н д, ТИТАРЕНКО
АНГЛИЙСКИЙ
СТРОИТЕЛЕЙ
землЕУС
I —
N. A. TITARENKO
ENGLISH
FOR
LAND USE PLANNERS
Moscow
KolosS Publishing House
2010
| Д | _______________
УЧЕБНИКИ И УЧЕБНЫЕ ПОСОБИЯ ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ
ВЫСШИХ УЧЕБНЫХ ЗАВЕДЕНИЙ
Н. А. ТИТАРЕНКО
АНГЛИЙСКИЙ
ДЛЯ
ЗЕМЛЕУСТРОИТЕЛЕЙ
Титаренко Н. А.
Т39 Английский для землеустроителей. English for Land Use
Planners. — М.: КолосС, 2010. — 440 с. — (Учебники и учеб.
пособия для студентов высш. учеб. заведений).
ISBN 9 7 8 - 5 - 9 5 3 2 - 0 6 9 2 - 1
УДК 811.111(075.8)
ББК 81.2 Англ-923
Список сокращений
Unit 1
LAND AND LAND USE PLANNING
I. Vocabulary notes:
wealth n богатство
land 1 л 1 . земля, суша, берег; 2. материк; 3. страна, государство;
4. земельный участок, земельная собственность; 5. почва; II v при
земляться
land resources земельные ресурсы
ownership п 1. собственность; 2. владение
environment п окружающая среда
provide v снабжать, обеспечивать
till v обрабатывать землю
farmer п крестьянин, фермер, сельский труженик
peasant п крестьянин
belong v принадлежать
private а частный
lease I n i . аренда; 2. договор об аренде; 3. срок аренды; II v сда
вать внаем, в аренду
use I п применение, использование; II v 1. использовать; 2. эк с
плуатировать
produce v производить
II. Underline the suffixes with the help of which the following nouns
are formed and translate the words into Russian:
speaker, owner, reader, builder, worker, dreamer, farmer, planner,
factor, founder, inventor, producer, provider.
7
ГУ. Read the text and translate it into Russian.
Text 1A. Why is Land Valued so High?
History speaks of the high regard with which m an viewed land in
times past. The ancient Greeks prayed to an earth goddess. Most wars
were fought for possession o f land. Prime land resources were the
ownership of the ailing classes. The rights on land were the key factor
that determined the economic, social and political status of people.
Land was o f basic importance for it provided m an with living space
and with raw materials. People looked to land for their environment and
food they ate. Land provided them with housing and building sites.
Land is many things to m any persons: to the townsman — a place to
build his house on, to the child — a playground, to the poet — a theme
o f his poetry. And still many among us are not clearly aware of any land
use problems.
To a land use planner land is not only the soil under his feet and the
materials in that soil. To him it is the slope that determines the ease of
cultivation, the sunlight and rain that plants need. Land is also the bays
along the coasts and the falls o f the streams, which permit the
generation o f electricity. Land is the field to grow crops, and the river on
which grain and industrial products are carried.
Land is the soil and climate that make timber in the Far East, wheat
in the Ukraine, cotton in Uzbekistan and pastures in Vologda.
Land in the land use planning sense is our entire natural
environment. It is the productive force o f the greatest importance.
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text IB. The Land Use Planner and His Work
Land has m uch to do with our needs and the way we fulfil them.
Many o f our activities are devoted to getting the basic items of food,
shelter, and clothing. We need highways and automobiles, forests and
railways and many other things, it is likely that if we had all that we
could list, new wants would arise. And again we would be faced with the
problem o f how to satisfy them.
Land is necessary to satisfy m a n ’s needs. The people’s needs can be
satisfied only if we secure the best uses of land resources.
it is true that no progress in satisfaction the needs o f m an can be
made if no labor is applied, if we want to live better we must work
better. N o progress can be made if labor is applied without intelligence.
The land use planner is to secure wise iand uses.
W hen we approach a familiar city after a year’s absence, we now
expect to see housing developments on land. We observe that old
buildings are being demolished to permit new constructions.
The land use planner must decide whether to use a tract for a home
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site or for crops, or whether to use a valley to produce corn. He is to
decide whether to use the river bottom -land for growing tomatoes and
cabbage. He is to be aware of the ability of land to satisfy wants when it
is used for pasture or when it is used for wheat. He must know its
productivity in each use. He must know many things about the land
ability.
The land use planner determines which acreages to employ in each
land use. He decides whether the land should be used now or later and
how it must be used. He plans the living centres and the field patterns
and many other services that land can supply. He must consider the best
uses o f the land.
The land use planner determines not only the productivity o f land.
He has to distinguish between the physical productivity and the
economic productivity o f the land. He is to know the productivity o f the
land itself and that o f labor, capital and other resources. The general
principle is: each hectare of land should be given to the use in which its
economic productivity is the highest.
EXERCISES
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text IB:
1. To get the basic items o f food, shelter and clothing we .... 2. If we
secure the best uses o f land resources .... 3. We expect to see new
housing developments when .... 4. The land use planner determines
which a c rea g es.... 5. The land use planner must decide whether to use a
tract .... 6. Each hectare o f land must be used ....
XII. Insert the proper words from text 1A. Translate the sentences
into Russian.
1. F o r ... land is a place to build his house on.
2. Land is not only the ... under our feet.
3. Plants need ... and rain.
4. The falls o f the streams ... the generation o f electricity.
5. Wheat ... in the Ukraine, and cotton ... in Uzbekistan.
6. The farmers use land ... wheat, cotton and other crops.
Unit 2
THE LAND AND ITS USES IN GREAT BRITAIN
I. Vocabulary notes:
compare v сравнивать, сопоставлять
major а больший, значительный
devote v 1. посвящать, 2. отводить под
relate v относиться
labour n труд
employ v 1. употреблять (время, энергию); 2. назначить, держать
на службе
agriculture п сельское хозяйство
forestry п 1. лесоведение; 2. лесное хозяйство
fishing п рыболовство
sea-born а рожденный морем, морской
sea-borne а перевозимый морем, морской
supply v снабжать, обеспечивать
access п доступ, вход, проход
arable а пахотный, пригодный для возделывания
permanent а 1. постоянный, неизменный; 2. долговременный
pasture п пастбище
rough а грубый (о поверхности), щероховатый
graze v 1. щипать траву; 2. держать на подножном корме; 3. па
сти (сь); 4. содрать кожу
poultry п домашняя птица
kindred п родня, клан / / а родственный
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II. Underline the suffixes with the help of which the following nouns
are formed and translate the words into Russian:
devotion, portion, population, nation, production, foundation,
invention, exception, vegetation, variation, formation, cultivation,
irrigation, relation.
V. Read the text. Write down 6 question and answer them in English.
Text 2B. Five Basic Areas o f G reat Britain
Britain can be divided into five basic geographic areas. London, the
capital, is in the south of England. The city lies on the Thames, 64 km
from its outflow into the N o rth Sea. The port o f London is the largest in
the world in terms of freight-handling capacity. The active sea-borne
trade, coupled with its status as the capital city, has stimulated the
development o f a diversified municipal economy in London and turned
it into Britain’s main political, commercial, financial, industrial,
transport and cultural centre.
The southeast is com m only known as the G arden of England. The
abundance of sunshine and minimal precipitation, com pared with the
rest o f the country, have turned this part o f Britain into the main
producer of grain and industrial crops. The hom e counties around
London have thriving market gardening and fruit-growing industries.
The part o f southern England adjoining the English Channel has a
flourishing livestock-farming industry. On the southern coast lie naval
bases, seaside resorts and major ports, including S outham pton, Britain’s
largest passenger port.
14
The central part of Britain has developed the world’s earliest coal
mining and factory industries: iron-and-steel, metal-working and textile
manufacture. In recent years recultivation work has begun on bringing
the lands ruined by coal mining and iron ore workings in the Black
country back into agricultural production.
The mountainous parts o f Wales are dom inated by waste lands, while
southern Wales is densely populated and has well-developed industries.
However, most o f them are old-established and have long been
stagnating.
In Scotland a major industrial area has grown up around Glasgow.
Britain’s largest shipyards accounting for half the launched tonnage lie
on the Clyde. This industrial area with predominantly old-established
industries is also in decline. The mountainous part of Scotland has a
sparse population and the local farmers carry on sheep-breeding. In
eastern Scotland and along the coastal strip dairy-farming and fishing
are the predominant occupations. Extensive tracts of wasteland in
Scotland are privately-owned hunting grounds. Edinburgh is Scotland’s
administrative and cultural centre.
Ulster is the least developed part o f G reat Britain. It’s economy is
dominated by farming. The bulk of the agricultural land is owned by
Englishmen, while most o f the local Irish farmers are landless
smallholders and tenants.
VI. Read the text and translate it into Russian in written form.
Text 2C. M ajor Uses o f Land in Scotland
Scotland, administrative division of the kingdom o f Great Britain,
occupying the northern third o f the island o f Great Britain. Scotland is
bounded in the north by the Atlantic Ocean; in the east by the North
Sea; in the southeast by England; in the south by Solway Firth, which
partly separates it from England, and by the Irish Sea; and in the west by
North Channel, which separates it from Ireland, and by the Atlantic
Ocean. As a geopolitical entity Scotland includes 186 nearby islands, a
majority o f which are contained in three groups namely, the Hebrides,
also known as the Western Islands, situated off the western coast; the
Orkney Islands, situated off the northeastern coast; and the Shetland
Islands, situated northeast o f the Orkney Islands. The largest o f the
other islands is the Island of Arran. The area, including the islands, is
78,772 sq km (30,414 sq mi). Edinburgh (population, 1991, 421,213) is
the capital of Scotland as well as a major industrial area and seaport.
Scotland has a very irregular coastline. The western coast in
particular is deeply penetrated by numerous arms o f the sea, most of
which are narrow submerged valleys, known locally as sea lochs, and by
a num ber o f broad indentations, generally called firths. The principal
firths are the Firth o f Lome, the Firth o f Clyde, and Solway Firth. The
15
major indentations on the eastern coast are D ornoch Firth, Moray
Firth, the Firth o f Tay, and the Firth o f Forth. Measured around the
various firths and lochs, the coastline o f Scotland is about 3700 km
long.
More than three-fourths o f the land is used for agriculture;
approximately equal areas are devoted to farming and grazing. The most
important crops are wheat, oats, and potatoes. Other crops include
barley, turnips, and fruit. Livestock and livestock products are also of
major importance. Sheep are raised in both the Highlands and island
groups and the Southern Uplands. Scotland is also known for its beef
and dairy cattle and for its dairy products.
About 607,000 hectares o f Scotland is forested, 60 percent o f which
is publicly owned. In Scotland Fishing is more important than forestry.
The principal Fishing ports are Aberdeen, Peterhead, Fraserburgh, and
Lerwick. The catch consists mainly o f whiteFish, herring, crabs, and
lobsters.
EXERCISES
VIII. Open the brackets by using the verbs in the correct form.
1. London (to be) in the south of England.
2. The city (to lie) on the Thames.
3. The home counties around London (to have) thriving market
gardening and fruit-growing industries.
4. The central part o f Britain (to develop) the world’s earliest
industries.
5. English (to own) the bulk o f the agricultural land, most o f the local
Irish farmers (to be) tenants and landless small holders.
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words form text 2C:
1. Scotland occupies ... 2. Scotland is bounded on the west by North
Channel which separates... 3. The largest of the other islands i s ... 4. More
that three fourths of the land is used for ... 5. Livestock and livestock
products are ... 6. Scotland is also known for its...
XII. Insert the proper words from unit 2. Translate the sentences into
Russian.
1. In Britain there are about 12 ... hectares under crops and grass.
2. The area ... for farming is gradually decreasing to meet the needs
of housing and industry.
3. The southeast is com m only known as the ... of England.
4. The ... part o f Wales are dominated by waste lands while Southern
Wales is densely populated and has well — developed industries.
5. In Scotland a m a j o r ... area has grown up around Glasgow.
6. Ulster is the ... developed part o f G reat Britain.
XIV. Write down what parts of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russian.
1. The nation must import more than three — fifths of the food
supply for its large population.
2. The import o f food product is im portant for Britain.
3. Agricultural land varies considerably throughout Britain.
4. Land areas are quite good for farming.
5. The planes landed every five minutes.
6. The western coast is deeply penetrated by numerous arms of the
sea.
7. The sea-borne trade has stimulated the development o f a
diversified municipal economy in London.
8. On the southern coast naval bases and seaside resorts lie.
9. You may tell lies about this country, but no students will believe
you: they visit it twice a year.
10. Every visit is quite lucky.
ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫ Й 17
УН И ВЕРСИ ТЕТ
по З ЕМ Л Е У С ТР О Й С ТВ У
НАУЧНАЯ БИБЛИОТЕКА
УЧ ЕТН А Я К АРТОЧКА
XVI. Read the text and discuss the problems in class.
Text 2D. B ritain’s Agricultural System
The prevailing natural conditions in Britain favour livestock-farming
more than crop growing. The typically maritime climate does not allow
wheat to be grown everywhere. In parts o f Britain lying over 600 metres
above sea level and in western England wheat fails to ripen because of
excess humidity. On the other hand, natural grasslands and meadows
stay green all the year round throughout Britain.
Britain’s agricultural system is dom inated by big landowners and
some big industrialists and merchants who own the bulk of the
agricultural land part o f which is used as hunting grounds, sports
grounds and parks. As a rule the landowners do not carry on farming
themselves prefering to leave it to tenant farmers. The tenant farmers
account for the bulk o f total agricultural produce. They also own the
greater part o f the livestock population.
Livestock farming is the leading sector o f British agriculture (cattle-
breeding, sheep breeding, pig and poultry breeding). The natural
meadows are enriched with fertilisers and grassland cultivation is
practised. Apart from that, natural fodder is supplemented by mixed
feeding and root vegetables. Cattle are only kept in stands for a short
period in winter. Dairy-farming predominates.
Crop-growing is mainly maintained to supply livestock with adequate
fodder. Two-thirds of the total sown area is under fodder crops (root
vegetables and grass). The principal grain crops are wheat, oats and
barley. Sugar beet is the main industrial crop. Market gardening and
orcharding are thriving industries supplying the cities with fresh
vegetables and fruit.
The fishing industry plays a prominent role in Britain’s economy.
The main fishing ports lie on the eastern coast in close proximity to
Dogger Bank in the N orth Sea which is one of Europe’s richest fisheries.
On the whole, the countries o f Northern and Central Europe have
efficient agriculture. The farms here employ intensive farming practices
and sell the bulk o f their produce on the market in the Netherlands and
Denmark. Livestock is bred mainly for milk and meat. The principal
crop is wheat. Rye, barley, sugar beet, potatoes, flax and fodder grasses
are also important. Most o f these countries, however, have to import
food grains and animal fodder. Some have developed market gardening
(in Iceland market gardeners use hot springs and geysers to heat their
hothouses). Norway and Iceland are dependent on their fishing
industries for their economic survival. Iceland catches an estimated six
tons o f fish (mainly herring) per capita a year and exports almost the
entire catch.
The agriculture o f South European countries is somewhat
underdeveloped and is dom inated by large landowners. The M edi
18
terranean climate allows the growing o f rice, cotton, tobacco, olives,
grapes, citrus — fruits and other warm-season fruits vegetables. These
crops take up the best lands (specially irrigated lands) that stretch along
the coast in a narrow strip. Almost all are marketable crops. The bulk o f
the arable land away from the coast is under grain and leguminous
crops, but because o f antiquated, inefficient farming methods and dry
soil the crop yields are low. Animal husbandry is carried on by extensive
methods.
Unit 3
MAJOR USES OF LAND IN THE USA
I. Vocabulary notes:
region n регион, область
pattern n 1. узор, рисунок; 2. модель
crop n 1. сельскохозяйственная культура; 2. урожай (на корню);
3. жатва; 4. посев; 5. зоб (у птицы)
rotation п севооборот
crop v обрезать; косить, стричь; собирать урожай
reflect v отражать
soil п почва
vast а об ш и рны й
prevalent а преобладаю щий
topography п топография
precipitation п осадки
arid а безводный, сухой; бесплодный (о почве)
semiarid а засушливый
grow v расти, выращивать
plough v пахать
plow {am) п плуг
corn п зерно
fodder п корм для животных
grain п 1. зерно; 2. хлебные злаки; 3. единица веса, равная
0,0648 г
rice п рис
heavy grain тяжелое зерно (пш еница, рожь, кукуруза)
maize п кукуруза
sorgum п сорго
II. Underline the suffixes with the help of which the following nouns
are formed and translate the words into Russian:
topography, geography, photography, demography, quality, quantity,
identity, unity, reality, variety, validity, fertility.
19
III. Pronounce correctly:
a [ei] data, relation, irrigation, plantation, grazing, place,
precipitation, labour, made, lake
b u t ate, many, any
ea [i:] wheat, meat, mean
b u t deaf, great, wealth
th [0] thick, thing, beneath, tenth, method, growth
[ct] bathe, these, this, that, those
VI. Read the text and translate it into Russian in written form.
Text 3C. Other Uses o f Land in the USA
Nearly a third o f the area of the United States, 731 million acres, is
forested, including an estimated 83 million acres in parks and related
special uses. Total forest land increased 10 million acres during 1982—
87, almost all o f the increase due to adjustment in the estimated forest
land in the interior o f Alaska. Forest-use land minus areas used
primarily for parks and other special uses-declined 7 million acres to
648 million.
Land in special uses increased from 270 million acres in 1982 to
279 million acres in 1987. The total includes transportation areas,
26 million; Federal and State parks, wilderness, and wildlife areas,
225 million; national defense and related areas, 21 million; and
farmsteads and farm roads, 7 million. More than half o f the total acreage
for this category, including about 11 percent o f the 1982—87 increase, is
in Alaska, where large acreages o f Federal land have been set aside for
parks and wildlife refuges. Approximately 83 million acres o f the 1987
total were forested and overlapped with the 731 million acres classed as
total forest land.
21
Urban areas were not inventoried in 1987. They are grouped with
other miscellaneous unclassified areas. However, land in urban areas, as
measured by the decennial censuses of population, totaled 47 million
acres in 1980. The census of population measure of urban area includes
substantial acreage of open land within places classified as urban but
excludes acreage in places with fewer than 2,500 inhabitants. Between
1970 and 1980, urban area reported by the census of population
increased an average o f 1.3 million acres per year. Estimated 1987 U.S.
urban land reached nearly 57 million acres, based on the trend in
historic use o f land per capita in urban areas (based on 1960,1970,
a n d 1980 data) and the 1987 population. This estim ate implies an
increase in urban area, averaging 1.3 million acres per year since
1980.
O ther estimates o f the rate of urbanization based directly on changes
in developed land are smaller, as little as 740,000 acres per year.
Subsequent estimates o f land in urban areas from the 1990 census may
also be lower than estimated in this report.
EXERCISES
VIII. Open the brackets by using the verbs in the correct form.
1. Forest land (to account) for about a third o f the N a tion’s total
area.
2. Crop growing in the USA (to provide) large quantities of many
different grain and industrial crops, vegetables and fruits.
3. Proportions of cropland (to be) vastly different in the Northeast
and the C orn Belt.
4. Livestock products (to contribute) to thirds o f the total marketable
agricultural produce.
5. Poultry-farming (to be) a thriving industry.
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text 3C.
1. Total forest land increased 10 million areas during ...
2. In 1987 urban areas were not ...
3. U.S. urban land reached nearly 57 million ...
4. More than half of the total acreage for this category is in ...
5. The census exclude acreage in places with fewer than 2,500 ...
6. The report estimates changes in land use of the ...
22
X. Give the Russian equivalents. Write down a few short sentences
with the following word combinations:
livestock fanning, marketable agricultural produce, well-developed
crop-growing, cattle farming, sheep breeding, poultry farming, Southern
States, principal crops.
XII. Insert the proper words from unit 3. Translate the sentences into
Russian.
1. The USA has a ... area of nearly 2,3 billion areas.
2. The crop land acreage has been relatively ...since 1969.
3. All grass land pasture and ... accounted for about 656 million
areas.
4. Many areas of grass land pasture and nonforested range were ...
primarily for livestock grazing.
5. Urban areas are ... with other miscellaneous unclassified areas.
XIV. Write down what parts of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russia.
1. More than a half of the total acreage for this category, including
about 11 percent of the 1982—87 increase is in Alaska.
2. They considerably increase the acreage of forest lands in this
region.
3. The special group estimates an increase of poultry production in
the area.
4. The census of population measure of urban area includes
substantial acreage of open land within places classified as urban ones.
5. They can measure the acreage of these territories during two
weeks.
6. Other estimates of the rate of urbanization are based directly on
changes in developed land.
7. This will change the quality of crop production in this area.
23
/
XV. Write down the antonyms.
Non-forested, great, fast, arid, low, steady, increase, fast,
everywhere, largest.
XVI. Read and discuss the problems in class. Compare the situation
discussed in the article with that of your own country.
Text 3D. Climatic conditions in the USA
There are few areas in continental USA unsuitable for cultivation.
Those include the high m ountain areas in the Rocky Mountains and
Appalachians, and swamplands in the coastal strip along the Atlantic
coast. In the states o f Alaska and Hawaii considerable tracts are unfit for
cultivation and econom ic development.
Climatic conditions vary widely. In some natural zones the vegetative
period is short, which inhibits the range o f agricultural crops that can be
grown. But in the country as a whole all tem perate-zone crops and
many subtropical and tropical crops can be cultivated. The rather dry
climate in the Central and Great plains makes irrigation and land
improvement necessary. The flow o f rivers and subterranean waters are
used for irrigation.
Black-earth and chestnut soils in the dry steppes and forest-steppes,
the red earth in the coastal lowlands and alluvial soils which occur over
wide areas have a relatively high natural fertility. In the mountainous
areas the soils arc less fertile.
The once extensive forests have nearly all been felled. There are still
extensive forestlands, however, in Alaska and in the Rocky Mountains.
Unit 4
CANADA’S MAJOR LAND USES
I. Vocabulary notes:
average n средняя величина
а средний, обычный
v высвободить среднее число; делать средний вывод
size п размер
countryside п 1. сельская местность; 2. округа; 3. местное населе
ние
huddle п толпа, суматоха / / v толпиться, собираться в каком-
либо месте, тесниться
hospitable а гостеприимный
resident п житель
province п п ровинция
flat а плоский
prairie п прерия, степь, покрытая травой, луг
24
tend v стремиться
wealth n богатство
abundant а обильны й
wheat n п ш ен и ц а
barley n ячмень
advanced а передовой
profit n прибыль, выгода
arboreal а древесны й, древовидный
arboriculture n лесоводство, разведение деревьев
arboriculturist n лесовод
wax and wane изменяться, то увеличиваясь, то уменьшаясь
II. Underline the suffixes with the help of which the following
adjectives are formed and translate the words into Russian.
hospitable, profitable, arable, renewable, marketable, remarkable,
predictable, reasonable.
/
Ontario and Quebec are collectively termed central Canada,
although Canadians will often refer to this area as eastern Canada.
The provinces, from east to west, are Newfoundland, Nova Scotia,
Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba,
Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia. The territories are the
Northwest Territories and the Yukon.
The state is a constitutional m onarchy and the capital is Ottawa,
Ontario. There are two official languages in the country — English and
French. A movement within Quebec, the one predominantly French
province, to separate from Canada and form a new country, has waxed
and waned since the mid — 1960s.
Canada is a young country with great potential and a people working
to forge a distinct national identity while struggling to hold the parts
together.
Canadians enjoy the high standard o f living that major Western
countries are accustomed to and tend to take for granted. Income and
em ploym ent has fallen over the past 10 years so maintaining the wealth
experienced by the previous generation is becoming ever more difficult,
even elusive. Today nearly half the work force is wom en and by far the
majority o f households have two incomes, often by necessity.
The Canadian econom y is based, as it always has been, on abundant
natural resources. These natural renewable and nonrenewable riches
include fish, timber and wood products, minerals, natural gas, oil and
hydroelectricity. Although only 5% of the land is arable, the agricultural
sector, primarily in wheat and barley, accounts for much o f the
Canadian export total.
C an ad a’s agriculture is highly advanced and profitable. It is
dom inated by market relations with the larger farmers making wide use
of hired labour, machinery and chemical fertilisers.
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 4B. Canada’s M ajor Land Uses
Almost half C a n ad a’s territory consists o f forests. About one-third of
the country’s total area consists of permafrost and lands unfit for
cultivation. A mere 5 per cent o f the total area is arable.
Dairy and beef cattle are the basic branches of C an a d a ’s agriculture
and provide two-thirds of the total marketable produce. Dairy cattle
predominates in the area around the Great Lakes, while beef cattle are
to be found in the prairies.
Crop growing is also important. Canada is one of the world’s largest
producers and exporters o f wheat, which is grown in the prairies, the
country ’s wheat belt.
Commercial orchards and market gardening are well developed in
the eastern provinces. Apple-tree orchards stretch in a continuous strip
26
along the course o f the St. Lawrence. There are many tobacco
plantations on the shores o f the Great Lakes as well as peach, apricot
plantations and vineyards.
Canada has three major vegetation zones: forests, grasslands, and
tundras. The natural forests occupy the largest area.
Trees have played a great role in the historical development of
Canada and continue to be o f commercial, environmental and aesthetic
importance to all Canadians.
The eastern forests o f the Great Lakes — St. Lawrence lowlands and
the Appalachian Region — have both deciduos trees and coniferous
trees. Such deciduous trees as sugar maple and beech and coniferous
trees such as yellow line, white and red pine, and hemlock grow here.
The boreal (northern) coniferous forest, also called the taiga,
stretches across the continent from Newfoundland to the Alaska border
and makes up four fifth o f all Canadian forestland. The taiga covers the
southern part o f the Canadian Shield and stretches from the border with
Alaska to the Atlantic coast. It is second in size only to the boreal forests
of our country. Deciduous trees, or those that shed their leaves, cannot
survive in a climate with very low average January temperatures. So, the
boreal forest is made up almost entirely o f coniferous, or evergreen,
trees. These forests supply C an ad a’s pulp and paper and forest products
industries. They include white and black spruces and white birches,
balsam poplar and tamarack, and balsam fir, jack pine.
Taiga, yields to the tundra, where it is too cold for trees o f any kind
to survive. This is the land where only lichens and mosses can grow.
Lichens and mosses are plants that follow a cycle o f a short period of
growth, followed by a long period o f dormancy. Various grasses and
flowers are also found here. There are no trees here, but dwarf, often
berry-bearing shrubs survive in sheltered places. This is C anada’s most
fragile environment. There is a danger that commercial exploitation o f
the Arctic resources may cause serious and irreparable damage. To the
North from the boreal forests lies a transitional zone of scattered
coniferous forest and muskeg (swamp).
EXERCISES
VIII. Open the brackets by using the verbs in the correct form.
1. Nearly 90 % of Canadians (to huddle) along the southern border
with the USA.
2. The country (to make) up of 10 provinces and two northern
territories.
3. Many years ago Quebec (to be) a French province.
4. A movement within Quebec to separate from Canada (to wax and
wane) since the mid 1960s.
5. Canadians (to enjoy) a high standard of living.
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IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text 4C:
1. The great forests zone is situated along the Pacific...
2. Small wooded areas may be found in southern...
3. Some areas in the South of Canada are two dry to support the
growth of dense...
4. Maple has become the m ost-prom inent Canadian...
5. Maples sustain the maple sugar...
6. The maple tree was officially proclaimed the national amblem of...
XII. Insert the proper words from unit 4. Translate the sentences into
Russian.
1. Canada is the... largest country in the world.
2. The four eastern coastal provinces are known as... Provinces.
3. The Canadian econom y is based on... natural resources.
4. Only... o f land is arable.
5. C an ad a’s agriculture is highly... and profitable.
XIV. Write down what part of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russian.
1. In the countryside the population is very thinly spread.
2. This bread spread is made o f meat and vegetables.
3. The three general flat mid-western provinces are the prairies.
4. Most population live in houses, only a small portion live in flats.
5. Western countries are accustomed to high standards o f living.
6. This is a book about C an ad a’s traditions, customs and festivals.
7. With the exception of four species, native maples are large trees.
Natives enjoy living in these forests.
29
XV. Write down the antonyms:
thin, warmest, hospitable, best, northern, western, province, to
separate, wax, to enjoy
Uni t 5
AUSTRALIA’S AND NEW ZEALAND’S MAJOR LAND USES
I. Vocabulary notes:
occupy v занимать (территорию)
whole а целый
include v включать
isolate v изолировать
а изолированны й
30
frontier n граница
remote а отдаленный
neighbour n сосед
inhibit v заселять (территорию)
freeze v морозить, замораживать
favour v благоприятствовать / / n благоприятный
impose v производить впечатление, облагать налогом
restrict v ограничивать
drought п засуха
remain v оставаться, пребывать
perish v исчезать
lack п недостаток, недостаточное количество
severe а суровый (о климате)
marsupial а сумчатый / / п сумчатое животное
II. Underline the suffixes with the help of which the following
objectives are formed and translate the words into Russian:
tropical, subtropical, total, several, central, potential, natural,
pastoral, mineral, marsupial.
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 5B. New Zealand
Part I
New Zealand, an island nation in the middle latitudes o f the
Southern Hemisphere, is the most physically isolated o f the advance
industrialized countries. Its nearest neighbour, Australia, is some
1.900 km (1,200 mi) to the northwest. New Zealand is bordered by the
Tasm an Sea on the west and the South Pacific Ocean on the east. The
country is about the size o f Colorado and larger than G reat Britain. It
comprises two main islands, the North Island (114.469 sq km/44,197 sq
mi); and numerous tiny islands and islets, including the Antipodes
Islands and the Auckland Islands.
The two major islands o f New Zealand, which are separated by the
narrow Cook Strait, would be considered parts o f two separate
continents. The N orth Island and the northwest corner o f the South
island are carried o n the same continental plate as India and Australia,
while the South island is on the Pacific plate.
Scientists believe that New Zealand was once part o f a super
continent known as G ondw analand and that its flora and fauna evolved
in isolation for more than 100 million years after this land mass broke
apart. Some 84 % o f the country’s native plants are found nowhere else.
32
They include two of the world’s oldest known plant forms, the puka and
the kauri tree. The latter can live for 200 years and is second in size only
to the sequoia; the few remaining are now protected by law. T o d ay ’s
forests are dom inated by evergreen beech and conifers.
New Z ealand’s most fertile soils are found in the Canterbury Plains
near Christ church and the Southland-Otego alluvial plains at the
southern end o f the South Island.
New Z ealand’s rivers and lakes support more than 50 species o f
freshwater fish, and sport fishing is a popular tourist attraction. The
country also has an important coastal fishing industry. Forestry products
are another important source of income. The Monterey pine grows
exceptionally well in New Zealand and is a major source o f timber.
VI. Read the text and translate it into Russian in written form.
Text 5C. New Zealand
Part I I
Although fewer than 1 % o f New Zealand’s people are farmers,
agricultural production has generated most o f the nation’s wealth. New
Zealand is the world’s third largest producer and second largest exporter
of wool and produces approximately 50% of the world’s lamb and
m utton exports. Sheep in New Zealand outnum ber people by nearly 20
to 1. There are also more than million cattle, and the country is the
world’s largest and most efficient exporter of dairy products. New
Zealand is also a major exporter o f fresh fruit, beef and fish. The
government is funding research to make farming more efficient and
adaptable to world market trends. The strategy is to grow, make, and
market anything the climate will support and a world market will buy.
Thus, the emphasis is on marketing food for specialized markets rather
than on bulk exporting.
With all the sheep, cattle and farms you see around New Zealand
(New Zealand is reckoned to have around 68 million sheep and two
million cattle) agriculture is not surprisingly an important part of the
economy. In strictly dollar amounts it accounts for only about 10 % of
the entire G D P (Gross Domestic Product) and employs about the same
percentage of the total workforce, but 53 % o f all land in the country is
devoted to pasture land, and agricultural products such as sheep, cattle
fish and forestry products are N Z ’s chief exports. Farming is a scientific
proposition in New Zealand, with research constantly carried out and
the most m odem scientific farming methods used.
Principal exports are meat (with beef and veal bringing in slightly
more revenue than lamb and mutton), dairy products, fish, forest
products (primarily pine logs and timber products from nonnative
trees), fruits (especially kiwi fruit, apples and pears) and vegetables in
that order. Main imports are machinery and mechanical appliances,
33
electrical machinery and equipment, motor vehicles and a variety of
manufactured goods.
New Zealand has a m odem , prosperous, developed economy with an
estimated G D P of US$ 106 billion (as of 2006). The country had a high
standard of living with a G D P per capita of US$ 24,943 in 2006 (U nited
States US$ 44,190; Spain US$ 27,767). Since 2000 New Zealand has
made substantial gains in median household income. New Zealand,
along with Australia, largely escaped the early 2000s recession that
impacted upon most other advanced countries. The combination of high
growth in New Zealans, along with negative growth in United States,
has allowed New Zealand to slode the income gap. As o f 2006, New
Zealand’s median household income (PPP) was only 17 % less than in
the United States.
New Zealanders have a high level of life satisfaction as measured by
international surveys. The country was ranked 20th on the 2006 Hum an
Development Index and 15th in Те Econom ist’s 2005 world-wide
quality-of-life index. The country was further ranked 1st in life
satisfaction and 5th in overall prosperity in the 2007 Legatum Institute
prosperity index. In addition, the 2007 Mercer Quality of Living Survey
ranked Auckland on its 5th place and Wellington on the 12th place in
the world.
The tertiary sector is the largest sector in the econom y (68.8 % of
G D P ) , followed by the secondary sector (26.9 % of G D P ) and the
primary sector (4.3 % of G D P ).
New Zealand is a country heavily dependent on trade, particularly in
agricultural products. Exports accound for around 24 % of its output,
which is a relatively high figure (it is around 50 % for may smaller
European countries. This makes New Zealand particularly vulnerable to
international com m odity prices and global economic slowdowns. Its
principal export industries are agriculture, horticulture, fishing and
forestry. These make up about half o f the country’s exports. Its major
export partners are Australia 20.5 %, US 13.1 %, Japan 10,3 %, China
5.4 %, U K 4.9 % (2006).
Tourism plays a significant role in New Zealand ’s economy. Tourism
contributes $12.8 billion (or 8.9 %) to New Z ealand’s total G D P and
supports nearly 200,000 full-time equivalent jobs (9.9 % o f the total
workforce in New Zealand). Tourists to New Zealand are expected to
increase at a rate o f 4 % annually over the next 6 years.
EXERCISES
VII. Give the Russian equivalents:
whole continent, many smaller islands, clothest neighbour, land
frontiers, developed countries, temperate zone, low precipitation,
torrential rains, desert land and small farmers.
34
VIII. Open the brackets by using the verbs in the correct form.
1. Australia (to isolate) from the rest of the world and has no land
frontiers.
2. The jet age (to bring) Australia closer to the rest of the world.
3. Air temperatures (to drop) below freezing any where in Australia at
any time of year.
4. Over 60% of the total area of the country (to have) no rivers.
5. The small farmers (to be) unable to operate when droughts
happened.
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text 5C.
