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DK Skripta Ripta Skripta Mejrenje
DK Skripta Ripta Skripta Mejrenje
6$'5$-
1. 32-029,,'(),1,&,-(,=32'58-$0-(5,7(/-679$
2. MJERNE JEDINICE...6
3. ISKAZIVANJE MJERNOG REZULTATA.....11
4. MJERNA NESIGURNOST..14
4.1.
2'5(,9$1-(1(6,*851267,$7,3$
4.2.
PROCJENA NESIGURNOSTI B TIPA...21
4.3.
6/2(1$1(6,*851267
5. ISKAZIVANJE CJELOVITOG MJERNOG REZULTATA...30
6. STATISTIKA..34
6.1.
NORMALNA (GAUSSOVA) RAZDIOBA34
6.2.
NORMIRANA NORMALNA RAZDIOBA....35
6.3.
STUDENTOVA RAZDIOBA.36
7. SIGNALI.38
7.1.
'(7(50,1,67,.,6,*1$/,
7.1.1. $1$/2*1,'(7(50,1,67,.,6,*1$/,
7.1.2. ',*,7$/1,'(7(50,1,67,.,6,*1$/,
7.2.
PRETVORBA ANALOGNOG SIGNALA U DIGITALNI...46
7.3.
3$5$0(75,3(5,2',KIH SIGNALA.50
7.4.
SVOJSTVA SIGNALA...54
7.5.
PRIKAZ SIGNALA U FREKVENCIJSKOJ DOMENI55
8. MJERNA OPREMA..56
8.1.
(/(.75,.$0-(5,/$...57
8.1.1. $1$/2*1$(/(.75,.$0-(5,/$
8.1.2. ',*,7$/1$(/(.75,.$0-(5,/$
8.1.3. $1$/2*1$(/(.7520(+$1,.$0-(5,/$
9. ',1$0,.$*,%$1-$320,12*7,-(/$
10. 1$(/25$'$,1STRUMENTA..73
11. *5$1,1(32*5(.(721267,167580(17$
12. 67$7,.(,',1$0,.(.$5$.7(5,67,.(0-(51,+6867$9$
12.1. 67$7,.(.$5$.7(5,67,.(0-(51,+6867$9$
12.2. ',1$0,.(.$5AKTERISTIKE MJERNIH SUSTAVA..91
13. (/(.7521,.,$1$/2*1,0-(51,,167580(17,
$1$/2*1,(/(.7521,.,92/70(75,
Vjekoslav Duk
32-029,,'(),1,&,-(,=32'58-$0-(5,7(/-679$
MJERITELJSTVO - SRGUXMH]QDQMDRPMHUHQMLPD2EXKYDDWHRULMXLSUDNVXPMHUHQMDRGQRVQR
mjerne jedinice
mjernu opremu
mjerne metode
QDLQLVND]LYDQMDPMHUQRJ rezultata
procjenu mjerne nesigurnosti
cjelovito iskazivanje mjernog rezultata
procjenu na temelju cjelovitog iskaza mjernog rezultata
MJERITELJSKO ZAKONODAVSTVO
NRQWUROHRGUHHQLKPMHULODDVYHWRVFLOMHPSRVWL]DQMDPMHUQRJMHGLQVWYDL]DWLWHSRWURDD
MJERENJE - (zovemo ga jo i mjerni proces) je ukupnost radnji koje se obavljaju kako bi se ustanovio mjerni
UH]XOWDWRGQRVQRWRMHHNVSHULPHQWDOQLSURFHVXNRMHPGR]QDMHPREURMDQXYULMHGQRVWPMHUHQHIL]LNDOQHYHOLLQHX
9(/,,1$
PMHULPR3RPRXYHOLLQDLVND]XMXVHIL]LNDOQL]DNRQLSULURGQLKSRMDYD'DQDVUD]OLNXMHPRRNRYHOLLQD
9HOLLQHVHSLXNRVLPVORYLPD
XWMHORYOMHQDYULMHGQRVWQHNHYHOLLQHQSUXWHJRGNJMHPMHUNDPDVHHWDORQRWSRUDRG
je mjerka).
.RG PMHUNL SRJUHND MH GHILQLUDQD NDR QD]QDHQD YULMHGQRVW PLQXV GRJRYRUQD SUDYD YULMHGQRVW D WD GRJRYRUQD
Vjekoslav Duk
0HXQDURGQL HWDORQ HWDORQ QDMYHH WRQRVWL QD PHXQDURGQRM UD]LQL VOXL ]D GRGMHOMLYDQMH
YULMHGQRVWLGUXJLPHWDORQLPDLVWHYHOLLQH
'UDYQLHWDORQ HWDORQQDMYHHWRQRVWLSULKYDHQXQHNRMGUDYLVOXL]DGRGMHOMLYDQMHYULMHGQ
osti
GUXJLPHWDORQLPDLVWHYHOLLQH
Referentni etalon -
VPLVOX UHIHUHQWQLP HWDORQRP PRHPR VPDWUDWL VYDNR RQR PMHULOR NRMH LPD GR SXWD PDQMX
0-(5121$(/2
VOLMHG GHILQLUDQLK UDGQML NRMLPD VH SURYRGL PMHUHQMH X VNODGX V RGUHHQRP PMHUQRP
PHWRGRP6DVWDYQLGLRPMHUQRJSRVWXSNDVXLXSXWH]DSURYRHQMHPMHUHQMDNRMHWUHEDMXVDGUDYDWLLQIRUPDFLMHR
PMHUQRPQDHOXPMHUQRMPHWRGLPMHULOLPDXWMHFDMQLPYHOLLQDPDLVOLMHGXSRMHGLQLKUDGQML
87-(&$-1( 9(/,,1(
PMHUHQMXQDSRQDWHPSHUDWXUDMHXWMHFDMQDYHOLLQD
MJERNI REZULTAT
YHOLLQHSRQDYOMDYLHSXWDWDGDPMHUQLPUH]XOWDWRPVPDWUDPRDULWPHWLNXVUHGLQXUH]XOWDWDSRQRYOMHQLKPMHUHQMD
CJELOVIT MJERNI REZULTAT - raspon vrijednosti kojL VH LVND]XMH V QDMEROMRP SURFMHQRP PMHUQH YHOLLQH
PMHUQRPQHVLJXUQRXWHPMHUQRPMHGLQLFRP
M = {Mi u} [M]
Unutar
Mi u
Mi
Mi + u
tog
intervala
PMHUHQHYHOLLQH
Vjekoslav Duk
MJERNA NESIGURNOST jednostavan, jedinstven i univerzalan iskaz o kvaliteti mjernog rezultata koji
]DPMHQMXMH VYH GR VDGD NRULWHQH L]UD]H 7R MH SDUDPHWDU NRML RGUHXMH UDVSRQ YULMHGQRVWL NRMH VH QD WHPHOMX
PMHUHQMD PRJX SULSLVDWL PMHUHQRM YHOLLQL RGQRVQR SURFMHQRP PMHUQH QHVLJXUQRVWL RGUHXMHPR UDVSRQ YULMHGQRVWL
XQXWDU NRMHJ RHNXMHPR GD VH QDOD]L SUDYD YULMHGQRVW PMHUHQH YHOLLQH 0MHUQD QHVLJXUQRVW LVND]XMH VH
VWDQGDUGQLP RGVWXSDQMHP VWDQGDUGQRP GHYLMDFLMRP L WR ]DRNUXHQD QD GYLMH ]QDDMQH ]QDPHQNH 9ULMHGQRVW
PMHUQRJ UH]XOWDWD ]DRNUXXMH VH QD UD]LQL PMHVQH YULMHGQRVWL ]DGQMH ]QDPHQNH QHVLJ
YUOR MH YDDQ SDUDPHWDU MHU GMHORWYRUQD L RGJRYRUQD XSRUDED PMHUQRJ UH]XOWDWD PRJXD MH VDPR X] SR]QDYDQMH
QMHJRYH PMHUQH QHVLJXUQRVWL %XGXL GD VH PMHUQD QHVLJXUQRVW LVND]XMH VWDQGDUGQLP RGVWXSDQMHP QD]LYD VH L
RGQRVQRVWDQGDUGQDQHVLJXUQRVW8RELDMHQRHPRMX]YDWLVDPRQHVLJXUQRVW
RVLP NDGDMHSRWUHEQRQDJODVLWLGDVHUDGLRVWDQGDUGQRMQHVLJXUQRVWLNDGDHPRMX]YDWLVWDQGDUGQDQHVLJXUQRVW
2QHVLJXUQRVWLHELWLMRULMHLNDVQLMH
MJERNO JEDINSTVO to je stanje u mjeriteljstvu, a postoji onda kada se mjerni rezultat dobiven mjerenjem
RGUHHQH YHOLLQH X MHGQRP ODERUDWRULMX SRGXGDUD V UH]XOWDWRP PMHUHQMD WH LVWH YHOLLQH X QHNRP GUXJRP
laboratoriju. Tako dobiveni mjerni rezultati moraju se podudarati unutar granica iskazane mjerne nesigurnosti.
LB
LA
&MHORYLWLVND]PMHUQRJUH]XOWDWDPRJXMHVDPRDNRMHUH]XOWDWVOMHGLY
SLJEDIVOST svojstvo mjernog rezultata da se slijedom neprekinutog lanca usporedbi dovodi u vezu s
RGJRYDUDMXLP PHXQDURGQLP HWDORQRP 7R VH RVWYDUXMH QL]RP GRNXPHQWLUDQLK XPMHUDYDQMD L WR X VYDNRP
VOMHGHHPNRUDNXHWDORQRPYLHNYDOLWHWH
Mjeriteljska piramida
1DMPDQMDPRJXDPMHUQDQ
esigurnost
BIPM
0HXQDURGQLHWDORQL
'UDYQLHWDORQL
GUDYQLODERUDWRULM
(PRIM)
Referentni etaloni
ovlateni laboratorij
(SEK)
Mjerila
Industrija,trgovina
znanost
Mjerna nesigurnost
Vjekoslav Duk
Primjerice:
BIPM
1MHPDNDRUJDQL]DFLMD
PTB
Tako je najbolje
umjeravati
FER Zagreb
Umjerni laboratorij
Tvornica KRQDU
Laboratorij na FER-u
ima bolje etalone od
WYRUQLFH.RQDU
laboratorij
6OMHGLYRVW VH RVWYDUXMH SUHNR %,30 0HXQDURGQL XUHG ]D PMHUH L XWHJH X 3DUL]X '=10 'UDYQL ]DYRG ]D
QRUPL]DFLMXLPMHULWHOMVWYRWHQRUPL]DFLMHPMHUQLKHWDORQDQDPHXQDURGQRMUD]LQL
BIPM 0HXQDURGQLXUHG]DPMHUHLXWHJHX3DUL]XRVLJXUDYDHWDORQVQDMYHRPNYDOLWHWRP]DQDMYDQLMHYHOLLQH
DZNM 'UDYQL]DYRG]DQRUPL]DFLMXLPMHULWHOMVWYR
EULQH]DRVWYDULYDQMHRGUDYDQMHLUD]YRMGUDYQLKHWDORQD
propisuje mjeriteljske zahtjeve za mjerila i ovjeravanje mjerila
LPD SUDYR RYODLvanja temeljem zakona o mjeriteljskoj djelatnosti i zakona o
normizaciji
ISO PHXQDURGQDRUJDQL]DFLMD]DQRUPL]DFLMX
CIPM PHXQDURGQLRGERU]DPMHUHLXWHJH
=DNRQRP L SUDYLOQLFLPD VH SURSLVXMH RYMHUDYDQMH FHUWLILUDQMH PMHULOD WH SUHJOHG RGUHHQLK PMHULOD X RGUHHQLP
vremenskim intervalima.
2YMHUDYDWL PRJX VDPR RYODWHQL ODERUDWRULML 2YMHUDYDQMH QLMH REDYH]QR ]D VYD PMHULOD YH VDPR ]DRQDNRMDVH
SULPMHQMXMXXWUJRYLQL]GUDYVWYXVLJXUQRVWLL]DWLWLOMXGLLRNROLQHWUJRYDNHYDJHHOHNWULQD
brojila).
ISO 9000 niz normi kojima se propisuju minimalni zahtjevi na sustav upravljanja kvalitetom proizvoda i usluga.
ISO znak ne garantira kvalitetu samog proizvoda nego kvalitetu organizacije proizvodnje.
UMJERNI I ISPITNI LABORATORIJ - tu se mjerila ispituju i umjeravaju s etalonima.
Vjekoslav Duk
2. MJERNE JEDINICE
MJERNA JEDINICA - GRJRYRUHQD SR]QDWD L REQRYOMLYD YULMHGQRVW YHOLLQH 0MHUQLP MHGLQLFDPD GRJRYRUQR VX
dodijeljena imena i znakovi.
INCH WRMHELODGXOMLQDWUL]UQDMHPDWDNRMHWRRGUHGLRNUDOM(GXDUG
9HGDYQRSRMDYLODVHMHSRWUHED]DXYRHQMHPMHGLQVWYHQRJVustava mjernih jedinica. Stoga 1875. godine imamo
SRHWDN VYMHWVNRJ PMHUQRJ MHGLQVWYD RGQRVQR GRJRYRU R GXOMLQL L PDVL PHWDU L NLORJUDP 7H PMHUQH MHGLQLFH
0(
81$52'1,6867$90-(51,+-(',1,&$6,
za
1
- ti dio
299792488
sekunde.
]UDHQMD
12
frekvencije 54010
+] L LML
LQWHQ]LWHW]UDHQMDXWRPVPMHUX
KILOGRAM
PHXQDURGQH
Masa
iznosi
PDVHQH
primjerke u Parizu.
SEKUNDA - Trajanje 9 192
631
770
perioda
HOHNWURPDJQHWVNRJ
]UDHQMD
koje
prijelazu
nastaje
HOHNWURQD
pri
L]PHX
GYDMX
MOL
NROLLQD WYDUL
VXVWDYD
NRML
VDGUL
RQRJ
RQROLNR
elementarnih
jedinki
tvari
koliko ima atoma u 0,012 kg
QDMHHJ XJOMLNRYRJ L]RWRSD
12
NUR]SUHVMHNYRGLD
7ULVXPMHUQHMHGLQLFHPHXVR
1
vata po sterodijanu.
683
Vjekoslav Duk
METAR (10-10)
CANDELA (10-3)
KILOGRAM (10-8)
SEKUNDA(10-14)
MOL(10-6)
KELVIN(10-6)
AMPER(10-8)
6OLND2GQRVLPHXRVQRYQLPPMHUQLPMHGLQLFDPDLQMLKRYHQHVLJXUQRVWL
IZVEDENE MJERNE JEDINICE izvode se iz osnovnih na temelju fizikalnih zakona koji se iskD]XMXYHOLLQVNLP
MHGQDGEDPDYHOLLQVNHMHGQDGEHQHRYLVHRPMHUQLPMHGLQLFDPDNRMHVHNRULVWH
Primjerice:
V=
s
,
t
U=
P F v m a v m v2 m P2
=
=
= 3
=
I
I
I
tI
t I
[v] =
m
s
W N m
kg m 2
=
= .......... ... = 2
[U] = V =
A
sA
s A
Paziti!
-1
ms
-1
ms
- nije ispravno
- ispravno
Vjekoslav Duk
21
10
zepto
-24
10
jokto
10
zeta
24
10
jota
ZAKONITE MJERNE JEDNICE tR VX RQH PMHUQH MHGLQLFH NRMH VH VPLMX NRULVWLWL X SRVORYQRP L VOXEHQRP
SURPHWX2QHVXSURSLVDQH]DNRQRPXQHNRMGUDYLDXSRWUHEDQHSURSLVDQLKNDQMDYDVH
3UHPDGDQDVYDHHP]DNRQX1DURGQH1RYLQHEURMOLSDQMVWU
1473. ) to su:
decimalne jedinice
VORHQHL]YHGHQHMHGLQLFHNRMHQDVWDMXNRPELQDFLMRPSUYHWULYUVWH
JEDINICE IZNIMNO DOPUTENE IZVAN SI SUSTAVA: tona, sat, gram, litra (ima ih 22)
Postotak:
Promil :
Parfpermilion:
Radijani:
1
= 0.01
100
1
= 0.001
1000
1
1000000
l
= rad
v
l
LOGARITAMSKE JEDINICE posebna skupina mjernih jedinica. Koriste se kao jedinice omjera frekvencija. To
su:
Oktave:
f2
f1
X = Lb
oktava
log2
f2
f1
dekada
log10
= Lb
f2
f1
f2
= 2 za jednu oktavu
f1
Dekade:
f2
f1
y = Lg
f2
f1
= Lg
f2
f1
f2
= 10 za jednu dekadu
f1
DECIBEL SRVHEDQ QD]LY ]DLVWLEURM (nije mjerna jedinica kao ni omjerne jedinice, ali s njima formalno radimo
NDR V PMHUQLP MHGLQLFDPDRGQRVQRWRVXORJDULWDPVNLRPMHULGYDMXLVWRYUVQLKYHOLLQDLWRXUDVSRQLPD 30
100 2000 30000
Vjekoslav Duk
Linearna razdioba:
2000
P1/P2
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
Logaritamska razdioba
3
30
100
2000
10
30000
10
10
P1/P2
10
10
40
50
Logaritamska razdioba
4,8
0
14,8
10
33
20
44,8
30
10log(P1/P2)
ORJDULWDP RPMHUD GYDMX LVWRYUVQLK YHOLLQD WR MH LVWL EURM NRMHPX VH SULGRGDMH
nekakav naziv.
Za snagu:
Lp = h Lg(
P
)
Pref
h = faktor razmjernosti
Pref = referentna snaga
Lp =1 Lg(
=DK
P
)B
Pref
WDMMHRPMHUL]UDHQX%HOLPD>%@0HXWLPWDNRGHILQLUDQ/SMHSUHYHOLNSDVHNRGVQDJHNRULVWLK
je to deciBel.
Lp = 10Lg (
P
)dB
Pref
3UHWSRVWDYLPRGDMH/S
QHNRMYHOLLQL[7DGDPRHPRL]UDXQDWLRPMHU
Lp = x dB
Lp = 10 Log(
P
)
Pref
P
Pref
LWRQDVOMHGHLQDLQ
WDGD
Vjekoslav Duk
P
)=x
Pref
x
P
)=
Log(
10
Pref
10Log(
P
=10 10
Pref
U telekomunikacijama dogovorena je razina snage od 1mW na 600
QDWHPHOMXWLKSRGDWDNDUDXQDPR3
Za napon:
Lu = 20Lg(
P
) dB
Pref
X
U1
= 10 20
U2
Za napon faktor razmjernosti h=20.
3RMDDQMHQDSRQD
Lu =20Lg
U izl
dB ;
U ul
Uul
Uizl
Uul
Uizl
Priguenje napona:
Lu= 20Lg
U ul
dB ;
U izl
Primjer:
Priguenje napona djelilom iznosi 3dB. Koliko je na izlazu djelila smanjen napon?
Lu= 3db
U ul
dB
Lu= 20Lg
U izl
U ul
= 10 20 =1,412 ( to je priguenje)
U izl
1
1,412
= 0,708
10
Vjekoslav Duk
11
pogreke.
POGREKA odstupanje mjernog rezultata (XmjRGSUDYHYULMHGQRVWLPMHUHQHYHOLLQH3UDYDYULMHGQRVWPMHUHQH
YHOLLQHUHGRYLWRQLMHSR]QDWDLQHPRHVHGR]QDWLPMHUHQMHPWHMHVWRJDSRJUHNDQHRGUHGLYDLQHSR]QDWD=DWR
VHXPMHUQRMWHKQLFLSRGSUDYRPYULMHGQRXSRGUD]XPLMHYD
PMHUHQHYHOLLQHNRMDXRGQRVXQDPMHUQLUH]XOWDWGRELYHQLVSLWLYDQLPPMHULORPLPDEDUHPWULDSUHSRUXXMHVHL
MHQDMYHDGRSXWHQDSRJUHNDNRMXLQVWUXPHQWVPLMHLPDWLX]XYMHWSUDYLOQHXSRUDEHD
da se jo uvijek smatra ispravnim. Pravilna uporaba mjerila podrazumijeva mjerenje u referentnim uvjetima i unutar
*5$1,1$32*5(.$
PMHUQRJSRGUXMD
5D]OLNXMHPRVOMHGHHSRJUHNH
Apsolutna:
p a = X mj X p ; u mjernim jedinicama
Relativna:
pr =
Postotna:
p% =
X mj X p
Xp
X mj X p
Xp
; bezdimenzijska
100% ; u postocima
6/8$-1( 32*5(.(
GRJDDMXXPMHUQRPREMHNWXPMHUQRMRSUHPLRNROLQLLPMHULWHOMX2QHLQHUH]XOWDWPMHUHQMDQHSUHFL]QLP
3URPMHQMLYH VX SR L]QRVX L SUHG]QDNX 0RJX VH VPDQMLWL SRQDYOMDQMHPPMHUHQMDLUDXQDQMHPDULWPHWLNH
sredine.
b) SISTEMATSKE POGREKE nastaju zbog nesavrenosti mjernog objekta, mjerne opreme, mjernog
postupka, mjeritelja ili zbog utjecaja okoline. Ako uzastopno ponavljamo mjerenja pri nepromijenjenim
XYMHWLPD RQH RVWDMX VWDOQH SR L]QRVX L SUHG]QDNX 2QH UH]XOWDW PMHUHQMD LQH QHLVSUDYQLP 6LVWHPDWVNH
pogreke poznatih uzroka i odredivih iznosa mogu se iz rezultata odstraniti ispravkom. To su odredive
sistematske pogreke. Osim njih postoje i neodredive koje se zovu i preostale sistematske pogreke.
=ERJQMLKL]ERJVOXDMQLKSRJUHDNDUH]XOWDWPMHUHQMDMHQHSUHFL]DQ
Mjerni rezultat s grubom pogrekom se odbacuje. Pri tome valja biti vrlo oprezan i provjeriti kako je dolo
GRSRJUHNHWHGDOLMHWRVWYDUQRJUXEDSRJUHND7XSRPDXVWDWLVWLNLWHVWRYL]DVWUHHYULMHGQRVWL
*UXEDSRJUHNDPRHVHL]EMHLUHGRYLWLPXPMHUDYDQMHPLQVWUXPHQDWDRSHWRYDQMHPPMHUHQMDLSDOMLYRX
pri mjerenju.
Vjekoslav Duk
12
ISPRAVNOST- MH EOLVNRVW VUHGQMH YULMHGQRVWL YHOLNRJ EURMD RSHWRYDQLK PMHUHQMD LVWH YHOLLQH QMH]LQRM GRJRYRUQRM
ke.
SUDYRMYULMHGQRVWL,VSUDYQRVWLOLEROMHUHHQRQHLVSUDYQRVWLVND]XMHVHVLVWHPDWVNRPNRPSRQHQWRPSRJUH
PRECIZNOST-
VWDQGDUGQRP GHYLMDFLMRP 8YMHWL RSHWRYDQMD PMHUHQMD LVWH YHOLLQH LVWLP PMHUQLP SRVWXSNRP PRJX ELWL UD]OLLWL
odstupanjem ponovljivosti (r LOL JUDQLQRP SRQRYOMLYRX U r $NR VH XVSRUHXMX UH]XOWDWL GYDMX
ponovljenih mjerenja, njihova razlika r treba biti na 95% - tnoj razini vjerojatnosti odnosno manja ili
MHGQDNDJUDQLQRMSRQRYOMLYRVWLUr r = 2,8r$NRUD]OLNDQLMHPDQMDLOLMHGQDNDJUDQLQRMSRQRYOMLYRVWL
UH]XOWDWLVXVXPQMLYLLWUHEDSRWUDLWLX]URNRGVWXSDQMD,VWRYULMHGL]DJUDQLQXREQRYOMLYRVW
b) OBNOVLJIVOST MHSUHFL]QRVWRGUHHQRJPMHUQRJSRVWXSNDNRMDVHSRVWLHNDGDVHPLMHQMDMXXWMHFDMQL
IDNWRUL ODERUDWRULM PMHUQD RSUHPD PMHULWHOM YUHPHQVNL LQWHUYDO XWMHFDMQH YHOLLQH ,VND]XMH VH
R).
.
PONOVLJIVOST
OBNOVLJIVOST
standardno odstupanje tj. mjerna nesigurnost
Slika: Odnos ponovljivosti i obnovljivosti.
DPV
Vjekoslav Duk
13
HWLULVXYUVWHQHWRQRJUH]XOWDWD
gv(x)
gv(x)
DPV
DPV
c) Neispravan i neprecizan
d) Gruba pogreka
gv(x)
gv(x)
DPV
DPV
mi smo tu izmjerili
Vjekoslav Duk
14
4. MJERNA NESIGURNOST
MJERNA NESIGURNOST jednostavan, jedinstven i univerzalan iskaz o kvaliteti mjernog rezultata izravnih i
SRVUHGQLKPMHUHQMD7RMHEURMDQLLVND]RNYDOLWHWLPMHUQRJUH]XOWDWDRGQRVQRSURFMHQDUDVSRQDYULMHGQRVWLXQXWDU
NRMHJDRHNXMHPRGDVHQDOD]LSUDYDYULMHGQRVWPMHUHQHYHOLLQH
PV
{M u}
{M}
{M + u}
Unutar
LOLPDQMHQHWRDQRGQRVQRYLHLOLPDQMHRGVWXSDRGSUDYH
tog
intervala
PMHUHQHYHOLLQH
GRELOLPMHUHQMHPSUDYDYULMHGQRVWPMHUHQHYHOLLQHYHQDWHPHOMXPMHUHQMD
da se nalazi prava
YULMHGQRVWPMHUHQHYHOLLQH,]PMHUHQXYULMHGQRVWLVSUDYOMDPR]DL]QRVHSR]QDWLKVLVWHPDWVNLKSRJUHDNDLWDNRVH
SULEOLDYDPR SUDYRM YULMHGQRVWL $OL L QDNRQ LVSUDYND RVWDMH QHVLJXUQRVW ]ERJ VOXDMQLK L SUHRVWDOLK VLVWHPDWVNLK
pogreaka.
5H]XOWDWVHQHLVSUDYOMDXYLMHN]DWRWRWRL]LVNXMHGRGDWQRYULMHPH+RHPROLPMHUQLUH]XOWDWLVSUDYOMDWLLOLQHRYLVLR
YHOLLQL LVSUDYND L QDPMHQL UH]XOWDWD 1DMYLH VH LVSUDYDND UDGL NRG PMHUHQMD YUKXQVNH WRQRVWL NDGD VH SRVWLH
1HSRWSXQDGHILQLFLMDLQHVDYUHQRRVWYDUHQMHPMHUHQHYHOLLQH
YRGLWL UDXQD R WRPH GD GHEOMLQD QLMH VYXJGMH MHGQDND SD WUHED X]HWL VUHGQM
bila manja.
b) Uzorkovanje. (na temelju malog broja mjerenja procjenjuju se vrijednosti osnovnog skupa) Npr. pri
PMHUHQMX GHEOMLQH OLPD QDMEROMH EL ELOR X]HWL EHVNRQDQR PQRJR X]RUDND DOL WR MH QHPRJXH 0L PMHULPR
debljinu samo na nekoliko mjesta i tako dobivamo srednju vrijednost koja se sigurno razlikuje od prave
srednje vrijednosti.
c)
1HGRYROMQR SR]QDYDQMHGMHORYDQMDXWMHFDMQLKYHOLLQDQDPMHUQLUH]XOWDW
d) Mjerna oprema0MHUQDRSUHPDLPDVYRMHJUDQLQHSRJUHNHLWLPHMHL]YRUQHVLJXUQRVWL
e) Mjeritelj1SUSRJUHQRRLWDQDYULMHGQRVWRWNORQDND]DOMNHQDDQDORJQRPPMHULOX
f)
1HGRYROMQRUD]OXLYDQMHUD]OXLYRVW
g)
(WDORQLLUHIHUHQWQLPPDWHULMDOLPDSULGUXHQHYULMHGQRVWLNRMHQLVXDSVROXWQRWRQH
h) Vrijednosti konstanti i drugih parametara koji se upotrebljavaju pri obradi mjernih rezultata.
i)
$SURNVLPDFLMHSUHWSRVWDYNHL]DQHPDUHQMDNRMDVXXJUDHQDXP
jerni postupak.
j)
5D]OLNHXRLWDQMLPDSRQRYOMHQLKPMHUHQMDSULSULYLGQRMHGQDNLPXYMHWLPD
k)
1HGRYROMQRWRDQPDWHPDWLNLPRGHOPMHUHQMD
l)
Vjekoslav Duk
5$=/8,9$1-(
15
QDMPDQMDVSR]QDWOMLYDSURPMHQDYULMHGQRVWLPMHUHQHYHOLLQHQDRGUHHQRPPMHUQRPSRGUXMX
QHVLJXUQRVWLNRMDMHPDQMDRGSHWLQHQDMYHHNRPSRQHQWHPRHVH]DQHPDULWL
A TIPA
B TIPA
VWDWLVWLNLK PHWRGDQDWHPHOMXHNVSHULPHQWRP
QDLQH
GRELYHQH
standardnog
RELQR
SURFMHQRP
odstupanja
HNYLYDOHQWQRJ
na
SUHWSRVWDYOMHQHUD]GLREHXHVWDORVWL
temelju
u A2 + u B2 =
2
i
9DQR MH QDJODVLWL GD VH VYH NRPSRQHQWH QHVLJXUQRVWL MHGQDNR WUHWLUDMX WR ]QDWQR RODNDYD SURFMHQX XNXSQH
nesigurnosti.
3UHSRUXXMHVHGDVHNYDOLWHWDPMHUQRJUH]XOWDWDLVND]XMHVWDQGDUGQRPQHVLJXUQRXDOLXRSUDYGDQLPVOXDMHYLPD
PRH VH LVND]DWL L SURLUHQRP QHVLJXUQRX 8 NRMD VH GRELMH PQRHQMHP XNXSQH VWDQGDUGQH QHVLJXUQRVWL V
faktorom proirenja k.
U=ku
Naime vjerojatnost GD H VH SUDYD YULMHGQRVW PMHUHQH YHOLLQH QDL XQXWDU UDVSRQD NRML MH RGUHHQ VWDQGDUGQRP
PMHUQRPQHVLJXUQRXQHSURLUHQRPMH3URLULYDQMHPVWDQGDUGQHPMHUQHQHVLJXUQRVWLSRYHDYDVHUDVSRQ
YULMHGQRVWL D WLPH L YMHURMDWQRVW GD H SUDYD YULMHGQRVW PMHUHQH YHOLLQH ELWL XQXWDU WRJ UDVSRQD RGUHHQRJ
SURLUHQRPQHVLJXUQRX
WRMHRGDEUDQDYMHURMDWQRVWYHDYHLMHLIDNWRUSURLUHQMD1MHJRYDYULMHGQRVWRELQRL]QRVLLOLWRRGJRYDUD
razini vjerojatnosti od oko 95% (za k=2) odnosno 99% (za k=3).
