -
. , ,

, -
. -
, -
, ,
,
.
, .
7.7.
-
, -
.
-
,
,
,

-
(. 7.3).
j
.
ja jb -
164
, , , a b . -
(7.8), -
: = 2qe A .
a , :
2qe
P Q = a + Adl . (7.26)

b:
2qe
P Q = b + Adl . (7.27)

P Q -
, (7.26) (7.27) :
2qe
b a = Adl .
L
L,
, , , -
, L.
,
:
2qe
= b a = .
, b a

qe qe
a = 0 + , b = 0 ,
0 -
, ,
. j
, , (7.16), :
165
q q
j = jc sin 0 + e + sin 0 e =
(7.28)
q
= 2 jc sin 0 cos e ,
jc .
, 0 , , -
, -

qe
jmax = 2 jc cos . (7.29)
, , -

= n = n 0 ,
qe
n , 0 . .. -
,
, .

( -
Superconducting Quantum Interference Device).
-
, -

. , -
, , -
, 105 0 ,
1 . -
-
. , , -
1015 (
50 ),
1015 .
166
7.8.
, -
, ,
= 2qeV / .

, -
.

(. 7.4). -
/ 2qe .
-
, -
.
, -
, -
,
.
-
-
1015 .
-
-
, ,
, , -

.

-
-

-
.

-

.
167

,
, , -
. , -
.
, , -
-
.
, ,
- , -
-.
-
-

.
7.1.
J c1 = 500 J c 2 = 700 -
. 1 .
?
7.2. -
, , -
.
7.3.
Jc = 100 .
J0 = 70 J1 = 2
= 10 . .
7.4. (7.7).
168

1.1. = 2(2 1) / mE = 0,15 .

1.2 = 2 3mkT = 0,145 .
1.3. E /( E U 0 ) = 2 .
1.4. E = 2e 2 ( B) 2 / m = 0,12 .
1.5. E = 22 2
/ m 2 p 2 / 2m = 0,38 .
1.6. = (n + 1) /(n 1) = 2,2 .
1.7. = n (1 + mn / mHe ) = 0,07 , n = 2 / 2mn E .
1.8 = (1 + ) /(1 ) = 0,10 , = mH / mHe .
1.9 = 21 2 / 12 + 2 2 .
2 1
1.10. ) = , ) E < 10 .
2mE 1 + E / 2mc 2
1.11. E = ( 2 1)mc 2 = 0,21 .
1.12. E > mc 2 ( 1 + ( c / l ) 2 1) = 0,6 , c = 2 / mc
.
1.13. = k / 1 + mc k / = 3,3 .
1.14. ( ) 4 exp( a / 2 ), a = 22 2
/ mkT ,
= a / 2 = / mkT = 89 .
1.15. ( ) 5 exp( a / 2 ), a = 22 2
/ mkT ,
= 2 / 5mkT = 57 .
1.16. = 4 l / bmx =1,0106 /.
169
1.17. E = 2( l / d x) 2 / m =24 .
1.18. U 0 = 2 2
/ 2med 2 ( 1) 2 sin 2 =0,15 .
1.19. d = k / 2mE cos( / 2) =0,21 , k = 4 .
1.20. d = k / 2mE sin = 0,23 ,
tg2 = r / l .
1.21 ) n2 / n1 = 1 eU / E = 0,70; ) U = ( E / e)cos 2 = 75 .
1.23. n = 1 + U i / U =1,05.
1.24. = arcsin(sin / 1 + eU i / E ) =52
1.25. U i = ( k ) 2 / 2med 2 U sin 2 =15 .
1.26. En = (n ) 2 / 2ml 2 , n = 1, 2,3...
1.27. 2r = n , n = 1, 2,3...; = 2r0 n, r0 -
.
1.28. w = / 2 + const / ,
2 = m2 / 2 + const .
,
u = w dw / d . = 2 / m
u = ,
dw d
= w+ = ( w) ,
d d
2
w = + const w = + const / .
2 2
:
w / 2 + const / m2 / 2 + const
= = = .
2 / m 2
, -
v w, ,
.
1.29. x = b / 2 , / b 2.
170
1.30. 1106 /; 1 = 2,2106 /.
1.31. x t / mx0 1103 .
1.32. Emin 2 2
/ ml 2 =15 . x = l / 2, p p .
1.33. / 2 / 2ml 2 E =1,2104. x = l / 2 .
1.34. E 8104 2
/ ml 2 . x = l / 2 .
1.35. x l / 2md 2 eU = 8 .
1.36. x c = 3 , / / 2c 3108.
1.37. l -
A = F l ,
dE 4 2 2 Emin
E . F = = . -
dl ml 3 l
x l / 2, p p .
1.38. x x,
, Emin .
1.39. r r , , -
:
W 2( p 2 / 2m 2e 2 / 4 0 r ) + e 2 / 8 0 r 2 / mr 2 7e 2 / 8 0 r. -
r 160 2
/ 7 me 2 0,3108 .
:
Emin (7 / 4) 2 me 4 /162 0 2 2
= 83 ( 79 ).
1.40. x / 1/(E / E ) = 2103 .
1.41. b
,
p . -
x = b / 2 , : b + 2 l / pb ,
p . (b)
b 2 l / m 10 .
1.42. 2 / c 104 , / / c 107 .
4L
1.43. d min 2 8,5 .
2m p E
171
4 cl
1.44. D = d + .
derb
4
1.45. d min = 2 = 7,6 .
me
4 L
1.46. d min 2 7,5 .
3mkT
1.47. -
. E0,
1, -
, : E / 1
( , 1
). -
,
E0,
( 1 ) F.
1 F 1 << p0 ( p0
), :
p0 2 p p p
E0 = ( ) 0 0 0 F ( 1 ) ,
2m m m
, , -
E0 > E = / 1 ,
m
F .
p0 1 ( 1 )
1 = / 2 .
, E0 = p0 2 / 2m , :
8m
Fmin = .
2
E0
172