1. Agricultural production in New Zealand has generated most of...
2. New Zealand is also a major exporter o f wool and produces...
3. New Zealand is also a major exporter o f fresh fruit...
4. The strategy is to grow, make and market anything the climate...
5. Marketing food is more important than...
6. New Zealand enjoys a standard o f living...
XII. Insert the proper words from unit 5. Translate the sentences into
Russian.
1. The ... rains wash away roads an d destroy bridges.
2. Rivers and lakes appear only during the raining season and...laten.
3. If they are to be productive the soils ... fertilizing and irrigation.
4. Many different ... characterize Australia’s animal kingdom.
5. Wheat, timber and many kinds o f fruit are grown in Australia and
wine i s ...
Uni t 6
LAND RESOURCES OF SOUTH-EAST ASIA
I. Vocabulary notes:
prevail v преобладать, господствовать
sow v сеять
harvest v убирать урожай / / n время уборки урожая, уборка уро
жая
irrigate v орошать
scale п школа, масштаб
launch v запускать / / п запуск
solve v решать
purchase v приобретать, покупать
predominate v преобладать, господствовать
sharecropper n ферм ер с долевым участием
alleviate v облегчать, смягчать
boost v усилить, поддержать
loan v давать взаймы, ссужать / / п ссуда, заем
enable v дать возможность
legume п зелень, бобовые культуры
millet п просо
jute п джут
drought animal тягловый скот, рабочий скот
II. Underline the suflices with the help of which the following objective
are formed and translate the words into Russian.
periodic, problematic, historic, logic, Slavic, energetic, mechanic,
heroic, idiomatic, economic (but economical).
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 6B. Intensive Use o f Land in Japan
Japan’s natural conditions favour agriculture. The slopes o f J a p a n ’s
medium-altitude mountains are covered with moderately fertile podzol
and brown forest soils. Given sufficient fertiliser enrichment, these soils
can provide high crop yields. The coastal plains with the very fertile soils
based on alluvial deposits have long been cultivated. Virgin lands only
remain on Hokkaido. Elsewhere the towns and cities have been
extending their limits and market gardening has been expanding as
drainage schemes have replaced swamps and river deltas with new tracts
o f cultivatable land and lagoons, and shallow spots o f the continental
shelf have been filled.
As the islands o f Japan are strung out along the meridian the climate
in Japan varies widely. On Hokkaido and northern Honshu the
vegetative period lasts 120 to 140 days. Crop-growing is mainly centred
on crops specially evolved to fit the prevailing climate, for example
hardy cold-resistant varieties of rice. In central Honshu the warm winter
makes it possible to grow winter crops, while the long and hot sum m er
allows the cultivation o f rice. In southern H onshu and on Kyushu and
Shikoku citrus crops are grown.
J a p a n ’s present agricultural system has been largely shaped by the land
reform carried out after the Second World War. Japan’s agriculture has a
typical capitalist character. O n the one hand large farms are expanding,
while on the other smallholders go bankrupt in growing numbers.
39
Specialisation in Ja p a n ’s agriculture differs in significant respects
from other industrialised capitalist countries. Japanese agriculture is
based on crop-growing the value of whose output is twice that of
livestock-farming. Even so livestock-farming, particularly dairy -
farming in the suburban areas, is making rapid strides.
Ja p a n ’s intensive crop-growing is noted for its high crop yields.
Annual output has risen markedly in recent years, even though the area
under crops has remained static. Agriculture is much mechanised.
Japanese industry takes the very specific natural conditions into account
and supplies small-size machinery to the farmers. The large farms own
the bulk of the agricultural machinery, while smallholders use far less
machinery and generally on a co-operative basis. Irrigation schemes are
widespread.
Rice is Ja p a n ’s principal crop occupying over 50 per cent o f the total
sown area. Rice is grown all over Japan, and mostly in paddy fields. The
central an d southern areas of Honshu produce the bulk of the
marketable rice. Wheat, rye and barley are grown in northern Honshu
and on Hokkaido. But Japan is not self-sufficient in these food grains.
Vegetable- and fruit-farming is developed in the suburban zones. Other
major crops include industrial crops such as sugar beet, soybeans,
tobacco, oil-bearing plants and tea.
Flower-growing is a traditional occupation in Japan.
VI. Read the text and translate it into Russian in written form.
Text 6C. China's M ajor L and Uses
Only about 13 per cent of C h in a’s agricultural land is under
cultivation. Most of the eastern areas have been put under the plough,
though these lands have been sown with the same crops for centuries
and are badly in need of fertilisers. In the west only limited tracts o f land
lying within river valleys, in inter-m ountain basins and in oases are
cultivated. These am ount to roughly one per cent o f the territory. In
most areas o f China crop production far and away exceeds livestock-
farming in terms o f the value o f its produce. Grain crops take up
80 percent of the total sown areas. Rice is the staple grain crop grown in
irrigated paddies, which occupy 60 per cent o f the total ploughland. In
the Yangzi valley and in the south of the country, the principal
ricegrowing area, two harvests a year are not uncom m on.
Wheat production, particularly winter wheat, is only a quarter o f that
o f rice. The Huanghe basin and the G reat Chinese Plain are the chief
wheat growing areas. Potatoes, sweet-potatoes, vegetables and fruit are
grown all over the eastern part of China and are an important addition
to the diet. Cotton is the most important industrial Crop. Cotton is
grown in the Huanghe and Yangzi basins as well as in oases of western
China. For over 2,000 years hundreds of different varieties o f tea have
40
been grown on the terraced tea plantations in southeastern and southern
China.
Livestock-breeding is of secondary importance. Although China has
a large herd of livestock, it is still behind many countries in per capita
terms. In the east horse-breeding is o f prim importance (northeastern
China), cows, bulls, donkeys and mules are also bred, while to the south
of the Yangzi buffaloes are raised (for use on rice-paddies). Pigbreeding
and poultry-farming are also of major importance. Dairy-farming is
practically non-existent. Cows are used as draught animals in the fields.
In western China extensive pasture stock-breeding is predominant,
notably the rearing of sheep and goats as well as of horses, cattle and
camels.
Agriculture is vital as it supplies food to C hina’s huge population.
Agriculture supplies Chinese industry with half the raw materials it
needs, and provides over two-thirds o f the total value of goods for home
and abroad. However China is not self-sufficient in agricultural
produce, especially in food grains. Little model technology is employed
in Chinese agriculture. The use o f agricultural machinery and the
application o f fertilisers is limited, and as a result crop yields are not
very high.
All areas of China have raw materials for the chemical industries. In
the northeast and in the north coke and sulphuric acid (using sulphurous
waste from the iron-and-steel industry), fertilisers, soda and liquid fuel
from shale and oil are produced. In the Yangzi valley fertiliser
production is the dom inant industry, while the accent in the north-west
is on oil refining.
EXERCISES
VIII. Open the brackets by using the verbs in the correct form.
1. In India they (to solve) the problems o f irrigation.
2. Indian agriculture (to dominate) by crop growing.
3. India (to have) the world’s largest herb o f cattle.
4. Vegetable oil (to replace) animal fats in most areas.
5. Animal husbandary (to be) widespread in the north-west o f India.
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text 6C.
1- In China only 13 % of agricultural land is ...
2. Grain crops take up 80 % of the total ...
3. Cotton is the most important industrial crop grown in ...
41
4. Hundreds o f different varieties o f tea have been grown on the
terraced tea plantations in ...
5. Cows are used as draught a n i m a l s ...
6. All areas o f China have raw materials for the chemical ...
XII. Insert the proper words from unit 6. Translate the sentences into
Russian.
1. The... plains with the very fertile soils based on alluvial deposits
have long been cultivated.
2. As the islands o f Japan are strung out along the... the climate of
Japan varies widely.
3. The land reform in Japan was... after the Second World War.
4. Ja p a n ’s ... crop growing is recognized for its high crop yields.
5. Rice is grown all over Japan, and mostly in... fields.
XIV. Write down what part of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russian.
1. In India they have two seasons for agricultural work: they sow in
May and harvest in October.
2. October is their harvest time.
3. That cow yielded only 10 litres o f milk a day.
4. The yields o f millet are very high in this part o f the country.
5. The principal oil bearing plants are rape, castor — bean plant and
ground nut.
6. They plant all kinds o f exotic species in their botanic gardens.
42
XV. Write down the antonyms:
lowlands, irrigate, fertile, high, shallow, typical, rapid, urban,
include, good
Unit 7
AFRICA’S MAJOR LAND USES
I. Vocabulary notes:
till v обрабатывать, возделывать (землю)
implement n приспособление
wooden а деревян н ы й
suffer v страдать
erosion n эрозия
43
trend v стремиться / / n тенденция, направление
expand v расширять (ся)
plot v распределять, делить на участки / / п участок, надел (земли)
process v обрабатывать / / п процесс
esparto grass испанский камыш
staple п главный, основной (предмет торговли)
rain forest тропический лес
bedrock п краеугольный камень, основной принцип
remain v оставаться
distribute v распределять
estate п поместье
tribe п племя, клан
nomad п кочевник
nomadic а кочевой, кочующий
nomedize v кочевать
II. Underline the suffixes with the help of which the following
adjectives are formed and translate the words into Russian:
important, prominent, dependent, instant, different, independent,
efficient, sufficient.
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 7B. Land Relations are Extremely Varied in Africa
Agriculture is the bedrock of the African countries’ economies. It
employs roughly two-thirds o f the working population.
Agrarian relations in Africa are extremely varied. A salient feature of
these relations is the coexistence of precapitalist and capitalist forms of
exploitation and o f different forms of landownership and land tenure. In
most developing countries the pattern of agrarian relations remains the
same even after independence. But in some countries considerable
social changes have occurred. In N orth Africa in colonial times a
sizeable part o f the land was in the hands o f European colonialists and
of banks and foreign companies. After independence most o f this land
was nationalised, with the remainder being distributed among the
peasants and agricultural co-operatives. At the same time landowners’
estates were left untouched and there are still many subsistence farms.
Algeria, which is actively remodeling its agriculture along socialist
lines, is a fine example.
In most East and Central African countries there is still communal
(tribal) landownership whereby the land is tilled by the tribe it belongs
to. Large tracts o f land are taken up by plantations where hired labour
and sometimes forced labour is widely used. In some countries the state
has nationalised part o f the land owned by foreigners (sisal plantations
45
and those of other crops), while the rest is distributed among the
smallholders and agricultural co-operatives. In most West African
countries there were relatively few foreign-owned plantations. The
foreign companies bought up the agricultural produce from the peasants.
Today a proportion o f the peasants are united in co-operatives.
In some African countries the state controls water management and
conservation and water supplies. But in most others the peasants are still
heavily dependent economically on the planters, landowners and tribal
chiefs.
EXERCISES
VII. Give the Russian equivalents:
developing countries, important sector, primitive implements,
wooden plough, tropical forest zone, soil erosion, labour productivity,
African countries, grain crops, main source, foreign exchange.
46
VIII. Open the brackets by using the verbs in the correct form.
1. Many years ago peasants in Africa (to have) to till their land with
primitive implements, and even now they (to use) the wooden plough
and the hoe.
2. The c u t-a n d -b u m systems of cultivation (to be) still widespread in
the savannah and tropical forest zone.
3. The acreage o f land under food crops, particularly grain crops (to
expand) constantly.
4. In N orth Africa after independence most of the land (to
nationalize).
5. At the same time large landowners estates (to leave) untouched.
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text 7C:
1. In Africa stock-raising is predominantly ...
2. In many African countries the vast majority of the animals are...
3. The tse-tse fly, the carrier of sleeping sickness is very dangerous
both for...
4. Only one-fifth o f the total population of Africa live in ...
5.The typical-sized village in Tropical Africa is...
6. Small urban settlements as a rule serve as...
XII. Insert the proper words from unit 7. Translate the sentences into
Russian.
1. The... export crops in west, central and East Africa are cocoa
beans, ground nuts, oil palm, fruit and coffee.
2. The... system of cultivation is widespread in tropical forest zone.
3. Sorghum, millet, maize rice, manioc, sweet potatoes, yams,
mango and pawpaw trees are the... crops in Tropical Africa.
4. In some African countries...control water management and ...
supplies.
5. Urbanization... in Africa in recent years.
XIV. Write down what part of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russian.
1. The geography of export and consumer crop growing depends on
prevailing climatic and soil conditions.
2. They export citrus fruit, olives, vegetables, fruits and esparto grass
from the North Africa to Europe.
3. Egypt and the Sudan export cotton.
4. In Western Europe they produce instant coffee.
5. They process the high quality coffee beans grown in Africa.
6. The process is time and labour consuming.
Unit 8
MAJOR LAND USES IN LATIN AMERICA
I. Vocabulary notes:
latifundia n латифундия, крупное землевладение
holding n здесь земельный надел
acute а резкий, острый
divide уд ел и т ь
press у давить
pressure п давление
introduce v вводить
introduction п введение
legislation п законодательство
compensate v компенсировать
compensation п ком пенсац ия
despite adv вопреки, несмотря на
commune п коммуна
takeover п перехват, захват(власти)
consume у потреблять
consumption п потребление
private у вовлекать
involve п каучук, резина
lama п лама
pedigree а именной, породистый (скот)
slaughter у забивать (скот)
pineapple п ананас
II. Underline the suffixes with the help of which the following
adjectives are formed and translate the words into Russian:
progressive, conservative, informative, effective, collective,
primitive, intensive, extensive, exclusive, productive.
49
III. Pronounce correctly:
-oth mother, other, brother
-on m onth, son, front ^ u{. both [bou0]
-om come, some ' over [ouval
ov cover, clover, oven
VI. Read the text and translate it into Russian in written form.
Text 8C. Contrasts in B razil’s Land Uses
There are sharp contrasts in the development o f individual regions in
Brazil. The country can be divided into three basic parts on the basis of
their economic development.
The south and southeast (over 12 per cent o f total area and 50 per
cent o f the population) contain the largest industrial centres, a
significant proportion of the mining industry and almost all the electric
power stations. Agriculture in this part o f Brazil mainly involves
plantation-farming using hired labour. The area specialises in coffee
production. Cotton is next in importance as an export crop. An
extensive industrial zone centering on Sao Paulo (population 6,500,000)
and Rio de Janeiro (population 4,500,000) is in the making.
Sao Paulo is the largest industrial centre in Latin America. The city
lies in an area of abundant energy and other resources and this favors
both industrial and agricultural development. The port o f Santos which
handles half of the country’s exports, including almost the whole o f the
coffee exports, is situated in this part of Brazil.
Northeast was one o f the first in South America to have been
developed by the Europeans and is to this day famous as a major area of
plantation-farming. The coastal strips are occupied by sugar cane
plantations. Cattle-breeding is maintained in the hinterland. Living
standards here are lower than in the south and the farmers are starved of
land. T hat is why many of them move to the towns in search of seasonal
work. The northeast is basically a supplier o f raw materials and
manpower for the more developed south.
Crop-growing is the most important sector and is export oriented.
Brazil is the world’s largest coffee producer and exporter.
51
Other important export crops include cacao beans, cotton, tobacco,
sugar cane and rice. Brazil also supplies the world market with
pineapples, oranges, mangos and coconuts. Banana exports are of
particular importance. Brazil grows more bananas than any other
country in the world. Banana grass grows everywhere in abundance and
in great variety. They flower and bear fruit all the year round. Wheat,
maize and beans are grown for home consumption. However wheat is
sometimes scarce and has to be imported. Brazil’s animal husbandry
specialises in cattle and pig breeding.
EXERCISES
VIII. Open the brackets by using the verbs in the correct form.
1. In the post-war period most Latin American countries (to
introduce) land reforms.
2. The reforms (not, to touch) the foundations o f the latifundia
system in most countries.
3. In Mexico large land owners and private farms (to own) over half
the total cultivated acreage.
4. Before 1973 in Chile the most radical land reform (to carry out).
5. In northern Mexico cattle (to breed) for sale to the USA.
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text 8C:
1. Cattle and pig breeding are the dom inant branches in animal
husbandry in ...
2. Wheat, maize and beans are not grown for...
3. Brazil is considered to be the world’s largest producer and exporter
of...
4. The Europeans came to the Northeast of South America to make
it famous as a major area of...
5. The largest centre in Latin America is...
6. Agriculture in the southeast of Brazil involves...
52
XI. Write down 6 questions using text 8B.
XII. Insert the proper words from unit 8. Translate the sentences into
Russian.
1. Brazil has the biggest... o f both cattle and swine in Latin America.
2. Different Latin American countries ... in different branches of
stock raizing according to local natural conditions and economic
history.
3. In Africa and in Latin America crops ... for export and home...
4. Maize and beans are often sown together, so that ...can serve as
support for the bean shoots.
5. In Latin America as a rule the stock is non ... and allowed to graze
freely all the years round.
XIV. Write down what part of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russian.
1. In Mexico despite the transfer of considerable areas of agricultural
land to peasant com m unes, private farmers own over half the total
cultivated acreage.
2. In Chile they transferred some cultivated areas to peasant
communes.
3. The most radical land reform in Latin America was carried out in
Chile.
4. In many countries of the world the governments are forced to
reform the system of land use as land resources are limited.
5. Cattle-breeding farms produce beef both for export and home
consumption.
6. They sell their dairy produce abroad.
53
XVI. Read the text and discuss it in class.
Text 8D. Different Rates o f Economy in South American Countries
While sharing some co m m o n features, the economies o f certain
Latin American countries differ in some respects, and these differences
underlie the character and rates’ of their econom ic progress. In some
countries industry is developing more rapidly than agriculture, while
other countries have remained essentially agricultural. In terms of
economic development Mexico, Brazil and Argentina are far ahead of
the rest of Latin America. They contribute about 75 per cent o f Latin
Am erica’s total industrial production.
Colombia, Uruguay and Venezuela are economically more backward
but here, too, industry is acquiring increasing importance. Peru, Bolivia,
Guyana, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago are all predominantly
agricultural countries with a developed mining industry. In the rest of
Latin America agriculture continues to be the bedrock o f the local
economies and industry contributes a mere 10 per cent of the national
income (and even that with a substantial contribution from handicrafts
and cottage industries).
Section II
FROM THE HISTORY OF LAND USE PLANNING
Unit 9
AN ENGLISH VILLAGE LONG, LONG AGO
I. Vocabulary notes:
height n 1. высота, выш ина, рост; 2. возвышенность, холм;
3. степень; 4. верх, высшая степень
neglect п 1. пренебрежение; небрежность; 2. заброшенность; з а
пущенность / / v 1. пренебрегать, не заботиться; 2. не обращать
внимания, проявлять невнимание; 3. упускать, не выполнять св о
его долга, не делать чего-либо нужного, запускать
fierce а 1. свирепый, лютый; 2. сильны й (о буре; жаре), горя
чий; неистовый
messenger п 1. вестник, посы льный, курьер; 2. предвестник
cluster п 1. группа; 2. скопление, концентрация; 3. кисть, пучок,
гроздь, куст; 4. рой (пчел) / / v 1. расти пучками, гроздьями; 2. со
бираться группами, тесниться
enclosure п 1. огороженное место; 2. ограждение, ограда; 3. от
гораживание; 4. вложение, приложение; 5. огораживание о б щ и н
ных земель
lessen v 1. уменьшать (ся); 2. преуменьшать, недооценивать
ditch п 1. канава, ров, кювет; 2. транш ея, выемка, котлован / /
v l . окапывать (рвом, канавой); 2. чистить канаву, ров; 3. осушать
почву с помощ ью канав
dawn п 1. рассвет, утренняя заря; 2. зачатки, начало, проблески / /
v 1. рассветать; 2. начинаться, появляться; 3. становиться ясны м,
проясняться
shepherd п 1. пастух; 2. пастырь / / v 1. пасти; 2. смотреть, п р и
сматривать (за кем-либо); 3. вести; гнать
flock п 1. стадо (овец); стая (птиц); 2. толпа; группа / / v стекать
ся; держаться вместе; двигаться толпой
fold п 1. загон (для овец); овчарня; 2. паства; 3. церковь / / v за
гонять (овец)
outskirts п p i 1. окраина, предместья города; 2. опушка (леса)
scanty а скудный; недостаточный; ограниченны й
sickle п серп
55
turnip n репа
cabbage n 1. (кочанная) капуста; 2. капустный / / v завиваться
кочаном
ах п 1. топор; колун; 2. резкое сокращ ение бюджета; урезыва
ние, сниж ение ассигнований / / v 1. работать топором; 2. со к р а
щать (штаты); урезывать (бюджет, ассигнования)
osier п 1. ива; 2. лоза (ивы); 3. ивовый
reed п 1. тростник, камыш; тростниковые заросли; 2. тростник
или солома для крыш / / v покрывать (крыш и) тростником или с о
ломой
wheat п п ш ен и ца
winter wheat п озимая пш еница
tye п 1. рожь; 2. ржаной
oat п 1. овес; 2. овсяны й; овсяной; 3. соломенны й
barley п 1. ячмень; 2. ячм енн ы й
hedge п 1. (живая) изгородь; ограда; 2. преграда; препятствие,
плетень
II. Write down the parts of speech the following words are and
translate them into Russian:
suppose, along, road, great, nothing, disappeared, shipping, smoke,
empty, dreadful, robber, chief, pretending, heaps, stones, wooden,
owner, group.
III. Pronounce correctly:
u [ju:] student, tube
execute, duty push, full
[A] cut, bus b u t put, pull
number, public bush
/ И
ur turn, curve, urgent b u t current
^ [ э ] surround, supply, suspend
ur + e [jus] pure, cure, curious
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 9B. An English Village Long, Long Ago
Part II
If we had been looking down on the village at dawn, the first figure to
be seen would have been the cowherd collecting all the village cows
from the cowsheds, and driving them to the pasture outside. There the
57
shepherd has been guarding his flock all night in the fold, and not very
far away, o n the outskirts of the wood, is the swineherd, with his
grunting charges searching for acorns, beech nuts or other food. If it is
the early autum n, cows, sheep, and pigs will look fat enough; if it is late
spring after a hard winter, their bones will be sticking through their
hides, and they will scarcely have strength to craw. For in the faraway
days that we are pretending to visit there was little winter food for
animals. O f course there was hay, but only very little. In the autum n,
therefore, there was a great killing and salting down o f sheep, cows, and
pigs to serve as winter meat for the villagers. The animals that were kept
alive struggled along as best they might on what they could get to eat in
the fields, and on scanty supplies o f hay. But sometimes the starvation
was so severe that many died, and those that survived were only half the
size of the sheep and cows we see today.
In winter and spring, soon after dawn, other villagers appear with
their ploughs and oxen. The plough is clumsy. It is made o f wood. It
cannot go deep into the soil as our ploughs do, but only scratches the
surface. Few m en have one o f their own; it is usually the possession of
several men. Sometimes eight oxen are required to pull it. In the harvest
time the plough is out of sight; instead o f it the villagers bring out sickles
or curved knives to reap the crops. Turnips, cabbages and many other
crops that we have now are unknown.
58
to this village, we should see all these fields, hay grounds and cattle
gazing quite distinctly.
But there is m uch work to be done besides minding animals and
crops. Walking through the village we might see villagers mending their
thatched roofs and putting up barns and cowhouses. We might hear the
smith hammering at his forge upon axes, sickles and spears, or see him
mending ploughshares. Perhaps there would be village children looking
on. We might see boys carrying hom e wild honey from the woods, or
hear girls laughing and gossiping as they made cheese and butter. Or, if
the weather was hot and the cream was slow to turn into butter, we
might hear them grumble that some wicked fairy has been in the dairy
and cast a spell over it. Standing in the doorways there might be women
busy with spinning o f wool into thread. Others might be making baskets
out of osiers and reeds that the boys have brought home.
EXERCISES
VIII. Open the brackets by using the verbs in the correct Tense form.
1. Long-long ago when it was an early autum n cows, sheep and pigs
(to look) fat enough.
2. After a hard winter the animals bones (to stick through) their hides
and they scarcely had strength to crawl.
3. In the faraway days there (to be) little winter food for animals.
4. The animals (to keep) in the fields and on scanty supplies o f hay.
5. In winter and spring soon after dawn the villagers (to appear) with
their ploughs and oxen.
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text 9C:
1. In those days they usually grew wheat, rye or oats for bread, they
grew barley...
2. In the early days the farmers did not separate their...
3. Farmers today have also separate fields...
4. Long ago cows and sheep of all the villagers were fed on the...
5. A big hay field was usually...
6. The smith was hammering at his forge upon axes or mending...
XII. Insert the proper words from unit 9. Translate the sentences into
Russian.
1. The owners who built the houses o n the banks o f the Tham es are...
o f m odern Englishmen.
2. Angry Britons living in the forests... their conquerors.
3. O f course, there was... to feed animals in winter, but very little.
4. The peasants used their wooden ploughs which were...
5. In the harvest time the villagers brought out... or curved knives to
reap the crops.
Questions.
Why is the farm er’s work very important?
What are the most co m m o n British grain crops?
What is the nam e of:
a small tied bundle o f cut com ?
several bundles placed in piles to dry?
a large stored pile of com ?
What is a large stored pile of hay called?
What is hay used for?
W hat nam e is given to the system o f changing the crop each year?
What produce would you expect from:
a dairy farm,
a live-stock farm?
W hat is:
a poultry farm?
an incubator?
N am e three im portant implements.
62
Unit 10
THE LEGACY OF THE PAST
I. Vocabulary notes:
haybarn n сеновал
hay n сено
barn n амбар
survey v обозре(ва)ть; осматривать (осмотреть), межевать / /
п осмотр; обзор; обследование; межевание
surveyor п землемер
cowhouse п коровник; хлев
manure п удобрение / / v удобрять (удобрить)
cicumstance п обстоятельство
hilly а холмистый
relic п пережиток; реликвия; реликт
tool п (рабочий) инструмент; орудие
cob л ком
limestone п известняк
brick п кирпич / / v класть кирпич; облицовывать кирпичами
thatch п солом енн ая или тростниковая кры ш а / / v крыть со л о
мой или тростником
slate п сланец; ш иф ер; грифельная до ска / / v крыть ш и ф е р н ы
ми плитами
millstone п ж ернов
grit п песок; гравий
adapt v приспособлять; приспособить
adaptation п приспособление, переделка, аранж ировка
stable а стойкий, устойчивый / / п кон ю ш н я; хлев / / v ставить в
кон ю ш н ю (или в хлев)
imprint v запечатле(ва)ть; отпечат(ыв)ать / / п отпечаток; выход
ные сведения
rig п оснастка; наряд / / v оснащ ать (оснастить); наряжать (н а
рядить)
poultry п д о м аш н я я птица
obvious а очевидный; ясны й
storage п хранение; склад
sheaf п сноп; связка; пучок
sheaves pi. от sheaf
shovel п лопата; совок / / v копать (копнуть); сгребать лопатой
scoop п совок; черпак; ковш; углубление / / v зачерпывать (за
черпнуть)
flail п цеп; v молотить
rick п стог; скирд(а)
stack п стог (сена и т. п.); штабель; куча
63
dung n навоз / / v унавоживать (унавозить)
dump n свалка; полевой склад / / v сбрасывать (сбросить); н ав а
ливать (навалить); сваливать (свалить) (мусор)
gear п механизм / / v приводить в движение
tithe п 1. десятая часть; 2. крошечка; 3. церковная д есятина / /
v l . уплачивать церковную десятину; 2. облагать ц ерковной д е с я
тиной
oasthouse п суш илка для хмеля
oast п печь для суш ки хмеля или солода
hop п хмель / / v собирать хмель
inevitable а неизбеж ны й, неминуемый
obsolescence п устаревание
obsolete а устарелый
II. Write down the part of speech the following words are and translate
them into Russian:
legacy, farm, among, attractive, rural, various, way, us, m uch,
farming, about, system, work, ancestor, lam, harvest, before, material,
limestone.
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 10B. The barn
The b a m remains one of the most obvious and familiar of all farm
buildings. Historically, indeed, it dom inated m any farmsteads from the
Middle Ages down to Hanoverian times, for it served the corn crop on
which this country depended, quite literally, for its daily bread.
The standardised pattern o f this type of building was determined
centuries ago by the storage and processing needs o f the grain harvest. In
its simplest form, it consisted of two end bays separated by a central
passage served by two pairs of double doors in opposite walls and fitted
with a hard floor. At harvest time, waggons came into the b a m from the
fields through one door, unloaded their sheaves and left by the other
door. Then, in the winter, these sheaves were taken down from the dark
ends o f the b a m and thrashed by flail on the central floor. Finally the
grain was winnowed by being tossed in the air by either a wooden shovel
or a scoop-shaped basket called a winnowing-fan, the chaff being
carried away in the through draught created by pinning open both sets of
doors.
Large barns had two passages, two thrashing floors and two sets of
doors. Large farms had two barns, one for the wheat which was sold off
the farm, one for the oats and barley which were used on it. But all bam s
on all farms were built on the same principles and all fulfilled the same
functions.
65
store tithes, a form of tax paid to the C hurch not in m oney but in kind,
mostly com , though the nam e is sometimes casually used to cover all
old barns. The largest o f these magnificent buildings, which was 303 feet
long and 54 feet wide and covered nearly a third o f an acre, no longer
exists. But others almost as large can be seen to this day. One fourteenth
century barn was still in use twenty-five years ago, when it housed two
tractors, feeding stuffs, fertilisers, hay and straw, an eight-stall stable and
pens for a hundred pigs. It served, in fact, as a farmstead on its own.
In the nineteenth century the mechanisation of thrashing, the
purpose around which the barn was designed, brought at first rapid
change and then sudden obsolescence. T he early thrashing machines,
which were usually driven by four-legged horse power but occasionally
by water-power, could com m only be fitted with little difficulty into the
traditional type of barn. By the 1820s such machines were com m on, so
co m m on that m any were attacked and destroyed by the labourers whom
they deprived of precious winter work.
In 1827 a special Act of Parliament was passed to protect the
machines by imposing heavy penalties on those who damaged them.
Then, in early Victorian times, the new and mighty power of steam
cam e to the farm and began to replace the horse and the waterwheel
even as they had replaced the hum an flailer.
Soon the steam engine became normal equipm ent on the larger and
more advanced arable farms and to this day some of the factory-type
chimneys built to serve this new form of barn-power still stand on our
farms. But the steam-driven b am did not last long, for the convenience
o f taking the thrashing m achine to the corn stacks instead of bringing all
the c o m to the barn encouraged the development of portable thrashing
machines hauled and driven by steam engines. As the years passed,
therefore, more corn was thrashed in the fields and there was less need
for the barn. So no m ore bam s were built and existing barns were
gradually adapted to other purposes or allowed to degenerate into
dignified dumps for anything that could not be more conveniently
stored elsewhere.
In our own time, however, a few of these old bam s have recovered
part of their ancient purpose, for they house the complicated equipment
needed for drying and storing the sudden mass of grain which the
com bine harvester delivers at harvest time. So part of the harvest routine
has returned in new form to its old home.
EXERCISES
VII. Give the Russian equivalents:
farm buildings, attractive relics, mral past, various ways, farming
ancestors, farming systems, building materials, millstone grit, milking
parlours, indoor workshop.
66
VIII. Open the brackets by using the verbs in correct form.
1. The most obvious and familiar of all farm building (to be) the
barn.
2. It (to dominate) many farmsteads from the middle age to
Hanoverian times.
3. This country (to depend) quite literally for its daily bread.
4. The pattern of the barn (to determine) centuries ago by the storage
and processing needs of the grain harvest.
5. At harvest time waggons (to come) into the barn form the fields
through one door, (to unload) their heaves and left by the other door.
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text IOC.
1. M any barns that still exist on the farms today probably date from...
2. Some medieval farm buildings that survive there are also...
3. You can hardly find the largest of these magnificent...
4. A third of an acre is their...
5. Twenty five years ago you could possibly see one b a m built in
the...
6. At early Victorian times the new and mighty power of steam come
to barn and begin to replace...
XII. Insert the proper words from unit 10. Translate the sentences into
Russian.
1. Each farm building has its own particular story...
2. Stables sometimes may become milking...
3. Bam s may...the imprint of the farming system and tools for which
they were designed.
4. In the...form the barn consisted of two end bays separated by a
central passage.
5. One fourteenth century barn was...in use twenty five years ago.
Questions
1. Do farmers use old building now?
2. What ways do they use those old buildings?
68
Unit 11
THE RELICS OF THE PAST
I. Vocabulary notes:
granary n ж итница; амбар
cartsheds n сарай для мелкого инвентаря, сельскохозяйственной
техники
cart п телега; повозка / / v везти в телеге
shed п навес; сарай; ангар
vermin вредители; паразиты
contaminate v загрязнять; заражать
contamination п загрязнение; заражение
implement п инструмент; орудие; принадлежность / / v в ы п ол
нять (выполнить)
rot п гниение; гниль / / v (с)гноить; (с)гнивать; (с)гнить
dovecote п голубятня
residue п остаток; осадок
dunghill п навозная куча
manor п поместье
ceaseless а непреры вны й; непрестанны й
depredate v 1. грабить; 2. опустошать
depredation п 1. грабеж; расхищ ение; 2. опустошение; разруш и
тельное действие
loft п чердак; галерея
sufficiency п достаточность; достаток
ladder п лестница
ox п, p i oxen вол, бык
haulage п 1. тяга, буксировка; 2. перевозка, подвозка; 3. сто
имость перевозки
plough п плуг / / v вспахать; (из)бороздить
ploughshare п лемех
breed п порода / / v 1. выводить (вывести); 2. разводить (развес
ти); 3. высиживать (высидеть); 4. вскармливать (вскормить);
5. размнож аться (размножиться); 6. (вы)расти
breeder п производитель; скотовод
demolish v разрушать (разрушить); сносить (снести)
II. Write down the parts of speech the following words are and
translate them into Russian:
combined, built, farm, between, stands, housed, separate, granary,
commonly, livestock, kept, store, grain, protect, buildings, danger, and.
III. Pronounce correctly:
(z) as, days, nose, sees, pens, bells
sN
(s) send, spend, test, cups, dress, chess
69
(0) thin, thick, bath, thunderstorm
^ Ni
(&) the, with, them , then, that, those, bathe
ph -» (f) photo, physical training
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 11B. The Granary
T he thrashed grain required safe storage, for it was both the farm er’s
m ain cash crop and the seed for his future corn crops. Some farmers
stored it in the b a m or better, in a room above the cartshed where it was
safe from damp. But m any preferred to build a special granary which
could be conveniently supervised and kept locked. These small
rectangular buildings normally rested on four m ushroom -shaped stands
called staddle stones, which provided protection from rats and mice.
Nowadays these granaries are seldom used for their original purpose.
T he com bine harvester and the complicated grain drying and storage
equipm ent it entails has rendered them obsolete. But m any remain on
m o d e m farms, contrasting pleasantly with the concrete and asbestos
buildings around them , because the farmer finds them safe and useful
stores for seeds, fertilisers, tools or spare parts.
70
VI. Read the text and translate it into Russian in written form.
Text 1 1 C . The Dovecote
Nowadays we do not regard pigeons as a form o f farm stock. But in
the past their agricultural importance was considerable. They provided
fresh meat and eggs to vary the limited diet of the times and they left
valuable residues for the dunghill. In feudal times, however, these
benefits were the m onopoly o f the lord o f the manor. Only he could
build the massive stone dove-towers o f the early Norm ans or the lighter,
more ornamental structures of their successors from which fluttered the
winged flocks whose ceaseless depredations on neighbouring crops are
remembered in the old rural proverb o f the four grains sown in a row,
One for the pigeon, one for the crow, One to rot and one to grow. The
order is significant.