5D]LQDYMHURMDWQRVWLRG]QDLGDMHYMHURMDWQRVWGDHSUDYDYULMHGQRVWPMHUHQHYHOLLQHELWLL]YDQUDVSRQD
RGUHHQRJSURLUHQRPQHVLJXUQRX
%LWQR MH MR QDJODVLWL GD ]D NRPSRQHQWH SURLUHQH QHVLJXUQRVWL RSHQLWR QH YULMHGL ]DNRQ JHRPHWU
ijskog
]EUDMDQMD=DWRSUYRWUHEDL]UDXQDWLXNXSQXQHVLJXUQRVWSDMXWHNRQGDPQRLWLVIDNWRURPSURLUHQMD
v=s
v=
v
i =1
s=u;
u =s =v
Vjekoslav Duk
M-(5(1$9(/,,1$
16
VARIJANCA
32-(',1$1$
2,7$1-$
XHVWDORVW
SRMHGLQDQDRLWDQMD
SREDNJA VRIJEDNOST
DULWPHWLNDVUHGLQD
ISPRAVAK
(za sve poznate sustavne
pogreke)
(nesigurnost ispravka)
ISPRAVLJENA SREDNJA
VRIJEDNOST
(nesigurnost ispravljene
srednje vrijednosti)
POGREKA (NEPOZNATA)
(nesigurnost zbog
nepoznate pogreke)
RASPRENJE VRIJEDNOSTI
0-(5(1(9(/,,1(
u
Mu
M+u
6OLND3ULND]PHXVREQLKRGQRVDDULWPHWLNHVUHGLQHRLWDQMDLVSUDYNDSUDYHYULMHGQRVWLPMHUHQHYHOLLQH
2'5(
,9$1-(1(6,*851267,$7,3$
1HVLJXUQRVW WLSD $ RGUHXMH VH HNVSHULPHQWDOQR SRQDYOMDQMHP PMHUHQMD SUL MHGQDNLP XYMHWLPD WH UDXQDQMHP
DULWPHWLNHVUHGLQHLVWDQGDUGQHGHYLMDFLMHVWDQGDUGQRJRGVWXSDQMD
$NR YUHPHQVNL VWDOQX YHOLLQX ; PMHULPR YLH SXWD SUL MHGQDNLP XYMHWLPD QL] GRELYHQLK RLWDQMD RSDDQMD [i
PHXVREQR H VH UD]OLNRYDWL DNR MHUD]OXLYDQMHGRYROMQR]ERJVOXDMQLKXWMHFDMDPQRWYDPDOLKQHNRQWUROLUDQLK
SURPMHQDNRMHVHQHSUHNLGQR]ELYDMXXPMHUQRPREMHNWXPMHUQRMRSUHPLRNROLQLLPMHULWHOMX5D]GLREXXHVWDORVWL
SRMHGLQLKRLWDQMDPRHPRSULND]DWLQDQHNROLNRQDLQDRYLVQRREURMXSRQRYOMHQLKPMHUHQMDLUD]OXLYRVWLSRMHGHQLK
RLWDQMD
Vjekoslav Duk
17
1
]QDPHQNHQDSRGUXMX9.
2
0DNVLPDOQDYULMHGQRVWNRMXYROWPHWDUPRHSRND]DWLMHDUD]OXLYRVWMH9
6YDRLWDQMDVYUVWDYDPRXGLMDJUDPNDRQDVOLFL
fi
fr
f i XHVWDORVWSRMHGLQRJRLWDQMD
f r UHODWLYQDXHVWDORVW
97
98
99
100
101
102 103
U/V
fr =
fi
=
i
fi
N
ako je
EURMPMHUHQMDPDQMLRGLNDGDMHUD]OXLYRVWPDOD
.DGD MH EURM SRQRYOMHQLK PMHUHQMD YHOLN YHL RG SULNODGQLMH MH RLWDQMD VYUVWDYDWL X UD]UHGH L SULND]DWL
KLVWRJUDPRP2LWDYDQMDVHVYUVWDYDMXWDNRGDVHSRGUXMHUDVLSDQMDPMHUQLKUH]XOWDWDSRGMHOLQDGRUD]UHGD
MHGQDNH LULQH D %URMUD]UHGDWUHEDELWLSULEOLQRMHGQDNGUXJRPNRULMHQXXNXSQRJEURMDPMHUHQMDDOLQHYHLRG
21. *UDQLFHUD]UHGDRGUHXMXVHWDNRGDVHVYDNRRLWDQMHPRHVYUVWDWLVDPRXMHGDQUD]UHG
Pretpostavimo da mjerimo napon digitalnim voltmetrom sa 4
1
]QDPHQNHQDSRGUXMX9
2
0DNVLPDOQDYULMHGQRVWNRMXYROWPHWDUPRHSRND]DWLMHDUD]OXLYDQMH9
koja je najvjerojatnija
fr
gv
a = irina razreda
f r UHODWLYQDXHVWDORVW
gv JXVWRDXHVWDORVWL
5HODWLYQD
XHVWDORVW
RGUHHQRJ
SULEOLQR
UD]UHGD
MH
MHGQDND
98
a
99
100
101
102
103
U/V
gv =
fr
f
= i
a N a
Vjekoslav Duk
18
2LWDQMDVYUVWDYDPRXUD]UHGHNRMLXRYRPVOXDMXWUHEDMXL]JOHGDWLRYDNR
Razred
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Raspon razreda
96,51 97,5
97,51 98,5
98,51 99,5
99,51 100,5
100,51 101,5
101,51 102,5
102,51 103,5
%(6.21$129(/,.$5$=/8,9267,%(6.21$123812321$9/-$1-$
9HLQD UD]GLRED NRMH VX GRELYHQH HNVSHULPHQWDOQR PRJX VH DSURNVLPLUDWL *DXVVRYRP QRUPDO
nom) razdiobom.
7DGD MH YMHURMDWQRVW GD RLWDQMH SRSULPL YULMHGQRVW L]PHX RGUHHQLK JUDQLFD MHGQDND SRYULQL LVSRG NULYXOMH
JXVWRH
Pr ( U1 U U 2 )=
gv(U)
U2
g (U )dU
v
U1
U1
U2
,]UH]XOWDWDRSHWRYDQLKPMHUHQMDPRHPRRGUHGLWLPQRJHYULM
U/V
100
ednosti:
Srednja vrijednost
Minimum
Maksimum
0RGQDMYHDYULMHGQRVW
Medijan
Varijacije
Standardno odstupanje (standardna devijacija)
1DPDHQDMYLHWUHEDWLVUHGQMDYULMHGQRVWLVWDQGDUGQRRGVWXSDQMH
$5,70(7,.$65(',1$
$ULWPHWLNDVUHGLQDQL]DRLWDQMDMHQDMYMHURMDWQLMDYULMHGQRVWPMHUHQHYHOLLQH
x=
x1 + x 2 + x3 + ..... + x n 1 n
= xi
n
n i =1
Vjekoslav Duk
19
s=
1 n
( xi x ) 2
n 1 i =1
Tu imamo ukupno n- VWXSQMHYD VORERGH MHU VPR YH X UDXQDQMX DULWPHWLNH VUHGLQH LVNRULVWLOL MHGDQ VWXSDQM
slobode od njih ukupno n.
s=
gdje su:
s1, s2, s3.
n1, n2, n3.
m
N
broj nizova
, n2
VWDQGDUGQDRGVWXSDQMDQL]RYDRLWDQMDQ1
XNXSDQEURMRLWDQMDXVYLPQL]RYLPD
67$1'$5'122'6783$1-($5,70(7,.(65(',1(
$NR LPDPR QL] RG P PMHUHQMD LVWH YHOLLQH WH JD SRQDYOMDPR Q SXWD GRELYDPR XNXSQR Q DULWPHWLNLK VUHGLQD
( x1 , x 2 ,....x n NRMHVXRSHQLWRPHXVREQRUD]OLLWHDOLNRMHPHXVREQRRGVWXSDMXRGQHNH]DMHGQLNHDULWPHWLNH
sredine.
x=
x1 + x 2 + ...... + x n
n
sx =
s
n
DOKAZ:
Trebamo dokazati da vrijedi: s x =
n
x1 + x 2 + x3 + ..... + x n x1 x 2 x3
x
= +
+
+ ..... + n
Mi znamo da vrijedi: x =
n
n
n
n
n
Vjekoslav Duk
2
Tada je s x = u ( x ) =
20
1 1
s x1 + s x2 + .....
n n
%XGXLGDVYDPMHUHQMDUDGLPRLVWLPLQVWUXPHQWRPYULMHGL
s x1 = s x2 = ... = s xn
s
s s
s
s
'DNOHYULMHGLWLH u ( x ) =
+ + .... + = n =
n n
n
n
n
*5$),.,35,.$=
f(x)
f( x )
6NXSDULWPHWLNLKVUHGLQDRGQ
mjerenja
OsnoYQLVNXSEHVNRQDQR
PQRJRPMHUHQMDLVWHYHOLLQH
x, x
sx
%XGXL GD VH QHVLJXUQRVW $ WLSD LVND]XMH VWDQGDUGQLP RGVWXSDQMHP YLGLPR GD VH SRQDYOMDQMHP PMHUHQMD L
UDXQDQMHP DULWPHWLNH VUHGLQH PRH VPDQMLWL QHVLJXUQRVW UH]XOWDWD X]URNRYDQD VOXDMQLP RGVWXSDQMLPD L WR VD
sx
sx
1,0
0,2
0
10
12
14 16
18
20
Vjekoslav Duk
21
23$65('1-$95,-('1267
5DXQD VH RQGD NDGD UDVSRODHPR V YLH UH]XOWDWD PMHUHQMD NRML VX LVSUDYOMHQL ]D L]QRVH SR]QDWLK VLVWHPDWVNLK
SRJUHDNDLVWHYHOLLQHNRMLLPDMXUD]OLLWXPMHUQXQHVLJXUQRVW
x=
gdje su:
x1, x2,x3..
w1,w2,w3
w1 x1 + w2 x2 + ........ + wm xm
w1 + w2 + ...... + wm
mjerni rezultati
WHLQVNLIDNWRUL
7HLQVNLIDNWRUUDXQDVHL]MHGQDGEH
wi =
k
k
= 2
2
si
ui
nesigurnosti.
67$1'$5'122'6783$1-(23(65('1-(95,-('1267,
sx =
1
m
i =1
2
i
ZbRJ
RJUDQLHQRJ
YUHPHQD
L
RJUDQLHQLK
VUHGVWDYD
YHLQD
VH
NRPSRQHQWL
QHVLJXUQRVWL
QH
RGUHXMH
HNVSHULPHQWDOQR X VNORSX DNWXDOQRJ PMHUHQMD 2VLP WRJD YUOR MH HVWR PMHUQL UH]XOWDW SURL]YRG VDPR MHGQRJ
GUXJLP
LQIRUPDFLMDPD
NDR
]DRNUXLYDQMH
NYDQWL]DFLMD
histereza, rD]OXLYRVW
%XGXL GD VL L]YRUL SRGDWDND UD]OLLWL SRGDWFL PRJX ELWL UD]OLLWR LVND]DQL SD LK WUHED SURUDXQDWL X QHVLJXUQRVW
Vjekoslav Duk
22
352&-(1$1(6,*851267,%7,3$,=*5$1,1,+32*5($.$
8 VSHFLILNDFLMDPD PMHULOD RELQR VX QDYHGHQH WRQRVWL RGQRVQR JUDQLQH SRJUHNH PMHULOD *UDQLQD SRJUHND
PMHULODMHQDMYHDGRSXWHQDSRJUHNDNRMXPMHULORVPLMHLPDWLX]XYMHWSUDYLOQHXSRUDEHDGDVHMRXYLMHNVPDWUD
LVSUDYQLP,VND]LYDQMHJUDQLQLKSRJUHDNDUD]OLNXMHVHNRGDQDORJQLKLG
igitalnih mjerila.
a) ANALOGNA MJERILA
7RVXRQDPMHULODNRGNRMLKVHYULMHGQRVWPMHUHQHYHOLLQHRGUHXMHSRSRORDMXND]DOMNHSUHPDVNDOL5D]YUVWDQD
VXXUD]UHGHWRQRVWL1RUPD,(&
-1 propisuje
UD]UHGDWRQRVWL
1.5, 2.5, 3, 5.
7L EURMHYL REDYMHWDYDMX QDV R YULMHGQRVWL JUDQLQH SRJUHNH LVND]DQH X SRVWRFLPD 3RVWRFL VX GDQL QDMHH X
RGQRVX QD PMHUQL GRPHW PMHUQL GRPHW MH PDNVLPDOQD YULMHGQRVW PMHUQRJ SRGUXMD LOL UMHH X RGQRVXQDRLWDQX
vrijednost.
DSVROXWQDJUDQLQDSRJUHND
*UDQLQDSRJUHNDXRGQRVXQDGRPHW
G% D =
Ga
100%
D
mjerni domet
konstanta skale
D = k max
k=
max
{k} = {D} ,
{ max }
npr =
V
,
pod
[k ] = [D]
[ max ]
izmjerena vrijednost
M = k
RLWDQMHQDVNDOLLVND]DQRSRGMHOMFLPD
M = k =
*UDQLQDSRJUHNDXRGQRVXQDPMHUHQXYULMHGQRVW
$SVROXWQDJUDQLQDSRJUHND
Ga =
G% D D
100%
max
= D
G% M =
max
Ga
100% = G% D max
M
Vjekoslav Duk
Ga
23
G%M
G%D
max
max
Slika:2YLVQRVWDSVROXWQHJUDQLQHSRJUHNH6OLND2YLVQRVWJUDQLQHSRJUHNHXRGQRVXQDGRPHW
o otklonu.
i na mjerenu vrijednost o otklonu.
Iz dijagrama vidimo ga apsolutna pogreka ne ovisi o otklRQXGRNJUDQLQDSRJUHNDXRGQRVXQDGRPHWRYLVLR
otklonu.
b) DIGITALNA MJERILA
7RVXRQDPMHULODNRMLPDVHYULMHGQRVWLPMHUHQHYHOLLQHREUDXMXLSULND]XMXGLJLWDOQR1LVXVYUVWDQLXUD]UHGH
,VND]LYDQMHJUDQLQLKSRJUHDNDGLJLWDOQLKLQVWUXPHQDWDQLMHQRUPL]LUDQRSDLKSURL]YRDLVYDNDNRLVND]XMX
*UDQLQHVHSRJUHNHQDMHHQDYRGHNDR]EURMGYLMHLOLYLHNRPSRQHQWL
HWLULVXQDMHDQDLQDLVND]LYDQMDJUDQLQLKSRJUHDNDNRGGLJLWDOQLKPMHULOD
1.
G% = (G% + G% D )
*UDQLQDSRJUHNDXRGQRVXQDRLWDQMH
G% = G% + G% D D
GaM =
G% M
M
100%
*UDQLQDSRJUHNDXRGQRVXQDGRPHW
$SVROXWQDJUDQLQDSRJUHNDNRMDRYLVLRRWNORQX
2.
G% = (G% + G% P )
*UDQLQDSRJUHNDXRGQRVXQDSRGUXMH
G% = G% + G% D P
GaM =
G% M
M
100%
Vjekoslav Duk
3.
G% = (G% + Z digita )
z
100%
G% = G% +
N max
4.
G%
= (G
24
+ Z digita + Ga
G
z
100% + a 100%
G% = G% +
N max
M
ke mjerila G QH VDGUH SRGDWDN R VWYDUQRM YULMHGQRVWL SRJUHNH 6WRJD SUHWSRVWDYOMDPR GD VX
G, DPV+G jednako vjerojatne, a izvan
*UDQLQH SRJUH
VYHYULMHGQRVWLPMHUHQHYHOLLQHXQXWDUUDVSRQDNRMLPRPHXMXJUDQLFH'39
i graf:
gv(x)
1
2G
M
DPV-G
DPV
DPV+G
JXVWRDYMHURMDWQRVWLPMHUHQHYHOLLQH
g v ( x) =
1
2G
g v ( x) = 0
za vrijednost x u intervalu :
DPV G x DPV + G
za vrijednost x u intervalu:
Vjekoslav Duk
25
DULWPHWLNDVUHGLQD
x=
1
dx = 1
2G
DPV G
DPV G + DPV + G
= DPV
2
standardno odstupanje
u=s=
G
3
= uB
arne (umjerne)
NULYXOMH 7LPH VH QHVLJXUQRVW UH]XOWDWD VPDQMXMH VDPR QD QHVLJXUQRVW XPMHUDYDQMD D RQD MH RELQR PDQMD RG
XNXSQHQHVLJXUQRVWL]ERJJUDQLQHSRJUHNHPMHULOD
Kada imamo podatak o proirenoj mjernoj nesigurnosti moramo ju pretvoriti u standardnu mjernu nesigurnost.
u=
U
k
7R QLMH SUREOHP X] SR]QDWL IDNWRU SURLUHQMD N 0HXWLP VLWXDFLMD MH VORHQLMD NDGD MH IDNWRU SURLUHQMD QHSR]QDW
7DGDSRVWXSDPRQDVOMHGHLQDLQ
Primjerice: Za zadanu vjerojatnost raspona od 95% i uz pretpostavku normalne razdiobe mi znamo iz tablica da je
k 1.96 2 .
2GQRVQR DNR VH UDGL R QRUPDOQRM UD]GLREL L] WDEOLFD PRHPR RLWDWL YULMHGQRVWL IDNWRUD SURLUHQMD ]D ]DGDQX
SURLUHQMDQDRGUHHQRMUD]LQLYMHURMDWQRVWLNRULVWLPRVHWDEOLFDPD$NRMH
kompliciraju.
Vjekoslav Duk
26
6/2(1$1(6,*851267
x1 , x 2 , x3 ,.... ) koje
GRELMH VH QD WHPHOMX SURFMHQD XOD]QLK YHOLLQD L QD WHPHOMX PDWHPDWLNRJ PRGHOD IXQNFLMVNH SRYH]DQRV
YHOLLQHVDXOD]QLPYHOLLQDPD
y=F( x1 , x 2 , x3 ,.... )
To je matePDWLNL PRGHO PMHUHQMD D PRH ELWL SULURGQL
]DNRQ DOJRULWDP QHWR RGUHHQR HNVSHULPHQWLPD L VO
0RUD VDGUDYDWL VYH YHOLLQH NRMH ]QDDMQR GRSULQRVH
( x1 , x 2 , x3 ,.... ) treba ispraviti za iznose poznatih sistematskih pogreaka. Osim toga ulazne
, dakle onHYHOLLQHNRMHQLVXSUHGPHWQDHJPMHUHQMDDOLXWMHXQDPMHUQL
rezultat.
6ORHQDDSVROXWQDQHVLJXUQRVWPMHUQRJUH]XOWDWD\SURFMHQMXMHVHL]UD]RP
u a ( xi )
ua ( y) =
i =1 xi
7DML]UD]NRULVWLPRVDPRRQGDNDGDVXXOD]QHYHOLLQHPHXVR
To je apsolutna
nesigurnost
RGUHHQH
XOD]QHYHOLLQH
.DGD VX XOD]QH YHOLLQH PHXVREQR ]DYLVQH PRUDPR SULPLMHQLWL SRWSXQ L]UD] ]D QHVLJXUQRVW RGQRVQR
Vjekoslav Duk
27
N 1
F
u a ( xi ) + 2
ua ( y) =
i =1 xi
i =1
F F
u ( xi , x j )
j = i +1
i x j
N
u ( xi , x j )
.29$5,-$1&,-$GYLMXVOXDMQLKYDULMDEOLMHPMHUDQMLKRYHPHXVREQHOLQHDUQHRYLVQRVWL.DGDXOD]QH
N 1
YHOLLQHQLVXPHXVREQR]DYLVQHQHPDNRUHODFLMHPHXQMLPDRGQRVQRODQ
2
i =1
F F
u ( xi , x j ) = 0 .
j = i 1
i x j
N
F x i
u % ( xi )
u% ( y) =
F
i =1 xi
$NR PDWHPDWLNL PRGHO VDGUL VDPR PQRHQMH GLMHOMHQMH L SRWHQFLUDQMH PHXVREQR QH]DYLVQLK XOD]QLK YHOLLQD
y = Cx1 1 x2 2 ..... xn
e
en
gdje su x1 , x 2 , x3 ,.... PHXVREQR QH]DYLVQH XOD]QH YHOLLQH D e1 , e2 , e3 ,.... WRQR SR]QDWL HNVSRQHQWL XOD]QLK
YHOLLQDVD]DQHPDULYRPDORPQHVLJXUQRX
8WRPVOXDMXSURFMHQDSRVWRWQHVORHQHQHVLJXUQRVWLUDGLVHSUHPDL]UD]X
F x i
u % ( x i ) =
u% ( y) =
F
i =1 xi
[e
i =1
u % ( x i )]
PrimjerPMHUHQMHVQDJHSRPRXPMHUHQMDRWSRUDLQDSRQD
P = I2 R
2
1
R
u % ( P) = 2 IR 2 u % ( I ) + I 2 2 u % ( R)
I R
I R
u % ( P) =
[2 u% ( I )]2 + [1 u% ( R)]2
Vjekoslav Duk
28
$NR PHX XOD]QLP YHOLLQDPD SRVWRML NRUHODFLMD QH VPLMHPR MX ]DQHPDULWL 6WRJD SURFMHQMXMHPR
kovarijanciju
u A ( x1 , x 2 ) = s ( x1 , x 2 ) =
1
(x1i x1 )(x2i x2 )
n 1
r (x1 , x 2 ) =
u (x1 , x 2 )
u (x1 ) u (x 2 )
.DGDXOD]QHYHOLLQH
sigurno koreliraju?
.DGDPRHPRSUHWSRVWDYLWL
Pri koritenju
istog etalona
Zbog utjecaja okoline
(temperatura)
VXPMHUHQMDUDHQD
XUD]OLLWRYULMHPH
Kada ne postoji
dovoljno podataka
da se odredi
koeficijent korelacije
Ako je jedna od
dvaju ulaznih
YHOLLQDNRQVWDQWQD
.RUHODFLMDVHPRHL]EMHLWDNRGDVHYHOLLQDSUHNRNRMHQHNHGUXJHYHOLLQHNRUHOLUDMXXY
MHUWDGDRQDSRVWDMHQRYDQH]DYLVQDXOD]QDYHOLLQD
rsti u funkciju F
Vjekoslav Duk
29
3RVWDYLWLPDWHPDWLNLPRGHORYLVQRVWLL]OD]QHPMHUHQHYHOLLQHRXOD]QLPYHOLLQDPD
2.
2GUHGLWLXOD]QHYHOLLQHPMHUHQMHPQL]RPPMHUHQMDLOLLKSUHX]HWLL]SULUXQLNDLOLQHNLKGUXJLKL]YRUD6YDNX
XOD]QXYHOLLQXLVSUDYLWL]DL]QRVHSR]QDWLKVLVWHPDWVNLKSRJUHDND
3.
,]UDXQDWL PMHUQL UH]XOWDW RGQRVQR SURFLMHQLWL L]OD]QX YHOLLQX SRPRX LVSUDYOMHQLK XOD]QLK YHOLLQD L
PDWHPDWLNRJPRGHODIXQNFLMVNHSRYH]DQRVWL
4.
3URFLMHQLWLQHVLJXUQRVWVYDNHXOD]QHYHOLLQH
YULMHGQRVWPMHUHQHYHOLLQHQDOD]LXQXWDUUDVSRQDNRMLMHRGUHHQVWDQGDUGQRPQHVLJXUQRXMHRNR
68% (uz pretpostavku normalne razdiobe). Svrha je uporabe proirene nesigurnosti da se dobije
UDVSRQYULMHGQRVWLXQXWDUNRMHJHVHSUDYDYULMHGQRVWPMHUHQHYHOLLQHQDLVYMHURMDWQRXLOL
1DYHGHQLSRVWXSDNYULMHGLVDPRX]SUHWSRVWDYNXGDVXXOD]QHYHOLLQHPHXVREQRQH]DYLVQHGD
QH NRUHOLUDMX $NR QHNH RG XOD]QLK YHOLLQD NRUHOLUDMX WR MH GRLVWD ULMHWNR WDGD WUHED RGUHGLWL
kovarijanciju i primijeniti potpun izraz za nesigurnost jer ovisno o korelaciji nesigurnost rezultata
PRHELWLPDQMDLOLYHDRGGRELYHQHJRUHRSLVDQLPSRVWXSNRP
Vjekoslav Duk
30
a) V RAZINA ili visoka razina (u znanstvenim radovima i dokumentima vrhunskog mjeriteljstva). Mjerni
rezultat iskazan na 9 UD]LQL PRUD VDGUDYDWL VYH UHOHYDQWQH SRGDWNH NRML RPRJXXMX XSRUDEX SURYMHUX L
REQDYOMDQMHUH]XOWDWDNDRLQMHJRYHPMHUQHQHVLJXUQRVWLDLVWRWDNRGDVHPMHUQLUH]XOWDWXEXGXQRVWLPRH
RVXYUHPHQLWLSRPRXQRYHLQIRUPDFLMHRVPDQMHQMXQHVLJXUQRVWLSR
PMHUQLUH]XOWDWGRELYHQ=DWRX]PMHUQLUH]XOWDWWUHEDQDYHVWLMRLVOMHGHHSRGDWNH
ulaznih podataka
VriMHGQRVWLVYLKNRPSRQHQWLQHVLJXUQRVWLLQDLQQMLKRYHSURFMHQH
1DLQSURFMHQHXNXSQHQHVLJXUQRVWL
XVWUXQLPUDGRYLPDL]YMHWDMLPDLQGXVWULMVNLKODERUDWRULMD0MHUQLUH]XOWDW
WUHEDVDGUDYDWLQDMEROMXDSURNVLPDFLMXPMHUHQHYHOLLQHRGQRVQRLVSUDYOMHQXL]PMHUHQXVUHGQMXYULMHGQRVW
standardnu mjernu nesigurnost i broj stupnjeva slobode. Na S razini iskazuju se rezultati dobiveni
QRUPL]LUDQLP PHWRGDPD ]D NRMH VH X SUDYLOX ]QDMX SRQRYOMLYRVWLREQRYOMLYRVWSDVXWRXYHLQLVOXDMHYD
rezultati dobiveni samo jednim mjerenjem. Ako su dobiveni vie puta ponovljenim mjerenjem tada je za
GRQRHQMHRGOXNHQDHOMHQRMUD]LQLSRX]GDQRVWLSRWUHEQR]QDWLLEURMVWXSQMHYDVORERGH3UHGQRVWMHRYRJ
VNUDHQRJLVND]LYDQMDUH]XOWDWDWRGDMH
PRH GRQLMHWL RGOXND VD RGDEUDQLP UL]LNRP 9ULMHGQRVW PMHUQRJ UH]XOWDWD RGQRVQR QDMEROMD DSURNVLPDFLMD
PMHUHQH YULMHGQRVWL ]DRNUXXMH VH QD UD]LQL PMHVQH YULMHGQRVWL ]DGQMH ]QDPHQNH QHVLJXUQR
sti, a ona se
LVND]XMHGYMHPD]QDDMQLP]QDPHQNDPD
c) N RAZINA ili niska razina (u svakodnevnom rutinskom radu). Mjerni rezultat iskazuje se izmjerenom
YULMHGQRX EURMHP L PMHUQRP MHGLQLFRP L WR V WROLNLP EURMHP]QDPHQNLGDMHQHVLJXUQRVW]DRNUXLYDQMD
mDQMD LOL MHGQDND HWYUWLQL XNXSQH QHVLJXUQRVWL 8 SUDNVL VH SUHHVWR QDLOD]L QD PMHUQH UH]XOWDWH NRML VX
QHSUDYLOQRLOLQHGRVOMHGQR]DRNUXHQL0MHUQLUH]XOWDWLVND]DQVSUHYHOLNLPEURMHP]QDPHQNLQHSUHJOHGDQMH
L RVWDYOMD ODDQ GRMDP R YHOLNRM WRQRVWL GRN VH ]DRNUXLYDQMHP QD SUHPDOHQ EURM ]QDPHQNL JXEL GLR
LQIRUPDFLMH R PMHUHQRM YHOLLQL 3UREOHP MHXWRPHWRSRVWRMHMDVQDPDWHPDWLNDSUDYLODR]DRNUXLYDQMX
EURMD NDGD VH RGDEHUH PMHVWR QD NRMHP H VH ]DRNUXLWL DOL QH SRVWRML RSHSULKYDHQD PHWRGD
odUHLYDQMDEURMQRJPMHVWDQDNRMHPVHPMHUQLUH]XOWDWWUHED]DRNUXLWL
%XGXL GD VH LVND] PMHUQH QHVLJXUQRVWL ]DRNUXXMH QD GYLMH ]QDDMQH ]QDPHQNH L]YRGL VH MHGQRVWDYQD
PHWRGDRGUHLYDQMDEURMQRJPMHVWDQDNRMHPPMHUQLUH]XOWDWWUHED]DRNUXLWL
utaps
L = ent log
1.2
gdje je utapsEURMDQDYULMHGQRVWXNXSQHDSVROXWQHQHVLJXUQRVWLDHQWMHRSHUDWRUNRML]DRNUXXMH
UHDOQLEURMQDSUYLQLLFLMHOLEURM
u taps
L = ent log
ELWLH]DGQMD]QDPHQNDNRMX]DGUDYDPRXUH]XOWDWXLQMX]DRNUXXMHPo prema
1.2
SR]QDWLPPDWHPDWLNLPSUDYLOLPD]DRNUXLYDQMD
Vjekoslav Duk
31
PAZITI!
Npr
2,36010
3
2,3610
WXMHQXOD]QDDMQD]QDPHQND
tXQXODQLMH]QDDMQD]QDPHQND
=QDDMQH ]QDPHQNH
WR VX VYH ]QDPHQNH RG SUYH VOLMHYD UD]OLLWH RG QXOH SD GR ]QDPHQNH QD PMHVWX
]DRNUXLYDQMD
Npr.
P=(0,967013 0,0030) W
]DGQMD]QDDMQD]QDPHQND
VXGYLMH]QDDMQH]QDPHQNH
nesigurnosti na 4. mjestu
a mjerna nesigurnost se
upravo tako iskazuje, sa
GYLMH]QDDMQH]QDPHQNH
.RG SUDYLOQRJ LVND]LYDQMD QD 1 UD]LQL PRUD VH YRGLWL UDXQD R PMHUQRM QHVLJXUQRVWL 1HVLJXUQRVW GRELYHQD
]DRNUXLYDQMHPQHVPLMHELWLYHDRGXNXSQHQHVLJXUQRVWLPMHUQRJUH]XOWDWD7LPHMHRGUHHQRQDNRMHPPMHVWX
WUHED]DRNUXLWLUH]XOWDWLVND]DQQD1UD]LQL
35$9,/$=$2.58,9$1-$
3RVOMHGQMD ]DGUDQD ]QDPHQND QHSURPLMHQMHQD MH DNR MH YULMHGQRVW RGEDHQRJ GLMHOD PDQMD RG SRO
ovine
$NR MH RGEDHQL GLR MHGQDN WRQR SRORYLFL YULMHGQRVWL ]DGQMH ]DGUDQH ]QDPHQNH WDGD ]DGQMX ]DGUDQX
]QDPHQNXWUHED]DRNUXLWLQDQDMEOLLSDUQLEURM
4.
$NR MH YULMHGQRVW RGEDHQRJ GLMHOD YHD RG SRORYLFH YULMHGQRVWL ]DGQMH ]DGUDQH ]QDPHQNH WDGD ]DGQMX
]DGUDQX]QDPHQNXWUHED]DRNUXLWLQDSUYLYHLEURM
Npr:
2478,5002
0,784
3,455
79650
2479
0,78
3,46
79600
Vjekoslav Duk
32
ltat na N i S
a) Iskazivanje na S razini:
U=231,325V
u=0,1350V
Apsolutnu nesigurnostWUHED]DRNUXLWLQDGYLMH]QDDMQH]QDPHQNHX
9
9ULMHGQRVW PMHUQRJ UH]XOWDWD ]DRNUXXMHPR QD UD]LQL PMHVQH YULMHGQRVWL ]DGQMH ]QDPHQNH QHVLJXUQRVWL
u aps
0,14
= 0,00059 = 5,9 10 4
231,32
U
-4
5H]XOWDWQD6UD]LQLVUHODWLYQRPQHVLJXUQRX8 5,910 )
Relativna nesigurnost: u r =
0,059%)
b) Iskazivanje na N razini
0,14
= 0,933 = 1 ]DRNUXXMHPRQDSUYLQLLFLMHOLEURM
L = ent log
1.2
.RGLVND]LYDQMDPMHUQRJUH]XOWDWDLQD6LQD1UD]LQLPMHUQDQHVLJXUQRVWRGUHXMHPMHVWRQDNRMHPWUHED]DRNUXLWL
mjerni rezultat.