1.48. -
.
,
.
1.49. U = 0
,
, :
iEt
( x, y, z , t ) = ( x, y, z ) exp( ) ,
h
E (
). -
iEt
exp( ) ,
h
:
h2
= E .
2m
:
2mE
x + y + z + 2 = 0 .
h
-
: = X ( x)Y ( y ) Z ( z ) .
:
X / X + Y / Y + Z / Z + 2mE / h 2 = 0 .
E
E = Ex + E y + Ez , X , Y , Z :
X + (2mEx / h 2 ) X = 0 .
: X ( x) = A exp(ik x x) , k x = 2mEx / h .
Y ( y ), Z ( z ) . :
rr
( x, y, z , t ) = A exp(i (t kr )) ,
r
k , k = k x 2 + k y 2 + k z 2 = 2mE / h 2 = p / h .
173
1.50. K- ( x, t ) = A exp(i (kx t )) . -

x = x + 0t , = + 0
:
k = m / = k (1 + 0 / ), = m2 / 2 = + (m0 / 2 )(2 + 0 ) .
:
( x, t ) = ( x, t ) exp(i (k0 x 0t )) ,
k0 = m0 / , 0 = m0 2 / 2 .
K'-
K-.
1.51. -
2 ,
:

x (+) x () = (2m / )( E U )dx
2

0 . ,
.
1.52. U ( x) = 2( 2 2
/ m) x 2 , E = 2
/m .
1.53. U ( x) = 2
/ mx, E = 2 2
2m .
1.54. r = a / 2 .
1.55. U = k / 8m .
1.57. m n , -
:
2
m + U m = Em m
2m
2
n * +U n * = En n * .
2m
174
n * , m
. :
h2
( Em En ) m n * = ( m n * n * m ) =
2m
h2
= div( m n * n * m ).
2m

, ,
, , :
( Em En ) m n * dV = 0 .
Em En , -
m n * dV = 0 .
2.1.
x > 0 :
( x) = a exp(ikx) + b exp(ikx), k = 2mE / h .
(0) = 0 , a = b .

w( x) = * = 4a 2 sin 2 kx .
w( x) xn = n / 2k = hn / 8mE ,
n = 1, 2,3,...
2.2. x 0

1 = a1 exp(ikx) + b1 exp(ikx), k = 2mE / h
x > 0
2 = a2 exp( x) + b2 exp( x), = 2m(U 0 E ) / h .
175
, a2 = 0 .
x = 0 :
a1 + b1 = b2 , a1 b1 = i b2 / k .