As farming developed, the importance of pigeons decreased and men
began to emphasise the harm they did to crops rather than the value of
their meat and m anure. The tradition died slowly. Some early
nineteenth century farmers built lofts for doves in their barns or over
their cartsheds and as late as the 1880s pigeons played a quite
appreciable part in the economy o f most farms in Northamptonshire.
But it is now a long time since domesticated pigeons have contributed
more than pleasure and interest to the farm.
EXERCISES
VIII. Open the brackets by using the words in the correct form.
1. When the farmer harvested and thrashed the grain it (to require)
safe storage.
2. The farmer (to need) the seed for his future corn crops.
3. Many farmers (to prefer) to build a special granary which (can) be
kept locked.
4. The granary (to be) a small rectangular building (to rest) on four
stands.
5. Those stands (to be) m ushroom -shaped and (to call) staddle
stones. They (to protect) from rats and mice.
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text 11C.
1. Nowadays pigeons are not regarded to be...
2. In the past they provided fresh meat and eggs to...
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3. Massive stone dove-towers were the monopoly o f the m anor in...
4. Complete the old rural proverb o f four grains sown in a row: One
for the pigeon, one for the crow, one to rot and one...
5. Later the importance o f pigeons...
XII. Insert the proper words from unit 11. Translate the sentences into
Russian.
1. Nowadays the granaries are seldom used f o r ... in G reat Britain.
2. The granaries ... pleasantly with concrete and asbestos building
around them.
3. The need for better and larger implement housing increased,
however, as field machinery became...
4. The most im portant o f the simple field implements o f the past
certainly needed...
5. In the past pigeons agricultural importance was...
XVI. Read the text. Write down 5 questions and answer them in oral
form.
Text 11D. The Stable
A stable range on a Hampshire farm built in 1838. The horses lived
on the ground floor and hay and straw were stored overhead.
Until the coming o f the tractor in the past century, the stable housed
the animal teams on which the farmer depended for the cultivation of
his land and the haulage of his crops. Today, of course, we associate
stables solely with horses. But for m any centuries the farmer used oxen
as well as horses as work beasts and it was only in Victorian times that
the horned plough team became first a rarity and finally a curiosity.
Today the ox teams are forgotten and the horse teams are no more
than a m em ory picturesquely revived from time to time by enthusiasts at
local shows and ploughing matches. The stables have gone with them.
Nothing is now left o f the ох-stables except a few wide doors in some
old Welsh buildings which recall the wide spread o f the horns of the
local breed of plough-ox. And little is left o f the stalls that housed the
horses that only two generations ago num bered over a million. Some
have been demolished, others have been converted, often beyond the
point o f recognition to other purposes.
Unit 12
THE URBAN COWHOUSE
I. Vocabulary notes:
herd n 1. стадо, гурт; 2. пастух / / v 1. ходить стадом, толпиться;
2. пасти
instance п 1. пример, отдельный случай; 2. требование, насто я
ние; 3. инстанция / / v 1. приводить в качестве примера; 2. служить
примером
filth п грязь; отбросы
dairy п 1. маслодельня; сыроварня; 2. молочная; 3. молочная
ферма; 4. молочный
produce молочные продукты
cattle м олочный скот
farmhouse п жилой дом на ферме
churn п 1. маслобойка; 2. м ешалка / / v 1. сбивать (масло);
2. взбалтывать; вспенивать
tether п путы (пасущегося животного) / / v привязать (пасущееся
животное)
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adjacent а прим ы каю щ и й; см ежны й; соседний
exempt а 1. освобожденны й (от налога и т. п.); 2. свободный (от
недостатков и т. п.); 3. изъятый
v 1. освобождать (от обязанности, налога и т. п.); 2. изымать
width п 1. ш ирина; широта; расстояние; 2. полотнище; полоса;
3. мощ ность (жилы или пласта)
depot п склад; амбар
pail п ведро; бадья
piggery п свинарник; хлев
woodland п 1. лесистая местность / / а лесной
swineherd п свинопас
beechnut п буковый ореш ек
acorn п 1. желудь; 2. желудевый
grub I п л ич и нка, гусеница / / v 1. вскапывать; 2. выкапывать;
выкорчевывать
grub II п разг. пищ а; еда / / v 1. есть; 2. кормить
carrion п 1. падаль; 2. мясо, негодное к употреблению / / а гн и ю
щ ий, отвратительный
assess v 1. определять сумму налога, ш трафа и т. п.; 2. облагать
налогом, штрафовать; 3. оценивать имущество для облож ения н а
логом
fatten v 1. откармливать на убой; 2. жиреть, толстеть; 3. удоб
рять землю
sty п 1. свиной хлев; 2. грязное п омещ ение
hamlet п деревня; деревушка
II. Write down the parts of speech the following words are and
translate them into Russian:
unexpected, cattle, completely, urban, squares, obtain, dairy, stalls,
yard, from, sanitary, exercise, were, hour, deep, beast, shade, quality.
EXERCISES
VIII. Open the brackets by using the words in the correct Tense form.
1. The Urban cowhouses (to disappear) completely in G reat Britain.
2. Townsm en (not + can) obtain their milk from dairy farms in those
days.
3. In London in Regency times there (to be) about 8,500 cows which
spent their lives in stalls.
4. Even then people knew that good m anagem ent (to produce) good
milk.
5. By the 1860s the patterns o f neatness and convenience (to
produce) by the reforms o f the London cowhouses.
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text 12C:
1. It may seem surprising but the piggery is...
2. W hen Doomsday Book was compiled it assessed the value of
woodlands in terms...
3. The conversion o f ancient forests to farm land compelled pigs to...
4. Piggeries were still regarded as an innovation in some areas even...
5. On dairy farms pigs were fattened on...
XVI. Read the text. Write down 5 or 6 questions and answer them in
oral form.
Text 16D. Cattle Buildings
Cattle have always been important in the British farming system. They
thrive on the grass for which Britain’s soil and climate are peculiarly suited
and they produce meat and milk, leather and manure. Until mid-
Victorian times, too, they also provided a great deal o f the mobile power
on which the farmer depended for the cultivation o f his fields.
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But their historical importance is not reflected by the older cattle
buildings that have survived. For one thing, m any cattle spent m uch of
their time in the winter m onths not in buildings but in open yards,
where they trod straw litter into manure. For another, m any o f the older
cattle buildings were no more than shelters which later collapsed or were
demolished. Some shelter in a yard survived because they were built of
stone. They might not have survived if they had been built o f timber.
Further, the more elaborate cattle buildings were those where the dairy
herds were housed in winter and milked all the year round. Some of
these old cowhouses have been adapted to meet the ever-increasing
demands of hygiene and convenience in milk production. But most of
them have been replaced either by improved types o f cow house or by
the more recently developed systems o f parlours in which cows are
milked and yards in which they are wintered.
Unit 13
FROM THE HISTORY OF THE FARMSTEAD IN GREAT BRITAIN
I. Vocabulary notes:
farmstead n ф ерм а со службами
evolve v 1. эволю ционировать; развиваться; развертываться;
2. развивать (теорию и т. п.); 3. выделять (газы, теплоту); издавать
(запах)
accommodate v 1. приспосабливать; 2. снабжать; 3. давать п р и
станище, предоставлять жилье, помещ ение; 4. оказывать услугу;
5. примирять, улаживать (ссору), согласовывать
accommodation п 1. п омещ ение, жилье, квартира; 2. приют, убе
жище; 3. приспособление; 4. удобство, удобства (в квартире
и т . п.); 5. согласование, соглаш ение, ком промисс, 6. ссуда; 7. а к
комодация
avoid v 1. избегать, сторониться; 2. уклоняться; 3. аннулировать,
уничтожать
stack-yard п гумно
medley п смесь, месиво, м еш ан и на / / а см еш анны й, разнород
ный, пестрый / / v смешивать, перемешивать
carter п возчик
quarry п 1. кам ен олом н я, открытая разработка, карьер; 2. источ
ник сведений / / v 1. разрабатывать карьер, добывать (камень из
карьера); 2. рыться (в книгах и т. п.);
tile п 1. черепица; 2. кафель; изразец; пустотелый кирпич / / v
1- крыть черепицей; 2. обеспечить тайность (проведения собрания
и т. п.)
kiln п печь для обжига и для суш ки / / v обжигать (кирпич, и з
весть и т. п.), смола; деготь; гудрон
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tar n смола; деготь; гудрон / / v мазать деггем; смолить
gutter п 1. водосточный желоб; 2. сточная кана(в)ка / / v 1. д е
лать желоба, канавки; 2. стекать; 3. оплывать (о свече)
manger п ясли; корм уш ка
II. Write down the parts of speech the following words are and
translate them into Russian:
far, particular, part, whole, farmstead, different, planned, fitted
practical pattern, past, compose, shelter, individual, new, development.
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system which was, and still is, predom inant in this country. On the one
hand, this farmstead provided accom m odation for his corn crops and
the means o f accumulating the manure to m aintain the fertility of the
fields that grew them . On the other, it provided convenient housing for
his varied livestock.
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in written
form.
Text 13B. The Farmstead Fitted Together
Part II
Essentially, this type of farmstead consisted o f three parts. The first
was the barn, in which co m from the stack yard was thrashed and from
which straw was distributed. The second was the collection o f livestock
buildings in which hay and straw were processed into manure. The third
was the yard formed by the b am and livestock buildings, where stock
exercised and manure accumulated.
Such farmsteads took the form of a series of buildings round open
yards. Occasionally in a square, more com m only on three sides of a
square, some with one yard is forming a pattern, some with two yards
forming an E-pattem . The yards faced south to catch the sun and to
avoid some of the rainy south-west winds. They were sheltered on the
north by the bam , the largest building on the farm — the hiker today can
still often orient himself by the position of a barn in a farmstead and by
the cart sheds which usually faced north to avoid sun and rain. From this
north range and at right angles to it ran the wings which enclosed the
yard and contained a medley of buildings, some for storage, most of
them for livestock, the stables com m only facing east to catch the rising
sun which literally lightened the early m orning labours of the carter and
ploughman. Pigs were usually housed near the farmhouse since they
depended on the by-products of the dairy and the household, as did the
poultry which were traditionally the concern of the farm er’s wife.
Convenient to the cattle buildings, sometimes in a barn, sometimes in
stacks, stood the haystore. The farmhouse, normally on the south of the
farmstead, com pleted this agricultural factory.
VI. Read the text and translate it into Russian in written form.
Text 13C. The Farmstead Fitted Together
Part I II
A typical early 19th-century farmstead consisted of several buildings.
The co m harvest was stacked north o f the buildings and thrashed in the
barn, the biggest building in the north range. The yard formed by this
range and the two wings extending from it, which mostly housed
livestock, faced south to catch the Sun. Some of the cattle wintered in
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the yard, where they trod straw into manure. This Nottinghamshire
example of the «standard pattern farmstead» o f Hanoverian and
Victorian times is probably very m uch as it was originally built.
The Hanoverians were dependent on local materials for their
buildings. They used timber from local woods, stone from local quarries,
clay from local pits, thatch from local fields, bricks and tiles from local
kilns. In Hampshire, for instance, even the tar came as a by-product
from the local m anufacturer of gunpowder. The Victorians, living in the
age o f railways and factories, could use brick, tiles and slates produced
in any part of the country. They could obtain such new materials as
asphalt, creosote and, more important, cheap glass for windows, and
they could also buy such prefabricated equipm ent as ventilation cowls,
guttering, mangers and cast iron pillars and trusses. Further, they could
instal steam power, whereas their fathers depended on the labour o f men
and animals. At first sight, therefore, their farmsteads look very different
from those o f their fathers.
But only at first sight. It is soon becomes clear that the Victorian
farmstead is essentially an industrialized version o f the Hanoverian
farmstead. It is built with industrially produced materials and fitted with
industrially produced equipm ent, but it serves similar needs in a similar
way. In particular, it continues the old pattern of north range and south-
facing yards.
The later nineteenth century saw the beginning o f a long period of
agricultural depression which lasted to the 1930s, when few new
buildings and fewer new farmsteads were erected. Since then, however,
there has been a great deal o f new construction with, inevitably, the
destruction o f m any old buildings. So today there are few wholly
Hanoverian or wholly Victorian farmsteads. Some present-day
farmsteads include older buildings. Nearly all include later buildings or
later adaptations and alterations. Nevertheless, in many cases the
original pattern, preserved either by the original buildings or by their
successors, is still visible and it is possible to trace the basic plan
prepared a century, a century and a half or two centuries ago, and to
appreciate the principles and traditions that went to its making.
EXERCISES
VIII. Open the brackets by using the words in the correct tense form.
1. We (to study) only some particular types o f agricultural buildings.
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2. A farmstead (to plan) in such a way that the different buildings (to
fit) together to form a practical and convenient pattern.
3. M en (to build) farmsteads since they first began to cultivate the
soil.
4. The farmer (to design) his farmstead to meet the needs o f growing
crops and keeping animals in the mixed farming system.
5. The standard-pattern farmstead (to copy) all over the country and
continued by their successors in the XIX century.
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text 13C:
1. The biggest building in the north range was the barn where...
2. Some of the cattle wintered in the yard where they trod straw...
3. The people o f Hanoverian times were dependant on local
materials for...
4. They used local timber from local woods and stone from local
quarries, clay from... thatch from local fields, bricks and tiles from...
5. The Victorians, living in the age o f railways and... could use bricks,
tiles and slates produced in...
XII. Insert the proper words from unit 13. Translate the sentences into
Russian:
1. The basic plan o f the most o f the farmsteads appeared in England
in the period of... development and expansion.
2. Victorian times were... and... for agriculture in Britain.
3. M any farmsteads were... and m any new ones built to meet the
needs of the new farming systems.
4. The Victorian farmstead is essentially an... version of the
Hanoverian farmstead.
5. During a long period of... of 1930s only few new buildings were
erected and even fewer new farmsteads were built.
XVI. Have another look through the texts from unit 13 and make a
dialogue «The History of the farmstead in Great Britain». (6—8 questions
and 6—8 answers)
Unit 14
FROM THE HISTORY OF LAND MANAGEMENT
I. Vocabulary notes:
survey n 1. съемка; 2. обследование; 3. межевание / / v 1. обсле
довать; 2. осматривать; 3. измерять
regirter v регистрировать, вносить в реестр / / п 1. журнал,
2. книга учета
influence п влияние / / v влиять
former а бывш ий
colony п колония
dominion п д о м и ни о н
differ v различать(ся)
recently adv недавно
cadastre п кадастр
vague а 1. смутный; 2. неясны й; 3. неопределенный
compulsory а 1. принудительный; 2. обязательны й
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sporadic a 1. единичны й; 2. случайный; 3. отдельный (случай)
preclude v 1. мешать; 2. препятствовать; 3. предотвращать
И. Write down the part of speech the following words are and translate
them into Russian:
interest, several, strong, former, further, differ, continental, until,
recently, been, almost, world, oldest, record, compile, famous,
collected, kind.
IV. Read the text and translate it into Russian in oral form.
Text 14A. From the History o f Land Registration
o f English-speaking countries
Systems o f land registration in Anglo-Saxon countries are of
interest for several reasons. First, these systems have had a strong
influence in the form er colonies and dominions. F urther more they
differ in m any ways from the continental system, in large part because
until recently the cadastre has been almost unknow n in the English-
speaking world.
One of the oldest land records was compiled in England — the
famous Doomsday Survey completed in 1068. The Doom sday Book, a
record of information collected for the levying of taxes, was remarkable
for its time, a kind o f cadastre without map. The survey was ordered by
William_the C onqueror almost 20 years after he had defeated the Saxons
at the battle of Hastings. It was completed in a short time. The records
covered in principle the whole o f England. They showed names of
landowners, acreage, tenures as well as arable, meadow, pasture and
forest land uses, num ber of tenants and quantity and type of livestock.
The records were not supported by any maps.
However the Doom sday Book was unique and was never reviewed or
maintained. There has never been a cadastre in the European sense, in
England or in those countries that adopted English traditions.
Historically, the need for delimitation arose as soon as anyone — a
tribe, a family, or an individual — laid claim to a particular right in an
area. Hunting, fishing and grasing rights were often rather vaguely
demarcated, while cultivation rights tended to have more carefully
defined limits. These limits could be determ ined in different ways: by
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occupation, by fights among competing groups, by mutual agreement or
by applying the customary rules.
In sparsely populated areas, the process o f establishing definite
boundaries began rather recently. W hen Africa was colonized, for
example, there was still m u ch land not effectively claimed by any
family or tribe, which could therefore be treated as crown land and
perhaps later given to European settlers. O n the Am erican continent
and in rem o ter parts o f Europe such as n orthern Sweden, the
d em arcation process was not finished until late in the nineteenth
century.
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 14B. The Earliest Evidence o f Land Management
In ancient Nordic laws there were rules requiring that land
transactions be announced at a popular court and confirmed by
12 witnesses. Similar rules could be found in many other European
countries. In primitive tribes land transfers had to take place in the
presence o f the chief and elders.
Later on it became normal practice in more developed countries to
deposit and officially register the deed at the court or with a notary
public. Even though the procedure did not provide security of tenure to
the owner, it could prevent double selling or the priority of claims could
easily be established. The only identification o f the sold land was verbal
description in the deed.
There are also early evidence of land docum entation of taxation and
other contribution to the state. Already in ancient Egypt — as early as
about 3000 BC there is a mention of such records kept in the royal
registry. The records were partly based on surveys o f land. Pictures of
land surveyors at work are found in some ancient tombs.
In a strongly centralized country like Egypt it was o f vital importance
for the rulers to keep track o f land holdings and claims on the lands. For
the same reason the Romans surveyed the territories they occupied. It
was particularly Em peror Diocletianus who ordered at the end of the
third century AD extensive surveys and recording for taxation purposes.
It has been found probable that even in C hina around 700 AD a taxation
system existed based on crop yields and supported by land survey
records. In South India around 1000 AD Raja the G reat who founded
the C hola Empire, ordered a revenue survey which was continued later
by the successor.
Some decades later a famous land record — the Doom sday Book —
was established in England.
Several types o f ancient surveys and records can be found in other
countries. In Sweden, for example, King Gustav I ordered in 1540 a
survey of all taxable farms. The records included names o f villages and
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farms, their owners and their tax strength relative to the normal farm.
The records were revised and updated from time to time and trials were
made on to include some form o f land surveying. The main initial task
of the Swedish Land Survey, established in the early seventeenth
century, was to make maps for taxation purposes recording not only
mere acreage numbers but also land productivity.
VI. Read the text and translate it into Russian in written form.
Text 14C. From the History o f Land Acquisition
Boundaries are the main object of cadastral surveying. Normally
other features, such as roads, water courses, land-use boundaries,
buildings, etc., are included, but the primary purpose is to define the
land unit on the ground and in the cadastre and land register.
Cadastral surveying operations essentially include the determination
of the boundaries on the ground, the survey o f the boundaries and the
demarcation o f the boundaries.
Similar proceedings are found in Assyrian — Babylonian and
Egyptian sources.
There had to be publicity: the transfer had to take place in the
presence o f witness in order to gain validity.
There were two basic reasons for records regarding land: the need
for the private vendee o f land to get publicity for his acquisition o f land
and the need for the state to know all land units liable for taxation or
other services, dues and fees. Even at an early stage o f development
the need for some publicity regarding land transfer is evident. Land
cannot be literally handed over. An agreem ent itself will not preclude
an owner from selling the same land to two different buyers. There
were also kinship rights vested on land. Therefore, it had to be
officially known and proclaimed that there were known hindrances to
the transfer o f ownership rights in the land. Already in the Bible do we
read about the prophet Jerem iah, who had been involved in land
acquisition:
«I bought the field from my cousin Hanam el o f Anathot and paid
him the price seventeen silver shekels. I drew up the deed and sealed it,
called in witnesses, and weighed out the m oney on the scales».
VIII. Open the brackets by using the words in the correct Tense form.
1. The famous Doom sday Book (to be) completed in 1068.
2. William the C onqueror (to order) the survey o f England.
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3. Some countries (to adopt) English traditions and they also (to
have + not) the system of cadastre in European sense.
4. The first records (to cover) the whole o f England.
5. The records (to support + not) by any maps.
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text 14C:
1. The main object o f cadastral surveys are...
2. The primary purpose is...
3. Roads, water courses, land use boundaries, buildings are also
included into...
4. Everyone understands that land cannot be...
5. For the private acquisition of land you need...
XII. Insert the proper words from unit 14. Translate the sentences into
Russian.
1. Land transactions in ancient Nordic laws required 12...
2. In more developed... it became normal practice to deposit and
officially register the deed at the... or with a notary public.
3. Publicity could prevent double selling but did not...security of
tenure to the owner.
4.... description in the deed was the only idenfication o f the sold land.
5. In Sweden a survey o f all taxable farms was ordered by...
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Unit 15
FROM THE HISTORY OF LAND MANAGEMENT IN RUSSIA
I. Vocabulary notes:
undertake v предпринимать
description n описание
meadow n луг
evaluate v оценивать
accurate а точны й
exploit v использовать (землю, рабочую силу)
to do astray сбиться с пути
clergy п духовенство
property п собственность
petrine а петровский
mining п горное дело
satisfy v удовлетворять
authority п власть
complex а сложный
resist v оказать сопротивление, устоять (против)
tremendous а громадный
restrict v ограничить
supreme а верховный
evidence п свидетельство
evident а очевидный
II. Write down the part of speech the following words are and translate
them into Russian:
regular, description, meadow, demonstrate, feudal, productive,
measure, accurate, step, evaluation, exact.
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 15B. Petrine Reforms and Land Relations
Petrine reforms m eant the end of the old order. State building
projects o f Peter I, his political and economic projects, building o f navy
and reorganising of the army, mining and industry development,
studying of the natural waterways and projects of channels — all this
caused the centralisation o f power, unknown before. The old order of
state and military service was unable to satisfy the growing dem ands for
qualified and num erous authorities corresponding to the complexity of
the aims o f the reign. But one of the main things was the impossibility of
feudal system to answer to the increasing dem and for civil and military
start due to the decreasing land resources which served as the «payment»
for state service earlier. Politically weak vassal and tax classes were
unable to resist the energy o f the tzar.
The state economy, pressed by necessity of urgent changes, increased
day by day.
Practically all economic projects (including military) were based on
the rich resources belonging to the state or quasi-state enterprises with
forests, mines and slaves enclosed to them , such as the baron
Stroganov’s trem endous estate in Siberia or — some time later —
D em idov’s iron plants in Ural mountains. The request for natural
resources was growing constantly. The forests were to satisfy the needs
o f navy and metallurgic industry, peasantry should also serve as a
resource for magnificent state building. It is clear that Petrine
conception o f modernisation did not care about the majority of
Russians. The rights of the classes had been strongly restricted, the
basement o f co m m o n rights regulating the relations between vassals and
supreme power decreased. The development of serfdom and growing
pressure o f peasant com m ons against the individuals is often seen as the
result of Petrine reforms.
Probably due to the lower density o f the population dispersed on
trem endous space, if com pared with the European, non of the classes
could effectively protect their rights against the constant attacks, as
landlords, peasantry and citizens in the countries of Western Europe
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did. Centralization o f the state and military power had been higher
because of the military and cultural frontier existing for centuries. But
before Peter the G reat land relations in the Moscow state did not lose its
feudal nature. It means tight mutual dependence o f central government,
peasantry, aristocracy, nobility, dependence o f Moscow from the
economic development of the territories and prosperity o f all of estates,
elements of self-governing of administrative units. A kind o f legal treaty
between the tzar and landlords formed the basement of the civil and
military service and financial system. All this is an indirect evidence of
classes’ representative system — a kind o f feudal «demoracy».This was
the system replaced by the tsar — reformer.
VI. Read the text and translate it into Russian in written form.
Text 15C. Forests Cadastre in Petrine Russia
Foreign methods introduced in Russia developed not only in the
different social and cultural context, but even in the versus
administrative and managem ent environment.
Navy building had been one o f the main priorities of Peter I reign.
The regular forest surveys were ordered in 1703. Soon all the timber
forests o f European Russia — from the B altic sea to the Volga region
were managed by the Admiralty. Those surveys covered not only the
forests o f the crown but also private, co m m o n and clergy forests. It
became illegal to the owners to cut their timber without a permission of
Admiralty officers who should state that this timber is not suitable for
the navy. The historiographer o f the Ministry o f State Property Lev
Zakharov considers it to be the nationalisation o f forest resources. Only
at the reign of Ekaterina II liberalisation o f the forest statute took place
and in 1802 Forest Departm ent became the body o f Ministry of
Finances.
All the timber forests were examined and mapped by the navy
officers. All the oaks, pine, lime — and fur-trees were counted and
measured. It was a forest doomsday indeed. Hundreds o f large-scale
maps and charts, accom panied with tabular statistics were prepared.
Later these docum ents served as the source for general forest atlases
such as well-known «General Atlas o f various kinds o f forests» from the
Hermitage Collection o f Manuscript Departm ent o f the National
Library in Petersburg. These surveys were carried out even where forests
were never used later.
The fact that forest surveys are surprisingly detailed and exact
deserves special attention.
Also surprising is the large quantity o f forest maps and statistics in
various archives. Taking into consideration the fact that large-scale
mapping was new in the practice of Russian state management, the
importance of forest surveys for Petrine administration could be seen.
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The m apped resources o f timber forests are many times more than the
real forest consum ption and shipbuilding had ever been at that time or
later.
The technology o f the forest mapping is well-known. It was largely
borrowed from the Western mapmaking. The aim of Petrine cadastres —
navy building — is similar to the one of C olbert’s, who m anaged the
French crown estates the same way. But while the Colbert cadastres
m anaged only forests o f the crown, all the Russian forests in practice
belonged to the crown for almost a century, after im plementation of
Petrine cadastre.
EXERCISES
VIII. Open the brackets by using the words in the correct Tense form.
1. Pistsoviie knigi (to include) num ber of peasants in each village of
estate, quantity o f lands and approximate data on forests.
2. Russian surveyors (to take into consideration) feudal status o f the
land holding they described.
3. Virgin forests, em pty lands and marshes (to attract + not)
attention o f surveyors.
4. Those records (to reflect) abundance o f agricultural resources of
Medieval Russia and low density of its peasant population.
5. Wealthy native aristocracy often (to go astray) while traveling in
the vast forests o f the Central Russia in those times.
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text 15C:
1. The technology o f the forest mapping is...
2. All the Russian forests in practice belonged to...
3. The regular forest surveys were ordered...
4. In Russia all the timber forests were examined and... All the oaks,
pine, lime and fur-trees were...
5. In national Library in S. Petersburg you can find «General Atlas of
various kinds of forests», which is the source...
XII. Insert the proper words from unit 15. Translate the sentences into
English.
1. Petrine conception of... did not care about the majority of
Russians.
2. The request for... was growing constantly.
3. The technology of forest mapping was... borrowed from the
Western mapmaking.
4. In Petrine Russia all the timber forests from the Baltic sea to the
Volga... by the Admiralty.
5. Many wealthy landlords compiled... of their lands besides
numerous surveys carried out by Moscow Administration of Estates.
Unit 16
W HAT DO WE NEED LAND CADASTRE FOR?
I. Vocabulary notes:
control n 1. руководство, власть; управление; 2. проверка, кон т
р о л ь / / v 1. управлять, регулировать; 2. проверять, контролировать
recent а недавний, новый; соврем енны й; свежий, последний
survey п 1. изы скание, обследование; 2. съемка; 3. землемерное
ведомство; топографическое управление / / v 1. осматривать, о б
следовать; 2. производить землемерную съемку
relate v 1. улавливать связь; 2. приводить в соответствие
comprise v охватывать: вмещать, включать
land title учет земель
identification п и дентиф икация; отождествление
management п управление
capability п способность; зд. продуктивность (почв)
rate п 1. норма; 2. коэф ф и ци ен т; 3. скорость / / v ценить, о ц е н и
вать; устанавливать; исчислять
taxation п 1. оценка; 2. облож ение налогом
soil classification бони ти ровка почв
clay п глина, глинозем
silt п ил, естественные отложения
loam п 1. суглинок; ж ирная глина; 2. плодородная земля
gravel п гравий, крупный песок
significantly adv во многом, сущ ественно
legal а законны й
correspond v соответствовать, согласовывать
adopt v принимать
definition п определение
demand п требование
stipulate v ставить условие, оговаривать
provision п снабжение, обеспечение
formation п образование, создание, форм ирование
inventory п опись
distribution п распределение
unify v объединять, унифицировать
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permit v позволять, разрешать, давать возможность
to assure v страховать, гарантировать
interaction п взаимодействие
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English:
Text 16B. What does Land Cadastre Consist of?
The land cadastre consists o f four parts: 1) land users’ registration;
2) the title of quantity and quality of land resources; 3) soils’ qualities
assessment; 4) econom ic evaluation.
The land use planning agencies register the right on land parcels
which are given to land users. The new land users are registered when
decisions are taken by local authorities. A ll kinds of land uses must be
registered in land-title books.
The land users are given land parcels for certain uses and for different
needs. T he lands are divided into agricultural and non-agricultural
lands. The former are subdivided into pastures, grazing lands, grasslands
and so on. The State land-title book is the only d ocum ent for land
registration.
Land evaluation consists o f soil assessment and econom ic evaluation
of land resources. The assessment of soils determines the natural fertility
of land resources and land capability for agricultural production.
Land inventory is a systematic survey of land capability o f all regions.
The boundaries of the survey embrace lands o f many millions of square
kilometers. Land inventory is also a means to control land users. Land
use planners make analysis of uses, particularly the efficiency of
agricultural production. The data o f the land productivity are quite
necessary to determ ine the rate of taxation and for proper land use
management. The land users must know the land capability of all the
lands which they operate.
VI. Read the text and translate it into Russian in written form.
Text 16C. State Land Cadastre
State Land Cadastre creation is the main task of Roszemcadastre. Its
purpose is state land cadastre maintaining to provide an information
support for state registration of the rights of physical and juridical person
on real estate, effective system of land taxation, rational use of land
resources.
The progress in State Land Cadastre maintaining significantly
depends on the availability of the corresponding normative and legal
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bases. At the end o f 1999 the federal law «On State Land Cadastre» was
adopted by The State D um a and signed by President of Russia at the
beginning o f 2000. Definition of the system of executive bodies,
responsible for Cadastre maintaining in the country, dem ands to Land
Cadastre docum entation as well as order and terms of Cadastre
information presentation to state bodies, citizens and juridical persons
are stipulated in its provisions.
Activities for Land Cadastre creating and maintaining are carried out
on the basis o f the federal target program «Creation of the autom ated
system for State Land Cadastre maintaining» approved by the decree of
the R F G overnm ent on 03.08.1996. The activity o f land committees o f the
RF subjects is carried out within the regional programs aimed out the
creation o f autom ated Cadastre systems at the regional and district levels.
Form ation o f Land Cadastre data basis requires a wide range of Land
Cadastres activity including inventory o f land plots, land mapping,
creation o f cadastre maps and plans. One of the top priority tasks of
Roszemcadastre is a working out o f normative and methodical
docum ents aim ed at the development of the State Land Cadastre system
in Russia.
One o f the main sources for the formation of Land Cadastre data
bases are state statistical reports presented by land committees from all
administrative and territorial levels. On the basis of information
presented by land com m ittees o f RF subjects Roszemcadastre specialists
carry out annual analysis and input information on distribution, use and
state in the regions into the data base.
To unify cartographic material used in the State Land Cadastre
Roszemcadastre specialists work out methodical docum ents providing
the contents unification of Cadastre maps and plans, prepare branch
standards for drawing up land plot plans.
An im portant source for formation o f State Land Cadastre data bases
is land inventory and land survey information. Roszemcadastre and its
territorial bodies carry out Cadastre zoning o f the RF territory in order
to give on unique Cadastre num ber to each land plot permitting to
identify it.
Land Cadastre chambers are created under land committees of the
RF subjects to assure an effective functioning o f the State Land Cadastre
system. Their functions include creation and m aintenance of the
autom ated Cadastre as well as provision o f departm ental interactions in
this field.
EXERCISES
VII. Give the Russian equivalents:
land nationalization, high level of living, land cadastre, agro
industrial association, Ministry of Agriculture, departm ent of land uses,
m o dem technology, soil scientists, land cadastre docum entation.
100
VIII. Translate the sentences into Russian. Underline the verbs in the
Continuous form. Why are they used here?
1. The need for land is constantly increasing throughout the world.
2. He was not preparing for his examinations during those two weeks, he
was ill. 3. The records are being modernized by means of remote sensing
and m odern technology. 4. We shall be planning our work when you
return from your business trip. 5. The students were making their
calculations by means of computers when their tutor came in. 6. He was
being, asked by, the teacher while the rest of the students discussed their
plans for the holiday. 7. I am not going to stop my work now. You may
go alone or with Mike. 8. We were discussing cadastral problems from 6
till 8 in the evening.
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text 16A:
1. The Departm ent o f Land Uses maintains basic land title records ...
2. Cadastral surveys are very important for. ... 3. O ur state is the owner
o f ... 4. Land resources are used to help to provide ... 5. There are two
sets of reasons why the need for land cadastre is constantly ...
X. Give the Russian equivalents. Write down a few sentences with the
following word combinations:
land use practice; level of living; cadastral survey; land conservation;
cadastre; land-title system; land inventory; soil classification.
XII. Insert the proper words from unit 16 and translate the sentences
into Russian.
1. We have sufficient land now in use to provide... space, food, ...
and other land products. 2. There are two sets of reasons why need for
land cadastre has ... in recent time. 3. We modernize land-title records
by means of and m od em technology. 4. We need both agricultural and
land. 5. We shall be planning the land needs for ... purposes. 6.
Farmland covers only ... per cent of the total territory. 8. We are c o n
stantly in need of ... land.
XV. Write down the antonyms, using the prefixes. Translate them into
Russian:
un: known, developed, pleasant, limited, stable, limited, reasonable,
desirable, achieved, natural, successful
non: h um an, natural, moral, resistance, durable
I. Vocabulary notes:
land lord n 1. п омещ ик, землевладение; 2. владелец дома, сдава
емого внаем
tenant п арендатор
phenomenon п ф ен о м ен, явление
greedy а жадный, скупой
persist v упорствовать, настойчиво продолжать
exorbitant а чрезмерны й, непомерны й
disparity п 1. несоответствие; 2. разница, различие; 3. н еравен
ство, несоразмерность
reverse п 1. противоположность; 2. обратная сторона; 3. пер ем е
на, переменчивость / / а 1. обратный; 2. противоположный / /
v l . переставлять; 2. опрокидывать; 3. отменять
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 17B. Significance o f Land Rent
Part I I
History provides num erous examples o f the impact of increasing
competition between tenants upon the development of landlord rental
104
markets. This has been a co m m o n p h enom enon in the land-hungry
areas of the world and has often been a contributing cause o f peasant
unrest. Counterbidding between tenants together with landlord greed
gave rise to the famous «rack rents» of nineteenth-century Ireland.
Exorbitant rental arrangements of a comparable nature have also
persisted for long periods in countries such as Egypt and India.
