Titarenko Na Angliiskii Dlia Zemleustroitelei English For La

УЧЕБН ИК
н д, ТИТАРЕНКО
АНГЛИЙСКИЙ
СТРОИТЕЛЕЙ
землЕУС
I —
N. A. TITARENKO
ENGLISH
FOR
LAND USE PLANNERS
Moscow
KolosS Publishing House
2010
| Д | _______________
УЧЕБНИКИ И УЧЕБНЫЕ ПОСОБИЯ ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ
ВЫСШИХ УЧЕБНЫХ ЗАВЕДЕНИЙ
Н. А. ТИТАРЕНКО
ДЛЯ
ЗЕМЛЕУСТРОИТЕЛЕЙ
Рекомендовано Учебно-методическим объединением

вузов России по образованию в области землеуст
ройства и кадастров в качестве учебного пособия для
студентов вузов, обучающихся по специальностям:
120301 «Землеустройство», 120302 «Земельный ка
дастр», 120303 «Городской кадастр»
Москва «КолосС» 2010

УДК 811.111(075.8)
ББК 81.2 Англ-923
Т39
Редактор 77. 77. Кожина
Р е ц е н з е н т ы : кандидат ф и лологически х наук О. В. Ш аталова (М ГОУ), к ан д и

да т технических наук 77. С. Самощенко ( М И С И С )
Титаренко Н. А.
Т39 Английский для землеустроителей. English for Land Use
Planners. — М.: КолосС, 2010. — 440 с. — (Учебники и учеб.
пособия для студентов высш. учеб. заведений).
ISBN 9 7 8 - 5 - 9 5 3 2 - 0 6 9 2 - 1
Учебное пособие содерж ит о сн о в н ы е сведения по ф он е ти к е, правилам

чтения и грам м атике с использовани ем сп ец и альн ой пр оф ессио н ал ьно й
лексики.
Материал представлен в виде текстов, словарны х п о яс н е н и й к ним, а
также системы л ек с и к о -грам м а ти ч ес к и х у праж н ен ий и задан и й (смысловых,
творческих и т .д .). Т ем ати ка текстов определяется главны м образом со дер
ж ани ем зем леустроительны х д и сц и п л и н в соответствии с вузовской п р о
граммой: зем ельны е ресурсы, использование городских и негородских з е
мель, оц ен к а земли, н екоторы е аспекты охраны и восстановл ения на р у ш е н
ных зем ель и т. д.
В учебное пособие включен ор и ги н ал ьн ы й материал из истории зем ел ь
ных о т н о ш е н и й в А нглии, а такж е спец иальны й раздел о проведении к о н к
ретных землеустроительны х преобразований на тер ри тор и и графства Л а н к а
ш ир, ос н о в ан н ы й на ф а к ти ч еск ом материале.
П р и веденны е в книге задания и упраж н ен ия не тольк о способствуют
ра сш и ре н и ю словарного запаса, но и развиваю т т ворч ес к и й подход к изуче
ни ю англ и йск о го язы ка. В конце пособия имею тся при лож ения.
П особие п р едназн ач ено для студентов зем леустроительны х сп ец и а л ь н о
стей, факультетов и вузов и может быть полезно всем, кто изучает а н гл и й с
кий я зы к и интересуется вопросами испол ьзовани я зем ли как главного и с
то ч н и ка пр о ц ве т ан и я страны .
УДК 811.111(075.8)
ББК 81.2 Англ-923
Оригина.1 -макет книги является собственностью издательства «КолосС»,

и его воспроизведение в любом виде, включая электронный,
без согласия издателя запрещено.
ISBN 9 7 8 - 5 - 9 5 3 2 - 0 6 9 2 - 1 © Издательство «КолосС». 2010

ОТ АВТОРА
Данное учебное пособие предназначено для тех, кто владеет о с

новными навыками чтения и понимания текста на английском
языке и желает совершенствовать свои знания в области грамма
тики и профессиональной землеустроительной лексики.
П особие рассчитано на 4—6 семестров работы в высшем учеб
ном заведении, где изучают дисциплины, связанные с проблема
ми использования земельных ресурсов, их оценки, перепланиро
вания, распределения и перераспределения, использования город
ских территорий и многими другими, которые в условиях форм и
рования земельного рынка становятся все более актуальными.
Тексты, содержащиеся в пособии, позволяют значительно по
полнить словарный запас, включая идиоматические выражения,
так как взяты из оригинальных источников. Последнее обстоя
тельство важно учесть и в том смысле, что будущий специалист
получает сведения об опыте использования земель в разных стра
нах мира из первоисточника (журнальная статья, документ, книга,
написанные носителями языка).
Особое значение придается системе упражнений и творческих
заданий. Многоплановость разделов (ресурсы и их оценка, транс
порт, использование городских земель, вопросы истории земель
ных отношений), а следовательно, и обширность лексического
материала потребовали комплексного подхода к представлению
лексико-грамматического материала.
Большое число упражнений дает возможность выучить и зак р е
пить в памяти новую лексику и зн аком ы й грамматический мате
риал, что способствует развитию и соверш енствованию речевых
навыков, столь необходимых в ситуациях профессионального о б
щения с зарубежными коллегами.
В зависимости от уровня подготовки учащихся часть заданий
может быть использована преподавателем для организации сам о
стоятельной работы студентов или для составления контрольных
заданий.
Подобные задания направлены на развитие навыков п р о ф есс и
5
онального общения; они способствуют формированию умения
ориентироваться в ситуации общения на иностранном языке, по
могают анализировать ситуацию и одновременно формулировать
свое отношение к предмету обсуждения на английском языке, а не
просто пассивно запоминать диалоги, что бьшо необходимо сту
денту на начальном этапе обучения.
Список сокращений
а — adjective — им я прилагательное п — noun - сущ ествительное

adv — adverb — наречие ha — hectar — гектар
am — ам ери к ан ск ая тер м и н ологи я etc. — и т ак далее
v — verb - глагол conj — conjunction — союз
p i — plural — м нож ественное число prep — preposition — предлог
Section I
LAND RESOURCES AND MAJOR USES OF LAND
Unit 1
LAND AND LAND USE PLANNING
I. Vocabulary notes:
wealth n богатство
land 1 л 1 . земля, суша, берег; 2. материк; 3. страна, государство;
4. земельный участок, земельная собственность; 5. почва; II v при
земляться
land resources земельные ресурсы
ownership п 1. собственность; 2. владение
environment п окружающая среда
provide v снабжать, обеспечивать
till v обрабатывать землю
farmer п крестьянин, фермер, сельский труженик
peasant п крестьянин
belong v принадлежать
private а частный
lease I n i . аренда; 2. договор об аренде; 3. срок аренды; II v сда
вать внаем, в аренду
use I п применение, использование; II v 1. использовать; 2. эк с
плуатировать
produce v производить
II. Underline the suffixes with the help of which the following nouns
are formed and translate the words into Russian:
speaker, owner, reader, builder, worker, dreamer, farmer, planner,
factor, founder, inventor, producer, provider.
III. Pronounce correctly:

i, у [ai] prime, provide, site, time, desire, hire, otherwise, divide, life,
type
i, у [i] till, which, it, is, with, public, ownership, disposal, district,
citizen, ill, historic, into, history, many, property
but: give [giv], city [siti], pity [piti], live [liv]
7
ГУ. Read the text and translate it into Russian.
Text 1A. Why is Land Valued so High?
History speaks of the high regard with which m an viewed land in
times past. The ancient Greeks prayed to an earth goddess. Most wars
were fought for possession o f land. Prime land resources were the
ownership of the ailing classes. The rights on land were the key factor
that determined the economic, social and political status of people.
Land was o f basic importance for it provided m an with living space
and with raw materials. People looked to land for their environment and
food they ate. Land provided them with housing and building sites.
Land is many things to m any persons: to the townsman — a place to
build his house on, to the child — a playground, to the poet — a theme
o f his poetry. And still many among us are not clearly aware of any land
use problems.
To a land use planner land is not only the soil under his feet and the
materials in that soil. To him it is the slope that determines the ease of
cultivation, the sunlight and rain that plants need. Land is also the bays
along the coasts and the falls o f the streams, which permit the
generation o f electricity. Land is the field to grow crops, and the river on
which grain and industrial products are carried.
Land is the soil and climate that make timber in the Far East, wheat
in the Ukraine, cotton in Uzbekistan and pastures in Vologda.
Land in the land use planning sense is our entire natural
environment. It is the productive force o f the greatest importance.
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text IB. The Land Use Planner and His Work
Land has m uch to do with our needs and the way we fulfil them.
Many o f our activities are devoted to getting the basic items of food,
shelter, and clothing. We need highways and automobiles, forests and
railways and many other things, it is likely that if we had all that we
could list, new wants would arise. And again we would be faced with the
problem o f how to satisfy them.
Land is necessary to satisfy m a n ’s needs. The people’s needs can be
satisfied only if we secure the best uses of land resources.
it is true that no progress in satisfaction the needs o f m an can be
made if no labor is applied, if we want to live better we must work
better. N o progress can be made if labor is applied without intelligence.
The land use planner is to secure wise iand uses.
W hen we approach a familiar city after a year’s absence, we now
expect to see housing developments on land. We observe that old
buildings are being demolished to permit new constructions.
The land use planner must decide whether to use a tract for a home
8
site or for crops, or whether to use a valley to produce corn. He is to
decide whether to use the river bottom -land for growing tomatoes and
cabbage. He is to be aware of the ability of land to satisfy wants when it
is used for pasture or when it is used for wheat. He must know its
productivity in each use. He must know many things about the land
ability.
The land use planner determines which acreages to employ in each
land use. He decides whether the land should be used now or later and
how it must be used. He plans the living centres and the field patterns
and many other services that land can supply. He must consider the best
uses o f the land.
The land use planner determines not only the productivity o f land.
He has to distinguish between the physical productivity and the
economic productivity o f the land. He is to know the productivity o f the
land itself and that o f labor, capital and other resources. The general
principle is: each hectare of land should be given to the use in which its
economic productivity is the highest.
VI. Read the text. Translate it into Russian in written form.

Text 1C. Land Resources and our Future Needs
The land use planning is to meet the future needs of any countries
economy and particularly those o f agriculture. It is obvious that
scientific and technological progress will not eliminate the vital
importance of land. In the decades to come land will be o f even more
vital importance than ever in satisfying our needs.
The welfare today depends partly upon how well we allocate our land
resources among the alternative uses.
The land use planners are to act successfully in arriving at the most
economic decisions of land uses. The raise o f productivity of our land
resources is the principle goal of land use planning.
The land use planners are to meet unknown advances in the
techniques o f agricultural production and the various needs of other
branches of economy. If the land use planners have full knowledge of
land capability they will take thought about best uses o f land and how to
achieve it.
EXERCISES
VII. Give the Russian equivalents:

land use; land use planner; land use map; prehistoric time; land use
Planning school; economic status; economy, co-operation; industrial
centers; highest efficiency; economic productivity.
9
VIII. Open the brackets by using the verbs in the correct form:
1. Land (to be) not only the soil under our feet. 2. We (to devote)
m uch of our labour to get the basic items o f food and clothing. 3. The
land use planner (must) secure wise land uses. 4. Farmers (to use) land
to producte wheat or cotton or to feed cattle. 5. The land use planners
(to determine) which acreage is to be employed in each land use. 6. I (to
be) a student of the Land Use Planning faculty.
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text IB:
1. To get the basic items o f food, shelter and clothing we .... 2. If we
secure the best uses o f land resources .... 3. We expect to see new
housing developments when .... 4. The land use planner determines
which a c rea g es.... 5. The land use planner must decide whether to use a
tract .... 6. Each hectare o f land must be used ....
X. Give the Russian equivalents. Write down a few short sentences

with the following words and ward combinations:
Townsman, playground, land use planner, industrial products,
construction site, hectare, population, crop.
XI. Make the sentences negative.

1. We have unlimited land resources on our planet. 2. The first-year
student wishes to live far from his Institute. 3. Progress can be made if
our labour is applied without intelligence. 4. W hen we visit a familiar
city after a year’s absence we expect to see it unchanged. 5. The farmers
o f this zone use all their land to pasture cattle. 6. These farmers use the
river bottom land for growing tomatoes and cabbages. 7. They use fertile
land for construction sites.
XII. Insert the proper words from text 1A. Translate the sentences
into Russian.
1. F o r ... land is a place to build his house on.
2. Land is not only the ... under our feet.
3. Plants need ... and rain.
4. The falls o f the streams ... the generation o f electricity.
5. Wheat ... in the Ukraine, and cotton ... in Uzbekistan.
6. The farmers use land ... wheat, cotton and other crops.
XIII. Translate the following sentences into English:

1. Земельны е ресурсы составляют богатство нашего государ
ства. 2. Землеустроитель долж ен обеспечить правильное использо
вание земель. 3. Землеустроитель долж ен хорошо знать п о тен ци
альные возможности каждого вида землепользования. 4. Каждый
гектар земли в этом хозяйстве используется эконом ично.
10
XIV. Write down what parts of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russian.
1. To know how a plant grows, we must study botany. 2. His brother
works at this plant. 3. Plants need water and sun. 4. Land is necessary to
satisfy m a n ’s needs. 5. They pasture their cattle all the year round in this
part of the country. 6. These are the best pasture grasses. 7. There are
many good pastures on the farm. 8. The farms use electricity in most
agricultural processes. 9. The use of electricity on the farm is necessary.
XV. Write down the antonyms.

Many, to build, under, to permit, to rest, much, active, new, poor,
absence, now, high.
XVI. Read and discuss the dialogues in class.

Dialogue A. Land Use Planning in Russia
— What is land use planning?
— Land use planning is the planning of the most proper, sound and
full land uses based on the most advanced technology and science. Land
use planning is connected with geography, geodesy, soil sciences, law,
com puter and space technology etc. T h a t’s why a land use planner,
must be not only skilled but profoundly educated.
— What does the land use planner do?
— The work of a land use planner is often connected with
agriculture. He has to make a cadastrial survey and project agricultural
enterprises. He must use data collected by other scientists. The land use
planner is to be aware o f modern land information systems and space
research technology.
— Why should we pay m uch attention to land use planning?
— Land and the way it is used determine to a great extent successful
agriculture. The more rationally land is used now the more stable its
fertility will be in future.
— Is a land use planner an old profession?
— Yes, the origins o f it are lost in antiquity. In prehistoric times the
land use maps had been made on clay tablets. In Russia the first school
of land use planners was founded in Moscow more than 200 years ago.
Now it is the only University o f land use planning in the world.
Dialogue B. What do We Call «Land» ?

— We speak of land as something on which people can walk and
build a house, plant a garden, or grow a crop. But the term «land»
suggests different things to different people. How do we define the term
«land»?
— Oh, it is surprisingly difficult to define the term «land». Land is
wanted for two m ain kinds o f purpose: as space (to exist in, to
11
c o n d u c t activities in), an d as a source of raw materials (to make
things out of)-
— What is the land use planner’s concept of land?
— Land is any part of the ea rth ’s surface which can be or cannot be
used by man. It is finite and fixed in place.
— What else can a land use planner add?
— The land use planner’s concept of land includes all of the earth’s
surface, water and ice as well as ground. In addition to building sites,
farm soil, forests, mineral deposits and water resources, it also involves
such phenom ena as ecosystem and location, as well as rain, wind, access
to sunlight. Moreover, it includes those m an -m ade improvements that
are attached to the surface and cannot be removed.
— What else can you say about land?
— One of the most obvious characteristics of land is its immobility. A
parcel of land remains where it is.
Unit 2
THE LAND AND ITS USES IN GREAT BRITAIN
compare v сравнивать, сопоставлять
major а больший, значительный
devote v 1. посвящать, 2. отводить под
relate v относиться
labour n труд
employ v 1. употреблять (время, энергию); 2. назначить, держать
на службе
agriculture п сельское хозяйство
forestry п 1. лесоведение; 2. лесное хозяйство
fishing п рыболовство
sea-born а рожденный морем, морской
sea-borne а перевозимый морем, морской
supply v снабжать, обеспечивать
access п доступ, вход, проход
arable а пахотный, пригодный для возделывания
permanent а 1. постоянный, неизменный; 2. долговременный
pasture п пастбище
rough а грубый (о поверхности), щероховатый
graze v 1. щипать траву; 2. держать на подножном корме; 3. па
сти (сь); 4. содрать кожу
poultry п домашняя птица
kindred п родня, клан / / а родственный
12
devotion, portion, population, nation, production, foundation,
invention, exception, vegetation, variation, formation, cultivation,
irrigation, relation.

e [e] best, better, expect, when, itself, them, develop, hectare, sense,
depend, well, concept, less, men, get, shelter, seven, met
[i:] we, be, these, theme, scene
[ai] mind, bind, kind, blind, find
b u t wind [wind] ветер
s [s] test, stream, stand, speak, best, sit, send, soil, sense, satisfy,
secure, state, some, service, lists, crops, plants, products
ss [s] stress, progress, grass, less
s [z] bees, is, has, uses, farmers, visit, pleasant, thousand
z [z] size, zone, zoo, zoology, realize
IV. Read the text and translate it into Russian.

Text 2A. The Use o f Land Area in G reat Britain
C om pared with most other major countries, Great Britain devotes a
relatively small portion o f its labor force (in the early 1990s about
2 percent o f the employed population) to agriculture, forestry, and
fishing, and the nation must import more than three-fifths o f the food
supply for its large population. A great deal of the country’s land is not
arable due to unproductive soil or inaccessibility, as in parts o f the
Scottish Highlands. In the early 1990s approximately 27 percent o f the
total land area o f G reat Britain was devoted to crops, and about
46 percent to permanent pasture and rough grazing. Agriculture in Great
Britain is intensive and highly mechanized. Income from livestock and
dairy products is about three times that from crops. Horticultural
products are also important, especially in southern England. The most
important crops (with approximate annual production in the early
1990s) were wheat (14.1 million metric tons), potatoes (7.8 million),
barley (7.4 million), sugar beets (8.5 million), and oats (504,000).
A variety of fruits and vegetables is also grown. Livestock in the same
period included about 11.8 million cattle, 44 million sheep, 7.6 million
pigs, and 136 million poultry.
The soils of Britain are extremely varied. M any parts o f the surface of
highland Britain have only thin, poor soils, with the result that large
stretches o f m oorland are found over the Highlands of Scotland, the
Pennines, the Lake District, the mountains o f Wales and in parts of
north-last and south-west England. In most areas the farmers have
cultivated only the valleys and the plains where the soils are deeper and
13
richer, varying in texture from clay through silt to sandy loam. There is
also some peat.
With the exception of a few patches of heather and forest, almost the
whole of lowland Britain has been cultivated, and Farmland covers the
area apart from urban and industrial settlements. Elaborate land
drainage schemes have been developed through the centuries to bring
under cultivation the fertile soil of the low-lying fenland of Lincolnshire
and parts o f East Anglia.
Land used for farming is usually divided into land suitable for
cultivation (crops and grass) and rough grazing. In hilly country the area
of cultivated land is often small, but is usually supplemented by grazing
on a comparatively large area o f hilly land.
In Britain there are about 12 million hectares (30 million acres)
under crops and grass. Cultivated land, rough grazing, woodland and
other land on agricultural holdings together represent 79 per cent of the
land area. The first is m ountain and forest, or put to urban and kindred
uses. The area available for farming is gradually decreasing to meet the
needs o f housing and industry; so far, the loss has been onset by the
increase in output from what remains. The ratio o f rough grazing used
for livestock, mainly sheep to better-quality agricultural land varies
considerably throughout Britain. In the southern half of England, for
example, it constitutes only about one-fifth o f the total acreage,
increasing to one-fifth in N orthern Ireland, about a third in the hill
regions o f England and Wales and nearly three-quarters in Scotland.
V. Read the text. Write down 6 question and answer them in English.
Text 2B. Five Basic Areas o f G reat Britain
Britain can be divided into five basic geographic areas. London, the
capital, is in the south of England. The city lies on the Thames, 64 km
from its outflow into the N o rth Sea. The port o f London is the largest in
the world in terms of freight-handling capacity. The active sea-borne
trade, coupled with its status as the capital city, has stimulated the
development o f a diversified municipal economy in London and turned
it into Britain’s main political, commercial, financial, industrial,
transport and cultural centre.
The southeast is com m only known as the G arden of England. The
abundance of sunshine and minimal precipitation, com pared with the
rest o f the country, have turned this part o f Britain into the main
producer of grain and industrial crops. The hom e counties around
London have thriving market gardening and fruit-growing industries.
The part o f southern England adjoining the English Channel has a
flourishing livestock-farming industry. On the southern coast lie naval
bases, seaside resorts and major ports, including S outham pton, Britain’s
largest passenger port.
14
The central part of Britain has developed the world’s earliest coal
mining and factory industries: iron-and-steel, metal-working and textile
manufacture. In recent years recultivation work has begun on bringing
the lands ruined by coal mining and iron ore workings in the Black
country back into agricultural production.
The mountainous parts o f Wales are dom inated by waste lands, while
southern Wales is densely populated and has well-developed industries.
However, most o f them are old-established and have long been
stagnating.
In Scotland a major industrial area has grown up around Glasgow.
Britain’s largest shipyards accounting for half the launched tonnage lie
on the Clyde. This industrial area with predominantly old-established
industries is also in decline. The mountainous part of Scotland has a
sparse population and the local farmers carry on sheep-breeding. In
eastern Scotland and along the coastal strip dairy-farming and fishing
are the predominant occupations. Extensive tracts of wasteland in
Scotland are privately-owned hunting grounds. Edinburgh is Scotland’s
administrative and cultural centre.
Ulster is the least developed part o f G reat Britain. It’s economy is
dominated by farming. The bulk of the agricultural land is owned by
Englishmen, while most o f the local Irish farmers are landless
smallholders and tenants.
VI. Read the text and translate it into Russian in written form.
Text 2C. M ajor Uses o f Land in Scotland
Scotland, administrative division of the kingdom o f Great Britain,
occupying the northern third o f the island o f Great Britain. Scotland is
bounded in the north by the Atlantic Ocean; in the east by the North
Sea; in the southeast by England; in the south by Solway Firth, which
partly separates it from England, and by the Irish Sea; and in the west by
North Channel, which separates it from Ireland, and by the Atlantic
Ocean. As a geopolitical entity Scotland includes 186 nearby islands, a
majority o f which are contained in three groups namely, the Hebrides,
also known as the Western Islands, situated off the western coast; the
Orkney Islands, situated off the northeastern coast; and the Shetland
Islands, situated northeast o f the Orkney Islands. The largest o f the
other islands is the Island of Arran. The area, including the islands, is
78,772 sq km (30,414 sq mi). Edinburgh (population, 1991, 421,213) is
the capital of Scotland as well as a major industrial area and seaport.
Scotland has a very irregular coastline. The western coast in
particular is deeply penetrated by numerous arms o f the sea, most of
which are narrow submerged valleys, known locally as sea lochs, and by
a num ber o f broad indentations, generally called firths. The principal
firths are the Firth o f Lome, the Firth o f Clyde, and Solway Firth. The
15
major indentations on the eastern coast are D ornoch Firth, Moray
Firth, the Firth o f Tay, and the Firth o f Forth. Measured around the
various firths and lochs, the coastline o f Scotland is about 3700 km
long.
More than three-fourths o f the land is used for agriculture;
approximately equal areas are devoted to farming and grazing. The most
important crops are wheat, oats, and potatoes. Other crops include
barley, turnips, and fruit. Livestock and livestock products are also of
major importance. Sheep are raised in both the Highlands and island
groups and the Southern Uplands. Scotland is also known for its beef
and dairy cattle and for its dairy products.
About 607,000 hectares o f Scotland is forested, 60 percent o f which
is publicly owned. In Scotland Fishing is more important than forestry.
The principal Fishing ports are Aberdeen, Peterhead, Fraserburgh, and
Lerwick. The catch consists mainly o f whiteFish, herring, crabs, and
lobsters.
EXERCISES
VII. Give the Russian equivalents.

Major countries, small portion, labour force, large population,
unproductive soil, a great deal, permanent pasture, dairy products
annual production, metric tone, highland Britain, industrial settlements.
VIII. Open the brackets by using the verbs in the correct form.
1. London (to be) in the south of England.
2. The city (to lie) on the Thames.
3. The home counties around London (to have) thriving market
gardening and fruit-growing industries.
4. The central part o f Britain (to develop) the world’s earliest
industries.
5. English (to own) the bulk o f the agricultural land, most o f the local
Irish farmers (to be) tenants and landless small holders.
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words form text 2C:
1. Scotland occupies ... 2. Scotland is bounded on the west by North
Channel which separates... 3. The largest of the other islands i s ... 4. More
that three fourths of the land is used for ... 5. Livestock and livestock
products are ... 6. Scotland is also known for its...

with the following word combinations:
south-west England, lowland Britain, sea-born trade, industrial
crops, livestock farming industry, coastal strip dairy farming, industrial
area, municipal economy, capital city.
16
XI. Write down 6 question using text 2B.
XII. Insert the proper words from unit 2. Translate the sentences into
Russian.
1. In Britain there are about 12 ... hectares under crops and grass.
2. The area ... for farming is gradually decreasing to meet the needs
of housing and industry.
3. The southeast is com m only known as the ... of England.
4. The ... part o f Wales are dominated by waste lands while Southern
Wales is densely populated and has well — developed industries.
5. In Scotland a m a j o r ... area has grown up around Glasgow.
6. Ulster is the ... developed part o f G reat Britain.

1. Сельское хозяйство Британии является и нтенсивны м и вы
сокомеханизированны м.
2. Плодородные земли возделываются в течение столетий б л а
годаря отличной д р енаж ной системе.
3. Ж ивотноводство процветает в ю ж ной части Англии, рас п о
лож ен н ой на побережье Л а-М анш а.
4. Мы можем объяснить, почему в Ш отландии рыболовство б о
лее развито, чем, допустим, лесоводство.
1. The nation must import more than three — fifths of the food
supply for its large population.
2. The import o f food product is im portant for Britain.
3. Agricultural land varies considerably throughout Britain.
4. Land areas are quite good for farming.
5. The planes landed every five minutes.
6. The western coast is deeply penetrated by numerous arms of the
sea.
7. The sea-borne trade has stimulated the development o f a
diversified municipal economy in London.
8. On the southern coast naval bases and seaside resorts lie.
9. You may tell lies about this country, but no students will believe
you: they visit it twice a year.
10. Every visit is quite lucky.

Lost, old, first, private, rich, small, passive, to sell, to take.
ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫ Й 17
УН И ВЕРСИ ТЕТ
по З ЕМ Л Е У С ТР О Й С ТВ У
НАУЧНАЯ БИБЛИОТЕКА
УЧ ЕТН А Я К АРТОЧКА
XVI. Read the text and discuss the problems in class.
Text 2D. B ritain’s Agricultural System
The prevailing natural conditions in Britain favour livestock-farming
more than crop growing. The typically maritime climate does not allow
wheat to be grown everywhere. In parts o f Britain lying over 600 metres
above sea level and in western England wheat fails to ripen because of
excess humidity. On the other hand, natural grasslands and meadows
stay green all the year round throughout Britain.
Britain’s agricultural system is dom inated by big landowners and
some big industrialists and merchants who own the bulk of the
agricultural land part o f which is used as hunting grounds, sports
grounds and parks. As a rule the landowners do not carry on farming
themselves prefering to leave it to tenant farmers. The tenant farmers
account for the bulk o f total agricultural produce. They also own the
greater part o f the livestock population.
Livestock farming is the leading sector o f British agriculture (cattle-
breeding, sheep breeding, pig and poultry breeding). The natural
meadows are enriched with fertilisers and grassland cultivation is
practised. Apart from that, natural fodder is supplemented by mixed
feeding and root vegetables. Cattle are only kept in stands for a short
period in winter. Dairy-farming predominates.
Crop-growing is mainly maintained to supply livestock with adequate
fodder. Two-thirds of the total sown area is under fodder crops (root
vegetables and grass). The principal grain crops are wheat, oats and
barley. Sugar beet is the main industrial crop. Market gardening and
orcharding are thriving industries supplying the cities with fresh
vegetables and fruit.
The fishing industry plays a prominent role in Britain’s economy.
The main fishing ports lie on the eastern coast in close proximity to
Dogger Bank in the N orth Sea which is one of Europe’s richest fisheries.
On the whole, the countries o f Northern and Central Europe have
efficient agriculture. The farms here employ intensive farming practices
and sell the bulk o f their produce on the market in the Netherlands and
Denmark. Livestock is bred mainly for milk and meat. The principal
crop is wheat. Rye, barley, sugar beet, potatoes, flax and fodder grasses
are also important. Most o f these countries, however, have to import
food grains and animal fodder. Some have developed market gardening
(in Iceland market gardeners use hot springs and geysers to heat their
hothouses). Norway and Iceland are dependent on their fishing
industries for their economic survival. Iceland catches an estimated six
tons o f fish (mainly herring) per capita a year and exports almost the
entire catch.
The agriculture o f South European countries is somewhat
underdeveloped and is dom inated by large landowners. The M edi
18
terranean climate allows the growing o f rice, cotton, tobacco, olives,
grapes, citrus — fruits and other warm-season fruits vegetables. These
crops take up the best lands (specially irrigated lands) that stretch along
the coast in a narrow strip. Almost all are marketable crops. The bulk o f
the arable land away from the coast is under grain and leguminous
crops, but because o f antiquated, inefficient farming methods and dry
soil the crop yields are low. Animal husbandry is carried on by extensive
methods.
Unit 3
MAJOR USES OF LAND IN THE USA
region n регион, область
pattern n 1. узор, рисунок; 2. модель
crop n 1. сельскохозяйственная культура; 2. урожай (на корню);
3. жатва; 4. посев; 5. зоб (у птицы)
rotation п севооборот
crop v обрезать; косить, стричь; собирать урожай
reflect v отражать
soil п почва
vast а об ш и рны й
prevalent а преобладаю щий
topography п топография
precipitation п осадки
arid а безводный, сухой; бесплодный (о почве)
semiarid а засушливый
grow v расти, выращивать
plough v пахать
plow {am) п плуг
corn п зерно
fodder п корм для животных
grain п 1. зерно; 2. хлебные злаки; 3. единица веса, равная
0,0648 г
rice п рис
heavy grain тяжелое зерно (пш еница, рожь, кукуруза)
maize п кукуруза
sorgum п сорго
topography, geography, photography, demography, quality, quantity,
identity, unity, reality, variety, validity, fertility.
19
a [ei] data, relation, irrigation, plantation, grazing, place,
precipitation, labour, made, lake
b u t ate, many, any
ea [i:] wheat, meat, mean
b u t deaf, great, wealth
th [0] thick, thing, beneath, tenth, method, growth
[ct] bathe, these, this, that, those

Text ЗА. Basic Regional L and Use Patterns
Land used primarily for agricultural production (cropland and
nonforested grazing land) accounted for nearly half o f the N a tion ’s total
land area, forest land for about a third and other land for about a
quarter. But, these proportions vary greatly by region, reflecting
differences in soils, climate, topography, and patterns o f population
settlement. For example, proportions o f cropland are vastly different in
the Northeast (14 percent) and the Corn Belt (60 percent). Limited
precipitation in semiarid areas, the S outhern Plains and M ountain
regions, for example, means that a large proportion o f the land is most
suitable for grazing. Forest land is most prevalent in regions such as
the Northeast and Southeast, where the topography is often rolling and
precipitation is ample. States also vary within a region in the
proportions o f cropland, grassland pasture, forest-use land, and other
land uses.
Well-developed cropgrowing in the USA provides large quantities of
many different grain and industrial crops, vegetables and fruits. A
considerable part o f the total ploughland is under grain crops. Apart
from wheat the principal crops include maize, rice, and sorghum.
Sorghum and maize are mainly used as cattle fodder. In terms o f value
vegetables, fruits and industrial crops hold first place, particularly
cotton, soybeans, tobacco and, in the Hawaii, sugar cane.
Livestock products contribute two-thirds o f the total marketable
agricultural produce.
Livestock-farming is extremely diversified, but the num ber o f milk
cows is growing fastest. Whereas cattle-farming was formerly
concentrated in the North, over the past 20 to 25 years its centre has
been shifting to the South and West. Pig-breeding is well developed in
those areas where maize is grown in large quantities (notably in the
North), and sheep-breeding is concentrated in the mountainous West.
Poultry-farming is a thriving industry. Broiler farms sell over
2,000 million chickens a year. Broiler farms are found everywhere, but
the largest concentration is in the Southern states facing the Atlantic
coast.
20
V. Read the text. Write down 6 question and answer them in English.
Text 3B. Grass Land Pasture and Range
The United States has a land area o f nearly 2.3 billion acres. In 1987
about 20 percent o f that area was cropland, 26 percent grassland pasture
and range excluding cropland pasture. There were 29 percent forested
(excluding forest land in parks and similar special uses), and 25 percent
used for a variety o f nonagricultural and miscellaneous other purposes.
Total acreage o f U.S. cropland has been relatively stable since 1969.
It fell by 5 million acres to 464 million between 1982 and 1987.
Cropland used for crops — the sum o f cropland harvested, crop
failure and cultivated sum m er fallow — declined from 383 million acres
in 1982 (after having peaked at 387 million in 1981) to 331 million acres
in 1987. Responding chiefly to the annual and long-term Federal
acreage diversion programs, cropland used for crops dropped further in
1988 to 327 million acres, but rebounded to 341 million acres in 1989,
with a reduction in acreage diverted by Federal programs.
All grassland pasture and range accounted for about 656 million
acres, 29 percent o f total land in 1987, consisting o f about 65 million
acres of cropland pasture and 591 million acres of grassland pasture and
nonforested range used primarily for livestock grazing. The combined
acreage of cropland pasture and other grassland pasture and range fell
from 662 million acres to 656 million during 1982—87. Another
155 million acres o f forest land were grazed in 1987.
Text 3C. Other Uses o f Land in the USA
Nearly a third o f the area of the United States, 731 million acres, is
forested, including an estimated 83 million acres in parks and related
special uses. Total forest land increased 10 million acres during 1982—
87, almost all o f the increase due to adjustment in the estimated forest
land in the interior o f Alaska. Forest-use land minus areas used
primarily for parks and other special uses-declined 7 million acres to
648 million.
Land in special uses increased from 270 million acres in 1982 to
279 million acres in 1987. The total includes transportation areas,
26 million; Federal and State parks, wilderness, and wildlife areas,
225 million; national defense and related areas, 21 million; and
farmsteads and farm roads, 7 million. More than half o f the total acreage
for this category, including about 11 percent o f the 1982—87 increase, is
in Alaska, where large acreages o f Federal land have been set aside for
parks and wildlife refuges. Approximately 83 million acres o f the 1987
total were forested and overlapped with the 731 million acres classed as
total forest land.
21
Urban areas were not inventoried in 1987. They are grouped with
other miscellaneous unclassified areas. However, land in urban areas, as
measured by the decennial censuses of population, totaled 47 million
acres in 1980. The census of population measure of urban area includes
substantial acreage of open land within places classified as urban but
excludes acreage in places with fewer than 2,500 inhabitants. Between
1970 and 1980, urban area reported by the census of population
increased an average o f 1.3 million acres per year. Estimated 1987 U.S.
urban land reached nearly 57 million acres, based on the trend in
historic use o f land per capita in urban areas (based on 1960,1970,
a n d 1980 data) and the 1987 population. This estim ate implies an
increase in urban area, averaging 1.3 million acres per year since
1980.
O ther estimates o f the rate of urbanization based directly on changes
in developed land are smaller, as little as 740,000 acres per year.
Subsequent estimates o f land in urban areas from the 1990 census may
also be lower than estimated in this report.
EXERCISES

agricultural production, total land area, nonforested grazing land,
forest land, population settlement, semiarid areas, grassland pasture,
large quantities, grain crops, industrial crops.
1. Forest land (to account) for about a third o f the N a tion’s total
area.
2. Crop growing in the USA (to provide) large quantities of many
different grain and industrial crops, vegetables and fruits.
3. Proportions of cropland (to be) vastly different in the Northeast
and the C orn Belt.
4. Livestock products (to contribute) to thirds o f the total marketable
agricultural produce.
5. Poultry-farming (to be) a thriving industry.
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text 3C.
1. Total forest land increased 10 million areas during ...
2. In 1987 urban areas were not ...
3. U.S. urban land reached nearly 57 million ...
4. More than half of the total acreage for this category is in ...
5. The census exclude acreage in places with fewer than 2,500 ...
6. The report estimates changes in land use of the ...
22
livestock fanning, marketable agricultural produce, well-developed
crop-growing, cattle farming, sheep breeding, poultry farming, Southern
States, principal crops.
XI. Write down 6 questions using text 3B.
Russian.
1. The USA has a ... area of nearly 2,3 billion areas.
2. The crop land acreage has been relatively ...since 1969.
3. All grass land pasture and ... accounted for about 656 million
areas.
4. Many areas of grass land pasture and nonforested range were ...
primarily for livestock grazing.
5. Urban areas are ... with other miscellaneous unclassified areas.

1. Эти земли в горных районах пригодны только для выпаса
скота.
2. Основны е культуры, которые здесь выращивают, — рис и
сорго.
3. Две трети сельскохозяйственного ры нка составляет продук
ция животноводства.
4. Поголовье молочных коров растет быстрее всего.
5. Производство домаш ней птицы процветает в этом регионе
США.
translate the sentences into Russia.
1. More than a half of the total acreage for this category, including
about 11 percent of the 1982—87 increase is in Alaska.
2. They considerably increase the acreage of forest lands in this
region.
3. The special group estimates an increase of poultry production in
the area.
4. The census of population measure of urban area includes
substantial acreage of open land within places classified as urban ones.
5. They can measure the acreage of these territories during two
weeks.
6. Other estimates of the rate of urbanization are based directly on
changes in developed land.
7. This will change the quality of crop production in this area.
23
/
Non-forested, great, fast, arid, low, steady, increase, fast,
everywhere, largest.
XVI. Read and discuss the problems in class. Compare the situation
discussed in the article with that of your own country.
Text 3D. Climatic conditions in the USA
There are few areas in continental USA unsuitable for cultivation.
Those include the high m ountain areas in the Rocky Mountains and
Appalachians, and swamplands in the coastal strip along the Atlantic
coast. In the states o f Alaska and Hawaii considerable tracts are unfit for
cultivation and econom ic development.
Climatic conditions vary widely. In some natural zones the vegetative
period is short, which inhibits the range o f agricultural crops that can be
grown. But in the country as a whole all tem perate-zone crops and
many subtropical and tropical crops can be cultivated. The rather dry
climate in the Central and Great plains makes irrigation and land
improvement necessary. The flow o f rivers and subterranean waters are
used for irrigation.
Black-earth and chestnut soils in the dry steppes and forest-steppes,
the red earth in the coastal lowlands and alluvial soils which occur over
wide areas have a relatively high natural fertility. In the mountainous
areas the soils arc less fertile.
The once extensive forests have nearly all been felled. There are still
extensive forestlands, however, in Alaska and in the Rocky Mountains.
Unit 4
CANADA’S MAJOR LAND USES
average n средняя величина
а средний, обычный
v высвободить среднее число; делать средний вывод
size п размер
countryside п 1. сельская местность; 2. округа; 3. местное населе
ние
huddle п толпа, суматоха / / v толпиться, собираться в каком-
либо месте, тесниться
hospitable а гостеприимный
resident п житель
province п п ровинция
flat а плоский
prairie п прерия, степь, покрытая травой, луг
24
tend v стремиться
abundant а обильны й
wheat n п ш ен и ц а
barley n ячмень
advanced а передовой
profit n прибыль, выгода
arboreal а древесны й, древовидный
arboriculture n лесоводство, разведение деревьев
arboriculturist n лесовод
wax and wane изменяться, то увеличиваясь, то уменьшаясь
II. Underline the suffixes with the help of which the following
adjectives are formed and translate the words into Russian.
hospitable, profitable, arable, renewable, marketable, remarkable,
predictable, reasonable.

ai [ei] aim, main, gain, raise, proclaim, tailor
but. said [sed]
ay and ey [ei] day, they, convey, may, play, way
b u t key [ki:]
gh eight, night, height, weight, right, highly
[eit], [nait] ... etc.
i [ai] might, sight, right, night

Text 4A. Canada
Canada is the second largest country in the world nearly as big as all
of Europe. Only the Russian Federation is larger. The population of
27.3 million works out too close to just two people per sq km. In the
countryside the population is very thinly spread — the average Canadian
farm is 200 hectares in size.
Nearly 90 % o f Canadians, though, huddle along the 6379-km
southern border with the USA. Its the longest unguarded national
boundary in the world. The southern region is, of course, the warmest
most hospitable area of the country and also has the best land and
waterways. About three-quarters o f the population lives in the towns and
cities in this part o f the country. Toronto is the largest city with about
2.5 million residents.
The country is made up o f 10 provinces and two northern territories.
The four eastern coastal provinces are known as the Atlantic Provinces or
[he Maritime Provinces, the latter term often excluding Newfoundland.
The three generally flat mid-western provinces are the prairies.
25
/
Ontario and Quebec are collectively termed central Canada,
although Canadians will often refer to this area as eastern Canada.
The provinces, from east to west, are Newfoundland, Nova Scotia,
Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba,
Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia. The territories are the
Northwest Territories and the Yukon.
The state is a constitutional m onarchy and the capital is Ottawa,
Ontario. There are two official languages in the country — English and
French. A movement within Quebec, the one predominantly French
province, to separate from Canada and form a new country, has waxed
and waned since the mid — 1960s.
Canada is a young country with great potential and a people working
to forge a distinct national identity while struggling to hold the parts
together.
Canadians enjoy the high standard o f living that major Western
countries are accustomed to and tend to take for granted. Income and
em ploym ent has fallen over the past 10 years so maintaining the wealth
experienced by the previous generation is becoming ever more difficult,
even elusive. Today nearly half the work force is wom en and by far the
majority o f households have two incomes, often by necessity.
The Canadian econom y is based, as it always has been, on abundant
natural resources. These natural renewable and nonrenewable riches
include fish, timber and wood products, minerals, natural gas, oil and
hydroelectricity. Although only 5% of the land is arable, the agricultural
sector, primarily in wheat and barley, accounts for much o f the
Canadian export total.
C an ad a’s agriculture is highly advanced and profitable. It is
dom inated by market relations with the larger farmers making wide use
of hired labour, machinery and chemical fertilisers.
Text 4B. Canada’s M ajor Land Uses
Almost half C a n ad a’s territory consists o f forests. About one-third of
the country’s total area consists of permafrost and lands unfit for
cultivation. A mere 5 per cent o f the total area is arable.
Dairy and beef cattle are the basic branches of C an a d a ’s agriculture
and provide two-thirds of the total marketable produce. Dairy cattle
predominates in the area around the Great Lakes, while beef cattle are
to be found in the prairies.
Crop growing is also important. Canada is one of the world’s largest
producers and exporters o f wheat, which is grown in the prairies, the
country ’s wheat belt.
Commercial orchards and market gardening are well developed in
the eastern provinces. Apple-tree orchards stretch in a continuous strip
26
along the course o f the St. Lawrence. There are many tobacco
plantations on the shores o f the Great Lakes as well as peach, apricot
plantations and vineyards.
Canada has three major vegetation zones: forests, grasslands, and
tundras. The natural forests occupy the largest area.
Trees have played a great role in the historical development of
Canada and continue to be o f commercial, environmental and aesthetic
importance to all Canadians.
The eastern forests o f the Great Lakes — St. Lawrence lowlands and
the Appalachian Region — have both deciduos trees and coniferous
trees. Such deciduous trees as sugar maple and beech and coniferous
trees such as yellow line, white and red pine, and hemlock grow here.
The boreal (northern) coniferous forest, also called the taiga,
stretches across the continent from Newfoundland to the Alaska border
and makes up four fifth o f all Canadian forestland. The taiga covers the
southern part o f the Canadian Shield and stretches from the border with
Alaska to the Atlantic coast. It is second in size only to the boreal forests
of our country. Deciduous trees, or those that shed their leaves, cannot
survive in a climate with very low average January temperatures. So, the
boreal forest is made up almost entirely o f coniferous, or evergreen,
trees. These forests supply C an ad a’s pulp and paper and forest products
industries. They include white and black spruces and white birches,
balsam poplar and tamarack, and balsam fir, jack pine.
Taiga, yields to the tundra, where it is too cold for trees o f any kind
to survive. This is the land where only lichens and mosses can grow.
Lichens and mosses are plants that follow a cycle o f a short period of
growth, followed by a long period o f dormancy. Various grasses and
flowers are also found here. There are no trees here, but dwarf, often
berry-bearing shrubs survive in sheltered places. This is C anada’s most
fragile environment. There is a danger that commercial exploitation o f
the Arctic resources may cause serious and irreparable damage. To the
North from the boreal forests lies a transitional zone of scattered
coniferous forest and muskeg (swamp).

Text 4C. Canada’s Forests
Part I
The great forest zone is found along the humid Pacific coast; it is a
dense, tall-timber forest where Douglas fir, western hemlock, and
western red cedar are the dominant trees.
South o f the boreal forest in northwestern Ontario, and from central
Ontario to the Maritime, or Atlantic, Provinces, there is a belt o f mixed
coniferous and deciduous forest. In southern Ontario there are small
wooded areas that are the remains o f what was the only completely
27
deciduous forest in Canada. To the south of the boreal forest in the
Prairie Provinces is an area which is too dry to support the growth of
dense forest.
Gradually the landscape changes from a parkland with few trees to
an area o f long grass and then to the dry short grass region o f Alberta
and Saskatchewan north o f the United States border. This region of
deep rich soils and short hot summers makes up three quarters of
C an ad a’s agricultural land.
C an ad a’s vegetation is rich and varied. But one Canadian tree has
become the most prominent Canadian symbol. Its leaf can be found in
Canadian flag, coat-of-arms, coins, uniforms o f Canadian athletes. This
tree is maple. Long before the coming of the first European settlers,
C an ad a’s aboriginal peoples had discovered the food properties of maple
sap, which they gathered every spring. According to many historians, the
maple leaf began to serve as a Canadian symbol as early as 1700.
Maples contribute valuable wood products, sustain the maple sugar
industry and help to beautify the landscape. Maple wood, which varies
in hardness, toughness and other properties, is in dem and for flooring,
furniture, interior woodwork, veneer, small woodenware, and supports
several flourishing industries in eastern Canada. Maple is also highly
prized in furniture building and cabinet-making. Since 1965, the maple
leaf has been the centerpiece of the National Flag of Canada and the
maple tree bears the leaves that have become the most prominent
Canadian symbol, nationally and internationally. Maple leaf pins and
badges are proudly worn by Canadians abroad, and are recognized
around the world.
EXERCISES

average Canadian farm, southern border, unguarded national
boundary, hospitable area, northern territories, eastern coastal
provinces, official language great potential.
1. Nearly 90 % of Canadians (to huddle) along the southern border
with the USA.
2. The country (to make) up of 10 provinces and two northern
territories.
3. Many years ago Quebec (to be) a French province.
4. A movement within Quebec to separate from Canada (to wax and
wane) since the mid 1960s.
5. Canadians (to enjoy) a high standard of living.
28
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text 4C:
1. The great forests zone is situated along the Pacific...
2. Small wooded areas may be found in southern...
3. Some areas in the South of Canada are two dry to support the
growth of dense...
4. Maple has become the m ost-prom inent Canadian...
5. Maples sustain the maple sugar...
6. The maple tree was officially proclaimed the national amblem of...

with following word combinations:
dairy cattle, beef cattle, total marketable produce, commercial
orchards, market gardening, tobacco plantations, apricot plantations,
coniferous trees, boreal forest, evergreen trees.
XI. Write down 6 questions using the 4B.
Russian.
1. Canada is the... largest country in the world.
2. The four eastern coastal provinces are known as... Provinces.
3. The Canadian econom y is based on... natural resources.
4. Only... o f land is arable.
5. C an ad a’s agriculture is highly... and profitable.

1. Крупные ферм ерские хозяйства Канады широко используют
наемный труд.
2. Сельское хозяйство Канады — прибы льная отрасль, н есм от
ря на то, что только 5 % всей земли пахотопригодны.
3. Три четверти сельскохозяйственных земель Канады — это
глубокие плодородные почвы.
4. Лето в этом регионе жаркое, но короткое.
5. Канадский клен не только украшение ландш афта, но и ц е н
ный источник прекрасной древесины.
XIV. Write down what part of speech the words in bold prints are and
1. In the countryside the population is very thinly spread.
2. This bread spread is made o f meat and vegetables.
3. The three general flat mid-western provinces are the prairies.
4. Most population live in houses, only a small portion live in flats.
5. Western countries are accustomed to high standards o f living.
6. This is a book about C an ad a’s traditions, customs and festivals.
7. With the exception of four species, native maples are large trees.
Natives enjoy living in these forests.
29
XV. Write down the antonyms:
thin, warmest, hospitable, best, northern, western, province, to
separate, wax, to enjoy
XVI. Read the text and discuss it in class.

Text 4D. Canada’s Forests
Part I I
O f the 150 known species of maple (genus Acer), only 13 are native
to North America. T en o f these grow in Canada. With the exception of
four species, native maples are large trees. At least one o f the ten species
grows naturally in every province. All provinces have established
arboreal emblems and this emblem is an important element within the
family of national symbols.
In 1834, the first St. Jean Baptiste Society in North America made
the maple leaf its emblem. In 1848, the T oronto literary annual The
Maple Leaf referred to it as the chosen emblem of Canada. By 1860, the
maple leaf was incorporated into the badge o f the 100th Regiment
(Royal Canadians) and was used extensively in decorations for the visit
o f the Prince o f Wales that year.
Alexander Muir wrote The Maple L e a f Forever as C an ad a’s
confederation song in 1867; it was regarded as the national song for
several decades. The coats o f arms created the next year for Ontario and
Quebec both included the maple leaf.
Between 1876 and 1901, the maple leaf appeared on all Canadian
coins. Now it appears on the penny: the one-cent piece has two maple
leaves on a com m o n twig.
During the First World War, the maple leaf was included in the
badge o f the Canadian Expeditionary Force. Since 1921, the Royal
Arms o f Canada have included three maple leaves as a distinctive
Canadian emblem.
The maple tree was officially proclaimed national arboreal emblem
o f Canada on 25th April, 1996. Canada is sometimes called poetically
«The Land o f Maple Leaf».
Uni t 5
AUSTRALIA’S AND NEW ZEALAND’S MAJOR LAND USES
occupy v занимать (территорию)
whole а целый
include v включать
isolate v изолировать
а изолированны й
30
frontier n граница
remote а отдаленный
neighbour n сосед
inhibit v заселять (территорию)
freeze v морозить, замораживать
favour v благоприятствовать / / n благоприятный
impose v производить впечатление, облагать налогом
restrict v ограничивать
drought п засуха
remain v оставаться, пребывать
perish v исчезать
lack п недостаток, недостаточное количество
severe а суровый (о климате)
marsupial а сумчатый / / п сумчатое животное
objectives are formed and translate the words into Russian:
tropical, subtropical, total, several, central, potential, natural,
pastoral, mineral, marsupial.

[s] cent, face, city, cinema, cycle
с ’
[k] cat, come, cap, clean, coat, cover,
[dj] page, gin, age, gypsy, gem
ё: ^
[g] game, glad, go, gun, green, big

Text 5A. Australia
Australia is the only country in the world to occupy a whole
continent. The Australian U nion also includes Tasmania and many
smaller islands. Australia is isolated from the rest of the world and has
no land frontiers. Its closest neighbour is 3,500 km away (the Malay
Archipelago). Australia’s remoteness from major sea lines and the
developed countries has long inhibited its economic progress. Flying
and later the jet age have brought Australia closer to the rest o f the
world.
Northern Australia enjoys a tropical and subtropical climate, while
southern Australia and Tasmania lie in the temperate zone. Air
temperatures never drop below freezing anywhere in Australia at any
time of year which favours farming, but the low precipitation rate over
much of the country inhibits it and imposes restrictions on its
geography.
31
Over 60 per cent o f the total area has no rivers. These areas are
dom inated by desert land. Sometimes Australia’s central areas remain
drought-stricken for several years running. W hen that happens
thousands o f cattle perish because o f lack o f water and food. To save
cattle the large landowners transfer their animals to areas free o f
drought, but the small farmers unable to anord the operation are usually
ruined. The periods o f severe drought are not infrequently followed by
torrential rains. As much rain as normally falls in a year can pour down
in a few days and even hours. The torrential rains wash away roads and
destroy bridges. The rain water quickly filters down through the top soil
and accumulates in large deep-lying subterranean lakes. These take up
almost one-third o f the total area and are the main source o f drinking
water in the central arid regions.
Lakes and rivers appear only during the raining season and dry out
later. Only the Murray and the rivers in Tasmania have a permanent
course. The country’s hydropower potential is relatively small.
The soils require fertilizing and irrigation if they are to be productive.
Australia is blessed with a rich and diversified wildlife and vegetation.
Forest land takes up a mere five per cent o f the area. The forests are for
the most part made up o f different species o f eucalyptus, palm tree,
rubber plant and a large variety o f arborous ferns. Australia’s animal
kingdom is characterized by many different marsupials.
Text 5B. New Zealand
Part I
New Zealand, an island nation in the middle latitudes o f the
Southern Hemisphere, is the most physically isolated o f the advance
industrialized countries. Its nearest neighbour, Australia, is some
1.900 km (1,200 mi) to the northwest. New Zealand is bordered by the
Tasm an Sea on the west and the South Pacific Ocean on the east. The
country is about the size o f Colorado and larger than G reat Britain. It
comprises two main islands, the North Island (114.469 sq km/44,197 sq
mi); and numerous tiny islands and islets, including the Antipodes
Islands and the Auckland Islands.
The two major islands o f New Zealand, which are separated by the
narrow Cook Strait, would be considered parts o f two separate
continents. The N orth Island and the northwest corner o f the South
island are carried o n the same continental plate as India and Australia,
while the South island is on the Pacific plate.
Scientists believe that New Zealand was once part o f a super
continent known as G ondw analand and that its flora and fauna evolved
in isolation for more than 100 million years after this land mass broke
apart. Some 84 % o f the country’s native plants are found nowhere else.
32
They include two of the world’s oldest known plant forms, the puka and
the kauri tree. The latter can live for 200 years and is second in size only
to the sequoia; the few remaining are now protected by law. T o d ay ’s
forests are dom inated by evergreen beech and conifers.
New Z ealand’s most fertile soils are found in the Canterbury Plains
near Christ church and the Southland-Otego alluvial plains at the
southern end o f the South Island.
New Z ealand’s rivers and lakes support more than 50 species o f
freshwater fish, and sport fishing is a popular tourist attraction. The
country also has an important coastal fishing industry. Forestry products
are another important source of income. The Monterey pine grows
exceptionally well in New Zealand and is a major source o f timber.
Text 5C. New Zealand
Part I I
Although fewer than 1 % o f New Zealand’s people are farmers,
agricultural production has generated most o f the nation’s wealth. New
Zealand is the world’s third largest producer and second largest exporter
of wool and produces approximately 50% of the world’s lamb and
m utton exports. Sheep in New Zealand outnum ber people by nearly 20
to 1. There are also more than million cattle, and the country is the
world’s largest and most efficient exporter of dairy products. New
Zealand is also a major exporter o f fresh fruit, beef and fish. The
government is funding research to make farming more efficient and
adaptable to world market trends. The strategy is to grow, make, and
market anything the climate will support and a world market will buy.
Thus, the emphasis is on marketing food for specialized markets rather
than on bulk exporting.
With all the sheep, cattle and farms you see around New Zealand
(New Zealand is reckoned to have around 68 million sheep and two
million cattle) agriculture is not surprisingly an important part of the
economy. In strictly dollar amounts it accounts for only about 10 % of
the entire G D P (Gross Domestic Product) and employs about the same
percentage of the total workforce, but 53 % o f all land in the country is
devoted to pasture land, and agricultural products such as sheep, cattle
fish and forestry products are N Z ’s chief exports. Farming is a scientific
proposition in New Zealand, with research constantly carried out and
the most m odem scientific farming methods used.
Principal exports are meat (with beef and veal bringing in slightly
more revenue than lamb and mutton), dairy products, fish, forest
products (primarily pine logs and timber products from nonnative
trees), fruits (especially kiwi fruit, apples and pears) and vegetables in
that order. Main imports are machinery and mechanical appliances,
33
electrical machinery and equipment, motor vehicles and a variety of
manufactured goods.
New Zealand has a m odem , prosperous, developed economy with an
estimated G D P of US$ 106 billion (as of 2006). The country had a high
standard of living with a G D P per capita of US$ 24,943 in 2006 (U nited
States US$ 44,190; Spain US$ 27,767). Since 2000 New Zealand has
made substantial gains in median household income. New Zealand,
along with Australia, largely escaped the early 2000s recession that
impacted upon most other advanced countries. The combination of high
growth in New Zealans, along with negative growth in United States,
has allowed New Zealand to slode the income gap. As o f 2006, New
Zealand’s median household income (PPP) was only 17 % less than in
the United States.
New Zealanders have a high level of life satisfaction as measured by
international surveys. The country was ranked 20th on the 2006 Hum an
Development Index and 15th in Те Econom ist’s 2005 world-wide
quality-of-life index. The country was further ranked 1st in life
satisfaction and 5th in overall prosperity in the 2007 Legatum Institute
prosperity index. In addition, the 2007 Mercer Quality of Living Survey
ranked Auckland on its 5th place and Wellington on the 12th place in
the world.
The tertiary sector is the largest sector in the econom y (68.8 % of
G D P ) , followed by the secondary sector (26.9 % of G D P ) and the
primary sector (4.3 % of G D P ).
New Zealand is a country heavily dependent on trade, particularly in
agricultural products. Exports accound for around 24 % of its output,
which is a relatively high figure (it is around 50 % for may smaller
European countries. This makes New Zealand particularly vulnerable to
international com m odity prices and global economic slowdowns. Its
principal export industries are agriculture, horticulture, fishing and
forestry. These make up about half o f the country’s exports. Its major
export partners are Australia 20.5 %, US 13.1 %, Japan 10,3 %, China
5.4 %, U K 4.9 % (2006).
Tourism plays a significant role in New Zealand ’s economy. Tourism
contributes $12.8 billion (or 8.9 %) to New Z ealand’s total G D P and
supports nearly 200,000 full-time equivalent jobs (9.9 % o f the total
workforce in New Zealand). Tourists to New Zealand are expected to
increase at a rate o f 4 % annually over the next 6 years.
EXERCISES
whole continent, many smaller islands, clothest neighbour, land
frontiers, developed countries, temperate zone, low precipitation,
torrential rains, desert land and small farmers.
34
1. Australia (to isolate) from the rest of the world and has no land
frontiers.
2. The jet age (to bring) Australia closer to the rest of the world.
3. Air temperatures (to drop) below freezing any where in Australia at
any time of year.
4. Over 60% of the total area of the country (to have) no rivers.
5. The small farmers (to be) unable to operate when droughts
happened.
1. Agricultural production in New Zealand has generated most of...
2. New Zealand is also a major exporter o f wool and produces...
3. New Zealand is also a major exporter o f fresh fruit...
4. The strategy is to grow, make and market anything the climate...
5. Marketing food is more important than...
6. New Zealand enjoys a standard o f living...

with the following word conbinations:
island nation, middle latitudes, physically isolated, South Pacific,
main islands, tiny islands, continental plate, plant forms, alluvial plains.
Russian.
1. The ... rains wash away roads an d destroy bridges.
2. Rivers and lakes appear only during the raining season and...laten.
3. If they are to be productive the soils ... fertilizing and irrigation.
4. Many different ... characterize Australia’s animal kingdom.
5. Wheat, timber and many kinds o f fruit are grown in Australia and
wine i s ...
XIII. Translate the following sentences into English.

1. Э к он ом и к а Новой Зеландии радикально перестраивается с
1984 г.
2. К 2010 г. число посещ ающих Новую Зеландию туристов п р е
высит 5,5 млн человек.
3. Новая Зеландия — крупнейш ий в мире экспортер молочной
продукции, говядины и рыбы.
4. 85 % австралийского экспорта составляют шерсть, говядина,
пшеница, молочные продукты и минералы.
5. Чтобы спасти крупный рогатый скот в период засухи, крупные
фермеры перегоняю т ж ивотны х в более благоприятные условия.
35
1. Australia is isolated from the rest of the world.
2. Many people visit New Zealand to see the remote places and to
rest there.
3. Sheep farming was the first form of agriculture developed in
Australia.
4. Australia, Tasmania and many smaller islands form Australian
Union.
5. The rain water quickly filters down through the top soil.
6. It rains heavily in some periods and torrential rains destroy
bridges.

to destroy, export, efficient, fresh, primitive, developed, progressive,
advanced, nearest, nowhere.

Text 5D. Some Facts about the Population.
Part I. Wealth o f Australia
The natural conditions encounted by the first colonists encouraged a
pastoral economy. Sheep farming was the first form o f agriculture
developed in Australia; now Australia has 15 % o f the world’s sheep and
produces 25 % o f the world’s wool. Wool remains the biggest source of
income accounting for five billion Australian dollars. It is followed by
coal (approximately the same value), gold (2.5 billion Australian
dollars), meat (2 billion) and wheat (1.8 billion). Cattle are also reared
and large area o f land is devoted to livestock grazing. Wool, beaf, wheat,
dairy products, and minerals account for about 85 % o f Australian
exports. Nation is self-sufficient in food. Wheat, timber and many kinds
o f fruit are grown; wine is produced. Major mineral deposits include
coal — 99 billion tons o f proven reserves — lead, copper, iron ore, gold,
silver, tin and uranium. Some big discoveries were made during the
1960s.
Part II. New Zealanders
New Zealand is one nation and two peoples and is only now coming
to grips with its biculturalism. T he initial Maori settlers are far
outnum bered by people o f European descent, primarily o f English and
Scottish heritage. The pakeha (the Maori word for European settlers)
make up 86 % o f the total population. Maori constitute approximately
9 % and other Pacific islanders 3 %. Immigration to New Zealand was
not significant 20—30 years ago. T hen the census revealed that 85 % of
the residents were New Zealanders by birth, and the country suffered a
36
n ew out-migration of more than 3 0 .0 0 0 between 1982 and 1986 due to
adverse economic conditions. But recently the situation has been
changing to the better as the economic conditions are being improved.
The Maoris (see Maori), a Polynesian people, reached the island in
about AD 900. The D utch were the first Europeans to arrive in 1642, but
the area remained relatively unknown until the arrival of Capt. James
Cook in 1769. The Treaty of Waitangi (1840) ceded sovereignty o f the
area to Great Britain while granting the Maoris continued possession of
their lands and other holdings. New Zealand became an internally self-
governing dominition within the British Empire in 1907 and an
independent m em ber o f the C om m onw ealth of Nations in 1947.
Although New Zealand is an isolated land, its foreign policy is not
isolationist. It retains close ties to G reat Britain and pays an increasing
role in Pacific affairs.
Part III. Urban Dwellers o f Australia
Australia’s population is the result of massive emigration from
Britain. This account for its ethnic uniformity: 97 per cent are Anglo-
Australians. The indigenous population the aborigines-belongs to the
equatorial race and accounts for a mere 1.5 per cent of the total.
Population growth is due to natural causes and immigration. Since
the end of World War the country’s population has grown by over 6
million, 60 per cent o f this increase being due to immigrants (some
100,000 immigrants arrive annually).
Australia is characterized by the world’s highest proportion of urban
dwellers (85 per cent) relative to total population. This is due to the
unique pattern of land relations that took shape during the early stages
o f Australia’s settlement as well as to intensive industrial development
and the rapid progress o f trade. Large landowners with thousands of
hectares of land prevent settlement. About 80 per cent o f the
populations are hired labour. Farmers account for 10 per cent.
Uni t 6
LAND RESOURCES OF SOUTH-EAST ASIA
prevail v преобладать, господствовать
sow v сеять
harvest v убирать урожай / / n время уборки урожая, уборка уро
жая
irrigate v орошать
scale п школа, масштаб
launch v запускать / / п запуск
solve v решать
purchase v приобретать, покупать
predominate v преобладать, господствовать
sharecropper n ферм ер с долевым участием
alleviate v облегчать, смягчать
boost v усилить, поддержать
loan v давать взаймы, ссужать / / п ссуда, заем
enable v дать возможность
legume п зелень, бобовые культуры
millet п просо
jute п джут
drought animal тягловый скот, рабочий скот
II. Underline the suflices with the help of which the following objective
are formed and translate the words into Russian.
periodic, problematic, historic, logic, Slavic, energetic, mechanic,
heroic, idiomatic, economic (but economical).

b -» (no sound) bt, mb -» doubt, limb, comb
g - » (no sound) gn, gm - » sign, paradigm
gh -» (no sound) gh, igh -» though, night, right (but: laugh [la:f],
enough [inAf]
wh - » (w) which, white, whether, what (but: who, whose)

Text 6A. India’s M ajor Land Uses
Natural conditions prevailing over most o f India are favourable for
agriculture. Because o f the periodic m onsoon rains there are two seasons
for agricultural work: the sum m er season (harij), with sowing in May an
(harvesting in October and November), and the winter season (rabi),
with sowing in November and harvesting in May. During the rabi season
almost everywhere in India the crops have to be irrigated and as irrigated
lands constitute slightly over 20 per cent o f the total sown area,
relatively little field work is done during the winter season. Despite the
extensive large-scale irrigation schemes launched by the government the
irrigation problem is far from being solved.
The land reform left many peasants landless or holding small plots
because only wealthy peasants could purchase surplus land from the
landowners. But the land strengthened market-style farms and
somewhat alleviated the position o f the sharecroppers.
The green revolution has boosted the yields of a num ber o f grain
crops. The state encourages co-operation am ong the peasants and
advances loans and credits to agricultural co-operatives to enable them
to purchase machinery.
38
Indian agriculture is dom inated by crop-growing. Animal husbandry
accounts for less than 20 per cent o f the total marketable produce.
An estimated 80 per cent o f the total sown area is under food grains,
such as rice, wheat, maize, and millet and under legumes. Rice-growing
is widespread in the coastal lowlands and in the lower reaches o f the
Ganges. Wheat, which is sown mainly during the rabi season, is grown
on irrigated lands in the upper and middle reaches o f the Ganges. Most
of the millet and related crops are produced on the Deccan Peninsula.
Industrial crops such as cotton and jute, sugar cane and oil-bearing
plants are important. Vegetable oil replaces animal fats in most areas.
Most cotton is picked in the northwest o f the Deccan Peninsula, where
black-earth soils predominate. The lava which underlies the soil keeps it
moist for a long time and so the cotton ripens without irrigation.
The principal oil-bearing plants are rape, castor-bean plant and
groundnut, part o f which is exported. T he principal export crop is tea,
most o f which is grown in the foothills o f the Eastern Himalayas.
Animal husbandry, mainly sheep-breeding, is widespread in the
northwest. India has the world’s largest herd o f cattle, but most o f the
buffaloes, cows, and oxen are used as draught animals.
Text 6B. Intensive Use o f Land in Japan
Japan’s natural conditions favour agriculture. The slopes o f J a p a n ’s
medium-altitude mountains are covered with moderately fertile podzol
and brown forest soils. Given sufficient fertiliser enrichment, these soils
can provide high crop yields. The coastal plains with the very fertile soils
based on alluvial deposits have long been cultivated. Virgin lands only
remain on Hokkaido. Elsewhere the towns and cities have been
extending their limits and market gardening has been expanding as
drainage schemes have replaced swamps and river deltas with new tracts
o f cultivatable land and lagoons, and shallow spots o f the continental
shelf have been filled.
As the islands o f Japan are strung out along the meridian the climate
in Japan varies widely. On Hokkaido and northern Honshu the
vegetative period lasts 120 to 140 days. Crop-growing is mainly centred
on crops specially evolved to fit the prevailing climate, for example
hardy cold-resistant varieties of rice. In central Honshu the warm winter
makes it possible to grow winter crops, while the long and hot sum m er
allows the cultivation o f rice. In southern H onshu and on Kyushu and
Shikoku citrus crops are grown.
J a p a n ’s present agricultural system has been largely shaped by the land
reform carried out after the Second World War. Japan’s agriculture has a
typical capitalist character. O n the one hand large farms are expanding,
while on the other smallholders go bankrupt in growing numbers.
39
Specialisation in Ja p a n ’s agriculture differs in significant respects
from other industrialised capitalist countries. Japanese agriculture is
based on crop-growing the value of whose output is twice that of
livestock-farming. Even so livestock-farming, particularly dairy -
farming in the suburban areas, is making rapid strides.
Ja p a n ’s intensive crop-growing is noted for its high crop yields.
Annual output has risen markedly in recent years, even though the area
under crops has remained static. Agriculture is much mechanised.
Japanese industry takes the very specific natural conditions into account
and supplies small-size machinery to the farmers. The large farms own
the bulk of the agricultural machinery, while smallholders use far less
machinery and generally on a co-operative basis. Irrigation schemes are
widespread.
Rice is Ja p a n ’s principal crop occupying over 50 per cent o f the total
sown area. Rice is grown all over Japan, and mostly in paddy fields. The
central an d southern areas of Honshu produce the bulk of the
marketable rice. Wheat, rye and barley are grown in northern Honshu
and on Hokkaido. But Japan is not self-sufficient in these food grains.
Vegetable- and fruit-farming is developed in the suburban zones. Other
major crops include industrial crops such as sugar beet, soybeans,
tobacco, oil-bearing plants and tea.
Flower-growing is a traditional occupation in Japan.
Text 6C. China's M ajor L and Uses
Only about 13 per cent of C h in a’s agricultural land is under
cultivation. Most of the eastern areas have been put under the plough,
though these lands have been sown with the same crops for centuries
and are badly in need of fertilisers. In the west only limited tracts o f land
lying within river valleys, in inter-m ountain basins and in oases are
cultivated. These am ount to roughly one per cent o f the territory. In
most areas o f China crop production far and away exceeds livestock-
farming in terms o f the value o f its produce. Grain crops take up
80 percent of the total sown areas. Rice is the staple grain crop grown in
irrigated paddies, which occupy 60 per cent o f the total ploughland. In
the Yangzi valley and in the south of the country, the principal
ricegrowing area, two harvests a year are not uncom m on.
Wheat production, particularly winter wheat, is only a quarter o f that
o f rice. The Huanghe basin and the G reat Chinese Plain are the chief
wheat growing areas. Potatoes, sweet-potatoes, vegetables and fruit are
grown all over the eastern part of China and are an important addition
to the diet. Cotton is the most important industrial Crop. Cotton is
grown in the Huanghe and Yangzi basins as well as in oases of western
China. For over 2,000 years hundreds of different varieties o f tea have
40
been grown on the terraced tea plantations in southeastern and southern
China.
Livestock-breeding is of secondary importance. Although China has
a large herd of livestock, it is still behind many countries in per capita
terms. In the east horse-breeding is o f prim importance (northeastern
China), cows, bulls, donkeys and mules are also bred, while to the south
of the Yangzi buffaloes are raised (for use on rice-paddies). Pigbreeding
and poultry-farming are also of major importance. Dairy-farming is
practically non-existent. Cows are used as draught animals in the fields.
In western China extensive pasture stock-breeding is predominant,
notably the rearing of sheep and goats as well as of horses, cattle and
camels.
Agriculture is vital as it supplies food to C hina’s huge population.
Agriculture supplies Chinese industry with half the raw materials it
needs, and provides over two-thirds o f the total value of goods for home
and abroad. However China is not self-sufficient in agricultural
produce, especially in food grains. Little model technology is employed
in Chinese agriculture. The use o f agricultural machinery and the
application o f fertilisers is limited, and as a result crop yields are not
very high.
All areas of China have raw materials for the chemical industries. In
the northeast and in the north coke and sulphuric acid (using sulphurous
waste from the iron-and-steel industry), fertilisers, soda and liquid fuel
from shale and oil are produced. In the Yangzi valley fertiliser
production is the dom inant industry, while the accent in the north-west
is on oil refining.
EXERCISES

natural conditions, periodic m onsoon rains, agricultural work,
summer season, winter season, total sown area, irrigated lands, intensive
large-scale irrigation, small plots o f land.
1. In India they (to solve) the problems o f irrigation.
2. Indian agriculture (to dominate) by crop growing.
3. India (to have) the world’s largest herb o f cattle.
4. Vegetable oil (to replace) animal fats in most areas.
5. Animal husbandary (to be) widespread in the north-west o f India.
1- In China only 13 % of agricultural land is ...
2. Grain crops take up 80 % of the total ...
3. Cotton is the most important industrial crop grown in ...
41
4. Hundreds o f different varieties o f tea have been grown on the
terraced tea plantations in ...
5. Cows are used as draught a n i m a l s ...
6. All areas o f China have raw materials for the chemical ...

moderately fertile podzol, brown forest soils, sufficient fertilizer
enrichment, high crop yields, alluvial deposits, coastal plains, river
deltas, shallow spots, continental shelf, present agricultural system.
Russian.
1. The... plains with the very fertile soils based on alluvial deposits
have long been cultivated.
2. As the islands o f Japan are strung out along the... the climate of
Japan varies widely.
3. The land reform in Japan was... after the Second World War.
4. Ja p a n ’s ... crop growing is recognized for its high crop yields.
5. Rice is grown all over Japan, and mostly in... fields.

1. В сельском хозяйстве И ндии преобладает растениеводство.
2. В западной части Китая есть об ш и рны е пастбища, где разво
дят овец и коз, лошадей и верблюдов.
3. Сельское хозяйство — ж и зн ен но важная отрасль китайской
эко н о м и к и , обеспечиваю щ ая продовольствием огромное населе
ние страны.
4. Прибрежны е равн ин ы Я пон и и характеризуются очень п ло
д ородн ы м и почвами, которые возделывают с давних пор.
5. Главная культура в Я п о н и и — рис, который выращ иваю т по
всей стране, но только в центральных и ю жных областях острова
Хонсю (Honshu) производят основную массу товарного риса.
1. In India they have two seasons for agricultural work: they sow in
May and harvest in October.
2. October is their harvest time.
3. That cow yielded only 10 litres o f milk a day.
4. The yields o f millet are very high in this part o f the country.
5. The principal oil bearing plants are rape, castor — bean plant and
ground nut.
6. They plant all kinds o f exotic species in their botanic gardens.
42
lowlands, irrigate, fertile, high, shallow, typical, rapid, urban,
include, good

Text 6D. Exports from Southeast Asia
Agriculture is the dom inant industry in South and Southeast Asia
(with the sole exception o f Singapore). Within agriculture, crop-growing
is the most important field. Rice is the staple food grain. Most villages in
all of these countries are surrounded by rice paddies and this is
particularly so in the coastal lowlands and in the valleys of major rivers.
Thailand and Burma export large quantities o f rice. Other food crops
include millet, legumes, sweet potatoes and oil-bearing plants.
Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and Sri Lanka have extensive rubber
plantations for export purposes. Jute is grown in the Ganges and in the
Brahmaputra deltas. Bangladesh accounts for 80 per cent of the world
jute output. Tea, another export crop, is grown on the mountainside tea
estates in India and Sri Lanka. Many countries still export spices, the
great lure for European colonisers in the era of the great geographic
discoveries. Animal husbandry is significant only in Pakistan.
Forestry and timber-processing are important industries in the Malay
Archipelago and in the mountainous regions o f Indo-China. These
industries supply the world market with precious wood species, wax,
varnishes and tannins. Medicinal plants gathered in the Himalayan
foothills are used in world-famous Tibetan medicine.
Many countries of South and Southeast Asia export minerals. Tin
production is o f special importance. Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia and
Burma account for about 50 per cent o f the total tin production in the
capitalist world. Tin concentrates are an important export in Malaysia
and Singapore. The latter takes an active part in world trade. The port of
Singapore has an annual freight turnover 80 per cent of which are re
export cargos (notably oil). Singapore airport is a major crossroads of
international airlines linking Europe and Asia with Australia and
Oceania.
Unit 7
AFRICA’S MAJOR LAND USES
till v обрабатывать, возделывать (землю)
implement n приспособление
wooden а деревян н ы й
suffer v страдать
erosion n эрозия
43
trend v стремиться / / n тенденция, направление
expand v расширять (ся)
plot v распределять, делить на участки / / п участок, надел (земли)
process v обрабатывать / / п процесс
esparto grass испанский камыш
staple п главный, основной (предмет торговли)
rain forest тропический лес
bedrock п краеугольный камень, основной принцип
remain v оставаться
distribute v распределять
estate п поместье
tribe п племя, клан
nomad п кочевник
nomadic а кочевой, кочующий
nomedize v кочевать
adjectives are formed and translate the words into Russian:
important, prominent, dependent, instant, different, independent,
efficient, sufficient.

Text 7A. What does Land mean fo r Africans?
Crop-growing is the most important sector o f agriculture in the
developing countries in Africa. Millions o f peasants have to till their
land with primitive implements such as the wooden plough and the hoe.
The cut-and-burn system o f cultivation is widespread in the savannah
and tropical forest zone. Crop-growing suffers badly from droughts,
floods, torrential rains, locust invasions and soil erosion. Labour
productivity is low and many African countries have to import food.
There are two basic agricultural trends in most African countries;
production for consum ption (subsistence farming) and production for
export (commercial farming).
The acreage under food crops, particularly grain crops, is constantly
expanding. The construction o f irrigation networks is a contributing
factor in this. Export crops are the main source o f revenue and foreign
exchange and understandably they claim most attention. These crops
are grown both on plantations and on the tiny plots owned by
smallholders.
44
The geography of export and consum er crop-growing is largely
dependent on prevailing climatic and soil conditions. In N orth Africa
the principal export crops are citrus fruits, olives, vegetables, fruits, and
esparto grass. Egypt and the Sudan export cotton. Date palm trees are
grown in the Sahara oases. The staple food grains in this part of Africa
are barley, maize and wheat.
The principal export crops in West, Central and East Africa are cacao
beans, groundnuts, oil palm fruit and coffee. G h a n a and Nigeria are
major cacao bean producers. Nigeria and Zaire are the largest producers
of palm nut kernel and palm oil. Banana trees are grown all over
Tropical Africa (particularly on the Eastern and Guinean coasts) and so
is the coffee tree. Considerable quantities o f top-quality’ coffee
(Arabica) and second’-rate coffee (Robusta), which is processed into
instant coffee in Western Europe, are exported. The developing
countries o f Africa account for over a third of the world’s groundnut
output. The biggest producers and exporters are Nigeria and Senegal.
G roundnut trees are grown principally by smallholders, but the nuts are
processed and exported by foreign companies.
Sorghum and related millet-like crops, maize and rice, manioc,
sweet potatoes, yams, mango and pawpaw trees are the staple food crops
in Tropical Africa.
Text 7B. Land Relations are Extremely Varied in Africa
Agriculture is the bedrock of the African countries’ economies. It
employs roughly two-thirds o f the working population.
Agrarian relations in Africa are extremely varied. A salient feature of
these relations is the coexistence of precapitalist and capitalist forms of
exploitation and o f different forms of landownership and land tenure. In
most developing countries the pattern of agrarian relations remains the
same even after independence. But in some countries considerable
social changes have occurred. In N orth Africa in colonial times a
sizeable part o f the land was in the hands o f European colonialists and
of banks and foreign companies. After independence most o f this land
was nationalised, with the remainder being distributed among the
peasants and agricultural co-operatives. At the same time landowners’
estates were left untouched and there are still many subsistence farms.
Algeria, which is actively remodeling its agriculture along socialist
lines, is a fine example.
In most East and Central African countries there is still communal
(tribal) landownership whereby the land is tilled by the tribe it belongs
to. Large tracts o f land are taken up by plantations where hired labour
and sometimes forced labour is widely used. In some countries the state
has nationalised part o f the land owned by foreigners (sisal plantations
45
and those of other crops), while the rest is distributed among the
smallholders and agricultural co-operatives. In most West African
countries there were relatively few foreign-owned plantations. The
foreign companies bought up the agricultural produce from the peasants.
Today a proportion o f the peasants are united in co-operatives.
In some African countries the state controls water management and
conservation and water supplies. But in most others the peasants are still
heavily dependent economically on the planters, landowners and tribal
chiefs.

Text 7C. Rural Land Uses Predominate in Africa
Stock-raising in Africa is largely extensive. Distant pasture, semi
nom ad and nom ad stock-raising predominate. Many African countries
have large numbers o f livestock. But the vast majority of the animals are
unproductive and have a low commodity value. In the tropical forest
zone stock-raising is held back by the tse-tse fly, the carrier of sleeping
sickness deadly to both m an and animal.
In North Africa, notably in Morocco and the Sudan, sheep-breeding
predominates. In some African countries cam el-and goat-breeding are
important occupations. In most African countries veterinary centres
have been opened, where farm animals are inoculated against disease
and epizooties are under control.
Rural dwellers predominate. Over 80 per cent of the total population
of Africa live in villages. T he typical-sized village in Tropical Africa is 15
to 20 huts, but very often hamlets of five to six huts, enclosed by a
co m m o n fence, are encountered where one extended family lives. Large
villages are few. Urbanisation has accelerated in Africa in recent years.
In most cases, however, this has taken the form of false urbanisation
which results in greater unemployment in the towns and cities, acute
housing shortages an d other unfavourable consequences. Small urban
settlements are com m on. As a rule, they serve as the local administrative
and commercial centres. The capital cities o f newly independent
countries are expanding rapidly. In recent years both immigration and
emigration have increased all over Africa. Emigration is largely of a
temporary nature and associated with recruiting cheap labour. M uch the
same applies to internal migration, particularly in Southern Africa.
EXERCISES
developing countries, important sector, primitive implements,
wooden plough, tropical forest zone, soil erosion, labour productivity,
African countries, grain crops, main source, foreign exchange.
46
1. Many years ago peasants in Africa (to have) to till their land with
primitive implements, and even now they (to use) the wooden plough
and the hoe.
2. The c u t-a n d -b u m systems of cultivation (to be) still widespread in
the savannah and tropical forest zone.
3. The acreage o f land under food crops, particularly grain crops (to
expand) constantly.
4. In N orth Africa after independence most of the land (to
nationalize).
5. At the same time large landowners estates (to leave) untouched.
1. In Africa stock-raising is predominantly ...
2. In many African countries the vast majority of the animals are...
3. The tse-tse fly, the carrier of sleeping sickness is very dangerous
both for...
4. Only one-fifth o f the total population of Africa live in ...
5.The typical-sized village in Tropical Africa is...
6. Small urban settlements as a rule serve as...

with the following word conbinations:
agrarian relations, salient feature, land tenure, considerable changes,
colonial times, agricultural co-operatives, large tracts, hired labour,
forced labour.
Russian.
1. The... export crops in west, central and East Africa are cocoa
beans, ground nuts, oil palm, fruit and coffee.
2. The... system of cultivation is widespread in tropical forest zone.
3. Sorghum, millet, maize rice, manioc, sweet potatoes, yams,
mango and pawpaw trees are the... crops in Tropical Africa.
4. In some African countries...control water management and ...
supplies.
5. Urbanization... in Africa in recent years.

1. Производительность труда во многих аф ри кански х странах
низкая, поэтому импорт продовольствия важен.
2. В ыращ иванию культур препятствуют засухи, наводнения,
проливные дожди и как следствие почвенная эрозия.
47
3. Необходимое условие организации земледелия здесь — с о
оружение оросительных систем.
4. Африка экспортирует в Европу значительное количество
первоклассного кофе (арабика) и второклассного кофе (рабуста),
которые в Западной Европе перерабатывают в растворимый кофе.
5. Гана и Нигерия — основны е производители какао-бобов, а
Нигерия и Заир — пальмового масла.
1. The geography of export and consumer crop growing depends on
prevailing climatic and soil conditions.
2. They export citrus fruit, olives, vegetables, fruits and esparto grass
from the North Africa to Europe.
3. Egypt and the Sudan export cotton.
4. In Western Europe they produce instant coffee.
5. They process the high quality coffee beans grown in Africa.
6. The process is time and labour consuming.

primitive, wide, import, increase, constant, independence, different,
nationalized, foreigner.

Text 7B. Where do you fin d the rainforests?
They stretch around the Equator, with at least half of them in
Central and South America. There the world’s biggest rainforests covers
over 6.5 million sq. km (2.5 million sq. miles). T he River Amazon flows
through this forest for more than half its length, over 3,220 km
(2,000 miles). Often the only way to travel through the dense forest is by
river.
More rainforest can be found in West Africa, Madagascar, Sri Lanka,
Burma, Malaysia, Indonesia, New Guinea and Australia.
Why do we need rainforests?
Trees and plants have a very important part to play in keeping the
E arth’s air supply pure. If we destroyed all the forests, there would be no
trees left to take the carbon dioxide and give out the oxygen that we
need to breathe. This would cut off the world’s air supply.
Many people think of the rainforests as the E arth’s — lungs!
In the last few years, great areas of forest have been destroyed as
people have moved in. We have cut down the trees for timber, dug great
holes in the Earth to find minerals, and burned and cleared the forests
for farming.
N o t only do animals and birds live in the forests people live there as
well. W hen the forest is destroyed, their land and homes are gone too.
48
There are over five billion people on the Earth and the num ber is
growing all the time. In fact there are 150 babies born across the world
every minute!
Polluting the land, sea and air, killing the wildlife and destroying the
forests affects every one of us. It upsets the delicate balance of nature on
which we all depend.
A quarter o f all the drugs and medicines prescribed by doctors come
from plants found in the rainforest.
Rainforests contain half of all known types o f wild creature.
N o-o n e wants our planet to die, so everyone must work hard
together to look after all life on Earth.
Unit 8
MAJOR LAND USES IN LATIN AMERICA
latifundia n латифундия, крупное землевладение
holding n здесь земельный надел
acute а резкий, острый
divide уд ел и т ь
press у давить
pressure п давление
introduce v вводить
introduction п введение
legislation п законодательство
compensate v компенсировать
compensation п ком пенсац ия
despite adv вопреки, несмотря на
commune п коммуна
takeover п перехват, захват(власти)
consume у потреблять
consumption п потребление
private у вовлекать
involve п каучук, резина
lama п лама
pedigree а именной, породистый (скот)
slaughter у забивать (скот)
pineapple п ананас
adjectives are formed and translate the words into Russian:
progressive, conservative, informative, effective, collective,
primitive, intensive, extensive, exclusive, productive.
49
-oth mother, other, brother
-on m onth, son, front ^ u{. both [bou0]
-om come, some ' over [ouval
ov cover, clover, oven

Text 8A. The Latifundia System in Latin America
Latin America has the world’s largest latifundia estates and tiny
peasant holdings. The latifundia owners do not farm themselves but
divide their land into small plots and lease them to tenant farmers.
Nothing short of a radical land reform can solve this acute land
problem which is affecting the interests of all sections o f society. U nder
pressure from progressive forces in the postwar period, most Latin
American countries introduced land reforms. But in most countries this
legislation only goes halfway towards solving the problem leaving the
foundations of the latifundia system untouched. Only part of the
latifundia has been taken away from their owners and even then they
received compensation from the peasants. Take Mexico, for example,
where despite the transfer o f considerable areas of agricultural land to
peasant com m unes, large landowners and private type farms still own
over half the total cultivated acreage. As a rule, these are the best lands
under export cash crops and irrigated fields. The most radical land
reform in Latin America had been carried out in Chile prior to the
fascist takeover of 1973.
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in

English.
Text 8B. M ajor Land Uses in Latin America
In most Latin American countries crop-growing is the most
important agricultural sector. As with Africa, crops are grown for export
and home consumption. The export-oriented crops are mostly grown by
private farms in the coastal zones. Brazil’s coffee plantations account for
the bulk o f coffee production. These plantations are the biggest in Latin
America. But Colombia, where coffee is grown mainly by smallholders,
is the biggest supplier of top-quality coffee. Other export crops include
cacao beans, sugar cane, cotton, tobacco, bananas and rubber. In
Mexico, marketable crops are grown on irrigated lands in the north
along the border with the USA. This is- where cotton, rice, wheat and
other export-oriented crops are grown. La P am pa in Argentina is the
country’s biggest producer o f wheat and maize, both for export and
hom e consumption.
Small farms in the heartland grow maize and beans which are often
50
sown together so that maize can serve as support for the bean shoots.
Other staple food crops include potatoes, manioc and oil-bearing plants.
Stock-raising is the main branch o f agriculture in Argentina,
Uruguay and Paraguay. The bulk o f the cattle is owned by latifundistas.
In most areas stock-raising is o f the extensive kind. As a rule the stock is
non-pedigree and allowed to graze freely all the year round, and is only
kept in enclosures briefly before slaughtering. Different Latin American
countries specialize in different branches of stock-raising according to
local natural conditions and economic history. Thus, in Argentina’s
Pampas cattle predominate and in Patagonia sheep-breeding. Sheep and
lamas are bred in Chile, Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia, where there are
numerous alpine pastures in the Andes. In northern Mexico cattle is
bred for sale to the USA, while in the m ountainous areas sheep-breeding
predominates. Brazil has the biggest herd of both cattle and swine in
Latin America.
Text 8C. Contrasts in B razil’s Land Uses
There are sharp contrasts in the development o f individual regions in
Brazil. The country can be divided into three basic parts on the basis of
their economic development.
The south and southeast (over 12 per cent o f total area and 50 per
cent o f the population) contain the largest industrial centres, a
significant proportion of the mining industry and almost all the electric
power stations. Agriculture in this part o f Brazil mainly involves
plantation-farming using hired labour. The area specialises in coffee
production. Cotton is next in importance as an export crop. An
extensive industrial zone centering on Sao Paulo (population 6,500,000)
and Rio de Janeiro (population 4,500,000) is in the making.
Sao Paulo is the largest industrial centre in Latin America. The city
lies in an area of abundant energy and other resources and this favors
both industrial and agricultural development. The port o f Santos which
handles half of the country’s exports, including almost the whole o f the
coffee exports, is situated in this part of Brazil.
Northeast was one o f the first in South America to have been
developed by the Europeans and is to this day famous as a major area of
plantation-farming. The coastal strips are occupied by sugar cane
plantations. Cattle-breeding is maintained in the hinterland. Living
standards here are lower than in the south and the farmers are starved of
land. T hat is why many of them move to the towns in search of seasonal
work. The northeast is basically a supplier o f raw materials and
manpower for the more developed south.
Crop-growing is the most important sector and is export oriented.
Brazil is the world’s largest coffee producer and exporter.
51
Other important export crops include cacao beans, cotton, tobacco,
sugar cane and rice. Brazil also supplies the world market with
pineapples, oranges, mangos and coconuts. Banana exports are of
particular importance. Brazil grows more bananas than any other
country in the world. Banana grass grows everywhere in abundance and
in great variety. They flower and bear fruit all the year round. Wheat,
maize and beans are grown for home consumption. However wheat is
sometimes scarce and has to be imported. Brazil’s animal husbandry
specialises in cattle and pig breeding.
EXERCISES

Latifundia estates, peasant holdings, latifundia owners, small plots,
tenant farmers, radical land reform, acute land problem, progressive
forces, peasant com m une, private-type farms.
1. In the post-war period most Latin American countries (to
introduce) land reforms.
2. The reforms (not, to touch) the foundations o f the latifundia
system in most countries.
3. In Mexico large land owners and private farms (to own) over half
the total cultivated acreage.
4. Before 1973 in Chile the most radical land reform (to carry out).
5. In northern Mexico cattle (to breed) for sale to the USA.
1. Cattle and pig breeding are the dom inant branches in animal
husbandry in ...
2. Wheat, maize and beans are not grown for...
3. Brazil is considered to be the world’s largest producer and exporter
of...
4. The Europeans came to the Northeast of South America to make
it famous as a major area of...
5. The largest centre in Latin America is...
6. Agriculture in the southeast of Brazil involves...

home consumption, export-oriented crops, coffee plantations,
biggest supplier, cacao leans, sugar cane, marketable, crops, country’s
biggest producer, stable food crops.
52
Russian.
1. Brazil has the biggest... o f both cattle and swine in Latin America.
2. Different Latin American countries ... in different branches of
stock raizing according to local natural conditions and economic
history.
3. In Africa and in Latin America crops ... for export and home...
4. Maize and beans are often sown together, so that ...can serve as
support for the bean shoots.
5. In Latin America as a rule the stock is non ... and allowed to graze
freely all the years round.

1. Землепользование в Латинской Америке характеризуется на
личием крупных латифундий и мелких крестьянских хозяйств.
2. Крупным фермам принадлежит более половины всех возде
лываемых площадей.
3. Колумбия, где кофе выращивают главным образом мелкие
фермеры, — крупнейший поставщик высококачественного кофе.
4. В Аргентине в центральной части (пампасы) разводят в о с
новном крупный рогатый скот, а в Патагонии — овец.
5. В пампасах выращивают пшеницу и кукурузу как на экспорт,
так и для внутреннего рынка.
1. In Mexico despite the transfer of considerable areas of agricultural
land to peasant com m unes, private farmers own over half the total
cultivated acreage.
2. In Chile they transferred some cultivated areas to peasant
communes.
3. The most radical land reform in Latin America was carried out in
Chile.
4. In many countries of the world the governments are forced to
reform the system of land use as land resources are limited.
5. Cattle-breeding farms produce beef both for export and home
consumption.
6. They sell their dairy produce abroad.

most, export, coastal, smallholders, supplier, include, pedigree,
extensive, developed, never.
53
Text 8D. Different Rates o f Economy in South American Countries
While sharing some co m m o n features, the economies o f certain
Latin American countries differ in some respects, and these differences
underlie the character and rates’ of their econom ic progress. In some
countries industry is developing more rapidly than agriculture, while
other countries have remained essentially agricultural. In terms of
economic development Mexico, Brazil and Argentina are far ahead of
the rest of Latin America. They contribute about 75 per cent o f Latin
Am erica’s total industrial production.
Colombia, Uruguay and Venezuela are economically more backward
but here, too, industry is acquiring increasing importance. Peru, Bolivia,
Guyana, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago are all predominantly
agricultural countries with a developed mining industry. In the rest of
Latin America agriculture continues to be the bedrock o f the local
economies and industry contributes a mere 10 per cent of the national
income (and even that with a substantial contribution from handicrafts
and cottage industries).
Section II
FROM THE HISTORY OF LAND USE PLANNING
Unit 9
AN ENGLISH VILLAGE LONG, LONG AGO
height n 1. высота, выш ина, рост; 2. возвышенность, холм;
3. степень; 4. верх, высшая степень
neglect п 1. пренебрежение; небрежность; 2. заброшенность; з а
пущенность / / v 1. пренебрегать, не заботиться; 2. не обращать
внимания, проявлять невнимание; 3. упускать, не выполнять св о
его долга, не делать чего-либо нужного, запускать
fierce а 1. свирепый, лютый; 2. сильны й (о буре; жаре), горя
чий; неистовый
messenger п 1. вестник, посы льный, курьер; 2. предвестник
cluster п 1. группа; 2. скопление, концентрация; 3. кисть, пучок,
гроздь, куст; 4. рой (пчел) / / v 1. расти пучками, гроздьями; 2. со
бираться группами, тесниться
enclosure п 1. огороженное место; 2. ограждение, ограда; 3. от
гораживание; 4. вложение, приложение; 5. огораживание о б щ и н
ных земель
lessen v 1. уменьшать (ся); 2. преуменьшать, недооценивать
ditch п 1. канава, ров, кювет; 2. транш ея, выемка, котлован / /
v l . окапывать (рвом, канавой); 2. чистить канаву, ров; 3. осушать
почву с помощ ью канав
dawn п 1. рассвет, утренняя заря; 2. зачатки, начало, проблески / /
v 1. рассветать; 2. начинаться, появляться; 3. становиться ясны м,
проясняться
shepherd п 1. пастух; 2. пастырь / / v 1. пасти; 2. смотреть, п р и
сматривать (за кем-либо); 3. вести; гнать
flock п 1. стадо (овец); стая (птиц); 2. толпа; группа / / v стекать
ся; держаться вместе; двигаться толпой
fold п 1. загон (для овец); овчарня; 2. паства; 3. церковь / / v за
гонять (овец)
outskirts п p i 1. окраина, предместья города; 2. опушка (леса)
scanty а скудный; недостаточный; ограниченны й
sickle п серп
55
turnip n репа
cabbage n 1. (кочанная) капуста; 2. капустный / / v завиваться
кочаном
ах п 1. топор; колун; 2. резкое сокращ ение бюджета; урезыва
ние, сниж ение ассигнований / / v 1. работать топором; 2. со к р а
щать (штаты); урезывать (бюджет, ассигнования)
osier п 1. ива; 2. лоза (ивы); 3. ивовый
reed п 1. тростник, камыш; тростниковые заросли; 2. тростник
или солома для крыш / / v покрывать (крыш и) тростником или с о
ломой
wheat п п ш ен и ца
winter wheat п озимая пш еница
tye п 1. рожь; 2. ржаной
oat п 1. овес; 2. овсяны й; овсяной; 3. соломенны й
barley п 1. ячмень; 2. ячм енн ы й
hedge п 1. (живая) изгородь; ограда; 2. преграда; препятствие,
плетень
II. Write down the parts of speech the following words are and
translate them into Russian:
suppose, along, road, great, nothing, disappeared, shipping, smoke,
empty, dreadful, robber, chief, pretending, heaps, stones, wooden,
owner, group.
u [ju:] student, tube
execute, duty push, full
[A] cut, bus b u t put, pull
number, public bush
jj? } [u:] blue, true, cruise
/ И
ur turn, curve, urgent b u t current
^ [ э ] surround, supply, suspend
ur + e [jus] pure, cure, curious

Text 9 A. An English Village Long, Long Ago
Pari I
Let us suppose that 150 years have passed away, and that once more
we are travelling along the Rom an road to the villa on the heights of
Greenwich. The road seems neglected. There are great holes in it. And
when we reach the site o f the villa, we see nothing but ruins. The roof
56
disappeared long ago. In places on the walls we see marks of fire and
smoke. The decorated floors are covered with earth and grass. Here and
there we can see what was once the head or arm o f a statue. The river
that once was full of shipping is deserted, too, and London smoke, that
once was so thick, is scarcely seen at all. London streets must be empty.
Something dreadful has happened. We begin to think that the pirates
have been at work. And so they have. After the Rom an soldiers had
ruled and protected Britain for nearly 400 years, most of them sailed
away to the Continent, and then the Saxon sea robbers burst into the
land, and took most o f it for their own. Men say that chiefs called
Hengist and Horsa led the first comers, and that Kent was the part they
conquered. But at the date of this visit we are pretending to make others
as fierce as they are conquering other places, and all along the east and
south coast o f Britain the Rom an towns are almost empty, and Rom an
villas are nothing but heaps of stones. The R om an language is no longer
heard. Messengers from Rome no longer gallop along the roads; the
harbours that the Rom ans used are filling up with sand and mud, and
harbour walls are falling down. Churches are roofless and deserted.
After the pirates had driven the Britons from their homes into the
forests, they built themselves little villages to live in. As we stand on the
site of the old R om an villa in Greenwich Park, we can see one o f these
villages below us on the banks o f the Thames. It is just a cluster of ten or
twelve wooden halls. The owners who built them and live in them are
forefathers of m odern Englishmen. Nowadays, if you walk in the
country, you find farms and other houses standing by themselves. The
people who live in them know there are policemen to protect them, and
that the risk o f attack is very small. But in the days when Anglo-Saxons
were conquering Britain, there were angry Britons living in the forests,
who hated their conquerors. And so the settlers whom we are watching
have built their houses in a group, so that families may be near to protect
one another. The houses, however, are not close together in a row, all
touching one another. Each man has built his home separate from all
others in its own enclosure, partly because he wishes to, be free from the
prying eyes of his neighbours, and partly because the risk of one house
catching fire from another is thus lessened. Round the whole village
there are a ditch and_an earthen wall with a wooden fence on top. They
serve as a defence against robbers and wild beasts.
Text 9B. An English Village Long, Long Ago
Part II
If we had been looking down on the village at dawn, the first figure to
be seen would have been the cowherd collecting all the village cows
from the cowsheds, and driving them to the pasture outside. There the
57
shepherd has been guarding his flock all night in the fold, and not very
far away, o n the outskirts of the wood, is the swineherd, with his
grunting charges searching for acorns, beech nuts or other food. If it is
the early autum n, cows, sheep, and pigs will look fat enough; if it is late
spring after a hard winter, their bones will be sticking through their
hides, and they will scarcely have strength to craw. For in the faraway
days that we are pretending to visit there was little winter food for
animals. O f course there was hay, but only very little. In the autum n,
therefore, there was a great killing and salting down o f sheep, cows, and
pigs to serve as winter meat for the villagers. The animals that were kept
alive struggled along as best they might on what they could get to eat in
the fields, and on scanty supplies o f hay. But sometimes the starvation
was so severe that many died, and those that survived were only half the
size of the sheep and cows we see today.
In winter and spring, soon after dawn, other villagers appear with
their ploughs and oxen. The plough is clumsy. It is made o f wood. It
cannot go deep into the soil as our ploughs do, but only scratches the
surface. Few m en have one o f their own; it is usually the possession of
several men. Sometimes eight oxen are required to pull it. In the harvest
time the plough is out of sight; instead o f it the villagers bring out sickles
or curved knives to reap the crops. Turnips, cabbages and many other
crops that we have now are unknown.

