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ENVIRONMENT
Revised Edition
SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY BOOK PUBLICATIONS

AP-2241, 2nd Floor, 12th Main Road, Anna Nagar, Chennai - 600 040. Tamil Nadu.
Mobile : 9962002006
www.shankariasacademy.com
Email : enquiry@shankarias.in
SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
©
SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY BOOK PUBLICATIONS
1st Edition – 2012

2nd Edition - 2013
3rd Edition - 2014
3rd Edition Reprint - February, 2015
4th Revised Edition - June, 2015
4th Revised Edition Reprint - January, 2016
4th Revised Edition Reprint - May, 2016
5th Revised Edition - June, 2017
6th Revised Edition - September, 2018
ISBN - 978-81-934226-0-1
Pages : 400 (xxxvi + 364)
PUBLISHED BY SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY BOOK PUBLICATIONS

AP-2241, 2nd Floor, 12th Main Road,
Anna Nagar, Chennai - 600 040. Tamil Nadu.
Mobile : 9962002006
www.shankariasacademy.com
Email : enquiry@shankarias.in
© Copyright is reserved to the publisher, therefore the person who will try to intimate or to print this book illegally
or without the prior written permission of this publisher in any form, will be responsible for the loss and may be
punished for compensation under the copyright act.
ii All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
“Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s need but not every man’s greed”
- Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi
All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing. iii
iv All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
CONTENTS
Previous Year UPSC Question paper analysis (2011 to 2018) �� xiii
PART-I
ENVIRONMENTAL ECOLOGY
S.No Chapter Page No.
1. ECOLOGY�� 3-9
History of Ecology�� 3
Environment and its Components �� 3
Levels of Organisation �� 4
2. FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM �� 11-21

Energy Flow �� 11
Food Chain �� 11
Food Web ��12
Ecological Pyramid ��13
Pollutants and Trophical Level ��15
Biotic Interaction ��16
Bio-Geochemical Cycle ��16
Ecological Succession �� 20
3. TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM��23-32
Tundra�� 23
Forest Ecosystem�� 23
Indian Forest Types�� 25
Deforestation�� 27
Grassland Ecosystem�� 28
Desert Ecosystem (Thar & Cold)�� 29
Desertification��31
State of forest report, 2017�� 32
4. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM��33-53
Aquatic Organism�� 33
Lake Ecology�� 35
Eutrophication�� 36
Harmful Algal bloom...............................................................................................................38
Wetland Ecosystem�� 39
National Wetland Conservation Programme�� 42
All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing. v
Montreux Record�� 43
Estuary Ecosystem�� 43
Mangrove Ecosystem�� 45
Coral Reefs�� 47
Coral Bleaching�� 49
Initiatives to Protect Coastal Environment�� 50
Ganga Action Plan ��51
Namami Ganga Program��51
Clean Ganga Fund�� 52
Recent Measures............................................................................................................................53
5. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION��55-82
Pollutants�� 55
Air Pollution�� 55
Smog�� 56
Indoor Air Pollution�� 57
Fly Ash�� 58
NAMP & NAAQ�� 60
Air Pollution in India��61
Water Pollution�� 62
Soil Pollution�� 65
Noise Pollution�� 66
Radio Active Pollution�� 67
E-Waste�� 69
Solid Waste��71
Thermal Pollution�� 73
Plastics Pollution�� 74
Bio-Remediation�� 76
Environmental Pollution and Health�� 77
Acid Rain�� 78
6. RENEWABLE ENERGY�� 83-91

Solar Energy�� 83
International Solar Alliance�� 84
Luminescent Solar Concentrators��84
Wind Energy�� 85
Hydro Power�� 86
Ocean Thermal Energy�� 87
Cogeneration��88
Waste to Energy�� 89
Geothermal Energy�� 89
Fuel Cells�� 90
7. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES�� 93-108

Indian Himalayan Region �� 93
Sand Mining in India�� 97
Palm Oil - Environmental Issues�� 100
Colony Collapse Disorder��102
vi All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
Wildlife Deaths Due to Collision With Trains�� 104
Impact of Radiation��105
Genetically Engineered Trees�� 106
MoEFCC Banned Dolphin Captivity�� 106
Prohibition of Removal of Shark Fins in the Sea��107
Cost of Environmental Degradation in India�� 108
8. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT�� 109-119

The Need for EIA�� 109
EIA Cycle and its Procedures�� 110
Components of EIA�� 113
Procedure of Public Hearing�� 116
Drawbacks and Recommendations of EIA�� 116
Environmental supplemental plan�� 119
PARIVESH............................................................................................................................... 119
PART-II
BIODIVERSITY
9. BIODIVERSITY�� 123-127
Biodiversity��123
Levels of Biodiversity��123
Measurement of Biodiversity�� 124
Biodiversity Services�� 124
Modes of Conservation��125
Botanical Garden and Zoo�� 125
Red Data Book�� 126
10. INDIAN BIODIVERSITY�� 129-137

Indian Bio-Geographical Classification�� 129
Fauna Diversity�� 131
Flora Diversity��133
Indian Wildlife ��136
11. SCHEDULE ANIMALS OF WPA, 1972�� 139-152

Schedule List - WPA��139
12. ANIMAL DIVERSITY OF INDIA�� 153-159

Mammal Critically endangered��153
Marine Mammals�� 155
Egg Laying Mammals�� 155
All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing. vii
Marsupial�� 155
Birds Critically endangered��156
Corals��158
Bird Migration��158
Wild Life Disease��158
Species Extinction�� 158
Man- Animal Conflict��159
13. PLANT DIVERSITY OF INDIA�� 161-169

Plant Classification�� 161
Effect of Abiotic Components on Plants�� 161
Insectivorous Plant��162
Invasive Alien Species�� 164
Invasive Alien Flora of India�� 164
Medicinal Plants�� 166
Tree Characters��167
14. MARINE ORGANISM��171-173

Plankton�� 171
Phyto-Plankton�� 171
Zoo-Plankton��172
Sea Grass��172
Sea Weed��173
15. PROTECTED AREA NETWORK�� 175-185

National Initiative
Wildlife Sanctuary and National Parks�� 175
Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves��177
Coastal Protected Areas�� 177
Sacred Groves of India��178
Export Prohibited Items��179
Global Initiative
Man And Biosphere��179
Biosphere Reserves�� 180
National Biosphere Reserve Programme�� 181
World Network of Biosphere Reserves��182
Biodiversity Hotspots��183
World Heritage Sites�� 184
16. CONSERVATION EFFORTS�� 187-199

Project Tiger��187
Project Elephant�� 190
Vulture��192
One Horned Rhinoceros��195
viii All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
Project Snow Leopard�� 196
Secure Himalaya.................................................................................................................... 197
Sea Turtle Project��197
Crocodile Conservation Project��197
Project Hangul�� 198
Captive Breeding�� 198
Dolphin�� 198
Government Measures�� 199
India Adopt SAWEN............................................................................................................... 199
PART-III
CLIMATE CHANGE
17. CLIMATE CHANGE�� 203-210
Global Warming�� 203
Green House Effect��204
Green House Gases�� 205
Climate Forcing��208
Global Warming Potential��209
Receding Glaciers. A Symptom of Global Climate Change�� 210
18. OCEAN ACIDIFICATION ��211-213

19. OZONE DEPLETION�� 215-220
20. IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE – INDIA�� 221-226
Agriculture and Food Security��221
Water Stress and Water Insecurity�� 222
Sea Level Rise�� 223
Ecosystem and Biodiversity�� 224
Climate Change and Health�� 225
21. MITIGATION STRATEGIES��227-231

Carbon Sequestration�� 227
Carbon Sink�� 228
Carbon Credit�� 228
Carbon Offsetting�� 229
Carbon Tax�� 229
Geo-Engineering�� 230
22. INDIA AND CLIMATE CHANGE�� 233-250

India’s Position on Climate Change �� 233
Observed Climate and Weather Changes in India�� 233
Current Actions for Adaptation and Mitigation �� 234
National Action Plan on Climate Change�� 235
All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing. ix
Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment�� 241
National Communication (NATCOM)��242
India’s Policy Structure Relevant to GHG Mitigation�� 243
Green Building ��244
Griha�� 245
National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture �� 247
BSE Greenex ��248
Fame-India Programme�� 249
Long Term Ecological Observatories (LTEO) .....................................................................249
The National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC)...........................................249
Other Critical Entities �� 249
23. CLIMATE CHANGE ORGANISATIONS �� 251-271

UNFCCC��251
KYOTO Protocol ��251
Conference of Parties�� 258
Other Mechanism of UNFCCC��260
REDD and REDD+ ��261
Global Environment Facilities �� 262
Climate Smart Agriculture �� 262
Inter Governmental Panel on Climate Change�� 263
National Green House Gas Inventories Programme��264
Green Economy �� 265
Climate Finance Architecture�� 267
PART-IV
AGRICULTURE
24. AGRICULTURE�� 275-293
Agriculture�� 275
Crop and its Classification�� 276
Tillage�� 279
Cropping System and Pattern��280
Farming System�� 282
Sustainable Agriculture�� 283
Organic Farming��284
Integrated Farming System�� 285
Soil Science��288
x All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
PART-V
25. ACTS AND POLICIES �� 297-311
Wild Life Protection Act 1972 �� 297
Environmental Protection Act 1986��298
National Forest Policy 1988�� 299
Biological Diversity Act 2002�� 299
Schedule Tribes and Other Forest Dwellers Act 2006��299
Coastal Regulation Zone �� 302
Bio-Medical Waste Management Rules, 2016......................................................................307
E-Waste Management Rules, 2016....................................................................................... 308
Plastic Waste Management (PWM) Rules, 2016................................................................. 309
Wetland Rules 2010�� 310
Nation Green Tribunal �� 311
The Ozone Depleting Substances Rules�� 311
26. INSTITUTION AND MEASURES �� 313-319