The pressure for land and housing has seldom been great enough to
create conditions of this type in the United States. This does not mean
that supply and dem and conditions have had no effect upon American
rental rates. Landlords often raise their rents during periods o f favorable
business conditions and increasing demand. The housing shortage of
World War II gave m any property owners an opportunity to increase
rents. Even after public rent controls were put into effect, special
bonuses and black market payments were sometimes associated with the
leasing of residential properties. The high dem and for tenant fanns in
some areas during the 1930s also gave rise to a system of bonus rents.
U nder this system, tenants paid the customary share rent plus a bonus
for features such as pasture land, an above-average house, or other
improvements that might have been included in the rental bargain
without extra charge in earlier periods.
Short-run changes in supply and dem and conditions often result in
wide disparities between contract and land rents. Over the long run,
however, contract and land rental levels ordinarily move in the same
direction. When contract rents decline because of a decrease in the
relative dem and for land resources, land rents also tend to decline
because of the lower income attributable to land resources. With the
reverse situation, land rent tends to rise. These adjustments may be
attributed in part to changes in the incom e-producing capacity of land,
but they also involve the relative bargaining position of landlords and
tenants.
VI. Read the text and translate it into Russian in written form.
Text 17C. Relation o f Land Rent to Land Values
Some types o f land resources such as farms or forest land may be
viewed as productive factors with almost unlimited productive lives.
Others such as housing and office buildings have more limited economic
lives but can be utilized over extended periods. Both types can and
usually do produce a predictable future flow of reoccurring land rents.
This situation makes it possible for owners and investors to visualize the
future as well as the present use-capacity and rent-producing advantages
associated with particular tracts o f land w hen they consider the purchase
and sales prices associated with land resources.
F rom a theoretical point of view, land resources have a current
market value equal to the present value o f their expected future land
105
rents. Determinations o f current values call for estimates o f the expected
average annual levels of land rent and for calculations of the present
value o f rental returns, which will not be realized until specified times in
the future. The first o f these processes is complicated by m a n ’s lack of
perfect knowledge and foresight while the second involves what is
known as the discounting o f future values to determine their present
worth.
In illustrating the discounting concept, one might assume a tract of
land that is expected to produce net rental returns o f $1,000 annually for
years into the future. The expected rental return for next year and for
each year thereafter has a current market value o f something less than
$1,000 for the simple reason that the operator must wait to receive it. If
the operator tried to sell or borrow m oney against his expected future
rental return, he would find that the buyer or lender would tend to
calculate its present value in terms o f the am ount o f m oney it would
take when invested at an acceptable com pound interest rate to yield
$1,000 in the year in which the rental return would be realized. When
discounted at five percent, an expected rental return o f $1,000 one year
hence has a current market value of $952.40, a return due in ten years
has a current market value o f $613.90, and a return due in 20 years a
current market value o f $376.90. With a five percent discount rate, an
expected flow o f annual net rents o f $1,000 annually would have
correspondent current values.
EXERCISES
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text 17A:
1. Even when landlords and tenants enjoy equal knowledge and equal
bargaining power, contract rental rates may differ from...
106
2. Sometimes the tenant has only fragmentary knowledge...
3. The real significance o f theoretical concepts arises because of...
4. If you are really willing to become a specialist in land evaluation
you should exactly know the...
5. I know four o f the more important applications o f rent to different
economic problems. They are...
X. Give the Russian equivalents. Write down a few sentences using the
following word combinations:
am ount o f rent, economic return, additional payment, fragmentary
knowledge, equal knowledge, future production, rental agreement.
XII. Insert the proper words from unit 17. Translate the sentences into
Russian.
1. Farms or forest lands may be viewed as productive factors with... lives.
2. Office buildings are usually considered to have...economic lives.
3. Both owners and investors can visualize... as well as the present
use-capacity of the resources.
4. Landlords often... their rents during periods of favorable business
conditions and increasing demand.
5. History knows many examples of the impact or competition
between tenants upon the... o f landlord rental markets.
6. Land lord greed and counterbidding between tenants gave rise to
the famous... in Ireland in the 19th century.
XIV. Write down what parts of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russian.
1. The application o f land rent theory involves its relationship to
property values.
107
2. Why do people value land so high?
3. Now after the building has been reconstructed it can house more
people than before.
4. These houses will have to be reconstructed next year.
5. Now the landlord demands more m oney than he did last year.
6. The high demand for tenant farms in some areas under economic
crisis gave rise to a system of bonus rents.
Unit 18
LAND USE ALLOCATION AND LAND RENT
I. Vocabulary notes:
influence n влияние / / v влиять
allocation n распределение, назначение
correlate v соотносить, устанавливать соотнош ение, соответ
ствовать
frequently adv часто
deficiency n недостаток, несоверш енство, несостоятельность
deficient а н еполны й, недостаточный
lavish п щедрость, обильность, расточительность / / а щедрый,
обильны й, расточительный / / у б ы т ь щедрым, расточать
eke v увеличивать, расш ирять, д ополнять
livelihood п средства к жизни, пропитание
luxury п пыш ность, роскош ь
transference п передача, перевод, перенесение
margin п разница между себестоимостью и продажной ценой
emerge v появляться, возникать, выясняться
slum п трущоба
neglect v опускать, пренебрегать
shift п сдвиг, п ерем ещ ение, перемена направления / / v см е
шать, перемешать, изменять направление
squeeze v сжимать, стискивать, сдавливать
imminent о неизбежный, неминуемый, непосредственно грозящий
II. Write down the following nouns. Underline suffixes and translate
the words into Russian:
allocation, correlation, discussion, operator, opportunity,
alternative, requirement, allowance, comparison, managem ent, owner,
satisfaction, transference, community.
108
III. Pronounce correctly:
ire I fire, hire, entire
ia [ [aia ] diam ond, dialogue
io J prior, pioneer, violate
ie [i:] field, brief, grieve but: friend
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 18B. Effects upon Land-use Allocation
Areas of high use-capacity and high incom e-producing potential
usually produce high land rents. Conversely, as man resorts to lands of
lower use-capacity land rent tends to decline. This close correlation
between use-capacity and land rent makes the am ount o f land rent a site
can com m and for a particular use an index o f its use-capacity for that use.
109
O ur discussion of the economic returns to land resources to this
point has assumed only one type of enterprise or land use. In actual
practice, most operators choose am ong a num ber of alternatives.
Sometimes they concentrate on the enterprise or use that offers them
the greatest opportunity for profit. They may also work with
com plem entary enterprises or divide their attention among a variety of
enterprises. Choices between alternatives usually reflect a num ber of
factors including consideration of personal aptitudes, individual likes
and dislikes, and the capital and labor requirements o f various
alternatives. With due allowances for imperfect knowledge and other
associated factors, operators tend to concentrate upon those uses that
will maximize their returns at their particular locations and with their
particular combinations o f productive factors.
In their choice of enterprises, operators are always interested in
comparisons o f the incom e-producing potentials of their various
alternatives. These comparisons may be based upon general observations
or may involve calculations o f the probable economic returns to land
and m anagem ent they can expect from each alternative.
Unfortunately, the dem and for the expected higher uses does not
materialize, or, if it does, it may not come until years after it was first
anticipated. Unless strong positive measures are taken in these
situations, the usual result is a circle of spreading blight, slums, and
urban decay around downtown commercial centers. Individual owners
frequently sacrifice rental returns and satisfactions they could have had
although they sometimes find ways of exploiting their situations by
acting as slumlords. The real tragedy in these situations involves the
transference o f social costs to the public for it is society and the urban
com m unity that usually bears the major losses.
VI. Read the text and translate it into Russian in written form.
Text 18C. Problems o f R esidential Uses
L et’s imagine two problem situations involving the use o f land in
urban areas. The first situation concerns the margin o f transference A
at point J. This is the present margin between com m ercial and
residential uses. Property owners just to the right o f point A frequently
assume that urban growth will soon push the margin to at point K.
Anticipating this emerging higher use the neglect and hold back on
plans to remodel, repair or rebuild their residential properties in the
transition zone.
Applications o f the margin of transference approach.
The land use allocation and shifting process does not always operate
as smoothly as the m argin-of-transference diagrams suggest. Various
factors may keep lands from shifting as soon as they should, and the
expectations of an im m inent market for a higher use may cause
110
operators to neglect their properties or use them for lower valued uses
than they otherwise would.
A second land use problem centers around the margin of transference
between residential and agricultural uses. In an earlier time period,
when most urban residents lacked automobiles, the edge of the urban
residential area occurred at point P for example. An increase in city size
would have called for more intensive use of the areas already in
residential use plus some additions of residential lands around the city’s
edge. With the relaxation of the transportation constraint that has come
with the widespread ownership of automobiles and the building of
improved streets and highways, urban workers can now com m ute to
work from point S in less time and with less effort that their
grandparents expended in traveling from sites located to the left of
point P.
Relaxation o f the transportation constraint has facilitated a
suburbanization and residential scatteration trend. It has made it
possible for urban families to enjoy the advantages and amenities of
suburban and rural living; but it has also greatly complicated the
continued agricultural use of lands located in the vicinity o f large cities.
This problem is most serious when occasional tracts are acquired for
residential purposes while large areas are expected to remain in
agricultural and open space uses. The high land values and rent-bid prices
of the residential users may involve only a small proportion of the total
land area but they affect the pattern o f land prices and tax assessed values
for the entire area. Meanwhile, the new urban-oriented residents dem and
local governmental services not previously provided and add to the local
population that must be educated and protected. Farmers and other rural
land users feel that they are being squeezed out by rising property taxes and
the larger investments required for any expansion o f their business
operating units; and speculators, attracted by the expectation of
burgeoning subdivisions, acquire lands that often are allowed to lie idle.
Society again suffers as large areas become blighted for agricultural other
rural uses before a genuine need develops for their use for.
EXERCISES
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text 18A.
Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. A brief word should be said conserning...
2. To overcome the inherent deficiencies of low-rent sites intensive
use practices...
3. A site with a high land rent is not always subject...
4. Low rent housing facilities are usually subject to more intensive
hum an use than...
5. The high-rent locations in downtown areas are sometimes used as
intensively as...
X. Give the Russian equivalents. Write down a few sentences using the
following word combinations:
high use-capacity, high incom e-producing potential close
correlation, actual practice, the greatest opportunity for profit, a
particular use, a num ber of factors, individual likes and dislikes,
particular locations, choice of enterprises.
XII. Insert the proper words from unit 18. Translate the sentences into
Russian.
1. Areas of... potential usually produce high land rents.
2. Sometimes operators concentrate on the enterprise or use that...
them the best opportunity for profit.
3. The dem and for...does not always materialize.
4. Sometimes the operators may work with complementary
enterprises or... their attention am ong a variety of enterprises.
5. W hen the operators choose... they are always interested in
comparisons of the incom e-producing potentials of their various
alternatives.
6. The margin of transference between residential and agricultural
uses was one of the main...
112
XIII. Translate the sentences into English.
1. Если предприятие находится в невыгодном для владельца
месте, то иногда оно вынуждено затрачивать большие средства на
дорогие рекламные программы, чтобы привлечь к себе клиентов.
2. Размещение земельного участка играет важную роль в об ра
зовании земельной ренты.
3. Существует тесная связь между потенциалом данного зе
мельного участка и земельной рентой.
4. Ф орм и рован ие земельной ренты — м ногофакторны й п ро
цесс.
XIV. Write down what parts of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russian.
1. The influence of land rent upon the allocation o f land areas
between different uses was the theme o f student’s discussion.
2. Every specialist knows that the location o f the land use influences
its market price.
3. Farmers with soil of low natural fertility often use large inputs of
fertilizer to increase the productivity of their lands.
4. The operators can concentrate on the enterprise or use that offers
them the biggest profit.
5. The prospective seller may send an offer that usually quotes the
price and some other details.
XVI. Translate the text. Write down 4 questions and answer them in
oral form.
Text 18D. What is M iltiple-use M anagement Program?
Another pertinent application o f the margin-of-transference
approach can be visualized with public and private decisions concerning
choices between single-purpose and multiple-use alternatives in
resource management A public forest m anagem ent agency, for example,
may identify several individual uses such as commercial forest
production, public recreation, or game management that it could
emphasize as dom inant uses in its management programs. It may also
want to pursue a multiple-use m anagem ent program in which joint
emphasis is given to two or possibly all three o f these uses.
Com parison of the relative benefits associated with these
management alternatives calls for examination of the economic and
social costs and returns associated with each management approach. For
multiple-use m anagem ent to receive rational top emphasis, the sum of
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the economic and social land rents associated with this approach should
exceed those attainable when dom inant managerial emphasis is given to
any single use.
Unit 19
NATURAL LIMITS ON THE LAND SUPPLY
I. Vocabulary notes:
available a 1. доступный; 2. имею щ ийся в распоряжении; 3. год
ный, пригодный
interaction п взаимодействие
significant а значительный
determine v определять
provide v 1. снабжать; 2. обеспечивать
indemnity п 1. ловкость; 2. изобретательность, искусство, остр о
умие
effort п усилие
favourable а благоприятны й
involve v вовлекать
circumstance п обстоятельство
moisture п влажность
indicate v 1. показывать; 2. быть указателем, признаком
current а текущий
adequate а адекватный, соответствующий
endow v 1. одарять, завещать; 2. наделять качествами
afford v позволять
boast v хвастаться, превозносить(ся)
II. Write down the following nouns and underline suffixes. Translate
the words into Russian:
quantity, variety, settings, heritage, difference, presence, facility,
circumstance, provision, moisture, culture.
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 19B. Soil Assessment and Land Evaluation
Soil assessment, land quality and productivity evaluation, economic
evaluation of land and registration of land uses are the main concepts of
land cadastre.
The comparative evaluation of soil, for example, as regards to their
natural productivity is known as soil assessment. The rating of the
natural soil properties influencing yields is the aim of soil assessment.
The land use planners consider the factors which determine both the
potential and actual fertility. Land productivity evaluation embraces
various factors such as soil, climate, geographic location, etc. These
factors affect strongly the final economic results.
Soil assessment is the first stage in evaluating land. The next stage is
land productivity evaluation which is, in fact, a correction o f soil
assessment by coefficients for climate, humidity, etc. The economic
evaluation of land comes as a final, concluding stage o f the complete
evaluation of land as a means of production.
Soil assessment and land productivity evaluation are both
characterized by a comparatively great stability as com pared to the
economic evaluation of land. Due to the fact that it is based on
econom ic indices the econom ic land evaluation can vary from year to
year to a considerable extent. The economic land evaluation is subject to
considerable fluctuation.
The use of calculated yields of crops is rather com m o n for all the
methods of land evaluation. A com m on feature of the approach to land
evaluation is the combining o f land evaluation and land supply. A
general concept, known as «land cadastre» gives expression to that
relation which is, in fact, both qualitative and quantitative assessment of
land used in agriculture.
Soil assessment and land productivity evaluation are actually valid
only at a definite level o f technology of crops. The change of crop
rotation system and of fertilizer application, etc., results in a respective
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change in the evaluation values of soils and ecologic conditions.
Therefore it is necessary to repeat economic evaluation of land or
correct the existing one by suitable methods.
YI. Read the text and translate it into Russian in written form.
Text 19C. Is it Possible to Evaluate the R eal Productivity o f Land?
All the above methods are considered to be just the initial stage of
development o f a more accurate method.
The large num ber of factors and the interaction between them
determine the complexity of the m ethod for land productivity
evaluation. Due to this, each trial for such an evaluation should be
considered as an approximation only, i.e. just a step towards
establishment o f the real productivity o f land.
At present intensive work is being carried out on the use of methods
for statistical evaluation that will make it possible to achieve a more
objective expression of the interaction of different factors which affect
economic land evaluation.
EXERCISES
IX. Complete the following sentences using the words from text 19A
and translate the sentences into Russian:
1. Almost all the ea rth ’s surface affords...
2. Short growing seasons and unseasonable frosts prevent...
3. Around one-forth of the earth’s surface is too cold...
4. The supply of moisture for plant use also prevents...
5. Only less than 1 % of the w ord’s land area...
X. Give the Russian equivalents. Write down a few sentences using the
following word combinations:
soil assessment, land registration, natural productivity, natural soil
properties, potential and actual fertility, land productivity evaluation,
yields of crops, com m on feature, qualitative and quantitative
assessment.
XI. Write down 4 questions using the text 19C and answer them in
written form.
XII. Insert the proper words from unit 19. Translate the sentences into
Russian.
1. Only 34 percent of the worlds land areas... both anadequate and
reliable supply of rainfall.
2. Only 20 percent of the earth’s land surface have to permit
wheat culture.
3. Calculating yields of crops is r a t h e r of land evaluation.
4. Soil assessment is t h e in evaluating land.
5. T h e of land comes as a final stage of the complete evaluation
of land.
6. Land productivity evaluation... various factors such as soil climate,
geographic location etc.
XIV. Write down what parts of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russian.
1. This land is available for agricultural uses.
2. The supply of moisture for plant use also presents a varied picture.
3. That landlord presented his nephew with a rather big parcel of land
that the young m an could use for crop growing.
4. M an has found that the purposes-for which he uses land vary
almost as m uch in their need for particular land characteristics as do the
characteristics of the land resource base with which he works.
5. People need soil to grow crops for themselves and forage for
animals.
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XV. Write down the antonyms. Translate them into Russian:
here, significant, vast, evenly, to find, often, uneven, unfavorable,
presence, limited, certain, possible.
I. Vocabulary notes:
adequate a 1. соответствующий, соразмерны й; 2. достаточный
represent v представлять
suffer v страдать
failure n неурожай
range n обш ирное естественное пастбище
improve v улучшать
frequent а частый
intersperse v 1. разбрасывать, рассыпать; 2. вставлять в п ро м е
жутки; 3. разнообразить
adopt v принимать
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 20B. How do We Classify Agricultural Land?
The agricultural land uses have been the prime concern of any state
from the very first day o f its existence. The agricultural land uses
account for the largest proportion of the total area. Cropland includes
all of the cultivated areas used in the production of food, fibers and
other uses. It includes not only cropland harvested but also planted areas
that have suffered from crop failure and cropland areas that are
temporarily idle or fallow.
The concept o f pasture and grazing lands is somewhat more
complicated. It really involves two types of land use: arable pasture plus
range and grazing land. Arable pasture includes all those improved
pasture areas that are considered plowable and that might easily be
shifted into cropland use. Areas o f this type frequently are interspersed
with croplands. As a result these two uses overlap. It is often desirable to
treat them together under the designation o f arable farm land.
The concept o f pasture land also overlaps with that of range and
grazing land. The term «range» is ordinarily associated with the large,
naturally vegetated grazing lands found in the low rainfall areas. Some
range lands have a cropland potential, particularly if they can be
irrigated. But most o f them are best adopted to permanent grazing use.
Generally speaking, the concept o f range and grazing land applies to
those lands that produce forage cover for grazing by domestic animals
and game mammals. But these lands are generally unsuited for
cultivation because o f inadequate rainfall, rough topography or high
altitude. This subclassification includes not only range lands but also
many smaller non-arable areas, such as nonplowable rough pasture land.
EXERCISES
VIII. Translate the sentences into Russian. Pay attention to the use of
the verb.
Я просила тебя зайти на кафедру землепользования. Ты был
там? Когда ты ходил туда? Я только что вернулся с кафедры. Ты
взял мое задание по кадастру? Нет еще. Я взял рабочие тетради.
Но я их ещ е не заполнил.
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from texts 20A
and 20B.
1. Cropland is a cultivated area used in the production of.... 2. C rop
land also includes the planted areas that are temporarily.... 3. What are
pastures? Pastures really are range and .... 4. Most o f rangelands are best
adopted to .... 5. There are some principal kinds o f land use. They are....
6. Residential lands represent the areas where m ost-people live ... and....
XII. Insert the proper words from unit 20 and translate the sentences
into Russian.
1. We remem ber that natural areas must be .... 2. There are ...kinds of
land use in Russia. 3. We consider the land to be a space to conduct
activities and ... of production. 4. Residential lands and industrial sites
cover only a small ... o f the earth’s surface. 5. Arable pasture includes all
improved ... areas that are considered plowable and may be easily
converted into cropland again. 6. What does the ... «range» mean?
7. Most of range lands are best adopted to ... grazing use. 8. There are
some pastures that produce ... cover for grazing by domestic animals and
game mammals.
XIV. Write down what parts of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russian.
1. These lands produce forage cover for grazing by domestic animals
and game mammals. 2. The Russian Federation covers about 1/7
territory of the world. 3. The year 1839 saw the appearance of the disk
plow. 4. With the efficient power the farmer began to plow and disk, to
harrow and plant, to fertilize and harvest. 5. This plant is grown in the
south of the Ukraine. 6. If you overwork the rich farmland it depletes its
fertility. 7. The harvest time has began.
XV. Write down the synonyms and translate them into Russian:
crop, largest, work, provide, rarely, quick, often.
Unit 21
SOIL SURVEY AND LAND USE PLANNING
I. Vocabulary notes:
extremely adv крайне
coarse a 1. грубый, необработанны й; 2. крупный
identical а равн означн ы й, идентичный
fine а зд. мелкий
attach v связывать, соединять
medium а средний
acidite п кислотность
manual п руководство; справочник
liability п склонность, подверженность
mottled а крапчатый, и спещ ренны й
corrode v разрушать; подвергать коррозии
indicate v указывать
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pipe n труба, трубка
select v выбирать, отбирать
predominant а преобладающий
vary v изменяться
correlate v соотноситься
particle п частица
II. Write down the following words. Underline suffixes. Translate the
words into Russian:
a) diversity, familiarity, identity, priority, property, acidity, fertility,
possibility, locality, permeability, particularity
b) assessment, measurement, management, improvement, environ
ment, development, movement
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 21 B. Soil Survey Texture Maps fo r Land Cadastre
The five alternatives listed below figure in most legends o f soil survey
texture maps for land cadastre.
1. The predominant size of the mineral particles. This property is well
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correlated with other soil properties. In sandy soils particles between
0.06 and 2 m m diameter predominate. In silty soils those smaller than
0.002 and 0.06 m m and in clayey soils those smaller than 0.002 mm. In
loamy soils no one particle size range is predominant. Sandy soils are
also called «light» or coarse-textured, clayey soils — «heavy» or fine-
textured and silty and loamy soils are sometimes grouped as medium -
textured. Stoniness refers to the proportion o f particles o f a diameter
larger than 2 mm. A more detailed scheme o f texture classes is outlined
in soil survey manuals.
2. Natural drainage. The incidence o f waterlogging is another
important soil condition. It can be assessed directly or by interference
from the presence or absence o f grey or mottled colours or by a peaty
surface layer. The categories used are excessively well, moderately well,
imperfectly, poorly and very poorly drained.
3. Major groups. Soils are formed by physical, chemical and
biological processes. Classifications which emphasize properties
indicating the nature and extent o f these processes are called natural or
genetic.
Soil-forming processes usually lead to the development o f a distinct
layering in the soil, more or less parallel to the surface o f the ground.
The sequence of layers (technically called soil horizons) down to
unaltered geological material is called the soil profile. Most
classifications define profile classes which group together similar soil
profiles regardless of where they occur.
4. Parent material. Within a given neighbourhood, the nature o f the
geological material from which the soil has formed is often a useful
indicator o f its other properties, particularly when no soil map is
available. Thus one may refer to «chalk soils», «boulder clay soils», etc.
The land use planners should recognize that considerable variation
occurs within these groups, caused by other soilforming factors.
5. Soil series.Subgroups o f the genetic classification are divided by
texture and parent material into soil series. Soil series are named after
localities where examples are known to occur. While thus defined as a
profile class, soil series are com m only used as mapping units on detailed
soil maps.
EXERCISES
VIII. Open the brackets by using the verbs in the correct form.
1. The dean was sure that the students o f Land Use Planning faculty
(to take part) in the meeting. 2. He knew that you (to be writing) the report
for the conference on the problems o f geodesy. 3. My friend told me he
(to hear) the previous week that the Chair o f Pedology (to be preparing)
for the conference and that it (to be held) at the end o f the next month.
4. Galileo proved that the Earth (to move) round the Sun. 5. The teacher
said that the students o f this group (to be) good at geodesy. 6. The student
said that he (to become) a good specialist in soil science.
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text 21B.
1. Soil properties are well correlated with the... . 2. The sizes of
particles in sandy soils are... . 3. Clayey soils are called... . 4. Sandy soils
are called... . 5. The categories o f natural drainage are... .
6. Classifications emphasizing properties indicating the nature and
extent o f physical, chemical and biological processing in soils are
called... . 7. Soil-forming process usually leads to the development of... .
8. Soil series are nam ed after...
XIV. Write down what part of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russian.
1. What can you say about the properties o f this soil? 2. They soil the
animals all the year round. 3 This soil needs the increase o f fertilizers.
4. This departm ent increases its input for soil surveys. 5. What is the
object o f these laboratory measurements? 6. The professor objected to
the method used in that investigation. 7. The formation o f soil is the
result o f physical, chemical and biological processes. 8. They processed
the data o f the experiment for three hours. 9. Their work resulted in
some soil maps of high quality.
XVI. Read the text and discuss it in class. Write down all words you
should know in your opinion.
Text 2 ID . On Land Classification
The following discription is extracted from one o f the Reports o f the
Commission on World Land Use Survey.
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1. Settlements and Associated Non-Agricultural Land
Whilst on the 1: 1, 000,000 map it will not be possible to do more
than indicate by one color (dark red) the areas covered by cities and
towns, in industrial and developed countries where large-scale maps are
available it may be desirable to distinguish between different types of
settlement on the survey maps. According to need, local classifications
may be used to distinguish between different phases of urban land use of
functional zones.
Extensive surface mining areas including land devastated owing to
mine operations should be indicated in light red and explained in
accompanying notes.
2. Horticulture
This category should be used to include all intensive cultivation of
vegetable and small fruits (as distinguished from tree fruits). The
category, therefore, covers such agriculture as truck farming in America,
market gardening in Britain and other European countries, as well as the
production from larger gardens and allotments, whether the crops are
grown for sale or not. Where vegetables are grown in rotation with
ordinary farm crops the area should be recorded as category 4, cropland.
This category of horticulture also includes the garden cultivation of
tropical villages — for example, in Africa, Malaya, etc., where the village
com pound usually includes mixed vegetables such as yams, potatoes
with fruit and sometimes with small numbers o f palm trees, cocoa trees,
bananas, etc.
3. Tree and Other Perennial Crops
A very wide range is covered by this category and the land to be
included will differ very much from one part o f the world to another, so
that in each different survey or on each survey sheet the crops concerned
should be named or indicated by means o f symbols. In the tropics there
will be included, amongst others, rubber plantations, tea gardens, palm
oil plantations, coconut groves, citrus orchards, cinchona plantations
and banana plantations. In middle latitudes the category will include
citais orchards, orchards o f deciduous fruits-such as apples, pears,
plums, cherries, peaches, apricots and figs-also olive groves and
vineyards of different types. The category should also be used to include
the groves of cork oaks (as in Portugal) and also such rare cases as
plantations o f pine trees grown especially for the production o f resins
and turpentine. The category should also be used to include such
perennial crops or cultivations grown without rotation as sisal and
manila hemp, but sugar cane or alfalfa, although grown on the same
piece o f land for a num ber o f years, should be recorded as growing on
cropland.
4. Cropland
(a) Continual and rotation cropping
(b) Land rotation.
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The cropland will include both plowed land and land cultivated by
hand. By continual crops we mean, for example, rice, which is often the
only crop grown year after year on the same land, also sugar cane and
such mono-cultural crops as wheat and corn. By rotation crops we
include those grown in a fixed or variable rotation, including fodder
grass, clover and alfalfa, which may occupy the land for two or three
years. Crop rotation includes current fallows, that is land which is rested
for a short period (not exceeding three years). All the above are to be
shown in dark brown.
By land rotation we understand the system whereby cultivation is
carried on for a few years and then the land allowed to rest perhaps for a
considerable period before the scrub or grass which grows up is again
cleared and the land recultivated. In such areas, however, the farms or
settlements from which cultivation takes place are fixed and the
cultivation o f the land is the dom inant occupation. The secondary
growth which is allowed to appear has little or no econom ic importance.
This is in contrast to the forest with subsidiary cultivation m entioned
later.
5. Improved Permanent Pasture (Managed or Enclosed)
This is a type of land use well understood in countries like New
Zealand and Britain where controlled grazing is carried on in small
enclosed fields, the grass being managed by manuring, sometimes by
reseeding, by liming or in other ways. Often the grasses, including
clovers, have been introduced so that the pasture is not natural. Some
land o f this sort is grazed; other is cut for hay or dried grass. In other
countries, such as the United States, this category of land is less
distinctive but would include land such as the intensively stocked
grasslands o f the dairy belts.
6. Unimproved Grazing Land
This may be described as extensive pasture or range land. It may be
enclosed in large units but is not as a rule in small fields. It is not
fertilized or deliberately m anured though it may be periodically burnt
over. The vegetation is that which is native to the locality although the
characteristics o f the vegetation have often been modified by grazing or
occasionally by the introduction o f non-local plants.
A great range o f vegetation is included, from tropical savanna to arctic
tundra, and as far as possible the type o f vegetation should be described
on the m ap or accompanying notes. For example, the category will
include savanna (or grassland with scattered trees where the grass is
dom inant), tropical grassland, steppe land, dry pampas, and short grass
prairie. The category will also include su th range lands as bunch grass and
sage brush and creosote bush, as well as the vegetation o f the High Veld
and the Karoo o f South Africa. It will include the heather moorlands and
heath lands and grass moorlands o f Europe. It is clear that special care
must be taken to distinguish these very varied types.
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There are m any areas o f such land which at present are not used in
different parts o f the world though they differ but little from those which
are used for grazing. This difference should determine the color, orange
for used and yellow for not used.
7. Woodlands
Forest and woodland will be found to differ very greatly from one
part of the world to another. The main categories suggested refer to the
morphological character o f the forest, independently of the age of the
tree:
(a) Dense. Forests where the crowns o f the trees are touching
(b) Open. Where the crowns of the trees do not touch and the land
between is occupied by grass or other ground vegetation. Where, of
course, the trees are very sparse such land comes into category 6
(grazing land)
(c) Scrub. Is used to designate vegetation such as the maquis of
Europe, chaparral o f N o rth America, mallee and mulga o f Australia and
the acacia thorn scrub o f Africa and India
(d) Swamp forests, both fresh water and tidal (mangrove)
(e) Cut-over or burnt-over forest areas not yet fully reclothed
(f) Forest with subsidiary cultivation
(i) Shifting cultivation, where patches o f land are recleared for
cultivation from time to time, usually but not always, by wandering
tribes
(ii) Forest-crop economy. Somewhat similar is the sytem, for
example in parts of eastern Canada, where holdings consist mainly o f
woodland but where some cultivation is carried on subsidiary to the
working and m anagem ent by replanting o f the forest land.
The types o f forest, whether dense, open, scrub, and can usually be
distinguished by symbols into the following:
(e) evergreen broad-leaved
(sd) semi-deciduous, (d) deciduous, (c) coniferous, (m) mixed
coniferous and deciduous. In addition, in many parts o f the world it
should be possible to nam e the dom inant species or groups o f trees and
indicate the type o f undergrowth. It may also be possible to indicate in
broad outline where forest land is being commercially exploited.
8. Swamps and Marshes (Fresh-and Salt-Water, Non-forested)
9. Unproductive Land
A great variety o f land is also included in this category..Considered in
relation to land use it appears bare, and though it may support lowly
forms o f plant life is essentially unproductive. Barren mountains, rocky
and sandy deserts, moving sand dunes, salt flats, icefields are examples.
Potential use, such as land capable of irrigation, may be indicated and
considered in the articles but it is the present position which should be
mapped.
Section IV
RURAL LAND USE PLANNING
Unit 22
LAND RESOURCES FOR FARMING
I. Vocabulary notes:
moisture n влажность, влага
value n ценность / / v ценить
allow v позволять
deer n олень
extent n протяженность
abundant а обильный
virgin а невозделанная (о земле), целинная
precipitation п осадки
humid а влажный
fertile а плодородный
favourable а благоприятны й
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 22B. Different Productive Capacities o f Land
Differences in productive capacity o f land resources are tremendous.
On the deserts we can produce almost nothing; on some lands that have
plentiful water, productive soils and good location in relation to
industrial centres we can produce several thousand roubles worth of
products from a hectare in a single year.
We have trem endous areas o f land so cold most o f the year that it can
be used only for deer pastures. There may be land that we can grow only
a few kinds of crops on it. We have land on which we grow vegetables in
midwinter.
Since plants are the basis o f agriculture, land that can produce
abundant plant material is valued very high.
EXERCISES
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text 22B:
1. There are great differences in... . 2. Trem endous areas of land in
the N orth can be used only for... . 3. There were some kinds of land
where we could grow... . 4. Plants are the basis of... .
X. Give the Russian equivalents. Write down some sentences, using the
following word combinations:
productive soils, soils sufficiently deep, labor saving machinery,
virgin lands, dairy farms.
XI. Insert the proper words and translate the sentences into Russian:
1. Land for crop production must have ... water.
2. Land resources are ... inexhaustible.
3. The land for crop production must be ... enough to allow the use
of labour saving machinery.
4. Better sources o f ... mable irrigation effective in some places.
5. Some soil loses its fertility because o f ... .
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6. In the N orth o f Russia we have trem endous areas o f ... that can be
used as ...pastures.
7. There some lands on which we ... vegetables in winter.
XII. Write down what part of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russian.
1. We know why people value land so high. 2. Our agriculture needs
more and more and more electricity with every coming year. 3. These
animals feed entirely on grass; they do not need any other feed. 4. It is
necessary to increase the production of vegetables. 5. The increase in
the production o f vegetables was the result o f proper use of fertilizers.
6. Do you want to take part in our expedition? 7. Man s wants have
greatly changed since the last century. 8. My brother works at a factory.
9. I know the works o f this scientist.
Unit 23
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND LAND RESOURCES
I. Vocabulary notes:
chemical n химическое удобрение
entire о полный
accumulate v накапливать
joint n соединение, узел / / а общий, объединенны й
advanced а передовой
diminish v уменьшать; ослаблять
purpose n цель
formerly adv прежде, раньше
restrictive а ограничительны й, ограниченны й
implement n инструмент, орудие / / v выполнять; приводить в и с
полнение
link п связь, соединение / / v связывать, соединять
improvement п улучшение
elevation п повы ш ение
suit v подходить; приспособить(ся)
predict v капиталовложение
suitable а подходящий
consequence п последствие
II. Write down the following nouns. Underline the suffixes. Translate
the words into Russian:
implement, improvement, environment, investment, management,
equipment, m ovement, settlement, arrangement, statement, treatment,
embarrassment, appointm ent, allotment, m onum ent, development,
fulfillment, attainment, enrichm ent, enlargement.
aw 7 4 thaw, saw
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bur. aunt [a:]
аг [ э:] после [w] warm, war, quarter
^ , - w a s h , want
w + a [o:]
^ ^-sw am p, wax
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 23B. Factors that Influence L and Uses in Agriculture
Land occupies the leading place am ong the resources used in
farming. Its central place has not diminished with the progressive
advance of technology and the greater use of machines and fertilizers.
