Государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение высшего

профессионального образования «Саратовский государственный

медицинский университет имени В.И. Разумовского» Министерства
здравоохранения Российской Федерации

LIFE SCIENCES
ЕСТЕСТВЕННЫЕ НАУКИ
Учебно-методическое пособие

Издательство Саратовского государственного

медицинского университета

2021

3
УДК 576:579:591:929(075.8)
ББК 52.6 г я73
Авторский знак L70

Авторы:
М.Ю. Мухина, Ю.А. Храмова, И.Ю. Юрова, И.В. Зенина, О.С. Денисова

L70 Life Sciences = Естественные науки: учеб.-метод. пособие/ М.Ю.

Мухина, Ю.А. Храмова, И.Ю. Юрова, И.В. Зенина, О.С. Денисова –Саратов:
Изд-во Сарат. гос. мед. ун-та, 2021. –...с. Учебно-методическое пособие
направлено на развитие разговорных навыков на базе знаний,
предусмотренных программой средней школы. Данное учебное пособие
адресовано студентам I курса всех специальностей медицинских и
фармацевтических вузов РФ, изучающим базовый курс английского языка, а
также ординаторам, аспирантам и адъюнктам, продолжающим изучение
языка. Пособие может заинтересовать широкий круг специалистов-медиков,
желающих свободно владеть навыками работы с англоязычной научной
литературой.

УДК 576:579:591:929(075.8)
ББК 52.6 г я73
Рецензенты:
доктор филологических наук, профессор И.Ю. Иванюшина;
доктор филологических наук, профессор И.В. Привалова

Утверждено к изданию ЦКМС СГМУ

Текст печатается в авторской редакции

©Авторы, 2021

©Саратовский государственный медицинский университет, 2021

4
 CONTENT
PART I: MATTER ……………………………………………. 4
Text: Matter. Five States of Matter ………………………………….…. 9
Text: The Four Fundamental States of Matter ……………………….. 11
Chemical symbols ……………………………………………………… 15
PART II: CELL …………………………………………….. 19
Text: Cell ………………………………………………………………... 21
Structure of the Cell ………………………………………………........ 24
Cytology ………………………………………………………………… 29
PART III: GENETICS ……………………………………..... 35
Text: What is a gene? ……………………………………………………. 41
Text: What is a chromosome? …………………………………………... 42
Text: What is a DNA? …………………………………………………… 43
Text: What is a cell division? ……………………………………………. 44
Additional material ………………………………………………………. 45
PART IV: MICROBIOLOGY ……………………………… 48
Text: What is Microbiology? …………………………………………….. 51
Text: Medical Microbiology …………………………………………….. 52
Text: From the History of Microbiology ……………………………….. 52
Text: Four Kinds of Microorganisms …………………………………... 54
Text: Transmission of Infectious Diseases ……………………………… 57
Additional material ………………………………………………………. 57

5
PART I: MATTER

Ex. 1. Read the following words, pay attention to their pronunciation:

ability, n [əˈbɪlɪti] – возможность, способность

Flexibility is the ability of matter to bend.
analysis, n [əˈnæləsɪs] - анализ, исследование, разложение
Analysis is a breaking down a compound into the elements.
anything, pron [ˈeniθɪŋ] – что-нибудь, всё
Anything that occupies space and has mass is known as matter.
change, n [tʃeɪndʒ] – перемена, изменение
Matter can undergo a variety of changes.
chemical, n [ˈkemɪkəl]| – химический
Chemical properties are the changes in composition undergone by a substance
when it is subjected to various conditions.
compound, n [ˈkɒmpaʊnd] – соединение
Substances can be simple elements or compounds.
density, n [ˈdensɪtɪ]| – плотность, густота
Density is a physical property.
environment, n [ɪnˈvaɪrənmənt] – окружающая среда
Environment means anything that surrounds us.
kind, n [kaɪnd]| – сорт, разряд; вид, класс
There are two kinds of properties – physical and chemical.
liquid, n [ˈlɪkwɪd]| – жидкость, жидкий
Water is a liquid.
mass, n [mæs] – масса
Mass is the amount of matter in an object.
matter, n [ˈmætə] – вещество; материя
Matter is everything around you.
particle, n [ˈpɑːtɪkl] – крупица, частица
6
Some physicists define matter as anything composed of elementary particles.
permanent, adj [ˈpɜːmənənt] – постоянный
Chemical properties are permanent.
physical, adj [ˈfɪzɪkl]| – физический
Taste, density and odour are the physical properties.
property, n [ˈprɒpətɪ]| - свойство
The properties of a substance are physical and chemical.
synthesis, n [ˈsɪnθəsɪs] - синтез
Synthesis is building up a compound from the elements.
solid, adj [ˈsɒlɪd] - твердый
Ice, water and steam are respectively the solid, liquid and gaseous states of water.
solid, n [ˈsɒlɪd|] – твердое вещество; твердое тело
A solid is a substance with a definite shape.
solubility, n [ˌsɒljʊˈbɪlɪtɪ] – растворимость
Solubility is a physical property.
space, n [speɪs] –пространство, площадь
Matter is anything that has weight and occupies space.
substance, n [ˈsʌbstəns] - вещество, субстанция
The substance converts to an acid.
temporary, adj [ˈtempərerɪ]- временный
Physical properties are temporary.
transformation, n [ˌtrænsfəˈmeɪʃn] – трансформация
Chemistry and physics deal with the study of matter, its properties, changes and
transformation with energy.
volume, n [ˈvɒljuːm] – объём, емкость, масса
Volume is the amount of space which an object occupies.
Universe, n [ˈjuːnɪvɜːs] – вселенная, мир, космос
Matter can be found all over the Universe.

Ex.2. Memorize the verbs to be used, consult the dictionary if necessary

7
To analyze, to break down, to can, to combine, to compose, to conduct, to consist
of, to exist, to describe, to determine, to differ in, to exist, to explain, to mean, to
observe, to occupy, to occur, to surround, to undergo

Ex.3. Mind the following international words:

Atom, element, material, theory, nucleus, molecule, electron, proton, mass, crystal,
analysis, synthesis, energy, quark, graviton, object

Ex.4. Read the following words, pay attention to their pronunciation:

matter gaseous

substance enormous

material property

temporary analysis

liquid transformation

permanent composition

solid constituent

Ex.5. Mind the following words, their derivatives, and meaning:

science-scientist-scientific flexible-flexibility
dense-density effect-effective-effectiveness
define-definite-definition elastic-elasticity
soluble-solubility combine-combination
occupy-occupation-occupied liquid-liquefy
able-ability solid-solidify

Ex.6.Mind the formation of plural form of the following words:

analysis-analyses
synthesis-syntheses
phenomenon-phenomena
8
nucleus-nuclei
formula-formulae

Ex.7. Read and translate different definitions of the term “Matter”:

“Matter” as a term is terribly ambiguous; there isn’t a universal definition
that is context-independent. There are at least three possible definitions that are
used in various situations:
“Matter” can refer to atoms, the basic building blocks of what we think of
as “material”: tables, air, rocks, skin, orange juice — and by extension, to the
particles out of which atoms are made, including electrons, protons and neutrons
that make up the nucleus of an atom.
“Matter” can refer to what are sometimes called the elementary “matter
particles” of nature: electrons, the three types of neutrinos, the six types of quarks
— all of the types of particles which are not the force particles (the photon, gluons,
graviton).
“Matter” can refer to classes of particles that are found out there, in the
wider universe, and that on average move much more slowly than the speed of
light.

Ex.8.Mind the meaning of the following terms:

Material - any type of matter that can be named. A material has properties which
are variable.
Substance - any type of matter that can be named. A substance has properties that
can be described, so that the substance can be identified.
Element - a basic constituent of a chemical compounds.
Particle - a very small piece of matter.
Property - one of the ways in which an object, substance, material, force or wave
motion can be recognized by appearance or behavior.
Atom - the smallest particle of an element which exhibits the properties of the
element.
Molecule - the smallest group of combined atoms of either an element or
compound which can have a free existence.
Theory - a reasonable or scientifically acceptable explanation for a fact or event.

Ex.9.Mind the following word combinations, give their Russian equivalents:

9
throughout the universe physical changes
small object physical and chemical properties
large object chemical changes
genetic engineering atomic theory
mineral resources laboratory investigations
non-ferrous metals positively charged nucleus
oil industry various combinations
variety of changes definite proportions

Ex.10. Match the corresponding pairs of word combinations:

nuclear energy различаться по форме
elementary particles оставаться постоянным
different states быть сделанным из чего-либо
solar energy ядерная энергия
to differ in shape соединяться разными способами
to be made up of принимать форму чего-либо
to be combined in different ways элементарные частицы
to explain properties of matter различные состояния
to determine properties of matter объяснять свойства материи
to undergo changes солнечная энергия
to remain constant определять свойства материи
to take the shape of подвергаться изменениям

Ex.11. Read the text, mind the information mentioned

MATTER
Matter is anything that occupies space, including everything on the Earth
and throughout the Universe. Matter is everything around you. Atoms and
compounds are all made of very small parts of matter. These atoms go on to build
the things you see and touch every day. Matter is defined as anything that has mass
and occupies space (it has volume).

10
 Mass is the amount of matter in an object. You might have a small object
with a lot of mass such as a statue made of lead (Pb). You might have a large
object with very little mass such as a balloon filled with helium (He). There is a
difference between mass and weight. Mass is a measure of the matter in an object
while weight is a measure of gravity’s pull on an object.
Volume is the amount of space which an object occupies. Words such as big,
little, long, or short are used to describe volumes. A marble takes up a small
volume while a star occupies a large volume. Different states of matter will fill
volumes in different ways.
Even though matter can be found all over the Universe, you will only find it
in a few forms (states) on Earth. We cover five states of matter. Each of these
states is sometimes called a phase. There are many other states of matter that exist
in extreme environments.
Five States of Matter
Everyone should know about solids, liquids, gases, and plasmas. Scientists
have always known about solids, liquids, and gases. Plasma was a new idea when
it was identified by William Crookes in 1879. We also know about the Bose-
Einstein condensate (BEC). It is a state of matter when you remove almost all
energy from a system. The scientists (Cornell, Ketterle, and Wieman) who worked
with the Bose-Einstein condensate received a Nobel Prize for their work in 2001.
There are physical and chemical properties of matter; they indicate the
physical state and energy in the atoms and molecules. Physical properties of a solid
often include the notions "hard" and "brittle." Liquids are fluid, move around a
little, and fill up containers. Gases are always around you, but the molecules of a
gas are much farther apart than the molecules in a liquid. If a gas has an odor,
you’ll often be able to smell it before you can see it. The BEC indicates the atoms
that are closer and less energetic than atoms in a solid.
Molecules can move from one physical state to another and not change their
atomic structure. Oxygen (O2) gas has the same chemical properties as liquid
oxygen. The liquid state is colder and denser (less energy), but the molecules are
the same. Water (H2O) is another example. A water molecule is made up of two
hydrogen (H) atoms and one oxygen (O) atom. It has the same molecular structure
whether it is a gas, liquid, or solid. Although its physical state may change due to
different amounts of energy, its atomic structure remains the same.
So, what is a chemical change of matter? Let's start with a glass of pure
water. If the formula of water were to change, that would be a chemical change. If
you could add a second oxygen atom to a water (H 2O) molecule, you would have
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). The molecules would not be "water" anymore. In
reality, there are a variety of steps that go into creating hydrogen peroxide from
water.

11
 Physical changes are related to changes in the immediate environment such
as temperature, pressure, and other physical forces. Chemical changes occur when
the bonds between atoms in a compound are created or destroyed. Generally, the
basic chemical structure does not change when there is a physical change. Of
course, in extreme environments such as the Sun, no molecule is safe from
destruction.
It is useful to classify materials as solid, liquid or gas (though water, for
example, exists as solid (ice), as liquid (water) and as gas (water vapour). The
changes of state described by the terms solidify (freeze), liquefy (melt), vaporize
(evaporate) and condense are examples of physical changes. After physical change
there is still the same material. Water is water whether it is solid, liquid or gas.
Also, there is still the same mass of material. It is usually easy to reverse a physical
change.

Ex.12. Answer the questions:

1. What is matter?
2. What does matter occupy?
3. Where does matter exist?
4. What is mass?
5. What is volume?
6. What are the main states of matter?
7. What makes a state of matter?
8. What kinds of matter do you know?
9. What is a physical change of matter?
10.What is a chemical change of matter?