,]LVSUDYQR]DRNUXHQRJPMHUQRJUH]XOWDWDQD1UD]LQLPRHPRSURFLMHQLWLPMHUQXQHVLJXUQRVWDOLPRUDPRLPDWLQ
XPX GD VH ]DRNUXLYDQMHP JXEL GLR LQIRUPDFLMH 6WRJD SURFMHQD PMHUQH QHVLJXUQRVWL QD WHPHOMX SUDYLOQR
]DRNUXHQRJUH]XOWDWDQD1UD]LQLQHHGDWLSRWSXQRWRDQSRGDWDNRPMHUQRMQHVLJXUQRVWL0RHPRVDVLJXUQRX
WYUGLWLGDVHPMHUQDQHVLJXUQRVWNUHHX
rasponu:
12 10 L u 1,2 10 L
%XGXL GD PL QH HOLPR UDVSRQ YULMHGQRVWL YH EURMNX UDGLPR QDMEROMX SURFMHQX PMHUQH QHVLJXUQRVWL QD WHPHOMX
SUDYLOQR]DRNUXHQRJUH]XOWDWDLVND]DQRJQD1UD]LQL
u = 10 L 12 1,2 =3,810L
Time smo napravili grXEXSURFMHQXPMHUQHQHVLJXUQRVWLQDWHPHOMXSUDYLOQR]DRNUXHQRJUH]XOWDWDLVND]DQRJQD1
razini.
Vjekoslav Duk
33
STUPNJEVI SLOBODE ( )
Broj stupnjeva slobode
temelju tih mjerenja
1.
MHGQDNMHEURMXSRQRYOMHQLKPMHUHQMDXPDQMHQ]DEURMSDUDPHWDUDNRMLVXL]UDXQDWL
na
%URMVWXSQMHYDVORERGHNRGRGUHLYDQMDQHVLJXUQRVWL$WLSD
3UHWSRVWDYLPR GD ]D QHNL EURM SRQRYOMHQLK PMHUHQMD UDXQDPR DULWPHWLNX VUHGLQX x . Tada je broj stupnjeva
slobode =n. Ako izUDXQDPR MR L VWDQGDUGQR RGVWXSDQMH SRMHGLQDQLK RLWDQMD V EURM VWXSQMHYD VORERGH
smanjuje se za 1 i sada iznosi: =n-.RGUDXQDQMDRSHVUHGQMHYULMHGQRVWLEURMVWXSQMHYDVORERGHMHGQDNMH
*UDILNLSUDYDFUHJUHVLMH
y
Y=ax+b
Za parametre a i b broj stupnjeva
slobode je =n-2
x
2.
%URMVWXSQMHYDVORERGHNRGRGUHLYDQMDQHVLJXUQRVWL%WLSD
.RGRGUHLYDQMDQHVLJXUQRVWL%WLSDSUHWSRVWDYOMDPRGDMHEURMVWXSQMHYDVORERGHEHVNRQDQRYHOLNXNROLNRQH
SRVWRMLQHNDRGUHHQDLQIRUPDFLMD
3.
2GUHLYDQMHEURMDVWXSQMHYDVORERGHNRGSRVUHGQLKPMHUHQMD
=DPMHUQLUH]XOWDWGRELYHQSRVUHGQLPPMHUHQMHPRGUHXMXVHHIHNWLYQLVWXSQMHYLVORERGH=DRGUHLYDQMHEURMD
ef
= ent
i =1
u s ( y)4
F
u ( x i )
xi
us(y) VORHQDPMHUQDQHVLJXUQRVWUH]XOWDWD
u(xi) VWDQGDUGQDQHVLJXUQRVWXOD]QHYHOLLQH
F
- koeficjent osjetljivosti
x i
i -SULSDGDMXLVWXSQMHYLVORERGH
F
u ( x i )
4
N
xi
u s ( y)
=
ef
i
i =1
Kada je mjerni rezultat dobiven samo jednim mjerenjem broj stupnjeva slobode jednak je nuli i ne iskazuje
se.
Vjekoslav Duk
34
6. STATISTIKA
6.1. NORMALNA (GAUSSOVA) RAZDIOBA
gv(x)
34,2%
13,5%
2,2%
-3
-2
+2
+3
1DMYDQLMDLQDMHDUD]GLREDXWHRULMLLSULPMHQLPDWHPDWLNHVWDWLVWLNHMHVWQRUPDOQDLOL*DXVVRYDUD]GL
oba. To je
]YRQROLND VLPHWULQD MHGQRWMHPHQD IXQNFLMD NRQWLQXLUDQH VOXDMQH YDULMDEOH [ MHGQR]QDQR RGUHHQD GYDPD
parametrima:
Standardnim odstupanjem
$ULWPHWLNRPVUHGLQRP
)XQNFLMDJXVWRHYMHURMDWQRVWLJODVL
f ( x ) = g v ( x) =
1
e
2
1 x
2
PovriQDLVSRGWHIXQNFLMHRGQRVQRLQWHJUDOWHIXQNFLMHRGPLQXVEHVNRQDQRGRSOXVEHVNRQDQRMHGQDNDMH
Pr( x ) =
( x )dx = 1
vrijednRVW L]PHX PLQXV L SOXV EHVNRQDQR VLJXUDQ GRJDDM 9MHURMDWQRVW GD RSDDQMH SRSULPL QHNX YULMHGQRVW X
rasponu od x1 do x2MHGQDNDMHSRYULQLLVSRGIXQNFLMHJXVWRHYMHURMDWQRVWLQDGWLPUDVSRQRP
x2
3RVWRMLEHVNRQDQRYHOLNEURMWDNYLKIXQNFLMD]DVYDNXNRPELQDFLMXSDUDPHWDUD
EURMHYQRPSUDYFXRGUHHQDMHSDUDPHWURP DLULQDUDVSURVWLUDQMDRGUHHQDMHVWDQGDUGQLPUDVLSDQMHP
Vjekoslav Duk
35
z=
RQGD VH VYH PRJXH QRUPDOQH UD]GLREH PRJX SULND]DWL MHGQRP UD]GLRERP NRMD VH ]RYH QRUPLUDQD
normalna
razdioba.
f(z)
0.3
0.2
0.1
z
-3
-2
-1
f ( z) =
1 2 z2
e
2
*XVWRDYMHURMDWQRVWLRSLVDQDMHIXQNFLMRP
$ULWPHWLND VUHGLQD QRUPLUDQH QRUPDOQH UD]GLREH MHGQDND MH QXOL D VWDQGDUGQR RGVWXSDQMH MHGQDNR MH MHGLQLFL SD
YULMHGQRVWIXQNFLMHJXVWRHYMHURMDWQRVWLRYLVLVDPRRQRUPLUDQRMYDULMDEOL]=DWXUD]GLREXL]UDXQDWHVXWDEOLFHL]
NRMLKVHPRHRGUHGLWLYMHURMDWQRVWGDQRUPLUDQDYDULMDEODSRSULPLQHNXRGYULMHGQRVWLX]DGDQRPUDVSRQX
Raspon varijable x
9MHURMDWQRVWRLWDQMDXQXWDUUDVSRQD
0,67
1,00
1,96
2,00
2,58
3,00
4,00
0,67
1,00
1,96
2,00
2,58
3,00
4,00
50,0%
68,3%
95,0%
95,4%
99,0%
99,7%
99,99%
$NRMHVWDQGDUGQRRGVWXSDQMHRSDDQMDRVQRYQRJVNXSD
SR]QDWRUD]GLREDDULWPHWLNLKVUHGLQDX]RUDNDRGSRQ
RSDDQMD PRH VH DSURNVLPLUDWL QRUPDOQRP UD]GLRERP QHRYLVQR R UD]GLREL SRMHGLQDQLK RSDDQMD RVQRYQRJ
VNXSDL]NRMHJX]RUFLSRWMHX$ULWPHWLNHVUHGLQHX]RUDNDJRPLODMXVHRNRDULWPHWLNHVUHGLQHRVQRYQRJVNXSDVD
standardnim odstupanjem
x:
x =
Vjekoslav Duk
36
,] WDEOLFD QRUPLUDQH QRUPDOQH UD]GLREH PRH VH SURLWDWL YMHURMDWQRVW GD VH DULWPHWLND VUHGLQD X]RUND QDOD]L
z x do + z x
x + z x odnosno da je: z x x + z x . Uz istu
x z x i x + z x odnosno da je
x z x do x + z x s
x z x i
x z x x + z x
vjerojatnoX3U]VDGULDULWPHWLNXVUHGLQXRVQRYQRJVNXSDL]NRMHJX]RUDNSRWMHH
1D WHPHOMX DULWPHWLNH VUHGLQH X]RUND RSDDQMD LVSUDYOMHQLK RLWDQMD RJUDQLHQRJ EURMD SRQRYOMHQLK PMHUHQMD L
VWDQGDUGQRJRGVWXSDQMDRSDDQMDRVQRYQRJVNXSD
PRHVHRGUHGLWLUDVSRQYULMHGQRVWLRSDDQMDXQXWDUNRMHJVH
VRGDEUDQRPYMHURMDWQRXQDOD]LSUDYDYULMHGQRVWPMHUHQHYHOLLQH7DMUDVSRQVDULWPHWLNRPVUHGLQRPRSDDQMD
X]RUND X VUHGLQL QD]LYD VH SRGUXMH SRX]GDQRVWL 3URLUHQMHP SRGUXMD SRX]GDQRVWL YHD MH VWDWLVWLND VLJXUQRVW
GD UDVSRQ VDGUL SUDYX YULMHGQRVW PMHUHQH YHOLLQH 1D WHPHOMX LVWLK SRGDWDND VLJXUQLML LVND]L VX PDQMH SUHFL]QL L
obratno.
EURMDSRQRYOMHQLKPMHUHQMD0HXWLPDNRMHEURMSRQRYOMHQLKPMHUHQMDXX]RUNXPDQMLRGUD]GLREDDULWPHWLNLK
sredina uzoraka je spljotenija od normalne razdiobe, zbog nesigurnosti procjene standardnog odstupanja
RSDDQMD RVQRYQRJ VNXSD 2EOLN WH UD]GLREH VH ]RYH 6WXGHQWRYD LOL 7 UD]GLRED D RGUHHQ MH VDPR EURMHP
stupnjeva slobode.
f(x)
=
=4
=2
t
-3
-2
-1
Vjekoslav Duk
Broj stupnjeva slobode
37
NDGD VH VWDQGDUGQR RGVWXSDQMH UDXQD QD WHPHOMX Q SRQRYOMHQLK PMHUHQMD L]QRVL Q-1.
'DNOHNDGDMHEURMSRQRYOMHQLKPMHUHQMDPDQMLRGSRGUXMHSRX]GDQRVWLDULWPHWLNHVUHGLQHX]RUNDRGUHXMHVH
na temelju T-razdiobe:
x t sx x + t sx
gdje je:
sx =
s
n
t=
x
sx
2
0,82
1,32
4,30
9,92
4
0,74
1,15
2,78
4,60
Stupnjevi slobode
9
19
0,70
0,69
1,06
1,03
2,26
2,09
3,25
2,86
29
0,68
1,02
2,04
2,76
0,67
1,00
1,96
2,58
Vjekoslav Duk
38
7. SIGNALI
0MHUHQDYHOLLQD0-(51,6867$9
OBJEKT
MJERENJA
x(t)
MJERNI
PRETVORNIK
s1(t)
s2(t)
PRILAGODNIK
y(t)
POKAZNIK
u(t)
UNUTARNJE SMETNJE
VANJSKE
SMETNJE
8OD]QDYHOLLQDPMHUHQDYHOLLQDYDQMVNHVPHWQMH
SIGNAL QRVLODF LQIRUPDFLMH SRGDWND SRUXNH ,QIRUPDFLMD MH VDGUDQD X SURPMHQMLYLP SDUDPHWULPD VLJQDOD
Parametrom nazivamo varijablu koja nije osnovna (npr. ako se radi o naponu sinusnog oblika tada su parametri
amplituda, frekvencija i faza).
SMETNJA QHSRHOMDQVLJQDONRMLQLMHSUHGPHWPMHUHQMD2QNYDULRGQRVQRL]REOLXMHPMHUHQLVLJQDO
8OD]QD YHOLLQD XW VDGUL PDQMH
-vie iskrivljenu inf RUPDFLMX R YULMHGQRVWL YHOLLQH NRMX HOLPR PMHULWL [W 6WRJD
SULOLNRPPMHUHQMDWUHEDQDVWRMDWLVPDQMLWLQHSRHOMQHVLJQDOHMHURQLSRYHDYDMXPMHUQXQHVLJXUQRVW
Podjela signala:
SIGNAL
'(7(50,1,67,.,
672+$67,.,
2QLVHQDMHHNRULVWHNDRLVSLWQL
VLJQDOL ]D LVSLWLYDQMH VWDWLNLK L
GLQDPLNLK NDUDNWHULVWLND PMHUQLK
o svojstvima sustava.
1HSUHGYLGLYLLOLVOXDMQL
7HKQLNL
PRJX
LQIRUPDFLMX
DOL
VDGUDYDWL
RSHQLWR
QHNX
VH
QH
matematike.
NajboOML SULPMHU VWRKDVWLNRJ VLJQDOD
MHWHUPLNLXP
Vjekoslav Duk
'(7(50,1,67,.,6,*1$/,
1DMHLGHWHUPLQLVWLNLVLJQDOL
-(',1,1,35$92.871,,038/6
u(t)
1
t
0, za : t t < 0
u(t)= 1
, za : 0 t < t
t
P=1
t
Kada t
MHGLQLQLLPSXOVSUHWYDUDVHX
Diracov impuls.
u(t)
7DMVHVNRNR]QDDYDVD
(t ) gdje (t ) = lim u (t )
t 0
t
-(',1,1,6.2.
NaVWDMHLQWHJULUDQMHPMHGLQLQRJLPSXOVD
u(t)
1
0, za : t 0
1, za : t > 0
u(t)=
t
3. RAMPA (KOSINA)
u(t)
0, za : t 0
k t , za : t > 0
u(t)=
t
4. SINUSNI SIGNAL
u(t)=Asin t
u(t)
A
T
39
Vjekoslav Duk
40
6RE]LURPQDSURPMHQHXYUHPHQXGHWHUPLQLVWLNHVLJQDOHPRHPRSRGLMHOLWLQD
KONTINUIRANA RAZINA
DISKRETNA RAZINA
IMPULSI
u(t)
t
t
u(t)
IMPULSNI NIZ
KONTINUIRANI
PARAMETRI
ANALOGNI
DIGITALNI
u(t)
DISKRETNI
PARAMETRI
u(t)
+RHPROLGHWHUPLQLVWLNLVLJQDOVPDWUDWLDQDORJQLPLOLGLJLWDOQLPRYLVLRQDLQXSULMHQRVDVLJQDODLQIRUPDFLMH
$1$/2*1,'(7(50,1,67,.,6,*1$/,
$1$/2*1,'(7(50,1,67,.,6,*1$/,
67$7,.,
',1$0,.,
1(3(5,2',1
3(5,2',1,
38/6,5$-8,
PARNI
,=0-(1,1,
NEPARNI
Vjekoslav Duk
1. 67$7,.,6,*1$/,
6WDWLNLVLJQDOLVXLVWRVPMHU
ni signali neovisni ili vrlo malo ovisni o vremenu (nisu funkcija vremena).
3ULPMHULVWDWLNLKVLJQDOD
b) Napon baterije
u(t)
t
c) Istosmjerni isprDYOMDVYUORPDORPL]PMHQLQRPNRPSRQHQWRP
u(t)
',1$0,.,6,*1$/,
a)
1(3(5,2',1,6,*1$/,
u(t)
41
Vjekoslav Duk
b)
3(5,2',1,6,*1$/,
3HULRGLNLVLJQDOLVXRQLLMHVHSURPMHQHWUHQXWQLKYULMHGQRVWLWLMHNRPYUHPHQDSHULRGLNLSRQDYOMDMX
u(t)
Jednake povrine
,]PMHQLQLSHULRGLQLVLJQDOLPRJXELWLSDUQLLQHSDUQL
,PDLVWRVPMHUQXLL]PMHQLQXNRPSRQHQWX
u(t)
AC
DC
42
Vjekoslav Duk
43
',*,7$/1,'(7(50,1,67,.,6,*1$/,
kvanta.
Analogni pokaznik:
$QDORJQL SRND]QLN PRH SRND]DWL EHVNRQDQR PQRJR YULMHGQRVWL RGQRVQR ND]DOMND PRH ]DX]HWL EHVNRQDQR
PQRJRSRORDMD
Digitalni pokaznik:
6YH DQDORJQH YULMHGQRVWL X UDVSRQX RG GR SULND]DQH VX NDR 'LJLWDOQL VLJQDOL WHPHOMH VH QD GYD VOXDMD
ima/nema ili crno/bijelo. Stoga je obrada signala jednostavnija, pouzdanija i manje osjetljiva na smetnje, ali
digitalizacijom analognog signala gubi se dio informacije.
D = d i 10 i
m
Dmax = 10 n 1
B = bi 2
Bmax = 2 1
n
Vjekoslav Duk
44
Kod pretvorEH GHNDGVNRJ EURMD X ELQDUQL SRWUHEQR MH SULMH VYHJD RGUHGLWL QDMWHL HNVSRQHQW 7R VH UDGL SUHPD
VOMHGHRMMHGQDGEL
log N
im = ent
log 2
log(ostatak )
im 1 = ent
log 2
log 109
= ent (6,768) = 6 MHGDNOHQDMWHLHNVSRQHQW
im = ent
log 2
126 = 64
109
- 64
45
- 32
13
-8
5
-4
1
-1
0
12 = 32
124 = 16
123 = 8
122 = 4
121 = 2
VOMHGHLHNVSRQHQW
log(45)
= ent (5,49 ) = 5
im 1 = ent
log
2
log(13)
= ent (3,7 ) = 3
im1 = ent
log
2
1
0
1
e uzimamo
i zato je tu nula.
'DNOHHWYUWLQ
1
0
6PMHULWDQMDELQDUQRJEURMD
120 = 1
3ULMHQRVGLJLWDOQRJVLJQDODPRHELWLSDUDOHODQLOL
serijski.
a) PARALELAN
6LJQDO VH SUHQRVL X RYRP SULPMHUXSUHNRLFHMHGQDLFD]DSRYUDWQXLQIRUPDFLMX%LWRYLVHSUHQRVH
1
t
0
t
1
t
1
t
t
Vjekoslav Duk
45
b) SERIJSKI
6LJQDOVHSUHQRVLMHGQRPLFRPMHGQDLFD]DSRYUDWQXLQIRUPDFLMX6HULMVNLSULMHQRVSRGDWDNDSXQRMH
1 0 1 1
t
t
KOD NRGMHQL]]QDNRYDNRMLPDMHSULGUXHQRRGUHHQR]QDHQMHSUHPDXQDSULMHGGRJRYRUHQLPSUDYLOLPD
3ULPMHULFH]QDPHQNHGHNDGVNRJVXVWDYDPRHPRSULND]DWLELQDUQLP]QDNRYLPDL]DWRVXSRWUHEQHELQDUQHULMHL
RG ELWD 6D ELWD LPD XNXSQR PHXVREQR UD]OLLWLK NRPELQDFLMD D SRWUHEQR QDP MH 0. prema tome je
osmiljen NBCD (BCD 8421) kod koji zapravo predstavlja prirodne binarno kodirane dekadske brojeve.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
kombinacija.
Primjerice: @ = 64(10) = 1000000(2)
.RPELQDFLMDELWRYDXNRGXPRHSUHGVWDYOMDWLEURMVORYRLOLQHNL]QDN9UORMHYDQRSUHSR]QDWLUD]OLNXL]PHXEURMD
u binarnom sustavu od broja prikazanog u binarnom kodu. Binarni broj uvijek predstavlja neki dekadski broj dok
NRPELQDFLMDELWRYDXNRGXPRHSUHGVWDYOMDWLVORYREURMLOLQHNL]QDN
1000
0110
Vjekoslav Duk
46
Uzorkovanje u vremenu
Kvantizacija po amplitudiDQDORJQRMDPSOLWXGLGRGMHOMXMHVHQDMEOLDGLJLWDOQDYULMHGQRst)
Kodiranje signalaSUHWYDUDQMHXGLJLWDOQXULMH
7RMHDQDORJQLVLJQDONRMLHOLPRGLJLWDOL]LUDWL
Uzorkovanje po vremenu
]DX]RUNRYDQMHDNRQGHQ]DWRU]DGUDYDQDSRQ
Uul
111
110
101
100
011
010
001
000
Uizl
sq(t)
Vjekoslav Duk
Ili sve u jednoj slici:
0RJXLQDSRQVNL
nivoi u voltima i
pripadne digitalne
vrijednosti
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
111
110
101
100
011
010
001
000
Analogni signal
Q=
U max U min
2n
5(/$7,91$5$=/8,9267
r =
1
Q
= n
U max U min 2
47
Vjekoslav Duk
48
1HND MH QD]LYQL UDVSRQ XOD]QRJ QDSRQD RG 9 GR 9 0L HOLPR NYDQWL]LUDWL WDM QDSRQ $' SUHWYRUQLNRP NRMLLPD
GLJLWDOQXULMHRG
3 bita.
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
YHHRG9ELWLH
prikazane sa 111.
Q
&HQWUDOQHWRNH
Razina odluke
0,5
Q=
80
= 1V
23
- Kvant iznosi 1V
GLJLWDOQDULMH
8 QDHP SULPMHUX H VYH YULMHGQRVWL DQDORJQRJ VLJQDOD X LQWHUYDOX RG 9 GR 9 ELWL GLJLWDOL]LUDQH NDR 9 LOL X
intervalu od 0,5 do 1,5 biti digitalizirane kao 2V itd. Jasno je da pri takvoj digitalizaciji nastaje pogreka
kvantizacije.
Q
2
0
Q
2
Q
Q
tada je ukupna mjerna nesigurnost:
do
2
2
ug =
0,5Q
3
Vjekoslav Duk
49
Ukoliko je A/D pretvornik unipolaran (minimalni napon =0) relativna nesigurnost kvantizacije iznosi:
u rg =
0,5
2n 3
Ukoliko je A/D pretvornik bipolaran (minimalni napon = - Umax, karakteristika ide i u negativnu stranu) relativna
nesigurnost kvantizacije iznosi:
u rg =
1
2
Primjer:
1DXOD]XQLSRODUQRJELWQRJ$'SUHWYRUQLNDQD]LYQRJSRGUXMDRG9GR9QDULQXWMHQDSRQRG9.ROLND
10 0
= 0,0024414V
212
Q=
1DNRMRMHVHUD]LQL]DXVWDYLWLRYDSUHWYRUEDRGQRVQRNRMRMMHNYDQWL]LUDQRMUD]LQLQDMEOLH9"
3,100
= 1269,76 1270
0,0024414
N=
-apsolutna pogreka:
p% =
pa
100% = +0,019%
3,100
-nesigurnost kvantizacije:
ug =
ug%
0,5 0,002414
3
= 0,70mV
0,7 10 3
=
100% = 0,023%
3,100
Vjekoslav Duk
50
3$5$0(75,3(5,2',.,+6,*1$/$
2GUHLYDQMH YDOQRJ REOLND YUHPHQVNL SURPMHQMLYRJ VLJQDOD PRJXH MH VDPR DPR PMHULPR QMHJRYH YULMHGQRVWL X
VYDNRP WUHQXWNX RVFLORVNRSRP LOL RVFLORJUDPRP 0HXWLP HVWR QLMH SRWUHEQR SR]QDYDWL FLMHOL VLJQDO YH VDPR
QMHJRYRGMHORYDQMH'MHORYDQMHLVWRVPMHUQRJLL]PMHQLQRJVLJQDODPRHVHRSLVDWLSRPRXSDUDPHWDUDVLJQDOD
a)
,VWRVPMHUQLVLJQDORGUHHQMHSDUDPHWURP$03/,78'20
b)
,]PMHQLQLVLJQDORGUHHQMHVSDUDPHWUD$03/,78'20)5(.9(1&,-2
c)
6ORHQLVLJQDOLRGUHHQLVXVDYLHL]YHGHQLKSDUDPHWDUDHIHNWLYQDYULMHGQRVWVUHGQMDYULMHGQRVWVUHGQMD
M I FAZOM
ispravljena vrijednost
3HULRGLNL VLJQDOL PRJX ELWL L]PMHQLQL L SXOVLUDMXL 6YDNL SXOVLUDMXL VLJQDO PRHPR UD]YRMHP X )XULHRY UHG
u (t ) = A0 + An sin( nt + n )
i =1
komponente sinusnog signala koje imaju frekvencije jednake viekratniku osnovne frekvencije zovu se harmonici.
1DMMHGQRVWDYQLMLLQDMHLSHULRGLNL
u (t ) = U A sin (t + )
u(t)
A
t
0 =
180 0
(rad )
T=2
Svaki
SHULRGLQLVLJQDOPRHVHSULND]DWLVOMHGHLPSDUDPHWULPD
1. Tjemena vrijednost
7RMHPDNVLPDOQDYUQDYULMHGQRVW3ULLVSLWLYDQMXSURERMQHYUVWRHL]RODFLMHWMHPHQDYULMHGQRVWMHQDMYDQLML
Umax
Umin
Vjekoslav Duk
51
2. Srednja vrijednost
T
1
U = udt
T0
0DWHPDWLNDVUHGQMDYULMHGQRVWL]PMHQLQHVWUXMHMHRQDHNYLYDOHQWQDLVWRVPMHUQDVWUXMDNRQVWDQWQHMDNRVWLNRMD
]DYULMHPHSRORYLFHSHULRGHSUHQHVHMHGQDNXNROLLQXHOHNWULFLWHWDNDRSURPDWUDQDL]PMHQLQDVWUXMD
Dakle srednja vrijednost je mjera za transport naboja Q = I t , ali ona ne daje podatak o transportu naboja
SXOVLUDMXHJVLJQDODRGQRVQRQHVDGULLQIRUPDFLMXRL]PMHQLQRMNRPSRQHQWLSXOVLUDMXHJVLJQDOD
.RGL]PMHQLQLKVLJQDOD
u(t)
.ROLLQD SUHQHVHQRJ HOHNWULFLWHWD X
NROLLQD
SUHQHVHQRJ
HOHNWULFLWHWD
jednaka nuli.
Jednake povrine
Kod pulsLUDMXLKVLJQDODVUHGQMDYULMHGQRVWMHGQDNDMHDPSOLWXGLLVWRVPMHUQHNRPSRQHQWHSXOVLUDMXHJVLJQDOD
3. Efektivna vrijednost
U ef
1 2
=
u dt
T 0
(IHNWLYQDYULMHGQRVWMHXHQHUJHWLFLQDMYDQLMLSDUDPHWDUVLJQDOD
(IHNWLYQDYULMHGQRVWL]PMHQLQ
RWSRUX5UD]YLMHMHGQDNXNROLLQXWRSOLQDNDRSURPDWUDQDL]PMHQLQDVWUXMD
(IHNWLYQDYULMHGQRVWSXOVLUDMXHJVLJQDOD
U ef =
(U DC )
+ un
i =1
Vjekoslav Duk
52
1
U si = U = u dt
T 0
6UHGQMD LVSUDYOMHQD YULMHGQRVW ]RYH VH MR L HOHNWUROLWVND VUHGQMD YULMHGQRVW %XGXL GD MH DULWPHWLND VUHGQMD
YULMHGQRVW VLQXVQRJ MHGQDND QXOL VWUXMD VH QH PRH LVNRULVWLWL ]D RQH XLQNH X NRMLPD GR L]UDDMD GROD]L VUHGQMD
POLUVALNO ISPRAVLJANJE
PUNOVALNO ISPRAVLJANJE
+
~
~
Graetzov spoj
u(t)
u(t)
t
Sve ispod nule
ne prolazi
u(t)
t
Sve ispod nule
postaje pozitivno
u(t)
Vjekoslav Duk
5. Faktori signala
a) Tjemeni faktor
Ftj =
U max
U ef
U ef
Fob =
U sr
Fsr =
U sr
U max
Uiefektivno
i =1
1efektivno
n
D=
0RHVHGHILQLUDWLLSRMHGLQDQLIDNWRUL]REOLHQMD
D=
Ui efektivno
U 1efektivno
7. Valovitost
9DORYLWRVWMHYUORYDDQSRGDWDNNRGLVSUDYOMDDWRMHYDORYLWRVWPDQMDLVSUDYOMDMHEROML
r=
U U AC
=
U U DC
53
Vjekoslav Duk
54
u(t)
Poluvalno ispravljen
u(t)
Umax
t
U sr =
U sr = U max
U ef = U max
U sr = 0
U ef = U max
U ef =
U max
2
U max
2
u(t)
U sr =
U sr = 0
U
U ef = max
3
Poluvalno ispravljen
u(t)
U ef =
U max
2
U max
3
U sr =
U max
U ef =
U max
4
3. SINUSNI SIGNAL
Punovalno ispravljen
u(t)
u(t)
Poluvalno ispravljen
u(t)
U sr
U sr = 0
U
U ef = max
2
U ef
2U max
=
U max
=
2
U max
U
= max
2
U sr =
U ef
4. IMPULSNI NIZ
u(t)
T1
t
T
U ef = U max
T1
T
U ef = U max
T1
T
Vjekoslav Duk
55
u(t)
6OLND,]REOLHQMHVLJQDODWUHLPKDUPRQLNRPSULID]QRPSRPDNX
6LJQDOHXIUHNYHQFLMVNRPSRGUXMXPRHPRSULND]LYDWL
1. Amplitudnim spektrom
u
1
1/3
f
f0
2f 0
3f 0
2. Faznim spektrom
f0
2f 0
3f 0
f0
2f 0
3f 0
i 180
Vjekoslav Duk
56
8. MJERNA OPREMA
MJERNA OPREMA VUHGVWYDNRMDVOXHPMHUHQMX
U mjernu oprePXXEUDMDPRPMHULODPMHUQHL]YRUHLSRPRQXRSUHPX
MJERILA
MJERNI INSTRUMENTI I
85(
Mogu biti:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
MJERKE
MJERNI SKLOPOVI
MJERNI SUSTAVI
$-,
92
Mjerka
Pokazni
Zapisni
Integracijski
Mjerni mostovi
Kompenzatori
je
utjelovljena
YULMHGQRVW
QHNH
RWSRUQLNL
HWDORQL
YHOLLQH
PHWDU
1.
2.
3.
uteg od 1kg)
(1,5$81$/20
Mjerni transformatori
Mjerni pretvornici
0MHUQD
SRMDDOD
djelila, integratori
SKLOP cjelina koja se
sastoji od vie povezanih
djelova i vri neku funkciju
MJERNI IZVORI
ISTOSMJERNI IZVORI
KALIBRATORI
,=0-(1,1,,=925,
32021$235(0$
KLIZNI OTPORNICI
92',,
PODESIVI
TRANSFORMATORI
SKLOPKE I PREKLOPKE
KONDENZATORSKE
DEKADE
273251,.('(.$'(
8NUDWNRSRPRQDRSUHPDMHVYHRQRWRQDPMHSRWUHEQR]DRVWYDULYDQMHPMHUQRJNUXJD
Vjekoslav Duk
57
8.(/(.75,.$0-(5,/$
(/(.75,.$ 0-(5,/$
WR VX HOHNWULQL PMHUQL LQVWUXPHQWL NRMLPD VH PMHUH HOHNWULQH L QHHOHNWULQH YHOLLQH
SRPRXHOHNWULFLWHWD
3UHPDQDLQXREUDGHVLJQDODLSULND]XPMHUQRJVLJQDODGLMHOLPRLKQD
analogne i digitalne.