Text 9C. An English Village Long Ago
Part III
The villagers usually grow wheat, rye or oats for bread, and barley to
brew beer with.
Nowadays farmers grow their crops in separate fields surrounded by
walls, hedges or fences. But in the early days, which we are reading
about, farmers did not separate their corn fields in this way. Outside the
village there were usually three very large com fields. O n all o f these
each farmer had several pieces of land, which he separated from the
pieces of other m en only by narrow strips o f grass. Every year one of
these very big fields had no crop growing on it. In this way it had a rest,
and was called the fallow field. So there were only two fields to be
reaped each year.
Farmers today have also separate fields in which to feed their cows
and sheep. But long ago every farmer’s cows and sheep fed together with
the cows and sheep o f all the other villagers o n the waste grounds, which
were not good enough to grow crops or were not wanted for this
purpose. There was also one big hay field. It was usually on the banks of
the river, and each villager had a share. So if we were really paying a visit
58
to this village, we should see all these fields, hay grounds and cattle
gazing quite distinctly.
But there is m uch work to be done besides minding animals and
crops. Walking through the village we might see villagers mending their
thatched roofs and putting up barns and cowhouses. We might hear the
smith hammering at his forge upon axes, sickles and spears, or see him
mending ploughshares. Perhaps there would be village children looking
on. We might see boys carrying hom e wild honey from the woods, or
hear girls laughing and gossiping as they made cheese and butter. Or, if
the weather was hot and the cream was slow to turn into butter, we
might hear them grumble that some wicked fairy has been in the dairy
and cast a spell over it. Standing in the doorways there might be women
busy with spinning o f wool into thread. Others might be making baskets
out of osiers and reeds that the boys have brought home.
EXERCISES

Rom an road, heights o f Greenwich, great holes, marks o f fire,
decorated floors, Rom an soldiers, harbour wall, wooden halls, earthen
wall, wooden fence.
VIII. Open the brackets by using the verbs in the correct Tense form.
1. Long-long ago when it was an early autum n cows, sheep and pigs
(to look) fat enough.
2. After a hard winter the animals bones (to stick through) their hides
and they scarcely had strength to crawl.
3. In the faraway days there (to be) little winter food for animals.
4. The animals (to keep) in the fields and on scanty supplies o f hay.
5. In winter and spring soon after dawn the villagers (to appear) with
their ploughs and oxen.
1. In those days they usually grew wheat, rye or oats for bread, they
grew barley...
2. In the early days the farmers did not separate their...
3. Farmers today have also separate fields...
4. Long ago cows and sheep of all the villagers were fed on the...
5. A big hay field was usually...
6. The smith was hammering at his forge upon axes or mending...

village cows, shepherds flock, beech nuts, hard winter, early autum n,
winter meat, severe starvation, villagers ploughs, harvest time, to reap the crops.
59
XI. Write down 6 questions using text 9C.
Russian.
1. The owners who built the houses o n the banks o f the Tham es are...
o f m odern Englishmen.
2. Angry Britons living in the forests... their conquerors.
3. O f course, there was... to feed animals in winter, but very little.
4. The peasants used their wooden ploughs which were...
5. In the harvest time the villagers brought out... or curved knives to
reap the crops.

1. История учит нас многому, в том числе и рациональному и с
пользованию природных ресурсов.
2. На рассвете пастух собирал деревенское стадо и гнал его на
пастбище на опуш ке леса (on the outskirts o f the wood).
3. К онечно, и зимой были запасы сена, но они были ничтожно
малы.
4. Осенью резали скот, солили мясо на зиму и заготавливали
корм для животных.
5. Весной в поле появлялся неуклюжий тяж елы й плуг, и, чтобы
тащ ить его, требовалось несколько быков.
XIV. Write down answers to the following questions:

1. Who owned land in Britain in those days?
2. Who lived in the ancient British village?
3. Why did the shepherd appear on the village road at down?
4. Why were the animals starving in winter?
5. What did the villagers do in the harvest time?
6. How did they separate their fields?

more, lowland, full, deserted, thick, to rest, give, first, to conquer,
longer, down, find
XVI. Read the text and answer the questions to it.

Text 9D. Interesting Facts About the Farmer And His Work
Everyone must eat in order to live, and therefore it is essential that
plenty o f good and proper food should be easily obtainable. O n farms,
various kinds of food are produced and as these foods are necessary to
m aintain our health and strength, the farm er’s work is prime importance.
There are m any different types of farms, such as (a) arable farms
(growing crops), (b) dairy farms (milking cows), (c) live-stock farms
60
(grazing cattle and sheep), (d) hill farms (grazing sheep), (e) fruit farms
(growing fruit), and (f) poultry farms (rearing egg-laying birds).
Generally speaking, however, most farmers grow a variety of grain and
vegetable crops and also rear cattle, sheep, pigs, and hens.
The co m m o n British grain crops are wheat, barley, and oats.
Wheat is sent to the miller, who grinds it into the white-powdered
flour which is made into bread.
Barley is used as a cereal in soups, and also in making malt for
whisky.
Oats are used to make oatmeal for bannocks and porridge, and also
to feed horses and cattle.
The co m m o n farm-grown vegetables are potatoes, swedes, turnips,
cabbages, beetroot, parsnips, carrots, and leeks. All are important
because of their high food value.
C o m seeds are generally sown early in the year.
In spring, the seeds sprout green shoots.
In sum m er, the shoots grow and gradually turn from green to yellow.
In autum n, the grain ripens and becomes golden-brown in colour.
The co m is cut and tied in small bundles called sheaves. These
sheaves are placed in piles (stocks) so that the sun will dry them. W hen
thoroughly dry, the sheaves are carted to the stackyard, and stored in
barns or built in ricks. Later the threshing machine separates the grain
from the straw-stems and chaff.
In the m onths o f June and July, the fields of long grass are cut. All
the grass is left scattered on the ground for a few days until it is dried by
the sun. The hay is then gathered into heaps and taken to a convenient
place to be built into stacks. W hen the ground is covered with frost and
snow, the farmer uses the hay to feed his sheep, cattle, and horses.
Crops not only require light from the sun and water from the rain
and dew, but also food from the soil. Different plants need different
kinds of nutrients, and so, by changing the crop each year, the farmer
makes sure that plenty of the special food required by the plant, is stored
in the soil. This system prevents the land from becoming too poor for
cultivation, and is called rotation of crops.
Dairy farms and live-stock farms are farms with suitable pasture land
for grazing cattle and sheep. O n the former type of farm, milk-giving
cows are reared and thus a supply of milk, butter, and cheese is
obtained. On the latter type, cattle and sheep are reared to provide us
with beef, leather, m utton and wool.
Although poultry includes domestic fowls, such as hens, ducks, geese
and turkeys, as a rule only the first-named are reared on poultry farms.
The birds are kept for supplying the table with meat and eggs. To hatch
out chicks, eggs are placed in specially heated chests called incubators.
After twenty-one days the shells break and out of each egg steps a fluffy
little chick.
61
In any garden, the work can be done with spade and hoe, but on
farms strong machines (horse- or motor-driven) are necessary. Here are
some of the im portant implements used on farms:
(a) The plough is used for digging the ground in preparation for
sowing. The arrow-shaped head of the share pushes along under the
surface and the curved rear part turns the cut slice of plough digs a
furrow, turns the earth, and buries the weeds.
(b) The harrow is used for covering the sown seeds with earth. This
m achine has num erous sharp spikes which break up lumps o f earth and
drag out troublesome weeds.
(c) The reaper is used to cut and gather the ripened grain crops. This
m achine has two large horizontal steel combs which cut the corn stems
in the same way as the barber’s clippers cut hair. Usually there is a
binder which presses and ties the cut c o m into small bundles (sheaves).
The production o f good crops is largely governed by the weather, as
promising crops can be spoiled by too m uch rain, or by long spells of
hot, dry weather. But the weather is not the farm er’s only worry, and the
following may be said to be a list o f his enemies:
(a) People who walk through fields where crops are growing.
(b) People who light fires and leave them burning.
(c) People who carelessly throw away lighted matches and cigarette
ends near hay ricks.
(d) People who forget to shut gates after opening them.
(e) Wood pigeons and crows which gobble up seeds.
(f) Rabbits which eat cabbages and young corn.
(g) Rats and mice which eat the stored grain.
(h) Foxes which prowl around and raid the henhouse.
Questions.
Why is the farm er’s work very important?
What are the most co m m o n British grain crops?
What is the nam e of:
a small tied bundle o f cut com ?
several bundles placed in piles to dry?
a large stored pile of com ?
What is a large stored pile of hay called?
What is hay used for?
W hat nam e is given to the system o f changing the crop each year?
What produce would you expect from:
a dairy farm,
a live-stock farm?
W hat is:
a poultry farm?
an incubator?
N am e three im portant implements.
62
Unit 10
THE LEGACY OF THE PAST
haybarn n сеновал
hay n сено
barn n амбар
survey v обозре(ва)ть; осматривать (осмотреть), межевать / /
п осмотр; обзор; обследование; межевание
surveyor п землемер
cowhouse п коровник; хлев
manure п удобрение / / v удобрять (удобрить)
cicumstance п обстоятельство
hilly а холмистый
relic п пережиток; реликвия; реликт
tool п (рабочий) инструмент; орудие
cob л ком
limestone п известняк
brick п кирпич / / v класть кирпич; облицовывать кирпичами
thatch п солом енн ая или тростниковая кры ш а / / v крыть со л о
мой или тростником
slate п сланец; ш иф ер; грифельная до ска / / v крыть ш и ф е р н ы
ми плитами
millstone п ж ернов
grit п песок; гравий
adapt v приспособлять; приспособить
adaptation п приспособление, переделка, аранж ировка
stable а стойкий, устойчивый / / п кон ю ш н я; хлев / / v ставить в
кон ю ш н ю (или в хлев)
imprint v запечатле(ва)ть; отпечат(ыв)ать / / п отпечаток; выход
ные сведения
rig п оснастка; наряд / / v оснащ ать (оснастить); наряжать (н а
рядить)
poultry п д о м аш н я я птица
obvious а очевидный; ясны й
storage п хранение; склад
sheaf п сноп; связка; пучок
sheaves pi. от sheaf
shovel п лопата; совок / / v копать (копнуть); сгребать лопатой
scoop п совок; черпак; ковш; углубление / / v зачерпывать (за
черпнуть)
flail п цеп; v молотить
rick п стог; скирд(а)
stack п стог (сена и т. п.); штабель; куча
63
dung n навоз / / v унавоживать (унавозить)
dump n свалка; полевой склад / / v сбрасывать (сбросить); н ав а
ливать (навалить); сваливать (свалить) (мусор)
gear п механизм / / v приводить в движение
tithe п 1. десятая часть; 2. крошечка; 3. церковная д есятина / /
v l . уплачивать церковную десятину; 2. облагать ц ерковной д е с я
тиной
oasthouse п суш илка для хмеля
oast п печь для суш ки хмеля или солода
hop п хмель / / v собирать хмель
inevitable а неизбеж ны й, неминуемый
obsolescence п устаревание
obsolete а устарелый
II. Write down the part of speech the following words are and translate
them into Russian:
legacy, farm, among, attractive, rural, various, way, us, m uch,
farming, about, system, work, ancestor, lam, harvest, before, material,
limestone.

time, title
nd m inor machine
i+ Id (ai) kind, find, blind but. cinema
gn wild, mild, wind live
gh sign, design give
light, sight wind
die, lie

Text 10A. Old fa rm Buildings
A haybam near Wensleydale. A surveyor in 1800 described this area
as remarkable for its haybarns, which are situated o n the centre o f every
third or fourth field. They always have a cowhouse at one end, and
frequently at both where the cattle are wintered. By this arrangement,
the hay and manure are not carried any great distance, an important
circumstance in these hilly countries.
Old farm buildings are am ong the most attractive relics of our rural
past. They are also among the most interesting, for in their various ways
they tell us m uch about the life and work o f our farming ancestors.
For one thing, they preserve the imprint o f the farming systems and
tools for which they were designed. For example, the barn recalls the
flailers who so laboriously thrashed the corn-harvest in the long winter
months. For another, they illustrate the building materials and methods
64
of their time. In particular, they show the dependence of builders in the
days before the factory and the railway on the local materials of their
areas, o n Devon cob, on Cots-wold limestone, on Midland clay, brick
and thatch, on Welsh slate and on Yorkshire millstone grit. Then, too,
they record the changing fortunes and techniques of agriculture down
the generations, since m any o f the old buildings which now survive have
been adapted to new purposes. Stables, for example, have sometimes
become milking parlours while eighteenth century barns have been
adapted to a variety of twentieth century uses. Each farm building has its
own particular story to tell. So has each farmstead, the central group of
buildings which forms the farm er’s indoor workshop.
Text 10B. The barn
The b a m remains one of the most obvious and familiar of all farm
buildings. Historically, indeed, it dom inated m any farmsteads from the
Middle Ages down to Hanoverian times, for it served the corn crop on
which this country depended, quite literally, for its daily bread.
The standardised pattern o f this type of building was determined
centuries ago by the storage and processing needs o f the grain harvest. In
its simplest form, it consisted of two end bays separated by a central
passage served by two pairs of double doors in opposite walls and fitted
with a hard floor. At harvest time, waggons came into the b a m from the
fields through one door, unloaded their sheaves and left by the other
door. Then, in the winter, these sheaves were taken down from the dark
ends o f the b a m and thrashed by flail on the central floor. Finally the
grain was winnowed by being tossed in the air by either a wooden shovel
or a scoop-shaped basket called a winnowing-fan, the chaff being
carried away in the through draught created by pinning open both sets of
doors.
Large barns had two passages, two thrashing floors and two sets of
doors. Large farms had two barns, one for the wheat which was sold off
the farm, one for the oats and barley which were used on it. But all bam s
on all farms were built on the same principles and all fulfilled the same
functions.

Text IOC. Thrashing by fla il in 18th century
Most of the barns that stand on farms today probably date from the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. But they include some of the few
medieval farm buildings that survive. These are the huge and gracious
barns commonly, but sometimes wrongly, called tithe barns. The name
is correctly given to those which were built on ecclesiastical estates to
65
store tithes, a form of tax paid to the C hurch not in m oney but in kind,
mostly com , though the nam e is sometimes casually used to cover all
old barns. The largest o f these magnificent buildings, which was 303 feet
long and 54 feet wide and covered nearly a third o f an acre, no longer
exists. But others almost as large can be seen to this day. One fourteenth
century barn was still in use twenty-five years ago, when it housed two
tractors, feeding stuffs, fertilisers, hay and straw, an eight-stall stable and
pens for a hundred pigs. It served, in fact, as a farmstead on its own.
In the nineteenth century the mechanisation of thrashing, the
purpose around which the barn was designed, brought at first rapid
change and then sudden obsolescence. T he early thrashing machines,
which were usually driven by four-legged horse power but occasionally
by water-power, could com m only be fitted with little difficulty into the
traditional type of barn. By the 1820s such machines were com m on, so
co m m on that m any were attacked and destroyed by the labourers whom
they deprived of precious winter work.
In 1827 a special Act of Parliament was passed to protect the
machines by imposing heavy penalties on those who damaged them.
Then, in early Victorian times, the new and mighty power of steam
cam e to the farm and began to replace the horse and the waterwheel
even as they had replaced the hum an flailer.
Soon the steam engine became normal equipm ent on the larger and
more advanced arable farms and to this day some of the factory-type
chimneys built to serve this new form of barn-power still stand on our
farms. But the steam-driven b am did not last long, for the convenience
o f taking the thrashing m achine to the corn stacks instead of bringing all
the c o m to the barn encouraged the development of portable thrashing
machines hauled and driven by steam engines. As the years passed,
therefore, more corn was thrashed in the fields and there was less need
for the barn. So no m ore bam s were built and existing barns were
gradually adapted to other purposes or allowed to degenerate into
dignified dumps for anything that could not be more conveniently
stored elsewhere.
In our own time, however, a few of these old bam s have recovered
part of their ancient purpose, for they house the complicated equipment
needed for drying and storing the sudden mass of grain which the
com bine harvester delivers at harvest time. So part of the harvest routine
has returned in new form to its old home.
EXERCISES
farm buildings, attractive relics, mral past, various ways, farming
ancestors, farming systems, building materials, millstone grit, milking
parlours, indoor workshop.
66
VIII. Open the brackets by using the verbs in correct form.
1. The most obvious and familiar of all farm building (to be) the
barn.
2. It (to dominate) many farmsteads from the middle age to
Hanoverian times.
3. This country (to depend) quite literally for its daily bread.
4. The pattern of the barn (to determine) centuries ago by the storage
and processing needs of the grain harvest.
5. At harvest time waggons (to come) into the barn form the fields
through one door, (to unload) their heaves and left by the other door.
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text IOC.
1. M any barns that still exist on the farms today probably date from...
2. Some medieval farm buildings that survive there are also...
3. You can hardly find the largest of these magnificent...
4. A third of an acre is their...
5. Twenty five years ago you could possibly see one b a m built in
the...
6. At early Victorian times the new and mighty power of steam come
to barn and begin to replace...

with the following word and word combinations:
farmstead, standardized pattern, grain harvest, simplest form, central
passage, double doors, opposite walls, hard floor, harvest time, wooden
shovel, a cooper shaped basket.
XI. Write down 6 questions using text IOC.
Russian.
1. Each farm building has its own particular story...
2. Stables sometimes may become milking...
3. Bam s may...the imprint of the farming system and tools for which
they were designed.
4. In the...form the barn consisted of two end bays separated by a
central passage.
5. One fourteenth century barn was...in use twenty five years ago.

1. С амы е привлекательные постройки в сельской местности
Англии — это знамениты е амбары.
2. Они сохранили отпечаток прош лого, старой ферм ерской
традиции.
3. Они иллюстрируют сельскую архитектуру и строительные
материалы тех времен.
67
4. Каждая из этих построек имеет свою историю; некоторые из
них действуют до сих пор, хотя построены были еще в XIV в.
5. Больш инство сельскохозяйственных построек в Англии с о
хранились с XVII—XVIII вв. По ним мы можем судить о качестве
строительства в то время.

1. What did a surveyor of the 1800s describe?
2. What was special about those barns?
3. Why were the barns o f multipurpose use?
4. What century were the earliest of existing barns used in?
5. What did they put across the entrance of the b a m to prevent the
entry of poultry?
6. What was the standardized pattern o f the barn centuries ago?

many, familiar, simplest, hard, from, down, dark, finally, open,
large, sell, same, new, correct, rapid.
XVI. Read the text and answer the questions below.

Text 10D. The Oasthouse
The oasthouse is the typical and delightful building o f the hop-
growing areas, but historically it is quite a recent development. Oasts of
this type did not become co m m o n until the early 19th century.
Hops were first cultivated in this country in T udor times and with the
hop garden came, inevitably, the oast-house for drying the crop. But the
early oasthouses were very different from those we now associate with
the Kentish landscape. The familiar circular oast topped by a pivoted
timber cowl with a flyboard to keep the back o f the cowl to the wind did
not become an established feature of the hop growing countryside until
the early nineteenth century. It was invented in the 1790s, along with a
garden syringe, a stom ach-pum p and a steam heating system for
glasshouses, by an ingenious gardener, Joh n Read of H orsm onden, near
Lamberhurst.
Farmers still use these oasts, but they no longer build them: the pre
war innovations o f electric fans, oil-firing and roof louvres have
com bined to produce a m ore efficient though less artistic type o f drying
installation. So the mechanisation of drying this crop has rendered
obsolete the traditional oast-house as wellas the traditional annual
migration of hop-pickers from L o n d o n ’s East End.
Questions
1. Do farmers use old building now?
2. What ways do they use those old buildings?
68
Unit 11
THE RELICS OF THE PAST
granary n ж итница; амбар
cartsheds n сарай для мелкого инвентаря, сельскохозяйственной
техники
cart п телега; повозка / / v везти в телеге
shed п навес; сарай; ангар
vermin вредители; паразиты
contaminate v загрязнять; заражать
contamination п загрязнение; заражение
implement п инструмент; орудие; принадлежность / / v в ы п ол
нять (выполнить)
rot п гниение; гниль / / v (с)гноить; (с)гнивать; (с)гнить
dovecote п голубятня
residue п остаток; осадок
dunghill п навозная куча
manor п поместье
ceaseless а непреры вны й; непрестанны й
depredate v 1. грабить; 2. опустошать
depredation п 1. грабеж; расхищ ение; 2. опустошение; разруш и
тельное действие
loft п чердак; галерея
sufficiency п достаточность; достаток
ladder п лестница
ox п, p i oxen вол, бык
haulage п 1. тяга, буксировка; 2. перевозка, подвозка; 3. сто
имость перевозки
plough п плуг / / v вспахать; (из)бороздить
ploughshare п лемех
breed п порода / / v 1. выводить (вывести); 2. разводить (развес
ти); 3. высиживать (высидеть); 4. вскармливать (вскормить);
5. размнож аться (размножиться); 6. (вы)расти
breeder п производитель; скотовод
demolish v разрушать (разрушить); сносить (снести)
combined, built, farm, between, stands, housed, separate, granary,
commonly, livestock, kept, store, grain, protect, buildings, danger, and.
(z) as, days, nose, sees, pens, bells
sN
(s) send, spend, test, cups, dress, chess
69
(0) thin, thick, bath, thunderstorm
^ Ni
(&) the, with, them , then, that, those, bathe
ph -» (f) photo, physical training

Text 11A. Cartsheds and implement sheds
T he com bined granary and cartshed was built on a Worcestershire
farm between 1770 and 1800 and now stands in the Avoncroft Museum
of Buildings. W hen not housed in a separate granary, grain was
com m only kept over the cartshed. The farmer had to store his grain off
the ground to protect it from vermin and he could not store it over
livestock buildings because of the danger of contam ination. The dog
kennels were below the stairs. C o m was valuable and needed protection
against thieves.
Carts and waggons are substantial and expensive pieces of farm
equipment. So it has always been worth the farm er’s while to house
them in, for example, open-sided lean to sheds to protect them from the
sun and rain which warp and rot their timberwork. Such shelters also
probably housed the most important of the simple field implements of
the time, for it was not until the early nineteenth century that there was
m uch need to provide them with special accom m odation.
As field machinery became more complicated, however, the need for
better and larger implement housing increased. This process began with
the drill in later Hanoverian times and has continued via the Victorian
reaper-and-binder to the tractors and com bine harvesters of today.
Text 11B. The Granary
T he thrashed grain required safe storage, for it was both the farm er’s
m ain cash crop and the seed for his future corn crops. Some farmers
stored it in the b a m or better, in a room above the cartshed where it was
safe from damp. But m any preferred to build a special granary which
could be conveniently supervised and kept locked. These small
rectangular buildings normally rested on four m ushroom -shaped stands
called staddle stones, which provided protection from rats and mice.
Nowadays these granaries are seldom used for their original purpose.
T he com bine harvester and the complicated grain drying and storage
equipm ent it entails has rendered them obsolete. But m any remain on
m o d e m farms, contrasting pleasantly with the concrete and asbestos
buildings around them , because the farmer finds them safe and useful
stores for seeds, fertilisers, tools or spare parts.
70
Text 1 1 C . The Dovecote
Nowadays we do not regard pigeons as a form o f farm stock. But in
the past their agricultural importance was considerable. They provided
fresh meat and eggs to vary the limited diet of the times and they left
valuable residues for the dunghill. In feudal times, however, these
benefits were the m onopoly o f the lord o f the manor. Only he could
build the massive stone dove-towers o f the early Norm ans or the lighter,
more ornamental structures of their successors from which fluttered the
winged flocks whose ceaseless depredations on neighbouring crops are
remembered in the old rural proverb o f the four grains sown in a row,
One for the pigeon, one for the crow, One to rot and one to grow. The
order is significant.
As farming developed, the importance of pigeons decreased and men
began to emphasise the harm they did to crops rather than the value of
their meat and m anure. The tradition died slowly. Some early
nineteenth century farmers built lofts for doves in their barns or over
their cartsheds and as late as the 1880s pigeons played a quite
appreciable part in the economy o f most farms in Northamptonshire.
But it is now a long time since domesticated pigeons have contributed
more than pleasure and interest to the farm.
EXERCISES

expensive pieces, farm equipment, open-sided, learn-to sheds,
timberwork, simple fields implements, early nineteenth century, special
accom m odation, field machinery, combine harvesters.
VIII. Open the brackets by using the words in the correct form.
1. When the farmer harvested and thrashed the grain it (to require)
safe storage.
2. The farmer (to need) the seed for his future corn crops.
3. Many farmers (to prefer) to build a special granary which (can) be
kept locked.
4. The granary (to be) a small rectangular building (to rest) on four
stands.
5. Those stands (to be) m ushroom -shaped and (to call) staddle
stones. They (to protect) from rats and mice.
1. Nowadays pigeons are not regarded to be...
2. In the past they provided fresh meat and eggs to...
71
3. Massive stone dove-towers were the monopoly o f the m anor in...
4. Complete the old rural proverb o f four grains sown in a row: One
for the pigeon, one for the crow, one to rot and one...
5. Later the importance o f pigeons...

thrashed grain, safe storage, cash crop, c o m crops, special granary,
rectangular buildings, m ushroom shaped, original purpose, storage
equipment, grain drying equipm ent, spare parts.
Russian.
1. Nowadays the granaries are seldom used f o r ... in G reat Britain.
2. The granaries ... pleasantly with concrete and asbestos building
around them.
3. The need for better and larger implement housing increased,
however, as field machinery became...
4. The most im portant o f the simple field implements o f the past
certainly needed...
5. In the past pigeons agricultural importance was...

1. У ферм ера всегда были специальны е п о м ещ ен и я для хране
н ия сельскохозяйственной техники и инвентаря.
2. С охран ивш и еся до наш их дней постройки и ф ерм ерский и н
вентарь позволяю т судить о том, какова была механизация сельс
кохозяйственны х работ в те далекие времена.
3. Зерно хранили в амбарах или специальны х хранилищах, к о
торые закры вались и охранялись.
4. Х рани лищ а строились так, чтобы грызуны (rats and mice) не
могли п рони кн уть внутрь помещ ения.
5. С редневековые голубятни представляют особы й интерес,
если учесть, что в те времена они были м он о п о ли ей зажиточных
фермеров.

1. W ho could own a massive stone dove-tower and why?
2. Where did the farmer keep his agricultural machinery at that time?
3. Why did granaries rest on staddle stones?
4. W hen did the importance o f pigeon’s decrease?
5. W hat was special about the farm stock in feudal times in England?
6. What kinds o f farm buildings o f the past can you name?
72
expensive, always, in, open, lean, from, important, much, provide,
special, letter, larger, increase, begin.
XVI. Read the text. Write down 5 questions and answer them in oral
form.
Text 11D. The Stable
A stable range on a Hampshire farm built in 1838. The horses lived
on the ground floor and hay and straw were stored overhead.
Until the coming o f the tractor in the past century, the stable housed
the animal teams on which the farmer depended for the cultivation of
his land and the haulage of his crops. Today, of course, we associate
stables solely with horses. But for m any centuries the farmer used oxen
as well as horses as work beasts and it was only in Victorian times that
the horned plough team became first a rarity and finally a curiosity.
Today the ox teams are forgotten and the horse teams are no more
than a m em ory picturesquely revived from time to time by enthusiasts at
local shows and ploughing matches. The stables have gone with them.
Nothing is now left o f the ох-stables except a few wide doors in some
old Welsh buildings which recall the wide spread o f the horns of the
local breed of plough-ox. And little is left o f the stalls that housed the
horses that only two generations ago num bered over a million. Some
have been demolished, others have been converted, often beyond the
point o f recognition to other purposes.
Unit 12
THE URBAN COWHOUSE
herd n 1. стадо, гурт; 2. пастух / / v 1. ходить стадом, толпиться;
2. пасти
instance п 1. пример, отдельный случай; 2. требование, насто я
ние; 3. инстанция / / v 1. приводить в качестве примера; 2. служить
примером
filth п грязь; отбросы
dairy п 1. маслодельня; сыроварня; 2. молочная; 3. молочная
ферма; 4. молочный
produce молочные продукты
cattle м олочный скот
farmhouse п жилой дом на ферме
churn п 1. маслобойка; 2. м ешалка / / v 1. сбивать (масло);
2. взбалтывать; вспенивать
tether п путы (пасущегося животного) / / v привязать (пасущееся
животное)
73
adjacent а прим ы каю щ и й; см ежны й; соседний
exempt а 1. освобожденны й (от налога и т. п.); 2. свободный (от
недостатков и т. п.); 3. изъятый
v 1. освобождать (от обязанности, налога и т. п.); 2. изымать
width п 1. ш ирина; широта; расстояние; 2. полотнище; полоса;
3. мощ ность (жилы или пласта)
depot п склад; амбар
pail п ведро; бадья
piggery п свинарник; хлев
woodland п 1. лесистая местность / / а лесной
swineherd п свинопас
beechnut п буковый ореш ек
acorn п 1. желудь; 2. желудевый
grub I п л ич и нка, гусеница / / v 1. вскапывать; 2. выкапывать;
выкорчевывать
grub II п разг. пищ а; еда / / v 1. есть; 2. кормить
carrion п 1. падаль; 2. мясо, негодное к употреблению / / а гн и ю
щ ий, отвратительный
assess v 1. определять сумму налога, ш трафа и т. п.; 2. облагать
налогом, штрафовать; 3. оценивать имущество для облож ения н а
логом
fatten v 1. откармливать на убой; 2. жиреть, толстеть; 3. удоб
рять землю
sty п 1. свиной хлев; 2. грязное п омещ ение
hamlet п деревня; деревушка
unexpected, cattle, completely, urban, squares, obtain, dairy, stalls,
yard, from, sanitary, exercise, were, hour, deep, beast, shade, quality.

kn (n) -» know -» knot, knee
alk -» (o:) -» chalk, walk, talk
lm [m] calm, balm, palm
oul before d [u] —> could, should, would
mn [m] autum n, dam n, hymn, colum n
p (no sound) -» pneum onia, receipt

Text 12A. The Urban Cow Houses in London
One unexpected type o f cattle building has now disappeared
completely. These are the urban cow houses in the streets and squares of
74
London and other great cities which, in the days before railways,
provided townsm en with the milk they could not obtain from dairy
farms.
Regency London, for instance, contained some 8,500 cows which
spent their lives tethered in stalls ftom which they were let out into yards
for water and exercise for a few hours a day. In general, sanitary
conditions am ong these «wretched beasts housed in dark shade and
hovels, standing ankle deep in filth» were indescribably bad. So was the
quality o f their milk by the time it reached the customer. In Glasgow
good housing and good m anagement could produce good milk in the
middle of an industrial city, but it was long before his standards became
normal practice.
By the 1860s, however, reforms o f the London cowhouses had
produced «such patterns of neatness and convenience» as Mr. Drewell’s
establishment in U pper W eymouth Street, Marylebone, which included
a quarantine room for newly arrived cows, and Mr. Veale’s «clean, dry,
warm and airy» cowshed in Acacia Road, St. J o h n ’s Wood. But the days
of even the best urban cowhouses were numbered. One by one, as the
system o f milk trains developed and sanitary legislation intensified, they
closed down. But the end was slow in coming. There were a thousand
cows in Inner London, including a herd of 85 head in Bermondsey, as
late as the 1930s and it was not until 1953 that the last cow was milked
in the last cowhouse in the City o f London.
A model dairy was built in 1870 by the Duke of Hamilton for the
home farm o f his Suffolk estate. The doors and windows were fitted with
stained glass, m any o f the panels incorporating parts of the family arms,
the shelves were marble, the walls tiled with birds and floral designs in
white on a pale blue background and the tiled floor also included coats
of arms. The fountain was for cooling the room. Milk was churned into
butter in the adjacent c h u m room and worked, weighed and wrapped in
this dairy, some for the hall, some for the estate workers. An ornate
dairy like this would not, o f course, be found on any normal commercial
farm, but it illustrates the survival of the aristocratic tradition in
Victorian times. This building is now on view at Easton Farm Park in
Suffolk.

English.
Text 12B. The Farmhouse Dairy
Evil com m unications corrupt good manners. They also render

impossible the general transport and sale of such a perishable
com m odity as milk. Until the com ing o f the railways, therefore, milk
was processed on the farm into butter or cheese. This task was the
responsibility of the farm er’s wife and daughters whose workshops were
75
rooms in the farmhouse, where milkroom, churning room, cheeseroom
and storeroom might easily take up a substantial part o f the ground
floor.
The importance of these farm dairies is illustrated by the fiscal
concessions granted to them by an Act o f Parliament o f 1795 which
exempted their windows from Window Tax provided the word «Dairy»
or «Cheeseroom» was inscribed over them «in large rom an letters of two
inches at least in height and o f proportionate width». A few of these
inscriptions survive, but the dairies themselves are now usually normal
farmhouse rooms. W hen the trade in liquid milk developed, the old
dairies to which milk was laboriously carried in pails across yards were
replaced by new dairies adjacent to the cowhouse and convenient for the
lorries which took the chu m s to the depot.

Text 12C. The Piggery
The piggery is, rather surprisingly, a comparatively recent invention.
For m any centuries the domesticated pig, like its wild ancestors, was
mainly a w oodland animal, and in Saxon and medieval times pigs spent
m uch o f the year under the supervision o f the village swineherd in the
forests, where they foraged on beechnuts and acoms, grubs and carrion.
The Norm ans who compiled Doomsday Book assessed the value of
woodlands in terms o f the num ber o f pigs they could support. It was not
until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries that the conversion o f the
ancient forests to farmland compelled pigs to seek the permanent
hospitality o f the farmstead. In some areas piggeries were still regarded
as an innovation in the early nineteenth century.
Sometimes pigs were housed in yards, but more com m only they lived
in some version of the familiar cottager’s pigsty which provides an open
run and a warm shelter, a type of building peculiarly suitable for the pig
which, being hairless, is more susceptible to climate than other farm
animals.
On dairy farms, where pigs were fattened on the by-products of
butter-m aking and cheesemaking in the farm dairy, there were often
rows o f such sties. On other farms, there were one or two sties near the
farmhouse, where the farm er’s wife could conveniently feed them on
household waste. In the villages, too, m any cottagers kept a pig or two in
a sty in the back garden. This was, indeed, their main source o f meat,
sometimes their only source, and the pig was an important m em ber of
the village community. Readers of «Lark-Rise to Candleford» by Flora
Thom pson, which gives such an unforgettable picture o f life in an
Oxfordshire hamlet in later Victorian and Edwardian times, will
rem em ber her description of the family pig as «everybody’s pride and
everybody’s business». «Callers on Sunday afternoon», she continues,
76
«came to see not the family but the pig and would lounge with its owner
against the piggery door, scratching piggy’s back and praising his points
or turning up their noses in criticism».
Nowadays, however, such sties are little used. On the farms they
proved too expensive in labour and have been replaced by larger, more
intensive types o f piggery. In the villages their numbers decreased as
sanitary standards improved. But when you see a derelict pigsty,
remem ber that you are looking at a relic o f the days when butter and
cheese were made on farms and the countrym an fattened, killed and ate
his own pork and bacon.
EXERCISES

dairy herds, urban cowhouse, Regency times, cattle building,
townsmen, sanitary conditions, ankle deep, good milk, industrial city,
normal practice.
VIII. Open the brackets by using the words in the correct Tense form.
1. The Urban cowhouses (to disappear) completely in G reat Britain.
2. Townsm en (not + can) obtain their milk from dairy farms in those
days.
3. In London in Regency times there (to be) about 8,500 cows which
spent their lives in stalls.
4. Even then people knew that good m anagem ent (to produce) good
milk.
5. By the 1860s the patterns o f neatness and convenience (to
produce) by the reforms o f the London cowhouses.
1. It may seem surprising but the piggery is...
2. W hen Doomsday Book was compiled it assessed the value of
woodlands in terms...
3. The conversion o f ancient forests to farm land compelled pigs to...
4. Piggeries were still regarded as an innovation in some areas even...
5. On dairy farms pigs were fattened on...

Suffolk estate, stained glass, family arms, floral designs, tiled floor,
coats of arms, adjacent churn room, normal commercial farm,
aristocratic tradition, Victorian times, rom an letters.

77
Russian.
1. As the system o f milk trains... and sanitary legislation... the
cowhouses in London closed down.
2. The quality o f the milk by the time it... the customer...
3. On some farms there were one or two... near the farmhouse where
the farm er’s wife could feed pigs on household wastes.
4. In the villages m any cottagers kept a pig or two in a sty...
5. Now on the farms sties proved too... in labour and have been
replaced by larger more intensive types o f piggery.

1. Д о п о явления железных дорог из молока на ферме делали
масло или сыр.
2. В XIX в. оборудование для переработки молока стало более
сложны м, так же как и способы его переработки.
3. Как это ни покажется странны м, сви нар ни ки — довольно
позднее изобретение.
4. По своему происхождению свинья — ж ивотное лесное.
5. Ценность леса в первой кадастровой книге Англии определя
лась числом диких кабанов, которых лес мог прокорм ить (to
support).

1. Where could the cowhouses be seen in Regency times in London?
2. How many cows could supply Londoners with milk?
3. Why did the cowhouses disappear and when?
4. How did the Doom sday Book assess the value o f woodlands?
5. What is the description o f the family pig in later Victorian England
given by Flora Thom pson?
6. How can you describe a model dairy built in 1870 by the Duke of
Hamilton in one o f his estates?

after, now, disapper, completely, urban, great, townsmen, die,
general, dark, deep, in describable, good, neat.
XVI. Read the text. Write down 5 or 6 questions and answer them in
oral form.
Text 16D. Cattle Buildings
Cattle have always been important in the British farming system. They
thrive on the grass for which Britain’s soil and climate are peculiarly suited
and they produce meat and milk, leather and manure. Until mid-
Victorian times, too, they also provided a great deal o f the mobile power
on which the farmer depended for the cultivation o f his fields.
78
But their historical importance is not reflected by the older cattle
buildings that have survived. For one thing, m any cattle spent m uch of
their time in the winter m onths not in buildings but in open yards,
where they trod straw litter into manure. For another, m any o f the older
cattle buildings were no more than shelters which later collapsed or were
demolished. Some shelter in a yard survived because they were built of
stone. They might not have survived if they had been built o f timber.
Further, the more elaborate cattle buildings were those where the dairy
herds were housed in winter and milked all the year round. Some of
these old cowhouses have been adapted to meet the ever-increasing
demands of hygiene and convenience in milk production. But most of
them have been replaced either by improved types o f cow house or by
the more recently developed systems o f parlours in which cows are
milked and yards in which they are wintered.
Unit 13
FROM THE HISTORY OF THE FARMSTEAD IN GREAT BRITAIN
farmstead n ф ерм а со службами
evolve v 1. эволю ционировать; развиваться; развертываться;
2. развивать (теорию и т. п.); 3. выделять (газы, теплоту); издавать
(запах)
accommodate v 1. приспосабливать; 2. снабжать; 3. давать п р и
станище, предоставлять жилье, помещ ение; 4. оказывать услугу;
5. примирять, улаживать (ссору), согласовывать
accommodation п 1. п омещ ение, жилье, квартира; 2. приют, убе
жище; 3. приспособление; 4. удобство, удобства (в квартире
и т . п.); 5. согласование, соглаш ение, ком промисс, 6. ссуда; 7. а к
комодация
avoid v 1. избегать, сторониться; 2. уклоняться; 3. аннулировать,
уничтожать
stack-yard п гумно
medley п смесь, месиво, м еш ан и на / / а см еш анны й, разнород
ный, пестрый / / v смешивать, перемешивать
carter п возчик
quarry п 1. кам ен олом н я, открытая разработка, карьер; 2. источ
ник сведений / / v 1. разрабатывать карьер, добывать (камень из
карьера); 2. рыться (в книгах и т. п.);
tile п 1. черепица; 2. кафель; изразец; пустотелый кирпич / / v
1- крыть черепицей; 2. обеспечить тайность (проведения собрания
и т. п.)
kiln п печь для обжига и для суш ки / / v обжигать (кирпич, и з
весть и т. п.), смола; деготь; гудрон
79
tar n смола; деготь; гудрон / / v мазать деггем; смолить
gutter п 1. водосточный желоб; 2. сточная кана(в)ка / / v 1. д е
лать желоба, канавки; 2. стекать; 3. оплывать (о свече)
manger п ясли; корм уш ка
far, particular, part, whole, farmstead, different, planned, fitted
practical pattern, past, compose, shelter, individual, new, development.

si [ail] island, aisle
ft [f] often
st [s] listen, fasten, whistle
wh [w] why, where, when, but who [h], before о
wr [r] wrong, write, wrap, wry

Text 13A. The farm stead fitted together
So far we have considered some particular types o f building. But, o f
course, each particular building is only one part o f the whole farmstead.
And the way in which a farmstead is planned and the different buildings
are fitted together to form a practical and convenient pattern may well
tell us as m uch about the farms and farmers o f the past as the individual
buildings which compose it.
Men have built farmsteads ever since they first began to cultivate the
soil, and one type o f farmstead can trace its ancestry back to Neolithic
times. This is the longhouse, which shelters the farm er’s family and his
livestock all under one roof: some have survived to our own time. But
the basic plan o f most o f the farmsteads that we see today dates from the
period 1750-to-1880. For this there are two reasons. Firstly, this was a
period o f great agricultural development and expansion. It began with
the Agricultural Revolution o f George I l l ’s time and ended with the
prosperous and progressive High Farming o f mid-Victorian times.
Consequently, in these years many old farmsteads were reconstmtted
and many new ones built to meet the needs o f the new farming systems.
Secondly, in the later eighteenth century the leaders of the farming
industry evolved a highly standardized and effective type o f farmstead
design which, with a multitude of.local modifications and variations,
was copied all over the country and was continued by their nineteenth
century successors.
This standard-pattern farmstead was designed to meet the needs of
the farmer who both grew crops and kept stock in the mixed farming
80
system which was, and still is, predom inant in this country. On the one
hand, this farmstead provided accom m odation for his corn crops and
the means o f accumulating the manure to m aintain the fertility of the
fields that grew them . On the other, it provided convenient housing for
his varied livestock.
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in written
form.
Text 13B. The Farmstead Fitted Together
Part II
Essentially, this type of farmstead consisted o f three parts. The first
was the barn, in which co m from the stack yard was thrashed and from
which straw was distributed. The second was the collection o f livestock
buildings in which hay and straw were processed into manure. The third
was the yard formed by the b am and livestock buildings, where stock
exercised and manure accumulated.
Such farmsteads took the form of a series of buildings round open
yards. Occasionally in a square, more com m only on three sides of a
square, some with one yard is forming a pattern, some with two yards
forming an E-pattem . The yards faced south to catch the sun and to
avoid some of the rainy south-west winds. They were sheltered on the
north by the bam , the largest building on the farm — the hiker today can
still often orient himself by the position of a barn in a farmstead and by
the cart sheds which usually faced north to avoid sun and rain. From this
north range and at right angles to it ran the wings which enclosed the
yard and contained a medley of buildings, some for storage, most of
them for livestock, the stables com m only facing east to catch the rising
sun which literally lightened the early m orning labours of the carter and
ploughman. Pigs were usually housed near the farmhouse since they
depended on the by-products of the dairy and the household, as did the
poultry which were traditionally the concern of the farm er’s wife.
Convenient to the cattle buildings, sometimes in a barn, sometimes in
stacks, stood the haystore. The farmhouse, normally on the south of the
farmstead, com pleted this agricultural factory.
Text 13C. The Farmstead Fitted Together
Part I II
A typical early 19th-century farmstead consisted of several buildings.
The co m harvest was stacked north o f the buildings and thrashed in the
barn, the biggest building in the north range. The yard formed by this
range and the two wings extending from it, which mostly housed
livestock, faced south to catch the Sun. Some of the cattle wintered in
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the yard, where they trod straw into manure. This Nottinghamshire
example of the «standard pattern farmstead» o f Hanoverian and
Victorian times is probably very m uch as it was originally built.
The Hanoverians were dependent on local materials for their
buildings. They used timber from local woods, stone from local quarries,
clay from local pits, thatch from local fields, bricks and tiles from local
kilns. In Hampshire, for instance, even the tar came as a by-product
from the local m anufacturer of gunpowder. The Victorians, living in the
age o f railways and factories, could use brick, tiles and slates produced
in any part of the country. They could obtain such new materials as
asphalt, creosote and, more important, cheap glass for windows, and
they could also buy such prefabricated equipm ent as ventilation cowls,
guttering, mangers and cast iron pillars and trusses. Further, they could
instal steam power, whereas their fathers depended on the labour o f men
and animals. At first sight, therefore, their farmsteads look very different
from those o f their fathers.
But only at first sight. It is soon becomes clear that the Victorian
farmstead is essentially an industrialized version o f the Hanoverian
farmstead. It is built with industrially produced materials and fitted with
industrially produced equipm ent, but it serves similar needs in a similar
way. In particular, it continues the old pattern of north range and south-
facing yards.
The later nineteenth century saw the beginning o f a long period of
agricultural depression which lasted to the 1930s, when few new
buildings and fewer new farmsteads were erected. Since then, however,
there has been a great deal o f new construction with, inevitably, the
destruction o f m any old buildings. So today there are few wholly
Hanoverian or wholly Victorian farmsteads. Some present-day
farmsteads include older buildings. Nearly all include later buildings or
later adaptations and alterations. Nevertheless, in many cases the
original pattern, preserved either by the original buildings or by their
successors, is still visible and it is possible to trace the basic plan
prepared a century, a century and a half or two centuries ago, and to
appreciate the principles and traditions that went to its making.
EXERCISES

traditional materials, traditional designs, particular types, convenient
pattern, individual buildings, farm er’s family, progressive high farming,
mid-Victorian times, farming industry.
VIII. Open the brackets by using the words in the correct tense form.
1. We (to study) only some particular types o f agricultural buildings.
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2. A farmstead (to plan) in such a way that the different buildings (to
fit) together to form a practical and convenient pattern.
3. M en (to build) farmsteads since they first began to cultivate the
soil.
4. The farmer (to design) his farmstead to meet the needs o f growing
crops and keeping animals in the mixed farming system.
5. The standard-pattern farmstead (to copy) all over the country and
continued by their successors in the XIX century.
1. The biggest building in the north range was the barn where...
2. Some of the cattle wintered in the yard where they trod straw...
3. The people o f Hanoverian times were dependant on local
materials for...
4. They used local timber from local woods and stone from local
quarries, clay from... thatch from local fields, bricks and tiles from...
5. The Victorians, living in the age o f railways and... could use bricks,
tiles and slates produced in...

with the following word combination.
livestock buildings, open yards, largest building, north range, right
angles, curly m orning labours, farm er’s wife, cattle buildings, haystore,
agricultural factory.
Russian:
1. The basic plan o f the most o f the farmsteads appeared in England
in the period of... development and expansion.
2. Victorian times were... and... for agriculture in Britain.
3. M any farmsteads were... and m any new ones built to meet the
needs of the new farming systems.
4. The Victorian farmstead is essentially an... version of the
Hanoverian farmstead.
5. During a long period of... of 1930s only few new buildings were
erected and even fewer new farmsteads were built.

1. Различные постройки соединялись вместе таким образом,
чтобы создать удобную и практичную модель усадьбы.
2. Еще со времен неолита человек устраивал свое ж илищ е так,
чтобы не только его семья могла укрыться в нем, но и дом аш н и й
скот был с ней под одной крышей.
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3. В викторианскую эпоху английская усадьба превратилась в
пром ы ш ленную версию крестьянской усадьбы предшествующих
эпох.
4. Д ови ктори ан ские фермы использовали для строительства
зданий местные материалы: глину, солому, кирпич.
5. В век железных дорог и ф аб ри к фермеры могли использовать
такие новые материалы, как асфальт, более деш евое стекло, они
могли купить готовое оборудование для вентиляции п ом ещ ен ий и
тому подобное.

1. What kinds o f farm buildings can you name?
2. What was the typical pattern of the farmstead in Neolithic times?
3. What was the basic plan o f the farmsteads in the eighteenth
century?
4. Why are Victorian farmsteads still seen in some places o f the UK?
5. Why do we study the history of farmsteads and their buildings?

north, wide, to catch, out, after, dependent, local, from, by-product,
old, buy, destroy, visible, wholly.
XVI. Have another look through the texts from unit 13 and make a
dialogue «The History of the farmstead in Great Britain». (6—8 questions
and 6—8 answers)
Unit 14
FROM THE HISTORY OF LAND MANAGEMENT
survey n 1. съемка; 2. обследование; 3. межевание / / v 1. обсле
довать; 2. осматривать; 3. измерять
regirter v регистрировать, вносить в реестр / / п 1. журнал,
2. книга учета
influence п влияние / / v влиять
former а бывш ий
colony п колония
dominion п д о м и ни о н
differ v различать(ся)
recently adv недавно
cadastre п кадастр
vague а 1. смутный; 2. неясны й; 3. неопределенный
compulsory а 1. принудительный; 2. обязательны й
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sporadic a 1. единичны й; 2. случайный; 3. отдельный (случай)
preclude v 1. мешать; 2. препятствовать; 3. предотвращать
И. Write down the part of speech the following words are and translate
them into Russian:
interest, several, strong, former, further, differ, continental, until,
recently, been, almost, world, oldest, record, compile, famous,
collected, kind.

au [o:] launch
aw [o:]saw
aught [o:j naughty b u t aunt [a:nt]
auth author
war ----- [o:] war, warm
quar^^ quartz
IV. Read the text and translate it into Russian in oral form.
Text 14A. From the History o f Land Registration
o f English-speaking countries
Systems o f land registration in Anglo-Saxon countries are of
interest for several reasons. First, these systems have had a strong
influence in the form er colonies and dominions. F urther more they
differ in m any ways from the continental system, in large part because
until recently the cadastre has been almost unknow n in the English-
speaking world.
One of the oldest land records was compiled in England — the
famous Doomsday Survey completed in 1068. The Doom sday Book, a
record of information collected for the levying of taxes, was remarkable
for its time, a kind o f cadastre without map. The survey was ordered by
William_the C onqueror almost 20 years after he had defeated the Saxons
at the battle of Hastings. It was completed in a short time. The records
covered in principle the whole o f England. They showed names of
landowners, acreage, tenures as well as arable, meadow, pasture and
forest land uses, num ber of tenants and quantity and type of livestock.
The records were not supported by any maps.
However the Doom sday Book was unique and was never reviewed or
maintained. There has never been a cadastre in the European sense, in
England or in those countries that adopted English traditions.
Historically, the need for delimitation arose as soon as anyone — a
tribe, a family, or an individual — laid claim to a particular right in an
area. Hunting, fishing and grasing rights were often rather vaguely
demarcated, while cultivation rights tended to have more carefully
defined limits. These limits could be determ ined in different ways: by
85
occupation, by fights among competing groups, by mutual agreement or
by applying the customary rules.
In sparsely populated areas, the process o f establishing definite
boundaries began rather recently. W hen Africa was colonized, for
example, there was still m u ch land not effectively claimed by any
family or tribe, which could therefore be treated as crown land and
perhaps later given to European settlers. O n the Am erican continent
and in rem o ter parts o f Europe such as n orthern Sweden, the
d em arcation process was not finished until late in the nineteenth
century.
Text 14B. The Earliest Evidence o f Land Management
In ancient Nordic laws there were rules requiring that land
transactions be announced at a popular court and confirmed by
12 witnesses. Similar rules could be found in many other European
countries. In primitive tribes land transfers had to take place in the
presence o f the chief and elders.
Later on it became normal practice in more developed countries to
deposit and officially register the deed at the court or with a notary
public. Even though the procedure did not provide security of tenure to
the owner, it could prevent double selling or the priority of claims could
easily be established. The only identification o f the sold land was verbal
description in the deed.
There are also early evidence of land docum entation of taxation and
other contribution to the state. Already in ancient Egypt — as early as
about 3000 BC there is a mention of such records kept in the royal
registry. The records were partly based on surveys o f land. Pictures of
land surveyors at work are found in some ancient tombs.
In a strongly centralized country like Egypt it was o f vital importance
for the rulers to keep track o f land holdings and claims on the lands. For
the same reason the Romans surveyed the territories they occupied. It
was particularly Em peror Diocletianus who ordered at the end of the
third century AD extensive surveys and recording for taxation purposes.
It has been found probable that even in C hina around 700 AD a taxation
system existed based on crop yields and supported by land survey
records. In South India around 1000 AD Raja the G reat who founded
the C hola Empire, ordered a revenue survey which was continued later
by the successor.
Some decades later a famous land record — the Doom sday Book —
was established in England.
Several types o f ancient surveys and records can be found in other
countries. In Sweden, for example, King Gustav I ordered in 1540 a
survey of all taxable farms. The records included names o f villages and
86
farms, their owners and their tax strength relative to the normal farm.
The records were revised and updated from time to time and trials were
made on to include some form o f land surveying. The main initial task
of the Swedish Land Survey, established in the early seventeenth
century, was to make maps for taxation purposes recording not only
mere acreage numbers but also land productivity.
Text 14C. From the History o f Land Acquisition
Boundaries are the main object of cadastral surveying. Normally
other features, such as roads, water courses, land-use boundaries,
buildings, etc., are included, but the primary purpose is to define the
land unit on the ground and in the cadastre and land register.
Cadastral surveying operations essentially include the determination
of the boundaries on the ground, the survey o f the boundaries and the
demarcation o f the boundaries.
Similar proceedings are found in Assyrian — Babylonian and
Egyptian sources.
There had to be publicity: the transfer had to take place in the
presence o f witness in order to gain validity.
There were two basic reasons for records regarding land: the need
for the private vendee o f land to get publicity for his acquisition o f land
and the need for the state to know all land units liable for taxation or
other services, dues and fees. Even at an early stage o f development
the need for some publicity regarding land transfer is evident. Land
cannot be literally handed over. An agreem ent itself will not preclude
an owner from selling the same land to two different buyers. There
were also kinship rights vested on land. Therefore, it had to be
officially known and proclaimed that there were known hindrances to
the transfer o f ownership rights in the land. Already in the Bible do we
read about the prophet Jerem iah, who had been involved in land
acquisition:
«I bought the field from my cousin Hanam el o f Anathot and paid
him the price seventeen silver shekels. I drew up the deed and sealed it,
called in witnesses, and weighed out the m oney on the scales».

land registration, several reasons, strong influence, continental
system, English speaking world, oldest land records, Doom sday Book,
European sense, English traditions.
1. The famous Doom sday Book (to be) completed in 1068.
2. William the C onqueror (to order) the survey o f England.
87
3. Some countries (to adopt) English traditions and they also (to
have + not) the system of cadastre in European sense.
4. The first records (to cover) the whole o f England.
5. The records (to support + not) by any maps.
1. The main object o f cadastral surveys are...
2. The primary purpose is...
3. Roads, water courses, land use boundaries, buildings are also
included into...
4. Everyone understands that land cannot be...
5. For the private acquisition of land you need...

land transactions, popular court, primitive tribes, land transfers, take
place, normal practice, notary public, security o f tenure, sold land,
double selling, verbal description.
XI. Write down 6 questions using the text 14C.
Russian.
1. Land transactions in ancient Nordic laws required 12...
2. In more developed... it became normal practice to deposit and
officially register the deed at the... or with a notary public.
3. Publicity could prevent double selling but did not...security of
tenure to the owner.
4.... description in the deed was the only idenfication o f the sold land.
5. In Sweden a survey o f all taxable farms was ordered by...

1. В Д ревнем Египте регистрация земель была частично о с н о
вана на измерениях.
2. Д ревни е рим ляне производили обследование и регистрацию
территорий, которые они завоевывали.
3. Главной задачей зем лемерной службы в Ш веци и , которая
была осн ован а в начале XVII в., было составление карт для нало
гообложения.
4. П ри регистрации земель для налогооблож ения учитывался
не только размер участка земли в акрах, но и ее производитель
ность.
5. О сновная задача кадастровой съемки — определение границ
участка.
1. What are the main reasons for land registration?
2. What is the oldest land record docum ent in G reat Britain?
3. Who ordered a survey o f all taxable farms in Sweden?
4. Why did the land transaction require publicity and witnesses?
5. When did people realize the need for land registration?

former, different, vague, strong, sporadic, recently, unknown,
without, short, whole, well, those.
XVI. Read the text. Make 8 questions and answer them.

Text 14D. Some Features o f English Land Law
The basis o f any system o f land registration is, o f course, the legal
codes pertaining to land. Clearly before land rights can be registered,
they must be defined. But the details o f English land law are too
complicated and difficult for us to examine. In English legal theory only
the sovereign can own land. In the eyes o f the law a private person can
thus be nothing more than a tenant on the land. Tenancy rights as
recognized in the law o f 1925 had been reduced to two ones: 1) fee
simple absolute (or freehold) and 2) a term o f year’s absolute
(leasehold). A lease may be defined as a contract granting the exclusive
rights to possession o f land for a fixed or determinable period. There is
no legal limit to the term o f years. Leases for 999 years are com m on, but
the majority o f leases are likely to be considerable shorter.
A special type o f lease is the building lease: lessee leases vacant land
for which he pays a ground rent, agreeing in addition to erect a building
on the site according to certain specifications. A typical building lease is
for 99 years. These features o f English land law influenced the attitudes
towards and practices regarding land ownership and leaseholds in many
o f the former dominions and colonies.
Many attempts were made to establish registration to make land
conveyance both simple and more secure. But such attempt never really
succeeded. In the middle o f the 19 century, however a com m ission’s
recom m endation that titles be registered led to the Land Registry Act o f
1862. This was later followed by the Land Transfer Act o f 1875. A new
Land Transfer Act o f 1897 introduced the possibility o f selective
compulsory registration. In 1925, however a package o f new land laws
was enacted. One o f these was the Land Registration Act, which made
registration o f titles compulsory within designated areas. These areas
were gradually extended so that today all o f England is covered.
Registration is still sporadic since properties are registered only when the
land is sold or subject to a long lease.
89
Unit 15
FROM THE HISTORY OF LAND MANAGEMENT IN RUSSIA
undertake v предпринимать
description n описание
meadow n луг
evaluate v оценивать
accurate а точны й
exploit v использовать (землю, рабочую силу)
to do astray сбиться с пути
clergy п духовенство
property п собственность
petrine а петровский
mining п горное дело
satisfy v удовлетворять
authority п власть
complex а сложный
resist v оказать сопротивление, устоять (против)
tremendous а громадный
restrict v ограничить
supreme а верховный
evidence п свидетельство
evident а очевидный
II. Write down the part of speech the following words are and translate
them into Russian:
regular, description, meadow, demonstrate, feudal, productive,
measure, accurate, step, evaluation, exact.

e [i:] be, meter, eve, Pete
mean, seat, speak b u t great [ei]
ее [i:] keen, feel, see
ea [e] bread, ready, weather, pleasure, measure, meant, peasants

Text 15A. The Russian M edieval Cadastre
Since the end o f XV century Pomestnii Prikaz (Administration of
Estates) undertook regular surveys of the lands o f Moscow State, During
these surveys there were created descriptions o f the whole state and its
separate provinces. These descriptions (pistsoviie knigi) included
num ber o f peasants in each village of the estate, quantity o f arable and
90
meadow lands, approximate data on forests. Being improved from one
survey to another, late descriptions o f the 17th century demonstrate
distinguished and complicated feudal tax cadastre.
They evaluated land estates in two-steps way taking into
consideration quantity of productive arable lands measured in a very
accurate way. Next step was the evaluation o f quality o f the arable soil:
good, medium or poor. After that the data on quality had been
recalculated in exact proportion into special units o f agricultural
productivity, strictly depending on the quality of arable soil. T hat was
the way of evaluation o f agricultural productivity o f estate.
Surveyors took into consideration feudal status o f the land holding
they described. The estates of Moscow Tsars, clergy, com m ons,
hereditary estates (votchini) o f medieval aristocracy and granted
«pomest’ia» o f nobility carried unequal duties. Thus, the data on
agricultural productivity of estate had been recalculated once more into
special tax units (sokha) in order to reflect status o f the landlord.
Land cadastre o f this period had been the tax cadastre — evaluation
o f settled and exploited lands. It dealt with arable, and hay field lands,
sometimes with fisheries, apiaries, hunting estates o f tsars. Virgin forests,
empty lands and marshes attracted no attention of surveyors. This
situation reflected abundance of agricultural resources and low density
of peasant population. This shows the level o f geographical knowledge
of this period: despite the fact that mayor waterways and roads had been
described and well-known, contemporaries o f Ivan the Terrible or Boris
Godunov seem to be unaware of endless Russian forests as foreign
ambassadors and merchants had been on their way to the capital o f
Muscovy. Contem porary docum ents show that even for wealthy native
aristocracy going astray while travelling in the forests o f the Central
Russia was not surprising. Sometimes it could even serve as a pretence
for them in unsuccessful attempts o f runaway from Russian service to
Poland.
Besides num erous surveys carried out by Moscow Administration of
Estates, m any wealthy landlords compiled cadastral descriptions o f their
lands: sovereign G reat Princes, Archbishops, monasteries. The well-
known are the num erous descriptions o f the biggest Russian clergy
landlord Troitse-Sergiev monastery, Volotsky monastery, G reat
Principality o f Tver. Compiled far earlier then the Moscow ones had
been the descriptions of Novgorod Principality — the feudal trade
republic. The latest served as a source for m any classic works on the
history of N orth-W est Russia. All these sources, being different in
methods o f description and calculation served for the one purpose of
determination of vassal obligations to the landlord.
The Russian medieval cadastre had been a kind of routine regular
survey. Land descriptions of the whole state or separate provinces were
planned and fulfilled by the staff of Administration o f Estates. Each
91
expedition sent to an administrative unit to collect land use data
included at least two senior officials (usually an experienced chancery
official and a wealthy aristocrat) and few jun io r officials for w hom it was
a kind o f practice. All the expeditions received special written orders
from the tzar and had the right to check land property documents, to
solve land disputes of local landlords, in some cases even to confiscate
estates. These decisions could be changed only by the special tzar orders.
A record in the cadastral book were usually the best proof of property
rights.
Text 15B. Petrine Reforms and Land Relations
Petrine reforms m eant the end of the old order. State building
projects o f Peter I, his political and economic projects, building o f navy
and reorganising of the army, mining and industry development,
studying of the natural waterways and projects of channels — all this
caused the centralisation o f power, unknown before. The old order of
state and military service was unable to satisfy the growing dem ands for
qualified and num erous authorities corresponding to the complexity of
the aims o f the reign. But one of the main things was the impossibility of
feudal system to answer to the increasing dem and for civil and military
start due to the decreasing land resources which served as the «payment»
for state service earlier. Politically weak vassal and tax classes were
unable to resist the energy o f the tzar.
The state economy, pressed by necessity of urgent changes, increased
day by day.
Practically all economic projects (including military) were based on
the rich resources belonging to the state or quasi-state enterprises with
forests, mines and slaves enclosed to them , such as the baron
Stroganov’s trem endous estate in Siberia or — some time later —
D em idov’s iron plants in Ural mountains. The request for natural
resources was growing constantly. The forests were to satisfy the needs
o f navy and metallurgic industry, peasantry should also serve as a
resource for magnificent state building. It is clear that Petrine
conception o f modernisation did not care about the majority of
Russians. The rights of the classes had been strongly restricted, the
basement o f co m m o n rights regulating the relations between vassals and
supreme power decreased. The development of serfdom and growing
pressure o f peasant com m ons against the individuals is often seen as the
result of Petrine reforms.
Probably due to the lower density o f the population dispersed on
trem endous space, if com pared with the European, non of the classes
could effectively protect their rights against the constant attacks, as
landlords, peasantry and citizens in the countries of Western Europe
92
did. Centralization o f the state and military power had been higher
because of the military and cultural frontier existing for centuries. But
before Peter the G reat land relations in the Moscow state did not lose its
feudal nature. It means tight mutual dependence o f central government,
peasantry, aristocracy, nobility, dependence o f Moscow from the
economic development of the territories and prosperity o f all of estates,
elements of self-governing of administrative units. A kind o f legal treaty
between the tzar and landlords formed the basement of the civil and
military service and financial system. All this is an indirect evidence of
classes’ representative system — a kind o f feudal «demoracy».This was
the system replaced by the tsar — reformer.
Text 15C. Forests Cadastre in Petrine Russia
Foreign methods introduced in Russia developed not only in the
different social and cultural context, but even in the versus
administrative and managem ent environment.
Navy building had been one o f the main priorities of Peter I reign.
The regular forest surveys were ordered in 1703. Soon all the timber
forests o f European Russia — from the B altic sea to the Volga region
were managed by the Admiralty. Those surveys covered not only the
forests o f the crown but also private, co m m o n and clergy forests. It
became illegal to the owners to cut their timber without a permission of
Admiralty officers who should state that this timber is not suitable for
the navy. The historiographer o f the Ministry o f State Property Lev
Zakharov considers it to be the nationalisation o f forest resources. Only
at the reign of Ekaterina II liberalisation o f the forest statute took place
and in 1802 Forest Departm ent became the body o f Ministry of
Finances.
All the timber forests were examined and mapped by the navy
officers. All the oaks, pine, lime — and fur-trees were counted and
measured. It was a forest doomsday indeed. Hundreds o f large-scale
maps and charts, accom panied with tabular statistics were prepared.
Later these docum ents served as the source for general forest atlases
such as well-known «General Atlas o f various kinds o f forests» from the
Hermitage Collection o f Manuscript Departm ent o f the National
Library in Petersburg. These surveys were carried out even where forests
were never used later.
The fact that forest surveys are surprisingly detailed and exact
deserves special attention.
Also surprising is the large quantity o f forest maps and statistics in
various archives. Taking into consideration the fact that large-scale
mapping was new in the practice of Russian state management, the
importance of forest surveys for Petrine administration could be seen.
93
The m apped resources o f timber forests are many times more than the
real forest consum ption and shipbuilding had ever been at that time or
later.
The technology o f the forest mapping is well-known. It was largely
borrowed from the Western mapmaking. The aim of Petrine cadastres —
navy building — is similar to the one of C olbert’s, who m anaged the
French crown estates the same way. But while the Colbert cadastres
m anaged only forests o f the crown, all the Russian forests in practice
belonged to the crown for almost a century, after im plementation of
Petrine cadastre.
EXERCISES

regular surveys, separate provinces, meadow lands, feudal tax
cadastre, evaluated land estates, productive arable lands, exact
proportion, feudal status, land holding, medieval aristocracy.
1. Pistsoviie knigi (to include) num ber of peasants in each village of
estate, quantity o f lands and approximate data on forests.
2. Russian surveyors (to take into consideration) feudal status o f the
land holding they described.
3. Virgin forests, em pty lands and marshes (to attract + not)
attention o f surveyors.
4. Those records (to reflect) abundance o f agricultural resources of
Medieval Russia and low density of its peasant population.
5. Wealthy native aristocracy often (to go astray) while traveling in
the vast forests o f the Central Russia in those times.
1. The technology o f the forest mapping is...
2. All the Russian forests in practice belonged to...
3. The regular forest surveys were ordered...
4. In Russia all the timber forests were examined and... All the oaks,
pine, lime and fur-trees were...
5. In national Library in S. Petersburg you can find «General Atlas of
various kinds of forests», which is the source...

using the following word combinations:
state building projects, mining and university development, natural
waterways, growing, demands, numerous authorities, urgent changes,
94
stroganov’s trem endous estate, growing pressure of peasant com m ons,
com m on rights.
English.
1. Petrine conception of... did not care about the majority of
Russians.
2. The request for... was growing constantly.
3. The technology of forest mapping was... borrowed from the
Western mapmaking.
4. In Petrine Russia all the timber forests from the Baltic sea to the
Volga... by the Admiralty.
5. Many wealthy landlords compiled... of their lands besides
numerous surveys carried out by Moscow Administration of Estates.

1. В М осковском государстве начиная с конца XV в. п роизводи
лись регулярные обследования земель, содержащие общее о п и с а
ние земель государства и его отдельных княжеств.
2. Поскольку лесны е массивы были обш ирны м и, данны е о л е
сах были только приблизительными.
3. О ценка площ адей земельных угодий, а также их качеств была
очень точной.
4. В России позднего Средневековья кадастровые работы в е
лись регулярно и тщательно.
5. Особого в н и м ан и я заслуживают проводимые при Петре I ра
боты по регистрации лесных ресурсов.

1. What was the way of evaluation of agricultural productivity of
estate in Russia of the 17th century?
2. What kind of the land cadastre of this period is described in text
15A?
3. Why could the wealthy aristocrats lose their way while traveling in
Central Russia?
4. Who called Peter I «sailor and carpenter» and why?
5. When were the regular forest surveys ordered in Russia? What was
the role of the Admiralty?

end, old, order, natural, weak, unknown, unable, complexity, civil,
decrease, necessity.
95
Text 15D. Decree on Land
On the night of November 8, 1917, not 24 hours after the storming of
the Winter Palace V. 1. Lenin, the Head o f the first socialist state,
declared the historic «Decree on Land».
The land resources became the public ownership of the Nation. Land
which gave bread and shelter for the families was proclaimed the State
domain.
Before the October Revolution more than 80 per cent of the
population of Russia were poor farmers. They were scattered over the
greatest land of our planet and lived in poverty. They tilled the soil with
wooden plows, more than half of them horseless.
The «Decree on Land» proclaimed that the private rights on land
were abolished without compensation. The estates as well as monasterial
and church lands should be placed at the disposal of the Rural Area
Land Com mittees and District Soviets of Peasant’s Deputies.
Thus private ownership on land was abolished. Land could not be
sold, purchased, leased, or otherwise alienated. Land with highly
developed forms of cultivations, e.g. orchards, plantations, nurseries,
hot-houses could not be divided. Those farms were converted into
model farms and were cultivated exclusively by the State.
The new land policy became a necessary preparatory step in the
system o f measures directed towards the socialist reconstructing of
agriculture.
The organization of peasants into cooperatives proceeded all over the
country. The collective farms and state agricultural enterprises
originated during the collectivization. The life and work o f farmers
changed radically.
Section III
LAND EVALUATION
Unit 16
W HAT DO WE NEED LAND CADASTRE FOR?
control n 1. руководство, власть; управление; 2. проверка, кон т
р о л ь / / v 1. управлять, регулировать; 2. проверять, контролировать
recent а недавний, новый; соврем енны й; свежий, последний
survey п 1. изы скание, обследование; 2. съемка; 3. землемерное
ведомство; топографическое управление / / v 1. осматривать, о б
следовать; 2. производить землемерную съемку
relate v 1. улавливать связь; 2. приводить в соответствие
comprise v охватывать: вмещать, включать
land title учет земель
identification п и дентиф икация; отождествление
management п управление
capability п способность; зд. продуктивность (почв)
rate п 1. норма; 2. коэф ф и ци ен т; 3. скорость / / v ценить, о ц е н и
вать; устанавливать; исчислять
taxation п 1. оценка; 2. облож ение налогом
soil classification бони ти ровка почв
clay п глина, глинозем
silt п ил, естественные отложения
loam п 1. суглинок; ж ирная глина; 2. плодородная земля
gravel п гравий, крупный песок
significantly adv во многом, сущ ественно
legal а законны й
correspond v соответствовать, согласовывать
adopt v принимать
definition п определение
demand п требование
stipulate v ставить условие, оговаривать
provision п снабжение, обеспечение
formation п образование, создание, форм ирование
inventory п опись
distribution п распределение
unify v объединять, унифицировать
97
permit v позволять, разрешать, давать возможность
to assure v страховать, гарантировать
interaction п взаимодействие
II. Write down the following words and underline suffixes.

a) nationalization, industrialization, information, association,
conversation, notation, identification, classification, production,
taxation
b) difference, correspondence, incidence, allowance, assistance,
accordance

r [s] face, centre, percent, cite, city, resources, recent,
с \ practice, produce
I [k] cane, cake, became, become, hectares, cadastre, increase,
cost, control, conversation, agriculture, record, collective, carry,
classify, clay, combination, production, capability, accurate
r [t/] cheap, chin, which, branch, children, chill, chess
ch I [k] m echanic, technology, chemisty
I [1] machine
tch [tJ] fetch, match, catch
ea [e] feather, leather, dead, death, ready, read, lead, meant, thread,
threat
b u t lead [li:d], read [ri:d] leader [’lkda], reader [’riida]

Text 16A. The N eed fo r Land Cadastre
Russia is the owner o f vast land resources which must be used to
provide Russia people with high levels o f living and with space for
industrial and agricultural growth.
This country needs information o f all lands in order to control and
direct land use practices. This information is provided by the State land
cadastre.
The need for land cadastre has increased in recent years for two
reasons. One is the complexity o f m od em agriculture. The other is the
fmiteness o f land and other natural resources. All this leads to more
reasons for m uch attention to land cadastral survey.
The cadastral survey information is needed for cost benefit analyses
in agro-industrial associations and for proper agricultural planning. The
land cadastral survey is needed for .land use planning and land
conservation practices.
The Land Cadastre provides information for State control o f land
uses.
Basic land-title records o f all lands are maintained by the D epart
98
ment of Land Uses and Land Use Planning in Ministry of Agriculture of
Russia. The records relate to all lands. They comprise cadastral survey
field notations affecting the title or status of lands.
Cadastral surveys are of great importance for our land-title system.
Land identification is a necessary prerequisite to wise use of land
resources. Specialists concerned with the m anagem ent of land and
related natural resources consult the records for title information.
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English:
Text 16B. What does Land Cadastre Consist of?
The land cadastre consists o f four parts: 1) land users’ registration;
2) the title of quantity and quality of land resources; 3) soils’ qualities
assessment; 4) econom ic evaluation.
The land use planning agencies register the right on land parcels
which are given to land users. The new land users are registered when
decisions are taken by local authorities. A ll kinds of land uses must be
registered in land-title books.
The land users are given land parcels for certain uses and for different
needs. T he lands are divided into agricultural and non-agricultural
lands. The former are subdivided into pastures, grazing lands, grasslands
and so on. The State land-title book is the only d ocum ent for land
registration.
Land evaluation consists o f soil assessment and econom ic evaluation
of land resources. The assessment of soils determines the natural fertility
of land resources and land capability for agricultural production.
Land inventory is a systematic survey of land capability o f all regions.
The boundaries of the survey embrace lands o f many millions of square
kilometers. Land inventory is also a means to control land users. Land
use planners make analysis of uses, particularly the efficiency of
agricultural production. The data o f the land productivity are quite
necessary to determ ine the rate of taxation and for proper land use
management. The land users must know the land capability of all the
lands which they operate.
Text 16C. State Land Cadastre
State Land Cadastre creation is the main task of Roszemcadastre. Its
purpose is state land cadastre maintaining to provide an information
support for state registration of the rights of physical and juridical person
on real estate, effective system of land taxation, rational use of land
resources.
The progress in State Land Cadastre maintaining significantly
depends on the availability of the corresponding normative and legal
99
bases. At the end o f 1999 the federal law «On State Land Cadastre» was
adopted by The State D um a and signed by President of Russia at the
beginning o f 2000. Definition of the system of executive bodies,
responsible for Cadastre maintaining in the country, dem ands to Land
Cadastre docum entation as well as order and terms of Cadastre
information presentation to state bodies, citizens and juridical persons
are stipulated in its provisions.
Activities for Land Cadastre creating and maintaining are carried out
on the basis o f the federal target program «Creation of the autom ated
system for State Land Cadastre maintaining» approved by the decree of
the R F G overnm ent on 03.08.1996. The activity o f land committees o f the
RF subjects is carried out within the regional programs aimed out the
creation o f autom ated Cadastre systems at the regional and district levels.
Form ation o f Land Cadastre data basis requires a wide range of Land
Cadastres activity including inventory o f land plots, land mapping,
creation o f cadastre maps and plans. One of the top priority tasks of
Roszemcadastre is a working out o f normative and methodical
docum ents aim ed at the development of the State Land Cadastre system
in Russia.
One o f the main sources for the formation of Land Cadastre data
bases are state statistical reports presented by land committees from all
administrative and territorial levels. On the basis of information
presented by land com m ittees o f RF subjects Roszemcadastre specialists
carry out annual analysis and input information on distribution, use and
state in the regions into the data base.
To unify cartographic material used in the State Land Cadastre
Roszemcadastre specialists work out methodical docum ents providing
the contents unification of Cadastre maps and plans, prepare branch
standards for drawing up land plot plans.
An im portant source for formation o f State Land Cadastre data bases
is land inventory and land survey information. Roszemcadastre and its
territorial bodies carry out Cadastre zoning o f the RF territory in order
to give on unique Cadastre num ber to each land plot permitting to
identify it.
Land Cadastre chambers are created under land committees of the
RF subjects to assure an effective functioning o f the State Land Cadastre
system. Their functions include creation and m aintenance of the
autom ated Cadastre as well as provision o f departm ental interactions in
this field.
EXERCISES
land nationalization, high level of living, land cadastre, agro
industrial association, Ministry of Agriculture, departm ent of land uses,
m o dem technology, soil scientists, land cadastre docum entation.
100
VIII. Translate the sentences into Russian. Underline the verbs in the
Continuous form. Why are they used here?
1. The need for land is constantly increasing throughout the world.
2. He was not preparing for his examinations during those two weeks, he
was ill. 3. The records are being modernized by means of remote sensing
and m odern technology. 4. We shall be planning our work when you
return from your business trip. 5. The students were making their
calculations by means of computers when their tutor came in. 6. He was
being, asked by, the teacher while the rest of the students discussed their
plans for the holiday. 7. I am not going to stop my work now. You may
go alone or with Mike. 8. We were discussing cadastral problems from 6
till 8 in the evening.
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text 16A:
1. The Departm ent o f Land Uses maintains basic land title records ...
2. Cadastral surveys are very important for. ... 3. O ur state is the owner
o f ... 4. Land resources are used to help to provide ... 5. There are two
sets of reasons why the need for land cadastre is constantly ...
X. Give the Russian equivalents. Write down a few sentences with the
following word combinations:
land use practice; level of living; cadastral survey; land conservation;
cadastre; land-title system; land inventory; soil classification.
XI. Write down 6 questions, using verbs in Continuous forms.

To increase, to plan, to consult, to meet, to dem and, to make, to
give, to develop.
XII. Insert the proper words from unit 16 and translate the sentences
into Russian.
1. We have sufficient land now in use to provide... space, food, ...
and other land products. 2. There are two sets of reasons why need for
land cadastre has ... in recent time. 3. We modernize land-title records
by means of and m od em technology. 4. We need both agricultural and
land. 5. We shall be planning the land needs for ... purposes. 6.
Farmland covers only ... per cent of the total territory. 8. We are c o n
stantly in need of ... land.
XIII. Translate the sentences into English.

1. Роль земельных ресурсов в различных отраслях производства
неодинакова. 2. Важнейшим свойством земли, используемой в
сельском хозяйстве, является плодородие. 3. Назовите составные
части государственного земельного кадастра. 4. Государственный
земельный кадастр включает регистрацию или учет земель, б о н и
тировку почв и эконом ическую оценку.
101
XIV. Read the following numerals:
12; 40; 88; 100; 107; 2,506; 8,000; 6,432; 505; 8,001; 2/ 3; 4/ 6; 3/8; 4/ 3;
'/?; 'A; ‘/is; 7.85; 0.9; 3.8, 1242, 1799, 1900, 1905, 1917, 1941, 1945,
1977, 1980, 1983.
XV. Write down the antonyms, using the prefixes. Translate them into
Russian:
un: known, developed, pleasant, limited, stable, limited, reasonable,
desirable, achieved, natural, successful
non: h um an, natural, moral, resistance, durable
XVI. Read the dialogue and discuss the problem in class.
From the History o f Cadastre
— Why was the land cadastre invented?

— As you know, land is wanted as space to exist on and as a source of
raw materials. These two functions required registering and evaluating
the land resources.
— What does the word «cadastre» mean?
— The origin of this word is lost in antiquity. The Latin word
«capitastrum» m eant a book which listed the things to be taxed. There
were land, water and forest cadastres. The land cadastre was needed to
tax land ownership.
— W hen did the first land cadastre appear?
— Land cadastre appeared as early as farming. The first map o f land
uses was made on clay tablets. Land parcels had to be marked when they
were exhausted by primitive farming and abandoned.
— The marks were made on stones and trees. These were primitive,
land-title actions.
— W hen did the written cadastral survey appear?
— Cadastral notes appeared when writing had been invented. In
ancient India people made cadastral notations.
— What did they look like?
— The cadastral notations were plans, texts and primitive mapping.
There was also a simple land classification system based on soil surveys.
— How did we leam about ancient land cadastre?
— M ention is made o f ancient land cadastre in literature and
painting o f that time. Primitive forms o f land cadastre are found in
Greece, Rom e, for example.
— How did the cadastre make its way?
— It was through long centuries that the cadastral survey made its
way from the marks on the stones to remote sensing from outer space.
102
Unit 17
SIGNIFICANCE OF LAND RENT
land lord n 1. п омещ ик, землевладение; 2. владелец дома, сдава
емого внаем
tenant п арендатор
phenomenon п ф ен о м ен, явление
greedy а жадный, скупой
persist v упорствовать, настойчиво продолжать
exorbitant а чрезмерны й, непомерны й
disparity п 1. несоответствие; 2. разница, различие; 3. н еравен
ство, несоразмерность
reverse п 1. противоположность; 2. обратная сторона; 3. пер ем е
на, переменчивость / / а 1. обратный; 2. противоположный / /
v l . переставлять; 2. опрокидывать; 3. отменять
II. Write down the following nouns and underline suffixes:

a) language, advantage, luggage, package, usage, shortage, passage,
storage
b) farming, processing, evaluating, determining, calculating, producing,
combining, existing, correcting, comparing, explaining, achieving,
reading, translating, building, teaching, learning, opening, stopping

st cast
ft after, craft
a+ lm \a:\ balm, calm, palm
if calf, half
th path, rather, father
n answer, dance, dem and, com m and, advantage
bur. land, stand, sand

g [d 3 ] age, giant, Egypt, shortage, ecology, stage
but: game, gay, big, pigs, begin, bigger, geese, get, gift, give, tiger,
together
j И з] Jig, James, just, justice

Text 17A. Significance o f Land Rent
Part I
Theoretical concepts such as land rent have little importance in and
of themselves. Their real significance arises because of their value as
tools o f analysis that can be used in explanations of real-life conditions.
103
The concept o f land rent is highly significant in this respect because of
its application to different land economic problems. Four o f the more
important o f these applications involve its relationship to contract rental
arrangements, to property values, to land resource investment and
development decisions, and to the allocation of land resources between
different types of use.
No rental arrangement is complete without some agreement
concerning the am ount of rent that will be paid for the use of the
property involved. The effect o f land rent on the determ ination of
contract rental rates is best observed in the workings of the rental
bargaining process. U nder ideal bargaining conditions, both the landlord
and the tenant have accurate knowledge concerning the fair economic
return that should be the use of land resources. The landlord under these
circumstances finds it to his advantage to dem and the full land rent plus
any additional payment he can get. The tenant in turn insists that he
should pay no more than the recognized land rent and naturally favors
payments o f less than this amount. Should the tenant agree to a higher
payment rate than that necessary to provide the fair land rent, he would
find it necessary to sacrifice part o f the return that should go to his labor,
m anagem ent, and capital. On the other hand, should the land owner
accept a lower rental payment, his willingness to share his land rent
would redound to the benefit o f the tenant.
This ideal pooling o f perfect knowledge seldom exists in practice.
Sometimes landlords and tenants do have fairly accurate ideas
concerning the incom e- and rent-producing capacities o f the properties
with which they are concerned. Assuming fairly equal bargaining
positions, the contract rents agreed upon under these conditions often
approximate the am ounts needed to cover land rent. However, frequent
deviations occur from this model. Sometimes the tenant has only
fragmentary knowledge concerning the rent-producing capacity o f the
land; sometimes neither party is apprized o f the facts; and sometimes
institutional arrangements such as custom, a semifeudal landlord
system, special landlord-tenant regulations, or rent controls give
landlords and tenants little opportunity to bargain as equals. Even when
landlords and tenants enjoy equal knowledge and equal bargaining
power, contract rental rates may differ from the theoretical land rent
because of the failure o f future production and income to m atch the
conditions anticipated at the time of rental agreement.
Text 17B. Significance o f Land Rent
Part I I
History provides num erous examples o f the impact of increasing
competition between tenants upon the development of landlord rental
104
markets. This has been a co m m o n p h enom enon in the land-hungry
areas of the world and has often been a contributing cause o f peasant
unrest. Counterbidding between tenants together with landlord greed
gave rise to the famous «rack rents» of nineteenth-century Ireland.
Exorbitant rental arrangements of a comparable nature have also
persisted for long periods in countries such as Egypt and India.
The pressure for land and housing has seldom been great enough to
create conditions of this type in the United States. This does not mean
that supply and dem and conditions have had no effect upon American
rental rates. Landlords often raise their rents during periods o f favorable
business conditions and increasing demand. The housing shortage of
World War II gave m any property owners an opportunity to increase
rents. Even after public rent controls were put into effect, special
bonuses and black market payments were sometimes associated with the
leasing of residential properties. The high dem and for tenant fanns in
some areas during the 1930s also gave rise to a system of bonus rents.
U nder this system, tenants paid the customary share rent plus a bonus
for features such as pasture land, an above-average house, or other
improvements that might have been included in the rental bargain
without extra charge in earlier periods.
Short-run changes in supply and dem and conditions often result in
wide disparities between contract and land rents. Over the long run,
however, contract and land rental levels ordinarily move in the same
direction. When contract rents decline because of a decrease in the
relative dem and for land resources, land rents also tend to decline
because of the lower income attributable to land resources. With the
reverse situation, land rent tends to rise. These adjustments may be
attributed in part to changes in the incom e-producing capacity of land,
but they also involve the relative bargaining position of landlords and
tenants.
Text 17C. Relation o f Land Rent to Land Values
Some types o f land resources such as farms or forest land may be
viewed as productive factors with almost unlimited productive lives.
Others such as housing and office buildings have more limited economic
lives but can be utilized over extended periods. Both types can and
usually do produce a predictable future flow of reoccurring land rents.
This situation makes it possible for owners and investors to visualize the
future as well as the present use-capacity and rent-producing advantages
associated with particular tracts o f land w hen they consider the purchase
and sales prices associated with land resources.
F rom a theoretical point of view, land resources have a current
market value equal to the present value o f their expected future land
105
rents. Determinations o f current values call for estimates o f the expected
average annual levels of land rent and for calculations of the present
value o f rental returns, which will not be realized until specified times in
the future. The first o f these processes is complicated by m a n ’s lack of
perfect knowledge and foresight while the second involves what is
known as the discounting o f future values to determine their present
worth.
In illustrating the discounting concept, one might assume a tract of
land that is expected to produce net rental returns o f $1,000 annually for
years into the future. The expected rental return for next year and for
each year thereafter has a current market value o f something less than
$1,000 for the simple reason that the operator must wait to receive it. If
the operator tried to sell or borrow m oney against his expected future
rental return, he would find that the buyer or lender would tend to
calculate its present value in terms o f the am ount o f m oney it would
take when invested at an acceptable com pound interest rate to yield
$1,000 in the year in which the rental return would be realized. When
discounted at five percent, an expected rental return o f $1,000 one year
hence has a current market value of $952.40, a return due in ten years
has a current market value o f $613.90, and a return due in 20 years a
current market value o f $376.90. With a five percent discount rate, an
expected flow o f annual net rents o f $1,000 annually would have
correspondent current values.
EXERCISES

land rent, theoretical concept, little importance, real significance,
real-life conditions, land economic problems, contract rental
arrangements, property value, land resource investment, development
decisions, different types o f use.
VIII. Translate the sentences into Russian, underline the verbs in

Passive.
1. The land lord and the tenant perfectly know the fair economic
return that should be paid for the use o f land resources.
2. Theoretical concepts are only the tools o f analysis that can be used
in explanation of real life conditions.
3. The effect o f land rent on the determ ination of contract rental
rates is best observed in the working of the rental bargaining process.
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text 17A:
1. Even when landlords and tenants enjoy equal knowledge and equal
bargaining power, contract rental rates may differ from...
106
2. Sometimes the tenant has only fragmentary knowledge...
3. The real significance o f theoretical concepts arises because of...
4. If you are really willing to become a specialist in land evaluation
you should exactly know the...
5. I know four o f the more important applications o f rent to different
economic problems. They are...
X. Give the Russian equivalents. Write down a few sentences using the
am ount o f rent, economic return, additional payment, fragmentary
knowledge, equal knowledge, future production, rental agreement.
Russian.
1. Farms or forest lands may be viewed as productive factors with... lives.
2. Office buildings are usually considered to have...economic lives.
3. Both owners and investors can visualize... as well as the present
use-capacity of the resources.
4. Landlords often... their rents during periods of favorable business
conditions and increasing demand.
5. History knows many examples of the impact or competition
between tenants upon the... o f landlord rental markets.
6. Land lord greed and counterbidding between tenants gave rise to
the famous... in Ireland in the 19th century.

1. К онкурен ци я между арендаторами иногда приводила к тому,
что хозяева или владельцы домов, сдаваемых внаем, требовали за
вы ш енной платы.
2. В литературе существует специальны й термин «rack rent», ко
торый появился в Ирландии в XIX в., когда владельцы домов бр а
ли с жильцов н епомерно высокую арендную плату.
3. В 1930-е годы появилось понятие добавочной ренты, при к о
торой арендаторы выплачивали владельцу «а bonus» за п о вы ш е н
ное качество жилья или за землю, пригодную для выпаса скота,
или за другие дополнительны е улучшенные условия аренды.
4. Резкие изм енения спроса и предлож ения приводят к большим
несоответствиям условий контракта и реальной земельной ренты.
1. The application o f land rent theory involves its relationship to
property values.
107
2. Why do people value land so high?
3. Now after the building has been reconstructed it can house more
people than before.
4. These houses will have to be reconstructed next year.
5. Now the landlord demands more m oney than he did last year.
6. The high demand for tenant farms in some areas under economic
crisis gave rise to a system of bonus rents.
XV. Write down the antonyms. Translate them into Russian :

often, comparable, increasing, many, high, special, earlier, to rise,
including, agree, unfair.
XVI. Make up a short dialogue based on text 17B.
Unit 18
LAND USE ALLOCATION AND LAND RENT
influence n влияние / / v влиять
allocation n распределение, назначение
correlate v соотносить, устанавливать соотнош ение, соответ
ствовать
frequently adv часто
deficiency n недостаток, несоверш енство, несостоятельность
deficient а н еполны й, недостаточный
lavish п щедрость, обильность, расточительность / / а щедрый,
обильны й, расточительный / / у б ы т ь щедрым, расточать
eke v увеличивать, расш ирять, д ополнять
livelihood п средства к жизни, пропитание
luxury п пыш ность, роскош ь
transference п передача, перевод, перенесение
margin п разница между себестоимостью и продажной ценой
emerge v появляться, возникать, выясняться
slum п трущоба
neglect v опускать, пренебрегать
shift п сдвиг, п ерем ещ ение, перемена направления / / v см е
шать, перемешать, изменять направление
squeeze v сжимать, стискивать, сдавливать
imminent о неизбежный, неминуемый, непосредственно грозящий
II. Write down the following nouns. Underline suffixes and translate
the words into Russian:
allocation, correlation, discussion, operator, opportunity,
alternative, requirement, allowance, comparison, managem ent, owner,
satisfaction, transference, community.
108
ire I fire, hire, entire
ia [ [aia ] diam ond, dialogue
io J prior, pioneer, violate
ie [i:] field, brief, grieve but: friend

Text 18A. Relationship Between Land R ent and Intensity o f Use
Before leaving this discussion o f the influence o f land rent upon the
allocation of land areas between different uses, a brief word should be
said concerning the relationship between land rent and the intensity of
land-resource use. These two concepts are often closely correlated with
each other; but they are really quite different. Land rent represents the
economic return that land receives for its use in production. Intensity of
use, on the other hand, refers to the relative am ounts of hum an and
capital resources used in connection with a given unit of land resources.
These two concepts tend parallel each other because intensive use
practices are often associated with high land rents. It is a mistake,
however, to assume that this situation always holds.
Intensive use practices are frequently used to overcome the inherent
deficiencies of low-rent sites. Businessmen with poorly located sites
sometimes use costly advertising programs to attract customers to their
places o f business. Farmers with soil of low natural fertility often use
large inputs of fertilizer to increase the productivity of their lands. In
similar fashion, peasant operators and workers in cottage industries
often find it necessary to make lavish use of their family labor resources
if they are to eke a livelihood from their limited land resources.
The fact that a site com m ands a high land rent does not always mean
it is subject to intensive use. Small family farms in low-rent areas are
frequently used more intensively on an acre-to-acre basis than the larger
commercial units found in areas o f higher productive potential. Low-
rent housing facilities are usually subject to more intensive hum an use
than high-rent luxury apartments. And low-rent commercial and
industrial sites are sometimes used just as intensively as the high-rent
locations found in downtown areas.
Text 18B. Effects upon Land-use Allocation
Areas of high use-capacity and high incom e-producing potential
usually produce high land rents. Conversely, as man resorts to lands of
lower use-capacity land rent tends to decline. This close correlation
between use-capacity and land rent makes the am ount o f land rent a site
can com m and for a particular use an index o f its use-capacity for that use.
109
O ur discussion of the economic returns to land resources to this
point has assumed only one type of enterprise or land use. In actual
practice, most operators choose am ong a num ber of alternatives.
Sometimes they concentrate on the enterprise or use that offers them
the greatest opportunity for profit. They may also work with
com plem entary enterprises or divide their attention among a variety of
enterprises. Choices between alternatives usually reflect a num ber of
factors including consideration of personal aptitudes, individual likes
and dislikes, and the capital and labor requirements o f various
alternatives. With due allowances for imperfect knowledge and other
associated factors, operators tend to concentrate upon those uses that
will maximize their returns at their particular locations and with their
particular combinations o f productive factors.
In their choice of enterprises, operators are always interested in
comparisons o f the incom e-producing potentials of their various
alternatives. These comparisons may be based upon general observations
or may involve calculations o f the probable economic returns to land
and m anagem ent they can expect from each alternative.
Unfortunately, the dem and for the expected higher uses does not
materialize, or, if it does, it may not come until years after it was first
anticipated. Unless strong positive measures are taken in these
situations, the usual result is a circle of spreading blight, slums, and
urban decay around downtown commercial centers. Individual owners
frequently sacrifice rental returns and satisfactions they could have had
although they sometimes find ways of exploiting their situations by
acting as slumlords. The real tragedy in these situations involves the
transference o f social costs to the public for it is society and the urban
com m unity that usually bears the major losses.
Text 18C. Problems o f R esidential Uses
L et’s imagine two problem situations involving the use o f land in
urban areas. The first situation concerns the margin o f transference A
at point J. This is the present margin between com m ercial and
residential uses. Property owners just to the right o f point A frequently
assume that urban growth will soon push the margin to at point K.
Anticipating this emerging higher use the neglect and hold back on
plans to remodel, repair or rebuild their residential properties in the
transition zone.
Applications o f the margin of transference approach.
The land use allocation and shifting process does not always operate
as smoothly as the m argin-of-transference diagrams suggest. Various
factors may keep lands from shifting as soon as they should, and the
expectations of an im m inent market for a higher use may cause
110
operators to neglect their properties or use them for lower valued uses
than they otherwise would.
A second land use problem centers around the margin of transference
between residential and agricultural uses. In an earlier time period,
when most urban residents lacked automobiles, the edge of the urban
residential area occurred at point P for example. An increase in city size
would have called for more intensive use of the areas already in
residential use plus some additions of residential lands around the city’s
edge. With the relaxation of the transportation constraint that has come
with the widespread ownership of automobiles and the building of
improved streets and highways, urban workers can now com m ute to
work from point S in less time and with less effort that their
grandparents expended in traveling from sites located to the left of
point P.
Relaxation o f the transportation constraint has facilitated a
suburbanization and residential scatteration trend. It has made it
possible for urban families to enjoy the advantages and amenities of
suburban and rural living; but it has also greatly complicated the
continued agricultural use of lands located in the vicinity o f large cities.
This problem is most serious when occasional tracts are acquired for
residential purposes while large areas are expected to remain in
agricultural and open space uses. The high land values and rent-bid prices
of the residential users may involve only a small proportion of the total
land area but they affect the pattern o f land prices and tax assessed values
for the entire area. Meanwhile, the new urban-oriented residents dem and
local governmental services not previously provided and add to the local
population that must be educated and protected. Farmers and other rural
land users feel that they are being squeezed out by rising property taxes and
the larger investments required for any expansion o f their business
operating units; and speculators, attracted by the expectation of
burgeoning subdivisions, acquire lands that often are allowed to lie idle.
Society again suffers as large areas become blighted for agricultural other
rural uses before a genuine need develops for their use for.
EXERCISES

intensity o f use, influence upon the allocation of land areas, different
uses, economic return, on the other hand, capital resources, intensive
use practices, advertising program, inputs of fertilizers, in similar
fashion, family labour resources, to eke a livelihood.
VIII. Write down the questions to the words in bold prints.