Ex.13. Translate the following sentences:

1. Matter is anything that occupies space.
2. Gas, liquid and solid are three states of matter.
3. Drops of water and specks of dust are kinds of matter, and so are plants,
animals, and even planets.
4. All matter has mass, which is a measure of the particles (atoms and
molecules) that it consists of.
5. Particles can group together in many different ways, varying the structure of
matter.
6. The quantity of matter may be measured by its mass or its volume.
7. Matter can only exist in one of its states.

12
8. Matter can undergo a variety of changes in form and properties.
9. Chemical properties include reactions which change one substance into
other different substances.
10. Physical properties include size, shape, smell, color, solubility, melting
point, boiling point.
11. The atomic and kinetic theories explain the physical and chemical
properties of matter.

Ex.14. Read the text, mind the difference between the states of matter

The four fundamental states of matter

Solid
In a solid, constituent particles (ions, atoms, or molecules) are closely
packed together. The forces between particles are so strong that the particles
cannot move freely but can only vibrate. As a result, a solid has a stable, definite
shape, and a definite volume. Solids can only change their shape by an outside
force, as when broken or cut. Solids can be transformed into liquids by melting,
and liquids can be transformed into solids by freezing. Solids can also change
directly into gases through the process of sublimation, and gases can likewise
change directly into solids through deposition.
Liquid
A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its
container but retains a (nearly) constant volume independent of pressure. The
volume is definite if the temperature and pressure are constant. When a solid is
heated above its melting point, it becomes liquid, given that the pressure is higher
than the triple point of the substance. Intermolecular (or interatomic or interionic)
forces are still important, but the molecules have enough energy to move relative
to each other and the structure is mobile. This means that the shape of a liquid is
not definite but is determined by its container. The volume is usually greater than
that of the corresponding solid, the best-known exception being water, H 2O. The
highest temperature at which a given liquid can exist is its critical temperature.
Gas
A gas is a compressible fluid. Not only will a gas conform to the shape of its
container but it will also expand to fill the container. In a gas, the molecules have
enough kinetic energy so that the effect of intermolecular forces is small (or zero
for an ideal gas), and the typical distance between neighboring molecules is much
greater than the molecular size. A gas has no definite shape or volume, but
occupies the entire container in which it is confined. A liquid may be converted to
13
a gas by heating at constant pressure to the boiling point, or else by reducing the
pressure at constant temperature. At temperatures below its critical value, a gas is
also called a vapor, and can be liquefied by compression alone without cooling. A
vapor can exist in equilibrium with a liquid (or solid), in which case the gas
pressure equals the vapor pressure of the liquid (or solid). A supercritical fluid
(SCF) is a gas whose temperature and pressure are above the critical temperature
and critical pressure respectively. In this state, the distinction between liquid and
gas disappears. A supercritical fluid has the physical properties of a gas, but its
high density conferms solvent properties in some cases, which leads to useful
applications. For example, supercritical carbon dioxide is used to extract caffeine
in the manufacture of decaffeinated coffee.
Plasma
Like a gas, plasma does not have definite shape or volume. Unlike gases,
plasmas are electrically conductive, produce magnetic fields and electric currents,
and respond strongly to electromagnetic forces. Positively charged nuclei swim in
a "sea" of freely-moving disassociated electrons, similar to the way such charges
exist in conductive metal, where this electron "sea" allows matter in the plasma
state to conduct electricity. A gas is usually converted to a plasma in one of two
ways, e.g., either from a huge voltage difference between two points, or by
exposing it to extremely high temperatures. Heating matter to high temperatures
causes electrons to leave the atoms, resulting in the presence of free electrons. This
creates so-called partially ionized plasma. At very high temperatures, such as those
present in stars, it is assumed that essentially all electrons are "free", and that very
high-energy plasma is essentially bare nuclei swimming in a sea of electrons. This
forms the so-called fully ionized plasma. The plasma state is often misunderstood,
and although not freely existing under normal conditions on Earth, it is quite
commonly generated by either lightning, electric sparks, fluorescent lights, neon
lights or in plasma televisions. The Sun's corona, some types of flame, and stars
are all examples of illuminated matter in the plasma state.

Ex.15. States of matter. Test questions:

1. Which theory describes the arrangement and movement of particles in
solids, liquids and gases?

a) Theory of relativity
b) Kinetic theory
c) Atomic theory

2. In which state of matter are the particles in most contact but arranged in a
random way?

a) Solid
14
b) Liquid
c) Gas

3. In which state of matter do the particles have the most of energy?

a) Solid
b) Liquid
c) Gas

4. Why can liquids not be compressed easily?

a) The particles are in a random arrangement

b) The particles are closely packed
c) The particles are free to move over each other

5. Why do solids have a fixed shape?

a) The particles are fixed in place

b) The particles are closely packed
c) The particles vibrate

6. What is the name of the change when a liquid becomes a solid?

a) Melting
b) Boiling
c) Freezing

7. What is sublimation?

a) When a solid turns into a gas

b) When a gas turns into a solid
c) When a gas turns into a liquid

8. What eventually happens if energy is continually removed from a liquid?

a) It boils
b) It evaporates
c) It freezes

9. What eventually happens to a gas if its pressure is increased?

a) It condenses
15
 b) It evaporates
c) It melts

10.Which of the following will sublime at room temperature and pressure?

a) Ice
b) Graphite
c) Solid carbon dioxide (dry ice)

Ex.16. Read the text, find the answer to the questions:

What is a chemical symbol?
What is a chemical formula?
What does the chemical formula show?
A chemical symbol is an abbreviation or a short representation of the name
of the chemical element, generally derived from its Latin or Greek name. That is
why chemical symbols may not be similar to their English equivalents, e.g., Na is
used for sodium (Latin natrium) and Au is used for gold (Latin aurum). All natural
elements have symbols consisting of one or two letters; some man-made elements
have symbols of three letters.
Chemical symbols are listed in the periodic table of Mendeleyev. Each
element has its atomic number, atomic mass and period number.
A chemical formula is combination of chemical symbols of elements that
constitute a particular chemical compound. For example, the chemical formula for
sodium chlorine (NaCl) indicates that in sodium chlorine there is one atom of
sodium (Na) for every atom of chlorine (Cl). The chemical formula for sulfuric
acid (H2SO4) indicates that in a molecule of hydrogen (H), one atom of sulfur (S)
and four atoms of oxygen (O) are chemically united in these definite proportions.

Mind the following:

Chemical formulae may contain items of four types:
a) letters: HCL, HBr;
b) figures which are pronounced as “one”, “two”, “three” etc. However, a number
following the bracket may become “twice”, “three times”, “four times”, etc. Thus,
HClO4 is pronounced H-C-L-O-four, but Zn3(PO4)2 is pronounced Z-N-three-P-O-
four-twice;
c) brackets, which are usually omitted in speech.
16
Their position may be indicated by pauses. Thus (NH 4)2SO4 is pronounced N-H-
four –twice –pause –S-O-four

Ex.17. Mind the pronunciation of the following elements:

Symbol Latin name Russian name English name Transcription

Hydrogeniu
H Водород Hydrogen [ ˈhaɪdrədʒən ]
m

He Helium Гелий Helium [ ˈhiːlɪəm ]

B Borum Бор Boron [ ˈbɔːrɒn ]

C Carboneum Углерод Carbon [ ˈkɑːbən ]

N Nitrogenium Азот Nitrogen [ ˈnaɪtrədʒən ]

O Oxygenium Кислород Oxygen [ ˈɒksɪdʒən ]

F Fluorum Фтор Fluorine [ ˈflʊəriːn ]

Ne Neon Неон Neon [ ˈniːɒn ]

Na Natrium Натрий Sodium [ ˈsəʊdɪəm ]

[ mæɡ
Mg Magnesium Магний Magnesium
ˈniːzɪəm ]

Al Aluminium Алюминий Aluminum [ əˈluːmɪnəm ]

P Phosphorus Фосфор Phosphorus [ ˈfɒsfərəs ]

S Sulfur Сера Sulfur [ ˈsəlfə ]

Cl Chlorum Хлор Chlorine [ ˈklɔːriːn ]

K Kalium Калий Potassium [ pəˈtæsɪəm ]

17
Ca Calcium Кальций Calcium [ ˈkælsɪəm ]

Cr Chromium Хром Chromium [ ˈkrəʊmɪəm ]

Mn Manganum Марганец Manganese [ ˈmæŋɡəniːz ]

Fe Ferrum Железо Iron [ ˈaɪən ]

Cu Cuprum Медь Copper [ ˈkɒpə ]

Zn Zincum Цинк Zinc [ zɪŋk ]

As Arsenicum Мышьяк Arsenic [ ˈɑːsnɪk ]

Zr Zirconium Цирконий Zirconium [ zɜːˈkəʊniəm ]

Ag Argentum Серебро Silver [ ˈsɪlvə ]

I Jodum Иод Iodine [ ˈaɪədiːn ]

[ˈzenɒn,
Xe Xenon Ксенон Xenon
ˈziːnɒn]

Au Aurum Золото Gold [ ɡəʊld ]

Hydrargyru
Hg Ртуть Mercury [ ˈmɜːkjʊri ]
m

Pb Plumbum Свинец Lead [ led ]

Ex.18. Read and translate the following chemical symbols:

Mn, N, K, H, Br, Ca, Na, Cr, Ca, Se, Hg, Pb, Zn, Zr, Cu, Fe, Ag, I, O, Xe, As

Ex.19. Mind the reading of the following compounds:

18
HBr, NaClO3, NH4OH, AlPO3, Ag2SO3, FePO4, Zn3(PO4)2, Cu(ClO3)2, FeSO3

Ex. 20. Match the chemical formula and its translation:

HCl, NaNO3, NH3, H2SO4, C2H5OH, HNO3, H2CO3, CaCl2, C6H6, CaCO3, H3PO4,
C6H5OH, FeSO4, KOH, NH4Cl, Al2O3, Ca(OH)2, AgNO3, C6H12O6, CuSO4, H2SO3
Соляная кислота, аммиак, фенол, оксид алюминия, оксид железа, хлористый
аммоний, этиловый спирт, сернистая кислота, фосфорная кислота, угольная
кислота, азотная кислота, серная кислота, нитрат серебра, нитрат натрия,
хлорид кальция, бензол, карбонат кальция, гидроксид калия, гидроксид
кальция, глюкоза, сульфат меди

Ex.21.Translate the following sentences from Russian into English:

1. Материя – это все, что занимает пространство, включая все то, что
существует на Земле и во всей Вселенной.
2. Всякая материя обладает массой, которая является мерой частиц
(атомов и молекул), из которых она состоит.
3. Частицы могут группироваться самыми различными способами,
изменяя структуру материи.
4. Все виды материи можно классифицировать как твердые, жидкие или
газообразные.
5. Химия - это наука о веществах, их свойствах и превращениях.
6. Вещество – это вид материи, каждая частица которой имеет
одинаковые физические свойства.
7. Физическими явлениями называются такие явления, при которых в
составе вещества не происходят изменения.
8. Химическими явлениями называются такие явления, при которых
образуются вещества с другими свойствами.
9. Вещества состоят из молекул; молекулы состоят из атомов.
10. Материя может подвергаться изменениям в форме и свойствах.
11. В различных организмах содержатся практически все известные
химические элементы.
12. Тело человека на 96% состоит из 4 элементов: углерода, кислорода,
водорода, азота.
13. В природе содержится 3.35% калия; в организме человека содержится
до 0.35 калия. Больше всего калия содержится в эритроцитах, мышцах,
мозге и в сердце.
14. В природе содержится 2.35% магния; в организме человека
содержится 0.04%, из них 60% - в скелете.
15. Бор – это микроэлемент, содержащийся в незначительных количествах
в животных и растительных организмах.
19
Ex.22. Read the additional information. Learn how important water is to life on
Earth as well as how many uses and properties it has. Read the information
about ice, steam, snow, drinking water, oceans, water pollution, seawater, rivers,
the water cycle and much more with interesting facts about water.
• Water is made up of two elements, hydrogen and oxygen. Its chemical
formula is H2O.
• Each molecule of water is made up of two hydrogen atoms bonded to a
single oxygen atom.
• The existence of water is essential for life on Earth.
• Water has three different states: liquid, solid and gas.
• The word “water” usually refers to water in its liquid state. The solid state of
water is known as ice, while the gaseous state of water is known as steam or water
vapour.
• Water covers around 70% of the Earth’s surface.
• The three largest oceans on Earth are the Pacific Ocean (largest), the
Atlantic Ocean (second largest) and the Indian Ocean (third largest).
• Water from a sea or ocean is known as seawater. On average, every
kilogram of seawater contains around 35 grams of dissolved salt.
• The freezing point of water lowers as the amount of salt dissolved in at
increases. With average levels of salt, seawater freezes at -2 °C (28.4 °F).
• The longest river in the world is the Nile River; it reaches 6650 kilometers in
length.
• Water makes a good solvent with many sugars, salts and acids easily
dissolving in them. On the other hand, oils and fats don’t mix well with water.
• The water cycle involves water evaporating (turning into a gas), rising to the
sky, cooling and condensing into tiny drops of water or ice crystals that we see as
clouds, falling back to Earth as rain, snow or hail before evaporating again and
continuing the cycle.
• Pure water has no smell and no taste; it also has a pH level around 7.
• While most people know that water boils at 100 °C, this is at the normal
conditions of sea level. The boiling point of water actually changes relative to the
barometric pressure. For example, water boils at just 68 °C on the top of Mount
Everest while water deep in the ocean near geothermal vents can remain in liquid
form at temperatures much higher than 100 °C.