2 2
R = b1 / a1 = (k i) /(k + i) = 1 .
E = U 0 / 2 k = , :
w( x 0) = 11* = 2a12 (1 sin 2kx), w( x > 0) = 2 2 * = 2a12 exp(2 x),
a1 (
).
2.3. x 0 :
= b exp( x) , = 2m(U 0 E ) / (. ).
exp(2x) ,
x = 1/ 2 . x = 0,1 .
2.4. :
1 ( x 0) = a1 exp(ikx) + b1 exp(ikx), k = 2mE /
2 ( x > 0) = a2 exp(i x), = 2m( E U 0 ) / ,
a1 (
).
x = 0 : b1 = a1 (k ) /(k + ) .
R D :
2
R = b1 / a1 = (k ) 2 /(k + ) 2 , D = 1 R = 4k /(k + ) 2 .
2.5. w1 ( x 0) = 16a12 (1 3/ 4sin 2 kx) / 9, w2 ( x > 0) = 16 / 9a12 ,
1 (
), k = 8 / 3mU 0 / .
2.6. E << U0 R 1 4 E / U 0 , E >> U0 R (U 0 / 4 E ) 2 .
2.7.
:
1 ( x < 0) = a1 exp(ikx) + b1 exp(ikx), k = 2mE /
2 (0 < x < l ) = a2 exp(i x) + b2 exp(i x), = 2m( E + U 0 ) /
3 ( x > l ) = a3 exp(ikx) .
176
:
a3 4k exp(ikl )
= .
a1 (k + ) 2 exp(i l ) (k ) 2 exp(i l )

2
a (k 2 2 ) 2 1 U 0 sin 2 l 1
D= 3 = (1 + sin l ) = (1 +
2
) .
a1 4 k 2 2 4E (E + U 0 )
D 0,95 .
2.8. . -
D = 1 , sin(l ) = 0 . l = n ,
E = 2 2 n 2 / 2ml 2 U 0 , n , E > 0 .
l = n l = n / 2 ,
. -
Emin =14 .

2.9. R 1,7 1010 .
2 2 m( E + U 0 )
2.10. , ,
D, .. sin l = 1,
= 2 m( E + U 0 / (. 2.7). -
: l = (2n + 1) / 8m( E + U 0 ) = (2n + 1) / 4, n = 0,1, 2,... ,
.
2.11. 2.7:
U 0 sin 2 l 1
D = (1 + ) , = 2m( E U 0 ) / .
4E (E U 0 )
EU0 D = (1 + ml 2U 0 / 2 2 ) 1 .
E , -
,
E = (2 2
/ 2ml 2 )n 2 + U 0 , n = 1, 2,3,...
177
2.12.
:
1 ( x < 0) = a1 exp(ikx) + b1 exp(ikx), k = 2mE /
2 (0 < x < l ) = a2 exp( x) + b2 exp( x), = 2m( E + U 0 ) /
3 ( x > l ) = a3 exp(ikx) .
:
a3 4ik exp(ikl )
= .
a1 (k + i) exp( l ) (k i) 2 exp( l )
2

2 1
a k 2 + 2 2 2 U 0 2 sh 2l 1
D= 3 = 1 + ( ) sh l = (1 + ) ,
a1 2k 4 E (U 0 E )
exp(l ) exp( l )
shl = . l >> 1 D -
2
:
16k 22 E E
D exp(2 l ) = 16 (1 ) exp(2l 2m(U 0 E ) / ).
(k + )
2 2 2
U0 U0
,
,
D exp(2l 2m(U 0 E ) / ) .
2.13. = a exp( x) + b exp( x) ,
= 2m(U 0 E ) / .

w(0) (0) * (0) (1 + a / b)(1 + a * / b*) exp(2 l )
= = .
w(l ) (l ) * (l ) (a / b + exp(2 l ))(a * / b * + exp(2 l ))
x = l :
a 1+ i
= exp(2l ) . ,
b 1 i
w(0) / w(l ) = [ exp(2l ) + exp(2 l ) ] / 2 .
178
2.14. ,
E
U 0 . () -
l = / 2,3 / 2,5 / 2,... , = 2h / 2m( E U 0 )
().
:
2 h 2 n 2
E = U0 + ,
2ml 2
,
,
.
En = (5 + 37,62n 2 ) .
2.15. D exp (4l 2m / 3hU 0 )(U 0 E )3/ 2 .
2.16. D exp (l / h) 2m / U 0 (U 0 E ) .