8.1.$1$/2*1$(/(.75,.$0-(5,/$
.RG DQDORJQLK PMHULOD WHRUHWVNL X RGUHHQRP UDVSRQX YULMHGQRVWL ND]DOMND PRH ]DX]HWL EHVNRQDQR PQRJR
UD]OLLWLKSRORDMD
AnaORJQDHOHNWULQDPMHULODGMHOLPRQD
$QDORJQDHOHNWURPHKDQLNDPMHULOD
$QDORJQDHOHNWURQLNDPMHULOD
$QDORJQD HOHNWURQLND PMHULOD VDGUH VYH VNORSRYH NRMH LPDMX DQDORJQD HOHNWURPHKDQLND PMHULOD DOL VDGUH L
GRGDWQHVNORSRYHNRMLKQHPDXHOHNWURPHKDQLNLPPMHULOLPD7RVXHOHNWURQLNLVNORSRYL]DREUDGXLSRMDDYDQMH
VLJQDOD L XSUDYR WL VNORSRYL UD]OLNXMX HOHNWURQLND RG HOHNWURPHKDQLNLK DQDORJQLK PMHULOD =D SULND] VLJQDOD NRG
HOHNWURQLNLKLQVWUXPHQDWDNRULVWLVHND]DOMND
Kod analognih ( elektromHKDQLNLK L HOHNWURQLNLK LQVWUXPHQDWD RYMHN RLWDYDMXL VD VNDOH SUHWYDUD L]PMHUHQX
YULMHGQRVWXEURMDQXNRGGLJLWDOQLKWRUDGL$'SUHWYRUQLN3ULWRPHRYMHNJULMHLLWRL]GYDUD]ORJD
1.
5D]OXLYRVW OMXGVNRJ RND RJUDQLHQD MH QD PP 7R ]QDL GD OMXGVNR RNR GYLMH WRNH QD
.DGD ND]DOMND ]DX]PH QHNL SRORDM L]PHX GYD SRGMHOMND RYMHN PRUD SURFMHQLWL NROLNL MH L]QRV
PMHUHQHYHOLLQH7RMHGDNOHVXEMHNWLYQDSURFMHQD
.D]DOMNDMH]DX]HODWDMSRORDM
Velika je prednost analognih mjerila u odnosu na digitalna njihova preglednost. Naime jednim pogledom na
LQVWUXPHQWLVWRYUHPHQRXRDYDPRQHNROLNRLQIRUPDFLMD
Trenutnu vrijednost
3RORDM ND]DOMNH X RGQRVX QD PMHUQL GRPHW DNR MH ND]DOMND QD SRH
tku mjernog
SRGUXMDSUHEDFXMHPRQDQLHSRGUXMHNDNRELVPDQMLOLSRJUHNXMHUSRJUHNDMHQDMYHD
QDSRHWNXPMHUQRJSRGUXMD
Vjekoslav Duk
58
',*,7$/1$(/(.75,.$0-(5,/$
DigitaOQDHOHNWULNDPMHULODHOHNWULQHPMHUQHVLJQDOHREUDXMXLSULND]XMXGLJLWDOQR
'LJLWDOQL LQVWUXPHQWL L]UDYQR SULND]XMX EURMDQH YULMHGQRVWL PMHUQRJ VLJQDOD WDNR GD PMHULWHOM WUHED VDPR SDOMLYR
RLWDWL RQRWRSLHQDSRND]QLNX7LPHMHHOLPLQLUDQDOMXGVNDSRJUHNDL]ERJNRQDQHUD]OXLYRVWLOMXGVNRJRNDL
]ERJ VXEMHNWLYQH SURFMHQH GMHOD L]PHX GYD SRGMHOMND 0HXWLP EURM YULMHGQRVWL NRMH PRH SRND]DWL GLJLWDOQL
LQVWUXPHQWMHNRQDDQGRNND]DOMNDNRGDQDORJQLKLQVWUXPHQDWDPRH]DX]HWLEHVNRQDQRPQRJRSRORDMD
$XWRPDWVNX
REUDGX
L
DQDOL]X
SRGDWDND
UDXQDORP
GLJLWDOQL
LQVWUXPHQWL
LPDMX
NRPXQLNDFLMVNRVXHOMHNRMHRPRJXXMHGDLKSRYHHPRVUDXQDORP
=ERJPRJXQRVWLNRPXQLNDFLMHVUDXQDORPSRVWRMLPRJXQ
'LJLWDOQLPLQVWUXPHQWLPDPRJXVHSRVWLLYHHWRQRVWLXRGQRVXQDDQDORJQHLQVWUXPHQWH'LJLWDOQLLQVWUXPHQWLX
QDHOXQLVXWRQLMLRGDQDORJQLKDOLPRJXVHL]YHVWLYHHWRQRVWL
LA
$1$/2*1$(/(.7520(+$1,.$0-(5,
$QDORJQD HOHNWURPHKDQLND PMHULOD VX NODVLQL DQDORJQL LQVWUXPHQWL NRML XOD]QL LPSXOV SUHWYDUDMX X PHKDQLNL
pomak.
Sastoje se iz tri osnovna djela:
3RPLQLGLRVND]DOMNRP
1HSRPLQLGLRVPMHULORP
.XLWH
3UHPDQDLQXSULND]LYDQMDVLJQDODPRHP
o ih podjeliti na:
Pokazne
Zapisne
3UHPDQDHOXUDGDPRHPRLKSRGMHOLWLQD
Instrumenti s elektromagnetskimQDHORPUDGD
Instrumenti s HOHNWURWHUPLNLPQDHORPUDGD
Instrumenti s elektrostatskimQDHORPUDGD
Vjekoslav Duk
59
1MDHH NRULWHQ DQDORJQL HOHNWURPHKDQLNL LQVWUXPHQW MH LQVWUXPHQW V SRPLQLP VYLWNRP L SHUPDQHQWQLP
PDJQHWRP8QDVWDYNXREMDVQLWHPRQDHORUDGDWRJLQVWUXPHQWD
Skala
Kazaljka
*UDQLQLN
MAGNETSKI
MEDIJ
svitak
spiralna opruga
struja
WXMHRSUXJDXYUHQD
]DNXLWH
MAGNET
N
S
6OLND,]JOHGHOHNWURPHKDQLNRJLQVWUXPHQWDVSRPLQLPVYLWNRPLPDJQHWRP
2VQRYQLVDVWDYQLGLMHORYLLQVWUXPHQWDVSRPLQLPVYLWNRPLPDJQHWRP
jedan
magnetski krug
3RNUHWQL GLR V ND]DOMNRP L ]DYRMQLFRP ]DNUHWDWL H VH NDGD ]DYRMQLFRP SRWHH VWUXMD 6WUXMD VWYDUD YODVWLWR
magnetsko polje koje u interakciji s magnetskim poljem permanentnog magneta stvara aktivni zakretni moment.
h
Aktivni zakretni moment proporcionalan je struji koja prolazi kroz zavojnicu:
M A = k I = B N d hI
Vjekoslav Duk
60
Osim aktivnog zakretnog momenta postoji i protumoment kojeg stvara spiralna opruga. Kada ne bi bilo
protumomenta kazaljka bi za male vrijednosti struje kroz zavojnicu imala puni otklon i ne bismo mogli mjeriti
vrijeGQRVWXOD]QHYHOLLQH
Protumoment je jednak umnoku direkcione konstante i otklona kazaljke:
M D = D
.D]DOMNDVH]DXVWDYOMDNDGDVHDNWLYQL]DNUHWQLPRPHQWLSURWXPRPHQWL]MHGQDH
MA + MD = 0
Kut pomaka kazaljke od nulWHUD]LQHWDGDHL]QRVLWL
k
I
D
3UL QDJOLP SURPMHQDPD XOD]QH YHOLLQH GROD]L GR WLWUDQMD ND]DOMNH =DWR VH PRUD GRGDWL QHWR WR H VWYDUDWL
PRPHQWSULJXHQMDLVSULMHLWLWLWUDQMHND]DOMNH
3ULJXHQMHPRHELWL
Elektromagnetsko
=UDQR
7HNXLQVNR
1. ELEKTROMAGNETSKO PRIGUENJE
(OHNWURPDJQHWVNRSULJXHQMHQDMHHVHNRULVWL
Primjeri:
Magnet
$OXPLQLMVNDSORLFD
Magnet
Skala
Kazaljka
Vjekoslav Duk
61
=5$1235,*8(1-(
7RMH]UDQLFLOLQG
QDWDMQDLQSULJXXMHWLWUDQMHND]DOMNH
Kazaljka
7(.8,16.235,*8(1-(
=DYHOLNHSULJXQHPRPHQWHXPMHVWR]UDNDNRULVWLVHXOMH3ULPMHULFHNRGWRNDVWLKRVFLORJUDIDFLMHOLMHSRNUHWQL
Silikonsko ulje
/HDM
Safir
0RPHQW
SULJXHQMD
VWYDUD
WUHQMH
L]PHX
YUDWLOD
L
10 do 100PGRNMHXGXELQDGRSXWDYHD
10 do 100m
Ovakav sustav nazivamo sustav sa vratilom.
Vjekoslav Duk
62
KLVWHUH]XNUHWDQMDND]DOMNHDKLVWHUH]DND]DOMNHGRYRGLGRYHOLNRJUDVLSDQMDRLWDQMDSRQRYOMHQLKPMHUHQMD
XOHDMHYLPDQDVWDMXYHOLNDWODQDRSWHUHHQMDGR*3DWRX]URNXMHWURHQMHOHDMHYD
.DNRELVPDQMLOLKLVWHUH]XNUHWDQMDND]DOMNHLWODQDRSWHUHHQMDYUORMHELWQRGDLQVWUXPHQWSRVWDYLPRXSRORDMNRML
MHQD]QDHQQDLQVWUXPHQWXWMNRMLMHSURL]YRDSURSLVDRNDRUHIHUHQWQL,VWRWDNRPRUDPRYRGLWLUDXQDLR
tome
GDSRUDVWRPWHPSHUDWXUHGROD]LGRWRSOLQVNRJUDVWH]DQMDPDWHULMDODLVWRJDPRUDSRVWRMDWLQHNL]UDQLUDVSRUNDNR
d
dt
Mp
d
dt
Mp
6XKRWUHQMH7HNXLQVNRWUHQMH
Iz dijagrama vidimo da kod suhog trenja dolazi do histereze kretanja kazalMNH GRN MH NRG WHNXLQVNRJ SULJXHQMD
karakteristika u cijelosti linearna. Stoga suho trenje treba izbjegavati.
Osim sustava sa vratilom postoje jo:
7UDNRPQDSHWLVXVWDYLRQLVXUD]UHGDWRQRVWLU
0.5 )
traka
svitak
ILNVQDWRND
Vjekoslav Duk
63
6XVWDYLVDVYMHWORX
ILNVQDWRND
]UFDORSRNUHHJDVYLWDN
svitak
OHD
potporanj
zraka svjetlosti
izvor svjetla
6XVWDYLVDVYMHWORXYUORVXRVMHWOMLYLQDXGDUFH6WRJDVHXJUDXMHSRWSRUDQMNRMLVHSULOLNRPWUDQVSRUWDSRGLJQH
NDNRELVHVYLWDNXYUVWLR1DWDMQDLQVSUMHDYDVHQMHJRYRRWHHQMH
.8,7$
6YLGLMHORYLPMHUQRJVXVWDYDQDOD]HVHXNXLWX.XLWDPRHPRSRGLMHOLWLQD
Ugradna
Prijenosna
1. UGRADNA
2EOLFLLGLPHQ]LMHXJUDGQLKNXLWDQRUPL]LUDQLVXQRUPRP',15D]OLNXMHPRVOMHGHHREOLNH
a)
b)
Vjekoslav Duk
c)
64
d)
2. PRIJENOSNA
3ULMHQRVQDNXLWDPRJXVHSRGMHOLWLQD
Pogonska - SUHGYLHQD VX ]D UREXVQH LQVWUXPHQWH NRML VX RWSRUQLML QD SURPMHQH WHPSHUDWXUH L
XGDUFHUD]UHGDWRQRVWLRGGRDYUORULMHWNR
Laboratorijska SUHGYLHQD VX ]D ILQLMH LQVWUXPHQWH PDQMH RWSRUQH QD XGDUFH L SURPMHQH
temperature, ali zatRUD]UHGDWRQRVWLLPDQMH
Pogonske
Laboratorijske
/DERUDWRULMVNHPRHPRMRGRGDWQRSRGLMHOLWLQD
Materijalne
Svjetlosne
Pogonske kazaljke
Pogonske kazaljke NRULVWHVHXUD]OLLWLPSRJRQVNLPSRVWURMHQMLPD2QHVXJUXEHLGHEHOHWDNRGDVHPRJXYLGMHWLL
izdaleka.
Vjekoslav Duk
65
Laboratorijske kazaljke
Laboratorijske kazaljke vrlo su tanke i osjetljive jer se koriste kod preciznih mjerenja.
Materijalne kazaljke
3ULOLNRPRLWDYDQMDYULMHGQRVWLPMHUHQHYHOLLQHNRGSRND]QLNDVPDWHULMDOQRPND]DOMNRPHVWRQDVWDMH
2NRPMHULWHOMDXSUDYLOQRPSRORDMX
Oko PMHULWHOMDXQHSUDYLOQRPSRORDMX
Kazaljka
Skala
Ravnina skale
3RJOHGERQRQD]DRNUXHQLGLR
Kazaljka
Ravnina skale
Tu se nalazi ono to
HPRRLWDWLDNRQH
gledamo na ravninu
0
skale pod kutem 90
XVOMHGHJDQDVWDMH
Pogreka paralakse
pogreka paralakse).
Vjekoslav Duk
66
j.
.DGDMH]DX]HWSUDYLODQSRORDMPMHULWHOMYLGLVDPRVWYDUQXND]DOMNXQHLQMH]LQXVOLNX7DNRMHL]EMHJQXWD
pogreka paralakse.
Kazaljka
Ravnina zrcala
Zrcalna slika kazaljke
Svjetlosne kazaljke
Pod svjetlosnom kazaljkom podrazumjevamo zraku svjetlosti koju zrcalo reflektira na skalu. Zrcalo je
VPMHWHQR QD SRPLQRP RUJDQX LQVWUXPHQWD 6XVWDYL VD VYMHWORVQLP ND]DOMNDPD MHGDQ VX RG QDLQD
Tu zraka svjetlosti
ostavlja trag na skali.
Izvor svjetlosti
/HD
Skala
Zrcalo
Vjekoslav Duk
67
2. MJERNE SKALE
20
10
30
40
3RGMHOMDNUD]PDNL]PHXGYLMHFUWLFH
L = k1 x
To je zapravo prijenosna karakteristika
x
2. Kvadratna skala
.YDGUDWQDVNDODSULPMHQMXMHVHNDGDHOLPRPMHULWLYHOLLQHLMHVXSURPMHQHUHODWLYQRPDOHQH
L = k2 x2
x
3. Logaritamska skala
3ULPMHQMXMHVHNDGDMHSRWUHEQRLPDWLLURNRSRGUXMHPMHUHQHYHOLLQH
x
L = Lmin + k 3 log
x min
Lmin
xmin
Vjekoslav Duk
68
3ULRLWDYDQMXVDPMHUQHVNDOHWUHEDREUDWLWLSR]RUQRVWQDVOMHGHH
90MHUQRSRGUXMH
0 10
80
50
80
120
3RND]QRSRGUXMH
QD]LYQRSRGUXMHLOLUDQJH0DNVLPDOQDYULMHGQRVWSRND]QRJSRGUXMDR]QDDYDVHVD
max LL]UDDYDVHXSRGMHOMFLPD
,QVWUXPHQWH VPLMHPR SUHRSWHUHWLWL L]YDQ PMHUQRJ SRGUXMD GR X RYRP SULPMHUX RGQRVQR DOL WR
SUHRSWHUHHQMHQHVPLMHWUDMDWLGXHRGVDWD1DNRQWRJDLQVWUXPHQWVHREDYH]QRPRUDXPMHUDYDWL
(OHNWURPHKDQLNL LQVWUXPHQWL PRJX L]GUDWL SUHRSWHUHHQMH L GR DOL VDPR NUDWNRWUDMQR VHNXQGX WH VH
QDNRQWRJDPRUDMXXPMHUDYDWL7RYDL]DVYHHOHNWURPHKDQLNHLQVWUXPHQWHRVLPRQLKVWHUPRSUHWYRUQLNRPMHUVX
RQLYUORRVMHWOMLYLQDSUHRSWHUHHQMD
.RQVWDQWDVNDOHMHRPMHUPMHUQRJGRPHWDLPDNVLPDOQHYULMHGQRVWLSRND]QRJSRGUXMD
k=
max
[Mjerna _ jedinica]
[Podjeljku]
Tada je mjerena vrijednost (M) jednaka umnoku konstante skale i otklonu kazaljke.
M = k
Primjer
,QVWUXPHQW VD VOLNH UD]UHGD WRQRVWL SULNOMXHQ MH QD L]YRU PMHUQRJ VLJQDOD .D]DOMND MH ]DX]HOD SRORDM NDNR MH
SULND]DQR'HILQLUDQRMHPMHUQRSRGUXMHL
nstrumenta 0 do 6mA.
Konstanta skale:
k=
0
10
20
30
6mA
= 0.2mA / pod
30mA
Mjerena vrijednost:
M = k = 0.2 2 = 4.00mA
*UDQLQDSRJUHND
Apsolutna nesigurnost:
G = r
ua =
max 6mA
=
= 0.06mA
100 100
G
3
0.06
= 0.035mA
3
Vjekoslav Duk
0MHVWR]DRNUXLYDQMD
0.035
L = ent log
= 2
1.2
=QDDMNHHOHNWURPHKDQLNLKPMHULOD
1. 9UVWDYHOLLQHNRMXPMHULVWUXMDQDSRQRWSRU
2. 9UVWDVLJQDODNRMLPMHULLVWRVPMHUQLL]PMHQLQLSXOVLUDMXL
3. )UHNYHQFLMVNLRSVHJNRGL]PMHQLQLK
4. 0MHUQDSRGUXMD
5. 7RQRVWPMHULOD
6. Unutarnji otpor
7. 3RGUXMHXSRUDEHVRE]LURPQDXWMHFDMQHYHOLLQH
1HNH]QDDMNHR]QDDYDMXVH]QDNRYLPD
Trofazni instrument
69
Vjekoslav Duk
70
',1$0,.$*,%$1-$320,12*7,-(/$
*LEDQMHND]DOMNH]DMHGQRVDVYLWNRPRSLVXMHVHGLIHUHQFLMDOQRPMHGQDGERPGUXJRJUHGD
d 2 (t )
d (t )
+
+ D (t ) = k I
J
P
d (t ) 2
d (t )
Moment izazvan
kutnim ubrzanjem
Aktivni moment
Konstanta proporcionalnosti
Konstanta priguenja
Kutni pomak
Kutna brzina
Direkciona konstanta
VOXDMD
*,%$1-(.$=$/-.(1$.218./-8(1-$.2167$171(9(/,,1(-(',1,1,6.2.
u(t)
1
t
1DNRQWRQDXOD]LQVWUXPHQWDGRYHGHPRQDSRQMHGLQLQRJVNRNDND]DOMNDQHHWUHQXWQR]DX]HWLPLUXMXLSRORDM
YHHSULMHWRJDNUDWNRYULMHPHWLWUDWL.DNRHWLWUDWLRYLVLRVWXSQMXSULJXHQMD
S=
P
2 D J
d (t )
s
= 1 e s0t cos 0 1 s 2 t +
sin( 0 1 s 2 t
d ( )
1 s2
5D]PDWUDPRHWLULVOXDMDSRQDDQMDVXVWDYDXRYLVQRVWLRVWXSQMXSULJXHQMD
a) S = 0
8 RYRP VOXDMX SULJXHQMH MH PDOR RGQRVQR WR MH LGHDOL]LUDQL VOXDM D WDNYR JLEDQMH ND]DOMNH QD]LYD VH
titrajno
neprigueno gibanje.
TD = 2
Otklon
kazaljke
0 =
1
t
TD
J
D
D
J
Frekvencija
sustava
titranja
pokretnog
Vjekoslav Duk
71
2. S < 1
2YRMHUHDODQVOXDMRYDNRVHND]DOMNDJLEDXVWYDUQRVWLDWDNYRJLEDQMHQD]LYDVH
Otklon
kazaljke
1
t
t1
3. S = 1
2YDNYRJLEDQMHQD]LYDPRJUDQLQRDSHULRGVNRJLEDQMH
Otklon
kazaljke
1
S=1
t
t2
4. S > 1
Ovakvo gibanje nazivamo aperiodsko gibanje.
Otklon
kazaljke
t
3URPRWULPR OL X LVWRP GLMDJUDPX VOXDMHYH 6 L 6
SRVWLHNDGDMHSULJXHQMH6LWRNDGDMH6
Otklon
kazaljke
1
t
t1
t2
Vjekoslav Duk
.RQDDQRWNORQSRPLQR
72
g sustava (kazaljke):
= =
k I
D
WMQDNRQ]DYUHWNDSULMHOD]QHSRMDYHRGGLIHUHQFLMDOQHMHGQDGEHUHGDRVWDMHVDPRRYR
D (t ) = k I
*,%$1-(.$=$/-.(1$.218./-8(1-$6818612*9$/12*2%/,.$,=0-(1,1(9(/,,1(
M
=
0
M
0
sin (t )
1
0
+ 2 S
0
2S
0
= arctg
2
1
0
S=0
S=0.25
S=0.5
S=0.7
1
S>1
0.7
0.8
f
T
ili
f0
T0
PrLQLLPIUHNYHQFLMDPDND]DOMNDSUDWLVLJQDO3RYHDQMHPIUHNYHQFLMHVPDQMXMHVHDPSOLWXGDWDNRGDXNRQDQLFLSUL
jako velikim frekvencijama imamo dojam da kazaljka miruje.
Prirodno titrajno vrijeme kod pokaznih instrumenata je od 50ms do 1s. Posebnim zahYDWLPDPRHVHVPDQMLWLQD
0.1ms ( f=10kHz ). Ti posebni zahvati su:
Vjekoslav Duk
73
1$(/25$'$,167580(17$
im magnetom. On mjeri
VDPR LVWRVPMHUQH YHOLLQH $NR WDNYRP LQVWUXPHQWX XJUDGLPR LVSUDYOMD RQGD RQ PRH PMHULWL LVWRVPMHUQH L
L]PMHQLQHYHOLLQH
6LPEROLQVWUXPHQWDVSRPLQLPVYLWNRPLSUHPDQHQWQLPPDJQHWRP
6LPEROLQVWUXPHQWDVSRPLQLPVYLWNRPSHUPDQHQWQLPPDJQHWRPLLVSUDYOMDHP
,QVWUXPHQW V SRPLQLP VYLWNRP SHUPDQHQWQLP PDJQHWRP L XJUDHQLP LVSUDYOMDHP LPD RG]LY QD VUHGQMX
ispravljenu vrijednost, a pokazuje efektivnu vrijednost (odnosno kalibriran je na efektivne vrijednosti), ali samo za
VLQXVQL YDOQL REOLN 'DNOH LQVWUXPHQW PQRL VUHGQMX LVSUDYOMHQX YULMHGQRVW XOD]QRJ VLJQDOD VD IDNWRURP REOLND
sinusnog signala.
U ef = U 1.111
.DGDQDXOD]WRJLQVWUXPHQWDQDULQHPRVLJQDOYDOQRJREOLNDUD]OLLWRJRGVLQXVQRJSRND]LYDQMHHELWLSRJUHQR
3RJUHNDHL]QRVLWL
p% =
1.111 U U Fob
U Fob
100% =
1.111 Fob
100%
Fob
3ULPMHULFH]DSUDYRNXWQLYDOQLREOLNSRJUHNDHL]QRVLWL
p% =
1.111 1
100% = +11%
1
p% =
1.111 1.155
100% = 3.9%
1.155
$1-($'-8670(17
Vjekoslav Duk
74
Gotovo svi instrumenti koje danas koristimo su univerzalni instrumenti. Oni imaju vie naponskih i strujnih mjernih
SRGUXMDWRVHSRVWLHSURLULYDQMHPPMHUQRJRSVHJD
3URLUHQMHQDSRQVNRJSRGUXMD
7HPHOMQRVHSRGUXMHPRHSURLULWLVSDMDQMHPRWSRUQLNDXVHULMXVPMHUQLPVXVWDYRPSULHPXRWSRUQLNSUHX]LPD
RP
UT
RV
UV
U = U T + U V = I RP + I RV
U I RV U U V
R
=
= V (U U V ) = RP
RP =
UV
I
UV
RV
0RHVHL]YHVWLLYLHVWUXNDSURPMHQDPMHUQLKSRGUXMDSRPRXVNO
opke:
R1
+
R2
R3
3URLUHQMHVWUXMQRJSRGUXMD
7HPHOMQRVHSRGUXMHSURLUXMHVSDMDQMHPRWSRUQLND6+817
IA
RA
UA
IS
U
RS
I = IA + IS
IS = I IA = I
RS = R A
IA
I IA
UA
RS
Vjekoslav Duk
75
0RHVHSRVWLLYLHPMHUQLKSRGUXMDQDVOMHGHLQDLQ
RA
-
R1
R2
VWUXMD
R3
WHH
NUR]
PMHUQL
VXVWDY D WRPRHGRYHVWL
GRRWHHQMD
RA
+
R1
R2
R3
-
RQHPRJXHQR RWHHQMH
mjernog sustava.
InstruPHQWVSRPLQLPVYLWNRPSHUPDQHQWQLPPDJQHWRPLVSUDYOMDHPLNRQGHQ]DWRURPNRULVWLVH]DPMHUHQMH
tjemene vrijednosti napona.
Simbol:
Kondenzator se nabija na napon tjemene vrijednosti, a instrument predstavlja vrlo mali teret za kondenzator. Stoga
se kondenzator ne stigne isprazniti pa je cijelo vrijeme nabijen na tjemenu vrijednost ulaznog napona, a upravo tu
vrijednost pokazuje instrument. Ako je skala kalibrirana na efektivne vrijednosti sinusnog signala prilikom
SULNOMXHQMDQHVLQXVQRJYDOQRJREOLNDGROD]LGRSRJUHNH
U otan o = U ef =
Um
2
p% = ob 1 100%
2
3ULPMHULFHDNRQDXOD]GRYHGHPRSUDYRNXWQLVLJQDOSRJUHNDHL]QRVLWL
3
p % =
1 100% = +22.5%
2
p% =
1 100% = 29.3%
2
Vjekoslav Duk
76
9567(,167580(1$7$6,0%2/,1$(/25$'$
,QVWUXPHQWVSRPLQLPVYLWNRPLSHUPDQHQWQLPPDJQHWRP
,QVWUXPHQWVXNULHQLPVYLWFLPDLSHUPDQHQWQLPPDJQHWRP
PMHULRPMHULVWRVPMHUQLKYHOLLQD
robustan je
,QVWUXPHQWVSRPLQLPPDJQHWRP
PMHULLVWRVPMHUQHYHOLLQH
.YRFMHQWQLLQVWUXPHQWVSRPLQLPVYLWNRPLPDJQHWRP
PMHULHIHNWLYQHYULMHGQRVWLL]PMHQLQLKVLQXVQLKLQHVLQXVQLKVLJQDOD
,QVWUXPHQWVSRPLQLPHOMH]RP
PMHULHIHNWLYQXYULMHGQRVWLVWRVPMHUQLKLL]PMHQLQLKVLJQDOD
1
otklon: = i1 i2 dt , do 500Hz
T 0
LPDHOMH]QLRNORSNRMLJDWLWLRGYDQMVNLKVPHWQML
PMHULHIHNWLYQHYULMHGQRVWLVDPRL]PMHQLQLKVLJQDOD
PRHELWLXYDWPHWDUPRHPMHULWLUDGQXLS
rividnu snagu)
Vjekoslav Duk
77
PMHULHIHNWLYQHYULMHGQRVWLLVWRVPMHUQLKLL]PMHQLQLKVLJQDOD
PMHULHIHNWLYQHYULMHGQRVWLLVWRVPMHUQLKLL]PMHQLQLKVLJQDODGR
100MHz
ima vrlo mali vlastiti potroak
LPDMH]LNHNRML
,QVWUXPHQWVSRPLQLPMH]LFLPD
PMHULHIHNWLYQHYULMHGQRVWLLVWRVPMHUQLKLL]PMHQLQLKVLJQDOD
YUORRVMHWOMLYQDSUHRSWHUHHQMD
PMHULHIHNWLYQHYULMHGQRVWLL]PMHQLQL
WHUPRSDUL]ROLUDQRGJULMDHLFH
,QVWUXPHQWVSRPLQLPVYLWNRPSHUPDQHQWQLPPDJQHWRPLLVSUDYOMDHP
PMHULLVWRVPMHUQHLL]PMHQLQHYHOLLQH
=1$.29,32/2$-$,167580(17$
,QVWUXPHQW]DYULMHPHPMHUHQMDWUHEDELWLXYHUWLNDOQRPSRORDMX
,QVWUXPHQW]DYULMHPHPMHUHQMDWUHEDELWLXKRUL]RQWDOQRPSRORDMX
60
3URL]YRDJDUDQWLUDJUDQLQHSRJUHNHVDPR]DQD]QDHQLSRORDMLQVWUXPHQWD
Vjekoslav Duk
78
,QVWUXPHQWMHLVSLWDQ]DPDNVLPDOQLQDSRQL]PHXXOD]DLNXLWDLPRHL]GUDWLGR9
,QVWUXPHQWQLMHLVSLWDQQDL]GUOMLYRVWQDSRQD
5DGLVHRYROWPHWUXLMHMHNXLWH]DYULMHPHPMHUHQMDQDYLVRNRPQDSRQXVWRJDQDV]QDN
XSR]RUDYDGDNXLWHQHVPLMHPRGRGLULYDWLYHJOHG
amo izdaleka.
DODATNI ZNAKOVI
Elektrostatski oklop
Magnetski oklop
3RWHQFLRPHWDU]DSRGHDYDQMHPHKDQLNHQXOHLQVWUXPHQWD
Vjekoslav Duk
79
11.*5$1,1(32*5(.(721267,167580(17$
7RQRVW MH QDMYDQLMD ]QDDMND PMHUQLK LQVWUXPHQDWD SUHPD NRMRM VX HOHNWURPHKDQLNL LQVWUXPHQWL UD]YUVWDQL X
UD]UHGHWRQRVWL
7RQRVW MH RGUHHQD UHODWLYQRP JUDQLQRP SRJUHNRP LVND]DQRP SRVWRFLPD GRJRYRUHQH UHI
erentne vrijednosti
(DRV).
'RJRYRUHQDUHIHUHQWQDYULMHGQRVWPRHELWL
2LWDQDYULMHGQRVW
1DLQVWUXPHQWXPRHELWLQD]QDHQUD]UHGWRQRVWLQDVOMHGHLQDLQ
a) 1.5
7DNRQD]QDHQUD]UHGWRQRVWLXSR]RUDYDGDMHJUDQLQDSRJUHNDXRGQRVX
na mjerni domet
b) 1.5
c) 1.5
*UDQLQDSRJUHNDL]
*UDQLQD SRJUHND MH QDMYHD GRSXWHQD SRJUHND NRMX LQVWUXPHQW VPLMH LPDWL 3URL]YRD MDPL GD JUDQLQD
SRJUHND QHH ELWL SUHPDHQD
LQVWUXPHQWD SRGUD]XPMHYD PMHUHQMH XQXWDU PMHUQRJ SRGUXMD L SUL UHIHUHQWQLP XYMHWLPD UDVSRQ YULMHGQRVWL
XWMHFDMQLKYHOLLQD
*UDQLQDSRJUHNDVDGULVOMHGHH
1.
2.
3.
4.
gv(x)
x
E
HOMHQDYULMHGQRVW
Ispitne granice
Vjekoslav Duk
80
3URL]YRD LVSLWXMH VYDNL LQVWUXPHQW L RGUHXMH LVSLWQX JUDQLFX 6YL LQVWUXPHQWL XQXWDU WH JUDQLFH ]DGRYROMDYDMX
ostali ne. Granice se proiruju lijevo i desno od ispitnih granica i to za vrijednost mjerne nesigurnosti i ponovljivosti.