20
• Water expands as it cools from 4 °C to 0 °C (above 4 °C it does the
opposite). In freezing conditions, water has been known to burst water pipes as it
freezes to ice.
• Most people around the world have access to clean drinking water but it is a
major problem in poorer areas of the world. Water pollution and low-quality water
can lead to dangerous bacterial and viral diseases, such as E coli.
• Drinking water is needed for humans to avoid dehydration. The amount you
need each day depends on the temperature, how much activity you are involved in
and other factors.
• An important use for water is in agricultural irrigation; this is when water is
artificially added to soil in order to assist the growth of crops.
• Water is used frequently by firefighters to extinguish fires. Helicopters
sometimes drop large amounts of water on wildfires and bushfires to stop fire
spreading and limit the damage they can cause.
• Electricity can be created from hydropower, a process that uses water to
drive water turbines connected to generators. There are many hydroelectric power
stations around the world.
• Water also plays a role in cooking. Steaming and boiling food are well
known cooking methods.
• Water is also used for fun. Water sports are a very popular recreational
activity and include things like swimming, surfing and waterskiing. Ice and snow
is also used in ice skating, ice hockey, skiing and snowboarding.

Ex. 23. Choose one chemical element or chemical compound and prepare
interesting facts about it.

PART II: CELL

Ex. 1. Read the following words, pay attention to their pronunciation:

bacterium, n [bæk'tɪərɪəm] бактерия

bacteria (pl)
bacterial, adj
Bacteria are cellular organisms.
biochemistry, n [baɪoʊˈkɛmɪstri] биохимия
biochemical, adj
21
cell, n [sɛl] клетка
cellular, adj
e.g. unicellular
multicellular
The cell is the smallest structural unit in living organisms.
divide, v [dɪˈvaɪd] делить, разделять
division, n
Cells are produced from each other by division.
function, n ['fʌŋkʃən] функция
function, v
functional, adj
Scientists study cells to learn more about basic functions of living beings.
hereditary, adj. [hɪˈrɛdɪtərɪ] наследственный
heredity,n
Cells contain hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during
division.
metabolism, n [məˈtæbəlɪzəm] метаболизм
metabolic, adj
Cell metabolism is a process when individual cells produce nutrient molecules.
microscope, n [ˈmaɪkrəskəʊp] микроскоп
microscopic, adj
It is impossible to observe cells without powerful microscope.
occur, v [əˈkɜ:] случаться, происходить
occurrence, n
syn. appear
Cells do not occur by spontaneous generation.
reproduction, n [riprəˈdʌkʃən] воспроизводство
reproduce, v
reproductive, adj
The cell is a self-maintaining structure: it can take in nutrients, convert the
nutrients into energy and reproduce itself.
structure, n [ˈstrʌktʃə] структура
structural,adj
Cell is the smallest living biological structure.
virus, n [ˈvaɪrəs] вирус
viral, adj
Viruses are not made up of cells.

Ex. 2. Memorize the verbs to be used:

to appear to observe
to contain to accept
to determine to function
to divide to reproduce

22
 to convert to maintain

Ex. 3. Read the following word combinations, try to memorize their translation.
Pay attention to the prepositions used with the verbs.

to come from – быть родом из, происходить откуда-либо (syn. to

originate from)
to compare smth. to smth. – сравнивать ч-л. с ч-л.
To compose smth. – входить в состав ч-л., составлять ч-л. (syn. to
constitute, to make up).
to be composed of smth. – состоять из ч-л., быть составленным, (syn. to
be made up of smth, to consist of smth.)
to be based on (upon) smth. – быть основанным на ч-л.
to depend on (upon) smth. – зависеть от ч-л.
to provide information about smth. – предоставлять информацию о ч-л.

Make up your own sentences with these word combinations. Try to use as
many of them as possible.

Ex. 4. Read and translate the following sentences:

1. Daughter cells come from the mother cell by division.

2. The results of the observation under the microscope provided more concrete
information about the structure of the cell.
3. The functioning of the cell depends upon its ability to extract and use chemical
energy stored in organic molecules.
4. Recent investigations in the cell theory are based upon the previous
discoveries and facts.
5. Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus, and sulfur normally
compose organic biomolecules.
6. All living organisms, from microbes to mammals, are composed of chemical
substances from both inorganic and organic world.

Ex. 5. Practice reading and translating the following words with prefixes bio-
and micro-:

Bioenergy, biology, biolysis, biophysics, biogenesis, bioplasm, biosis,

biosynthesis, biochemistry, biomolecule, biotics.

Microbe, microelement, microorganism, micrography, microbiology,

microcirculation, microstructure.

Ex. 6. Read the text and write out three most important issues from it:

23
The cell is defined as the structural and functional unit of all known living
organisms. It is the smallest unit of an organism and is sometimes called the
building block of life. Some organisms, such as bacteria, are unicellular (consist of
a single cell). Other organisms, such as humans, are multicellular.

The word “cell” comes from the Latin “cellula” which means “a small room”.
This descriptive name for the smallest living biological structure was first chosen
by Robert Hooke in 1665. He observed the cork cells through his microscope and
compared them to small rooms monks lived in.

The cell theory was developed much later in 1839 by Matthias Jacob Schleiden
and Theodor Schwann. It states that all organisms are composed of one or more
cells. Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden summarized the results of their
observations into three conclusions about cells which constitute classic cell theory:
 All living things are composed of cells.
 Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things.
 Cells are formed by free-cell formation, similar to the formation of crystals
(spontaneous generation).
We know today that the first two statements are correct, but the third is clearly
wrong. The correct interpretation of the third statement about the cell formation
was finally formulated by Rudolph Virchow in 1858: “All cells are produced from
other cells”.

Modern cell theory is based upon previous observations and facts. The generally
accepted parts of modern cell theory include:

 The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in living things.
 All cells come from pre-existing cells by division (spontaneous generation
does not occur).
 Cells contain hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during
cell division.
 Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells.
 All cells are basically the same in chemical composition.
 All known living things are made up of cells.
 The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent
cells.

The cell theory is true for all living things, no matter how big or small, or how
simple or complex. Since cells are common to all living things, they can provide
information about all life. And because all cells come from other cells, scientists
can study them to learn about growth, reproduction, and all other functions of
living beings. However, there are two recognized exceptions to this theory, which
are as follows:

24
  Viruses are considered by some to be alive, yet they are not made up of
cells.
 The first cell did not originate from a pre-existing cell.

Ex.7. Answer the questions using the following expressions in your answers:
to be based on, to depend on, to compare to, to compose, to be composed of, to
observe, to contain.

1. What does the word ‘cell’ mean? Where does it come from?
2. Why did Robert Hooke choose the word ‘cell’ to describe the smallest living
structure?
3. Who were the founders of classic cell theory?
4. What is modern cell theory based on?
5. What is the difference between classic and modern cell theory?
6. Why is the cell theory important to study?
7. What are the exceptions to the cell theory?

Ex. 8. Match the words and their synonyms, find them in the text and state in
which situations they are used:

To consist, to define, to transfer, to come from, to constitute, to include, to

occur, to be made up of, to determine, to originate, to compose, to be
composed, to pass, to contain, to appear, to make up, to be produced.

Ex. 9. Translate the passage from the text (in writing) starting with the words
“Modern cell theory is based on…” up to “The first cell did not originate from a
pre-existing cell”.

Ex. 10. Ask all possible questions to the following sentences:

1. The cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of all known living
organisms.
2. The cell theory states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells.
3. Cells contain hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during
cell division.
4. Cells can provide information about growth, reproduction, and all other
functions of living beings.
5. There are two recognized exceptions to the cell theory.

Ex. 11. Translate the following sentences from Russian into English:

1. Т. Шванн и М. Шлейден обобщили знания о клетке и сформулировали

основные положения классической клеточной теории.

25
 2. Р. Вирхов открыл, что каждая новая клетка происходит только от
материнской клетки в результате ее деления.
3. Живые организмы могут быть одноклеточными и многоклеточными.
4. Материнская клетка передает генетическую информацию дочерним
клеткам в процессе деления.
5. Клеточная теория может объяснить многие функции живых
организмов.

Ex. 12. Retell the text considering the following issues:

 Definition of the cell. Origin and explanation of the term.

 Classic cell theory. Founders and principal statements.
 Modern cell theory. Its generally accepted statements.
 Importance of the cell theory. Recognized exceptions.

Ex. 13. Check your memory and try to recall the translation of the following
verbs:
to convert, to maintain, to accept, to determine, to observe, to convert, to divide.

Structure of the Cell

Ex. 1. Read the following words, pay attention to their pronunciation:

chromosome, n [ˈkrəʊməsəʊm] хромосома

The nucleus contains chromosomes of the cell.
cytoplasm, n [ˈsaɪtəʊˌplæzəm] цитоплазма
The nucleus is surrounded by cytoplasm.
destruct, v [dɪˈstrʌkt] разрушать
destructive, adj
destruction, n
Lysosomes can destruct the cell.
digest, v [ˈdaɪdʒɛst] перерабатывать пищу,
digestive, adj переваривать
digestion, n
Lysosomes are organelles that contain digestive enzymes.
DNA(deoxyribonucleic ДНК
acid)
DNA contains genetic information of the cell.
endoplasmic reticulum [endoˈplazmicrɪˈtɪkjʊləm] эндоплазматическая
(ER), n сеть (ЭПС)
The endoplasmic reticulum is the transport network for different molecules.
environment, n [ɪnˈvaɪrənmənt] окружающая среда
environmental, adj
The cell membrane separates the interior of the cell from its surrounding
26
environment.
Golgi apparatus, n [ˈɡɔldʒiæpəˈreɪtəs] аппарат Гольджи
The Golgi apparatus is an organelle that takes part in modifying, sorting, and
packaging of macromolecules.
layer, n [ˈleɪə] слой
lipid, n [ˈlɪpɪd] жир
The plasma membrane consists of a double layer of lipids.
lysosome, n [ˈlaɪsəsəʊm] лизосома
Lysosomes are often called a "suicide bag" because of their ability to destroy
the cell.
membrane, n [ˈmɛmbreɪn] мембрана, оболочка
membraneous, adj
The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane.
mitochondrion, n [maɪtəʊˈkɒndrɪən] митохондрия
mitochondria (pl)
Mitochondria are the energy center of the cell.
nucleus, n [ˈnjuklɪəs] ядро
The nucleus is a cell’s information center.
organelle, n [ɔːɡəˈnɛl] органелла
The most important organelles of the cell are the nucleus, cytoplasm, plasma
membrane, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, ribosomes
and lysosomes.
permeable, adj [ˈpɜːmɪəbəl] проницаемый
The plasma membrane of the cell is 'semi-permeable'.
protein, n [ˈprəʊtin] белок
Ribosomes transform RNA into protein.
replication, n [rɛplɪˈkeɪʃən] удвоение, репликация
replicate, v
The nucleus is the place where DNA replication occurs.
ribosome, n [ˈraɪbəsəʊm] рибосома
The ribosome is a large complex, composed of many molecules.
RNA (ribonucleic acid) РНК
The nucleus is the place where RNA synthesis occurs.
synthesis, n [ˈsɪnθɪsɪs] синтез
synthesize, v
synthetic, adj
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) transports synthesized proteins.
viscous, adj [vɪskəs] вязкий
viscosity, n
The cytoplasm is a viscous cell substance.