1. Land rent represents the economic return that land receives for its
use in production.
Ill
2. Farmers with soils of low natural fertility often use large inputs of
fertilizers to increase the productivity of their lands.
3. Peasant operators often make lavish use of their family labour
resources to eke a livelihood from their limited resources.
4. In actual practice most operators choose am ong a num ber of
alternatives.
5. Farmers and other rural land users feel that they are being
squeezed out by rising property taxes.
6. Relation of the transportation constraint has facilitated a
suburbanization and residential scatteration trend.
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text 18A.
Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. A brief word should be said conserning...
2. To overcome the inherent deficiencies of low-rent sites intensive
use practices...
3. A site with a high land rent is not always subject...
4. Low rent housing facilities are usually subject to more intensive
hum an use than...
5. The high-rent locations in downtown areas are sometimes used as
intensively as...
high use-capacity, high incom e-producing potential close
correlation, actual practice, the greatest opportunity for profit, a
particular use, a num ber of factors, individual likes and dislikes,
particular locations, choice of enterprises.
Russian.
1. Areas of... potential usually produce high land rents.
2. Sometimes operators concentrate on the enterprise or use that...
them the best opportunity for profit.
3. The dem and for...does not always materialize.
4. Sometimes the operators may work with complementary
enterprises or... their attention am ong a variety of enterprises.
5. W hen the operators choose... they are always interested in
comparisons of the incom e-producing potentials of their various
alternatives.
6. The margin of transference between residential and agricultural
uses was one of the main...
112
1. Если предприятие находится в невыгодном для владельца
месте, то иногда оно вынуждено затрачивать большие средства на
дорогие рекламные программы, чтобы привлечь к себе клиентов.
2. Размещение земельного участка играет важную роль в об ра
зовании земельной ренты.
3. Существует тесная связь между потенциалом данного зе
мельного участка и земельной рентой.
4. Ф орм и рован ие земельной ренты — м ногофакторны й п ро
цесс.
1. The influence of land rent upon the allocation o f land areas
between different uses was the theme o f student’s discussion.
2. Every specialist knows that the location o f the land use influences
its market price.
3. Farmers with soil of low natural fertility often use large inputs of
fertilizer to increase the productivity of their lands.
4. The operators can concentrate on the enterprise or use that offers
them the biggest profit.
5. The prospective seller may send an offer that usually quotes the
price and some other details.
XV. Write down the antonyms. Translate them into Russian.

usually, decline, close, particular, practice, likes, maximize, include,
fortunately, urban, positive, absence, with.
XVI. Translate the text. Write down 4 questions and answer them in
oral form.
Text 18D. What is M iltiple-use M anagement Program?
Another pertinent application o f the margin-of-transference
approach can be visualized with public and private decisions concerning
choices between single-purpose and multiple-use alternatives in
resource management A public forest m anagem ent agency, for example,
may identify several individual uses such as commercial forest
production, public recreation, or game management that it could
emphasize as dom inant uses in its management programs. It may also
want to pursue a multiple-use m anagem ent program in which joint
emphasis is given to two or possibly all three o f these uses.
Com parison of the relative benefits associated with these
management alternatives calls for examination of the economic and
social costs and returns associated with each management approach. For
multiple-use m anagem ent to receive rational top emphasis, the sum of
113
the economic and social land rents associated with this approach should
exceed those attainable when dom inant managerial emphasis is given to
any single use.
Unit 19
NATURAL LIMITS ON THE LAND SUPPLY
available a 1. доступный; 2. имею щ ийся в распоряжении; 3. год
ный, пригодный
interaction п взаимодействие
significant а значительный
determine v определять
provide v 1. снабжать; 2. обеспечивать
indemnity п 1. ловкость; 2. изобретательность, искусство, остр о
умие
effort п усилие
favourable а благоприятны й
involve v вовлекать
circumstance п обстоятельство
moisture п влажность
indicate v 1. показывать; 2. быть указателем, признаком
current а текущий
adequate а адекватный, соответствующий
endow v 1. одарять, завещать; 2. наделять качествами
afford v позволять
boast v хвастаться, превозносить(ся)
II. Write down the following nouns and underline suffixes. Translate
quantity, variety, settings, heritage, difference, presence, facility,
circumstance, provision, moisture, culture.

ck [k] black, thick, neck, deck
ch, tch [tj] chess, chestnut, child, watch, pitch
~cial [J] special, social, commercial
~cient [J] efficient, sufficient, ancient

Text 19A. Factors affecting the economic supply o f land resources
The quantity of land resources available for particular uses at any
given time ordinarily depends upon the interaction of a variety of
114
factors. Emphasis is given here to four major types of factors that play
significant roles in conditioning and determining the economic supplies
of land that are available for different uses. These include the natural
physical characteristics of land and the economic, institutional and
technological settings within which land-resource use takes place.
Nature has provided man with a vast resource heritage. But the gifts
of nature are not scattered evenly; and as often as not, they are cloaked
with characteristics that tax the ingenuity of man. In his age-old effort to
find, develop: and utilize new land resources m an has often found that
he must cope with the problems of uneven resource distribution and
unfavorable climate, topography, and location.
He has also found that the resources of different areas vary both in
their natural characteristics and in their general use-capacities. These
variations usually stem from differences in (1) sunlight and
temperature, (2) precipitation and access to water supplies, (3)
topography and drainage, (4) soil conditions, subsurface strata, and
presence of minerals, and, (5) physical location with respect to markets
and transportation limited.
Limitations involving these characteristics definitely limit the area
suited for particular uses. Fortunately, however, man has found that the
purposes for which he uses land vary almost as much in their need for
particular land characteristics as do the characteristics of the land
resource base with which he works. Thanks to this happy circumstance
most of the surface has potential value for some use or group of uses,
although the total area suited for anyone use is often quite limited.
Almost all of the ea rth ’s surface affords sufficient access to sunlight
to permit some type of crop range or forest use. Optim um use of this
possible access to sunlight, however, is prevented by temperature
extremes-primarily by the problem of short growing seasons and
unseasonable Specialist have estimated that around one-fourth of the
earth’s land surface is too cold for wheat culture. M uch of this area has
value for forestry purposes as is attested by the northern forests of
Alaska, Canada, the Scandinavian countries, and Russia. Some of it also
has commercial value for sum m er range, for the pasturing of sheep and
cattle, and for the provision of forage for wildlife and reindeer. Yet large
areas such as the icy expanses of the Arctic and Antarctic must be
written off as waste so far as current agricultural use is concerned.
The supply of moisture for plant use also presents a varied picture.
Special studies have indicated that only 34 percent of the world’s land
area enjoys both an adequate and reliable supply of rainfall, and that
only 200 million acres-considerably less than 1 percent of the world’s
surface tilled area-benefits from irrigation. Their estimates show that
only 41 million square miles, 20 percent of the earth’s land surface, have
suitable temperature and moisture conditions to permit wheat culture.
Of the 41 million square miles with suitable temperature conditions for
115
wheat, they found that 17 million were too dry while 13 million were too
wet for wheat culture.
Most of the world’s cropland is found in areas that boast both an
adequate and a relatively reliable supply of plant moisture. Large areas
with these characteristics still await development for agricultural use in
many parts of the world. Yet rather than reach out to these lands, man
has often found it convenient to use other lands less favorably endowed
by nature. Large areas in the United States, for example, have been
opened up for wheat culture in the drier sections of the Great Plains
even though the prospect o f frequent crop failures makes farming in
these areas a high-risk enterprise.
Text 19B. Soil Assessment and Land Evaluation
Soil assessment, land quality and productivity evaluation, economic
evaluation of land and registration of land uses are the main concepts of
land cadastre.
The comparative evaluation of soil, for example, as regards to their
natural productivity is known as soil assessment. The rating of the
natural soil properties influencing yields is the aim of soil assessment.
The land use planners consider the factors which determine both the
potential and actual fertility. Land productivity evaluation embraces
various factors such as soil, climate, geographic location, etc. These
factors affect strongly the final economic results.
Soil assessment is the first stage in evaluating land. The next stage is
land productivity evaluation which is, in fact, a correction o f soil
assessment by coefficients for climate, humidity, etc. The economic
evaluation of land comes as a final, concluding stage o f the complete
evaluation of land as a means of production.
Soil assessment and land productivity evaluation are both
characterized by a comparatively great stability as com pared to the
economic evaluation of land. Due to the fact that it is based on
econom ic indices the econom ic land evaluation can vary from year to
year to a considerable extent. The economic land evaluation is subject to
considerable fluctuation.
The use of calculated yields of crops is rather com m o n for all the
methods of land evaluation. A com m on feature of the approach to land
evaluation is the combining o f land evaluation and land supply. A
general concept, known as «land cadastre» gives expression to that
relation which is, in fact, both qualitative and quantitative assessment of
land used in agriculture.
Soil assessment and land productivity evaluation are actually valid
only at a definite level o f technology of crops. The change of crop
rotation system and of fertilizer application, etc., results in a respective
116
change in the evaluation values of soils and ecologic conditions.
Therefore it is necessary to repeat economic evaluation of land or
correct the existing one by suitable methods.
YI. Read the text and translate it into Russian in written form.
Text 19C. Is it Possible to Evaluate the R eal Productivity o f Land?
All the above methods are considered to be just the initial stage of
development o f a more accurate method.
The large num ber of factors and the interaction between them
determine the complexity of the m ethod for land productivity
evaluation. Due to this, each trial for such an evaluation should be
considered as an approximation only, i.e. just a step towards
establishment o f the real productivity o f land.
At present intensive work is being carried out on the use of methods
for statistical evaluation that will make it possible to achieve a more
objective expression of the interaction of different factors which affect
economic land evaluation.
EXERCISES

particular uses, a variety of factors, major types of factors, a vast
resource heritage, uneven resource distribution, optim um use,
unseasonable frosts, wheat culture, forestry purposes, provision of
forage.
VIII. Write down the questions to the words in bold prints.

1. Nature has provided man with a vast resource heritage.
2. Man must cope with the problems of uneven resource distribution.
3. Most of the earth’s surface has potential value for some use or
group of uses.
4. The gifts of nature are not scattered evenly.
5. The resources of different areas vary both in their natural
characteristics and in their general use-capacities.
6. Limitations involving natural land characteristics definitely limit
the area suited for particular uses.
IX. Complete the following sentences using the words from text 19A
and translate the sentences into Russian:
1. Almost all the ea rth ’s surface affords...
2. Short growing seasons and unseasonable frosts prevent...
3. Around one-forth of the earth’s surface is too cold...
4. The supply of moisture for plant use also prevents...
5. Only less than 1 % of the w ord’s land area...
soil assessment, land registration, natural productivity, natural soil
properties, potential and actual fertility, land productivity evaluation,
yields of crops, com m on feature, qualitative and quantitative
assessment.
XI. Write down 4 questions using the text 19C and answer them in
written form.
Russian.
1. Only 34 percent of the worlds land areas... both anadequate and
reliable supply of rainfall.
2. Only 20 percent of the earth’s land surface have to permit
wheat culture.
3. Calculating yields of crops is r a t h e r of land evaluation.
4. Soil assessment is t h e in evaluating land.
5. T h e of land comes as a final stage of the complete evaluation
of land.
6. Land productivity evaluation... various factors such as soil climate,
geographic location etc.

1. Площади земель, пригодных для определенных целей и с
пользования, зависят от множества факторов.
2. Блага, которы ми природа одарила человека, распределяются
н еравном ерно по всей планете.
3. Ф и зи чески е характеристики земли в значительной мере ог
раничиваю т возможности ее использования.
4. Температурные условия и качество почв во многом опреде
ляю т возможности их использования в сельскохозяйственных це
лях.
1. This land is available for agricultural uses.
2. The supply of moisture for plant use also presents a varied picture.
3. That landlord presented his nephew with a rather big parcel of land
that the young m an could use for crop growing.
4. M an has found that the purposes-for which he uses land vary
almost as m uch in their need for particular land characteristics as do the
characteristics of the land resource base with which he works.
5. People need soil to grow crops for themselves and forage for
animals.
118
XV. Write down the antonyms. Translate them into Russian:
here, significant, vast, evenly, to find, often, uneven, unfavorable,
presence, limited, certain, possible.

L and Evaluation fo r Land Use Planning
— What is land evaluation concerned with?
— Land evaluation deals with the assessment of land performance
when used for specified purposes.
— What does it involve?
— It involves the execution and interpretation of basic surveys of
soils, climate, vegetation and other aspects of land. The comparisons
must incorporate, econom ic considerations within the physical,
economic and social context of the area considered.
— What questions does land evaluation answer?
— Land evaluation should answer the following questions:
1. How is the land currently managed and what will happen if
present’ practices remain unchanged?
2. What improvements in management practices within the present
use are possible?
3. What other uses of land are physically possible and economically
and socially relevant?
4. Which of these uses offer’ possibilities of sustained production or
other benefits?
5. What adverse effects, physical, economic or social are associated
with each use?
6. What inputs are necessary to bring about the desired production
and minimize the adverse effects?
7. What are the benefits of each form of use?
— Are there any additional questions that should be answered?
— If the introduction of a new use involves significant change in the
land itself, as for example in irrigation schemes, then the following
additional questions should be answered:
1. What changes in the condition of the land are feasible and
necessary and how can they be brought about?
2. What non-recurrent inputs are necessary to implement these
changes?
— Does evaluation determine the land use changes?
— The land evaluation does not determine the land use changes that
are to be carded out; but evaluation provides data on the basis of which
such decisions can be taken. The output from land evaluation normally
gives information of each area of land including the beneficial and
adverse consequences of land use planning.
119
Unit 20
LAND CLASSIFICATION
adequate a 1. соответствующий, соразмерны й; 2. достаточный
represent v представлять
suffer v страдать
failure n неурожай
range n обш ирное естественное пастбище
improve v улучшать
frequent а частый
intersperse v 1. разбрасывать, рассыпать; 2. вставлять в п ро м е
жутки; 3. разнообразить
adopt v принимать
II. Write down the following adjectives and underline suffixes.

Translate the words into Russian:
a) cultivable, arable, plowable, desirable, non-arable, non-plowable,
considerable, understandable, changeable agreeable, comparable
b) agricultural, total, temporal, ordinal, potential, general, natural,
residential, industrial, principal, reasonal, physical, structural, rural,
legal, social, institutional

rh [r] rhyme, rhythm, rhetor, rhino
i [ai] mild, child, wild
er [э] m iner’s, together, river, planner, register
у [j] yesterday, yes, yet, yield, yellow
ie [i:] field, piece, yield, relief
sh [1] sharp, shut, short

Text 20A. State L and Resources Classification
Russia is the owner o f the largest land resources in the world. The wise
m anagem ent o f lands is necessary to meet present, near-term future and
long-term future needs. Adequate supplies o f food, forest products,
minerals, water, energy, and space for people to live, work and recreate
must be provided and at the same time natural areas be preserved.
The State land resources must be registered and classified for
administrative and economic purposes. According to basic land
legislations o f the Russian Federation there are many types o f land uses.
They include agricultural, residential, transportation and recreation,
forest lands, industrial sites, national parks and many other non-
agricultural land uses.
120
Classifications may be used to describe the main types o f land uses:
lands are divided as space to conduct activities and as means of
production.
Among them residential lands and industrial sites account for most of
land areas o f cities and rural centres. But they cover only a small
proportion o f the ea rth ’s surface. These uses arid their various subclasses
are particularly im portant at present. They represent the areas where
most people live and work and where most productive activity takes
place. They involve the areas most subject to intensive hum an use and
the sites o f highest demand.
Text 20B. How do We Classify Agricultural Land?
The agricultural land uses have been the prime concern of any state
from the very first day o f its existence. The agricultural land uses
account for the largest proportion of the total area. Cropland includes
all of the cultivated areas used in the production of food, fibers and
other uses. It includes not only cropland harvested but also planted areas
that have suffered from crop failure and cropland areas that are
temporarily idle or fallow.
The concept o f pasture and grazing lands is somewhat more
complicated. It really involves two types of land use: arable pasture plus
range and grazing land. Arable pasture includes all those improved
pasture areas that are considered plowable and that might easily be
shifted into cropland use. Areas o f this type frequently are interspersed
with croplands. As a result these two uses overlap. It is often desirable to
treat them together under the designation o f arable farm land.
The concept o f pasture land also overlaps with that of range and
grazing land. The term «range» is ordinarily associated with the large,
naturally vegetated grazing lands found in the low rainfall areas. Some
range lands have a cropland potential, particularly if they can be
irrigated. But most o f them are best adopted to permanent grazing use.
Generally speaking, the concept o f range and grazing land applies to
those lands that produce forage cover for grazing by domestic animals
and game mammals. But these lands are generally unsuited for
cultivation because o f inadequate rainfall, rough topography or high
altitude. This subclassification includes not only range lands but also
many smaller non-arable areas, such as nonplowable rough pasture land.
VI. Read the text and translate it in written form.

Text 20C. What is the Basis o f Agricultural Land Grading?
The agricultural land is graded according to the degree to which its
Physical characteristics impose long-term limitations on agricultural use.
121
The limitations operate in one or more o f four principal ways; they may
affect the range o f crops which can be grown and the level o f yield, the
consistency o f yield and the cost o f obtaining it. Ability to grow a wide
range o f crops (including grass) whether actual or potential is given
considerable weight but it does not outweigh the ability to produce
consistently high yields o f a somewhat narrower range o f crops.
The main physical factors which have been taken into account are
climate (particularly rainfall, transpiration, temperature and exposure),
relief (particularly slope) and soil (particularly wetness, depth, texture,
structure, stoniness and available water capacity).
The grading o f agricultural land is on the basis o f physical quality
alone. Other less perm anent factors such as the standard and adequacy
o f fixed equipment, the level of management, farm structure and
accessibility have not been taken into account. It follows that the grades
give no indication o f the relative values o f farms located on them, either
as a source o f income or capital, since these values will usually depend
largely on the shorter term factors m entioned above.
EXERCISES

forest products, residential lands, industrial sites, transportation lands,
recreational lands, national parks, non-agricultural uses, principal types
o f land use, means o f production, intensive hum an use, cultivated areas.
VIII. Translate the sentences into Russian. Pay attention to the use of
the verb.
Я просила тебя зайти на кафедру землепользования. Ты был
там? Когда ты ходил туда? Я только что вернулся с кафедры. Ты
взял мое задание по кадастру? Нет еще. Я взял рабочие тетради.
Но я их ещ е не заполнил.
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from texts 20A
and 20B.
1. Cropland is a cultivated area used in the production of.... 2. C rop
land also includes the planted areas that are temporarily.... 3. What are
pastures? Pastures really are range and .... 4. Most o f rangelands are best
adopted to .... 5. There are some principal kinds o f land use. They are....
6. Residential lands represent the areas where m ost-people live ... and....
X. Give the Russian equivalents.Write down some sentences using the

agricultural lands, residential lands, industrial sites, transportation
lands, recreational lands, national parks, non-agricultural land, forest
land, lands o f water supply, lands o f state.
122
XII. Insert the proper words from unit 20 and translate the sentences
into Russian.
1. We remem ber that natural areas must be .... 2. There are ...kinds of
land use in Russia. 3. We consider the land to be a space to conduct
activities and ... of production. 4. Residential lands and industrial sites
cover only a small ... o f the earth’s surface. 5. Arable pasture includes all
improved ... areas that are considered plowable and may be easily
converted into cropland again. 6. What does the ... «range» mean?
7. Most of range lands are best adopted to ... grazing use. 8. There are
some pastures that produce ... cover for grazing by domestic animals and
game mammals.

1. Существует н есколько систем класси ф и кац и и земель в со от
ветствии с их целевым назначением.
2. В разных странах существуют разные подходы к проблеме
классификации земель.
3. К л ассиф и каци я отражает потенциальны е возможности зе м
ли.
4. Подклассы указываю т на основной фактор, огран и чи ваю
щий использование земли.
1. These lands produce forage cover for grazing by domestic animals
and game mammals. 2. The Russian Federation covers about 1/7
territory of the world. 3. The year 1839 saw the appearance of the disk
plow. 4. With the efficient power the farmer began to plow and disk, to
harrow and plant, to fertilize and harvest. 5. This plant is grown in the
south of the Ukraine. 6. If you overwork the rich farmland it depletes its
fertility. 7. The harvest time has began.
XV. Write down the synonyms and translate them into Russian:
crop, largest, work, provide, rarely, quick, often.

Why do We N eed Land Classification?
- Why do we need land classification?
- Land classification is the basis for data gathering processes.
- W h a t is the interrelation between land use planning and land
classification?
- Land classification is the foundation on which good land use
123
planning rests. Its object is to distinguish the lands and to enable the
planner to appreciate the differences at his disposal.
—What does land classification indicate?
— It indicates the potentiality o f the land. It categorizes the
differences between different areas o f land.
—What should the land use planner take into consideration?
—The land use planner should consider the economic, legal, social
and institutional factors which affect land uses and are necessary for
decision-making.
—What are the methods o f land classification?
— Land is classified in many different ways. Soil survey, for example,
is very useful for agricultural land classification.
— How is land classification recorded?
— Maps and tabulations are com m only used to present land
classification.
—Are there many problems in land classification?
—Yes, the land problems are numerous and different.
Land use planners and ecologists have developed a lot of land
classification maps to be used in land use planning.
—When do we use land classification maps, tabulations and other
cadastral surveys?
—The land use planners need this information when they project
new and change old land uses. They need land classification maps to
reduce production losses from erosion and for land conservation
purposes. They use these maps to protect agricultural lands from floods,
to improve drainage and for many other land use planning practices.
Unit 21
SOIL SURVEY AND LAND USE PLANNING
extremely adv крайне
coarse a 1. грубый, необработанны й; 2. крупный
identical а равн означн ы й, идентичный
fine а зд. мелкий
attach v связывать, соединять
medium а средний
acidite п кислотность
manual п руководство; справочник
liability п склонность, подверженность
mottled а крапчатый, и спещ ренны й
corrode v разрушать; подвергать коррозии
indicate v указывать
124
pipe n труба, трубка
select v выбирать, отбирать
predominant а преобладающий
vary v изменяться
correlate v соотноситься
particle п частица
II. Write down the following words. Underline suffixes. Translate the
words into Russian:
a) diversity, familiarity, identity, priority, property, acidity, fertility,
possibility, locality, permeability, particularity
b) assessment, measurement, management, improvement, environ
ment, development, movement

о [э] pot, got, lot, not
but: both [boue], d o n ’t [dount], w on’t [wount]
о [ou] go, no, nose, rose, close, role, expose
о [Л] com e, comfort, won, London, colour, glove, cover, mother,
brother, some, other
ng [r|] sing, long, forming, planning, classifying
kn [n] know, knit, knight, knee, knowledge, knife, knob, knock,
knop, knot

Text 21 A. Soil Classification
The soil survey plays an extremely important role in land cadastre.
To put the classification and mapping of soils on a uniform scientific
basis is rather difficult, for no two places have soils identical in every
respect. Soils have many properties, some o f which can be assessed in
the field and others only in laboratory.
Different users will not agree about the priority attached to these
properties. To the specialist o f fertilizers acidity or to the gas engineer
liability to corrode pipes may be all important. But a land use planner or
an ecologist concerns himself with a wider range o f soil properties.
Therefore to find a single classification suitable for everyone is
impossible and impracticable.
Text 21 B. Soil Survey Texture Maps fo r Land Cadastre
The five alternatives listed below figure in most legends o f soil survey
texture maps for land cadastre.
1. The predominant size of the mineral particles. This property is well
125
correlated with other soil properties. In sandy soils particles between
0.06 and 2 m m diameter predominate. In silty soils those smaller than
0.002 and 0.06 m m and in clayey soils those smaller than 0.002 mm. In
loamy soils no one particle size range is predominant. Sandy soils are
also called «light» or coarse-textured, clayey soils — «heavy» or fine-
textured and silty and loamy soils are sometimes grouped as medium -
textured. Stoniness refers to the proportion o f particles o f a diameter
larger than 2 mm. A more detailed scheme o f texture classes is outlined
in soil survey manuals.
2. Natural drainage. The incidence o f waterlogging is another
important soil condition. It can be assessed directly or by interference
from the presence or absence o f grey or mottled colours or by a peaty
surface layer. The categories used are excessively well, moderately well,
imperfectly, poorly and very poorly drained.
3. Major groups. Soils are formed by physical, chemical and
biological processes. Classifications which emphasize properties
indicating the nature and extent o f these processes are called natural or
genetic.
Soil-forming processes usually lead to the development o f a distinct
layering in the soil, more or less parallel to the surface o f the ground.
The sequence of layers (technically called soil horizons) down to
unaltered geological material is called the soil profile. Most
classifications define profile classes which group together similar soil
profiles regardless of where they occur.
4. Parent material. Within a given neighbourhood, the nature o f the
geological material from which the soil has formed is often a useful
indicator o f its other properties, particularly when no soil map is
available. Thus one may refer to «chalk soils», «boulder clay soils», etc.
The land use planners should recognize that considerable variation
occurs within these groups, caused by other soilforming factors.
5. Soil series.Subgroups o f the genetic classification are divided by
texture and parent material into soil series. Soil series are named after
localities where examples are known to occur. While thus defined as a
profile class, soil series are com m only used as mapping units on detailed
soil maps.

Text 21C. Soil Series Maps
Soil surveys show the distribution o f soil classes (mostly soil series)
on maps. These classes are based on the more permanent physical
properties o f soil directly observed or measured in the field. They can be
related to the m anagem ent, capability and improvement o f land.
Laboratory measurements are made on samples from key profiles to
confirm field estimates o f properties used in classification.
126
Soil series maps are needed in field research to indicate the soil
environment and to select sites. The com m on requirement o f research is
that the soil should vary little. From many investigations some long
term and skilled agronomic observation knowledge has accumulated of
the agronomic characters o f soil series.
This includes information on fertilizer use and distribution, irrigation
need, optim um row spacing for cereals, cultivation methods and many
other related subjects, most o f which can be satisfactorily transferred
through soil classification and maps.
EXERCISES

soil classification, soil scientists, important role, mapping o f soils,
large diameter, soil horizons, geological material, soil forming factor,
soil map, profile class.
1. The dean was sure that the students o f Land Use Planning faculty
(to take part) in the meeting. 2. He knew that you (to be writing) the report
for the conference on the problems o f geodesy. 3. My friend told me he
(to hear) the previous week that the Chair o f Pedology (to be preparing)
for the conference and that it (to be held) at the end o f the next month.
4. Galileo proved that the Earth (to move) round the Sun. 5. The teacher
said that the students o f this group (to be) good at geodesy. 6. The student
said that he (to become) a good specialist in soil science.
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text 21B.
1. Soil properties are well correlated with the... . 2. The sizes of
particles in sandy soils are... . 3. Clayey soils are called... . 4. Sandy soils
are called... . 5. The categories o f natural drainage are... .
6. Classifications emphasizing properties indicating the nature and
extent o f physical, chemical and biological processing in soils are
called... . 7. Soil-forming process usually leads to the development of... .
8. Soil series are nam ed after...

using these word combinations:
soil mapping, soil properties, perm anent physical properties, light
soils, heavy soils, soil horizons, parent material, cultivation methods.
XI. Write down questions to the words in bold prints.

1. Soil surveys show the distribution o f soil classes on maps. 2. To
confirm field estimates o f properties used in classifications laboratory
measurements are made on samples from key profile. 3. Soil classification
127
and mapping play an important role in cadastral survey. 4. Most of us
can make some sort of soil map o f the familiar area. 5. The land use
planner or ecologist concerns himself with a wide range o f soil
properties. 6. Soils are formed by physical, chemical and biological
processes. 7. Soil series are com m only used as mapping units on
detailed soil maps. 8. Stoniness refers to the proportion of particles o f a
diameter larger than 2 mm.
XII. Insert the proper words from unit 21.

1. In ... soils the size o f particles change from 0.06 to 2 m m in
diameter. 2. What is the ... of particles in silty soils? 3. Sandy soils are ...
«light» or coarse texture. 4. Soils may be excessively well, moderately
well, imperfectly, poorly and very ... drained. 5. Soils are formed by
physical, chemical and ... processes. 6. The sequence o f soil layers is
technically ... soil horizons. 7. The nature o f the geological material
from which the soil has formed is often a ... indicator o f its properties.
8. Soil surveys ... necessary for land cadastre.
XIII. Translate into English.

В техническом о тн ош ен и и метод В. В. Д окучаева включал: раз
работку естественной класси ф и кац и и почв; определение геологи
ческих свойств почв; установление химического состава; опреде
л ение ф изических свойств почв.
1. What can you say about the properties o f this soil? 2. They soil the
animals all the year round. 3 This soil needs the increase o f fertilizers.
4. This departm ent increases its input for soil surveys. 5. What is the
object o f these laboratory measurements? 6. The professor objected to
the method used in that investigation. 7. The formation o f soil is the
result o f physical, chemical and biological processes. 8. They processed
the data o f the experiment for three hours. 9. Their work resulted in
some soil maps of high quality.

largest, to include, idle, complicated, arable, improved, frequently,
temporal, domestic, high, permanent, wild.
XVI. Read the text and discuss it in class. Write down all words you
should know in your opinion.
Text 2 ID . On Land Classification
The following discription is extracted from one o f the Reports o f the
Commission on World Land Use Survey.
128
1. Settlements and Associated Non-Agricultural Land
Whilst on the 1: 1, 000,000 map it will not be possible to do more
than indicate by one color (dark red) the areas covered by cities and
towns, in industrial and developed countries where large-scale maps are
available it may be desirable to distinguish between different types of
settlement on the survey maps. According to need, local classifications
may be used to distinguish between different phases of urban land use of
functional zones.
Extensive surface mining areas including land devastated owing to
mine operations should be indicated in light red and explained in
accompanying notes.
2. Horticulture
This category should be used to include all intensive cultivation of
vegetable and small fruits (as distinguished from tree fruits). The
category, therefore, covers such agriculture as truck farming in America,
market gardening in Britain and other European countries, as well as the
production from larger gardens and allotments, whether the crops are
grown for sale or not. Where vegetables are grown in rotation with
ordinary farm crops the area should be recorded as category 4, cropland.
This category of horticulture also includes the garden cultivation of
tropical villages — for example, in Africa, Malaya, etc., where the village
com pound usually includes mixed vegetables such as yams, potatoes
with fruit and sometimes with small numbers o f palm trees, cocoa trees,
bananas, etc.
3. Tree and Other Perennial Crops
A very wide range is covered by this category and the land to be
included will differ very much from one part o f the world to another, so
that in each different survey or on each survey sheet the crops concerned
should be named or indicated by means o f symbols. In the tropics there
will be included, amongst others, rubber plantations, tea gardens, palm
oil plantations, coconut groves, citrus orchards, cinchona plantations
and banana plantations. In middle latitudes the category will include
citais orchards, orchards o f deciduous fruits-such as apples, pears,
plums, cherries, peaches, apricots and figs-also olive groves and
vineyards of different types. The category should also be used to include
the groves of cork oaks (as in Portugal) and also such rare cases as
plantations o f pine trees grown especially for the production o f resins
and turpentine. The category should also be used to include such
perennial crops or cultivations grown without rotation as sisal and
manila hemp, but sugar cane or alfalfa, although grown on the same
piece o f land for a num ber o f years, should be recorded as growing on
cropland.
4. Cropland
(a) Continual and rotation cropping
(b) Land rotation.
129
The cropland will include both plowed land and land cultivated by
hand. By continual crops we mean, for example, rice, which is often the
only crop grown year after year on the same land, also sugar cane and
such mono-cultural crops as wheat and corn. By rotation crops we
include those grown in a fixed or variable rotation, including fodder
grass, clover and alfalfa, which may occupy the land for two or three
years. Crop rotation includes current fallows, that is land which is rested
for a short period (not exceeding three years). All the above are to be
shown in dark brown.
By land rotation we understand the system whereby cultivation is
carried on for a few years and then the land allowed to rest perhaps for a
considerable period before the scrub or grass which grows up is again
cleared and the land recultivated. In such areas, however, the farms or
settlements from which cultivation takes place are fixed and the
cultivation o f the land is the dom inant occupation. The secondary
growth which is allowed to appear has little or no econom ic importance.
This is in contrast to the forest with subsidiary cultivation m entioned
later.
5. Improved Permanent Pasture (Managed or Enclosed)
This is a type of land use well understood in countries like New
Zealand and Britain where controlled grazing is carried on in small
enclosed fields, the grass being managed by manuring, sometimes by
reseeding, by liming or in other ways. Often the grasses, including
clovers, have been introduced so that the pasture is not natural. Some
land o f this sort is grazed; other is cut for hay or dried grass. In other
countries, such as the United States, this category of land is less
distinctive but would include land such as the intensively stocked
grasslands o f the dairy belts.
6. Unimproved Grazing Land
This may be described as extensive pasture or range land. It may be
enclosed in large units but is not as a rule in small fields. It is not
fertilized or deliberately m anured though it may be periodically burnt
over. The vegetation is that which is native to the locality although the
characteristics o f the vegetation have often been modified by grazing or
occasionally by the introduction o f non-local plants.
A great range o f vegetation is included, from tropical savanna to arctic
tundra, and as far as possible the type o f vegetation should be described
on the m ap or accompanying notes. For example, the category will
include savanna (or grassland with scattered trees where the grass is
dom inant), tropical grassland, steppe land, dry pampas, and short grass
prairie. The category will also include su th range lands as bunch grass and
sage brush and creosote bush, as well as the vegetation o f the High Veld
and the Karoo o f South Africa. It will include the heather moorlands and
heath lands and grass moorlands o f Europe. It is clear that special care
must be taken to distinguish these very varied types.
130
There are m any areas o f such land which at present are not used in
different parts o f the world though they differ but little from those which
are used for grazing. This difference should determine the color, orange
for used and yellow for not used.
7. Woodlands
Forest and woodland will be found to differ very greatly from one
part of the world to another. The main categories suggested refer to the
morphological character o f the forest, independently of the age of the
tree:
(a) Dense. Forests where the crowns o f the trees are touching
(b) Open. Where the crowns of the trees do not touch and the land
between is occupied by grass or other ground vegetation. Where, of
course, the trees are very sparse such land comes into category 6
(grazing land)
(c) Scrub. Is used to designate vegetation such as the maquis of
Europe, chaparral o f N o rth America, mallee and mulga o f Australia and
the acacia thorn scrub o f Africa and India
(d) Swamp forests, both fresh water and tidal (mangrove)
(e) Cut-over or burnt-over forest areas not yet fully reclothed
(f) Forest with subsidiary cultivation
(i) Shifting cultivation, where patches o f land are recleared for
cultivation from time to time, usually but not always, by wandering
tribes
(ii) Forest-crop economy. Somewhat similar is the sytem, for
example in parts of eastern Canada, where holdings consist mainly o f
woodland but where some cultivation is carried on subsidiary to the
working and m anagem ent by replanting o f the forest land.
The types o f forest, whether dense, open, scrub, and can usually be
distinguished by symbols into the following:
(e) evergreen broad-leaved
(sd) semi-deciduous, (d) deciduous, (c) coniferous, (m) mixed
coniferous and deciduous. In addition, in many parts o f the world it
should be possible to nam e the dom inant species or groups o f trees and
indicate the type o f undergrowth. It may also be possible to indicate in
broad outline where forest land is being commercially exploited.
8. Swamps and Marshes (Fresh-and Salt-Water, Non-forested)
9. Unproductive Land
A great variety o f land is also included in this category..Considered in
relation to land use it appears bare, and though it may support lowly
forms o f plant life is essentially unproductive. Barren mountains, rocky
and sandy deserts, moving sand dunes, salt flats, icefields are examples.
Potential use, such as land capable of irrigation, may be indicated and
considered in the articles but it is the present position which should be
mapped.
Section IV
RURAL LAND USE PLANNING
Unit 22
LAND RESOURCES FOR FARMING
moisture n влажность, влага
value n ценность / / v ценить
allow v позволять
deer n олень
extent n протяженность
abundant а обильный
virgin а невозделанная (о земле), целинная
precipitation п осадки
humid а влажный
fertile а плодородный
II. Write down the following adjectives and underline prefixes.

inexhaustible, infertile, impossible, irregular, irreversible,
incomparable, immovable, irresponsible, impractical.

a [ei] data, relation, irrigation, plantation, grazing, place,
precipitation, labour, made, lake
b u t ate, many, any
ea [i] wheat
b u t deaf, great, wealth
th [0] thick, thing, beneath, tenth, growth, method
th [cf] seethe, bathe, these, this, the, that, those

Text 22 A. Land Resources fo r Farming
Land resources for farming must have soils sufficiently deep and
moisture retentive. They must be level enough to allow the use of
machinery. The climatic conditions are to be good enough for crop
production.
132
The extent o f agricultural land is not fixed. It changes as new
techniques are discovered. It was, for instance, impractical for large
machines. Land with infertile but physically favourable soils have become
more valuable when large tractors and other machines had appeared.
Better sources o f power have made irrigation practical in places
where formerly it was impractical. Irrigation has given value to land that
otherwise might be o f no use for agriculture.
The prime concern o f land use planners is to secure land resources
for agricultural land uses.
Text 22B. Different Productive Capacities o f Land
Differences in productive capacity o f land resources are tremendous.
On the deserts we can produce almost nothing; on some lands that have
plentiful water, productive soils and good location in relation to
industrial centres we can produce several thousand roubles worth of
products from a hectare in a single year.
We have trem endous areas o f land so cold most o f the year that it can
be used only for deer pastures. There may be land that we can grow only
a few kinds of crops on it. We have land on which we grow vegetables in
midwinter.
Since plants are the basis o f agriculture, land that can produce
abundant plant material is valued very high.

Text 22C. Productive Land fo r Agriculture
Land for agriculture must have plenty o f moisture from precipitation
or irrigation to produce plants. But irrigation requires precipitation
somewhere to provide the water. Plenty o f moisture we can have only in
or from the humid areas.
Irrigation in the Caucasus is possible because of the mountains.
Winds passing over the mountains are forced upward, cooled and caused
to precipitate their moisture as rain and snow, which in due season
provide water for irrigating the land.
Without the m ountains we would have little irrigated farming. That is
why we must manage the forests on the mountains so as to husband the
water supplies that originate on them.
Precipitation alone is not enough to make land a valuable agricultural
resource. Not all our humid areas are highly productive farmlands.
Productive land for plants must also have soils that will take in hold and
supply the water to the plants in the am ounts they need. Soils that have
bedrock or other dense layers close to the surface and deep sand
generally cannot hold enough water for abundant plant growth.
133
Slopes also affect the supply of moisture. Often m uch of the moisture
that falls on steep slopes runs off too fast and is therefore not available
for plant growth on such slopes.
Soils whose physical characteristics prevent plants from getting
proper am ounts of water usually are more unfavourable for crops than
are infertile soils that can take in, store and supply moisture to the crop.
Deficiencies in fertility can be overcome by fertilization. But often
there is no practical way to overcome such physical shortcomings as lack
of moisture-storing ability.
Our humid and subhumid areas have a high percentage of land that
combines three favourable characteristics good moisture supply, deep
moisture- retentive soils and gentle slopes.
EXERCISES

crop production, productive soils, agricultural production, crop land,
new techniques, sources of power, plant material.
VIII. Use the verbs in the correct Tense form.

1. In this region there (to be) highly productive soils. 2. In 1980 they
(to have) eighteen hectares of land on that farm. 3. New techniques of
cultivation (to be) discovered. 4. Our needs for productive lands (to
increase). 5. Erosion (to destroy) much cropland in that region. 6. We
(can) produce almost nothing on the desert land if (to irrigate +not)
them. 7. They (to use + n o t) those deer pastures before. 8. Those lands
(c an+ n ot) produce abundant plant material.
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text 22B:
1. There are great differences in... . 2. Trem endous areas of land in
the N orth can be used only for... . 3. There were some kinds of land
where we could grow... . 4. Plants are the basis of... .
X. Give the Russian equivalents. Write down some sentences, using the
productive soils, soils sufficiently deep, labor saving machinery,
virgin lands, dairy farms.
XI. Insert the proper words and translate the sentences into Russian:
1. Land for crop production must have ... water.
2. Land resources are ... inexhaustible.
3. The land for crop production must be ... enough to allow the use
of labour saving machinery.
4. Better sources o f ... mable irrigation effective in some places.
5. Some soil loses its fertility because o f ... .
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6. In the N orth o f Russia we have trem endous areas o f ... that can be
used as ...pastures.
7. There some lands on which we ... vegetables in winter.
XII. Write down what part of speech the words in bold prints are and
1. We know why people value land so high. 2. Our agriculture needs
more and more and more electricity with every coming year. 3. These
animals feed entirely on grass; they do not need any other feed. 4. It is
necessary to increase the production of vegetables. 5. The increase in
the production o f vegetables was the result o f proper use of fertilizers.
6. Do you want to take part in our expedition? 7. Man s wants have
greatly changed since the last century. 8. My brother works at a factory.
9. I know the works o f this scientist.

1. Наш и потребности в земельных ресурсах постоянно растут.
2. Мы долж ны помнить, что земельные ресурсы не беспредельны.
3. Земли для вы ращ и вани я сельскохозяйственных культур должны
быть достаточно плодородными. 4. Сельскохозяйственные земли
должны быть достаточно увлажненными.
XIV. Write down the questions to the words in bold prints.

1. The deserts in the Mid-Asian countries need irrigation. 2. These
people had to desert vast areas of unfertile lands. 3. Please, place that
book on the table! 4. This is a very nice place for our group to rest.
5. Final results are affected by many factors. 6. Your work will result in a
good project.

steep, wet, fertile, humid, regular, practical, possible, exhaustible,
responsible, comparable, passive.
XVI. Read the dialogue and discuss it in class.

Why Should We Take Care o f Our Agricultural Land?
— Why do we need so m uch farmland?
— Available evidence suggests that agricultural technology and
resources have limitations in raising the land capability. New crop
varieties, irrigation, fertilizers, and energy cannot compensate for
farmland losses.
— What is the role of land use planners in retaining our to farmland?
— The land use planners are to control the land uses in order to
preserve farmland. Their role is extremely important in guiding and
assisting the efforts to retain our farmland.
— Why should we pay so much attention to farmland?
135
— The prime farmland is particularly suitable for cultivation. It is an
essential factor in agricultural production. This land is best suitable for
agriculture. It is limited and should be protected. The loss of prime
farmland to non-agricultural uses is an irreversible loss.
— What must the land use planner do?
— He is to determine the possible conversion of land. The land use
planner is to identify and evaluate the results of actions that effect the
farmland conversion.
Unit 23
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND LAND RESOURCES
chemical n химическое удобрение
entire о полный
accumulate v накапливать
joint n соединение, узел / / а общий, объединенны й
advanced а передовой
diminish v уменьшать; ослаблять
purpose n цель
formerly adv прежде, раньше
restrictive а ограничительны й, ограниченны й
implement n инструмент, орудие / / v выполнять; приводить в и с
полнение
link п связь, соединение / / v связывать, соединять
improvement п улучшение
elevation п повы ш ение
suit v подходить; приспособить(ся)
predict v капиталовложение
suitable а подходящий
consequence п последствие
II. Write down the following nouns. Underline the suffixes. Translate
implement, improvement, environment, investment, management,
equipment, m ovement, settlement, arrangement, statement, treatment,
embarrassment, appointm ent, allotment, m onum ent, development,
fulfillment, attainment, enrichm ent, enlargement.

au 4 /C ause, because, clause,
aw 7 4 thaw, saw
136
bur. aunt [a:]
аг [ э:] после [w] warm, war, quarter
^ , - w a s h , want
w + a [o:]
^ ^-sw am p, wax

Text 23A. Progress in Farming and L and Resources
M odern farming has today new chemicals and machines to work
with plants and animals with new capabilities. Farmers have developed
new skills in planting, care and harvesting. The land use planners help
them. They have accumulated much new knowledge about land. They
know how it varies from place to place.
If land is used wisely it increases its productivity. If it is used on the
basis of advanced science and technology land does not diminish its
fertility.
The decision to take a concerted action through irrigation has
brought water to millions of hectares o f land that formerly produced but
a scattering of grass. Power units with large implements have given new
opportunities to raise land productivity. Improvements in the genetic
make-up o f crop varieties have raised output ceilings of land resources
best suited for growing them.
Soils that produced «poor» yields only because they lacked fertility
are not nearly so «poor» today as they were before. Science and
chemical industry developed suitable fertilizers.
Farming today is a highly commercialized and often highly
specialized production o f food and raw materials. The entirely new set
of input factors that commercialized farms have to work with has
changed greatly the significance of many differences in land. The joint
effort of farmers, scientists and industry in developing and adopting new
technology have produced progress in agricultural land uses.
Text 23B. Factors that Influence L and Uses in Agriculture
Land occupies the leading place am ong the resources used in
farming. Its central place has not diminished with the progressive
advance of technology and the greater use of machines and fertilizers.
Land use planners now are no more captives of the natural
environment. They are able to control and direct natural forces in many
ways. This means that farmland can be used for more different purposes
than ever before. The properties inherent in the land are now less
restrictive. Many factors determine the proper, sound and full land in
agriculture.
137
Nevertheless, the characteristics of land resources still set limits that
influence the one who learns to co-operate with the natural and
biological processes that are linked to land.
What determines how farmland shall be used in any area or region?
Why are certain combinations of crops and livestock grown in one region,
but not in another? Questions like these seek answers of land use planners.
In general terms, two groups of forces- physical and economic-
influence the use of land for agricultural production. Physical factors are
the climate, soil, topography, elevation, water supply and the like. They
are the properties that are naturally a part of land resources.
Economic factors have to do with man and his relation to land
resources and his facilities, investments, nearness to living centers,
patterns of m anagem ent and other significant elements. Technological
change, economic and physical factors determine land uses in
agriculture.

Text 23C. The Changing Agricultural Technology and Land Use
Planning
N o one can predict the trend in science and technological changes.
M any innovations in agricultural land uses com e today and will come
tomorrow. Some of them will change the relative usefulness of different
kinds o f land. The technological changes always bring some unforeseen
gains and losses to the land use planner who projects and controls land
uses.
Experience gives us some guide to the improvements we can expect
in fertilizers, plants and machinery. The land use planner is to consider
the changes in agricultural technology and the consequences of the
interaction between land and changing technology. This is becoming
more important as time goes by and annual expenses per hectare exceed
the average level.
The task of tailoring the use o f the land involves choices of cultural
practices. We must consider lime and fertilizers rates, the timing of
planting, cultivation and harvest, selection of insecticides and
fungicides, rotations and m any more things.
The land use project is to answer m any o f these questions. The land
use planner has to answer them. He has to answer what response can the
farm get to more fertilizer for c o m on the land. He is to know how the
land will perform if planted to wheat and what the proper field rotation
is. He should consider the location of.the fields and living centres.
The answer the land use planner gives to such questions determine
how near he comes to reaching the income ceiling o f the projected land
uses. The best answers change constantly as varieties, fertilizers,
equipm ent and other things change. The problem of adjusting the kinds
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of land uses cannot be separated from the problem o f intensifying the
agricultural production. Both problems actually must be solved
simultaneously to get a good answer for either. This process requires an
intimate knowledge of land an d its response to various treatments.
Yields will increase rapidly if wise land use practices are implemented.
EXERCISES

leading place, science and technology, chemical industry, economic
factor, agricultural land uses, technological change, natural forces,
patterns o f managem ent, trend in science, relative usefulness.
VIII. Use the verbs in brackets in Future Indefinite.

1. This farmland (to increase) its productivity if crop rotation is used.
2. M odem agriculture (to apply) new chemicals and machinery. 3. The
collective farmers of the region (to use) new methods in planting, care
and harvesting on the reclaimed land. 4. After graduating the University
I (to be) a land use planner. 5. Farming (to be) a highly specialized one
in the nearest future. 6. The land use planners (to control) natural forces
better than they do now. 7. The specialist of future (to be able) to co
operate with the natural and biological processes that are linked to land.
IX. Complete the following sentences using text 23C.

1. Even scientists cannot predict exactly the changes in...
2. Some technical innovations will change the relative usefulness of
different...
3. We know that there are choices o f cultural practices such as
cultivation, harvest and...
4. The land use planner should consider the changed...
5. The problem o f adjusting the kinds o f land uses is closely
connected with the problem of...
6. Wise land use practices will rapidly increase...

m od em farming, new chemicals, land use planners, advanced
science, new opportunities, crop varieties, changes in technologies,
annual expenses, land use project.
XI. Write down 6 special questions using text 23C.
XII. Insert the proper words. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Land resources do not diminish their fertility if we use them on the
basis of advanced ... an d technology. 2. The farmers accum ulated much
139
new knowledge about ... 3. Modern farming is a ... specialized
production o f food and raw materials. 4. We can control and direct the
forces o f ... 5. The use of land is influenced by the ... groups of forces-
the physical and the economic ones. 6. What must be the proper ...
rotation? 7. Yields will increase rapidly if crop r o t a t i o n properly.

1. Если сельскохозяйственные земли используются разумно,
они не теряю т своей продуктивности. 2. К ак надо использовать
земли того или иного региона? Где следует разместить поля, а
где — жилую зону? Эти вопросы будут решать землеустроители.
3. Климат, почвы, топограф ия, водообеспечение — вот основны е
физические характеристики земельных ресурсов.
translate sentences into Russian.
1. This power station will supply many villages with electricity.
2. This farm has a good water supply. 3. We made some changes in our
project. 4. This fact will change the problem radically. 5. You must water
these vegetables very often. 6. Give him a glass o f water, please. 7. The
farmer may control the condition of the soil on his plot of land.8. The
farmer may control the condition of the soil on his plot o f land.

advanced, new, to give, large, to raise, good, direct, right, more,
different, to join, separate, to answer, active, dry, various, similar.
XVI. Read the dialogue and discuss the problem in class:

Dialogue. The L and Resources fo r M ajor Type-of-Farming Regions
o f Russia
— What can you say about land resources for major type-of-farming
regions o f our country?
— It is a very interesting question. M o d em agriculture is a highly
specialized branch of the agro-industrial complex. Major type-of-
farming regions delineate some o f broad grouping of types of agriculture
in particular parts. There are the Dairy region in Vologda, the C o m Belt
in the N orthern Caucasus ad so on. There are highly specialized type-
of-farming regions.
— Are there any variations in these regions?
— Yes, wide variations may occur in types of farming in each region.
Some of these variations have little in com m o n with the type that
appears to be most representative in this region.
— But what determines the land uses in any area or region? Why are
140
certain combinations o f crops and livestock grown in one region but not
in another?
— In general terms two groups o f forces — the physical and the
economic — influence the use o f farmland. These two groups o f forces
which determine the type o f farming are most important for a land use
planner. He must choose certain combinations o f crops and livestock to
grow in one region and not in another. He knows what land resources
are needed and what commodities should be produced.
— How does a land use planner solve these problems?
— The usual situations are those in which any o f a large num ber of
products can be grown, but in which a few have relatively greater
advantage. Some areas have what is called an absolute advantage in
production o f certain commodities: cotton grows only within a given
temperature range, tobacco grows only on certain soil types.
Unit 24
TYPES OF FARMING
specialize v специализироваться
animal husbandry разведение д ом аш ни х животных, животновод
ство
dairying п молочное хозяйство, торговля молочны ми продукта
ми
dairy cattle п молочны й скот
beef cattle мясной скот
cropping farm растениеводческое хозяйство
horticulture п садоводство (товарное)
gardening п огородничество, любительское садоводство
moor land п место, поросшее вереском, болото, пустошь
holding п арендованны й участок земли
livestock « д о м а ш н и й скот
grazing п 1. овечье пастбище, выгон; 2. животноводство на п од
ножном корме
actual а действительны й, существующий в настоящее время
a large amount (of) большое количество
conceive v 1. постигать; 2. задумывать
processing п обработка собранных данны х
proposal п предложение
reduce v 1. ослаблять; 2. сводить (к)
heart п суть, сущ ность
emphasize v подчеркивать, выделять
encompass v окружать, охватывать
141
idle а пустующий (о земле)
restrict v ограничивать, сокращать
nevertheless adv, conj хотя, несмотря на, однако
pattern п образец, модель
viable а жизнеспособны й
link п связь, соединение / / v связывать, соединять
interdependent а взаимозависимы й
priority п преимущество
II. Write down the following adjectives, underline suffixes and

translate the words into Russian:
a) preparatory, ordinary, preliminary, primary, elementary,
supplementary, fragmentary, stationary, evolutionary, contradictory
b) economic, economical, historic, historical, characteristic,
characteristical, biological, physical, topographic, topographical,
climatic

u [A] cut, run, club, plus, supper, must, such, industrial, culture, but,
bus, pulse
but. [u] truth
u [u] pull, full, bull
u [u:] blue, true, June, duty, pupil, student, cute, use, produce
ch [k] school, architect, mechanic, technology, characteristic,
chemistry

Text 24A. Types o f Farming
The increasing use of intensive methods o f production both in crops
and in animal husbandly has led to greater specialization. Three-fifths of
the fulltime farms in Britain are devoted mainly to dairying or beef cattle
and sheep, one in six is a cropping farm and the remainder specialize in
pigs, poultry or horticulture or are mixed farms. In England the farms
devoted primarily to arable crops are in the eastern part of the
country — in East Anglia, Kent, Lincolnshire, Humberside and the
eastern parts o f the northern counties. In Scotland the rich lowlands of
the east coast are also primarily arable. Potato and vegetable growing on
a substantial scale marks the farming o f the Fens (in south Lincolnshire
and Cambridgeshire), the alluvial areas around the rivers Tham es and
H u m b er and the peaty lands in south-west England. Elsewhere
horticultural crops are widely dispersed amongst agricultural crops.
Dairying occurs widely, but there are concentrations in south-west
Scotland, the western parts o f England and south-west. Wales, where
the wetter climate encourages the growth o f good grass. Sheep and cattle
142
are reared in the hill and m oorland areas o f Scotland, Wales and
northern and south-western England. Beef fattening takes place partly
on better grassland areas and partly in yards on arable farms.
In N orthern Ireland dairying is the main occupation on 40 per cent of
the full-time farms, while a further 35 per cent concentrate on beef and
sheep production. The remainder are either specialized cropping and
horticultural holdings, intensive pig and poultry units or mixed farms with
no predominant single enterprise. Oats and barley are widely grown,
mainly for livestock feeding, and the only im portant cash crop is potatoes.
V. Read the text, write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 24B. Size and Ownership o f Farms
For many centuries most o f the land in Britain was divided into
estates ranging in size from a few hundred hectares upwards, comprising
farms o f various sizes let to tenants. At all times the tenanted holdings
were interspersed with some owned by the farmers who occupied them,
and with some peasant or cottage holdings. Social changes of the past
fifty or so years have completely altered the pattern of rural life in
England and Scotland. Estate duties have been a principal factor in the
breaking up o f estates. Most surviving estates are still owned by private
individuals or family trusts but the Crown. The C hurch Commissioners,
local authorities, the National Coal Board and other corporate bodies
hold large areas. O f the farms sold, many have been bought by the
tenants already in occupation. More than half the farms in Great Britain
(and almost all in N orthern Ireland, where the G overnm ent helped
tenants to buy their holdings as a result o f legislation between 1870 and
1925) today are owner-occupied.
There are about 272,000 statistically significant farming units in
Britain. Some 42 per cent are very small units, mostly farmed part-time
and accounting for less than a tenth of the industry’s total output. O f the
170,000 full-time farm businesses some 39,500 are classified (by
standard man-days) as large farm businesses (capable o f employing four
or more men full-time); these accounting for some 14,5 per cent o f the
number o f holdings produce more than half the industry’s total output.
There are about 53,000 medium — sized (two—three men) and 64,500
small farm businesses.
Amalgamation o f small farms into larger, more viable units has been
encouraged by successive Governments. The average size o f full-time
holdings in Britain is 105 hectares (259 acres) based on total area which
includes crops and grass, rough grazings (excluding com m on rough
grazings), woodland and other land on agricultural holdings.
Some 34,000 o f the total o f significant farming units are in Northern
Ireland: over half o f these provide a full-time occupation for the owner
and produce over four-fifths o f total output. The average farm size is
143
23 hectares (57 acres). O ther holdings, o f which there are about 16,000,
are either extremely small or let in conacre (seasonal lettings for crops or
grazings).

Text 24C. Specialization and Concentration o f Farming
When rural land use planning is provided within the framework of an
administrative region the land use planners can design sound
development plans. They can delineate new land uses taking into
concentration o f farming.
Now farm-land can be used for more different purposes than ever
before due to the scientific and technological progress in agriculture.
The properties inherent in the land are now less restrictive and other
resources determine what the most economic use shall be.
The characteristics o f land nevertheless still set limits that influence
the broad patterns o f agriculture. The successful land use plan is the one
which co-operates with the natural and biological processes that are
linked to land.
The planners have to do with the rate o f agricultural production and
with specialization and integration o f the farms. The rural land use plan
is to consider the optimum size o f livestock farms and their location in
the region, the acreage o f pastures and grasslands and many other
interconnections. The planners should also take into consideration both
existing and future interconnections o f a group o f agricultural
enterprises which have an interdependent technological process and are
integrative parts o f agro-industrial complexes. The nearness to the
relative branches o f industry and the com m unication facilities play an
important role in rural planning.
The planners should consider all factors before they develop new
land uses or essentially transform the existing ones. The formation of
land uses o f an agricultural enterprise in order to increase the
productivity requires evaluation of all factors. All non-agricultural land
users must take into consideration the priority o f land demands for
agriculture.
EXERCISES

intensive methods o f production, animal husbandry, beef cattle,
cropping farm, arable crops, horticultural crops, the pattern o f rural life
VIII. Use the verbs in the correct Tense form.

1. Intensive methods o f production both in crops and in animal
husbandry (to lead) to greater specialization.
144
2. In many places horticultural crops (to disperse) widely amongst
agricultural crops.
3. Beef fattening ( to take place) partly on better grass land areas and
partly in arable farms.
4. Social changes of the past fifty or so years (to alter) the pattern of
rural life in England and Scotland.
5. Many farms (to buy) by the tenants already in occupation.
6. Most surviving estates (to own) still by private individuals or family
trusts.
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text 2 4 B :
1. The average farm size in northern Ireland is ... .
2. The average size o f full-time holdings in Britain is ...
3. The pattern of rural life in England and Scotland has completely
been ...
4. More than half the farms in G reat Britain and almost all in
Northern Ireland today are ...
5. There are 64,500 small farm businesses in ...

rural land use planning, administrative region, development plan,
modern trends, concentration o f farming, certain combination o f crops,
livestock farms, acreage of pasture, agricultural enterprises.
XI. Write down the questions to the words in bold prints.

1. In Great Britain one in six is a cropping farm.
2. In Scotland the rich lowlands o f the east coast are primarily arable.
3. Early potatoes are an important crop in the southwest England.
4. In the south-west Wales the wetter climate encourages the growth
of good grass.
5. In Northern Ireland dairying is the main occupation on 40 per
cent o f the full time farms.
XII. Write down what part of speech the words in bold prints are and
1. The land use planner can design sound development plans within
the framework of an administrative region.
2. This new building is of a better design than the former one.
3. In Russia the owners can sell their land uses according to our new
land legislation.
4. If you use this plot of land in an effective way you can get more
produce.
5. They produce good beef on the farm.
145
1. И н тен си ф и кац и я производства в области сельского хозяй
ства ведет к углублению специализации как животноводческих,
так и растениеводческих ферм.
2. На юге, где прекрасные луга, фермы специализирую тся на
разведении мясного и молочного крупного рогатого скота.
3. Оптимальны й размер ферм ы зависит как от природных, так
и от эконом ических факторов.
4. Средний размер сельскохозяйственного владения в Англии —
105 гектаров (259 акров) с учетом всех видов угодий (cropland,
grassland, rough grazing).
XIV. Insert the proper words and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. There are concentrations o f... in south-west Scotland.
2. In the hill and moorland areas o f Scotland ... and cattle are reared.
3. At all the times the tenanted holdings were ... with some owned by
the farmers.
4. There were also some peasant or ... holdings.
5. ... o f small farms into larger more viable units is now encouraged
by the G overnm ent in G reat Britain.
XV. Write down the names of crops both in English and in Russian.
W heat Potatoes
Barley Sugar beet
Oats Hops
Mixed corn Horticultural crops
Maize for threshing Fodder crops
Oilseed crops
Other crops
XVI. 1) Write down the names of crops grown in the locality where you
(your parents, your friends or relatives) live. You may use the data from
the nearest rural locality.
2) Write down the names o f crops grown on the territory o f Russian
Federation.
3) Use these words in short sentences, indicating the places of these
crops cultivation as given in an example. They grow the best varieties of
wheat in Oriengurg region.
Uni t 25
LOCATION FACTOR IN RURAL PLANNING
distribution n распределение
146
permanently adv н еизм енно, постоянно
throughout prep повсюду
storage n 1. хранилищ е; 2. хранение
verge v приближаться
solution n решение
trend n направление, тенденция
comparative а сравнительны й
adopt v приним ать
silo n силос / / а силосный
main n магистраль
consistent а последовательный
sewer n сточная труба
II. Write down the following adjectives and underline suffixes.

a) productive, progressive, communicative, creative, regulative,
comparative, alternative, demonstrative, constructive, collective,
reflective, respective, attractive, preventive, corrective, oppressive,
responsive, decisive, intensive;
b) various, dangerous, spacious, righteous, anxious, religious, joyous,
thunderous, famous, adventurous

ou [A] double, country, young, cousin, trouble
ou [u] group, rouble, soup, through
ou, au [o:] thought, bought, taught, caught
our [o:j four, your
ow, ou [ou] know, slow, shoulder, though
ou, ow [au] town, down, noun, south
bur. southern [sAcfen]
wh [w] what, which, when, why
wh [h] who, whom , whose, whole
wr [r] write, wrong

Text 25A. Land Use Planning and Modern Farming
Rural land use planning deals with agricultural enterprises. It
encompasses the location of living areas and production units, the size
and shape of field patterns, etc. The planners should be aware of m odem
Progress of agricultural science and technology.
The progress of agricultural science and technology has taken many
forms. Firstly, electrical power distribution can be seen throughout the
countryside. This made practical intensive cropping, crop storage and
147
livestock housing. Farm production is improved with better stock
genetics, seeds and fertilizers.
Rural land use planning takes into consideration m odern trends in
farm management, especially the development of regional agro
industrial complexes. With the changes in cultivation and harvesting
equipm ent many farms have adopted the management techniques used
in industry.
The latest achievements in science and technology of farming
include new modern developments in specialized farm building units.
For example, central grain silo units, to which several thousand
hectares may be contracted have become com m on in many rural areas.
Rural land use planning deals with m odern development of science
and technology in all various fields o f agriculture. Intensive livestock
housing, for example, has been a consistent trend in many parts o f the
country. It seems probable that a situation will prevail when nearly all
farm stock are housed permanently for the greater part of their lives.
The m odern tractor, with its capacity to handle a multitude of
different cultivation and materials handling equipment, requires that
m od em fieldwork should be based on large units.
Consideration of future field machinery techniques verges towards
science fiction. It seems probable that within twenty years remote-
controlled fieldwork will be the norm. There is no technical reason why
this should not be so. It is difficult to forecast which technique is likely
to prove the most efficient and viable.
But, in any event, there are still more implications for rural land use
planning. Autom ated fieldwork will make streamlined field pattern more
essential. It is desirable to plan the field patterns and operations for
more efficient and mechanized agriculture.
Rural land use planning is to meet the new requirements o f
technological progress in agriculture. Solution o f these growing
problems can be achieved on the basis o f computerization o f the land
use planning process.
Text 25B. Location o f Living Areas o f Agricultural Enterprise
A m odern agricultural enterprise needs an adequate living area.
M uch study is necessary to provide optim um living conditions o f those
who live in rural areas.
Each master plan should have maps that show a desirable scheme of
land use, including areas of production units, field patterns,
com m unications system etc. Consideration should be given to the
impact of different location factors that influence a particular living
area. Certain comparative advantages may stem from natural advantages
such as favourable climate, soils and topography.
148
People who are to live in the com m unity will need more jobs,
attractive homes, land for farming and gardening and areas for rest and
play. Determining the areas in a com m unity that are most suitable,
requires study.
A growing com m unity also needs new roads and streets, schools,
public buildings, water mains, sewers and other public facilities.
Where should the proposed public improvements be located?
Locations might be selected with a view to making the fullest use of
present and proposed facilities.
The location o f public buildings, roads and other facilities will
influence land uses.
Small industrial enterprises in the living area become com m on with
some old and rural developments.
Attractions associated with various local amenities provide a
comparative advantage. Amenity considerations are associated with
particular sites. Ready access to municipal roads and to motorways is
important. The living area should not be located too far from the local
road. Labor afficiency may be increased by making the distance between
the most frequently used areas and the home as short as possible. Much
attention is paid now to the requirements o f modern rural family living
zone. Some land use planners consider that it should have a house, a
garage, recreation area, a garden, an orchard, a small animal building.
The location o f residential areas is to provide the best conditions for
those who work at the agricultural enterprise and in related branches of
agriculture.

Text 25C. Location o f Production Units
Climate, topography, and soils have an all-important effect upon the
use o f land for agriculture. The location factor is also important
particularly in cases of commercial crop production. It usually has an
effect on efficiency o f production units.
The rural land use planning deals with the location o f production
units of an agricultural enterprise. It includes also the planning o f
transportation systems, field rotations, pastures, grasslands and other
land uses.
The location o f production units is o f crucial importance for
agricultural production. By its very nature farming is widely dispersed
over the available land area. Differences in soil, climate and topography
make differences in location.
Topography, for example, is the natural factor that has an
im portant impact upon the location and desirability of residential and
industrial sites. Residential developments and production units are
usually preferred on high and well-drained sites. M ountainous and
149
rough terrain may also discourage the use of land for industrial location
or cropping.
Location and accessibility often play an important role in
determining the uses for which various tracts of land are suited. The
concept of land use planning assumes that some areas enjoy locational
advantages over others. This advantage often involves savings in
transportation costs and time.
The land use planners must regard the location of production units in
terms of land resources they have at hand. They should also consider the
time needed to grow a crop, to complete a production cycle, or to justify
certain operating expenditures.
Transportation costs also have important effects upon location
factors. Fields located at greater distances naturally have higher
transportation costs.
The land use planners should be well aware of the geographical
distribution of farm production. W inter vegetables grow only in frost-
free areas. Cotton grows only within a given temperature range.
Tobacco grows only on certain soil types. Locating the production units
must be based on costbenefit analysis and the geographical distribution
of farm production.
EXERCISES

living areas, production units, field pattern, electric power, livestock
housing, management techniques, specialized farm building units, farm
stock, m od em tractor, farmstead machinery, modern machine size,
mechanized agriculture, technological progress
VIII. Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention

to the function of the infinitive forms in the sentence:
1. It is difficult to forecast which technique is likely to prove the most
efficient and viable. 2. T o plan the field pattern and operations for more
efficient agriculture is the task o f the land use planner. 3. The interfarm
land use planning is to meet the new requirements of the technological
progress in agriculture. 4. The land use planners must consider the
location of the production units on the basis of cost-benefit analysis.
IX. Complete the following sentences using text 25B:

1. Our aim is constantly to improve the living conditions of... . 2. An
adequate living area is needed for modem... . 3. What kind of maps
should each master plan have? The maps that show... . 5. The
requirements of modern rural family living zone are paid... . 7. The best
conditions must be given to those who... .
150
X. Give the Russian equivalents and write down a few short sentences
production unit, intensive cropping, harvesting equipment,
specialized farm building units, farm stock countryside, natural
advantages, commercial gardening
XI. Write down the following verb combinations. Try to remember
them using them in your speech:
to tell the truth — по правде говоря
to say the least — мягко выражаясь
to make a long story short — короче говоря
to put it simply — попросту говоря
to put it another way — иначе говоря
to begin with, to start with — прежде всего
XII. Insert the proper words and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. The progress of agricultural science and ... is a part o f wider
changes in agriculture. 2. Intensive livestock housing has been a
consistent ... in many parts of our country. 3. It is difficult to forecast
which ... is likely to be the most efficient and viable in the nearest future.
4. A growing com m unity needs new roads and ... , schools, public ... ,
w a t e r ... , sewers and so on. 5. The living area has to be ... not very far
from the local road. 6. By its very nature ... is widely dispersed over the
available land area.
1. При план ирован и и сельскохозяйственного предприятия важ
но учесть фактор разм ещ ения жилого массива. 2. Необходимо с о
здать максимально благоприятны е условия для сельских тружени
ков. 3. Для разм ещ ения жилого массива требуется территория с бла
гоприятной окруж аю щей средой. 4. Производительность труда во
многом зависит от условий, в которых живет сельский труженик.
1. Rural land use planning also deals with allocation o f living areas.
2. People living in rural communities need favourable conditions for
their life and public activity. 3. Now we can see great changes in
agriculture. 4. Wise planned electrical power distribution greatly changes
the life of the farmers. 5. It seems probable that within twenty years
remote controlled fieldwork will be the norm. 6. You probably will be a
good specialist of land use planning.
to encompass, m od em , latest, to destroy, many, similar, remote,
towards, difficult, internal, much, necessary, rural, different, to rest,
empty, high.
151
The Size and the Shape o f a Field Pattern
— Why is it so important to adjust the size of a field to m odem
machinery?
— The variable nature o f land makes it possible for land use planners
to adjust the size of a field to m odern machinery of an optim um level at
which they can secure the highest possible net return from the field.
— But what is the optim um econom ic size?
— The land use planner has to consider the effect o f different field
sizes. For example the 900 ha fields are already not large enough for
m o d em machinery.
— What can be said about the shape of the field?
— Many land parcels have natural markers. But geometric design in
agriculture is mostly determined by rectangular survey.
— What are the disadvantages o f natural markers?
— Disadvantages are in difficulty o f estimating surface size. Many
natural markers are not perm anent and can be lost.
— What is the advantage of a rectangular survey?
— A rectangular survey had a great advantage from the start as a
quick, rough-and-ready m ethod that would afford the precision needed
at the time.
— And why is the rectangular survey valued today?
— The advantages of rectangular layout (on flat land) become more
obvious when, for instance, a new highway m ns in a direction other than
east-west or north-south, parcels become odd-shaped, often triangular,
with some acute angles. Use o f broad-gauge machinery may then
become difficult or impossible. Costs o f cultivation will then rise.
— What can you say about the boundary lines of fields?
— Triangular shape m eans longer boundary lines for the same
acreage. Such changes increase the am ount o f headland along parcel
boundaries.
— Why is the shape of the headland so important?
— Headland usually gives lower yield than average for the parcel.
Average yield for the whole parcel is lowered somewhat. The acute angle
will in any event remove some land from intensive use.
Unit 26
THE STRUCTURE OF AGRICULTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN TODAY
farming methods методы ведения сельского хозяйства
horticulture п садоводство
152
crop yield урожай культуры
animal yield приплод; надой (молока)
fertile adj плодородный
growing season период роста (культур)
weather conditions погодные условия
ripe v созревать
own v владеть
owner п владелец
dairy farming молочное хозяйство
herd п стадо
beef cattle м ясной скот
consume v потреблять
arable crops п ропаш н ы е культуры
cereals п зерновые культуры
grain п зерно
standard of living уровень жизни
fisheries, fishing industry рыболовство; рыбная промы ш ленность
fish stocks запасы рыбы
overfishing п истощ ение рыбных запасов
fluctuation п колебание
fish breeding pattern способ разведения рыб
inside and beyond the zones в пределах и за пределами зон
fish catch улов рыбы
prescribed amounts предписанное количество
fishing vessels рыболовные суда
conflicting interests противоречивые интересы
loss of livelihood потеря средств к сущ ествованию
cod п треска
haddock п пикш а
whiting п мерланг
herring п сельдь
mackerel п скумбрия
plaice п камбала
sole п палтус
shellfish п омары, устрицы, креветки, ракообразные
fishing fleet ры боловный флот
salmon п лосось
trout п форель
by-products побочны й продукт
whale п кит
ban v запрещать
timber processing обработка древесины
associated timber products сопутствующие продукты п роизвод
ства древесины
153
to be heavily dependent upon сильно зависеть от
tree-planting programme программа возобновления леса
to reduce public expenditure уменьшать расход средств
to encourage productivity п оощ рять производительность
new plantings новые посадки
profitable private sector п рибы льны й частный сектор
benefit the environment оказывать благотворное воздействие на
окруж аю щ ую среду
disquiet беспокойство, волнение
II. Write the following words and underline the suffixes. Translate the
words into Russian:
a) needed, planned, specialized, supplied, organized, oriented,
included, related, estimated, designed, determined, existed, expected,
appraised, operated, engaged, termed, detailed, desired;
b) grassy, rainy, chalky, watery, loamy, sunny, misty, boggy, beafy,
icy, sandy, windy, stormy, frosty

or [d:] pork, for, more, fork
oa [d:] roar
oa [ou] coat, boat, goal
all [э:] small, call
alk [ э: | talk, stalk
before Id [ou] old, cold, told

Text 26A. The structure o f Agriculture in G reat Britain
Britain has had a long agricultural history spread over a series of
revolutions in farming methods. Today agriculture is an important
industry and covers m uch o f the country. It is highly productive and
efficient with mechanized and specialized farming; and technological
advances have increased crop and animal yields.
Soils vary in quality from the thin, poor ones o f highland Britain to
the rich, fertile land of low-lying areas in eastern and southern England.
The climate usually allows a long, productive growing season without
undue drought or extreme cold. But weather conditions can create
problems for farmers, because o f droughts or when there is too much
rain and too little sunshine at ripening.
There are some 272,000 farm units, varying in size from one man
farms to huge business concerns, and many o f them are, although
farming land is being increasingly used for building and recreational
purposes. Only some 500,000 people, some 2.3 per cent o f the national
workforce, are engaged in farming. But agriculture provides nearly two
154
thirds o f Britain’s food requirements, which reduced its reliance upon
imports and allows it to export a range o f food products.
Half of the country’s full-time farms specialize in dairy farming, beef
cattle and sheep herds. Dairy herds and milk yields have increased and
about two-thirds o f beef consum ption now comes from national
resources. The long-established tradition of sheep farming, on which
Britain’s econom ic prosperity was once based, also continues.
Some farms concentrate on pig production, particularly in eastern
and northern England and N orthern Ireland. The poultry meat and egg
industries are also widespread and have increased their production levels
in recent year due largely to intensive «factory farming», so that Britain
is now almost self-sufficient in these foodstuffs.
Most of the other farms tend to specialize in arable crops and have
increased their production despite occasional bad harvests. Root crops,
like potatoes, sugar beet and vegetables, are widely cultivated, but
mainly in southern and eastern England and in Scotland. Cereal or grain
crops, such as wheat, barley, oat and oil seed rape, are grown in many
areas, but chiefly in the eastern regions o f England.
The agricultural industry is a well-organized interest group. But some
farmers do have problems in surviving and making a profit because of
high com m odity prices, high rents for tenanted farm, increased costs,
bad harvests and a lack of capital investment.
V. Read the text, write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 26B. Forestry Policy in Great Britain
Woodlands cover an estimated 5.8 million acres (2,4 million
hectares) of Britain and comprise 7.3 per cent of England, 14.6 per cent
of Scotland, 11.9 per cent of Wales and 5.2 per cent of N orth Ireland.
Some 40 per cent o f productive national forests are managed by the state
Forestry Commission or government departments and the rest by
private owners. Some 42,000 people are employed in the state and
private forestry industries and 10,000 are in timber processing.
However, these activities contribute only 15 per cent to the national
consumption o f wood and associated timber products, which means that
the country is heavily dependent upon wood import. The government
has encouraged three-planting programmes, particularly in Scotland,
and allowed the sale of state woodlands to private owners in order to
reduce public expenditure and to encourage productivity. New
plantings, controlled felling, the expansion o f timber industries and a
profitable private sector may reduce Britain’s present dependence upon
imports and benefit the environment.
Forestry policy is supposed to take environmental and conservation
factors into account in the development o f timber facilities. But such
aims are not always achieved, and there is disquiet about government
155
programmes. Environmentalists campaign to increase tree planting and
to preserve the quality of the existing woodlands, which in resent years
have been badly affected by disease, unreasonable felling and substantial
storm damage.
Text 26C. Fishing Industry in Great Britain
Britain is one of Europe’s leading fishing nations and operates in
continental waters, the N orth Sea, the Irish Sea and the Atlantic. The
fishing industry is im portant to the national economy, and has been
centred on a num ber of ports around the British coast.
However, employment in and income from fishing have declined
substantially in recent years. This is due to the reduction in available fish
stocks in European waters because o f over-fishing, and fluctuations in
fish breeding patterns. Many fishermen have become unemployed and
traditional fishing towns, such as Grimsby and the Scottish ports, have
suffered. But the fishing industry still accounts for some 55 per cent of
Britain’s fish consumption. The num ber o f fishermen is now about
17,000, with some 5,000 occasionally employed and about three jobs in
associated occupations for every one fisherman.
The fishing industry has also been affected by European U nion (EU)
and British government policies. These insist on the need to conserve
fish resources and prevent over fishing. Zones have been established in
which fishermen may operate. EU countries and some nonm em bers can
fish in specified areas up to Britain’s 6-mile (10-km) fishing limit. Quota
systems are in force inside and beyond the zones in order to restrict fish
catches to prescribed amounts. British government measures to limit the
time fishing vessels spend at sea will further restrict employment. These
EU and government policies have affected the fishermen’s old freedom
of choice and operation.
T he most im portant British fish catcher are cod, haddock, whiting,
herring, mackerel, plaice, sole and various type of shellfish. They are
caught by the 11,000 registered vessels of the fishing fleet. The fish
farming industry, unlike the reduced fishing trade elsewhere, is a large
and expanding business, particularly in Scotland, and is chiefly
concerned with salmon, trout and shellfish. Fish meal and fish imports
continue. But the import of whale products has been banned since 1983
in order to protect the whale population.
EXERCISES
long agricultural history, farming methods, crop and animal yields,
extreme cold, total land area, recreational purposes, dairy farming
156
VIII. Underline the verbs and explain the usage of their Tense forms in
the following sentences:
1. Britain has had a long agricultural history.
2. Today agriculture covers much o f the country.
3. In British agriculture technological advances have increased crop
and animal yields.
4. Farm units use some 77 per cent o f the total land areas although
farm land is being increasingly used for building and recreational
purposes.
5. Dairy herds and milk yields have increased and about two-thirds of
beef consum ption now comes from national resources.
IX. Complete the following sentences using text 26C:

1. Woodlands comprise ....
2. About 40 per cent o f productive national forests are managed by ....
3. However the country is heavily dependent upon ....
4. Some measures m entioned in the text may reduce ....
5. 1 can name these measures. They are: ....
high com m odity prices, high rents, tenanted farms, capital
investment, bad harvests, productive national forests, private forestry
industries.
XI. Consult the dictionary and write down the Russian equivalents:
1. No mans land
2. Dixie land
3. Hom e land, native land
4. In the land of dreams
5. In the land o f the living
6. The land knows
1. Great Britain is one of Europe’s leading ... nations and it has a
num ber o f ports around its coast.
2. Many fishemen have become ... in recent years.
3. The fishing industry still accounts for about 55 per cent o f ... fish
consumption.
4. This branch o f industry has also been affected by British ... policies
as well as by EU one.
5. Fishermen may operate in the zones ... for them.

1. Сельское хозяйство Британии обеспечивает две трети п о
требностей страны в продовольствии.
157
2. Т рад и ци он но продолжается разведение овец, которое дало
начало экон ом ическом у процветанию Великобритании.
3. В восточной и северо-восточной Англии, а также в Северной
Ирландии есть свиноводческие фермы.
4. В последние годы значительно увеличилось производство д о
маш ней птицы благодаря внедрению крупных производственных
объединений (factory farming).
translate the sentences into Russian:
1. Woodland cover 11.9 per cent of Wales and 5.2 per cent o f N orth
Ireland.
2. W hen you study the pasture problems you have to know much
about the quality o f vegetation cover of the territory.
3. The government allowed the sale o f state woodlands to private
owners.
4. We may state that G reat Britain is heavily dependent upon wood
imports.
5. The country imports timber from the other countries of North
Europe and from Canada.

backward, income, decline, over fishing, unemployed, inside, long,
much, wet, cold, undue, huge, engaged, reduce, full-time workers,
wide.
XVI. Read the text and discuss the problem in class.

Text 26D. Britain’s Agriculture and EU
The C o m m on Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the EU, which account
for some 50 per cent o f the EU total budget, has also affected British
farmers. The aims o f the CAP are to increase agricultural productivity
and efficiency; give farmers a reasonable standard of living and return
for their work by providing them with subsidies and to produce goods at
fair prices. The CAP sets m inim um guaranteed prices for food products
like wheat, beef, eggs and butter, by operating a price support system
and also standardizes the quality and size o f produce.
The British attitude to the CAP has been negative. Critics argue that
it is unwieldy, bureaucratic and open to fraud. It can result in surplus
foodstuffs which have to be stored at great expense. British farming and
consumers suffer because prices have risen to accom m odate other EU
farmers. Farmers have had to curb the production o f certain goods
under EU quota systems in order to become less competitive, at a time
when the country could be aiming for self-sufficiency in cheap
agricultural produce. The set-aside program, whereby farmers are paid
158
to divert their activities away from agricultural production, also
contributed to a decline in some farming in resent years.
British government have kept up pressure on the EU to reform the
CAP with some success. The Conservatives argue that supply and
demand should reflect the needs of the market, rather than
concentrating solely on production, and that budgetary discipline should
be improved by cutting support levels and subsidies. High EU subsidies
and farm prices have concerned agricultural nations outside EU.
Subsidies will now be reduced in an attem pt to cut expense, reflect
market forces, permit greater access to the EU by foreign countries, and
protect the environment.
Unit 27
THE RICHEST LANDOWNING FAMILY OF ALL THE ROYALS
1. Vocabulary notes:
county n графство
acre а акр (= 0,4 га)
startling а потрясаю щ ий
stealthy а тайны й, скрытый
predecessor n предш ественник
mock v высмеивать
dissolute а беспутный
reign n правление
amass v накопить
The Isle of Wright остров Райт
subject а подданный
peer n пэр
taxpayer n налогоплательщ ик
squirrel n белка
allowance n содержание
exciting а увлекательный
rewarding а вознаграждаю щ ий
raise v разводить
enjoy v получать удовольствие
experience n впечатление
attached привязан ны й , преданный
eventually adv в итоге
beneficial а полезный
challenge n вызов, трудности
rural area сельская местность
actually adv фактически
159
responsibility n ответственность
valuable а полезный
harvest v собирать урожай; 11 n урожай
equipment n оборудование
run v управлять
safety n безопасность, надежность
concern n беспокойство, забота
fence n изгородь
graze v пасти (овец)
pasture n пастбище
helmet n шлем, каска
vehicle n перевозочное средство
reward n вознаграждение
own v иметь, вкладывать
plant v сажать, сеять; / / n растение
crop n сельскохозяйственная культура
profit n прибыль, доход
earn v зарабатывать
enterpize n предприятие 11 v предпринимать
effort n усилие
available а доступный
occur v происходить
host v принимать гостей
treasure v ценить, хранить; / / n сокровищ е
civil list n цивильны й лист (сумма на содерж ание л и ц королев
ской семьи)
handicap v быть помехой
sovereign п монарх
holding п участок земли
spree п веселье, кутеж
real estate недвижимость
scale п масштаб
buy-up п скупка
freehold п свободное владение землей или собственностью
turret п баш енка
sham п подлог; бутафория; / / а бутафорский
stag п олень-сам ец
swell v (swelled, swollen) увеличиваться, разбухать
grouse п шотландская куропатка
moor п вересковая пустошь, охотничье угодье
seat п усадьба
dilettante п дилетант
keen а энергичны й, ревностный
pedigree а племенной
latter а последний (из двух названных)
160
stud n конны й завод
tenant n наниматель, арендатор
blackcurrant n черная смородина
courtier n придворны й
purely adv исклю чительно
dispose v распорядиться имуществом
buckle v уступать (под давлением)
acknowledge v признавать, подтверждать
staggering а ош елом ляю щ ий
seabed п морское дно
foreshore п береговая полоса
moorland п местность, поросш ая вереском
urban а городской
prime а лучший
ft-foot (—30,5 см)
let (let/ let/) сдавать в аренду
gross а валовой
revenue п годовой доход
duchy п герцогство
estuary п устье реки
stock exchage ф ондовая биржа
cash п н аличные деньги
manor п поместье
The Strand (одна из главных улиц Л ондона), букв, берег
conceal v скрывать
assets п имущество
relic п реликт, остаток / / а реликтовый; остаточный
revert п переходить
liken v сравнивать
shrewd а практичны й
belie v изобличать
lade v одарить, оказать почести
II. Write down the following words, underline the suffixes. Translate
powerfully, steady, immediate, comfortably, forestry, universally,
penniless, virtually, mighty, probably, m o dem , largely.

bow bow bowery bowl bowel
[bou] [bau] [bauri] [Ьэ :1| [bauol]
лук п оклон ф ерм а кубок ки ш к а
бант скула хутор чаша недра
радуга нос корабля
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Text 27A. The Royal Family’s Land
They are, without question, the most powerful landowning family in
Britain. In total, they own or control the equivalent o f an averagesized
English county — around 677,000 acres. But thee Royal Family wants
more. Unknow n to most members o f the public they are steadily
increasing their ownership o f the country.
It is a startling story o f stealthy expansion — a few thousand acres
here, a few thousand there, until today the Queen and her immediate
family have for their own use, in one way or another, an area that could
house 11 million people.
Only the Forestry Com mission and the Ministry o f Defense hold
more land. In a nation where the average family has just 0,28 o f an acre,
this is an astonishing concentration o f wealth.
M any assume that the Royal Fam ily’s acres have been with them
for centuries. In fact, their empire has been built up almost from
nothing in little more th an 150 years. To find out how, we need to go
back to the w om an who created the m odern Royal Family, Queen
Victoria.
W hen she took the throne in 1837 her two predecessors — George IV
and William IV — had been universally mocked for their dissolute ways,
which had left the Crown virtually penniless and landless.
Victoria set out to change things. It was a slow process. By halfway
through her reign, she had amassed 25,000 acres — mainly at Balmorals
in Scotland and the Osborne estate on the Isle o f Wight.
But this nothing com pared with some o f her subjects. In 1872, 44 of
her peers had more than 100,000 acres each, and one o f them , the Duke
o f Sutherland, had 1,358,545 acres.
In any list m ighty landowners o f the time, Victoria would not have
m ade the top £200. She probably never had m u ch m ore th an £50
m illion, w hen most o f her dukes were w orth the equivalent o f
£ 1 m illion and one o f th e m , W estm inster, probably had the equivalent
o f £2 million.
Such m oney as Victoria built up came largely from the taxpayer, with
the m onarch squirreling away every penny she could spare from her
allowance on the Civil List. The project was taken up by her successors
and has been one o f the most successful exercises in wealth
accum ulation in m o d em times.
Accumulating land was harder. At first, Victoria was handicapped by
laws preventing the sovereign from owning land in her own name.
She got round this by buying property in the name o f her husband
and children. In 1862 the rules relaxed, signaling the start o f the great
royal land-buying spree.
Today, their vast holdings belie their status as mere constitutional
162
figureheads with no formal powers. Even in the 21sl century, the
ownership is o f political influence in Britain.
If the Q u e en ’s holdings keep growing at their present rate, they will
eventually achieve a virtual monopoly in the real estate market. Yet it’s
happening without anyone noticing.
Text 27B. The Biggest Landowning Family
Part I
When a Sunday newspaper first began compiling list o f Britain’s
richest people in 1989, it put the Queen at the top with J5.2 billion.
This figure included her private wealth, the royal art collection and
what is known as the Crown Estate — the land that belongs to her as
Sovereign. But Buckingham Palace, which is very sensitive on the
subject of royal fortunes, immediately complained.
The Q u e e n ’s courtiers insisted that was wrong to include
possessions she held purely as m o narc h . Because she could not
dispose o f them as she wished, the arg u m e n t went, they were not
really hers.
The newspaper buckled to Palace pressure, with the result that the
same list last year put the queen at 106th in the rankings, worth a mere
£275 million — while acknowledging that if the royal art collection and
Crown Estate were included, that figure could be multiplied more than
40 times to a staggering £13 billion.
Besides the seabed and foreshore, the estate covers about 384,000
acres, including mountains and moorland. The most valuable o f these
are 512 urban acres, including prime sites in L on d o n ’s West End.
In 1999/2000 they raised £127 million in income.
The total area o f Crown Estate property in Regent Street is about
3,2 million sq ft, in an area where shopping space is renting for £30 and
£40 per sq ft. in often words, fully let, the Estate is looking at gross
revenues o f more than £100 million from one street alone.
The Highland estate at Barmoral was Queen Victoria’s very first land
purchase — she took it on the lease in 1848 before buying the freehold
four years later. Both transactions were in her husband’s name. The
castle they built there, with its turrets and sham battlements, 68ft
ballroom, draughty corridors and sham stuffed stags’ heads on the walls,
it not to everyone’s taste.
Since Victoria’s day, the Barmoral holdings have swollen to at least
50,000 acres, as recently the acre by acre she added 6,700 acres of grouse
moor.
Prince Charles has spoken o f handing over Barmoral to the Scottish
people when he becomes Sovereign — but for now, it remains m o th er’s
private possession.
163
VI. Read the text and translate in into Russian in written form.
Text 27C. The Biggest Landowning Family
Part II
The second royal estate is in Norfolk, which was bought for the
future Edward VII as a country seat.
Victoria took no interest in the place and visited it only twice. For
the rest family, however, it was special - her dilettante son proved a
surprisingly keen farmed, raising pedigree animals and becoming
President of the Royal Agricultural Society.
After he died in 1910, his widow Queen Alexandra, lived there until her
death in 1925. It was a favorite, too, of George V a n d George VI. The latter
died in Norfolk in February 1952 after a day shooting hares. The estate and
its stud remain very popular with his daughter, Elizabeth II.
While more than half the land is let to tenant farmers, the Queen also
ains her own commercial farm there — selling peas to Bird’s Eye and
blackcurrants for Ribena.
G o o d areas in Norfolk. Now sell for anything between £3,000 and
£5,000. This would give Sandringham in Norfolk a value of around
£100 million.
EXERCISES

most powerful landowning family, averagesized county, astonishing
concentration of wealth, list o f mighty landowners, every penny, wealth
accumulation.
1. They own or control the equivalent of an average-sized English
county.
2. They are steadily increasing their ownership of the country.
3. Many assume that the Royal family’s acres have been with them
for centuries.
4. When queen Victoria took the throne in 1837 the Crown had been
left almost landless.
5. At first, Victoria was handicapped by laws preventing the sovereign
from owning land in her own name.
IX. Complete the following sentences using the text 27B:

1. The Q u e en ’s courtiers insisted that it was wrong to include
possessions the ....
2. In 1989 a Sunday newspaper put the Queen at ....
164
3. Besides the seabed and foreshore the Estate covers about 384,000
acres, including ....
4. In Regent street the total area of Crown Estate is ....
richest people, private wealth, royal art collection, Buckingham
Palace, urban acres, prime sites, total area, Crown Estate Property,
gross revenues.
1. The land flowing with milk and honey.
2. The land of Cakes.
3. The land of Cockagne.
4. The land of Nod.
5. G ood land!
6. The land of the golden fleece.
XII. Insert the proper worlds and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Victoria set out ... things.
2. Now the Queen and her immediate family have f o r ... an area that
could comfortably house around 11 ... people.
3. In the XXI century the ... o f land is one of the Rays to political
influence in Britain.
4. To understand the scale of the royal buy-up of Britain, it’s best to
start with ... holdings.
5. Balmoral ( in Scotland) for now remains Q ueen’s private ...

1. Королевская семья в Британии владеет такой площадью зе
мель по всей стране, что на этой территории мож но было бы св о
бодно разместить 11 миллионов человек.
2. Многие думают, что этой землей королевская семья владела
всегда.
3. На самом деле потребовалось немногим более 150 лет, чтобы
создать огромное поместье, площадь которого составляет около
677,000 акров.
4. Наряду с тем что более половины всех владений королева
сдает в аренду ферм ерам , она сама управляет собственной к о м
мерческой ферм ой в графстве Норфолк.
1. In total the Royal Family own or control the equivalent of an
average sized English county.
165
2. The Queen also runs her own commercial farm in Norfolk.
3. Thousand acres here, thousand acres there these lands throughout
G reat Britain are under the Royal Family’s control.
4. The most valuable single possession of the Duchy of Lancaster is
the remains of the m anor of Savoy in London, an area of about 2.7 acre
between the Strand and the Embankment.
5. The Queen remains one of the richest landowners o f the world.
6. This estate remains his m other’s (the Queen) private possession.

more, powerful, comfortably, to find, dissolute, nothing, slow,
comparable, modern, real, future, sell, take, day.

Text 27D. Duchy o f Lancaster
The Queen does not own the freehold of the land covered by the
Duchy of Lancaster but — in direct contrast to the Crown Estate — she
does get the income from it. This year it provided her with a largely tax-
free sum of around £7.3 million.
The Duchy covers 66,000 acres of mostly in the N orth of England.
Including estuaries and rivers, the total rises can be added around
70 million in Stock Exchange investments and several million ponds in
cash. But the most valuable single possession of the Duchy is the
remains of the m anor of Savoy in London, an area of about 2.7 acres
between the Strand and the Embankment.
It is mostly let as shops and offices, and includes the freehold of
Charing Cross Station but not the Savoy Hotel.
The Duchy dates back to medieval belonging to the Duke of
Lancaster which was appropriated by Henry IV in 1399. Its true value
has long been concealed, but the latest accounts put its assets at around
£203 million.
Text 27E. Duchy o f Cornwall
The Duchy of Cornwall belongs to Prince Charles as Duke of
Cornwall until he becomes Kings. At this point it will pass to his son
William, who automatically succeeds his father to the dukedom.
Almost all of the Prince’s wealth is tied up the estate, which stretches
across 22 English counties, mostly in the South-West, and covers
141,000 acres.
Once river estuaries and most o f the Cornish foreshore are included,
that total rises to more than 255,000 acres. Forty acres in London
around the Oval cricket ground at Kensington are worth £400 million
alone.
The Duchy is governed by a series o f acts of Parliament, one of
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which o f Cornwall was granted to C ount Brian o f Brittany. It reverted
to the Crown in 1366 because the lord who owned it died without
heirs.
More than six centuries on, it is still one o f the largest private laded
estates in England, and Charles has been likened to a shrewd private
businessman — putting everything «through the company». It owns his
home at Highgrove in Gloucestershire, most o f his cars, even the pen he
writes with.
Unit 28
FARMING IN THE U.S.A.
delineation n о п исание, очерк
entity n целое, единое
interaction n взаимодействие
stem v 1. расти, развиваться (как стебель или ствол); 2. останав
ливать / / п стебель, ствол
multiple а многочисленны й
decision п реш ение
support v поддерживать, обеспечивать (оплату) / / п поддержка
assortment п ассортимент
nearby а близлежащий
nurse v 1. нянчить, кормить; 2. питом ник, рассадник; 3. э к о
номно хозяйствовать
nurse pond садок (для рыб)
nursery п 1. ясли; 2. питомник, рассадник; 3. инкубатор
appreciate v 1. оценивать, ценить; 2. одобрять
explicit а 1. ясны й , точный; 2. оп ределенный; 3. категоричный
further а д альнейш ий, следующий, дополнительны й; / / adv
сверх того, затем, при том; v содействовать, помогать, спосо б
ствовать
II. Write down comparatives and superlatives from the following

adjectives:
cheap, expensive, good, big, large, long, short, dangerous, safe,
economic, nice, strong.

ou ^ ^ double, country, young, cousin, trouble
[u:] group, rouble, soup, through
ou ^
au -> [o:] thought, bought, taught, caught, author, exhaust.
167
IV. Read the tex t and translate it into Russian.
Text 28A. A New Delineation by Farming

Characteristics in the U.S.
The U.S. agricultural sector is sometimes discussed as if it were a
monolithic entity, massive, solid and uniform. Although farming has
become more concentrated as farm numbers have declined, U.S.
agriculture still varies widely in farm size, scale, resource use, product
mix and interaction with the nonfarm sector. M uch o f this variation in
farming stems from differences in climate, soil type, topography, and
demographic characteristics, and therefore does not follow political
geographic borders.
The Census of Agriculture defines a farm very liberally as a place
which sold or could have sold S I,000 or more o f agricultural products in
the prior year. Thus, farms in the United States range from small
operations with few assets and income that cannot support a household
to multimillion-dollar businesses controlling hundreds, even thousands,
o f acres and employing large numbers o f workers in multiple enterprises.
Some farms specialize in a single primary product, while others produce
an assortment o f products. Some farm operators make a living from
their labor on the farm, while others depend heavily on nonfarm jobs
and income. Some farmers make production decisions based on sales to
nearby urban markets, while others react to supply and dem and
conditions in the global economy.
Counties where sales o f fruit, vegetables and nursery products are
im portant often have large numbers o f small farms (fewer than
10 acres), whereas counties where sales of cattle and sheep predominate
often have many farms larger than 500 acres. A further example is the
enterprise mix o f com , soybeans, and hogs; this com bination is typical
o f the Corn Belt, but it also appears in counties in other parts o f the
country. An appreciation of the patterns o f diversity in agriculture can
further our understanding o f regional differences in the economic
performance o f the U.S. farm sector and the econom ic well-being o f the
farm population. By identifying farming-defined groups o f counties and
conversely, separating areas from neighbors that are significantly
different with respect to farming, we can select multicounty units
appropriate for studying the potential effectiveness o f alternative
agricultural and economic policies.
Explicitly recognizing the heterogeneity o f farming without imposing
a regional structure greater than a county allows the characteristics of
the farm sector itself to determine th£ area most suitable for a particular
investigation.
168
V. Read the tex t and translate it in written form.
Text 28B. Farming in the United States
Part I
Farming in the United States has changed dramatically over the past
decade but continues to be a very exciting and rewarding profession that
generally involves a person’s entire family. Farms generally are much
larger than in the past and generally involve more specialization. A
farmer’s family may need to farm many acres of land or as Russian
people call it hectares. Farmers now need to farm many hectares of land
as many as 700 or even more. There are still many smaller farmers who
farm less land, however, farms are growing ever larger. The children on
a farm are very fortunate because they have many opportunities that
children who live in cities do not have. For example, they often
purchase and raise their own cattle and enjoy the experience o f seeing
young animals being b o m and then they often get very attached to
special ones they take a special interest in. Sometimes when a child
raises an animal from a baby and then eventually the animal must go to
market it is a sad time for the child. That too is a part of life which
everyone must learn about. Often the lessons learned on a farm are very
beneficial and prepare a person for many challenges of life. In the
United States many o f famous political leaders have been raised in rural
areas and many have actually been farmers. Perhaps, the responsibilities
that farm children learn early in life help them as they grow up. To learn
to care for a growing animal and to learn to know when it is ill, and
when it is time for it to be fed, and when it has grown enough to have a
young one of its own, all these are very valuable life lessons that city
children do not have the same opportunities to learn. Farm children
especially enjoy the animals.
Other chores on the farm include operating machinery and helping
with various harvesting duties. Often farm children learn to operate the
tractors and other equipm ent when they are quite young and especially
the tractors are very much fun for a young person to operate. When farm
children reach the 8th or 9th grade often they are able to run the tractors
by themselves. Safety is always a concern for farmers because the
machines are very dangerous, so farm children are taught to respect, the
dangers and to operate the machinery safely. Many machines have
special safety equipm ent to help with this concern. A young farm child
feels very «grown-ир» when he or she gets to operate the tractors for the
first time all by himself. Once again, it is a thing the city children do not
get to do.
Other chores include such things as building the fences that keep the
animals in a field and going after cattle that are out grazing on pasture.
Sometimes a farmer will have a special machine that goes over the hills
very quickly and has small wheels and a m otor like a motorcycle. It is a
169
great fun to operate and a farmer must wear a helmet to protect him.
Driving the small vehicle is so much fun that young farm children often
beg their parents to let them drive even when they are only 9 or 10 years
old. If a young child does get to drive a small vehicle to go out to the
pasture and find a lost animal or to repair fences he must often drive
slowly and carefully. If he is caught driving too fast his parents will not
let him drive the vehicle for a period o f time so that he learns to respect
the dangers. As he gets older he is able to go faster and do more things so
he can demonstrate his competence.