Tome se jo doGDMHUH]HUYDNDNRELSURL]YRDELRSRWSXQRVLJXUDQGDSRJUHNDQHHELWLYHDRGRQHGHILQLUDQH
UD]UHGRPWRQRVWL
.DNR MH YH UDQLMH QDYHGHQR NRG HOHNWURPHKDQLNLK LQVWUXPHQDWD JUDQLQD SRJUHND RGUHHQD MH UD]UHGRP
WRQRVWLUD]OLNXMHPRUD]UHGDWRQRVWL
0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2.5, 3, 5. ), dok kod digitalnih instrumenata
LVND]LYDQMHJUDQLQHSRJUHNHQLMHQRUPL]LUDQR
Primjer
3UL PMHUHQMX QDSRQD DQDORJQLP LQVWUXPHQWRP UD]UHGD WRQRVWL U
r=2
D=100V
max =100 pod
=50 pod
U, u=?
D 100V
V
=1
pod
max 100 pod
Konstanta skale:
k=
Mjereni napon:
U = k = 1 50 = 50V
*UDQLQDDSVROXWQDSRJUHND
Ga = r
u% =
Ga
3
max
= 2
100
= 2.00V
100
= 1.2V
ua
100% = 2.3%
U
U = (50 1.2 )V
U = 50(1 0.023)V
U = 50(1 2.3% )V
9 PDNVLPDOQH
Vjekoslav Duk
81
REFERENTNI UVJETI
Na otklon kazaljke prilikom mjerenja osim mjerenH YHOLLQH XWMHX L QHNH GUXJH YHOLLQH NRMH QD]LYDPR XWMHFDMQH
YHOLLQH .DNR EL VH RJUDQLLOR XWMHFDMQHYHOLLQHSURSLVDQHVXQMLKRYHUHIHUHQWQHYULMHGQRVWLSULNRMLPDLQVWUXPHQW
PRUD PMHULWL V SRJUHNRP PDQMRP RG JUDQLQH 1DMHH SURL]YRDL X VSHFLIL
UHIHUHQWQR SRGUXMH YULMHGQRVWL XWMHFDMQLK YHOLLQD $NR SURL]YRD QLMH QDYHR UHIHUHQWQR SRGUXMH RQGD ]D
DQDORJQDPMHULODYULMHGHRJUDQLHQMDQDYHGHQDXWDEOLFLSURSLVDQDQRUPRQ,(&
87-(&$-1$9(/,,1$
Temperatura okoline
Valovitost
(OHNWULQRSROMH
Magnetsko polje
Valovitost istosmjerne
REFERENTNA
VRIJEDNOST
0
TOLERANCIJA
10 C
20C
20 C, 23 C, 27 C
50%
0kV/m
0A/m
0%
UVJETI
=DUD]UHGWRQRVWLGRXNOMXLYR
=DUD]UHGWRQRVWLQDYLH
10%
1kV/m
40A/m
1%
3%
1%
YHOLLQH
0%
,]REOLHQMHLVWRVPMHUQH
-1:
YHOLLQH
5%
3RORDM
1%
5%
1%
3RPRQLL]YRUL
$NR NRULVWLPR SRPRQH L]YRUH ]D QDSDMDQMH GR]YROMHQR MH GD QDSRQ YDULUD
Za frekvencije 0 do 65 Hz
Za frekvencije 0 do 65 Hz
=DUD]UHGWRQRVWLGRXNOMXLYR
=DUD]UHGWRQRVWLQDYLH
Za instrumente sa ispravljaHPNRML
ne mjere pravu efektivnu vrijednost
Za instrumente koji mjere efektivnu
vrijednost
2GQD]QDHQRJSRORDMD
Nazivnog napona
Nazivne frekvencije
5% , a frekvencija 1 % 0HXWLP
navedene su granice preuske za uporabu u laboratoriju. Stoga kada se instrument koristi pri vrijednostima
utjHFDMQLK YHOLLQD L]YDQ UHIHUHQWQRJ SRGUXMD D XQXWDU QD]LYQRJ SRGUXMD XSRUDEH dozvoljene su dodatne
pogreke koje zovemo varijacije.
Temperatura
Vlaga
(OHNWULQRSROMH
Magnetsko polje
100 C od referentne
25% do 80%
do 25kV/m
do 400 A/m
9DULMDFLMD PDNVLPDOQR PRH ELWL MHGQDND JUDQLQRM SRJUHFL RGQRVQR QH VPLMH ELWL YHD RG JUDQLQLK SRJUHDND
RGUHHQLK LQGHNVRP UD]UHGD WRQRVWL 'DNOH DNR UDGLPR X QDMORLMLP XYMHWLPD UDGLPR VD GYRVWUXNRP JUDQLQRP
pogrekom.
r
5HIHUHQWQRSRGUXMHXSRUDEH
2r
3ROD]QDWRND]DRGUHLYDQMH
proirene pogreke
r
x
-r
-2r
1D]LYQRSRGUXMHXSRUDEH
Vjekoslav Duk
82
Neki proi]YRDLXVSHFLILNDFLMDPDPMHULODGDMXWRSURLUHQRSRGUXMHNRMHL]JOHGDRYDNR
5HIHUHQWQRSRGUXMHXSRUDEH
2r
r
-r
-2r
1D]LYQRSRGUXMHXSRUDEH
Trenja
1HVLJXUQRVWLRLWDQMDNRMDVHVDVWRMLL]GYLMHNRPSRQHQWH
1.
.RQDQDUD]OXLYRVWOMXGVNRJRND/MXGVNRRNRQHPRHUD]OXLWLGYLMH
WRNHQDXGDOMHQRVWLPDQMRMRGPPYHLKYLGLNDRMHGQX
2.
milimetrima)
pod
[pod ] = k1
d [mm]
mm
max
, max je domet, a dmax je duljina skale.
d max
Vjekoslav Duk
83
u aps [ pod ] =
[pod ]
u d = k1 u d = u d [mm ] max
d
d max [pod ]
=GUDYROMXGVNRRNRQHPRHUD]OXLWLGYLMHWRNHQDUD]PDNXPDQMHPRGPPWRMHGRGDWQLL]YRUQHVLJX
Ta nesigurnost iznosi: u d =
0.07
3
rnosti.
= 0.04mm
1HVLJXUQRVWRLWDQMDQDVNDOLVOLQHDUQRPSRGMHORPLVND]DQDXSRVWRFLPDL]QRVL
u% =
u aps [pod ]
[pod ]
100% =
u d max
100%
d max
Primjer
Za max = 150,0 pod i dmax=135,0mm pri otklonu 75,0 pod nesigurnoVW RLWDQMD QD VNDOL V OLQHDUQRP SRGMHORP
iznosi:
150,0
= 0,044 pod
135,0
0,04 150
100% = 0,059%
75,0 135
'XOMLQDG>PP@RGPHKDQLNHQLWLFHGRQHNRJRWNORQD
d = d min + k 2 log
min
k2MHNRQVWDQWDVNDOHDUDXQDVHRYDNR
k2 =
Otklon
UDXQDVHSUHPDL]UD]X
d max d min
log max
min
= min 10
d d min
k2
Vjekoslav Duk
84
1HVLJXUQRVWRLWDQMDL]UDHQDXSRVWRFLPDL]QRVL
u% =
u aps
100% =
230,3u d
100
%=
log max %
ud
d
d max d min
min
= min 10
d
Primjetimo da je u rasponu od
otklonu kazaljke.
min do max
d d min
k2
ln 10
k2
QHVLJXUQRVWRLWDQMDLVND]DQDXSRVWRFLPDNRQVWDQWQDWMQHRYLVLR
Primjer
Zadano je
min =10.0 podjeljaka, max =150.0 podjeljaka, dmin=4.0 mm, dmax=135.0 mm.
7DGDSRVWRWQDQHVLJXUQRVWRLWDQMDQDVNDOLVDORJDULWDPVNRPSRGMHORPL]QRVL
u% =
230.3 0.04
1.176% = 0.083%
131.0
x = k
L = k1 x = k 2
2
L
k2
Nesigurnost RLWDQMDXDSVROXWQRPL]QRVX
u a ( L) =
ud
L
1HVLJXUQRVWRLWDQMDXSRVWRFLPDL]QRVL
u% =
u d max
100%
2 Lmax
8WDEOLFLVXSULND]DQHSRVWRWQHQHVLJXUQRVWLRLWDQMDVDSRMHGLQLKVNDOD]DRWNORQHLSRGMHOMDND
Otklon
u podjeljcima
Skala sa linearnom
podjelom
u % = 0.030
Skala sa kvadratnom
podjelom
u % = 0.015
Skala sa logaritamskom
podjelom
u % = 0.09
75
u % = 0.060
u % = 0.060
u % = 0.09
40
u % = 0.11
u % = 0.21
u % = 0.09
10
u % = 0.44
1HPRHVHRLWDWL
u % = 0.09
150
Vjekoslav Duk
*UDILNLSULND]YULMHGQRVWLL]WDEOLFH
0.5
u%
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
10
50
100
150
[pod ]
[pod ]
u%
0.2
0.1
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
80
100
120
140
160
u%
0.2
0.1
10 20
40
60
[pod ]
85
Vjekoslav Duk
86
-RMHMHGQDYUORYDQD]QDDMNDLQVWUXPHQWDQMHJRYXQXWUDQMLRWSRU,QVWUXPHQWRP]DYULMHPHPMHUHQMDSURWMHH
VWUXMDSULHPXGROD]LGRSDGDQDSRQD]ERJXQXWUDQMHJRWSRUDLQVWUXPHQWDDWLPHLGRSRJUHNHXPMHUHQMX
Rizvora
RT
RT
2
IZVOR
I=
E
Rizvora + RT
Rizvora
I/
RA
A
I/ =
RT
E
Rizvora + RA + RT
IZVOR
1DNRQXNOMXHQMDDPSHUPHWUDPMHUQLPNUXJRPYLHQHWHHVWUXMD
NRMXHOLPRPMHULWLYHVWUXMD
I / koja je manja
p aps ( I ) = I / I =
E
Rizvora + RT
RA
Rizvora + R A + RT
Pogreka u postocima:
p% ( I ) =
Rizvora
RA
100%
+ R A + RT
Pogreka je negativna jer je izmjerHQD VWUXMD PDQMD RG VWYDUQH 3RJUHND VH SRYHDYD SRYHDQMHP XQXWUDQMHJ
RWSRUD DPSHUPHWUD ,GHDOQLELDPSHUPHWDULPDREHVNRQDQRPDOHQXQXWDUQMLRWSRUDOLEXGXLGDMHWRQHPRJXH
SRVWLLVLVWHPDWVNDMHSRJUHNDXYLMHNSULVXWQD
Vjekoslav Duk
87
Rizvora
U =E
2
2
IZVOR
6DGDXRVQRYQLNUXJXNOMXLPRYROWPHWDU
Rizvora
RV V
U/
U / = I RV =
1DNRQXNOMXHQMDYROWPHWUDPMHUQLPNUXJRPSRWHHVWUXMD
E RV
Rizvora + RV
p a (U ) = U / U =
E Rizvora
Rizvora + RV
Postotna pogreka:
p% (U ) =
Rizvora
100%
Rizvora + RV
ava
Vjekoslav Duk
88
.RG YROWPHWDUD VD YLH PMHUQLK SRGUXMD QH QDYRGL VH SRGDWDN R XQXWUDQMHP RWSRUX YH NDUDNWHULVWLQL
.
V
7DMSRGDWDNXSXXMHQDVQDWRNDNRHPRL]UDXQDWLXQXWUDQMLRWSRUQDRGUHHQRPPMHUQRPSRGUXMX
RUP = kV D
Unutranji otpor voltmetra na
0MHUQLGRPHWRGUHHQRJ
RGUHHQRPPMHUQRPSRGUXMX
PMHUQRJSRGUXMD
Primjer
,PDPR YROWPHWDU V PMHUQLP SRGUXMLPD
XQXWUDQMLRWSRUQDSRGUXMX9"
RUP = kV D = 10
k
30V = 300k
V
Vjekoslav Duk
89
NIH
67$7,.(,',1$0,.(.$5$.7(5,67,.(0-(5
SUSTAVA
Blok shema mjernog sustava:
ulaz, x
izlaz, y
MJERNI SUSTAV
67$7,.(.$5$.7(5,67,.(0-(51,+6867$9$
6WDWLNHNDUDNWHULVWLNHPMHUQLKVXVWDYDLVND]XMXVHSULMHQRVQRPNDUDNWHULVWLNRP
,GHDOQDVWDWLNDSUL
izlaz, y
.DGDJRYRULPRRVWDWLNLPPMHUQLPNDUDNWHULVWLNDPDYDDQMHSRGDWDN
s=
y
x
WR MH SUDYDF SULMHQRVQH NDUDNWHULVWLNH EOLL \ RVL YHD MH RVMHWOMLYRVW
mjernog sustava.
ulaz, x
izlaz, y
Pogreka nelinearnosti.
Realna karakteristika redovito je nelinearna.
Pogreka nelinearnosti
ulaz, x
Vjekoslav Duk
izlaz, y
90
1XOWLSRORDMND]DOMNH
$NRND]DOMNDQLMHSRGHHQDQDQXOWLSRORDMWDGDLQVWUXPHQWJULMHL
QD FLMHORP SRGUXMX =DWR MH SULMH VYDNRJ PMHUHQ
ja potrebno
SURYMHULWLSRORDMND]DOMNH
ulaz, x
Histereza kazaljke.
izlaz, y
savladalo
VXKR
WUHQMH
QHH
ELWL
RWNORQD
ND]DOMNH
/DJDQLP
trenja.
ulaz, x
Starenje instrumenta.
izlaz, y
ulaz, x
Klizanje.
izlaz, y
ulaz, x
Ponovljivost.
izlaz, y
ulaz, x
6YLRYLRG]LYL]DVDPRMHGQXYULMHGQRVWXOD]QHYHOLLQH
Vjekoslav Duk
91
',1$0,.(.$5$.7(5,67,.(0-(51,+6867$9$
'LQDPLNH NDUDNWHULVWLNH VX RQH NDUDNWHULVWLNH PMHUQLK VXVWDYD NRMH SURPDWUDPR SUL EU]LP SURPMHQDPD XOD
zne
YHOLLQHQSUSULOLNRPPMHUHQMDL]PMHQLQLKLPSXOVQLKSXOVLUDMXLKVLJQDOD'LQDPLNHNDUDNWHULVWLNHQHNRJVXVWDYD
QDMEROMHPRHPRXRLWLQDWHPHOMXPMHUHQMDRG]LYDVXVWDYDX]SREXGXVDVLJQDORPMHGLQLQRJVNRND
x,y
nadvienje
100%
90%
tod
ulazni signal x(t)
10%
t
tpo
.DUDNWHULVWLQHYULMHGQRVWLL]OD]QRJVLJQDOD
2G]LYQDMHGLQLQLVNRNQD]LYDVHMRLSULMHQRVQDIXQNFLMDPMHULODLGHILQLUDVHRYD
h(t ) =
ko:
IZLAZ y (t )
=
ULAZ h(t )
8]VLJQDOMHGLQLQRJVNRNDHVWRVHQDXOD]XPMHUQRJVXVWDYDNDRLVSLWQLVLJQDONRULVWLLVLQXVQL7DGDQDL]OD]XL]
PMHUQRJVXVWDYDGRELYDPRLVWRVLQXVQLVLJQDODOLQSUUD]OLLWHDPSOLWXGHLOLSRPDNQXWXID]LXRGQRVXQDX
x(t ) = X m sin(2ft )
y (t ) = Ym sin(2f t )
MJERNI SUSTAV
8RYRPVOXDMXQDL]OD]XMHSURPMHQMHQDDPSOLWXGDDGRJRGLRVHLSRPDNXID]L
lazni.
Vjekoslav Duk
92
KOMPLEKSNA OSJETLJIVOST
.DGD MH ULMH R GLQDPLNLP NDUDNWHULVWLNDPD VXVWDYD GHILQLUD VH L NRPSOHNVQD RVM
S ( ) =
Y ( )
= S ( ) e j ( )
X ( )
.RPSOHNVQXRVMHWOMLYRVWPRHPRSULND]DWLQDGYDQDLQD
=0
Re
( )
S ( )
1DMYDQLMH
VX
]QDDMNH
DPSOLWXGQH
S ( )
-3dB
JUDQLQD
QD
fd
fg
.RG
RVFLORVNRSD
MH
QDMHH
dan
podatak o vremenu porasta. Tada se
prema izrazu:
fg =
0.35
t porasta
Vjekoslav Duk
93
(/(.7521,.,$1$/2*1,0-(51,,167580(17,
(OHNWURQLNLDQDORJQLPMHUQLLQVWUXPHQWLQDVWDOLVXSUYHQVWYHQR]ERJSRWUHEHPMHUHQMDVLJQD
NRMHVXNODVLQLDQDORJQLHOHNWURPHKDQLNLLQVWUXPHQWLELOLQHGRYROMQRRVMHWOMLYL
.ODVLQLDQDORJQLHOHNWURPHKDQLNLLQVWUXPHQWLPDVOMHGHHVDVWDYQHGLMHORYH
Pokaznik
(/(.75,1,
ulaz
PRILAGODNIK
PokaznLN
MH
QDMHH
LQVWUXPHQW V SRPLQLP
ElektURQLNLDQDORJQLPMHUQLLQVWUXPHQWLPDVOMHGHHVDVWDYQHGLMHORYH
3RMDDOR
ulaz
(/(.7521,.,
Pokaznik
+
PRILAGODNIK
(OHNWURQLNLSULODJRGQLNPRHELWL
2QR
X
HPX
VH
ELWQR
UD]OLNXMX
Djelilo
HOHNWURPHKDQLNL L HOHNWURQLNL DQ
,VSUDYOMDGLRGD
instrumenti je
SRMDDOR
alogni
3RMDDOR MH
$1$/2*1,(/(.7521,.,92/70(75,
%LWQLVXVDVWDYQLGLMHORYLHOHNWURQLNLKYROWPHWDUD
PMHUQRSRMDDOR
UD]PMHUQRUREXVWDQLQVWUXPHQWVSRPLQLPVYLWNRPLPDJQHWRP
djelilo napona
NRML VX XJUDHQL X ]DMHGQLNR NXLWH 'MHOLOR QDSRQD XJUDHQR MH NDNR EL VH LQVWUXPHQW PRJDR XSRWUHEOMDYDWL X
LURNRPIUHNYHQFLMVNRPRSVHJXXOD]QLKVLJQDOD0MHUQRSRMDDORRPRJXXMHSRYHDQMHRVMHWOMLYRVWLDOLLSRYHDQMH
,67260-(51((/(.7521,.(92/70(75(
,=0-(1,1((/(.7521,.(92/70(75(
Vjekoslav Duk
94
,67260-(51,(/(.7521,.,92/70(75,
3RVWRMHGYLMHL]YHGEHLVWRVPMHUQLKHOHNWURQLNLKYROWPHWDUD
6YHOLNRPRVMHWOMLYRX
2QL L]YHGHQL VD YHOLNRP RVMHWOMLYRX NRULVWH VH SUYHQVWYHQR NDR QXOLQGLNDWRUL X PRVQLP L NRPSHQ]DFLMVNLP
spojevima te kao osjetljivi indikatori vrlo niskih napona. Oni izvedeni sa velikim ulaznim otporom upotrebljavaju se
kao voltmetri sa vie mjernihRSVHJDDSUYHQVWYHQR]DPMHUHQMHQDSRQDXHOHNWURQLNLPLVOLQLPVNORSRYLPDJGMH
VHSULNOMXHQMHPYROWPHWUDL]PHXSRMHGQLKWRDNDPMHUQRJNUXJDQHVPLMXSURPMHQLWLSULOLNHXNUXJX
=D L]UDGX YROWPHWDUD VD YHOLNRP RVMHWOMLYRX SRWUHEQR YLHVWXSDQMVNR SRMDDOR NRMH VH RELQR L]YRGL VD
L]PMHQMLYDHP 1MLPD VH PRJX SRVWLL YHH RVMHWOMLYRVWL QHJR WR LPDMX JDOYDQRPHWUL .RG QDMRVMHWOMLYLMLK L]YHGEL
-9
najmanji mjerljivi napon je oko 210 %XGXL GD VX QDSRQL PDOL D SRMDDQMD YHOLND QDMYHD MH SRWHNRD
nHVWDELOQRVWQXOWRNH
Izvedbe sa velikim ulaznim (unutranjim) otporom imaju ulazni otpor od nekoliko desetaka do nekoliko stotina M,
DWRVHSRVWLHNRULWHQMHP)(7WUDQ]LVWRUD=DSRMDDYDQMHVHQDMHHNRULVWHWUDQ]LVWRUVNDSRMDDODPDNVLPDOQH
pogreke 3% -7DNYDSRMDDODPRJXVHEH]SUREOHPDQDSDMDWLVDQHNROLNRJDOYDQVNLKODQDNDDLVWLVHODQFL
mogu koristiti i za napajanje strujnog kruga pri mjerenju otpora.
,=0-(1,1,(/(.7521,.,92/70(75,
,]PMHQLQL HOHNWURQLNL YROWPHWUL VX NRPELQDFLMD SRMDDOD L LQVWUXPHQWD V SRPLQLP VYLWNRP L PDJQHWRP 2G
LVWRVPMHUQLKHOHNWURQLNLKYROWPHWDUDUD]OLNXMXVHMHGLQRSRWRPHWRLPDMXXJUDHQLVSUDYOMD,PDMXYHOLNXXOD]QX
'LRGD
QD
XOD]X
VOXL
NDR
LVSUDYOMD
~
GENERATOR
SIGNALA
,635$9/-$
SIGNALA
DJELILO KOJE
35,/$*2
32-$$/2
8-(
ULAZNI SIGNAL
NA RAZINU ZA
POKAZNIK S
ODZIVOM NA
TJEMENE
VRIJEDNOSTI
32-$$/2
Mogu
mjeriti
signale
frekvencije 1GHz
max
PMHUHQMD
b)
9ROWPHWDUVSUHWYDUDHPLVWRVPMHUQRJVLJQDODXL]PMHQLQL
32-$$/2
PRH
ELWL
VD
ala u
,=0-(1,12
PRETVORNIK
32-$$/2
,=0-(1,12*
SIGNALA U
ISTOSMJERNI
POKAZNIK
od 10Hz do 10MHz
Za napone manje od 1mV
SRGUXMH V) frekvencijsko
VH SRGUXMH VPDQMXMH QD +]
do 100kHz
Vjekoslav Duk
95
5D]YRMGLJLWDOQLKPMHULODSRLQMH
ETALON
NAPONA
ulaz
DIGITALNI
POKAZNIK
AC/DC pretvornik
ETALON
NAPONA
~
~
Hi
AC
Poseban ulaz
RS232
AC
DC
A
D
DC
GPIB
3,6$
D
A
DIGITALNI
POKAZNIK
PLOTER
MJERNI
SUOTPORNIK
Pretvornik otpora u
LVWRVPMHUQXYHOLLQX
Lo
6NORSNH L PHXVREQR VX SRYH]DQH WDNR GD VX LVWRYUHPHQR QD LVWLP SRGUXMLPD $&'&
). Kako bi se
Multimetar postaje omometar kada se u njega ugradi vrlo precizan strujni izvor. Taj izvor tjera struju mjernim
suotpornikom, a digitalnim voltmetrom mjeri se pad napona na otporniku.
Vjekoslav Duk
96
Digitalni multimetri mogu imati odziv na tjemenu, efektivnu ili srednju ispravljenu vrijednost. Pri mjerenju
-u nema oznake RMS ili
TRMS (True RMS) taGD RQ LPD RG]LY QD VUHGQMX LVSUDYOMHQX YULMHGQRVW QDSRQD 9HLQD PXOWLPHWDUD VD
SXOVLUDMXLKQDSRQDLVWUXMDGLJLWDOQLPPXOWLPHWURPWUHEDELWLRSUH]DQ$NRQD'00
R]QDNRP7506PMHULSUDYXHIHNWLYQXYULMHGQRVWVDPRL]PMHQLQHNRPSRQHQWHQDSRQDMHUNRQGHQ]DWRUQD
XOD]X $& SRGUXMD QH SURSXWD LVWRVPMHUQX NRPSRQHQWX -HGLQR PXOWLPHWUL VD R]
PMHUHSUDYXHIHNWLYQXYULMHGQRVWL]PMHQLQLKLSXOVLUDMXLKVWUXMDLQDSRQDNDRDQDORJQDHOHNWURPHKDQLND
PMHULOD V RG]LYRP QD HIHNWLYQX YULMHGQRVW 6WRJD NDGD HOLPR PMHULWL HIHNWLYQX YULMHGQRVW SXOVLUDMXHJ
napona DMM-om koji ima oznaku RMS ili TRMS potrebno je prvo izmjeriti istosmjernu komponentu na
LVWRVPMHUQRP SRGUXMX D ]DWLP SUHNORSNRP RGDEUDWL RGJRYDUDMXH L]PMHQLQR SRGUXMH L L]PMHULWL
HIHNWLYQX YULMHGQRVW L]PMHQLQH NRPSRQHQWH 1D WHPHOMX L]PMHUHQLK YULMHGQRVWL L]UDXQDYD V
e efektivna
YULMHGQRVWSXOVLUDMXHJVLJQDODSUHPDL]UD]X
U = U AC + U DC
2
3UHWYRUQLNRWSRUDXLVWRVPMHUQXYHOLLQXWHPHOMLVHQD8
Rx
RX nepoznatLRWSRUQLNLMXYULMHGQRVWHOLPRPMHULWL
RP promjenjivi otpornik za podeavanje struje I
A
IV
RV
V
R=
U
I
R = R X || RV
RX =
U
U
=
I IV I U
RV
RP
$SVROXWQDVLVWHPDWVNDSRJUHNDRGUHLYDQMDRWSRUD5x
p aps (R X ) = R R X =
R2
RV R
Postotna pogreka:
p% ( R X ) =
R
100%
RV
Vjekoslav Duk
97
2. STRUJNA METODA
Strujnu metodu koristimo za mjerenje velikih otpora. Metoda se zove strujna stoga to se ispravno mjeri struja kroz
otpornik nepoznatog iznosa.
U
RV
V
IV
RA
R=
Rx
IX = IA
U
I
RX =
R = RX + RA
U I X RA U
=
RA
IX
IX
RP
p aps (R X ) = R R X = R A
Postotna pogreka
p% =
RA
100%
R RA
digitalnim multimetrom:
RV RWSRULYRGLD
RX nepoznati otpor
2YDPHWRGDSULPMHQMXMHVHXJODYQRP]DPMHUHQMHRWSRUDYHLK
Hi
RV
+
V
+
RX
spojnihYRGLDLVSRUXHQLKVDLQVWUXPHQWRPL]QRVL. Dvije
stezaljke za mjerenje otpora imaju svi multimetri i oni
QDMMHIWLQLMLDQDMQLHMHSRGUXMH.
Rmjereno = RX + 2 RV
Lo
DMM
2 RV 0.1
RV
pr =
2 RV
RX
Vjekoslav Duk
98
IRI STEZALJKE
0(72'$(7
I1
RV izvora
mjernim
RV
RX
YRGLD
RV
5V
2 RV = 0.1
DMM
I2
RV izvora
RMJERENO = RX
pr =
2 RV
RDMM _ unutarnji
7RQRVW PMHUHQMD RYLVL R WRQRVWL YROWPHWUD L VWUXMQRJ L]YRUD 9LH PMHUQLK SRGUXMD SRVWLH VH SURPMHQom
istosmjerne struje stabilnog strujnog izvora. Kada su struje iznosa 1A, 10A otpori su izravno proporcionalni
PMHUHQRPSDGXQDSRQDQDSULNOMXHQRPRWSRUQLNXQHSR]QDWRJL]QRVD
=1$$-.(',*,7$/1,+08/7,0(7$5$
=QDDMNH GLJLWDOQLK PXOWLPHWDUD QDYRGH VH ]D VYDNX YHOLLQX SRVHEQR ]D LVWRVPMHUQX VWUXMX L]PMHQLQX
LVWRVPMHUQLQDSRQL]PMHQLQL7HPHOMQLP]QDDMNDPDVPDWUDMXVHRQH]DQDSRQMHUMHPMHUHQMHQDSRQDRVQRYD
2. ULAZNA IMPEDANCIJA
Digitalni multimetar
YROWPHWDUVSDMDVHL]PHXWRDNDLMDVHUD]OLNDSRWHQFLMDODHOLPMHULWLLNUR]QMHJDSURWMHH
VWUXMD%LWQRMHVWRJDGDLQVWUXPHQW]ERJVYRJXQXWUDQMHJRWSRUDQHXQRVL]QDDMQXSRJUHNXXPMHUHQMH
1DLVWRVPMHUQRPSRGUXMXXOD]QLRWSRUL]QRVLRG0
do 10G.
1D L]PMHQLQRP SRGUXMX LPSHGDQFLMD MH PDQMD L VDVWRML VH RG GMHODWQRJ RWSRUD 0
%5=,1$2,7$1-$
Vjekoslav Duk
99
%U]LQD RLWDQMD RYLVL R EU]LQL $' SUHWYRUQLND WR MH EURM ]QDPHQDND QD GLJLWDOQRP SRND]QLNX YHL YHD MH
UD]OXLYRVW D $' SUHWYRUQLN VSRULML SD MH L EURM RLWDQMD PDQML 8 YHLQL VOXDMHYD GRYROMQR MH MHGQR RLWDQMH X
VHNXQGLDOLQDMEROMLP$'SUHWYRUQLFLPDPRHVHSRVWLLLGRQHNROLNRVWRWLQDRLWDQMDXVHNXQGL
istan.
35(237(5((1-(
3UHNRUDHQMH PMHUQRJ RSVHJD RELQR QH SUHGVWDYOMD SUREOHP NRG PXOWLPHWDUD VD DXWRPDWVNLP L]ERURP PMHUQRJ
RSVHJD MHU VH SUL SRUDVWX PMHUHQH YHOLLQH DXWRPDWVNL PLMHQMD L PMHUQL RSVHJ 2ELQR MH GRSXWHQR SUHNRUDHQMH
00V.
6. FREKVENCIJSKI OPSEG
8SUDYLOXMHIUHNYHQFLMVNLRSVHJGLJLWDOQLKPXOWLPHWDUDLULQHJRNRGHOHNWURPHKDQLNLKLQVWUXPHQDWD.RGMHIWLQLMLK
PXOWLPHWDUDIUHNYHQFLMVNLVHRSVHJNUHHRG+]GR.K]
7. POTISKIVANJE SMETNJI
vije vrste smetnji i priguenja tih smetnji.