Ex. 2. Memorize the verbs to be used:

to perform to transmit
27
to contain to regulate
to adapt to isolate
to carry out to protect
to enclose to damage
to house to separate
to store to surround

Ex. 3. Practice reading and translating the following words with the prefix
‘semi-’ and ‘bi-’:

vital function cell secretion

higher organism membrane-bound system
specialized subunit genetic information
cell division lipid membrane
nuclear envelope synthesis of proteins
DNA replication nutritive and protective environment
digestive enzymes viscous cell substance
self-replicating organelle defining boundary
semi-permeable membrane phospholipid bilayer
protein molecules energy generation

Ex. 4. Read and translate the following word-combinations:

Bicarbonate, semi-permeable, semi-transparent, bichloride, biconcave,

semiconductor, bifurcation, binary, semi-fluid, bilateral.

Ex. 5. Read and translate the following sentences:

1) Cell organelles are adapted for carrying out one or more vital functions.
2) Organelle is a specialized subunit which is enclosed within its own lipid
membrane.
3) The nucleus houses the cell's chromosomes, regulates synthesis of proteins,
stores and transmits genetic information about the cell.
4) Plasma membrane acts as a cell's defining boundary and separates the interior
of the cell from its surrounding environment.
5) The Golgi apparatus takes part in modifying, sorting, and packaging of
macromolecules.
6) Lysosomes digest macromolecules, old unneeded organelles, proteins or
microbes that have invaded the cytoplasm.

Ex. 6. Read the text, entitle it and write out one main function of each organelle:

The human body contains many different organs, such as the heart, lung, and
kidney and each organ performs a different function. Cells also have a set of "little

28
organs," called organelles that are adapted for carrying out one or more vital
functions. Organelle is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific
function, and is separately enclosed within its own lipid membrane. There are
many types of organelles, particularly in the cells of higher organisms. The most
important organelles of the cell are the nucleus, cytoplasm, plasma membrane,
mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, ribosomes and lysosomes.
The nucleus is a cell’s information center. It houses the cell's chromosomes,
and is the place where almost all DNA replication and RNA synthesis occur. It
stores genetic information about the cell and transmits it during cell division. It
also regulates synthesis of proteins necessary for normal functioning of the cell.
The nucleus is spherical in shape and separated from the cytoplasm by a double
membrane called the nuclear envelope. The nuclear envelope isolates and protects
a cell's genetic material from various molecules that could accidentally damage its
structure or interfere with its processing.
The nucleus of a cell is surrounded by cytoplasm. It is a viscous cell
substance that takes up most of the cell volume. It contains proteins, amino acids,
salts and water and acts as nutritive and protective environment for other
organelles of the cell. The cytoplasm of a cell is surrounded by a plasma
membrane, a cell's defining boundary. This membrane separates the interior of the
cell from its surrounding environment and regulates what moves in and out of the
cell. The plasma membrane consists of a double layer of lipids (sometimes it is
called a phospholipid bilayer) and a variety of protein molecules that act as
channels and pumps moving different molecules into and out of the cell. Due to its
structure the membrane is considered to be 'semi-permeable', it can either take in
different substances or not to take at all.
Mitochondria represent energy center of the cell. They are self-replicating
organelles that occur in various numbers, shapes, and sizes in the cytoplasm.
Mitochondria play an important role in generating energy. They add oxygen to
food to produce energy.
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) serves many general functions, including
the transport of synthesized proteins. It is the transport network for molecules
targeted for specific destinations. The ER has two forms: the rough ER, which has
ribosomes on its surface, and the smooth ER, which lacks them.
Also the Golgi apparatus is an organelle that takes part in modifying,
sorting, and packaging of macromolecules for cell secretion or for use within the
cell. It modifies proteins delivered from the rough endoplasmic reticulum,
transports lipids around the cell and creates lysosomes. In this respect it can be
thought of as similar to a post office; it packages and labels items and then sends
them to different parts of the cell.
The ribosome is a large complex, composed of many molecules. They play
an important role in protein biosynthesis, the process of transforming RNA into
protein.
Lysosomes are organelles that contain digestive enzymes. They digest
macromolecules, old unneeded organelles, proteins or microbes that have invaded
29
the cytoplasm. The cell could not house such destructive enzymes if they were not
contained in a membrane-bound system. These organelles are often called a
"suicide bag" because of their ability to destroy the cell.

Ex. 7.Answer the questions:

1) What is organelle? What can it be compared to?

2) What organelles does the cell have? What are their main functions?
3) What is nucleus? How does it look like?
4) What is the function of nuclear envelope?
5) What does the plasma membrane consist of?
6) Why is the plasma membrane 'semi-permeable'?
7) How do mitochondria generate energy?
8) What are the two forms of endoplasmic reticulum? What is the difference
between them?
9) What is the Golgi apparatus compared to? Why?
10) How can the cell house destructive enzymes within it?

Ex. 8. Say whether the following statements are true or false:

1) The cell contains many different organs.

2) Organelle is a "little organ" of the cell that has a specific function.
3) The nucleus is round in shape and separated from the cytoplasm by a double
membrane.
4) The nucleus contains proteins, amino acids, salts and water.
5) The cytoplasm of a cell separates the interior of the cell from its surrounding
environment.
6) Phospholipid bilayer is considered to be 'semi-permeable'.
7) Lipids of the plasma membrane act as channels and pumps moving different
molecules into and out of the cell.
8) The Golgi apparatus is similar to a post office; it packages and labels items
and then sends them to different parts of the cell.
9) Proteins and microbes that have invaded the cytoplasm digest
macromolecules and old unneeded organelles.
10) The cell can house destructive enzymes because they are contained in a
membrane-bound system.

Ex. 9. Make up sentences:

1) about, cell, the, genetic, it, stores, the, during, cell, and, transmits, nucleus,
information, division.
2) destinations, targeted, the, the, molecules, transport, endoplasmic, specific,
network, for, for, reticulum, is.

30
 3) system, are, contain, enzymes, are, included, organelles, into, a, lysosomes,
which, digestive, membrane-bound, that.

Ex. 10. Describe the structure of the cell using the following picture and the
words from exercises 1 and 2:

Ex. 11. Check your memory and try to recall the translation of the following
verbs:

to perform, to store, to transmit, to house, to isolate, to surround, to damage, to

enclose, to contain, to regulate, to carry out.

Make up word combinations with them of your own.

Cytology
Ex. 1. Read the following words, pay attention to their pronunciation:

absorption, n [əbˈsɔːpʃən] поглощение

absorb, v
absorbing, adj
Cell absorbs solid and liquid particles through the cell membrane.
breakdown, n [ˈbreɪkdaʊn] распад, расщепление
break down, v
Lysosome is an organelle involved in the breakdown of cellular components.
composition, n [kɒmpəˈzɪʃən] состав, композиция,
31
compose, v структура
Composition of cells and their functioning are fundamental to all biological
sciences.
construction, n [kənsˈtrʌkʃən] конструкция,
construct, v построение
Anabolism is the process of construction of cellular components.
discipline, n [ˈdɪsɪplɪn] дисциплина
Cytology is an academic discipline that studies cells.
enzyme, n [ˈenzaɪm] фермент
Enzymes break down food particles inside the cell.
generalization, n [dʒenrəlaɪˈzeɪʃən] обобщение
generalize, v
general, adj
Information about composition of cells and their functions allows scientists
to make generalizations about other cell types.
interaction, n [ɪntərˈækʃən] взаимодействие
interact, v
Cytology studies physiological properties of cells, their structure, the
organelles they contain, interactions with their environment.
metabolism, n [mɪˈtæbəlɪzəm] метаболизм
Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that occur in living organisms.
nucleic acid [njuˈkliɪkæsɪd] нуклеиноваякислота
Proteins and nucleic acids are cellular components.
nutrient, n [ˈnjutriənt] питательное вещество
nutrition, n
nutritive, adj
Each cell can take in nutrients.
particle, n [ˈpɑ:ʳtɪkəl] частица
phagocytosis, n [fæɡəsaɪˈtəʊsɪs] фагоцитоз
Phagocytosis is the process of absorption of solid particles by the cell
membrane.
pinocytosis, n [paɪnəʊsaɪˈtəʊsɪs] пиноцитоз
Pinocytosis is the process of absorption of liquid particles by the cell
membrane.
removal, n [rɪˈmu:vəl] удаление, устранение
remove, v
Phagocytosis is also the process of removal of metabolic products from the
cell.
research, n [rɪˈsɜ:tʃ] исследование
research, v
Research in cell biology is closely related to genetics, biochemistry,
molecular biology and developmental biology.
similarity, n [sɪmɪˈlærɪti] сходство, подобие
similar, adj

32
Similarities and differences between cell types are particularly important to
the fields of cellular and molecular biology.
solute, n [sɒˈlju:t] раствор
syn. solution
During pinocytosis the cell takes in surrounding fluids, including all solutes
present.

Ex. 2. Memorize the verbs and verb-combinations to be used:

to allow to determine to maintain

to be capable to dissolve to occur
to consume to divide into to relate to
to convert to grow to respond to
to deliver to involve to refer to

Ex. 3. Match the verb and its translation:

to convert позволять to deliver определять

to respond to разделять на todissolve возникать,
случаться
to refer to превращать to determine быть способным
to grow поддерживать to involve растворять
to allow расти to be capable потреблять
to divide into реагировать, to occur доставлять
отвечать на
to maintain относиться к to consume вовлекать

Ex. 4. Make up all possible word combinations using the formula:

V+ N

To maintain Life
Particles
Substances
To determine Composition
Solutes
Structure
To consume Form
Energy
Environment
To respond to Water
Bacteria
Change

33
 To deliver Proteins
Temperature
Pressure

Ex. 5. Fill in the gaps:

1. ……….. is the process of taking in solid and liquid particles through the cell
membrane.
2. ……………. also refers to removal of metabolic products from the cell.
3. ……………..is a set of chemical reactions in living organisms.
4. During …………the cell absorbs surrounding fluids.
5. …………….. studies physiological properties of cells, their structure, the
organelles they contain, interactions with their environment.
6. Each cell can take in ………… and convert them into energy.
7. Scientists make …………. in cell biology, genetics, biochemistry, molecular
biology and developmental biology.

Nutrients, pinocytosis, phagocytosis, metabolism, researches, cytology,

absorption.

Ex. 6. Read and translate the following text:

Cell biology (also called cellular biology or cytology) comes from the
Greek word kytos, which means "container". Cytology is an academic discipline
that studies cells both on a microscopic and molecular level. It also studies
physiological properties of cells, their structure, the organelles they contain,
interactions with their environment, their life cycle, division and death. Cell
biology refers to single-celled organisms like bacteria and multicellular organisms
like humans. Composition and functioning of cells are fundamental to all
biological sciences. Similarities and differences between different cell types are
particularly important to the fields of cellular and molecular biology. These
similarities and differences allow scientists to make generalizations about other
cell types. Research in cytology is closely related to genetics, biochemistry,
molecular biology and developmental biology.

Ex. 7. Answer the following questions:

1. What do you know about cytology? What does it study?

2. What does the word “cytology” mean?
3. What are the synonyms to the word “cytology”?
4. Does cytology study humans?
5. Why is it important to know the composition and structure of cells?
6. What other disciplines is cytology connected with?

34
Ex. 8. Find and correct the mistakes in the following questions:

1. Is the word cytology come from the Greek word kytos ("container")?
2. What is cytology an academic discipline that studies cells?
3. Cytology studies physiological properties of cells, their structure, the
organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle,
division and death, aren’t they?
4. What cell biology refers to?
5. What are particularly important to the fields of cellular and molecular
biology?
6. Research in cytology is closely related to molecular biology or to physics?

Ex. 9. Retell the text using the following scheme:

Greek word kytos Cytology studies

("container")

is related to other

biological sciences

Ex. 10. Read and translate the following text:

Cells are capable of phagocytosis and pinocytosis. Phagocytosis (“cell

eating”) is the cellular process of absorption of solid particles through the cell
membrane. During phagocytosis the cell can take in different bacteria, dead tissue
cells, and small mineral particles. Phagocytosis is also involved in removal of
pathogens and metabolic products from the cell. Pinocytosis ("cell-drinking") is a
process of absorption of liquids through the cell membrane. The cell takes in
surrounding fluids, including all solutes present. Pinocytosis is similar to
phagocytosis, the only difference is that during phagocytosis the cell actually
absorbs whole food particles, which are later broken down by the enzymes inside
the cell. During pinocytosis, on the other hand, the cell absorbs already
dissolved/broken down food.