National Wide Life Action Plan��313
National Afforestation And Eco-Development Board��313
CAMPA�� 314
Joint Forest Management�� 314
Social Forestry �� 315
National Bamboo Mission �� 315
CEPI��316
Lighting a Billion Lives��316
Eco-Mark�� 317
USERS�� 317
BCRLIP�� 317
National Clean Energy Fund�� 317
National Mission for Electric Mobility �� 318
Science Express - Bio Diversity Special �� 318
Mangrove for Future ��319
27. ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANISATIONS�� 321-324

Animal Welfare Board ��321
Central Zoo Authority�� 322
National Bio Diversity Authority �� 322
Wildlife Crime Control Bureau �� 323
National Lake Conservation Plan�� 323
National Ganga River Basin Authority �� 324
28. INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONVENTIONS��325-340

United Nations Conference on Environment and Development �� 325
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)�� 326
All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing. xi
Ramsar Convention On Wetlands�� 330
CITES�� 332
The Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network (TRAFFIC)�� 332
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS)�� 333
Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking (CAWT)�� 333
International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO)�� 334
United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF)�� 334
IUCN�� 335
Global Tiger Forum (GTF)�� 335
Stockholm Convention�� 336
Basel Convention �� 337
Rotterdam Convention �� 337
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification�� 338
International Whaling Commission (IWC) �� 338
Vienna Convention and Montreal Protocol �� 339
Kigali Agreement�� 349
Globally Important Agriculture Heritage Systems��340
Minamata Convention.......................................................................................................... 340
29. ENVIRONMENT ISSUES AND HEALTH EFFECTS�� 341-346

Toxicology Effects �� 341
Lead in Paints�� 342
Transfat�� 342
High Caffeine in Energy Drinks�� 342
Pesticide in Human Blood�� 342
Testing of Pesticide Toxicity�� 342
Diseases Caused by Environmental Degradation�� 343
Miscellaneous Topics - CHIPKO Movements��344
APPIKO Movements��344
The National Wastelands Development Board�� 345
GLOSSARY�� 347-354
APPENDIX �� 355-363
Ramsar Wetland Sites in India�� 355
Tiger Reserves of India�� 355
Elephant Reserves in India�� 356
Mike Sites in India�� 357
Biosphere Reserves�� 357
List of India’s Biosphere Reserves in UNESCO’s Map List�� 358
Natural World Heritage Sites�� 358
List of Sacred Groves�� 359
Mangrove Sites in India�� 359
List of Key Activities and Likely Associated Air Pollutants��360
Respiratory Irritants and Toxic Chemicals��361
 
xii All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
PRELIMINARY
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION PAPERS

2011 QUESTION PAPER
ENVIRONMENTAL ECOLOGY & 3. Recycling of waste

BIODIVERSITY 4. Pollination of crops
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
1. Consider the following statements: a. 1,2 and 3 only b. 2,3 and 4 only
1. Biodiversity is normally greater in the lower lati- c. 1 and 4 only d. 1,2,3 and 4
tudes as compared to the higher latitudes.
4. Which one of the following is not a site for in-situ
2. Along the mountain gradients, biodiversity is nor-
method of conservation of flora?
mally greater in the lower altitudes as compared to
the higher altitudes. a. Biosphere Reserves
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? b. Botanical Garden
a. 1 only b. 2 only c. National Park
c. Both 1 and 2 d. Neither 1 nor 2 d. Wildlife Sanctuary
2. Three of the following criteria have contributed to 5. Among the following States, which one has the most
the recognition of Western Ghats – Sri Lanka and suitable climatic conditions for the cultivation of a
Indo-Burma regions as hotspots of bio-diversity. large variety of orchids with minimum cost of pro-
1. Species richness duction, and can develop an export oriented industry
2. Vegetation density in this field?
3. Endemism a. Andhra Pradesh
4. Ethno-botanical importance b. Arunachal Pradesh
c. Madhya Pradesh
5. Threat perception
d. Uttar Pradesh
6. Adaptation of flora and fauna to warm and humid
conditions 6. A sandy and saline area is the natural habitat of an
Which three of the above are correct criteria in this Indian animal species. The animal has no predators
context? in that area but its existence is threatened due to the
a. 1, 2 and 6 b. 2, 4 and 6 destruction of its habitat. Which one of the following
c. 1, 3 and 5 d. 3, 4 and 6 could be that animal?
a. Indian wild buffalo
3. Biodiversity forms the basis for human existence in
the following ways: b. Indian wild ass
1. Soil formation c. Indian wild boar
2. Prevention of soil erosion d. Indian Gazelle
All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing. xiii
7. The “Red Data Books’ published by the International Select the correct answer from the codes given below:
Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Re- a. 1 only b. 1 and 2 only
sources (IUCN) contain lists of c. 2 and 3 only d. 1,2 and 3
1. Endemic plant and animal species present in the 11. The Himalayan Range is very rich in species diver-
biodiversity hotspots. sity. Which one among the following is the most
2. Threatened plant and animal species. appropriate reason for this phenomenon?
3. Protected sites for conservation of nature & natural a. It has a high rainfall that supports luxuriant veg-
resources in various countries. etative growth.
Which of the statement given above is / are correct? b. It is a confluence of different bio geographical zones.
a. 1 & 3 b. 2 only c. Exotic and invasive species have not been intro-
c. 2 & 3 d. 3 only duced in this region.
d. It has less human interference.
8. In the context of eco-system productivity, marine
upwelling zones are important as they increase the 12. If a tropical rain forest is removed, it does not re-
marine productivity by bringing the generate quickly as compared to a tropical deciduous
forest. This is because
1. Decomposer microorganisms to the surface.
a. the soil of rain forest is deficient in nutrients
2. Nutrients to the surface.
b. propagules of the trees in a rain forest have poor
3. Botton-dwelling organisms to the surface. viability
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? c. the rain forest species are slow-growing
a. 1 and 2 b. 2 only d. exotic species invade the fertile soil of rain forest.
c. 2 and 3 d. 3 only 13. When the bark of a tree is removed in a circular
9. The 2004 Tsunami made people realize that man- fashion all around near its base, it generally dries
groves can serve as a reliable safety hedge against up and dies because
coastal calamities. How do mangroves function as a a. Water from soil cannot rise to aerial parts.
safety hedge? b. Roots are starved of energy
a. The mangroves swaps separate the human settle- c. Tree is infected by soil microbes
ments from the sea by a wide zone in which people d. Roots do not receive oxygen for respiration
neither live nor venture out
b. The mangroves provide both food and medicines CLIMATE CHANGE
which people are in need of after any natural dis-
aster. 14. Consider the following:
c. The mangroves trees are tall with dense canopies 1. Photosynthesis
and serve as an excellent shelter during a cyclone 2. Respiration
or tsunami
3. Decay of organic matter
d. The mangroves trees do not get uprooted by storms 4. Volcanic action
and tides because of their extensive roots.
Which of the above add carbon dioxide to the carbon
10. There is a concern over the increase in harmful cycle on Earth?
algal blooms in the seawaters of India. What a. 1 and 4 only b. 2 and 3 only
could be the causative factors for this
phenomenon? c. 2,3 and 4 only d. 1, 2, 3 and 4
1. Discharge of nutrients from the estuaries. 15. Consider the following:

2. Run-off from the land during the monsoon. 1. Carbon dioxide
3. Upwelling in the seas. 2. Oxides of Nitrogen
xiv All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
3. Oxides of Sulphur 3. Customs Act, 1962
Which of the above is/are the emission / emissions 4. Indian Forest Act, 1927
from coal combustion at thermal power plants? Which of above Acts have relevance to / bearing on the
a. 1 only b. 2 and 3 only biodiversity conservation in the country?
c. 1 and 3 only d. 1,2 and 3 a. 1 and 3 only b. 2,3 and 4 only
16. The formation of ozone hole in the Antartic region c. 1,2,3 and 4 d. None of the above Acts
has been a cause of concern. What could be the rea-
son for the formation of this hole?
a. Presence of prominent tropospheric turbulence; and
CURRENT AFFAIRS
inflow of chlorofluoro carbons
19. Recently, ‘oilzapper’ was in the news. What is it?
b. Presence of prominent polar front and stratospheric
a. It is an eco-friendly technology for the remediation
clouds; and inflow of chloro fluorocarbons
of oil sludge and oil spills.
c. Absence of polar front and stratospheric clouds; and
b. It is the latest technology developed for under-sea
inflow of methane and chloro fluorocarbons.
oil exploration.
d. Increased temperature at polar region due to global
warming c. It is a genetically engineered high biofuel yielding
maize variety.
17. Regarding “carbon credits”, which one of the follow-
d. It is the latest technology to control the accidentally
ing statements is not correct?
caused flames from oil wells.
a. The carbon credit system was ratified in conjunc-
tion with the Kyoto Protocol
b. Carbon credits are awarded to countries or groups MAP BASED QUESTION
that have reduced greenhouse gases below their
emission quota 20. Two important rivers – one with its source in
c. The goal of the carbon credit system is to limit the Jharkhand (and known by a different name in Odi-
increase of carbon emission quota sha), and another, with its source in Odisha – merge
d. Carbon credits are traded at a price fixed from time at a place only a short distance from the coast of Bay
to time by the United Nations Environment Pro- of Bengal before flowing into the sea. This is an im-
gramme. portant site of wildlife and bio-diversity and a pro-
tected area. Which one of the following could be
ACT & POLICIES this?
a. Bhitarkanika
18. With reference to India, consider the following Cen-
b. Chandipur-on-sea
tral Acts:
c. Gopalpur-on-sea
1. Import and Export (Control) Act, 1947.
2. Mining and Mineral Development (Regulation) Act, 1957 d. Simlipal
2011 - Answers
1(c) 2(c) 3(d) 4(b) 5(b) 6(b) 7(b) 8(b) 9(d) 10(d)
11(b) 12(a) 13(a) 14(c) 15(d) 16(b) 17(d) 18(c) 19(a) 20(a)