0RHPRUD]OLNRYDWLG
Napon smetnje
~
G
DMM
RT
3HWOMDVHQDOD]LXSROMXL]PMHQLQRJ
Ovakvu smetnju nazivamo serijskom zato to je mjernom signalu u seriju superponiran nekakav signal smetnje. Taj
MHVLJQDOQDMHHIUHNYHQFLMH+]LOLQMH]LQYLHNUDWQLN6HULMVNHVPHWQMHSULJXXMHPR
Vjekoslav Duk
100
3ULJXHQMHVHULMVNHVPHWQMHLVND]XMHVHQDVOMHGHLQDLQ
u generatora _ ulaz
u uma _ ulaz
NMR = 20 log( NMRR) = 20 log
u generatora _ izlaz
u uma _ izlaz
Serijsko je priguenjHYHHRGGHFLEHOD
E6PHWQMD]DMHGQLNRJSRWHQFLMDOD&05
U
CMR = 20 log i
U ZP
Hi
DMM
Ui
Lo
&05 VH NUHH RG GR GHFLEHOD WR MH
YHLWRMHEROMHSULJXHQMHVPHWQML
UZP
8. TJEMENI FAKTOR
Tjemeni faktor navodi se kod digitalnih multimetara koji imaju odziv na efektivnu vrijednost. Maksimalni dozvoljeni
WMHPHQL IDNWRU MH ]DSUDYR SRGDWDN R PDNVLPDOQRP GR]YROMHQRP L]REOLHQMX VLJQDOD NRML VPLMHPR GRYHVWL QD XOD]
LQVWUXPHQWDDGDSRJUHNHEXGXXQXWDUGHILQLUDQLKJUDQLFD7MHPHQLIDNWRUYDDQMHSRGDWDNMHUSRMDDORGLJLWDOQRJ
PXOWLPHWUDXOD]LX]DVLHQMHNRGPDNVLPDOQHDQHNRGHIHNWLYQHYULMHGQRVWLVLJQDOD8NROLNRVLJQDOLPDYHLWMHPHQL
IDNWRURGGR]YROMHQRJWUHEDSULMHLQDGUXJRSRMDDORRGQRVQRQDVOMHGHHYHHPMHUQRSRGUXMH
5$=/8,9267
5D]OXLYRVWMHQDMPDQMDVSR]QDWOMLYDSURPMHQDYULMHGQRVWLPMHUHQHYHOLLQHQDRGUHHQRPPMHUQRPRSVHJX8NROLNR
VHUD]OXLYRVWQDYRGLXRGQRVXQDPMHUQLGRPHWWDGDJRYRULPRRUHODWLYQRMUD]OXLYRVWL
5D]OXLYRVWVHLVND]XMHQDYLHQDLQD
Primjer
Broj bita
8
10
12
16
24
2 =256
10
2 =1024
12
2 =4096
16
2 =65536
24
2 =16777216
Maksimalna pogreka =
1
100%
2n
0.39%
0.10%
0.024%
0.015%
-8
6.010 %
Vjekoslav Duk
101
Kod diJLWDOQLKPXOWLPHWDUDUD]OXLYRVWVHQDMHHLVND]XMHQDVOMHGHLQDLQ
1SU LPDPR SRND]QLN VD ]QDPHQNH 'DNOHPDNVLPDOQLEURMNRMLSRND]QLNPRHSRND]DWLMH$NRPMHULPR
SULPMHULFHQDSRQQDPMHUQRPSRGUXMX9WDGDMHUD]OXLYRVW9DNDGDELPMHULOLQDSRQQDPMHUQRPSRGUXMX
9UD]OXLYRVWELELOD9
7RMHPDNVLPDOQLEURMNRMLSRND]QLNPRHSRND]DWL
1DPMHUQRPSRGUXMX9PDNVLPDOQDYULMHGQRVWQDSRQDNRMLLQVWUXPHQWPRH
SRND]DWLMH9'DNOHPLQLPDOQLUD]PDNL]PHXGYLMHYULMHGQRVWLNRMHPRH
*5$1,1(32*5(.(
3UHPDRSRMQRUPL]DHOHNWULNXLHOHNWURQLNXPMHUQXRSUHPXJUDQLQHVHSRJUHNHPRJXLVND]DWLQDQDLQD
a)
G)]DQD]LYQRSRGUXMH
uporabe
b)
8SRUDEQLPJUDQLQLPSRJUHNDPD]DQD]LYQRSRGUXMHXSRUDEH
G / = 2
G
i 3i
Pr = 95%
u=
G/
2
Gi JUDQLQH SRJUHNH SUL UHIHUHQWQLP XYMHWLPD L YDULMDFLMH SDUFLMDOQH GRGDWQH JUDQLQH SRJUHNH
X]URNRYDQHSRMHGLQLPXWMHFDMQLPYHOLLQDPDLLLQVWUXPHQWRP
c)
6LJXUQLPJUDQLQLPSRJUHNDPD]DQD]LYQRSRGUXMHXSRUDEH
Razina pouzdanosti
G * = Gi
i
Pr = 99%
u=
G*
3
Vjekoslav Duk
102
3UHPD QRUPL ,(& SURL]YRD MH REDYH]DQ QDYHVWL UHIHUHQWQH XYMHWH NRML ]QDDMQR XWMHX QD WRQRVW
.OLPDWVNHYHOLLQHWHPSHUDWXUDYODQRVW]DJULMDYDQMHSRYULQHLQVWUXPHQWDVXQHYLP
(IUHNYHQFLMDL]REOLHQMHVLQXVQRJVLJQDODVPHWQMHYDORYLWRVW
istosmjernog izvora)
6WUDQDSROMDL]UDHQMDHOHNWULQDPDJQHWVNDHOHNWURPDJQHWVNDLRQL]LUDMXD
]UDHQMD
2E]LURPQDWHXWMHFDMQHYHOLLQHSURL]YRDLJUXSLUDMXGLJLWDOQHLQVWUXPHQWHXWU
87-(&$-1$9(/,,1$
GRUPA 1
Temperatura uporabe
+5 C do +40 C
Temperatura transporta
i skladitenja
i grupe:
GRUPA 2
GRUPA 3
-10 C do +55 C
-25 C do +70 C
-40 C do +70 C
5HODWLYQDYODQRVW
Tlak
-40 C do +70 C
-40 C do +70 C
10% do 90% uz
kondenzaciju
5% do 95% uz
kondenzaciju
Brzina vjetra
0m/s do 0.5m/s
0m/s do 0.5m/s
%H]L]UDYQRJ]UDHQMD
%H]L]UDYQRJ]UDHQMD
sunca
sunca
Za uporabu u zatvorenim
prostorima (laboratorijima)
Za uporabu u srednje
tekim uvjetima
6XQHYR]UDHQMH
PDQMHSRJUHNH
,]VYLKQDYHGHQLK]QDDMNL]DNOMXXMHPRGDGLJLWDOQLLQVWUXPHQWLPRJX
,PDMXPRJXQRVWSDPHQMD]DGQMHL]PMHUHQHYULMHGQRVWLLOL]DGQMLK1L]PMHUHQLK
1HNLLPDMXVXHOMH]DNRPXQLNDFLMXVDUDXQDORP1MLKQD]LYDPR
Mjeriti frekvenciju
Mjeriti amplitudu
Mjeriti omjere dvaju signala
Ispitivati ispravnost dioda i tranzistora
vrijednosti
SISTEMSKI
08/7,0(75,7DNDYQDLQNRPXQLFLUDQMDSUXDPRJXQRVWXSUDYOMDQMD
LQVWUXPHQWRPSUHNRUDXQDODNDRLDXWRPDWL]DFLMXPMHUHQMD.RPXQLNDFLMVNR
VXHOMHPRHELWLVHULMVNR56LOLSDUDOHOQR*3,%
Vjekoslav Duk
103
a mogu se
NRULVWLWLLHOHNWURQLNLLQVWUXPHQWL
5D]OLNXMHPRNRPSHQ]DWRUHLPMHUQHPRVWRYH]DLVWRVPMHUQHLL]PMHQLQHVWUXMH
LVWRVPMHUQLLOLL]PMHQLQLRYLVQRRYUVWLVWUXMH
Kod mjerenja kompenzatorima i mjernim mostRYLPD SRVWLX VH YHH WRQRVWL QHJR NRG ELOR NRMHJ DQDORJQRJ
instrumenta.
15.1. KOMPENZATORI
.RPSHQ]DWRULPDVHPMHUHQHSR]QDWLQDSRQLLWRWDNRGDLKVHXVSRUHXMHVDSR]QDWLPSDGRPQDSRQDDVYHVHWR
UDGLSRPRXNOL]QLNDWRMHW]Y327(1&,20(7$56.
I POSTUPAK.)
RP
Kliznik
R1
R
Sklopka S
N
UB
R2
UE
Nepoznati napon
UX
KOMPENZATOR
3RPRQLNUXJ
za napajanje
2.
U E = I P R1
9ULMHGLVOMHGHDMHGQDNRVW
je vrijednost R2.
U X = I P R2
Vjekoslav Duk
U E = I P R1
preoblikujemo u
IP =
104
UE
R1
te to uvrstimo u drugu
jednakost U X = I P R2 .
TaGDGRELYDPRVOMHGHXMHGQDNRVW U X =
UE
R
R2 = 2 U E L]NRMHL]UDXQDYDPRYULMHGQRVWQHSR]QDWRJQDSRQD
R1
R1
7RQRVW PMHUHQMD RYRP PHWRGRP RYLVL VDPR R WRQRVWL HWDORQD QDSRQD 8E L WRQRVWL NOL]QLND RWSRUQLND 5
0MHUQLPRVWRYLPRJXELWLLVWRVPMHUQLLOLL]PMHQLQL,VWRVPMHUQLPPRVWRYLPDPMHULPRVDPRL
NRULVWLPRLVWRVPMHUQHQXOLQGLNDWRUH,]PMHQLQLPPRVWRYLPDPMHULPRLPSHGDQFLMXWR]QDLGDXQMHJRYLPJUDQDPD
RVLPRWSRUDPRJXELWLLVYLWFLLNRQGHQ]DWRULLNRULVWLPRL]PMHQLQHQXOLQGLNDWRUH
1DHOR UDGD LVWRVPMHUQRJ PMHUQRJ PRVWD YLGMHW HPR QD SULPMHUX :KHDWVWRQRYRJ PRVWD 1MLPH VH PRJX PMHULWL
otpori od 0.1 do 10M 1DSDMD VH LVWRVPMHUQLP L]YRURP L VDVWRML VH L] HWLUL JUDQH 8 GYLMH JUDQH QDOD]H VH
otpornici poznatog nepromjenjivog iznosaXWUHRMJUDQLQDOD]LVHSURPMHQMLYLRWSRUQLNGRNVHXHWYUWRMJUDQLQDOD]L
RWSRUQLNQHSR]QDWRJL]QRVDLMXYULMHGQRVWHOLPRL]PMHULWL
B
Otpornik nepoznatog iznosa
I2
R1
0RVWGRYRGLPRXUDYQRWHX
R2
I5
I1
I3
R3
R4
D
RO
I4
UO
'DELPRVWELRXUDYQRWHLQXOLQGLNDWRUPRUDSRND]LYDWLQXOXRGQRVQRVWUXMD
8YMHWLUDYQRWHH
I1 R1 = I3 R3
I 2 R2 = I 4 R4
I1 = I 3
R1 R3
=
R2 R4
R1 =
R2 R3
R4
Vjekoslav Duk
105
I2 = I4
,]QRV QDSRQD EDWHULMH QH XWMHH QD PMHUHQMH 7UHED YRGLWL UDXQD QDSRQ QH EXGH QL SUHYHOLN MHU VH WDGD RWSRUQLFL
SUHJULMDYDMXDQLSUHPDOHQMHUWDGDHVWUXMDELWLSUHPDOHQDSDMXQXOLQGLNDWRUQHHPRLUHJLVWULUDWL
Kao QXOLQGLNDWRU NRG LVWRVPMHUQLK PRVWRYD NRULVWL VH QDMHH JDOYDQRPHWDU DOL PRJX VH NRULVWLWL L GLJLWDOQL
LQVWUXPHQWL =D SRJRQVND PMHUHQMD NRULVWL VH :KHDWVWRQRY PRVW V SRPLQRP NOL]QRP LFRP NRML LPD JUDQLQH
SRJUHNHRGGR=DWRQLMDPMHUHQMDXODERUDWRULMLPDNDRSURPMHQMLYLRWSRUQLNNRULVWLVHRWSRUQLNDGHNDGD
NRMRPVHSRVWLHWRQRVWRG
,=0-(1,1,0-(51,026729,
,]PMHQLQLPRVWQDSDMDVHL]PMHQLQLPL]YRURPLVDVWRMLVHL]HWLULJUDQHNDRLLVWRVPMHUQL5D]OLND
XJUDQDPDLVYLWFLLNRQGHQ]DWRULDQHVDPRRWSRUQLFLWRMHELRVOXDMNRGLVWRVPMHUQLK
Z1
Z2
N
Z3
Z4
~
Z1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3
(R1 + jX 1 )(R4 + jX 4 ) = (R2 + jX 2 )(R3 + jX 3 )
1 + 4 = 2 + 3
Faktor dobrote: Q =
L
R
je u tome to su
Vjekoslav Duk
106
SLIKA 1
0
-1
R2L
/ pod
+1
+1
R2mjereno
R2L
SLIKA 2
R2D
0
-1
+1
R2/
-1
R2D
R2 mjereno =
R2 D + R2 L
2
R2mjereno je najbolja procjena vrijednosti nepoznatog otpornika ako je most nedovoljno osjetljiv.
Nesigurnost procjene iznosi:
u=
R2 D R2 L
2 3
Vjekoslav Duk
107
5MHHQMHSUREOHPDMHVOMHGHH
SLIKA 1
/ pod
-1
+1
2
Rmjereno
/
R1
R2 = R1 + Rmin
/
R2/
SLIKA 2
Rmin
-1
+1
SLIKA 3
Prvo dekadu podeavamo tako da se kazaljka otklanja od SD SUHPD WR MH EOLH PRJXH NUHQXYL RG
QDMPDQMHJRWSRUDSDGRQDMYHHJNRGNRMHJMHND]DOMNDMRXYLMHNL]PHX-L6/,.$2LWDPRRWSRUGHNDGH
/
]DWDMSRORDMND]DOMNHLWRMH51 =DWLPRWSRUGHNDGHSRYHDPR]DQDMPDQMLPRJXLL]QRVRmin), a kazaljka prelazi
/
QXOXL]DX]LPDSRORDML]PHXL6/,.$2LWDPRRWSRUGHNDGH]DWDMSRORaj kazaljke i to je R2 = R1 +Rmin.
,]VOLQRVWLWURNXWDVDVOLNHGRELYDPR
Rmj R1/
Rmin
1 + 2
Rmjereno je najbolja procjena vrijednosti nepoznatog otpornika ako je most preosjetljiv, a iznosi:
Rmjereno = R1/ +
1
1 2
Rmin
Vjekoslav Duk
108
napona od 1V (pa i manje) pa do reda MV, snage od mW pa do stotinjak MW, a frekvencijskog opsega od 0Hz do
10GHz.
2VQRYQLMH]DKWMHYQDPMHUQHL]YRUHVWDELOQRVWQDSRQDLOLVWUXMHDNRGL]PMHQLQLKL]YRUDLVWDELOQRVWIUHNYHQFLMH8]
WRYUORHVWR]DKWMHYDVHGDPMHUQLL]YRULLPDMXPRJXQRVWNRQWLQXLUDQRJSRGHDYDQMDQDSRQD
.RGLVWRVPMHUQLKQDSRQVNLKL]YRUDNRGNRMLKVHQDSRQLVWRVPMHUQLGRELYDLVSUDYOMDQMHPL]PMHQLQRJ]DKWMHYDVHL
to manja valovitost.
.RGL]PMHQLQLKL]YRUD]DKWMHYDVHLPRJXQRVWPLMHQMDQMDIUHNYHQFLMH
PoseEQRPMHVWRSULSDGDLVWRVPMHUQLPQDSRQVNLPL]YRULPDLMLMHQDSRQSR]QDWVYHOLNRPWRQRXLYUHPHQVNLMH
nepromjenjiv. To su etaloni napona.
1HNDGDVHNDRHWDORQLVWRVPMHUQRJQDSRQDLVNOMXLYRNRULVWLR:(6721 RYHWDORQVNLODQDN7RMHNHPLMVNLL]YRULML
QD SUHRSWHUHHQMD 3ULPMHULFH RSWHUHWLPR OL ODQDN VWUXMRP RG P$ VDPR VHNXQGX WUHED PX GYD VDWD GD VH
napona).
=HQHURYDGLRGDMHSROXYRGLNDGLRGDVDNDUDNWHULVWLNRPNDRQDVOLFL
I/ A
UZ
Uul2
Uul1
UZ0
U/V
Radni pravci
I Z1
I Z
IZ2
Vjekoslav Duk
5DGQR MH SRGUXMH ]HQHURYH G
109
RELQRRG9SDGR9
=DQDSRQ]HQHURYHGLRGHELWQDMHVWUPLQDNDUDNWHULVWLNHX]HQHURYRPQHSURSXVQRPSRGUXMXRGQRVQRGLQDPLNL
otpor RZGLRGHNRMLRYLVQRRGLRGLLYHOLLQLVWUXMHPRHL]QRVLWLRGGR.
RZ =
U Z
I Z
6WDELOL]DFLMDVHSRVWLHQDVOMHGHLQDLQ
R
+
Uul
Uizl
Dakle promjenom ulaznog napona izlazni se napon ne mijenja tj. stabilan je.
ZenerRYXGLRGXPRHPRQDGRPMHVWLWLLVWRVPMHUQLPL]YRURPLRWSRUQLNRP
UZO
RZ
S=
dU ul dU izl
:
U ul U izl
Ako se ulazni napon promjeni za 10% izlazni se promjeni za 0.1%. Promjena izlaznog napona vrlo malo ovisi o
-6
temperaturi odnosno manja je od 10 V/K.
Ostali izvori istosmjerne struje
1.
6XKLJDOYDQVNLODQFL
8JUDXMX VH X SULMHQRVQH LQVWUXPHQWH L LPDMX YHOLN XQXWUDQML RWSRU RG
do 20 ovisno o izvedbi i
VWDURVWLODQND7LMHNRPSUDQMHQMDODQNDUDVWHQMHJRYXQXWUDQMLRWSRUDSDGDQDSRQQDVWH]DOMNDPD
2. Akumulatori
$NXPXODWRULVXSULNODGQLML]DSUHFL]QDPMHUHQMDLVWDELOQLMLRGVXKLKODQDND,PDMXPDOLXQXWUDQMLRWSRURG
3.
3ROXYRGLNLLVSUDYOMDL
3ROXYRGLNL LVSUDYOMDL LVSUDYOMDMX L]PMHQLQL QDSRQ X LVWRVPMHUQL .RG QMLK ELWDQ MH SRGDWDN YDORYLWRVW
r=
U AC
koja treba biti to manja, a smanjuje se dodavanjem RC ili LC filtera. Imaju mali unutranji otpor
U DC
SD VWUXMD RSWHUHHQMD PDOR XWMHH QD L]QRV QDSRQD QD VWH]DOMNDPD 1DSRQ GRELYHQ SROXYRGLNLP
LVSUDYOMDLPDVWDELOL]LUDVHSRVHEQLPHOHNWURQLNLPVNORSRYLPD
Vjekoslav Duk
110
4. Izvori i]PMHQLQHVWUXMH
7RMHHOHNWULQDPUHDVLQXVQLYDOQLREOLNIUHNYHQFLMH+]1DSRQVHSRGHDYDUHJXODFLMVNLPRELQLPL
zakretnim) transformatorima.
5.
(OHNWURQLNLL]YRUL
a) Generator funkcije
7R MH ]DSUDYR RVFLODWRU NRG NRMHJ PRHPR ELUDWL YDOQL REOLN
50Hz do 10MHz)
Valni oblici mogu biti: sinusni, pravokutni, pilasti.
b) Signalni generatori
7RVXVLQXVQLJHQHUDWRULVPRJXQRXDPSOLWXGQHIUHNYHQFLMVNHLID]QHPRGXODFLMH
c) Generatori impulsa
To su generatori naponskihLPSXOVDUD]OLLWLKDPSOLWXGDWUDMDQMDLSUHG]QDND
d) Kalibratori
7RVXRVFLODWRULNRMLGDMXQDSRQWRQRSR]QDWHIUHNYHQFLMHI
+]GR0+]LDPSOLWXGH6OXH]D
XPMHUDYDQMHLNDOLEULUDQMHLQVWUXPHQDWD7RQRVWLPMH
Vjekoslav Duk
111
0-(5(1-$87(+1,.,06867$9,0$
SustavMHWYRUHYLQDNRMDXGDQRMRNROLQLGMHOXMHVDPRVWDOQRVDRGUHHQRPVYUKRP
8/$=1(9(/,,1(
,=/$=1(9(/,,1(
SUSTAV
6XVWDYPRHELWL
Prirodan
7HKQLNLSURL]YRGQLSURFHVHOHNWURSULYUHGD
Drutveni
Mjeoviti
MjereQMDXWHKQLNLPVXVWDYLPDVOXH]DQDG]RUVXVWDYDXSUDYOMDQMHLGLMDJQRVWLNX
3RVWRMHGYDQDLQDXSUDYOMDQMDSURFHVRP
0(72'$27925(1(3(7/-(5812
ULAZNA
V(/,,1$
PROCES
IZLAZNA
9(/,,1$
MJERNI
PRETVORNIK
IZVRNI
85(
$-,
POKAZNIK
29-(.
Vjekoslav Duk
112
ULAZNA
IZLAZNA
PROCES
9(/,,1$
9(/,,1$
MJERNI
PRETVORNIK
IZVRNI
85(
$-,
-HGLQLFD
JEDINICA ZA
92
]D
YRHQMH
XVSRUHXMH
(1-(
6YHPMHUQHVLJQDOHSRWUHEQRMHGRYHVWLXMHGDQFHQWUDOQLXUHDM(OHNWULNLPMHUQLVLJQDOLSULNODGQLMLVX]D
GDOMLQX RG PHKDQLNLK SQHXPDWVNLK L KLGUDXOLNLK 6WRJD VH VYH QHHOHNWULQH PMHUQH YHOLLQH SUHWYDUDMX SRPRX
PMHUQLKSUHWYRUQLNDXHOHNWULNH
0MHUHQDYHOLLQD
PRILAGODNIK
POKAZNIK
(PRIJEMNIK)
3ULODJRGQLN PRH
ELWL
SRMDDOR
GMHOLOR LVSUDYOMD
A/D pretvornik
mjerni
instrument,
UDXQDOR
ODPSLFH
za signalizaciju
(OHNWULNL PMHUQL VLJQDO SUHQRVL VH RG SUHWYRUQLND GR SRND]QLND YRGLLPD D PRH L EHLQR HOHNWURPDJQHWVNLP
Vjekoslav Duk
113
35,-(126(/(.75,.,+0-(51,+6,*1$/$
(OHNWULNLPMHUQLVLJQDOLPRJXVHSUHQRVLWL
Analogno
Digitalno
1. ANALOGNO
AnalogQLVLJQDOLPRJXVHSUHQRVLWLLVWRVPMHUQLPL]PMHQLQLPLLPSXOVQLPQDSRQLPDLVWUXMDPD
a) Prijenos analognog signala istosmjernom strujom
,VWRVPMHUQRPVWUXMRPPRJXVHSUHQRVLWLVLJQDOLQDXGDOMHQRVWLGRQHNROLNRNLORPHWDUD3ULMHQHJR]DSRQH
prijenos sYH VH QHHOHNWULQH YHOLLQH PRUDMX SUHWYRULWL X L LVWRVPMHUQX VWUXMX 6WUXMD QH RYLVL R WHUHWX
SULNOMXHQRPQDL]YRUVLJQDODDWHUHWPRHELWLRGGR.
6WUXMDNRMDGROD]LXSULMHPQLNQRUPL]LUDQDMHLQDMHHL]QRVLRGGRP$LOLRGGRP$GRk je napon
od 0 do 10V.
.DNR QH ELVPR RYLVLOL R VDPR MHGQRP SURL]YRDX PMHUQD RSUHPD VH XQLILFLUD QD UDQLMH QDYHGHQH
I / mA
20
16
12
VWRJDWRMHGRORGRIL]LNRJSUHNLGDXPMHUQRMSHWOMLLOLVWRJD
Signal
9H]DXOD]QHLL]OD]QHYHOLLQH]DVWUXMHRGGRP$
I / mA
20
16
12
razlikovaWLVWDQMHNDGDLPDPRIL]LNLSUHNLGXPMHUQRMSHWOMLRG
stanja kada je vrijednost signala jednaka nuli.
4
0
Signal
b) Prijenos DQDORJQRJVLJQDODL]PMHQLQRPVWUXMRP
,]PMHQLQRP VWUXMRP VLJQDO VH PRH SUHQRVLWL QD PDQMH XGDOMHQRVWL GR P SULPMHULFH NRG VHNXQGDUD
strujnog ili naponskog tranVIRUPDWRUD =D SULMHQRV QD YHOLNH XGDOMHQRVWL NRULVWL VH EHLQD UDGLR YH]D SUL
HPX VH UDEL QDMHH IUHNYHQFLMVND PRGXODFLMD MHU MH QDMPDQMH RVMHWOMLYD QD VPHWQMH D L DPSOLWXGQD L
ID]QD3ULIUHNYHQFLMVNRMPRGXODFLMLLPMHUHQDYHOLLQDPLMHQMDIUHNYHQ
ciju.
Vjekoslav Duk
114
mijenja trajanje, fazni pomak, frekvencija ili amplituda. Amplituda opada prijenosom na velike udaljenosti i
zato se ona koristi za prijenos samo na male udaljenosti.
tX1
tX2
t
T1
T2
T
tX
a) Serijski
6HULMVNL SULMHQRV MH SULMHQRV X YUHPHQVNRM GRPHQL ,PSXOVL VH SUHQRVH VDPR MHGQLP YRGLHP 2Q MH
Vjekoslav Duk
115
b) Paralelni prijenos
6YL ELWRYL GLJLWDOQH ULMHL SUHQRVH VH LVWRYUHPHQR .ROLNR VH ELWD SUHQRVL WROLNR LFD PRUD ELWL 7R MH
'LJLWDOQDULMH
=DSULMHQRVXQXWDUUDXQDODRVLPORNDOQLKNRULVWHVHLQRUPL]LUDQHVDELUQLFH
=DSULMHQRVGLJLWDOQLKVLJQDODL]PHXPMHUQLKVXVWDYDLUDXQDODQDMHHVHXSRWUHEOMDYDMX
6YUKDMHQRUPL]DFLMHSULMHQRVDVLJQDODSRVWL]DQMHVSRMLYRVWLXUHDMDUD]OLLWLKSURL]YRDDNRPSDWLELOQRVW
MODEM
PC
RS 232
7(/()216.$05($
MODEM
PC
RS 232
3ULMHQRVVHXELWLYULSRPRXDQDORJQRJVLJQDOD
- analogni signal
# - digitalni signal
Danas se RS 232 korLVWL]DSRYH]LYDQMHUDXQDODVXUHDMHPQDXGDOMHQRVWLGRPHWDUD
=DYHHXGDOMHQRVWLGRPHWDUDNRULVWHVH
GPIB QDMHHNRULWHQPMHUHQMLPDXSUDYOMDQLPUDXQDORPEU]LQDGR.E\WDVSDUDOHOQRVH
SUHQRVLELWQDGLJLWDOQDULMH
Vjekoslav Duk
116
1. AKTIVNI
$NWLYQLPMHUQLSUHWYRUQLFLL]UDYQRSUHWYDUDMXQHHOHNWULQHYHOLLQHXQDSRQ
1DHORUDGD
2. PASIVNI
Pasivni mjeUQL SUHWYRUQLFL SUHWYDUDMX QHHOHNWULQH YHOLLQH X SURPMHQH HOHNWULQLK YHOLLQD RWSRUD NDSDFLWHWD
LQGXNWLYLWHWD=DPMHUHQMHWLKSURPMHQDSRWUHEDQMHSRPRQLL]YRUL]DWRRYHSUHWYRUQLNHQD]LYDPRSDVLYQLP
0MHUQHSUHWYRUQLNHQDMHHJUXSLUDPRVRE]LURPQDYUVWXYHOLLQHNRMXPMHUHSDWDNRPRHPRUD]OLNRYDWL
0MHUQLPSUHWYRUQLFLPDSRPDNDPRHPRPMHULWLSULMHHQLSXWUD]LQXWHNXL
tlak
1.
2WSRUQLNLSUHWYRUQLFLSRPDNDVNOL]QLNRP
1DWLMHORNHUDPLNRJFLOLQGUDQDPRWDQDMHLFDSRNRMRMNOL]LNOL]QLN
Izolator
Kliznik
1DRYDMQDLQSUDYRFUWQLVHSRPDNSUHWYDUDX
promjenu otpora.
R = k l
LFD
7LMHORNHUDPLNRJFLOLQGUD
Vjekoslav Duk
117
TijelRNHUDPLNRJFLOLQGUD
1DRYDMQDLQNXWQLVHSRPDNSUHWYDUDX
LFD
promjenu otpora.
R = k
Kliznik
I1
I2
=k
I2
I1
1DMHHVHNRULVWLLQVWUXPHQWVSRPLQLPPDJQHWRPLOLVSRPLQLPPDJQHWRPLGYD
Vjekoslav Duk
118
a)
,]YHGEDVDSORDVWLPHOHNWURGDPD
X C l
=
XC
l
l
b)
C =
A
l
,]YHGEDVDFLOLQGULQLPHOHNWURGDPD
C = k l
US1
~
US2
USi
Vjekoslav Duk
119
l
(pomak kotve prema dolje)
US1
US2
US1
prema gore
inducirani naponi US1 i US2 VX UD]OLLWL SD LQVWUXPHQW
pokazuje pozitivan napon.
.DGD VH NRWYD QDOD]L X SRORDMX YLH
US2
Vjekoslav Duk
120
0MHUQL SUHWYRUQLFL VLOH VDVWRMH VH RG HODVWLQRJ WLMHOD QD NRMH GMHOXM
HODVWLQRJWLMHOD0MHUQLSUHWYRUQLFLVLOHNRULVWHVHXHOHNWURQLNLPYDJDPD
NAPREZANJE
l
l
= F A = E
ISTEZANJE
F
Na dijagramu vidLPR GD VH GMHORYDQMHP VLOH SRYHDYD QDSUH]DQMH D WLMHOR VH LVWHH 1DV ]DQLPD OLQHDUQL GLR
NDUDNWHULVWLNH X NRMHP WLMHOR LPD HODVWLQD VYRMVWYD RGQRVQR QDNRQ WR VLOD SUHVWDQH GMHORYDWL WLMHOR VH YUDD X
SUYRELWQLSRORDM
GR
YODQRJ L
WODQRJ
naprezanja
x
-
Deformacije se mjere osjetnicima koje nazivamo tenzomjeri UDVWH]QH PMHUQH WUDNH 7HQ]RPMHUL LPDMX LFX RG
RWSRUQLNRJPDWHULMDODNRMDMHSULOMHSOMHQDQDQHNXSORLFXIROLMX
3ORLFDVHQDOLMHSLQDPMHVWRJGMHVHHOLPMHULWLLVWH]DQMHPDWHULMDOD,VWH]DQMHPPDWHULMDODLVWHHVHLSORLFDDWLPH
VH PLMHQMD RWSRU RWSRUQLNRJ PDWHULMDOD 7D VH SURPMHQD RWSRUD SUHWYDUD X QDSRQ SRPRX QHXUDYQRWHHQRJ
mjernog mosta.
Vjekoslav Duk
121
R + R
R + R
R R
U
R R
R R
R + R
R + R R R
U = U
2R
2R
U R
=
U
R
l0
l0
l
1HRSWHUHHQRVWDQMH
R0 =
0 l0
A0
2SWHUHHQRVWDQMH
l = l0 + l = l 0 (1 + ) , =
3URPMHQDRWSRUDLFHXSUYRMVHDSURNVLPDFLML
PRHLVND]DWLMHGQRVWDYQLPL]UD]RP
R
l
=k
= k
R
l0
U
l
=k
= k
U
l
k -IDNWRURVMHWOMLYRVWL]DPHWDOHN
]DSROXYRGLHMHGRSXWDYHL
2YDNYLVHSUHWYRUQLFLVLOHQDMHHXJUDXMXXHOHNWURQLNHYDJH
l
l0
Vjekoslav Duk
122
Termootpornici
Termoparovi
Termistori
Integrirani krugovi
R = R0 1 + A + B 2 + ...
gdje je R otpor materijala pri nekoj temperaturi
8 XHP WHPSHUDWXUQRP RSVHJX
aproksimirati pravcem:
R = R0 (1 + )
gdje je SURVMHQLWHPSHUDWXUQLNRHILFLMHQWRWSRUDLQDYRGLVHXSULUXQLFLPDDGHILQLUDQMDNDRNYRFLMHQWUHODWLYQH
promjene otpRUDLRGJRYDUDMXHSURPMHQHWHPSHUDWXUH
R100 R0
R0 100 0 C 0 0 C
0
3RHWQLRWSRUQHPRUDELWLPMHUHQQDWHPSHUDWXUL &YHQDQHNRMGUXJRMDXWRPVOXDMXYULMHGLL]UD]
R 2 = R 1 [1 + (2 1 )]
gdje je R1 otpor pri temperaturi 1 , a R 2 otpor pri temperaturi 2 . je srednja vrijednost promjene
WHPSHUDWXUHL]PHX i .