Land use planners now are no more captives of the natural
environment. They are able to control and direct natural forces in many
ways. This means that farmland can be used for more different purposes
than ever before. The properties inherent in the land are now less
restrictive. Many factors determine the proper, sound and full land in
agriculture.
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Nevertheless, the characteristics of land resources still set limits that
influence the one who learns to co-operate with the natural and
biological processes that are linked to land.
What determines how farmland shall be used in any area or region?
Why are certain combinations of crops and livestock grown in one region,
but not in another? Questions like these seek answers of land use planners.
In general terms, two groups of forces- physical and economic-
influence the use of land for agricultural production. Physical factors are
the climate, soil, topography, elevation, water supply and the like. They
are the properties that are naturally a part of land resources.
Economic factors have to do with man and his relation to land
resources and his facilities, investments, nearness to living centers,
patterns of m anagem ent and other significant elements. Technological
change, economic and physical factors determine land uses in
agriculture.
EXERCISES
XII. Insert the proper words. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Land resources do not diminish their fertility if we use them on the
basis of advanced ... an d technology. 2. The farmers accum ulated much
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new knowledge about ... 3. Modern farming is a ... specialized
production o f food and raw materials. 4. We can control and direct the
forces o f ... 5. The use of land is influenced by the ... groups of forces-
the physical and the economic ones. 6. What must be the proper ...
rotation? 7. Yields will increase rapidly if crop r o t a t i o n properly.
XIV. Write down what part of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate sentences into Russian.
1. This power station will supply many villages with electricity.
2. This farm has a good water supply. 3. We made some changes in our
project. 4. This fact will change the problem radically. 5. You must water
these vegetables very often. 6. Give him a glass o f water, please. 7. The
farmer may control the condition of the soil on his plot of land.8. The
farmer may control the condition of the soil on his plot o f land.
Unit 24
TYPES OF FARMING
I. Vocabulary notes:
specialize v специализироваться
animal husbandry разведение д ом аш ни х животных, животновод
ство
dairying п молочное хозяйство, торговля молочны ми продукта
ми
dairy cattle п молочны й скот
beef cattle мясной скот
cropping farm растениеводческое хозяйство
horticulture п садоводство (товарное)
gardening п огородничество, любительское садоводство
moor land п место, поросшее вереском, болото, пустошь
holding п арендованны й участок земли
livestock « д о м а ш н и й скот
grazing п 1. овечье пастбище, выгон; 2. животноводство на п од
ножном корме
actual а действительны й, существующий в настоящее время
a large amount (of) большое количество
conceive v 1. постигать; 2. задумывать
processing п обработка собранных данны х
proposal п предложение
reduce v 1. ослаблять; 2. сводить (к)
heart п суть, сущ ность
emphasize v подчеркивать, выделять
encompass v окружать, охватывать
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idle а пустующий (о земле)
restrict v ограничивать, сокращать
nevertheless adv, conj хотя, несмотря на, однако
pattern п образец, модель
viable а жизнеспособны й
link п связь, соединение / / v связывать, соединять
interdependent а взаимозависимы й
priority п преимущество
V. Read the text, write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 24B. Size and Ownership o f Farms
For many centuries most o f the land in Britain was divided into
estates ranging in size from a few hundred hectares upwards, comprising
farms o f various sizes let to tenants. At all times the tenanted holdings
were interspersed with some owned by the farmers who occupied them,
and with some peasant or cottage holdings. Social changes of the past
fifty or so years have completely altered the pattern of rural life in
England and Scotland. Estate duties have been a principal factor in the
breaking up o f estates. Most surviving estates are still owned by private
individuals or family trusts but the Crown. The C hurch Commissioners,
local authorities, the National Coal Board and other corporate bodies
hold large areas. O f the farms sold, many have been bought by the
tenants already in occupation. More than half the farms in Great Britain
(and almost all in N orthern Ireland, where the G overnm ent helped
tenants to buy their holdings as a result o f legislation between 1870 and
1925) today are owner-occupied.
There are about 272,000 statistically significant farming units in
Britain. Some 42 per cent are very small units, mostly farmed part-time
and accounting for less than a tenth of the industry’s total output. O f the
170,000 full-time farm businesses some 39,500 are classified (by
standard man-days) as large farm businesses (capable o f employing four
or more men full-time); these accounting for some 14,5 per cent o f the
number o f holdings produce more than half the industry’s total output.
There are about 53,000 medium — sized (two—three men) and 64,500
small farm businesses.
Amalgamation o f small farms into larger, more viable units has been
encouraged by successive Governments. The average size o f full-time
holdings in Britain is 105 hectares (259 acres) based on total area which
includes crops and grass, rough grazings (excluding com m on rough
grazings), woodland and other land on agricultural holdings.
Some 34,000 o f the total o f significant farming units are in Northern
Ireland: over half o f these provide a full-time occupation for the owner
and produce over four-fifths o f total output. The average farm size is
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23 hectares (57 acres). O ther holdings, o f which there are about 16,000,
are either extremely small or let in conacre (seasonal lettings for crops or
grazings).
EXERCISES
IX. Complete the following sentences with the words from text 2 4 B :
1. The average farm size in northern Ireland is ... .
2. The average size o f full-time holdings in Britain is ...
3. The pattern of rural life in England and Scotland has completely
been ...
4. More than half the farms in G reat Britain and almost all in
Northern Ireland today are ...
5. There are 64,500 small farm businesses in ...
XII. Write down what part of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russian.
1. The land use planner can design sound development plans within
the framework of an administrative region.
2. This new building is of a better design than the former one.
3. In Russia the owners can sell their land uses according to our new
land legislation.
4. If you use this plot of land in an effective way you can get more
produce.
5. They produce good beef on the farm.
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XIII. Translate the following sentences into English:
1. И н тен си ф и кац и я производства в области сельского хозяй
ства ведет к углублению специализации как животноводческих,
так и растениеводческих ферм.
2. На юге, где прекрасные луга, фермы специализирую тся на
разведении мясного и молочного крупного рогатого скота.
3. Оптимальны й размер ферм ы зависит как от природных, так
и от эконом ических факторов.
4. Средний размер сельскохозяйственного владения в Англии —
105 гектаров (259 акров) с учетом всех видов угодий (cropland,
grassland, rough grazing).
XIV. Insert the proper words and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. There are concentrations o f... in south-west Scotland.
2. In the hill and moorland areas o f Scotland ... and cattle are reared.
3. At all the times the tenanted holdings were ... with some owned by
the farmers.
4. There were also some peasant or ... holdings.
5. ... o f small farms into larger more viable units is now encouraged
by the G overnm ent in G reat Britain.
XV. Write down the names of crops both in English and in Russian.
W heat Potatoes
Barley Sugar beet
Oats Hops
Mixed corn Horticultural crops
Maize for threshing Fodder crops
Oilseed crops
Other crops
XVI. 1) Write down the names of crops grown in the locality where you
(your parents, your friends or relatives) live. You may use the data from
the nearest rural locality.
2) Write down the names o f crops grown on the territory o f Russian
Federation.
3) Use these words in short sentences, indicating the places of these
crops cultivation as given in an example. They grow the best varieties of
wheat in Oriengurg region.
Uni t 25
LOCATION FACTOR IN RURAL PLANNING
I. Vocabulary notes:
distribution n распределение
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permanently adv н еизм енно, постоянно
throughout prep повсюду
storage n 1. хранилищ е; 2. хранение
verge v приближаться
solution n решение
trend n направление, тенденция
comparative а сравнительны й
adopt v приним ать
favourable а благоприятны й
silo n силос / / а силосный
main n магистраль
consistent а последовательный
sewer n сточная труба
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 25B. Location o f Living Areas o f Agricultural Enterprise
A m odern agricultural enterprise needs an adequate living area.
M uch study is necessary to provide optim um living conditions o f those
who live in rural areas.
Each master plan should have maps that show a desirable scheme of
land use, including areas of production units, field patterns,
com m unications system etc. Consideration should be given to the
impact of different location factors that influence a particular living
area. Certain comparative advantages may stem from natural advantages
such as favourable climate, soils and topography.
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People who are to live in the com m unity will need more jobs,
attractive homes, land for farming and gardening and areas for rest and
play. Determining the areas in a com m unity that are most suitable,
requires study.
A growing com m unity also needs new roads and streets, schools,
public buildings, water mains, sewers and other public facilities.
Where should the proposed public improvements be located?
Locations might be selected with a view to making the fullest use of
present and proposed facilities.
The location o f public buildings, roads and other facilities will
influence land uses.
Small industrial enterprises in the living area become com m on with
some old and rural developments.
Attractions associated with various local amenities provide a
comparative advantage. Amenity considerations are associated with
particular sites. Ready access to municipal roads and to motorways is
important. The living area should not be located too far from the local
road. Labor afficiency may be increased by making the distance between
the most frequently used areas and the home as short as possible. Much
attention is paid now to the requirements o f modern rural family living
zone. Some land use planners consider that it should have a house, a
garage, recreation area, a garden, an orchard, a small animal building.
The location o f residential areas is to provide the best conditions for
those who work at the agricultural enterprise and in related branches of
agriculture.
EXERCISES
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XVI. Read the dialogue and discuss the problem in class.
The Size and the Shape o f a Field Pattern
— Why is it so important to adjust the size of a field to m odem
machinery?
— The variable nature o f land makes it possible for land use planners
to adjust the size of a field to m odern machinery of an optim um level at
which they can secure the highest possible net return from the field.
— But what is the optim um econom ic size?
— The land use planner has to consider the effect o f different field
sizes. For example the 900 ha fields are already not large enough for
m o d em machinery.
— What can be said about the shape of the field?
— Many land parcels have natural markers. But geometric design in
agriculture is mostly determined by rectangular survey.
— What are the disadvantages o f natural markers?
— Disadvantages are in difficulty o f estimating surface size. Many
natural markers are not perm anent and can be lost.
— What is the advantage of a rectangular survey?
— A rectangular survey had a great advantage from the start as a
quick, rough-and-ready m ethod that would afford the precision needed
at the time.
— And why is the rectangular survey valued today?
— The advantages of rectangular layout (on flat land) become more
obvious when, for instance, a new highway m ns in a direction other than
east-west or north-south, parcels become odd-shaped, often triangular,
with some acute angles. Use o f broad-gauge machinery may then
become difficult or impossible. Costs o f cultivation will then rise.
— What can you say about the boundary lines of fields?
— Triangular shape m eans longer boundary lines for the same
acreage. Such changes increase the am ount o f headland along parcel
boundaries.
— Why is the shape of the headland so important?
— Headland usually gives lower yield than average for the parcel.
Average yield for the whole parcel is lowered somewhat. The acute angle
will in any event remove some land from intensive use.
Unit 26
THE STRUCTURE OF AGRICULTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN TODAY
I. Vocabulary notes:
farming methods методы ведения сельского хозяйства
horticulture п садоводство
152
crop yield урожай культуры
animal yield приплод; надой (молока)
fertile adj плодородный
growing season период роста (культур)
weather conditions погодные условия
ripe v созревать
own v владеть
owner п владелец
dairy farming молочное хозяйство
herd п стадо
beef cattle м ясной скот
consume v потреблять
arable crops п ропаш н ы е культуры
cereals п зерновые культуры
grain п зерно
standard of living уровень жизни
fisheries, fishing industry рыболовство; рыбная промы ш ленность
fish stocks запасы рыбы
overfishing п истощ ение рыбных запасов
fluctuation п колебание
fish breeding pattern способ разведения рыб
inside and beyond the zones в пределах и за пределами зон
fish catch улов рыбы
prescribed amounts предписанное количество
fishing vessels рыболовные суда
conflicting interests противоречивые интересы
loss of livelihood потеря средств к сущ ествованию
cod п треска
haddock п пикш а
whiting п мерланг
herring п сельдь
mackerel п скумбрия
plaice п камбала
sole п палтус
shellfish п омары, устрицы, креветки, ракообразные
fishing fleet ры боловный флот
salmon п лосось
trout п форель
by-products побочны й продукт
whale п кит
ban v запрещать
timber processing обработка древесины
associated timber products сопутствующие продукты п роизвод
ства древесины
153
to be heavily dependent upon сильно зависеть от
tree-planting programme программа возобновления леса
to reduce public expenditure уменьшать расход средств
to encourage productivity п оощ рять производительность
new plantings новые посадки
profitable private sector п рибы льны й частный сектор
benefit the environment оказывать благотворное воздействие на
окруж аю щ ую среду
disquiet беспокойство, волнение
II. Write the following words and underline the suffixes. Translate the
words into Russian:
a) needed, planned, specialized, supplied, organized, oriented,
included, related, estimated, designed, determined, existed, expected,
appraised, operated, engaged, termed, detailed, desired;
b) grassy, rainy, chalky, watery, loamy, sunny, misty, boggy, beafy,
icy, sandy, windy, stormy, frosty
V. Read the text, write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 26B. Forestry Policy in Great Britain
Woodlands cover an estimated 5.8 million acres (2,4 million
hectares) of Britain and comprise 7.3 per cent of England, 14.6 per cent
of Scotland, 11.9 per cent of Wales and 5.2 per cent of N orth Ireland.
Some 40 per cent o f productive national forests are managed by the state
Forestry Commission or government departments and the rest by
private owners. Some 42,000 people are employed in the state and
private forestry industries and 10,000 are in timber processing.
However, these activities contribute only 15 per cent to the national
consumption o f wood and associated timber products, which means that
the country is heavily dependent upon wood import. The government
has encouraged three-planting programmes, particularly in Scotland,
and allowed the sale of state woodlands to private owners in order to
reduce public expenditure and to encourage productivity. New
plantings, controlled felling, the expansion o f timber industries and a
profitable private sector may reduce Britain’s present dependence upon
imports and benefit the environment.
Forestry policy is supposed to take environmental and conservation
factors into account in the development o f timber facilities. But such
aims are not always achieved, and there is disquiet about government
155
programmes. Environmentalists campaign to increase tree planting and
to preserve the quality of the existing woodlands, which in resent years
have been badly affected by disease, unreasonable felling and substantial
storm damage.
VI. Read the text and translate it into Russian in written form.
Text 26C. Fishing Industry in Great Britain
Britain is one of Europe’s leading fishing nations and operates in
continental waters, the N orth Sea, the Irish Sea and the Atlantic. The
fishing industry is im portant to the national economy, and has been
centred on a num ber of ports around the British coast.
However, employment in and income from fishing have declined
substantially in recent years. This is due to the reduction in available fish
stocks in European waters because o f over-fishing, and fluctuations in
fish breeding patterns. Many fishermen have become unemployed and
traditional fishing towns, such as Grimsby and the Scottish ports, have
suffered. But the fishing industry still accounts for some 55 per cent of
Britain’s fish consumption. The num ber o f fishermen is now about
17,000, with some 5,000 occasionally employed and about three jobs in
associated occupations for every one fisherman.
The fishing industry has also been affected by European U nion (EU)
and British government policies. These insist on the need to conserve
fish resources and prevent over fishing. Zones have been established in
which fishermen may operate. EU countries and some nonm em bers can
fish in specified areas up to Britain’s 6-mile (10-km) fishing limit. Quota
systems are in force inside and beyond the zones in order to restrict fish
catches to prescribed amounts. British government measures to limit the
time fishing vessels spend at sea will further restrict employment. These
EU and government policies have affected the fishermen’s old freedom
of choice and operation.
T he most im portant British fish catcher are cod, haddock, whiting,
herring, mackerel, plaice, sole and various type of shellfish. They are
caught by the 11,000 registered vessels of the fishing fleet. The fish
farming industry, unlike the reduced fishing trade elsewhere, is a large
and expanding business, particularly in Scotland, and is chiefly
concerned with salmon, trout and shellfish. Fish meal and fish imports
continue. But the import of whale products has been banned since 1983
in order to protect the whale population.
EXERCISES
VII. Give the Russian equivalents:
long agricultural history, farming methods, crop and animal yields,
extreme cold, total land area, recreational purposes, dairy farming
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VIII. Underline the verbs and explain the usage of their Tense forms in
the following sentences:
1. Britain has had a long agricultural history.
2. Today agriculture covers much o f the country.
3. In British agriculture technological advances have increased crop
and animal yields.
4. Farm units use some 77 per cent o f the total land areas although
farm land is being increasingly used for building and recreational
purposes.
5. Dairy herds and milk yields have increased and about two-thirds of
beef consum ption now comes from national resources.
X. Give the Russian equivalents and write down a few short sentences
using the following word combinations:
high com m odity prices, high rents, tenanted farms, capital
investment, bad harvests, productive national forests, private forestry
industries.
XI. Consult the dictionary and write down the Russian equivalents:
1. No mans land
2. Dixie land
3. Hom e land, native land
4. In the land of dreams
5. In the land o f the living
6. The land knows
XII. Insert the proper words and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Great Britain is one of Europe’s leading ... nations and it has a
num ber o f ports around its coast.
2. Many fishemen have become ... in recent years.
3. The fishing industry still accounts for about 55 per cent o f ... fish
consumption.
4. This branch o f industry has also been affected by British ... policies
as well as by EU one.
5. Fishermen may operate in the zones ... for them.
XIV. Write down what part of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russian:
1. Woodland cover 11.9 per cent of Wales and 5.2 per cent o f N orth
Ireland.
2. W hen you study the pasture problems you have to know much
about the quality o f vegetation cover of the territory.
3. The government allowed the sale o f state woodlands to private
owners.
4. We may state that G reat Britain is heavily dependent upon wood
imports.
5. The country imports timber from the other countries of North
Europe and from Canada.
Unit 27
THE RICHEST LANDOWNING FAMILY OF ALL THE ROYALS
1. Vocabulary notes:
county n графство
acre а акр (= 0,4 га)
startling а потрясаю щ ий
stealthy а тайны й, скрытый
predecessor n предш ественник
mock v высмеивать
dissolute а беспутный
reign n правление
amass v накопить
The Isle of Wright остров Райт
subject а подданный
peer n пэр
taxpayer n налогоплательщ ик
squirrel n белка
allowance n содержание
exciting а увлекательный
rewarding а вознаграждаю щ ий
involve v вовлекать
raise v разводить
enjoy v получать удовольствие
experience n впечатление
attached привязан ны й , преданный
eventually adv в итоге
beneficial а полезный
challenge n вызов, трудности
rural area сельская местность
actually adv фактически
159
responsibility n ответственность
valuable а полезный
harvest v собирать урожай; 11 n урожай
equipment n оборудование
run v управлять
safety n безопасность, надежность
concern n беспокойство, забота
fence n изгородь
graze v пасти (овец)
pasture n пастбище
helmet n шлем, каска
vehicle n перевозочное средство
reward n вознаграждение
own v иметь, вкладывать
plant v сажать, сеять; / / n растение
crop n сельскохозяйственная культура
profit n прибыль, доход
earn v зарабатывать
enterpize n предприятие 11 v предпринимать
effort n усилие
available а доступный
occur v происходить
host v принимать гостей
treasure v ценить, хранить; / / n сокровищ е
civil list n цивильны й лист (сумма на содерж ание л и ц королев
ской семьи)
handicap v быть помехой
sovereign п монарх
holding п участок земли
spree п веселье, кутеж
real estate недвижимость
scale п масштаб
buy-up п скупка
freehold п свободное владение землей или собственностью
turret п баш енка
sham п подлог; бутафория; / / а бутафорский
stag п олень-сам ец
swell v (swelled, swollen) увеличиваться, разбухать
grouse п шотландская куропатка
moor п вересковая пустошь, охотничье угодье
seat п усадьба
dilettante п дилетант
keen а энергичны й, ревностный
pedigree а племенной
latter а последний (из двух названных)
160
stud n конны й завод
tenant n наниматель, арендатор
blackcurrant n черная смородина
courtier n придворны й
purely adv исклю чительно
dispose v распорядиться имуществом
buckle v уступать (под давлением)
acknowledge v признавать, подтверждать
staggering а ош елом ляю щ ий
seabed п морское дно
foreshore п береговая полоса
moorland п местность, поросш ая вереском
urban а городской
prime а лучший
ft-foot (—30,5 см)
let (let/ let/) сдавать в аренду
gross а валовой
revenue п годовой доход
duchy п герцогство
estuary п устье реки
stock exchage ф ондовая биржа
cash п н аличные деньги
manor п поместье
The Strand (одна из главных улиц Л ондона), букв, берег
conceal v скрывать
assets п имущество
relic п реликт, остаток / / а реликтовый; остаточный
revert п переходить
liken v сравнивать
shrewd а практичны й
belie v изобличать
lade v одарить, оказать почести
II. Write down the following words, underline the suffixes. Translate
the words into Russian:
powerfully, steady, immediate, comfortably, forestry, universally,
penniless, virtually, mighty, probably, m o dem , largely.
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IV. Read the text and translate it into Russian.
Text 27A. The Royal Family’s Land
They are, without question, the most powerful landowning family in
Britain. In total, they own or control the equivalent o f an averagesized
English county — around 677,000 acres. But thee Royal Family wants
more. Unknow n to most members o f the public they are steadily
increasing their ownership o f the country.
It is a startling story o f stealthy expansion — a few thousand acres
here, a few thousand there, until today the Queen and her immediate
family have for their own use, in one way or another, an area that could
house 11 million people.
Only the Forestry Com mission and the Ministry o f Defense hold
more land. In a nation where the average family has just 0,28 o f an acre,
this is an astonishing concentration o f wealth.
M any assume that the Royal Fam ily’s acres have been with them
for centuries. In fact, their empire has been built up almost from
nothing in little more th an 150 years. To find out how, we need to go
back to the w om an who created the m odern Royal Family, Queen
Victoria.
W hen she took the throne in 1837 her two predecessors — George IV
and William IV — had been universally mocked for their dissolute ways,
which had left the Crown virtually penniless and landless.
Victoria set out to change things. It was a slow process. By halfway
through her reign, she had amassed 25,000 acres — mainly at Balmorals
in Scotland and the Osborne estate on the Isle o f Wight.
But this nothing com pared with some o f her subjects. In 1872, 44 of
her peers had more than 100,000 acres each, and one o f them , the Duke
o f Sutherland, had 1,358,545 acres.
In any list m ighty landowners o f the time, Victoria would not have
m ade the top £200. She probably never had m u ch m ore th an £50
m illion, w hen most o f her dukes were w orth the equivalent o f
£ 1 m illion and one o f th e m , W estm inster, probably had the equivalent
o f £2 million.
Such m oney as Victoria built up came largely from the taxpayer, with
the m onarch squirreling away every penny she could spare from her
allowance on the Civil List. The project was taken up by her successors
and has been one o f the most successful exercises in wealth
accum ulation in m o d em times.
Accumulating land was harder. At first, Victoria was handicapped by
laws preventing the sovereign from owning land in her own name.
She got round this by buying property in the name o f her husband
and children. In 1862 the rules relaxed, signaling the start o f the great
royal land-buying spree.
Today, their vast holdings belie their status as mere constitutional
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figureheads with no formal powers. Even in the 21sl century, the
ownership is o f political influence in Britain.
If the Q u e en ’s holdings keep growing at their present rate, they will
eventually achieve a virtual monopoly in the real estate market. Yet it’s
happening without anyone noticing.
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 27B. The Biggest Landowning Family
Part I
When a Sunday newspaper first began compiling list o f Britain’s
richest people in 1989, it put the Queen at the top with J5.2 billion.
This figure included her private wealth, the royal art collection and
what is known as the Crown Estate — the land that belongs to her as
Sovereign. But Buckingham Palace, which is very sensitive on the
subject of royal fortunes, immediately complained.
The Q u e e n ’s courtiers insisted that was wrong to include
possessions she held purely as m o narc h . Because she could not
dispose o f them as she wished, the arg u m e n t went, they were not
really hers.
The newspaper buckled to Palace pressure, with the result that the
same list last year put the queen at 106th in the rankings, worth a mere
£275 million — while acknowledging that if the royal art collection and
Crown Estate were included, that figure could be multiplied more than
40 times to a staggering £13 billion.
Besides the seabed and foreshore, the estate covers about 384,000
acres, including mountains and moorland. The most valuable o f these
are 512 urban acres, including prime sites in L on d o n ’s West End.
In 1999/2000 they raised £127 million in income.
The total area o f Crown Estate property in Regent Street is about
3,2 million sq ft, in an area where shopping space is renting for £30 and
£40 per sq ft. in often words, fully let, the Estate is looking at gross
revenues o f more than £100 million from one street alone.
The Highland estate at Barmoral was Queen Victoria’s very first land
purchase — she took it on the lease in 1848 before buying the freehold
four years later. Both transactions were in her husband’s name. The
castle they built there, with its turrets and sham battlements, 68ft
ballroom, draughty corridors and sham stuffed stags’ heads on the walls,
it not to everyone’s taste.
Since Victoria’s day, the Barmoral holdings have swollen to at least
50,000 acres, as recently the acre by acre she added 6,700 acres of grouse
moor.
Prince Charles has spoken o f handing over Barmoral to the Scottish
people when he becomes Sovereign — but for now, it remains m o th er’s
private possession.
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VI. Read the text and translate in into Russian in written form.
Text 27C. The Biggest Landowning Family
Part II
The second royal estate is in Norfolk, which was bought for the
future Edward VII as a country seat.
Victoria took no interest in the place and visited it only twice. For
the rest family, however, it was special - her dilettante son proved a
surprisingly keen farmed, raising pedigree animals and becoming
President of the Royal Agricultural Society.
After he died in 1910, his widow Queen Alexandra, lived there until her
death in 1925. It was a favorite, too, of George V a n d George VI. The latter
died in Norfolk in February 1952 after a day shooting hares. The estate and
its stud remain very popular with his daughter, Elizabeth II.
While more than half the land is let to tenant farmers, the Queen also
ains her own commercial farm there — selling peas to Bird’s Eye and
blackcurrants for Ribena.
G o o d areas in Norfolk. Now sell for anything between £3,000 and
£5,000. This would give Sandringham in Norfolk a value of around
£100 million.
EXERCISES
VIII. Underline the verbs and explain the usage of their Tense forms in
the following sentences:
1. They own or control the equivalent of an average-sized English
county.
2. They are steadily increasing their ownership of the country.
3. Many assume that the Royal family’s acres have been with them
for centuries.
4. When queen Victoria took the throne in 1837 the Crown had been
left almost landless.
5. At first, Victoria was handicapped by laws preventing the sovereign
from owning land in her own name.
X. Give the Russian equivalents and write down a few short sentences
using the following word combinations:
richest people, private wealth, royal art collection, Buckingham
Palace, urban acres, prime sites, total area, Crown Estate Property,
gross revenues.
XI. Consult the dictionary and write down the Russian equivalents:
1. The land flowing with milk and honey.
2. The land of Cakes.
3. The land of Cockagne.
4. The land of Nod.
5. G ood land!
6. The land of the golden fleece.
XII. Insert the proper worlds and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Victoria set out ... things.
2. Now the Queen and her immediate family have f o r ... an area that
could comfortably house around 11 ... people.
3. In the XXI century the ... o f land is one of the Rays to political
influence in Britain.
4. To understand the scale of the royal buy-up of Britain, it’s best to
start with ... holdings.
5. Balmoral ( in Scotland) for now remains Q ueen’s private ...
XIV. Write down what part of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russian:
1. In total the Royal Family own or control the equivalent of an
average sized English county.
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2. The Queen also runs her own commercial farm in Norfolk.
3. Thousand acres here, thousand acres there these lands throughout
G reat Britain are under the Royal Family’s control.
4. The most valuable single possession of the Duchy of Lancaster is
the remains of the m anor of Savoy in London, an area of about 2.7 acre
between the Strand and the Embankment.
5. The Queen remains one of the richest landowners o f the world.
6. This estate remains his m other’s (the Queen) private possession.
Unit 28
FARMING IN THE U.S.A.
I. Vocabulary notes:
delineation n о п исание, очерк
entity n целое, единое
interaction n взаимодействие
stem v 1. расти, развиваться (как стебель или ствол); 2. останав
ливать / / п стебель, ствол
multiple а многочисленны й
decision п реш ение
support v поддерживать, обеспечивать (оплату) / / п поддержка
assortment п ассортимент
nearby а близлежащий
nurse v 1. нянчить, кормить; 2. питом ник, рассадник; 3. э к о
номно хозяйствовать
nurse pond садок (для рыб)
nursery п 1. ясли; 2. питомник, рассадник; 3. инкубатор
appreciate v 1. оценивать, ценить; 2. одобрять
explicit а 1. ясны й , точный; 2. оп ределенный; 3. категоричный
further а д альнейш ий, следующий, дополнительны й; / / adv
сверх того, затем, при том; v содействовать, помогать, спосо б
ствовать
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IV. Read the tex t and translate it into Russian.
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V. Read the tex t and translate it in written form.
Text 28B. Farming in the United States
Part I
Farming in the United States has changed dramatically over the past
decade but continues to be a very exciting and rewarding profession that
generally involves a person’s entire family. Farms generally are much
larger than in the past and generally involve more specialization. A
farmer’s family may need to farm many acres of land or as Russian
people call it hectares. Farmers now need to farm many hectares of land
as many as 700 or even more. There are still many smaller farmers who
farm less land, however, farms are growing ever larger. The children on
a farm are very fortunate because they have many opportunities that
children who live in cities do not have. For example, they often
purchase and raise their own cattle and enjoy the experience o f seeing
young animals being b o m and then they often get very attached to
special ones they take a special interest in. Sometimes when a child
raises an animal from a baby and then eventually the animal must go to
market it is a sad time for the child. That too is a part of life which
everyone must learn about. Often the lessons learned on a farm are very
beneficial and prepare a person for many challenges of life. In the
United States many o f famous political leaders have been raised in rural
areas and many have actually been farmers. Perhaps, the responsibilities
that farm children learn early in life help them as they grow up. To learn
to care for a growing animal and to learn to know when it is ill, and
when it is time for it to be fed, and when it has grown enough to have a
young one of its own, all these are very valuable life lessons that city
children do not have the same opportunities to learn. Farm children
especially enjoy the animals.
Other chores on the farm include operating machinery and helping
with various harvesting duties. Often farm children learn to operate the
tractors and other equipm ent when they are quite young and especially
the tractors are very much fun for a young person to operate. When farm
children reach the 8th or 9th grade often they are able to run the tractors
by themselves. Safety is always a concern for farmers because the
machines are very dangerous, so farm children are taught to respect, the
dangers and to operate the machinery safely. Many machines have
special safety equipm ent to help with this concern. A young farm child
feels very «grown-ир» when he or she gets to operate the tractors for the
first time all by himself. Once again, it is a thing the city children do not
get to do.
Other chores include such things as building the fences that keep the
animals in a field and going after cattle that are out grazing on pasture.
Sometimes a farmer will have a special machine that goes over the hills
very quickly and has small wheels and a m otor like a motorcycle. It is a
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great fun to operate and a farmer must wear a helmet to protect him.
Driving the small vehicle is so much fun that young farm children often
beg their parents to let them drive even when they are only 9 or 10 years
old. If a young child does get to drive a small vehicle to go out to the
pasture and find a lost animal or to repair fences he must often drive
slowly and carefully. If he is caught driving too fast his parents will not
let him drive the vehicle for a period o f time so that he learns to respect
the dangers. As he gets older he is able to go faster and do more things so
he can demonstrate his competence.
EXERCISES
VIII. Underline the verbs and explain the usage of their Tense forms in
the following sentences:
1. Sometimes the U.S. agriculture is discussed as a uniform entity.
2. Farming in the USA has become more concentrated but still varies
in many aspects.
3. An appreciation o f diversity in agriculture can further our
understanding in the economic welbeing of the farm population.
4. Some farm operators make a living from their labour on the farm.
5. Some farmers make production decisions based on sales to nearby
urban markets.
X. Give the Russian equivalents and write down a few short sentences
using the following word combinations:
very exiting and rewarding profession, person’s entire family,
farmer’s family, Russian people, own cattle, special interest, farm
children, valuable life lessons, operating machinery special safety
equipment.
XI. Consult the dictionary and write down the Russian equivalents:
1. The land o f the living.
2. The land o f the midnight sun.
3. The land o f the rising sun.
4. The land o f the rose.
5. The Never-N ever land.
6. G ood land!
XII. Insert the proper words and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. The U.S.A. agriculture still varies widely in farm ..., scale, resource
use, product mix and ... with nonfarm sector.
2. Farms in the U.S.A. range from small operations with few ... and
... to multimillion — d o l l a r ....
3. Some farms specialize in a ... product.
4. There are farms where sales o f cattle and sheep predominate, they
are ... then 500 acres.
5. The enterprise mix of com , soybeans and hogs is typical of....
XIV. Write down what part of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Much o f this variation in farming stems from differences in
climate, soil type, topography, and demographic characteristics, and
therefore does not follow political geographic borders.
2. What a strange unusual stem this plan has!
3. An appreciation o f the pattern o f diversity in agriculture can
further our understanding o f regional differences o f the US farm sector.
4. You may obtain some further information about the U.S.A.
farming if you read their journal regularly.
5. A further example is the enterprise mix of com , soybeans and hogs.
6. «You should not mix all these crops in that field», an agronomist
explained the reason of that to the students.
Uni t 29
RURAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS
I. Vocabulary notes:
freight n груз
relax v ослаблять, уменьшать
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disappear v исчезать
route n 1. путь, трасса, дорога; 2. маршрут, курс / / v направлять,
распределять
widen v расширять
substantial а сущ ественный
shift п 1. сдвиг; 2. изменение
expenditure п трата, расход, издержка
additional а добавочный, дополнительный
ensure v обеспечить, гарантировать
collision п столкновение
disturbance п наруш ение, беспорядок
II. Write down the following adverbs and underline suffixes. Translate
the words into Russian:
a) slowly, carefully, theoretically, regularly, clearly, comparatively,
recently, potentially, practically, partly, substantially, sufficiently,
densely, increasingly, essentially, possibly, closely, relatively,
economically, naturally;
b) seaward, southward, backward, upward, downward, outward,
homeward, westward, windward, eastward.
V. Read the text, write down 6 questions and answer then in English.
Text 29B. Motorways and road construction
The impact o f the road network on all aspects o f agriculture must be
fully assessed as the road network is one o f the greatest construction
improvement and reallocation o f com m unications systems in rural
areas. The land use planers should know, therefore, the fundamental
principles and provisions o f road and motorway design. These may be
summarized as follows:
1. The proposed routing must satisfy all sport—and long-term traffic
requirements. The routing must be coordinated with the
com m unications system. The agricultural production should be linked
with the existing road network.
2. Each motorway must be subject to satisfactory cost benefit
analysis.
3. The motorway must be integrated with the landscape thus
minimizing loss o f amenities to surrounding communities.
4. Consideration must be given to ensure satisfactory standards of
safety for all classes o f vehicles.
5. Lane width must be sufficient to ensure satisfactory standards of
safety for all classes of vehicles.
6. Dual carriageways should be provided to reduce the possibility of
head-on collisions.
7. Uniform and consistent operating conditions must be provided.
8. There must be specially designed access facilities enable vehicles to
enter and leave with the maximum safety and m inim um disturbance.
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9. There must be adequate traffic direction signs in order that drivers
may have sufficient time to change direction.
10. Service areas, parking and other facilities must be provided in
order to allow sufficient rest for drivers thus reducing strain factor.