Ex. 11. Fill in the table:

Process Meaning Definition Substances Differentiation

of the for
term absorption
phagocytosis
pinocytosis

35
Ex. 12. Find in the text above the words from Ex. 1 and 2. Translate the
expressions in which they were used.

Ex. 13. Describe the processes of phagocytosis and pinocytosis using the
pictures below:

Ex. 14. Read the following text:

Cell metabolism

Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that occur in living organisms in

order to maintain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce,
maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Metabolism is usually
divided into two categories: anabolism and catabolism. Anabolism is the process of
construction of cellular components such as proteins and nucleic acids. Catabolism
is the process of breaking down large molecules. For example, complex sugars
consumed by an organism can be broken down into a less chemically complex
sugar molecule called glucose. The metabolism of an organism determines which
substances are nutritious for it and which are not.

Ex. 15. Read and translate the following word-combinations, find them in the
text and use in sentences of your own:

cellular components to determine substances

complex sugar to divide into categories
nutritious substances to occur in living organisms
chemical reactions to respond to environment
to maintain structures to consume sugars

36
Ex. 16. Ask any 5 questions to the text and use the answers to make a brief
summary.

PART III: GENETICS

Ex. 1. Mind the pronunciation of the following words:

allele [ˈæliːl] germ[ʤɜːm]

adenine [ˈædənin] guanine [ˈgwɑːniːn]
chromosome[ˈkrəʊməsəʊm] haploid [ˈhæplɔɪd]
cytosine [ˈsaɪtəsiːn] helix [ˈhiːlɪks]
diploid [dɪˈplɔɪd] heredity[hɪˈredɪtɪ]
Drosophila [drəˈsɒfɪlə] heterozygous [het(ə)rə(ʊ)ˈzɪgəs]
embryo [ˈembrɪəʊ] homozygous [hɒməʊˈzaɪgəs]
gamete [ˈgæmiːt] meiosis [maɪˈəʊsɪs]
gene[ʤiːn] mitosis [maɪˈtəʊsɪs]
genus [ˈʤiːnəs] mutation [mjuːˈteɪʃn]
genetics[ʤɪˈnetɪks] ovum [ˈəʊvəm]
generation[ʤenəˈreɪʃn] thymine[ˈtaɪmɪnɪ]
genotype [ˈʤenəʊtaɪp]

Ex. 2. Read and practice:

germ, n [ʤɜːm] - зародыш, эмбрион, микроб, бактерия, микроорганизм.

A germ cell is any biological cell that gives rise to the gametes of an organism that
reproduces sexually.
sequence, n [ˈsiːkwəns] - последовательность, чередование.
Any alteration, addition or deletion of chromosomal part leads to alteration of
number, position or sequence of genes in the chromosome.
chromosome, n [ˈkrəʊməsəʊm]- хромосома.
A chromosome is a structure that occurs within cells and contains the cell's genetic
material.
heredity, n[hɪˈredɪtɪ] -наследственность, наследование.
The concept of heredity encompasses two seemingly paradoxical observations: the
constancy of a species between generations and the variation among individuals
within a species.
species, n [ˈspiːʃiːz] - вид, род, разновидность, сорт.
A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two
individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring,
typically by sexual reproduction.
offspring, n [ˈɒfsprɪŋ] - отпрыск, потомок, потомство.
37
When discussing genetics, recessive trait refers to the fact that the offspring of two
parents must inherit two copies of a gene to expose the trait.
character, n [ˈkærɪktə] - признак, характеристика, характер.
A genetically controlled character may be described as dominant when its
controlling genes are powerful enough to mask the effect of other genes (alleles)
that control an alternative, or recessive, character.
trait, n [treɪ] - черта характера, особенность, признак, штрих, свойство,
характерная особенность.
Character is a heritable expressed attribute of an organism, whereas a trait is a
heritable variant of a character. For example, the blue eye color is a trait while the
eye color is a character of the organism.
Genes play a greater role in forming character traits – such as self-control, decision
making or sociability.
strand, n [strænd] – нить, цепь (ДНК, белка, макромолекулы), завиток, прядь.
DNA is composed of two strands of nucleotides held together by hydrogen
bonding.
unit, n [ˈjuːnɪt] - единица (измерения).
This discovery eventually led the scientific community to find that unit of heredity:
the gene.
helix, n [ˈhiːlɪks] - спираль, завиток.
A DNA double helix consists of two spiral chains of deoxyribonucleic acid. The
shape is similar to that of a spiral staircase.
mutation, n [mjuːˈteɪʃn] - мутация, изменение.
A process in which the genetic material of a person, a plant or an animal changes
in structure when it is passed on to children, etc., causing different physical
characteristics to develop is called a mutation.
forebear, n [ˈfɔːbeə] – предок.
This is what they inherit from their forebears, and all that they transmit to their
offspring.

Verbs to be used:
to arise to occupy
to attach to overlap
to coil to pack
to determine to pass down (to)
to define to support
to distinguish to transmit
to inherit to trace back (to)
to hand down (to)

38
Mind the plural form of the following words:
genus – genera
stratum – strata
helix – helixes, helices
species – species
nucleus – nuclei
ovum – ova
datum – data
phenomenon – phenomena
half – halves

Ex.3. Read the words and their derivatives. Supply Russian equivalents:
gene– genetic – genetically – genetics – geneticist
heredity– hereditary – heritable – heir – heiress
to attach – detach – reattach – attached – attachment
to determine – determined – determining – determinative – determination –
determinant
to define– defining – defined – definite – definition
to inherit– inheriting – inherited – inheritor – inheritance – inheritable
to occupy– occupying – occupied – occupation
to pack – unpack – packing – packed – package – packaging – packer
to transmit – transmitting – transmitted – transmission – transmitter – transmissible

Ex. 4. Read and translate the word-combinations:

The dawn of civilization, transmitted from parents to offspring, inheritance of
traits, thread-like structure, tightly packed, intertwined rope, cell cycle, discrete
units, genetic recombination, haploid cell, double helix, set of chromosomes,
phenomenon of heredity, capable of being inherited, dominant characteristics,
principles of inheritance, mutation of species, gene expression, genetic diversity,
single property, complex substances, living creatures, inherit from the forebears,
chemical influence, expression of traits, gene pair, germ cell.

Ex. 5. Pay attention to the possible word-combinations:

complementary parental
recessive daughter
allelic
39
 dominant X-shaped
inhibiting paired
modifying sex
mutant gene chromosome
splitting
compound

factor function
determinant diversity
characteristic code
trait genetic engineering
hereditary
disease mutation
defect abnormality
predisposition recombination

Ex. 6. Translate the word-combinations into English:

Набор хромосом, феномен наследственности, генная инженерия,
рецессивный ген, наследственное заболевание, видовые мутации,
доминантные характеристики, парная хромосома, живая клетка, наследовать
от предков, экспрессия генов, сложная (сборная) хромосома, принципы
наследования, единственное свойство, сложные вещества, из поколения в
поколение, отдельные единицы, спираль ДНК, наследственная
предрасположенность, нитевидная структура, генетическая рекомбинация,
наследственное заболевание.

Ex. 7.Match the following words and word combinations with their definition:

Genetics, daughter cell, gene, meiosis, genetic recombination, chromosome,

Drosophila, heredity, mother cell, mutation, mitosis
1) a cell that divides so as to form new or daughter cells;
2) a branch of biology concerned with the study of genes, genetic variation, and
heredity in organisms;
3) en called "small fruit flies" or (less frequently) vinegar flies, or wine flies,
they usually linger around overripe or rotting fruit;
4) a basic unit of heredity and a sequence of nucleotides in DNA or RNA that
encodes the synthesis of a gene product, either RNA or protein;
5) a process of cell duplication, or reproduction, during which one cell gives
rise to two genetically identical daughter cells;
6) a long DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic material of an organism;

40
 7) a special type of cell division of germ cells in sexually-reproducing organisms
used to produce the gametes, such as sperm or egg cells;
8) the passing of traits from parent to offspring;
9) a process in which the genetic material of a person, a plant or an animal
changes in structure when it is passed on to children, etc., causing different
physical characteristics to develop;
10) any cell formed by the division of a mother cell;
11) the exchange of genetic material between different organisms which leads
to production of offspring with combinations of traits that differ from those found
in either parent.

Ex. 8. Translate the sentences into Russian:

1. Genetics is the study of how physical and mental features of an organism are
passed down to their offspring.
2. Genes are self-producing, ultramicroscopic structures capable under certain
circumstances of giving rise to a new character.
3. An Austrian monk, Gregor Mendel, crossed different varieties of bean plants,
made observations and finally came to the conclusion that some characteristics
came from each parent plant and were handed down to the offspring in different
sequences.
4. In fruit flies, dogs and people, female have two identical X-chromosomes, while
males have only one X-chromosome and another unpaired, smaller chromosome
called Y-chromosome.
5. The ability to synthesize proteins is a single property that distinguishes living
matter from any other.
6. The chromosome in mitotic division splits in a longitudinal manner therefore we
may assume that various factors for the hereditary qualities (or genes) are arranged
lengthwise along the chromosomes.
7. Proteins are the chemical basis of life. This is what we inherit from our forebears,
and all that we transmit to offspring.
8. The phenomenon of heredity is the genetic relationship between parent and
offspring.
9. The structure of genes, as well as the way genetic information is encoded and
replicated, is fundamentally the same in all living organisms, from bacteria to
people.
10.Mutations are changes in the DNA information, and they can be inherited from
parents, or may be acquired during the life of an organism.
11.The properties of a protein depend on the sequence of amino acids, which is
determined by the sequence of links of the RNA chain, or ultimately by the kind of
DNA in the nucleus.

Ex. 9. Translate the sentences into English:

41
1. Наследственность — свойство организмов передавать свои признаки от
одного поколения к другому.
2. В 1856 году монах Грегор Иоганн Мендель проводил опыты по
изучению передачи наследственных признаков на горохе.
3. Генетика занимается изучением генов, генетических вариаций и
наследственности в организмах.
4. Ген — единица структурной и функциональной наследственности,
представляющая собой отрезок молекулы дезоксирибонуклеиновой кислоты,
у некоторых вирусов — рибонуклеиновой кислоты.
5. Мутация – это изменение в хромосомах, которое происходит под
воздействием факторов окружающей среды.
6. В одной молекуле ДНК зашифрованы сотни тысяч различных белков.
7. Клетки размножаются делением, и каждая дочерняя клетка непременно
должна получить от материнской полную копию наследственной
информации, чтобы передать ее своим потомкам.
8. ДНК включает в себя четыре вида азотистых оснований – аденин (A),
гуанин (G), тимин (T) и цитозин (C).
9. Митоз — процесс непрямого деления соматических клеток, в
результате которого из одной диплоидной материнской клетки образуются
две дочерние с таким же набором хромосом.
10. В результате наследственности организм получает от родителей
совокупность генов, что принято называть генотипом.
11. Мейоз — это способ деления клеток, в результате которого из одной
диплоидной материнской клетки образуются четыре гаплоидные дочерние
клетки.
12. Хотя потомство подобно родителям и предкам, но оно не является их
точной копией.

Ex. 10. Read the text and answer the questions:

1. What is genetics and what does it study?
2. Who was Gregor Mendel and what was his contribution to genetics?
3. When was the word genetics introduced? Who did it?
Genetics is the study of heredity in general and of genes in particular.
Genetics forms one of the central pillars of biology and overlaps with many other
areas, such as agriculture, medicine, and biotechnology.
Since the dawn of civilization, humankind has recognized the influence of
heredity and applied its principles to the improvement of cultivated crops and
domestic animals. Most of the mechanisms of heredity, however, remained a
mystery until the 19th century, when genetics as a systematic science began.
Genetics arose out of the identification of genes, the fundamental units
responsible for heredity. Genetics may be defined as the study of genes at all

42
levels, including the ways in which they act in the cell and the ways in which they
are transmitted from parents to offspring. Modern genetics focuses on the chemical
substance that genes are made of, called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, and the
ways in which it affects the chemical reactions that constitute the living processes
within the cell.
Genetics as a scientific discipline stemmed from the work of Gregor Mendel
in the middle of the 19th century. Mendel suspected that traits were inherited as
discrete units, and, although he knew nothing of the physical or chemical nature of
genes at the time, these units became the basis for the development of the present
understanding of heredity. All present research in genetics can be traced back to
Mendel’s discovery of the laws governing the inheritance of traits. The word
genetics was introduced in 1905 by English biologist William Bateson, who was
one of the discoverers of Mendel’s work and who became a champion of Mendel’s
principles of inheritance.