1
2
R R 1
= 1 2 = 2
R1 [2 1 ]
0
0
8SULUXQLFLPDse navodi za temperature 0 C i 100 C.
a) Platinski termootpornici
=D L]UDGX WHUPRRWSRUQLND QDMHH VH NRULVWL SODWLQD 3W100 X REOLNX LDQH VSLUDOH LOL WDQNRJ ILOPD QDQHVHQRJ QD
izolacijski materijal (npr. keramiku). Platinskim se termootpornicima mogu mjeriti temperature u rasponu od -200 C
0
do + 850 C. Otpor i temperaturni koeficijent su normizirani:
otpor je 100 na 00C
0,100 0 C =
138.5 100
= 0.00385 K 1
100[100 0]
Vrijednosti konstanti A i B u izrazu koji vrijedi pri irokom temperaturnom opsegu iznose:
-3 0 -1
A = 3.908 0210 C
-7 0 -2
A = -5.80210 C
3ODWLQVNL VX WHUPRRWSRUQLFL VYUVWDQL X GYD UD]UHGD WRQRVWL $ L % *UDQLQH SRJUHNH LVND]DQH VX VOMHGHLP
izrazima:
]DUD]UHGWRQRVWL$
]DUD]UHGWRQRVWL%
(
)
(0.30 + 0.005 / C )
0.15 + 0.002 / 0 C 0C
0
Vjekoslav Duk
123
Primjerice platinski termootpornici razrHGD WRQRVWL $ RG (pri 0 C)ne smiju pri 100 C odstupati vie od
0.13 RGWDEOLQHYULMHGQRVWLWRRGJRYDUDQDMYHHPGRSXWHQRPRGVWXSDQMXRG 0.350 C .
0
R1 TCu + 1
=
R2 TCu + 2
0
2 .
R/
R2
R1
T = -235 C
(za bakar)
/0 C
Otpor termootpornika mjeri se raznim mjerilima otpora ( mjernim mostovima, kvocijentnim instrumentima, digitalnim
omometrima) koji su kalibrirani tako da izravno pokazuju temperature. Treba paziti da struje pri mjerenju otpora
budu GRYROMQR PDOHQH X SUDYLOX QH YHH RG P$ GD QH ]DJULMDYDMX WHUPRRWSRUQLN 9UOR HVWR VH RWSRU PMHUL
GLJLWDOQLPRPRPHWURPLWRPHWRGRPGYLMHVWH]DOMNHLOLPHWRGRPHWLULVWH]DOMNHPHWRGHVXREMDQMHQHXSRJODYOMX
14.2. Mjerenje otpora digitalnim multimetrom). Ukupna mjerna nesigurnost mjerenja temperature termootpornicima
VDVWRML VH RG QHVLJXUQRVWL RWSRUD WHUPRRWSRUQLND L QHVLJXUQRVWL PMHUQRJ LQVWUXPHQWD D NRG GYRLQRJ VSRMD L RG
QHVLJXUQRVWL]ERJRWSRUDVSRMQLKLFDLNRQWDNDWDWHSURPMHQHRWSRUDVSRMQLKLFDRYLVQRRWHPSHUDWXUL
2. Termistori
7HUPLVWRUL VX SROXYRGLL 2QL LPDMX YHL RWSRU N
NRHILFLMHQW RWSRUD RNR SXWD YHL RG RG WHPSHUDWXUQRJ NRHILFLMHQWD PHWDOD L]UD]LWR QHOLQHDU
PDOHQHYUHPHQVNHNRQVWDQWH2YLVQRVWRWSRUDWHUPLVWRUDRWHPSHUDWXULPRHVHRSLVDWLHNVSRQHQFLMDOQLPL]UD]RP
R = R20 e
B
T
&%MHNRQVWDQWDL7MHWHUPRGLQDPLNDWHPSHUDWXUDXNHOY
inima.
Vjekoslav Duk
124
Otpor termistora smanjuje se povienjem temperature. Mogu mjeriti temperature do 300 &DOLRELQRVHkoriste za
0
temperature do 150 &,PDMXYHXUD]OXLYRVWRGWHUPRRWSRUQLND1MLPDVHXXVNRPWHPSHUDWXUQRPSRGUXMXPRJX
SRVWLLYHOLNHWRQRVWLDOLVHVYDNLWHUPLVWRUPRUDSRVHEQRXJDDWLSDVXVWRJDPDQMHSULNODGQL]DLURNXSULPMHQX
R/
R = R20 e
B
T
/0 C
transformatora.
R/
8RYRPGMHOXNDUDNWHULVWLNDMHSULEOLQR
100 C
/0 C
7RMHSULEOLQDWHPSHUDWXUD
, a ovisi o vrsti
PDWHULMDODRGNRMHJDMHRGNRMHJMHL]UDHQ
termistor.
Vjekoslav Duk
125
3. Termoparovi
Termoparovi su pretvornici koji pretvaraju razliku temperature u razliku elektromotornih sila, tzv. termonapon.
7HUPRSDURYL LOL WHUPRHOHPHQWL VX VDVWDYOMHQL RG GYDMX UD]OLLWLK PDWHULMDOD $ L % LMD VX VSRMLWD QD UD]OLLWLP
temperaturama. Pretvorba se temelji na tzv. Seebeck-RYRP HIHNWX QD VSRMHYLPD UD]OLLWLK PDWHULMDOD QDVWDMX
HOHNWURPRWRUQH VLOH ]ERJ UD]OLLWLK WHPSHUDWXUQR RYLVQLK UD]LQD HQHUJHWVNLK EDULMHUD QD NRMH QDLOD]H VORERGQL
HOHNWULQLQDERMLDNRVXREDQDLVWRMWHPSHUDWXULHOHNWURPRWRUQHVHVLOHPHXVREQRSRQLWDYDMX
2
1
Cu
Cu
+
E
-
,]RWHUPDOQLEORNRVLJXUDYDGDVXWHGYLMHWRNH
na istoj temperaturi
2 )
E = f (1 2 )
Pri mjerenju termonapona digitalnim multimetrom nastaju problemi. Na slici vidimo da imamo zapravo tri
PHXVREQRUD]OLLWHWHPSHUDWXUH
1 = 2 = 3 7RMHWDNR]DWRWRRVLPVSRMDL]PHXPDWHULMDOD$L%SRVWRMHMR
LVSRMHYLL]PHX$L&XWH%L&XLQDUD]OLLWLPVXWHPSHUDWXUDPDSDLPDPRGYDWHUPRSDUD=DWRPXOWLPHWDUQH
PMHULQDSRQNRMLPLHOLPRYHQHNLGUXJL
Cu
3
B
1
B
DMM
Cu
2
3
Cu
EAB =f( 1 , 2 , 3 )
Cu
Tu nije napon EAB koji nas
zanima nego neki drugi.
Vjekoslav Duk
126
6WRJDNDGDLVSUDYQRHOLPRPMHULWLWHUPRQDSRQL]UDYQRVDPXOWLPHWURPPRUDPRGHILQLUDWLUH
ferentnu temperaturu.
2
A
Cu
+
DVM
Cu
Y
E XY = f (1 r ) = f (1 )
r = 0 0 C
1 i r = 0 0 C MHUVHWHUPRQDSRQLXWRNama X i Y
DTM
A
DVM
Cu
+
U mj
Cu
U ref
r
Rt
To je osjetnik koji
mjeri temperaturu
R
U
L]RWHUPLNRJEORND
U mj + U ref = U 1
= f 1 (U 1 )
8 SUDNVL VH ]D WHUPRSDURYH UDEL RJUDQLHQ EURM NRPELQDFLMD UD]OLLWLK PHWDOD L QMLKRYLK OHJXUD 'D EL QMLKRYD
SULPMHQDELODODNDNDUDNWHULVWLNHVXWHUPRSDURYDQRUPL]LUDQHLQDYRGHVHXWDEOLFDPDPHXQDURGQH
30
20
10
200
400
600
/0 C
norme.
Vjekoslav Duk
127
1DMHHVHUDEHWHUPRSDURYL
Materijal koji se u nazivu termoparova navodi prvi ima pozitivan potencijal u odnosu na drugi. Mjerni spoj
0
tHUPRSDURYD VH RVWYDUXMH ]DYDULYDQMHP RED PHWDOD LOL DNR MH QDPLMHQMHQ PMHUHQMX QLLK WHPSHUDWXUD GR C)
0
PRH VH WYUGR ]DOHPLWL RGQRVQR PHNR ]DOHPLWL ]D WHPSHUDWXUH GR & 7HUPRSDURYL VH RELQR VWDYOMDMX X
Vjekoslav Duk
128
automatizirati. Za automatizirana mjerenja prikladniji su digitalni mjerni instrumenti od analognih jer se mogu
jednostavno uklopiti u sustave (regulacijske petlje). Primjenom automatiziranih mjernih sustava tedi se novac i
YULMHPHDSRYHDYDVHNYDOLWHWDPMHUHQMD
8GDQDQMHYULMHPHLPMHUHQMDXODERUDWRULMLPDVYHVHYLHUDGHDXWRPDWL]LUDQRLWRQDMHH
.DGDMHSRWUHEQDRSVHQDPDWHPDWLNDREDGDUH]XOWDWD
3UYL XUHDM UD]YLMHQ QDNRQ GLJLWDOQRJ YROWPHWUD MH XUHDM ]D VDNXSOMDQMH L ]DSLVLYDQMH SRGDWDND W]Y
data logger.
7DNYL VX VH XUHDML SULPMHQMLYDOL WDPR JGMH MH SRVWRMDOD SRWUHED ]D LVWRYUHPHQR PMHUHQMH YLH UD]OLLWLK YHOLLQD
RGQRVQRSUDHQMHWLKYHOLLQDWLMHNRPGXHJYUHPHQVNRJLQWHUYDOD
Mjerni pretvornik
GENERATOR
TAKTA
PROCESOR
~
3,6$
DVM
~
GPIB
68(/-(
..
POKAZNIK
KANALA
PC
MUX
*3%VXHOMHRPRJXXMHSRYH]LYDQMHVDUDXQDORP
'DWDORJJHUPRHUDGLWLVDPRVWDOQRLOLPRHUDGLWL]DMHGQRVDUDXQDORP.DGDUDGLVDUDXQDORPWDGDUDXQDORLOL
XSUDYOMDNRPSOHWQLPUDGRPGDWDORJJHUDLOLVDPRX]LPDSRGDWNH1DGDWDORJJHUXPRHPRLVSURJUDPLUDWLLQWHUYDO
]DGUDYDQMD VNORSNH QD RGUHHQRP NDQDOX PRJX VH SRGHVLWL JUDQLQH YULMHGQRVWL XOD]QLK YHOLLQD NDGD VX
Vjekoslav Duk
0-(51,6867$9,92
129
(1,5$81$/20
0MHUQL VXVWDYL YRHQL UDXQDORP QDVWDOL VX QDNRQ GDWD ORJJHUD 1DMMHGQRVWDYQLML PMHUQL VXVWDY YRHQ UDXQDORP
VDVWRMLVHRGMHGQRJVLVWHPVNRJPMHUQRJLQVWUXPHQWDLUDXQDODNRMLVXSRYH]DQLSUHNRNRPXQLNDFLMVNRJVXVWDYD
instrumenta.
SISTEMSKI
MJERNI
INSTRUMENT
PC
RS 232
SISTEMSKI
MJERNI
INSTRUMENT
SISTEMSKI
MJERNI
INSTRUMENT
PC
RS 232
RS 232
5DXQDORLVLVWHPVNLPMHUQLLQVWUXPHQWPRUDMXLPDWLLVWRNRPXQLNDFLMVNRVXHOMH8]VHULMVNLSULMHQRVYUORVHHVWRX
VORHQLMLPPMHUQLPVXVWDYLPDNRULVWLLSDUDOHOQLSULMHQRVSUHNR*3,%VXHOMD
GPIB sabirnica
PC
'XOMLQD
NDEHOD
LQVWUXPHQWD
SISTEMSKI
MJERNI
INSTRUMENT 1
L]PHX
UDXQDOD
RGQRVQR
L
L]PHX
VLVWHPVNRJ
VLVWHPVNRJ
PMHUQRJ
PMHUQRJ
LQVWUXPHQWDLLPRHELWLPGRPDNVLPDOQRPGRN
XNXSQD GXOMLQD L]PHX UDXQDOD L QDMXGDOMHQLMHJ VLVWHPVNRJ
PMHUQRJLQVWUXPHQWDPRHELWLPDNVLPDOQRP
0DNVLPDOQR
PRHPR
SULNOMXLWL
VLVWHPVNLK
PMHUQLK
SISTEMSKI
MJERNI
INSTRUMENT 2
SISTEMSKI
MJERNI
INSTRUMENT 3
*3,%VDELUQLFDLPDYRGLDRGHJD
YRGLD]DSULMHQRVVLJQDOD
YRGLDNRMLVHVSDMDMXQDPDVXNDNRELRWNODQMDOLVPHWQMH
Vjekoslav Duk
130
2GYRGLDNRMLSUHQRVHVLJQDOHLPDPR
VOXL]DSULMHQRVSRGDWDND
3UL SULMHQRVX SRGDWDND RELQR VH UDEL $6&,, NRG 3RPRX RGUHHQLK QDUHGEL NRMH VH GDMX SXWHP WLSNRYQLFH
RGQRVQRSXWHPSURJUDPDPRJXVHSRGHVLWLUD]OLLWLSDUDPHWULQDLQVWUXPHQWXNDR
npr.
PMHUQRSRGUXMH
YUVWDPMHUHQHYHOLLQH
interval mjerenja
broj digita za iskazivanje mjernog rezultata
3URJUDPL]DDXWRPDWVNDPMHUHQMDQDMHHVHSLXX%$6,&
paketima su:
HVWR MH SRWUHEQR PMHULWL SXQR UD]OLLWLK VLJQDOD D X WRP EL VOX
LQVWUXPHQWLPDELRSUHVNXS6WRJDVHUDEHLQVWUXPHQWLNRMLLPDMXVDPRQDMYDQLMHGLMHORYHRGQRVQRWRVXPRGXOLNRML
QHPDMXYODVWLWLSRND]QLNQLWLPMHUQXSORXVDNRPDQGDPD]DSRGHDYDQMHYHVYHWHIXQNFLMHSUHX]LPDUDXQDOR
0MHUQHNDUWLFHRQHVHXJUDXMXGLUHNWQRXNXLWHUDXQDODXVORW
Modularni instrumenti
3UHPDQDLQXSULNXSOMDQMDSRGDWDNDUD]OLNXMHPRPRGXOH]DVHULMVNRSULNXSOMDQMH]DLVWRYUHPHQRX]RUNRYDQMHL]D
Sklop za uzorkovanje i
%,5$
PREKLOPKA
(/(.7521,.$
NUDWNRWUDMQRSDPHQMH
PC
D
MODUL
Vjekoslav Duk
131
%,5$
.RGRYDNYRJVHSUHWYRUQLNDRLWDYD
PREKLOPKA
(/(.7521,.$
PC
D
Ovakvi
su
komplicirani.
moduli
skupi
MODUL
3. Moduli za paralelno prikupljanje podataka podataka
A
D
A
D
MEMORIJA
MEMORIJA
PC
ELUDDSRYHDQDMHEU]LQDPMHUHQMD
D
L
WRQRVW
MHU
ELUD
XQRVL
A
D
MODUL
MEMORIJA
ali i najskuplji.
Vjekoslav Duk
132
2'/8,9$1-(1$7(0(/-8&-(/29,72*0-(512*
REZULTATA
0MHUHQMH MH HNVSHULPHQWDOQL SURFHV NRMLP GR]QDMHPR WRQX EURMDQX YULMHGQRVW PMHUHQH YHOLLQH RGQRVQR
proizvodimo mjerni rezultat. Mjerenjem doznajemo svojstva tijela, tvari ili pojava.
&MHORYLWPMHUQLUH]XOWDWMH]DSUDYRUDVSRQYULMHGQRVWLNRMLMHRGUHHQVD
,]PMHUHQRPYULMHGQRXQDMEROMDSURFMHQDYULMHGQRVWLPMHUHQHYHOLLQH
MjerQRPQHVLJXUQRX
Mjernom jedinicom
,VSLWLYDQMHP XWYUXMHPR GD OL REMHNW LVSLWLYDQMD ]DGRYROMDYD VSHFLILFLUDQD LOL XJRYRUHQD VYRMVWYD 3UL LVSLWLYDQMX
XVSRUHXMHPR PMHUQL UH]XOWDW V YULMHGQRX NRMD MH XQDSULMHG GHILQLUDQD L ]RYHPR MX JUDQLQD LOL NULWLQD
vrijednost.
Ispitivanje se sastoji od dva koraka:
Mjerenje
2GOXLYDQMH
5H]XOWDWLVSLWLYDQMDMH]DNOMXDNLOLRGOXNDGDUH]XOWDWLOL]DGRYROMDYDLOLQH]DGRYROMDYD
3UHWSRVWDYLPR GD VPR V QHNLP SURL]YRDHP XJRYRULOL NXSQMX QHNRJ PDWHULMDOD 8QDSULMH
d smo dogovorili i
materijal]DGRYROMDYDWHGDMHPMHUHQDYULMHGQRVWPDQMDRGNULWLQH6DGDPLWRPRUDPRSURYMHULWLNDNRELELOLVLJXUQL
GDQDVSURL]YRDQHHSUHYDULWL
3UHPD WUDGLFLRQDOQRP QDLQX SRVWXSLOL EL YUOR MHGQRVWDYQR 'HILQLUDOL EL QD EURMHYQRP SUDYFX NULWLQX YULMHGQR
st i
WDNRJDSRGLMHOLOLQDGYDGLMHOD$NRMHXJRYRUHQRGDMH0.WDGDELVYHYULMHGQRVWLPDQMHRGNULWLQH]DGRYROMDYDOH
DDNRMHXJRYRUHQRGDMH0!.WDGDELVYHYULMHGQRVWLYHHRGNULWLQH]DGRYROMDYDOH
a)
7UDGLFLRQDOQLQDLQRGOXLYDQMD]D0.
ZADOVOLJAVA
NE ZADOVOLJAVA
{K }
b)
7UDGLFLRQDOQLQDLQRGOXLYDQMD]D0!.
NE ZADOVOLJAVA
ZADOVOLJAVA
{K }
7DNDYWUDGLFLRQDOQLQDLQRGOXLYDQMDELRELVDYUHQNDGDELL]PMHUHQD
0HXWLP QDPD SUDYD YULMHGQRVW PMHUHQH YHOLLQH UHGRYLWR QLMH SR]QDWD L QH PRH VH GR]QDWL PMHUHQMHP 6WRJD
PMHUQL UH]XOWDW QLNDGDQLMHVDPRMHGQDYULMHGQRVWYHUDVSRQYULMHGQRVWLRGUHHQPMHUQRPQHVLJXUQRXD
NRMHJRHNXMHPRGDVHQDOD]LSUDYDYULMHGQRVWPMHUHQHYHOLLQH
unutar
Vjekoslav Duk
133
$NR SRJOHGDPR L VWDWLVWLNL YLGMHWL HPR GD JRWRYR QHPD YMHURMDWQRVWL GD MH SUDYD YULMHGQRVW PMHUHQH YHOLLQH
MHGQDNDNULWLQRMYULMHGQRVWLMHUXVOXDMHYDMHPMHUHQDYULMHGQRVWPDQMDRGNULWLQHDXVOXDMHYDMHYHD
f [M/[M]]
{K }
M/[M]
1D WHPHOMX WLK VSR]QDMD ]DNOMXXMHPR GD WUHED L]EMHJDYDWL WUDGLFLRQDOQL QDLQ RGOXLYDQMD L RGOXLYDWL QD WHPHOMX
$NRMDUDVSRQYULMHGQRVWLPMHUHQHYHOLLQHRGUHHQPMHUQRPQHVLJXUQRXNRPSOHWQRXQXWDUSRGUXMDXQXWDUNRMHJ
]DGRYROMDYDWDGDMHRGOXLYDQMH
a)
$NRMHUDVSRQYULMHGQRVWLNRPSOHWQRXQXWDU]DGRYROMDYDMXHJSRGUXMD]DXQDSULMHGGRJRYRUHQR0.
{K}
b)
$NRMHUDVSRQYULMHGQRVWLNRPSOHWQRXQXWDU]DGRYROMDYDMXHJSRGUXMD]DXQDSULMHGGRJRYRUHQR0!.
{K}
3UREOHPLQDVWDMXDNRUDVSRQYULMHGQRVWLPMHUHQHYHOLLQHREXKYDDLNULWLQXYULMHGQRVW
Rizik kupca
M-u
{K} M+u
'DNOH SUDYD YULMHGQRVW PMHUHQH YHOLLQH QDOD]L VH QHJGMH X LQWHUYDOX L]PHX 0
GRJRYRUHQR 0. WDGD H ]D NXSFD ELWL ]DGRYROMDYDMXH VYH RQH YULMHGQRVWL X LQWHUYDOXL]PHX0 XL.0HXWLP
SUHRVWDMX YULMHGQRVWL X LQWHUYDOX L]PHX . L 0X 7DM VH LQWHUYDO QD]LYD UL]LN NXSFD MHU DNR VH SUDYD YULMHGQRVW
PMHUHQHYHOLLQDQDOD]LQHJGMHXQXWDUWRJLQWHUYDODNXSFXHELWLLVSRUXHQPDWHULMDONRMLQH]DGRYROMDYDXQDSULMHG
GHILQLUDQHVSHFLILNDFLMHRGQRVQRSRVWRMLPRJXQRVWGDNXSDFSULKYDWLQHLVSUDYDQSURL]YRG
Vjekoslav Duk
0RHVHGRJRGLWLDNRMHXQDSULMHGGRJRYRUHQR0.GDPMHUHQDYHOLLQDQH]DG
134
PRJXQRVWGDLVSRUXHQLPDWHULMDO]DGRYROMDYDLWRRQGDDNRMHSUDYDYULMHGQRVWPMHUHQHYHOLLQHXQXWDULQWHUYDOD
M-XL.7RVHQD]LYDUL]LNRPSURL]YRDDRGQRVQRUL]LNRPGDLVSUDYDQSURL]YRGEXGHYUDHQ
Rizik pURL]YRDD
M-u
{K}
M+u
ISTINA
DOBAR
LO
35,+9$(1
ODBIJEN
ODLUKA
-UL]LNSURL]YRDDRGELMHQMHGREDUSURL]YRGYMHURMDWQRVWSRJUHNHWLSD,
-UD]LQDSRX]GDQRVWLSULKYDDQMHGREULKSURL]YRGD
-UL]LNNXSFDYMHURMDWQRVWGDMHSULKYDHQORSURL]YRGYMHURMDWQRVWSRJUHNHWLSD,,
U takvim sluDMHYLPDNDGDLQWHUYDOYULMHGQRVWLPMHUHQHYHOLLQHRGUHHQPMHUQRPQHVLJXUQRXREXKYDDNULWLQX
YULMHGQRVW JRYRULPR R QHRGUHHQRP VOXDMX 7DGD QDP VWDWLVWLND RPRJXXMH GRQRHQMH UD]ERULWLK PMHUOMLYLK L
objektivnih odluka.
Odluku smatramo razboritom kDGDSURFMHQMXMHPRGDGRJDDMYUORPDOHYMHURMDWQRVWLQLMHUH]XOWDWVOXDMDYHQHNRJ
uzroka.
Odluku smatramo objektivnom kada ona ne ovisi o osobi koja ju donosi.
2GOXNXVPDWUDPRPMHUOMLYRPRQGDNDGDVHPRHSURFLMHQLWLYMHURMDWQRVWSRJUHQHRGOXNH
RasiSDQMHRNRSUDYHYULMHGQRVWLPMHUHQHYHOLLQHPRHVHDSURNVLPLUDWLQRUPDOQRPUD]GLRERP
z=
Vjekoslav Duk
7RPVHWUDQVIRUPDFLMRPQRUPL]LUDUD]OLNDL]PHXSUDYHLL]
135
mjerene vrijednosti
-M
0RJXHSUDYHYULMHGQRVWL
9ULMHGQRVWNRMRPUDVSRODHPR
M = z
M = z
5D]GLREDMHVLPHWULQDSDVXSRYULQDLVSRGNULYXOMHVLPHWULQH
z/ =
M
= z
f(z) = f(-z)
+
f ( z )dz = 1
P(z)
Q/2
-z
-3
-2
Q/2
-1
VOMHGHRPWDEOLFRP
Raspon z
0.67
1.00
1.64
1.96
2.00
2.58
3.00
4.00
Vjerojatnost P(z)
50%
68.3%
90.0%
95.0%
95.4%
99.0%
99.7%
99.99%
Vjekoslav Duk
z=
KM
u
136
Mjerna nesigurnost
WRMH]YHLPDQMDMHYMHURMDWQRVWSRJUHQHRGOXNHDPDQMLMHLUL]LNSRJUHQRJRGOXLYDQMD
.DGD VH V SURL]YRHHP XJRYDUD PDWHULMDO XQDSULMHG VH RGDELUH YLVLQD UL]LND GDNOH SULMH LVSLWLYDQMD 8 SUDNVL MH
XRELDMHQRGDVHRGDEHUHUL]LNRG
YULMHGQRVWXNXSDQMHUL]LNMHULPDPRVREMHVWUDQHNULYXOMHDOLPLUDXQDPRVDPR]DGDNOHVDPR]DMHGQX
stranu)
=QDLJOHGDPRXWDEOLFLLDNRHOLPRLPDWLUL]LNDWDGDMHWR
Tada je z= 1.64.
8NROLNR VH X RE]LU X]LPD L PMHUQD QHVLJXUQRVW ]DMHGQR VD SULKYDHQLP UL]LNRP WDGD GROD]L GR NRPSOLNDFLMD
8QLYHU]DOQRSUDYLORRGOXLYDQMDNDGDVHX]LPDPMHUQDQHVLJXUQRVWMHVOMHGHHRYDVOLNDYULMHGL]D0.
u/[M]
NeoGUHHQRSRGUXMH
u1
Zadovoljavaju
Ne zadovoljavaju
u2
{M1} {M2}
M/[M]
{K}
U ovom primjeru povukli smo pravac mjernog rezultata M1 i M2 te pravce mjernih nesigurnosti u1 i u2. Rezultat M1 s
ne zadovoljava dok VDPMHUQRPQHVLJXUQRXX2 zadovoljava.
PMHUQRPQHVLJXUQRX81
SULDRNUHH]D
2 u z
6YH GR VDGD UHHQR YULMHGLOR MH X] XYMHW 0. =D 0!. NRPSOHWQD VH
Ponekad je dobro odabrati proirenu mjernu nesigurnost . Cjelovit mjerni rezultat iskazan proirenom mjernom
QHVLJXUQRX
M = M i U [M ]
2
U = k u
2
,NRGPMHUQRJUH]XOWDWDLVND]DQRJVSURLUHQRPPMHUQRPQHVLJXUQRXLVWRMHNDRLNRGUH]XOWDWDVDVWDQGDUGQRP
PMHUQRPQHVLJXUQRXGHILQLUDQRSRGUXMHXQXWDUNRMHJUH]XOWDW]
{M1}
Ovaj rezultat zadovoljava
{K}
{M2}
Vjekoslav Duk
137
3RVWRMLQHRGUHHQLVOXDMNDGDPMHUQLUH]XOWDWREXKYDDNULWLQXYULMHGQRVWLWDGDQHHPRGRQLMHWLGREUXRGOXNXQD
{M3} {K}
{K} {M4}
YULMHGQRVWL3ULPMHULFHXQDSULMHGMHRGUHHQRGDMH0
{M5} {K}
{K} {M6}
Primjer
3ULOLNRPXOD]QHNRQWUROHEDNUHQHLFHWUHEDRGOXLWLGDOLSRLOMND]DGRYROMDYDLOLQHLGDOLVHLFDPRHNRULVWLWLLOLMX
. Osim toga
ugovoren je rizik kupca od 5%. Na ulaznoj kontroli napravljeno je vie mjerenja i ustanovljeno je da je vodljivost
2
LVSRUXHQHLFe 57.30 0.29 Sm/mm .
2
M=57.30 Sm/mm
2
u= 0.29 Sm/mm
2
K=58.00 Sm/mm
WUHED YUDWLWL SURL]YRDX 3UHPD XJRYRUX SURL]YRD MDPL GD MH YRGOMLYRVW YHD RG 6PPP
z=
K M 58.00 57.30
=
= 2.41
u
0.29
vjerojatnost je 0.8%
0MHUHQDYULMHGQRVWPDQMDMHRGNULWLQH
2YDM SURUDXQ PRJDR VH MH QDSUDYLWL L GUXJDLMH WDNR GD VH FMHORYLW PMHUQL UH]XOWDW LVNDH
QHVLJXUQRXNRHILFLMHQWSURLUHQMDN
s proirenom mjernom
DPMHUQLUH]XOWDWL]JOHGDRELRYDNR
1LNULWLQDYULMHGQRVW
QLMHREXKYDHQDUDVSRQRP'DNOHRYDLFDGHILQLWLYQRQH]DGRYROMDYDXQDSULMHGGRJRYRUHQXYRGOMLYRVW
1DRYDMVHQDLQGRQRVHRGOXNHNDGDMHSR]QDWDPMHUQDQHVLJXUQRVWLNDGDMHEURMVWXSQMHYDVORERGHYHL
od 29. Kada je broj stupnjeva slobode manji od 29 umjesto normirane normalne razdiobe koristimo
studentovu razdiobu.
Vjekoslav Duk
138
8SUDNVLMHYUORHVWRSRWUHEQRXWYUGLWLGDOLVHGYLMHYHOLLQHPHXVREQRUD]OLNXMXLOLQHVWLPVHHVWRVXVUHHPRX
SURL]YRGQMLNDGDMHSRWUHEQRSURYMHULWLXLQDNQHNHLQRYDFLMHLOLNDGDVHSURYMHUDYDNRMLMHRGGYDPDWHULMDODEROML]D
QHNX VYUKX 7DGD VH RGOXNH GRQRVH QD WHPHOMX GYD FMHORYLWD PMHUQD UH]XOWDWD SUL HPX MH SRWUHEQR L]PMHUL
ti
VYRMVWYD RED PDWHULMDOD 5DQLMH VX VH RGOXNH X RYDNYLP VOXDMHYLPD GRQRVLOH QD WHPHOMX XVSRUHGEH PMHUQRJ
UH]XOWDWDEH]PMHUQHQHVLJXUQRVWLVDNULWLQRPYULMHGQRVWL
'DQDVVHRGOXNDGRQRVLWDNRGDVHLVSLWXMXVOMHGHH
'DOLMHYULMHGQRVWYHOLLQH$1
NDGDXQDSULMHGRHNXMHPRGDMHYULMHGQRVWYHOLLQH$1YHDRG$2
3RVWXSDNGRODHQMDGRRGJRYRUDQDSUYRSLWDQMHMHVOMHGHL
5DXQDPR
UD]OLNX
u = u A1 A2 = u A21 + u 2A2
R
SUHWSRVWDYNXL]PMHUHQDUD]OLNDGUXJDLMDRGQXOHRGEDFXMHPRSUHWSRVWDYNXGDMH$1
z=
Za pozitivan (>0) i za z > z
u A1 A2
, z=
K
, z > z
u
2
> A2.