All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing. xv
2012 QUESTION PAPER
1. Which of the following can be threats to the biodiver- 5. Consider the following:
sity of a geographical area? 1. Black-necked crane
1. Global warming 2. Cheetah
2. Fragmentation of habitat 3. Flying squirrel
3. Invasion of alien species 4. Snow leopard
4. Promotion of vegetarianism Which of the above are naturally found in India?
Select the correct answer using the codes given below. a. 1,2 and 3 only b. 1,3 and 4 only
a. 1, 2 and 3 only b. 2 and 3 only
c. 2 and 4 only d. 1,2,3 and 4
c. 1 and 4 only d. 1, 2, and 4
6. Consider the following kinds of organisms
2. In which one among the following categories of pro-
1. Bat
tected areas in India are local people not allowed to
collect and use the biomass? 2. Bee
a. Biosphere Reserves 3. Bird
b. National Parks Which of the above is/are pollinating agent / agents?
c. Wetlands declared under Ramsar Convention a. 1 and 2 only b. 2 only
d. Wildlife Sanctuaries c. 1 and 3 only d. 1, 2 and 3
3. Consider the following protected areas 7. Which one of the following groups of animals be-
1. Bandipur longs to the category of endangered species?
2. Bhitarkanika a. Great Indian Bustard, Musk Deer, Red Panda and

Asiatic Wild Ass
3. Manas
b. Kashmir Stag, Cheetal, Blue Bull and Great Indian
4. Sunderbans
Bustard
Which of the above are declared Tiger Reserves?
c. Snow Leopard, Swamp Deer, Rhesus Monkey and
a. 1, 3 and 2 only Saras (Crane)
b. 1, 3 and 4 only d. Lion-tailed Macaque, Blue Bull, Hanuman Langur
c. 2, 3 and 4 only and Cheetal
d. 1, 2, 3 and 4 8. What would happen if phytoplankton of an ocean is
4. What is the difference between the antelopes Oryx completely destroyed for some reason?
and Chiru? 1. The ocean as a carbon sink would be adversely af-
a. Oryx is adapted to live in hot and arid areas fected.
whereas Chiru is adapted to live in steppes and 2. The food chains in the ocean would be adversely
semi-desert areas of cold high mountains. affected.
b. Oryx is poached for its antlers whereas Chiru is 3. The density of ocean water would drastically de-
poached for its musk. crease.
c. Oryx exists in western India only whereas Chiru Select the using codes given below:
exists in north-east India only.
a. 1 and 2 only b. 2 only
d. None of the statements a, b, and c given above is
c. 3 only d. 1,2 and 3
correct.
xvi All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
9. With reference to the wetlands of India, consider the 13. The acidification of oceans is increasing. Why is this
following statements: phenomenon a cause of concern?
1. The country’s total geographical area under the 1. The growth and survival of calcareous phytoplank-
category of wetlands is recorded more in Gujarat as ton will be adversely affected.
compared to other States.
2. The growth and survival of coral reefs will be ad-
2. In India, the total geographical area of coastal wet- versely affected.
lands is larger than that of inland wetlands.
3. The survival of some animals that have phytoplanktonic
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
larvae will be adversely affected.
a. 1 only b. 2 only
4. The cloud seeding and formation of clouds will be
c. Both 1 and 2 d. Neither 1 nor 2 adversely affected.
10. Vultures which used to be very common in Indian Which of statements given above is / are correct?
countryside some years age are rarely seen nowa-
a. 1,2 and 3 only b. 2 only
days. This is attributed to
a. the destruction of their nesting sites by new inva- c. 1 and 3 only d. 1,2,3 and 4
sive species.
b. a drug used by cattle owners for treating their dis-
eased cattle.
ACT & POLICIES
c. scarcity of food available to them
d. a widespread, persistent and fatal disease among 14. The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 was enacted in
them consonance with which of the following provisions of the
Constitution of India?
1. Right to healthy environment, construed as a part of
CLIMATE CHANGE part of Right to life under Article 21.
2. Provision of grants for raising the level of adminis-
11. Consider the following statements: Chlorofluorocar- tration in the Scheduled Areas for the welfare of
bons, known as ozone- depleting substances, are Scheduled Tribes under Article 275(1)
used
1. in the production of plastic foams
a. 1 only b. 2 only
2. in the production of tubeless tyres
c. Both 1 and 2 d. Neither 1 nor 2
3. in cleaning certain electronic components
15. How does National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)
4. as pressurizing agents in aerosol cans
help in protecting the Indian agriculture?
1. NBA checks the biopiracy and protects the indige-
a. 1, 2 and 3 only b. 4 only nous and traditional genetic resources.
c. 1, 3 and 4 only d. 1, 2, 3 and 4 2. NBA directly monitors and supervises the scientific
12. The increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the air research on genetic modification of crop plants.
is slowly raising the temperature of the atmosphere, 3. Application for intellectual Property Rights related
because it absorbs to genetic / biological resources cannot be made
a. the water vapour of the air and retains its heat. without the approval of NBA.
b. the ultraviolet part of the solar radiation. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
c. all the solar radiations. a. 1 only b. 2 and 3 only
d. the infrared part of the solar radiation c. 1 and 3 only d. 1, 2 and 3
All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing. xvii
CURRENT AFFAIRS MAP BASED QUESTION
16. Government of India encourages the cultivation 17. A particular State in India has the following charac-
of ‘sea buckthorn’. What is the importance of this teristics:
plant? 1. It is located on the same latitude which passes
a. It helps in controlling soil erosion and in preventing through northern Rajasthan.
desertification. 2. It has over 80% of its area under forest cover.
b. It is a rich source of biodiesel. 3. Over 12% of forest cover constitutes Protected Area
c. It has nutritional value and is well-adapted to live Network in this State.
in cold areas of high altitudes. Which one among the following States has all the above
characteristics?
d. Its timber is of great commercial value.
a. Arunachal Pradesh b. Assam
c. Himachal Pradesh d. Uttarakhand
2012 - Answers
1 (a) 2 (b) 3 (b) 4 (a) 5 (b) 6 (d) 7 (a) 8 (a) 9 (a) 10 (b)
11 (d) 12 (d) 13 (a) 14 (a) 15 (c) 16 (a) 17 (a)
(Q.no. 7 is disputed)

xviii All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
2013 QUESTION PAPER
ENVIRONMENTAL ECOLOGY, BIODIVERSITY, CLIMATE CHANGE, ACT &