Ex. 11. Read the texts and do the tasks:

1. Choose 5-7 words from the lesson vocabulary (verbs and nouns), find out
examples with them in the texts, read and translate.
2. Find in the texts, read and translate the following definitions: a gene, a
chromosome, DNA, mitosis and meiosis.
3. Try to explain the same notions in English using information from the
text, active vocabulary and pictures.
What is a gene?

A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. Genes are made
up of DNA. Some genes act as instructions to make molecules called proteins.
However, many genes do not code for proteins. In humans, genes vary in size from
a few hundred DNA bases to more than 2 million bases. It has been estimated that
humans have between 20,000 and 25,000 genes.
Every person has two copies of each gene, one inherited from each parent.
Most genes are the same in all people, but a small number of genes (less than 1
percent of the total) are slightly different between people. Alleles are forms of the
43
same gene with small differences in their sequence of DNA bases. These small
differences contribute to each person’s unique physical features. A common
example of this is eye color. We each have the same genes for eye color, but
different allele combinations within those genes result in different eye colors.

What is a chromosome?
In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA molecule is packaged into thread-like
structures called chromosomes. Each chromosome is made up of DNA tightly
coiled many times around proteins called histones that support its structure.
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Sex chromosomes, identified as X or Y,
determine whether a person is male or female.
Chromosomes are not visible in the cell’s nucleus – not even under a
microscope – when the cell is not dividing. However, the DNA that makes up
chromosomes becomes more tightly packed during cell division and is then visible
under a microscope. Most of what researchers know about chromosomes was
learned by observing chromosomes during cell division.
Each chromosome can be identified by its size and shape under a
microscope. Each has a specific set of genes that is the same from person to
person. One copy of each chromosome in a pair is inherited from each parent,
which means that you inherit one copy of each gene from your mother and one
copy from your father.
Each chromosome has a centromere at its center, which is a small structure
that divides the chromosomes into two parts. Each part is called an “arm”. Genes
are located on the “arms” of the chromosomes. The short arm of the chromosome
is labeled the “p arm.” The long arm of the chromosome is labeled the “q arm.”
The location of the centromere on each chromosome gives the chromosome its
characteristic shape, and can be used to help describe the location of specific
genes.
Chromosomes have caps on each “arm” called telomeres, which help to
protect the chromosomes. As you get older, your telomere caps get shorter and
shorter and are less able to protect your chromosomes from getting damaged.

44
 What is a DNA?
Humans and all other living things have DNA, which contains hereditary
information. The information in your DNA gives your cells instructions for
producing proteins. Proteins drive important body functions, like digesting food,
building cells, and moving your muscles.
Your DNA is the most unique and identifying factor about you – it helps
determine what color your eyes are, how tall you are, and how likely you are to
have certain health problems. Even so, over 99% of DNA sequences are the same
among all people. It is the remaining 1% that explains much of what makes you,
you.
DNA is arranged like two intertwined ropes, in a structure called a double
helix. Each strand of DNA is made of four types of molecules, also called bases,
attached to a sugar-phosphate backbone. The four bases are adenine (A), guanine
(G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). The bases pair in a specific way across the two
strands of the helix: adenine pairs with thymine, and cytosine pairs with guanine.

What is a cell division?

Mitosis is how somatic or non-reproductive cells divide. Somatic cells make
up most of your body's tissues and organs, including skin, muscles, lungs, gut, and
hair cells. Reproductive cells (like eggs) are not somatic cells.
In mitosis, the important thing to remember is that the daughter cells each
have the same chromosomes and DNA as the parent cell. The daughter cells from
mitosis are called diploid cells. Diploid cells have two complete sets of
chromosomes. Since the daughter cells have exact copies of their parent cell's
DNA, no genetic diversity is created through mitosis in normal healthy cells.

45
 The mitosis division process has several steps or phases of the cell cycle:
interphase, prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and
cytokinesis to successfully make the new diploid cells.
It seems that cells must be constantly dividing (remember there are 2 trillion
cell divisions in your body every day), but each cell actually spends most of its
time in the interphase. Interphase is the period when a cell is getting ready to
divide and start the cell cycle. During this time, cells are gathering nutrients and
energy. The parent cell is also making a copy of its DNA to share equally between
the two daughter cells.

Meiosis is the other main way cells divide. Meiosis is cell division that
creates sex cells, like female egg cells or male sperm cells. In meiosis, each new
cell contains a unique set of genetic information. After meiosis, the sperm and egg
cells can join to create a new organism.
Meiosis is why we have genetic diversity in all sexually reproducing
organisms. During meiosis, a small portion of each chromosome breaks off and
reattaches to another chromosome. This process is called "crossing over" or
"genetic recombination." Genetic recombination is the reason full siblings made
from egg and sperm cells from the same two parents can look very different from
one another.
The meiosis cell cycle has two main stages of division – Meiosis I and
Meiosis II. The end result of meiosis is four haploid daughter cells that each
46
contains different genetic information from each other and the parent cell. Haploid
cells only have one set of chromosomes – half the number of chromosomes as the
parent cell. Before meiosis I starts, the cell goes through interphase. Just like in
mitosis, the parent cell uses this time to prepare for cell division by gathering
nutrients and energy and making a copy of its DNA. During the next stages of
meiosis, this DNA will be switched around during genetic recombination and then
divided between four haploid cells.
Mitosis is what helps us grow and meiosis is why we are all unique.

47
 ADDITIONAL MATERIAL

Texts for reading, translation, rendering and discussion.

GREGOR MENDEL

In full Gregor Johann Mendel, original name (until 1843) Johann Mendel,
(born July 22, 1822, Heinzendorf, Silesia, Austrian Empire [now Hynčice, Czech
Republic] – died January 6, 1884, Brünn, Austria-Hungary [now Brno, Czech
Republic]), botanist, teacher, and Augustinian prelate, the first person to lay the
mathematical foundation of the science of genetics, in what came to be called
Mendelism.

48
 Gregor Mendel was born as the middle child and only son of Anton and
Rosine Mendel. He had two sisters and the family lived and worked on the farm
they had owned for generations. As a child he worked in the garden and studied
beekeeping which cultivated in him a deep love for biological sciences. He
received his early schooling in his own small village but had to be sent to a nearby
town for his secondary education. Later on he went to the University of Olomouc
where he studied philosophy and physics from 1840 to 1843. In 1843, he began his
training as a priest and joined the Augustinian Abbey of St Thomas in Brno as a
monk. He took the name ‘Gregor’ on entering the religious field. He began to
conduct his practical study on plants in 1856.He studied edible pea plants and
recognized seven distinct characteristics that remained consistent over generations
in purebred varieties. These characteristics included: height of the plant, shape of
the pod, shape of the seed, size and colour of the seeds, etc. Over a period of eight
years he examined the plants, pods and seeds and made observations that would
form the basis for a deeper study of genetics. He presented the results of his
experiments at the Natural History Society of Brno in 1865. His findings were
published in a paper ‘Experiments on Plant Hybridization’ in 1866. But his
research failed to create an impact at that time. Gregor Mendel’s works failed to
gain much importance during his lifetime, but formed the foundation for what is
today known as Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance. He died at the age of 61 after
suffering from kidney problems.

CHROMOSOMES AND GENES

Each nucleus of a living cell contains a number of small, thread-like bodies
called chromosomes. Each chromosome has, spaced out along it, rather like beads
on a string, many much smaller parts called genes. It is these genes which pass on
hereditary characteristics from one generation to the next.
It is now known that genes consist mainly of DNA (which is the
abbreviation for a very complex chemical compound called deoxyribonucleic
acid). The DNA molecule is constructed rather like a complex ladder, with two
long sides and many rungs across. The two sides are twisted about each other in a
double spiral, rather as a rope ladder might be.
A single DNA molecule may have about 20 000 rungs: Each rung is nude in
two halves, so there may be about 40 000 half-rungs. However, the differently
formed rungs can be spaced out along the ladder in any order, and this means that
there may be millions of different patterns of the DNA molecule.
Each different DNA pattern may produce a different sort of gene; which
explains bow there can be so many different characters

TYPES OF CELL DIVISION

49
 Cell growth occurs with cell division. There are two types of cell division:
mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis is how most of our body cells are made of, it starts with a cell
containing 46 chromosomes, these chromosomes double, and cell divides into two,
giving the two cells 46 chromosomes each. This process can repeat itself as many
times, as the body needs.
Meiosis is the other form, which only occurs during gamete formation and
takes a slightly different form. It starts with 46 chromosomes, which doubles and
splits into two. This now gives 23 pairs of chromosomes in two cells. These
chromosomes and cells split again to give only 23 chromosomes in each cell. So
the process started with 1 cell containing 46 chromosomes, which gave in the end,
four cells with 23 chromosomes. Meiosis reproduction is found in the reproductive
organs where the gametes or sex cells are formed. For example, in the human body
23 chromosomes are found in a male sperm and a female egg, which if combined,
will give a zygote(the first ceil of a new animal made from a male and female sex
cell joining together) 46 chromosome matching pairs.
In a gamete there is a gene determining the sex of the offspring. The female
carries X, X and the male X.Y. Both the female and the male only give ONE to
each. So it is really the male who determines what the offspring will be. If the male
gives a Y then the result will be male, an X, h will be a female. The female sex
chromosomes do not matter.

INHERITANCE, HEALTH, AND DISEASE

Genetic diseases are caused by random changes in our DNA called variants
or mutations. When a variant occurs, it can change the way a gene functions or the
protein it codes for. This change can cause a disruption in the body that may cause
a disease. These changes can be passed on to the next generation in different ways.
Autosomal dominant diseases are caused by variants in genes found on
non-sex chromosomes. For these diseases, only one altered copy of the gene in
each cell is needed for a person to be affected. In most cases, an affected person
inherits the condition from a parent who has the disease.
Huntington disease is inherited via an autosomal dominant genetic change.
A person who has one change in the HTT gene will develop Huntington disease
even if the second copy of the gene is healthy.
Autosomal recessive disease genes are also found on non-sex
chromosomes. For a person to have an autosomal recessive disease, both copies of
the gene must be altered. Many diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, follow an
autosomal recessive inheritance pattern.
Carriers are people who have only one altered copy of a gene for a
recessive disease. Since two altered copies are necessary to have the disease, a
carrier would not have the disease but would carry it in his or her DNA. Carriers of

50
an autosomal recessive disease are at risk of having children with the disease, but
only if their partner is also a carrier of the same disease.
X-linked recessive diseases are caused by genetic variants on the X
chromosome. In males, who have only one X chromosome, only one altered copy
of the gene is necessary to cause the disease.
Because females have two X chromosomes, they are less likely to have an
X-linked disease. If they do inherit an X-linked disease, they may be less severely
affected. Many females who have only one altered copy of the gene are unaffected
carriers.
Red-green colorblindness is an example of an X-linked recessive disorder.
X-linked dominant diseases are caused by mutations in the X chromosome.
Only one altered copy of the gene is needed to cause disease.