WYUGLPRGDVXGYLMHXVSRUHLYDQHYHOLLQHUD]OLLWHRGQRVQRGDMH$1
3RVWXSDNGRODHQMDGRRGJRYRUDQDGUXJRSLWDQMHMHVOMHGHL
.DGD QHPDPR LQIRUPDFLMD R YULMHGQRVWLPD YHOLLQD WDGD YULMHGQRVW MHGQH YHOLLQH $1 PRH ELWL YHD PDQMD LOL
. Sada ne uzimamo z
uzimamo z , dakle obostranu vjerojatnost (1.96 8 XPMHUDYDOLWLPD VH QH NRULVWL YH VH ]D LVND]LYDQMH
FMHORYLWLK PMHUQLK UH]XOWDWD V SURLUHQRP PMHUQRP QHVLJXUQRX NRULVWL IDNWRU SURLUHQMD N
M = {M 2 u}[M ]
8 WRM VH QRUPL SULPMHQMXMH PDQMH ULJRUR]QD PDWHPDWLND VWDWLVWLND WDNR GD VH ]D VYH YULMHGQRVWL NRULVWL GYRVWUDQD
Vjekoslav Duk
139
0-(5,/$'8/-,1(=$2381$0-(18
nicama duljine po
PHXQDURGQRP VXVWDYX PMHUQLK MHGLQLFD 6, 1D]LYQD GXOMLQD PMHULOD MH GXOMLQD NRMD MH QD PMHULOX R]QDHQD
RGQRVQRNRMDPXVHSULSLVXMH2VQRYQHR]QDNHPMHULODGXOMLQHVXGYLMHR]QDNHLMDXGDOMHQRVWSUHGVWDYOMDQD]LYQX
(a + b L ), u milimetrima, gdje
su:
L YULMHGQRVWSURPDWUDQHGXOMLQHXPHWULPD]DRNUXHQDQDYLHpune metre
a i b NRHILFLMHQWLLMHVXYULMHGQRVWLXWYUHQH]DVYDNLUD]UHGWRQRVWLLQDYHGHQHXWDEOLFL
Koeficijenti
5D]UHGWRQRVWL
a
0.1
0.3
0.6
I
II
III
b
0.1
0.2
0.4
3ULPMHULFH ]D PMHULOR UD]UHGD WRQRVWL ,, GXOMLQH P QDMYHD GRSXWHQD SRJUHND PMHULOD X UHIHUHQWQLP XYMHWLPD
Referentna temperatura od 20
&LOLGUXJDWHPSHUDWXUDQD]QDHQDQDPMHULOX
5HIHUHQWQD UDVWH]QD VLOD QD]QDHQD QD PMHULOX GXOMLQH NRMD VH WUHED RVLJXUDWL SR FLMHORM
LVSLWLYDQRMGXOMLQLNDGPMHULORSUDNWLQREH]WUHQMDOHLQDUDYQRMSRGOR]L
0HXWLP QDMHH VH QH PRH SRVWLL WDNR XVNR SRGUXMH UHIHUHQWQLK YHOLLQD 6WRJD MH GHILQLUDQR SURLUHQR
SRGUXMH UHIHUHQWQLK YHOLLQD ]RYHPR JD QD]LYQR SRGUXMH
YHOLLQD
Referentna temperatura ( 20 8) C.
Referentna sila 10%
Relativna vlaga 0% do 85%
0
Vjekoslav Duk
140
.DGD VH PMHUL L]YDQ UHIHUHQWQRJ SRGUXMD D XQXWDU QD]LYQRJ SRGUXMD GR]YROMHQH VX GRGDWQH SRJUHNH NRMH
QD]LYDPR YDULMDFLMH D NRMH PDNVLPDOQR PRJX ELWL MHGQDNH JUDQLQRM SRJUHFL WR ]QDL GD X
najloijim uvjetima
radimo sa dvostrukom pogrekom) i iznose 2(a + b L ) *UDQLQD SRJUHND SRWUHEQD QDP MH ]D SURFMHQX
XNXSQHPMHUQHQHVLJXUQRVWL3ULOLNRPWHSURFLMHQHWUHEDYRGLWLUDXQDLRWRPHGDMHRYMHNWDMNRMLRLWDYDVDPMHULOD
to]QDLGDLPDPRMRGRGDWQHL]YRUHQHVLJXUQRVWLLWR]ERJ
.RQDQHUD]OXLYRVWLOMXGVNRJRNDPP
3URFMHQDGLMHODL]PHXGYDSRGMHOMND
7R GYRMH ]DMHGQR QD]LYDPR JUDQLQD SRJUHND RLWDQMD 3ULPMHULFH ]D SRGMHOMDN LULQH PP JUDQLQD SRJUHND
RLWDQMa iznosi 0.1mm odnosno1/10 tog razmaka.
Nazivna duljina mjerila duljine za male duljine trebaju imati nazivnu duljinu od 0.5m do 5m, a mjerila duljine za
velike duljine od 5m do 200m.
1DPMHULOXGXOMLQH]DRSXQDPMHQXPRUDMXELWLLVSLVDQHVOMHGHHR]QDke:
Vrijednosti podjeljka
1D]LYSURL]YRDD
Primjer
0MHULPRGXOMLQXPMHULORPGXOMLQHUD]UHGDWRQRVWL,,,]PMHUHQDGXOMLQDMHO
,]PMHUHQXGXOMLQXWUHEDPR]DRNUXLWLQDYLHQDSXQHPHWUH/
1DMYHDGRSXWHQDSRJUHNDPMHULODXUHIHUHQWQLPXYMHWLPDL]QRVL
*UDQLQDSRJUHNDRLWDQMDL]QRVL
G o =
PP3RGMHOMDNMHLULQHPP
P
1
podjeljka = 0.10mm
10
1HVLJXUQRVWRLWDQMDXQD]LYQRPSRGUXMXXWMHFDMQLKYHOLLQD
u=
u=
G 2 + G 2 o = 0.29mm
4 G 2 + Go2
= 0.58mm
3
2YDMHHWYRUNDWX]DWRWRLPDPRXNXSQRYDULMDFLMHLWR
Jednu osnovnu
Jednu zbog temperature
Jednu zbog zatezne sile
Jednu zbog vlage
Vjekoslav Duk
b)
$NRMHPMHULORGXOMLQHHOLQDWUDNDWDGDYULMHG
141
i:
u=
1HVLJXUQRVWRLWDQMDXUHIHUHQWQRPSRGUXMXXWMHFDMQLKYHOLLQD
1HVLJXUQRVWRLWDQMDXQD]LYQRPSRGUXMXXWMHFDMQLKYHOLLQD
u=
G 2 + G 2 o = 0.29mm
2 G 2 + G o2
= 0 .41mm
3
Jednu osnovnu
Jednu zbog temperature
3ULPMHWLPRGDNRGHOLQHWUDNHQHX]LPDPRXRE]LUYDULMDFLMX]ERJ]DWH]QHVLOHLYODJH
.RGVORLYLKPMHULODNDRWRMHVWRODUVNLPHWDUGR]YROMHQDMHGRGDWQDSRJUHNDRGPP
0MHULOD ]D SRVHEQX QDPMHQX NRULVWH VH X PHWDORSUHUDLYDNRM LQGXVWULML L HOHNWURLQGXVWULML JGMH VH ]DKWLMHYDMX YUOR
SUHFL]QDPMHUHQMD]DNRMDPMHULOD]DRSXQDPMHQXQLVXGRYROMQRWRQD
1. MJERNE LETVE
1RUPL]LUDQHVX*UDQLQHSRJUHNHGHIL
&LWRQDVOMHGHLQDLQ
G = (50 + 0.050 l x )m = 50 + x m
20
$NR VH PMHUL SUL WHPSHUDWXUL UD]OLLWRM RG & PMHUQL VH UH]XOWDW PRH LVSUDYLWL SRPRX SRGDWND R NRHILFLMHQWX
toplinskog rastezanja koji je definiran za materijal od kojeg je napravljena mjerna letva. Normizirana vrijednost
koeficijenta rastezanja iznosi = 11.5m / K .
Mjerna nesigurnost kod mjernih letvi procjenjuje se na sljHGHLQDLQ
Pretpostavimo da je izmjerena duljina l x =120mm.
G 2 + Go2
56 2 + 100 2
=
= 66 m
3
3
Vjekoslav Duk
142
320,120-(5,/2
noniusa prema nepokretnoj skali oLWDYD VH YULMHGQRVW X PLOLPHWULPD OLMHYR RG QLWLFH QD QRQLXVX 'D EL VH GRELR
RVWDWDN RLWDQMD WUHED SRWUDLWL NRML VH SRGMHOMDN QRQLXVD QDMEROMH SRNODSD V R]QDNRP QD QHSRPLQRM VNDOL
Primjerice ako je nitica na noniusu desno od podjeljka 27mm i podjeljak 4 na noniusu kod 1/10 podjele noniusa
QDMEROMHVHSRNODSDVR]QDNRPQDQHSRPLQRMVNDOLRLWDYDPRL]QRVPP
D3RPLQDPMHULODVSRGMHORPQRQLXVDL
*UDQLQHSRJUHNHSRPLQLKPMHULODSULUHIHUHQWQRMWHPSHUDWXUL &VRLWDQMHP
i 1/20mm iznosi:
G = (50 + 0.10 l x )m
gdje je l x duljina koja se mjeri iskazana u milimetrima.
*UDQLQDSRJUHNDRLWDQMDNRGSRPLQLKMHPMHULODGHILQLUDQDRYLVQRRSRGMHOLQRQLMXVD
G o =
1
podjele nonijusa
2
Primjerice:
Za podjelu nonijusa 0.1mm GR=50m
Za podjelu nonijusa 0.05mm GR=25m
0MHUQDQHVLJXUQRVWNRGSRPLQLKPMHULODPMHULODVSRGMHORPQRQLXVDL SURFMHQMXMHVHQDVOMHGHLQDLQ
62 2 + 25 2
= 38.6 m
2
E3RPLQDPMHULODVSRGMHORPQRQLXVDL
3RVWRMHSRPLQDPMHULODVDMRILQLMRPSRGMHORPQRQLXVDLWRL
*UDQLQDSRJUHNDNRGQMLKVHSURFMHQMXMHQDVOMHGHXQDLQ
G = (20 + 0.10 l x )m
*UDQLQDSRJUHNDRLWDQMDNRGSRPLQLKMHPMHULODGHILQLUDQDRYLVQRRSRGMHOLQRQLMXVD
G o =
Primjerice:
Za podjelu nonijusa 0.02mm GR=10m
Za podjelu nonijusa 0.01mm GR=5m
1
podjele nonijusa
2
Vjekoslav Duk
143
0MHUQDQHVLJXUQRVWNRGSRPLQLKPMHULODVSRGMHORPQRQLXVDLSURFMHQMXMHVHQDVOMHGHLQDLQ
21.2 2 + 10 2
= 14m
2
U dananje vriMHPHSRVWRMHLGLJLWDOQDSRPLQDPMHULODNRMDVHPRJXSULNOMXLWLQDUDXQDOR
3. MIKROMETAR
0LNURPHWDUMH]DSUDYRYLMDNVDWRQRSR]QDWLPNRUDNRPXYLMDQMD2LWDYDQMHYULMHGQRVWLSRPRXPLNURPHWUDYULVH
WDNR GD VH SUYR LWDMX PLOLPHWUL L SROXPLOLPHWUL QD X]GXQRM VNDOL D ]DWLP SHGHVHWL GLMHORYL QD EXEQMX *UDQLQH
G = (4 + 0.020 l min )m
0(+$1,.(0-(51(85(.203$5$725,
0HKDQLNHPMHUQHXUHNRULVWHVHQDMYLHXLQGXVWULMLLWR]DXVSRUHGEHQDPMHUHQMD9ULMHGQRVWSRGMHOMNDQDMHHMH
10m , a mMHUQLGRPHWNUHHVHXUDVSRQXRGPPGRPP3URL]YRDLGDMXJUDQLQXSRJUHNXNDRUDVSRQ
(krivulju) na temelju kojega se onda procjenjuje mjerna nesigurnost:
Pogreka ovisi o mjernom dometu. Primjerice za mjerni domet MD=1mm GR=9m. Mjerna nesigurnost procjenjuje
se na temelju izraza:
u=
GR
2 3
*UDQLQD SRJUHND RLWDQMD ]DQHPDUXMH VH 'DQDV VH SURL]YRGH L NRPSDUDWRUL NRG NRMLK MH YULMHGQRVW SRGMHOMND
1m.
Vjekoslav Duk
144
*5$1,1(0-(5.(
*UDQLQHPMHUNHVXSUDYRNXWQLNYDGULRGQRVQRSDUDOHORSLSHGLNRMLVOXHNDRHWDORQLGXOMLQH.RULVWHVH]DYUORWRQD
DIN oznaka
*UDQLQDSRJUHNDUD]UHGD
WRQRVWL
UD]UHGDWRQRVWL
(0.05 + 0.001 l n )m
AA
00
(0.10 + 0.002 l n )m
(0.20 + 0.004 l n )m
(0.40 + 0.008 l n )m
2
= (0.10 + 0.002 l n )m, gdje
'DNOH]DUD]UHGWRQRVWL$JUDQLQDHSRJUHNDELWLLVND]DQDQDVOMHGHLQDLQ*A
je l n QD]LYQDGXOMLQDJUDQLQRJPMHULODLVND]DQDXPLOLPHWULPD
5D]UHG WRQRVWL $ RVQRYQL MH UD]UHG MHU SRPRX JUDQLQH SRJUHNH WRJ UD]UHGD PRHPR GRL GR JUDQLQLK
=DUD]UHGWRQRVWL%PRUDPR$PQRLWLV
=DUD]UHGWRQRVWL&PRUDPR$PQRLWLV
=DUD]UHGWRQRVWL$$PRUDPR$GLMHOLWLV
2SHQLWR NRG VYLK PHKDQLNLK PMHUHQMD QDVWDMH SRJUHND ]ERJ LUHQMD PDWHULMDOD 6DPR X VOXDMX GDVXWRSOLQVNL
NRHILFLMHQW LUHQMD PDWHULMDOD RG NRMHJ MH L]UDHQR PMHULOR L PDWHULMDODRGNRMHJMHL]UDHQREMHNWPMHUHQMDMHGQDNL
SRJUHNDMHL]EMHJQXWDLQDHQH
2VQRYQD VLVWHPDWVND SRJUHND SUL PMHUHQMX GXOMLQH PHKDQLNLP PMHULOLPD QDVWDMH ]ER
g utjecaja temperature,
odnosno kada mjerilo i mjerni objekt nisu na istoj temperaturi (20 C).
$SVROXWQDSRJUHNDWDGDVHSURFMHQMXMHSUHPDVOMHGHHPL]UD]X
p a = l [ 1 (1 20) 2 (2 20 )]
gdje su
1 i 1 temperaturniNRHILFLMHQWLUHQMDLWHPSHUDWXUDPDWHULMDODRGNRMHJMHL]UDHQREMHNWPMHUHQMDD 2 i
2VLPPHKDQLNLKNRULVWHVHMRRSWLNDLHOHNWURQLNDPMHULO
1.
a duljine.
237,.$0-(5,/$'8/-,1(
D237,.,'$/-,120-(5,
2SWLNL GDOMLQRPMHUL SULPMHQMXMX VH X JHRGH]LML 0MHUHQMH QMLPD WHPHOML VH QD PMHUHQMX NXWD L]PHX GYLMH WRNH
WRNH
d=
d
b
, se iskazuje u radijanima.
Vjekoslav Duk
145
b) NICKELSON-ov INTERFEROMETAR
1LFNHOVRQRYLQWHUIHURPHWDUMHRSWLNDPHWRGDPMHUHQMDGXOMLQHDWHPHOMLVHQDLQWHUIHUHQFLMLVYMHWORVWL.RULVWLVH]D
PMHUHQMHPDOLKLVUHGQMHYHOLNLKXGDOMHQRVWLVYUKXQVNRPWRQRX
Referentno
zrcalo
Izvor svjetla
S1
S2
D
S1, S2
Poluprozirno
zrcalo
3RPLQR
zrcalo
PRIJEMNIK
Svjetlost koju emitira izvor u poluprozirnom zrcalu rastavlja se na dvije komponente(S1 i S2). Jedna prolazi prema
SRPLQRP]UFDOXDGUXJDSUHPDUHIHUHQWQRP
.DGDVXXGDOMHQRVWUHIHUHQWQRJLSRPLQRJ]UFDODRGPMHVWDJGMH]UDNDsvjetlosti izvora ulazi u poluprozirno zrcalo
jednake ( R ) u prijemniku se dobiva maksimalan intenzitet svjetlosti. Tada su kutevi zraka svjetlosti S1 i S2 jednaki
svjetlost obje zrake zbraja se u prijeminku.
3RPDNRP SRPLQRJ ]UFDOD ]D /4 (svjetlost moUD SURL GYDSXWDWXXGDOMHQRVWNDGDGROD]LL]L]YRUDSULMHH /4 i
NDGD VH UHIOHNWLUD SULMHH /4 odnosno ukupno /2) S1 i S2 se ponitavaju pa u prijamniku imamo mrak. Intenzitet
VYMHWORVWLXSULMHPQLNXPLMHQMDVHSRPLFDQMHPSRPLQRJ]UFDODDXORJDMHmjeritelja da prati promjenu svjetla i tame
u prijemniku.
= n
duljine npr. laser) i onD PRUD ELWL YDOQH GXOMLQH L]PHX L m jer to ja valna duljina ljudskom oku vidljive
svjetlosti.
5D]OXLYRVWRGQRVQRWRQRVWPMHUHQMD1LFNHOVRQRYLPLQWHUIHURPHWURPMHm.
9UORMHYDQRGDVX]UFDODPHXVREQRXRNRPLWRPSRORDMXXSURWLYQRPPMHUHQMHHELWLSRJUHQR
Pri mjerenju interferometrom zapravo se emitira zraka S2 prema nekom udaljenom mjestu na kojem mora biti
zrcalo. To zrcalo mora reflektirati zraku S2 natrag u interferometar tako da ona bude paralelna zraci koju je
emitirana. .DNRELVHWRSRVWLJORQHNRULVWHVH]UFDODYHSUDYLOQHWURVWUDQHSUL]PH
Vjekoslav Duk
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8PMHUDYDQMHPMHUQHOHWYHSRPRXLQWHUIHURPHWUD
Pravilna trostrana
prizma
Mikroskop
Mjerna letva
INTERFEROMETAR
3RPLQLVWRO
pravilna trostrana prizma koja reflektira zraku svjetlosti iz interferometra. Interferometar i mikroskop su fiksirani.
3RPLFDQMHP VWROD SRPLH VH X ]D QMHJD XYUHQD PMHUQD OHWYD DOL L SUHYLOQD WURVWUDQD SUL]Pa. Za vrijeme
pomicanja mjerne letve gledamo u mikroskop. Kada vidimo da su se poklopili podjeljak na mjernoj letvi i oznaka u
PLNURVNRSXSUHVWDMHPRVSRPLFDQMHPLRLWDYDPRL]PMHUHQXYULMHGQRVWQDLQWHUIHURPHWUX1DWHMQDLQXPMHUDYDVH
XGDOMHQRVWL]PHXGYDSRGMHOMNDQDPMHUQRMOHWYLSRPRXLQWHUIHURPHWUD
Oznaka u
mikroskopu
Podjeljak na
Mjernoj letvi
7DGD
RLWDYDPR
izmjerenu
udaljenost
interferometru.
1HVLJXUQRVWQDPMHWDQMDSRPRXPLNURVNRSDL]QRVL
na
10nm .
(/(.7521,.$0-(5,/$'8/-,1(
SULMHXRGUHHQXXGDOMHQRVWXREDVPMHUD
d
Reflektor
PRIMOPREDAJNIK
d = 0.5 c t
FMHEU]LQDVYMHWORVWLDWYULMHPHNRMHSURHRGWUHQXWNDRGDLOMDQMDGRWUHQXWNDSULMHPDHOHNWURmagnetskog vala.
Na tom principu radi globalni pozicijski sustav (GPS) koji se koristi za navigaciju brodova, zrakoplova i vozila.
Sustav se sastoji od 24 satelita postavljenih u 6 orbita (po 4 u svakoj) koje su na visini 20200km iznad Zemlje.
3RORDM WRNH QD =HPOML L] NRMH YULPR PMHUHQMH RGUHXMH VH QD WHPHOMX SR]QDYDQMD SXWDQMD VDWHOLWD (koje
moramo vidjeti istovremeno) L QD WHPHOMX SURUDXQD 7LP VXVWDYRP SRVWLX VH WRQRVWL RG FP QD NP
-7
odnosno relativna mjerna nesigurnost iznosi 1.0110 .
Vjekoslav Duk
147
0DVDMHVYRMVWYRWLMHODDPMHULVHYDJRP9DJDPMHULPDVXWLMHODSRPRX]HPOMLQHVLOHWHH
7HLQDWLMHODMHVLODNRMDGMHOXMHQDPDVXXJUDYLWDFLMVNRPSROMXVLOHWHH
T=mg
JGMHMHJWHLQVNRXEU]DQMHJUDYLWDFLMH
7HLQVNRXEU]D
Geografskoj irini
*XVWRL]HPOMLWD
7HLQVNRXEU]DQMHXSURVMHNXL]QRVLPV
WRPHWHLQDWLMHODPMHQMDVHRGWRNHGRWRNHLVWRJDRQDQLMHVYRMVWYRWLMHOD]DUD]OLNXRGPDVHNRMDMH
3RVWRMHGYDQDLQDYDJQMD
1)
2)
9DJDQMHXVSRUHGERPSR]QDWHPDVHVQHSR]QDWRPSROXQHY
age)
9DJDQMHPMHUHQMHPVLOHRSUXQHLHOHNWURQLNHYDJH
.RGYDJDQMDSROXQLPYDJDPDSURPMHQHWHLQVNRJXEU]DQMDWROLNRVXPDOHGDLKQHWUHEDX]LPDWLXRE]LUGRNVH
NRG RSUXQLK L HOHNWURQLNLK PRUD X]HWL X RE]LU MHU WHLQVNR XEU]DQMH GLUHNWQR XWMHH Q
SURPMHQLPMHVWRQMLKRYHXSRWUHEHRSUXQHLHOHNWURQLNHYDJHPRUDMXVHL]QRYDXPMHUDYDWL
3ULOLNRPYDJDQMDX]UDNXWUHEDYRGLWLUDXQDRVLOLX]JRQD]UDND8SUDYR]ERJX]JRQDVLODNRMRPVHGMHOXMHQDYDJX
QLMHMHGQDNDWHLQLWLM
F = T U
U = V Z g
m
U = Z g
U =T Z
Volumen tijela
7HLQVNRXEU]DQMH
*XVWRD]UDND
F = g m g m Z
= g m 1 Z
= T 1 Z
Odvaga ( mt ) je jednaka masi etalonD GRJRYRUHQH JXVWRH NJP pri referentnoj temperaturi 20 C koja
0
XUDYQRWHXMH WLMHOR NRMH MH QD UHIHUHQWQRM UHPSHUDWXUL & LMX PDVX PMHULPR , PDVD HWDORQD L WLMHOD PMHULVHX
]UDNXLMDMHJXVWRDNJP
Vjekoslav Duk
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mt* = mu/
1.2
1.2
= g mu/ 1
g mt 1
0
8000
t (20 C )
1.2
t (20 C )
1.2
/
*
mu = mt = mt
mt 1.00015
1.2
t (20 0 C )
8000
r =
mt* mt
1.2
= 1.5 10 4
mt
t (20 0 C )
Primjer
3ULYDJDQMXWLMHODRGHOMH]DJXVWRHNJP
.DGDELYDJDOLWLMHORRGSDSLUDJXVWRHNJP
Te su pogreke vrlo male. Stoga u svakodnevnom mjerenju ne radimo korekcije za te pogreke. Te se korekcije
UDGHVDPRNRGQDMWRQLMLKPMHUHQMD
22.1. VAGE
0MHULODPDVHRGQRVQRYDJHVOXH]DRGUHLYDQMHPDVHWLMHOD9DJHSUHPD3UDYLOQLN
u o meteorolokim uvjetima za
9DJHVSRND]QLPXUHDMHPVSRGMHORPLOLEH]SRGMHOHLWR
a)
9DJHVSRND]QLPXUHDMHPLVSRGMHORP
PMHUQLUH]XOWDWRLWDYDVHVSRND]QRJXUHDMDDQDORJQRLOL
digitalno
b)
XUDYQRWHHQD
9DJHVDXWRPDWVNLPSROXDXWRPDWVNLPLOLQHDXWRPDWVNLPUDYQRWHQLPSRORDMHPLWR
a)
b)
9DJHVDXWRPDWVNLPUDYQRWHQLPSRORDMHP UDYQRWHQLSRORDMVHSRVWLHEH]SRPRLUXNRYDWHOMD
9DJHVSROXDXWRPDWVNLPUDYQRWHQLPSRORDMHP XMHGQRPGMHOXPMHUQRJSRGUXMDUXNRYDWHOMGRYRGL
ND]DOMNX UDYQRWHQRJ SRORDMD X SRORDM ]D RLWDYDQMH D X RVWDORP VH GLMHOX UDYQRWHQL SRORDM
SRVWLHEH]SRPRLUXNRYDWHOMD
Vjekoslav Duk
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9DJHLPDMXVOMHGHH]QDDMNH
1.
0MHUQRSRGUXMH
0MHUQRSRGUXMHGHILQLUDQRMHL]PHXPLQLPDOQHLPDNVLPDOQHYULMHGQRVWLNRMXPR
emo vagati uz
GHNODULUDQXWRQRVW
4.
1DMYHHGRSXWHQRRSWHUHHQMHQRVLYRVWLOLMDNRVWYDJH
7RMHQDMYHHGRSXWHQRRSWHUHHQMHYDJH$NRVHSUHNRUDLPRHGRLGRRWHHQMDYDJH
5.
5D]UHGWRQRVWL
3RVWRMH UD]UHGD WRQRVWL 9DJH VH UD]YUVWDYDMX X UD]UHGH WRQRVWL V RE]LURP QD YULMHGQRVW RYMHUQRJ
5D]UHGWRQRVWL
I
II
III
IIII
Vrijednost ovjernog
podjeljka
0,001g e
0,001g e 0,05g
0,1 e
0,1g e 2g
5g e
5g e
Najmanji
50 000
100
5 000
100
500
100
100e
20e
50e
20e
20e
10e
Vage II, UD]UHGD WRQRVWL VX WUJRYDNH YDJH 7LP YDJDPD PDVD VH PRH PMHULWL X LURNRP RSVHJX RG H GR
H 7DM RSVHJ SRGLMHOMHQ MH X MR SRGUXMD L ]D VYDNR MH SRGUXMH GHILQLUDQD JUDQLQD GRSXWHQD SRJUHND
(GDP).
*'3WRQRVWL]DYDJHUD]UHGDWRQRVWL,,,
iznose:
RYMHUQRJ SRGMHOMND ]D RSWHUHHQMH RG PLQLPDOQRJ YDJDQMD GR SRGMHOMDND XNOMXXMXL L
500-ti podjeljak
RYMHUQLSRGMHOMDN]DRSWHUHHQMDL]QDGSRGMHOMDNDGRSRGMHOMDNDXNOMXXMXLL2000-
ti podjeljak
RYMHUQRJSRGMHOMND]DRSWHUHHQMDL]QDGSRGMHOMDND
=DRVWDOHWULUD]UHGDWRQRVWL
*'3WRQRVWL]DYDJHUD]UHGDWRQRVWL,L]QRVH
RYMHUQRJSRGMHOMND]DRSWHUHHQMHRGPLQLPDOQRJYDJDQMDGRSRGMHOMDNDXNOMXXMXLL
50000-ti podjeljak
RYMHUQLSRGMHOMDN]DRSWHUHHQMDL]QDGSRGMHOMDNDGRSRGMHOMDNDXNOMXXMXLL
200000-ti podjeljak
1,5 ovjernog podjeljka za opterHHQMDL]QDGSRGMHOMDND
Vjekoslav Duk
150
*'3WRQRVWL]DYDJHUD]UHGDWRQRVWL,,L]QRVH
RYMHUQRJSRGMHOMND]DRSWHUHHQMHRGPLQLPDOQRJYDJDQMDGRSRGMHOMDNDXNOMXXMXLL
5000-ti podjeljak
1 ovjerni podjHOMDN ]D RSWHUHHQMD L]QDG SRGMHOMDND GR SRGMHOMDND XNOMXXMXL L
20000-ti podjeljak
RYMHUQRJSRGMHOMND]DRSWHUHHQMDL]QDGSRGMHOMDND
*'3WRQRVWL]DYDJHUD]UHGDWRQRVWL,,,,L]QRVH
RYMHUQRJSRGMHOMND]DRSWHUHHQMHRGPLQLPDOQRJYDJDQMDGRSRGMHOMDNDXNOMXXMXLLti podjeljak
RYMHUQL SRGMHOMDN ]D RSWHUHHQMD L]QDG SRGMHOMDND GR SRGMHOMDND XNOMXXMXL L -ti
podjeljak
RYMHUQRJSRGMHOMND]DRSWHUHHQMDL]QDGSRGMHOMDND
1DUH]XOWDWYDJDQMDXWMHHLWDYQL]XWMHFDMQLKYHOLLQDNDRWRVX
3RORDMPMHUHQHPDVH
2. Masa onog to smo prethodno vagali (nije svejedno da li smo prije ovog vaganja
vagali neto velike ili neto male mase. Kod vaganja velike mase treba vremena da se
vaga oporavi)
3. Temperatura
6PDWUD VH GD MH YDJD NRMX NRULVWLPR LVSUDYQD DNR VX UH]XOWDWL NRMH VPR GRELOL SUL VDGDQMHP XPMHUDYDQMX DN L
u=
2 GDP
3
9DJDPRUDXGRYROMDYDWL]DKWMHYLPDJUDQLQHGRSXWHQHSRJUHNHSULVOMHGHLPXYMHWLPD
c)
8WMHFDM WHPSHUDWXUH QD QHRSWHUHHQX YDJX QH VPLMH L]QRVLWL YLH RG YULMHGQRVWL MHGQRJ SRGMHOMND SUL
promjeni temperature 1
&]DYDJHUD]UHGDWRQRVWL,L &]DYDJHRVWDOLKUD]UHGDWRQRVWL
.RGHOHNWURQLNLKYDJDXRELDMHQRMHGDVHWRQRVWRSLVXMHQHOLQHDUQRXLSRQRYOMLYRX
Vjekoslav Duk
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1DMYHHRGVWXSDQMHRGLGHDOQRJ
pravca
GL
(OHNWURQLNH VH YDJH PRUDMX XPMHUDYDWL QD VYDNRP PMHVWX JGMH VH SULPMHQMXMX 8PMHUDYDQMH VH UDGL SRPRX
G
G
u = L + u 2p + E
3
3 E
2
22.2. UTEZI
NRUDFLPD 3UHPD WRM SUHSRUXFL XWH]L VX UD]YUVWDQL X UD]UHGD WRQRVWL (1
SRMHGLQLKUD]UHGDMHVOMHGHD
Namjena
5D]UHGWRQRVWL
utega
E1
E2
F1
F2
M1
M2
M3
KontrolniXWH]L]DXPMHUDYDQMHYDJDUD]UHGDWRQRVWL,
0LNURNHPLMVNHLNHPLMVNHDQDOL]HLGUXJDPMHUHQMDPDVHQDMYLHWRQRVWL
.HPLMVNHDQDOL]HLGUXJDPMHUHQMDPDVHYLVRNRJUD]UHGDWRQRVWL
7HKQLNHDQDOL]HYLHWRQRVWLLPMHUHQMDGUDJRFMHQLKNRYLQD
7HKQLNHDQDOL]HLPMHUHQMDPDVHPHGLNDPHQDWDLGUDJRFMHQLKNRYLQD
*UDQLQHSRJUHNHSULSUYRPSUHJOHGXHWDORQDPDVHRGUHHQRJUD]UHGDWRQRVWLGDQHVLXVOMHGHRMWDEOLFL
Vjekoslav Duk
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Razred
WRQRVWL
E1
E2
F1
F2
M1
M2
M3
*UDQLQD
pogreka
-7
510
-6
1.510
-6
510
-5
1.510
-5
510
-4
1.510
-4
510
7H JUDQLQH SRJUHNH YULMHGH ]D XWHJH RG J GR NJ =D XWHJH X XSRUDEL GRSXWHQH VX JUDQLQH SRJUHNH
GYRVWUXNRYHHRGRYLKXWDEOLFLQDYH
denih (2GDP)
u=
2 GDP
3