POLICIES, CURRENT AFFAIRS AND MAP BASED QUESTIONS
1. Consider the following statements: 6. Mycorrhizal biotechnology has been used in reha-
Which one among the following industries is the bilitating degraded sites because mycorrhiza enables
maximum consumer of water in India? the plants to
(a) Engineering (b) Paper and pulp 1. Resist drought and increase absorptive area
(c) Textiles (d) Thermal power 2. Tolerate extremes of pH
2. Fruits stored in a cold chamber exhibit longer stor- 3. Resist disease infestation
age life because Select the correct answer using the code given below
(a) Exposure to sunlight is prevented (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(b) Concentration of carbon dioxide in the environment (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
is increased
(c) Rate of respiration is decreased 7. With reference to the food chains in ecosystems,
which of the following kinds of organism is/are
(d) There is an increase in humidity
known as decomposer organism/organisms?
3. Consider the following fauna of India: 1. Virus 2. Fungi
1. Gharial 3. Bacteria
2. Leatherback turtle
Select the correct answer using the code given below
3. Swamp deer
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
Which of the above is/are endangered?
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None 8. Which of the following is/are unique characteristic/
characteristics of equatorial forests?
4. Many transplanted seedling do not grow because
1. Presence of tall, closely set trees with crowns form-
(a) the new soil does not contain favourable minerals ing a continuous canopy.
(b) most of the root hairs grip the new soil too hard 2. Coexistence of a large number of species.
(c) most of the root hair are lost during transplantation 3. Presence of numerous varieties of epiphytes.
(d) leaves get damaged during transplantation Select the correct answer using the code given below
5. Which of the following leaf modification occurs/ (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
occur in desert areas to inhibit water loss? (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
1. Hard and waxy leaves
9. Consider the following crops:
2. Tiny leaves or no leaves
1. Cotton 2. Groundnut
3. Thorns instead of leaves
3. Rice 4. Wheat
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: Which of these are Kharif crops?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (a) 1 and 4 (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 1 2, and 3 (d) 2, 3 and 4
All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing. xix
10. “Climate is extreme, rainfall is scanty and the people 15. With reference to food chains in ecosystems, con-
used to be nomadic herders”. sider the following statements:
The above statement best describes which of the 1. A food chain illustrates the order in which a chain
following regions?
of organisms feed upon each other.
(a) African Savannah
2. Food chains are found within the populations of a
(b) Central Asian Steppe
species.
(c) North American Prairie
(d) Siberian Tundra 3. A food chain illustrates the numbers of each organ-
ism which are eaten by others.
11. Under the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional
Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
2006, who shall be the authority to initiate the pro- (a) 1 only (doubt) (b) 1 and 2 only
cess for determining the nature and extent of indi-
vidual or community forest rights or both? (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None (Doubt)
(a) State Forest Department 16. Consider the following pairs:
(b) District Collector / Deputy Commissioner National Park River flowing through
(c) Tahsildar / Block Development Officer / Mandal
the Park
Revenue Officer
(d) Gram Sabha 1. Corbett National Park : Ganga
2. Kaziranga National Park : Manas
12. Improper handling and storage of cereal grains and
oilseeds result in the production of toxins known as 3. Silent Valley National Park : Kaveri
aflatoxins which are not generally destroyed by nor- Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?
mal cooking process. Aflatoxins are produced by
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 3 only
(a) bacteria (b) protozoa
(c) moulds (d) viruses (c) 1 and 3 (d) None
13. Due to improper / indiscriminate disposal of old and 17. Consider the following organisms:
used computers or their parts, which of the follow- 1. Agaricus 2. Nostoc
ing are released into the environment as e-waste?
3. Spirogyra
1. Beryllium 5. Mercury
2. Cadmium 6. Lead Which of the above is/are used as biofertilizer/
3. Chromium 7. Plutonium biofertilizers?
4. Heptachlor (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only
Select the correct answer using the codes given below. (c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 only
(a) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only 18. Which of the following adds/add nitrogen to the soil?
(b) 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 only
1. Execretion of urea by animals
(c) 2, 4, 5 and 7 only
2. Burning of coal by man
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7
3. Death of vegetation
14. Acid rain is caused by the pollution of environment
by Select the correct answer using the codes given
(a) carbon dioxide and nitrogen below.
(b) carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) ozone and carbon dioxide (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) nitrous oxide and sulphur dioxide
xx All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
19. In which of the following States is lion-tailed ma- Select the correct answer using the codes given
caque found in its natural habitat? below.
1. Tamil Nadu 2. Kerala (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2, 4 and 5 only
3. Karnataka 4. Andhra Pradesh (c) 1,3 and 5 only (d) None
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
codes 25. Consider the following Animals
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 only 1. Sea cow 2. Sea horse
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 3. Sea lion
20. Which one of the following terms describes not only Which of the above is / are mammal/mammals?
the physical space occupied by an organism, but also (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 3 only
its functional role in the community of organisms?
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1,2 and 3
(a) Ecotone (b) Ecological niche
(c) Habitat (d) Home range 26. With Reference to the usefulness of the by-products
of sugar industry, which of the following statements
21. Photochemical smog is a resultant of the reaction
is/are correct?
among
(a) NO2, O3 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the presence of 1. Begasse can be used as biomass fuel for the gen-
sunlinght eration of energy
(b) CO, O2 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the presence of 2. Molasses can be used as one of the feedstocks for
sunlight the production of synthetic chemical fertilizers.
(c) CO, CO2 and NO2 at low temperature 3. Molasses can be used for the production of
(d) high concentration of NO2 O3 and CO in the evening ethanol.
22. Recombinant DNA technology (Genetic Engineering) Select the correct answer using the codes given
allows genes to be transferred below
1. across different species of plants (a) only (b) and 3 only
2. from animals to plants (c) and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
3. from microorganisms to higher organisms
27. Consider the following pairs:
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
1. Nokrek Bio-sphere Reserve : Garo Hills
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 2. Logtak (Loktak) Lake : Barail Range
23. Consider the following: 3. Namdapha National Park : Dafla Hills

1. Star tortoise 2. Monitor lizard Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?
3. Pygmy hog 4. Spider monkey (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
Which of the above are naturally found in India? (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 and 3 only
28. In the grasslands, trees do not replace the grasses
(c) 1 and 4 only (d) 1, 2 3 and 4
as a part of an ecological succession because of
24. Which of the following can be found as pollutants in (a) Insects and fungi
the drinking water in some parts of India?
1. Arsenic 2. Sorbitol (b) Limited sunlight and paucity of nutrients
3. Fluoride 4. Formaldehyde (c) Water limits and fire
5. Uranium (d) None of the above
All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing. xxi
29. Which of the following is the correct sequence of 30. Contour bunding is a method of soil conservation
ecosystems in the order of decreasing productivity? used in
(a) Oceans, lakes, grasslands, mangroves (a) Desert margins, liable to strong wind action
(b) Mangroves, oceans, grasslands, lakes (b) Low flat plains, close to stream course, liable to
flooding
(c) Mangroves, grasslands, lakes, oceans
(c) Scrublands, liable to spread of weed growth
(d) Oceans, mangroves, lakes, grasslands.
(d) None of the above
2013 - Answers
1(d) 2(c) 3(d) 4(c) 5(d) 6(d) 7(b) 8(d) 9(c) 10(b)
11(d) 12(c) 13(b) 14(d) 15{a (or) (d) doubt} 16(d) 17(b) 18(c) 19(a) 20(b)
21(a) 22(d) 23(a) 24(c) 25(b) 26(c) 27(a) 29(c) 30(d)

28(c)

xxii All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
2014 QUESTION PAPER
ENVIRONMENTAL ECOLOGY, 3. Gulf of Mannar