Text 28C. Farming in the United States
Part II
Often farm children must ride buses a long way to school and they
must get up very early to do chores and get cleaned up for school. To
reward a child for working so hard a farmer often will allow a young
m em ber o f his family to own some animals or to plant some crops and
to care for the crops or animals and then sell them and make a profit to
be spent or saved. In this way young farm children learn to care for
m oney and to plan on spending it on the things they want. If they have
m oney they have earned from an enterprise o f their own effort they
areable to feel m uch pride as they purchase something they want. Once
again, it is an opportunity a city person does not have in the same way.
Farm children often have friends or a family from the city and they
enjoy going to visit and learn about what it is like to live in a city. Often
also they have a family or friends who live in the city who want to come
and spend time with them on the farm to learn about their lives. It is a
special event, usually in sum m er, when a friend or a relative will come
to spend some time in the country with his friend and also it is special
when the farm children got to go to their city friends’ homes. Many
farmers try to plan out such events because they want their families to
have the opportunities that are also available in the cities and the young
farm child needs to experience that first-hand. As the num ber o f farmers
in the United States gets smaller and farms get bigger it is even more
important for the cultural exchange to occur for young people to
properly, learn about their entire culture. It also makes an interesting
event for the young farm children and they love to host their city friends
and to go and visit. Often they return with stories and experiences that
are treasured by the child.
Farming is changing as all things'm ust change over time, however,
the one thing that remains the same is that young people who have the
privilege o f growing up on a farm in the United States are generally very
happy and have a very special set o f opportunities. If you are ever able to
visit the United States if would be a wonderful thing to ask a farmer to
170
demonstrate his farm to you and to join his family for a day or two to
experience the joys o f farming first-hand.
EXERCISES

agricultural sector, monolithic entity, farm size, product mix,
nonfarm sector, soil type, demographic characteristics, political borders,
small operations.
1. Sometimes the U.S. agriculture is discussed as a uniform entity.
2. Farming in the USA has become more concentrated but still varies
in many aspects.
3. An appreciation o f diversity in agriculture can further our
understanding in the economic welbeing of the farm population.
4. Some farm operators make a living from their labour on the farm.
5. Some farmers make production decisions based on sales to nearby
urban markets.
IX. Complete the following sentences using text 2 8 B :

1. Farming in the USA is still a very exiting and rewarding profession
that generally involves ....
2. The children on a farm have more opportunities, than children
who live in c i t i e s ....
3. W hen a child raises an animal from a baby and then eventually this
animal must go to the market ....
4. Often farm children learn to operate ....
5. A young farm child feels very «grown up» when he or she ....
very exiting and rewarding profession, person’s entire family,
farmer’s family, Russian people, own cattle, special interest, farm
children, valuable life lessons, operating machinery special safety
equipment.
1. The land o f the living.
2. The land o f the midnight sun.
3. The land o f the rising sun.
4. The land o f the rose.
5. The Never-N ever land.
6. G ood land!
1. The U.S.A. agriculture still varies widely in farm ..., scale, resource
use, product mix and ... with nonfarm sector.
2. Farms in the U.S.A. range from small operations with few ... and
... to multimillion — d o l l a r ....
3. Some farms specialize in a ... product.
4. There are farms where sales o f cattle and sheep predominate, they
are ... then 500 acres.
5. The enterprise mix of com , soybeans and hogs is typical of....

1. Быть фермером настолько привлекательно в Америке, что
обычно в работу на ферме вовлекается вся семья.
2. Многие известные политические лидеры СШ А воспитыва
лись в сельской местности и были настоящими фермерами.
3. С детских лет американские юноши и девушки обучаются
управлению трактором и другими видами сельскохозяйственной
техники.
4. Они также обучаются технике безопасности при работе с ме
ханизмами.
1. Much o f this variation in farming stems from differences in
climate, soil type, topography, and demographic characteristics, and
therefore does not follow political geographic borders.
2. What a strange unusual stem this plan has!
3. An appreciation o f the pattern o f diversity in agriculture can
further our understanding o f regional differences o f the US farm sector.
4. You may obtain some further information about the U.S.A.
farming if you read their journal regularly.
5. A further example is the enterprise mix of com , soybeans and hogs.
6. «You should not mix all these crops in that field», an agronomist
explained the reason of that to the students.
XV. Write down the antonym of the following words:

dangerous, destroy, carefully, faster, slowly, competence, small,
ignore, early, sad, young, to spend, in the country, important, exiting.
Uni t 29
RURAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS
freight n груз
relax v ослаблять, уменьшать
172
disappear v исчезать
route n 1. путь, трасса, дорога; 2. маршрут, курс / / v направлять,
распределять
widen v расширять
substantial а сущ ественный
shift п 1. сдвиг; 2. изменение
expenditure п трата, расход, издержка
additional а добавочный, дополнительный
ensure v обеспечить, гарантировать
collision п столкновение
disturbance п наруш ение, беспорядок
II. Write down the following adverbs and underline suffixes. Translate
a) slowly, carefully, theoretically, regularly, clearly, comparatively,
recently, potentially, practically, partly, substantially, sufficiently,
densely, increasingly, essentially, possibly, closely, relatively,
economically, naturally;
b) seaward, southward, backward, upward, downward, outward,
homeward, westward, windward, eastward.

au [o :] cause, because, clause, autum n
aunt [ot:nt]
ai [i] или [э] fountain, mountain
aw [ э :] thaw, saw, paw
~ sure [э] pleasure, treasure, measure, enclosure,
суф ф икс ~ sure в безударном полож ении [э]

Text 29A. Agroindustrial complex and communications systems
In land use planning terms com munications systems encompass the
transportations o f people, freight, electricity, gas and liquids. Every year
large areas of land are taken for motorways and farm roads. Rural land
use planning deals with the farm road network and should meet the
needs o f the agroindustrial complex.
Modern transportation has tended to relax the influence o f distance
upon agricultural an d any other land-based production. But still this
influence doesn’t disappear and location o f com m unications systems is
of crucial importance.
The development o f agroindustrial complex has created new
opportunities for construction, improvement, widening, and relocation
of existing farm roads. The transportation network is established as a
composite part o f agricultural production. The transportation network
173
needs a substantial acreage of land. The farm roads which link the
railway with the production centers and residential areas also need land.
These requirements together with the new areas needed for the
construction o f transportation network call for a shift o f a substantial
land acreage of arable land and other land resources.
The farm roads tend to fall into two groups, those which are of non-
agricultural use and those which link the transportation network of an
agricultural enterprise. The expenditure depends on their importance for
farm operation.
The width of the farm roads is designed according to the existing
needs: the farm roads used for transportation of people and farm
machinery are 5—8 metres wide. The road network which links the
residential areas and production units with the railway and motorway is
projected width o f 8— 13 metres.
Substantial additional acreages are, however, needed for the
construction and improvement of farm roads. The agroindustrial
complex needs a m odern well-developed transportation system based on
a broad approach to agricultural production.
V. Read the text, write down 6 questions and answer then in English.
Text 29B. Motorways and road construction
The impact o f the road network on all aspects o f agriculture must be
fully assessed as the road network is one o f the greatest construction
improvement and reallocation o f com m unications systems in rural
areas. The land use planers should know, therefore, the fundamental
principles and provisions o f road and motorway design. These may be
summarized as follows:
1. The proposed routing must satisfy all sport—and long-term traffic
requirements. The routing must be coordinated with the
com m unications system. The agricultural production should be linked
with the existing road network.
2. Each motorway must be subject to satisfactory cost benefit
analysis.
3. The motorway must be integrated with the landscape thus
minimizing loss o f amenities to surrounding communities.
4. Consideration must be given to ensure satisfactory standards of
safety for all classes o f vehicles.
5. Lane width must be sufficient to ensure satisfactory standards of
safety for all classes of vehicles.
6. Dual carriageways should be provided to reduce the possibility of
head-on collisions.
7. Uniform and consistent operating conditions must be provided.
8. There must be specially designed access facilities enable vehicles to
enter and leave with the maximum safety and m inim um disturbance.
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9. There must be adequate traffic direction signs in order that drivers
may have sufficient time to change direction.
10. Service areas, parking and other facilities must be provided in
order to allow sufficient rest for drivers thus reducing strain factor.

Text 29C. Farm road network
Modern agriculture has enormously increased the traffic volumes.
The transportation system is closely related to economic growth and
development of farming.
Rural land use planning involves the fitting of the farm ’s road
network and the use of roads for farm operating.
The land use planners consider farm road network as an integrated
whole of the com m unication systems brought together as much as
possible. The criteria for developing drivers include surface for year-
round use; drainage to help maintaining the surface and control run-off
water; space for transportation o f freight an d stock, and for vehicles to
travel and park; conveniences for those who live in rural areas, and
safety for drivers and children. The access facilities are to enable vehicle
to enter and leave with maximum safety and minimum disturbances.
It is self-evident that the environmental impact of the development
of a com m unications system is closely linked with farm road network. It
is necessary to reduce the impact o f motorway on the rural
environmental conditions.
EXERCISES

com m unications systems, transportation o f people, motorways and
farm roads, land network, land-based production, transportation
network, residential area, fundamental principles, environmental
standards.
VIII. A. Make up and write down sentences using the following verbs
(+Complex object):
Model: I want him to study geology better.
To want — хотеть, to like — любить, to wish — желать, to intend —
намереваться, to mean — хотеть, to expect — ожидать, полагать, to
think — думать, полагать, to suppose — предполагать, to known —
знать, to consider — считать.
В. Translate into Russian paying attention to the usage of Infinitive
constructions:
1. Scientists do not consider this effect to be an experimental error
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of any kind. 2. I would like to sit here, to hear professor Maslov give his
lecture. 3. The student wanted his friend to discuss the project of farm
com m unications together with him. 4. The specialists expected the
chairman to tell them about the infarm com m unications systems.

1. The great consum er of land in every farm is 2. The proposed
routing must satisfy all 3. Existing road network is usually closely
linked with... . 4. The motorway must be integrated with ... . 5. All
classes of vehicles require lane width... . 6. G ood access facilities must
be specially designed for.... 7. Sufficient rest for drivers must be....
X. Give the Russian equivalents:

freight, motorways and farm roads, national road building
programme, construction expenditures, traffic volumes, sitting of the
farm road network, year-round use.
XI. A. Try to remember the verbs used with the construction
(Nominative+Invinitive). Use them in sentences. Translate sentences into
Russian.
M odel: He is said to study at the university.
Говорят, что он учит ся в университете.
to say — говорить, to report — сообщать, to expect — ожидать, to
consider — считать, to estimate — подсчитывать, to see — видеть, to
find — обнаруживать, to appear — оказываться, to seem — казаться,
to prove — доказывать, is likely — вероятно, может.
В. Translate unto Russian paying attention to the usage of Infinitive
constructions.
1. A scientist is expected to know the latest achievements in his
speciality. 2. It often happens that things turn out to be different from
what they at first appear to be. 3. The professor seemed to invite the
undergraduates (students) to join him in his research of soil
characteristics.
XII. Insert the proper words and translate sentences into Russian.
1. The setting of farm r o a d s ... and the use of roads is a part of infarm
land use planning. 2. The farm road network is ... to be an integrated
whole of the com m unications system. 3. It is necessary to reduce the ...
o f motorway on the rural environment. 4. Every year much land is taken
for ... and farm roads. 5. The design and operation of the farm ... must
meet the needs of the agroindustrial complex.
XIII. Translate into English paying attention to the usage of Infinitive

constructions.
1. Мы хотим, чтобы они знали наше мнение об этой лекции.
2. П роф ессор считал, что вы долж ны сами сделать эти наблюде
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ния. 3. Известно, что жаркий влажный климат позволяет в ы р ащ и
вать на Кубе ц енны е тропические культуры. 4. Сравнение сущ е
ствующей дорож н ой сети с проектной позволило сделать н екото
рые выводы. 5. С ообщ аю т, что во многих населенных пунктах
организуют местные музеи. 6. Как известно, работа рек имеет две
стороны — разрушительную и созидательную, тесно связанны е
между собой.
XIV. Write down in English what members of the sentences the words
in bold prints are and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. The engineers have studied the communications network o f that
farm. 2. What can you say about the communications o f that farm? 3. This
farm road network is said to be changed. 4. New motorways and farm roads
require m uch land in every farm. 5. The transportation system o f this farm
is satisfactory. 6. The system of transportation people to the places of their
work has changed since the time I visited the farm last year.
XV. Consult the dictionary and write down the Russian equivalents.
1. The land o f promise.
2. The land of Stars and Stripes.
3. The land o f steady habits.
4. The land o f the rose.
5. The land o f the golden fleece.

L and taking fo r communications systems
— What do we call a com m unications system?
— A com m unications system encompasses the transportation of
people, freight, electricity, gas, and liquids.
— What is the importance of a com m unications system for economic
development?
— Transportation plays an exceedingly important role in economic
development o f our country. Economic centers have often developed in
the vicinity of natural com m unication routes.
— What role does transportation network play in the development of
agro-industrial complexes?
— Agricultural production and the related branches need a well-
developed com m unications system. The agro-industrial complex should
establish the com m unications system as a composite part o f regional
development.
— Why should the land use planners take care o f agricultural land?
— Routings o f highways should avoid land areas which contain the
best quality agricultural land. The conservation o f land resources
becomes imperative in our days.
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— Why should the acquisition of high- quality agricultural land be
reduced to the m inimum?
— What are the main problems o f locating the transmission lines?
— From a land use planner’s viewpoint, electricity transmission
towers sterilize land. The overhead line imposes certain restrictions on
the land over which it passes.
— What can be said about the locating the transmission lines?
— The base of each pylon covers a maximum o f 48 square metres.
The locating o f the transmission line in the landscape is a skill which
requires an extremely sensitive appreciation o f a land use planner.
Systems have been advanced for siting transmission lines with the aid of
computers.
— What is the future o f transportation systems?
— It is not possible to examine in detail all the future prospects of
co-ordinating transportation. But many interesting projects appear to be
under development. In order to minimize land taking one of them
includes passenger container capsure lifted by helicopter between multi
system terminals. The com m unications should be based on the most
comprehensive approach to land resources.
Section V
URBAN LAND USES
Unit 30
URBAN PLANNING
1. Vocabulary notes:
urban а городской, несельский
waste v 1. тратить, расходовать; 2. n отходы; 3. а бросовый, и с
пользованный
recycle v обрабатывать повторно
disturb v 1. беспокоить; 2. нарушать порядок, покой
device v приспосабливать / / п приспособление
buffer п 1. буфер; 2. амортизатор; 3. глушитель
notorious а 1. известный; 2. пользую щ ийся дурной славой; 3. за
коренелый
fail v 1. недоставать; 2. терпеть неудачу, обанкротиться
failure п 1. провал, неуспех, неудача; 2. банкротство; 3. неудач
ное дело, неудача
harbor v 1. стоять на якоре (в гавани); 2. давать убежище; / /
п 1. порт, гавань, пристань; 2. убежище, приют
drastic а 1. побудительный; 2. реш ительный; 3. сильнодейству-
ющее
II. Write down the following adjectives and try to form adverbs (with
the same root). Translate the adverbs into Russian:
physical, economical, local, potential, similar, reasonable, initial,
ideal, environmental, financial, natural, easy, constructive, drastic.

[i] [A]
shilling other
singular above
king glove
[u:] [u э]
m oon plural
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IV. R ead the tex t and translate it into Russian.
Text 30 A. Urban planning problems
Urban systems are necessary built up from a network o f subsystems —

transportation being an example. These are tied together in various
ways. The subsystems through which food, water, and materials move
into a city, and the one through which mastes move out or are,
hopefully, recycled, are obviously related to subsystems transportation
and com m unication. Unlike natural systems, however where
increasing complexity leads (or seems to lead) to greater stability,
urban systems appear to have had the opposite tendency. Increasing
size and complexity lead to greater fragility, that is, greater dangers of
disruption from disturbance. Thus for example a for example a
breakdown in the electrical power grid covering the north-eastern
United States brought the city of New York to a total half in 1965,
since there were no adequate buffering or com pensating devices. Part
o f this vulnerability and the confusion in urban existence results from
the failure in treating urban com m unalities. Part o f it, however, —
perhaps the most im portant part — is the result o f excessive
centralization o f control and o f power.
In the first o f these causes, it is too com m on for those concerned
with one subsystem — and transportation is the notorious example — to
work in isolation from all other subsystems. Similarly, the work o f the
builders of suburban tracts com m unity on transportation, sewage
disposal, water supply, schools, and all of the other parts o f the broader
urban com m unity to which the new tract will belong. It is the job of the
metropolitan planners to be aware o f these things, but many planners
are not environmentally trained, and all are ruled by politicians, who
often reflect special interest.
Perhaps the greatest failure in urban planning and development is the
tendency to get carried away by the technological game of building and
developing, and to forget that the city is intended to be the home for the
hum an being. Thus the new and shiny housing developments intended
to improve the lot o f slum dwellers are com m only hated by those who
are forces to live in them. They seldom function in the way the way the
designers had intended. Studies o f what the people concerned really
want seldom precede the development o f mass housing that people are
then forces to accept. Studies of how pfeople react to new towns and
com m unities are rarely financed, since it is embarrassing to the
developers and government officials to consider part failures. It is easier
to go building tom orrow ’s failures.
180
V. Read the text. W rite down 6 questions and answ er them in English.
Text 30B. Location and Limits to Urban Growth
Sites for urban settlements were more physically than economically

determ ined in colonial times. Some urban places began as
fortifications on hilltops, at the confluence o f major rives, or at
favorable harbor locations. For example, the city o f San Francisco was
located on a peninsula having excellent ship-docking potential.
M anhattan was a good location for a city for similar reasons. In the
city of San Francisco, the initial advantage o f the harbor access
provided by its peninsula location was lost once rail transportation
became a major location factor. Access to the east then favored sites in
the west Bay area, centering on Oakland, and San Francisco itself
became less ideally situated.
Cities that in the past prospered through economic fluctuations,
armed conflict, and political strife usually have had optimal physical
attributes for development, protection, and expansion such as San
Francisco, were able to change by shifting their major function and
modifying the physical environment to the prom ote growth. The land
for office and finance activities illustrates this adaptation.
Limitations to urban growth are mush less pronounced today than at
the dawn of the Industrial Revolution. Several hundred years ago a
swamp or salt mash would have remained unsettled. Only limited use
would be made o f a river floodplain. Steep slopes would remain wooded.
Dunes and beaches would remain in their natural state, with settlements
located in more protected environments. With modern engineering
skills and the coming o f large earth-moving equipment, development
was no longer restricted by nature. Develops could easily flatten the
terrain, fill the wetlands, and construct dikes and bulkheads to transform
the coastline. For example, developable land was created in Boston by
filling in wetlands and shallow waters. The construction o f bulkheads
drastically changed the shape o f the city.
The altering o f the landscape to fit urban needs has multiple effects
on environmental processes. Stream regimes have been changed by
modifying watersheds, currents and longshore drifts adjust to new
artificial shoreline configurations. Groundw ater flow becomes more
variable as more land is covered with concrete and asphalt. Natural
habitats for aquatic life are virtually eliminated when marshes and
swamps are destroyed. In many situations the magnitude o f alteration is
so great and the natural processes so blatantly ignored that
environmental hazards have increased.
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VI. Read the te x t and tran slate it in written form.
Text 30C. World Urbanization Patterns
Urbanization at the world scale is a phenomenon with both a rich

history and a relatively new beginning. Cities first appeared at least
5000 years ago. The following millennia brought many periods of city
growth as well as failure. From another perspective, that of the
predominantly urban nation, city life is of more recent vintage-
barely 100 years. Great Britian became the first urban nation in the late
1800s. Australia also claimed a largely urban population at the turn of
the century. Fot the rest of the world urbanization has been mainly a
twentieth century experience.
Contemporary urbanization is a new stage in the evolution of
human settlement; one dominated by an increasing shift of
production from rural settlements to growing urban concentrations of
intensified and integrated division of labor. In the course of this shift,
big cities grown into a qualitatively new form of settlement — the
metropolis, or urban agglomeration — which unites two opposite
tendencies.
It concentrates national production and population in and around
bug cities, and it decentralizes production and people from cities to
surrounding suburbs and satellite cities. It thus negates its historic
predecessor, the city, as an autonomous form of settlement.
EXERCISES

urban systems, systems of transportation and communication,
natural systems, opposite tendency, danger of disruption, excessive
centralization notorious example, suburban tracts, sewage disposal,
water supply, urban community, metropolitan planners.
1. Urban systems are built up from a network of subsystems.
2. Sites for urban settlements were wore physically than
economically determined in colonial times.
3. The city of San Francisco was located on a peninsular hewing
excellent ship-docking potential.
4. Limitation to urban growth are much less pronounced today than
at the down of the Industrial Revolution
5. Several hundred years ago a swamp or salt marsh would have
remained unsettled.
182
1. Limitations to urban growth are much less...
2. Steep stopes would remain ...
3. With modem engineering skills development was no longer
restricted...
4. Some developable land was created in Boston by filling the
wetlands and ...
5. The altering of the landscape to fit urban needs has multiple
affection...
X. Put 4 questions to text 30C and answer them in English in written
form.
1. How the land lies
2. Make the land
3. See how the land lies
4. See land
5. Back lands (countries)
6. Bad lands
1. Developers could easily ... the terrain, fill the wetlands, to
construct ... and bulkheads to transform the coastline the construction
o f ... drastically changed the spare of the city.
2. Stream regimes have been changed by ... watersheds.
3. Currents and longshore ... adjust to new artificial shoreline
configurations.
4. Ground water flow ... more variable as more land is covered with
concrete and asphalt.

1. Во времена колониального заселения места размещения и
строительства новых городов определялись географическими, а не
экономическими факторами.
2. Рост городов в современном мире намного меньше ограни
чен физическими факторами, чем прежде.
3. Например, чтобы построить Бостон, были осушены влажные
земли и засыпаны мелководные болота.
4. Во многих случаях при строительстве новых городов природ
ные факторы настолько мало учитываются, что впоследствии воз
никает много проблем с окружающей средой.
XIV. Write down the antonyms of the following words:
urban, necessary, various, into, unlike, increasing, cover, adequate,
whole, broader, often, to forget, ignore, wet, capable.
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XV. Write down what part of speech the words in bold prints are and
1. The subsystems through which food, water, and materials move
into a city and the one through which wastes move out or are hopefully
recycled, are obviously related to subsystems of transportation and
com m unication
2. You should water this plant only once a week.
3. You should not waste this valuable mercurial, you may use this
cheaper one for this purpose.
4. The builders of suburban tracts com m only work without
consideration of the effect of their com m unity on transportation, sewage
disposal, water supply, schools com m unity to which the new tract will
belong.
5. They supply the village with many products the local com m unity is
able to produce itself.

Text 30D. Urban Growth Study
In the 1990s the task of stimulating urban growth, balanced against
the need to improve the quality of the urban environment is a challenge
faced by many governments. Add to this maintaining public expenditure
within budgets and the task of managing urban growth becomes
complex.
Consider, for example, evaluating a proposal to expand the business
district of a city. Establishing the scale, size and coast of the water and
sewer network might be quite straightforward, but what about the
consequences for the transportation network? Will the increase in traffic
resulting from the new development create congestion? If so, will this
congestion be o f an order o f an order of magnitude that will require new
roads to be built? Where will they go, who will be affected, and what will
they cost?
As you might expect, urban planners have developed manual
methods, and in some cases, computerized methods for determining the
costs associated with urban growth. The difficulty has been, however,
that many o f these techniques are intensively geographic and time-
consuming. For example, sieve mapping, a technique for finding areas
of conflict or suitability, involves copying information off numerous
map sheets onto transparent film and then overlaying them to identify
areas of concern.
Using G IS (G eo Information System), engineers and transportation
planners are now able to autom ate traditional time consuming methods
of geographical analysis, such as sieve mapping, and consequently
evaluate development proposals more quickly and flexibly, in addition,
the storage o f information in G IS means that the data do not become
184
redundant once task is complete but can be re-used to evaluate future or
alternative development proposals.
G IS technology can integrate mineral data base information
collected from maps, satellites and field surveys. You can imagine the
information on a series o f map layers, stacked like, where one bite, or
query, reveals the contribution of all layers to the taste! Multiple data
sources are com bined through GIS, and maps be constructed witch
identify potential target areas for investigations. As in many aspects of
science, the often disciplines such as those conceded with water
resources and forestry. Similar approaches are even being used by
medical researchers to identify whether diseases such as cancer result
from geographic or environmental factors.
Direct Marketing programmers cost the business com m unity billions
of dollars annually. W hen one considers that a large percentage of this
advertising material ends up in the garbage, the importance of accurately
identifying where a potential customer lives has sound financial value.
With the aid o f G IS a business can analyze the geography o f its
customer base and this information defines a new market profile which
takes into account a custom er’s location characteristics. For example,
the type o f neighborhood, the cost o f property and the age distribution
of the population can be used to focus marketing programmers directly
for a target audience. Direct mail is one o f many marketing tasks which
benefits from the use o f a GIS. Determining new market areas,
evaluating store performance and productivity as well as establishing the
potential impacts o f competition and expansion can also be enhanced
by geographical analysis.
Unit 31
LOCATION OF CITIES
exist v существовать
existence n существование
dawn n рассвет
gregarious а стадный, о б щ и нн ы й
cluster v 1. собираться в пучок; 2. толпиться / / п 1. пучок;
2 . группа; 3 . гроздь
offer v предполагать / / п предложение
tributary п приток
hinterland п 1. внутренняя часть страны; 2. местность, э к о н о м и
чески зависящ ая от какого-либо города
distribute v распределять
rod п мера д ли н ы , равная 5 м
urbanite п горожанин, житель города
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II. Write down the following words. Underline suffixes. Mark the part
of speech the words are ( n — noun, v — verbs, adj — adjective, adv —
adverb, prep — preposition):
civilization, gregarious, cultural, cluster, labour, usually, strong,
urbanizing, force, beyond, stage, capitals, military, practically, however,
development, facility, advantage, local, primarily.

[i:] [i] [ d :] [Л]
people masculine lauder son
female finish fourth husband
feminine m other
Richard
[u:] [еэ] [ai] [au] [ei]
who chair nine noun same
rule Mary wife brown male
female
IV. Read and translate the text into Russian.

Text 31A. Cities and Their Rise
Part I
Cities have existed almost since the dawn of civilization. Much of
their basis is found in the gregarious nature of man, their rise also is
associated with the cultural, economic, and political advantages that
stem from the agglomeration or clustering together of people.
Opportunities for trade and labor specialization have usually provided a
strong urbanizing force. W ithout commerce and industry, few cities
would have passed beyond the village stage. Many early cities started as
religious centers, as political capitals, as the home o f some royal court,
or as fortified sites, which offered defense and military advantage in the
event of war. In practically every case, however, the rise of these cities
was associated with their development as centers of trade and
commerce. Throughout the m odem era, the presence or potential
development of a strong econom ic base has always been a prime
requisite for urban upon their location with respect to tributary or
hinterland of materials and resources that can be used to advantage by
local industries. In this sense, cities can be classified into four functional
groups: trade centers, transportation centers, specialized function
centers, and cities representing combinations of these types.
M ost cities and villages exist primarily as trade and com m ercial
centers. They provide goops an d services for a surrounding hinterland
area and in return draw sustenance from the n ature of the population
an d land resource base. In an ideal m odel, which assumes an even
186
distribution o f p o p u latio n and land resources o f uniform quality, the
local trade centers would be evenly distributed. Each trade and
service center would have been small enough in the days o f horse-
and-buggy travel to perm it easy carting from the outskirts o f the area
to the trade center. With uniform tran sp o rta tio n facilities, each trade
center would norm ally be surrounded by a circular hinterland trade
area; but the pressing together o f trade areas to encom pass all
possible locations brings an overlapping o f area boundaries.
Deification o f the o uter boundaries o f the various primary trade areas
forces a squaring off o f boundaries, a process that causes each
idealized trade area to take the form o f a hexagon — the form that
most nearly approaches that o f a circle and still permits division o f
the entire territory into trade areas o f com parable shape and size.
Viewed together, these hexagonal areas suggest a huge hom eyrcom p,
each cell representing a separate neig hbo rho od or com m u nity center
with its surrounding area.
Idealized distribution o f cities (assuming uniform distribution o f
population and land resources, tendencies for small trading centers to
develop at fairly equal distances throughout the countryside, and a
tendency for these centers to form hexagonal patterns in their patronage
of larger service centers, which in turn fit into hexagonal patterns
around still larger commercial and service centers).

English.
Text 31B. Cities and Their Rise
Part II
Since the beginnings o f recorded history, locations along ocean and
lake harbors, near the mouths o f navigable streams, at intersections of
land trade routes, and at transshipment or break-in-bulk points along
water and land trade routes have usually favored urban growth. The
developments of railroads, highways, and air travel have brouth the
advantages o f good transportation facilities to many new areas. At the
same time, these developments have enhanced the advantages enjoyed
by cities with good locations. The growth o f port cities such as
Montreal, Boston, New York, New Orleans, and San Francisco can be
attributed both to their world trade advantages and to the industries and
commercial establishments that have found it advantageous tot locate
in these cities because o f the transshipment o f goods and materials that
takes place at these points. Inland cities such as Chicago, St. Paul,
Kansas City, and Dallas enjoy comparable advantages because o f their
location as railroad and highway centers. In contrast, many once-
thriving villages passed by railroads and early highways have virtually
disappeared.
187
Just as the location pattern o f cities is complicated by transportation
factors, so also is it affected by the location o f particular types of
resources. The presence o f valuable forests or mineral deposits, or of
special recreation and resort attractions, often favors the rise of cities in
out-of-the-way locations. Many industrial cities are located where they
are because they specialize in the production or processing of goods that
require local supplies o f raw materials. Otter types o f specialized
function cities such as political capital and educational centers often
owe their locations to historical accident or design.
Most large cities function as trade centers and also as transportation
and specialized manufacturing or service centers. Their development
can seldom be attributed exclusively to any one location advantage. The
joint impact o f trade, transportation, and specialized production or
service factors on the growth of urban centers is an idealized hexagonal
arrangement of trade centers. When these patterns are combined, one
gets a complicated distribution pattern. At first view, this suggests a real-
life situation in which cities appear to be located more or less at random
without m uch respect to any set o f principles. W hen considered in light
of the factors discussed above and the effect o f hum an decisions in
modifying these factor relationships, however, it appears that some
logical relationship does exist between the location o f cities and
comparative advantages associated with particular sites.
Text 31C. Rise o f Shopping Centers
Almost every city has neighborhood shops and stores that exist and
som etimes thrive because o f their ability to fulfill the convenience
needs o f nearby residents. As in the hexagonal concept o f urban
locations, these shops provide a low hierarchical level o f services while
the custom ers served look to higher hierarchical level (central business
districts and shopping centers) for the filling o f more specialized
needs.
Most older cities o f the past have typically only two levels o f
commercial services-neighborhood stores and the central businesses
district. Rapid urban growth and the outward ownership and use of
automobiles and the acceptance o f standard brands has favored the
emergence o f shopping centers as an intermediary hierarchical
commercial service level. These centers customarily provide a clustering
o f retail shops that specialize in the provision of located at sites
convenient to large numbers o f shoppers and often abundant parking
facilities.
Several factors including ease of accessibility, the attraction of new
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facilities, the wide variety of convenience goops offered, and special
shopping services such as free parking and opportunities to shop under
one roof in air-conditioned comfort have contributed to the prosperity
of shopping centers. These advantages have made it possible for these
centers to siphon off much o f the trade advantage once enjoyed by
central business district establishments and by neighborhood shops. Not
all shopping centers, however, are a com m ercial success. Some are
portly designed, lack a desirable mix of shops, have inadequate parking
facilities, or already have lost the luster of newness. Some also are
overbuilt or suffer from competition with other centers better located to
serve the same market area.
From the standpoint o f over-all successful location’s hopping centers
should be located at strategic sites that enable them to handle the
convenience and shopper goods needs o f large numbers of potential
customers. An idealized location model for commercial establishments
in the typical American metropolitan region calls for three (and
sometimes four) hierarchical levels of service. Shopping centers should
provide the next level of service. Shopping centers should provide the
next level of service and should be so located as to service the shopping
needs of several contiguous neighborhoods. Two levels of shopping
centers can be envisaged in some areas, with small centers serving
several neighborhoods and larger shopping centers often duplicating
these services but offering additional attractions for larger areas. Central
business districts should provide the highest level o f services. In so
doing, they duplicate the lower orders of services for nearly residents
and for those who choose to use their facilities while at the same time
offering many specialty goods and services not provided at the shopping
centers.
EXERCISES

gregarious nature, economic advantages, labor specialization, village
stage, regions centers, military advantages, fortified sites, modern area,
urban area, urban growth prospects, hinterland area, transportation
facilities, functional groups, commercial centers.
VIII. Write down the sentences using the correct verb form.
1. Cities (to exist) since the dawn o f civilization.
2. Many o f the cities (to land) in different places of our planet
thousands and thousands o f years ago.
3. Many early cities (to start) as religions centers.
4. The rise o f some cities (to associate) with the their development as
centers o f trade and commerce.
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5. Cities (can, to classify) into 4 functional groups: trade centers,
transportation centers, specialized function centers and cities
representing combinations of these types.

1. Most large cities function as ....
2. Railroads, highways, airports have brought the advantages already
enjoyed by ....
3. Since the beginning o f recorded history people built their cities
n e a r ....
4. Island cities enjoy comparable advantages because of....
X. Put 6 questions to text 31С and answer them in English in written

form.
XI. Translate the sentences into Russian and try to remember words
denoting numbers of things in English.
1. Flock is a num ber o f sheep.
2. A school is a num ber o f whales, porpoises.
3. A shoal is a num ber o f herring, mackerels.
4. A catch or a haul is a num ber o f first taken in a net.
5. A covey is a small num ber o f birds.
6. A pack is a num ber o f asses.
1. Most older cities o f the past typically ... only two levels of
commercial services.
2. There are some...including ease of accessibility, special shopping
services such as free parking in m o dem shopping centers.
3. N o t all shopping centers have ... parking facilities.
4. Some shopping centers should he ... at strategic sites.

1. Одни города вырастали из деревень, другие возникали как
следствие развития торговли и промы ш ленности.
2. Обы чно росту городов способствовало их расположение на
пересечении торговых путей либо в удобной океан ской или м о рс
кой гавани.
3. П роцветание торгового центра зависит от многих факторов,
одним из которых, например, является удобное и просторное мес
то для парковки автомобилей.

since, find, lack, usually, beyond, military, practically, rise,
presence, dependent, fill, coastal.
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XV. Write down what part of speech the words in bold prints are and
1. The presence o f valuable forests or mineral deposits or o f special
recreation and resort attractions, often favors the rise of cities in out- of-
the-way locations.
2. New settlements rise here and there in Siberia.
3. The docum ents should be drawn in the favour of the dean.
4. The shopping center forms a big round not far from the pond.
5. The trade area takes the form of hexagon — the form that most
nearly approaches that o f a circle.
XVI. Read and discuss the text in class. Write down some short
sentences using the words in bold prints.
Test 31D. The City and its Environment
Man has been covering soil not only with cities but with connecting
highways o f concrete, to remove m uch soil entirely from potential food
production. Alongside the soil covered by concrete, there is the right of
way serving as shoulders and as drainage ditches. W hen a two-lane
highway parallels a railroad, as is c o m m o n when the railroad’s location
represents past experience injudicious grade selections, a strip o f land as
much as 25 rods wide is taken out o f food production by agriculture.
This represents 50 acres for every mile o f such transportation facilities.
Much o f our soil area is also being blotted out of service in food
production by expanding urbanization. Urbanites, are moving; into rural
areas around the cities to an increasing extent, owing to the automobile,
which makes possible long com m uting distances. This expansion does
not represent a «back to the soil» m ovem ent aimed toward independent
agricultural production by families contributing to city food supplies as
well as providing their own. On the contrary, covering the soil by more
urban expansion, more parking spaces, more airports, more military
reservations, more defense plants, more industrial developments, and
more superhighways represents a decided physical change in the soil
community brought on by man. Instead o f growing vegetation, loading
itself with organic matter, and breaking down its rock content — the
whole forming the active assembly line o f food creation — the soil is
shorn of this biological service and represents no more than site value.
This physical change o f the soil com m unity is now one o f geometric
dimension and no longer one of ariphmetic dimensions only.
Our social philosophy is based on the assumption that nature must be
«conquered» so that it can be exploited more effectively. However,
conquest or mastery is not only the best manner, to deal with natural
forces. Man should try instead to collaborate’ with them. Ideally, he
should insert himself into the environment in such a m anner that his ways
of life and technologies make him once more part of nature.
191
M odem ecological studies leave no doubt that almost any
disturbances of natural conditions are likely to have a large variety of
indirect unfavorable effects because all com ponents of nature are
interrelated and interdependent. The different living forms are
organized into a highly integrated web which is only as strong as the
weakest o f its constituent parts. Moreover this web is supported by the
physical environment.
Unit 32
URBAN LAND USE PATTERNS
perform v осуществлять
regard v относиться
district n район (города)
frequent а частый
gradual а постепенный
suburb n пригород
expand v расширять(ся)
blight n болезнь растений, ржи
I I . Write down the following words and mark the part of speech the
words are:
shape, vary, perform, include, point, normally, primarily, significant,
private, transitional, akeraqe, gradually, growth, expansion, heart.
I I I . Pronounce correctly:
[i:] [*] [a:] [э:] [ei:]
sleep cabbage glass all page
green animal cart small day
field black garden corn take
please capital part warm phrase
IV . Read the text and translate it into Russian.

Text 32A. City Planning Patterns
Cities com e in many different sizes and shapes and vary in the
functions they perform. Regardless o f their size, shape, or function,
however, they invariably include a variety of land-use districts. Sites
located at and around the 100 percent* points are normally used for
central business district purposes. Other sites may be used primarily for
business and commercial uses. Important areas are frequently used for
light and heavy industries. Significantly large areas are used for
residential developments and uses. Other areas are used for streets and
192
parking areas, parks and playgrounds, public and private service areas,
and transitional districts that are gradually shifting from one use to
another. Residential suburbs may also be treated as a special urban land
use even though they frequently are located outside city boundaries.
Very few cities start as planned developments. Instead, the average
city usually begins as a village and gradually expands. Experience shows
that this growth process is often haphazard, poorly planned, and
frequently expensive. As cities grow, they usually sprawl outward.
Business districts spill over into the surrounding residential areas.
Sometimes this expansion has a relatively uniform effect on all the
blocks surrounding the original 100 percent spot. Sometimes the
expansion is all in one direction or it may follow a single street; and in
some instances, business districts migrate with their 100 percent spots to
new locations. Industrial areas also are affected by this growth process.
The original industrial sites — ordinarily located around the outskirts of
small cities-are soon engulfed by the growing city and frequently cut off
from contiguous areas that could be used for plant expansion purposes.
O f the various land uses affected by the squeeze o f urban growth, the
residential area located around the commercial core o f the original city
is usually the first to give way. With the encroachm ent o f commercial
establishments and light industries upon this area, the prime residential
districts usually shift in the direction o f the city’s outskirts. This
movement often brings a succession o f lower-valued residential uses in
the transitional zone surrounding the heart o f the city and frequently
results in blighted neighborhoods.
Text 32B. Variations in Urban Land-Use Patterns
The sector theory in com bination with the multiple nuclei concept
provides a meaningful approach for explaining most o f the land use
patterns found in m odern cities. Im portant variations occur, however,
because o f differences in historical backgrounds, the exercise o f hum an
choice, the activities o f individual developers, and public planning
programs. Variations also occur because o f differences in urban function
and size. The land use patterns expected in a mining town or in a city
with considerable heavy industry, for example, differ substantially from
those expected in a college community, a resort area, or a residential
suburb.
Explanations o f emerging land-use patterns can benefit from
classifications o f cities by size and function. Nelson, for example,
envisages four urban models: (1) the m etropolitan commercial center,
which is called Commerce City, (2) cities o f medium size, which is called
Centertown, (3) rural trading areas (County Ville), and (4) dormitory
suburbs for larger cities (Forest Lake). With this classification, a radial
193
zone theory o f growth may be sufficient to explain the urban land-use
patterns in C ounty Ville. The sector theory may prove adequate to
describe the changing use patterns found in many C entertow n’s while
the sector theory in com bination with the multiple nuclei concept best
describes the developments in C om merce City. Unlike the other
centers. Forest Lake is a satellite community, which has some local
shopping facilities but which looks to a central city both for employment
opportunities and for m any o f the commercial goods and services its
residents require.
Increasing urbanization and the outward sprawl of metropolitan
areas has complicated the land-use patterns associated with smaller as
well as larger cities. Aerial observations o f typical cities show that central
business districts still attract multistoried buildings and intensive uses;
factory sites and industrial uses are frequently located nearby but are
moving with increasing frequency to outlying locations; commercial
uses tend to follow the major arterial streets that flow out from the
central business districts, and neighborhood shopping centers often are
developed along these streets; and areas between the major streets are
used primarily for residential purposes.
Land use patterns may or may not follow similar designs in the
expanse o f suburbs that surround large cities. Aerial views show that
hierarchies o f uses similar to those found in the cities radiate from many
local shopping centers. Quite often, however, the hub designs are
replaced by gridlike patterns in which the major avenues and cross
streets are lined with commercial and industrial uses or sites zoned for
these uses while the enclosed blocks are reserved for residential uses.
The residential streets found in these super blocks may intersect with the
commercial avenues or may connect with feeder streets that insulate the
residential areas from commercial traffic.
VI. Read the text and translates it into Russian in written form.
Text 32C. A M ulti-unit Urban L and Use Pattern
This concept envisages cities and m etropolitan areas with more than
one business district. These urban areas have a principal or downtown
business district that provides a central core, but they also have one or
more additional business districts located along major streets at some
distance from downtown. Each o f these districts becomes a nucleus for a
competing hierarchy o f land uses.
Several reasons may be advanced for the growth o f the additional
nuclei. Some cities in their outward growth have encompassed already.
Existing commercial centers, which have continued to operate as small’
commercial nuclei within the land-use pattern o f the larger cities.
Population increase and expansion have posed distance and time-
194
savings problems in many cities that have prompted the shifting and
location of many commercial functions to neighborhood centers.
Widespread acceptance of the automobile and the construction of new
streets and freeways also have freed urban residents from transportation
constraints that once made the urban core the transportation hub for the
entire city. This situation together with the greater availability o f free
parking; facilities in outlying shopping centers has prompted migration
of some o f the 100 percent advantage once held by central business
district sites to neighborhood shopping centers.
EXERCISES

different sizes and shapes, central business, district purposes,
commercial uses, light industry, heavy industry, parking areas, private
service area, transitional districts, special urban land use.
VIII. Write out 5-6 passive construction from text 32A. Make up your
own sentences using these constructions.

1. Cities are quite different in the f u n c tio n s .........
2. Important areas o f m odem cities may be used for light a n d .........
3. The average city usually begins as a village a n d .........
4. Business districts spill over i n t o .........
5. The residential area located around the commercial core o f the
original is usually the f i r s t .......

form.
denoting numbers in English.
1. A drove is a num ber of horses, ponies, etc. driven together.
2. A herd is a num ber of cattle or swine feeding or driven together.
3. A muster is a num ber o f peacocks.
4. A pack is a num ber o f wolves, hounds.
5. A leap is a num ber o f leopards.
6. A gaggle is a number o f geese.
1. Very few cities start as ... developments.
2. As cities grow, they usually ... outward.
3. The land use patterns expected in a mining town, for example,
d iffe r... from those expected in a college community.
195
4. Land-use patterns may or may not follow s im ila r... in the expanse
o f suburbs that surround large cities.
5. Increasing urbanization has complicated the land-use ... o f cities.

1. Независимо от размеров и ф ун кц ии городов они непременно
включают разные виды использования земель.
2. Значительные площ ади больших городов обычно используют
под предприятия как легкой, так и тяжелой промы ш ленности.
3. Ж илы е районы занимаю т большую часть территории круп
ных городов, независимо от того, является ли город столицей, или
тор гово -п ро м ы ш л ен ны м центром.

invariably, include, important, frequently, light, private, outside,
few, usually, often, outward, into, over, single.
XV. Write down what parts of speech the words in bold prints are and
1. Land use patterns found in m odem cities are very complex.
2. The developments of agro-industrial complexes need the
comprehensive approach.
3. After finishing this work, they may approach to another project,
more complex than this one.
4. There is a great need for comprehensive study before taking land
from agricultural use.
5. They study the methods, test the equipm ent, then use them in
practice.
6. You may practice here, in the laboratory, if you wish.
XVI. There are some words unknown to you in this text. Consult your
dictionary. Translate the text. Discuss the problem in class.
Text 52D. You Ought to Put a Town Here, Nothing Will Grow Here
Urban m an — 85 per cent o f the population in the United States —
now uses much soil exclusively for cities on which to live and move. The
remaining space on which to produce food and other biotic necessities
for everyone is occupied by only 15 per cent o f that population — the
rural folk. In the recent shift from a rural family to an urban crowd man
has lost sight of the significance o f the biological behavior and services of
the soil com m unity as our food sorce. With emphasis on economics,
technologies, and industries, he has’ built big cities on soil and so
exploited its site value only. The soil com m unity has had the attention if
agriculture and chemical technologies to make it more highly productive
per farm operator or to hasten the rocks and minerals into solution, so as
196
to be potentially creative of more crops and more live-stock. The higher
agricultural efficiency per farm worker has, in turn, made-possible the
urban congection where, as the Indian said, «You ought to put a town
here; nothing will grow here». Now we must soon face the dilemma of
feeding ourselves on paved streets, because the rural soil com m unity is
about to be the dead victim of a parasitic, technical soil exploitation that
has failed to appreciate the biological aspect of the soils in the creative
business o f feeding all of us. It is time that more of us paid attention to
the physical, chemical and biochemical changes wrought by m an in the
soil com munity, for soils represent either assets or liabilities for m a n ’s
survival. Physical changes which cultivated soils undergo are not sudden
and readily recognized, save for occasional landslides or natural
flooding-in of sands or of deposits o f clay on top o f the soil. Such
coverings add new horizons to the top o f the profile, making for abrupt
transitions in texture and other properties between the top horizons.
These are decided hindrances to plant root feeding and to root
penetration, and they put much soil out of cultivation. The physical
changes in soils over long periods of cultivation by man are not so
sudden. Rather, the changes are more insidious, with no suddenly visible
symptoms o f the transformation.
Unit 33
URBAN LAND DEVELOPMENT
internal а внутренний
approach n подход / / v 1. приближаться; 2. прибывать
explain v объяснять
explanation n объяснение
loop n петля / / v снабжать, укреплять петлями
tenement п сн и м аем ы й (дом); арендуемое (жилье), поместье
encroach v 1. вторгаться (в чужие владения, права); 2. захваты
в а т ь / / п 1. вред; 2. губительное влияние
blight v 1. наносить вред; 2. оказывать губительное влияние
board up v превращать в пансион
slum п трущобы
sumptuous а 1. п ы ш ны й , роскош ны й; 2. великолепный
envisage v 1. рассматривать; 2. смотреть (опасности) в л иц о
II. Write down the following words. Mark what parts of speech the
words are:
internal, structure, explanation, oriented, office, buildings, focal,
commercial, older, inner, rooming, property, poverty, beyond.
197
[i:] [Л] [i] fa:] M
see much swim learn have
piece understand tennis adverb can
read bucket because Turkey canvas
pronunciation below term racket
carry
[ei] M fau] fa] [au]
shade half below rock down
way arm over sorry about
[ei] [a ] fau] fa] [au]
tray ca n ’t so follow towel
bathe hold want now
Poland pronounce

Text 33A. Concentric Zones in Urban Land Use
One o f the first theories designed to explain the internal land-use
structure o f cities was presented by Ernest W. Burgess in 1925. Burgess
developed a concentric-zone approach, which in m any ways parallels
von T h u n e n ’s is explanation o f rural land uses.
Ernest W. Burgess designated his central zone as the loop area. This
zone is oriented around the 100 percent spot and includes the principal
stores, office buildings, banks, theaters, and hotels. It is the business
center o f the city — the focal point of its commercial, social, and civic
life. The concentric zone surrounding the loop area is designated as a
transitional zone. This area is made up, for the most part, o f older
homes and tenem ent and houses. Factories and business establishments
are encroaching on the inner portion o f this zone and most o f the
remaining area is blighted. M any o f the single-family homes are
converted to rooming houses or small apartments and some properties
may be boarded up. This area is often characterized by poverty, ill-kept
properties, and slum or near-slum conditions.
Beyond the transitional zone lies the working class housing area. The
people who reside in this area live in modest single-family homes, row
houses, and two- or three-decker dwellings. They prefer to live here
because of the lower rents and values and because they are within easy
com m uting distance o f the central business district and their places of
work. The higher-cost and more sumptuous residential districts are
located near the city’s outskirts, while a suburban or com m uters’ zone is
found still farther out.
Burgess used Chicago as an example o f his theory; and while he
recognized that this example did not exactly fit into his idealized
scheme, he assumed that the concentric-zone pattern was more or less
198
typical. In practice, this theory is subject to the same weaknesses as the
von T h u n e n ’s approach. Num erous allowances and modifications are
needed to explain the roles played by important streets and
transportation routes, by physical barriers such as lakes and rivers, by
changing social preferences in land use, by the impact of satellite cities
and shopping centers, and by changing land use-capacities.
Some o f the principal weaknesses of the concentric-zone
formulation can be remedied by shifting to a radial zone concept.
According to this concept the major land-use zones are aligned along
the leading transportation routes. This approach is closer to reality, but
allowances must still be made for the not infrequent failure o f some
classes o f people and land uses to gravitate to their predestined zones. In
other words, allowances must be made for the failure o f the self
regulating aspects o f this theory to operate as envisaged.
V. Read the text, write down 6 question and answer them in English.
Text 33B. Sector Theory
An important alternative to the concentric-zone hypothesis is
provided by the sector theory of urban growth. This theory was
developed by H o m er Hoyt during the late 1930s and resulted from his
analysis o f residential neighborhood trends in a study involving more
than 200,000 blocks in approximately 70 American cities.
Hoyt assumes a pie-shaped city with a central business district and
with numerous sectors or slices extending out from this central district
to the city’s outskirts. He then argues a theory o f axial development in
which the particular land uses found in various sectors tend to expand
outward along principal transportation routes and along the lines o f least
resistance. This theory provides a logical explanation for string-street
developments and for the tendency o f commercial districts to expand
along important streets and to sometimes ju m p several blocks and then
reappear along the same streets. Where possible, factory and industrial
districts also tend to continue their expansion along railroads, waterways
and sometimes principal streets.
The sector theory assumes urban growth with succession in land uses
in already developed areas and in new developments around the fringe of
the city. Commercial areas are usually contained by surrounding areas
devoted to other uses and can be expanded only through the acquisition
and redevelopment o f neighboring uses. Properties in high value
residential areas filter down to lower rent residential uses as their
occupants shift to newer high-prestige locations. Some intermediate and
low rent housing results from the filtering down process, but a high
proportion o f the housing occupied by low and intermediate income
groups is built on new ground as urban growth causes the sectors used for
these purposes to expand outward toward and beyond the city’s outskirts.
199
The trend toward outward growth is particularly apparent in the case
of the high rent and high-grade neighborhoods.
The wealthy seldom reverse their steps and move backward into the
obsolete houses which they are giving up. On each side of these houses
there is usually an intermediate rental area, so they cannot move
sideways. As they represent the highest income group, there are no
houses above them abandoned by another group. They must build new
houses on vacant land. Usually this vacant land ties available just ahead
of the line o f march o f the area because, anticipating. The trend of
fashionable growth, land promoters have either restricted it to high
grade use or speculators have placed a value on the land that is too high
for the low rent or intermediate-rental group Hence the natural trend of
the high — rent area is outward, toward the periphery of the city in the
very sector in which the high — rent area started.
The sector theory provides a reasonably realistic explanation o f the
basic structure o f land uses found in many N orth American cities. It
must be recognized, however, that the process o f urban growth is not
entirely mechanistic. The land-use patterns o f many cities vary from the
model suggested by this theory, and occasional modifications and
adjustments again are needed to make the theory fit the facts.

Text 33C. Patterns o f R ural Areas
A honeycomb pattern supports several hierarchial levels of trade and
service centers. A cluster o f six hexagons (А-level regions) around a
seventh hexagonal area might logically look to the В-level trade center
o f the enclosed hexagonal cluster for services not normally provided in
the oilier six. Groupings of six В-level regions located around a seventh
clutter, in turn, may look to the С -level city o f the central cluster for
higher levels o f services. The regions represented by these groupings in
turn may look to still larger metropolitan centers (D - and E-level
centers) for more specialized levels o f service.
This model is more suggestive o f the spatial relationships that should
exist under idealized conditions than of those found in practice. Even
so, examples approximating this model have been observed in parts of
Europe and also in some parts of the United States. Residents o f rural
areas generally look to a local village or town for selected commercial,
educational, postal, and social services. For certain other classes of
services such as banking, medical, hospital, legal, departm ent store, and
supermarket services, they frequently к ю к to their county seat or to
some other center that has grown faster than its neighbors and taken on
the function o f providing specialized trade and service functions for the
surrounding communities. G roups o f counties often look to state
capitals and regional metropolitan centers for higher levels of services
200
such as wholesaling, regional office headquarters, larger department and
specialty stores, and opportunities for particular types of entertainment.
Residents of the areas served by these centers may look in turn to large
metropolitan centers for special services such as face-to-face contacts
with corporation and financial leaders, ideal convention sites, better
selections o f specialty goods, and opportunities to see first-run
Broadway shows. At each o f these levels, the central city or village plays
a hierarchal service role for its hinterland area and also supplies all o f the
services provided by lower level centers for its immediate area.
Location with respect to hinterland areas and to other cities is only
one of the factors that affect urban growth. Complications ordinarily
arise because o f the uneven distribution o f population, land resources,
and local trade centers. Significant factors such as location along favored
transportation routes, development of local industries, and far-sighted
local leadership have often caused some villages to become cities when
they might have remained as hamlets under the hexagonal approach. At
the same time, the growing competitive power o f these urban centers has
often discouraged the parallel rise of neighboring trade centers, which
may have boasted an initial advantage in location.
EXERCISES
VII. Give Russian equivalents:

concentric-zone approach, loop area, principal stores, office
buildings, transitional zone, tenem ent houses, business establishments,
inner portion, near-slum conditions.
VIII. Write out 8 passive constructions from text 33A. Make up your

1. The sector theory o f urban growth was developed....
2. He argued the theory of....
3. The theory provides a logical explanation for....
4. Factory and industrial districts tend to continue....
5. The sector theory assumes urban growth with....
6. The sector theory provides a reasonably realistic explanation of....

form.
XI. Translate the following sentences into Russian and try to

remember words denoting numbers in English.
1. A swarm is a num ber o f bees.
201
2. A hive is a num ber o f bees living in the same place.
3. A nest is a num ber o f rabbits, ants, living in the same place.
4. A stud is a num ber o f horses kept for riding, racing, breeding.
5. A troop is a num ber o f lions, monkeys.
6. A building is a num ber of rooks (грачей).
1. The honey com b pattern ... several hierarchial levels of trade and
service centres.
2. This model is more ... o f the spatial relationships that should exist
under idealized conditions than o f those found in practice.
3. Resident of rural areas generally look to a local village or town for
selected commercial, educational, postal and ... services.
4. Complications ordinarily arise because o f the ... distribution of
population, land resources, and local trade centres.

1. Существует несколько теорий, рассматривающ их модели р о
ста городов.
2. Теория «пирога» (p ie -sh a p ed city) предполагает наличие д ел о
вого района в центре города и м ногочисленны х секторов («ломти-
KOB»-slices), расположенны х радиально от центра к окраинам го
рода.
3. Д орогостоящ ее жилье расположено ближе к центру, а жилье
для групп с н изким и и средними доходами — ближе к окраине го
рода, в новых районах.
4. Теория секторов хорошо объясняет основную структуру го
родского зем лепользования в североамериканских городах.

approximately, resulting, more, outskirts, found, along, least,
important, sometimes, possible, already, newer, high, beyond.
1. Ernest Burgess developed a concentric-zone approach, which in
many ways parallels von T h u n e n ’s explanation o f rural land use.
2. W hen you approach the bay you may see the Statue of Liberty.
3. It is not very easy to draw some parallel lines, when they are rather
long.
4. You may describe the central-zone as the loop area.
5. You may loop the rope round the post and tie the animal up to the
fence.
6. Some gentlem en prefer their ties o f bright colours, some of pale
ones.
202
XVI. Discuss the urban growth structures.
Text 33D. Top City Planning
Critics o f the sector theory argue that urban land developm ent
patterns are «too variable to be conceived in terms of two-dim ensional
cartographic generalizations». They point out that urban growth
structures are affected by num erous econom ic, social, and cultural
factors. Historical accidents, changes in family incomes, aspirations
for better housing, and the cultural associations o f particular
neighborhoods may have im portant effects upon urban land uses. In
similar fashion, the direction and nature o f neighborhood growth may
be affected by street layouts, changes in transportation facilities, the
location of parks and educational institutions, individual deed
restrictions, zoning ordinances and city plans, and by public housing
and redevelopment programs.
It may also be observed that the sector pattern is the product of a
society. Most of the land-use sectors now found in many cities have
evolved from an accumulation of individual decisions. Only occasionally
have they resulted from deliberate city planning. As cities develop
master plans for the future and then take the necessary steps for the
realization of these plans, they will often reshape their urban land-use
patterns in the interest o f particular social goals. In this respect,
institutional factors and government action can have extremely
important effects upon the structure and growth of cities.
The sector theory has been most operative in m odern industrial
cities where sites have gone to the highest bidders and where the
process o f urban developm ent has not been constrained by cultural and
institutional controls. In contrast to the cities that fit this pattern, most
of the older cities of Latin Am erica have developed according to a
«plaza plan». An open square or plaza provides the civic and social
center of these cities. The cathedral, city hall, and state government
buildings are located around this plaza, while the municipal market
and the business and com m ercial district are usually concentrated in
an adjacent area. Upper-class dwellings occupy most of the blocks
immediately surrounding the central plaza while the hom es o f the
lower classes tend to be farther out toward the periphery o f the
com m unity. This urban developm ent pattern represents the reverse of
the «gradients o f status» ordinarily found in N o rth Am erican cities and
stems in part from regulations issued by S p ain ’s Council o f the Indies
during the 1500s, which limited the subdivision of residential lots near
the urban centers and thus prevented a filtering down of the higher-
cost residential sites.
The «plaza plan» is typical of the land-use patterns found in most
preindustrial cities and is directly related to the class system that existed
in these cities. As these cities have become more industrial society-
203
oriented and as they have experienced growth and urban redevelopment,
they have tended to follow growth patterns more in keeping with those
suggested by the sector theory.
Unit 34
LOCATION FACTORS IN URBAN LAND USE PLANNING
chain n цепь
pedestrian n пешеход
compete v 1. конкурировать; 2. соревноваться
habit n привы чка
custom n обычай
customer n 1. клиент; 2. покупатель
purchase n п окупка / / v приобретать
prone а склон н ы й
indulge v позволять себе удовольствие
convenient а удобный
apparel n платье, одежда, наряд
afford v позволять (себе)
words are. Underline suffixes:
particularly, locations, analyze, with, customer, taste, traffic,
competition, hobby, their, various, thoroughness, between, display,
attractive.
III. Pronounce carefuly. Be careful with these words:

[э] [э:]
again [agein] or [э gen] quater
daughter
parliament ['pod ment] before
forty
Ш [э]
between watch
m inute [minit] o ’clock
difference pocket
wrist [rist] long

Text 34A. Successful Location Factors
Many commercial firms, particularly those with chain operations-
make a science of their selection of successful commercial locations.
204
Before they choose any particular site, they analyze the advantages,
disadvantages, and income-producing prospects o f several alternative
sites. They consider the space, parking, and other facilities associated
with each site. Studies are made to determine the potential num ber of
customers in the area, their levels of income, and their buying habits and
tastes. Pedestrian traffic counts are made of the num ber of people who
pass the various store sites during shopping hours. Consideration also is
given to the problem o f com petition with other commercial
establishments.
In their search for good com m ercial locations, individual
businessmen must consider the characteristics and buying habits o f their
potential customers together with the nature of the various goods or
services they provide. Men and wom en frequently vary in their buying
habits. Except for their purchase of articles such as automobiles and
hobby goods, m en usually tend to be more hurried and impatient in
their shopping than women. They are often prone to buy the first article
that approaches their requirements or taste. Convenience is more
important in their minds, and the opportunity for comparison is less
important. Most women, on the other hand, seem to enjoy shopping,
and attack their shopping problems with an enthusiastic thoroughness
that often leads them to compare num erous articles both within and
between stores before they make a purchase. They are more observant,
more susceptible to display, and hence indulge more generally in
impulse buying.
Differences in buying habits, tastes, and levels of consum er
incomes often have an im portant effect upon retail locations, the types
and volume o f goods sold, and the m an n er in which the goods are
displayed. Stores in lowincome neighborhoods seldom stock luxury
items. Some com m ercial establishments cater to m en and thrive
because o f the convenience o f their locations. Ladies apparel shops, on
the other hand, usually find it profitable to prepare attractive eye
catching displays, to afford their custom ers every opportunity to
compare their products, and to facilitate ladies’ com parison process by
locating near clusters o f similar shops that deal in com parable and
com plem entary products.
Text 34 В. Space Requirements for Service Centres
Another im portant consideration involves the type of goods or
services supplied and the relative frequency with which they are
purchased. Frequently purchased products often are described as
convenience or shopper goods. With small and relatively inexpensive
convenience goods such as cigarettes, chewing gum, or newspapers,
most customers tend to patronize the closest and most conveniently
205
located vendor. Food stores can depend upon a wider range of
patronage. Their usual space requirements, need for parking space, the
bulk of their products, and the frequency with which they are purchased
favor their location at points convenient to customers. Accordingly, they
are often found in the central shopping districts of small cities but
usually appear around these districts and in the com m unity and
neighborhood shopping centers of larger cities.
In contrast to convenience goods, articles such as pianos, TV sets,
automobiles, and diam ond rings represent sizable purchases that can
easily be postponed until the buyer has made comparisons in other
stores and thought it over. Because of the tendency of buyers to shop
around for these types o f specialty goods, it is often econom ic to locate
automobile showrooms, furniture stores, and other comparable
establishments outside the central retail districts. Stores that feature
specialty products such as jewelry find it to their advantage, however, to
locate in central shopping districts where they can use glittering window
displays to attract additional customers.
As the above discussion suggests, stores that feature convenience and
shopper goods ordinarily find it advantageous to locate along the
principal paths of pedestrian traffic. Similar locations are advantageous
for service workers such as barbers and shoe repairmen. Locations near
100 percent spots are less important in the sale o f postponable specialty
goods such as automobiles or furniture. W hen dealers in these products
have large space or parking area requirements, they ordinarily find it
advisable to locate outside the high-rent district. It often is profitable for
them to substitute larger advertising expenditures for the sums they
could have paid in higher rents. Electricians, plumbers, and other
service workers who depend largely upon telephone contacts find it just
as well to locate outside the central business district.

Text 34C. Transportation Considerations
Location and transportation considerations are a third group of
factors that significantly affect comparative advantage. Businessmen are
always concerned about the distances from which they must import raw
materials and the market points to which they must ship their finished
products. Local producers often benefit from their ability to move
products to market at lower cost, in less time and in fresher condition
than their outlying competitors. Savings in transportation costs
frequently make it possible for local producers to com pete on favorable
terms with producers who live in areas that boast strong natural
advantages and good production combinations for particular products.
Local operators, for example, are often able to supply manufactured
goods, farm products, and recreation opportunities at lower cost than
206
iliey can be secured from prime production points in other parts of the
country.
Changes in the transportation cost situation have provided a major
boost for the economic development of m any areas during the past two
centuries. As late as 1816, the market price of flour in the United States
did not justify its transportation for distances of over 150 miles overland
and bulky and heavy articles could be shipped 3,000 miles across the
Atlantic Ocean at about the same cost as 30 miles over land. The cost of
shipping wheat from Buffalo to New York City was approximately $100
per ton in 1817 or roughly three times its delivered value in New York
City. With the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825, this shipping cost
dropped to $8.81 a ton, and it suddenly became economically feasible
for farmers in western New York and along the Great Lakes to ship their
excess produce to the eastern market.
As late as the middle 1800s, limited transportation facilities and high
transportation costs favored concentrations of land settlements along
navigable streams. Distant overland transportation was limited primarily
to objects with high value-to-weight ratios, and cities were usually
dependent upon their immediate hinterland areas for m uch of their food
as well as other products with low value-to-weight ratios. The building
of canals, railroads, highways, airports, and pipelines, and the
introduction of new and improved modes of transportation since 1850
have provided most areas with a wide variety of transportation
opportunities while at the same time reducing transportation costs,
times, and perishability hazards. These developments have greatly
relaxed the transportation constraints of I the past and have made it
possible for producers to consider far-off places both as potential sources
of raw materials and as market areas. As long as transportation involves
costs and time, however, it will influence location and production
decisions and accordingly will influence the comparative advantages
associated with various production sites.
EXERCISES

chain operations, particular site, incom e-producing prospects,
alternative sites, potential num ber of customers, commercial
establishments, consum er incomes, clusters of similar shop.
VIII. Write out 8 passive constructions from text 34A. Make up your
IX. Complete the following sentences using the text 34B.

1. Locations and transportation considerations are the group of
factors that influence....
207
2. Firms are concerned about the distances....
3. Local producers can save....
4. The cost o f shipping wheat from Buffalo to New York City....
5. High transportation costs in the middle 1800s favoured....
6. The building of canals, railroads, high ways....

form.
XI. Translate into Russian and try to remember words denoting

numbers in English.
1. A num ber o f cats is a clowder.
2. A num ber o f chicken hatched at the same time is a brood.
3. A number o f young pigs, dogs, cats brought at one birth is a litter.
4. A num ber o f kitten is a kindle.
5. A num ber of hares is a down.
6. A collection o f fowls, ducks etc is poultry.
7. A collection o f wild animals is a zoo.
1. Com mercial firms consider the space, ... and other facilities
associated with each site.
2. Studies consider the potential num ber o f customers in the area,
t h e i r ... o f income, and their buying habits and tastes.
3. The firms also consider the problem o f ... with other commercial
establishments.
4. M en usually tend to be more ... and impatient in their shopping
then women.
5. Stories in low-income neighbourhoods seldom ... luxury items.

1. Прежде чем приобрести то или иное землепользование для
разм ещ ения своей ф и рм ы , бизнесмены изучают все преимущества
и недостатки дан ного землепользования.
2. Они, например, подсчитывают приблизительное число п е
шеходов, которые могут пройти мимо их торгового предприятия в
часы торговли.
3. Если речь идет о размещ ении предприятий, торгующих м е
белью или автомобилями, то фактор р азм ещ ени я зем лепользова
ния играет для них абсолютно незначительную роль.
4. В этом случае гораздо важнее площ адь самого зем лепользо
вания.

significant, advantage, import, finished, ability, frequently,
favourable changing, heavy, past, various, less.
208
1. Commercial firms with chain operations make a decision o f their
selection o f successful commercial locations.
2. She chained a big dog as a small boy was afraid o f it.
3. She liked buying things o f British make.
4. Men are often ready to buy the first article that approaches their
requirements or taste.
5. They tasted the fruit, it was slightly bitter.
6. There are three different approaches to the problem.
Text 34D. Am enity Factors
The cultural and aesthetic attractions associated with various local
amenities provide a fifth facet o f comparative advantage. Amenity
considerations can be and often are ignored when significant econom ic
advantages are associated with particular sites. Producers, workers, and
consumers are far more conscious o f amenity factors now, however, that
was the usual case in the past. Moreover, decisions as to prospective
operating sites can often be narrowed to several sites that offer quite
comparable econom ic opportunities. When this situation exists, final
decisions are frequently influenced by the general attractiveness o f the
locality.
Uni t 35
LAND FACTOR IN INDUSTRIAL LAND USE
boost n 1. подъем, повы ш ение; 2. помощь, поддержка / /
v I. поднимать, повышать; 2. помогать, поддерживать
regard п отн ош ен и е / / v относиться
hinge п I. петля, крюк; 2. ш арнир; 3. (перен.) кардинальный
пункт (вопроса) / / v (перен.) вращаться вокруг основной темы, за
висеть
hem in v окружать
utilize v I. утилизировать; 2. использовать, воспользоваться
utility п I. польза; 2. выгодность, полезность
utilities ком мунальны е услуги
buggy п легкий двухместный экипаж; легкое транспортное средство
distinet а четкий, отчетливый
words are. Underline suffixes.
decision, industrial, secondary, primarily, favourable, expansion,
condition, utilize, involve, water, power, expensive, still, originally.
209
[i:] [a:] [e] [Л]
need bird well sunny
feed third tell Monday
believe bum wealthy m oney
receive work healthy glove
repeat early instead clover
[ia] [k]
near clear
ear com et
year column
nearly character

Text 35A. Importance o f the Land Factor
Business decisions regarding new industrial locations often hinge
upon secondary issues. Operators may be primarily interested in finding
favorable raw-material, market, transportation, and labor situations. But
they are also interested in locating at sites that offer good living
conditions for employees; adequate space for parking and plant
expansion; good supplies of water, power, and other utilities; and
moderately low land values and tax levies. In this respect, they are
interested in the land factor, and their decisions are often influenced by
considerations involving this factor.
Throughout the horse-and-buggy period, those sites that provided
water power, favorable water or railroad transportation facilities, and a
good labor supply ordinarily had first choice for industrial use. The
proximity of these sites to central business areas often resulted in
adjacent developments and some jading up of land values. With the
development of new power and transportation facilities, there has been a
trend toward industrial decentralization. New industries-particularly the
heavy industries-still tend to locate near water, railroad, or highway
transportation routes; but there has been a distinct tendency for them to
locate around the periphery of cities where land is less expensive, taxes
are lower, and where large areas are available for use.
Past experience shows that many industries have reserved too little
space for future expansion. M o d em technology frequently favors a shift
from multistory to single-floor factories. At the same time, good worker
relations often call for the provision of large parking areas. Both of these
situations call for more space. Yet many industries originally established
on the outskirts o f cities now find themselves hem m ed in with only
limited opportunities for expansion in contiguous areas. Urban
redevelopment offers a high-cost answer to this problem. Plant
210
relocation suggests another somewhat costly answer. Knowledge of
these situations has caused many industrialists to place high emphasis
u p o n space considerations in their choice o f new plant locations.
Industries often occupy high-value sites and occasionally invest large
sums in building- and site-improvement programs. As a general rule,
their land costs are small compared with their cash outlays for raw
materials, marketing, and labor. This situation sometimes causes people
to dismiss land-cost factors as relatively unimportant. However, one
should not downgrade the importance o f this factor. An industrialist
who pays $1,000 a m onth in rent or ownership costs on his place of
operations has a definite advantage, other things being equal, over a
competitor who pays $2,000 a month. Factory owners sometimes find
that their properties have higher market and rental values for other uses
than for their current uses. It is often good business in these cases for
owners to sell or rent their properties and move their industries to new
sites where they can benefit from lower land costs.
Text 35B. Industrial Location
Decisions affecting the location and expansion o f industries have a
highly significant impact upon the prospects o f different sites for urban
development and growth. Like other businessmen, the industrialists who
make these decisions try to maximize their returns. For them the key
economic problem in industrial location is that of securing sites that
provide optim um conditions for profit maximization. This means that
the sites selected should meet the physical requirements of the industry
and at the same time facilitate high productivity, low costs, and a large
volume o f sales.
Experience shows that most industrial enterprises start with small
plants that may or may not expand. These plants frequently owe their
location more to historical accident th an to economic design. When
industrialists deliberately seek an optim um site, however, their problem
is often complicated by the simultaneous operation o f numerous
variables. Some o f these involve the supply, cost, and general availability
of the raw materials and land resources needed by the industry. Others
deal with marketing problems, the size and characteristics o f the labor
supply, and a host of secondary issues.
Two principal types o f costs-processing expenditures and transfer
costs-affect the optim um location of industrial plants. Processing costs
include the many expenses that arise in the industrial production process
as labor and other factors are used to transform raw and semifinished
materials into m anufactured goods. Transfer costs, in turn, deal with the
expense o f moving materials to processing plants and finished goods to
their points o f sale or use. Industrialists naturally attempt to minimize
211
both types o f costs. In their search for optim um industrial locations,
they recognize that transportation cost considerations cause some
industries to be material-oriented and some to be market-oriented.
Others are less affected by transportation costs and may be attracted by
the agglomeration economies o f particular cities or regions where the
presence o f other industries provides pools of skilled labor and
m anagement, capital availability services of com plem entary industries,
public utilities, and public services.

Text 35C. Shifts in Industrial Locations
History shows that industries frequently migrate to new locations and
that this shift often has an important impact upon property values and
the economic life o f communities. Industrial migration sometimes
results in stranded com m unities and ghost towns. This has often been
the situation in mining, lumbering, and other one-industry towns. On
other occasions, the effects o f shifting industrial locations are sometimes
cushioned by the growth o f new industries.
Industries differ a great deal in their ability to shift to new locations.
Light industries that depend on rented equipm ent and buildings can
often move for relatively m inor reasons. Heavy industries with huge
investments in existing plants in turn are often bound to their present
sites. O ther industries may be more able to move, but find the process
expensive.
Decisions to move are ordinarily prom pted by factors such as:
(1) exhaustion o f a raw material base such as occurs when a forest is cut
over or an ore deposit is m ined out (2) changes in material requirements
such as the location o f power-using plants away from water power sites
once alternative sources o f power become available, (3) changes in
transportation costs made possible by the construction o f new facilities,
(4) adjustments in individual processing costs, which cause particular sites
to either gain or lose low-cost production advantages, (5) increasing tax
loads, (6) site restrictions, which prevent desired plant expansions at
existing locations, (7) technological developments, which permit new
products and call for new industrial plants, and (8) changing market tastes,
such as the substitution o f automobiles for buggies, which create new
markets for some products and the phasing out o f production for others.
EXERCISES
business decisions, industrial locations, secondary issue, favorable
codnitions, raw materials, labour situations, adequate space, land
values, plant expansion, single-floor factory, large parking areas.
212
VIII. Make up short sentences using the word combinations from
exercise VII. Try to use Passive Constructions.
Model: Business decisions are m ade after a careful study o f the location.

1. The prospects o f different sites for urban development depend on ....
2. Industrialist who make the decisions affecting the location and
expansion o f industries try ....
3. The selected sites should meet ....
4. Most industrial enterprises start with ....
5. W hen industrialist seek an optim um site ....
6. There are two principal types o f costs: ....
7. Processing costs include ....

form.

remember special words denoting numbers in English:
1. A number o f people listing to a concert or lecture is an audience.
2. A num ber o f people looking on at a football match, etc are
spectators.
3. A num ber o f people collected together in the street is a crowd.
4. A num ber o f people gathered together for some com m on purpose
may be called a gathering, an assembly, a society.
5. A num ber o f people gathered together to work some cause or
com m on interest is a coterie.
1. Industries differ a great deal in their ... to shift to new locations.
2. Light industries can often ... for relatively minor reasons.
3. Heavy industries with huge ... in existing plants in turn are often
bound their present sites.
4. Some plants frequently own their locations more to historical
accident than to ... design.
5. The key economic problem in industrial location is to secure sites
that provides optim um conditions f o r ... maximizations.

1. Владельца предприятия или отрасли долж но интересовать не
только экон ом ич ески выгодное разм ещ ение производства, но и
хорошие условия жизни, которые он может предложить своим ра
ботникам.
2. П редприятию потребуется достаточно места для парковки
машин и расш и рен ия территории при расш ирении производства.
213
3. И з-за современного оборудования существующее здание
иногда необходимо реконструировать в одноэтажное, а для этого
потребуется дополнительная площадь.
4. Приобретение земельного участка, учет его местоположе
ния — крайне необходимые условия ведения любого промышлен
ного бизнеса.
1. Please number the factors of location in industry.
2. Put a number under the factors according to their importance.
3. The transportation cost changes very frequently as it depends on
the price o f the petrol here.
4. How much does it cost to move this equipm ent to a new site?
5. Changes in the transportation cost situation have provided a major
condition for the economic development during the past two centuries.
XV. Write down the antonyms of the following words:

often, secondary, find, adequate, low, favourable, near, heavy,
expensive, available, show, large, hide, outskirts, limited, gain, lose.

Text 35D. M an is P art o f N ature
M an needs other hum an beings and must maintain harmonious
relationships with the land; he is also indirectly dependent on other
creatures — animals, plants, and microbes — with which he evolved and
that form part of the integrated patterns of Nature. Unquestionably, he
will destroy himself if he thoughtlessly and violently upsets the complex
and delicate web of life of which he is a part. It is the interdependence of
all living things, and their complex relation to the physical environment,
that constitutes the scientific basis of conservation policies.
Conservation means m uch more than providing am usem ent grounds
and comfortable camps for weekenders. Its ultimate goal should be to
help m an retain contact with the natural forces under which he evolved
and to which he remains linked physiologically and emotionally. Like
Anteus o f Greek myphology, m an loses his strength when his two feet
are off the earth.
Physical and mental well-being here and now are not, however, the
only determinents o f sanity and happiness. M an is not isolated in time;
he needs to relate to the past and the future. In this light, we should give
thought to what our own civilization will leave for the generations to
come. Where are the m onum ents of today that will survive two thousand
years hence? Where are the gardens, parks, and avenues of trees made of
lasting species and planted in a noble style, that could become
214
increasingly poetical and majestic with added centuries? Improving the
environment should be a creative collaboration between man and
nature.
Unit 36
LAND USE PLANNING FOR INDUSTRIAL AREAS
extract v 1. добывать; 2. извлекать
mine n шахта, рудник / / v копать, добы вать (руду и т. д.)
lumber п 1. пиломатериалы, лесозаготовки; 2. поселок на л есо
заготовках / / v валить и пилить лес
reduce v 1. уменьшать, снижать; 2. ослаблять
ore п руда
sugar сапе сахарный тростник
turpentine п скипидар / / v натирать скипидаром
rosin п каниф оль, смола
cotton gin хлопкоочистительная м аш ина
II. Write down the following words. Write down what parts of speech
the words are. Underline suffixes:
extractive, mining, lumbering, naturally, specific, timber, be, are,
raw, this, arise, should, involve, later, shipment, equal, final, initial.

[A]
sun love
run lovely
lunch some
sunny one
but none
butter bucket
funny

Text 36A. Location o f Material-Oriented Industries
Part I
Extractive industries such as mining, lumbering, and agriculture
always locate near the source o f their principal product. Quite naturally,
the location o f these industries is determ ined by the absolute need for
operating at specific sites where coal, minerals, or timber may be found
or where agricultural products can be and are produced.
215
Once raw materials of this type have been produced, questions
frequently arise concerning where they should be processed. They can
be shipped to other locations but this involves transfer costs. On the
other hand, their processing at a local site usually entails the bringing in
o f some materials from other areas and the later shipment of the
processed goods to market. In many cases, both sets of transportation
costs are about equal; and there is no particular transportation-cost
advantage in locating the processing’ industry near the source of
material as com pared with a location near the final market. Many
processing activities, however, involve weight-reduction operations or
other changes that result in transportation economies. It is usually to the
advantage of the industry in these cases to locate its initial processing
activities near the source o f its raw materials.
Material-oriented industries may be divided into four principal
groups. The first o f these involves industries such as agriculture, fishing,
lumbermining, and outdoor recreation, which are bound to the location
of basic natural resources upon which they depend.
A second group includes those processing activities that involve of
waste materials and excess weight. Minerals such as copper iron are
often found in com bination with large quantities o f rock and These
mineral ores are usually either smelted or subjected to beneficiation, or
other weight-reduction processes near their. In this manner, most of the
waste material is eliminated before metal is shipped to other processing
points. Except in those instances in which timber can be floated to a
mill, most sawmill operations tend to be material-oriented. This
situation results mostly from the reduction o f bulk and weight that
comes with the processing o f logs into rough or finished lumber.
N um erous agricultural processing operations also fall into this class.
Farmers who sell butterfat usually separate their cream from the skim
milk and thereby reduce the bulk of their marketable product. The high
transport costs associated with bulky products such as sugar beets and
sugar cane favor the location of sugar factories within reasonably short
distances of their supply. Other products such as cheese, dried and
condensed milk, vegetable oils, maple and cane syrup, turpentine, and
rasin also are processed near their sources of supply.
Text 36B. Location o f Material-Oriented Industries
Part II
A third group of material-oriented industries involves processes that
require large quantities o f fuels, power, or water that do not appear in
the final product. The large quantities of coal and coke required for iron
and steel production in times past often favored the location o f steel
mills near the sources o f coal supply. High electrical power requirements
216
favor the location o f synthetic nitrate, aluminum, and electro
metallurgical plants near hydroelectric power sites. Similarly, the high
water requirements of some industries together with the economies of
water transportation favor industrial locations along navigable
waterways.
A final group of material-oriented industries benefit from processing
changes that make their product less bulky, easier to handle, less
perishable, or more susceptible to bulk handling. These changes lead to
transportation economies and thus favor material orientation. Cotton
gins and compresses reduce the bulk of the raw cotton by forcing it into
compact bales. Metals are often processed into ingots or sheets to
facilitate their handling and reuse. Canning and preserving operations
reduce the perish ability of fruits and vegetables and thus lower their
transportation and storage costs. Another type of material-oriented
service is provided by local grain elevators, commission agents, junk
dealers, and others who assemble carload lots of materials for shipment
to other points.
Material-oriented arid market-oriented industries are both
concerned with processing as well as with transfer costs. Before an
industry can be classified as truly material-oriented, its savings in
transfer costs must outweigh the possible cost advantages o f other sites.
This problem is frequently complicated by the tendency of industries to
use a variety of raw materials and to participate in the joint production
of many products. It can also be affected by technological change. The
coke industry, for example, started out as a material-oriented enterprise.
Coke ovens were located near the mines because it took 2,000 pounds of
coal to produce 1,200 pounds o f coke. However, as soon as a
commercial market developed for the coal gas produced in the coking
process, it became more profitable to locate the coke ovens near
industry.

Text 36C. Location o f Market-Oriented Industries
Pan I I I
While some products benefit from weight reduction operations in the
early stages of their production, others experience a reversal of this
process as they approach the final stages of their production-distribution
process. As these products approach by stages the form in which they
will be delivered to the final consumer, they become progressively more
fragile, more cumbersome to pack and handle, more valuable in relation
to their weight, and differentiated into more separate types and sizes.
Developments of this type favor the m arket-orientation of many
industrial operations.
Bottled-beverage plants provide an ideal example o f a market-
217
oriented industry because their operations normally involve the addition
o f carbonated water to concentrated syrup-a process that adds
considerable weight and bulk to the product. Bakeries fall into this class
because of the bulk and weight they add to their product and because of
the premium most customers place on freshness of product. The
building construction industry is m arket-oriented as are the activities o f
most local plumbers, electricians, and service workers. Much the same
situation applies with milk bottling, ice making, potato chip, popular
priced brewery, and other similar establishments.
Most large industrial and mercantile concerns, seriously consider the
problem o f market orientation when they locate new plants and stores.
Several m ail-order houses operate with both regional and local outlets.
The automobile industry centers in the populous N orth Central region
but operates branch production and assembly plants in other regions and
countries. Even the famous Milwaukee beers are now produced in
branch plants located in different sections o f the country manufacturing
process for m any industries. These industries find it natural to seek
factory sites in areas that offer adequate supplies o f labor. Frequently,
they share in the agglomeration economies of other firms by locating in
populous centers where they can draw upon the large supply o f skilled
and semiskilled workers used by other industries. Location in these areas
makes it possible for these industries to suddenly increase or decrease
their labor force if such a need arises with a m inim um o f social
repercussion. Industrialists frequently hesitate to relocate or open
branch establishments in areas where they will be the leading industry
until they have had years o f management experience, feel com petent to
develop their own skilled labor force, and feel confident that they can
offer in the new plant area.

extractive industries, principal product, specific sites, agricultural
products, raw materials, other locations, local site, processed goods,
processing industry, final market, weight-reduction operations,
transportation economies.

exercise VII.
IX. Complete the following sentences using the text 36B:

1. Some material oriented industries involve ....
2. Iron and steel production require ....
3. Some industries require industrial location along ....
4. Canning and fruit preserving operation lower their ....
5. It is always very important to locate ....
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form.
XI. Translate into Russian and try to remember words denoting places.
1. An aviary is a place where birds are kept.
2. An apiary is a place where bees are kept.
3. An aquarium is a place where fishes are kept.
4. A hutch is a place where rabbits are kept.
5. A sty is a place where pigs are kept.
6. A granary is a place for storing grain.
1. Raw materials can be shipped to other locations but this ... transfer
costs.
2. Many process activities involve weight reduction ... or other
changes that results in transportation.
3. If you locate the initial processing activity near the sourse of its
raw materials it is a big ....
4. Farmers who sell butterfat usually reduce the bulk of their ...
product.
5. The high transport costs are associated with bulky products such as
s u g a r ....
6. Sugar factories are usually located within ... short distances from
sugar cane supply.

1. Место размещения предприятий обрабатывающих отраслей
во многом зависит от их сырьевой базы.
2. Расходы на транспортирование сырья можно значительно
снизить, если сахарный завод будет построен недалеко от места
выращивания сахарной свеклы или сахарного тростника.
3. Есть отрасли, развитие которых во многом зависит от места
нахождения рабочей силы.
4. Планирование размещения предприятий — процесс много
факторный.
XIV. Write down what part of speech the word in bold prints are and
1. Some products benefit from weight-and-bulk reduction operation
in the early stage of their production.
2. Some enterprises may benefit from their location.
3. They usually weigh the product before sending it to the market.
4. Bakery is an example of a market-oriented industry because of the
bulk and weight they add to their product and because of the premium
most customers place on freshness of product.
219
5. Most industries depend on the place where you locate your
factories, plants, farms.

always, natural, specific, found, rise, local, far, include, usually,
advantage, final, raw, outdoor, dependent, separate.

Text 36D. Labor Oriented Industries
Labor-oriented industries often seek particular types of employees.
Textile mills frequently locate in heavy industry towns so as to take
advantage of the large potential supply o f wom en employees found in
these areas. Plants requiring highly skilled workers often avoid expensive
recruiting operations by locating in cities with comparable plants. Many
industrialists try to locate their new plants in low wage areas, areas that
offer facilities that contribute to low living costs, and, in some cases,
areas where labor has not as yet been unionized.
Many industries not normally classified as material oriented, market-
oriented or labor-oriented are attracted to particular locations by the
availability of special attractions. Some «clean» industries, for example,
have been attracted to industrial parks located near large universities by
the prospects o f professional consulting services and staff participation
in the cultural advantages o f university communities. Other industries
find it logical to locate among similar or com plem entary industries in
metropolitan regions where they can share in the local pools of
managerial and consultant talent, the availability o f banking and other
needed industrial services, and the prospect o f providing goods or
services for com plem entary establishments.
Unit 37
BUSINESS AND COMMERCIAL LOCATIONS
commercial а ком мерческий, торговый
stand point n точка зрения
capacity n емкость, мощ ность, способность
suitable а подходящий, приемлемый
volume n объем
favor v способствовать, благоприятствовать, оказывать предпоч
тение
warehouse п склад
depot п 1. депо, складочное место; 2. склад, амбар, сарай
bid п предложение цены (на аукционе)
220
II. Write down the following words. Write down what parts of speech
the words are:
commercial, capacity, value, intensity, failure, depend, success,
choice, profit, accessible, promise, greatest, weight, advisable, upper,
exclusive, laundry, adequate because, along.

[O] [Di] [ia] [ia] [ia] [ia]
boy boil ear dear really dearer
joy noise hear near dearest interfere
voice enjoy here fear nearly idea
clear beer clearly museum

Text 37A. Location o f Commercial Establishments
C om pared with other types o f land use, the total area used for
business and commercial sites is usually small. From the standpoint of
intensity o f use, rent-paying capacity, and land values, however, the
areas occupied by commercial business districts represent some o f our
most valuable lands.
Most businessmen recognize that their success or failure frequently
depends upon their choice o f a suitable business location. Accordingly,
they have a definite incentive’ to seek locations that promise them the
greatest opportunities for profit. T h eir actual decisions in this regard
are affected by a variety o f factors. Naturally, most businessmen prefer
sites that promise a high volume o f business activity. These locations
are usually found in the central business district at or near the spot
most accessible to the greatest num ber o f potential customers. But
before an operato r decides on a site, he must weigh the costs
associated with its use against its business advantages. If the added
volume o f business expected fat the 100 percent site does not exceed
the additional cost o f this site, the operator will usually find it
advisable to locate at the outskirts o f the central business district, on an
upper floor o f a dow ntow n office building, or in some outlying sector
of the city.
Other factors may also favor locations away from the downtown area.
A neighborhood grocer or druggist locates away from the central district
so that he may better supply the needs o f the people living in his
particular neighborhood. Interior decorators and exclusive millinery or
ladies wear shops usually cater to the tastes o f upper-incom e groups and
often find it desirable to locate near the homes of this group. Furniture
stores, laundries, and dry cleaning establishments frequently locate on
the outskirts of the business district or in the suburbs because o f their
space requirements and their need for lower rents and more adequate
221
parking facilities than are often available in central shopping districts.
O ther establishments such as lumber and coal yards, warehouses, and
freight depots have large space requirements and must usually locate
along railroads or waterways.
Text 37B. An Urban Land Use Pattern
In the idealized urban land use pattern, most business,
professional, a n d co m m ercial activity takes place in the central
business district aro u n d the 100 percent spot. This general situation
holds in most small cities. Significant co ncen tratio n s o f com m ercial
activity also are found in the central business districts o f larger cities.
These cities typically have experienced considerable decentralization
o f th eir retail activities. Several factors including the flight of
n u m ero us upper — an d m iddle -in co m e families to the suburbs,
increasing urban area size, shopper convenience, the acceptan ce of
stan dard brands that can be purchased just as easily at outlying
locations as at 100 percent sites. W idespread ow nership an d use of
autom obiles, concern over parking problem s in congested downtown
areas, and decreasing reliance upo n the urban mass transportation
facilities that radiate from central business districts have favored local
shopping center d evelopm ents that cater to n eighb orh ood an d m ulti
neigh borh oo d needs.
Central business districts grow and expand in response to dem and for
the services they provide. These districts are not always found at the
exact geographic center o f the city. However, they are almost always
found near the hub of the city’s traffic and transportation system and at
sites both accessible and convenient to large numbers of people.
Considerable concentrations of people are attracted to these districts
during business hours. This contributes to high volumes o f retail and
other business activity, which in turn result in intensive land-use
practices, high rents, an d high land values.
Street sites around 100 percent spots ordinarily are used for retailing
purposes. Large office buildings, banks, hotels, and first-run theaters
also tend to congregate around this point. Among the retailing
establishments, the central shopping district is a focal point for large
departm ent stores, apparel shops, variety stores, restaurants, drugstores,
and the various specialty shops that serve the many shoppers who flock
to this district. Surrounding the area of most intensive retail activity-and
often interpenetrating it-are a num ber of less intensive retail uses.
Furniture, music, radio and television, sporting goods, and army surplus
stores often appear in this class. The high dem and for parking space
favors the use o f considerable areas within and around the central
shopping district for parking lots.
222
Text 37C. The Central Business Area
As the central business area merges into the wholesale and light-
manufacturing district or into the slum and rooming-house area, there
appear the lowest grade of central business uses-pawnshop, food store,
pool hall and beer garden, burlesque house, automotive supply shop,
shoe repairer, cheap photographer, and cheap restaurant. In the
direction o f the better residential areas, the retail area tapers off in
specialty shops, food stores, restaurants, gift shops, small m e n ’s and
wom en’s apparel stores, and automotive showrooms.
Sites near the 100 percent spot supposedly offer the greatest
opportunities for profitable use. They tend to have the highest site values
and co m m and the highest rents. The use-capacity and profit
opportunities associated with the surrounding areas often decline rather
rapidly. Sites located a few blocks away on a main street, a block away
on a back street, or only a few floors above the street may have only a
fraction of the incom e-producing value of a ground-floor location near
a strategic business corner.
The scarcity factor in this situation causes considerable bidding and
counter bidding between firms and operators for the choice locations.
This process often results in land-use patterns in which retail space is
allocated in accordance with the rent-paying capacities of the various
operators. This pattern is seldom stable. New adjustments are always
taking place. Operators are, often tem pted by the opportunities
suggested by site vacancies in the 100 percent district. Very few o f them,
however, can estimate the exact effect a move may have upon their
volume of business. As a result, most site bids involve an element of trial
and error. Some blind bids turn out very favorably. Others sometimes
involve higher rental com m itm ents than the operators can pay and
eventually result in (bankruptcy, closing-out, and removal sales, and in
the vacating o f sites for use by new operators.
EXERCISES
commercial sites, intensity o f use, rent-paying capacity, land value,
commercial business district, most valuable lands, success of failure,
suitable business location, greatest opportunities for profit, high volume.
exercise VII.
1. In the model urban land-use pattern most business and
commercial activity takes place in...
223
2. In most small cities the situation...
3. Central business districts grow in response to...
4. During business hours considerable concentration of people...
5. Large office buildings, banks, hotels, and first run theatres also...
6. The central shopping district is a focal point for...
7. The high dem and for parking space favors...
X. Put 6 questions to the text 37C and answer them in English in
written form.
denoting places.
1. A dairy is a place where milk is converted into butter and cheese.
2. A bakery is a place where bread and cakes are made.
3. An abattoir is a place where animals are slaughtered for the market.
4. A brewery is a factory for manufacturing beer.
5. A distillery is a place where spirituous liquors are produced.
6. A laundry is a place where clothes are washed and ironed.
1. Most businessmen know that their success o f failure often... their
choice o f a suitable business location.
2. They are interested in locations that promise them... opportunities
for profit.
3. They prefer... that promise a high volume o f business activity.
4. Business locations are usually... in the central business district
where there is the greatest num ber o f potential customers.
5. Business which have large space requirements must usually... along
railways or waterways.
1. По сравнению с другими видами зем лепользования деловые
и коммерческие центры размещают на небольших площадях.
2. Больш инство предпринимателей предпочитают вести свой
бизнес в местах большого скоплен и я людей, чтобы иметь больше
потенциальных клиентов.
3. Однако разм ещ ение предприятий по обслуживанию элиты
возможно вблизи богатых районов или особняков состоятельных
людей.
4. Поскольку эти земли и нтенсивно используются, они п р и н о
сят большие доходы и характеризуются высокой арендной платой.
1. These locations promise the businessmen the greatest
opportunities for profit.
2. This locations may be seen as a promise o f high volumes of
business activity.
224
3. Considerable investments will result in large profits it they start
their commercial activity in this location.
4. The result of their business here is quite sufficient.
5. This land use is very expensive because of its location.
6. Most businessmen tend to use land in this district o f the capital.

intensive, most valuable, failure, suitable, definite, greatest, actual,
advantage, central, upper, outskirts, outside, interior, adequate, along.