EXERCISES
VIII. A. Make up and write down sentences using the following verbs
(+Complex object):
Model: I want him to study geology better.
To want — хотеть, to like — любить, to wish — желать, to intend —
намереваться, to mean — хотеть, to expect — ожидать, полагать, to
think — думать, полагать, to suppose — предполагать, to known —
знать, to consider — считать.
В. Translate into Russian paying attention to the usage of Infinitive
constructions:
1. Scientists do not consider this effect to be an experimental error
175
of any kind. 2. I would like to sit here, to hear professor Maslov give his
lecture. 3. The student wanted his friend to discuss the project of farm
com m unications together with him. 4. The specialists expected the
chairman to tell them about the infarm com m unications systems.
XII. Insert the proper words and translate sentences into Russian.
1. The setting of farm r o a d s ... and the use of roads is a part of infarm
land use planning. 2. The farm road network is ... to be an integrated
whole of the com m unications system. 3. It is necessary to reduce the ...
o f motorway on the rural environment. 4. Every year much land is taken
for ... and farm roads. 5. The design and operation of the farm ... must
meet the needs of the agroindustrial complex.
XIV. Write down in English what members of the sentences the words
in bold prints are and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. The engineers have studied the communications network o f that
farm. 2. What can you say about the communications o f that farm? 3. This
farm road network is said to be changed. 4. New motorways and farm roads
require m uch land in every farm. 5. The transportation system o f this farm
is satisfactory. 6. The system of transportation people to the places of their
work has changed since the time I visited the farm last year.
XV. Consult the dictionary and write down the Russian equivalents.
1. The land o f promise.
2. The land of Stars and Stripes.
3. The land o f steady habits.
4. The land o f the rose.
5. The land o f the golden fleece.
Unit 30
URBAN PLANNING
1. Vocabulary notes:
urban а городской, несельский
waste v 1. тратить, расходовать; 2. n отходы; 3. а бросовый, и с
пользованный
recycle v обрабатывать повторно
disturb v 1. беспокоить; 2. нарушать порядок, покой
device v приспосабливать / / п приспособление
buffer п 1. буфер; 2. амортизатор; 3. глушитель
notorious а 1. известный; 2. пользую щ ийся дурной славой; 3. за
коренелый
fail v 1. недоставать; 2. терпеть неудачу, обанкротиться
failure п 1. провал, неуспех, неудача; 2. банкротство; 3. неудач
ное дело, неудача
harbor v 1. стоять на якоре (в гавани); 2. давать убежище; / /
п 1. порт, гавань, пристань; 2. убежище, приют
drastic а 1. побудительный; 2. реш ительный; 3. сильнодейству-
ющее
II. Write down the following adjectives and try to form adverbs (with
the same root). Translate the adverbs into Russian:
physical, economical, local, potential, similar, reasonable, initial,
ideal, environmental, financial, natural, easy, constructive, drastic.
[u:] [u э]
m oon plural
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IV. R ead the tex t and translate it into Russian.
180
V. Read the text. W rite down 6 questions and answ er them in English.
181
VI. Read the te x t and tran slate it in written form.
EXERCISES
VIII. Underline the verbs and explain the usage of their Tense forms in
the following sentences:
1. Urban systems are built up from a network of subsystems.
2. Sites for urban settlements were wore physically than
economically determined in colonial times.
3. The city of San Francisco was located on a peninsular hewing
excellent ship-docking potential.
4. Limitation to urban growth are much less pronounced today than
at the down of the Industrial Revolution
5. Several hundred years ago a swamp or salt marsh would have
remained unsettled.
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IX. Complete the following sentences using text 3B:
1. Limitations to urban growth are much less...
2. Steep stopes would remain ...
3. With modem engineering skills development was no longer
restricted...
4. Some developable land was created in Boston by filling the
wetlands and ...
5. The altering of the landscape to fit urban needs has multiple
affection...
X. Put 4 questions to text 30C and answer them in English in written
form.
XI. Consult the dictionary and write down the Russian equivalents:
1. How the land lies
2. Make the land
3. See how the land lies
4. See land
5. Back lands (countries)
6. Bad lands
XII. Insert the proper words and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Developers could easily ... the terrain, fill the wetlands, to
construct ... and bulkheads to transform the coastline the construction
o f ... drastically changed the spare of the city.
2. Stream regimes have been changed by ... watersheds.
3. Currents and longshore ... adjust to new artificial shoreline
configurations.
4. Ground water flow ... more variable as more land is covered with
concrete and asphalt.
Unit 31
LOCATION OF CITIES
I. Vocabulary notes:
exist v существовать
existence n существование
dawn n рассвет
gregarious а стадный, о б щ и нн ы й
cluster v 1. собираться в пучок; 2. толпиться / / п 1. пучок;
2 . группа; 3 . гроздь
offer v предполагать / / п предложение
tributary п приток
hinterland п 1. внутренняя часть страны; 2. местность, э к о н о м и
чески зависящ ая от какого-либо города
distribute v распределять
rod п мера д ли н ы , равная 5 м
urbanite п горожанин, житель города
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II. Write down the following words. Underline suffixes. Mark the part
of speech the words are ( n — noun, v — verbs, adj — adjective, adv —
adverb, prep — preposition):
civilization, gregarious, cultural, cluster, labour, usually, strong,
urbanizing, force, beyond, stage, capitals, military, practically, however,
development, facility, advantage, local, primarily.
Almost every city has neighborhood shops and stores that exist and
som etimes thrive because o f their ability to fulfill the convenience
needs o f nearby residents. As in the hexagonal concept o f urban
locations, these shops provide a low hierarchical level o f services while
the custom ers served look to higher hierarchical level (central business
districts and shopping centers) for the filling o f more specialized
needs.
Most older cities o f the past have typically only two levels o f
commercial services-neighborhood stores and the central businesses
district. Rapid urban growth and the outward ownership and use of
automobiles and the acceptance o f standard brands has favored the
emergence o f shopping centers as an intermediary hierarchical
commercial service level. These centers customarily provide a clustering
o f retail shops that specialize in the provision of located at sites
convenient to large numbers o f shoppers and often abundant parking
facilities.
Several factors including ease of accessibility, the attraction of new
188
facilities, the wide variety of convenience goops offered, and special
shopping services such as free parking and opportunities to shop under
one roof in air-conditioned comfort have contributed to the prosperity
of shopping centers. These advantages have made it possible for these
centers to siphon off much o f the trade advantage once enjoyed by
central business district establishments and by neighborhood shops. Not
all shopping centers, however, are a com m ercial success. Some are
portly designed, lack a desirable mix of shops, have inadequate parking
facilities, or already have lost the luster of newness. Some also are
overbuilt or suffer from competition with other centers better located to
serve the same market area.
From the standpoint o f over-all successful location’s hopping centers
should be located at strategic sites that enable them to handle the
convenience and shopper goods needs o f large numbers of potential
customers. An idealized location model for commercial establishments
in the typical American metropolitan region calls for three (and
sometimes four) hierarchical levels of service. Shopping centers should
provide the next level of service. Shopping centers should provide the
next level of service and should be so located as to service the shopping
needs of several contiguous neighborhoods. Two levels of shopping
centers can be envisaged in some areas, with small centers serving
several neighborhoods and larger shopping centers often duplicating
these services but offering additional attractions for larger areas. Central
business districts should provide the highest level o f services. In so
doing, they duplicate the lower orders of services for nearly residents
and for those who choose to use their facilities while at the same time
offering many specialty goods and services not provided at the shopping
centers.
EXERCISES
VIII. Write down the sentences using the correct verb form.
1. Cities (to exist) since the dawn o f civilization.
2. Many o f the cities (to land) in different places of our planet
thousands and thousands o f years ago.
3. Many early cities (to start) as religions centers.
4. The rise o f some cities (to associate) with the their development as
centers o f trade and commerce.
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5. Cities (can, to classify) into 4 functional groups: trade centers,
transportation centers, specialized function centers and cities
representing combinations of these types.
XI. Translate the sentences into Russian and try to remember words
denoting numbers of things in English.
1. Flock is a num ber o f sheep.
2. A school is a num ber o f whales, porpoises.
3. A shoal is a num ber o f herring, mackerels.
4. A catch or a haul is a num ber o f first taken in a net.
5. A covey is a small num ber o f birds.
6. A pack is a num ber o f asses.
XII. Insert the proper words and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Most older cities o f the past typically ... only two levels of
commercial services.
2. There are some...including ease of accessibility, special shopping
services such as free parking in m o dem shopping centers.
3. N o t all shopping centers have ... parking facilities.
4. Some shopping centers should he ... at strategic sites.
XVI. Read and discuss the text in class. Write down some short
sentences using the words in bold prints.
Test 31D. The City and its Environment
Man has been covering soil not only with cities but with connecting
highways o f concrete, to remove m uch soil entirely from potential food
production. Alongside the soil covered by concrete, there is the right of
way serving as shoulders and as drainage ditches. W hen a two-lane
highway parallels a railroad, as is c o m m o n when the railroad’s location
represents past experience injudicious grade selections, a strip o f land as
much as 25 rods wide is taken out o f food production by agriculture.
This represents 50 acres for every mile o f such transportation facilities.
Much o f our soil area is also being blotted out of service in food
production by expanding urbanization. Urbanites, are moving; into rural
areas around the cities to an increasing extent, owing to the automobile,
which makes possible long com m uting distances. This expansion does
not represent a «back to the soil» m ovem ent aimed toward independent
agricultural production by families contributing to city food supplies as
well as providing their own. On the contrary, covering the soil by more
urban expansion, more parking spaces, more airports, more military
reservations, more defense plants, more industrial developments, and
more superhighways represents a decided physical change in the soil
community brought on by man. Instead o f growing vegetation, loading
itself with organic matter, and breaking down its rock content — the
whole forming the active assembly line o f food creation — the soil is
shorn of this biological service and represents no more than site value.
This physical change o f the soil com m unity is now one o f geometric
dimension and no longer one of ariphmetic dimensions only.
Our social philosophy is based on the assumption that nature must be
«conquered» so that it can be exploited more effectively. However,
conquest or mastery is not only the best manner, to deal with natural
forces. Man should try instead to collaborate’ with them. Ideally, he
should insert himself into the environment in such a m anner that his ways
of life and technologies make him once more part of nature.
191
M odem ecological studies leave no doubt that almost any
disturbances of natural conditions are likely to have a large variety of
indirect unfavorable effects because all com ponents of nature are
interrelated and interdependent. The different living forms are
organized into a highly integrated web which is only as strong as the
weakest o f its constituent parts. Moreover this web is supported by the
physical environment.
Unit 32
URBAN LAND USE PATTERNS
I. Vocabulary notes:
perform v осуществлять
regard v относиться
district n район (города)
frequent а частый
gradual а постепенный
suburb n пригород
expand v расширять(ся)
blight n болезнь растений, ржи
I I . Write down the following words and mark the part of speech the
words are:
shape, vary, perform, include, point, normally, primarily, significant,
private, transitional, akeraqe, gradually, growth, expansion, heart.
I I I . Pronounce correctly:
[i:] [*] [a:] [э:] [ei:]
sleep cabbage glass all page
green animal cart small day
field black garden corn take
please capital part warm phrase
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 32B. Variations in Urban Land-Use Patterns
The sector theory in com bination with the multiple nuclei concept
provides a meaningful approach for explaining most o f the land use
patterns found in m odern cities. Im portant variations occur, however,
because o f differences in historical backgrounds, the exercise o f hum an
choice, the activities o f individual developers, and public planning
programs. Variations also occur because o f differences in urban function
and size. The land use patterns expected in a mining town or in a city
with considerable heavy industry, for example, differ substantially from
those expected in a college community, a resort area, or a residential
suburb.
Explanations o f emerging land-use patterns can benefit from
classifications o f cities by size and function. Nelson, for example,
envisages four urban models: (1) the m etropolitan commercial center,
which is called Commerce City, (2) cities o f medium size, which is called
Centertown, (3) rural trading areas (County Ville), and (4) dormitory
suburbs for larger cities (Forest Lake). With this classification, a radial
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zone theory o f growth may be sufficient to explain the urban land-use
patterns in C ounty Ville. The sector theory may prove adequate to
describe the changing use patterns found in many C entertow n’s while
the sector theory in com bination with the multiple nuclei concept best
describes the developments in C om merce City. Unlike the other
centers. Forest Lake is a satellite community, which has some local
shopping facilities but which looks to a central city both for employment
opportunities and for m any o f the commercial goods and services its
residents require.
Increasing urbanization and the outward sprawl of metropolitan
areas has complicated the land-use patterns associated with smaller as
well as larger cities. Aerial observations o f typical cities show that central
business districts still attract multistoried buildings and intensive uses;
factory sites and industrial uses are frequently located nearby but are
moving with increasing frequency to outlying locations; commercial
uses tend to follow the major arterial streets that flow out from the
central business districts, and neighborhood shopping centers often are
developed along these streets; and areas between the major streets are
used primarily for residential purposes.
Land use patterns may or may not follow similar designs in the
expanse o f suburbs that surround large cities. Aerial views show that
hierarchies o f uses similar to those found in the cities radiate from many
local shopping centers. Quite often, however, the hub designs are
replaced by gridlike patterns in which the major avenues and cross
streets are lined with commercial and industrial uses or sites zoned for
these uses while the enclosed blocks are reserved for residential uses.
The residential streets found in these super blocks may intersect with the
commercial avenues or may connect with feeder streets that insulate the
residential areas from commercial traffic.
VI. Read the text and translates it into Russian in written form.
Text 32C. A M ulti-unit Urban L and Use Pattern
This concept envisages cities and m etropolitan areas with more than
one business district. These urban areas have a principal or downtown
business district that provides a central core, but they also have one or
more additional business districts located along major streets at some
distance from downtown. Each o f these districts becomes a nucleus for a
competing hierarchy o f land uses.
Several reasons may be advanced for the growth o f the additional
nuclei. Some cities in their outward growth have encompassed already.
Existing commercial centers, which have continued to operate as small’
commercial nuclei within the land-use pattern o f the larger cities.
Population increase and expansion have posed distance and time-
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savings problems in many cities that have prompted the shifting and
location of many commercial functions to neighborhood centers.
Widespread acceptance of the automobile and the construction of new
streets and freeways also have freed urban residents from transportation
constraints that once made the urban core the transportation hub for the
entire city. This situation together with the greater availability o f free
parking; facilities in outlying shopping centers has prompted migration
of some o f the 100 percent advantage once held by central business
district sites to neighborhood shopping centers.
EXERCISES
VIII. Write out 5-6 passive construction from text 32A. Make up your
own sentences using these constructions.
XI. Translate the sentences into Russian and try to remember words
denoting numbers in English.
1. A drove is a num ber of horses, ponies, etc. driven together.
2. A herd is a num ber of cattle or swine feeding or driven together.
3. A muster is a num ber o f peacocks.
4. A pack is a num ber o f wolves, hounds.
5. A leap is a num ber o f leopards.
6. A gaggle is a number o f geese.
XII. Insert the proper words and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Very few cities start as ... developments.
2. As cities grow, they usually ... outward.
3. The land use patterns expected in a mining town, for example,
d iffe r... from those expected in a college community.
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4. Land-use patterns may or may not follow s im ila r... in the expanse
o f suburbs that surround large cities.
5. Increasing urbanization has complicated the land-use ... o f cities.
XV. Write down what parts of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Land use patterns found in m odem cities are very complex.
2. The developments of agro-industrial complexes need the
comprehensive approach.
3. After finishing this work, they may approach to another project,
more complex than this one.
4. There is a great need for comprehensive study before taking land
from agricultural use.
5. They study the methods, test the equipm ent, then use them in
practice.
6. You may practice here, in the laboratory, if you wish.
XVI. There are some words unknown to you in this text. Consult your
dictionary. Translate the text. Discuss the problem in class.
Text 52D. You Ought to Put a Town Here, Nothing Will Grow Here
Urban m an — 85 per cent o f the population in the United States —
now uses much soil exclusively for cities on which to live and move. The
remaining space on which to produce food and other biotic necessities
for everyone is occupied by only 15 per cent o f that population — the
rural folk. In the recent shift from a rural family to an urban crowd man
has lost sight of the significance o f the biological behavior and services of
the soil com m unity as our food sorce. With emphasis on economics,
technologies, and industries, he has’ built big cities on soil and so
exploited its site value only. The soil com m unity has had the attention if
agriculture and chemical technologies to make it more highly productive
per farm operator or to hasten the rocks and minerals into solution, so as
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to be potentially creative of more crops and more live-stock. The higher
agricultural efficiency per farm worker has, in turn, made-possible the
urban congection where, as the Indian said, «You ought to put a town
here; nothing will grow here». Now we must soon face the dilemma of
feeding ourselves on paved streets, because the rural soil com m unity is
about to be the dead victim of a parasitic, technical soil exploitation that
has failed to appreciate the biological aspect of the soils in the creative
business o f feeding all of us. It is time that more of us paid attention to
the physical, chemical and biochemical changes wrought by m an in the
soil com munity, for soils represent either assets or liabilities for m a n ’s
survival. Physical changes which cultivated soils undergo are not sudden
and readily recognized, save for occasional landslides or natural
flooding-in of sands or of deposits o f clay on top o f the soil. Such
coverings add new horizons to the top o f the profile, making for abrupt
transitions in texture and other properties between the top horizons.
These are decided hindrances to plant root feeding and to root
penetration, and they put much soil out of cultivation. The physical
changes in soils over long periods of cultivation by man are not so
sudden. Rather, the changes are more insidious, with no suddenly visible
symptoms o f the transformation.
Unit 33
URBAN LAND DEVELOPMENT
I. Vocabulary notes:
internal а внутренний
approach n подход / / v 1. приближаться; 2. прибывать
explain v объяснять
explanation n объяснение
loop n петля / / v снабжать, укреплять петлями
tenement п сн и м аем ы й (дом); арендуемое (жилье), поместье
encroach v 1. вторгаться (в чужие владения, права); 2. захваты
в а т ь / / п 1. вред; 2. губительное влияние
blight v 1. наносить вред; 2. оказывать губительное влияние
board up v превращать в пансион
slum п трущобы
sumptuous а 1. п ы ш ны й , роскош ны й; 2. великолепный
envisage v 1. рассматривать; 2. смотреть (опасности) в л иц о
II. Write down the following words. Mark what parts of speech the
words are:
internal, structure, explanation, oriented, office, buildings, focal,
commercial, older, inner, rooming, property, poverty, beyond.
197
III. Pronounce correctly:
[i:] [Л] [i] fa:] M
see much swim learn have
piece understand tennis adverb can
read bucket because Turkey canvas
pronunciation below term racket
carry
[ei] M fau] fa] [au]
shade half below rock down
way arm over sorry about
[ei] [a ] fau] fa] [au]
tray ca n ’t so follow towel
bathe hold want now
Poland pronounce
V. Read the text, write down 6 question and answer them in English.
Text 33B. Sector Theory
An important alternative to the concentric-zone hypothesis is
provided by the sector theory of urban growth. This theory was
developed by H o m er Hoyt during the late 1930s and resulted from his
analysis o f residential neighborhood trends in a study involving more
than 200,000 blocks in approximately 70 American cities.
Hoyt assumes a pie-shaped city with a central business district and
with numerous sectors or slices extending out from this central district
to the city’s outskirts. He then argues a theory o f axial development in
which the particular land uses found in various sectors tend to expand
outward along principal transportation routes and along the lines o f least
resistance. This theory provides a logical explanation for string-street
developments and for the tendency o f commercial districts to expand
along important streets and to sometimes ju m p several blocks and then
reappear along the same streets. Where possible, factory and industrial
districts also tend to continue their expansion along railroads, waterways
and sometimes principal streets.
The sector theory assumes urban growth with succession in land uses
in already developed areas and in new developments around the fringe of
the city. Commercial areas are usually contained by surrounding areas
devoted to other uses and can be expanded only through the acquisition
and redevelopment o f neighboring uses. Properties in high value
residential areas filter down to lower rent residential uses as their
occupants shift to newer high-prestige locations. Some intermediate and
low rent housing results from the filtering down process, but a high
proportion o f the housing occupied by low and intermediate income
groups is built on new ground as urban growth causes the sectors used for
these purposes to expand outward toward and beyond the city’s outskirts.
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The trend toward outward growth is particularly apparent in the case
of the high rent and high-grade neighborhoods.
The wealthy seldom reverse their steps and move backward into the
obsolete houses which they are giving up. On each side of these houses
there is usually an intermediate rental area, so they cannot move
sideways. As they represent the highest income group, there are no
houses above them abandoned by another group. They must build new
houses on vacant land. Usually this vacant land ties available just ahead
of the line o f march o f the area because, anticipating. The trend of
fashionable growth, land promoters have either restricted it to high
grade use or speculators have placed a value on the land that is too high
for the low rent or intermediate-rental group Hence the natural trend of
the high — rent area is outward, toward the periphery of the city in the
very sector in which the high — rent area started.
The sector theory provides a reasonably realistic explanation o f the
basic structure o f land uses found in many N orth American cities. It
must be recognized, however, that the process o f urban growth is not
entirely mechanistic. The land-use patterns o f many cities vary from the
model suggested by this theory, and occasional modifications and
adjustments again are needed to make the theory fit the facts.
EXERCISES
VIII. Write out 8 passive constructions from text 33A. Make up your
own sentences using these constructions.
XII. Insert the proper words and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. The honey com b pattern ... several hierarchial levels of trade and
service centres.
2. This model is more ... o f the spatial relationships that should exist
under idealized conditions than o f those found in practice.
3. Resident of rural areas generally look to a local village or town for
selected commercial, educational, postal and ... services.
4. Complications ordinarily arise because o f the ... distribution of
population, land resources, and local trade centres.
XV. Write down what parts of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Ernest Burgess developed a concentric-zone approach, which in
many ways parallels von T h u n e n ’s explanation o f rural land use.
2. W hen you approach the bay you may see the Statue of Liberty.
3. It is not very easy to draw some parallel lines, when they are rather
long.
4. You may describe the central-zone as the loop area.
5. You may loop the rope round the post and tie the animal up to the
fence.
6. Some gentlem en prefer their ties o f bright colours, some of pale
ones.
202
XVI. Discuss the urban growth structures.
Text 33D. Top City Planning
Critics o f the sector theory argue that urban land developm ent
patterns are «too variable to be conceived in terms of two-dim ensional
cartographic generalizations». They point out that urban growth
structures are affected by num erous econom ic, social, and cultural
factors. Historical accidents, changes in family incomes, aspirations
for better housing, and the cultural associations o f particular
neighborhoods may have im portant effects upon urban land uses. In
similar fashion, the direction and nature o f neighborhood growth may
be affected by street layouts, changes in transportation facilities, the
location of parks and educational institutions, individual deed
restrictions, zoning ordinances and city plans, and by public housing
and redevelopment programs.
It may also be observed that the sector pattern is the product of a
society. Most of the land-use sectors now found in many cities have
evolved from an accumulation of individual decisions. Only occasionally
have they resulted from deliberate city planning. As cities develop
master plans for the future and then take the necessary steps for the
realization of these plans, they will often reshape their urban land-use
patterns in the interest o f particular social goals. In this respect,
institutional factors and government action can have extremely
important effects upon the structure and growth of cities.
The sector theory has been most operative in m odern industrial
cities where sites have gone to the highest bidders and where the
process o f urban developm ent has not been constrained by cultural and
institutional controls. In contrast to the cities that fit this pattern, most
of the older cities of Latin Am erica have developed according to a
«plaza plan». An open square or plaza provides the civic and social
center of these cities. The cathedral, city hall, and state government
buildings are located around this plaza, while the municipal market
and the business and com m ercial district are usually concentrated in
an adjacent area. Upper-class dwellings occupy most of the blocks
immediately surrounding the central plaza while the hom es o f the
lower classes tend to be farther out toward the periphery o f the
com m unity. This urban developm ent pattern represents the reverse of
the «gradients o f status» ordinarily found in N o rth Am erican cities and
stems in part from regulations issued by S p ain ’s Council o f the Indies
during the 1500s, which limited the subdivision of residential lots near
the urban centers and thus prevented a filtering down of the higher-
cost residential sites.
The «plaza plan» is typical of the land-use patterns found in most
preindustrial cities and is directly related to the class system that existed
in these cities. As these cities have become more industrial society-
203
oriented and as they have experienced growth and urban redevelopment,
they have tended to follow growth patterns more in keeping with those
suggested by the sector theory.
Unit 34
LOCATION FACTORS IN URBAN LAND USE PLANNING
I. Vocabulary notes:
chain n цепь
pedestrian n пешеход
compete v 1. конкурировать; 2. соревноваться
habit n привы чка
custom n обычай
customer n 1. клиент; 2. покупатель
purchase n п окупка / / v приобретать
prone а склон н ы й
indulge v позволять себе удовольствие
convenient а удобный
apparel n платье, одежда, наряд
afford v позволять (себе)
II. Write down the following words. Mark what parts of speech the
words are. Underline suffixes:
particularly, locations, analyze, with, customer, taste, traffic,
competition, hobby, their, various, thoroughness, between, display,
attractive.
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 34 В. Space Requirements for Service Centres
Another im portant consideration involves the type of goods or
services supplied and the relative frequency with which they are
purchased. Frequently purchased products often are described as
convenience or shopper goods. With small and relatively inexpensive
convenience goods such as cigarettes, chewing gum, or newspapers,
most customers tend to patronize the closest and most conveniently
205
located vendor. Food stores can depend upon a wider range of
patronage. Their usual space requirements, need for parking space, the
bulk of their products, and the frequency with which they are purchased
favor their location at points convenient to customers. Accordingly, they
are often found in the central shopping districts of small cities but
usually appear around these districts and in the com m unity and
neighborhood shopping centers of larger cities.
In contrast to convenience goods, articles such as pianos, TV sets,
automobiles, and diam ond rings represent sizable purchases that can
easily be postponed until the buyer has made comparisons in other
stores and thought it over. Because of the tendency of buyers to shop
around for these types o f specialty goods, it is often econom ic to locate
automobile showrooms, furniture stores, and other comparable
establishments outside the central retail districts. Stores that feature
specialty products such as jewelry find it to their advantage, however, to
locate in central shopping districts where they can use glittering window
displays to attract additional customers.
As the above discussion suggests, stores that feature convenience and
shopper goods ordinarily find it advantageous to locate along the
principal paths of pedestrian traffic. Similar locations are advantageous
for service workers such as barbers and shoe repairmen. Locations near
100 percent spots are less important in the sale o f postponable specialty
goods such as automobiles or furniture. W hen dealers in these products
have large space or parking area requirements, they ordinarily find it
advisable to locate outside the high-rent district. It often is profitable for
them to substitute larger advertising expenditures for the sums they
could have paid in higher rents. Electricians, plumbers, and other
service workers who depend largely upon telephone contacts find it just
as well to locate outside the central business district.
EXERCISES
VIII. Write out 8 passive constructions from text 34A. Make up your
own sentences using these constructions.
XII. Insert the proper words and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Com mercial firms consider the space, ... and other facilities
associated with each site.
2. Studies consider the potential num ber o f customers in the area,
t h e i r ... o f income, and their buying habits and tastes.
3. The firms also consider the problem o f ... with other commercial
establishments.
4. M en usually tend to be more ... and impatient in their shopping
then women.
5. Stories in low-income neighbourhoods seldom ... luxury items.
Uni t 35
LAND FACTOR IN INDUSTRIAL LAND USE
I. Vocabulary notes:
boost n 1. подъем, повы ш ение; 2. помощь, поддержка / /
v I. поднимать, повышать; 2. помогать, поддерживать
regard п отн ош ен и е / / v относиться
hinge п I. петля, крюк; 2. ш арнир; 3. (перен.) кардинальный
пункт (вопроса) / / v (перен.) вращаться вокруг основной темы, за
висеть
hem in v окружать
utilize v I. утилизировать; 2. использовать, воспользоваться
utility п I. польза; 2. выгодность, полезность
utilities ком мунальны е услуги
buggy п легкий двухместный экипаж; легкое транспортное средство
distinet а четкий, отчетливый
II. Write down the following words. Mark what parts of speech the
words are. Underline suffixes.
decision, industrial, secondary, primarily, favourable, expansion,
condition, utilize, involve, water, power, expensive, still, originally.
209
III. Pronounce correctly:
[i:] [a:] [e] [Л]
need bird well sunny
feed third tell Monday
believe bum wealthy m oney
receive work healthy glove
repeat early instead clover
[ia] [k]
near clear
ear com et
year column
nearly character
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 35B. Industrial Location
Decisions affecting the location and expansion o f industries have a
highly significant impact upon the prospects o f different sites for urban
development and growth. Like other businessmen, the industrialists who
make these decisions try to maximize their returns. For them the key
economic problem in industrial location is that of securing sites that
provide optim um conditions for profit maximization. This means that
the sites selected should meet the physical requirements of the industry
and at the same time facilitate high productivity, low costs, and a large
volume o f sales.
Experience shows that most industrial enterprises start with small
plants that may or may not expand. These plants frequently owe their
location more to historical accident th an to economic design. When
industrialists deliberately seek an optim um site, however, their problem
is often complicated by the simultaneous operation o f numerous
variables. Some o f these involve the supply, cost, and general availability
of the raw materials and land resources needed by the industry. Others
deal with marketing problems, the size and characteristics o f the labor
supply, and a host of secondary issues.
Two principal types o f costs-processing expenditures and transfer
costs-affect the optim um location of industrial plants. Processing costs
include the many expenses that arise in the industrial production process
as labor and other factors are used to transform raw and semifinished
materials into m anufactured goods. Transfer costs, in turn, deal with the
expense o f moving materials to processing plants and finished goods to
their points o f sale or use. Industrialists naturally attempt to minimize
211
both types o f costs. In their search for optim um industrial locations,
they recognize that transportation cost considerations cause some
industries to be material-oriented and some to be market-oriented.
Others are less affected by transportation costs and may be attracted by
the agglomeration economies o f particular cities or regions where the
presence o f other industries provides pools of skilled labor and
m anagement, capital availability services of com plem entary industries,
public utilities, and public services.
EXERCISES
VII. Give the Russian equivalents:
business decisions, industrial locations, secondary issue, favorable
codnitions, raw materials, labour situations, adequate space, land
values, plant expansion, single-floor factory, large parking areas.
212
VIII. Make up short sentences using the word combinations from
exercise VII. Try to use Passive Constructions.
Model: Business decisions are m ade after a careful study o f the location.
XII. Insert the proper words and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Industries differ a great deal in their ... to shift to new locations.
2. Light industries can often ... for relatively minor reasons.
3. Heavy industries with huge ... in existing plants in turn are often
bound their present sites.
4. Some plants frequently own their locations more to historical
accident than to ... design.
5. The key economic problem in industrial location is to secure sites
that provides optim um conditions f o r ... maximizations.
XIV. Write down what parts of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Please number the factors of location in industry.
2. Put a number under the factors according to their importance.
3. The transportation cost changes very frequently as it depends on
the price o f the petrol here.
4. How much does it cost to move this equipm ent to a new site?
5. Changes in the transportation cost situation have provided a major
condition for the economic development during the past two centuries.
Unit 36
LAND USE PLANNING FOR INDUSTRIAL AREAS
I. Vocabulary notes:
extract v 1. добывать; 2. извлекать
mine n шахта, рудник / / v копать, добы вать (руду и т. д.)
lumber п 1. пиломатериалы, лесозаготовки; 2. поселок на л есо
заготовках / / v валить и пилить лес
reduce v 1. уменьшать, снижать; 2. ослаблять
ore п руда
sugar сапе сахарный тростник
turpentine п скипидар / / v натирать скипидаром
rosin п каниф оль, смола
cotton gin хлопкоочистительная м аш ина
II. Write down the following words. Write down what parts of speech
the words are. Underline suffixes:
extractive, mining, lumbering, naturally, specific, timber, be, are,
raw, this, arise, should, involve, later, shipment, equal, final, initial.
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 36B. Location o f Material-Oriented Industries
Part II
A third group of material-oriented industries involves processes that
require large quantities o f fuels, power, or water that do not appear in
the final product. The large quantities of coal and coke required for iron
and steel production in times past often favored the location o f steel
mills near the sources o f coal supply. High electrical power requirements
216
favor the location o f synthetic nitrate, aluminum, and electro
metallurgical plants near hydroelectric power sites. Similarly, the high
water requirements of some industries together with the economies of
water transportation favor industrial locations along navigable
waterways.
A final group of material-oriented industries benefit from processing
changes that make their product less bulky, easier to handle, less
perishable, or more susceptible to bulk handling. These changes lead to
transportation economies and thus favor material orientation. Cotton
gins and compresses reduce the bulk of the raw cotton by forcing it into
compact bales. Metals are often processed into ingots or sheets to
facilitate their handling and reuse. Canning and preserving operations
reduce the perish ability of fruits and vegetables and thus lower their
transportation and storage costs. Another type of material-oriented
service is provided by local grain elevators, commission agents, junk
dealers, and others who assemble carload lots of materials for shipment
to other points.
Material-oriented arid market-oriented industries are both
concerned with processing as well as with transfer costs. Before an
industry can be classified as truly material-oriented, its savings in
transfer costs must outweigh the possible cost advantages o f other sites.
This problem is frequently complicated by the tendency of industries to
use a variety of raw materials and to participate in the joint production
of many products. It can also be affected by technological change. The
coke industry, for example, started out as a material-oriented enterprise.
Coke ovens were located near the mines because it took 2,000 pounds of
coal to produce 1,200 pounds o f coke. However, as soon as a
commercial market developed for the coal gas produced in the coking
process, it became more profitable to locate the coke ovens near
industry.
XI. Translate into Russian and try to remember words denoting places.
1. An aviary is a place where birds are kept.
2. An apiary is a place where bees are kept.
3. An aquarium is a place where fishes are kept.
4. A hutch is a place where rabbits are kept.
5. A sty is a place where pigs are kept.
6. A granary is a place for storing grain.
XII. Insert the proper words and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Raw materials can be shipped to other locations but this ... transfer
costs.
2. Many process activities involve weight reduction ... or other
changes that results in transportation.
3. If you locate the initial processing activity near the sourse of its
raw materials it is a big ....
4. Farmers who sell butterfat usually reduce the bulk of their ...
product.
5. The high transport costs are associated with bulky products such as
s u g a r ....
6. Sugar factories are usually located within ... short distances from
sugar cane supply.
XIV. Write down what part of speech the word in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Some products benefit from weight-and-bulk reduction operation
in the early stage of their production.
2. Some enterprises may benefit from their location.
3. They usually weigh the product before sending it to the market.
4. Bakery is an example of a market-oriented industry because of the
bulk and weight they add to their product and because of the premium
most customers place on freshness of product.
219
5. Most industries depend on the place where you locate your
factories, plants, farms.
Unit 37
BUSINESS AND COMMERCIAL LOCATIONS
I. Vocabulary notes:
commercial а ком мерческий, торговый
stand point n точка зрения
capacity n емкость, мощ ность, способность
suitable а подходящий, приемлемый
volume n объем
favor v способствовать, благоприятствовать, оказывать предпоч
тение
warehouse п склад
depot п 1. депо, складочное место; 2. склад, амбар, сарай
bid п предложение цены (на аукционе)
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II. Write down the following words. Write down what parts of speech
the words are:
commercial, capacity, value, intensity, failure, depend, success,
choice, profit, accessible, promise, greatest, weight, advisable, upper,
exclusive, laundry, adequate because, along.