1 nx
2.17. ( x) = cos( ) n = 1,3,5,...
l/2 l
1 nx
( x) = sin( ) n = 2, 4,6,... ,
l/2 l
h 2 2 2
E= n .
2ml 2
2.18. 2.17, , -
l , :
h 2 2 2
En =
n .
2ml 2
n + 1 n -
()
En +1 En 2 h 2
n +1, n = = (2n + 1) .
h 2ml 2
179
= 2 /T ,
T , T = 2l / , -
, .
, En .
2 En n
= . =
m ml
:
2 n
= = .
l ml 2
n +1, n :
n +1, n 1
=1+ 1 n .
2n
,
- .
2.19. E = ( 2 / 2m)(a 2 / 2) 2 / 3 .
2.20. ) E = k / 2m ; ) E = 2
2 2 2
( N 1) 2 / 2ml 2 .
2.21. ) m = 52 2 / 2l 2 E ; ) n = ( + 1) / 2( 1) = 3 .
2.22. , -
2
2 2
En = n ,
2ml 2
dE 2dn
= .
E n
dN = (l / ) m / 2 EdE .
2.23. ) F = 2 2
/ ml 3 ; ) A = (2 1)2 2
2ml 2 .
2.24. Emin = 2 2
N ( N + 1)( N + 2) / 24ml 2 ;
F = 2 2
N ( N + 1)( N + 2) /12ml 3 .
2l / 3
2
2.25. w =
l sin 2 (x / l )dx = 1/ 3 + 3/ 2 0,61 .
l /3
2.26. l = 2 / Pm , E = ( Pm ) 2 / 8m .
180
2.27. :
x + y + k 2 = 0 , k = 2mE / = .
( x, y ) = A sin(k1 x)sin(k2 y ) ,
x = 0, y = 0 .
k1 , k2 :
(a, y ) = 0 k1 = n1 / a , n1 = 1, 2,3,...
( x, b) = 0 k2 = n2 / b , n2 = 1, 2,3,...
( x, y )
k 2 = k12 + k2 2 . :
E = (2 = 2 / 2m)(n12 / a 2 + n2 2 / b 2 ) .
A . :
( x, y ) = 4 / ab sin(n1x / a )sin(n2 y / b) .
2.28. 2.27,
w = (1/ 3 3 / 4) 2 = 0,038 .
2.29. 2.27 a = b = l ,
E = (2 = 2 / 2ml 2 )(n12 + n2 2 ) . ,
-
n1 n2 , ,
n12 + n2 2 . -
, E = 2,5,8,10 2 = 2 / 2ml 2 .
2.30. E = 2 = 2 Pm / 4m .
2.31.
+ k 2 = 0, k = 2mE / = .
= A sin(kr + ) . -
r = 0 = 0 .
, (r ) = ( A / r )sin kr . (r0 ) = 0
kr0 = n, (n = 1, 2,3...). A
181

2 (r )4r 2 dr = 1 .
0
n
2 2 2
1 sin kr
E= ; (r ) = , kr0 = n, (n = 1, 2,3...).
2mr0 2
2r0 r
2.32. 2.31.
r0 / 2
d (r 2 2 )
dr
= 0 r =
2k
= r0 / 2; w = 2 (r )4r 2 dr = 1/ 2.
0
r0
r0 2 3
2.33. r = r 2 (r )4r 2 dr = r0 / 2, r 2 = (1 2 2 ) ,
0
3 2 n
(r r ) 6
2 2
= r2 r = r0 2 (1
) /12 .
n 2 2
2.34. (r )
:
1 (r r0 ) = A sin(kr + ), k = 2mE / ,
2 (r > r0 ) = B exp( r ) + C exp( r ), = 2m(U E ) / .
-
, = 0, B = 0 . ,
sin kr exp(r )
1 (r r0 ) = A , 2 (r > r0 ) = C .
r r
-
r = r0 tgkr0 = k / , sin kr0 =
= 2
/ 2mr0 2U kr0 , k = 2mE / .
, 2 2 / 8m < r0 2U 0 < 92 2 / 8m .
2.35.
( n1 , n2 ),
E = (2 2 / 2ml 2 )(n12 + n2 2 ) ( . -
2.29) , -
, , -
.
( dn1 , dn2 ) dN = dn1dn2 ,
182