Text 37D. Industrial Sites Location
Industrial location decisions often involve noneconom ic
considerations. Most industrial plants start as small businesses. As such,
they are usually started in the operator’s home com m unity at a site that
is both available and convenient him. The plant owners who choose
these locations are often motivated personal conditions and preferences.
Many of the sites they select enjoy considerable comparative advantage.
With good management and the smile of fortune, businesses located at
these locations often prosper and expand while businesses founded in
less favorable locations frequently fail.
One cannot assume, however, that all industries that start at
unfavorable locations are doom ed to mediocrity or failure. An investor
with a new idea, a new industry with exceptional business management,
an ambitious city with strong leadership, or some historical accident
such as a large government investment in a defense industry can often
compensate.
Following this line of thought, one might argue that many of our
leading industries could have found more profitable sites than those at
which they have developed. The automobile industry of Detroit and the
rubber industry of Akron, for example, might have found it more
profitable to locate at sites closer to their sources of material supply. Once
these industries were established, however, they attracted skilled labor
forces and developed industrial economies that gave these cities a relative
advantage over potential competitive sites. M uch of the success enjoyed
by these industries can be attributed to these m an-m ade advantages and
to their favorable location with respect to their major markets.
Institutional arrangements such as favorable public regulations and tax
policies, far-sighted planning for the provision of needed utilities and local
services, and programs that contribute to civic pride and enhancem ent of
local amenity values also can add to comparative advantage.
Section VI
ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECT OF LAND USE
Unit 38
LAND USE PLANNING AND ENVIRONMENT
decade n десятилетие
witness n свидетель, свидетельство / / v свидетельствовать, быть
свидетелем
attitude п отнош ение
demand п потребность, спрос / / v требовать
be aware of быть осведомленным, знать, оценивать, отдавать
себе отчет в чем-либо
survey п 1. съемка; 2. обследование
impact п толчок, удар, нажим, столкновение / / v 1. плотно сж и
мать; 2. {in, into) прочно укреплять
worse п худшее
worse а сравнит, сте п е н ь от bad / / adv ср авн и т, степень от
badly
worsen v 1. ухудшать (ся); 2. побеждать, низлагать
weaken v 1. ослаблять (ся); 2. поддаваться, сдаваться
gain п 1. выгода, прибыль; 2. рост, прирост / / v 1. приобретать,
зарабатывать; 2. улучшать; 3. достигать, продвигаться вперед
II. Write down the following verbs. Underline prefixes and suffixes.
Translate the verbs into Russian:
witness, overlook, impact, dominate, regain, worsen, return, reward,
prepare, decentralize, represent, react, integrate, determine, influence
and weaken.

_____—-— ' leave, least, each
ea [i:] leam, earth
-— great, bread
i[i] live
[ a i ] ---------alive
226
M onday [Л]
о morning [ э :]
move, prove [u]
/ bag [ a e ]
wash, was, watch [э]
a name [ei]
fare [еэ]
^ walk |p:]

Text 38A. Land Use Planning and Environment
Following the expansive period o f the 1960s the decade of 1960—70
witnessed a general introduction of ecology in land use planning, a new
conservation attitude among planners, politicians and the noblesse, and
an increasing dem and for scientific knowledge and insight, which had
formerly been largely overlooked environmental awareness, new types
of survey methods and new systematic planning approaches were typical
of this decade, which saw the development o f suitability and capability
maps, conflict and environmental impact assessment.
Although, these approaches were still valid in land use planning, in
the 1980s we faced a somewhat different situation. The forces of
development have regained much o f their relative dominance, due to
the worsened econom ic situation, the will and ability to sacrifice
economic gains to long range ecological considerations have been
weakened, and at the same time the status o f the rational planning
approaches o f the 1970s has been questioned by social scientists as well
as by politicians.
Land use planning may be seen as an art o f compromising between
several interests, which may be compatible or incompatible. The general
purpose o f comprehensive planning is to identify the characteristics of
the land area in question, the direct and indirect interests involved, their
compatibility, alternative solutions and their possible impacts and thus
prepare the base for sound, long range political decisions, that involve
public participation. The type of planning depends upon the general
political system in a particular country and the actual planning
structure, which may be identified as a set of ranges:
strong G overnm ent — free enterprise
centralized authority — decentralized authority
authority through representation — public participation
strategic planning — reactive planning
continuous planning — with time limited planning gradual revisions
goal oriented planning — process oriented planning
227
sectoral planning — integrated planning
development planning — adjustment planning
The position o f planning on these scales determines the degree of
participation, comprehensiveness and effectiveness o f the actual
planning process. In recent years, there has been a certain tendency to
shift from left to right on these scales.
Planning theory and planning practice differ from country to country
in accordance with political systems and the influence exercised by the
principal actors: professional planners, politicians and the public. The
entire planning process, from data collection to decision making, is
related to the value systems of these actors, and their activity in the
planning procedure.
Text 38B. Environmental Planning is Necessary
Only two kinds o f landscape are fully satisfying. One is primeval
nature undisturbed by man; we shall have less and less of it as the world
population increases. The other is one in which man has toiled and
created through trial and error a kind o f harmony between himself and
the physical environment. What we long for is rarely nature in the raw;
more often it is an atmosphere suited to hum an limitations, and
determ ined by emotional aspirations engendered during centuries of
civilized life. The charm of the New England or Pennsylvania Dutch
countryside should not be taken for granted, as a product of chance. It
did not result from m a n ’s conquest of nature. Rather it is the expression
of a subtle process through which the natural environment was
humanized, yet retained its own individual genius.
Air, water, soil — these simple words convey much more than
material aspects of nature. They symbolize some o f the deepest needs of
hum an life because m an is still of the earth, earthy.
Environmental planning has become necessary because man cannot
be safely dissociated from the natural forces under which he evolved and
that have molded his own unchangeable biological nature. Fortunately,
the success of certain highly organized states like Sweden indicates that
large scale and environmental planning is possible. The possibility to
plan toward esthetic qualities is even more convincing. One needs only
evoke the marvelous parks o f Europe to realize the usefulness of a long
range view in social improvements.
These parks were the creations of artists who had visualized the out
com e of their efforts with that extraordinary sense which is peculiar to
man, the imaginary vision of things to come. Several books by the great
landscape architects of the 18th century show drawings o f the European
parks as they appeared at the time of their creation, and then a century
later when the plantations had reached maturity. It is obvious that the
228
landscape architects had com posed the surfaces of water, of lawns and
flowers to fit the silhouettes of trees and the masses of shrubbery not as they
existed at the time, but as they were to become. And because man could
thus visualize the future and plan for it centuries ago, millions of hum an
beings enjoy today the great European parks and classical gardens.
To formulate alternatives for the present state of affairs is more
difficult than simply to protest against evils.
An immense am o unt of money and effort will certainly be expended
in the years to com e on programs o f environmental control. It is
therefore essential that we try, collectively to imagine the world in which
we want to live. The great periods of history have always created such
ideal images through their social philosophers and their artists.
Improving the environment should not mean only correcting
pollution or the other evils o f technological and urban growth. It should
be a creative process through which m an and nature continue to evolve
in harmony. At its highest level, civilized life is a form of exploration
which helps m an rediscovers his unity with nature.

Text 38C. Looking After the Environment
Part I
The areas covered by forest and woodland more that doubled in the
twentieth century and now covers over 10 per cent of Britain, 2 per cent
more than in 1989. The state-run Forestry Commission monitors the
health and sustainability of its forests.
In many parts o f upland Britain the Forestry Commission planted
dense squares of evergreen trees which did not fit in with the irregular
native woods, but m odem state-run forests are planted with more
thought for their effect on the environment. The National Trust was set
up in 1895. It is a voluntary society with a million and a half members
and it now owns more than 200,000 hectares, particularly in the Lake
District and North Wales. It has 190 houses open to the public, 51
villages, 38 pubs and nearly 12,000 farms. Durdle Door, on the Dorset
Coastal Path, is part of its Enterprise Neptune scheme, which protects
800 km of coast.
The North Sea is in danger of becoming poisoned to death. More
than 70 million tones of industrial waste are dum ped into it each year. If
river pollution is included, at least 50,000 different chemicals get into
the North Sea, including heavy metals like mercury, lead and arsenic,
highly poisonous chlorinated com pounds and fertilisers which can kill
fish and make shellfish unsafe to eat.
Until the 1960s, mining waste in the coalfields was left on the surfase
in ugly heaps. These are now landscaped and grassed over to provide a
safer and cleaner environment.
229
The disposal of nuclear and other dangerous wastes continues to be a
problem as available land decreases. It is estimated that an area of
countryside the size of London disappears into urban, industrial and
recreational use every twelve years.
The United Kingdom is responsible for 2 per cent o f the m an-m ade
carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere. Unlike most European
countries, it has managed to reduce emissions of this greenhouse gas,
which contributes to global warming, but G erm any has been much more
successful in doing so. T he goal is to cut carbon dioxide emissions to
80 per cent o f the 1990 level by the year 2010. The United Kingdom is
also committed to the United Nations Kioto Protocol signed in 1997. It
must reduce emissions o f six greenhouse gases to 87.5 per cent of the
1990 level by the year 2012.
EXERCISES

expansive period, new conservation attitude, increasing dem and,
scientific knowledge, environmental impact assessment, different
situation, relative dom inance, ecological considerations, social,
scientists, general purpose.

exercise VII.

1. We are fully satisfied with only two....
2. As the world population increases we shall have less and less
nature....
3. In some places o f the planet we enjoy the harmony....
4. Environmental planning has become necessary because....
5. Several books by the great landscape architects of the 18th century
show....
6. It is more difficult to formulate alternatives for the present state of
affairs than....
7. A big am ount of effort and investment will certainly be expended
in the years only....
8. Correcting population is not the only....
X. Put 6 questions to the text 38C and answer them in English in

written form.

remember words denoting places:
1. A garage is a place for housing motor-cars.
230
2. A hangar is a place for housing airplanes.
3. An inn or a hotel is a place where strangers or travelers may obtain
lodging and refreshment.
4. A hostel is a house for the residence o f students.
5. A library is a place where books are kept.
XII. Insert the proper words and translate the following sentences into
Russian:
1. Land use planning may be considered as ... of compromising
between several interests, which may be compatible or incompatible.
2. The type o f planning depends upon ... in a particular country as
well as the actual planning structure.
3. Planning theory and ... practice differ from country to country in
accordance with political system and the influence exercised by planners
and society.
4. The entire planning process starts with....
5. The general purpose o f comprehensive planning is... the
characteristics o f the land area in question, the interests involved, their
compatibility, alternative solutions and their possible impacts.
6. The base for sound long range political decisions can be created
only if public participation is....

1. Воздух, вода, почва — для нас это не просто «материалы», из
которых состоит природа, а нечто гораздо более важное, си м в о л и
зирующее наш и настоящ ие потребности на земле.
2. Планировать использование окруж ающ ей среды необходи
мо, если мы хотим сохранить гармонию между человеком и его
средой обитания.
3. П ример Ш веци и показывает, что крупномасш табное п л а н и
рование с целью охраны окружаю щей среды вполне осуществимо.
4. Улучшение окружающей среды следует рассматривать как
творческий, созидательный процесс, посредством которого чело
век и природа эволю ционирую т гармонично.
1. There may be some conflict between development planning and
environmental planning.
2. These dates conflict with our plans.
3. We are discussing strong conflicts o f two firm’s management.
4. The firms contracted their deal.
5. The students group is expecting a transfer to another place o f their
vocational training.
6. This landowner will transfer his property to his wife.
231
valid, different, ability, weaken, approach, compatible, direct,
possible, strong, oriented, rarely, suit, revolve, personal, create.
XVI. Write down your own essay on environmental problems in your

district (or wherever you live).
Uni t 39
URBANIZATION AND ENVIRONMENT
distructive а разруш ительный, деструктивный
detract v умалять, уменьшать, отнимать
relieve v уменьшать давление, тяжесть, освобождать, разгружать
enhance v повышать, увеличивать, усиливать
ramify v разделяться, разветвляться, распространяться
соре v справиться, совладать
dignity п достоинство
wretch а жалкий, несчастный
threaten v угрожать
congestion п скопление, затор
extremely adv чрезмерно, крайне, чрезвычайно
incinerator п крематорий, мусоросжигательная станция
II. Explain how the following words are formed. Write down the words
and underline suffixes. Translate the words into Russian:
urbanization, destructive, environment, attractive, government,
pollution, universal, threatening, physical, mental, externally,
intensification, throughout, forestry, recreation, accessibility,
contradiction.

- cial [jal] — commercial, artificial, social, special
- cient [jant] - sufficient, efficient, coefficient
- tion [Jn] — cultivation, legislation, position, situation
- sion [jn] — decision, conclusion, intrusion

Text 39A. Urbanization and Environment
Part I
Urbanization is not in principle destructive to the environment. With
planning and control, and if it were proceeding at a lower rate, it could
232
enhance and not detract from environmental quality — by relieving in
pressure on rural lands, by providing goods and services in quantity and
diversity, and by providing new and attractive habitats and ways o f life.
However, in most areas, governments have neither prepared for nor they
have been able to the mass migration into urban areas. In the large
cities, slums of the most wretched nature have often become the
environment o f people who once lived in greater dignity and better
health on rural lands. Pollution of air, water and land, concentrated in
urban areas, have become universal problems, threatening m a n ’s health.
Diseases associated with urban living in developing nations have
increased greatly despite advances in medicine. And, finally, the noise
and congestion of cities add to physical and mental distress.
The environmental impact of urbanization is of two major kinds: that
external to the city proper and that within the city. Externally the
greatest effect o f spreading urbanization has been the intensification of
pollution which spreads from the cities outward to have its effects
throughout the biosphere. Secondly, the spread o f cities and the
transportation networks that connect them have effected all o f the lands
that surround the metropolis and these through which transport
corridors pass. Because urban uses are given a higher economic value
than other, less intensive forms of land use, they tend to displace these
other uses. Lands that could be best used for agriculture, forestry or
recreation are often used for urban purposes because of their
accessibility or ease of development. O ther lands that could better be
used for urban development may be by-passes in the process. Lack of
planning and control over land use are the reasons for this contradiction
but in face o f extremely rapid urban growth, planning and control
become difficult.
Text 39B. Urbanization and Environment
Part II
The conflict between urban uses and high, non-urban values has
been particularly severe in those cities that develop along the edge of
lakes, rivers or estuaries. Often the physical spread o f the city leads to
dredging and filling in of previously valuable and productive aquatic
areas. Always the consequences of urban pollution on such
environments are severe. Along sea coasts and estuaries in particular,
damage to the aquatic environment can have far — reaching
consequences. Often the productivity of major ocean fisheries and of
broad areas of the open ocean depends upon the continued functioning
of the estuaries and near shore region. When these are damaged by
urban growth or pollution, major natural values are affected.
233
The m odem metropolis draws, for its resources, upon great areas of
land and water distributed widely throughout the biosphere. Thus, for its
water supply alone the city o f Los Angeles draws on watersheds
hundreds o f miles away. Its other needs, for food and fuel, for example,
are supplied from around the works in turn the products and by
products o f urban life ramify throughout the biosphere. A balanced
relationship between the city and its global environment is therefore of
major importance for any programme o f rational use and conservation
o f the total hum an environment.
Although the external effects o f urbanization are impressive most
people are directly affected by the environment within the city itself.
Although this has rarely been o f high quality it has under the pressure of
too rapid growth and the Consequent breakdown in urban functions
become increasingly unsatisfactory to the people involved. Pollution
has, o f course, been a major contributor to the dec line o f environmental
quality within the city, but it is not alone. Crowding and congestion in
themselves can have wide-ranging physical and psychological
consequences which we are only beginning to understand. Housing has
generally been inadequate in most rapidly growing cities. N ot only has
there been a spread o f slums within the city proper, but most cities in the
developing world have developed a ring o f shanty towns in which even
the most primitive urban services are lacking.
The problems o f urbanization are now far beyond the capacity o f city
governments to handle. They have become national problems which
require a high degree o f international cooperation if they are to be
successfully surmounted. The cost o f providing even the most
m inim um , essential environm ent that will permit a healthy, productive
life for the city dwellers o f the world must be measured in many hundred
thousands o f millions o f pounds. N o other environmental problem, save
the related one o f pollution control, will require such a major share of
effort and energy in the decades that lie ahead.

Text 39C. Looking After the Environment
Part II
Although Britain is densely populated, it still has large areas o f open
countryside, including National Parks, areas o f outstanding natural
beauty an d Royal Parks. M any special sites are protected because they
are o f architectural or historical value, for example Stonehendge. In
addition to the G o ve rn m en t’s Departm ent o f the Environment there are
a num ber o f voluntary organizations which are involved in protecting
buildings and the countryside.
Over the last twenty years there have been changes in patterns of
agriculture and urban development. Traditional heavy industries such as
234
iron and steel have declined and inner-city areas have declined with
them. At the same time, new towns have been built and the pressure on
the countryside from roads and houses has increased. People have
moved away from the big cities and there has been a battle to keep parts
of the «Green Belt» from development.
Changes in agriculture have meant bigger farms with bigger fields,
with less room for plants and wildlife in hedges, and an increased danger
of soil erosion in some areas. Mineral workings, intensive forestry and
the use o f nitrates in fertilizers, as well as the general increase in the
amount o f pesticides, have created concern for the future.
In some ways, Britain is a less polluted country than it was thirty
years ago. Coal burning is strictly controlled in areas like London, which
no longer suffers the poisonous smogs that killed people in the 1950s.
Attempts have been made to landscape areas o f wasteland, to repair and
restore the old canals and to clean up Britain’s rivers. But despite these
efforts various serious threats to the environm ent remain: acid rain
caused partly by sulphur emissions from power stations, the rise in the
number o f cars and lorries on the roads, the pullution of the sea, the
destruction of old buildings and the spread of housing. There is
continuing debate on the safety o f nuclear power stations and the
possibility o f alternative sources o f energy.

slower rate; environmental quality; pressure on rural lands; providing
goods; attractive habitats; mass migration; wretched nature; universal
problems; developing nations; environmental impact; intensification of
pollution; urban purposes; urban development; urban growth; urban
control; urban planning.

exercise VII.

1. The consequences o f urban pollution on previously valuable and
productive aquatic areas are...
2. Damage to the aquatic environment can have...
3. F or it’s water supply alone the city of Los Angeles draws on
watersheds...
4. In turn the products and by-products o f urban life...
5. A balanced relationship between the city and its global
environment is o f major importance for...
6. Housing has generally been inadequate in most...
7. The problems o f urbanization are now far beyond...

form.
235
remember words denoting places:
1. Archives is a place where G overnm ent records are kept.
2. A factory is a place where any manufacture is carried on.
3. A laboratory is a place where scientific experiments are conducted.
4. An incinerator is a place where house refuse is reduced to ashes.
5. A gymnasium is a place where athletic exercises are performed.
1. In principle urbanization is not... to the environment.
2. In most areas governments are not able... the mass migration into
urban areas.
3. The noise and congestion in cities add to physical and... distress.
4. Externally the greatest effect of spreading... is the intensification of
pollution which spreads from the cities outward to have its effects
throughout the biosphere.
5. The spread of cities and the... network effects all o f the lands that
surround the metropolis an d the cities through which transport corridors
pass.

1. С ростом городов планирование и контроль за состоянием
окруж ающ ей среды становятся все более затруднительными.
2. Н епреры вны й рост потребностей в сырье приводит к оттор
ж ени ю земель, занятых сельскохозяйственными или лесн ы м и уго
дьями.
3. С толкновение интересов в области использования городских
земель и земель сельскохозяйственного назначения чаще всего
происходит там, где эти земли располагаются по берегам рек, озер
или лим анов, вблизи устьев рек.
1. The conflict between urban uses and no n-urban values has been
particularly severe in those cities that develop in productive aquatic
areas.
2. The terms the firm’s managers suggested last m onth conflicted with
my plans.
3. This farm produce can be bought at the market o f the nearest town.
4. They produce all kinds o f agricultural equipment.
5. The spread o f the settlement and the road network have effected
all o f the lands that surround it.
6. The greatest effect of spreading urbanization has been the
intensification o f pollution which spreads o f the cities outward.
236
high, severe, along, often, previously, open, continue, tribute, local,
within, rapid, alone, primitive, beyond, m inimum, destructive, slower,
external.

Text 39D. The Suburbs
The suburb was regarded for some time as the answer to most urban
problems, but by the thirties the continued outward growth of cities was
causing widespread alarm because o f «ribbon development» and the loss
of open countryside. Sprawling cities with six and seven figure
population were posing unprecedented problems, and solution some
scholars had advocated began to receive widespread support. In its
essentials, this scheme was one o f decentralization: the breaking down
of the super-city into a city cluster, each part o f which would be a
separate entity, divided by open country from its neighbours and with its
own industry and social facilities. These separate garden cities would
never be allowed to grow beyond 30,000 or so, and would be
interconnected by «rapid transit». At the centre o f each would be a park,
and in each all industry would be banished to a peripheral belt. The land
would be purchased at agricultural values and kept by the city fathers
under one ownership in such a way that most of the enhanced value
consequent upon development eventually accrued to the com m unity as
a whole. In the decentralized old city itself, parks and public buildings
would take the place o f slums, and further growth would take the form
of additional «daughter» cities.
There were also those who urged rather the wholesale reconstruction
of the city into new multi-storey forms capable o f containing huge
populations within a manageable area.
Uni t 40
PRESERVATION OF LAND RESOURCES
preservation n сохранение, предохранение; заповедник
concept n к он ц еп ци я, общее представление
utilization п использование
conserve v сохранять, предохранять; сберегать
destroy v разрушать, уничтожать, истреблять
waste v портить; напрасно тратить; истощаться
undermine v подрывать
prevent v предотвращать
excessive а чрезмерный
leach v выщелачивать
endow v наделять, одарять
spoil v портить
restoration п восстановление
derelict а заброш енны й, покинутый
safeguard v охранять
II. Explain how the following words are formed. Write down the words
and underline suffixes. Translate the words into Russian:
a) defined, preserved, utilized, used, secured, underlined, tried,
destroyed, opened, caused, involved, applied, increased, provided,
renewed, filled, created, produced, measured, planted;
b) wooded, honeyed, bearded, pillared, powdered.

er term, conserve, concern, reserve, intern, preserve, fertility
fir, sir, third, first
ur }• [э:] fur, turn, further
yr J myrtle
e+re [ia] here, sphere
but. were [wa:]

Text 40A. Land Resources N eed Conservation
The concept of land conservation may be defined as the preservation
and better utilization o f land resources for present and future
generations. «Conserve» is in contrast to «destroy» or «waste». The idea
of conservation means that land resources should be used but used
wisely.
The proper, sound and full use of land resources is secured by the
State Land Use Control. The land use planner is to discourage land uses
that undermine the productive capacity of land and to prevent the waste
of land resources. Our wealth of land resources must be used for the
maximum benefit of Soviet people now and in future.
M an has long tried primitive methods of land conservation.
Excessive cultivation and grazing destroyed the natural cover, caused
increased leaching and opened up soils to more erosion danger.
Land conservation has become the prime concern of land use
planners. The approvable concept of making use of nature involves
applying scientific and technological achievements to land conservation.
The land fertility must be conserved and increased by wise land uses.
Until the middle o f the XIX century, world agricultural development
was associated with the expansion o f cultivated land Since then it has
been dependent largely on the intensified exploitation of existing
238
cultivated areas. But the technologies o f the Green Revolution such as
extensive use o f agrochemical an d increased dependence on improved
breeds, that made exploitation possible, have given rise to adverse side
effects. These include soil pollution and the disruption o f soil-seated
biological processes. They cannot fail to point up possible constraints for
the future. At the same time, millions o f acres o f once productive soil are
turned into desert each year, their fragile ecosystems destroyed by
increased hum an pressure and ecologically unsound development
practices. M an may have already transformed as much as 10 pert cent of
all ice-free lands into desert and reduced grobal vegetation by one-third.
In many areas we may be even closer to the outer limits o f available
freshwater supplies than o f arable land. Possible underground waters are
nonrenewable resources. Their depletion is apparent in many parts of
the world. In other regions renewable supplies are being drawn upon
more rapidly than they can be replenished by the natural system. Those
of the world’s river system that are suitable for irrigation are currently
being used for this purpose, often without regard for a dropping water
level. Desalinization o f seawater to make up the deficit remains
uneconomic in most places and energy-intensive everywhere. Almost
every country in the world has some kind o f freshwater supply problem.
There is, accordingly, a universal need for inexpensive and simple water
purification and processing technologies.
There are no instances in which a policy o f safeguarding or even-
saving land resources is not profitable. From the standpoint o f our needs
land conservation programs are always profitable.
V. Read the text and translate it into Russian. Write down 6 questions
and answer them in English.
Text 40B. Three Dimensions o f Land Conservation
Land conservation plays an important role in farming. The further
intensification o f agricultural production needs a strong land resource
base. The conservation o f land resources is realized within three
dimensions physical, economic, and legal. The land use planning both
infarm and interfarm has to deal with these three dimensions.
The physical dimension of land conservation is concerned with what
is possible in terms o f land uses. It includes the kinds of plants needed
for land conservation, the yields of various plants, cultivation methods,
applications o f water and fertilizers and the rates o f applying them.
Land conservation has a wide range o f various practices, such as
contouring, strip cropping and mulching. It often needs capital
investment in such workings as terracing and water-retention structures.
The planners have to investigate the effects o f these workings on crop
yields, run-off, erosion, siltation, infiltration, and the like.
The range o f possibilities of land conservation is being extended
239
constantly through research and developments in science and
technology. But before the recom m endations are made the planners
consider the economic dimensions of proposed measures. The
economic dimensions of land conservation are constantly changing
through the changes in scientific and technological progress. They
include cost-benefit analysis, the am ount of present and long-term
benefits, costs of productive factors, and relationship between labor and
capital needed to provide land conservation.
Finally, attention is given to legal dimensions of land conservation.
The legal dimensions consist o f a set of rules and laws concerning land
conservation.
The land use planner should be aware of all laws and rules which are
reflected in the Land Code and the decisions of local bodies. Legal
provisions of land conservation should be further developed, particularly
concerning the conservation of prime or unique lands which are of
crucial importance to agriculture.
The three dimensions of land conservation must be considered and
implemented through a sound land use plan.
It is hard to overestimate the economic effects of land conservation.
Land conservation provides for additional farm production which is
usually large enough to offset the added costs on land improvement.
VI. Read the text and translate it into written form.
Text 40C. Environmental Problems o f Land Conservation
Land conservation problems sometimes call for much the same

measures that are aimed at improving the environment. Environmental
problems crowd the farm land from several directions.
Some of the important problems arise because o f the movement of
undesirable odors, smoke and chemical substances. This tendency is
known as air pollution.
Many large cities together with num erous rural areas are now
plagued with air pollution problems. These are old problems. They are
complicated and aggravated by adding the fumes from automobiles and
the smoke and chemical wastes from manufacturing and smelting
plants.
Some of the worst damage from chemical substances has been caused
by the sulphur dioxide fumes given off by smelting plants. The smelter
fumes may injure vegetation as far as 15 kilometres from the plant. High
and increasing concentrations of sulphur and other chemicals in the air
sooner or later have an effect on land fertility and plant growth.
The quality of farm land may be also affected by water pollution,
particularly by accum ulation o f heavy metals in the soils through waste
disposal. Pollutants may be tied in with irrigation or excessive use of
240
fertilizers. Excessive nutrients, salts, pesticides, organics in soils may
limit the utility o f the land. W ater tem p erature increase from certain
agricultural related activities may also dam age the fertility o f the
soils.
Land can be conserved and pollution reduced in sereval ways by
prevention of erosion, and by providing measures to control
transpiration and evaporation, stream regulations, storage reservoirs,
diversion from surplus to shortage areas and reuse o f water. Water
conservation practices and control of sediment and pollution secure the
wise use of land resources.
The State Land Use Control is responsible for land conservation
measures by all users. The range o f such activities are broadening all the
time.
EXERCISES
VII. Give the Russian equivalents. Make up short sentences using

these word combinations:
in contract; state land use control; primitive methods; human
activities; black earth; cultivation methods; an important role;
intensification of agricultural production; the yields of various plants,
water puritication, cultivated land, hum an pressure, global vegetation,
arable land.
VIII. Read the sentences and underline Participle I forms. What are
their functions in the sentences? Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. This departm ent is studying the problems of land conservation.
2. The professor is speaking on land problems and underlining the
importance of land conservation. 3. By applying scientific and
technological methods our specialists try to improve soil productivity.
4. Trying primitive methods man has long dreamed of land
conservation. 5. Having planned reclamation measures the collective
farmers have given renewed life to a vast area of land. 6. The earth over
the deposits is removed and stored in its original pattern depending on
the degree of its use in agriculture.
IX. Complete the following sentences using texts 40B and 40C:
1. Both infarm and interfarm land use planning has to deal with ....
2. The physical dimension includes .... 3. Land conservation has a wide
range of various practices, such as .... 4. The economic dimensions of
proposed measures are considered by the planners before ... 5. The
economic dimensions o f land conservation include .... 6. Some of the
worst damage from chemical substances are caused by.... 7. The quality
of farm land is also affected by....
241
land use control; productive capacity of land; excessive cultivation;
iron ore deposits; to pioneer; reclaimed fields; future generation;
partially usable earth; life-giving black earth.
XI. Form Present Participles from the verbs given below and use them
in short sentences.
to secure, to control, to discourage, to prevent, to leach, to cultivate,
to make, to provide, to endow, to create, to represent, to remove, to
store, to graze.
XII. Insert the proper words. Translate sentences into Russian.

1. «Conserve» is in ... to «destroy» or «waste». 2. The utilization of
land resources is ... by the State Land Use Control service. 3. Excessive
cultivation and excessive grazing usually ... the natural land cover.
4. Land conservation is the prime...of land use planners. 5. The fertility
o f land must be ... and increased by wise land use. 6. Land use planners
... many different environmental problems.
XIII. Translate the following sencences into English. Write down the
sentences you have just translated:
1. Говоря об охране почв, необходимо прежде всего точно о п
ределить, какие мероприятия следует проводить и в каком поряд
ке. 2. Большую полезную работу по рекультивации земель прово
дят на юге страны. 3. На восстановленных землях при правильном
их использовании мож но добиться высоких урожаев. 4. Д ля земле
устроителя чрезвычайно важно учитывать все экон ом ически е ф а к
торы в системе.
XIV Write down what part of speech the words in bold prints are and
1. To conserve land is the main task of all the generations, present
and future. 2. Land conservation means extremely wise utilization of
land resources. 3. By conserving land resources we increase the wealth of
our nation. 4. Dreaming o f land conservation m an tried many primitive
methods o f land preservation. 5. M a n ’s dream o f land conservation is
now coming true. 6. Excessive grazing destroys the natural land cover.
7. Destroying the natural land cover by overgrazing we increase the
danger o f soil erosion.
XV. Write down the synonyms and translate them into Russian:
preservation, utilization, to destroy, wise, remote, to involve, earth,
to reclaim, frequently, benefit, different.
242
Environmental Protection o f Land Resources
— Why does the land-use planner pay m uch attention to
environmental problems?
— The quality o f land for agricultural and other uses depends on the
quality of the entire environment.
— Why do the land-use planners lace so many environmental
problems?
— Environmental problems are numerous. They crowd the land
resources from several directions. They are often tied with the main
reasons: the intensification o f industrial and agricultural production and
other human activities.
— Why do the fertilizers threaten the quality o f land resources?
— When industrially produced fertilizers were first introduced it was
thought that the minerals would dissolve in rainwater and would be
entirely absorbed by plant roots. But it now appears that this was a fairly
serious oversimplification, for the effectiveness o f any fertilizer depends
very m uch on soil. The unwise use o f fertilizers threatens the quality of
agricultural lands.
— What is the effect o f large doses o f chemical fertilizers?
— Large doses o f chemical fertilizers reduce the organic strength,
affect the natural availability o f nutrients and have an adverse effect on
microorganisms in the soil. There is a tendency in some areas to use
treated sewage (city sludge) as soil fertilizer. This can be done to a
point. But a high concentration o f heavy metals in such sludge may
threaten the quality o f soil if its application is repeated on the same
acreage.
— What are the effects o f chemical residues on land resources?
— Much has been done to avoid the effects of chemical industries on
land resources. But there are still some industries that dum p chemical
residues into special dumping grounds. Land there becomes hazardous
for most other uses. Land conservation calls for more careful treatment
of chemical residues.
— Why should the land use planners take care o f air pollution?
— It is quite a serious problem. Take, for example the already high
and still increasing concentration o f sulphur and other chemicals in the
air. Sooner or later it has an effect on plant growth and the quality of
land.
— Why is m uch attention paid to re-cycling of waste materials now?
— This problem is of great importance. M uch has already been
done in this field. Recycling o f waste materials protects the
agricultural land uses. The m atter is by no m eans simple. Recycling
requires m u ch energy. And we are to develop further the energy
production.
243
— What knowledge does a land use planner need to deal with
environmental problems?
— The prime concern of a land use planner is keeping the land
resources in such a shape that they would remain productive and stable
for hum an purposes as long as possible. The land use planner should
therefore be aware o f the basic ecological problems. He needs
information from a wide range of disciplines — agronomy, biology,
ecology, economics, engineering, forestry, law, statistics, soils, etc.
Unit 41
ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF LAND USE AND CROPPING
PATTERNS
pattern n модель, шаблон; образец; форма, узор
cultivate v обрабатывать (землю)
loss п потеря
open p it карьер
hay п сено
evident а очевидный
yield п урожай; надой
humid а влажный
prevent v предотвращать
deteriorate v ухудшать, портить, нарушать
drop v ронять; падать
vineyard п виноградник
salt-affected засоленны е (почвы)
log п бревно
waterlogged а заболоченны й
subsidiary а подсобное (хозяйство)
flexibility п гибкость
slightly adv слегка, немного
pest п вредитель, паразит
pulse п бобовые
I I . Explain how the following words are formed, write them down,
underlining suffixes. Translate the words into Russian:
cropping, acreage, uncultivated, settlement, railway, open-pit mines,
increased, administrative, infrastructure, productivity, vineyard,
grassland, fishpond, sunflower, reconstruction, salt-affected, floodplain,
waterlogged, represent, mechanization, degradation, sub-surface,
microscale, variability.
244
[u:]
put look who chose
pull cook too soon
full stood two cool
good push do school
foot could whose blue
wood woman food true
book football move fruit
took sugar moon through

Text 41 A. Environm ental Aspects o f Land Use and Cropping Patterns
Part I
Changes in Hungary’s land use and cropping patterns between 1950
and 1988 are shown in special literature. The following changes are
evident:
a) The acreage o f uncultivated land (e.g. settlements, roads, railways,
open-pit mines, industrial enterprises, water ways, etc.) increased from
7.8 % to 11.6 %. This means the loss of about 335,000 ha of agricultural
land, which area is equal to the size of a small Hungarian county
(administrative region). The normal social development requires about
6,000—7,000 ha per year urban and rural infrastructure which has to be
concentrated to the places of lower productivity, if it is acceptable from
other aspects as well.
b) The loss of arable land am ounted to nearly 790,000 ha, dropping
from 59.3 % to 50.6 %. Vineyards also decreased from 2.5 % to 1.5 %
(with about 90,000 ha), in spite o f the efforts in the reconstruction
programme of traditional vine producing areas.
c) Grasslands diminished from 15.9% to 12.9%, amounting to
240,000 ha.
In Hungary the majority o f grasslands is on land sites with low
productivity (salt-affected, sandy and shallow soils, river floodplains,
waterlogged areas, etc.) and in most of the cases represent an extensive
land use with low animal carrying capacity (pastures) and low (1.0—
1.5 t/h a) hay yield.
and answer them in English.
Text 41B. Changes in L and Use fo r Gardens and Forests
There has been a considerable increase in the am ount of land used
245
In the seventies large-scale orchards (m ainly applied plantations)
were established because o f the existing and promising fruit export
possibilities. Later on, this rapid increase proved to be irrational due
to the increasing costs o f chem ical pest con trol, high rate
fertilization, harvest, storage and processing, an d because o f the
decreasing export m arket for fruits, partly due to the quality and
storage problems caused by high-rate fertilization; and large
plantations were liquidated, even in the Nyfrseg region (N o rth East
Hungary) where the poor, acidic sandy soils with low fertility
represent a low potential for arable crop production.
Afforestation was im plemented mostly for recreation, environment
and landscape protection, as well as for soil conservation on hilly areas
with complex slopes, on deteriorated lands (open mines, eroded slopes,
floodplains, etc.) and on soils with a low agricultural potential (sand
hills, shallow soils, etc.). Consequently, this tendency in spite of the
very low, sometimes, negligible, wood production can be evaluated as a
positive change in the land use pattern.
Considerable territories were divided into small holdings and used as
gardens, especially near towns, main roads, recreation places along
rivers and lakes.
The cropping pattern indicates stability with the exception o f the
radical reduction o f potato production (from 4.3 to 1.0 %) and a slight
decrease o f barley (8.6—7.8 %) on the one hand, and the sharp increase
o f sunflower (2.8—8.4) and silage maize (1. 7—5.3 %) production on the
other hand.

Text 41C. Environmental Aspects o f Land Use and Cropping Pattern
Part II
A great part of the arable lands: (14.5 + 81.0% ), — forests
(68.9 + 30.6 %), — grasslands (17.8 + 77.7% ), and even orchards
(24.4 + 58.9 %) and vineyards (14.7 + 54.5% ) were owned by state
farms and used by cooperative farms, respectively. Their large size
(5,000 and 3,500 ha, as an average, respectively) and their large scale,
high input agricultural production, irrationally large, consequently
heterogeneous agricultural fields with a size o f 50—70, sometimes
100— 120 ha; irrational, n on- or slightly flexible land use and cropping
pattern; m onocultures, m echanization with heavy machinery; high-
rate application o f chemicals, such as mineral fertilizers, pesticides,
growth-regulators; etc. and misguided soil m anagem ent (im proper
tillage operations, fertilization and irrigation practices, etc.) in many
cases result in environm ental side-effects, such as: various soil
degradation processes, soil toxicity, pollution o f surface and sub
surface waters, etc.
246
In the smaller fields of the private sector, subsidiary farms or
household farming plots in the cooperatives, more opportunity was
provided for a more rational, microscale utilization o f the land, with
higher flexibility.
Realizing the high spatial and temporal yield variability of the main
crops, the National Programme was initiated by the Hungarian
Academy o f Sciences in 1979.
In spite of the fact that its results, conclusions and recommendations
were presented to the policy-makers and the tasks were formulated in
numerous official documents, little initiative was taken for their
implementation, and the lack o f flexibility in the state-controlled
economy regulations (prices, subsidies, credits, taxes, etc.) does not
stimulate rational land use practices. On the contrary you may observe
the economic «pressure» for corn production in the cooler and more
humid hilly lands, low yield, high costs, high risk of water erosion
instead of soil protective grassland farming.
EXERCISES
VII. a) Give the Russian equivalents:

environmental aspects; cropping pattern; evident changes;
uncultivated land; industrial enterprises; administrative region; social
developments; urban and rural infrastructure; arable land;
reconstruction programme; vine producing areas; waterlogged areas;
considerable increase; fruit exports.
b) Make up short sentences using these word combinations.
VIII. Write out the sentences containing Passive Constructions (text

4 IB) and explain how they are formed. Translate sentences into Russian.
IX. Complete the following sentences using the texts 4 1 В and

41C:
1. We should note a considerable increase in the am ount o f land used
for...
2. Large scale orchards were established then because of...
3. In Hungary the majority o f grass-lands is on land sites with...
4. Afforestation was implemented mostly for...
5. Considerable territories were used for...
6. Later on large plantations were used for...

1) A house or schelter for a horse. 2) A place where pigs are kept (two
words). 3) A house or shelter for a cow. 4) A house or box for pigeons or
doves. 5) A place where rabbits are kept.
247
XI. Form Past Participles from the verbs given below. Use them in
short sentences:
to show, to open, to mean, to concentrate, to am ount, to decrease,
to result, to misguide, to provide, to present, to stimulate.
1. A great part o f the arable lands, forests, grasslands, and even
orchards and vineyards were ... by state farms.
2. Their large size, their large scale high input agricultural production
and misguided soil management in many cases ... in environmental side-
effects.
3. More opportunity was provided for a more rational, microscale
utilization o f the land in the smaller fields o f... private sector.
4. A National Programme was ... by the Hungarian Academy of
Sciences in 1979.
5. But little initiative ... for the im plementation of conclusions and
recom m endations presented to the policy-makers.
XIII. Translate into English and write down the following sentences:
1. Сады и виноградники в южных странах Европы — многообе
щающие источники эксп орта соответствующей продукции в евро
пейские страны, находящиеся на севере.
2. Д ля восстановления и защ иты (охраны) л ан дш аф та широко
использовали посадку деревьев и кустарников.
3. Было принято много программ, опубликовано много идей,
но из-за недостаточно эф ф екти вн ого менедж мента эти идеи не
получили практического применения.
4. Значительны е территории вокруг населенны х пунктов были
разделены на небольшие участки, которые были отведены под
сады и виноградники.
1. Changes in Hungary’s land use and cropping patterns between
1950 and 1988 are evident.
2. The G overnm ent changes its econom ic policy so often and so
rapidly that these changes result in the worse situation.
3. The results o f the reform were promising.
4. They tried to reform the systepi o f education considering the
experience o f foreign systems.
5. The loss o f arable land amounted to nearly 790 000 hectares.
6. A large amount o f the lost fertile land was concentrated in the
country.
248
XV. Write down the antonyms and translate them into Russian:
changing, discover, uncultivated, increase, to lose, abnormal, rural,
concentrated, lower, fertile, input, improper, private, microscale,
temporal.
XVI. Write down what you know about changes in Russia’s land-use
and cropping pattern between 1991 and 2008. You may choose the data
on federal or local level.
Unit 42
ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF SOIL-WATER PROBLEMS
influence n влияние, воздействие / / v влиять, воздействовать
erosion n эрозия
undulate v 1. колебать; 2. делать холмистым (о местности)
undulation п неровность поверхности, волнистость
sedimentation п 1. осаждение, осадка; 2. отложение
europhication п п еренасыщ ение водоема питательными вещ е
ствами
sedimentary а осадочный
sedimentary overlap параллельное напластование
water п 1. вода, водоем; 2. пот, слюна, моча / / v 1. мочить, см а
чивать; 2. орошать, поливать; 3. поить животных; 4. ходить на во
допой
watershed п 1. водораздел; 2. бассейн реки
shallow а мелководный
leach п рапа, н асы щ енны й раствор поваренной соли
leach v выщелачивать
solution п раствор
soluble а растворимый
lattice п решетка
swell п 1. волна, зябь; 2. возвышение, выпуклость; 3. п р и г о р о к //
v 1. возвышаться; 2. набухать, выдуваться
II. Explain how the following words are formed, write them down,
underlining suffixes. Translate the words into Russian:
subsurface, considerable, sedimentation, watershed, fertilization,
solubility, transported, waterlogging, undesirable, ecosystem,
particularly, recreation, light-textured, permissible, uniform
distribution.
249
[ju:] you, new, few, accuse, use, knew, useful, Tuesday
[jua) Europe, January, estuary, cure, pure

Text 42A. Influence o f L and Use and N utrient M anagem ent on Water
Resources
Part I
The impacts of crop production on surface and subsurface water
resources can be summarized as follows:
Soil erosion by water results in considerable soil losses in the
undulating hilly regions and sedimentation (silting up of waterways,
canals and reservoirs, limitations in their functions, necessity o f their more
frequent cleaning, increasing costs, increasing hazards o f the watershed).
P -f e r t i l i z a t i o n . Because most of the P-com pounds have low
water solubility their liquid transport and leaching is negligible (is
limited to some centim eter distances). But adsorbed (fixed) P, insoluble
P-com pounds and sometimes P-fertilizer particles can be transported by
surface runoff directly to surface waters. Their high P-concentration
may result in increasing eutrophication and its undesirable
consequences: rapid silting up o f canals and reservoirs; unfavourable
changes in the aquatic ecosystems o f shallow lakes (e.g. the Lake
Balaton, recreation problems, fish disease, etc.).
K - f e r t i 1 i z a t i о n. Most o f the potassium fertilizers are highly
soluble and can be leached from the profile o f light-textured soils. In
heavy soils the greater part of soil-K is fixed not only on the clay
surfaces but within the lattice structure o f the swelling clay minerals.
N - f e r t i l i z a t i o n . The nitrate pollution of subsurface waters is
one o f the most important environmental problems in many countries.
In Hungary about two decades ago more than 600 villages were supplied
with bottled water because the nitrate concentration of the drinking
water supplies exceeded the permissible limit.
V. Read the text and write down 6 questions to it. Answer them in
English. Translate the text into Russian.
Text 42B. Influence o f Land Use and N utrient M anagem ent on Water
Resources
Part II
The potential sources o f these high N -concentrations can be the
following factors:
1. Liquid manure from large, concentrated livestock farms. The
annual 9 million m 3 o f liquid manure is distributed on 70,000 ha of
250
agricultural fields and 5,000 ha of special «filter fields», resulting
sometimes in considerable point source N-pollution o f subsurface
waters.
2. Sewage waters, sewage sludge’s and solid wastes as a result of
industrial, urban and rural development. In many settlements drinking
water supply was introduced without the simultaneous establishment of
canalization.
3. Recreation and tourism, without appropriate waste water
management.
4. Illegal local sources (for example use of «old» wells for waste
disposal, etc.).
5. Irrational N-fertilizer application.
Rational N-fertilization cannot cause a significant N-pollution,
because, if we use the necessary am ount of N — according to the crop
requirement — N losses (sources of N-pollution) can be efficiently
reduced to a m inim um level. What are the main possibilities of the N -
pollution o f groundwaters due to N-fertilization?
— Leaching of N through preferential pathways, such as cracks and
biological channels (roots, earthworm channels);
— uncontrolled N-application in «hobby gardens»;
— improper fertilizer application, non-adequately selected for the
crop requirement (nutrient uptake), soil properties and weather
conditions; problems in uniform distribution, or differential distribution
according to the N status of the soil; time of application; etc. Any
improvement in the technology of N-fertilizer application will result in
the reduction of losses and environmental hazards.
Leaching of Na-salts from the soil profile is favourable for the given
soil (decreasing salinity), but increases the salt concentration in the
drainage water. Consequently, this water cannot be used for irrigation
again, and can be drained to international waterways only up to a
certain quality limit prescribed by international agreements. In addition
to other facts (high clay and swelling clay content, high alkalinity, very
low permeability of the soil; lack of frost-free period after the growing
season; lack of good quality water) this is the main reason why we
cannot use the traditional leaching-drainage concept for salinity-
alkalinity control and the only way for that is a well-functioning
prediction and prevention system.

Text 42C. Environmental Aspects o f Soil- Water Problems
The soil moisture regime has particular significance in soil fertility. It
determines the water supply o f plants, influences the air and heat
regimes, biological activity and plant nutrient status o f the soil. In most
of the Central and Eastern European countries soil moisture regime
251
strongly influences (sometimes determines) the ecological potential and
agricultural productivity of a given area, the biomass production of
various natural and agro-ecosystems, and the hazard of «nutrient
pollution» of surface and subsurface waters.
In Hungary the 620 mm yearly average precipitation may cover the
water requirement o f the main crops even at high yield levels. But the
average one shows extremely high territorial and temporal variability
even in micro-scale. U nder such conditions a considerable part of
precipitation is lost by surface runoff, downward filtration and
evaporation. The non-uniform rainfall distribution is one reason o f the
extreme moisture regime: the simultaneous hazard of waterlogging or
overmoistening and drought-sensitivity in extensive areas, sometimes on
the same places within a short period.
The other two reasons o f the extreme moisture regime are: the relief
(in addition to the undulating surfaces the microrelief of the flat
Hungarian Plain); the unfavourable hydrophysical properties of soils.
The hydrophysical properties of soils are closely related to (reasons
or consequences of) the limiting factors o f soil fertility and soil
degradation processes.
Consequently, all efforts have to be taken to improve agricultural
water use efficiency by proper soil management: to help infiltration to
the soil; to increase the water storage capacity of soil; to improve the
water availability for plants.
All actions ensuring normal soil functions are related to the
regulation of the substance regime of soil, which is, in most cases,
closely connected with soil moisture control in Hungary. On the other
hand, most o f the measures for soil moisture control are at the same
time the elements of environm ent control.
A comprehensive soil survey-analysis-categorization-mapping-
monitoring system has been developed for the exact characterization of
hydrophysical properties, modeling and forecast o f water and solute
regimes of soils. The system may serve as a scientific basis for soil
moisture control and it was efficiently used for practical soil water
m anagem ent both for crop production and environment protection.
EXERCISES

subsurface water resources, soil erosion, considerable soil losses,
undulating hilly regions, frequent cleaning, increasing costs, increasing
hazards o f waterlogging, water solubility, undesirable consequences,
unfavourable changes, acquatic ecosystems, recreation problems,
swelling clay minerals, lattice structure;
b) Make up sentences using these word combinations.
252
VIII. Write out the sentences containing «— ing forms» from the text
42C. What are the latter functions in the sentences? Translate the
sentences into Russian.
IX. Complete the following sentences using texts 42B and 42C.
1. The potential sources of these high N -concentrations can be liquid
manure from ....
2. A nother potential source of it is sewage water and sludges as a
result o f ....
3. Recreation and tourism without appropriate waste water
management can also be a potential source o f ....
4. The soil moisture regime has particular significance in ....
5. In Hungary the 620 m m yearly average precipitation may ....
6. There are two more reasons of the extreme moisture regime: the
relief and ....

1. A place where fruit trees are grown.
2. A place where vegetables are grown.
3. A place where trees and bushes grow.
4. A place where cereals are grown.
5. A place where rice is grown.
6. A place where tea plants are grown.
XI. Form Past Participles from the verbs given below and use them in
Passive Constructions. Write down sentences using them.
limit, leach, distribute, manage, apply, grow, take, heat, water,
relate, degrade.
1. The nitrate pollution of subsurface water is...of the most im po rtant...
problems in many countries.
2. Hungarian villages were mostly supplied with ... water because of
the nitrate concentration exceeds the permissible limit in drinking water.
3. Soil fertility greatly depends on ... regime.
4. In many countries of Central and Eastern Europe soil moisture
regime strongly ... the ecological potential and agricultural productivity
of a given area.
5. The non-uniform rain fall... is one reason of the extreme moisture
regime.
1. На качество и количество выращ иваемы х культур большое
влияние оказывает качество и количество поверхностных и п о
чвенных вод.
253
2. Необходимость частой очистки воды вызвана ее сильной за
грязненностью.
3. Существует множество источников и причин загрязнения
водоемов, особенно находящихся вблизи населенных пунктов.
4. Большое влияние на качество поверхностных вод оказывают
химический состав и ф изическая структура удобрений, вносимых
в почву.
1. Leaching of Na-salts from the soil profile is favourable for the
given soil, but increases the salt concentration in the drainage water.
2. You should not water plants with ice-cold water.
3. It’s quite easy to salt fish properly.
4. He can fish in troubled water as he is able to fish for invitations.
5. You c a n ’t filter this water with such a kind of a filter.
soluble, last, improve, normal, closely, moisture, practical, efficient,
both, organic, significance, addition, future, natural, strongly, active,
rainfall, extensive, illegal.
XVI. Read the text and discuss the problems in class.
Text 42D
A. Environm ental Aspects o f Fertilizer Application
Before World War II the plant nutrient status of Hungarian soils was
rather poor due to the negative nutrient balance: more nutrients were
taken up by the cultivated crops and were taken away from a given
territory as yield (or bio-mass) than was being put back in the form of
organic and green manures or fertilizers.
From 1955 there was a rapid increase in fertilizer consumption. This
tendency was one of the reasons of the substantial yield increase during
the same period. Another consequence was that — due to the positive
nutrient balance — the nutrient status o f Hungarian soils was
significantly improved. In the early seventies well-equipped
agrochemical laboratories were established in each county, a regular soil
test system (with 3-year cycles) was introduced and a national advisory
service was organized, including 19 regional soil testing and plant
analysis laboratories.
In spite of these developments there were serious problems and
inadequacies in the fertilizer application technology (improper N -P -K
ratio; lack of Ca, Mg and m icronutrient supply; limited variety of
fertilizers; problems with their storage, time of application, way of
distribution; etc.). The main problem, however, was an unfavourable
«polarization» tendency in fertilizer application:
254
a) better soil -» rich farm -> higher rate o f fertilizer application (in
spite o f the lower requirements -> better nutrient status of soils -»
overdosage;
b) poor soils —> poor farms —> lower rate of fertilizer application (in
spite of the higher requirements -> lower nutrient supply of soils) ->
underdosage.
The over-generalization and the imperative «maximum-concept» led
to false conclusions, decreased the affectivity and efficiency of mineral
fertilization, and resulted in environmental side-effects, like:
— soil acidification (due to non-adequate type of fertilizer, lack of
simultaneous lime application) and its consequences: mobilization of
toxic elements, fixation of some of the nutritive elements;
— load of surface waters by P-com pounds (mainly due to surface
runoff, lateral erosion and sediment transport);
— contam ination o f subsurface drinking water resources by nitrates
(leaching);
— accumulation o f harmful toxic elements in the various stages of
the «food chain»: in soils, plants, animals and hum an organs, according
to their solubility, mobility and availability.
Most or these side-effects; however; are not inevitable and
uncontrollable consequences of fertilizer application: they can be
prevented, or at least reduced, efficiently by precision nutrient
management, based on the nutrient requirements and nutrient uptake
dynamism of cultivated crops (the specific requirements of species,
variety or even genotype); the nutrient status and other properties of
soils; the characteristics of agroclimate and hydrology conditions of the
given landsite.
B. Water Resources Planning
Precipitation is the primary source of surface water supplies and

evaporation is the major consumer. Planning, public and political
conviction and economic decisions as to the viability of a hydrologic
system are therefore frequently dependent on climatology. The
magnitude and reliability of supplies is dictated by rainfall and snowfall
characteristics. Design flood, irrigation need, urban dem and, storm-
sewer capacity and culvert size are all functions of climate and the
operation of water control systems for flood control and conservation of
water in times of drought is often highly dependent on forecasts.
Use of water resources by towns, cities, industry and agriculture, as
well as natural losses through evaporation, must be understood in terms
of probability and seasonality to enable the design of supply systems that
will serve all the reasonable requirements of a community. They are
predictable, using meteorological forecasts and information directly and
in relation to industrial, social and biological activities.
255
Unit 43
SOIL CONSERVATION
maintain v содержать, поддерживать, сохранять
abundant а обильный
sustain v поддерживать, подкреплять
deterioration n порча, ухудшение
safeguard v 1. охранять, защищать; 2. гарантировать, обеспечи
вать
time v рассчитывать время; назначать время; удачно выбирать
время
rapid а быстрый, скорый
irreparable а непоправимы й, невозвратимый
occur v случаться, происходить
recurrent а периодический, повторяющийся
worsen v ухудшать(ся)
II. a) Read the verbs and underline the suffixes.

to redden, to worsen, to brighten, to blacken, to freshen;
b) Replace these word combinations with the verbs, using suffix «еп».
to make or become light; to make or become soft; to make or
become sad; to subject to threat; to subject to fright; to make deaf; to
make mad.

ea+r [ia] clear, near
[a:] learn, earth
о + re [o:] bore, more, therefore
re (a:] theatre, metre, centre
ph [f:j photo, phonetics, sophisticate, sulphur

Text 43A. What is Soil Conservation?
Soil conservation is the application to the land of all necessary
measures in proper combinations to build up and maintain soil
productivity for efficient, abundant agricultural production on a
sustained basis.
Soil conservation, therefore, means proper land uses, protecting the
land against all the forms o f soil deterioration. It is rebuilding eroded
and depleted soils, conserving moisture — for plant use. It includes
proper agricultural drainage and irrigation where needed and other
measures which contribute to maximum practical yields and conserve
the soils for future uses — all at the same time.
256
With proper m anagem ent, most soil resources can be used and still
retain their productive capacity over long periods o f time. The problem
of conserving these resources is thus one o f accepting practices that
permits their effective use while at the same time safeguarding their
productive capacity over time. Soil conservation is a matter o f good land
use an management.
Land Use P lanning provides a system o f using an d managing land
based on the capabilities o f the land itself, involving the application
of the best measures or practices known, and designed to result in the
greatest prod uction w ithout dam age to the land. T he P roper Land
Use C ontrol o f Land Uses has to secure the wise uses o f soil
resources. T he land users must show care in selecting their
production practices so as to secure the practicable return. T h ey also
must show com p arable care in choosing and timing the conservation
investments and practices which are used to build up and m aintain
the productivity o f soils.
The State Land Use Control provides the control of all the land uses.
The land users should accept practices that do not damage the soils and
permit their effective use. To build up and maintain the productivity of
the soils is their prime concern.
A special problem arises with soil erosion. Rapid soil destruction
means irreparable loss of land at least as far as cropping is concerned.
Soil conservation is directed against the destructive effects of wind and
water. The land use planners should keep the soils in such shape that
they would remain productive as long as possible.
V. Read the text, write down 6 questions to it and answer them in

English. Translate the text into Russian.
Text 43B. Soil Erosion
Soil erosion effects food production through land degradation. The
damage of wind and water erosion is estimated by huge amounts of
money. Dust storms may occur, in some southern land areas, recurrent
drought also often results in soil erosion. The wind erosion o f soils takes
place in some drier sections o f any country.
In wet areas the degradation o f soils is linked with accelerated ru n
off and increased silt load of the rivers, worsened flood hazard along
their lower courses and accumulation o f coarse material (sand, gravel)
on top o f valuable soils.
The proper use o f soil resources calls for measures to keep the soils
from being destroyed by wind and water. The development of
techniques for extending the productive life o f soils and for, slowing
down their rate o f deterioration will bring the maximum use of these
soils. M uch may be done by land use planners.
The land resources o f a farm may be actually reshaped in one way or
257
another for better farming and levelled for more efficient irrigation,
terraced to hold rainfall and strip cropped to save soil and water.
Poor or workout cropland can be converted to pasture or pasture to
cropland. Many hectares of good rangeland must be wrested from
worthless scrub and brush, reseeded, properly grazed, well watered.
The drains improve pasture and cropland. Ponds and marshes may
be developed for wild life. A farm detention dam may be built and can
catch and release safely what would otherwise be run-off of flood
proportions.
The planners can project tree shelterbelts and strip cropping for wind
and water erosion control. These may be created singly and in
combinations. M o dem techniques o f land management must be put
into operation for the sake o f land conservation and increase the
opportunities of the farms.
Changes in farming, developments in machinery, rising requirements
of capital investment, the wide use of fertilizers and soil conservation
practices call for many skills and technically sound practices of
specialists of land use planning.

Text 43C. Soil Conservation Plan
The development and application of a comprehensive soil

conservation plan involve four steps.
First, from soil survey data that have been gathered on a hectare-by-
hectare basis, a land capability m ap is prepared for the farm. The map is
superimposed on an aerial photograph of the land surface.
The soil survey data serve to identify soil types, slope, extent of
erosion, and similar characteristics. An interpretation is made that
classifies each parcel o f land as to the uses to which it may be put safely
and productively and the intensity o f treatment required.
From this a conservation plan is developed. It provides for the use
and treatment of the land within its needs and capabilities. In
developing the plan the land use planner considers various alternatives
of land use and treatment. It includes what he plans to do with the soil
and water and what he hopes to accomplish in conservation and use of
the cultivated land, grassland, and woodland.
The third step is the application of the measures o f the plan. The
engineers and technicians assist in laying out the drainage and water
disposal systems, irrigation systems, farm ponds, terrace systems,
diversions and waterways, contouring and strip cropping.
Since the conservation program needs to be maintained, a fourth
type of aid to users comes in the form of guidance and help in keeping
the conservation plan in operation.
258
EXERCISES

soil conservation plan; eroded soil; agricultural drainage and
irrigation; the problem o f conserving land resources; effective use; wind
and water soil erosion; efficient irrigation; water erosion control;
m odem techniques of land management.
b) Make up short sentences using these word combinations.
VIII. Write down these Participle constructions and try to remember

them. Use them in your own statements discussing the problems of the
unit.
1. Omitting all the details — опуская все подробности
2. Considering the situation - учитывая положение
3. All things considered — принимая во внимание все обстоятель
ства
4. Generally speaking — вообще говоря
5. Granting it to be true — если это так
6. Assuming that — считая, что
7. Allowing for — принимая во внимание
8. N ot counting — не считая
9. Speaking o f (for) - говоря о
10. Judging by — судя по
11. Beginning with — начиная с

1. Food production is influenced by ... . 2. Some southern land areas
are the places where .... 3. Wind erosion takes place ... . 4. In wet areas
the degradation o f soils is linked with .... 5. Ponds and marshes for wild
life may be ... .
X. a) Give the Russian equivalents:

conservation investments; soil destruction; soil conservation
programme; coarse material; shelterbelt; strip cropping; soil survey data;
overgrazing; overplowing.
b) Use these words and word combinations in a short dialogue.
XI. Give Present Participles of these verbs and use them in short
sentences. Write down the sentences in English.
to apply, to maintain, to build, to mean, to conserve, to retain, to
accept, to provide, to manage, to design, to damage, to select, to return,
to time, to direct, to occur, to keep, to develop, to implement, to
involve, to help, to increase.
1. Soil conservation also includes ... agricultural, drainage and ... .
259
2. With proper ... most soil resources retain their productive capacity
over long periods of time. 3. Rapid soil destruction means ... loss of
land. 4. The damage o f wind and ... erosion is estimated by hundreds of
millions of roubles. 5. There are some measures to keep the soils from...
6. Poor or workout cropland can be converted to ... . 7. Tree shelterbelts
and strip cropping are created for wind and w a t e r ... control. 8. Erosion
control and moisture consideration practices fit into a well-rounded ...
programme.
1. Говоря об охране почв, необходимо четко определить меры,
которые следует предпринимать для достижения этой цели. 2. И с
пользуя материалы, публикуемые в журнале «Природа», студенты
подготовили интересные доклады. 3. Рассказывая о методах борь
бы с эрозией, специалисты использовали много циф ровы х д а н
ных.
1. Soil conservation means proper land uses protecting the land
against all the forms o f soil deterioration. 2. Protection of soils from
water and wind erosion is one of the main purposes of a soil conservation
programme. 3. To protect soils from erosions means to solve the main
problem o f soil conservation. 4. There was an overflow of people into the
hall. 5. The river may overflow. 6. They could cross the desert in a jeep.
7. D o n ’t desert the group now that the group needs you. 8. We can
group the data into two subdivisions.
XV. Find out pairs of antonyms:

conservation, rural, irrigation, drainage, urban, direct, best,
destruction, worst, indirect, disadvantage, degradation, advantage,
improvement.

S ick Soils o f the USA Agriculture
— Why are there m any sick soils in the USA?
— The loss o f forests has had a disastrous effect on the soil in the
USA. There is no longer protection against the drying sun. The soil
particles crumble and die. There follows water erosion and wind erosion.
— What has happened to the fhmous prairies in the USA?
— Their protective blanket of grass is killed by overplowing,
overgrazing, or other abuse, especially when followed by droughts.
— What has happened to the Southwest o f the USA in the 1930s?
— It came to be known as the «dust bowl». Large areas o f Texas and
260
Oklahoma were literally blown all over the world. Hundreds of
kilometers away the sky would gradually turn red. You could not see the
sun at midday. People held handkerchiefs over their mouths, some wore
masks. The dust was everywhere — in your hair, your m outh, your
lungs. People tried to shut their houses against the dust. It was in the
food, on the furniture, on beds, in clothes, everywhere.
— Could the soils be stabilized after the «dust bowl»?
— Yes, ultimately the soil was stabilized, the drought ended, and the
storms stopped. But there was no recovery from the loss. New soil is not
easily come by. One single inch takes from 500 to 1000 years to form.
Over the entire surface o f the earth there is a thin skin o f topsoil not too
deep, but it provides life. This light dressing provides the margin of life.
Uni t 44
SOIL CONSERVATION IN THE COUNTRIES OF EASTERN
EUROPE
spectacular a 1. эф ф ектн ы й, импозантны й; 2. видимый, ощ у ти
мый
concept n понятие, кон ц еп ци я
deteriorate v ухудшать, разрушать
belt n пояс
hazard n случай, случайность; опасность, риск / / v рисковать,
ставить на карту
apparently adv 1. явно, очевидно; 2. по-видимому
II . Explain how the following words are formed, write them down,
underlining roots. Translate the words into Russian:
consequently, sustainable, ensuring, physiographic, circumstances,
restructuring, privatization, unfavourable, degradation, prevention,
grassland.
I I I . No English verb has more than five forms, except «be» which has:
be, am, is, are, was, were, been, being.
Verb «families»:
give, gives, gave, given, giving
walk, walks, walked, walking
cut, cuts, cutting
can, could
ought
must.
Explain this phenomenon!
261
IV. Read the tex t and translate it into R ussian.
Text 44A. Soil Conservation in Eastern European Countries
Soils represent a considerable part of natural resources in the «post-
Eastem block» — Central and Eastern European countries.
Consequently, rational and sustainable land-use and proper
management practices ensuring normal soil functions have particular
significance in their national econom y and soil conservation is an
important element of their environment protection.
There are considerable differences among these countries (Bulgaria,
Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia,
Slovenia and the European post-Soviet republics) in their physiographic
conditions, soil resources, agro-ecological potential, socio-economic
circumstances; in the role of agriculture in their national economy; rate,
type and way of collectivization during the centrally-directed socialist
period (Table 1); state, affectivity and efficiency of the economy
restructuring, rate of (re)privatization during the last years and at present.
In spite of these differences there were many similarities in their land
use policies and soil m anagem ent practices during the last 60 years. The
primary aim of agricultural production is to produce good-quality
products with low costs and without any environmental side-effects:
unfavorable changes in the given area and in its surroundings; at the
present time or in the near- and far future. The relative importance of
these partial objectives (high quantity, good quality, low costs,
environmental impacts) varies and changes considerably in each of these
countries, depending on their socio-econom ic conditions, historical
traditions and political decisions.
1. Some statistical data on the importance оГ agriculture in the national economy

of E ast-E uropean countries
Bulgaria Czech Hungary Poland Romania Yugoslavia
P a r t o f p o p u l a t i o n w o rk in g 13.2 10.0 11.8 22.2 22.1 23.6

in a g ricu ltu re, %
Yearly increase o f
agricu ltu ral p r o d u c t i o n , %:
1980-1988 -0 .1 2.9 1.4 1.5 2.2 0.5
1985-1991 -2 .1 0.8 1.0 0.7 -3 .3 0.4
Average yield o f m a in crops:
w inter w heat 4.0 5.2 5.1 3.7 3.8 3.8
w i n t e r barley 6.1 4.3 4.4 3.3 5.1 2.7
m aize ( c o m ) 3.5 5.7 ' 5.9 6.2 4.0
su g a rb ee t 20.7 35.3 4 0.0 33.6 25.4 37.8
su n f lo w e r 1.1 2.2 2.0 2.5 2.1
p o ta to e s 9.2 19.6 17.4 18.8 16.8 7.4
N u m b e r o f in h a b i t a n t s p er 146 160 — 201 157 168
100 h ectare agricultural land
262
Продолжение
Bulg aria Czech H ungary P o la n d R o m a n ia Y ugoslavia
Fertilizer c o n s u m p t i o n
( to ta l) , k g p e r a g r i c u l t u r a l
la n d ( w i t h o u t g r a s s l a n d s )
1987 180 3 03 2 60
1988 222 3 14 2 45 268 — —
1989 195 3 14 2 19 231 — —
1990 173 255 104 127 — —
V. Read and translate the text. Write down 6 questions using the data
from table 1 and ask another student to answer them.
Text 44B. Periods o f Agricultural Development in Central and Eastern
Europe
Four main periods can be distinguished in the last 60-year history of
agricultural development, land-use policy and soil management
practices in these countries.
After World War II agriculture was in a destroyed and exhausted
condition irrespective of its previous level, which was rather
heterogeneous. The polarized pre-W ar ownership-structure [many
small-holdings (1—2 hectares)]; few very large latifudia (several
thousand hectares) was almost equalized with the «land reform»; most
of the land was distributed am ong the agrarian proletarians and small
farmers. This period can be characterized by small-scale private farming
(1—5 hectares) with low inputs and low yields.
The first and radically pressed collectivization program was
completed in the early 50s. However, most o f the newly created c o
operative farms did not survive the 1956 revolution and their lands
(which were officially always owned by the members o f the c o
operative) were distributed again.
The second collectivization program was «voluntary» and it was
pressed «only» by very strict economy regulations, giving a chance for
efficient production practically only for co-operatives, without any other
alternatives. It was completed in the early 60s. At that time about 25 % of
the land was owned and used by the state farms, 65 % was used by the c o
operatives (and still owned theoretically — by the members of the c o
operatives) and only less than 10 % was owned and used privately.
10 years after full collectivization a spectacular agricultural
development was witnessed. The centrally directed communist system
wanted to prove that the large-scale collective («social») sector could
produce more than the small-scale private sector. The central directives
and the economy regulations were elaborated and introduced
accordingly:
well-equipped soil laboratories were established (with the necessary
263
or, in many cases, overestimated capacities for soil, water and plant
analyses);
in the newly established large state farms and co-operative farms well
educated agronomists represented the potential guarantee for the proper
practical application o f these soil information;
in the new Land Law and related docum ents the duties and
responsibilities of land owners, land users (farming units) had been
listed. The necessary organization, coordination control machinery for
soil and water conservation practices were financed practically fully
from the central state budget;
the economy regulations (high rate state subsidy on fertilizers and
other chemicals, and on the main soil reclamation practices, such as
amelioration of acid, salt-affected and sandy soils, erosion control,
irrigation and drainage; long-term credits; price policy; etc.), as well as
the evaluation of farming units and their agronomists on the basis of
obtained yields or even on their fertilizer and pesticide consum ption
stimulated high yields and high inputs, irrespective of their efficiency,
their impacts on quality and their environmental consequences.
The efforts proved to be successful at the beginning. Yields of the
main agricultural crops increased sharply, as it can be seen in Table 2.
This was mainly due to four reasons:
new, intensive, high yielding crop varieties;
adequate nutrient supply of crops sharply increasing rate of mineral
fertilizer application;
integrated pest management;
full mechanization.
2. Average yields of the main crops in Hungary (tons/h ectare)
Year Wheat Maize for c o m Sugar beet Sunflower Potatoes
1951-1955 1.46 2.06 18.9 6 1.07 8.77

1956-1960 1.50 2.31 21.20 1.10 10 .46
1961-1965 1.86 2.61 24.64 3. 9 6 7.91
1966-1970 2 .4 3 3.23 32.52 1.11 10.4 5
1971-1975 3.32 4.17 33.00 1.24 11.74
1976-1980 4.06 4.85 33.64 11.61 14.16
1981-1985 4.63 6.11 38.90 11.98 18.23
1 986-1990 4.88 5. 63 38.40 2.03 17.74
1991

Text 44C. Periods o f Agricultural Development
After the rather quick spectacular agricultural development serious
problems appeared and became increasingly threatening.
The overemphasized, preferred and even pressed gianto-maniac
«global quantity» concept of agricultural production in which good or
264
efficient is equal to big, large, high hide the problems arising in other
aspects: quality, efficiency, econom y and environmental side-effects.
The quantity-oriented econom y regulation system (credit, subsidy and
price policy, etc.), stimulated neither for rational input reduction, nor
for econom ic quality production without or with m inim um
environmental deteriorations. The concealed ownership feeling lead to a
harmful short-term dunking, to the exploitation o f soil resources,
decreasing care o f soil quality and reduced attention to the prevention of
soil degradation processes.
Some o f the main problems were as follows:
unfavourable changes in the land-use and cropping pattern (the
arable lands including the large-scale m ono culture went up to and on
sloping terrains to the detriment o f forests and grasslands);
too large farming units (several thousand hectares), limited
flexibility;
too large agricultural fields (100— 150 hectares), increasing
heterogeneity; even on hilly surfaces sacrificing the previous
windbreakers, forest shelterbelts, soil conservation establishments,
increasing hazard and rate o f water and wind erosion;
overconcentrated livestock production, huge livestock «factories»:
evenly distributed farmyard manure and liquid manure problem;
heavy machinery, combined tillage operations, overtillage, serious
soil structure deterioration (compaction, surface sealing);
serious problems in fertilizer application (non-adequate distribution;
polarization in fertilizer application and simultaneous hazard of
underdosage and overdosage; environmental side-effects).
The possibilities and limitations o f Hungarian agricultural
production had been evaluated and thoroughly analysed in numerous
scientific documents, e. g. in the final report o f the national program for
the assessment o f the agro-ecological potential o f Hungary. All these
evaluations called attention to the abovementioned problems and their
conclusions and recommendations were formulated for and included in
various laws, high-level Party and G overnm ent decisions, and related
documents. However, these regulations were not controlled
systematically, consequently, they were not followed seriously, especi
ally if the written restrictions limited the «quantity production» plans.
The economy regulations stimulated only for this and create, in many
cases, «antinterest» against quality, input reduction and environment
protection.
EXERCISES

considerable part, sustainable land use, proper management
practices, soil conservation, environmental protection, physiographic
265
conditions, national economy, agro-ecological potential, socio
economic circumstances, economy, restructuring.
b) Make up short sentences with those word combinations.
VIII. Write out the sentences containing Past Participles. Explain

their functions in the sentences using text 44B.
1. The period after World War II in agriculture can be characterized
by....
2. The first collectivization program was completed....
3. The centrally directed communist system wanted to prove....
4. A rather quick and spectacular agricultural development was
followed by serious problems....
5. The quaintly-oriented econom y regulation system stimulated
neither for rational output reduction nor....
6. Some of the main problems was overconcentrated livestock
production....

1. Absence of rain for a long time is a drought.
2. The plants and vegetation of certain region is flora.
3. The animals o f a certain region is fauna.
4. The inside of a nut is a kernel.
5. One who studies plant and animal life is a naturalist.
Passive Constructions. Write down sentencies using them.
represent, ensure, aim, change, depend, appear, threaten, stimulate,
reduce, prevent, distribute.
1. In the last 60 year history of agricultural development four main
periods can be ....
2. Agriculture in Eastern Europe after World War II was in a
destroyed and ... condition.
3. Its previous level was rather ... in different countries.
4. In the early 50s the first collectivization program was ....
5. The second ... program gave a chance for efficient production only
for cooperatives, without any other alternatives.
6. Only 25 % o f the land was owned and ... by the state farms, 65 %
was used by the cooperatives and only 10 % was owned and used
privately.
266
1. Так как почвы в этом регионе составляют значительную
часть природных ресурсов, их охрана является важным элементом
зашиты окруж аю щ ей среды.
2. В таблице 1 представлены различия между странами региона
в социальном составе населения и в той роли, которую сельскохо
зяйственная отрасль играет в эко н ом и к е каждой страны.
3. За н есколько лет преобразований появились хорошо обору
дованные лаборатории, подготовлены вы сококвалиф ицированны е
специалисты, разработаны новые полож ения о земельной с о б
ственности.
XIV. Write down what part of speech the following words in bold prints
are and translate the sentences into Russian:
1. They practised new methods o f irrigation on their farm.
2. Proper management practices ensuring normal soil functions have
particular significance in the countries of this region.
3. A new Com m ittee functions here to develop a new program on the
base of the information obtained by an initiative group.
4. You should not wear your suit while mending a car, you may soil it.
5. The cows are soiled here in June and July while forage is being
prepared.
6. In the early seventies well-equipped agrochemical laboratories
were established in each country, a regular soil test system was
introduced.

before, rational, sustainable, important, similar, similarity, efficient,
special, without, unfavourable, near, far, partial, whole, regular, appear,
rational, harmful, large-solace, concluding, up.
XVI. Read and translate the text. Make up a short dialogue.

Economy Restructuring
After the favourable political changes in the region in the late 80s not
only had the com m unist ideology and econom y collapsed, but the
quantity-oriented giant maniac concept of «industrialized», high input,
agricultural production changed radically, due to the following facts:
the internal food markets became practically saturated and the
forecasted intensive export growth failed, stabilized or even decreasing
quantity requirements;
sharply increasing quality requirements, reaching the European
standards;
radically increasing significance o f efficiency and economy necessity
of input rationalization;
267
increasing hazard o f environmental side-effects: pollution of air,
water and soil; increasing rate of soil degradation processes.
In the new concept, instead o f the global quantity aspect, quality
efficiency based on a real and exact cost-benefit evaluation and
environmental consequences became more and more important.
Uni t 45
SOIL POLLUTION CONTROL
occur v 1. случаться, встречаться; 2. попадаться, представляться,
приходить в голову
spectrum п спектр
threshold п порог, предел
toxic о то ксичны й, ядовитый, вредный (для здоровья)
pollutant п загрязнитель, загрязняющее вещество
via через, посредством
weather п погода
weather а подветренный, подветренная сторона / / v выветри
ваться, подвергаться атм осферны м влияниям
essential а сущ ественный
consequence п 1. последовательность; 2. последствие
manure п 1. навоз; 2. органическое удобрение
manure v 1. удобрять; 2. унавоживать землю
fertilizer п удобрение
fertility п плодородие, плодородность (почвы)
buffer п 1. компрессор; 2. буфер
buffer solution буферный раствор
microorganism, deposition, concentration, accumulation,
potentially, atmospheric, ground water, am endm ents, reclamation,
immobile, salinization, harmful, represent, schematically, assessment,
comprehensive, subsurface.

[i] live
[ai] alive
[i] minite
[Л] Monday
[o :] morning
[u] move
268
[ju:] museum
[ju:] new
[u] sugar
[i:j people
[ex: 1 palm
[o:j saucer
[d :] talk
[ d :] walk
[ d ] wash, was, watch

Text 45A. Soil Pollution and Its Managment
Most o f the elem ents occurring on Earth can be found in the soil.
Their quantity, quality, solubility, mobility; availability for
microorganisms, plants, animals and hum an-beings show an extremely
wide spectra. Most o f these elements are essential for the living
organisms, but over a certain threshold concentration, a great part of
the same elements can be harmful, or even toxic for the same
organisms.
The occurrence and accumulation o f these elements (heavy metals
and other potentially toxic elements such as AI, As, F, etc.; organic
pollutants; water soluble salts; nitrates, P and S compounds; etc.) can be
due to natural sources, as: air (N O , SO, etc.) via wet and dry
atmospheric deposition; water (B, Na, N, etc.) via irrigation water or
groundwater; soil and geological deposits (P, K, Ca, Mg, Na, Fe, AI,
Mn, As, Co, Cu, Ni, Se, Zn, etc.) via local weathering and soil
formation processes or it can be the consequence o f various human
activities such as industry, energy production and energy used,
agriculture, urban and rural developm ent, transport, domestic,
com m ercial and military activities producing or using irrigation water,
organic m anure, liquid m anure, mineral fertilizers, am endm ents for
soil reclamation; sewage waters, sewage sludges, solid wastes; etc. In
addition to the increasing quantity (accum ulation) o f these elements
the sudden, sometimes surprising, mobilization of the temporarily
immobile pollutants as a consequence o f changes in soil properties
(soil acidification, salinization/alkalization, destruction o f soil
structure and clay minerals, decrease o f organic m atter content and
buffer capacity, limitations in the filter function o f the soil, etc.) is
even more harmful. This non-linear, time-delayed effect o f potentially
harmful chemical com p ou nds is the typical «chemical time bomb»
problem.
Both accumulation and mobilization of these elements and
com pounds represent a serious environmental problem in many parts of
Central and Eastern Europe.
269
V. Read and translate the text. W rite down 6 questions using the text.
Text 45B. Soil Pollution Control
Main elements of soil pollution control are:

emission/imission reduction (preventing or reducing the quantity of
pollutants deposited or transported to the soil surface or into the soil);
prevention of the mobilization o f potentially harmful chemical
com pounds or elements which are already present in the soil but in
temporarily immobile form;
decrease o f the susceptibility/vulnerability of soil against various
pollutants with the increase of the buffering capacity o f soils, which
tolerate a higher critical load o f pollutants, consequently reduce the
«exceedance-risk» and the unfavourable ecological consequences. For
the comprehensive assessment of the status and regime of these
elements in the soil and for the evaluation o f their ecological impacts
and environmental hazards:
precision nutrient m anagem ent, including rational fertilizer
application;
integrated pest management with m inim um use of chemicals. The
rate, direction and technologies o f crop production are economy driven.
In contrast, the maintenance of soil functionality, the quality of surface
and subsurface water resources, and the protection of the natural
environment are not economy dependent, but imperative tasks. Only
their efficient and most econom ic methods can be selected on the basis
of cost-benefit analysis.
For the above-m entioned purposes:
the criteria of sustainable agricultural development and crop
production have to be defined and quantified;
the necessary economical regulations have to be elaborated, such as:
tax, price, credit, subsidy regulations, etc., guaranteeing the fulfillment
of these criteria;
the defined and quantified criteria and the econom y regulations have
to be formulated in various legal docum ents (laws and related official
documents);
the potential possibilities and efficient ways and methods of
sustainable crop production have to be elaborated, adopted, published
and demonstrated, which needs the establishment of appropriate
mechanisms for research, training and education, demonstration,
extension and advisory service;
the necessary mechanisms for continuous control have to be built up.
The main tasks of the scientist extensionist — a farmer — an
environmentalist of the com m unity in the future will be:
ensuring the above-m entioned preconditions;
broadcasting the-present knowledge and providing the necessary help
270
(education, extension and advisory service, technical assistance, etc.) to
the land user;
establishment of proper society control mechanisms (legislation,
financial policy and other econom y regulations) to stimulate, or even
press when and where it is necessary, the land users for sustainable land
use, including precision nutrient management.
The effective realization of these tasks must be jointly guaranteed by
the State, by the land-owner and by the land-user for the benefit of
efficient, rationally privatized, market-oriented, sustainable agricultural
production harmonized with successful environment protection,
ensuring a pleasant environment and a promising future.
Text 45C. Limiting Factors o f Soil Fertility and Soil Degradation

Processes
The necessity and rationality of the reclamation o f soils with

limited fertility depends on econom ical (cost-benefit analysis) and
ecological considerations. T he radical am elioration of salt-affected
soils, sandy soils or peatlands requires expensive complex measures,
therefore it is not econom ic. At the same time the saline lakes and
soils, wetlands and sand regions are, in many cases, protected
ecosystems, habitats of protected plants and animals, consequently,
represent special environm ental value. These areas must be kept in
«original» condition, their reclamation is not advisable, although this
was pressed sometimes in the last decades. On the contrary, the
im provem ent o f soils with m oderate limitations (liming of acid soils,
loosening of com pacted soils etc.) can be an efficient and econom ic
tool for agricultural development.
In the Central and Eastern European countries the large extension of
various undesirable soil degradation processes represents serious biomass
production constraints and environmental problems both in the directly
affected territories and in their surroundings.
Soil degradation is not an unavoidable co nsequence o f intensive,
but rational agricultural p ro ductio n and social developm ent. M ost o f
the degradation processes and their unfavourable consequences can
be prevented, elim inated or, at least, m oderated. But it needs
perm a n en t actions and widely ad opted proper soil an d water
conservation technologies. T he key words in this system are:
prognosis and prevention. This can be rationally based on a
com prehensive, sensitivity analysis, evaluating the susceptibility/
vulnerability o f soils against various soil degradations, as well as
im pact analysis evaluating the positive a n d negative impacts o f
various hu m an activities.
271
EXERCISES

availability for plants and animals; extremely wide spectra; essential
elements; living organisms; threshold concentration; harmful elements;
organic pollutants; water soluble salts; geological deposits; various
hum an activities; local weathering; formation processes.
b) Make up short sentences with these word combinations.
VIII. Write out the names of the processes from text 45A. Explain how
the words are formed and use them it 5—6 sentences.
IX. Complete the following sentences using the texts 45B and 45C.
1. Emission reduction elements prevent or reduce the quantity....
2. Another soil pollution control measure is a precision nutrient
m anagem ent including....
3. The rate and technology of crop production are....
4. In contrast the quality of surface and subsurface water resources....
5. The effective soil pollution control measures realization must be....
6. Land owners and land users must be responsible for...
X. Give the Russian equivalents. Try to remember:

1. Maize is called Indian corn.
2. Tam arind is an Indian date.
3. The peach is a Persian apple.
4. W ater is A d a m ’s ale.
5. Coal is a black diamond.
6. W ater power is white fuel.
Passive Constructions. Write down sentences using them:
to occur, to find, to weather, to irrigate, to crop, to define, to
elaborate, to qualify, to adopt, to publish, to demonstrate, to provide, to
establish.
1. The radical... of salt-affected soils, sandy soils or peatlands
requires expensive measures.
2. But some regions with wet lands, ... lakes and soils represent
special environmental value.
3. In many cases protected ecosystems, habitats of protected plants
and animals are the saline lakes, wetlands and ... regions.
4. Soil degradation is not ... consequence of intensive use of land for
agricultural production and social development.
272
5. Most unfavorable consequences of the degradation process can be
eliminated or at least moderarated.
6. Prognosis and ... are two key actions in conservation practices.

1. Загрязнения почв при их ком плексном использовании м ож
но избежать, если принимать необходимые меры.
2. Кроме антропогенны х существует множество факторов за
грязнения почв, зависящ их от окружающей природной среды и
природных катаклизмов.
3. Необходимо изучать способы и методы охраны и улучшения
почв, сравнивать их и избирать наиболее выгодные с эко н о м и ч ес
кой точки зрения.
ХГУ. Write down what part of speech the following words in bold prints
1. The way they use soil in this region conflicts with the environment.
2. There is some conflict between the data in his report and the reality.
3. The farmers know how often they should manure the field and
what quantity of the manure they can use.
4. The specialist considered the local weathering and soil formation
process in their study.
5. The weather in June in this region is quite favorable for the crops
grown here.
6. The students studied the decrease o f organic m atter in the soil for
the last four years during their annual vocational practice in summer.
7. 1 usually practice my English when 1 go abroad.

find, wide, essential, accumulate, temporarily, solid, civil, military,
domestic, increasing, limited, reduce, expensive, against, permanent.

Soil Formation
— What are the factors, which control soil formation?
— Although complicated the distribution o f soils is not random. It
depends on environmental factors.
— What are these factors?
— They are usually considered under five headings: parent material,
climate, relief, biotic factors and time.
— What do we know about the parent material?
— Parent material is particularly important for soil formation. Its
properties are permeability, base content and weatherability of the
material, texture and mineralogy of the weathering product.
273
— What can you say about the climate?
— Tem perature affects the speed of both chemical and biological
changes. The balance between precipitation and evaporation determines
the am ount o f water available to percolate through the soil, and remove
constituents by leaching.
— What is the importance o f relief?
— The shape of the ground surface strongly affects the movement
and accum ulation of water in and around the soil. Most water which is
not evaporated or transpired runs off. There is no water-table
underground in impermeable materials. Where flat, topography impedes
run-off, surface water logging will affect the soils especially in winter
and, spring. In readily permeable materials water penetrates the subsoil
until it reaches the water-table leaving high flat land well drained. On
sloping ground, run-off removes soil particles, especially under
cultivation, leaving a shallow soil. T he eroded material is deposited at
the foot o f slopes building up deeper soils.
— What may be said about the biotic factors and time?
— The soil is the only part o f an ecosystem that includes the plants
and animals dependent on it. In uncultivated and cultivated land soil
characteristics influence the plants that are found. M an has profoundly
affected the soil. Fertilizers, lime, cultivation and drainage have partly
obscured the natural relationship, but without entirely obliterating them.
As to time, many soil processes are slow, but often cumulative in their
effect. One process may prepare the way for another. Thus extreme
leaching o f bases precedes podzolization. The length o f time the soil has
remained undisturbed by erosion or deposition is an important factor in
its evolution. Soils on slopes tend to be young, while old soils are often
associated with plateaux, especially when overpermeable material which
discourages run-off. Thus the age o f soils is closely connected with
relief.
Uni t 46
AUSTRALIAN LAND DEGRADATION AND ITS CONTROL
degrade v 1. понижать; 2. опустошать
susceptive a 1. восприимчивы й; 2. допустимый
remove v удалять
removal n удаление
latitude n широта
fragile а хрупкий
confine v ограничивать; to be confined — быть вынужденным
eliminate v устранять
274
drought n засуха
remote а отдаленный
trace v 1. намечать, чертить; 2. выследить, найти // n след
fen n тундра
emphasize v подчеркивать
gain v получать, достигать
liter v разбрасывать / / n 1. мусор; 2. поросята одного опороса
hoot п копыто
detrimental adj вредный, убыточный
level v уравнивать / / п уровень
marsupials сумчатые (животные)
unusually, historical, significantly, implementation, awareness,
landscape, gunpowder, hardhoofed, cattle, technology, predictably,
seaboard, wilderness, heritage, atmospheric, ecosystem.

bye ^ bird
Tail - > т У [ э :1 -» lu rch
I i m / \ ■> "SI U iix n t
type у burst
by
myth [aia] tyre

[i] -> system byre
gym

Text 46A. Australian L and Degradation and Its Control
The Australian continent is unusually susceptible to erosion and
salinization problems. Historically the removal of trees on a vast scale
has significantly altered runoff patterns. T he implementation o f land-
use plans and conservation farming forms the basis of a national soil-
conservation program and is com plem ented by a national awareness
campaign to control Australia’s prime environmental problem.
The vast continent o f Australia, comprising 7.7 million square kms
and originally called the «Great Southland» by ancient mariners, covers
33° of latitude and includes a diversity of ecosystems from deserts to fen
forests and coral reefs. The biological diversity and the fragility o f the
natural habitats and their communities are unique to this ancient and
highly eroded landscape.
The land has been occupied by aboriginal tribes for more than
40000 years. Their hunter-gatherer society had little effect on the
275
ecosystems that they were part of. Apart from the use of fire for hunting
and food gathering, their activities were confined to collecting fruits,
roots and nuts, fishing and the hunting o f marsupials and birds.
The arrival o f the European settlers in 1788 brought steel axes and
saws, gunpowder, draught animals and hard-hoofed cattle and sheep on
to the continent. Technology brought water bores and windmills, which
eliminated forever nature’s control of animal populations by drought
and water supply. Early settlement o f Australia started on the central
East Coast. Occupation spread south, north and west from present-day
Sydney, then to South Australia and Western Australia. Current
population density figures show that m uch o f inland and northern
Australia remains sparsely populated.
Predictably, most o f the environmental issues that have received
attention in the past concern land, water and atmospheric conditions in
the more heavily populated eastern seaboard districts. In more recent
times concern for remote wilderness areas in Tasmania, the Northern
Territory and N orth Queens land has grown and unique sites in these
areas have been included in the World Heritage List.
V. Read and translate the text. Write down 6 questions using the text.
Text 46B. A rid Climate and Grasing Land Degradation
Since grazing and cultivation cover two-thirds o f Australia’s land-

surface area, the causes o f accelerated water and wind erosion can easily
be traced to the rural pursuits of landholders. However, it should be
emphasized that this ancient land has always been prone to natural
erosion. Susceptibility of the natural land surface to erosion results from
the com bined effects o f prolonged droughts and the consequent
reduction in protective ground cover vegetation. The arid climate and
the resultant sparse grass cover are additional factors in the vast inland
area o f the country.
The natural instability and fragility of many o f the arid ecosystems
requires a careful control o f stocking rates o f cattle and sheep in the vast
pastoral zones of the inland. The inherent carrying capacity is low for
the main vegetation types: spinifex (Triodia spp.), Mitchell grass
(Astrebia), saltbush (M ariana) and mulga (Acacia aneura).
Despite emotive defense of the kangaroo population, there is ample
evidence that these animals will continue to contribute to the
overgrazing problem unless their numbers are controlled by shooting a
significant proportion o f the annual kangaroo-population increase. The
conservation lobby in Australia and overseas is apparently unaware of a
num ber of fundamental facts about the kangaroo population.
Firstly, the creation of perm anent drinking water through artesian
bores and surface dams has greatly increased the population o f red and
276
grey kangaroos. Secondly, the unnatural increases in kangaroo
populations, especially in years of abund an t feed, make it impossible
for conservation-m inded graziers to release paddocks used for
domestic stock grazing for the purpose of rehabilitating degraded
grazing land.
Thirdly, if kangaroo shooting is outlawed, pastoralists will loose out
to the kangaroos and will then have no alternative but to shut off the
water supplies. This will cause an almost total annihilation of the
kangaroo population in all areas except the limited zones served by
permanent natural waterholes in the arid inland. In short, there can be
no conservation of the inland without kangaroo control.

Text 46C. Soil Conservation Awareness
Enacted regulatory policy reflects a nationwide awareness of the

need to control detrimental activities across a wide range of
environmental situations. In the sphere of land stabilization and soil
conservation, the establishment of the National Soil Conservation
Program (N SC P) was a major step in stimulating national activity in soil
conservation.
The objectives of the N S C P form a framework of principles on which
nationwide soil conservation activities can be built. These objectives are
that:
all lands in Australia must be used within their capability;
land-use and management decisions must be based on whole
catchment/regional land-use planning concepts;
all land users and levels of government meet their respective
responsibilities in achieving soil conservation;
effective cooperation and coordination occur between all sectors of
the community, disciplines and agencies involved in the use and
management of land and water resources;
the whole com m unity adopt a land-conservation ethics.
The N S C P is advised by the Soil Conservation Advisory C om mittee,
which makes recom m endations for financial support to between 50 and
100 projects annually.
Each of the states of the com m onwealth has an authority responsible
for research and development in the sphere of land-use planning and
rural-production systems. These authorities, either departments of
agriculture (primary industries), or divisions or commissions of land
utilization or soil conservation, are the mainstay of encouraging sound
land use in Australia. T he implementation of soil conservation is a state
function and as such each state has the autonom y to legislate and
implement policy in its jurisdiction.
277
EXERCISES

Australian continent; unusually susceptible to erosion; salinisation
problems; removal of trees; runoff patterns; conservation farming; soil
conservation program; national awareness campaign; diversity of
ecosystems; fen forests; coral reefs; biological diversity; natural habitats;
food gathering; collecting nuts.
VIII. Write down the following sentences and explain the function of
the verb «to have»:
1. The land has been occupied by aboriginal tribes for more then
40000 years.
2. Their hunter-gatherer society had little effect on the ecosystems
that they were part of.
3. Most of the environmental issues that have received attention in
the past concern land, water and atmospheric conditions in the more
havily populated eastern seaboard districts.
4. Later concern for remote wilderness areas in Tasmania, the
Northern Territory and North Queens land has grown and unique sites
in these areas have been included in the World Heritage List.
1. It should be noted that Australia has always....
2. The arid climate and the resultant sparse grass cover are....
3. The natural instability and fragility of the arid systems....
4. The kangaroo population will continue to contribute to the
overgrazing problem unless....
5. The creation of perm anent drinking water through artesian bores
and surface dam s has greatly increased....
6. The unnatural increases in kangaroo populations make it
impossible for conservation minded draggers to release paddocks used
for domestic stock grazing....

1. The Father of the waters is the River Nile.
2. King of the waters is the River Amazon.
3. King of the jungle is the tiger.
4. King of the beasts is the lion.
5. King of the sea is the herring.
6. The olive branch is a symbol of peace.
XI. Put 4 questions to the text 46C and answer them in oral form.
278
XII. Insert the proper words and translate sentences into Russian:
1. The conservation lobbies in Australia and ... is apparently unaware
o f a num ber of fundamental facts about the kangaroo population.
2. If kangaroo shooting is ... pastoralists will loose out to the
kangaroos and them have no alternative but to shut off the water
supplies.
3. In short, there can be no ... of the inland without kangaroo
control.
4. The Soil Conservation Advisory Com mittee makes
recommendations for financial supports to between 50 and 100 ...
annually.
5. Each of the state o f the ... has an authority responsible for research
and development in the sphere o f land-use planning and rural-
production systems.
6. T he ... of soil conservation is a state function.