BIODIVERSITY, CLIMATE CHANGE, ACT 4. Sunderbans
& POLICIES, CURRENT AFFAIRS AND Select the correct answer using the code given below.
MAP BASED QUESTIONS (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 and 4 only
1. With reference to ‘Eco-Sensitive Zones’, which of the (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
following statements is/are correct? 5. In India, the problem of soil erosion is associated
1. Eco-Sensitive Zones are the areas that are declared with which of the following?
under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. 1. Terrace cultivation
2. The purpose of the declaration of Eco-Sensitive 2. Deforestation
Zones is to prohibit all kinds of human activities in 3. Tropical Climate
those zones except agriculture.
Select the correct answer using the code given below
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
6. Consider the following Pairs:
2. Consider the following statements: Wetlands Confluence of rivers
1. Animal Welfare Board of India is established under 1. Harike Wetlands : Confluence of Beas and
the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. Satluj / Sutlej
2. National Tiger Conservation Authority is a statutory 2. Keoladeo Ghana : Confluence of National Park
body. Banas and Chambal
3. National Ganga River Basin Authority is chaired by 3. Kolleru Lake : Confluence of Musi and
the Prime Minister. Krishna
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3
(c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
3. There is some concern regarding the nanoparticles 7. The most important strategy for the conservation of
of some chemical elements that are used by the in- biodiversity together with traditional human life is
dustry in the manufacture of various products. the establishment of
Why? (a) biosphere reserves
1. They can accumulate in the environment, and con- (b) botanical gardens
taminate water and soil. (c) national parks
2. They can enter the food chains. (d) wildlife sanctuaries
3. They can trigger the production of free radicals. 8. The scientific view is that the increase in global tem-
Select the correct answer using the code given below. perature should not exceed 2°C above pre-industrial
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only level. If the global temperature increases beyond 3°C
above the pre-industrial level, what can be its pos-
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 sible impact/impacts on the world?
4. Which of the following have coral reefs? 1. Terrestrial biosphere tends toward a net carbon
1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands source
2. Gulf of Kachchh 2. Widespread coral mortality will occur
All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing. xxiii
3. All the global wetlands will permanently disappear. 13. Every year, a month long ecologically important
4. Cultivation of cereals will not be possible anywhere campaign / festival is held during which certain
in the world communities / tribes plant saplings of fruit-bearing
trees. Which of the following are such communities
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
/ tribes?
(a) Bhutia and Lepcha
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(b) Gond and Korku
9. What are the benefits of implementing the Inte- (c) Irula and Toda
grated Watershed Development Programme?
(d) Sahariya and Agariya
1. Prevention of soil runoff
14. With reference to two non-conventional energy
2. Linking the country’s perennial rivers with sea-
sources called ‘coalbed methane’ and ‘shale gas’,
sonal rivers
consider the following statements:
3. Rainwater harvesting and recharge of groundwater
table. 1. Coalbed methane is the pure methane gas extracted
from coal seams, while shale gas is a mixture of
4. Regeneration of natural vegetation. propane and butane only that can be extracted from
Select the correct answer using the code given below: fine-grained sedimentary rocks.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only 2. In India, abundant coalbed methane sources exist,
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 but so far no shale gas sources have been found.
10. Lichens, which are capable of initiating ecological Which of the statements given above is / are correct?
succession even on a bare rock, are actually a sym- (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
biotic association of (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(a) algae and bacteria
15. In India, cluster bean (Guar) is traditionally used as
(b) algae and fungi a vegetable or animal feed, but recently the cultiva-
(c) bacteria and fungi tion of this has assumed significance. Which one of
(d) fungi and mosses the following statements is correct in this context?
(a) The oil extracted from seeds is used in the manu-
11. If you travel through the Himalayas, you are likely
facture of biodegradable plastics
to see which of the following plants naturally grow-
ing there? (b) The gun made from its seeds is used in the extrac-
tion of shale gas
1. Oak 2. Rhododendron
(c) The leaf extract of this plant has the properties of
3. Sandalwood
anti-histamines
(d) It is a source of high quality biodiesel
16. With reference to Neem tree, consider the following
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
statements:
12. Which of the following are some important pollut- 1. Neem oil can be used as a pesticide to control the
ants released by steel industry in India? proliferation of some species of insects and mites.
1. Oxides of sulphur 2. Neem seeds are used in the manufacture of biofuels
2. Oxides of nitrogen and hospital detergents.
3. Carbon monoxide 3. Neem oil has applications in pharmaceutical indus-
4. Carbon dioxide try.
Select the correct answer using the code given below. Which of the statements given above is / are correct?
(a) 1, 3 and 4 only (b) 2 and 3 only (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
xxiv All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
17. Which one of the following is the process involved 3. It is a movement to raise the awareness about the
in photosynthesis? climate change and the need to save the planet.
(a) Potential energy is released to form free energy Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(b) Free energy is converted into potential energy and (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only
stored (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) Food is oxidized to release carbon dioxide and water
22. Which one of the following is the correct sequence
(d) Oxygen is taken, and carbon dioxide and water va- of a food chain?
pour are given out
(a) Diatoms-Crustaceans-Herrings.
18. Which of the following statements is / are correct (b) Crustaceans-Diatoms-Herrings.
regarding vegetative propagation of plants?
(c) Diatoms-Herrings-Crustaceans.
1. Vegetative propagation produces clonal population.
(d) Crustaceans-Herrings-Diatoms.
2. Vegetative propagation helps in eliminating the
virus. 23. What are the significances of a practical approach
3. Vegetative propagation can be practiced most of the to sugarcane production known as ‘Sustainable Sug-
year. arcane Initiative’?
Select the correct answer using the code given below: 1. Seed cost is very low in this compared to the con-
ventional method of cultivation.
2. Drip irrigation can be practiced very effectively in
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
this.
19. Among the following organisms, which one does not 3. There is no application of chemical/inorganic ferti-
belong to the class of other three? lizers at all in this.
(a) Crab (b) Mite 4. The scope for inter cropping is more in this com-
(c) Scorpion (d) Spider pared to the conventional method of cultivation.
20. Consider the following international agreements: Select the correct answer using the code given below.
1. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only
for Food and Agriculture. (c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
2. The United Nations Convention to Combat Deserti-
24. If a wetland of international importance is brought
fication.
under the ‘Montreux Record’, what does it imply?
3. The World Heritage Convention.
(a) Changes in ecological character have occurred, are
Which of the above has/have a bearing on the occurring or are likely to occur in the wetland as a
biodiversity? result of human interference.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (b) The country in which the wetland is located should
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 enact a law to prohibit any human activity within
five kilometers from the edge of the wetland.
21. Consider the following statements regarding ‘Earth
Hour’ (c) The survival of the wetland depends on the cultural
practices and traditions of certain communities liv-
1. It is an initiative of UNEP and UNESCO.
ing in its vicinity and therefore the cultural diver-
2. It is a movement in which the participants switch sity therein should not be destroyed.
off the lights for one hour on a certain day every
(d) It is given the status of ‘World Heritage Site’.
year.
All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing. xxv
25. With reference to Bombay Natural History Society Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(BNHS), consider the following statements: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
1. It is an autonomous organization under the Minis- (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
try of Environment and Forests.
29. Which of the following phenomena might have in-
2. It strives to conserve nature through action based fluenced the evolution of organisms?
research, education and public awareness.
1. Continental drift 2. Glacial cycles
3. It organizes and conducts nature trails and camps Select the correct answer using the code given below.
for the general public.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
30. Other than poaching, what are the possible reasons
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 for the decline in the population of Ganges River
26. With reference to ‘Global Environment Facility’, Dolphins?
which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. Construction of dams and barrages on rivers.
(a) It serves as financial mechanism for ‘Convention on 2. Increase in the population of crocodiles in rivers.
Biological Diversity’ and ‘United Nations Frame- 3. Getting trapped in fishing nets accidentally.
work Convention on Cliamte Change’. 4. Use of synthetic fertilizers and other agricultural
(b) It undertakes scientific research on environmental chemicals in crop-fields in the vicinity of rivers.
issues at global level. Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(c) It is an agency under OECD to facilitate the transfer (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
of technology and funds to underdeveloped coun- (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
tries with specific aim to protect their environment.
31. Brominated flame retardants are used in many
(d) Both (a) and (b).
household products like mattresses and upholstery.
27. Consider the following pairs: Why is there some concern about their use?
1. Dampa Tiger Reserve : Mizoram 1. They are highly resistant to degradation in the en-
2. Gumti Wildlife Sanctuary : Sikkim vironment.
2. They are able to accumulate in humans and animals.
3. Saramati Peak : Nagaland
Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
32. Consider the following:
28. With reference to a conservation organization called
1. Bats 2. Bears
‘Wetlands International’, which of the following
statements is/are correct? 3. Rodents
1. It is an intergovernmental organization formed by The phenomenon of hibernation can be observed in

which of the above kinds of animals?
the countries which are signatories to Ramsar Con-
vention. (a) 1 and 2 only
2. It works at the field level to develop and mobilize (b) 2 only
knowledge, and use the practical experience to ad- (c) 1, 2 and 3
vocate for better policies. (d) Hibernation cannot be observed in any of the above.
xxvi All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
33. Which of the following adds/add carbon dioxide to 34. If you walk through countryside, you are likely to see
the carbon cycle on the planet Earth? some birds stalking alongside the cattle to seize the
1. Volcanic action 2. Respiration insects disturbed by their movement through grasses.
Which of the following is / are such bird/birds?
3. Photosynthesis
1. Painted Stork 2. Common Myna
4. Decay of organic matter
3. Black-necked Crane
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 only
2014 - Answers
1(d) 2(b) 3(d) 4(a) 5(b) 6(a) 7(a) 8(b) 9(c) 10(b) 11(a) 12(d) 13(b) 14(d) 15(b) 16(c) 17(b)
18(c) 19(a) 20(d) 21(c) 22(a) 23(b) 24(a) 25(c) 26(a) 27(c) 28(b) 29(c) 30(c) 31(c) 32(c) 33(c) 34(b)