PART IV: MICROBIOLOGY

Vocabulary

microbiology [maɪkrə(ʊ)baɪˈɒləʤɪ] – n, микробиология

Microbiology is the study of microorganisms.
bacteriology [bæktɪərɪˈɒləʤɪ] – n, бактериология
Bacteriology is a branch of microbiology that is concerned with the study of
bacteria.
virology [vaɪəˈrɒləʤɪ] – n, вирусология
Virology is the study of viruses.
epidemiology [epɪdiːmɪˈɒləʤɪ] – n, эпидемиология
Epidemiology is a branch of medical science that studies the distribution of disease
in human populations and the factors determining that distribution, chiefly by the
use of statistics.

microorganism [maɪkrəʊˈɔːgənɪz(ə)m] – n, микроорганизм

A microorganism is an organism that is too small to be seen with the naked eye.
microbe [ˈmaɪkrəʊb] – n, микроб, микроорганизм
A microbe is a very small living thing, which you can only see if you use a
microscope.
germ [ʤɜːm] – n, микроб, микроорганизм
A germ is a very small organism that causes disease.
pathogen [ˈpæθəʤən] – n, патоген, болезнетворный микроорганизм,
возбудитель
A pathogen is any small organism, such as a virus or a bacterium that can cause
disease.
causative agent [ˈkɔːzətɪv ˈeɪʤənt] – n, возбудитель
A disease causative agent is substance that causes disease.
bacterium [bækˈtɪ(ə)rɪəm] – n, бактерия (pl. – bacteria)
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A bacterium is a type of very small organism that lives in air, earth, water, plants,
and animals, often one that causes disease.
coccus [ˈkɒkəs] – n, кокк, бактерия сферической формы (pl. – cocci)
A coccus is any bacterium or archaeon that has a spherical, ovoid, or generally
round shape.
bacillus [bəˈsɪləs] – n, бацилла, бактерия палочковидной формы (pl. – bacilli)
Bacillus is a genus of Gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria.
virus [ˈvaɪərəs] – n, вирус
A virus is a submicroscopic infectious agent that replicates only inside the living
cells of an organism.
phage [feɪʤ] – n, фаг, бактериофаг
Bacteriophage or Phage is a virus that infects and replicates only within the body
of bacteria.
fungus [ˈfʌŋgəs] – n, гриб, грибок, плесень, плесневый гриб (pl. – fungi)
A fungus is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes
microorganisms such as yeasts and molds.
yeast [jiːst] – n, дрожжи, дрожжевой гриб
Yeast is any of about 1,500 species of single-celled fungi, several of which are
pathogenic.
protozoa [prəʊtəˈzəʊə] – n, протозоа, простейшие
Protozoa is a group of single-celled eukaryotes, either free-living or parasitic, that
feeds on organic matter such as other microorganisms or organic tissues.
aerobic [e(ə)ˈrəʊbɪk] – adj, аэробный
An aerobic organism or aerobe is an organism that can survive and grow in an
oxygenated environment.
anaerobic [ænəˈrəʊbɪk] - adj, анаэробный
In contrast to aerobic, an anaerobic organism (anaerobe) is any organism that does
not require oxygen for growth.
virulent [ˈvɪrʊlənt] – adj, заразный, вирулентный
A virulent disease is one that's infectious, spreading, and making lots of people
sick.

Ex.1. Read and learn the names of some infectious diseases:

cowpox [ˈkaʊpɒks] – коровья оспа

smallpox [ˈsmɔːlpɒks] - оспа
anthrax [ˈænθræks] – сибирская язва
fowl cholera [faʊl ˈkɒlərə] – птичья холера
rabies [ˈreɪbiːz] - бешенство
tuberculosis [tjuːbɜːkjʊˈləʊsɪs] - туберкулез
hepatitis [hepəˈtaɪtɪs] – гепатит
encephalitis [ɪnsefəˈlaɪtɪs] – энцефалит
measles [miːzlz] – корь
mumps [mʌmps] – свинка, эпидемический паротит

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rubella [ruːˈbelə] – краснуха
athletes’ foot [ˈæθliːts ˈfʊt] – дерматофития стопы
ringworm [ˈrɪŋwɜːm] – стригущий лишай, дерматомикоз
thrush [θrʌʃ] – кандидозный стоматит, молочница
malaria [məˈle(ə)rɪə] – малярия

Ex.2. Memorize the verbs to be used:

to invade – вторгаться, поражать болезнью

to occur – встречаться, случаться, происходить
to reveal – показывать, обнаруживать, выявлять
to persist – сохраняться, продолжать существовать
to impair – повреждать, ухудшать, нарушать
to destroy – разрушать, уничтожать
to catch – схватить, заболеть, заразиться
to cause – вызывать

Ex.3. Mind the following international words:

Microbiology, microorganism, microbe, pathogen, vaccine, infection, medicine,

diagnosis, epidemic, antibiotic, method, microscope, biogenesis, theory, postulate,
genome, parasite, endospore, temperature.

Ex.4. Read the following words paying attention to their pronunciation:

Germ, microorganism, pathogen, virus, yeast, parasite, species, vaccine,

biotechnology, disease, wound, isolation.

Ex.5. Mind the formation of plural form of the following words:

Coccus – cocci
Bacillus – bacilli
Fungus – fungi
Bacterium – bacteria
Criterion – criteria

Ex.6. Read the following word combinations, give their Russian equivalents:

vaccine against smallpox

stomach ulcer
healthy population
a branch of medical science

53
treatment of infectious diseases
modes of transmission
the portal of entry
consultants for physicians
virulent or resistant strains of microbes
non-pathogenic species
germ theory of disease
antiseptic surgery
to clean wounds
the isolation of bacteria in pure culture
the causative agent of tuberculosis
method of staining bacteria
DNA sequencing

Ex.7. Translate into English using verbs from ex.2:

Нарушать функции печени, повреждать лёгкое, заразиться свинкой,

температура сохраняется, микроорганизмы вторгаются в тело человека,
болезнь вызывает высокую температуру, фагоциты уничтожают
определённых микробов.

Ex.8. Look through the text and name the most common pathogenic
microorganisms:

WHAT IS MICROBIOLOGY?
Microorganisms and their activities are vitally important to virtually all processes
on Earth. Microorganisms matter because they affect every aspect of our lives –
they are in us, on us and around us.
Microbiology is the study of all living organisms that are too small to be visible
with the naked eye. This includes bacteria, viruses and phages, fungi and yeasts
and protozoa or parasites collectively known as microbes. These microbes play key
roles in nutrient cycling, food spoilage, the cause and control of disease, and
biotechnology. Thanks to their versatility, microbes can be put to work in many
ways: making life-saving drugs, cleaning up pollution, and producing/processing
food and drink.
Microbiologists study microbes, and some of the most important discoveries that
have underpinned modern society have resulted from the research of famous
microbiologists, such as Jenner and his vaccine against smallpox, Fleming and the
discovery of penicillin, Marshall and the identification of the link between
Helicobacter pylori infection and stomach ulcers, and zur Hausen, who identified
the link between papilloma virus and cervical cancer.
Microbiology research has been, and continues to be, central to meeting many of
the current global aspirations and challenges, such as maintaining food and water

54
security for a healthy population on a habitable earth. Microbiology research will
also help to answer big questions such as “how diverse is life on Earth?”, and
“does life exist elsewhere in the Universe”?

Ex.9. Read the text and give definitions of medical microbiology and
epidemiology:

MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY
Medical microbiology, the large subset of microbiology that is applied to
medicine, is a branch of medical science concerned with the prevention, diagnosis
and treatment of infectious diseases. In addition, this field of science studies
various clinical applications of microbes for the improvement of health.
A medical microbiologist studies the characteristics of pathogens, their modes of
transmission, mechanisms of infection and growth. Using this information, a
treatment can be devised. Medical microbiologists often serve as consultants for
physicians, providing identification of pathogens and suggesting treatment options.
Other tasks may include the identification of potential health risks to the
community or monitoring the evolution of potentially virulent or resistant strains
of microbes, educating the community and assisting in the design of health
practices. They may also assist in preventing or controlling epidemics and
outbreaks of disease. Not all medical microbiologists study microbial pathology;
some study common, non-pathogenic species to determine whether their properties
can be used to develop antibiotics or other treatment methods.
Epidemiology, the study of the patterns, causes, and effects of health and disease
conditions in populations, is an important part of medical microbiology, although
the clinical aspect of the field primarily focuses on the presence and growth of
microbial infections in individuals, their effects on the human body, and the
methods of treating those infections. In this respect the entire field, as an applied
science, can be subdivided into academic and clinical sub-specialties, although in
reality there is a continuum between public health microbiology and clinical
microbiology, just as the state of the art in clinical laboratories depends on
continual improvements in academic medicine and research laboratories.

Ex.10. Read the text and answer some questions below:

FROM THE HISTORY OF MICROBIOLOGY

Microbiology essentially began with the development of the microscope. Antonie
van Leeuwenhoek, whose hobby was lens grinding and making microscopes, was
the first to provide proper documentation of his observations. His descriptions and
drawings included protozoa from the guts of animals and bacteria from teeth
scrapings. Leeuwenhoek conveyed his findings in a series of letters to the British
Royal Society during the mid-1670s.

55
In 1796, Edward Jenner developed a method using cowpox to successfully
immunize a child against smallpox. The same principles are used for developing
vaccines today.
Following on from this, in 1857 Louis Pasteur also designed vaccines against
several diseases such as anthrax, fowl cholera and rabies as well as pasteurization
for food preservation. In a series of masterful experiments, Pasteur proved that
only preexisting microbes could give rise to other microbes (biogenesis) and
formulated the germ theory of disease. He also differentiated aerobic and anaerobic
bacteria.
Joseph Lister is considered to be the father of antiseptic surgery. By sterilizing the
instruments with diluted carbolic acid and using it to clean wounds, post-operative
infections were reduced, making surgery safer for patients.
In the years between 1876 and 1884 Robert Koch, a German physician, provided
much insight into infectious diseases. He was one of the first scientists to focus on
the isolation of bacteria in pure culture. He developed a series of criteria around
causal relationships between a pathogen microbe and a disease that have become
known as the Koch's postulates. He also discovered the causative agent of
tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis).
A major milestone in medical microbiology is the Gram stain. In 1884 Hans
Christian Gram developed the method of staining bacteria to make them more
visible and differentiated under a microscope. This technique is widely used today.
The foundation of microbiology was securely laid during the period from about
1880 to 1900. Students of Pasteur, Koch, and others discovered in rapid succession
a host of bacteria capable of causing specific diseases (pathogens). They also
elaborated an extensive arsenal of techniques and laboratory procedures for
revealing the ubiquity, diversity, and abilities of microbes.
The field of study in which viruses are investigated is called virology. The founder
of virology was a prominent Russian scientist Dmitry Iosiphovitch Ivanovsky, who
has proved the existence of microscopic agents, many times smaller than bacteria -
viruses (1892).
In 1929 Alexander Fleming developed the most commonly used antibiotic
substance both at the time and now: penicillin. Since this epoch-making discovery
a great amount of research has been done to provide a wide range of antibiotics
which are now available for all varieties of bacterial infections.
In 1939 Gerhard Domagk found Prontosil protected mice from pathogenic
streptococci and staphylococci without toxicity. Domagk received the Nobel Prize
in physiology, or medicine, for the discovery of the sulfa drug.
DNA sequencing, a method developed by Walter Gilbert and Frederick Sanger in
1977, caused a rapid change the development of vaccines, medical treatments and
diagnostic methods. The first genetically engineered vaccine was created in 1986
for hepatitis B.
In 1995 a team at The Institute for Genomic Research sequenced the first bacterial
genome, Haemophilus influenzae. A few months later, the first eukaryotic genome
was completed. This would prove invaluable for diagnostic techniques.

56
The questions:
1. Who is considered to be the one of the first to observe microorganisms using
a microscope?
2. What is the contribution of Louis Pasteur to the study of microbiology?
3. Who is considered to be the founder of modern bacteriology?
4. Who was the founder of virology?
5. Who was the first scientist to extract penicillin in its pure form?