1. П очвенная эрозия является серьезной проблемой на Австра
лийском континенте, особую опасность представляет водная э р о
зия.
2. Н аибольш ее в н и м ан и е уделяется кон тролю окруж аю щ ей
среды южных и западных реги он ов Австралии.
3. Засушливый климат и как результат этого довольно бедный
растительный покров служат дополнительны м и факторами, сп о
собствующими постоянному разруш ению почв.
4. Важной особенностью контроля окружающей среды в Авст
ралии является постоянное осуществление мер по регулированию
популяции кенгуру.
ХГУ. Write down what part of speech the following words in bold prints
1. Historically the removal o f trees on a large scale has significantly
altered runoff patterns.
2. M ountain streams runoff the slopes here and make a pond that
dries out in arid seasons.
3. Hundred years ago their hunter-gatherer society had little effect on
the ecosystems that they were part of.
4. Apart from the use o f fire for hunting and food gathering their
activities were confined to collecting fruit, roots and nuts, fishing and
the hunting of marsupials and birds.
5. Later they were not only hunters, they learned to use land: to
cultivate it and grow crops.
6. Trees could supply shade for animals on hot days.
7. But water supply was not enough in dry season.
279
unusually, remove, vast, natural, more, apart, to collect, arrival,
hard, start, sparsely, heavy, resent, include, easily, careful, low, limited.
XVI. Read and translate the text. Put 6 questions and answer them in
English.
Text 46D. Environment and Economic Development
In essence, the Australian economy has grown out of primary
production — first wool and timber, then wheat and sugar. More
recently minerals such as iron ore, coal and copper have become prime
export-eamers. Because o f the ratio of population to resources, almost
80 percent o f primary production is exported, with rural industries and
mining contributing equal shares.
The effects o f each land use on land stability and production
potential are greatest under the more intensive forms of land use, e.g.
cropping (6.1 percent o f the area). Forestry and nature conservation
constitute 5.5 percent of Australia’s land area and new reserves are being
proclaimed annually.
The federal government has attempted to develop a basis for meeting
the needs o f both econom ic development and environmental
conservation. The National Conservation Strategy (N C S) aims to
establish principles for development in such a way as to protect
landscape values other than utilitarian economic values.
Several attem pts have been made to assess the relative contribution
of each form of land degradation to the total problem of Australian
landscapes. In terms of total area affected, loss of productive potential
and the irreversibility of the process, water erosion is clearly the greatest
threat to Australian landscapes.
71 percent of degraded land is affected by water erosion, with
vegetation degradation accounting for 11 percent and wind erosion for 7
percent of the non-arid area affected. Salinity problems have received
considerable attention as a rural political issue, but such salting
problems affect only two percent o f the non-arid land area. H alf of the
saline area is under irrigation and represents areas of high capital
investment and high production potential. The prime area affected by
salinity is the M urray-Darling River basin and special legislation has
been passed to com bat this problem.
Unit 47
THE FORMATION OF NON-AGRfCULTURAL LAND USES
actual а действую щ ий, сущ ествующий в настоящ ее время
a large amount о/б о л ь ш о е количество
280
conceive v 1. постигать; 2. задумывать
processing n 1. обработка, переработка сырья; 2. обработка (дан
ных)
proposal п предложение
reduce v 1. ослаблять, уменьшать; 2. сводить (к)
heart п суть, сущность
emphasize v подчеркивать, выделять
encompass v окружать, охватывать
idle а пустующий (о земле)
restrict v ограничивать, сокращать
nevertheless adv, conj хотя, несмотря на, однако
deploy v развертывать (колонну), распространять
pattern п образец, модель
link п связь, соединение
interdependent а взаимозависимы й
II. Explain how the following words are formed and write them down,
non-agricultural, preliminary, abandoned, preserved,
comprehensive, evaluation, resource, specified, estimated,
com m unication, fragmented, deployment, research, unsuitable.

turn
[a:] — fur
burst
u
bus [Л] [jua] pure

cup cure
much during
duck b um
child
[tj] catch
cheese
chases
chief
[1] machine
technology chef
chemistry chandelier
mechanics chantage
architecture chanterelle
chaos
281
Text 47A. The Formation o f Non-Agricultural Land-Uses
One o f the most important problems of land-use planning is the
formation o f non-agricultural land uses and land takings.
The taking o f land for non-agricultural needs involves such steps as:
feasibility studies; preliminary discussions; judicial proceedings. To
begin with, the non-agricultural land uses should be located on
abandoned or low-fertile lands. The prime lands must be preserved for
farming by all means. The priorities for food production should receive
comprehensive evaluation, and the planners must consider farmland as a
resource required to produce an estimated quantity o f food of specified
quality.
At present there is a certain planning strategy concerning the
location o f farm enterprises in relation to communications. There is a
need for a feasibility study since the true effect o f road development on
farm land and food production is not well known.
The taking o f land for motorways is often o f major importance. The
land units o f any kinds of farms should be given the needed access. In
practice each taking o f lands for motorways creates fragmented farm
land.
The land use planning for non-agricultural uses includes also the
taking o f land for industrial development. The extraction and service
industries make a direct impact o f farm-land. With industrial
deployment more factories are being dispersed into rural areas.
The emergence o f agro-industrial-complexes requires further study
and research. The taking of land for industrial developments or agro
industrial complexes will need the comprehensive approach quite
different from the traditional one. Special zones close to road and rail
systems suggest that the poor land should be reserved in regional plans
for such development.
Land resources which have limited use for agriculture because of
poor soils, difficult topography or unsuitable climate should be used for
non-agricultural developments.
Text 47B. The Demand fo r Land Grows
Surface mining often disturbs land resources. In many instances,
timber is removed, wildlife habitat is disrupted, natural streams are
diverted or contam inated, roads are buiJLt in undisturbed areas, and holes
are drilled. There is also the question of whether the initial mining
operation will reduce our mineral-resource basin by interfering with or
precluding entirely the ultimate recovery o f other underlying minerals.
The dem an d for land to support both urban growth and mineral
282
development (particularly sand and grave) also creates serious social and
political questions in densely populated areas. In addition, when
reclamation is contem plated, disagreements often occur as to the type of
land-use that will contribute most to society.
Tourists from industrialized nations travelling through rural Asia and
Oceania smile at the local use of paddy husks, coconut shells, jute sticks
and cow dung for heating and cooking. Yet their own children may have
to resort to such fuels because of drastic energy shortages. Fossil fuels,
we must remember, are non-renewable resources and once burned,
they’ve gone forever.
D uring the history of hum anity, people have made m any mistakes
in their relationship to the world they live in. Our ancestors,
however, were able to postpone the day o f reckoning. They were able
to seek present, profit w ithout too m uch co n c ern for its future
effects. There were m any who said, «Let posterity worry about it».
You are the posterity they were talking about. During your lifetime
you must find answers to this question: How can h u m an beings
continue to live on planet Earth w ithout destroying the en viro nm ent
on which their lives depend? Sustainable ways o f life must be
discovered. Destructive ways o f life must be abando ned . W ithout
these there will be no posterity.
VI. Read the dialogue and translate it into Russian in written form.
Idling Land and Land Fragmentation in Private Land-Uses
— Does farm-land fragmentation take place in private agriculture?
— Field shape and size tend to deteriorate if left to the forces of the
land market and family transactions. Fragmentation of farm-land into
numerous, small, and often odd-shaped parcels is widespread in private
agriculture.
— Why does fragmentation increase in the USA?
— In a country such as the United States, farm-land fragmentation is
a great problem. Farms are often subdivided when they are sold and
the parcels are bought by different buyers. Some of the buyers are
investors rather than farmers. Over the years, fragmentation slowly
increases, as can be shown by com paring plot books a few decades
apart in time.
— And what can be noted about the land fragmentation in other
countries?
— Farm -land fragmentation is a large problem in many countries of
Europe and Asia. A village of a thousand or a few thousand hectares of
land can be divided into literally thousands o f parcels, many of them
only a fraction of an acre in size. «Strip farms» are among the more
striking cases of farm-land fragmentation.
— What are the main disadvantages of land fragmentation?
283
— Fragmentation brings many disadvantages, some of which are very
great. Land surface may be lost from production along many parcel
boundaries. Weed control may be rendered more difficult, use of
advanced technology is not always possible because it often requires
concerted action by several neighbours to be practical, and soon. The
large am ount of boundary lines also causes misunderstanding about
boundary lines.
— Why does the private landownership lead to fragmentation of farm
land?
— Private landownership often leads to division of inheritance.
Reasonably concentrated farms often become badly fragmented and
farm layout deteriorated.
— Why are land resources in agriculture often o f no use?
— In countries land recently used for agriculture but now inactive is a
com m on phenom enon. Idling near urbanizing areas occurs due to
speculative holding o f land for potential urban development. Idling
could stem from disinvestment by farmers expecting that the dem and for
such land will generate the most profitable use o f this land.
— Why is there so m uch fertile land inactive in capitalist agriculture?
— Inactive land is of particular interest for businessmen who are
eager to make profit in and near the urban fringe.
EXERCISES

non-agricultural land-uses; land takings; feasibility studies;
preliminary discussion; pedicel proceedings; preserved for farming;
prime lands; comprehensive evaluation; estimated quantity o f food;
specified quality; farm enterprise.
VIII. Write down the following sentences and translate them into
Russian. Explain the function of V+-ed forms.
1. The non-agricultural land uses should be located on abandoned or
low-fertile lands.
2. The prime lands must be preserved for farming by all means.
3. The planners must consider farmland as a resource required
producing an estimated quantity o f food of specified quality.
4. With industrial deployment more factories are being dispersed into
rural areas.
5. Special zones close to road or rail systems suggest that the poor
land should be reserved in regional plans for such development.
6. Land resources, which have limited use are suitable for non-
agricultural developments.
284
1. Land resources may often be disturbed by ....
2. When reclamation is contem plated disagreements often occur a s ....
3. Tourists from European countries travelling through rural Asia
smile at ....
4. During the history of humanity people have made many mistakes i n ....
5. In the country such as the United States farm land
fragmentation....
6. A village o f a thousand or a few thousand hectares o f land can he
divided into....
X. Give the Russian equivalents. Try to remember:

1. One who plans and draws the design of buildings and superintends
their erection is called an architect.
2. One who deals in flowers is called a florist.
3. One who deals in cattle is called a drover.
4. One who deals in fish is called a fishmonger.
5. One who studies rocks and soils is called a geologist.
XI. Insert the proper words and translate sentences into Russian.
1. Land takings is one o f the most important problems of ... use
planning.
2. The non-agricultural land-uses should be located on ... or low-
fertile lands.
3. The planners must c o n s i d e r ... as a resource required producing an
estimated quantity.
4. In practice each taking o f lands for motor ways creates ...
farmland.
5. The taking o f land for industrial developments or agro-industrial...
will need the comprehensive approach.
6. Fragmentation brings many... some o f which are very great.
XII. Write out the words ending in -ing (text 47B) and analyze their
functions in the sentences.
XIII. Translate the following sentences into Russian:

1. Плодородные земли во что бы то ни стало долж ны быть и с
пользованы для сельскохозяйственных целей.
2. При отводе земель для транспортных целей трудно избежать
разделения или дробления уже существующих землепользований.
3. Земельные ресурсы, характеризующиеся бедными почвами,
неблагоприятным климатом и рельефом, следует использовать для
несельскохозяйственных целей.
4. Отвод земель — трудоемкий и мн огоф акторны й процесс.
285
1. The taking o f land for non-agricultural needs involves three
steps: feasibility studies, preliminary discussions and judicial
proceedings.
2. The land use planners study the topography of the locality, the
quality of soils and they consider many factors before making a decision
on land use.
3. The land units o f any kinds o f farms should be given the needed
access.
4. The planners needed a lot of data before they started making a
map.
5. The specialists demand the locality to be mapped.
6. The demand for land to support both urban growth and mineral
development creates serious social problems in over populated areas.

formation, agricultural, to begin, should, to ignore, certain, true,
well, often, given, practice, taking, create, direct, rural, limited,
disagreement, some.
XVI. Read the text about soil problems and discuss the examples of
solving them given in the article.
Text 47C. Some Urban Sewage Problems
There are cities which find some way o f getting rid o f sewage and
other wastes produced by millions o f people. There also exist
agricultural soils being depleted o f organic material by mono-cultural
practices, which forces the em ploym ent o f excessive am ounts o f energy-
demanding nitrate fertilizers, as well as other chemicals. The fertilizers,
washing from farmlands and into streams, lakes, or estuaries create an
additional pollution problem. The system is obviously disrupted and
what could be a healthy recycling does not take place.
The magnitude of the urban sewage problem cannot be dismissed
lightly. New York City must do something with 5 million cubic yards of
sewage sludge — the end product of its sewage treatment plants, each
year. It has tackled the problem by hauling it in barges, 11 miles off
shore and dum ping it. The sewage dumping ground has long been an
unhealthy part o f the ocean, since about 15 square miles o f ocean
bottom are now covered with a cqncentrated mass o f sludge, and can
support only anaerobic forms o f life.
In theory this sludge is supposed to work its way-down a submarine
canyon into the ocean deeps. However, it has, not obliged, and recently
has been working its way back toward the beaches. Properly processed
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and returned to the land, this could be valuable fertilizer. Left alone it is
a menace to marine-life and a health threat to people.
Chicago, by contrast, has attem pted to solve its problem in a more
rational way, using it to restore the soils of about 36.000 acres of
marginal farm lands and strip-m ined areas. Although the digested and
chemically treated sludge represents no menace to health o f citizens in
the recipient areas have filed suit against the city of Chicago to prevent
further dum ping, since they fear some unknow n, disease hazard may
creep upon them. The belief that anything organic is filthy is
widespread am ong Am ericans an d unfortunate by-product of
mishandled health education, and a direct product o f advertising
campaigns.
Unit 48
WATER DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS
develop v развивать(ся), обнаруживать(ся), совершенствовать,
разрабатывать
recreation п рекреация, восстановление (сил)
artificial а искусственный
body of water водоем
expect v ожидать
attract v привлекать
property п собственность
expensive а дорогостоящ ий
estimate v оценивать
underestimate v недооценивать
appreciate v оценивать, ценить
participate v участвовать
craft n 1. плавсредство, корабль, лодка; 2. искусство, ремесло
wilderness п пустыня, дикая местность, запущенная часть сада
undoubtedly adv несом ненн о
judge v судить / / п судья
judgement п суждение
I I . Explain how the following words are formed and write them down,
recreation, artificially, expectation, attractive, prospective,
waterfront, partially, untouched, hydrology, comparison,
overemphasize, quantifiable, involvement, wildness, wilderness,
undoubtedly, judgem ent, television.
287
ph [f] phone, photo, philosophy
ps [s] psychology
ck [k] stick, back, nick
sh [J] she, shop, push
wh [w] what, why, where, but who [hu]
wr [r] wrong, write, wrist
ng [t|] song, ring, sing
kn [nj knife, knee, know

Text 48A. Water Development Projects
Water-based recreation is now big business in America. In many places
— Reston, Virginia, and Columbia, Maryland, there are examples — new
towns and communities are planned around artificially created bodies of
water in the expectation they will make the site more attractive to the
prospective home buyer. Waterfront property has become a scarce and
expensive commodity. The costs of new dams and reservoirs are partially
justified on the basis of the recreation use they will attract. In a survey of
Am erica’s outdoor recreation preferences, the water-based sports of
swimming, fishing, boating, ice skating, water skiing, canoeing, and
sailing ranked in the top twenty pursuits. There is no doubt that the
dem and for access to recreation water is high and growing.
The need for natural bodies of water, untouched by development of
any kind, is also great. Natural streams, lakes, and seashores which can
be m aintained in a near-prime condition have become scarce in
America, and have a value not only to those seeking, a high quality of
outdoor recreation but also for the study o f hydrology, ecology, and
other enveronmental sciences. These areas form needed reference points
for comparison with those areas m an has changed.
There is a tendency in water development projects to underestimate
the value of an untouched stream or other body of water and to
overemphasize the benefits in irrigation, urban water, power, or other
quantifiable benefits to justify the construction o f engineering facilities.
Relatively few people go on nature walks or hike in wild country
com pared to those who drive or walk about the city. But the comparison
is again open to question. Few people have been taught anything about
nature or how to appreciate wild country. Few people have the same
opportunity to participate, therefore, in activities that include a personal
involvement with wild nature, as inactivities that involve only a motor
car and a road.
Should we spend federal and state funds more for building highways
and swimming pools, because these are what people will use or should
we spend the money for building the skills and appreciation needed for
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better use o f wilder and more natural environments? There are those
who say we must not make value judgements about recreation, that
nobody can say that a hike in the wilderness or the operation of a sailing
craft on the ocean is a lighter form of recreation than driving a car or
sitting by a swimming pool. Undoubtedly, those who understand the
values, the skills o f skiing or sailing, or the adventure of hunting are in a
better position to make judgements about them than those who know of
these things only from seeing them on television.
Text 48B. Water Development Scheme
In federal irrigation projects the cost ot water to the user is far less than
the actual cost o f delivering the water. The irrigation farmer is thus
subsidized, indirectly. It is unlikely the cost o f desalted seawater will ever
be within the reach o f the farmer. Furthemore, since seawater is available
only at sea level it would be necessary to pum p it, at a still higher power
cost, in order to deliver it to irrigation projects located inland. The biggest
hope for irrigation may lie in the desalting o f brackish water located in
inland sources or underground. Seawater is most likely to continue as a
source for seacoast urban-industrial water supply.
Despite the promise o f desalinization, efforts to develop new sources
of freshwater may be expected to continue. The most massive water
development scheme yet proposed has been brought forward by the PA
sons engineering firm o f Los Angeles. This is the North American Water
and Power Alliance (NAWAPA). It would tap the rivers o f northern
C anada and Alaska, pum p water southward into a storage area in the
Rocky M ountain trench o f Canada, an d deliver it as needed as far south
as Mexico for a cost estimated at 100 billion dollars. Obviously such a
plan would reorganize the western country-side, have massive effects on
environment, and destroy great wilderness and wildlife.
Regardless o f what we do, the ultimate answer to water problems lies
in population limitation. We could move water down the continent and
irrigate all our deserts to provide more water and more food for more
people. The people would then not have wild country or desert
wilderness, but they would still have a population problem and growing
water needs. We could, on the other hand, limit population growth at
some point where we woulf have enough food, enough water, and
enough wild country to satisfy anyone. We still have the choice.
Text 48C. Water Conservation Plans
Mass agribusiness, which now has dom inated farm production in the
United States, requires massive developments to provide irrigation water
289
and other inputs. Growing food which is the purpose o f much of this
activity, can often be carried out far more effectively by using local
resources and substituting a high level of hum an care and careful
m anagement for those outside inputs which would otherwise have to be
purchased or supplied. A high level of labor investment and hum an skill
is necessary to make the desert bloom, but in today’s world there is no
scarcity of «surplus» hum an labor, displaced from the land and unable to
find em ploym ent in cities.
One cannot pretend all problems o f water management and
conservation can be met by paying greater attention to local human
efforts to solve local problems. New York’s water problems will not be
solved by putting in roof collectors. It is certain, however, that many
water conservation problems would be alleviated and some would
disappear if individuals would once again assume greater responsibility
for their own welfare, and if small communities would work together to
find local solutions to their difficulties.
Shifting now to the more global viewpoint o f water conservation, we
must see to it that water-concervation plans are fitted into an overall
pattern o f environmental conservation and not treated in isolation. They
must always include attention to proper land conservation in watershed
areas. Better soil conservation on farming lands will lead to better use of
soil water, better storage o f soil water, increased filtration to subsurface
water supplies and a lessened dem and for irrigation water. Through soil
conservation, erosion can be slowed to a tolerable rate, and problems of
downstreams siltation reduced. Better land use in forest and range areas
brings increased water filtration, stabilized runoff, and improved year-
round water yields. Each region must take responsibility for its own
watersheds, streams and rivers. Individuals, communities, municipalities
and industries must be responsible for reducing water pollution, to
tolerable levels.
EXERCISES

water-based recreation; artificially created bodies o f water;
prospective hom e buyer; waterfront property; recreation use; outdoor
recreation preference; water-based sports; water skiing; recreation
water; natural streams; outdoor recreation; environmental sciences;
untouched stream.
VIII. Write out sentences containing modal verbs (text 48A).

Translate the sentences into Russian. What do you know about modal
verbs? Give your own examples.
290
1. In state irrigation project the cost o f water to the user is far less
than....
2. Sea water is most likely to continue as a source....
3. Regardless o f what we do, the ultimate answer to water problems
lies in....
4. Mass agribusiness o f the U S U requires....
5. T o make the desert bloom a high level of labor investment and
hum an skill....
6. New Y ork’s water problems will not be solved by....
X. Give the Russian equivalents. Try to remember the expressions, use

them in your own sentences.
1. All water runs to his will — Ему исклю чительно везет
2. Back water — Уступить, пойти на попятную
3. Т о be in deep water — Находиться в состоянии тревоги, в
опасном положении
4. То be in hot water — Иметь неприятности
5. Т о be in low water — Сидеть на мели, быть без денег, нахо
диться в критическом финансовом положении.
1. The dem and for access to ... water is high and growing.
2. Natural bodies o f water, untouched by development o f any kind
have a value also for the ... of hydrology, ecology and other
environmental sciences.
3. Untouched streams or other bodies o f water are usually
underestimated in ... development projects.
4. Few people have been taught anything about nature or how to...
wild country.
5. The operation o f a sailing craft on the ocean is a higher form of...
than driving a car or sitting by a swimming pool.
XII. Use the following verbs in Passive Constructions and write down
the sentences using them:
to provide, to grow, to carry cut, to purchase, to employ, to meet, to
find, to include.

1. Д ля того чтобы выгоднее продать дом, владелец долж ен п о
заботиться о созд ан и и у фасада искусственного водоема или б а с
сейна.
291
2. П ригородные водоемы нужны не только для организации от
дыха, но они очень важны для тех, кто занимается проблемами
гидрологии, экологии и других наук, связанны х с изучением вод
ных ресурсов.
3. Потребности населения Земли в воде возрастают постоянно,
поэтому требуются новые технологии очистки воды.
4. Запасы пресной воды небезграничны, поэтому с ростом н а
селения возрастает потребность в возобновлении водных ресурсов
и контроле потребления воды на планете.
1. We should value water as we value land.
2. The value o f an untouched stream c a n ’t be underestimated.
3. The cost o f water to the user is far less than the actual cost of
delivering the water.
4. How m uch does the bottle o f drinking water cost?
5. It is unlikely the cost of desalted seawater will ever be within reach
of the farmer.
6. Can we reach the bottom o f the ocean in this area?

partially, outdoors, top, untouched, scarce, underestimate,
overemphasize, open, anything, nobody, unlikely, salted, expected.
XVI. Read and discuss the text in class. Pay attention to reading the
numerals.
Text 48D. The problem o f water supply
If we accept that a person in a m odem , technological society requires
720 gallons o f water per day, and then multiply that by one million
people, we have a problem for government o f finding 720 million
gallons o f water per day for a population o f a large city. However, in an
area with an annual rainfall o f 36 inches, a collecting surface o f 100
square feet could gather 300 cubic feet, or roughly 2400 gallons o f water
a year. A. house with 2000 square feet o f roof-collecting surface could
harvest 6000 cubic feet or 48,000 gallons of water a year — enough to
provide 130 gallons o f water a day. The practice o f collecting rainwater
from rooftops and running it into household storage tanks was once
com m on, and still is in some areas, and has been used as a means for
supplying most household water needs. However, reliance on masive
water developments and regional suply systems has caused people to
give up such do-it-yourself practices and has changed a non-problem
into a national problem.
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Unit 49
ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT
brief а короткий; краткий
impact n влияние
sustain v поддерживать
water table уровень грунтовых вод
species n вид; образец
feature n черта, особенность / / v характеризовать
breeding ground место разм нож ения животных; площадка для
молодняка
distribute v распределять; распространять
devastate v разрушать
survive v выживать
congregate v сосредоточить; собрать воедино
debris п развалины, осколки; лом, мусор
obvious а очевидный
facet п фацет, грань
demand п спрос / / v запрашивать; требовать
brink of extinction грань вы м ирания
heyday п расцвет; зенит
poacher п браконьер
soapstone п камень; тальковая порода
marble п мрамор
habitat п среда обитания
in the main в основном , большей частью
I I . W rite down the following words. Underline prefixes and sufTixes.

What part of speech are the following words? Translate the words into
Russian:
manipulate, unprecedental, dramatically, exploitation, vividly,
disregarding, distribution, exterminated, disappearance, endanger,
undisturbed, irreversible, interrelationship, increasingly, debilitating,
destructive.
i[ai] time, nine, title
nd kind, mind, find, blind
i+ Id wild, mild
gn [ai] sign, design
gh light, sight, right
bur. machine, cinema, wind
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ir [э:] first, bird, thirst, third
ire\^ fire, mire, entire
ia — [aia:] diamond, dialogue
io prior, pioneer, violate
ie [i:] field, brief, grieve
b u t friend [frend]

Text 49A. Mari's Im pact on the Environment
W hen m an first appeared a million or so years ago — a very brief
period o f geological time — the earth contained m any o f the species of
plants and animals which exist today, most of the climates which exist
today and m any o f to day’s topographic features. Although the
distribution o f climates and the location of shorelines, have changed, the
range o f ecological situations available for life has not changed to a
pronounced degree.
Just why m an appeared when he did is still a subject o f some
speculation. However, m a n ’s place in nature was virtually the same as
that o f any other creature. M an the hunter-gatherer preyed on, and was
preyed on by other animals. He was, in all respects part o f the food
chain o f the ecosystem he lived in. Clearly, he made no changes to the
biosphere as a whole.
Man, the farmer, was able, if not to play an ecological role as fully as
m an the hunter, at least to avoid large-scale environmental change.
The first signs o f a new problem in ecological m anagem ent became
evident when m an congregated into villages and towns. In these centres
there developed great accumulations o f organic and inorganic debris. At
this stage the word «pollution» could well have been introduced to
m a n ’s vocabulary. M an the technologist expects, not merely to survive,
but to enjoy a socio-econom ic infrastructure which provides
transportation, education, housing, recreational space and m any other
cultural facets.
To satisfy these desires and needs, m an has affected the environment
both directly and indirectly. In a direct sense his mechanical activity —
in constructing cities, highways, dams and in soil cultivation and mining —
is the most striking and obvious. Indirectly, thougth, the o ther products
o f m o d em technology are also o f great importance as agents o f change.
These products, in the main, are those of chemical and engineering
technology. In these activities, man, the technologist, has attem pted to
ignore the capacities and characteristics o f his ecosystems. T he results of
these activities are all around us, and we do not need to recount them. A
week seldom goes by without the press providing examples. The impact
of these changes on the environment as a whole is now just beginning to
be appreciated.
294
What are the solutions to this collision course between m a n ’s needs
and demands on the one hand, and his environment on the other?
What is required is a change in our basic phylosophy — from an
attitude to our environment which regards it as a resource to be
exploited for short-term personal, regional or national gain — to an
attitude o f living ecologically in a way that is essentially conservative of
the environment.
Text 49 В . Wild Life Disturbance
D em and for cosmetics is being met by illegal mining in Indian’s
national parks.
There used to be more than 20,000 tigers in India. Now, despite
heroic efforts by conservationists to protect the last 3,000 of the great
cats still roaming in remote areas, the Indian tiger is facing extinction
from an unlikely threat: the West’s passion for cosmetics made from
talcum powder.
The white powder, derived from soap-stone and marble, is used in
many beauty products, such as eyeshadow, lipsticks, deodorants and
soaps, in a market that is worth billions to the cosmetic companies.
But the desire for these seemingly harmless products is leading to the
destruction o f the tigers’ last natural habitat and, perhaps in less than 10
years, the species will be no more.
T he Britain’s leading cosmetic manufacturer, being one o f a num ber
of international firms has been sourcing talc from illegal mining
operations in sanctuaries critical to the survival of the tiger. The
operations are center 250 km southwest o f Delhi in the Indian state of
Rajastan.
Both the sanctuary and the reserve provide an ideal habitat for
reviving the tiger population and are supposed to be protected by
environmental laws.
However, across vast tracts of the wildlife sanctuary, the mining
industry has taken root. Using dynamite to blase the area for soapstone,
mine owners are ripping up the habitat with blatant disregard for the
surrounding environment.
The impact on the tigers should not be underestimated: the loss of
habitat and prey means the ecosystem that can sustain a tiger population
is destroyed. T he territory o f a male tiger can range anything up to 100
sq km: it needs cover, food and water.
Tiger cubs spend tw o -an d-a-half years with their m other before
finding a territory o f their own. The destruction o f the forest, the
pollution, and the lowering of the water table, all caused by the mining,
destroy ideal breeding grounds for young tigers. It is estimated that India
is losing one tiger a day due in part to the loss o f reproductive habitats.
295
Talc has several different grades and qualities. Its high therm al
and electrical resistance m eans it is used in the prod u c tio n o f paper
and tiles, and as coating in the m o to r industry for dashboards and
bumpers.
But it is the cosmetic industry that values its softness, purity and
natural whiteness the most. It is used in practically every m ake-up or
soap, including mascara, face powders, lipsticks and body lotions.
One mine operating in the region is the huge Dakota soapstone mine
at the village o f Dakota. The powder produced there is some o f the
finest anywhere and its soapstone mine is thought to be the largest.
However, the impact on local people, as well as tigers, has proved
devastating. Locals from the village are paid 50 rupees ($1) a day for
extracting and sorting the stone.
Desperately poor, m any villagers have been forced to work in the
mine to survive. They are given minimal protection and inhale the
particles of talc, a mineral that some medical experts believe has
carcinogenic properties and thought to cause tumors in the ovaries and
lungs.
VI. Read the dialogue and translate it into Russian in written form.
Anim als and Plants...D isappear...
— Why do some species o f animals and plants disappear from the
Earth?
The disappearance o f some species of animals and plants from the
Earth is the result of the pollution of air, land and water. City and
industrial waters, chemicals and fertilizers exhaust natural resources,
endanger stocks offish in the lakes, rivers and ponds. Moreover some
animals were exterminated because of the people’s greediness. These
animals were hunted for the sake of for or ivory, horns or tusks. In their
everyday activity people needed timber turning the areas of thick forests
into barren deserts.
— What can you say about global warming?
— Over the past two decades, the temperature o f the Earth’s
atmosphere has gradually increased. Global warming is one of the
climatic effects of polluted air. It worries Aot of people.
— What caused the «greenhouse effect»?
— The «greenhouse effect» is caused by carbon dioxide, which
prevents heat from escaping. Global warming or the «greenhouse effect»
can cause melting of the poral ice caps, raising of the sea level, and
flooding of the coastal areas o f the world. There is every reason to fear
that such a climatic change may take place.
— Has anything been done to solve ecological problems?
— In recent years people have understood the necessity o f protecting
296
natural resources and wildlife. It becomes clear that to keep air and
water clean, strict pollution control is necessary. Num erous anti
pollution acts passed in different countries led to considerable
improvements. In many countries purifying systems for treatment of
industrial waters have been installed, measures have been taken to
protect rivers and seas from oil contamination. Reservations and
national parks for wild animals and undisturbed nature are being
developed in some parts of the world.
— What will happen if nothing is done to protect the environment?
— If pollution of land, water and air continues, the damage caused
by these to nature may become irreversible. If people carry on like this,
the world will eventually run out of energy, fresh air and clean water. It
can bring to the extermination o f the people and turning the whole
planet into either a desert or the N orth Pole. Serious actions must be
taken now to avoid disaster.

geological time; species o f plants; topographic features; ecological
situation; mans place in nature; food chain; ecological role; large-scale
change; first signs; ecological management; great accumulation; organic
debris; recreational space; cultural facets.
VIII. Write out infinitive constructions and translate sentences with

these constructions using text 49A.
1. For centuries Indian tigers have been prized....
2. The white powder, deriverd from soapstone and marble, is....
3. Britains leading cosmetic manufacturer, Unilever, is....
4. Both the sanctuary and the wildlife sanctuary....
5. Across vast tracts o f the wildlife sanctuary....
6. The impact of the tigers....
7. In recent years people have understood....
X. Try to remember the following expressions and use them in your

speech:
all nature амер. (разг.) все, очень много народа
dame nature мать-природа
in nature устар. никак, ни за что
like all nature амер. (разг.) основательно, полностью
in a state of nature в костюме Адама, голый
by nature по природе, по натуре, от рождения
good nature добродушие
habit is a second nature привычка — вторая натура
297
in the course of nature при естественном ходе вещей
in the nature of things по природе вещей, естественно, неизбежно
1. Why do some ... o f animals and ... disappears from the Earth?
2. City and industrial ..., chemicals and fertilizers exhaust natural
resources.
3. Global ... is one o f the climatic effects o f polluted air.
4. The greenhouse effect i s ... by carbon dioxide, which prevents heat
from escaping.
5. In many countries ... systems for treatment o f industrial waters
have been installed.
6. Reservations and national parks for ... animals and ... natures are
developed in some parts of the world.
XII. Use the following verbs in Passive constructions. Write down the
sentences using them:
to sell, to use, to protect, to derive, to desire, to centre, to suppose,
destroy, to operate, to practise, to mine, to exhaust, to hunt, to pollute.

1. Чтобы сохранить исчезающ ие виды животных и растений, во
многих странах создаются заповедники и н ац ион альн ы е парки.
2. В погоне за сверхприбы лями некоторы е предприниматели
используют методы, которые влекут за собой катастрофическое
разруш ение природной среды.
3. Н аселение Земли все яснее представляет себе последствия
неразумного использования природных ресурсов.
4. С пециалисты разрабатывают определенные м ероприятия и
крупные проекты для восстановления утраченных или исчезаю
щих видов природных ресурсов.
1. T he Indian tiger is facing extinction from an unlikely threat: the
passion for cosmetic m ade from talcum powder.
2. Desperately poor m any villagers have been forced to work in the
mine to survive.
3. Their work is to mine the minerals for surviving.
4. One mine operating in the region is the huge soapstone mine at the
village o f Dagota.
5. By all means they get tiger skins and organs for selling.
6. It means that they further cut the numbers o f the Indian tigers.
7. This cut on the tree is not so deep, so it is not so harmful.
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appear, brief, whole, able, first, inorganic, indirectly, seldom,
demand, short-term, more, worth, natural, legal, vast, disregard,
destroy.

Text 49D. Ecology and environment
A primary feature o f life on earth is that organisms do not eixist in
isolation; instead the entire biosphere, is composed o f a range of
ecosystems each o f which contains a num ber o f species and a num ber of
microenvironments. A forest, or a lake, provides examples of typical
ecosystems, but the scale can vary widely; the entire biosphere
constitutes the earth’s ecosystem.
A primary feature o f an ecosystem is that it tends toward self
regulation. Solar energy is absorbed by the green plants o f an ecosystem,
to provide, through photosynthesis, the basic energy input, which is
gradually consum ed by metabolism through the food chain and
dissipated as heat. Thus there is a flow of energy through an ecosystem
starting from solar energy, passing through successive forms o f chemical
energy, at each stage, some energy, being lost as heat. Until it is all
dissipated. M an is an animal, and is part o f the so-called «web of life».
There is, however, an important difference between m an and all other
organisms. T o an unprecedented degree, m an has been able to
manipulate other species and the environment itself. In the process his
numbers and needs have increased dramatically, and are still increasing.
Yet the capacity o f the environment to supply these needs is limited,
and m a n ’s exploitation o f the environment tends to reduce that capacity
clearly, this constitutes a collision course, vividly reflected in the axiom
that m a n ’s future existence on earth is more threatened by any species
other than himself.
Uni t 50
THE DERELICT LAND PROBLEMS
pit n яма, углубление; шахта, карьер
tip п конец, край, оконечность
extraction п извлечение, добыча
ensure v обеспечить
avoid v избегать, избежать
beneficial а выгодный, прибыльный
constraint п принуждение, стеснение, нужда
299
II. Write down the following words and underline prefixes. What parts
of speech are these words? Translate the words into Russian:
a) untrue, undesirable, unreasonable, uncomfortable, unable,
unseen, unwell, unexplored, uncom m on, unadopted, unfavorable,
unbearable, unavoidable, unchanged, unforgotten, unm entioned,
unbelieved;
b) decentralize, delocalize, decompose, degasify, dehumanize,
defoliate, deodorize.
ew -> [u ] j eweU chew, blew, crew
[ju:] new, few
ar[o:] warm, war, quarter
w [w] wet, wit, wool
w+ a [o :] wash, want
[ae:j swam, wax

Text 50A. Intensification o f Land Uses
Scientific and technological progress in the use of natural resources
can be summarized in one word: intensification. Higher production can
come from the more intensive use o f lands currently in use as well as
from development of new land areas.
Most types o f land yield a higher and higher total production with
increasing inputs of capital and labour per unit o f land. It is particularly
true in periods when new technological developments can be used to
increase production and to reduce costs.
F or example, today large, expensive and complicated machines
permit removal of vast quantities o f land in a short time. The mines are
either deep pits or open excavations, and there are large tips of waste
deposited on the surface. Large acreages of prime farmland are often
taken for non agricultural uses.
Let us take for example mineral extraction industries. O f all of them
mining is the one which has given rise to the greatest am o unt of derelict
land. Apart from tips and holes there is the wasteland left behind by
open excavations.
The State Land Use Control is to ensure that the intensification of
land uses, particularly the mineral working and other extraction
industries, may avoid interference with farm land uses. The land use
planners responsible for after-use of derelict land should ensure
wherever possible land reclamation and farm after-use. Land used for
mineral working must not be abandoned and left derelict when the
working is finished. It must be restored or otherwise treated with a view
to bringing it back into some form of beneficial use.
300
Land m anagem ent usually is considered to include appraisal of
alternative treatm ent relative to the use of land for specific purposes,
selection of practices to be used, and direction of the use o f desired
practices.
In determining the alternative after-uses, it is essential that as much
information as possible be obtained about the land in question. The land
use planners must use the existing know-how to effective land use to
facilitate new and improved after-uses.
using the text.
Text 50B. The After-Use o f Restored Land
The industrial production must not damage the land resources and
increase the am oun t of waste land. Considerable areas of dereliction are
being reclaimed each year. The after-use of the restored land resources
is to be tackled by land use planners. This work is being done very
efficiently by specialists o f irrigation and land reclamation.
It is possible to restore the derelict land to a new use or to a more
appropriate land use. The land sometimes is restored to its former
condition and may be used as it has been used before dereliction. The
agricultural production should gain the priorities among other uses.
Return to agriculture may mean a lower grade of land and lower
productivity or change from arable to grazing land. Local land use
deficiencies and the site constraints should be taken into consideration.
If the land was originally poor, badly drained, suffering from exhaustion
it may be possible to improve the site by additional restoration working.
The efficiency o f the land parcel may be improved. The field size may be
enlarged or rationalized, the boundaries of the land parcel planted with
hedges and shelterbelts.
The land use planner usually selects species to suit the soil and
climatic conditions. Forestry is a safe return on the poorer soils and in
upland districts. The site survey and analysis to be used may be useful,
for selecting the species to suit the restored land resources.
The general techniques for site survey and analysis are used for land
use planning o f restored areas. But there are special characteristics of
derelict land which raise difficult problems o f after-use. They need
identifying at an early stage o f land use planning.
The type of questions that need an answer are the following: Are the
levels such that the site can be used for agriculture without major earth
moving? Are the grades so steep that erosion would prevent planting
into present surfaces? Do the levels indicate that the natural drainage
pattern of the area has been destroyed?
The soil and vegetation as well as the previous land use are also the
questions that need answers: Is there any soil left on the site? Is there
301
any vegetation on the site? Is the site colonized by grass on weed
invasion?
If there is no vegetation the land use planner is to consider whether
this is due to lack of soil or some other reason, such as toxic chemicals
left in the ground. In this case laboratory tests may be necessary.
The land use planner must know everything about the history of the
site. It is possible that the previous use was a form of mining so that
drifts, shafts and subsidence risks exist on the site. The previous use
could be a smelting or chemical process such that toxic substances might
be left in the ground.
V I. Read the text and translate it into Russian in written form.

Text 50C. L and Reclamation Practices
There are some problems co m m o n to all kinds of restoration and
reclamation workings. Typical methods o f restoration are the site
appraisal, drainage, the use of soil forming materials, the use o f waste
materials, etc.
It is not enough to ensure complete drainage on the site.
Overdrainage is almost as bad as insufficient drainage. Even on fertile
agricultural land poor drainage can be the cause o f complete failure of
vegetation cover. A poor growing medium like shale should have the
right drainage conditions to ensure the best possible opportunities for
growth. A symptom o f over-rapid drainage is the erosion which occurs
on steep slopes and can develop into trenches 2 metres deep or more.
M ovement that com m ences as a slow rotational slip may develop
into a rapid flow slide which can travel many hundreds o f metres. Slips
can take many forms. There are detailed methods o f stabilization of
slopes against possible slip. They mainly consist o f reducing the effective
angle o f slope by removing material or by some form o f terracing.
The type o f material has a considerable effect on the after-use, and
m ethods used to achieve new land forms. It is desirable to have early
tests made on the various grades of material on site regarding their
chemical composition: potential fertility, temperature and possible
econom ic value.
As a result o f the tests it can be decided whether the materials are
suitable either for use on the site, or as an aggregate or hardcore. The
tests, if comprehensive, will also reveal what potential the waste has as
soil forming material. To be decisive on this latter point, fertility tests in
a biology laboratory would have to be included.
It is obvious that all soil on industrial reclamation sites should be
conserved for use. Soil is not a stable inert permanent material like stone
or concrete. It is a living organism kept in a fertile state by regular
cultivation, feeding and watering. Due to com paction, heat, and lack of
bioorganisms it may no longer be soil. Soil which is stripped and stacked
302
also deteriorates rapidly. It should be kept for as short a time as possible
in a heap which is as low as practicable ....Soil which is under a heavy
load of other material or equipm ent even if temporarily stacked will be
compacted and the soil structure affected or destroyed. This is extremely
important for reclamation, soil conservation and re-use in agriculture.
EXERCISES
V II. a) Give the Russian equivalents:

technological progress; higher production; open excavations;
extraction industry; selection of practices; government reclamation
agency; lower productivity; soil and climatic conditions; methods of
stabilization o f slopes.
V III. Find out Past Participle forms in these sentences. What are their
functions?
1. All the progress in the use o f natural resources can be summarized
in one word: intensification. 2. Large complicated machines permit
removal o f great quantities o f land in a short time. 3. There are large tips
of waste deposited on the surface. 4. Considerable areas o f dereliction
are being reclaimed each year. 5. The field size may be enlarged or
rationalized, the boundaries o f the land parcel planted with hedges and
shelterbelts. 6. The general techniques for site survey and analysis are
used for land-use planning o f restored areas. 7. There are detailed
methods of stabilization of slopes against possible slip. 8. Soil which is
stripped and stacked also deteriorates rapidly.

1. Land resources must not be damaged by .... 2. Each year
considerable areas o f dereliction are .... 3. It is possible to improve the
site by .... 4. The land use planner usually selects species to ....
5. Forestry is a safe return on the poorer soils and in .... 6. The general
techniques for site survey and analysis are used for.... 7. Are the levels
such that the site can be used for agriculture without ...?

intensification o f land uses; inputs of capital; to reduce costs;
mining; wasteland; land reclamation; grazing land; to enlarge;
shelterbelt; weed.
XI. Form Past Participles of the following verbs and use them in short
sentences:
to use, to reduce, to remove, to permit, to extract, to ensure, to avoid,
to restore, to return, to exhaust, to prevent, to take, to include, to obtain.
303
X II. Insert the proper words and translate sentences into Russian.
1. You can get higher production from the more ... use o f lands
currently in use as well as from ... of new areas. 2. Today large expensive
complicated machines permit ... o f vast quantities of land in a short
time. 3. Large acreage’s of prime ... are often taken for non-agricultural
uses. 4. O f all mineral extraction ind ustries... is the one, which has given
rise to the greatest am ount of derelict land. 5. Land use for mineral
working must not be abandoned and left ... when the working is
finished. 6. The industrial production must not damage the land
resources and, increase the am ount of ... land. 7. It is possible ... the
derelict land to a new use or to a more appropriate land use. 8. The
agricultural production should gain ... among other uses.
X III. Translate the following sentences into English:

1. Каждый год специалисты проводят м ероприятия по улучше
н ию нарушенных земель и возвращ ению их в сельскохозяйствен
ный оборот. 2. Земля может быть восстановлена до ее прежнего со
стояния и вновь использоваться для сельскохозяйственных целей.
3. Существуют некоторые общ ие проблемы восстановления и улуч
ш ения земель.
are. Translates the sentences into Russian.
1. The technological progress in the use o f land resources is
intensification. 2. More intensive use o f lands will result in higher
production. 3. Intensifying the use of lands we face some environmental
problems. 4. With increasing inputs o f capital and labour per unit of land
we usually get more production from this unit of land. 5. Our task now is
to increase production and to reduce costs. 6. Mining is the factor,
which has given rise to the greatest am ount o f derelict land. 7. This land
has been restored and can be used as it was used before dereliction.

higher, to reduce, to increase, large, vast, short, deep, open,
responsible, possible, finished, backward, question, improve, new,
before, more, arable, badly.
XVI. Read the dialogue and discuss it in class.

Future Use o f R eclaim ed Wasteland
— What proposals for the future o f wasteland should be taken into
consideration by a land use planner?
— The future land-use of the area must be related to the various land
use needs o f the locality and to the plans o f econom ic and social
development o f the locality.
304
— What is the first consideration?
— Re-use for industry and possible use for housing should be the first
consideration in order to free greenfield sites elsewhere.
— Should the land use planner consider such social needs as
recreation?
— Yes, every m an has some free time and recreational land-use is of
vital importance now.
— Why do the land-use planners consider such possible uses on
waste sites as organized recreation?
— Sports today has become rural-oriented. But it is not necessary to
put playing pitches on good agricultural or pasture lands.
— And what can be said about water recreation?
— Water recreation is, o f course, a special case appropriate only
where the ground configuration lends itself to the formation of a water
area.
— But is there any possibility to create a lake on wasteland?
— Yes, where a sufficiently large catchm ent area will guarantee the
filling and continuous topping up of the lake it is quite possible to plan
such a land use.
— Is it possible to locate a public open space on wasteland?
— O f course! A simple treatment of the site for such low intensity use
as public open space or amenity land is probably the best aim and the
best use of such lands.
Uni t 51
TRANSFORMATION OF ARID LANDS
fix v укреплять, закреплять
invade v нарушать, вторгаться, посягать (на чьи -ли бо права)
subsoil п подпочва
relevant а п р им ен им ы й , уместный, отн осящ ий ся к делу, зн ач и
тельный
phenomenon п явление, н еобы кновен н ое явление
dominate v доминировать, преобладать
alarm п тревога
halt v останавливать
replenish v пополнять, восполнять
bog п болото, трясина
II. Write down the following words and underline prefixes. What part
of speech are the following words? Translate them into Russian:
a) non-acceptable, non-resistance, non-durable, non-provided, non-
essential, non-inductive, no n-hum an, non-m oral, non-logical, n o n
natural;
305
b) disadvantage, disappear, dissimilar, disconnect, disagree,
disorder, dissatisfy, disregard, displace, discharge, displease,
discomfort.
а + г е [ е э ] care, fare r+гласная [ е э :] Mary, arid
bur. are[a:]
ai+r[e9] air, pair, hair
[еэ] bear, wear
ea+ г [ia] clear, fear, year
ee+r[ia] steer, cheer
о г / а г [ э ] monitor, debtor, actor, collar

Text 51A. Deserts o f the X X Century
Water fixes the use potentials so completely that land without it is
almost useless for agriculture. The deserts invade in many forms: wind
erosion, droughts and moving sands. Quite often the advance is linked
to the concentration o f salts in the soil and subsoil waters. Land
conservation therefore means to halt the advance of deserts. Relevant
measures which involve applying scientific and technological
achievements to make use o f deserts are well-known.
The land conservation involves also taking into account the desert’s
natural capability.
Land use planners believe that the prime condition for the
developm ent o f arid zones is to investigate the ph en o m en a occurring
in them . T o do these scientists have to watch systematically the natural
indicators enabling us to forecast the advance of the desert in good
time.
The first signal of trouble is an increased concentration of salts in the
soil and subsoil waters. T hen com e changes in the vegetation cover. The
vegetation thins out, drought-resistant and saltloving types of plants
begin to dom inant and the biological productivity of the landfalls. Wild
animals leave. The final and most alarming signal is declining health
am ong the people living in the area.
A wealth of inform ation is now beginning to c o m e in from ou ter
space on the state o f pasture lands, and of artificial and natural water
bodies. T h e space satellites inform ation makes possible the
forecasting and avoidance o f undesirable p h e n o m e n a caused by
m a n ’s activities.
Specialists have also developed practical protective measures.
A m ong them are m echanical means, planting forest belts, grasses, and
bushes, and using oil waste and polymer film to halt the m ovem ent of
the sands.
306
using the text.
Text 51B. Land Reclamation and Water Resources in A rid Areas
The shortage of fresh water has the greatest influence on the entire
natural complex. But it operates in the arid areas more intensely than
anywhere else. That is why dealing with any economic problem in a
desert begins with an assessment o f water resources for the sake of land
reclamation.
Artesian wells are quite spread in Kazakhstan and the Central Asian
countries. The water for the city of Shevchenko is obtained cheaply
from an atom ic desalting plant. High-capacity irrigation systems operate
in Turkmenia and Uzbekistan, getting water from the Kara Kum and
other canals.
But Central Asia’s biggest rivers, the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya,
do not carry enough water any more. So a new problem arose how to
save the Aral Sea which will not be able to replenish itself with water
from the two rivers. The further econom ic development o f the lands of
the countries o f Central Asia and Kazakhstan will dem and additional
amounts o f water.
The land use planners as well as many other specialists have
developed a num ber o f projects for ways o f bringing water to the deserts
which will help to alter the climate of vast areas.
However, obtaining the water is not enough. It must be used
rationally. Today, between 15 and 30 per cent o f the water in irrigation
canals is lost in the Ferghana Valley. These waters were the cause of
appearance o f salty boglands. Cem ent or clay solutions are being used to
cover the walls o f the canals, but these are very expensive methods.
Feeding water through pipelines is a new way o f combatting water losses
and the salination o f surrounding territories. Sending the water through
flexible plastic pipes is especially effective.
Supplying water to the deserts in Central Asia and Kazakhstan and
developing new methods o f transporting it, land irrigation make it
possible to protect the soil in arid zones from salination and the threat of
wind erosion.
Text 5 1C. Cotton Cropland Reclamation
Cotton is a subtropical plant. It requires a long growing season and rather
high temperatures. Climate largely determines where cotton is grown.
Yields o f cotton have increased greatly. Better management, land
selection, a shift in production am ong areas, the use of more and better
fertilizers, improved methods o f controlling insects and weeds, better
varieties o f seed, irrigation are largely responsible for the increase.
307
The use of machinery in growing and harvesting cotton reduced the
am ount of labour needed to produce cotton. Lands on which machinery
can be used have become more important. Production has moved
southward in Uzbekistan, for example, where thousand hectares of
virgin land have been irrigated and new farms produce a great am ount of
cotton on the reclaimed land resources. The areas best adopted to
irrigation, mechanization and other improved techniques have gained an
advantage in production of cotton.
The Central Asia’s share of the grassland also grows larger year by
year. Opportunities for year-round grazing and emphasis on livestock
production would continue to increase.
Along with more and better livestock production, rapid strides have
been made in the protection of soils against erosion through the use of
cover crops.
M odern technological and scientific progress foretells the preservation
of lands. The conservation and enrichm ent of reclaimed lands for larger
production of more commodities at lower cost will continue.
Land reclamation in the arid zone o f Central Asia and other regions
has a wonderful future and will maintain and increase the gains it has
made.
EXERCISES

Central Asia frost-free season; prime condition; arid zone; natural
indicators; increased concentration of salts; vegetation cover; salt-loving
types; biological productivity; wild animals; mechanical means;
subtropical plant; long growing season; location of cotton farms;
V III. Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention

to Past Participle forms and their functions:
1. We must have some soil maps made of the areas where cotton is
grown. 2. Do you want this area reclaimed? 3. He had his project
completed. 4. They have this area reclaimed. 5. They want their land
information be supported by outer space data. 6. These specialists have
all their land use projects adopted.

1. The entire natural complex has been influenced by.... 2. An
assessment of water resources is the main problem in.... 3. Where do
high capacity irrigation...? 4. Additional am ounts of water will be....
5. Bringing water to the deserts will help .... 6. A new way of combatting
water losses and the salination o f surrounding territories is....
7. Supplying water to the deserts in Central Asia makes it possible to....
308
X. Write down 8 special questions, using the following words and word
combinations:
desert; subsoil waters; concentration o f salts; drought-resistant crops;
satellite information; to stabilize sands; to replenish; virgin lands.
XI. Form Past Participles and Present Participles of the following

verbs. Explain the differences in their functions, using them in
sentences:
to shape, to extend, to grow, to link, to involve to increase, to obtain,
to cover, to control, to reduce, to move to reclaim, to improve.
X II. Insert proper words and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Nearly all the cotton ... in the Central Asia. 2. Cotton is grown in
the area with ... summers and long ... season. 3. The deserts invade in
many forms — wind ..., drought and ... sands. 4. The first signal of
trouble in the desert is an increased ... of salts in the soil and subsoil
waters. 5. The final and most alarming signal is ... health among the
people living in the area. 6. The satellite information makes possible the
forecasting of undesirable phenom ena ... by m a n ’s activities. 7. Obtained
water must be used... . 8. The walls of canals must be ... with cement or
clay solutions.

1. У растений пустыни жесткие листья, которые препятствуют
слиш ком быстрой потере воды. 2. В этой книге приведено много
фактов и примеров того, как нужно охранять окружающую среду.
3. Было указано на практическую важность внутризонального
районирования, причем учитывались и зменения природных усло
вий не только с севера на юг, но и внутри зон с запада на восток.
are. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Cotton is grown in Central Asia. 2. T o grow cotton crop you must
have an area with hot sum m er and long frost-free season.3. Increasing the
salt concentration in the soil and subsoil waters you get some changes in
the vegetation cover.4. To increase the concentration of salt in the soil and
subsoil waters means to change the vegetation cover of the area.
XV. Give the antonyms:

new, part, south, long, fast, after, useless, covered, advanced,
natural, good, salt-loving, final, outer, planting, artificial
XVI. Read the dialogue and discuss it class.

Deserts N eed Scientific Research
— Why are people so interested in the arid lands?
309
— Half the world’s countries are either completely or partially
covered by arid lands or deserts. Vast areas become barren every year.
The advance of the desert on agricultural areas creates more problems
for an already complicated food situation in the world.
— What are the reasons for the advance of deserts?
— M an himself is often responsible for this damage to his lands. The
overgrazing of pasture land for example may be the reason of the
destroying o f plant cover. It leads to the scattering of sand by the wind,
or to salination and the drying up of the land.
— Is there any pollution effect on the lands of these areas?
— Ofcourse! The pollution of surface and subsoil waters by industrial
waste does not only cause the wild life in lakes and rivers to die, but also
dramatically lowers the fertility o f lands.
— What is the importance o f space information about the arid
lands?
— Systematic space satellite information makes possible the
forecasting and avoidance of undesirable phenom ena caused by m a n ’s
activities.
— Does the remote sensing from space inform about water
condition?
— Observations from satellites provided the opportunity to put
together a global picture of the natural phenom ena. Further space
observation will help to find the best way water resources can be
redistributed.
— Is it possible to control the ecological situation from space?
— Yes, m od em research methods, especially space research are being
increasingly used to deal with the difficult problems of transforming
desert lands. Observations from space allow the land use planners to
control the land uses and to forecast possible undesirable ecological
consequences of desert lands.
Uni t 52
LAND USE IN AREAS OF NEWLY ORGANIZED IMPROVEMENT
irrigate v орошать, обводнять
carry out v осуществлять
regulate v регулировать
simultaneously adv одноврем енно
determine v определять
composition n состав
volume n объем
previous а преж ний, предшествующий
deliver v доставлять
310
II. Write down the following words and underline suffixes. Translate
newly, organized, exploitation, regional, solution, users, regulating,
category, solved, necessary, facility, border, settlement, previous,
previously, mainly, intensify, useful.
I I I. Pronounce correctly:
qu [kw] quater, question, request, require
kn [n] knee, know, knot
bt [t] debt, doubt
mb [m] comb, bom b, climb, limbs

Text 52A. L and Use in Areas o f Newly Organized Irrigation
Part I
In areas o f newly organized irrigation the organization o f land
exploitation is carried out on the base o f regional planning and contains
the solution o f the following two problems: 1) formation o f new land
users on newly developed lands; 2) the regulating o f existing land users
when they are transferred from non-irrigation category to irrigation
category. In some cases both problems are solved simultaneously.
When solving both problems it is necessary to determine size o f land
users, their location and boundaries, composition o f their lands,
location o f production centres and settlements, location of highway
system, system o f main canals and their facilities, volume o f irrigating
water required for each economy at present and in the future. The
disadvantages in the land utilization and utilization o f water in those
places where newly organized land users border upon already existing
land users should be eliminated too. Then the plans o f intrafarm
organization o f land exploration and layout o f production centres and
settlements are worked out and realised.
For the development o f large areas o f lands which were not irrigated
previously the delivery o f water to these areas and the irrigation system
required for this purpose should be projected.
At present in Russia the development o f large areas o f lands which
were not irrigated previously is effected mainly by means of organization
on these land new economies o f the state type.
using the text.
Text 52B. L and Use in Areas o f Newly Organized Irrigation
Part II
In areas where the farming was previously o f non-irrigation type, the
construction o f large irrigation systems causes the necessity of
311
reorganization o f the production and territory o f the most part of the
farms. The scope and specialization of production are changed, new
crops are introduced, and the production is intensified.
For this reason in such areas the size of land uses, composition of
their lands and alternation of crops are reconsidered. The number, size
and location of newly organized farms are determined, the volume of
water required for irrigation of farm lands being reorganized at present
and in the future as well as the time of feeding water to farms are
determined.
In the course of intrafarm organization of land exploration on the
new land users should be so distributed that the best conditions for the
development o f each farm with the use o f irrigation should be provided
for.
In areas, where the considerable squares of land are organized for
irrigation, the intrafarm organization of land exploitation may be
connected with organization of new administrative districts. In this case
the area, boundaries and administrative centres of these districts are
planned in accordance with location of the co m m and zones of the
irrigations systems.
The main elements of econom y structure (composition and scope of
production branches, volume o f production, etc.) are determined
through preparation of main showings of the long-term plans of the
development of newly organised farms and the drafts of the internal
organization of their territory including the organization of arable lands
and distribution of lands for alternation of crops. These elements are
used then as a basis for solution of problems connected with the
organization of new land users and reorganization of previously existed
land users which are turned to the irrigation farming.

Text 52C. The Changed Face o f Sheffield
Sheffield is one of England’s largest cities. It is an industrial city, a
steel-making centre of the country with lots of plants and factories in it.
For more than a century it was a smoky and dirty city, and the view of
chimneys rousing smoke and dirt was very characteristic of it.
Today, though the city is still proud to be one of the greatest
industrial centres, the environm ent is entirely different. This is largely
due to the city’s clean air programme, which has made Sheffield
smokeless, and probably one of the cleanest industrial cities in Europe.
The city made great efforts to overcome the problem of pollution
when it began the clean air campaign. Smoke Control Orders were
introduced into various parts of the city. The factories and plants were
redesigned and modified. M odern technology enabled the city to reduce
the am o un t of the waste in the air, to trap harmful substances released
312
into the air with smoke and to purify them by special filters. Massive
redevelopment, widescale tree planting and rigid smoke control have
changed the whole environment. G on e are the smoke and the dirt that
once blackened the atmosphere.
For city outdoor displays, a quarter o f a million tulips are imported
from Holland each year. Until recently only coloured tulips were
ordered — the darker, the better. Today three or four weeks in which
their lovely blooms bring an additional charm to the centre o f town.
The great problem today is car fumes that are the leading cause of
smogs. And Great Britain suffers of it as well. Some people in Great
Britain see their own way o f solving this problem.
EXERCISES

newly organized irrigation; land exploitation; regional planning;
newly developed land; existing land users; composition of lands; volume
of irrigating water; land exploration; production centers; land areas.
V III. Find out Past Participles in the text 52A and explain their usage.
Give your own examples, using Past Participles.

1. The construction o f large irrigation systems causes....
2. When the production is intensified the size o f land uses ....
3. The main elements o f economy structurs are ....
4. The volume o f water required for irrigation of farm lands....
5. In areas where the considerable squares o f land are organized for
irrigation ....
X. Write down 8 special questions using the following word

combinations:
steel-making centre; smoky city; entirely different; cleanest city;
great efforts; the problem o f pollution; good reasons; a quater o f a
million tulips.
X I. Insert the proper words and translate the sentences into Russian:
1. After all the preparatory actions the plans o f land exploration and
layout o f production centres and settlements a r e and realized.
2. For the development o f large o f lands which were not irrigated
previously o f water to these areas should be projected.
3. The irrigation system ... for this purpose should be projected as
well.
313
4. For more than a century Sheffield was a ... and dirty city, and the
main characteristic o f it was the view o f smoking chimneys.
5. Today the environment o f Sheffield is ... different.
6. The administration and the city population o f Sheffield have made
great e ffo rts the problem o f pollution.
7. The factories and plants o f Sheffield were ... and modified.
8. A quarter o f a million ... were imported from Holland each year.
9. Only coloured tulips were ordered — the ..., the better.
X II. Please, read section 3 of Environment Protection Act (taken

from Swedish Environmental Legislation Stockholm, 1990, p. 10) and
compare the discussed situation in Russian: point 3. In this act «waste
water» refers to:
1. Discharge water, sewage or other liquid pollutant.
2. Water that has been used for cooling in the operation o f factory or
other establishment.
3. Water that is diverted for the drainage o f land within the
framework o f a detailed plan; such drainage not being for the benefit o f
one or more specific properties.
4. Water that is diverted for the drainage o f cementery.

1. При разработке больших земельных площадей следует учи
тывать необходимость проектирования и строительства ир ригаци
онны х систем.
2. Землепользователи д олж ны иметь возможность использовать
и р ригационную систему н аивы годнейш им образом.
3. Границы вновь разрабатываемых административны х центров
долж ны быть сп лан и рованы в соответствии с разм ещ ением о сн о в
ных оросительных систем.
4. Строительство крупных ирригационны х систем там, где ра
нее велось неорош аемое земледелие, требует больш ой реорганиза
ции как территории, так и производства.
5. Землеустроители д олж ны также предусмотреть системы о ч и
стки сточных вод.
translate the following sentences into Russian:
1. Sheffield is a steel-making centre o f the country with lots o f plants
and factories in it.
2. Widescale tree planting and rigid smoke control have changed the
whole environment.
3. They can plant m any new species here now.
4. You are not allowed to smoke here.
314
5. G o ne are the smoke and dirt that once blackened the atmosphere.
6. They should project a new irrigation system in the area.
7. This project contains many new developments to control the
environment.

largest, more, dirty, smokeless, harmful, recently, newly,
disadvantages, already, realize, at present, arable, irrigated, regular,
distribution.
XVI. Translate the text using a dictionary. Discuss the problem in

class.
Text 52D. Water Storage
To meet urban-industrial water requirements in semiarid and arid
lands today, a variety o f approaches may be required. Manipulation of
vegetation on the watersheds is one that has already been discussed.
However, to be available at need, water must be stored in some way, and
surface reservoirs have been the usual approach to this problem. Such
reservoirs, however, suffer from siltation, which cuts down their useful
life and storage capacity, from pollution o f their waters, and from
serious problems o f evaporation that can remove a high percentage of
their water. Some success in retarding siltation and pollution has been
achieved, although in wry few places, as a result of careful management
and regulation o f use in the watersheds. Evaporation losses have been
reduced by the use o f films of heavy alcohols such as hexadecanol,
which are floated on the surface o f the reservoir. For small ponds, these
films can be quite effective, but for large reservoirs, subject to mixing
and churning by wind they are relatively ineffective. Attempts have also
been made to increase water yields and to cut down on siltation by
sealing off the soil on small watersheds by the use o f asphalt, plastic
sheets, silicone resins, or even rubber sheets. As yet, these efforts have
been confined to small areas, but they do produce remarkable results.
The only problem is that virtually all other values in the lands o f the
watershed are sacrificed to the single purpose, of water production. This
seldom can be justified.
An approach to urban water storage that has high merit is the one
that makes use o f underground reservoirs. Water is allowed to soak or is
pumped into natural aquifers beneath the ground, and is held in these
permeable layers of rock or o f alluvial materials. Most natural
underground supplies, in areas o f high water dem and, have been
depleted. Indeed, excessive pumping of underground water has in some
areas caused a sinking o f the land surface and in coastal regions has
often led to an invasion o f the aquifers by saltwater from the sea.
Recharging aquifers by pumping in freshwater, during times o f high
315
rainfall and runoff, or by holding runoff where it can soak into the
aquifers through permeable soil, not only restores the underground
supplies but is a way of keeping water where it will not be subject to
siltation or evaporation, and where, with care, it can be kept free from
pollution.
Unit 53
LAND RESTORED FOR RECREATION
incline v иметь тенденцию
recreation n восстановление сил, рекреация
consequently adv следовательно
circumstances n обстоятельства
obtain v получить, добы ть
believe v верить, полагать, считать
crowd n толпа / / v собираться, толпиться
prevail v превалировать, преобладать
prosperity n процветание
in particular в особенности
lead v вести
vehicle n транспортное средство
welfare n благосостояние
value n значимость, величина
mankind n человечество
appreciate v оценить (заботу)
afford v позволять себе
establish v устанавливать, основывать
I I . Write down the following words underlining prefixes and suffixes.

outdoor, recreation, urbanization, daily, consequently, potential,
prosperity, unbelievable, available, overcrowding, establishing,
nevertheless, recreational, contribution, unfortunately, considerably,
ownership.
ear [ia] clear near, hear, dear, fear
ea + г [э :] learn, earth
о + re [o:J ore, bore, more, therefore
re [e] theatre, metre, centre, litre
ph [f] photo, phonetics, sophisticate, sulphur
316
IV. Read the tex t and translate it into Russian.
Text 53A. The Demand fo r Recreation Land
Part I
The dem and for outdoor recreation in a nation appears to vary with
the state o f urbanization and technology. People who live year-round in
the country are inclined to go to town for their vacation. They make
daily use o f the open space around them , but often view this activity as
part of daily routine rather than recreation. People who do not have
enough to eat are little inclined to seek recreation. Consequently, the
apparent internal d em and for outdoor recreation space in most of the
developing nations is small. The potential dem and, however, as the
circumstances o f the people improve, is probably great. It would be easy
for these countries to save open space now that the dem and is small. It
may be quite difficult to obtain space for recreation in the future when
the dem and is great.
In Japan, for example, with increasing prosperity, the dem and for
recreation has grown enormously. The nation has a respectable national
park system, but the parks are overcrowded. Millions o f visitors seek
them out during vacation and on weekend trips and, to an American,
almost unbelievable numbers o f people toil up the mountain trails and
climb the high peaks. Still greater numbers crowd the available beaches.
The weekend journey from Tokyo to M ount Fuji is a nightmare to one
who is used only to a New York level o f overcrowding. Similar
conditions prevail in European countries, and there has been an
increasing flow o f European tourists to recreation areas abroad.
In England there has been a long tradition o f using the countryside
for hiking, cycling, riding, shooting, and other outdoor activities. With
increasing prosperity, outdoor space has become crowded. The Nature
Conservancy, a government agency, has done an excellent job of
establishing and preserving a system o f national parks and other outdoor
areas, but it has been a difficult struggle, since pressure on lands for
other uses has also been increasing.
The interest o f people in the wealthier nations in preserving and in
visiting the natural treasures and outdoor resources o f the developing
nations has been an unexpected boom to the economies of some or
these countries. In Kenya, for example, tourism is a major industry and
the principal source o f foreign currency. Throughout East Africa, it has
had an econom ic impact far greater than was expected when these
nations were first independent. Nevertheless the support for the
preservation o f outd oor recreational space in developing nations must
come, to a large extent from outside their boundaries until such time as
the economic welfare o f their own peoples has improved. This is a
contribution which must be made by those who understand the value to
all mankind that these recreational resources represent.
317
V. Read the tex t and translate it into R ussian. W rite down 6 questions
using the text.
Text 53B. Faded Royal Parks Get Rescue
The historic glories o f Britain's royal parks are to be restored in a
£ 100 million rescue by private donors to reverse years o f decay.
A trawl o f international art galleries and map rooms by researchers
has yielded the secrets o f long-lost designs and features, some dating
from the parks’ Restoration and baroque heyday.
Work on cleaning L on d o n ’s «green lungs», which cover 5,000 acres,
will begin with the excavation of a vast water garden almost three
centuries after it was created in Bushy Park, near H am pton Court
Palace, by the first Earl o f Halifax.
O ther plans include replanting the circular avenues o f chestnut trees
in the baroque style at Greenwich Park; a £ 5 million pavilion and sports
facilities in Regent’s Park and a new nature trail in Hyde Park.
Construction work on the Diana, Princess o f Wales memorial fountain
began there some years ago.
The parks have long provided the backdrop to ceremonial events
such as processions along the Mall and are a retreat for millions of
tourists and Londoners. Some were royal hunting grounds before they
were donated by monarchs and several still have substantial roaming
herds of red and fallow deer.
However, private donors have intervened with ambitions to raise
£ 100 million after an official assessor’s report concluded that the parks
were falling into disrepair and, in some cases, squalor.
The Royal Parks Foundation, which secured charitable status, will
now work alongside the Royal Parks Agency (RPA), the government
body runs the parks, and looks after the gardens at 10 to 12 Downing
Street. It will receive £ 23.7 million o f taxpayers’ money this year.
Although Bushy Park is the least well known o f the eight royal parks,
the £ 7.2 million project to renovate its water garden and the adjoining
woodland garden is ambitious. Those involved in the scheme compare it
with the restoration o f the Lost Gardens o f Heligan, the 19th-century
gardens in Cornwall, which went into decline when most o f the staff
were killed in the first world war.
The central basin o f the elaborate network o f pools, channel and
cascades at Bushy probably disappeared by 1823 and the western basin
o f the canal silted up over the years. Further damage was caused during
the Second World War when General Dwight Eisenhower used the park
as the basins for testing torpedoes.
Now the RPA has com pleted an ingenious hunt for clues to the
earl’s original design. According to Greg M cErlean, the official in
charge of the restoration, vital evidence has recently emerged at the
State Hermitage M useum in St. Petersburg. «Catherine the Great
318
bought two drawing albums and in them there are about 32 drawings of
Bushy Park and H am pton Court,» he said. «They have been dated to
about 1780».
According to McErlean, the recent identification o f the cascade in
Jacob Bogdani’s painting, A Pair o f Peafowl in a Park by an Ornamental
Pond, will also assist in reconstruction. It depicts the correct layout of
the cascade and the grottoes.
McErlean said that the water garden could be restored fully by
summer 2006 if he secures funding o f £ 5 million from the Heritage
Lottery Fund. The balance would be met by private donors.
The agency suffered a setback to its efforts to boost its funding from
commercial sources when it announced the cancellation o f the Route of
Kings, a series o f pop concerts due in Hyde Park. The RPA earns about
£ 5 million a year from concerts, filming rights and other events.
One music industry source said the RPA would now be forced to
reconsider its «tacky commercialism». The source said:
«The RP A should not have allowed events, which caused damage to
Hyde Park. They should remem ber what parks are for» / F r o m «The
Daily Telegraph», 2006/.
V I. Read the text and translate it into Russian in written forms.

Text 53C. The Demand fo r Recreation Land
Part 11
O f the various categories o f state and federal outdoor recreation land,
the state parks received the greatest num ber o f visits (nearly 255
million), national’ parks received nearly 80 million visits, and national
forests nearly 93 million visits. The greater pressure on state parks
reflects their location closer to the major urban centres o f population.
To the Easterner in particular, the national forests and parks are often
far from home and require a major vacation trip if they are to be visited.
State parks can be reached easily in afternoon or weekend.
Unfortunately, statistics can be misleading, and «there is some
cause to w onder whether both state and federal recreation agencies are
not misled by the statistics provided by recreation surveys». Thus
statistics on the preference of people for automobile driving leads to
the expansion of highways and, in particular, to a scenic highway
program, since these are apparently what the people want. People
drive, however, for a variety of reasons: because, they know how, have
a car, can afford to operate it, because it gets them way from their
usual environm ent, an d bring the family together, while providing
some degree of privacy from other people. In driving they see different
areas, get to know new places, have the opportunity to enjoy whatever
roadside beauty is available. Many people also get considerable
pleasure out o f the sheer ownership and operation o f a m otor vehicle.
319
But people may also drive because there is nothing else to do within
easy reach th at they know how to do, how to appreciate, o r can
afford to do. Given an equal choice, between driving an d skiing,
which is relatively low on the list o r preferences, an d assuming an
area was available (along with skiing lessons, skis and o th e r
eq u ip m en t), and that the person could equally afford skiing, there is
little doubt skiing would clim b m uch higher on the list o f activities
am on g young er o r more active people.
EXERCISES
outdoor recreation; year-round; daily routine; to obtain space for
recreation; increasing prosperity; park system; weekend trips; climb the
peaks; increasing flow o f tourists; excellent job; outdoor areas; natural
treasures; major industry; developing nations.
VIII. Write down the following sentences. Pay attention to the use of
Tense-forms. Explain why the particular form is used in the sentence.
1. People who do not have enough to eat are little inclined to seek
recreation.
2. The nation has a respectable national park system.
3. There has been an increasing flow o f European tourists to
recreational areas abroad.
4. In England there has been a long tradition o f using the countryside
for hiking, cycling, riding and shooting.
5. Throughout East Africa, the tradition has had an econom ic impact
for greater than was expected when these nations were first independent.

1. The historic glories o f Britain’s royal parks are to be restored in a
£ 100 mln rescue by....
2. O ther plans include replanting the circular avenues o f chestnut
trees in the baroque style a t.........
3. Construction work on the Diana, Princes o f Wales memorial
fountain began ....
4. The parks have long provided the back drop to ceremonial events
such as...
5. The Royal Parks Foundation, which secured charitable status, will
now work alongside the...
6. Private donors will invest into the water garden that could be
restored fully by...
7. The Royal Parks Foundation earns about £ 5 million a year from...
320
combinations:
by private donors; international art galleries; long-lost designs;
«green lungs» of London; vast water garden; a circular avenue of
chestnut trees; sports facilities; a new nature trail; memorial fountain:
ceremonial events.
XI. Insert the proper words and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. People who live year-round in the country are inclined to go to...
for their vacation.
2. In Japan with increasing prosperity the dem and for... has grown
enormously.
3. The parks are... inspite of the fact that Japan has a respectable
national park system.
4. The weekend journey from Tokyo to M ount Fuji is... to a
holidaymaker even from a big city.
5. Outdoor space has become crowded with increasing...
6. Tourism is a major industry and the principal source of... currency
in Kenya.
7. We all have to understand the value of... resourses to all mankind.
X II. Write down a short composition: «Recreation Areas in the

District where I Live» (10—12 sentences).

1. Потребность в рекреац и онн ом пространстве зависит как от
уровня урбанизации страны, так и от эконом ического положения
ее населения.
2. Все больше европейцев уезжают на отдых в места с меньшим
населением и более благоприятной окруж аю щ ей средой.
3. О пы т Великобритании показывает, что проблему столичных
парков мож но успеш но решать с пом ощ ью частных инвестиций.
4. С оздание зон отдыха в некоторых развиваю щихся странах
является базой для развития туристической отрасли, которая ста
новится главным источником иностранной валюты в экон ом ике
страны.
are and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. The demand for outdoor recreation varies greatly with the state of
urbanization and technology.
2. The country has a respectable national park system.
3. It is forbidden to park a car on the pavement.
4. This work demands special knowledge o f archeology.
5. More and more people crowd the available beaches of Spain in July.
321
6. Crowds o f people go from Tokyo to M ount Fuji to spend the
weekend there.
7. We understand that the population of big cities should value the
beautiful parks they can visit any time.
8. We are among those who understand the value o f recreational
resources o f the Mediterranean coastline.

outdoor, appear, vary, seek, open, difficult, obtain, increase, high,
excellent, preserve, closer, urban, easily, leading, decline, damage.

Text 53D. Garden Cities
By the turn of the century greater state intervention in town planning
was inevitable. While factory chimneys continued to belch smoke over
nearby slums, widespread public transport was providing the means
whereby towns could expand and was at last making it possible for
hom es to be placed well away from workplaces. The era o f suburban
expansion — in which we are still living — had begun, and had brought
with it a host o f problems: new sewers, new water mains, new traffic
jams, and the growing remoteness of the inner city from its rural
hinterland. Also by this time, the slums which the first flush of industrial
expansion had thrown up in the old city centres, and which in spite of
protest still yielded profitable rents, now had to be cleared to make way
for the new railways, roads and offices required to serve the business
needs of the m odern industrial city.
The planned suburban expansion o f a town inevitably involves
decisions concerning the size and whereabouts of new shops, schools
and other «community facilities». It is inevitably a minor exercise in
town planning, and this is reflected in the borrowings from H ow ard’s
G arden City M ovement of the term «garden suburb» which came to be
attached to municipal housing estates. The setting of parcels of land for
this use or that leads also to the «zoning» of land — around the town at
first, then without its built-up boundaries — in order to have some
unified control over the general pattern of future growth.
Section VII
TOWN PLANNING IN ACTION
Unit 54
THE CENTRE LANCASHIRE PROJECT
purpose n цель
unique а уникальны й
by a long way намного, значительно, гораздо
exist v существовать
forecast v прогнозировать
inhabitant n житель
therefore а итак, поэтому, следовательно
twice as much в два раза
design v проектировать, составлять план
designate v предназначать
provide v обеспечивать
estimate v оценивать
cater v поставлять провизию, обслуживать (о ресторанах, теат
рах)
sole а единственны й, единый
maintain v сохранять, содержать в порядке
spoil v портить
contemplate v рассматривать, намечать
complete v конкурировать, соревноваться
relate v относиться
network п сеть
recognize v признавать, узнавать
attract v привлекать
anticipate v ожидать, предчувствовать, предвосхищать
overspill п избы ток населения
self-sufficiency п самостоятельность, независимость
self-sustaining а способны й себя содержать, самодостаточный
disadvantage п вред, ущерб, невыгодное положение
lopsided а неровны й, имею щ ий перевес на одну сторону
323
biggest, population, inhabitants, naturally, designated, strategic,
prosperity, latest, growing, based, environmental, competitive, position,
relation, regional, national, economic, possibility, accordingly.
I I I . Compounds are words derived from two or more stems. Define the
structure of the following compounds. Translate the words into Russian.
Lancashire, forecast, therefore, brainchild, without, midlands,
transport, network, overspill, overcome, sunlight, railway, waterproof,
greenhouse.

Text 54A. The Purpose o f the Project
Part I
Central Lancashire occupies a unique place in the history of new
towns in Britain. It has by a long way the biggest existing population
(235,000), the biggest forecast total o f inhabitants at the end of the Plan
period (420,000 by 2001), and naturally therefore takes up about twice
as m uch land (55 square miles or 35,000 acres) as any area so far
designated under the New Towns Act.
The project is Lancashire’s brainchild. For at least twenty years it has
been a major element in the strategic policies of both Lancashire County
and Preston County Borough Councils, designed to improve the
prosperity o f Central Lancashire and to provide for the general growth
in the population o f the N orth West region. O ur latest estimate for this,
based on the Registrar G e n eral’s forecast, is an increase of 200,000 by
1981, growing to 800,000 twenty years later. This growth has been seen
for some time to be too big to be catered for solely by the expansion of
existing towns without serious loss of efficiency and environmental
quality. The Central Lancashire project thus takes its place as the largest
o f a series o f new town developments in the N orth West whose creation
is part and parcel o f policies for controlling the growth o f existing towns
and cities, maintaining large tracts o f unspoilt open country between
them and at the same time helping to improve the competitive position
o f the region in relation to the Midlands and the South East.
Its position at a strategic point in the regional and national transport
network was thus chosen not only to ensure to the region the greatest
benefit o f econom ic growth in Central Lancashire but also to ensure the
greatest possibility o f attracting growth from outside the region. We
accordingly anticipate that about two-thirds of the forecast growth of
population in the designated area (123,000 people) will come from
outside. The balance o f 62,000 is the forecast natural growth o f the
existing population.
324
It is now generally recognised that the early new towns in this country
are a social and econom ic success. Although their main purpose in the
early years was to absorb overspill population, they have demonstrated a
greater degree o f self-sufficiency and a greater capacity for self-sustaining
growth than anybody expected when they were started. With the passage
of time they have overcome the disadvantages o f their early smallness,
lopsided population structures and social imbalance, and have become
places o f individuality and richness o f character giving a hom e to a wide
variety o f social groups, industries and facilities.
using the text.
Text 54B. The Centre Lancashire Renewal
These are some o f the chief factors which lay behind the
G o vernm ent’s decision to make the Central Lancashire Designation
Order on 14th April 1970. The Development Corporation, the body set
up under the Act to secure the development o f the area, welcomes the
fact that this is to be a place which starts off with the benefits o f three
sizeable existing communities — Preston, Chorley and Leyland — all
with energy and character and a natural potential for growth. The
Corporation also accepts me challenge to use all the powers at its
disposal to accelerate, concentrate and co-ordinate this growth through
attracting new investment and new people.
In seeking to assist in the renewal of the older areas, we have been
very m uch aware that, while some of the existing communities have very
real social and econom ic problems, they are also the greatest social and
economic asset o f the area. They provide a firm basis for growth in three
important respects: first, because they contain an attractive range of
facilities for recreation, entertainment, education and shopping for
people moving to the area; secondly, because they have a broad
economic base and a skilled and adaptable labour force; and thirdly,
because the existing communities have in varying degrees a rich heritage
in both buildings and tradition that gives them character and stability
and engenders feelings o f local loyalty so necessary for a sense of
identity in any community.
It follows that o ur task is more accurately described as one of
generating prosperity on a sub-regional scale using the New Towns Act
rather than the creation of the single new urban development which the
title of the Act implies.
In arriving at ou r proposals we have had the benefit of the feasibility
study «Central Lancashire — Study for a City», commissioned by the
Ministry of Housing and Local G overnm ent and published in May
1967, which was prepared by Robert Matthew, Johnson-M arshall and
Partners who have continued to help in the preparation of this Plan.
325
Text 54C. The Structure o f the Plan
The fact that our growth is based on the expansion of the existing
com m unities means that it is a dispersed development from the
beginning, aimed at exploiting the virtues of the good sized Lancashire
town and avoiding the expensive problems of the overgrown
metropolis — the sea of building extending uninterrupted for miles. For
the same reasons we are proposing to limit the ultimate size o f the
existing towns and provide for the balance of o u r new population by the
development of additional communities. These will eventually join with
the others to form a grouping of linked townships, each with its own
special character and identity and each separated from the others by a
green wedge o f open country and woodland. This means we must
control the use of more land than if we were contemplating a
continuous urban development within the designated area, as smaller
new towns on green field sites have been able to do, but we believe the
benefits amply justify this policy.
It also means that we can think in terms of housing all sorts of
p e o p le in a great variety of house types, many of them built for sale, at
the most generous densities possible with plenty o f landscaped green
space. At the same time we can present a variety of opportunities for
industrial and commercial investment, we can look forward to a
reduction in traffic congestion through the decentralisation o f activity,
and we can make a breathing space for the protection and improvement
o f the existing towns. A further advantage of dispersed development lies
in the opportunity it presents to achieve a high aggregate rate of growth
through the combined output of many different areas o f development.
Each o f these can enjoy the advantages of the relatively slow, small scale
building operation and thus avoid the m onotonous uniform it often
characteristic o f towns that have grown fast. N o previous development
corporation has been presented with such a rich com bination of
opportunities and problems on such a scale and we are conscious that a
situation as novel as this deserves something better than a routine
response.
This Plan therefore has to perform a somewhat different function
from the «customary new town plan», and this is reflected in its
structure. To start with, part I o f the Plan dwells at considerable length
on the existing characteristics of the area. This emphasis reflects not
only its size and complexity but also the strength o f its settlements and
their value for the future. We have -attempted to distil from the
information available both the opportunities which are ready for
exploitation and enhancem ent and the problems of the area and its
people which must be dealt with if it is to assume the full stature o f a
regional growth point o f national significance.
326
The successful im plementation of this kind of plan depends on the
seizing of opportunities as they present themselves and the shrewd dis
crimination and encouragement of those trends which contribute
towards the major objective of growth. It is a truism that planning must
be done with an eye to the future but this is specially true in our case. If
our Plan cannot respond quickly and effectively to the changing
pressures of the times it will fail in its m ain purpose.
EXERCISES

Central Lancashire; unique place; new towns; biggest existing
population; forecast total of inhabitants; the end of the Plan period;
under the New Towns Act; major element; strategic policies; to improve
the prosperity; general growth of the population; for some time; the
expansion of existing towns; loss of efficiency; environmental quality;
unspoilt open country; competitive position.
VIII. Write down the following sentences and underline Passive

Constructions. Explain why they are used in the sentences.
1. The Central Lancashire position at a strategic point in the regional
and national transport network was thus chosen not only to ensure to
the region the greatest benefit of economic growth in Central Lancashire
but also to ensure the greatest possibility of attracting growth from
outside the region.
2. Although their main purpose in the early years was to absorb
overspill population, they have demonstrated a greater degree of self-
sufficiency and anybody expected when they were started.
3. Our task is more accurately described as one of the generating
prosperity on a sub-regional scale using the New Towns Act...

1. The G o v e rn m en t’s decision to make the Central Lancashire
Designation Order on 14th April 1970 was influenced by...
2. The Development Corporation was set up to secure the
development o f there sizable existing communities...
3. New investment and new people were attracted to...
4. These com m unities provide a firm basis for growth in three
important respects:
5. In arriving at our proposals we have had the benefits of...
327
combinations:
the Development Corporation; chief factors; a natural potential for
growth; the renewal of the older area; existing communities; an
attractive range of facilities for recreation; a broad econom ic base; a rich
heritage; urban development.
1. Our growth is based on the ... of the existing com m unities of the
good sized Lancashire towns.
2. We are proposing to limit the ultimate size of the ... towns and
provide for the balance o f our new population by the development of
additional communities.
3. We must control the use of more ... than if we were contemplating
a continuous urban development within the designated area, as smaller
new towns on green field sites have been able to do.
4. We can think in terms o f ... all sorts of people in a great variety of
house types, many of them built for sale, at the most generous densities
possible with plenty of landscaped green space.
5. We can present a variety of... for industrial and commercial investment.
6. We can look forward to ... o f traffic conjection through the
decentralization o f activity.
7. We can make a breathing ... for the protection and improvement
of existing towns.
8. N o previous corporation development has been presented with
such a rich ... of opportunities and problems on such a scale and we are
concious that a situation as novel as this deserves something better than
a routine response.
9. It is truism that planning must be done with an eye to ... but this is
specially true in our case.
XII. Write down a short composition:

«The Future Development of the Region where I Live (10—
12 sentences)».

1. П роект развития центральной части графства Л ан к а ш и р я в
ляется крупнейш им среди проектов развития северо-западного
региона Англии.
2. Мы считаем, что около 2/з предполагаемого прироста н аселе
ния графства будет достигнуто путем „привлечения населения и з
вне (from outside).
3. Ни один из предшествующих проектов развития регионов не
представлял такого богатого сочетания возможностей для р азви
тия, как д ан ны й проект.
328
4. Преимущество относительно медленного развития состоит в
том, что мы можем избежать монотонности и однообразия в стро
ительстве, которые неизбежны при ускоренных темпах преобразо
ваний.
1. The project is Lancashire’s brainchild.
2. They have projected a lot of changes in the region.
3. That transformation could not change the total strategy of the
development.
4. They forecasted the smaller increase of the population that we
observe now.
5. The weather forecast was wrong.
6. This means we must control the use of more land.
7. By all means they have to develop this rural settlement.
8. We have to use every opportunity to reduce traffic congestion here.
9. If our Plan cannot respond quickly and effectively the changing
pressures o f the times it will tail in its main purpose.
10. In our Plan you have to consider all the existing mains, roads and
bridges.

unique, much, major, improve, general, worsen, particular, largest,
unspoilt, south, early, start, imbalance, richness, wide, beginning,
expensive, special, decentralization.
XVI. Look at the map of Great Britain.

1. Find the names of the towns, paying attention to the compounds,
containing —pool, -land, -ton, -ford, -head, -Chester, -port.
2. Where are National Parks situated?
3. Show the existing motorways, name them.
4. What is the largest city o f the region?
5. Which are the main ports?
6. Can you show the urban areas on the map?
Unit 55
THE LAND USE BUDGET (Part I)
budget n запас, резерв, бюджет
relate v относить, относиться
assume v допускать, предполагать
329
consume v потреблять
consumer n потребитель
consumption n потребление
built-up area территория застройки
propose v предлагать
allocate v размещать, помещать, распределять
allocation of National resources распределение государственных
ресурсов
dwelling жилье, жилой, желищ ны й
demolish v сносить (строение)
assumption, strategic, activity, housing, em ployment, recreation,
necessary, decision, explained, summasize, designated, actually,
seventh, suitable, regional.
III. Define the structure o f the following compounds:

woodland, motorway, floodland, liverpool, airport, seaport,
Winsford, Birkenhead, Leyland, Blackburn, Rochdale, Manchester,
R uncorn, Stockport.

Text 55A. The Land Use Budget
The purpose of this article is to relate our assumptions about growth
to the need for land. Because of the strategic nature o f the docum ent,
we are dealing here only with those activities that consum e large
am ounts of land, such as housing, em ployment and recreation, and only
at the level of detail necessary for broad policy decisions. As we
explained the two key dates for the Outline Plan are 1986 and 2001. The
land needs at these dates are summarised.
The designated area contains 14,270 hectares (35,250 acres). More
th an a third, 5,110 hectares (12,630 acres), is already built up and a
further 430 hectares (1,070 acres), while not actually built on, is used
for parks, playing fields and golf courses About one seventh o f the
area, 2,130 hectares (5,270 acres), is not capable o f being developed
for other reasons, either because it contains good w oodland, is too
steep or too close to motorways, or is liable to flooding. Thus less than
half o f the designated area, 6,600 hectares (16,310 acres), is available
for the developm ent o f such items as buildings and playing fields,
although all the 2,130 hectares noted above as not suitable for
developm ent will be used for district and regional parks, golf courses
and tree belts as shown.
330
V. Read the text and translate it into Russian. Put 6 questions to the
text.
Text 55B. Land fo r housing
P a r ti
We noted that by 2001, 61,800 dwellings will be needed to
accom m odate the increase in population at an occupancy o f 2.9 persons
per dwelling, and a further 15,800 dwellings to replace houses which will
be demolished. We assume that all the 4,000 dwellings demolished for
environmental im provement will need new sites as well as half the
11,800 dwellings demolished as a result o f obsolescence. This means
that 9,900 dwellings will be built on sites outside the existing urban
areas, giving a total requirement o f 71,700 dwellings on new sites by
2001. Between 1971 and 1986 we estimate a total need for
34,900 dwellings.
For the reasons we have given we assume for the period up to 1986
that dwellings will be built within a range o f densities from
22.5 dwellings per hectare (9 dwellings per acre) to 30 dwellings per
hectare (12 dwellings per acre), giving an average net dwelling density of
26 dwellings per hectare (10.5 dwellings per acre).
Text 55C. Land fo r Housing
Part II
In order to arrive at land needs for housing areas as a whole, we have
added allowances for primary and secondary schools, local and district
centres, local open space and children’s play areas, and roads and
parking. This enlarged area provides the basis for the district residential
density and a net residential density of 26 dwellings per hectare (10.5 per
acre) is equivalent to 21 dwellings per hectare (8.5 per acre) at district
residential density. F or the period 1986—2001 we have, however,
calculated residential land needs at a district residential density of
18 dwellings per hectare (7 per acre), equivalent to a net residential
density o f 22.5 dwellings per hectare (9 per acre), in order to increase
the safety factor in ou r calculations for this more remote period.
We noted that the overall population density o f the designated area
in 1971 was 16.6 persons per hectare (6.7 per acre). By 2001 this will
have risen to 29.4 persons per hectare (11.9 per acre). This is below the
average expected density o f the twenty new towns in England which had
been designated prior to the establishment o f Central Lancashire —
31.6 persons per hectare (12.8 per acre) — but higher than the recent
larger new towns (Warrington, Peterborough, Telford, Milton Keynes
and N ortham pton), in which the overall expected densities range from
27.2 to 28.4 persons per hectare (11.0 to 11.5 per acre).
331
EXERCISES

stratigic nature o f the docum ent; large amounts o f land; broad policy
decision; playing fields; good woodlands; regional parks; golfcources; tree
belts; environmental improvement; existing urban area; range o f density.
VIII. Write down the following sentences and underline Passive

Constructions. Explain why they are used in the sentences.
1. The land needs are summarised in the book.
2. More than a third o f the area is already build up, some part is used
for parks.
3. About one seventh o f the area is not being developed for other
reasons, and the other part will be used for district an d regional parks
and tree belt.
4. Some houses will be demolished and the new dwellings will be
built next years.
5. By 2004 about 70 thousand dwellings were needed to accomodate
the increase in population in the region.
IX. Complete the following sentences using text 55A.

1. We are giving our assumptions about...
2. We are dealing with activities that consume large am ounts o f land,
such as...
3. About 430 hectares are used for parks...
4. Less than half o f the designated area is available...

combinations:
the land budget; existing use; built-up land; parkland and golf
courses; em ploym ent area; major roads; sports facilities; regional parks;
tree belts; woodland area; areas o f excessive noise.
1. W hen yqp are planning land needs for housing you should also
consider ... for schools, shopping centres, open space, roads and
parking.
2. This ... area provides the basis for the district residential density.
3. The land budget includes existing use o f land, proposed land needs
and ....
4. Some lands such as woodlands, slopes more than 10 % and ... are
considered to be underdevelopable lands.
5. If the area is o f ... noise it cant be considered as the land suitable
for development.
332
XII. Write down a short composition, using your own ideas of planning
the district residential (Text 55C) density.

1. В нашем проекте мы занимаемся только таким и видами д е я
тельности, которые требуют большого количества земельных ре
сурсов.
2. Ж илы е дома и рекреационны е территории занимаю т боль
шие участки земли.
3. Участки земли, подверж енные наводнениям или с крутыми
склонами, а также располож енны е близко к магистралям, не сле
дует отводить под строительство жилья.
are and translate sentences into Russian.
1. We need large am ounts of land when we plan the development of
areas for dwelling area.
2. When we develop the building area we need a lot o f estimations.
3. Recreation areas consume large amounts o f land.
4. This area contains good woodland, so it is not being developed for
other purposed.
5. In order to arrive at land needs for housing areas as a whole we
have added allowances for schools, local centres, open space, roads and
parking.

employment, necessary, broad, Outline Plan, already, destroy, gentle
(slope), suitable, available, above, demolish, improve, outside, urban,
arrive, whole, primary, open, remote.
XVI. 1) What do you know about the kinds o f dwellings in your

district? Deseribe the kind of dwelling you (or your friend) live in.
2) What can you say about the density of population in your district
(region)?
Uni t 56
THE LAND USE BUDGET (Part II)
job n рабочее место
intensity n интенсивность
accommodate v давать убежище, помещ ение
significant а значим ы й, значительный
disperse v разгонять, распространять, разбегаться, рассеиваться
residential density плотность разм ещ ения жилья
warehouse п склад, хранилище
subsequent а последующий
expand v расширять, растягивать
junction п развязка (дорожная)
flexibility п гибкость
category, intensity, significant, density, currently, automation,
employer, employee, estimation, junction, ultimate, maintain,
flexibility, reserving, amenity, adventure.
III. 1) Define the structure of the following compounds:

playground, warehouse, landscape, farmland, framework, network,
forecast.
2) Use the words in short sentences.

Text 56 A. Land fo r Employment and Other Urban Needs
We discussed the problems o f making em ploym ent forecasts and set
out our assumptions on the location o f the 81,000 new jobs we expect in
the area by 2001. We forecast that land for 35,500 o f these jobs will have
to be found in the form o f em ployment areas. This category of jobs is the
most significant user of land: central area jobs will be largely
accom m odated by increased intensity o f use in the existing centres and
dispersed jobs are accounted for in the district residential density. We
have assumed an average density of workers in em ployment areas of
62 workers per hectare (25 per acre). This reflects a trend to lower
em ploym ent densities as more processes become autom ated and as the
dem and grows for services such as warehousing. In our calculation of
land needs for 1986 we have, however, assumed an even lower density of
workers to allow for the fact that in the early year’s space will be
reserved by employers into which they will subsequently expand. We
have therefore calculated land needs for em ploym ent at 1986 at
42 workers per hectare (17 per acre).
We estimate that by 1986 560 hectares (1,380 acres) will have to be
reserved for new major roads and junctions. This is only 10 hectares
(25 acres) less than our 2001 figure, not because we expect to have
completed all the links o f the network to their ultimate capacity by
1986, but because of the need to maintain flexibility for the future by
334
rese rving in advance all the land likely to be needed for this purpose
by 2001.
text.
Text 56B. Land fo r Open Space Uses
P a r ti
Within each district land is needed for parks, adventure playgrounds,
playing fields and sports centres. These needs am ount to 2.13 hectares
(5.3 acres) per 1,000 persons or a total o f 890 hectares (2,230 acres) for
the whole population at 2001, in addition to the 0.56 hectares (1.4 acres)
per 1,000 persons for open space needs within housing areas,
260 hectares (650 acres) are currently used for these purposes in the
existing communities and a further 630 hectares (1,560 acres) are
needed to make up the present deficiency and to provide for the new
population.
G o lf courses are another major land use. There are five courses
already in the area, with two others close at hand outside. Using the
standard of one course for every 30,000 people as a rough guide, we
estimate that seven further courses will be needed. The size o f golf
courses varies greatly with ground conditions, but for the purpose of the
land budget we have assumed a need for a further 480 hectares
(1,190 acres) for golf courses.
Text 56C. Land fo r Open Space Uses
Part II
In addition to recreation facilities close to the home, we have set
aside 730 hectares (1,800 acres) for regional parks and playing fields.
This derives less from any theoretical standard than from the leisure
potential o f the two main landscape features o f the area, the Ribble
valley and the valley o f the Lostock through Cuerden Park. Much of the
land in these parks, and particularly in the Ribble valley, will of course
remain as active farmland throughout the Plan period.
Some 820 hectares (2,030 acres) o f the land which is not capable of
being developed will be used for tree belts and as part o f the landscape
framework and only a further 30 hectares (70 acres) of developable
land will be needed for this purpose. The final category o f land in the
budget is unallocated farmland. This land is likely to remain in
agricultural use and will provide visual breaks between the
com m unities in the designated area, but will also be available to meet
unexpected needs.
335
EXERCISES

em ploym ent forecasts; assumption on the location of new jobs;
category of jobs; existing centre; increased intensity of use; average
density o f workers; dispersed jobs; a trend to lower employment
densities; calculated land needs.
VIII. Write down the following sentences. Underline Infinitive

Constructions and explain their function in the sentences.
1) We forecast that land for 35,500 of the jobs will have to be found
in the form of em ploym ent area.
2) In our calculations we assumed an even lower density of workers
to allow for the fact that the space will be reserved by employers.
3) We estimate that 560 hectares will have to be reserved for new
major roads and junctions.
4) We expected to have completed all the links o f the network by
1986.
5) We needed to maintain flexibility for the future by reserving in
advance all the land likely to be needed for this purpose by 2006.
6) This land is likely to remain in agricultural use.
IX. Complete the following sentences using text 56Л:

1. We discussed the possibility o f making...
2. We set out our assumptions on the location...
3. Land for 35,500 o f new jobs will be...
4. Central area jobs will be...
5. We have assumed the average density...
6. In our calculations o f land needs for 1986 we...
7. In the early years space will be reserved by...
8. New major roads and junctions will need...

combinations:
num ber o f jobs; new em ployment areas; open space; young
children’s play ground; amenity parkland; district parks; residential
density; golf courses.
XI. Insert the proper words and translate the sentence into Russian.
1. Within each... land is needed for parks, playing fields and sport
centres.
2. In the existing com m unities 260 hectares are... used.
3. A further 630 hectares are needed... the present deficiency and to
provide for the new population.
4. The size o f golf courses... greatly with ground conditions.
336
5. We have... a need for a further 480 hectares for golf courses.
6. We consider the... for open space which we have adopted and the
new land needs for open space.
7. There are five golf courses already in the... , with two others close
at hand outside.
8. We estimate that seven further... will be needed.
XII. Write down a short composition: «I am planning the recreational

area in my district (park, play grounds, play fields, golf courses etc.).»