( n1 , n2 ), E.
k 2 = k12 + k2 2 = 2mE / 2 , -
k1 k2 .
k- k
(. 1). , -
E E + dE ,
k k + dk
( k
):
l2 l 2 2kdk
dN = dn1dn2 = dk1 dk 2 = .
2 2 4
k 2 = k12 + k2 2 = 2mE / 2
l 2m
dN = dE .
2 2
2.36. 2.27:
E = (2 2
/ 2m)(n12 / a 2 + n2 2 / b 2 + n32 / c 2 ) ,
n1 , n2 , n3 , .
2.37. ) E = (2 2
/ 2ml 2 )(n12 + n2 2 + n32 ) , n1 , n2 , n3
, . E34 = 2 2
/ ml 2 ;
) n12 + n2 2 + n32 = 14
E = 7 2 2 / ml 2 ;
1, 2 3, .. .
abcm3/ 2
2.38. dN = EdE .
2 2 3
2.35.
2.39. ,
, ,
(0) = 0
183
.
:
l = klctgkl ,
2m 2m
2
(U 0 E ) = 2 , 2
E = k2 .
l = klctgkl
sin kl = kl 2
/ 2ml 2U 0 .

(. 2). -

(
ctgkl < 0 ,
-
). ,
(.. ) -
!
n- ,
kl = (2n 1) / 2 ,
l 2U 0 = (2n 1) 2 2 2
/ 8m .
2.40. sin kl = kl 2 2
/ 2ml U 0 ,
, , E = U 0 / 2
:
l mU 0 l mU 0
sin( ) = 1/ 2 = 3 / 4 ( -
, ). ,
l 2U 0 = 9 /162 2 / m . l 2U 0 -
d 1
. = 0 , 1 sin kx -
dx
: x = / 2k = 2l / 3 .
2.43. ,

. 2.22.
184

ktgka = ,
2mE 2m(U 0 E )
k= 2
= 2
.
ktgka = :
2 2
cos 2 ka = 2
(ka) 2 cos ka = ka .
2mU 0 a 2mU 0 a 2
(.. tgka > 0 ) ,
sin ka > 0 cos ka > 0 .
2
sin ka = ka ,
2mU 0 a 2
ctgka < 0 , , sin ka
cos ka .
. 3.
, U 0 ( a)
a ( U 0 )
.

2
1 2 2
< U 0 a 2 < .
2mU 0 a 2 / 2 8m
2.44. E1 = 2 2
/18ma 2 .
185
2 2 2 2 2
2.45. U 0 = =16,6 ; Ei = = 12,45 .
9ma 2 6ma 2
162 2 U
2.46. U 0 = 2
=11,2 ; Ei = 0 = 2,8 .
27 ma 4
2.47. -
2
2m(U 0 E )
sin ka = 2
ka , k 2 =
2
.
2mU 0 a
. 4.
U 0 a 2 ,

,
U 0 a 2 = 2 2 / 8m .

( ka = / 2 ) ,
..
.
U 0 .
tg = 2 / 3 ..
2.48. U = E / sin 2 kd = 1,64 , k = 2mE / = 6,22107 1.
D exp(18 d ) = 3,5105, = 2m(U E ) / = 1,9107 1;
= ln 2 / nD =1,61011 , n = 2 E / m / 2d = 1,221015 1 -
.
2.49. a = / 8mU 0 3,11010 (. 2.47);
= 1/ nD =1,21011 , D exp(598 a ) = 8,4105,
n = 2 E / m / 2a ,
= 2m( E U ) / =5,08105 1.
2.50. E / 0,91 , = 1/ nD
2
, D exp( 2mU 0 d ) e 3,25
, n = / a =1,151016 1 ,
= / ma .
186
2 2
2.51. U 0 = + E = 42 ,
8a 2
( )
.
3.1. ) E = / 2 ; ) E = 3 / 2 .
3.2. En = (n + 1/ 2) .
2 1/ 2
3.3. A0 = ( )1/ 2 , A1 = ( )1/ 2 , A2 = ( ) .
2
3.4. x =1/ .
5/ 2
3.5. x1 = 0, x2 = .