Ex.11. Read the texts and be ready to speak on the kinds of pathogenic
microorganisms and their characteristic features:

Four kinds of microorganisms that cause infectious diseases:

bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa

BACTERIA
Bacteria are single celled microbes. The cell structure is simpler than that of other
organisms as there is no nucleus or membrane bound organelles. Instead their
control centre containing the genetic information is contained in a single loop of
DNA. Some bacteria have an extra circle of genetic material called a plasmid. The
plasmid often contains genes that give the bacterium some advantage over other
bacteria. For example it may contain a gene that makes the bacterium resistant to a
certain antibiotic.
Bacteria are classified into five groups according to their basic shapes: spherical
(cocci), rod (bacilli), spiral (spirilla), comma (vibrios) or corkscrew (spirochaetes).
They can exist as single cells, in pairs, chains or clusters.
Bacteria are found in every habitat on Earth: soil, rock, oceans and even arctic
snow. Some live in or on other organisms including plants and animals including
humans. There are approximately 10 times as many bacterial cells as human cells
in the human body. A lot of these bacterial cells are found lining the digestive
system. Some bacteria live in the soil or on dead plant matter where they play an
important role in the cycling of nutrients. Some types cause food spoilage and crop
damage but others are incredibly useful in the production of fermented foods such
as yoghurt and soy sauce. Relatively few bacteria are parasites or pathogens that
cause disease in animals and plants.
Bacteria reproduce by binary fission. In this process the bacterium, which is a
single cell, divides into two identical daughter cells. Binary fission begins when
the DNA of the bacterium divides into two (replicates). The bacterial cell then
elongates and splits into two daughter cells each with identical DNA to the parent
cell. Each daughter cell is a clone of the parent cell.
When conditions are favourable such as the right temperature and nutrients are
available, some bacteria like Escherichia coli can divide every 20 minutes. This
means that in just seven hours one bacterium can generate 2,097,152 bacteria.
After one more hour the number of bacteria will have risen to a colossal

57
16,777,216. That’s why we can quickly become ill when pathogenic microbes
invade our bodies.
Some bacteria can form endospores. These are dormant structures, which are
extremely resistant to hostile physical and chemical conditions such as heat, UV
radiation and disinfectants. This makes destroying them very difficult. Many
endospore-producing bacteria are nasty pathogens, for example Bacillus anthracis,
the cause of anthrax.
TUBERCULOSIS
Tuberculosis (TB) is a debilitating multi-organ disease caused by the bacterium
Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The most important form of the disease is pulmonary
TB, an infection of the lungs and respiratory tract. Other types of TB include TB
meningitis and miliary TB, which are associated with high mortality in infants and
young children. The disease is usually treatable with antibiotics, but it remains the
leading cause of death from a single infectious agent and a significant health threat
worldwide due to the increasing prevalence of antibiotic resistance, difficulty of
diagnosis and the absence of a wholly effective vaccine. In the UK, tuberculosis
incidence remains high compared to most other Western European countries and
the disease disproportionately affects the most deprived communities.

VIRUSES
Viruses are the smallest of all the microbes. They are said to be so small that 500
million rhinoviruses (which cause the common cold) could fit on to the head of a
pin. They are unique because they are only alive and able to multiply inside the
cells of other living things. The cell they multiply in is called the host cell.
A virus is made up of a core of genetic material, either DNA or RNA, surrounded
by a protective coat called a capsid which is made up of protein. Sometimes the
capsid is surrounded by an additional spikey coat called the envelope. Viruses are
capable of latching onto host cells and getting inside them.
Viruses only exist to make more viruses. The virus particle attaches to the host cell
before penetrating it. The virus then uses the host cell’s machinery to replicate its
own genetic material. Once replication has been completed the virus particles leave
the host by either budding or bursting out of the cell (lysis).

MEASLES
Measles is a viral disease spread through inhaling viral particles from infected
coughs and sneezes. The disease attacks the immune system in both children and
adults. In about 1 in 15 cases, complications develop that vary from a mild ear
infection to encephalitis. The infection cannot be cured with antiviral drugs; the
only realistic way to tackle it is through vaccination. The combined measles,
mumps and rubella (MMR) vaccine given to prevent measles is effective, and has
an excellent safety record.

FUNGI

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Fungi can be single celled or very complex multicellular organisms. They are
found in just about any habitat but most live on the land, mainly in soil or on plant
material. A very small number of fungi cause diseases in animals. In humans these
include skin diseases such as athletes’ foot, ringworm and thrush.
Some species of yeast (which is a kind of fungi) such as Candida are opportunistic
pathogens and cause infections in individuals who do not have a healthy immune
system.
HUMAN FUNGAL DISEASES
Over a billion people suffer from superficial fungal infections, such as athlete’s
foot and thrush worldwide, while life-threatening fungal infections cause an
estimated 1.5 million deaths worldwide each year. There are serious risks and
economic costs associated with life-threatening invasive fungal infections, such as
invasive candidiasis and aspergillosis. These infections are associated with high
mortality rates, affecting the growing population of immunocompromised patients,
such as HIV/AIDS and cancer chemotherapy patients. The fungal disease burden
could be greatly reduced by improving development of, and global access to, new
antifungal treatments and rapid diagnostics. And by strengthening public health
capabilities and research on understanding and preventing fungal infection is also
important.

PROTOZOA
Protozoa are single celled organisms. They come in many different shapes and
sizes. They live in a wide variety of moist habitats including fresh water, marine
environments and the soil.
Some are parasitic, which means they live in other plants and animals including
humans, where they cause disease. Plasmodium, for example, causes infectious
disease malaria, infecting the blood and liver. These parasites are transmitted via
mosquito bites, and several different species are known to infect humans.

TOXOPLASMOSIS
In humans, Toxoplasma gondii causes the disease toxoplasmosis, which is usually
a self-limiting disease with few symptoms. During acute toxoplasmosis, when
there is a rapid reproduction of tachyzoites, the typical symptoms are malaise,
fever, fatigue, headache and swelling of the lymph nodes in the neck. Clinical
disease occurs only in immunocompromised patients (HIV/AIDS patients and
immunosuppressed oncological and transplantation patients) where the disease can
quickly turn into a new, severe acute phase causing encephalitis from which the
patient will eventually die. When an expectant mother is infected immediately
before or during the first trimester of pregnancy, the infection can be transmitted to
the foetus resulting either in abortion or malformation (such as an abnormal
enlargement or diminution of the head) of the unborn child.

Ex.12. Read the text and translate it in writing:

59
 TRANSMISSION OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES

The site at which a microbe enters the body is referred to as the portal of entry.
These include the respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, genitourinary tract, skin,
and mucous membranes. The portal of entry for a specific microbe is normally
dependent on how it travels from its natural habitat to the host.
There are various ways in which disease can be transmitted between individuals.
These include:
• Direct contact - Touching an infected host, including sexual contact
• Indirect contact - Touching a contaminated surface
• Droplet contact - Coughing or sneezing
• Fecal–oral route - Ingesting contaminated food or water sources
• Airborne transmission - Pathogen carrying spores
• Vector transmission - An organism that does not cause disease itself but
transmits infection by conveying pathogens from one host to another
• Fomite transmission - An inanimate object or substance capable of carrying
infectious germs or parasites
• Environmental - Hospital-acquired infection (Nosocomial infections)

Texts for additional reading:

TEXT 1. CORONAVIRUSES

Coronaviruses are a group of related RNA viruses that cause diseases in mammals
and birds. In humans and birds, they cause respiratory tract infections that can
range from mild to lethal. The earliest reports of a coronavirus infection in animals
occurred in the late 1920s, when an acute respiratory infection of domesticated
chickens emerged in North America. Human coronaviruses were discovered in the
1960s.
The name "coronavirus" is derived from Latin corona, meaning "crown". The
name refers to the characteristic appearance of virions (the infective form of the
virus), which have a fringe of large, bulbous surface projections creating an image
reminiscent of the solar corona. This morphology is created by the viral proteins on
the surface of the virus. The scientific name Coronavirus was accepted as a genus
name by the International Committee for the Nomenclature of Viruses in 1971.
Coronaviruses are large, roughly spherical particles with unique surface
projections. Their size is highly variable with average diameters of 80 to 120 nm.
Extreme sizes are known from 50 to 200 nm in diameter. They are enclosed in an
envelope embedded with a number of protein molecules. The lipid bilayer
envelope, membrane proteins, and nucleocapsid protect the virus when it is outside
the host cell.
Coronaviruses are divided into the four genera:
• α-coronavirus
• β-coronavirus

60
• γ-coronavirus
• δ-coronavirus.
Alphacoronaviruses and Betacoronaviruses infect mammals, while
Gammacoronaviruses and Deltacoronaviruses primarily infect birds.
Three human coronaviruses produce potentially severe symptoms:
1. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), β-CoV
(identified in 2003)
2. Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (MERS-CoV), β-CoV
(identified in 2012)
3. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), β-CoV
(identified in 2019)
These cause the diseases commonly called SARS, MERS, and COVID-19
respectively.

TEXT 2. COVID-19 PANDEMIC

The COVID-19 pandemic is a global pandemic of coronavirus disease caused by

severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2). The virus was first
identified in December 2019 in Wuhan, China. The World Health Organization
declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern regarding COVID-
19 on 30 January 2020, and later declared a pandemic on 11 March 2020. As of 3
May 2021, more than 152 million cases have been confirmed, with more than 3.2
million deaths attributed to COVID-19, making it one of the deadliest pandemics
in history.
Symptoms of COVID-19 are highly variable, ranging from none to life-
threateningly severe. Transmission of COVID-19 occurs mainly when an infected
person is in close contact with another person. Small droplets containing the virus
leave an infected person as they breathe, cough, sneeze, or speak and enter another
person via their mouth, nose, or eyes. Airborne transmission is also sometimes
possible, as smaller infected droplets can linger in the air for minutes to hours
within enclosed spaces that have inadequate ventilation. Less commonly, the virus
may spread via contaminated surfaces. People remain contagious for up to 20 days,
and can spread the virus even if they do not develop any symptoms.
Recommended preventive measures include social distancing, wearing face masks
in public, ventilation and air-filtering, hand washing, covering one's mouth when
sneezing or coughing, disinfecting surfaces, and monitoring and self-isolation for
people exposed or symptomatic. Several vaccines have been developed and widely
distributed since December 2020. Current treatments focus on addressing
symptoms, but work is underway to develop therapeutic drugs that inhibit the
virus. Authorities worldwide have responded by implementing travel restrictions,
lockdowns/quarantines, workplace hazard controls, and business closures. Many
places have also worked to increase testing capacity and trace contacts of the
infected.

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 TEXT 3. SYMPTOMS OF COVID-19

Symptoms of COVID-19 are variable, ranging from mild symptoms to severe

illness. Common symptoms include headache, loss of smell and taste, nasal
congestion and runny nose, cough, muscle pain, sore throat, fever, diarrhea, and
breathing difficulties. People with the same infection may have different
symptoms, and their symptoms may change over time. Three common clusters of
symptoms have been identified: one respiratory symptom cluster with cough,
sputum, shortness of breath, and fever; a musculoskeletal symptom cluster with
muscle and joint pain, headache, and fatigue; a cluster of digestive symptoms with
abdominal pain, vomiting, and diarrhea. In people without prior ear, nose, and
throat disorders, loss of taste combined with loss of smell is associated with
COVID-19.
Most people (81%) develop mild to moderate symptoms (up to mild pneumonia),
while 14% develop severe symptoms (dyspnea, hypoxia, or more than 50% lung
involvement on imaging) and 5% of patients suffer critical symptoms (respiratory
failure, shock, or multiorgan dysfunction). At least a third of the people who are
infected with the virus do not develop noticeable symptoms at any point in time.
These asymptomatic carriers tend not to get tested and can spread the disease.
Other infected people will develop symptoms later, called "pre-symptomatic", or
have very mild symptoms and can also spread the virus.
As is common with infections, there is a delay between the moment a person first
becomes infected and the appearance of the first symptoms. The median delay for
COVID-19 is four to five days. Most symptomatic people experience symptoms
within two to seven days after exposure, and almost all will experience at least one
symptom within 12 days.
Most people recover from the acute phase of the disease. However, some people
continue to experience a range of effects for months after recovery- named long
COVID- and damage to organs has been observed. Multi-year studies are
underway to further investigate the long-term effects of the disease.

Список использованной литературы:

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1. Англо-русский медицинский словарь: справочное издание/ под ред.:
И.Ю. Марковиной, Э.Г. Улумбекова. – М.: Геотар Медиа, 2010.
2. Англо-русский медицинский энциклопедический словарь. М., 2007.
3. Василькова А.П. Learn to read medicine. Учимся читать медицинскую
литературу. СПбГМУ, 2009.
4. Василькова А.П., Владимирова Н.М., Зайкова Е.М., Зимовская М.А.
Practical English grammar for medical students. Практическая грамматика
английского языка для студентов медиков. СПбГМУ, 2011.
5. Collin P.H. Dictionary of medical terms. London, 2004
6. Longman dictionary of contemporary English, 2003

Учебное издание

Мухина Марина Юрьевна, Храмова Юлия Анатольевна, Юрова Инна

Юрьевна, Зенина Ирина Викторовна, Денисова Ольга Сергеевна

LIFE SCIENCES
ЕСТЕСТВЕННЫЕ НАУКИ

Учебно-методическое пособие

63
 Подписано к печати _______. Формат _________.
Бумага офсетная. Печать офсетная. Усл. печ. л.___.
Тираж 100 экз.
Заказ No________.

______________________________________________________________
Саратовский государственный медицинский университет.
410012, г. Саратов, ул. Большая Казачья, 112.
Отпечатано в типографии по образцу

64