1. В ближ айш ие два года в нашем районе планируется возвести
спортивный комплекс и две детские игровые площадки.
2. Мы подсчитали, что в этом районе необходимо построить и
оборудовать к зимнему сезону еше 18 катков и 6 баскетбольных
площадок.
3. Местная ком исси я по благоустройству опубликовала стан
дарты игровых и спортивны х площ адок с учетом потребности р ай
она в отводе земли для этих целей.
4. Мы решили провести работы по благоустройству существую
щих парков и скверов, а также по очистке водоемов на территории
главного парка.
1. Playing fields and play grounds need a considerable amount o f
land within each district.
2. You need special facilities for children to play.
3. It is important that recreation facilities should be close to the
homes o f people.
4. The shops in the area are closed by 18 o ’clock.
5. He is my close friend.
6. We need to maintain flexibility for the future by reserving in
advance all the land likely to be needed by 2008.
7. They have started an advanced course o f English.

employment, work, these, find, most, significant, lower, demand,
early, show, spend, complete, firm, future, advanced, whole, provide,
deprive, major.
XVI. Answer questions.

1. What do you know about the kinds o f jobs required in your
district?
2. Can you calculate the acreage o f your district?
337
3. Do you know where the boundaries are?
4. How m any children’s playgrounds does the district need?
5. How many parks are there in your district? How large are they?
6. Where is amenity parkland situated?
7. Where is the sport centre situated?
8. What is the environment of your district?
9. Can you characterize the environmental problems of your district?
10. What are your proposals?
11. W ho is responsible for the decision in solving the environmental
problems in your district?
12. What kind o f an organization would be formed to solve the
problems o f the surrounding?
U n it 57
THE PATTERN OF PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AT 2001
devise v 1. выдумывать, измышлять; 2. завещать недвижимость;
3. изобретать / / п 1. изобретение; 2. наследство, завещанное иму
щество
township 1. район (часто округ); 2. участок, отведенный под го
родское строительство
pattern of development схема развития
springboard п трамплин
criterion п мерило, критерий
approve v одобрять, принимать
internal а внутренний
synthesis п синтез
substantial а существенный
enchance v 1. повышать; 2. увеличивать; 3. усиливать
congestion п скопление, затор (в порту)
principal, device, asset, proposal, satisfy, objective, following,
influence, devermine, strategy, government, boundary, inhabitant,
consultant, essential, township, attractiveness, congestion, length,
developed, improvement, com m unity, enchancem ent, rehabilitation,
arrangement, tenure, recognisable, necessarily, significance, identity
III. a) Define the structure of the following compounds:

springboard, newcomer, framework, landscape, rainforce, multi
centred, citizenship;
b) Use the words in short sentences.
338
IV. Read the tex t and translate it into R ussian.
Text 57A. The pattern o f physical development at 2001
Our principal aim in the production o f this Plan has been to devise a
pattern o f development which makes the most of the many social,
economic and geographical assets of Central Lancashire as a
springboard for new growth. In order to achieve this general aim our
proposals must satisfy a num ber o f objectives relating to different aspects
of development and in the following paragraphs we describe the criteria
which have had most influence on the form o f the Plan.
To a large extent this was determined at the time o f designation when
the shape o f the designated area, and hence the general strategy for
development, was approved by the then Minister o f Housing and Local
Government. In the consultants’ designation report, «Study for a City»,
which formed the basis o f the public, inquiry, a large num ber o f possible
patterns of development were discussed, each giving rise to a different
boundary to the designated area. These were evaluated using a range of
criteria related both to the impact o f the proposals on the sub-region
and the internal planning o f the designated area. The option that was
eventually chosen, and on which the designated area is based, was the
best synthesis of the social and physical characteristics o f the area and
the planning requirements o f an urban development o f more than
400,000 inhabitants. Although the extent o f the designated area is
considerably less than that originally proposed by the consultants, the
essential principles o f development have not changed.
While some o f the communities will be substantially new, we propose
that most growth should take place by means o f the controlled and c o
ordinated expansion o f the existing towns to the benefit o f existing
residents and newcomers alike. This expansion will take place within a
framework o f tree belts and parkland that will emphasise both the
natural features and the divisions between the communities, thus
enhancing the identity and individuality o f the various parts o f the
designated area.
We consider that to get the greatest benefit from this growth new jobs
and facilities should be distributed in such a way as to be accessible to as
many people as possible without producing congestion, and also in such
a way as to increase the character and attractiveness o f the whole area.
In a free-for-all situation many o f the new jobs and facilities would be
attracted to the largest centre and the result would be not only
increasing congestion on a traditional pattern of converging roads but
also a relative impoverishment o f the other communities, both new and
old. We therefore propose to disperse new jobs and facilities, thereby
reinforcing the m ulti-centred character of Central Lancashire, and to
draw these parts together by a system o f free flowing roads and public
transport routes that runs the length o f the area.
339
Now we have the pattern of development at the end of the period of
the Plan and in the following paragraphs we describe the proposals for
each o f its main aspects which we have developed from the aims and
policies discussed before.
text. Write them down and answer them.
Text 57B. Population and Housing
Large parts of Preston and Chorley provide poor living conditions
and in order to make sure that the whole area is attractive to new growth
we would support the improvement and replacement of dwellings and
the enhancem ent o f the environment in these areas to ensure that
changes in the pattern of centres, or the contruction o f new roads, do
not add to their problems. We suggested that the poor level o f housing
conditions in some parts o f the designated area justified substantial
involvement by the Development Corporation in the renewal and
rehabilitation process provided that acceptable arrangements could be
made with the District Councils concerned.
With regard to new housing, our principal aim is to create conditions
in which attractive housing can be made available to all income groups
who might wish to live in the area. This means providing the right type
o f housing at the right time and in the right place. We have discussed our
policies relating to housing tenure, density and design as well as factors
affecting the timing of development.
So far as the location of new housing is concerned, three factors are
of particular significance. To begin with, we must develop our housing
areas in such a way that people can identify the place they live in as a
recognisable physical unit as well as, to a lesser extent, a recognisable
social unit. There is some evidence to suggest that at the kind of density
we are proposing these criteria can be satisfied within a population unit
of about 3,000 people. A more tangible consideration that affects the
attractiveness o f housing is convenient access for the residents to shops,
schools and other facilities and we discuss this in more details below.
Our studies o f the supply of facilities in relation to population size make
it clear that below a population of about 3,000 very few local facilities
are justified, whereas with a larger population a wider range of services
can be supported. In order that residents should have at least the
m inim um facilities to satisfy daily needs within five to ten m inutes’
walk, we propose that the village o f at least 3,000 people should,
wherever possible, be the smallest unit of development. However, a
m uch better choice o f facilities begins to be viable in populations of
20.000 and above. Thus there appear to be good reasons, wherever
possible, to build up three or four village units into a district of at least
20.000 people.
340
Text 57C. Population and Housing
Part I I
Above this district size we have seen tnat the larger-cornniunities
become the more they attract better quality facilities, but what we have
called the townships do not necessarily have a social significance or
identity in the way that villages and districts might. People living in the
Preston township, for instance, will always feel their lives, to a greater or
lesser extent, focussed on Preston town centre, whereas people living in
what we have called the Chorley township will be m uch more likely to
identify with the district in which they live, be it Euxton, Whittle-le-
Woods or Chorley itself.
The optim um size o f new housing areas is thus the first important
factor in determining the pattern of development and we therefore use
the village and the district as a flexible framework for our planning
proposals. The second major factor is the pattern of communities
already in the area and the extent to which they could benefit from
growth. From our studies o f the existing situation it is clear that in many
of them facilities such as shops and schools are too far away for
convenience or too few to present a reasonable choice, and in many
cases this inadequacy can be attributed to the small size of the local
population. It follows that an important part o f our proposals is that
these communities should be expanded in such a way as to make a
reasonable provision of facilities possible.
The third factor which determines the location o f residential
development is the topography and landscape of the area into which the
new dwellings must fit. The landscape policies which we set out before
and the landscape structure which we have derived from them define,
with the two factors m entioned above, the areas which are most suitable
for new housing development.
our principal air; to devise a pattern; a pattern of development;
geographical assets; a spring-board for new growth; general aim; a
num ber of objectives; to a large extent; the shape o f designated area; the
general strategy for development; the public inquiry; possible patterns of
development; the internal planning; planning requirements; internal
planning.
VIII. Write down the following sentences, underline the used Tense
forms of the verbs and explain their usage.
1. Our principal aim has been to devise a pattern of development
which makes the most of the many social econom ic and geographical
assets o f the area as a start for new growth.
341
2. Our proposals must satisfy a number o f objectives.
3. We shall describle the criteria which have had most influence on
the form o f the Plan.
4. The general strategy was aproved by the Minister o f Housing and
Local Government.
5. The decisions were evaluated using a range o f criteria related both
to the impact o f the proposals on the sub-region and the internal
planning of the designated area.
6. The essential principles o f development have not changed.
IX. Complete the following sentences using text 57A:

1. In order to achieve this general aim our proposals ....
2. A large number o f possible patterns o f development were discussed
in the report called ....
3. The patterns were evaluated ....
4. Although the extent o f the designated area is considerably less than
that originally proposed by the consultants, the essential principles ....
5. While some o f the com m unities will be substantially new, we ....
6. New jobs and facilities should be distributed in such a way ....
7. We propose to disperse new jobs and facilities ....

combinations:
the production of the Plan; to satisfly a number o f objectives; main
criteria, the designated area; possible patterns o f development, planning
requirements, existing towns; natural features; various parts o f the
designated area.
1. Large parts o f Preston and Chorley provide...conditions.
2. We would s u p p o r t ... and replacement o f dwellings.
3. With regard to new housing areas ... aim is to create conditions in
which attractive housing can be made available to all ... groups.
4. A good decision means providing the ... type o f housing at the right
time and in the right place.
5. In the text chapter we will discuss factors...
6. We have discussed our policies relating to housing ... density and
design in this chapter.
7. As the location o f new ... is concerned, three factors are of
particular significance.
8. We must develop our housing areas in such a way that ... can
identify the place they live in as a recognizable physical unit.
9. They also can identify it as a recognizable ... unit as well.
342
XII. Write down a short composition: «I wish to see my place as a
recognizable physical and social unit».

1. Что касается строительства нового жилья, наша главная цель
состоит в том, чтобы это жилье было привлекательным для групп
населения с разны ми доходами.
2. Это значит, что мы долж ны выбрать правильный тип жилья,
строить его в нужном месте и в необходимые для населения сроки.
3. Очень важно учесть, что жилье долж но быть доступно и отве
чать запросам тех, для кого оно предназначено.
4. Мы долж ны так разработать план жилой застройки, чтобы
обеспечить населению ком фортное проживание.
1. In order to achieve the general aim our proposals must satisfy a
num ber o f objectives.
2. Do not order any new furniture. We are satisfied with these pieces
we bought some years ago.
3. This work is aimed at the improvement o f the environment here.
4. We propose that most growth should take place by means o f the
expansion o f the existing towns.
5. Our studies o f the supply of facilities in relation to population of
about three thousand are justified whereas with a larger population a
wider range o f services can be supported.
6. We may supply more facilities with a larger population.
7. They study the opportumities that the locality offers.
XV. Write down the compounds, using the structure elements:

force, scape, land, frame, comer, new, board, work, spring, rain,
ship, citizen.
XVI. Draw the Transport plan of locality (roads for cars, buses,
railways, if there are some, trolley-buses, railways, if there are some.
Mark the route that you usually use getting to your university).
Unit 58
THE PATTERN OF THE TOWNSHIP’S GROWTH
previous а предыдущий, предварительный
incorporate v включать(ся); давать населенной местности права
муниципалиста
343
expand v расширять(ся)
expansion n расш ирение
community n сообщество
previous, accom m odation, discussion, preposition, township,
topography, recognizable, contrasting, existing, sufficient efficiency,
settlement, improvement, proposal, addition, com m unity, expansion,
reorganization.
III. 1. Define the structure of the following compounds:

a) Cheapside, Gladstone, Doncaster, Newport, Norfolk, Inch Cape,
Preston, Long Ridge, Leyland, Walton;
b) fisherman, shipman, postman, nobleman, seaman
2. Use the words in short sentences.
IV. Read the text and translate in into Russian.

Text 58A. Future Township’s Growth
We have seen from the previous planning that the total population to
be accom m odated in new housing areas by the end o f the Plan period is
about 212,000 and on the basis o f the factors we have discussed the
pattern o f growth we propose for the townships is as follows:
Grimsargh. The Grimsargh township consists o f about 1,700 hectares
(4,200 acres), o f which about one third cannot be developed because of
the topography, the quality o f the landscape or existing buildings. We
propose that the township should contain two districts at Haighton and
Grimsargh o f about 25,000 people each. The latter will incorporate the
existing village as a recognisable unit within the district.
Preston. The Preston township consists o f about 3,700 hectares
(9,100 acres), o f which, by contrast with Grimsargh, only about one
third can be developed. However, there is sufficient land in both lngol
and Fulwood, and sufficient existing population, to form two districts,
each with a population o f over 20,000, by the addition o f a total o f about
31.000 people.
Walton. About half the 2,700 hectares (6,600 acres) o f the Walton
township is capable o f development. We propose an addition o f about
32.000 people in the township and to distribute this growth as an
expansion o f three groups o f existing settlements at Penwortham,
Lostock Hall/Tardy Gate and W altonH e-D ale/Bam ber Bridge. This will
bring the population o f each o f these three districts to over 20,000
people.
Chorley. The Chorley township consists of about 3,900 hectares
(9,700 acres) and is the largest township in the designated area: about
344
half o f this area cann ot be further developed. We propose in all the
addition o f about 53,000 people. This will consist o f an expansion of
Chorley itself, together with an increase to district size o f the Whittle-
Ie-Woods and Clayton-le-W oods area (the Whittle district) and the
development o f the Euxton community.
Leyland. More than two thirds o f the 2,300 hectares (5,600 acres) of
the Leyland township are available for development. As in Grimsargh,
we propose two new districts, each o f a population of around 23,000,
one to the south o f Leyland at Runshaw and the other to the west at
Ulnes Walton.
text.
Text 58B. Employment
Economic expansion is one o f our principal aims. In order to ensure
that existing and new industries have the right conditions in which to
thrive and expand we propose a systematic reorganisation o f the
transport network in the existing towns in parallel with new road works.
The aim o f this is to remove industrial traffic from the housing areas and
to provide it with alternative purpose-m ade routes. To provide for
incoming em ploym ent and firms who have no room to expand on their
existing sites, we will ensure that new sites offer really good physical and
com m unication features and in the following paragraphs we describe a
pattern o f em ploym ent that fulfils these aims.
On the basis o f the criteria for size and location set out before we
propose a pattern o f eight new major em ployment areas: one in
Grimsargh, off the Longridge Road at Red Scar; one next to M6 in
Fulwood; one in Preston, west o f the docks; one south o f the Ribble in
Penwortham; three to the south and west o f Leyland; and one at Walton
Summit. These will provide jobs close to residential areas throughout
Central Lancashire and at the same time will offer to employers a variety
o f sites which all have good road connections to the motorway network.
At Walton Summit, Red Scar and west o f Leyland there are
opportunities for rail links for passengers and goods. In addition, we
propose a num ber o f smaller areas in Walton and Chorley.
Text 58C. About Jobs
1. Central area jobs. Our policy towards central area employment is
to encourage Preston in its efforts to limit the growth o f office
development in its centre so as to reduce the dem and for space for new
roads and car parks to a level which can be woven into the fabric o f the
town without damaging its overall character, and in particular some of
345
its great environmental assets such as Avenham Park. At the same time
we want to encourage new office development in Chorley and Leyland.
However, as a natural consequence o f Preston’s history as an important
regional centre and in particular as the centre for a wide range o f public
transport services, we estimate that the total num ber o f jobs it contains
could increase very substantially to between 35,000 and 40,000 (up to
twice the 1971 level) well before 2001 if all current com m itm ents are
fulfilled and proposals for redevelopment implemented expect the bulk
o f this increase to be in office employment. A job concentration on this
scale makes it imperative to rely heavily on public transport for journeys
to work.
2. Dispersed jobs. We have seen that about a third o f the jobs will be
dispersed: that is, they will not be in the main em ploym ent areas nor in
the town centres. The importance o f these jobs lies in the fact that they
bring both opportunities for work and the services they supply to the
com m unity within easy reach o f homes. Most o f them will be related to
district or village centres and since these will have good road access it
will be possible to keep the commercial traffic that is generated out of
residential areas.
EXERCISES

previous planning; total population; new housing areas; the pattern
o f growth; existing buildings; a recognizable unit; sufficient land; to
distribute the growth; existing settlements; available for development;
the development of the community.
VIII. Write down the following sentences and underline «-ing» forms.
Explain the function of the words ending in «ing».
1. We have seen from previous planning that the total population to
be accom m odated in new buildings is about two hundred thousand.
2. We were interested in the quality o f the existing buildings.
3. We are trying to improve the roads in the existing villages.
4. The aim o f this project is to remove industrial traffic from the
housing areas.
5. To provide for incoming em ploym ent and firms who have no
room to expand on their existing sites we supply a pattern of
em ploym ent in the area.
6. On the arriving the group started to work in the neighboring
village.
7. The group was measuring the area when it was interrupted by the
person who had offered to have some rest first.
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1. We have discussed the pattern o f growth we propose....
2. We propose that the township should contain....
3. About half the acreage o f the Walton Township is....
4. The Chorley township is....
5. About half o f it’s area cannot....
6. The article consists o f the patterns of....

combinations:
econom ic expansion; principal aim; new industries; systematic
reorganization; transport network; housing areas; alternative purpose-
made routes; existing sites; a pattern o f employment.
1. Econom ic ... is one o f our principal aims.
2. We propose ... reorganization o f the transport network.
3. The aim is to remove ... traffic from housing area.
4. We propose a pattern o f eight new ... areas these will provide jobs
close to residential areas through out Central Lancashire.
5. At the west o f Leyland there are ... for rail links for passengers and
goods.
6. We also ... a num ber o f smaller areas in Walton and Chorley.
XII. Write down a short composition «I have some proposals for the
pattern of my district growth».

1. В новом районе нашего города мы планируем разместить
(поселить) 6 тыс. человек.
2. Здесь мы планируем 2 тыс. новых рабочих мест, причем 500
из них — в новом торговом центре.
3. В парковой зоне планируется построить 7 детских площадок.
4. В пром ы ш ленной зоне необходимо провести работы по улуч
ш ени ю окружаю щей среды, а также произвести рем онт дорог.
1. The total population to be accommodated in new housing area is
about 30 thousand people.
2. We need some accommodation for newcomers in this district.
3. Our policy is to encourage Preston in its efforts to limit the growth
o f office development in its centre.
4. We have to plan our developments within the limits of this area.
5. The factory can employ only 50 people this year.
347
6. The aim is to reduce the demand for space for new roads and car
parks.
7. They demanded some area for the factory’s garage.

previous, able, developed, existing, capable, bring, south, order,
systematic, useful, offer, really, employment, smaller, inside, towards,
limited.
XVI. Look through text 58C. Put questions to your class-mate.

Discuss the problems of population and employment distribution.
Unit 59
THE PATTERN OF TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT
transport network транспортная сеть
constrain v 1. стеснять; 2. сдерживать, принуждать
constraint п 1. принуждать; 2. принуждение, стеснение
transport facilities транспортны е возможности (средства, удоб
ства)
strain v 1. напрягать; 2. сжимать; 3. превыш ать
vehicle п транспортное средство
congestion п скопление
traffic congestion затор в уличном движении
reduce v ослаблять, редуцировать
relieve v 1. освобождать, облегчать, уменьшать давление; 2. раз
гружать
disperse v рассеивать, разгонять
bottleneck п узкое место, затруднение
alleviate v облегчать, смягчать
inevitable а неизбежный, неминуемый
emerge v 1. появляться, возникать из; 2. выясняться
ample а 1. о б ш и рны й ; 2. просторный; 3. ш ирокий
escarpment п скат, крутой откос, насыпь, эскарп
com m unity, driver, easily, possible, objective, integrated,
congestion, alternative, lengthy, efficient, priority, primary, acceptable,
amenity, ownership, residential, electrified, considerably.
348
Scotland, Midlands, Lancashire, Preston, Blackpool; footpath,
transport, throughout, railway, highway, motorway, network, high
speed road

Text 59A. M ajor Road Network 2001
The function o f the transport network is to enable all groups in the
community, whether car drivers or not, to travel as easily as possible
throughout the area and to other parts o f the country. The most
important constraint on the general objective is the cost in social,
environmental and financial terms o f providing roads, car parks and
public transport facilities to meet this aim. An integrated policy must
therefore strike a balance between these needs and the cost of satisfying
them.
The existing network in this, as in so m any other areas, is becoming
strained by the increasing numbers of vehicles, and both travellers and
communities are suffering from the resulting congestion and pollution.
An important aspect o f our policy is to plan a network that reduces
existing traffic problems as m uch as possible. To some extent, the build
up o f the national motorway system will further relieve conditions on
the existing roads by providing alternative routes for traffic with no
business in the area. This system will also make journeys between
Central Lancashire and other parts o f the region very m uch easier. We
anticipate that by 1986 the existing motorway network will have been
supplemented not only by the motorway to Blackpool, but also by the
Preston southern and western by-passes, the Calder Valley motorway
and a new high-speed road from Preston to Liverpool. We therefore
show these on all our plans from 1986 onwards.
The basic pattern o f roads and development that after lengthy study
we consider to be the most efficient is a ladder-like arrangement with
primary roads and priority bus routes running the length o f the area
linking the townships to each other and to the motorway network, and
cross-links which connect areas of development to these primary routes.
This pattern, com bined with the dispersal o f major activities, will
produce an even distribution o f traffic over the network which will
reduce bottlenecks and will enable us to allow for the maximum possible
amount o f movement for the least capital cost. A major advantage of this
system is that the primary roads pass outside the existing towns o f
Chorley, Leyland and the central area o f Preston. Another advantage is
that it is a clear and understandable concept for travellers: they know,
for instance, that by joining one o f the primary roads in Chorley they
can get to Preston with a minim um o f left or right turns.
349
While this new road network will alleviate the traffic problems of the
existing communities, some routes will have to be found through built-
up areas. Although in many instances the areas affected will be at the
end of their acceptable life, in some cases sound homes will inevitably
have to be demolished while others will need to be protected against
traffic noise or their inhabitants compensated for loss o f amenity. The
Corporation and the highway authorities are very m uch aware of these
problems and will seek to ensure that as few people as possible are
affected in this way.
The eventual size o f the roads and the stages by which they will be
built will depend on factors such as the rate o f growth o f population
and the increase in car ownership and will emerge over a period of
time. The network we are showing, however, indicates clearly the
broad corridors o f m ovem ent which we feel must at this stage be
reserved.
text.
Text 59B. The Western and Eastern Prim ary Corridors
The western and eastern primary corridors are the main features of
the network. The Western Primary starts at the existing junction 8 on
M61, north o f Charley, passing south o f Extol where a new junction
with M6 will be provided. It then swings north and keeps to the west of
Leyland, eventually joining the route o f the old Preston-Southport
railway line to by-pass Penwortham before joining the present road
network at Strand Road. From here to the Blackpool Road it runs along
the northern side of the Blackpool railway line. The route then
continues as a district distributor through Haslam Park and runs to the
west of Ingol and the north o f Fulwood, crossing M6 on the existing
D ’Urton Lane bridge into Haighton.
The eastern corridor starts as a district distributor at a junction with
Longridge Road east o f Grimsargh. South o f Grimsargh it continues in a
westerly direction as a primary corridor, making a new junction with M6
with north-facing slip roads only. It then passes north of Ribbleton and
turns south to continue along Blackpool Road from the Longridge
railway bridge to New Hall Lane. From here the route continues south
across Fishwick Bottoms, over the Ribble on a new bridge to a junction
with A6 at Walton Flats and with the Preston southern motorway a little
further on. It proceeds as a by-pass to the west o f W alton-le-Dale and
Bamber Bridge as far as A49, close to-its junction with A6 at the Hob
Inn. We propose that from this point it should be extended southward
over M6 and the River Lostock to join M61 at a new south-facing
junction at Walton Summit. The provision o f this junction is not yet
certain and can only finally be decided as part o f the much more
350
complex junction between the proposed Calder Valley route and M6,
which lies immediately to the north.
The Western Primary provides Leyland with a high-class link to the
new M6 junction at Euxton, enabling the present Leyland junction to be
closed with consequent environmental benefits to the town. The north-
facing slip roads, which form the new junction between M6 and the
Eastern Primary at Grimsargh depend on the relief given to M6 by the
western and southern bypasses round Preston. They will provide a m uch
more convenient access. Between Preston and the north and will make it
possible to close the north-facing slip roads at the Samlesbury junction.
This will help to relieve this junction of some o f its heavy traffic problems
and will also help to improve conditions on Brockholes Brow.
Text 59C. Public Transport Network 2001
In our plan placed great emphasis on the need for an efficient and
convenient public transport system and, although future changes in
G overnm ent policy towards the financing o f public transport may
change the picture, we recom m end at present that a system based on
buses, or other road vehicles, will give the best service in Central
Lancashire.
The m inim um requirements o f the bus system are that it should aim
to provide a service to within five minutes’ walk o f all housing areas as
well as providing fast journeys to shopping centres and major
em ploym ent centres. We will plan all housing in such a way that buses
can easily serve them on uncongested roads and we propose a series of
bus priority routes, in places on bus-only roads, running throughout the
designated area and passing through the main centres. South of the
Ribble, A6 will be one o f these routes, while another will run from
Chorley through Euxton, Leyland and Lostock Hall into Preston,
perhaps using the disused part o f the east Lancashire railway line. N orth
of the Ribble a num ber o f existing roads radiating from the centre of
Preston will be developed to include bus priority routes. The local and
express services need not be separate: a person could catch a local bus in
the suburbs o f Chorley which, after picking up more passengers in the
residential area, would join the priority route and travel to the centre of
Preston with the m inim um num ber of stops. Such a system serving
Penwortham and Winckley Square would provide a quality o f service
undreamed of by today’s com m uter sitting in his car waiting to move on
Penwortham bridge.
Long distance journeys to the South East, the Midlands and
Scotland will be catered for by the electrified rail service from Preston
which will operate on a frequency and time schedule equal to the
services from the other major centres in the region. The Journey times
351
have recently been very considerably shortened by the completion of
electrification to Preston. They will continue to improve as this is
extended to Glasgow and with the introduction o f the Advanced
Passenger Train which is scheduled to come into service before the end
o f this decade. To ensure that full use is made o f this facility the railway
station will be served by major bus routes operating in the area. Ample
car parking can be made available at the station, linked to the business
district around Winckley Square by a direct footpath system. Journeys to
Manchester and Blackpool would be quicker if these routes were also
electrified. This improvement, linked to a better bus service to stations,
would help to attract com m uters republic transport.
EXERCISES

transport network; all groups in the com munity; car drivers to travel
throughout the area; the most important constraint; general objectives;
financial terms; public transport facilities; an integrated policy; existing
network; increasing num ber o f vehicles; national motorway system;
traffic problems; alternative routes for traffic.
VIII. Write down the following sentences and underline words ending
in «-ed». Explain the function of these words in these sentences.
1. The existing network is becoming strained by the increasing
numbers o f vehicles.
2. We anticipated that by 2000 our existing roads would be improved
by local administration.
3. This pattern, com bined with the dispersal o f major activities, will
produce an even distribution o f traffic over the network.
4. Although in many instances the areas affected will be at the end of
their acceptable life, in some cases sound houses will inevitably have to
be demolished while others will need to be protected against traffic noise
or their inhabitants com pensated for loss o f amenity.
5. The Corporation and the highway authorities are very much aware
o f these problems and will seek to ensure that as few people as possible
are affected in this way.
6. The network we are showing, however, indicates, clearly the broad
corridors o f m ovement which we feel must at this stage be reserved.
IX. Complete the following sentences using the text 59A:

1. To enable all groups in the com m unity, whether car drivers or not,
to travel as easily as possible throughout the area and to other parts of
the country is....
352
2. An integrated policy must therefore strike a balance between....
3. Both travelers and communities are suffering from....
4. An important aspect of our policy is to plan a network that....
5. This system will make journeys between Central Lancashire and
other parts of the region....
6. Some routes will have to be found through built up areas while....
7. The Corporation and the highway authorities are very m uch aware
of all the traffic problems and will seek....
8. The eventual size o f the roads and the stages by which they will be
built will depend on factors such as....
9. The network indicates clearly the road corridors of movement
which....

combinations:
broad corridors o f movement; increase in car ownership; growth of
population; the eventual size of the roads; highway authorities; traffic
noise; loss of amenity; sound houses; built up areas.
XI. Insert the proper words and translate the sentences into Russian
using text 59B:
1. The western Primary starts at the ... junction 8 on M61, north of
Chorley.
2. It then swings north and ... to the west o f Leyland.
3. It runs from along the northern ... of the Blackpool railway line.
4. The eastern corridor starts as a district ... at a junction with
Longbridge Road east of Grimsargh.
5. The provision o f this ... is not yet certain and can only finally be
decided.
6. The Western Primary provides Leyland with a ... class link to the
new M6 junction at Euxton.
7. The north-facing slip roads, which form the new ... between M6
and the Eastern primary at Grimsargh, depend on the relief given to M6
by the western and southern bypasses round Preston.
8. They new roads will provide a m uch more convenient access ...
Preston and the north.
XII. Write down a short composition «Traffic problems in my region

and my proposals in solving them».

1. Транспортная сеть должна обеспечить всем группам н аселе
ния возможность перем ещ ения (путешествия) в любую часть как
района, так и всей страны.
2. Одно из преимуществ новой дороги состоит в том, что она
353
соединяет поселок с главной магистралью с ми н им альн ы м числом
левых и правых поворотов.
3. Окончательные размеры дорог зависят от многих факторов, в
том числе от роста численности населения и числа владельцев ма
ш ин в дан ном регионе.
4. При строительстве дорог важное значение имеет ф актор ре
льефа, который необходимо учитывать при оценке стоимости
строительства.
1. In our plans we placed great emphasis on the need for an efficient
and convenient public transport system.
2. We will plan all housing in such a way that buses can easily serve
them.
3. The local and express services need not be separate: a person could
catch a local bus in the suburbs of Chorley.
4. The Western Primary starts at the existing junction 8 on M61,
north of Chorley.
5. Building of the junction was a good start for making this road
system easy to use.
6. This place will get a letter junction next year.
7. We emphasize that this part of the road should provide a new
junction with the motorway.

easily, possible, other, most, general, important, relieve, western,
high, lengthy, efficient, primary, combine, disperse, reduce, outside,
clear, inevitably.
XVI. Try to draw the most efficient Public Transport Network for your
region (the area where you live). Try to explain why you are planning the
roads and their junctions with the motorways where you are planning
them. Write down the existing names of towns and settlements in their
proper position on the map. Give your own ideas and proposals.
Unit 60
LANDSCAPE AND RECREATION
advantage n преимущество
establish v устанавливать, учреждать, основывать
equal а равный
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resident n житель
generate v генерировать, вырабатывать
robustly adv бурно, сильно
meeting room место для собраний, встреч
squash court корт для игры в мяч (вроде тенниса)
augment v прибавлять, увеличивать, умножать
augmentation п прирост, увеличение
pub п п и в н а я ,т р а к т и р
weir п запруда, плотина, гать
entertain у развлекать
irreplaceable а незаменимый
appreciate v ценить, оценивать
offer v предлагать (вещь, услугу)
recreation п рекреация, место отдыха, восстановления сил
II. Write down the following words. Underline prefixes and suffixes.
recreation, replace, remain, reclamation, irreplaceable, adaptable,
designated, inevitably, unjustifiably, expectation, revised, pretend,
redevelopment, unem ployment, integrated, contribution, undue,
impose.

supermarket, wherever, floorspace, therefore, landscape, safeguard,
rainforce, riverside, agriculture, throughout, woodland, multy-purpose,
upstream

Text 60A. Centres and Facilities
The great advantage of basing new growth o n the existing towns is
that, from the start, the new population will have access to a large range
of well established social and commercial services. Equally, the
advantage of planning new growth, rather th an simply letting it happen,
is that all the facilities needed by the new communities can be integrated
into new development so as to give the most convenient service to the
residents. We noted above that the village of over 3,000 and the district
of over 20,000 generate dem and for different ranges of services and have
been the basic guide for determining the size of new communities and
the extent to which existing com m unities should expand. Within these
units there are good reasons for grouping the facilities both from the
point of view of those who supply the services and for the convenience
of the users.
355
A typical village centre will contain a primary school, a pub, a corner
supermarket or a small group of shops and a meeting room. For the
district we propose that secondary schools, whether fully integrated into
the centre as a com m unity school or merely offering com m unity use of
squash courts, swimming baths, library and meeting rooms, will form
the basis o f the district centre wherever the opportunity arises. These
facilities are likely to be augmented by anything between 4,500 and
9,000 square metres (50,000 and 100,000 square feet) o f selling floors
space, together with pubs, churches, a health centre and restaurants. In
practice, of course, existing development will inevitably affect this
pattern.
In addition to these village and district centres, the existing town
centres o f Preston, Chorley and Leyland have a vital role to play.
Preston is and will rem ain the main administrative, commercial,
educational and entertainm ent centre in Central Lancashire, and both
Chorley and Leyland will continue to supply many more services than
will be available in the new district centres. In particular, the centres of
Preston, Chorley and to a lesser extent Leyland have a rich heritage of
nineteenth and early twentieth century com m ercial buildings which
afford a num ber of irreplaceable opportunities. M any o f them are
examples o f distinguished architectural design, robustly built in a
variety o f materials which we will probably never be able to afford
again. They may well be easily adaptable as far as internal
arrangem ents are concerned and the visual links they provide with the
past make a unique contribution to the attractions o f the central areas
which many towns are now beginning to appreciate only after they
have been destroyed.
The pattern o f centres which we propose for C entral Lancashire
therefore consists o f a hierarchy with the three existing centres at the
top: Preston offering m ajor regional services, followed by Chorley
serving a similar but m uch m ore limited role for the southern part of
the designated area an d, at a lower level in the hierarchy, Leyland.
Below this we are proposing seven new district centres: two in the
G rim sargh township; one in Fulw ood serving both existing and new
populations; one at Ingol to be developed in conju n ctio n with a
m arina on the Lancaster Canal; one in each o f the D ines W alton and
R unshaw districts to the south and west o f Leyland; an d one to serve
the Whittle district. T he district centres in H aig hto n and Runshaw,
because they will be developed first, are likely to con tain
considerably m ore shopping facilities than those in the Grim sargh
district and at Dines W alton. It is also o u r policy to expand and
consolidate the existing centres at Penw ortham , K ing ’s Fold,
L ostock Hall, W a lto n - Ie -D a le , Bam ber Bridge and Euston. Below
these district centres will be a large n u m b er serving their local
populations.
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text.
Text 60B. Landscape and Recreation
We aim to conserve the best qualities o f the existing landscape and to
provide for a pattern o f open space and landscaped areas o f the highest
quality to form a backcloth to new development. It is not sufficient,
however, merely to safeguard individual features and to provide new
parks and playing fields in isolation from them. A major feature o f our
proposals is a system o f tree belts which will define areas of development
by reinforcing such natural features as the escarpments o f the Ribble
valley and the valleys o f the Lostock and the Yarrow. These will form a
system o f links between the open spaces in the designated area. The tree
belts will thus form visual barriers between, for example, housing and
employment areas as well as creating footpaths for residents and
biological links for wildlife throughout Central Lancashire.
At a strategic level, the main features o f our proposals are two major
regional parks, one centred on the Ribble valley and a second in the
Lostock valley at Cuerden. We are studying jointly with the Preston
District Council and the North West Water Authority the possibility o f
constructing one or more barrages or weirs across the Ribble to regulate
the water level. This could provide the opportunity for water sports to
take place upstream o f the weirs as part o f the facilities provided by a
new riverside park, although the feasibility o f this scheme has yet to be
determined and must depend on a reduction in pollution. At Cuerden
the Lostock valley will be developed as a major multi-purpose park for
the whole area and could contain a num ber o f facilities such as a riding
centre, fishing lakes and possibly a zoological garden. Much o f the 730
hectares (1,800 acres) we have allocated to these parks will o f course
remain in agricultural use throughout the period o f the Plan.
At the district level we aim to use the landscape structure to provide
open space and recreational facilities within a third o f a mile o f all
development. Wherever possible we hope to exploit opportunities to use
existing features such as woodlands, rivers and canals. The recent
reclamation o f the Lancaster Canal in Preston is a good example o f such
an opportunity.
Text 60C. The Need fo r Flexibility
In the preceding paragraphs we have discussed our aims and how we
hope to achieve them in relation to one pattern of development. We do
not pretend that this is the only plan that meets these aims but it is clear
from our studies that the range of feasible alternatives is limited by the
problems and opportunities o f the existing communities. We recognise,
357
however, that any set o f proposals for the future will have to be revised
as the dem ands o f people and the technologies that serve them change.
We have therefore devised a structure for housing areas, employment
areas, centres and transport with flexibility as a major consideration.
Two aspects o f flexibility seem to us particularly important: first, the
need to allow for changes in the pattern o f development so that, for
instance, an area proposed for employment could be changed to
housing; and secondly, the ability to accom m odate changes in the rate
o f development so that if the growth rate were to decline communities
would not be stranded without a reasonable provision o f facilities. In the
same way, if growth were to exceed our expectations the Plan presents a
large enough num ber o f possible sites for accelerated development to
proceed without undue strain being imposed upon any particular part of
the structure.
So far as the Outline Plan is concerned, we have sought a balance
between, on one hand, being so vague in the interests o f flexibility that
no clear proposals emerge and, on the other hand, showing proposals
that appear unjustifiably definite. Our proposals for 2001 outlined in the
preceding paragraphs should, therefore, be regarded as a hypothesis of
the most desirable pattern o f development by the end o f the century. In
the next two chapters we describe proposals which, because they are
concerned with the next fifteen years rather than the next thirty, are a
good deal more definite.
EXERCISES
great advantage; new population; a large range; social and
commercial services; convenient service; the village o f over 3000;
district o f over 20000; different ranges; new communities; a typical
village centre; primary school; squash court; swimming bath; meeting
room; district centre; health centre; inevitable effect; vital role;
entertainment centre.
VIII. Write down the following sentences and underline infinitive

constructions (active and passive). Explain the function of these in the
sentences.
1. All the facilities needed by the new com m unities can be integrated
into new development.
2. We aim to conserve the best qualities o f the existing landscape and
to provide for a pattern o f open space- and landscaped areas of the
highest quality to form a backcloth to new development.
3. It is not sufficient, however, merely to safeguard individual
features and to provide new parks and playing fieds in isolation from
them.
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4. These measures will provide the opportunity for water sports to
take place upstream o f the weirs.
5. We are studing the possibility of constructing one or more weirs
across the Ribble to regulate the water level.
6. At the district level we aim to use the landscape structure to
provide open space and recreational facilities within a third o f a mile of
all development.
7. Wherever possible we hope to exploit opportunities to use existing
features such as woodlands, rivers and canals.
8. We hope to achieve our aims in relation to one pattern of
development.
9. Any set o f proposals for the future will have to be revised at the
demands o f people and the technologies that serve them change.

1. The great advantage o f basing new growth on the existing towns is
that the new population will have....
2. All the facilities needed by the new com m unities can be integrated
into....
3. A typical village centre will contain....
4. For the district we propose that secondary schools will form the
basis of....
5. Preston is and will remain the main....
6. Both Chorley and Leyland will continue to supply....
7. The pattern of centres which we propose for Central Lancashire
consists of....
8. It is also our policy to expand and consolidate....

combinations:
for the convenience of the residents; a c o m er supermarket; a
com m unity school; main administrative and commercial centre;
entertainment centre; distinguished architectural design; our policy;
local population.
XI. Insert the proper words and translate the sentences into Russian
using the text 60B:
1. The tree belts will form visual ... between housing and
em ployment areas as well as creating foot paths for residents.
2. These belts will also create biological ... for wildlife throughout
Central Lancashire.
3. We are studing the possibility o f constructing one or more ...
across the Rubble-river to regulate the water level.
4. A major multi-purpose park will contain a num ber of facilities
such a s ... centre, fishing lakes and possibly a zoological garden.
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5. Much of the land we have allocated to new parks will o f course
remain in ... use throughout the period of the plan.
6. We aim to use the landscape structure to provide open space and
... facilities within a third of a mile of all development.
7. If it is possible we will exploit ... to use existing features such as
woodlands, rivers and canals.
8. The recent ... of the Lancaster Canal in Preston is a good example
of such an opportunity.
XII. Write down a short composition «Recreational Facilities in My

District: Present and Future».

1. Наша цель — сохранить существующий л ан дш аф т и обесп е
чить новым жителям района открытое пространство для зоны отдыха.
2. Создавая парковую зону вдоль крутого берега реки Риббл,
мы не только сохраним берег реки, но и обеспечим прекрасные
условия для отдыха местных жителей.
3. Строительство дамб на реке Риббл позволит отрегулировать
уровень воды и создаст более благоприятные условия для ры бо
ловства.
XIV. Write down what part of speech the following words in bold prints are:
1. We aim to conserve the best qualities of the existing landscape.
2. Our aim is to provide for a pattern of open space and landscaped
areas of the highest quality to form a backcloth to new development.
3. The tree belts will form visual barriers between housing and
employment areas.
4. We hope to exploit opportunities, wherever possible, to use
existing features such as woodlands, rivers and canals.
5. If growth were to exceed our expectations the Plan presents a large
enough num ber o f possible sites for accelerated development.
6. We always consider the demands of people who are going to
become our residents.
7. Our Plan demanded a great num ber of changes in our transport
network.

best, open, highest, sufficient, natural, create, lower, jointly, whole,
secondary, simply, anything, sell, after.
XVI. Give your own proposals for future reclamation of the riverside
park in your nearest surroundings.
Section VIII
ГРАММАТИЧЕСКИЙ СПРАВОЧНИК
ОБЩИЕ ПОЛОЖЕНИЯ
1. О С О Б Е Н Н О С Т И Г Р А М М А Т И Ч Е С К О Г О С Т Р О Я А Н Г Л И Й С К О Г О
Я З Ы К А
О сновной отличительной чертой грамматического строя ан г

л ийского язы ка является то, что в ходе его исторического развития
в нем исчезли почти все грамматические о кон ч ан ия (те с у ф ф и к
сы, которые изменяли слова, придавая им форму рода, падежа и
т.д.). Это касается имени существительного и прилагательного.
Глагол сохранил л и ш ь незначительное число окончаний (по сути
своей суф ф и к со в ), так как в отличие от ок о н ч ан и й в русском
язы ке они остаются н еи зм ен яем ы м и , н ап р и м ер «-s» у глаголов в
3-м лице единственного числа в настоящем времени.
В английском язы ке ом он и м и чн ы е по ф орм е слова могут пред
ставлять собой разны е части речи, вы полнять разные функции,
иметь различный смысл, следовательно, смысловое значение с л о
ва зависит от его места в предложении и служебных слов, уточня
ющих грамматическую категорию зам еняем ого слова.
Рассмотрим прим еры употребления слова work в различных
функциях.
This work is hard. Э т а р а б о т а т р у д н а я .
They work hard. О н и р а б о т а ю т у с е р д н о .
Come on a workday! П р и х о д и в р а б о ч и й д е н ь !
Чтобы понять английское предложение и определить смысл
каждого слова, необходимо выяснить принадлежность его к той
или иной части речи, а также какую ф ун кц и ю выполняет это с л о
во в предложении.
2. С Л О В О О Б Р А З О В А Н И Е И С Л О В О И З М Е Н Е Н И Е
Устойчивым показателем принадлежности слова к той или

иной части речи являю тся словообразовательные суффиксы. Они
могут быть продуктивными и непродуктивными. В английском
язы ке имеется незначительное число словообразовательных су ф
ф иксов, знание которых заметно э кон ом и т время и усилия, затра
чиваемые на изучение языка.
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С ловоизменительны х суф ф иксов всего пять. И з них три в ы
полняю т разные ф ункции. А суф ф икс —ing может служить и сло
вообразовательным, и словоизменительны м.
I. С уф ф и кс -s является:
1) показателем м ножественного числа существительных:
bag — bags (с у м к а — с у м к и )
2) показателем притяжательного падежа при наличии апостро
фа: a student’s book [ к н и г а ( к а к о г о - т о ) с т у д е н т а ]; students’ books
(к н и г и с т у д е н т о в )
3) показателем 3 л. е д . ч . глагола в Present Indefinite:
Н е sings well. О н х о р о ш о п о е т .
II. - е г а) как словоизменительны й суф ф икс является показате
лем сравнительной степени прилагательного или наречия:
rich — richer ( б о г а т ы й — б о г а ч е )
near — nearer ( б л и з к о — б л и ж е )
б) как словообразовательный суфф икс имени сущ ествительно
го, обозначаю щ его «деятеля» (предмет либо действующее лицо):
shoemaker — с а п о ж н и к , б а ш м а ч н и к , о б у в щ и к
III. -est как словоизменительны й суф ф икс имени прилагатель
ного в превосходной степени:
large — the largest
большой —наибольший, самый большой
IV. -ed 1) как показатель личн ой формы глагола в форме Past
Indefinite (для правильных глаголов):
work — worked ( р а б о т а т ь — р а б о т а )
2) как показатель ф орм ы Participle II (для правильных глаго
лов).
V. -ing 1) как показатель Participle I, Gerund:
writing — п и ш у щ и й ; п и с ь м о ( п р о ц е с с )
2) как словообразовательный для Verbal N oun — отглагольного
имени существительного:
reading, writing
чтение, письмо ( результат)
3. Р О Л Ь С Т Р О Е В Ы Х С Л О В В Г Р А М М А Т И Ч Е С К О М С Т Р О Е
АНГЛИЙСКОГО Я З Ы К А
К строевым словам, которые уточняют грамматическую катего

рию см ысловых слов (существительных, прилагательных, ч и с ли
тельных и глаголов), относятся:
а) артикли (a, an), the (для имен существительных);
частица to (для и н ф и н и ти в а глагола);
б) предлоги, вы раж аю щ ие падежные отнош ения имен сущ естви
тельных и местоимений, — показатели связи слов в предложении;
362
в) вспомогательны е глаголы, у казы ваю щ ие в системе с п р я ж е
ния на л ицо, число, время, залог и н акл о н ен и е смыслового гла
гола.
МОРФОЛОГИЯ
4. И М Я С У Щ Е С Т В И Т Е Л Ь Н О Е
Грамматическим показателем имени существительного (части

речи, обозначаю щ ей предмет, явление, сущность, т. е. все, о чем
можно спросить: кто это? или что это?), является суфф икс (н а
пример, -ity, -ment, -er, -ness, -ship, -ture и т .д.). Например, fertility
— п л о д о р о д и е , movement — д в и ж е н и е , worker — р а б о ч и й , darkness —
т е м н о т а , leadership — р у к о в о д с т в о , culture — к у л ь т у р а .
О сновны м и определителями существительного являются а р
тикль и предлог:
a farmer — ферм ер (один из фермеров)
the farmer — ф е р м е р ( о п р е д е л е н н ы й , о к о т о р о м и д е т р е ч ь )
to the farmer — к ф е р м е р у
fo r a farmer — д л я ( л ю б о г о ) ф е р м е р а
5. А Р Т И К Л Ь
Наиболее распространенны м и определителями существитель

ных являю тся артикли: н е о п р е д е л е н н ы й а(ап) и о п р е д е л е н н ы й the.
Артикли произносятся слитно со следующим за ним словом и я в
ляются, как правило, безударными.
Н е is a farmer. О н ф е р м е р . Н е is a good farmer. О н х о р о ш и й ф е р м е р .
Если сущ ествительное имеет определение, то артикль стоит п е
ред определением:
They have a big new laboratory. У н и х е с т ь б о л ь ш а я н о в а я л а б о р а т о
рия.
Артикль the ставится после местоимений all и both:
All the students o f our group have visited this museum. В с е с т у д е н т ы
н а ш е й г р у п п ы п о с е т и л и э т о т музей.
Both т у brother and т у cousin are students. И м о й б р а т и д в о ю р о д
ный брат —студенты.
5.1. Н е о п р е д е л е н н ы й а р т и к л ь а(ап).
Н еопределенны й артикль происходит от числительного one —
один и означает «один из многих», «какой-то», «любой», употреб
ляется перед исчисляемы ми существительными:
I am a student. Я с т у д е н т ( о д и н и з с т у д е н т о в ) .
I like tea ( н е т а р т и к л я ) . Я л ю б л ю ч а й .
а. Неопределенны й артикль употребляют, когда необходимо
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обозначить лицо или предмет как представителя дан ного класса в
отличие от лица или предмета другого класса.
1 have a book. У м е н я е с т ь к н и г а ( а н е а л ь б о м ) .
б. Перед существительным в единственном числе, когда пред
мет упоминается впервые.
1 saw an old lady sitting by the window. Я у в и д е л п о ж и л у ю д а м у , с и
д я щ у ю у окна.
в. Перед названием профессии:
I am a geologist. Я г е о л о г .
г. При наличии описательного определения перед сущ естви
тельным:
It was a dark night. Б ы л а т е м н а я н о ч ь .
д. В восклицательных предложениях после what, such:
What a nice day! К а к о й п р и я т н ы й д е н ь !
She is such a beauty! О н а т а к а я к р а с а в и ц а !
5.2. О п р е д е л е н н ы й а р т и к л ь the.
Определенный артикль the происходит от указательного м есто
и м ения that и означает «этот», «эта», «это».
а. Определенный артикль показывает, что речь идет о вполне
определенном предмете или лице, известном или понятном из
контекста.
Where is the article? Г д е с т а т ь я ? ( к о т о р а я и м е е т с я в в и д у , а н е
любая)
The article is in the drawer. С т а т ь я в я щ и к е с т о л а ( о к о т о р о й р е ч ь ,
а не любая)
б. Определенный артикль употребляется перед существитель
ным как в единственном, так и во м ножественном числе.
The articles are on the table now. С т а т ь и н а с т о л е .
в. К ак перед исчисляем ы м и , так и перед неисчисляемы ми су
ществительными:
Pass т е the butter, please! П е р е д а й т е м н е м а с л о , п о ж а л у й с т а ! ( т о ,
к о т о р о е я в и ж у н а столе) .
г. Перед названием должности:
Н е is the sates manager. О н м е н е д ж е р п о п р о д а ж а м .
д. Перед сущ ествительным, перед которым стоит о граничиваю
щее определение, вы раж енное словами: only, main, left—right,
next, last, final или порядковы м и числительными и прилагатель
ны м и в превосходной степени:
It is the only way out. Э т о е д и н с т в е н н ы й в ы х о д ( и з п о л о ж е н и я ) .
Keep to the right side o f the street. Д е р ж и т е с ь п р а в о й с т о р о н ы ( у л и ц ы ) .
Read the second text! Ч и т а й т е в т о р о й т е к с т !
This is the best film I have ever seen. Э т о л у ч ш и й и з ф и л ь м о в , к о т о
р ы е я когда- либо видел.
е. Перед сущ ествительны ми, обозначаю щ ими уникальны й
(единственны й в своем роде) предмет или явлен и е; the sun, the
364
moon, the earth, the wind, the sky, the world, the north, the west, the east,
the south, the universe, the horizon, the equator, the hemisphere, the
atmosphere, the Milky Way.
ж. Перед сущ ествительными в роли обстоятельства места: in
(on) the street, at the office; on the balcony, in the garden on the train.
з. Перед сущ ествительными в родовом значении:
The elephant is a strong animal. С л о н — с и л ь н о е ж и в о т н о е .
The computer was invented in America. К о м п ь ю т е р б ы л и з о б р е т е н в
Америке.
и. Перед субстантивированны ми частями речи:
The English are very polite people. А н г л и ч а н е о ч е н ь в е ж л и в ы е л ю д и .
We are in the know. М ы в к у р с е , о с в е д о м л е н ы .
к . В некоторых устойчивых выражениях:
What is the matter? Nothing is the matter. Ч т о с л у ч и л о с ь ? Н и ч е г о ( н е
случилось).
Н е made the best o f his career. О н с д е л а л в с е в о з м о ж н о е д л я с в о й
карьеры.
L e t’s call the police, to be on the safe side ( о т г р е х а п о д а л ь ш е ) . Д а
в а й т е вызовем полицию...
5.3. Артикли с географическими названиями: мировая география

Названия the Нет артикля
1.Части света, кон Если в н а звании государства есть Europe, Asia, Australia,
тиненты, страны, нар ицательн ое существительное: N o rth (South) America,
регионы, города, the Russian Federation, the United Africa, Russia, Italy,
деревни Kingdom o f G reat Britain and England, Latin America,
N orthern Ireland, the United States S outh-East Asia,
o f America, the Irish Republic; Northern Africa,
а такж е названия стран во мн.ч.: Southern France,
the Netherlands, the Philippines, Moscow, Rome,
the United Arab; Emirates; L ondon, Dubrovo,
н азв ания регионов, областей, го Peredelkino
родов: the Crimea, the Caucasus,
the Far East, the Riviera, the M id
lands, the Lake District, the Middle
East, the Ruhr, the Tyrol, the Hague
(Гаага)
2. Океаны, моря, the Atlantic Ocean, the Pacific Ho: Lake Baikal, Lake
проливы, каналы, Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the White Seliger
реки, озера, водо Sea, the Black Sea, the M edi Но: названия заливов
пады, полуострова terranean Sea, the English Channel, и полуостровов упо т
the G u lf Stream, the Panam a Canal, ребляются без а р т и к
the Volga, the Mississippi, the ля: Hudson Bay, K a m
T h am es (the River Tham es), the chatka, Taimyr,
Baikal, the Seliger, the Swallow Scandinavia
Falls, (the) Niagara Falls Сравните: Kola — the
Kola Peninsula
365
3. Горные цепн, the Urals, the Alps, the Rocky По: названия горных
группы островов M ountains (the Rockies), the в ер ш ин и отдельных
Himalayas, the Andes, the островов: Elbrus,
Canaries, the British Isles, Everest, Vesuvius,
the Kurilas, the West Indies Poklonnaya Gora,
Cuba, Cyprus, Haiti,
Easter Island
Запомните. Bermuda or
the Bermuda Triangle
4. Пустыни the Gobi, the Sahara Desert, the
K ara-K u m , the Kalahari
5.4. А р т и к л и с г е о г р а ф и ч е с к и м и н а з в а н и я м и : г о р о д с к а я г е о г р а ф и я
1. Улицы, площади, (the) High Street, the Mall, the Tverskaya Street, Regent
переулки, парки Strand (улицы в Л ондоне) Street, Fifth Avenue,
Charing Cross Road,
Park Lane, Manezh
Square, Trafalgar Square,
Gorky Park, Hyde Park,
Jurassic Park
2. Театры, концерт the Bolshoi Theatre, the Art Theatre, Covent G arden,
ные залы, музеи, the Chaikovsky Hall, the Opera House, G rand Opera
галереи, кинотеат the Hermitage, Ho: Buckingham Palace
ры, отели, дворцы, the N ational Gallery, (at) — M axim ’s,
рестораны, кафе, the Russian Museum , The Louvre, V a d im ’s
бары the Pushkinsky,
the Kodak, the Odeon,
the Ritz: the Continental,
(the) «President Hotel»,
the W inter Palace,
the Taj Mahal,
the Savoy,
the T hree Oaks,
the Big Bite,
the Talk o f the Town, the Winter,
Palace, the Taj Mahal
3. Известные произ the G reat Pyramid, the M ona Liza,
ведения искусства, the Sistine Chapel, the Moonlight
уникальные кннгн Sonata, the Bible, the Koran,
the Dom esday Book (in England),
the first Cadastre Book
4. Аэропорты, стан the Brooklyn Bridge, the Golden Heathrow (Airport),
ции, мосты Gate Bridge, the Bridge o f Sighs Vnukovo (Airport),
Victoria Station, Tagan-
skaya Station Tower
Bridge, Waterloo Bridge,
Rimsky Bridge
366
Названия Нет артикля
the _L
5. Школы, кол Запомните: Richm ond G ra m m a r
леджи, универ The Sorbonne School, Carnegie College,
ситеты Oxford University,
Moscow State University
Сравните:
London University the University o f London (о фициальное
название)
Chicago University — the University o f Chicago
6. Церкви, соборы, Trinity Church,
приходы St. Paul’s Cathedral,
St. Basil’s Cathedral,
Westminster Abbey
7. Корабли, паро the Magnolia, the Victoria, (the)
мы, яхты, извест Titanic, the Beautiful Dreamer,
ные поезда the Orient Express
8. Политические и the Senate, the State Dum a, the Ho:
государственные Cabinet, the Supreme Court, Parliament, Congress,
учреждения, органи the G overnm ent, the British Whitehall
зации, партии, исто C ouncil, the Pentagon, the D e m o
рические события cratic Party, the Second World War,
the G u lf War
9. Газеты (англий the Times, the Observer, the Ho:
ские и американ Financial Times, the Sun, the Star Arguments and Facts,
ские) the Spectator, the New Yorker, Moscow News
Журналы, периоди the American Scientist Economist, C om puter
ческие издания Weekly, Newsweek,
Playboy
10. Спортивные The Olympic G am es, the World Ho:
события Cup, the World C ham pionship Wimbledon (теннис)
11. Музыкальные the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, Ho:
группы the Spice Girls (во мн.ч.) Queen, ABBA,
Gorky Park, A -H a
5.5. Артикли с л и чн ы м и именами (имена и ф а ми л и и людей)

the
1. Имена и фами Все члены семьи Henry Simpson О дин из членов
лии людей The Sviridovs are is a producer. семьи.
my friends. Mr. Snow is my Не is a Sviridov and
The Malikovs are boss. very talented.
good musicians. Little Monica is You are a true Peacock.
The Peacocks live a nice child. Некое л ицо
in Newcastle Dear Charles, (какой-то):
how are you? A Safonov called you
Poor Billy lost an hour ago.
his toy. A Forrester wants to
Old T o m was see you
a sailor
367
the
2. Личное имя ста 1 bought a Webster

новится нарицатель (словарь).
ным н обозначает: He ... drives a Ford.
а) произведения, This m useum has a
премии Goya.
T he film won an
Oscar
б) типичные черты He is a typical
носителя имени (но Casanova. W hat a Don
не самого человека) Juan you are!
My friend is a Jack-of-
all trades! (мастер на
все руки)
3. Обращения, Запомните:
звания, титулы, D octor Watson
профессии Lord Byron
King Solom on
Admiral Nelson
G eneral Cook
Miss Marple
Queen Victoria
Professor Vish
nevski
5.6. А р т и к л и с с у щ е с т в и т е л ь н ы м и : school, college, university, work,

bed, town, church, hospital, prison, ja il
a / th e
Абстрактное значение
к о н к р е т н о е з н а ч е н и е (здание, п о м е щ е н и е )
to go to school (college, work, university) = It’s a new school. The school is a good
= to study one. T here is a university in this town.
Does your son go to school? — He is at
college already.
to be in hospital = to be ill There is a hospital in the area. We have
My aunt is still in hospital. a good laboratory in the hospital.
to go to bed = to go to sleep 1 prefer to sleep on a bed, not on a sofa.
W hen do you go to bed? Where shall we put the bed?
to go to church = to believe in G o d and to This is a historic church.
be a regular chu rch -go er The church stood on a hill.
Every Sunday my G ra n n y goes to church.
to be in prison, to be sent to prison = to be It’s a prison for women.
punished forsmth He went to the prison to visit his friend.
He is in prison for robbery.
to be in (out of) town = (город, в котором It’s a small town.
вы находитесь) She went to the town where she was
Will you be in town next week? born.
Let’s meet in town, not in the country
(противопоставление города деревне)
368
5.7. Артикли с существительными, обозначающими части суток и
времена года: sunrise, dawn, morning, noon, daytime, afternoon, dusk,
twilight, sunset, evening, night, midnight, winter, spring, summer, autumn
Абстрактное значение, Описательное определение Ситуация, контекст,
обозначает время суток л и м и т и р у ю щ е е определение
_______________a_______________ ______________ the______________
I t’s morning. It is a sunny morning. The morning is sunny.

Night fell. Day broke. It was a dark night. The night was dark.
It was sunrise. It was a beautiful sunrise. T he sunrise was beautiful.
It was autum n. It was a golden autum n. We met in the au tum n o f
It is spring. We had a warm spring, 1998.
The spring is warm.
Запомните:
1 run in early m om ing.
It’s broad day.
It was late autum n.
Its early spring.
It was high noon.
В предлож ны х фразах: in the morning
at night, at dawn, in the daytime
by noon, by midnight, in the afternoon, in the
past noon, evening
after sunset, in the night, in (the) autumn,
before nightfall in (the) winter
in the sum m ertime
Запомните: all day (long),
all night through, day after day,
from m om ing till night, day and night.
5.8. Артикли с существительными, обозначающими приемы пищи:

breakfast, brunch, lunch, dinner, tea, supper
Абстрактное значение, Описательное определение, Ситуация, контекст, ограни
время при е м а п и ш и званый прием, вечеринка, порция чительное определение
__________________ а __________________ ______________ the______________
Lunch is at 12 o ’clock. There is no such thing as a The lunch was tasty.
We had tea on the terrace. free lunch. The tea is too hot.
What shall I cook for I usually have a light supper. The supper which you
supper? Let’s have an early supper cooked was delicious.
Запомните: tonight. D o n ’t bum the dinner
to have breakfast (b runch, We organized a tea for the again!
lunch, dinner, tea, supper) children. Rush to the kitchen and
When do you usually have It was an official dinner. have a look at the supper
supper? — At 7 o ’clock. You can get a set-dinner (имеется в виду сам а
Do you always have dinner (к ом пл ек сны й обед) at this еда).
at hom e? — No, I d o n ’t. restaurant.
I haven’t enough m oney to
pay for a supper.
369
6. О Б Р А З О В А Н И Е М Н О Ж Е С Т В Е Н Н О Г О Ч И С Л А И М Е Н И
С У Щ Е С Т В И Т Е Л Ь Н О Г О
М нож ественное число имен существительных в английском

язы ке образуется путем прибавления к форме единственного ч и с
ла окон ч ан ия -s или (-es). К ак показано далее, это окон чан ие м о
жет произноситься по-разн ом у в зависимости от того, к какой
основе оно прибавляется (после гласных и зв он к и х согласны х -s
звучит как [z] или [iz], после глухих к а к [s], причем в основе сл о
ва происходят замены: -у- на ie (способ 1в)), f/-fe- на -ves (сп о
соб 1с).
Способ образования Примеры Примечания
1. —s a book — books
a desk — desks
a path - paths [pa9s]
a m on th — m onths [mAn9]
-ge a car - cars
-се a co m p u te r — computers
-гг a page — pages
-se a place - places
a prize — prizes
a case — cases
а) a bus — buses
-s a dress — dresses [iz]
-SS a bush — bushes Ho: house — houses
-sh es a watch - watches [haus] — [hauziz]
-tch a bench — benches
-ch a fox - foxes
-х
a potato - potatoes; a tom ato Ho: photos, pianos,
tomatoes; a hero- heroes discos, radios, zoos,
videos, cuckoos
b) —у (после соглас a cry — cries boys, toys, days, plays,
ной) a party — parties; a story — stories monkeys, joys, keys
a - c o u n tr y — countries
a dictionary - dictionaries
с) - f /- f e — ves a shelf - shelves Ho: roofs, chiefs,
a half -- halves cufTs, clifts,
a life - lives handkerchiefs
a knife •- knives
a w olf - wolves
a leaf — leaves
an elf - elves
a calf — calves
a scarf - - scarves
2. Чередование a man — m en an ox — oxen
корневой гласной a w om an — w om en [‘wimin]
a child — children
a foot - feet
370
Способ образования Примеры Примечания
a goose — geese
a louse — lice
a mouse - mice
a tooth - teeth
3. Совпадающие фор a deer — two deer a fish - fishes (разл ич

мы единственного a fish - three fish ные виды рыб,
и множественного (а также: a carp - three carp; употребляется о ч е н ь
числа a trout - five trout) редко)
a sheep — four sheep
a swine - m any swine
a Chinese - m any Chinese
a Swiss — ten Swiss
a Japanese — five Japanese
a Portuguese - a lot o f Portuguese
a series - two series
a species — m any species
a means — a lot o f means
an offspring - m any offspring
4. Существительные a cactus - cacti (кактусы) Т акж е может о бр а зо

латинского и гречес a genius - genii (духи, д ж и н ы ) вываться м н ож ес т ве н
кого происхождения a curriculum — curricula ное число с п ом ощ ью
a datum - data (может такж е и с -s/-es: cactuses, geniuses
пользоваться как едиственное (гениальные лю ди —
число) гении); curriculums;
a ph eno m eno n — phen o m en a p hen om en on s
a formula - formulae formulas
an index - indices (в м атематике) antennas
an appendix — appendices indexes (в книгах)
(в книгах) appendixes (в медицине)
5. Составные сущест grow n-up - grown-ups m others-in-law

вительные an office-block - office-blocks passers-by
a m erry-go-round - m erry-go- women-drivers
rounds men-servants
a forget-m e-not - forget-m e-nots
7. К А Т Е Г О Р И Я Р О Д А
В английском язы ке, как и в русском, имена существительные
могут быть отнесены к мужскому, ж енском у или среднему роду.
Но в отличие от русского язы ка в ан глий ском к среднему роду о т
носятся н азвания неодушевленных предметов. И склю чение с о
ставляют н азван ия средств передвиж ения, тради ци он но в о с п р и
нимаемых как существительные ж енского рода (например, yacht,
jet, boat, ship, саг), которым соответствует местоимение she, тогда,
как и другим неодуш евленным существительным (floor, snow, star,
house, cloud), им соответствует м естоимение it.
371
Т р ад и ци о н но название страны England также воспринимается
как существительное ж енского рода.
Средства выражения рода существительных мож но представить
в следующем виде:
Средства М у ж с к о й род Ж е н с к и й род С р е д н и й род
в ы р а ж е н и я рода M asculine F e m in in e N e u le r
1. Лексическим m an b r o th e r w om an sister book city
значением слова boy lord girl lady cam era river
f ather nephew m o th e r n iece h o u se c o u n tr y
husband so n wife daughter tar m etal
b a c h e lo r cock sp in ster hen life sn o w
2. Личными Н е She It
местоимениями
3. Суффиксами god lion g o d d ess lioness
-ess, -ine (-ina), w a ite r h ero w aitress h e r o in e
-er, -ette p oet tzar p o etess tz a rin a
p r in c e tiger p rin cess tigress
w id o w e r w idow
b a c h e lo r b a c h e lo r e tte
4. Составными a h e - c o u s in a sh e -c o u s in
существительными a h e -g o a t a sh e -g o a t
a m a n - d riv e r a w om an-driver
a m an-servant a m a id -se rv a n t
a boyfriend a girl-frien d
a p o lic e m a n a p o lic e - w o m a n
a b u sin e ssm e n a b u s in e s s - w o m a n
5. Обусловленные E n g la n d is p r o u d o f
традицией: страны, her poets.
средства передви — W h a t a fine yacht!
жения (самолеты, — She is very fast.
суда, автомобили) — T his jet is supersonic.
she She will b e a t all
th e records
8. С И С Т Е М А В Ы Р А Ж Е Н И Я П А Д Е Ж Н Ы Х О Т Н О Ш Е Н И Й
В английском язы ке различают два падежа имени сущ естви

тельного: общ ий падеж ( Common Case) и притяжательны й падеж
(Possesive Case).
В общ ем падеже отсутствует сп е ц и а л ь н о е о к о н ч а н и е в п р о
т и в о п о л о ж н о с т ь п р и тя ж ате л ьн о м у падежу, и м ею щ ем у о к о н ч а
н ие -s.
Ф о р м а общего падежа может передавать отн ош ен и е имени су
щ ествительного к другим словам в предлож ении только с п о м о
щ ью порядка слов и предлогов.
The student sees the teacher. Студент видит учителя.
The teacher sees the student. Учитель видит студента.
372
Притягательны й падеж передает отнош ение принадлежности
(кого? чего? чей?), в русском языке это соответствует ф ункции ро
дительного падежа.
An actress’s life. Ж изнь актрисы.
В основном притяжательны й падеж употребляется с именами
сущ ествительными, обозначаю щ ими одушевленные предметы,
однако ф орму притяжательного падежа так же прин и м аю т сущ е
ствительные, обозначающие:
1) М аш и н ы или детали маш ин и механизмов:
Our p la n e ’s engines. Двигат ели нашего самолета.
2) Существительные moon, sun, Earth, world, country, river, ocean,
city, town: the m o o n ’s surface, the s u n ’s rays, the E a rth ’s population, the
world’s history, the river’s bed, the city’s museums.
3) Названия стран, городов, месяцев, дней недели: E ngland’s
traditions, M oscow’s street, Tuesday’s meeting, L ondon’s double-deckers.
4) М еры времени и расстояния: a m om ent’s silence, two m iles’
drive, an h o u r’s sleep, a fortnight’s holiday, a d a y ’s wait, yesterday’s
newspaper.
Падеж имени существительного
О б щ и й палеж П р и т я ж и т е л ь н ы й падеж
C o m m o n C ase Possessive Case
Существительное в общем падеже M a r y ’s b o y , P e te r ’s car, a d o c t o r ’s

не имеет окончания. o ffice, a t e a c h e r ’s p en , B o ris’s file
М а г у , P eter, a d o c to r , a te a c h e r, a file, D i c k e n s ’s novels, c h il d r e n ’s toys,
novels, a child, en g in eers, people, students, e n g in e e r s ’ plans, p e o p le ’s lives,
the Belovs s t u d e n ts ’ hostel, th e B elovs’ h o u se
Притяжательный падеж
О с н о в н ы е значения: п р и н а д лежность, о б л а д а н и е чем-то, о п и с а н и е

(с о д у ш е в л е н н ы м и и м е н а м и с у щ е с т в и т е л ь н ы м и )
Единственное число М н о ж е с т в е н н о е число

- ’s - ’s
a b o y ’s toy, a girl’s dress b o y s’ toys; girls’ dresses; c h i ld r e n ’s shop; m e n ’s

a n a c tre ss’s life, a w o m a n ’s a ctress es’ lives; law yers’ hobbies; w o m e n ’s
m a g a z in e duties; th e R o m a n o v s ’ m ag azin es; s h e e p ’s
B u m s ’(s) p o e m s family tree w ool; d e e r ’s h o rn s
Н е о д у ш е в л е н н ы е существительные, как правило, передают значение,

п р и н а д л е ж н о с т и п р и п о м о щ и с о ч е т а н и я o f + существительное
th e r o o f of the house th e c o v e r of the book

th e e n d of the story th e b a c k of the chair
9. С Л О В О О Б Р А З О В А Н И Е И М Е Н С У Щ Е С Т В И Т Е Л Ь Н Ы Х
К ак уже отмечалось, грамматическим показателем имени сущ е

ствительного служит суфф икс, который наряду с п реф и ксом (п р и
ставкой) используется для образования существительных от и м е н
ных и глагольных основ.
Иногда два или более корневых слов соединяю тся в одно со
ставное (сложное): rail «рельс» + way «путь», «дорога» = railway,
well-being — благосостояние или sheepskin coat — дубленка (пальто
из шкуры овцы).
П роизводны е существительные образуются посредством п р и
бавления разных суф ф иксов к корневому слову.
Наиболее продуктивные суфф иксы имен существительных
мож но представить в виде таблиц:
I. Суффиксы имен существительных, обозначающих принадлежность

к определенной группе лиц, национальность, профессию,
действующее лицо илн орудие действия
Суффикс Производное слово Перевод на русский язык
-ician a c a d e m ic ia n академик
-a n t assistant п о м о щ н и к , ассистент
-e n t s tu d e n t студент
-ary rev o lu tio n ary р е в о л ю ц и о н е р
-ее г e n g in e e r и н ж е н е р
-ess actress актриса
-ist tech n o lo g ist технолог
-ive captive п л е н н ы й
-or c o n s tr u c t o r конструктор
-ее em p lo y e e с л у ж а щ и й
II. Суффиксы имен существительных, обозначающих отвлеченные понятия,

процессы, действия, предметы, названия наук, дисциплин
Суффикс Производное с л о ю Перевод на русский язык

-асу D em ocracy демократия
-age M arriage брак
-апсе D ista n c e расстояние
-епсе D efence оборона
-апсу C o n s ta n c y постоянство
-епсу Tendency тенденция
-агу L ibrary библиотека
-d o m F reed o m свобода
-h o o d B ro therhood братство
-ia G e o r g ia Грузия; Д ж о р д ж и я ( штат С Ш А )
-ic M usic м у з ы к а
-ics T a c tic s тактика
-ing R e a d in g чтение
-io n U n io n с о ю з
374
Суффикс Производное слово Перевод на русский язык
-tio n N atio n нация

-ssion M ission миссия
-sion E xcursion экскурсия
- a tio n O r g a n iz a tio n организация
-ism C o m m u n ism к о м м у н и з м
-iu m S ta d iu m стадион
-m ent E x p e rim e n t о п ы т
-n ess D a rk n e ss темнота
-ology Biology биология
-our Labour труд
-re C e n tr e центр
-sh ip F rie n d sh ip др ужба
-sure P leasure удовольствие
-tu re C u ltu re культура
-ity Ability способность
10. И М Я П Р И Л А Г А Т Е Л Ь Н О Е . С Т Е П Е Н И С Р А В Н Е Н И Я
Имя прилагательное — часть речи, обозначаю щ ая п ризн ак

предмета (его качество или свойство) и отвечающая на вопрос к а
кой ? (an important factor — важный фактор).
И м ена прилагательные в английском язы ке не изменяю тся ни
по родам, ни по числам, ни по падежам. В предложении вы п о л н я
ют либо: а) роль определения: We have a beautiful garden. — У нас
прекрасный сад; либо б) роль имен н ой части составного сказуем о
го: February is the shortest month o f the year. Февраль — самый корот
кий месяц в году.
И мена прилагательные, как и в русском языке, имеют п о лож и
тельную, сравнительную и превосходную степени.
Степени сравнения имен прилагательных
Степени сравнения Положительная Сравнительная Превосходная
О д н о с л о ж н ы е Hot h o tt e r h o ttest
и двус л о ж н ы е Large larger larset
Early e arlier earliest
C leve r c lev erer cleverest
М н о г о с л о ж н ы е P leasan t m o r e pleasan t m o st p leasan t
D ifficult m o r e difficult m o st difficult
I n te re s tin g m o r e in terestin g m o st interestin g
О т разных основ Good b e tte r best
Bad w orse worst
M any, m uch m o re most
Little less lest
Far farther, fu rth e r farth est, furthest
375
При образовании степеней сравнения соблюдаются следующие
орфографические правила:
1. Если прилагательное оканчивается на немое -е, то при п р и
бавлении окончаний -er, est немое -е опускается
large — larger — largest
2. Если прилагательное оканчивается на согласную, предш е

ствующую краткой гласной, конечная согласная удваивается
hot — hotter — hottest
Если прилагательное оканчивается на у с предшествующ ей со

гласной, у меняется на /.
easy — easier — easiest
Д ля усиления сравнительной степени употребляются слова

much, far, a lot, a great deal со значением гораздо, немного и т. д.
This room is much (far) lighter than ours.
Д ля сравнения двух предметов одинакового качества прилага

тельное в положительной форм е ставится между п ар н ы м и сою за
ми a s ... a s , озн ачаю щ и м и т а к ж е ... к а к , т а к о й ж е ... к а к .
This classroom is as warm as that one.
11. С Л О В О О Б Р А З О В А Н И Е И М Е Н П Р И Л А Г А Т Е Л Ь Н Ы Х
Производны е прилагательные образуются посредством прибав

ления разных суф ф иксов и преф иксов к корневому слову.
Наиболее продуктивные способы образования прилагательных
мож но представить так:
Суффиксы имен прилагательных
-able reaso n a b le р а з у м н ы й
-cial social о б щ е с т в е н н ы й
-ical tactical тактический
-ant d istant о т д а л е н н ы й
-ent dependent з а в и с и м ы й
-a r regular р е гулярный
-ary re v o lu tio n a ry р е в о л ю ц и о н н ы й
-a te se p ara te отде л ь н ы й
-ia n geo rg ian грузинский
376
-ible visible в и д и м ы й
-ic a c a d e m ic академический
-ile m obile п о д в и ж н ы й
-ish english английский
-ive active а к т и в н ы й
-ful useful п о л е з н ы й
-less useless бесполезный
-like m an lik e м у ж е с т в е н н ы й
-ly friendly д р у ж е с твенный
-o u s m o u n ta in o u s гористый
С уф ф и ксы -able,-ible прибавляются к глаголу для образования

прилагательного с модальным значением. Английские слова, с о
держащ ие су ф ф ик сы -able,-ible, могут переводиться на русский
язы к одним словом. Например, (сравнимы й, сопоставимый);
indisputable — н еоспорим ы й; applicable — п р им еним ы й, подходя
щий. Однако часто в подобных случаях приходится подбирать с о
ответствующий оборот, содержащий модальные слова «можно» и
«нельзя»:
unforsecable — который нельзя предвидеть
advisable — тот, который можно посоветовать, рекомендовать.
С уф ф и кс -less употребляется для образования прилагательных
со значением отсутствия качества или свойства, выраженного к о р
невым словом — именем существительным. С уффикс -less п роти
воположен суф ф иксу -ful и соответствует приставкам: без- и не-;
например, endless — бесконечны й; wireless — беспроволочный (ра
дио). В некоторых случаях в соответствии с нормами русского
язы ка слова с суф ф иксам и -fill и -less переводятся описательно:
eventful — изобилую щий событиями (год), eventless — бедный со б ы
тиями.
Наиболее продуктивные преф иксы представлены ниже. С п о
мощью указанных преф иксов образуются прилагательные с п ро
тивополож ны м значением.
Отрицательные префиксы имен прилагательных
Un, -in, -dis, -il, im-, ir-, ab-

able с п о с о б н ы й un ab le
acc u ra te т о ч н ы й in a c c u ra te
ce r ta in опреде л е н н ы й u n c e r ta in
clear я с н ы й u n c le a r
c o m fo rta b le у д о б н ы й u n c o m fo rta b le
com m on о б ш и й uncom m on
c o m p le te з а в е р ш е н н ы й in c o m p le te
c o n v e n ie n t у д о б н ы й in c o n v e n ie n t
dependent за висимы й independent
direct п рямо й indirect
expensive дорогостоящи й in ex p en siv e
fair справедливы й u n fair
377
fam iliar з н а к о м ы й u n f a m ilia r
h ealth y здоровый u n h e a lt h y
h o n es t честный d ish o n e st
im p o r t a n t в а ж н ы й u n im p o rta n t
k ind д о б р ы й u n k in d
lawful за к о н н ы й u nlaw ful
logical логический illogical
loyal л о я л ь н ы й disloyal
norm al н о р м а л ь н ы й abnorm al
real реальный u n real
regular п р а в и л ь н ы й irreg u lar
sure уверенный u n su re
true прав д и в ы й u n tr u e
usual о б ы ч н ы й u n u su a l
visible в и д и м ы й invisible
12. И М Я ЧИСЛИТЕЛЬНОЕ
К оличественны е числительны е
В английском язы ке, т ак же как и в русском, числительные д е

лятся на количественны е и порядковые.
К оличественны е числительные от 13 до 19 вклю чительно об
разуются прибавлением су ф ф икса -teen к соответствующим назва
ниям единиц первого десятка:
fo u r — fourteen, seven — seventeen.
П ри этом числительные three и five видоизменяются:
three — thirteen, fiv e — fifteen.
Числительны е с суф ф иксом -teen имею т два ударения fo u r teen,
причем ударение на последнем слоге сильнее, чем на первом. К ог
да эти числительные употребляются с сущ ествительным, ударение
падает на первый слог, а второй становится неударным: fourteen
pens. Однако, если числительное стоит после существительного,
ударение падает на второй слог:
room fifteen
Количественны е числительные, обозначаю щ ие десятки, обра
зуются добавлением су ф ф ик са -ty к названиям единиц:
six — sixty, seven — seventy
Некоторы е числительные образуются со следующ ими отклон е
н иями от общего правила:
two — twelve — twenty
three — thirteen — thirty
378
five — fifteen — fifty
eight — eighteen — eighty
fo u r — fourteen — forty
Числительные, обозначаю щ ие десятки, имею т ударение на
первом слоге:
forty
Десятки от единиц отделяются дефисом:
twenty-three
При обозначении количественных числительных разряды м н о
гозначных чисел отделяются запятой:
7,526; 5,450,000.
Между сотнями (или тысячами и миллионами) и следующими
за ними десятками (или единицами, если нет десятков) в любом
разряде всегда ставится союз and:
252 — two hundred and fifty two
506 — five hundred and six
3,525,250 — three m illon,five hundred and twenty-five thousand,
two hundred and fifty.
Числительны е 100; 1000; 1.000.000 употребляются с неопреде
ленны м артиклем или числительным one. Их чаще употребляют с
неопределенным артиклем, если за ними не следуют другие ч и с
лительные:
a hundred, a thousand.
Н о если они употребляются в сопровождении других ч и с л и
тельных, one более характерно:
1,002 — one thousand and two
1 500 000 — one million fiv e thousand.
Числительны е hundred, thousand, m illion не прин и м аю т о ко н ч а
ния -s во м ножественном числе:
three hundred, fiv e thousand, six million,
3,50,240 — three million fiv e thousand two hundred and forty.
Однако числительные hundred, thousand, million переходят в раз
ряд существительных и принимаю т окон чан ие -s, если они упот
ребляются для обозначения неопределенного количества сотен,
тысяч и миллионов. В этом случае за ними следует существитель
ное с предлогом of:
thousands o f people
hundreds o f students.
379
В английском 1.000.000.000 — a milliard, в ам ери кан ском вари
анте английского язы ка — a billion.
В простых дробях числитель выражается количественны м ч и с
лительны м, а знаменатель — порядковым:
1/3 — one-third.
В десятичных дробях целое число отделяется от дроби точкой, а
не запятой.
Каждая циф ра читается отдельно. Точка, отделяющая целое
число от дроби, читается point, 0 (нуль) читается nought.
3.04 — three point nought four.
При чтении между целым числом и словом point — короткая
пауза. Если целое число равно нулю, то нуль читается nought или
совсем не читается: 0.25 — nought point two five (point twentyfive).
В ам ери кан ском варианте 0 (нуль) читается zero.
Zero (нуль) употребляется при обозначении температуры т ая
ния льда, начала координат.
Существительное, следующее за дробью, имеет форму ед и н
ственного числа и при чтении перед ним ставится предлог of.
2 /3 kilometre — two thirds o f a kilometre.
П роценты обозначаются 2 % или 2 p er cent
Каждая циф р а номера телефона произносится отдельно
4-35-08 — fo u r three five 0 eight.
0 (нуль) читается как алфавитное название буквы 0.
П орядковы е числительны е
П орядковы е числительные, за исклю чением первых трех (the

first, the second, the third), образуются путем прибавления суфф икса
-th к основе соответствующего количественного числительного;
при этом перед порядковы м числительным ставится определен
ный артикль:
six — the sixth, seven — the seventh,
a hundred — the hundredth, a thousand — the thousandth.
В числительном eight прибавляется только буква -Л, в ч исли
тельном nine опускается буква -е, при. этом сохраняется п р о и зн о
ш ение буквы -i как [a i\.
При образовании порядковых числительных от five и twelve бук
вы -уе меняются на - /
five — the fifth, twelve — the twelfth.
380
При образовании порядковых числительных от десятков к о
нечная буквы у заменяется буквосочетанием -ie:
twenty — the 20th — the twentieth
Если порядковые числительные пиш утся цифрами, к ним д о
бавляются две последующие буквы н ап исан ного слова:
1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 21st, 42nd, 63rd, 80th.
При образовании составных порядковых числительных после
дний разряд выражается порядковым числительным, а предш е
ствующие — количественным:
twenty-first,forty-second, three thousand two hundred and forty-fifth.
Х ронологические д аты
При чтении хронологических дат годы в отличие от русского

обозначаются количественны м числительным. Причем слово year
после обозначения года, как правило, не употребляется, но может
стоять до него:
год 1939 — year nineteen (hundred) and thirty nine
год 2000 — year two thousand
год 1900 — year nineteen hundred
Даты обозначаю тся порядковым числительным и произносятся
следующим образом:
March the tenth, or the tenth o f March.
13. М Е С Т О И М Е Н И Е
М естоимение — часть речи, которая употребляется вместо и м е

ни существительного и других определяю щих его частей речи.
М естоимения делятся на следующие разряды: личные, п р и тя
жательные, взаимные, возвратные, указательные, относительные,
вопросительные, отрицательные и неопределенные.
И з приведенных ниже местоимений видно, что вопроситель
ные и отрицательные местоимения совпадают по форме, однако
различаются по функции.
Разряды местоимений
Личные I, you, he, she, it, w e, y o u , th ey
Personal
Притяжательные I. m y, y o u r, his, her, its, o u r, yours, th e ir
Possessive II. m in e , yours, his, hers, its, o urs, yours, theirs
381
Указательные It, th is /th e s e th a t /t h o s e
Demonstrative S o m e , such
Вопросительные W h o (w h o m ) w hose, w h ic h , w h at ( в в о п р о с и т е л ь н ы х
Interrogative предложениях)
Относительные W h o (w h o m ) w hose, w h ic h th a t ( в о п р е д е л и т е л ь н ы х
Relative придаточных)
Союзные W h o (w h o m ) w hose, w h ic h , w h a t ( в д о п о л н и т е л ь н ы х и
Conjunctive других придаточных)
Возвратные M yself, yourself, him self, herself, itself, ourselves,
Rejlexive yourselves, them se lves
Взаимные E a c h o th e r , o n e a n o t h e r
Reciprocal
Отрицательные N o , n o b o d y ( n o o n e ) n o n e , n o th in g ( в о т р и ц а т е л ь н ы х
Negative предложениях)
Неопределенные S o m e , a n y , n o ( и и х п р о и з в о д н ы е ) all, b o th , e a c h , every
Indefinite ( и е г о п р о и з в о д н ы е ) , o t h e r , a n o th e r , o n e , m u c h , m an y ,
(a) little, (a) few, e ith er, n e ith e r
К ним прим ы каю т сою зны е местоимения, которые служат для

связи дополнительны х и некоторых других придаточных предло
ж ений с главным.
К ак видно из приведенных данны х, притяжательные местоиме
ния имеют две ф ормы . Первая ф о рм а всегда употребляется с сущ е
ствительным, к которому оно относится (относительная форма):
This is his bag.
Притяжательные местоимения второй ф о рм ы никогда не упот
ребляются с сущ ествительными, так как сами зам еняю т их:
This is not ту suitcase. Mine is yellow.
Вторая ф орм а притяжательных м естоимений называется абсо
лю тной.
Вопросительные и относительны е местоимения в английском
язы ке в основном совпадают по форме. В тех случаях, когда воп
росительное или отрицательное местоимение связано с предло
гом, последний может стоять перед местоимением, после глагола-
сказуемого или после прямого дополнения.
Н апример;
For whom do you make the project?
Д л я кого вы делаете проект ?
Whom do you таке the project fo r?
Зн ач ен ия н еопределенных м естоимений some, any, no и их пе
ревод на русский я зы к зависят от того, в каком предлож ении они
употребляются: в утвердительном, вопросительном и отрицатель
ном.
382
Случаи употребления неопределенных местоимений приведе
ны ниже.
Употребление неопределенных местоимений

Some Any _________ No__________
Утвердительное предложе Отрицательное предло Употребляется на месте
ние жение артикля перед исчисля
I n eed some paper. I d o n ’t n e e d any b o ok. е м ы м и и неи с ч и с л я е м ы
H ave some, please. м и сущ е с т в и т е л ь н ы м и
I see по р е п .
Н е has по chesse.
Общий вопрос Общий вопрос
(когда предполагается Have you got any cheese? —
утвердительный ответ) N o , I h a v e n ’t got any.
Специальный вопрос В утвердительном предло
W here c a n I take some жении (в значении
w ater? «любой»)
Y o u c a n take any p en .
Просьба Выражение сомнения
M ay I take some pap er? I f there is any c h e e s e o n
th e plate, take som e.
I d o n ’t th in k there is any
m istake there.
Предложение чего-либо
W h o u ld you like some
cheese?
В ответ на общ ий вопрос, содержащий any (some), мож но дать

следующие ответы:
Do you write any letters? Yes, I do.
Have you got any ham? Yes, I have some. N o, I haven’t got any.
П роизводны е от some, any, every

(сложные местоимения и наречия)
Неопределенны е местоимения some, any, по, every в сочетании
со словами one, body, thing образуют сложны е местоимения; соч е
тания со словом where — сложные наречия.
С лож ны е местоимения подчиняю тся тем же правилам, что и
местоимения some, any, по.
+? +?- - +?-
some any no every
any body som eone anyone n o one e v ery o n e
som ebody anybody nobody ev ery b o d y
кто-то кто-то никто все, к а ж д ы й

кто- либо кто- либо
кто- нибудь кто- нибудь
383
+?- - +?-
som e an y по every
thing so m e th in g a n y th in g n o th in g ev ery th in g
что-то что- либо ничто все

что- либо что- нибудь ничего
where a n y w h ere now here ev ery w h ere
где- нибудь нигде везде

куда- нибудь никуда повс ю д у
+ утвердительное предложение
? вопросительное предложение
— отрицательное предложение
Н еопределенно-личное местоимение one
1. Предложение с местоимением one в качестве подлежащего

переводится на русский я зы к н еопределенно-личны м предлож е
нием, т. е. само местоимение one на русский я зы к не переводится:
One never knows... Никогда не знаешь...
One must keep in mind... Следует помнить (или иметь в виду)
One should remember. Следует помнить.
One can do it. Это мож но сделать.
Л ю бой может сделать это
О собенно часто местоимение one в качестве подлежащего
встречается в сочетании с модальным глаголом. При этом модаль
ные глаголы переводятся на русский язы к модальными словами:
One must not park here. Здесь парковаться нельзя.
2. Местоимение one (мн. ч. ones) употребляется для замены су
ществительного во избежание повтора:
The old bag is bad. You make take a new one.
Н еопределенно-личностное местоимение one зам еняет только
исчисляемые существительные. Оле обычно не употребляется п ос
ле both, числительного, после форм притяжательного падежа су
ществительных и притяжательных местоимений.
14. Г Л А Г О Л
Глаголом называется часть речи, которая обозначает действие

или состояние предмета (лица).
384
They study ecology.
Они изучают экологию.
The experiment has not been done successfully.
Этот оп ы т не был проведен успешно.
По структуре глаголы делятся на простые, производные и со
ставные.
Простые — не имею т а ф ф и к со в (приставок или суффиксов)
to occupy — занимать
to study — изучать
Производные — имею т свойственны е глаголам суффиксы:
to shorten — укорачиват ь
to simplify — упрощать
или приставки:
еп — encourage — поощрять
re — reproduce — воспроизводить
Составные — имею т при себе частицы, стоящие после глагола
и меняю щ ие его зн ачение (так назы ваемы е послелоги):
look at — смотреть на
look after — присматривать (за)
look fo r — искать ( что-либо)
и т. д.
Глагол и предлог (послелог)

Употребление того или иного предлога часто определяется не
тем словом, которое следует за предлогом, а предшествующим.
Так, например, некоторы е глаголы требуют после себя оп ределен
ных предлогов, связы ваю щ их их с сущ ествительными, местоиме
ниями, другими категориями слов.
Предлоги, с которыми сочетаются английские глаголы, обычно
не совпадают с предлогами, с которыми сочетаются соответствую
щие глаголы в русском языке.
to hope fo r — надеяться на
to insist on — настоять на
to depend on — зависеть от
Некоторые глаголы в английском язы ке связаны с определен
ными предлогами и соответствуют в русском язы ке глаголам без
предлога:
to wait fo r — ждать
385
to ask fo r — просить
to look fo r — искать
to listen to — слушать
to belong to — принадлежность
to explain to — объяснять кому-либо
to care fo r — любить; интересоваться
Вместе с тем, некоторые глаголы в английском язы ке, не требу

ю щие после себя предлога, соответствуют в русском язы ке глаго
лам с предлогами:
to answer questions — отвечать на вопросы
to cross the street — переходить через улицу
to doubt the words — сомневаться в словах
to enter the room — входить в комнату
to follow the man — идти следом за человеком
to join the party — вступить в партию
to play the piano — играть на пианино
to need a pen — нуждаться в ручке
to leave London — уехать из Лондона.
В сочетании с разны ми предлогами глаголы могут менять свое
значение:
to look at — смотреть на
to look after — присматривать, заботиться
to look fo r — искать
to look through — просматривать
to look to — рассчитывать на
По значению и употреблению глаголы могут быть сам остоя
тельными (смы словы ми, или знаменательны ми), модальными,
глаголами-связками и вспомогательными.
М одальные глаголы обозначаю т не само действие, а л и ш ь ука
зывают на отнош ение говорящего к этому действию (способность,
возможность, дозволенность, категоричность, желательность
и т. д.). К. модальным относятся глаголы: can, may, must, ought,
need, dare (их эквиваленты : be, have). За ним и следует и н ф и н и т и в
смыслового глагола; о бы чн о без частиц to:
Не must do this work now.
Он должен выполнять эт у работу сейчас.
Если глагол вы полняет ф у н к ц и й вспомогательного или глаго
ла-связки (to be, to have, to do), он становится служебным:
We have done the project.
Мы выполнили проект.
386
We had to do the project.
Нам надо было выполнить проект.
Do you study the project?
Ты изучаешь проект ? и т. д.
15. В И Д О - В Р Е М Е Н Н Ы Е Ф О Р М Ы А Н Г Л И Й С К О Г О Г Л А Г О Л А . З А Л О Г
В английском язы ке в отличие от русского категория вида вы

ражается не морфологически, а синтаксически — при помощ и со
четания вспомогательного глагола с причастием смыслового гла
гола. В английском язы ке глагол имеет следующие видо-врем ен-
ные группы: Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect и Perfect Continuous.
К ак и в русском язы ке, глагол в английском язы ке характеризу
ется категорией залога.
Залог — это глагольная категория, показы ваю щ ая отнош ение
действия к субъекту или объекту.
Действительный залог (The Active Voice) показывает, что д е й
ствие производится лицом или предметом, который в предлож е
нии является подлежащим:
Farmers grow animals.
Фермеры выращивают животных.
Страдательный залог (The Passive Voice) показывает, что пред
мет или лицо, которое является подлеж ащ им, испытывает воздей
ствие другого предмета или лица:
Animals are grown by farmers.
Животных выращивают фермеры.
В английском язы ке страдательный залог выражен сочетанием
вспомогательного глагола to be с причастием (Participle II). Во всех
видо-временны х формах в страдательном залоге ф орм а глагола-
сказуемого содержит изм ен яю щ ий ся по ф орм е глагол to be и н еи з
меняемую форму Participle II.
16. С Т Р А Д А Т Е Л Ь Н Ы Й З А Л О Г (THE PASSIVE VOICE)

Формы глагола to write в страдательном залоге (инфинитив to be written).
Видо- времен
P resent Past F uture
ная группа
Indefinite The book is written. The book was written. The book will be written.
Continuous The book is being The book was being _
written. written.
Perfect The book has been The book had been The book will have been
written. written. written.
387
Ф ормы глагола в страдательном залоге образуются при помощи
вспомогательного глагола to be в соответствующем времени, лице,
числе и причастия смыслового глагола.
В страдательном залоге ф орм ы Perfect Continuous и Future
Continuous не употребляются.
Отрицательная и вопросительная форм а образуются по тем же
правилам, что и ф ор м ы действительного залога, а именно:
1) в отрицательной форме частица not ставится после вспомога
тельного глагола:
The book is not written.
При сложной ф орм е вспомогательного глагола частница not
ставится после первого вспомогательного глагола:
The book has not been written.
2) в вопросительной форм е вспомогательный глагол (в слож
ной форме — первый) обы чно ставится перед подлежащим:
Is the book written ?
Has the book been written ?
Значение и употребление времен глагола в страдательном зало
ге чаще всего такое же, как и времен глагола в действительном за
логе.
Страдательный залог употребляется, когда само действие пред
ставляет больш ий интерес, чем то, кем оно вы полняется, или в
том случае, когда исполнитель действия неизвестен:
M y watch was broken.
Мои часы были сломаны.
В английском язы ке глаголы: to ask, to give, to invite, to offer, to
order, to pay, to promise, to show, to tell, to teach, to leave, to s e ll и н е к о
торые другие, после которых идут прямое и косвенное д о п о л н е
ния, в действительном залоге могут иметь две конструкции с гла
голом в страдательном залоге:
Д е й с т в и т е л ь н ы й з а л о г : Тот gave her a book.
С т р а д а т е л ь н ы й з а л о г : She was given a book.
A book was given to her.