1 2
3.6. x. = , x =.
2
1
3.7. ) x0 = ; ) = x ;

w = exp( 2 )d / exp( 2 )d = 0,049 .
1 0
3.8.
x > 0 , -
. , -
n, (0) = 0 . -
, -
E = (2 + 3/ 2) , = 0,1, 2... ,

.
3.9. , ..
( x, y, z ) = X ( x)Y ( y ) Z ( z ) . -
187
X , Y , Z
:
2m
X + 2
( Ex k x x 2 / 2) X = 0 ,
Ex + E y + Ez E.
-
, -
. :
= ( x) ( y ) ( z ) ,
, , .
: En = (n + 3/ 2) , n = + + . -
, , , n,
n- .
, ,
. -
( ), .. n + 1 ( 0
n ). , ,
n (.. ) :
n
(n + 1)(n + 2)
N = (n + 1) = .
= 0 2
3.10. A = 1/ r03 , r0 = 2
/ kme 2 , E = 2
/ 2mr0 2 = kme 4 / 2 2
,
k = 1/ 4 0 .
3.11. E = k 2 me 4 / 8 2 (
n = 2 ), k = 1/ 4 0 .
3.12. r = r0 = 40 2
/ me 2 ,
r < r 1 5 / e 2 = 0,323 .
3.13. r = 3r0 / 2, r 2 = 3r0 2 , ( r )
2 2
= r2 r = 3r0 2 / 4 ,
r0 = 40 2
/ me 2 .
188
3.14. r / r = 3/ 2 .
3.15. P = 13/ e 4 = 0, 238 .
3.16. F = 2ke 2 / r0 , U = ke 2 / r0 , k = 1/ 4 0 .
3.17. r = 4r0 , r = 5r0 .
3.18. = e 2 .
k ke
0 = 4r 2 dr = ,
r r0
k = 1/ 4 0 .
4.1.
, -
EF (0)
Eg ( E )dE , ,
0
E F (0)
g ( E )dE .
0
E = 3EF (0) / 5 .
1
p 2 dp p 2 / 2m EF
4.2. dn( p ) = exp( ) + 1 T 0 K ,
2 3 kT
p 2 dp
dn( p ) = T = 0 K .
2 3
4.3. = 1 1/ 8 = 0,65 .
4.4. T 3104 .
22 2
4.5. E = = 1,81022 .
mV (32 n)1/ 3
4.6. = max = 2 EF (0) / m =1,6106 /;
= 3max / 4 =1,2106 /.
4.7. n( )d = 8 4 d .
189
4.8.
,
2m cos ( -
),
. -

(, + d ) (, + d ) -
:
2 sin d
dN = n()d cos .
4
0 / 2 0
max = 2 EF (0) / m :
2
p= (32 n)5/ 3 = 5109 .
15 m
2
4.9.
x , y , z . , -
d x , d y , d z ,
d x d y d z . ,
(, + d ) ,
, .. 42 d .
:
d x d y d z
n()d x d y d z = n()d . (*)
42 d
, , n()d = n( E )dE , E = m2 / 2
dE / d = 2mE .
n( E ) (4.1)
(*), .
2
4.10. EF (0) = (32N A / ) 2 / 3 = 1,50 .
2me
190

6.1.
. , ,
E . -
(4.1),

nn = n( E )dE = 2(mkT / 2
2 3/ 2
) exp [ ( EF E ) / kT ] .
E
- -
,
: f p = 1 f n = exp [ ( E EF ) / kT ] ;
0
n p = f p g p dE ,

2m3
g p dE = g n dE = EdE .
2 3
:
n p = 2(mkT / 2 2 )3/ 2 exp( EF / kT ) .