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 37B. An Urban Land Use Pattern
In the idealized urban land use pattern, most business,
professional, a n d co m m ercial activity takes place in the central
business district aro u n d the 100 percent spot. This general situation
holds in most small cities. Significant co ncen tratio n s o f com m ercial
activity also are found in the central business districts o f larger cities.
These cities typically have experienced considerable decentralization
o f th eir retail activities. Several factors including the flight of
n u m ero us upper — an d m iddle -in co m e families to the suburbs,
increasing urban area size, shopper convenience, the acceptan ce of
stan dard brands that can be purchased just as easily at outlying
locations as at 100 percent sites. W idespread ow nership an d use of
autom obiles, concern over parking problem s in congested downtown
areas, and decreasing reliance upo n the urban mass transportation
facilities that radiate from central business districts have favored local
shopping center d evelopm ents that cater to n eighb orh ood an d m ulti
neigh borh oo d needs.
Central business districts grow and expand in response to dem and for
the services they provide. These districts are not always found at the
exact geographic center o f the city. However, they are almost always
found near the hub of the city’s traffic and transportation system and at
sites both accessible and convenient to large numbers of people.
Considerable concentrations of people are attracted to these districts
during business hours. This contributes to high volumes o f retail and
other business activity, which in turn result in intensive land-use
practices, high rents, an d high land values.
Street sites around 100 percent spots ordinarily are used for retailing
purposes. Large office buildings, banks, hotels, and first-run theaters
also tend to congregate around this point. Among the retailing
establishments, the central shopping district is a focal point for large
departm ent stores, apparel shops, variety stores, restaurants, drugstores,
and the various specialty shops that serve the many shoppers who flock
to this district. Surrounding the area of most intensive retail activity-and
often interpenetrating it-are a num ber of less intensive retail uses.
Furniture, music, radio and television, sporting goods, and army surplus
stores often appear in this class. The high dem and for parking space
favors the use o f considerable areas within and around the central
shopping district for parking lots.
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VI. Read the text and translate it in written form.
Text 37C. The Central Business Area
As the central business area merges into the wholesale and light-
manufacturing district or into the slum and rooming-house area, there
appear the lowest grade of central business uses-pawnshop, food store,
pool hall and beer garden, burlesque house, automotive supply shop,
shoe repairer, cheap photographer, and cheap restaurant. In the
direction o f the better residential areas, the retail area tapers off in
specialty shops, food stores, restaurants, gift shops, small m e n ’s and
wom en’s apparel stores, and automotive showrooms.
Sites near the 100 percent spot supposedly offer the greatest
opportunities for profitable use. They tend to have the highest site values
and co m m and the highest rents. The use-capacity and profit
opportunities associated with the surrounding areas often decline rather
rapidly. Sites located a few blocks away on a main street, a block away
on a back street, or only a few floors above the street may have only a
fraction of the incom e-producing value of a ground-floor location near
a strategic business corner.
The scarcity factor in this situation causes considerable bidding and
counter bidding between firms and operators for the choice locations.
This process often results in land-use patterns in which retail space is
allocated in accordance with the rent-paying capacities of the various
operators. This pattern is seldom stable. New adjustments are always
taking place. Operators are, often tem pted by the opportunities
suggested by site vacancies in the 100 percent district. Very few o f them,
however, can estimate the exact effect a move may have upon their
volume of business. As a result, most site bids involve an element of trial
and error. Some blind bids turn out very favorably. Others sometimes
involve higher rental com m itm ents than the operators can pay and
eventually result in (bankruptcy, closing-out, and removal sales, and in
the vacating o f sites for use by new operators.
EXERCISES
VII. Give the Russian equivalents:
commercial sites, intensity o f use, rent-paying capacity, land value,
commercial business district, most valuable lands, success of failure,
suitable business location, greatest opportunities for profit, high volume.
VIII. Make up short sentences using the word combinations from
exercise VII.
IX. Complete the following sentences using text 37B:
1. In the model urban land-use pattern most business and
commercial activity takes place in...
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2. In most small cities the situation...
3. Central business districts grow in response to...
4. During business hours considerable concentration of people...
5. Large office buildings, banks, hotels, and first run theatres also...
6. The central shopping district is a focal point for...
7. The high dem and for parking space favors...
X. Put 6 questions to the text 37C and answer them in English in
written form.
XI. Translate the sentences into Russian and try to remember words
denoting places.
1. A dairy is a place where milk is converted into butter and cheese.
2. A bakery is a place where bread and cakes are made.
3. An abattoir is a place where animals are slaughtered for the market.
4. A brewery is a factory for manufacturing beer.
5. A distillery is a place where spirituous liquors are produced.
6. A laundry is a place where clothes are washed and ironed.
XII. Insert the proper words and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Most businessmen know that their success o f failure often... their
choice o f a suitable business location.
2. They are interested in locations that promise them... opportunities
for profit.
3. They prefer... that promise a high volume o f business activity.
4. Business locations are usually... in the central business district
where there is the greatest num ber o f potential customers.
5. Business which have large space requirements must usually... along
railways or waterways.
XIII. Translate the following sentences into English:
1. По сравнению с другими видами зем лепользования деловые
и коммерческие центры размещают на небольших площадях.
2. Больш инство предпринимателей предпочитают вести свой
бизнес в местах большого скоплен и я людей, чтобы иметь больше
потенциальных клиентов.
3. Однако разм ещ ение предприятий по обслуживанию элиты
возможно вблизи богатых районов или особняков состоятельных
людей.
4. Поскольку эти земли и нтенсивно используются, они п р и н о
сят большие доходы и характеризуются высокой арендной платой.
XIV. Write down what part of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russian.
1. These locations promise the businessmen the greatest
opportunities for profit.
2. This locations may be seen as a promise o f high volumes of
business activity.
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3. Considerable investments will result in large profits it they start
their commercial activity in this location.
4. The result of their business here is quite sufficient.
5. This land use is very expensive because of its location.
6. Most businessmen tend to use land in this district o f the capital.
Unit 38
LAND USE PLANNING AND ENVIRONMENT
I. Vocabulary notes:
decade n десятилетие
witness n свидетель, свидетельство / / v свидетельствовать, быть
свидетелем
attitude п отнош ение
demand п потребность, спрос / / v требовать
be aware of быть осведомленным, знать, оценивать, отдавать
себе отчет в чем-либо
survey п 1. съемка; 2. обследование
impact п толчок, удар, нажим, столкновение / / v 1. плотно сж и
мать; 2. {in, into) прочно укреплять
worse п худшее
worse а сравнит, сте п е н ь от bad / / adv ср авн и т, степень от
badly
worsen v 1. ухудшать (ся); 2. побеждать, низлагать
weaken v 1. ослаблять (ся); 2. поддаваться, сдаваться
gain п 1. выгода, прибыль; 2. рост, прирост / / v 1. приобретать,
зарабатывать; 2. улучшать; 3. достигать, продвигаться вперед
II. Write down the following verbs. Underline prefixes and suffixes.
Translate the verbs into Russian:
witness, overlook, impact, dominate, regain, worsen, return, reward,
prepare, decentralize, represent, react, integrate, determine, influence
and weaken.
/ bag [ a e ]
wash, was, watch [э]
a name [ei]
fare [еэ]
^ walk |p:]
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 38B. Environmental Planning is Necessary
Only two kinds o f landscape are fully satisfying. One is primeval
nature undisturbed by man; we shall have less and less of it as the world
population increases. The other is one in which man has toiled and
created through trial and error a kind o f harmony between himself and
the physical environment. What we long for is rarely nature in the raw;
more often it is an atmosphere suited to hum an limitations, and
determ ined by emotional aspirations engendered during centuries of
civilized life. The charm of the New England or Pennsylvania Dutch
countryside should not be taken for granted, as a product of chance. It
did not result from m a n ’s conquest of nature. Rather it is the expression
of a subtle process through which the natural environment was
humanized, yet retained its own individual genius.
Air, water, soil — these simple words convey much more than
material aspects of nature. They symbolize some o f the deepest needs of
hum an life because m an is still of the earth, earthy.
Environmental planning has become necessary because man cannot
be safely dissociated from the natural forces under which he evolved and
that have molded his own unchangeable biological nature. Fortunately,
the success of certain highly organized states like Sweden indicates that
large scale and environmental planning is possible. The possibility to
plan toward esthetic qualities is even more convincing. One needs only
evoke the marvelous parks o f Europe to realize the usefulness of a long
range view in social improvements.
These parks were the creations of artists who had visualized the out
com e of their efforts with that extraordinary sense which is peculiar to
man, the imaginary vision of things to come. Several books by the great
landscape architects of the 18th century show drawings o f the European
parks as they appeared at the time of their creation, and then a century
later when the plantations had reached maturity. It is obvious that the
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landscape architects had com posed the surfaces of water, of lawns and
flowers to fit the silhouettes of trees and the masses of shrubbery not as they
existed at the time, but as they were to become. And because man could
thus visualize the future and plan for it centuries ago, millions of hum an
beings enjoy today the great European parks and classical gardens.
To formulate alternatives for the present state of affairs is more
difficult than simply to protest against evils.
An immense am o unt of money and effort will certainly be expended
in the years to com e on programs o f environmental control. It is
therefore essential that we try, collectively to imagine the world in which
we want to live. The great periods of history have always created such
ideal images through their social philosophers and their artists.
Improving the environment should not mean only correcting
pollution or the other evils o f technological and urban growth. It should
be a creative process through which m an and nature continue to evolve
in harmony. At its highest level, civilized life is a form of exploration
which helps m an rediscovers his unity with nature.
EXERCISES
XII. Insert the proper words and translate the following sentences into
Russian:
1. Land use planning may be considered as ... of compromising
between several interests, which may be compatible or incompatible.
2. The type o f planning depends upon ... in a particular country as
well as the actual planning structure.
3. Planning theory and ... practice differ from country to country in
accordance with political system and the influence exercised by planners
and society.
4. The entire planning process starts with....
5. The general purpose o f comprehensive planning is... the
characteristics o f the land area in question, the interests involved, their
compatibility, alternative solutions and their possible impacts.
6. The base for sound long range political decisions can be created
only if public participation is....
XIV. Write down what parts of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russian.
1. There may be some conflict between development planning and
environmental planning.
2. These dates conflict with our plans.
3. We are discussing strong conflicts o f two firm’s management.
4. The firms contracted their deal.
5. The students group is expecting a transfer to another place o f their
vocational training.
6. This landowner will transfer his property to his wife.
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XV. Write down the antonyms of the following words:
valid, different, ability, weaken, approach, compatible, direct,
possible, strong, oriented, rarely, suit, revolve, personal, create.
Uni t 39
URBANIZATION AND ENVIRONMENT
I. Vocabulary notes:
distructive а разруш ительный, деструктивный
detract v умалять, уменьшать, отнимать
relieve v уменьшать давление, тяжесть, освобождать, разгружать
enhance v повышать, увеличивать, усиливать
ramify v разделяться, разветвляться, распространяться
соре v справиться, совладать
dignity п достоинство
wretch а жалкий, несчастный
threaten v угрожать
congestion п скопление, затор
extremely adv чрезмерно, крайне, чрезвычайно
incinerator п крематорий, мусоросжигательная станция
II. Explain how the following words are formed. Write down the words
and underline suffixes. Translate the words into Russian:
urbanization, destructive, environment, attractive, government,
pollution, universal, threatening, physical, mental, externally,
intensification, throughout, forestry, recreation, accessibility,
contradiction.
V. Read the text. Write down 6 questions and answer them in English.
Text 39B. Urbanization and Environment
Part II
The conflict between urban uses and high, non-urban values has
been particularly severe in those cities that develop along the edge of
lakes, rivers or estuaries. Often the physical spread o f the city leads to
dredging and filling in of previously valuable and productive aquatic
areas. Always the consequences of urban pollution on such
environments are severe. Along sea coasts and estuaries in particular,
damage to the aquatic environment can have far — reaching
consequences. Often the productivity of major ocean fisheries and of
broad areas of the open ocean depends upon the continued functioning
of the estuaries and near shore region. When these are damaged by
urban growth or pollution, major natural values are affected.
233
The m odem metropolis draws, for its resources, upon great areas of
land and water distributed widely throughout the biosphere. Thus, for its
water supply alone the city o f Los Angeles draws on watersheds
hundreds o f miles away. Its other needs, for food and fuel, for example,
are supplied from around the works in turn the products and by
products o f urban life ramify throughout the biosphere. A balanced
relationship between the city and its global environment is therefore of
major importance for any programme o f rational use and conservation
o f the total hum an environment.
Although the external effects o f urbanization are impressive most
people are directly affected by the environment within the city itself.
Although this has rarely been o f high quality it has under the pressure of
too rapid growth and the Consequent breakdown in urban functions
become increasingly unsatisfactory to the people involved. Pollution
has, o f course, been a major contributor to the dec line o f environmental
quality within the city, but it is not alone. Crowding and congestion in
themselves can have wide-ranging physical and psychological
consequences which we are only beginning to understand. Housing has
generally been inadequate in most rapidly growing cities. N ot only has
there been a spread o f slums within the city proper, but most cities in the
developing world have developed a ring o f shanty towns in which even
the most primitive urban services are lacking.
The problems o f urbanization are now far beyond the capacity o f city
governments to handle. They have become national problems which
require a high degree o f international cooperation if they are to be
successfully surmounted. The cost o f providing even the most
m inim um , essential environm ent that will permit a healthy, productive
life for the city dwellers o f the world must be measured in many hundred
thousands o f millions o f pounds. N o other environmental problem, save
the related one o f pollution control, will require such a major share of
effort and energy in the decades that lie ahead.
XII. Insert the proper words and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. In principle urbanization is not... to the environment.
2. In most areas governments are not able... the mass migration into
urban areas.
3. The noise and congestion in cities add to physical and... distress.
4. Externally the greatest effect of spreading... is the intensification of
pollution which spreads from the cities outward to have its effects
throughout the biosphere.
5. The spread of cities and the... network effects all o f the lands that
surround the metropolis an d the cities through which transport corridors
pass.
XIV. Write down what part of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russian.
1. The conflict between urban uses and no n-urban values has been
particularly severe in those cities that develop in productive aquatic
areas.
2. The terms the firm’s managers suggested last m onth conflicted with
my plans.
3. This farm produce can be bought at the market o f the nearest town.
4. They produce all kinds o f agricultural equipment.
5. The spread o f the settlement and the road network have effected
all o f the lands that surround it.
6. The greatest effect of spreading urbanization has been the
intensification o f pollution which spreads o f the cities outward.
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XV. Write down the antonyms of the following words:
high, severe, along, often, previously, open, continue, tribute, local,
within, rapid, alone, primitive, beyond, m inimum, destructive, slower,
external.
Uni t 40
PRESERVATION OF LAND RESOURCES
I. Vocabulary notes:
preservation n сохранение, предохранение; заповедник
concept n к он ц еп ци я, общее представление
utilization п использование
conserve v сохранять, предохранять; сберегать
destroy v разрушать, уничтожать, истреблять
waste v портить; напрасно тратить; истощаться
undermine v подрывать
prevent v предотвращать
excessive а чрезмерный
leach v выщелачивать
endow v наделять, одарять
spoil v портить
restoration п восстановление
derelict а заброш енны й, покинутый
safeguard v охранять
II. Explain how the following words are formed. Write down the words
and underline suffixes. Translate the words into Russian:
a) defined, preserved, utilized, used, secured, underlined, tried,
destroyed, opened, caused, involved, applied, increased, provided,
renewed, filled, created, produced, measured, planted;
b) wooded, honeyed, bearded, pillared, powdered.
V. Read the text and translate it into Russian. Write down 6 questions
and answer them in English.
Text 40B. Three Dimensions o f Land Conservation
Land conservation plays an important role in farming. The further
intensification o f agricultural production needs a strong land resource
base. The conservation o f land resources is realized within three
dimensions physical, economic, and legal. The land use planning both
infarm and interfarm has to deal with these three dimensions.
The physical dimension of land conservation is concerned with what
is possible in terms o f land uses. It includes the kinds of plants needed
for land conservation, the yields of various plants, cultivation methods,
applications o f water and fertilizers and the rates o f applying them.
Land conservation has a wide range o f various practices, such as
contouring, strip cropping and mulching. It often needs capital
investment in such workings as terracing and water-retention structures.
The planners have to investigate the effects o f these workings on crop
yields, run-off, erosion, siltation, infiltration, and the like.
The range o f possibilities of land conservation is being extended
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constantly through research and developments in science and
technology. But before the recom m endations are made the planners
consider the economic dimensions of proposed measures. The
economic dimensions of land conservation are constantly changing
through the changes in scientific and technological progress. They
include cost-benefit analysis, the am ount of present and long-term
benefits, costs of productive factors, and relationship between labor and
capital needed to provide land conservation.
Finally, attention is given to legal dimensions of land conservation.
The legal dimensions consist o f a set of rules and laws concerning land
conservation.
The land use planner should be aware of all laws and rules which are
reflected in the Land Code and the decisions of local bodies. Legal
provisions of land conservation should be further developed, particularly
concerning the conservation of prime or unique lands which are of
crucial importance to agriculture.
The three dimensions of land conservation must be considered and
implemented through a sound land use plan.
It is hard to overestimate the economic effects of land conservation.
Land conservation provides for additional farm production which is
usually large enough to offset the added costs on land improvement.
EXERCISES
VIII. Read the sentences and underline Participle I forms. What are
their functions in the sentences? Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. This departm ent is studying the problems of land conservation.
2. The professor is speaking on land problems and underlining the
importance of land conservation. 3. By applying scientific and
technological methods our specialists try to improve soil productivity.
4. Trying primitive methods man has long dreamed of land
conservation. 5. Having planned reclamation measures the collective
farmers have given renewed life to a vast area of land. 6. The earth over
the deposits is removed and stored in its original pattern depending on
the degree of its use in agriculture.
IX. Complete the following sentences using texts 40B and 40C:
1. Both infarm and interfarm land use planning has to deal with ....
2. The physical dimension includes .... 3. Land conservation has a wide
range of various practices, such as .... 4. The economic dimensions of
proposed measures are considered by the planners before ... 5. The
economic dimensions o f land conservation include .... 6. Some of the
worst damage from chemical substances are caused by.... 7. The quality
of farm land is also affected by....
241
X. Give the Russian equivalents:
land use control; productive capacity of land; excessive cultivation;
iron ore deposits; to pioneer; reclaimed fields; future generation;
partially usable earth; life-giving black earth.
XI. Form Present Participles from the verbs given below and use them
in short sentences.
to secure, to control, to discourage, to prevent, to leach, to cultivate,
to make, to provide, to endow, to create, to represent, to remove, to
store, to graze.
XIII. Translate the following sencences into English. Write down the
sentences you have just translated:
1. Говоря об охране почв, необходимо прежде всего точно о п
ределить, какие мероприятия следует проводить и в каком поряд
ке. 2. Большую полезную работу по рекультивации земель прово
дят на юге страны. 3. На восстановленных землях при правильном
их использовании мож но добиться высоких урожаев. 4. Д ля земле
устроителя чрезвычайно важно учитывать все экон ом ически е ф а к
торы в системе.
XIV Write down what part of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russian.
1. To conserve land is the main task of all the generations, present
and future. 2. Land conservation means extremely wise utilization of
land resources. 3. By conserving land resources we increase the wealth of
our nation. 4. Dreaming o f land conservation m an tried many primitive
methods o f land preservation. 5. M a n ’s dream o f land conservation is
now coming true. 6. Excessive grazing destroys the natural land cover.
7. Destroying the natural land cover by overgrazing we increase the
danger o f soil erosion.
XV. Write down the synonyms and translate them into Russian:
preservation, utilization, to destroy, wise, remote, to involve, earth,
to reclaim, frequently, benefit, different.
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XVI. Read the dialogue and discuss the problem in class.
Environmental Protection o f Land Resources
— Why does the land-use planner pay m uch attention to
environmental problems?
— The quality o f land for agricultural and other uses depends on the
quality of the entire environment.
— Why do the land-use planners lace so many environmental
problems?
— Environmental problems are numerous. They crowd the land
resources from several directions. They are often tied with the main
reasons: the intensification o f industrial and agricultural production and
other human activities.
— Why do the fertilizers threaten the quality o f land resources?
— When industrially produced fertilizers were first introduced it was
thought that the minerals would dissolve in rainwater and would be
entirely absorbed by plant roots. But it now appears that this was a fairly
serious oversimplification, for the effectiveness o f any fertilizer depends
very m uch on soil. The unwise use o f fertilizers threatens the quality of
agricultural lands.
— What is the effect o f large doses o f chemical fertilizers?
— Large doses o f chemical fertilizers reduce the organic strength,
affect the natural availability o f nutrients and have an adverse effect on
microorganisms in the soil. There is a tendency in some areas to use
treated sewage (city sludge) as soil fertilizer. This can be done to a
point. But a high concentration o f heavy metals in such sludge may
threaten the quality o f soil if its application is repeated on the same
acreage.
— What are the effects o f chemical residues on land resources?
— Much has been done to avoid the effects of chemical industries on
land resources. But there are still some industries that dum p chemical
residues into special dumping grounds. Land there becomes hazardous
for most other uses. Land conservation calls for more careful treatment
of chemical residues.
— Why should the land use planners take care o f air pollution?
— It is quite a serious problem. Take, for example the already high
and still increasing concentration o f sulphur and other chemicals in the
air. Sooner or later it has an effect on plant growth and the quality of
land.
— Why is m uch attention paid to re-cycling of waste materials now?
— This problem is of great importance. M uch has already been
done in this field. Recycling o f waste materials protects the
agricultural land uses. The m atter is by no m eans simple. Recycling
requires m u ch energy. And we are to develop further the energy
production.
243
— What knowledge does a land use planner need to deal with
environmental problems?
— The prime concern of a land use planner is keeping the land
resources in such a shape that they would remain productive and stable
for hum an purposes as long as possible. The land use planner should
therefore be aware o f the basic ecological problems. He needs
information from a wide range of disciplines — agronomy, biology,
ecology, economics, engineering, forestry, law, statistics, soils, etc.
Unit 41
ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF LAND USE AND CROPPING
PATTERNS
I. Vocabulary notes:
pattern n модель, шаблон; образец; форма, узор
cultivate v обрабатывать (землю)
loss п потеря
open p it карьер
hay п сено
evident а очевидный
yield п урожай; надой
humid а влажный
prevent v предотвращать
deteriorate v ухудшать, портить, нарушать
drop v ронять; падать
vineyard п виноградник
salt-affected засоленны е (почвы)
log п бревно
waterlogged а заболоченны й
subsidiary а подсобное (хозяйство)
flexibility п гибкость
slightly adv слегка, немного
pest п вредитель, паразит
pulse п бобовые
I I . Explain how the following words are formed, write them down,
underlining suffixes. Translate the words into Russian:
cropping, acreage, uncultivated, settlement, railway, open-pit mines,
increased, administrative, infrastructure, productivity, vineyard,
grassland, fishpond, sunflower, reconstruction, salt-affected, floodplain,
waterlogged, represent, mechanization, degradation, sub-surface,
microscale, variability.
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[u:]
put look who chose
pull cook too soon
full stood two cool
good push do school
foot could whose blue
wood woman food true
book football move fruit
took sugar moon through
V. Read the text and translate it into Russian. Write down 6 questions
and answer them in English.
Text 41B. Changes in L and Use fo r Gardens and Forests
There has been a considerable increase in the am ount of land used
245
In the seventies large-scale orchards (m ainly applied plantations)
were established because o f the existing and promising fruit export
possibilities. Later on, this rapid increase proved to be irrational due
to the increasing costs o f chem ical pest con trol, high rate
fertilization, harvest, storage and processing, an d because o f the
decreasing export m arket for fruits, partly due to the quality and
storage problems caused by high-rate fertilization; and large
plantations were liquidated, even in the Nyfrseg region (N o rth East
Hungary) where the poor, acidic sandy soils with low fertility
represent a low potential for arable crop production.
Afforestation was im plemented mostly for recreation, environment
and landscape protection, as well as for soil conservation on hilly areas
with complex slopes, on deteriorated lands (open mines, eroded slopes,
floodplains, etc.) and on soils with a low agricultural potential (sand
hills, shallow soils, etc.). Consequently, this tendency in spite of the
very low, sometimes, negligible, wood production can be evaluated as a
positive change in the land use pattern.
Considerable territories were divided into small holdings and used as
gardens, especially near towns, main roads, recreation places along
rivers and lakes.
The cropping pattern indicates stability with the exception o f the
radical reduction o f potato production (from 4.3 to 1.0 %) and a slight
decrease o f barley (8.6—7.8 %) on the one hand, and the sharp increase
o f sunflower (2.8—8.4) and silage maize (1. 7—5.3 %) production on the
other hand.
EXERCISES
XII. Insert the proper words and translate sentences into Russian.
1. A great part o f the arable lands, forests, grasslands, and even
orchards and vineyards were ... by state farms.
2. Their large size, their large scale high input agricultural production
and misguided soil management in many cases ... in environmental side-
effects.
3. More opportunity was provided for a more rational, microscale
utilization o f the land in the smaller fields o f... private sector.
4. A National Programme was ... by the Hungarian Academy of
Sciences in 1979.
5. But little initiative ... for the im plementation of conclusions and
recom m endations presented to the policy-makers.
XIII. Translate into English and write down the following sentences:
1. Сады и виноградники в южных странах Европы — многообе
щающие источники эксп орта соответствующей продукции в евро
пейские страны, находящиеся на севере.
2. Д ля восстановления и защ иты (охраны) л ан дш аф та широко
использовали посадку деревьев и кустарников.
3. Было принято много программ, опубликовано много идей,
но из-за недостаточно эф ф екти вн ого менедж мента эти идеи не
получили практического применения.
4. Значительны е территории вокруг населенны х пунктов были
разделены на небольшие участки, которые были отведены под
сады и виноградники.
XIV. Write down what part of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Changes in Hungary’s land use and cropping patterns between
1950 and 1988 are evident.
2. The G overnm ent changes its econom ic policy so often and so
rapidly that these changes result in the worse situation.
3. The results o f the reform were promising.
4. They tried to reform the systepi o f education considering the
experience o f foreign systems.
5. The loss o f arable land amounted to nearly 790 000 hectares.
6. A large amount o f the lost fertile land was concentrated in the
country.
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XV. Write down the antonyms and translate them into Russian:
changing, discover, uncultivated, increase, to lose, abnormal, rural,
concentrated, lower, fertile, input, improper, private, microscale,
temporal.
XVI. Write down what you know about changes in Russia’s land-use
and cropping pattern between 1991 and 2008. You may choose the data
on federal or local level.
Unit 42
ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF SOIL-WATER PROBLEMS
I. Vocabulary notes:
influence n влияние, воздействие / / v влиять, воздействовать
erosion n эрозия
undulate v 1. колебать; 2. делать холмистым (о местности)
undulation п неровность поверхности, волнистость
sedimentation п 1. осаждение, осадка; 2. отложение
europhication п п еренасыщ ение водоема питательными вещ е
ствами
sedimentary а осадочный
sedimentary overlap параллельное напластование
water п 1. вода, водоем; 2. пот, слюна, моча / / v 1. мочить, см а
чивать; 2. орошать, поливать; 3. поить животных; 4. ходить на во
допой
watershed п 1. водораздел; 2. бассейн реки
shallow а мелководный
leach п рапа, н асы щ енны й раствор поваренной соли
leach v выщелачивать
solution п раствор
soluble а растворимый
lattice п решетка
swell п 1. волна, зябь; 2. возвышение, выпуклость; 3. п р и г о р о к //
v 1. возвышаться; 2. набухать, выдуваться
II. Explain how the following words are formed, write them down,
underlining suffixes. Translate the words into Russian:
subsurface, considerable, sedimentation, watershed, fertilization,
solubility, transported, waterlogging, undesirable, ecosystem,
particularly, recreation, light-textured, permissible, uniform
distribution.
249
III. Pronounce correctly:
[ju:] you, new, few, accuse, use, knew, useful, Tuesday
[jua) Europe, January, estuary, cure, pure
V. Read the text and write down 6 questions to it. Answer them in
English. Translate the text into Russian.
Text 42B. Influence o f Land Use and N utrient M anagem ent on Water
Resources
Part II
The potential sources o f these high N -concentrations can be the
following factors:
1. Liquid manure from large, concentrated livestock farms. The
annual 9 million m 3 o f liquid manure is distributed on 70,000 ha of
250
agricultural fields and 5,000 ha of special «filter fields», resulting
sometimes in considerable point source N-pollution o f subsurface
waters.
2. Sewage waters, sewage sludge’s and solid wastes as a result of
industrial, urban and rural development. In many settlements drinking
water supply was introduced without the simultaneous establishment of
canalization.
3. Recreation and tourism, without appropriate waste water
management.
4. Illegal local sources (for example use of «old» wells for waste
disposal, etc.).
5. Irrational N-fertilizer application.
Rational N-fertilization cannot cause a significant N-pollution,
because, if we use the necessary am ount of N — according to the crop
requirement — N losses (sources of N-pollution) can be efficiently
reduced to a m inim um level. What are the main possibilities of the N -
pollution o f groundwaters due to N-fertilization?
— Leaching of N through preferential pathways, such as cracks and
biological channels (roots, earthworm channels);
— uncontrolled N-application in «hobby gardens»;
— improper fertilizer application, non-adequately selected for the
crop requirement (nutrient uptake), soil properties and weather
conditions; problems in uniform distribution, or differential distribution
according to the N status of the soil; time of application; etc. Any
improvement in the technology of N-fertilizer application will result in
the reduction of losses and environmental hazards.
Leaching of Na-salts from the soil profile is favourable for the given
soil (decreasing salinity), but increases the salt concentration in the
drainage water. Consequently, this water cannot be used for irrigation
again, and can be drained to international waterways only up to a
certain quality limit prescribed by international agreements. In addition
to other facts (high clay and swelling clay content, high alkalinity, very
low permeability of the soil; lack of frost-free period after the growing
season; lack of good quality water) this is the main reason why we
cannot use the traditional leaching-drainage concept for salinity-
alkalinity control and the only way for that is a well-functioning
prediction and prevention system.
EXERCISES
IX. Complete the following sentences using texts 42B and 42C.
1. The potential sources of these high N -concentrations can be liquid
manure from ....
2. A nother potential source of it is sewage water and sludges as a
result o f ....
3. Recreation and tourism without appropriate waste water
management can also be a potential source o f ....
4. The soil moisture regime has particular significance in ....
5. In Hungary the 620 m m yearly average precipitation may ....
6. There are two more reasons of the extreme moisture regime: the
relief and ....
XI. Form Past Participles from the verbs given below and use them in
Passive Constructions. Write down sentences using them.
limit, leach, distribute, manage, apply, grow, take, heat, water,
relate, degrade.
XII. Insert the proper words and translate sentences into Russian.
1. The nitrate pollution of subsurface water is...of the most im po rtant...
problems in many countries.
2. Hungarian villages were mostly supplied with ... water because of
the nitrate concentration exceeds the permissible limit in drinking water.
3. Soil fertility greatly depends on ... regime.
4. In many countries of Central and Eastern Europe soil moisture
regime strongly ... the ecological potential and agricultural productivity
of a given area.
5. The non-uniform rain fall... is one reason of the extreme moisture
regime.
XIII. Translate into English and write down the following sentences:
1. На качество и количество выращ иваемы х культур большое
влияние оказывает качество и количество поверхностных и п о
чвенных вод.
253
2. Необходимость частой очистки воды вызвана ее сильной за
грязненностью.
3. Существует множество источников и причин загрязнения
водоемов, особенно находящихся вблизи населенных пунктов.
4. Большое влияние на качество поверхностных вод оказывают
химический состав и ф изическая структура удобрений, вносимых
в почву.
XIV. Write down what part of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Leaching of Na-salts from the soil profile is favourable for the
given soil, but increases the salt concentration in the drainage water.
2. You should not water plants with ice-cold water.
3. It’s quite easy to salt fish properly.
4. He can fish in troubled water as he is able to fish for invitations.
5. You c a n ’t filter this water with such a kind of a filter.
XV. Write down the antonyms:
soluble, last, improve, normal, closely, moisture, practical, efficient,
both, organic, significance, addition, future, natural, strongly, active,
rainfall, extensive, illegal.
XVI. Read the text and discuss the problems in class.
Text 42D
A. Environm ental Aspects o f Fertilizer Application
Before World War II the plant nutrient status of Hungarian soils was
rather poor due to the negative nutrient balance: more nutrients were
taken up by the cultivated crops and were taken away from a given
territory as yield (or bio-mass) than was being put back in the form of
organic and green manures or fertilizers.
From 1955 there was a rapid increase in fertilizer consumption. This
tendency was one of the reasons of the substantial yield increase during
the same period. Another consequence was that — due to the positive
nutrient balance — the nutrient status o f Hungarian soils was
significantly improved. In the early seventies well-equipped
agrochemical laboratories were established in each county, a regular soil
test system (with 3-year cycles) was introduced and a national advisory
service was organized, including 19 regional soil testing and plant
analysis laboratories.
In spite of these developments there were serious problems and
inadequacies in the fertilizer application technology (improper N -P -K
ratio; lack of Ca, Mg and m icronutrient supply; limited variety of
fertilizers; problems with their storage, time of application, way of
distribution; etc.). The main problem, however, was an unfavourable
«polarization» tendency in fertilizer application:
254
a) better soil -» rich farm -> higher rate o f fertilizer application (in
spite o f the lower requirements -> better nutrient status of soils -»
overdosage;
b) poor soils —> poor farms —> lower rate of fertilizer application (in
spite of the higher requirements -> lower nutrient supply of soils) ->
underdosage.
The over-generalization and the imperative «maximum-concept» led
to false conclusions, decreased the affectivity and efficiency of mineral
fertilization, and resulted in environmental side-effects, like:
— soil acidification (due to non-adequate type of fertilizer, lack of
simultaneous lime application) and its consequences: mobilization of
toxic elements, fixation of some of the nutritive elements;
— load of surface waters by P-com pounds (mainly due to surface
runoff, lateral erosion and sediment transport);
— contam ination o f subsurface drinking water resources by nitrates
(leaching);
— accumulation o f harmful toxic elements in the various stages of
the «food chain»: in soils, plants, animals and hum an organs, according
to their solubility, mobility and availability.
Most or these side-effects; however; are not inevitable and
uncontrollable consequences of fertilizer application: they can be
prevented, or at least reduced, efficiently by precision nutrient
management, based on the nutrient requirements and nutrient uptake
dynamism of cultivated crops (the specific requirements of species,
variety or even genotype); the nutrient status and other properties of
soils; the characteristics of agroclimate and hydrology conditions of the
given landsite.
I. Vocabulary notes:
maintain v содержать, поддерживать, сохранять
abundant а обильный
sustain v поддерживать, подкреплять
deterioration n порча, ухудшение
safeguard v 1. охранять, защищать; 2. гарантировать, обеспечи
вать
time v рассчитывать время; назначать время; удачно выбирать
время
rapid а быстрый, скорый
irreparable а непоправимы й, невозвратимый
occur v случаться, происходить
recurrent а периодический, повторяющийся
worsen v ухудшать(ся)
XI. Give Present Participles of these verbs and use them in short
sentences. Write down the sentences in English.
to apply, to maintain, to build, to mean, to conserve, to retain, to
accept, to provide, to manage, to design, to damage, to select, to return,
to time, to direct, to occur, to keep, to develop, to implement, to
involve, to help, to increase.