All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing. xxvii
2015 QUESTION PAPER
1. Which one of the following National Parks has a 5. In India, in which one of the following types of for-
climate that varies from tropical to subtropical, tem- ests is teak a dominant tree species?
perate and arctic?
a) Tropical moist deciduous forest
a) Khangchendzonga National park
b) Tropical rain forest
b) Nandadevi National Park
c) Tropical thorn scrub forest
c) Neora Valley National Park
d) Temperate forest with grasslands
d) Namdapha National park
2. ‘BioCarbon Fund Initiative for Sustainable Forest 6. Which one of the following is the best description of
Landscapes’ is managed by the the term “ecosystem”?
(a) Asian Development Bank a) A community of organisms interacting with one
(b) International Monetary Fund another
(c) United Nations Environment Programme b) That part of the Earth which is inhabited by living
(d) World Bank organisms
c) A community of organisms together with the envi-
3. The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee is
ronment in which they live.
constituted under the
(a) Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 d) The flora and fauna of a geographical area.
(b) Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration 7. H1N1 virus is sometimes mentioned in the news with
and Protection) Act, 1999 reference to which one of the following diseases?
(c) Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (a) AIDS (b) Bird flu
(d) Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (c) Dengue (d) swine flu
4. With reference to ‘Forest Carbon Partnership Facil- 8. Which of the following National Parks is unique in
ity’, which of the following statements is/are cor-
being a swamp with floating vegetation that sup-
rect?
ports a rich biodiversity?
1. It is global partnership of governments, businesses,
a) Bhitarkanika National Park
civil society and indigenous peoples
b) Keibul Lamjao National Park
2. It provides financial aid to universities, individual
scientists and institutions involved in scientific for- c) Keoladeo Ghana National park
estry research to develop eco-friendly and climate d) Sultanpur National park
adaptation technologies for sustainable forest man-
9. With reference to the International Union for Con-
agement
servation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
3. It assists the countries in their ‘REDD+ (Reducing and the Convention on International Trade in En-
Emission from Deforestation and Forest Degrada- dangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES),
tion+)’ efforts by providing them with financial and which of the following statements is/are correct?
technical assistance. 1. IUCN is an organ of the United Nations and CITES
Select the correct answer using the code given is an international agreement between govern-
below ments
a) 1 only b) 2 and 3 only 2. IUCN runs thousands of field projects around the
c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3 world to better manage natural environments.
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Twelve years ago these natives tried to assert their independence
of French rule, and many of the brave fellows fell fighting here
among the mountains. From that time, therefore, they do not
entertain a friendly recollection of the French; and they supposed me
to be a Frenchman. However, they did not openly venture to run
counter to the safe conduct the Khalifa had given me, so they went
through the forms of hospitality; but my guides were in the right—my
hosts were, to say the least, unwilling.
I walked up a path which led towards the cemetery. On the
precipitous slope lay mound on mound, composed of small stones.
Here rested, perhaps, the defenders of their fatherland, laid low by
the bullets of the French.
From the tanks beneath the slopes the women drew water. They
carried the huge pitchers on their backs, bound to their foreheads by
a towel. Each turned away her face, or concealed it in her towel, as
they approached us. The men stood, like rigid statues, without
looking at us; not one extended the hand of welcome.
We dismounted on the outskirts of the village, and the young man
led me into a stinking court and opened the door of a room that was
snug enough, but where dirt, dust, and spiders reigned. The
atmosphere was extremely musty and disgusting. I at once decided
that I would not inhabit it, and proclaimed my amazement at their
daring to offer me such a room.
The reply was that it was impossible to procure other quarters,
and that there were none better to be found. Knowing this to be
false, I said plainly that I would not submit to such treatment, and, in
accordance with Belkassim’s advice, ordered that a tent should be
pitched outside the house on a small terrace near the slope. The
young man bent his head in consent, and soon several men were
busy sweeping the terrace and driving tent pegs into the hard
ground.
Our horses still stood saddled, without anyone offering to look
after them, and again I had to do battle for my rights, with the result
that they were stabled and supplied with provender.
In the meantime I walked down the mountain side, partly to look
about me, partly to allow my followers time to fight out matters with
the natives.
The sun had just set as I seated myself on a stone and looked up
to the village above me; in the gathering darkness it showed as a
massive black pile. On the terraces outside I could distinguish dark
figures engaged in their evening orisons. They bowed frequently and
kissed the ground, and then lay prostrate for some moments, deep in
prayer.
The dogs around me barked, and I could hear the hammering in
of the tent pegs, as also voices in discussion above me. Near me
was a new grave—perhaps of that very day; it was covered with
stones, and in the middle was stuck a bit of stick with a green rag
attached to it, to scare jackals and deter them from digging up the
body.
Presently our horses were led down the hill by Hamed, and
watered at one of the tanks. As he passed he confided to me that
Belkassim had managed his business so well that all was now in
order. The latter had declared that I was not a Frenchman, but a
stranger from another land, a friend of the Khalifa and of the tribe.
This, it appeared, had changed the attitude of the Zarauar, for,
when I soon after returned to the town, several men came forward
and offered me another dwelling which, after inspection, I accepted. I
also granted the permission they asked to strike the tent.
The dwelling in question evidently belonged to someone practised
in carpentry, for in the corners lay bits of wood, knives, axes, etc.
The ceiling was of palm stems, and on the stone walls hung a
quantity of platters, bowls, trays, and cooking-pots. Lighting a candle
I stood it on a plank, and threw myself on my rugs with my saddle
under my head, and fancied myself the owner.
It was long before any food arrived, but when it did it was
excellent. Whilst I ate, a knot of people stood at the open door and
watched me. I chatted with them, and in the end we became
ostensibly good friends, especially after I had distributed some
cigarettes.
The public retired when the bowls and trays were carried out, and
I applied myself to writing. That being done I rolled myself in my
burnous and went to sleep. When I had slept but a short time I was
awakened by the sound of the yard gate rattling. Our horses, which
stood in the gateway, were evidently disturbed. Then I heard a light
footfall on the pavement outside, and a sound as of someone
breathing near my door, and a few minutes after a fumbling at the
door handle. This I could not stand. Springing up I quickly struck a
match and opened the door. There, with its head to my nose and
breathing in my face, stood a camel; and behind it another.
Thank goodness, it was nothing worse.
Before sunrise we started, riding in the cool morning over
mountain and vale to Tamezred. By a deep stony gorge we arrived at
the foot of the mountain, where the road was so impracticable that
we all three had to dismount and drag our horses along; it took us
half an hour to cover a quarter of a mile.
This was certainly the most unapproachable eyrie I have seen in
the south. From the mountain top the view extended for miles over
hill and dale down to the plains to the south-west in the country of Bir
Sultan, at least forty miles distant. There the herds were grazing, for
no rain had fallen on the mountains.
Sheikh El-Hadj Abdallah received us amicably, and invited me to
the guest-chamber—a stuffy room—where food was brought me.
From thence I overlooked a wonderfully beautiful landscape.
The inhabitants spoke the Berber tongue, but also understood
Arabic. I tried in vain to get some Berber manuscripts to examine,
but none were to be had, the language being nowadays written in
Arabic characters.
The Sheikh’s property—a square court with a low range of
buildings outside it—I examined from end to end. Within were
women spinning and cooking. In one enclosure stood a fine bull, in
another I discovered a number of old flint-lock muskets hanging
amongst keys, yarn, powder-horns, and pomegranates, all being
spun over with spider webs. The guns had probably not been used
since the French invasion.
FALCONERS.
This was the only occasion on which I saw firearms in any