,
EF E = EF EF = E / 2 ,
.. .
, , -
,
-
. ,
nn = n p = 2(mkT / 2 2 )3/ 2 exp(E / 2kT ) ,
E .
6.2. )
.

nn = n( E )dE = 2(mkT / 2
2 3/ 2
) exp [ ( EF E ) / kT ] .
E
191

:
nn = n0 [1 f (0)] n0 exp( EF / kT ) .
,
nn 2 = 2n0 (mkT / 2 2 )3/ 2 exp(E / kT ) ,
, .
)
nn ,
E kT 2 mkT 3/ 2
EF = ln ( ) .
2 2 n0 2 2
1 d E c
6.3. = = = = 0,047 1. ,
dT 2kT 2
0 kT 2
exp(E / 2kT ) , E .
2kT1T2
6.4. E = ln = 0,34 .
T2 T1
( )
6.5. t = / ln 0 1 2 = 10 .
(0 2 )1

6.6. 1 = 2, 28 .
2
6.7. X ,
,
U1
U 2 :
mx12 / 2 + U1 = mx 2 2 / 2 + U 2 .
, : y1 = y 2 , z1 = z 2 .
, ,
:
dN1 = x1n(1 )d 1 , dN 2 = x 2 n(2 )d 2 .
192
dN1 = dN 2 .
r r
x1d 1 = x 2 d 2 , -
r r
, n(1 ) = n(2 ) . -
, (4.9),
n()d 3 = 2(m / 2h)3 (1 + exp [ ( E EF ) / kT ]) 1 d 3 ,
, E1 EF 1 = E2 EF 2 . E1 + U1 = E2 + U 2 ,
:
EF 1 + U1 = EF 2 + U 2 .
, -
, , -
.
6.8. , -
, :
mx 2 / 2 = m x 2 + U , y = y , z = z . (*)

, U ,
U = EF + A , A .
, -
(, + d 3) ,
, (4.9), :
m 3 x d 3
dN = x n()d 3 = 2( ) ,
2h 1 + exp [ ( E EF ) / kT ]
d 3 = d x d y d z .
(*) , x d 3 = x d 3 . ,
E EF = E + A . A >> kT dN
:
dN = 2( m / 2h)3 exp [ ( A + E ) / kT ] x d 3 .
:
x = cos d 3 = d x d y d z = sin d d d .
193
dN
0 2 0 /2 ,
.
6.9. E = 2kT ; j = (mek 2 / 22 h3 )T 2 exp( A / kT ) .

7.1. ,
,
: J1 = 0,417 ,
J 2 = 0,583 .
V Vmin
7.2. max = jc RT .
2
7.3. -
: J = J 0 + J1 sin(2 t ) .
= 0 + 1 , 0 ,
J 0 . 1 .
: V = ( 0 / 2)d 1 / dt
( 0 ). d 1 / dt
: d 1 / dt = (dJ / dt )(dJ / d 1 ) 1 .
J = J c sin 1 ,
0 J1
V= sin(2 t + / 2) .
J c 2 J 02
0,58 . ,
/ 2 ,
L = 0 /(2 J c 2 J 0 2 ) .
194

1. .. . 3 . . 3.
. . .
/ .. . 2-
., . .: . -
, 1982. 304 .
2. .. : .
2- . . 1. / .. . .: .
- , 1986.
416 .
3. . . 9 . . 8, 9 /
. , . , . . .: , 1978. 524 .
4. . / . . 2- . .: , 1982.
558 .
5. . . 2 . . 2 / . . .: , 1981.
622 .
6. .. : .
. / .. . .: ,
1991. 175 .
7. : .
. 3 . . 3. .
/ . .. . .: - , 2001. 432 .
8. . ,
/ . .. .
.: . - -
, 1981. 224 .
9. .. -
/ .. , .. . .: ,
- , 1970. 276 .
195

..
. . 020370
29.12.2006. 6090/16.
. . . 12,25. 150 . 22/2006.

: 614990, . , , 29, . 113.
.: (342) 219-80-33

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..

A2 exp(l ) + B2 exp( l ) = A3 exp(il )

A2 exp(l ) B2 exp( l ) = iA3 exp(il )

sin kl = kl h 2 / 2ml 2U 0 , k = 2mE / h

k (r ) = exp(ikr )uk (r ) , (5.2)

1.1. = 2(2 1) / mE = 0,15 .

w(0) / w(l ) = [ exp(2l ) + exp(2 l ) ] / 2 .

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