К онструкция «She was given a book» употребляется чаще, чем
«А book was given to her».
С глаголами to explain, to announce, to devote, to suggest, to propose,
to say возможна только одна пассивная конструкция.
Д е й с т в и т е л ь н ы й з а л о г : They explained the rule to them.
С т р а д а т е л ь н ы й з а л о г : The rule was explained to them.
В ан глийском язы ке в страдательном залоге в ф ун кц и и сказуе
388
мого употребляются глаголы с предлогами, причем предлоги с о
храняют свое место после глагола:
She was looked after.
За ней присматривали.
The doctor was sent for.
За доктором послали.
This book, is much spoken about.
Об этой книге много говорят.
Не was laughed at.
Над ним смеялись.
Если в страдательной конструкции указывается исполнитель
действия, вы раж енны й существительным или местоимением, то
перед ним ставится предлог Ьу\
The book was written by Tom Brown.
Если указывается объект или материал, при помощ и которого
соверш ено действие, употребляется предлог with'.
The room was fille d with smoke.
The finger was cut with a knife.
Страдательный залог очень распространен в технической л и т е
ратуре, где нас в основном интересуют события или процесс. Д е й
ствительный залог чаще употребляется в художественной литерату
ре, где говорится о людях, благодаря которым происходят события.
Глаголы в страдательном залоге мож но переводить на русский
язык:
стр ад ател ьн ы м залогом :
The house m ust be built this year.
Д ом должен быть построен в этом году;
н е о п р е д е л е н н о -л и ч н ы м о б о р о то м :
Oliver was told to come near the table.
Оливеру велели подойти к столу;
возвратным глаголом:
The books are sold everywhere.
Эти книги продаются везде.
17. О С Н О В Н Ы Е М О Р Ф О Л О Г И Ч Е С К И Е Ф О Р М Ы Г Л А Г О Л А
И ИХ О Б РАЗОВАНИЕ
К основны м ф ормам английского глагола относятся:
1. Infinitive
2. Форма Past Indefinite
3. Форма Participle I I
389
Глаголы при образовании Past Indefinite (форм ы прошедшего,
простого или неопределенного времени) действительного залога и
ф о р м ы Participle II — причастия страдательного залога делятся на
две группы (стандартные и нестандартные глаголы).
С тандартны е глаголы образуют Past Indefinite и Participle II пу
тем прибавления к и нф и н и ти в у (без to) суф ф икса -ed (-d ) для всех
л и ц единственного и множ ественного числа.
Н естандартные глаголы, образующие указанны е ф о р м ы раз
л ич н ы м и способами, приведены в соответствующей таблице в
разделе «Приложения».
Participle I и Gerund образуются путем п рибавления к основе
глагола суф ф икса -ing:
travel — traveling.
Н есмотря на внеш не одинаковую форму ф ун кц ии Participle I и
G erun d в английском предложении разные. Герундий выполняет
те же ф ун кц ии в предлож ении, что и существительные. Так, н а
пример, герундий может служить в предложении:
подлежащим:
Reading is ту favourite pastime;
именной частью составного сказуемого:
Her greatest pleasure is reading;
дополнением:
I remember reading it. I ’m fon d o f reading.
Герундий может сочетаться с предлогами o f after, before, on:
I think o f going to the South.
He insists on coming here.
К. числу конструкций, в которых употребляется герундий, от
носятся: to be fon d of, to be proud of, to feel like, to be late for, what
about, to depend on, to insist on, to enjoy, to begin, to finish, to stop, to like
И др.
18. У П О Т Р Е Б Л Е Н И Е В Р Е М Е Н Г Л А Г О Л А В Д Е Й С Т В И Т Е Л Ь Н О М
ЗАЛОГЕ
Каж дая группа времен употребляется в зависимости от отно

шения действия к данному моменту времени или другому действию.
О сн о в н о е зн ачен и е э т и х врем ен:
I. Времена неопределенные (Indefinite Tenses) обозначаю т факт
соверш ен ия действия в настоящ ем, прош едш ем и будущем.
390
2. Времена длительные (или продолженны е) (Continuous Tenses)
обозначают действие в процессе его протекания в д анны й момент
в настоящем, прош едш ем и будущем.
3. Времена соверш енны е (Perfect Tenses) обозначаю т действие,
которое соверш илось к данном у моменту в настоящем, п рош ед
шем и будущем.
4. Времена соверш енно-длительны е (Perfect Continuous Tenses)
обозначают действие, которое продолжалось некоторый период
времени до наступления дан ного момента, и, возможно, продол
жается и после дан ного момента в настоящ ем, прошедшем или
будущем.
Ниже показано образование видо-врем енны х форм глагола на
примере изменения глагола to work — работать.
Группа времен Present Past Future
Indefinite I work I worked I shall (will) work

Я работаю Я работал Я буду работать
He works
Он работает
Continuous I’m working I was working I shall (will) be working

Я работаю Я работал Я буду работать
They are working T hey were working
О ни работают О н и работали
He is working
О н работает
Perfect I have worked I had worked I shall (will) have
Я работал Я поработал worked
He has worked Я буду работать или
О н работал я поработаю
Perfect I have been working I had been working I shall (will) have been
Continuous Я работаю Я поработал working
He has been working Я буду работать
Он работает
Причастие настоящ его времени Participle I в сочетании с и зм е

н яю щ им ся глаголом «to be» образует ф ор м ы Continuous; Participle II
в сочетании с «to have» — формы Perfect. С оответственно времена
четвертой группы содержат вспомогательный глагол to be в форме
Perfect и причастие настоящ его времени от смыслового глагола.
Особое вним ание необходимо обратить на изменение всп о м о
гательных глаголов to be и to have, вы зы ваю щ их затруднения при
переводе видо-врем енны х форм на русский язы к, так как в рус
ском язы ке отсутствуют подобные способы образования форм
времени.
391
Глагол to be в Present Indefinite имеет следующие формы:
I am we I
You are you I are
He л they J
She [ is
It J
В разговорной речи to be часто пр оизн о сят слитно с подлежа
щим:
/ am — I ’m [aim]
Не is - H e ’s [hiz]
We are — we 're [wir]
В опросительные и отрицательные предлож ения с глаголом-
сказуемым to be строятся без вспомогательного глагола.
В вопросительных предложениях глагол to be ставится в соот
ветствующей форме перед подлежащим:
Is Pete ill? — Yes, he is.
No, he isn’t
No, he is not
В кратком утвердительном ответе слитная форм а глагола to be с
подлежащим не употребляется:
Are you well? — Yes, I am.
В отрицательном предложении частица not ставится после гла
гола to b e :
Pete is not ill.
She isn ’/ here.
Глагол am не имеет со к р ащ енн ой ф ор м ы с частицей not как с
другими формами:
isn ’1 [iznt], a re n ’t [a:nt], но I ’m not.
В отличие от других глаголов у глагола to have форм а 3-го л иц а
единственного числа образуется путем изм енения основы:
I have we have
Н е has you have
She has they have
It has
О трицательная и вопросительная ф ор м ы образуются двумя пу
тями:
/ h aven't (got). I d o n ’t have.
392
Если глагол to have употреблен в значении глагола get:
Have you (got)? Do you have?
В В еликобритании глагол to have с вспомогательным глаголом
do употребляется для обозначения п ривы чного действия или, вер
нее, состояния:
Do you ever have apples?
We don't have them very often.
Если глагол to have является частью фразеологических и устой
чивых сочетаний (to have a smoke, to have dinner, to have lessons, to
have fu n и т. п.), то в вопросительных предложениях употребляется
вспомогательный глагол do.
Do you have lunch at 2 о ’d ock?
Did you have fu n at the party?
О днако в других англоговорящ их странах форм а с do употреб
ляется во всех случаях. Там, где ам ери кан ец скажет: «Сап you help
те now? Do you have time?», для ан гличан и на более характерна ф о р
ма: «Сап you help те now? Have you got time?»
19. М О Д А Л Ь Н Ы Е Г Л А Г О Л Ы (MODAL VERBS)
М о д а л ь н ы е г л а г о л ы не обозначают действия, а выражают от

ношение к действию, т. е. способность, возможность, допусти
мость, долженствование, желательность его совершения.
К модальным относятся глаголы can, may, must, ought, need,
should, shall, will.
М одальные глаголы употребляются только в сочетании с и н ф и
нитивом смыслового глагола без частицы to, кроме глагола ought,
за которым следует и н ф и н и ти в с to.
М одальные глаголы отличаются от других глаголов тем, что:
не имеют неличных форм — и нф и н и тива, причастия, герун
дия;
не изменяю тся ни по лицам, ни по числам (не имеют о к о н ч а
ния s в 3 л. ед. ч.).
Не can sing well.
Вопросительная и отрицательная ф о р м ы модальных глаголов в
Present и Past Indefinite образуются без вспомогательного глагола do.
В вопросительной форме модальны й глагол ставится перед
Can you do it?
Must you come in time ?
393
Ought she to do it?
M ay I come in ?
В отрицательной форме частица not ставится сразу после м о
дального глагола. Глагол сап с частицей not пишутся слитно —
cannot:
Не cannot do it.
You m ay not smoke here.
М одальные глаголы имею т следующие сокращ енн ы е о тр и ца
тельные формы:
c a n ’t [ka:nt]
co u ld n ’t [kudnt]
n ee d n ’t [ni:dnt]
o ug h tn ’t [o ]
m ay n’t [meint]
m ightn’t [maitnt]
m usn’t [A]
Глаголы can и may имею т ф орм ы настоящ его и прошедшего
времени, a must, ought, need только одну ф орму — настоящ его вре
мени.
We must hurry, it’s late.
I must study a lot.
Must употребляется в отн ош ен и и настоящ его и будущего вре
мени. В отн о ш ен и и п рош едш его времени must употребляется
только в косвенной речи:
Не said he must speak to the doctor.
В ответах на вопрос с must в утвердительной форм е употребля
ется must, в отрицательной — needn’t.
Must I go there ? - Yes, you must.
No, you needn’t.
Mustn’t — означает «нельзя» и употребляется либо в отри ца
тельном ответе на вопрос с M ay / л и б о в самостоятельном предло
жении.
M ay I speak to you? — No, you m u stn ’t.
You m u stn ’t smoke here.
Глагол «ought» в сочетании с Indefinite Infinitive выражает м о
ральный долг, желательность действия, относящ егося к насто ящ е
му и будущему.
На русский язы к ought переводится следовало бы, следует, «дол
жен». И н ф и н и т и в после глагола outght употребляется с частицей
to:
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You ought to do it at once.
Вам следует (вы должны) сделать это сейчас же.
Глагол ought в сочетании с Perfect Infinitve употребляется в отн о
ш ении прошедшего времени и указывает на то, что действие не
было выполнено:
You ought to have done it at once.
Вам следовало бы сделать это сразу же (но вы этого не сделали).
Глаголы ought и should очень близки по значению и могут быть
использованы в одних и тех же ситуациях:
You ought to (should) see the new film .
Вам следует (надо) посмотреть новый фильм.
О днако между этими двумя глаголами существует небольшая
разница. При использовании should мы выражаем свое субъектив
ное мнение, ought to имеет более объективны й оттенок необходи
мости соверш ить действие:
We ought to go and see Mary, but I d o n ’t think we will.
You should work harder.
Глагол should в сочетании с п ерф ектны м инф и н и тивом у казы
вает на то, что действие, которое необходимо было осуществить,
не выполнено:
You should have done this work.
Вам следовало бы сделать эт у работу.
Глагол need в качестве модального глагола в сочетании с
Indefinite Infinitive выражает необходимость соверш ения действия в
отнош ении настоящ его и будущего времени. Need употребляется в
вопросительных и отрицательных предложениях, а в утвердитель
ных — если они содержат такие наречия с отрицательным зн ач е
нием, как hardly, scarcely (едва) и др.
Need you go there so soon ?
Нужно ли вам ехать т ак скоро ?
I needn’t tell you how important it is.
Мне не нужно говорить вам, как это важно.
Уои need hardly remind те o f it.
Вам едва ли надо напоминать мне об этом.
Глагол needn’t в сочетании с Perfect Infinitive употребляется в о т
н ош ении прош едш его времени и означает, что не было необходи
мости соверш ать действие:
You needn’t have done it.
Вам не нужно было этого делать.
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П р и м е ч а н и е . Глагол need в качестве самостоятельного гла
гола имеет значение «нуждаться» и в этом значении он имеет
обычные ф орм ы спряж ения:
Do you need this pen? — Yes, 1 do.
No, I d o n ’t.
He didn ’1 need this book.
Глагол to be в сочетании с инф и н и тивом другого глагола с ч ас
тицей to имеет модальное значение и указывает на то, что д е й
ствие долж но быть вы полнено в соответствии с нам еченны м пла
ном или договоренностью .
В этом значении ф орм ы глагола to be употребляются только в
Present Indefinite (в отнош ении настоящего и будущего времени) и
в Past Indefinite (в о тн ош ен и и прошедшего времени):
We are to finish the work in two weeks.
Мы должны (нам предстоит) закончить работу через две недели.
I was to leave home fo r the first time.
Мне предстояло впервые покинуть дом.
20. Э К В И В А Л Е Н Т Ы М О Д А Л Ь Н Ы Х Г Л А Г О Л О В
Взамен недостающ их временных ф орм модальных глаголов

употребляют их эквиваленты.
Модальные глаголы и их эквиваленты
Present Past Future

Can Could
am was shall
is able to were able to will be able to
are
Must
have to had to shall have to
has to will
May Might
am (только при согласовании)
is allowed to was shall
are were allowed to will be allowed to
К ак видно из таблицы, глагол сап в будущем времени зам еняет

ся сочетанием shall (will) be able + инфинитив с частицей to.
I ’ll be able to come in time tomorrow.
Я смогу прийти завтра вовремя.
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Глагол must в прошедшем и будущем времени заменяется глаго
лом had, shall (will) have to:
I ’ll have to do a lot o f work tomorrow.
Мне придется завтра много работать.
Глагол m ay в прош едш ем и будущем времени заменяется соче
танием was (were) allowed to, shall (will) be allowed to:
You’ll be allowed to go to canteen in fifteen minutes.

Вам разрешат (вы сможете) пойти в столовую через 15 мин.
21. И Н Ф И Н И Т И В (THE INFINITIVE)
И н ф и н и т и в ( T h e In fin itiv e ) — неличная форма глагола, обладаю

щая свойствами как глагола, так и существительного.
С во й ства сущ ествительного:
И н ф и н и ти в в п редлож ен и и м о ж ет бы ть:
То work in the open air is healthy;
He likes to read books to his children;
именной частью составного сказуемого:
H er task is to look after small children.
С во й ства глагола:
за инфинитивом следует прямое дополнение:
I like to draw schemes',
инфинитив определяется наречием:
It is necessary to work hard;
инфинитив имеет формы времени и залога.
Active
Indefinite Continuous Perfect Perfect Continious
T o read T o be reading To have read To have been reading
Passive
Be read — Have been read —
И нф инитив в предлож ении м ож ет бы ть такж е:

определением:
I have a book for you to read',
обстоятельством:
They went early to get good tickets.
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22. И Н Ф И Н И Т И В Н Ы Е О Б О Р О Т Ы
В английском язы ке существуют сложные обороты, которые

состоят из двух или трех частей и представляют собой единое ц е
лое — один член предложения. Наиболее употребительные из них:
I . C o m p le x O b je c t ( O b je c t iv e w ith t h e In fin itiv e )
Сложное дополнение.
I I . C o m p le x S u b je c t ( N o m i n a ti v e w ith t h e In fin itiv e )
Сложное подлежащее.
I I I . « F o r» c o n s t r u c t i o n
О борот с предлогом «for»
I . C o m p le x O b je c t с о с т о и т и з д в у х ч а с т е й :
1) существительное или местоимение в объектном падеже
2) инфинитив или герундий
а. Употребляется с частицей to после глаголов, выражающих
ж елание, потребность, точку зрения, предположение: to want, to
wish, to like, to hate, to expect, to believe, to suppose, to know, to think, to
understand, to consider, to find, to allow:
I want you to translate this text.
They know him to be very clever.
б. Употребляется без частицы to после глаголов, выражаю щ их
восприятие, ощущ ение: to see, to hear, to feel, to watch, to notice, a
также to let и to make (заставлять)
We saw them get off the train.

Let her go.
His lectures make me think.
I I . C o m p l e x S u b je c t с о с т о и т и з т р е х ч а с т е й :
1) существительное или личное местоимение переводится, начи
ная со второй части.
2) Passive Voice глаголов: is said, is found, is shown, are expected, are
believed, are reported, is supposed, is known, is likely.
3) Инфинитив.
The product is considered to be perfect

Считают (полагают), что этот продукт безупречен.
They are said to be very good students
Говорят, что они очень хорошие студенты.
I I I . « F o r» c o n s tru c tio n :
1)М
2) существительное или местоимение в объектном падеже
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3) Инфинитив
Everybody wanted fo r the lecture to start.
It is a piece o f music fo r you to listen to.
23. Г Е Р У Н Д И Й . THE GERUND
Это неличная форма глагола, обладающая свойствами глагола и

существительного. Герундий исторически произош ел от отгла
гольного существительного, образованного при помощи суф ф икса
-ing.
Следует иметь в виду, что окон чан ие -ing в английском язы ке
является внеш н им признаком не только герундия:
существительное morning
прилагательное interesting
местоимение something
отглагольное существительное building
герундий travelling
причастие настоящего времени fading (flower)
В п р ед л о ж ен и и герундий м о ж е т б ы ть (п р и зн а к и , х а р а к т е р н ы е д л я
сущ естви тел ьн ого):
Travelling is a very pleasant thing;
We are fond of playing football;
именной частью сказуемого:
H er task is looking after her children;
обстоятельством:
She left him without saying a word;
определением:
He did not like the idea of walking through that forest.
П р и зн аки герундия, хар ак тер н ы е д л я глагола:

после герундия идет прямое дополнение:
Learning words is necessary for your brother;
герундий определяется наречием:
I d o n ’t like walking slowly;
герундий имеет формы времени и залога:
Active
Indefinite Continuous Perfect
Reading Having read
Passive
Being read Having been read
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24. У П О Т Р Е Б Л Е Н И Е Г Е Р У Н Д И Я И И Н Ф И Н И Т И В А
В АНГЛ И Й С К ОМ Я З Ы К Е
После некоторых глаголов возможно употребление как герун

дия, так и инфинитива:
to dislike н е н р а в и т с я
to like н р а в и т с я
to prefer п р е д п о ч и т а т ь
to propose п р е д л а г а т ь
to remember п о м н и т ь .
Однако есть такие глаголы, после которых в качестве прямого
допо л н ен и я может стоять только герундий, а не инфинитив:
to avoid и з б е г а т ь
to enjoy п о л у ч а т ь у д о в о л ь с т в и е
to excuse и з в и н я т ь ( с я )
to intend н а м е р е в а т ь с я
to need \ _
to req u ire! т р е б о в а т ь
to want н у ж д а т ь с я
This part wants repairing. Эт у деталь надо отремонтировать.
Некоторые глаголы: to stop, to remember, to forget меняю т свое
значение в зависимости от того, следует за ними герундий или
инф инитив.
Не stopped speaking with us.
Он перестал с нами разговаривать.
Не stopped to speak with us.
Он остановился, чтобы поговорить с нами.
Герундий обы чн о у п о тр е б л яе тс я после:
а) глаголов с послелогами:
to depend on — зависеть от
to hear o f — слы ш ать о
to insist on — настаивать на
to know o f — знать о
to object to — возражать
to prevent from — мешать (что-либо сделать)
to rely on — полагаться на
to result in — приводить (к чему-либо)
to succeed in — удаваться
to think o f — думать о
б) словосочетаний с предлогами:
to be afraid o f — бояться
to be astonished at — изумляться
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to be displeased with — быть недовольным
to be famous fo r — славиться чем-либо
to be fon d o f — лю бить
to be glad a t — радоваться
to be interested in — интересоваться
to be pleased with — быть довольным
to be proud o f — гордиться
to be surprised a t — удивляться
в) словосочетаний и составных предлогов:
because o f л
on account o f из-за, ввиду, вследствие
due to I
thanks to 1
owing to J благодаря
instead o f — вместо того, чтобы
in spite o f — несмотря на
fo r the purpose o f i
with the object to J- с целью, для того чтобы
with a view to J
it is (of) no use )
it is useless f бесполезно
it is no good >
W h a t’s the good of? — Какой смысл ?
I cannot afford... — Я не могу себе позволить...
I cannot help ... — Я не м огу не...
25. Н А Р Е Ч И Е (THE ADVERB)
Наречием называется часть речи, обозначающая признаки дей

ствия и обстоятельства, при которых оно протекает.
Наречие может относиться к глаголу и в этом случае п оказы в а
ет как, где, когда соверш ается действие, также к имени п рилага
тельному и другому наречию, указывая на их признаки.
Если наречие относится к глаголу, оно стоит после него, часто
вообще в конце предложения:
She lived here.
I study a lot.
She sleeps badly.
Если наречие относится к прилагательному или другому н ар е
чию, оно стоит перед ним:
Не is a very good student.
They are so lazy.
401
П р о и з в о д н ы е н а р е ч и я ч а с т о о б р а з у ю т с я п р и б а в л е н и е м с у ф ф и к с а -1у:
1) к прилагательному:
usual — usually
easy — easily
2) к некоторым существительным:
week — wekly
part — partly.
3) к некоторым числительным:
first — firstly.
Д ля определения прилагательного и наречия употребляется
слово very — очень, которое ставится перед ним:
very good, very quickly.
She is very like her mother.
Она очень похожа на свою мать.
Pete is very fo n d o f tennis.
Пит увлекает ся теннисом.
Ann takes a very good care o f her mother.
Энн очень хорошо ухаж ивает за своей матерью.
Д ля определения глагола (и иногда причастия) употребляется
сочетание very m uch — очень, которое ставится после глагола (или
перед причастием) либо в конце предложения.
I like this person very much
Мне очень нравится этот человек
С И Н Т А К С И С
О тносясь к группе аналитических язы ков, английский язы к ха

рактеризуется тем, что для построения предлож ения в нем и с
пользуются, главным образом, аналитические средства: почти н е
и зм ен н ы й порядок слов, а для уточнения морфологических кате
горий используются строевые слова: артикли, предлоги, вспом ога
тельные глаголы и т. п.
26. П О Р Я Д О К С Л О В В П Р О С Т О М П Р Е Д Л О Ж Е Н И И
В отличие от русского язы ка в ан глийском подлежащее, сказуе

мое, дополнение обы чно стоят в строгой последовательности одно
за другим, наприм ер We study English. Обстоятельства, как п р ав и
ло, стоят до или после этой «обязательной структуры» — подлеж а
щее, сказуемое, дополнение:
We study English at University.
Every week we study English at University.
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В английском язы ке слова не связаны друг с другом о к о н ч ан и
ями, и члены предлож ения определяются только по занимаемому
ими месту в предложении.
Наиболее ти пи ч ны м в утвердительном предложении является
п орядок слов, которы й мож но представить в виде схемы:
О бстоятель П о д леж а Дополнения О бстоятель

ства времени щее + ства образа
и места сказуемое К о с ве н н ы е <-> прямое действия
Причем, как было сказано выш е, обстоятельство места, време

ни может стоять ка к в начале, так и в конце предложения:
At 9.30 students start their studies at University.
Такой порядок слов п рин ято считать п рямы м, но он соблю да
ются не всегда. О братный порядок слов, или инверсии, как п р ави
ло, заключается в перестановке местами подлежащего и сказуемо
го (полностью или частично):
Can your brother swim ?
Has he any relatives ?
Are you an architect?
О братный порядок слов используется при (эмоциональном,
выразительном) выделении второстепенного члена предложения.
В этом случае второстепенный член предлож ения занимает место
в начале предлож ения, за ним следует сказуемое, а затем подлеж а
щее:
Hardly had the student appeared when he was asked to account fo r his
course project.
Едва студент появился, как его попросили дать отчет о его работе
над курсовым проектом.
О собенно часто и зм ен ен н ы й порядок слов встречается при от
рицании, вы раж енном словами и словосочетаниями never,
nowhere, not only, no longer, no sooner, neither...nor, not fo r a moment.
No teacher ever fo u n d any mistakes in his excellent work.
Ни один учитель не нашел ни единой ошибки в его отличной работе.
27. О Б О Р О Т THERE + Т О BE
Когда в центре вни м ани я при построении предложения нахо

дится сказуемое, выраженное глаголом быть (находиться, сущ е
ствовать) или когда речь идет о наличии или отсутствии предмета,
403
в русском язы ке предложение начинается с глагола-сказуемого
либо с обстоятельства места или времени:
Существуют различные методы обработки почв.
There exist various methods o f soil cultivation.
На этой ферме много крупного рогатого скота.
There are a lot o f cattle on this farm .
К ак видим, в ан глийском язы ке в сообщ ениях такого рода и с
пользуются специальны й оборот there + глагол to be (чаще всего), в
нашем примере также глагол exist, который, как и глагол to be, с о
гласуется с последую щим именем существительным.
Перевод таких предлож ений начинается с обстоятельства места
или со сказуемого:
There are different land classification systems.
Существуют различные системы классиф икации земель.
There is a big shopping centre in this city.
В этом городе есть большой торговый центр.
There will be a new stadium near the university building.
Недалеко от здания университета будет новый стадион.
Are there any natural limits on the land use there?
Есть ли там какие-либо природные ограничения на использование
земель?
28. О Б О Р О Т Ы : IT IS (WAS...) WHO (THAT)
Если необходимо выделить один из членов предлож ения, п р о

стое предложение преобразуется в слож ноподчиненное, в котором
в качестве грамматического подлежащего главного предлож ения
употребляется слово it:
It was in the laboratory that I fo u n d m y lost map.
Именно в лаборатории я нашел свою забытую (потерянную) карту.
It was т у frien d who helped me to make a survey.
Именно мой друг помог мне сделать съемку.
В предложениях такого типа it ставится перед сказуемым, в ы
раж енны м соответствующей ф ормой глагола to be, за которым сл е
дует выделенное слово. За главным предлож ением идет придаточ
ное определительное, которое п рисоединяется сою зны м и сл ова
ми: who, which, whom и чаще всего that.
При переводе на русский язы к it и слова who, which, whom, that
опускаю тся, и слож ное английское предложение передается рус
ским простым предлож ением, которое начинается с усилительных
слов: именно, только, лишь, это, вот, как раз.
404
It was not until I was through with m y call that I left the office.
Только когда я окончательно дозвонился, я ушел из офиса.
При переводе текстов очень важно учитывать различие между
английским и русским синтаксисом, которое выражается в рас
хождении порядка слов, как показано на приведенных выше п р и
мерах.
29. С Л О Ж Н О Е П Р Е Д Л О Ж Е Н И Е
Сложные предлож ения делятся на две основны е группы: слож

носочиненные и сложноподчиненные.
Сложносочиненное предложение состоит из простых предлож е
ний, каждое из которых сохраняет значение самостоятельного
высказы вания. Эти предложения не зависят друг от друга и могут
отделяться запятой:
The methods o f cultivation were improved and the yields increased.
Методы обработки были усовершенствованы, и урожаи увеличились.
The urban population in that region increased greatly, but the rural one
decreased.
Городское население в этом районе возросло значительно, а сельское
население уменьшилось.
Сложноподчиненное предложение состоит из главного и п рид а
точного. Главное предложение сохраняет самостоятельность, а
придаточное служит для поясн ен и я главного. Придаточные пред
ложения присоединяются к главному посредством союзных слов —
местоимений или наречий: who — кто, what — что, which, that —
который, where — где, when — когда и других, или посредством
подчинительных союзов: that — что, as — так как, because — по
этому что, i f — если и др.
The project that they discussed last M onday contained a lot o f
considerable changes.
Проект, который они обсуждали в прошлый понедельник, содер
жал множество значительных изменений.
The project — это подлежащее главного предложения, contained —
сказуемое главного предложения.
Придаточные предложения могут присоединяться к главному без
союза.
Союз that — что, который присоединяет дополнительны е п р и
даточные к главному, в английском язы ке часто опускают.
I know that he studies geodesy.
I know he studies geodesy.
Я знаю, что он изучает геодезию.

405
При переводе на русский язы к союз что необходимо вставить.
Бессоюзное присоединение придаточного предлож ения к глав
ному характерно и для определительных придаточных:
The project we discussed yesterday is approved.

Проект, который мы обсуждали вчера, одобрен.
Бессоюзное присоединение придаточного также характерно и

для придаточных предлож ений условия:
Were I in that group I should help in the translation o f document into

English.
Если бы я был в этой группе, я бы помог перевести документы на
английский.
Should she write the article tell her to leave it on m y desk.
Если она напишет статью, скажите, чтобы она оставила ее на
моем столе.
30. В И Д Ы П Р И Д А Т О Ч Н Ы Х П Р Е Д Л О Ж Е Н И Й
Существует столько же видов придаточных предложений,

сколько членов предлож ения, однако не все они одинаково часто
встречаются в научно-технических текстах.
П ридаточные п редлож ения-подлеж ащ ие вы полняю т роль под
лежащего и отвечают на вопросы: who? — кто?, what? — что?
Они соединяю тся с главным предлож ением союзами that —
что, whether — ли и сою зны ми словами who (whom) — кто (кого),
whose — чей, what — что, какой, which — который, when — когда,
where — где, куда, hew — как, why — почему.
В научной литературе придаточные предлож ения-подлеж ащ ие
чаще всего стоят после сказуемого; в этом случае в английском
язы ке ставится перед сказуемым местоимение it.
It is quite clear that we need the reconstruction o f the transportation
network.
Совершенно ясно, что нам необходима реконструкция всей т ранс
портной сети.
Придаточны е предлож ения-сказуем ы е отвечают на вопрос: к а
ково подлежащее? О ни вы п олн яю т роль и м ен н ой части составно
го сказуемого и соединяю тся с главным предлож ением теми же
союзами и сою зны м и словами, что и придаточные предлож ения-
подлежащие.
The problem is whether we are able to remove this old building and clear
o ff the site.
406
Проблема заключается в том, сможем ли мы снести это старое
здание и рассчитать место (для нового строительства).
Глагол-связка to be перед придаточным предлож ением -сказуе
мым часто переводится на русский я зы к словами состоит в том,
заключается в том.
Когда придаточное предложение начинается союзом whether, то
перевод такого предложения на русский язы к начинается с глаго
ла, за которым следует частица ли, которая соответствует ан гл и й с
кому whether.
Придаточные п редлож ения-подлеж ащ ие и придаточные пред
лож ения-сказуем ы е встречаются в научно-технических реже, чем
остальные виды придаточных предложений.
31. П Р И Д А Т О Ч Н Ы Е Д О П О Л Н И Т Е Л Ь Н Ы Е П Р Е Д Л О Ж Е Н И Я
П ридаточные дополнительны е предлож ения вы полняю т ф у н к

цию дополн ен и я и отвечают на вопрос what — что. Характерно,
что в ан глийском язы ке придаточные дополнительны е не отделя
ются запятой от главного предложения. Чащ е всего придаточные
дополнительные присоединяю тся к главному предлож ению п о
средством сою зов that — что, whether — ли, i f — ли, when — когда,
why — почему, how — как и др.
We know that the project has been approved.
Мы знаем, что проект одобрен.
Характерной чертой дополнительны х придаточных предлож е
ний в ан глийском язы ке в отличие от дополнительны х придаточ
ных в русском является соблюдение правила согласования времен.
Если глагол-сказуемое главного предлож ения стоит в насто я
щем времени, то глагол-сказуемое придаточного предложения м о
жет стоять в лю бом, требуемом по смыслу времени.
Придаточное предложение
I come in time. , ___ Главное предложение
я прихожу вовремя ~
I came in time yesterday ^___ She knows that
я приш ел вчера вовремя Она знает, что
I shall come in time tomorrow
я приду завтра вовремя.
Однако если сказуемое главного предложения стоит в Past

Indefinite, то сказуемое дополнительного придаточного предлож е
ния тоже долж но стоять в одном из прошедших времен.
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Придаточное предложение
I came in time Главное предложение
я прихожу вовре
I had come in time ----- She knew that
я приш ел вовремя О н а знала, что
I should come in time
я приду вовремя
Согласование времен не соблюдается:
при наличии модального глагола в составе сказуемого п рид а
точного дополнительного предложения:
The teacher said that I must write the report as soon as possible
Преподаватель сказал, что я должен написать отчет как можно
скорее;
если сказуемое придаточного дополнительного предложения
выражено глаголом в сослагательном наклонении:
The population o f the town demanded that the work o f medical centre be
improved.
Население городка требовало, чтобы работа медицинского центра
была улучшена;
при излож ении истины или общ еизвестного ф акта в д о п о л н и
тельном придаточном:
The student explained that there are various kinds o f crops grown in this
region.
Студент объяснил, что в этом регионе выращивают различные
виды культур.
Д ополнительны е придаточные предлож ения служат граммати
ческим средством выражения при переводе повествовательных
предлож ений из прямой речи в косвенную речь.
П рям ой речью называется речь, передаваемая от имени того
лица, которы м она п роизн есен а или п роизносится, с сохранением
ее форм ы и содержания.
К освенная речь представляет собой передачу содерж ания в ы с
казывания другим лицом , причем текст передается не буквально, а
в пересказе.
Построение повествовательного предлож ения, передаваемого в
косвенной речи, подвергается некоторым изменениям:
глагол to say (сказуемое главного предлож ения) заменяется с о
ответствующей ф о рм о й глагола to tell',
вводится союз that,
все личные и притяжательные местоимения заменяются по см ы с
лу: вместо I, w e ( \ - t лицо) употребляются he, she, they и т д. (3-е лицо);
408
при наличии Past Indefinite в д ополнительном придаточном ис
пользуется правило согласования времен;
наречия времени и места, а также указательные местоимения
заменяю тся следующим образом:
Прямая речь
now then
yesterday the day before
today that day
tom orrow the next day
ago before
here there
this that
these those
Если глагол to tell (сказуемое главного предлож ения) в прямой

речи имеет косвенное дополнение, он сохраняется и в косвенной
речи:
I told him « I am a farmer».
I told him that i was a farmer.
Я сказал ему: «Я фермер».
Я сказал ему, что я фермер.
В вопросительных предложениях придаточное предложение
вводится союзом whether или i f а глагол-сказуемое to say в главном
предложении зам еняется соответствующей личной форм ой глаго
ла to ask — спросить:
Не asked те «Have you got a diploma?»
Он спросил меня «Ты получил диплом?»
Не asked те whether I ha d got a diploma.
Он спросил меня, получил л и я диплом.
При передаче специального вопроса правила построения пред
лож ения (прям ой порядок слов и согласование времен) строго с о
блюдаются:
They asked the group, « When will you finish this reconstruction ?»
Они спросили группу: «Когда вы закончите эт у реконструкцию?»
They asked the group, when they would finish that reconstruction.
Они спросили группу, когда она закончит эту реконструкцию.
При переводе в косвенную речь предлож ений, содержащих
п риказан и я и просьбы, форм а повелительного н аклонения зам е
няется ф ормой инф инитива.
Глагол to say должен быть зам енен глаголами to order — п р и к а
зывать, to tell — велеть в зависимости от цели высказывания.
The clerk said to me: «Bring the documents».
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Служащий сказал мне: «Принесите остальные документы».
The clerk told т е to bring the rest documents.
Служащий велел мне принести остальные документы.
32. П Р И Д А Т О Ч Н Ы Е О Б С Т О Я Т Е Л Ь С Т В Е Н Н Ы Е П Р Е Д Л О Ж Е Н И Я
Придаточные обстоятельственные предложения вы полняю т

ф у н кц ию обстоятельства (времени, места, причины , цели, усло
вия). Они отделяются запятой от главного предложения только в
том случае, если предшествуют главному предложению.
О сновн ы м и ф у н кц и я м и обстоятельственных придаточных
предложений (подобно ф ун кц ии обстоятельства как члена про
стого предложения) являются:
1. О б с т о я т е л ь с т в а в р е м е н и — отвечают на вопросы: when? — ког
да?, how long? — к а к долго?, since when? — с каких пор? и присоеди
няются к главному предлож ению сою зами и сою зны ми словами:
when когда
while в то в р е м я как, п ока
as когда, в то в р е м я как, по м е ре того
as soon as как только
as long as пока
before п р е ж д е чем, до того как
after после того как
until до тех пор пока не
till до тех пор пока
since с тех пор как
As soon as the project has been approved we shall start the reconstruction
o f the building.
К ак только проект будет одобрен, мы приступим к реконструк
ции здания.
2. О б с т о я т е л ь с т в а м е с т а — отвечают на вопросы where? — где?,
where from ? — откуда? и присоединяю тся к главному предложе
нию сою зны м и словами where — где, wherever — где бы ни..., куда
бы ни..., причем сою зное слово where переводится там, где, когда с
него начинается придаточное предложение места:
I was looking fo r т у тар where I had left it.
Я искал свою карт у там, где я ее оставил.
3. О б с т о я т е л ь с т в а причины — отвечают на вопрос why? — поче
м у? и присоединяются к главному предложению союзами because —
потому что, since — поскольку, так как, as — так как.
She could not attend courses because she was on her business trip.
Она не могла посещать курсы, так как была в командировке.
410
4. Обстоятельства цели — отвечают на вопрос what fo r? — для
чего?, fo r what purpose? — с какой целью? и присоединяю тся к глав
ному предлож ению союзами so that — (т ак) чтобы, in order that —
(для того) чтобы, lest — (так) чтобы не:
I shall draw some plan so that you may organize this work properly.
Я составляю план, чтобы вы смогли организовать эту работу как
следует.
5. Обстоятельства условия — присоединяю тся к главному пред
л ож ению сою зами i f (если), provided (that), providing (that), on
condition (that) — при условии, если, in case(that) — в случае если,
supposing (that), suppose (that) — если, если бы, unless — если не. Так
как союз unless имеет отрицательное значение, глагол придаточно
го предлож ения имеет утвердительную форму, а перед русским
глаголом при переводе ставится отрицание:
Не will finish the тар tomorrow unless they give him another task.
Он закончит карт у завтра, если только они не дадут ему еще одно
задание.
33. О С О Б Е Н Н О С Т И О Б С Т О Я Т Е Л Ь С Т В Е Н Н Ы Х П Р И Д А Т О Ч Н Ы Х
П Р ЕДЛОЖЕНИЙ ВРЕМЕНИ И УСЛОВИЯ
В соврем ен ном английском язы ке сохранилась особенность,

характерная для древнеанглийского язы ка, в котором для в ы раж е
ния будущего действия использовалась ф орм а настоящего врем е
ни глагола, поэтому если сказуемое главного предложения в ы р а
жено глаголом в форме будущего времени, то в придаточном
п редлож ении врем ени и условия используется, ка к правило, н а
стоящее время:
We shall apply the new equipment as soon as it has been delivered.
Мы будем использовать новое оборудование, как только оно будет
доставлено.
В отличие от английского предлож ения в русском при переводе
используется будущее время для глаголов и главного и придаточ
ного предложения.
После сою зов i f when, before, after и других в обстоятельствен
ных придаточных предложениях времени и условия Future Perfect
заменяется на Present Perfect, которое переводится будущим вре
менем, если глагол-сказуемое главного предлож ения стоит в ф о р
ме будущего времени:
After we have done our work we shall go on an excursion.
После того как мы сделаем свою работу, мы поедем на экскурсию.
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34. У П О Т Р Е Б Л Е Н И Е П Р И Д А Т О Ч Н Ы Х У С Л О В Н Ы Х П Р Е Д Л О Ж Е Н И Й
Придаточное условное
Т и п предложения Главное предложение
предложение
И зъявительное Present Indefinite he will get a grant

н а к л он ен и е If he wins this com petition он получит грант
I тип Если он победит в этом
(Глагол переводится ф о р конкурсе
мой будущего времени)
Сослагательное Past Indefinite Should (would, could,

н а к л он ен и е If he won that com petition might) + Indefinit
II Т И П Если бы он победил Infinitive (без to)
(Глагол переводится ф о р в этом конкурсе he would get a grant
мой прош едш его времени он получил бы грант
с частицей бы)
Сослагательное Should (would, could,

на к л он ен и е might) + Perfect
III тип Infinitive (без to)
(П ереводится так же, he would have got a grant
как II тип) он бы получил грант
Когда действия рассматриваю тся как реальные факты , сказуе

мые главного предлож ения выражаются формами изъявительного
н аклон ен и я глагола.
Такие предлож ения п рин ято называть придаточным и реально
го условия, или условными придаточными I типа.
Условные предлож ения, выражаю щ ие нереальное предполож е
ние, малую вероятность осущ ествления действия в настоящ ем или
будущем времени, называю тся предлож ениями нереального усло
вия, или условными придаточными предлож ениями II типа.
Глагол to be в составе сказуемого придаточного предлож ения
имеет ф орм у were для всех л иц в единственном и множественном
числе:
The student spoke as i f he were an experienced specialist in real estate
assessment.
Студент говорил, ка к будто он опытный специалист по оценке
недвижимости.
Глагольные ф орм ы и главного, и придаточного предложения
переводятся на русский язы к глаголами в сослагательном н акл о
нении, т. е. ф о р м о й п рош едш его времени с частицей бы.
М одальные глаголы might, could сохраняю т собственное зн аче
ние (m ight-вероятность, could-способность, умение) и переводят
ся на русский словами возможно, вероятно, м ог/м огла/м огла бы.
Условные предлож ения третьего типа выражаю т нереальное ус-
412
ловие, неосущ ествленное предложение в прошлом. Перевод на
русский язы к предлож ений III типа не отличается от перевода
предложений II типа.
Во всех типах английских условных придаточных предложений
условные союзы i f provided могут быть опущ ены , когда в состав
сказуемого придаточного предлож ения входят глаголы should,
could, were, had. Вспомогательный или модальный глагол вы н оси т
ся на место перед подлежащим:
I f the secretary should bring the documents, the manager would sign them.
Should the secretary bring the documents, the manager would sign them.
Если бы секретарь принесла документы, менеджер подписал бы их.
35. О П Р Е Д Е Л И Т Е Л Ь Н Ы Е П Р И Д А Т О Ч Н Ы Е П Р Е Д Л О Ж Е Н И Я
Определительные придаточные предлож ения отвечают на в о п

рос which, what? (какой) и обычно следуют непосредственно за
словом, которое они определяют. Часто они не отделяются зап я
той от главного предложения.
Придаточные определительные предлож ения присоединяю тся
к главному сою зны ми словами:
who (about whom, with whom) — который
whom — которого
whose — чей, который
which — который
that — который
where — где
when — когда
why — почему
We fo u n d that that research was quite necessary fo r our project.
Мы обнаружили, что эти данные совершенно необходимы
для нашего проекта.
При бессою зном подчинении определительных придаточных
предложений могут оказаться рядом два подлежащих, а за ними —
два сказуемых, соответствующих главным предложениям. В этом
случае при переводе на русский яз ы к следует восстанавливать
пропущ енное сою зное слово:
The man (whom) Mr. Brown recommended has come here.
Человек, которого рекомендовал господин Браун, прибыл сюда.
Иногда перед относительным местоимением (союзным с л о
вом) может стоять предлог. В случае, если это слово опускается,
предлог ставится в конец придаточного предложения. При п ере
413
воде на русский язы к предлог ставится перед восстановленным
словом:
This is a project on which we have spent a lot o f money and time.
Это проект, на который мы потратили много денежных средств
и времени.
This is a project we have spent a lot o f money and time on.
Это проект, на который мы потратили много денег и времени.
36. Г Р А М М А Т И Ч Е С К И Е К О Н С Т Р У К Ц И И , Р А В Н О З Н А Ч Н Ы Е
П Р И Д А Т О Ч Н Ы М П Р ЕД Л О Ж Е НИ Я М
Сочетания неличных ф орм глагола со стоящ ими перед ними

именем сущ ествительным или местоимением образуют различные
грамматические конструкции (или обороты).
Это причастные, герундиальные и и н ф и н и ти в н ы е обороты в ы
зываю т затруднения при переводе на русский язы к, так как н еко
торые из них по своему построению чужды русскому языку, но
часто могут быть переведены посредством дополнительны х, оп ре
делительных, обстоятельственных и других типов придаточных
предложений.
Причастные обороты
Эта грамматическая конструкция представляет собой сочета
ние слов, равноценное, например, определительному или о бстоя
тельственному придаточному предложению:
1. Причастный оборот в простом предложении:
The land use planner m aking the project is a good specialist.
Землеустроитель, выполняющий проект, хороший специалист.
2. Причастный оборот в сложноподчиненном предложении:
The land use planner who is m aking the project is a good specialist.
Землеустроитель, который выполняет проект, хороший специа
лист.
3. Причастный оборот в простом предложении, который перево
дится на русский язык деепричастным оборотом:
M aking the project the land use planner used some air photos data.
Выполняя проект, землеустроитель использовал некоторые дан
ные аэрофотоснимков.
4. Причастный оборот в сложноподчиненном предложении:
When the land use planner made the project he used some air photos
data.
Когда землеустроитель выполнял проект, он использовал некот о
рые данные аэрофотоснимков.
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В отличие от придаточных предлож ений данны е причастные
обороты не имею т своего действующего лица и поэтому н азы ва
ются зависимыми.
К ак видно из примеров, подлежащие как главного, так и п р и
даточного предложений совпадают.
Однако в ан глийском язы ке есть причастны е обороты, в кото
рых имеется собственное (независимое) подлежащее, выраженное
сущ ествительным в общ ем падеже или лич н ы м местоимением в
форме именительного падежа.
Самостоятельный (независимый) причастный оборот

The land-use planner making the project, the students came to see the
work o f the specialist.
Когда землеустроитель выполнял проект, студенты пришли по
смотреть работу этого специалиста.
В дан ном примере при Participle I making имеется подлежащее
the land-use planner, не связанное с подлеж ащ им the students.
Причастие making играет роль сказуемого по отнош ению к под
лежащ ему the land-use planner, хотя причастие само по себе не м о
жет быть сказуемым, так как это неличная форма глагола.
Следовательно, этот оборот, имея самостоятельное подлежа
щее (поэтому он и называется независим ы м причастным об о ро
том), чаше всего выражает время, п ричину или сопутствующие
обстоятельства. На русский язы к эта конструкция переводится
придаточным обстоятельственны м предложением, в котором и с
пользуются подчинительные союзы: если, так как, поскольку, ког
да, после того, как и др.:
The project being ready (when the project is readyj the specialist will
show it to the students.
Когда проект будет готов, специалист покажет его вам.
37. Г Е Р У Н Д И А Л Ь Н Ы Е О Б О Р О Т Ы
Герундиальный оборот представляет собой сочетание имени

существительного или местоимения с неличной формой глагола —
герундием. На русский язы к герундиальный оборот чаше всего пе
реводится придаточным предложением, реже — просто сущ естви
тельным:
/. / know o f his passing the examination on geodesy.
Я знаю о том, что он сдал экзамен по геодезии.
2. / know o f their having left.
Я знаю о их отъезде.
415
Герундиальный оборот обычно выступает в качестве э к в и в а
лента придаточного дополнительного или придаточного подлеж а
щего.
38. О Б Ъ Е К Т Н Ы Й И Н Ф И Н И Т И В Н Ы Й О Б О Р О Т
( СЛОЖНОЕ ДОПОЛНЕНИЕ)
И н ф и н и ти вн ы е конструкции или обороты довольно часто

употребляются в английском язы ке и всегда равнозначны прида
точным предложениям.
Сложное дополнение (объектный инфинитивный оборот) — это
сочетание имени существительного в общем падеже или местоиме
ния в объектном падеже с инфинитивом глагола.
The lecturer expected the students to make a thorough research into
the problem.
Лектор ожидал, что студенты тщательно изучат эт у проблему.
Предложение, содержащее сложное дополнение — объектный
и н ф и н и ти в н ы й оборот, переводится на русский язы к придаточ
ным дополнительны м предложением, которое присоединяется со
юзами: что, чтобы, как.
Сложное дополн ен и е употребляется после глаголов, которые
условно мож но объединить в следующие группы по смыслу:
/. Желание, потребность:
to want — хотеть, требовать, нуждаться
to wish, desire — желать
to like — в значении «хотеть»
Would you like me to translate your article into English ?
Хотели бы вы, чтобы я перевела вашу статью на английский?
2. Предположение:
to suppose — предполагать
to expect — ожидать
to consider — считать, полагать
to assume i
to believe \ полагать
to hold J
3. Восприятие, ощущение:
to watch, to observe наблюдать
to notice замечать
to see видеть
to hear слышать
to feel ощущать, чувствовать
416
4. Утверждение, осведомленность, конст атация факта:
to find обнаруживать, находить
to note замечать
to state устанавливать, констатировать
to claim утверждать
to know просить
to declare заявлять
to show показывать
to report сообщать
to understand понимать
to think думать
5. Просьба, позволение, разрешение:
to ask просить
to allow позволять
to permit разрешать
to enable давать возможность
to request запросить
6. Запрет, приказ, принуждение:
to cause l вызывать, причинять
to force J вынуждать
to get
to make заставлять
to command i
велеть, приказывать
to order J
После глаголов to watch, to notice, to see, to hear, to feel, to m ake, to
cause и н ф и н и т и в употребляется без частицы to.
The students heard their professor deliver his lecture at the conference.
Студенты слышали, ка к их профессор читал лекцию на конферен
ции.
39. О Б Ъ Е К Т Н Ы Й О Б О Р О Т С П Р И Ч А С Т И Я М И
(Participle I, Participle II)
К числу сложных дополнений относятся и конструкции с п р и

частиями.
Когда нужно подчеркнуть не ф ак т соверш ения действия, а то,
что действие представлено в процессе и происходит в момент
речи, вместо и н ф и н и ти в а часто употребляется причастие н асто я
щего времени Participle I:
We watched the student making an experiment in the laboratory.
Мы наблюдали, как студент проводил опыт в лаборатории.
417
Когда важен не процесс, а результат действия, в объектном
причастном обороте употребляется причастие прошедшего време
ни Participle II:
When we entered the reading hall we fo u n d the professor left.
Когда мы воиии в читальный зал, мы увидели, что профессор ушел.
40. С У Б Ъ Е К Т Н Ы Й И Н Ф И Н И Т И В Н Ы Й О Б О Р О Т И Л И С Л О Ж Н О Е
П О ДЛ Е Ж А Щ Е Е
В английском язы ке существуют пассивные конструкции, ко

торые на русский язы к переводятся неопределенно-личны ми
предлож ениями.
They are said to work much at their project.
Говорят, что они много работают над проектом.
Сказуемое английского предлож ения are said при переводе на
русский язы к преобразуется в сказуемое главного предложения,
которое представляет собой н еопределенно-личное говорят, под
лежащее they становится подлежащим русского придаточного
предложения, а и н ф и н и т и в to work — его сказуемым. Придаточное
предложение в русском переводе присоединяется союзом чт о:
It is said that...Говорят, что...
It is supposed that... Предполагается, что...
Субъектный и н ф и н и ти в н ы й оборот (или сложное подлежащее)
употребляется с глаголами, обозначаю щ ими познавательные про
цессы, а также просьбу, приказание, например:
to assume (is, are assumed) — допускать
to take (is, are taken) — полагать
to hold (is, are held) — считать, полагать
to believe (is, are believed) — полагать
to report (is, are reported) — сообщать и т. д.
Не is supposed to be the best student in the group.
Предполагается, что он лучший студент в этой группе.
41. Г Р А М М А Т И Ч Е С К И Е Т Р А Н С Ф О Р М А Ц И И П Р И П Е Р Е В О Д Е
Н есовпадения в строе двух язы ко в н еи зм ен н о вызываю т н еоб

ходимость в грамматических и лексических преобразованиях,
(полны х или частичных). Полное несовпадение наблюдается в тех
418
случаях, когда в русском язы ке отсутствует грамматическая ф о р
ма, которая есть в английском, наприм ер герундий.
His reading technical magazine without a dictionary helps him in his
research work.
To, что он читает технические журналы без словаря, помогает ему
в его научно-исследовательской работе.
Иногда встречаются случаи неполного совпадения категорий,
например единственного и множественного числа:
Every person o f the world — все лю ди мира
Attentions o f the students — внимание студентов
В русском язы ке нет перфектной форм ы причастия, в ан гл и й с
ком — нет причастия прошедшего времени от непереходных гла
голов. Подобные несоответствия в грамматике вызывают необхо
димость преобразования фразы при переводе. Эти преобразова
ния могут заключаться в перестановках, заменах, добавлениях и
опущениях.
Н апример, перестановка вызвана несовпадением характера
подлежащего в английском и русском языке:
There is a bright student in this group.
В этой группе есть студент-отличник.
П омимо перестройки фразы иногда в переводе требуется и з м е
нение вида сказуемого и замена частей речи:
It was a common criticism that he was a writer o f political situation. —
Обычно его критиковали за то, что он описывал политическое
положение.
Замена частей речи может быть вызвана и причинами чисто
лексического порядка, например отсутствием соответствующего
значения данного слова в русском язы ке или различием в объеме
значений.
А нглийские слова advocate, partisan, champion гораздо чаще
употребляются в ш ироком значении — защ итник, сторонник, п о
борник, чем в более узком — адвокат, партизан, чемпион.
Benjamin Franklin was an enthusiastic champion o f American
independence.
Бенжамин Франклин был горячим сторонником независимости
Америки.
В число международных слов входит группа слов, которые и з
вестны как «ложные друзья переводчика»: непосредственный п е
ревод их на русский ближ айш им и по звучанию словами может
419
привести к грубой ошибке или даже к искаж ению смысла предло
жения. Ниже приводится сп и сок таких слов:
compass ( п ) — окружность, круг, объем, охват; граница, предел;
циркуль; компас (лиш ь в последнюю очередь)
conductor ( п ) — физ. проводник (теплоты, электричества); эл. —
привод; муз. — дирижер. В значении «кондуктор» употребляется
крайне редко.
figure ( п ) — рисунок; циф ра (фигура)
local ( а) — местный (в редких случаях «локальный»)
manner ( п ) — прием, образ (а не обязательно «манера»)
public ( а) — общ ественны й, общедоступный (реже «публич
ный»)
accuracy ( п ) — точность (а не аккуратность)
brilliant ( а) — блестящ ий, сверкаю щ ий (а не бриллиант)
data ( м н . ч . от datum) — сведения, данны е (ни в коем случае не
«дата»)
decade ( п) — десятилетие (а не «декада»)
delicate ( а) — и зящ н ы й, хрупкий, тон ки й (о работе), затрудни
тельный (о полож ении), чувствительный (о приборе); (редко «де
ликатный»)
dutch (а) — голландский (а не «датский»)
instance ( п ) — прим ер (а не инстанция)
list ( п) — список, перечень (а не лист)
magazine ( п ) — журнал; склад боеприпасов (а не магазин)
manufacture ( п ) — изготовление, производство; мн.ч. изделия,
фабрикаты (но не «мануфактура»)
personal ( а) — л ич н ы й (но не персонал)
pretend (v) — делать вид (почти не употребляется в значении
«претендовать»)
principal ( а) — главный (а не п рин ц ип и альны й )
production ( п ) — производство, выработка, добыча (угля), (п о н я
тие «продукция» передается в ан глийском словами output, product,
produce)
prospect (n) — перспектива, вид, надежда, разведка, изыскание
(но не «проспект»)
realize (v) — осуществлять, ясно себе представлять, отдавать
себе отчет (редко реализовать).
Не was a high-school physics master.
Он был учителем физики в средней школе.
Great scientists discover the laws that arm man in his struggle against the
elements.
Великие ученые открывают законы, вооружающие человека в его
борьбе со стихиями.
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П оскольку слово может иметь различны е значения, при п ере
воде необходимо выбрать нужный эквивалент. Так, английские
слова fa c e , hand означаю т не только части тела — лицо, рука (кисть
руки), но также и «циферблат», «стрелка» (часов). Кроме того, н е
обходимо учитывать и принадлежность слова к той или иной ч ас
ти речи.
You must hand him the telegram.
Вы должны вручить ему телеграмму.
Great tasks fa ce our company — the task o f reorganizing the whole
system o f production.
Перед нашей компанией стоят огромные задачи — задачи реорга
низации производства в целом (всей системы производства).
We fa ce many troubles.
Мы сталкиваемся со многими трудностями.
The builders will fa ce the house with m odem materials.
Строители будут облицовывать здание современными мат ериа
лами.
При переводе предлож ения во втором примере приш лось не
только изменить порядок слов, но и ввести дополнительное слово
«перед», так как глагольное сочетание «стоят задачи» в русском
язы ке требует предлога «перед».
Опущ ения при переводе тоже бываю т необходимы, так как ч ас
то их сохранение в русском язы ке является соверш енно и зл и ш
ним:
The lecture was boring while it lasted.
Л екция (вся) была скучной.
П ридаточное предлож ение пока она продолжалась было бы аб
солютно и злиш ним в русском переводе.
Особое вни м ани е следует обратить на перевод и нф инитивны х
конструкций, когда простое предложение в английском язы ке на
русский переводится сложны м предложением.
They made a lot o f observations to fin d the river earring much timber
without any permission.
Произведя множество наблюдений, они обнаружили, что по реке
сплавляется много строевого леса, без какого бы то ни было разрешения.
В другом случае и н ф и н и тивн ая конструкция переводится н е
согласованны м определением:
New steps to fight pollution o f rivers have been announced in Wales and
Scotland.
В Уэльсе и Шотландии объявлено о новых мерах по борьбе с загряз
нением рек.
421
Значительны е трудности для перевода представляет и н ф и н и
тивный оборот с предлогом for.
It was unusual fo r him to read in bed.
Обычно он не читал в постели.
The most important thing is fo r us to pass exam in geodesy.
Самое важное для нас — сдать экзамен по геодезии.
Не was anxious fo r her to finish her work.
Он очень хотел, чтобы она закончила свою работу.
Over one hundred and fifty thousand people are believed to have been
drowned during the recent floods in East Asia.
Полагают, что свыше 150 тысяч человек погибло во время недав
них наводнений в Ю го-Восточной Азии.
ПРИЛОЖЕНИЯ
1. НАИБОЛЕЕ УПОТРЕБИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОГИ
Предлог Значение Примеры
at 1. М естополож ение (на, при, She is a t station.

у в определенн ой точке) I’m sitting a t my table:
2. Время (в часах) C om e a t 5 p.m.
in 1. М естополож ение (в о т He is in the room.
дельном пространстве) T he book is in my table.
2. Время (в месяцах, годах) S um m er begins in June.
3. Работа, н аписанная на It took place in 2002.
к ак о м -т о язы ке This article is written in English.
on 1. М естополож ение (на го The book is on my table.
р изо нтал ьной и по верти The picture is on the wall.
кал ьной поверхности) This is a book on history.
2. П о с в я щ е н н ы й чему-либо, I was b o m on the 5,h of November.
на тему (о, об)
3. Время (в — в днях)
from 1. Н аправлени е (от, из) T he train is com ing fro m Moscow.
2. Время (с, от) Take the book fro m the table.
I’ll be busy fro m 10 a.m.
to 1. Н аправлени е (в, на) We cam e to Moscow.
2. Время (до какого момента) They went to the theatre.
3. Соответствует детальному I’ll be busy from 10 p.m. to 3 p.m.
падежу Give this book to me.
since Время (от, с какого-то м о I’ll have a rest since July till August.
мента)
till Время (до, до какого-то 77// Friday I ’ll be very busy.
м омента)
into Н аправлени е (внутрь) Put the book into the bag.
onto Н аправлени е (на, на поверх Put the book from the shelf onto the
ность чего-либо) table.
before Время (перед, до) It took place before our era.
after Время (после) I went there after the train stopped.
about 1. О (относительно) Please, tell me about him.
2. М есто (около, вокруг, C om e about 2 p.m.
п ри близи тельно) It was about noon, when she came
3. Время (около, п р и б л и зи home.
тельно)
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Предлог Значение Примеры
for 1. Время (в течение к о н к р е т I have lived there fo r 2 years.

ного указан ного, в днях,
годах периода времени)
2. Цель (на) I went fo r a walk.
3. Д ля T h at is a present fo r you.
4. Н аправлени е (в) с глаго We left fo r St. Petersburg at 10 p.m.
лом to leave
during Время (в течение периода I was in the countryside during my
врем ени, вы раж енного weekend.
сущ ествительны м)
of 1. Соответствует роди тельно All the students o f this group passed
му падежу (чего?, кого?) the exams perfectly.
2. о (относительно) You must never think o f him badly.
with 1. Соответствует твори тель We write with pens.
ном у падежу (чем?)
2. С, вместе I went there with him.
3. От (удивления, страха) H er face was pale with fear.
by 1. Соответствует твори тель This poem was written by Pushkin.
ному падежу (кем?)
2. Место (возле, рядом) He was standing by the window.
3. Время (к каком у-мом енту) He had already com e by 3 p.m.
between М естополож ение (между T he father divided the apples
2 объектами) between his two sons.
among М естополож ение (между T he father divided the apples among
2 объектами) all his children.
except Кром е (за исклю чением тех, Everybody likes it except me.
(for) кто присутствует)
besides Кром е (помим о, по количест T here were five boys in the room
ву больш е присутствующих) besides me.
II. СОЮЗЫ
Союз Перевод Примеры
also тоже I live in this house, he also lives here.

and и You and I are busy.
a You are busy and I am free.
как As you know I live in Saint-Petersburg.
так как As he was busy he c o u ld n ’t come.
когда As I spoke to him, he was silent.
в качестве He works as an engineer.
no matter what что бы ни N o m atter teAar happens I’ll do it myself.
no matter way почем у бы ... ни No m atter why he was excused by the
как бы то ни было teachers.
He d id n ’t com e at 9 a.m. nor did he
cam e at 10 a.m.
424
Союз Перевод Примеры
now what теперь, когда Now what we became friends I can tell
you everything.
once раз (уже) Once we began this work, we must finish it.
on the contrary наобо рот T he text isn’t difficult at all,
on the contrary it’s very easy.
on the other hand с другой стороны The work is difficult, on the other hand
it’s very interesting.
with с I’d like to go to the theatre with you.
without без D o n ’t go outside without umbrella.
within * в пределах It’s within 5 minutes walk.
according to ... согласно чего-то According to the weather forecast it’s
going to rain.
owing to... благодаря чему-то, кому-то I t’s owing to you that I found this job.
in spite оГ.. несм отря на... T h e plain managed to land in spite o f
bad weather.
in terms of... с то чк и зр ения, в смысле Is it necessary to do in term s o f
business?
on behalf of... от имени I spoke on b eh a lf o f our family.
meanwhile тем временем L et’s, take tea meanwhile.
from now on... отны не From now on I will do it.
from time to time время от времени From tim e to tim e I visit this restaurant.
beyond вне, сверх T his wom an is beyond comparison.
whereas тогда как, поскольку Whereas I was doing my diploma she
studied at University.
at least по к райней мере I’m so hungry, I would eat a t least two
o r three hamburgers.
at last в к он ц е ко нцов I went to bed a t last.
as if, as though как будто (бы) I felt as i f I were there.
on condition при условии, что I would do it on condition you help me.
111. МЕСТОИМЕНИЯ
Личные местоимения Объективный падеж личных местоимений
Единственное число Множественное число Единственное чисто Множественное чисто
1. / - я 1.W e — мы 1. M e — меня, 1.U s — нас,

2. You — ты 2. You — вы мне нам
3. Н е — он 3. They — они 2. You — тебя, 2. You — вас,
She — о н а тебе вам
I t — оно 3. H im — его, ему 3. Them — их, им
(неодушевленное) H er — ее, ей
You are always welcome. I see her in the street.
Give her a cup o f coffee.
425
Притяжательные местоимения Абсолютная форма

притяжательных местоимений
Единственное число Множественное число Единственное число Множественное число
1. М у — мой 1. Our — ваш 1. M ine — мой 1. Ours — наш

2. Your — твой 2. Your — ваш 2. Yours — твой 2. Yours — ваш
3. H is — его 3. Their — их 3. H is — его 3. Their — их
H er — ее H ers — ее
Указательные местоимения Употребляю тся в разговоре дл я избе

ж ан и я повтора.
Единственное число Множественное число I ’ve lost ту pen. Will you lend т е yo urs?
(C an I borrow yours?)
This — это These — эти
That — то Those — те
That's a good idea! Those flowers
looked lovely.
Возвратные местоимения Собирательные местоимения
Единственное число Множественное число Everybody — все
1. M y self — я сам 1. Ourselves — мы Everything — все

2. Yourself — ты сам сами Everytim e — в сяк и й раз, всегда
3. H im self — он сам 2. Yourselves — вы Everywhere — везде
H erself — она сама сам и Everything — is not so bad!
3. Themselves —
о н и сами
IV. ТИПЫ ВОПРОСОВ
1. GENERAL QUESTION. Общий воп 2. ALTERNATIVE QUESTION. Альтер

рос нативный вопрос.
Задается ко всему предлож ен ию в ц е И м еет зн ач ени е выбора из двух лиц,
лом. Требует краткого ответа «Да» или предметов, действий и т. д., содерж ит
«Нет». П оря д ок слов обратны й. союз or.
Do you study English? Do you study English or French ?
Yes, / do. 1 study English.
No, I d o n ’t.
3. SPECIAL Q UESTION. Специальный 4. TAG-QUESTION. Разделительный

вопрос. вопрос.
Вопросы к каждому члену п редлож е Вопрос, требую щ ий подтверждения
ния; начинается с в опросительн ого с л о «не т ак ли ?», «не правда ли?». Он может
ва, п ор яд ок слов обратны й. строиться двум я способами:
Вопрос к подлеж ащ ем у Who? — кто? +, -г,? (1-я часть — утвердительное
строится по типу утвердительного пред предлож ение; 2-я часть — краткий о б
л ож ени я, сказуем ое выраж ается глаго щ ий отрицательны й вопрос);
лом в 3-м л и ц е, единственн ом числе. - , +, - , ? (1-я часть — отрицательное
предлож ение; 2-я часть — к раткий о б
Who studies English? щ ий вопрос).
426
Вопрос к определени ю подлеж ащ его Во второй части таких вопросов повто

тоже строится по типу утвердительного ряется тот глагол, которы й входит в с о
предлож ения. став сказуемого 1-й части.
M ia t — какой Ответы на такие вопросы нуж но давать
Which — который ож идаемы е.
Whose — чей How m any students You study English, don Vyou ? Yes,
study English ? I do. — Д а.
How much No, I d o n ’t. — Hem.
сколько You d o n ’t study English, do you ? Yes, /
Haw m a n y ---------- do. — Изучаю.
No, / don V. — He изучаю.
V. НЕПРАВИЛЬНЫЕ ГЛАГОЛЫ
Infinitive Past Simple Past Participle Present Participle Translation
abide abode, abided abode, abided abiding вы носи ть

arise arose arisen arising возни кать
awake awoke, awaked awoke, awaked awaking будить
be was/were been being быть
bear bore borne, b o m bearing носить
beat beat beaten, beat beating бить
becom e became becom e becom ing становиться
befall befell befallen befalling случаться
beget begot begotten begetting порож дать
begin began begun beginning начи нать
behold beheld beheld beholding смотреть,
созерцать
bend bent, bended bent, bended bending гнуть, сгибать
bereave bereft, bereaved bereft, bereaved bereaving л иш ать
beseech besought besought beseeching умолять,
просить
beset beset beset besetting осаждать,
окружать
bet bet, betted bet, betted betting держ ать пари
betake betook betaken betaking заставлять,
прибегать
bethink bethought bethought bethinking разм ы ш лять,
поразм ы сли ть
bid bade, bid bidden, bid bidding предлагать цену
(на аукционе)
bind bound bound binding с вязы вать
bite bit bitten, bit biting кусаться
bleed bied bled bleeding кровоточить
blend blended, blent blended, blent blending см еш ивать
bless blessed, blest blessed, blest blessing благословить
blow blew blown blowing дуть
break broke broken breaking ломать, разбивать
breed bred bred breeding размнож аться,
плодиться
bring brought brought bringing при но си ть
427
broadcast broadcast, broadcast, broadcasting трансл ировать

broadcasted broadcasted
build built build building строить
bu m burnt, burned burnt, burned burning жечь, гореть
burst burst burst bursting взрываться
buy bought bought buying покупать
cast cast cast casting бросать,
разбрасы вать
catch caught caught catching по й м ать
chide chid chidden, chud chiding бранить,
упрекать
choose chose chosen choosing вы бирать
cleave clove, clef, cloven, cleft cleaving раскалы вать(ся)
cleaved clove, cleaved
cling clung clung clinging цепляться
clothe clothed, clad clothed, clad clothing одевать
come came come coming приходить,
при езж ать
cost cost cost costing стоить
creep crept crept creeping ползать
crow crowed, crew crowed crowing издавать радост
ные звуки
cut cut cut cutting резать
deal dealt dealt dealing им еть дело
dig dug dug digging копать, рыть
do did done doing делать
draw drew drawn drawing рисовать, т ащ ить
dream dreamt, dream t, dream ing мечтать, видеть
dream ed dream ed во сне
drink d rank d run k drinking пи ть
drive drove driven driving водить
dwell dwelt(ed) dwelt(ed) dwelling прож ивать
eat ate eaten eating есть
fall fell fallen falling падать
feed fed fed feeding к орм ить(ся)
feel felt felt feeling чувствовать
fight fought fought fighting бороться, драться
find found found finding находить
fit fit fit fitting п р и сп о с а б л и
ваться
flee fled fled fleeing бежать, с п а
саться бегством
fling flung flung flinging ш вы рять, кидаться
fly flew flown flying летать
forbear forbore forborne forbearing воздерж иваться
forbid forbade, forbad forbidden .forbidding запрещ ать
forecast forecast, forecast, forecasting предсказы вать
forcasted forcasted
foreknow foreknew foreknow foreknowing зн ать заранее,
предвидеть
foresee foresaw foreseen foreseeing зн ать заранее,
предвидеть
428
foretell foretold foretold foretelling предсказывать,

предвещ ать
forget forgot forgotten forgetting забывать
forgive forgave forgiven forgiving прощ ать
forsake forsook forsaken forsaking оставлять,
покидать
forswear forswore forsworn forswearing отказы ваться,
отказаться
freeze froze frozen freezing замерзать,
зам ораж ивать
gainsay gainsaid gainsaid gainsaying противоречить,
возражать
get got got, getting получать,
gotten (am) доставлять
gild gilded, gilt gilded, gilt gilding золотить, п о к р ы
вать позолотой
give gave given giving давать
go went gone going идти, ходить
grind ground ground grinding молоть,
размалы вать
grow grew grown growing расти, становиться
hamstring hamstrung, hamstrung, hamstringing калечить,
hamstringed hamstringed портить
hang hung hung hanging вещать, висеть
have had had having иметь
hear heard heard hearing с лы ш ать
heave heaved, hove heaved, hove heaving поднимать
hew hewed hewn, hewed hewing рубить, раз
рубать
hide hid hidden, hid hiding прятать
hit hit hit hitting ударять
hold held held holding держать, содержать
hurt hurt hurt hurting уш ибить, п р и ч и
нять боль
inlay inlaid inlaid inlaying делать мозаичную
работу
keep kept kept keeping держать, хранить
kneel knelt, kneeled knelt, kneeled kneeling стоять на коленях
knit knitted, knit knitted, knit knitting вязать
know knew known knowing знать
lade laded laden, laded lading грузить
lay laid laid laying класть, положить
lead led led leading вести, руководить
lean leant, leaned leant, leaned leaning н аклоняться,
опираться
leap leapt, leaped leapt, leaped leaping прыгать, п од ск а
кивать
learn leam t, leaned leamt, leaned leaning изучать, учить
leave left left leaving покидать,
оставлять
lend lent lent lending давать взаймы
let let let letting позволять
429
lie lay lain lying леж ать

lie lied lied lying лгать
light lit lit lighting зажигать,
светить
lose lost lost losing терять
make made made making делать, изготав
лив ать
mean m eant m eant m eaning им еть в виду
meet met met meeting встречать
miscast miscast miscast miscasting неправил ьно р а с
пределять роли
misdeal misdealt misdealing misdealing поступать
неп р ав и л ьн о
misgive misgave misgiven misgiving внуш ать опасе
ние, недоверие
mislay mislaid mislaid mislaying полож ить не на
место, затерять
mislead misled misled misleading вводить в за
блуждение
misspell misspellt misspellt misspelling делать о р ф о г р а ф и
ческие ош и бк и
m isspend misspent misspent misspending неразум но, зря
тратить
mistake mistook mistaken mistaking ош ибаться
misunderstand m isunderstood m isunderstood m isun der н е п р а в и л ьн о
standing п о н я ть
mow m owed mown mowing косить, жать
outbid outbid outbid outbidding превзойти,
перещ еголять
outdo outdid outdone outdoing превзойти,
п реодолеть
outgrow outgrew outgrown outgrowing перерастать
outride outrode outridden outriding перегнать
outrun outran outrun outrunning опередить, обогнать
outshine outshone outshone outshining затм и ть
overbear overbore overborne overbearing пересиливать,
преодолевать
overcome overcame overcome overcom ing превозмочь,
преодолеть
overdo overdid ove rdone overdoing преодолеть,
поб ор оть
overhang overhung overhung overhanging выдаваться,
свеш иваться
overhear overheard overheard overhearing подслуш ивать
overlay overlaid overlaid overlaying перекры вать,
п о кры вать
overleap overleapt, overleapt, overleaping перепры гивать,
overleaped overleaped перескаки вать
override overrode overridden overriding отвергать,
переезж ать
overrun overran overrun overrunning наводнять,
расползаться
430
Infinitive Past Simple Past Participle | Present Participle Translation
oversee oversaw overseen overseeing надзирать,

наблюдать
overshoot overshot overshot overshooting промахнуться
oversleep overslept overslept oversleeping проспать
overtake overtook overtaken overtaking догонять,
наверсты вать
overthrow overthrew overthrown overthrowing опрокид ы вать(ся),
свергать
partake partook partaken partaking при ним ать участие
pay paid paid paying платить
put put put putting класть, полож ить
quit quitted, quit quitted, quit quitting сдаваться,
увольняться
read [ri:d] read [red] read [red] reading читать
rebind rebound rebound rebuilding снабж ать новы м
переплетом
rebuild rebuild rebuild rebuild снова построить,
восстанавливать
recast recast recast recasting переделывать, п е
рерабатывать
redo redid redone redoing делать вновь или
заново
relay relaid relaid relaying снова класть, п е
реклады вать
remake remade remade remaking переделы вать
rend rent rent rending отдирать, отрывать
repay repaid repaid repaying возвращ ать долг,
возм ещ ать ущерб
rerun rerun rerun rerunning повторно п о к а зы
вать
reset reset reset resetting набирать заново
retell retold retold retelling пересказы вать
rewrite rewrote rewritten rewriting п ереп исы вать
rid rid, ridded rid, ridded ridding освобождать,
избавлять
ride rode ridden riding кататься, ездить
верхом
ring rang rung ringing звони ть
rise rose risen rising вставать, п о д н и
маться
rive rived riven, rived riving разры вать(ся),
раскалы вать(ся)
run ran run running бегать
saw sawed sawn, sawed sawing пи ли ть
say said said saying сказать
see saw seen seeing видеть
seek sought sought seeking искать
sell sold sold selling продавать
send sent sent sending посы лать
set set set setting ставить, пом ещ ать
sew sewed sewn, sewed sewing шить, заш ивать
shake shook shaken shaking трясти, качать
431
shave shaved shaved, shaven shaving брить, сбривать

shear sheared, shore shorn, sheared shearing стричь, срезать
shed shed shed shedding проливать, лить
shine shone shone shedding светить, блестеть
shoe shod shod shoeing обувать
shoot shot shot shooting стрелять
show showed shown, showed showing показы вать
shrink shrank shrunk, srunken shrinking сж им аться, давать
усадку
shrive shrove shriven shriving исповедовать,
отпускать грехи
shut shut shut shutting затворить, з а к р ы
вать
sing sang sung singing петь
sink sank sunk, sunken sinking тонуть, опускаться
sit sat sat sitting сидеть
slay slew slain slaying убивать, у м ерщ
влять
sleep slept slept sleeping спать
slide slid slid, slidden sliding скол ь зи ть
sling slung slink slinging бросать, ш вы рять
slink slunk slunk slinking красться, ускол ь
зать
slit slit slit slitting разрезать вдоль,
рваться
smell smelt, smelled smelt, smelled smelling пахнуть
smite sm ote smitten smiting ударять, бить
sow sowed sown, sowed sowing сеять
speak spoke spoken speaking говорить
speed sped sped speeding пр евы ш ать с к о
рость
spell spelt, spelled spelt, spelled spelling пр о и зн о с и ть по
буквам
spend spent spent spending тратить, проводить
время
spill spilt, spilled spilt, spilled spilled проливать(ся),
рассы паться
spin spun, span spun spinning прясть, крутить,
вращ ать
spit spit, spat spit, spat spitting плевать(ся)
split split split splitting раскалы вать, д е
л и т ь на части
spoil spoilt, spoiled spoilt, spoiled spoiling портить, баловать
spread spread spread spreading р асп р остран ять
spring sprang sprung springing прыгать, давать
течь
stand stood stood standing стоять
stave staved, stove staved, stove staving пробить, разбить
steal stole stolen stealing красть, воровать
stick stuck stuck sticking наклеивать,
застревать
sting stung stung stinging ж алить, жечь
432
stink stank stunk stinking вонять, смердеть

strew strewed strewn, strewed strewing разбрасывать, раз
бры згивать
stride strode, strided stridden striding ш агать больш им и
шагами
strike struck struck, stricken striking ударять, поражать,
бастовать
string strung strung stringing снабжать струной,
тетивой
strive strove striven striving стремиться
sunburn sunburnt, sunburnt, sunburning загорать; о б ж и
sunburned sunburned гаться на солнце
swear swore sworn swearing клясться
sweep swept swept sweeping подметать
swell swelled swollen, swelling расти, увеличи
swelled ваться
swim swam swum swimming плавать
swing swung swung swinging качаться, коле
баться
take took taken taking брать
teach taught taught teaching учить, преподавать
tear tore to m tearing рвать, разрывать
tell told told telling рассказы вать
think thought thought thinking думать
thrive throve, thrived thriven, thrived thriving процветать, п р е
успевать
throw threw thrown throwing бросать
thrust thrust thrust thrusting толкать(ся),
тыкать
tread trod trodden treading ступать, шагать
unbend undent unbent unbending вы прям лять(ся),
разгибать(ся)
unbind unbo und unbo und unbinding развязывать;
ослаблять
underbid underbid underbidden, underbidding сбить цену
underbid
undergo underw ent undergone undergoing испытывать,
перен оси ть
understand understood understood understanding пон им ать
undertake undertook undertaken undertaking предпри ним ать,
брать на себя
undo undid undone undoing развязывать,
расстегивать
unwind unw ound unw ound unwinding разматывать(ся),
раскручивать(ся)
upset upset upset upsetting опрокиды вать,
расстраивать
wake woke woken waking просы паться,
будить
waylay waylaid waylaid waylaying подстерегать, уст
раивать засаду
wear wore worn wearing носить
433
Inlinitive Past Simple Past Participle Present Participle Translation
weave wove woven weaving ткать, плести,

сплетать
wed wedded, wed wedded, wed wedding ж ениться, выйти
замуж
weep wept wept weeping плакать
wet wet, wetted wet, wetted wetting нам очить
win won won winning выиграть, побе
дить
wind wound wound winding виться, мотать
withdraw withdrew withdrawn withdrawing отдергивать, за б и
рать
withhold withheld withheld withholding отказывать, воз
держ иваться
W ithstand withstood withstood withstanding выстоять, вы дер
жать
wring wrung wrung wringing скручивать, в ы ж и
мать
write wrote written writing писать
VI. НАИБОЛЕЕ УПОТРЕБИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕФИКСЫ
Префикс — Значение — Примеры
АВ, abs, а — away from: е. g. abnorm al, avert, abstract.

A D (a, ac, af, ag, al, an, ap, ar, as, at) — to: e. g. adjoin, ascend, accede, affix, aggravate,
alleviate, annex, a ppend, arrive, assimilate, attain.
A M BI, am phi — both: e. g. ambidexterous, am phibian, amphibious.
A N T E — before: anteced ent, antediluvian, anticipate.
A N TI — against: e. g. antidote, antipathy, anti-aircraft, antiseptic.
A R C H — leader, chief: e. g. Archangel, Archbishop.
A R C H A E — ancient: e. g. archaeologist, archaic.
A U T O — self: e. g. autobiography, automobile.
B E N E — well: e. g. benefactor, benevolent.
BI, bis — two, twice: e. g. bisect, bilingual, biennial.
CATA, cath — down, throughout: e. g. cataract, catapult, catholic.
C I R C U M — round: e. g. circumference, circumnavigate, circumlocution.
CIS — on this side: e. g. cis-alpine.
C O N (со, com , col, cor) — with, together: e. g. co nnect, cooperate, combine,
collaborate, corroborate.
C O N T R A , cou nter — against: e. g. contradict, contravene, counteract, controvert.
D E — down, away from: e. g. descend, dethrone, degenerate, deflect, detract.
D E C A — ten: e. g. decagon, decalogue.
D E M I — half: e. g. demi-god.
D IA — through: e. g. diameter, diagonal.
DIS, dia — in two: e. g. dissyllable.
DIS (di, diff) — apart, asunder: e. g. differ, dispel, divert.
434
DYS — ill: e. g. dysentery.
EP1 — upon: e. g. epitaph.
EQUI — equal: e. g. equidistant, equivalent, equilibrium.
EU — well: e. g. eulogy, euphony.
EX, ec — out of, from: e. g. exodus, exhume, exclude, excavate, eccentric.
EX — former: e. g. ex-policem an, ex-soldier, ex-convict.
EXTRA — beyond: e. g. extraordinary.
F O R E — before: e. g. foretell, forefinger, forehead.
HEM1 — half: e. g. hemisphere.
H E PT A — seven: e. g. heptagon, heptarchy.
H E T E R O — different: e. g. heterogeneous, heterodox.
HEXA — six: e. g. hexagon, hexameter.
H O M O — the same: e. g. hom ogeneous, hom onym .
HY PE R — beyond, above: e. g. hyperbole, hyper-sensitive.
HY PO — under: e. g. hypothesis.
IN (ig, il, im, ir) — not: (These are used before adjectives) e. g. invisible, ignoble, illegal,
impure, irregular.
IN (il, im, ir, em, en) — into: (These are used before verbs) e. g. inject, illustrate, import,
irrigate, encourage, embrace.
IN T E R — between: e. g. intervene, intermediate, intercept.
IN T R O — within: e. g. introduce.
JU X T A — near to: e. g. juxtaposition.
MAL, male — bad: e. g. malefactor, malediction, malice, malcontent.
M E T A — change: e. g. m etaphor, metamorphosis, m etonymy.
M IS — wrong: e. g. mislead, miscount.
M O N O — alone, one: e. g. m onarch, m onoplane, monologue.
N E , non — not: e. g. nonsense, negation.
OB (o, oc, of, op) — against, in the way of: e. g. obstacle, abnoxious, om it, occasion,
offend, oppose.
O M N I — all, universal: e. g. om nipotent, om niscience, omnivorous.
PARA, par — beside: e. g. parallel, parable.
P E N E — almost: e. g. peninsula.
P E N T A — five: e. g. pentagon.
P E R — through, thoroughly: e. g. perfect, percolate.
PERI — around: e. g. perimeter.
POLY — many: e. g. polygamist, polygon, polysyllabic.
P O ST — after: e. g. posthum ous, post-m ortem , postscript.
PRE — before: e. g. predecessor, preamble, precede.
P R E T E R — beyond: e. g. preternatural.
P R O — for: e. g. pro noun, produce, propel.
PRO — before: e. g. prologue, prognosticate.
P S E U D O — sham: e. g. pseudonym.
RE — back, again: e. g. rediscover, react, rejoin, remit.
R E T R O — backwards: e. g. retrograde, retrospect.
SE — aside, apart: e. g. seclude, seduce, separate.
SE M I — half: e. g. semicircle, semicolon.
S IN E — without: e. g. sinecure.
SU B — under: e. g. subm arine, subordinate, subterranean.
435
S U P E R — above: e. g. superhum an, supernatural, superm an, superfine.
SU R — above: e. g. surmount.
T R A N S — across: e. g. transport, transmit, transatlantic.
T RI — three: e. g. triangle, tripod, triple, tricycle.
U L T R A — beyond: e. g. ultra-m od em , ultra-violet, ultra-m undane.
V ICE — in place of, for: e. g. viceroy, vice-ceptain, vice-president.
VII. ФОНЕТИЧЕСКИЕ СИМВОЛЫ АНГЛИЙСКИХ СОГЛАСНЫХ,

ГЛАСНЫХ И ДИФТОНГОВ
CONSONANTS VOWELS AND D IPHTH ON GS
Phonetic Examples Phonetic Examples

Symbol Symbol
p pen pen put put i: these di:z three 9ri:

b bag bag box boks i this ois sit sit
t ten ten put put e desk desk head hed
d desk desk head hed a hat hat back bak
к come клт back bak a: arm a:m glass gla:s
g go gou bag bag 0 box boks clock klok
m m outh m au8 him him o: wall wo:l draw dro:
n name neim near nia u book buk put put
n coming ’kAmiri English ’ifiglil u: who hu: too, two tu:
1 look luk letter ’leta Л come клт rub глЬ
f face feis knife naif a: her ha: word w a:d
V five faiv knives naivz a the da under Anda
0 three 9 r i: m outh mau8 ei face feis name neim

Э these di:z they dei ou go gou nose nouz
s six siks face feis ai five faiv eye ai
z nose nouz his hiz au m o uth maud down daun
1 she Ji: fish fil oi boy boi point point
3 pleasure ’р1езэ measure ’т е з э ia here hia near nia
r right rait rub глЬ ea chair tjea where we a
tl touch tAtJ teacher ’ti:tj э ua you’re ua poor pua
d3 J, j d3ei Joh n d3 on
w window windou what wot
j you ju: yes jes
CONTENTS
От а вт о р а ........................................................................................................................................... 5
Secti o n I. LAND R E S O U R C E S AND M A JO R U S E S O F L A N D ........................... 7

Unit I. L A N D A N D L A N D USE P L A N N I N G ............................................................... 7
Unit 2. T H E L A N D A N D ITS USES IN G R E A T B R I T A I N .................................... 12
Unit 3. M A JOR U S ES O F L A N D IN T H E U S A ............................................................ 19
Unit 4. C A N A D A ’S M A JOR L A N D U S E S ....................................................................... 24
Unit 5. A U ST R A L IA ’S A N D N E W Z E A L A N D ’S M A JOR L A N D U S E S 30
Unit 6. L A N D R E S O U R C E S O F S O U T H -E A S T A S I A .............................................. 37
Unit 7. A F R IC A ’S M A JOR L A N D U S E S ......................................................................... 43
Unit 8. MAJOR L A N D U S ES IN LATIN A M E R I C A .................................................. 49
S e c t i o n II. F R O M T H E H IS T O R Y O F LAND U S E P L A N N I N G .......................... 55

U n i t 9. AN E N G L IS H V IL L A G E L O N G , L O N G A G O ............................................. 55
U n i t 10. T H E L EG A C Y O F T H E P A S T .............................................................................. 63
U n i t 11. T H E R E L IC S O F T H E P A S T ............................................................................... 69
U n i t 12. T H E U R B A N C O W H O U S E ................................................................................... 73
U n i t 13. F R O M T H E H IS T O R Y O F T H E F A R M S T E A D IN G R E A T
B R I T A I N ............................................................................................................................................... 79
U n i t 14. F R O M T H E H IS T O R Y O F L A N D M A N A G E M E N T ................................ 84
U n i t 15. F R O M T H E H IS T O R Y O F L A N D M A N A G E M E N T IN R U S S I A 90
Secti on III. LAND E V A L U A TIO N ....................................................................................... 97

Unit 16. W H A T DO WE N E E D L A N D CA D A ST R E F O R ? ....................................... 97
Unit 17. S IG N I F IC A N C E O F L A N D R E N T ..................................................................... 103
Unit 18. L A N D USE A L L O C A T IO N A N D L A N D R E N T ........................................... 108
Unit 19. N A T U R A L L IM IT S O N T H E L A N D S U P P L Y ...............................................114
Unit 20. L A N D C L A S S I F I C A T I O N ........................................................................................120
Unit 21. SO IL SU RVEY A N D L A N D USE P L A N N I N G ............................................. 124
Secti on IV. RURAL LAND U S E P L A N N I N G ....................................................................132

Unit 22. L A N D R E S O U R C E S FO R F A R M I N G ...............................................................132
Unit 23. A G R IC U L T U R A L P R O D U C T IO N A N D L A N D R E S O U R C E S ............136
Unit 24. T YPES O F F A R M I N G ...............................................................................................141
437
U n i t 25. L O C A T IO N FA C TO R IN R U R A L P L A N N I N G ............................................ 146
U n i t 26. T H E S T R U C T U R E O F A G R IC U L T U R E IN G R E A T BRITA IN
T O D A Y .....................................................................................................................................................152
U n i t 27. T H E R IC H E ST L A N D O W N IN G FAMILY O F ALL T H E R O Y A L S 159
U n i t 28. F A R M IN G IN T H E U.S.A ........................................................................................ 167
U n i t 29. R U R A L C O M M U N IC A T I O N S S Y S T E M S ........................................................172
Secti on V. URBAN LAND U S E S ............................................................................................179

Unit 30. U R B A N P L A N N I N G ................................................................................................ 179
Unit 31. L O C A T IO N O F C I T I E S .............................................................................................185
Unit 32. U R B A N L A N D USE P A T T E R N S ......................................................................... 192
Unit 33. U R B A N L A N D D E V E L O P M E N T ......................................................................... 197
Unit 34. L O C A T IO N F A C T O R S IN URBA N L A N D USE P L A N N I N G .............. 204
Unit 35. L A N D FA CTO R IN IN D U S T R IA L L A N D U S E ............................................209
Unit 36. L A N D USE P L A N N I N G FO R I N D U S T R IA L AREAS .............................. 215
Unit 37. B U S IN E S S A N D C O M M E R C IA L L O C A T I O N S ...........................................220
S e c t i o n VI. E N V IR O N M E N T A L A S PE C T O F LAND U S E .......................................226

U n i t 38. L A N D USE P L A N N I N G A N D E N V I R O N M E N T .........................................226
U n i t 39. U R B A N IZ A T IO N A N D E N V IR O N M E N T ......................................................232
U n i t 40. PR E S E R V A T IO N O F L A N D R E S O U R C E S .................................................... 237
U n i t 41. E N V IR O N M E N T A L A S P E C T S O F L A N D USE A N D
C R O P P I N G PA T T E R N S ................................................................................................................ 244
U n i t 42. E N V IR O N M E N T A L A S P E C T S O F SO IL-W A T ER P R O B L E M S 249
U n i t 43. SO IL C O N S E R V A T I O N ............................................................................................ 256
U n i t 44. SO IL C O N S E R V A T IO N IN T H E C O U N T R I E S
O F E A ST E R N E U R O P E ................................................................................................................. 261
U n i t 45. SO IL P O L L U T IO N C O N T R O L ............................................................................. 268
U n i t 46. A U ST R A L IA N L A N D D E G R A D A T IO N A N D ITS C O N T R O L ..............274
U n i t 47. T H E F O R M A T IO N O F N O N - A G R I C U L T U R A L L A N D U S E S ......... 280
U n i t 48. W A TER D E V E L O P M E N T P R O B L E M S ............................................................287
U n i t 49. E C O L O G Y A N D E N V I R O N M E N T .....................................................................293
U n i t 50. T H E D E R E L IC T L A N D PR O B L E M S ................................................................299
U n i t 51. T R A N S F O R M A T IO N O F A R ID L A N D S ..........................................................305
U n i t 52. LAND USE IN AREAS O F NEWLY O R G A N IZ E D IM P R O V E M E N T ... 310
U n i t 53. L A N D R E S T O R E D FO R R E C R E A T I O N ..........................................................316
Secti on VII. TO W N PL A N N IN G IN A C T I O N ................................................................. 323

Unit 54. T H E C E N T R E L A N C A S H IR E P R O J E C T .......................................................323
Unit 55. T H E L A N D USE B U D G E T (PA RT I) ..............................................................329
Unit 56. T H E L A N D USE B U D G E T (PA R T I I ) ............................................................ 333
Unit 57. T H E PA T T E R N O F PH Y SIC A L D E V E L O P M E N T AT 2001 ................. 338
Unit 58. T H E PA T T E R N O F T H E T O W N S H I P ’S G R O W T H ................................. 343
Unit 59. T H E P A T T E R N O F T R A N S P O R T D E V E L O P M E N T ...............................348
Unit 60. L A N D S C A P E A N D R E C R E A T I O N .....................................................................354
Section V III. ГРАММ АТИЧЕСКИЙ С П РА В О Ч Н И К .............................................. 361
438
О Б Щ И Е П О Л О Ж Е Н И Я ................................................................................................................361
1. О собенности грам матического строя а нгли йского я з ы к а ................................ 361
2. С ло вообр азо ван ие и с л о в о и зм ен ен и е .......................................................................... 361
3. Роль строевых слов в грам матическом строе а нгли йского я з ы к а ..................362
М О Р Ф О Л О Г И Я .................................................................................................................................. 363
4. И мя сущ ествительн ое.......................................................................................................... 363
5. А рти к л ь....................................................................................................................................... 363
6. О б разование м нож ественного числа им ен и с у щ е с т в и т е л ь н о го ..................... 370
7. Категория ро д а ........................................................................................................................ 371
8. С истем а вы раж ен ия падежных о т н о ш е н и й .............................................................372
9. С ловообразован ие имен с у щ е с т в и т е л ь н ы х .............................................................. 374
10. И м я прилагательное. С тепени с р а в н е н и я .............................................................. 375
11. С ловообразован ие им ен п р и л а г а т е л ь н ы х ............................................................... 376
12. И м я ч и сл и тель н ое............................................................................................................... 378
13. М е с то и м е н и е..........................................................................................................................381
14. Г лагол........................................................................................................................................ 384
15. В идо-врем ен ны е ф о р м ы англи йского глагола. З а л о г .......................................387
16. С традательны й залог (The Passive V o i c e ) .................................................................387
17. О сновны е м орф о л оги чески е ф о р м ы глагола и их о б р а з о в а н и е ...................389
18. У потребление времен глагола в действительном з а л о г е ..................................390
19. М одальны е глаголы (M odal V e r b s ) ............................................................................. 393
20. Э квиваленты модальных г л а г о л о в ............................................................................. 396
21. И н ф и н и т и в (The In fin itiv e)............................................................................................ 397
22. И н ф и н и ти в н ы е о б о р о т ы ................................................................................................. 398
23. Герундий. The G e r u n d ......................................................................................................399
24. Употребление герундия и и н ф и н и ти в а в английском я з ы к е ........................400
25. Н аречие (The A d v e r b ) ....................................................................................................... 401
С И Н Т А К С И С .....................................................................................................................................402
26. П ор яд ок слов в простом п р е д л о ж е н и и .................................................................... 402
27. О борот there + to b e ...........................................................................................................403
28. Обороты: it is (was...) who ( t h a t ) ................................................................................... 404
29. Слож ное предлож ение .................................................................................................... 405
30. Виды придаточны х п р е д л о ж е н и й ............................................................................... 406
31. П ридаточны е доп олн и тел ьн ы е предлож ения .......................................................407
32. П ридаточны е обстоятельственны е п р е д л о ж е н и я ............................................... 410
33. О собенности обстоятельственны х придаточных предлож ений врем ени
и у с л о в и я ................................................................................................................................ 411
34. Употребление придаточных условных п р е д л о ж е н и й ........................................412
35. Определительны е придаточные п р е д л о ж е н и я ..................................................... 413
36. Грамм атические к онструкци и, р а вн о значны е придаточны м предло
ж ен и я м ....................................................................................................................................414
37. Г ерундиальны е о б о р о т ы .................................................................................................. 415
38. О б ъектны й и н ф и н и т и в н ы й оборот (слож ное д о п о л н е н и е ) .......................... 416
39. Объектны й о б о р о т е при частиям и (Participle I, Participle I I ) ........................417
40. С убъектны й и н ф и н и т и в н ы й оборот или слож ное п о д л е ж а щ е е ..................418
41. Грам матические тр ан с ф о р м а ц и и при п е р е в о д е ...................................................418
439
П Р И Л О Ж Е Н И Я ...................................................................................................................... 423
I. Н аиболее употребительные предлоги .................................................................................423

II. С о ю з ы ...............................................................................................................................................424
III. М е с т о и м е н и я ...............................................................................................................................425
IV. Т и п ы в о п р о с о в ............................................................................................................................ 426
V. Н еправильны е глаголы .............................................................................................................. 427
VI. Наиболее употребительные п р е ф и к с ы ............................................................................435
VII. Ф онетич еск ие сим волы англи йски х согласны х, гласных и д и ф т о н г о в 437
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НАДЕЖДА АФАНАСЬЕВНА ТИТАРЕНКО бо
лее 30 лет преподает английский язык в Госу
дарственном университете по звмлеустрог
За эти годы ею подготовлены сотни студентов и
аспирантов, которым она помогла получить не
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ствования и использования в практической ра
боте
Помимо активной педагогической деятельно
сти Н. А. Титэреико отдает много сил разработ
ке и утверждению профессиональной термино
логии Так, в 2007 г. в издательстве -КолосС-
вышел в свет подготовленный ею в соавторстве
с Ю. Г. Ивановым »Англо-русский словарь по
а- *-»
землеустройству». В том же году в сборнике
«■Проблемы региональной экологии* № 6 опуб
ликована ее очередная статья по проблемам
терминологии землеустройства в законодательных актах РФ и некото
рых научных работах
У Надежды Афанасьевны Титэреико много интересных творческих
планов.
П ож елаем ей Удачи)
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нальной лексикой и активизация словарного запа
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от пассивного перевода текстов на родной язык н
активному использованию профессиональной
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О- В Шаталова,
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ISBN 9?B-S.95J2-0M2-1
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а — adjective — им я прилагательное п — noun - сущ ествительное

III. Pronounce correctly:

VI. Read the text. Translate it into Russian in written form.

VII. Give the Russian equivalents:

X. Give the Russian equivalents. Write down a few short sentences

XI. Make the sentences negative.

XIII. Translate the following sentences into English:

XV. Write down the antonyms.

XVI. Read and discuss the dialogues in class.

Dialogue B. What do We Call «Land» ?

III. Pronounce correctly:

IV. Read the text and translate it into Russian.

VII. Give the Russian equivalents.

X. Give the Russian equivalents. Write down a few short sentences

XIII. Translate the following sentences into English:

XV. Write down the antonyms.

IV. Read the text and translate it into Russian.

VII. Give the Russian equivalents.

XI. Write down 6 questions using text 3B.

XIII. Translate the following sentences into English:

III. Pronounce correctly:

IV. Read the text and translate it into Russian.

VI. Read the text. Translate it into Russian in written form.

VII. Give the Russian equivalents:

X. Give the Russian equivalents. Write down a few short sentences

XI. Write down 6 questions using the 4B.

XIII. Translate the following sentences into English:

XVI. Read the text and discuss it in class.

III. Pronounce correctly:

IV. Read the text and translate it into Russian.

X. Give the Russian equivalents. Write down a few short sentences

XI. Write down 6 questions using text 5B.

XIII. Translate the following sentences into English.

XV. Write down the antonyms:

XVI. Read the text and discuss it in class.

III. Pronounce correctly:

IV. Read the text and translate it into Russian.

VII. Give the Russian equivalents:

X. Give the Russian equivalents. Write down a few short sentences

XI. Write down 6 questions using text 6B.

XIII. Translate the following sentences into English:

XVI. Read the text and discuss it in class.

III. Pronounce correctly:

IV. Read the text and translate it into Russian.

VI. Read the text. Translate it into Russian in written form.

X. Give the Russian equivalents. Write down a few short sentences

XI. Write down 6 questions using text 7B.

XIII. Translate the following sentences into English:

XV. Write down the antonyms:

XVI. Read the text and discuss it in class.

IV. Read the text and translate it into Russian.

V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in

VII. Give the Russian equivalents:

X. Give the Russian equivalents. Write down a few short sentences

Р е ц е н з е н т ы : кандидат ф и лологически х наук О. В. Ш аталова (М ГОУ), к ан д и

Данное учебное пособие предназначено для тех, кто владеет о с