numbers, the Arabs generally concealing them—often under their
beds so as to have them handy.
In the guest-room a camel’s-hair tent hung, rolled up under the
roof. When the men wander forth after the rainfall to hunt or to sow,
the tent is packed on a camel and taken with them.
The Sheikh informed me that the inhabitants of Tamezred number
some five hundred souls. Of these about a hundred men can be
armed; they mostly fight on foot, as horses are rare in these
mountains; in Tamezred there are only seven, but there are many
hundreds of camels, about a hundred cows, as many small donkeys,
and large herds of sheep and goats. These graze on the plains, far
away towards Bir Sultan and Bir Zuamitz, watched by the men of the
village.
When the rain falls, all the men and some of the women go off to
the plains to plough and sow; they live in tents, and their sheikhs
accompany them and hunt gazelle and other game. Only a few old
men remain in the villages to guard the women and children.
It is not the people of Tamezred alone who thus migrate, but also
those from other mountain villages, as Zaraua and Tujud. Hadeij, in
the Matmata mountains, feeds its herds in the plain south-west of the
range beside the course of the river Wad Halluf.
The village of Tamezred is crowned at the top by a minaret, and
lower down, amongst the houses, are several Marabout tombs with
vaulted cupolas. Only one of these, the grave of Sid Hadj Yussuf, is
limewashed and gleams white in the sunshine; the most part are
grey, and at a distance it is scarcely possible to distinguish the
buildings from the rocks.
On a height outside the village is raised a great surveyor’s
landmark, visible for miles, and corresponding to others on the peaks
of the Matmata mountains. These points of observation were raised
by a French officer for the purpose of making a survey, which will
surely be carried out ere long.
Having now attained the most westerly inhabited point of the
Matmata mountains, we took an easterly direction, again following
steep paths and deep gorges to reach the real Matmata villages, of
which Lasheish is the largest.
In a deep valley on the way we found some half-score men
occupied in clearing an old circular well built of unhewn stone. They
told me that this supposed well was discovered quite recently. It
dates from the time of the Romans, at least so report says, but it
may be even more ancient, for no one remembers either having
seen or heard of it.
The sand, which they drew up in rough baskets, was only slightly
moist, but the fact of its being so gave them good hope, though they
had already reached a depth of over one hundred and fifty feet.
Later in the day we passed a kubba, said to be the burial-place of
a female Marabout. This lay, completely ruined, on a ridge between
two crests of the mountain. I wanted to peep in, but my guides
requested me not to do so.
From this point is a view of a wide valley, to the north of which are
the mountains, and behind them lies Hadeij. Beyond the range we
had a glimpse, through a haze, of the plains of Gabés and, far out, of
the Mediterranean Sea.
In the valley below stood a whitewashed, square, cupola-topped
Marabout tomb, that of “Sid Barrak.” I let my attendants go on a little
in advance and sneaked in, first tying up my horse outside. The
room was square, with a vaulted roof. In the centre of the floor stood
a high square frame of carved wood, beneath which the saint was
evidently buried. In each corner of the frame was stuck a flag. On the
ground, along the whitewashed walls, were earthern pots, such as
are used by the negroes; they were apparently sooty from use.
Above were sketched, in black, lines, circles, and figures that
reminded me of the Berber alphabet.
Just as I was copying these ornaments in my sketch-book,
Hamed and Belkassim stepped in.
Hamed desired me to put on my burnous and draw the hood over
my head before I left, so that no one should discover that I had
entered; and Belkassim suggested that I should put some coins into
a bag that hung on the wooden frame, and which was provided for
the offerings of pilgrims, given to defray the expenses of illuminating
the Marabout’s tomb at the festivals; often celebrated, he said, by
the women in or near the tomb. I did as he desired.
Outside, in the vicinity of the tomb, were dug low underground
chambers, into which I crept. Scattered within was pottery, some
broken, a few pieces entire. They had been used, and there were
also traces of a fireplace and smoke stains on the roof, all
suggestive of the above-mentioned festivals. Both Belkassim and
Hamed murmured a few prayers at the grave, and when they had
finished their devotions we remounted. Belkassim looked carefully
round as we emerged. There was not a single soul in sight, so he
winked mischievously at me, and we went our way.
We were now again on undulating ground of hard chalk and clay,
cultivated in very good ridge and furrow, and planted with palms and
olives. In the distance we perceived several white spots in the valley.
These were the Marabouts of Lasheish, the large troglodyte village.
Meanwhile we were compelled to make a long détour, as we were in
most impassable country, cut up as it was by the numberless large
brooks, always found on either side of great rivers.
On a slope was a little white limekiln, whence smoke was rising.
By it were piled large faggots of wood, seeing which I began to
realise how much brushwood must, in course of time, have been
consumed in these limekilns, and then understood why the natives of
the Matmata do not, as a rule, whitewash their houses.
Lasheish is not under the authority of the Khalifa of Hadeij, but
under that of his colleague of Gabés. In other respects it is exactly
similar to Hadeij.
Knowing that the women here weave materials for burnouses,
clothing, towels, and, in fact, all that appertains to the garb of the
country, I decided on making some purchases. The cave to which I
was conducted became, therefore, during the period of my stay, a
regular shop, people coming in from all parts with goods for sale.
Fortunately, Mansur arrived on a visit, partly for the purpose of
inviting guests to the wedding feast; partly, so as to accompany me
on my way back to Hadeij. He materially assisted me in making my
many purchases, and in securing them at fairly reasonable prices.
But the bargaining was neither an easy nor a pleasant task for him,
as our host always sided with the vendors. They quarrelled violently
the whole time, and frequently, before completing a reasonable
bargain, I had to throw the article repeatedly back on the seller’s
hands. A gala burnous, I remember, was walked in and out of the
door seven times; on each occasion with a decided command that it
should not reappear before my eyes unless the price were reduced
to about an eighth of what was first asked. Each time the owner
returned, he abated a little and the haggling was renewed. With the
air of a connoisseur I would re-examine the burnous, only to arrive at
the same conclusion—it was far too dear. So again it was returned to
the owner, who was at once pushed aside by other vendors.
Belkassim and Hamed vied with each other in shouts of abuse.
There was a regular storm, and what a blessed calm when the
bargaining was ended.
The simplest sale cannot take place without these folk abusing
one another as if their lives depended on it.
Not having allowed myself to be cheated, I had rather risen than
fallen in the natives’ estimation. The men, who a moment before had
seemed to feel bitter enmity towards me and my guides, and who
had often been harshly turned out of the room, now sat comfortably
in peace and quiet beside me, watching me eat.
After dinner I took a turn through the village, but soon perceived
that I was being led about much as foreign officers are at great
military manœuvres in Europe, when they are shown everything
except what they are most desirous of seeing. I was, therefore, soon
ready to depart; all the more so, as I observed that the caves were
all on the same lines of construction as those I had already
examined at Hadeij.
Just as we were about to mount our horses, a man approached
us. Cringing humbly and miserably, he dragged himself to my horse
and kissed my hand. I was told he was the owner of the dog which
had bitten Hamed’s horse yesterday. He came to entreat me not to
inform the Khalifa of the occurrence, as he feared he might be cast
into prison. Having told him that I was sure the Khalifa would be
lenient, I spurred my horse and rode off; but my reply did not at all
satisfy the penitent, who rushed to my side and clung to my clothing.
I was near being angry, when my host came forward and explained
that should the Khalifa hear that I had been molested on the way, the
man would not escape punishment. Therefore he and the people of
Lasheish implored that I would entirely refrain from reporting to the
Khalifa the mishap that had befallen us.
I glanced down at the culprit, and nearly burst out laughing; he
looked so ridiculous. Never do I remember having seen a more
hypocritical and debased countenance.
I preserved my gravity, however, promised to keep silence, and
put out my hand to take leave. The culprit literally snatched it to his
mouth, and I heard him calling down the blessings of Allah upon me.
In an open square, planted with palms, the date harvest was in
progress. The golden bunches which hung on the green crowns fell
to the blows of a curved knife. Lightly clad men, boys, and even a
young girl, worked in the tree-tops; climbing quickly and adroitly up
and down the rough surface of the straight stems. Below, men and
women collected the bunches in great clusters, which they placed in
rush panniers, and removed on the backs of small donkeys.
It was difficult to tear myself away from this idyll, but we had to
press forward, so I hurried up my little escort, and we marched on
over the mountains.
Mansur had much difficulty in keeping up with me, being very
heavy, and accustomed to ride a mule rather than a horse. There
was always something wrong with his saddle, and he was
perpetually dismounting to alter first one thing, then another, thus
being left farther and farther behind. We were obliged at last to halt,
to allow him to rejoin us, though time was passing, and sunset was
near.
A little distance from Hadeij we found, at the bottom of the valley,
a little donkey standing quite alone, feeding on some straw.
Belkassim said that if left there at night the jackals would soon make
away with it.
It was almost dark when we crossed the river and rode up to the
village.
Again I saw the boys romping in the square amongst the palms.
Their glad voices reached my ear, and when they caught sight of me
they ran up to us followed by their barking dogs.
The men, grouped beneath the trees, rose and came forward to
press my hand. The Khalifa also rose to receive me. I thanked him
for the delightful trip he had arranged for me.
“I am glad that you are satisfied; glad to see you here again; and
that you will stay with me, your brother, even for forty years.”
Of course these speeches must not be taken literally, they only
express the kindly feeling of the speaker towards oneself.
After I had dined in my cave I sallied out to the Khalifa’s dwelling
to be present, in accordance with his invitation, at the festivities held
in honour of the third day.
As I did not like the old man to be inconvenienced by having to sit
on a chair because I did so, I suggested that we should sit together
amongst the other men. To this he agreed.
Gradually there arrived numbers of men from all the surrounding
country; these sat tightly packed on the banks, as on the previous
occasion.
Again the negroes danced, the drums boomed, and the clarionets
screamed; whilst the Khalifa, his sons, and myself sat together in a
friendly group looking on.
Now and then the women sang, but, as far as I could understand,
neither bride nor bridegroom were mentioned in their songs, certainly
not the latter.
It was hard to keep awake. Belkassim’s little son nestled up to
me, and, as it grew chilly, I wrapped my burnous about him, and he
was soon asleep. The monotonous music induced drowsiness; I
fought valiantly against it, which was more than Hamed did, for I
suddenly found him snoring beside me, wrapped in his burnous. I let
him repose, but from that moment conversation betwixt myself and
my foreign surroundings was limited to the simplest compliments.
In the course of the afternoon the Khalifa invited me to come back
again and be present at the special bridal festival to be held five
days later. I promised to return.
Next morning—the 20th October—I left Hadeij to ride back to
Gabés. I took leave of the Khalifa, with many expressions of
goodwill, adding, “May you soon have rain, that your olive trees may
neither wither nor die.”
Just as we reached the first height, Mansur, who had volunteered
to follow me to Gabés, pointed out how coal-black the heavens were
in the direction of the sea, and how the lightning flashed and the
thunder rolled, saying, “Allah has heard your good wish. It will rain in
the Matmata mountains.”
When we descended into the plain, the rain pelted in our faces.
We put on our burnouses, pulled the hoods over our heads, and
hurried on. A moment after, we were wet through.
Mansur continually lagged behind; it was difficult for him to keep
up, and he begged us to ride on without waiting for him.
Once we passed a shepherd with his flock; the sheep were all
huddled together, the goats apart, whilst he had taken shelter under
a bush.
We crossed a couple of river beds which, when I passed a few
days ago, had been dry and parched; now the water rushed over
them in a rapid stream. However our horses crossed easily, and I
started at a gallop, pushing quickly through rain and slough, with the
mud flying up to my ears, till, the ground presently growing too
slippery, I was again reduced to going at foot’s pace.
The palm grove of El Hamdu gleamed through the rain, but before
we could reach the oasis the river had to be crossed. The ford
amongst the tamarisk and oleander bushes we found easily, but the
torrent ran high. I urged my horse forward, and he went slowly
through the water till he suddenly slipped and fell, wetting me to the
middle. I tried to turn him back, but the current swept us to the side,
and at last I gave up the struggle, being afraid that my books and
sketches might get wet. Then I caught sight of Hamed, and saw his
horse, which was laden both before and behind the saddle with my
purchases, plunging about in the swirling stream, and splashing the
water in every direction. I shouted to him to turn back.
We then followed the course of the river a long way up, and tried
to cross several times, but without success.
A herd of little, thin, brown cattle walked along the banks; they
had got separated, and some were on either side of the river. They
had apparently no guardian, and were evidently endeavouring to
rejoin each other. Occasionally one of them would plunge into the
water, only to be driven back to the bank by the current, and we
heard the distressed bellowing of the divided herd.
At last, at a spot where the river was very broad, we succeeded in
crossing without mishap, but the water reached above the horses’
girths.
We then returned along the banks to the ford, where we waited for
half an hour before Mansur’s white horse appeared on the opposite
shore. The rain poured down incessantly, and our horses pawed the
ground impatiently, eager to get on, but we were compelled to wait to
direct Mansur where to cross.
“To the left! to the left!” we shouted; but Mansur had drawn his
burnous so closely over his head that he could neither see nor hear,
and not till he was close to the river were we able to attract his
attention; then he also crossed safely, and we continued our way.
In the neighbourhood of the oasis we could hear the El Hamdu
folk crying and lamenting the rainfall. The date harvest of the oasis
was not ended, and, until it was over, water was injurious to the
dates. What is good for the olives and the barley fields is injurious to
the palms, the chief source of subsistence of the people of the
oases. All over the world the agriculturist is the same.
Involuntarily I recollected a certain old fellow, a countryman of
mine, in a town in Jutland, who, sitting at his dinner-table one day,
complained loudly that the Almighty had not taken pity on the poor
country folk and sent them a little rain for their rye-fields; when, at
the very same instant, there was a loud clap of thunder, and rain
suddenly pelted down without any warning. He at once jumped up,
rushed to the window and exclaimed, “Oh, the devil! now all my peat
is gone to ———!”
Step by step our horses splashed on through the puddles; it was
almost impossible to quicken our pace; so it was late in the day
when we reached Gabés, to find everything standing in pools.
The river had not been so swollen for many years, and had done
much damage.
Luckily, neither my sketches nor my purchases had suffered.
CHAPTER VI
Of the Matmata Mountains and their
Inhabitants
The Matmata mountains form the northern spur of the comparatively

small range which, in a curved line, follows more or less the bend of
the coast. Leaving a low stretch of land between itself and the sea,
this range runs first along the coast-line to the south of Jurat (of
which more hereafter), then continues right into Tripoli, being broken
only at intervals.
Here and there it is inhabited by Berber tribes, who are indeed
Mohammedans, but have in great measure retained unchanged their
primitive habits and customs.
In the mountains Ghurian and Jefren, to the south of Tripoli, are
found the brave independent kinsmen of the Berbers of Tunisia.
They recall with pride the exploits of their ancestors, and rear their
sons to be a free people and to labour. Therefore they have
maintained their intelligence and intellectual superiority, and have
been able to defy foreign rule, though not always with equal success.
For example, in the Jebel Jefren originated all the disturbances
which have occurred during the Turkish occupation of Tripoli.
North of Jebel Jefren is Jebel Nefusa, also inhabited by Berbers,
some of whom speak a dialect resembling the language of the
Tuareg. The greater proportion of these are supposed to be
descendants of the Libyans, who conquered the country before the
Arabs, and who, like these last, came also from the East.
It is the custom among some of the Nefus tribes, in common with
that of the Uled Nail of Algeria, that their young women, for a time
before marriage, abandon themselves to prostitution. This practice
naturally reminds one of the ancient cult of Astarte.
Tarik, conqueror of the Spaniards, was a Berber, a native of Jebel
Nefusa. Perchance he was one of the race who had owned
allegiance to Jewish sway. At any rate, after he conquered Spain,
the Jews there were treated by him with marked consideration. In his
case, as in that of so many Berbers who were drawn into the mighty
current of Mohammedanism, they never became fanatical Moslems,
and the same may be said at the present day.
Though indeed, like their kindred race the Tuareg, they became
Mohammedans (perhaps many of them had been under Christian
influence—at least there are signs of it), they are not fanatics. They
have no special religious order, and they belong to the so-called fifth
sect, and are unacquainted with any ritual.
Not a few of these Berbers reside in caves, “Jebel Ghurian”
meaning literally “the Mountain of Caves.” Before these cave
dwellers became Mohammedans, they raised altars to God; and,
according to travellers, very ancient stone monuments, dating from a
period previous to that of the Arabs, are to be found everywhere in
these regions. They resemble those found in Algeria, in Andalusia,
and even in Brittany.
The language of the country on the borders of Tripoli and Tunisia
is partly Arabic, partly Berber. It is probable that in earlier times the
Berber tongue was spoken from Jebel Jefren over Duirat to
Matmata.
Books written in the Berber language are not to be found here; so
far as we know (manuscripts have been discovered on the island of
Jerba), the Berber dialect being written in Arabic characters.
I ascertained that the language of Southern Tunisia is still spoken
in the villages of Zaraua, Tamezred, Tujud, Shenini, Ghermasi, and
Duirat (as also on the island of Jerba), and in part of Urghamma.
From Jebel Jefren to the Matmata mountains, the lively natives
closely resemble each other in their expressive eyes, happy
dispositions, and ready smile. Contrasted with the Arab, their
countenances are shorter and broader, and their hair less black.
They are essentially a free race. An assembly of the people in the
villages of Southern Tunisia, known as the “Miad,” settles tribal
questions, according to a local code (kanun) which is based on
ancient rules and customs, and is even more highly revered than the
Koran.
As arable land is extremely valuable, and the inhabitants of the
barren mountains are comparatively numerous, it has been the
custom from time immemorial, in Southern Tunisia at least, that the
young men should go to the coast towns in order to earn money,
wherewith, on their return, to buy a house, palms, cattle, and a wife;
alike in this respect to the Savoyards and Auvergnats who quit their
hearths and homes for a time.
In the towns these mountaineers live with the utmost frugality,
sleeping generally by the roadside, and earning their bread by all
sorts of work, such as water-carrying, domestic service, etc.
When in 1881-1882 the French army invaded the mountains of
Southern Tunisia, they were astonished to find that many of the
natives spoke French.
The “Ksar” dwellers are brave and hardy, and accustomed to
“hear the powder speak.” Their delight used to be to sally out on a
raid, when they made matters hot for all concerned. They were not
ordinary thieves—no, weapon in hand they fell on their adversaries,
who could never feel secure from a coup de main.
On the other hand, they, in their inaccessible and fortified eyries,
were prepared to defend themselves.
Their plundering raids extended over the Tripolitan frontier, even
as far as Rhadamés. They always plundered thoroughly. Dr.
Bertholon states that when he, as military surgeon, served in the
campaign against them, they not only seized all the herds, but even
the clothes of their victims. So completely did they strip prisoners,
that these would be left with only a scrap of shirt which barely
covered them.
The people of the adjacent oases on the plain and towards the
“Shotts,” who are more peaceful and phlegmatic, the circumstances
of their lives being better, have often suffered from the attacks and
depredations of the mountaineers, when they have not chosen to
purchase immunity by paying blackmail to the latter.
Dr. Bertholon maintains that monogamy is usual amongst them,
but my experience leads me to a different conclusion, since the men
of rank with whom I came in contact had generally several wives.
The abduction of women was not uncommon in earlier times,
when the armed inhabitants of the Ksar used to carry off their wives
by force.
That they had to guard their women carefully is not strange, since
these have the reputation of being light of morals.
One custom is universal amongst these people; it is that at the
wedding the bridegroom shows his bride a heavy stick, of which one
end that he holds to her nose is thoroughly and sweetly scented. The
interpretation of this custom being that so long as she conducts
herself properly, her life will be mild and pleasant like the scent; but,
on the other hand, should she misbehave she may be sure of being
well punished. I saw one of these sticks at Tatuin.
As I wished to form some idea of the manner in which a family
lived and worked together in the small troglodyte communities, I took
advantage of my stay with the Khalifa of Hadeij to procure
information regarding his family and the life they led in common.
These inquiries I had to make with the greatest discretion, for I
would not for the world have given them a chance of misjudging me,
or of supposing that I had come amongst them to spy. By degrees I
put together what I saw and heard till the whole picture is, I may
venture to say, correct in the main, though some of the minor details
may have been misunderstood by me, or have escaped my
observation.
Sadi-ben Mansur-Fatush, as Khalifa of the mountains, exercises
authority over the villages of the Matmata range. He is born of the
tribe of Uled Sliman, of which his son is a tribal sheikh.
The Khalifa is between sixty and seventy years of age, and has
three wives, Mena, Fatima, and Sasia. By the first he has two sons,
Amar and Mansur. By the second, one son, Mohammed. He has
probably daughters also; if so, they are married and live at a
distance, and no longer interest either their family or tribe. I could not
gain any information as to whether any had married within the tribe
itself.
Sheikh Amar has two wives; the first is named Aisha, the second
Meriam. He has two sons, Abderahman (by Aisha) and Mahmud (by
Meriam).
Mansur, who bears the title of “Adel” (notary) of the Uled Sliman,
has only one wife, named Uda, and no child.
Mohammed, “Kateb” (scribe) to the Uled Sliman, is his father’s
secretary. His first wife is called Meriam, and by her he has a son—
Hamed. His second wife, to whom he was married during my stay in
Hadeij, is called Mena; she is of the Uled Sliman, and a native of the
village that bears the name of that tribe.
The age of the Khalifa’s sons may be on an average about
twenty-two, none of their wives being probably over twenty. Of the
children of these marriages the eldest of the boys is about five years
old.
The Khalifa’s family, therefore, consists of about a score of souls,
who, as will be seen further on, live together; but to these must be
added other members of the household, negroes and servants with
their children, and a number of near relatives, and of men who attach
themselves to the Khalifa’s service. Many of the latter have homes of
their own, and possess palms, olive trees and cattle, which they farm
on their own account, but being dependants of the Khalifa must help
him to sow and reap his corn, prune his palms, gather the dates and
olives, press the oil, and, in short, do any work of which they are
capable.
MANSUR.
The Khalifa is very rich. He owns many underground dwellings,

barns, stables and oil mills, but a large proportion of the profits of all
these must be expended in providing food and shelter for the infinity
of people whom he protects. His large landed property and all his
possessions will be divided, when he dies, amongst his sons, who at
present own only what the old patriarch chooses to give them, but
after his death each will have his own palm and olive trees, his own
house and cattle; unless they prefer to continue living in fellowship.
The Khalifa’s property is valued at some two hundred thousand
francs—a pretty penny for a mountaineer living amongst barren hills
devoid of either springs or wells, but where the cliffs and valleys are
furrowed with channels to conduct the rain-water to cisterns, and
where every tree must have the earth banked about it that the water
may lie at its foot.
We will now examine the dwelling used by the Khalifa and his
family, and endeavour to form an idea of how the various married
couples are accommodated; thus ascertaining that, notwithstanding
patriarchal house-government and community of life, each little
group has its own portion, however small, of the dwelling set aside
for its own exclusive use.
The soil in the valley of Hadeij is composed of strong clay and
marl, which lend themselves admirably to the excavation of regular
well-shaped chambers. These have an advantage over dwellings
built above ground, in that they are cooler in summer and warmer in
winter, besides being easier to defend; they are not open to
discovery by strange, unaccustomed eyes, and afford good
protection against thieves and robbers, for cattle can also find shelter
within them.
The formation of the valley is undulating, and extends over low
hills divided by smooth level ground or by narrow gorges, where
streams flow in the rainy season. Seen from the mountain, the whole
looks like a great sand-pit scored with faint paths, and with
depressions where the olive and palm trees grow amongst the
mounds.
The plan of a dwelling is as follows:—
From the side of a hill, and through the solid earth, leads an
underground path—long or short, as the case may be—and quite the
height of a man. This takes one to the ground-level of a large square
excavation, open overhead, which is generally dug in the highest
part of the hill, and forms the courtyard. The walls of this court are
perpendicular and smooth. From the ground-level of this cave one
enters through an opening, a somewhat long underground chamber
with a vaulted roof, like that of a wine vault. These chambers are
used either as stores, stables, or dwelling-places.

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