XII. Insert the proper words and translate sentences into Russian.
1. Soil conservation also includes ... agricultural, drainage and ... .
259
2. With proper ... most soil resources retain their productive capacity
over long periods of time. 3. Rapid soil destruction means ... loss of
land. 4. The damage o f wind and ... erosion is estimated by hundreds of
millions of roubles. 5. There are some measures to keep the soils from...
6. Poor or workout cropland can be converted to ... . 7. Tree shelterbelts
and strip cropping are created for wind and w a t e r ... control. 8. Erosion
control and moisture consideration practices fit into a well-rounded ...
programme.
XIII. Translate into English and write down the following sentences:
1. Говоря об охране почв, необходимо четко определить меры,
которые следует предпринимать для достижения этой цели. 2. И с
пользуя материалы, публикуемые в журнале «Природа», студенты
подготовили интересные доклады. 3. Рассказывая о методах борь
бы с эрозией, специалисты использовали много циф ровы х д а н
ных.
XIV. Write down what part of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Soil conservation means proper land uses protecting the land
against all the forms o f soil deterioration. 2. Protection of soils from
water and wind erosion is one of the main purposes of a soil conservation
programme. 3. To protect soils from erosions means to solve the main
problem o f soil conservation. 4. There was an overflow of people into the
hall. 5. The river may overflow. 6. They could cross the desert in a jeep.
7. D o n ’t desert the group now that the group needs you. 8. We can
group the data into two subdivisions.
Uni t 44
SOIL CONSERVATION IN THE COUNTRIES OF EASTERN
EUROPE
I. Vocabulary notes:
spectacular a 1. эф ф ектн ы й, импозантны й; 2. видимый, ощ у ти
мый
threaten v угрожать
concept n понятие, кон ц еп ци я
deteriorate v ухудшать, разрушать
belt n пояс
hazard n случай, случайность; опасность, риск / / v рисковать,
ставить на карту
apparently adv 1. явно, очевидно; 2. по-видимому
II . Explain how the following words are formed, write them down,
underlining roots. Translate the words into Russian:
consequently, sustainable, ensuring, physiographic, circumstances,
restructuring, privatization, unfavourable, degradation, prevention,
grassland.
I I I . No English verb has more than five forms, except «be» which has:
be, am, is, are, was, were, been, being.
Verb «families»:
give, gives, gave, given, giving
walk, walks, walked, walking
cut, cuts, cutting
can, could
ought
must.
Explain this phenomenon!
261
IV. Read the tex t and translate it into R ussian.
Text 44A. Soil Conservation in Eastern European Countries
Soils represent a considerable part of natural resources in the «post-
Eastem block» — Central and Eastern European countries.
Consequently, rational and sustainable land-use and proper
management practices ensuring normal soil functions have particular
significance in their national econom y and soil conservation is an
important element of their environment protection.
There are considerable differences among these countries (Bulgaria,
Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia,
Slovenia and the European post-Soviet republics) in their physiographic
conditions, soil resources, agro-ecological potential, socio-economic
circumstances; in the role of agriculture in their national economy; rate,
type and way of collectivization during the centrally-directed socialist
period (Table 1); state, affectivity and efficiency of the economy
restructuring, rate of (re)privatization during the last years and at present.
In spite of these differences there were many similarities in their land
use policies and soil m anagem ent practices during the last 60 years. The
primary aim of agricultural production is to produce good-quality
products with low costs and without any environmental side-effects:
unfavorable changes in the given area and in its surroundings; at the
present time or in the near- and far future. The relative importance of
these partial objectives (high quantity, good quality, low costs,
environmental impacts) varies and changes considerably in each of these
countries, depending on their socio-econom ic conditions, historical
traditions and political decisions.
262
Продолжение
Fertilizer c o n s u m p t i o n
( to ta l) , k g p e r a g r i c u l t u r a l
la n d ( w i t h o u t g r a s s l a n d s )
1987 180 3 03 2 60
1988 222 3 14 2 45 268 — —
V. Read and translate the text. Write down 6 questions using the data
from table 1 and ask another student to answer them.
Text 44B. Periods o f Agricultural Development in Central and Eastern
Europe
Four main periods can be distinguished in the last 60-year history of
agricultural development, land-use policy and soil management
practices in these countries.
After World War II agriculture was in a destroyed and exhausted
condition irrespective of its previous level, which was rather
heterogeneous. The polarized pre-W ar ownership-structure [many
small-holdings (1—2 hectares)]; few very large latifudia (several
thousand hectares) was almost equalized with the «land reform»; most
of the land was distributed am ong the agrarian proletarians and small
farmers. This period can be characterized by small-scale private farming
(1—5 hectares) with low inputs and low yields.
The first and radically pressed collectivization program was
completed in the early 50s. However, most o f the newly created c o
operative farms did not survive the 1956 revolution and their lands
(which were officially always owned by the members o f the c o
operative) were distributed again.
The second collectivization program was «voluntary» and it was
pressed «only» by very strict economy regulations, giving a chance for
efficient production practically only for co-operatives, without any other
alternatives. It was completed in the early 60s. At that time about 25 % of
the land was owned and used by the state farms, 65 % was used by the c o
operatives (and still owned theoretically — by the members of the c o
operatives) and only less than 10 % was owned and used privately.
10 years after full collectivization a spectacular agricultural
development was witnessed. The centrally directed communist system
wanted to prove that the large-scale collective («social») sector could
produce more than the small-scale private sector. The central directives
and the economy regulations were elaborated and introduced
accordingly:
well-equipped soil laboratories were established (with the necessary
263
or, in many cases, overestimated capacities for soil, water and plant
analyses);
in the newly established large state farms and co-operative farms well
educated agronomists represented the potential guarantee for the proper
practical application o f these soil information;
in the new Land Law and related docum ents the duties and
responsibilities of land owners, land users (farming units) had been
listed. The necessary organization, coordination control machinery for
soil and water conservation practices were financed practically fully
from the central state budget;
the economy regulations (high rate state subsidy on fertilizers and
other chemicals, and on the main soil reclamation practices, such as
amelioration of acid, salt-affected and sandy soils, erosion control,
irrigation and drainage; long-term credits; price policy; etc.), as well as
the evaluation of farming units and their agronomists on the basis of
obtained yields or even on their fertilizer and pesticide consum ption
stimulated high yields and high inputs, irrespective of their efficiency,
their impacts on quality and their environmental consequences.
The efforts proved to be successful at the beginning. Yields of the
main agricultural crops increased sharply, as it can be seen in Table 2.
This was mainly due to four reasons:
new, intensive, high yielding crop varieties;
adequate nutrient supply of crops sharply increasing rate of mineral
fertilizer application;
integrated pest management;
full mechanization.
2. Average yields of the main crops in Hungary (tons/h ectare)
EXERCISES
IX. Complete the following sentences using texts 44B and 44C:
1. The period after World War II in agriculture can be characterized
by....
2. The first collectivization program was completed....
3. The centrally directed communist system wanted to prove....
4. A rather quick and spectacular agricultural development was
followed by serious problems....
5. The quaintly-oriented econom y regulation system stimulated
neither for rational output reduction nor....
6. Some of the main problems was overconcentrated livestock
production....
XI. Form Past Participles from the verbs given below and use them in
Passive Constructions. Write down sentencies using them.
represent, ensure, aim, change, depend, appear, threaten, stimulate,
reduce, prevent, distribute.
XII. Insert the proper words and translate sentences into Russian.
1. In the last 60 year history of agricultural development four main
periods can be ....
2. Agriculture in Eastern Europe after World War II was in a
destroyed and ... condition.
3. Its previous level was rather ... in different countries.
4. In the early 50s the first collectivization program was ....
5. The second ... program gave a chance for efficient production only
for cooperatives, without any other alternatives.
6. Only 25 % o f the land was owned and ... by the state farms, 65 %
was used by the cooperatives and only 10 % was owned and used
privately.
266
XIII. Translate into English and write down the following sentences:
1. Так как почвы в этом регионе составляют значительную
часть природных ресурсов, их охрана является важным элементом
зашиты окруж аю щ ей среды.
2. В таблице 1 представлены различия между странами региона
в социальном составе населения и в той роли, которую сельскохо
зяйственная отрасль играет в эко н ом и к е каждой страны.
3. За н есколько лет преобразований появились хорошо обору
дованные лаборатории, подготовлены вы сококвалиф ицированны е
специалисты, разработаны новые полож ения о земельной с о б
ственности.
XIV. Write down what part of speech the following words in bold prints
are and translate the sentences into Russian:
1. They practised new methods o f irrigation on their farm.
2. Proper management practices ensuring normal soil functions have
particular significance in the countries of this region.
3. A new Com m ittee functions here to develop a new program on the
base of the information obtained by an initiative group.
4. You should not wear your suit while mending a car, you may soil it.
5. The cows are soiled here in June and July while forage is being
prepared.
6. In the early seventies well-equipped agrochemical laboratories
were established in each country, a regular soil test system was
introduced.
Uni t 45
SOIL POLLUTION CONTROL
I. Vocabulary notes:
occur v 1. случаться, встречаться; 2. попадаться, представляться,
приходить в голову
spectrum п спектр
threshold п порог, предел
toxic о то ксичны й, ядовитый, вредный (для здоровья)
pollutant п загрязнитель, загрязняющее вещество
via через, посредством
weather п погода
weather а подветренный, подветренная сторона / / v выветри
ваться, подвергаться атм осферны м влияниям
essential а сущ ественный
consequence п 1. последовательность; 2. последствие
manure п 1. навоз; 2. органическое удобрение
manure v 1. удобрять; 2. унавоживать землю
fertilizer п удобрение
fertility п плодородие, плодородность (почвы)
buffer п 1. компрессор; 2. буфер
buffer solution буферный раствор
II. Explain how the following words are formed, write them down,
underlining roots. Translate the words into Russian:
microorganism, deposition, concentration, accumulation,
potentially, atmospheric, ground water, am endm ents, reclamation,
immobile, salinization, harmful, represent, schematically, assessment,
comprehensive, subsurface.
268
[ju:] museum
[ju:] new
[u] sugar
[i:j people
[ex: 1 palm
[o:j saucer
[d :] talk
[ d :] walk
[ d ] wash, was, watch
VIII. Write out the names of the processes from text 45A. Explain how
the words are formed and use them it 5—6 sentences.
IX. Complete the following sentences using the texts 45B and 45C.
1. Emission reduction elements prevent or reduce the quantity....
2. Another soil pollution control measure is a precision nutrient
m anagem ent including....
3. The rate and technology of crop production are....
4. In contrast the quality of surface and subsurface water resources....
5. The effective soil pollution control measures realization must be....
6. Land owners and land users must be responsible for...
XI. Form Past Participles from the verbs given below and use them in
Passive Constructions. Write down sentences using them:
to occur, to find, to weather, to irrigate, to crop, to define, to
elaborate, to qualify, to adopt, to publish, to demonstrate, to provide, to
establish.
XII. Insert the proper words and translate sentences into Russian.
1. The radical... of salt-affected soils, sandy soils or peatlands
requires expensive measures.
2. But some regions with wet lands, ... lakes and soils represent
special environmental value.
3. In many cases protected ecosystems, habitats of protected plants
and animals are the saline lakes, wetlands and ... regions.
4. Soil degradation is not ... consequence of intensive use of land for
agricultural production and social development.
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5. Most unfavorable consequences of the degradation process can be
eliminated or at least moderarated.
6. Prognosis and ... are two key actions in conservation practices.
ХГУ. Write down what part of speech the following words in bold prints
are and translate the sentences into Russian:
1. The way they use soil in this region conflicts with the environment.
2. There is some conflict between the data in his report and the reality.
3. The farmers know how often they should manure the field and
what quantity of the manure they can use.
4. The specialist considered the local weathering and soil formation
process in their study.
5. The weather in June in this region is quite favorable for the crops
grown here.
6. The students studied the decrease o f organic m atter in the soil for
the last four years during their annual vocational practice in summer.
7. 1 usually practice my English when 1 go abroad.
Uni t 46
AUSTRALIAN LAND DEGRADATION AND ITS CONTROL
I. Vocabulary notes:
degrade v 1. понижать; 2. опустошать
susceptive a 1. восприимчивы й; 2. допустимый
remove v удалять
removal n удаление
latitude n широта
fragile а хрупкий
confine v ограничивать; to be confined — быть вынужденным
eliminate v устранять
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drought n засуха
remote а отдаленный
trace v 1. намечать, чертить; 2. выследить, найти // n след
fen n тундра
emphasize v подчеркивать
gain v получать, достигать
liter v разбрасывать / / n 1. мусор; 2. поросята одного опороса
hoot п копыто
detrimental adj вредный, убыточный
level v уравнивать / / п уровень
marsupials сумчатые (животные)
II. Explain how the following words are formed, write them down,
underlining roots. Translate the words into Russian:
unusually, historical, significantly, implementation, awareness,
landscape, gunpowder, hardhoofed, cattle, technology, predictably,
seaboard, wilderness, heritage, atmospheric, ecosystem.
V. Read and translate the text. Write down 6 questions using the text.
Text 46B. A rid Climate and Grasing Land Degradation
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grey kangaroos. Secondly, the unnatural increases in kangaroo
populations, especially in years of abund an t feed, make it impossible
for conservation-m inded graziers to release paddocks used for
domestic stock grazing for the purpose of rehabilitating degraded
grazing land.
Thirdly, if kangaroo shooting is outlawed, pastoralists will loose out
to the kangaroos and will then have no alternative but to shut off the
water supplies. This will cause an almost total annihilation of the
kangaroo population in all areas except the limited zones served by
permanent natural waterholes in the arid inland. In short, there can be
no conservation of the inland without kangaroo control.
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EXERCISES
VIII. Write down the following sentences and explain the function of
the verb «to have»:
1. The land has been occupied by aboriginal tribes for more then
40000 years.
2. Their hunter-gatherer society had little effect on the ecosystems
that they were part of.
3. Most of the environmental issues that have received attention in
the past concern land, water and atmospheric conditions in the more
havily populated eastern seaboard districts.
4. Later concern for remote wilderness areas in Tasmania, the
Northern Territory and North Queens land has grown and unique sites
in these areas have been included in the World Heritage List.
IX. Complete the following sentences using texts 46B and 46C:
1. It should be noted that Australia has always....
2. The arid climate and the resultant sparse grass cover are....
3. The natural instability and fragility of the arid systems....
4. The kangaroo population will continue to contribute to the
overgrazing problem unless....
5. The creation of perm anent drinking water through artesian bores
and surface dam s has greatly increased....
6. The unnatural increases in kangaroo populations make it
impossible for conservation minded draggers to release paddocks used
for domestic stock grazing....
XI. Put 4 questions to the text 46C and answer them in oral form.
278
XII. Insert the proper words and translate sentences into Russian:
1. The conservation lobbies in Australia and ... is apparently unaware
o f a num ber of fundamental facts about the kangaroo population.
2. If kangaroo shooting is ... pastoralists will loose out to the
kangaroos and them have no alternative but to shut off the water
supplies.
3. In short, there can be no ... of the inland without kangaroo
control.
4. The Soil Conservation Advisory Com mittee makes
recommendations for financial supports to between 50 and 100 ...
annually.
5. Each of the state o f the ... has an authority responsible for research
and development in the sphere o f land-use planning and rural-
production systems.
6. T he ... of soil conservation is a state function.
ХГУ. Write down what part of speech the following words in bold prints
are and translate the sentences into Russian:
1. Historically the removal o f trees on a large scale has significantly
altered runoff patterns.
2. M ountain streams runoff the slopes here and make a pond that
dries out in arid seasons.
3. Hundred years ago their hunter-gatherer society had little effect on
the ecosystems that they were part of.
4. Apart from the use o f fire for hunting and food gathering their
activities were confined to collecting fruit, roots and nuts, fishing and
the hunting of marsupials and birds.
5. Later they were not only hunters, they learned to use land: to
cultivate it and grow crops.
6. Trees could supply shade for animals on hot days.
7. But water supply was not enough in dry season.
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XV. Write down the antonyms:
unusually, remove, vast, natural, more, apart, to collect, arrival,
hard, start, sparsely, heavy, resent, include, easily, careful, low, limited.
XVI. Read and translate the text. Put 6 questions and answer them in
English.
Text 46D. Environment and Economic Development
In essence, the Australian economy has grown out of primary
production — first wool and timber, then wheat and sugar. More
recently minerals such as iron ore, coal and copper have become prime
export-eamers. Because o f the ratio of population to resources, almost
80 percent o f primary production is exported, with rural industries and
mining contributing equal shares.
The effects o f each land use on land stability and production
potential are greatest under the more intensive forms of land use, e.g.
cropping (6.1 percent o f the area). Forestry and nature conservation
constitute 5.5 percent of Australia’s land area and new reserves are being
proclaimed annually.
The federal government has attempted to develop a basis for meeting
the needs o f both econom ic development and environmental
conservation. The National Conservation Strategy (N C S) aims to
establish principles for development in such a way as to protect
landscape values other than utilitarian economic values.
Several attem pts have been made to assess the relative contribution
of each form of land degradation to the total problem of Australian
landscapes. In terms of total area affected, loss of productive potential
and the irreversibility of the process, water erosion is clearly the greatest
threat to Australian landscapes.
71 percent of degraded land is affected by water erosion, with
vegetation degradation accounting for 11 percent and wind erosion for 7
percent of the non-arid area affected. Salinity problems have received
considerable attention as a rural political issue, but such salting
problems affect only two percent o f the non-arid land area. H alf of the
saline area is under irrigation and represents areas of high capital
investment and high production potential. The prime area affected by
salinity is the M urray-Darling River basin and special legislation has
been passed to com bat this problem.
Unit 47
THE FORMATION OF NON-AGRfCULTURAL LAND USES
I. Vocabulary notes:
actual а действую щ ий, сущ ествующий в настоящ ее время
a large amount о/б о л ь ш о е количество
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conceive v 1. постигать; 2. задумывать
processing n 1. обработка, переработка сырья; 2. обработка (дан
ных)
proposal п предложение
reduce v 1. ослаблять, уменьшать; 2. сводить (к)
heart п суть, сущность
emphasize v подчеркивать, выделять
encompass v окружать, охватывать
idle а пустующий (о земле)
restrict v ограничивать, сокращать
nevertheless adv, conj хотя, несмотря на, однако
deploy v развертывать (колонну), распространять
pattern п образец, модель
link п связь, соединение
interdependent а взаимозависимы й
priority п преимущество
II. Explain how the following words are formed and write them down,
underlining roots. Translate the words into Russian:
non-agricultural, preliminary, abandoned, preserved,
comprehensive, evaluation, resource, specified, estimated,
com m unication, fragmented, deployment, research, unsuitable.
V. Read and translate the text. Write down 6 questions using the text.
Text 47B. The Demand fo r Land Grows
Surface mining often disturbs land resources. In many instances,
timber is removed, wildlife habitat is disrupted, natural streams are
diverted or contam inated, roads are buiJLt in undisturbed areas, and holes
are drilled. There is also the question of whether the initial mining
operation will reduce our mineral-resource basin by interfering with or
precluding entirely the ultimate recovery o f other underlying minerals.
The dem an d for land to support both urban growth and mineral
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development (particularly sand and grave) also creates serious social and
political questions in densely populated areas. In addition, when
reclamation is contem plated, disagreements often occur as to the type of
land-use that will contribute most to society.
Tourists from industrialized nations travelling through rural Asia and
Oceania smile at the local use of paddy husks, coconut shells, jute sticks
and cow dung for heating and cooking. Yet their own children may have
to resort to such fuels because of drastic energy shortages. Fossil fuels,
we must remember, are non-renewable resources and once burned,
they’ve gone forever.
D uring the history of hum anity, people have made m any mistakes
in their relationship to the world they live in. Our ancestors,
however, were able to postpone the day o f reckoning. They were able
to seek present, profit w ithout too m uch co n c ern for its future
effects. There were m any who said, «Let posterity worry about it».
You are the posterity they were talking about. During your lifetime
you must find answers to this question: How can h u m an beings
continue to live on planet Earth w ithout destroying the en viro nm ent
on which their lives depend? Sustainable ways o f life must be
discovered. Destructive ways o f life must be abando ned . W ithout
these there will be no posterity.
VI. Read the dialogue and translate it into Russian in written form.
Idling Land and Land Fragmentation in Private Land-Uses
— Does farm-land fragmentation take place in private agriculture?
— Field shape and size tend to deteriorate if left to the forces of the
land market and family transactions. Fragmentation of farm-land into
numerous, small, and often odd-shaped parcels is widespread in private
agriculture.
— Why does fragmentation increase in the USA?
— In a country such as the United States, farm-land fragmentation is
a great problem. Farms are often subdivided when they are sold and
the parcels are bought by different buyers. Some of the buyers are
investors rather than farmers. Over the years, fragmentation slowly
increases, as can be shown by com paring plot books a few decades
apart in time.
— And what can be noted about the land fragmentation in other
countries?
— Farm -land fragmentation is a large problem in many countries of
Europe and Asia. A village of a thousand or a few thousand hectares of
land can be divided into literally thousands o f parcels, many of them
only a fraction of an acre in size. «Strip farms» are among the more
striking cases of farm-land fragmentation.
— What are the main disadvantages of land fragmentation?
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— Fragmentation brings many disadvantages, some of which are very
great. Land surface may be lost from production along many parcel
boundaries. Weed control may be rendered more difficult, use of
advanced technology is not always possible because it often requires
concerted action by several neighbours to be practical, and soon. The
large am ount of boundary lines also causes misunderstanding about
boundary lines.
— Why does the private landownership lead to fragmentation of farm
land?
— Private landownership often leads to division of inheritance.
Reasonably concentrated farms often become badly fragmented and
farm layout deteriorated.
— Why are land resources in agriculture often o f no use?
— In countries land recently used for agriculture but now inactive is a
com m on phenom enon. Idling near urbanizing areas occurs due to
speculative holding o f land for potential urban development. Idling
could stem from disinvestment by farmers expecting that the dem and for
such land will generate the most profitable use o f this land.
— Why is there so m uch fertile land inactive in capitalist agriculture?
— Inactive land is of particular interest for businessmen who are
eager to make profit in and near the urban fringe.
EXERCISES
VIII. Write down the following sentences and translate them into
Russian. Explain the function of V+-ed forms.
1. The non-agricultural land uses should be located on abandoned or
low-fertile lands.
2. The prime lands must be preserved for farming by all means.
3. The planners must consider farmland as a resource required
producing an estimated quantity o f food of specified quality.
4. With industrial deployment more factories are being dispersed into
rural areas.
5. Special zones close to road or rail systems suggest that the poor
land should be reserved in regional plans for such development.
6. Land resources, which have limited use are suitable for non-
agricultural developments.
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IX. Complete the following sentences using texts 47B and 47C:
1. Land resources may often be disturbed by ....
2. When reclamation is contem plated disagreements often occur a s ....
3. Tourists from European countries travelling through rural Asia
smile at ....
4. During the history of humanity people have made many mistakes i n ....
5. In the country such as the United States farm land
fragmentation....
6. A village o f a thousand or a few thousand hectares o f land can he
divided into....
XI. Insert the proper words and translate sentences into Russian.
1. Land takings is one o f the most important problems of ... use
planning.
2. The non-agricultural land-uses should be located on ... or low-
fertile lands.
3. The planners must c o n s i d e r ... as a resource required producing an
estimated quantity.
4. In practice each taking o f lands for motor ways creates ...
farmland.
5. The taking o f land for industrial developments or agro-industrial...
will need the comprehensive approach.
6. Fragmentation brings many... some o f which are very great.
XII. Write out the words ending in -ing (text 47B) and analyze their
functions in the sentences.
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XIV. Write down what part of speech the following words in bold prints
are and translate the sentences into Russian:
1. The taking o f land for non-agricultural needs involves three
steps: feasibility studies, preliminary discussions and judicial
proceedings.
2. The land use planners study the topography of the locality, the
quality of soils and they consider many factors before making a decision
on land use.
3. The land units o f any kinds o f farms should be given the needed
access.
4. The planners needed a lot of data before they started making a
map.
5. The specialists demand the locality to be mapped.
6. The demand for land to support both urban growth and mineral
development creates serious social problems in over populated areas.
XVI. Read the text about soil problems and discuss the examples of
solving them given in the article.
Text 47C. Some Urban Sewage Problems
There are cities which find some way o f getting rid o f sewage and
other wastes produced by millions o f people. There also exist
agricultural soils being depleted o f organic material by mono-cultural
practices, which forces the em ploym ent o f excessive am ounts o f energy-
demanding nitrate fertilizers, as well as other chemicals. The fertilizers,
washing from farmlands and into streams, lakes, or estuaries create an
additional pollution problem. The system is obviously disrupted and
what could be a healthy recycling does not take place.
The magnitude of the urban sewage problem cannot be dismissed
lightly. New York City must do something with 5 million cubic yards of
sewage sludge — the end product of its sewage treatment plants, each
year. It has tackled the problem by hauling it in barges, 11 miles off
shore and dum ping it. The sewage dumping ground has long been an
unhealthy part o f the ocean, since about 15 square miles o f ocean
bottom are now covered with a cqncentrated mass o f sludge, and can
support only anaerobic forms o f life.
In theory this sludge is supposed to work its way-down a submarine
canyon into the ocean deeps. However, it has, not obliged, and recently
has been working its way back toward the beaches. Properly processed
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and returned to the land, this could be valuable fertilizer. Left alone it is
a menace to marine-life and a health threat to people.
Chicago, by contrast, has attem pted to solve its problem in a more
rational way, using it to restore the soils of about 36.000 acres of
marginal farm lands and strip-m ined areas. Although the digested and
chemically treated sludge represents no menace to health o f citizens in
the recipient areas have filed suit against the city of Chicago to prevent
further dum ping, since they fear some unknow n, disease hazard may
creep upon them. The belief that anything organic is filthy is
widespread am ong Am ericans an d unfortunate by-product of
mishandled health education, and a direct product o f advertising
campaigns.
Unit 48
WATER DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS
I. Vocabulary notes:
develop v развивать(ся), обнаруживать(ся), совершенствовать,
разрабатывать
recreation п рекреация, восстановление (сил)
artificial а искусственный
body of water водоем
expect v ожидать
attract v привлекать
property п собственность
expensive а дорогостоящ ий
estimate v оценивать
underestimate v недооценивать
appreciate v оценивать, ценить
involve v вовлекать
participate v участвовать
craft n 1. плавсредство, корабль, лодка; 2. искусство, ремесло
wilderness п пустыня, дикая местность, запущенная часть сада
undoubtedly adv несом ненн о
judge v судить / / п судья
judgement п суждение
I I . Explain how the following words are formed and write them down,
underlining roots. Translate the words into Russian:
recreation, artificially, expectation, attractive, prospective,
waterfront, partially, untouched, hydrology, comparison,
overemphasize, quantifiable, involvement, wildness, wilderness,
undoubtedly, judgem ent, television.
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III. Pronounce correctly:
ph [f] phone, photo, philosophy
ps [s] psychology
ck [k] stick, back, nick
sh [J] she, shop, push
wh [w] what, why, where, but who [hu]
wr [r] wrong, write, wrist
ng [t|] song, ring, sing
kn [nj knife, knee, know
V. Read and translate the text. Write down 6 questions using the text.
Text 48B. Water Development Scheme
In federal irrigation projects the cost ot water to the user is far less than
the actual cost o f delivering the water. The irrigation farmer is thus
subsidized, indirectly. It is unlikely the cost o f desalted seawater will ever
be within the reach o f the farmer. Furthemore, since seawater is available
only at sea level it would be necessary to pum p it, at a still higher power
cost, in order to deliver it to irrigation projects located inland. The biggest
hope for irrigation may lie in the desalting o f brackish water located in
inland sources or underground. Seawater is most likely to continue as a
source for seacoast urban-industrial water supply.
Despite the promise o f desalinization, efforts to develop new sources
of freshwater may be expected to continue. The most massive water
development scheme yet proposed has been brought forward by the PA
sons engineering firm o f Los Angeles. This is the North American Water
and Power Alliance (NAWAPA). It would tap the rivers o f northern
C anada and Alaska, pum p water southward into a storage area in the
Rocky M ountain trench o f Canada, an d deliver it as needed as far south
as Mexico for a cost estimated at 100 billion dollars. Obviously such a
plan would reorganize the western country-side, have massive effects on
environment, and destroy great wilderness and wildlife.
Regardless o f what we do, the ultimate answer to water problems lies
in population limitation. We could move water down the continent and
irrigate all our deserts to provide more water and more food for more
people. The people would then not have wild country or desert
wilderness, but they would still have a population problem and growing
water needs. We could, on the other hand, limit population growth at
some point where we woulf have enough food, enough water, and
enough wild country to satisfy anyone. We still have the choice.
VI. Read the text and translate it into Russian in written form.
Text 48C. Water Conservation Plans
Mass agribusiness, which now has dom inated farm production in the
United States, requires massive developments to provide irrigation water
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and other inputs. Growing food which is the purpose o f much of this
activity, can often be carried out far more effectively by using local
resources and substituting a high level of hum an care and careful
m anagement for those outside inputs which would otherwise have to be
purchased or supplied. A high level of labor investment and hum an skill
is necessary to make the desert bloom, but in today’s world there is no
scarcity of «surplus» hum an labor, displaced from the land and unable to
find em ploym ent in cities.
One cannot pretend all problems o f water management and
conservation can be met by paying greater attention to local human
efforts to solve local problems. New York’s water problems will not be
solved by putting in roof collectors. It is certain, however, that many
water conservation problems would be alleviated and some would
disappear if individuals would once again assume greater responsibility
for their own welfare, and if small communities would work together to
find local solutions to their difficulties.
Shifting now to the more global viewpoint o f water conservation, we
must see to it that water-concervation plans are fitted into an overall
pattern o f environmental conservation and not treated in isolation. They
must always include attention to proper land conservation in watershed
areas. Better soil conservation on farming lands will lead to better use of
soil water, better storage o f soil water, increased filtration to subsurface
water supplies and a lessened dem and for irrigation water. Through soil
conservation, erosion can be slowed to a tolerable rate, and problems of
downstreams siltation reduced. Better land use in forest and range areas
brings increased water filtration, stabilized runoff, and improved year-
round water yields. Each region must take responsibility for its own
watersheds, streams and rivers. Individuals, communities, municipalities
and industries must be responsible for reducing water pollution, to
tolerable levels.
EXERCISES
XI. Insert the proper words and translate sentences into Russian.
1. The dem and for access to ... water is high and growing.
2. Natural bodies o f water, untouched by development o f any kind
have a value also for the ... of hydrology, ecology and other
environmental sciences.
3. Untouched streams or other bodies o f water are usually
underestimated in ... development projects.
4. Few people have been taught anything about nature or how to...
wild country.
5. The operation o f a sailing craft on the ocean is a higher form of...
than driving a car or sitting by a swimming pool.
XII. Use the following verbs in Passive Constructions and write down
the sentences using them:
to provide, to grow, to carry cut, to purchase, to employ, to meet, to
find, to include.
291
2. П ригородные водоемы нужны не только для организации от
дыха, но они очень важны для тех, кто занимается проблемами
гидрологии, экологии и других наук, связанны х с изучением вод
ных ресурсов.
3. Потребности населения Земли в воде возрастают постоянно,
поэтому требуются новые технологии очистки воды.
4. Запасы пресной воды небезграничны, поэтому с ростом н а
селения возрастает потребность в возобновлении водных ресурсов
и контроле потребления воды на планете.
XIV. Write down what part of speech the following words in bold prints
are and translate the sentences into Russian:
1. We should value water as we value land.
2. The value o f an untouched stream c a n ’t be underestimated.
3. The cost o f water to the user is far less than the actual cost of
delivering the water.
4. How m uch does the bottle o f drinking water cost?
5. It is unlikely the cost of desalted seawater will ever be within reach
of the farmer.
6. Can we reach the bottom o f the ocean in this area?
XVI. Read and discuss the text in class. Pay attention to reading the
numerals.
Text 48D. The problem o f water supply
If we accept that a person in a m odem , technological society requires
720 gallons o f water per day, and then multiply that by one million
people, we have a problem for government o f finding 720 million
gallons o f water per day for a population o f a large city. However, in an
area with an annual rainfall o f 36 inches, a collecting surface o f 100
square feet could gather 300 cubic feet, or roughly 2400 gallons o f water
a year. A. house with 2000 square feet o f roof-collecting surface could
harvest 6000 cubic feet or 48,000 gallons of water a year — enough to
provide 130 gallons o f water a day. The practice o f collecting rainwater
from rooftops and running it into household storage tanks was once
com m on, and still is in some areas, and has been used as a means for
supplying most household water needs. However, reliance on masive
water developments and regional suply systems has caused people to
give up such do-it-yourself practices and has changed a non-problem
into a national problem.
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Unit 49
ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT
I. Vocabulary notes:
brief а короткий; краткий
impact n влияние
sustain v поддерживать
water table уровень грунтовых вод
species n вид; образец
feature n черта, особенность / / v характеризовать
breeding ground место разм нож ения животных; площадка для
молодняка
distribute v распределять; распространять
devastate v разрушать
survive v выживать
congregate v сосредоточить; собрать воедино
debris п развалины, осколки; лом, мусор
obvious а очевидный
facet п фацет, грань
threaten v угрожать
demand п спрос / / v запрашивать; требовать
brink of extinction грань вы м ирания
heyday п расцвет; зенит
poacher п браконьер
soapstone п камень; тальковая порода
marble п мрамор
habitat п среда обитания
in the main в основном , большей частью
I I I . Pronounce correctly:
i[ai] time, nine, title
nd kind, mind, find, blind
i+ Id wild, mild
gn [ai] sign, design
gh light, sight, right
bur. machine, cinema, wind
293
ir [э:] first, bird, thirst, third
ire\^ fire, mire, entire
ia — [aia:] diamond, dialogue
io prior, pioneer, violate
ie [i:] field, brief, grieve
b u t friend [frend]
V. Read and translate the text. Write down 6 questions using the text.
Text 49 В . Wild Life Disturbance
D em and for cosmetics is being met by illegal mining in Indian’s
national parks.
There used to be more than 20,000 tigers in India. Now, despite
heroic efforts by conservationists to protect the last 3,000 of the great
cats still roaming in remote areas, the Indian tiger is facing extinction
from an unlikely threat: the West’s passion for cosmetics made from
talcum powder.
The white powder, derived from soap-stone and marble, is used in
many beauty products, such as eyeshadow, lipsticks, deodorants and
soaps, in a market that is worth billions to the cosmetic companies.
But the desire for these seemingly harmless products is leading to the
destruction o f the tigers’ last natural habitat and, perhaps in less than 10
years, the species will be no more.
T he Britain’s leading cosmetic manufacturer, being one o f a num ber
of international firms has been sourcing talc from illegal mining
operations in sanctuaries critical to the survival of the tiger. The
operations are center 250 km southwest o f Delhi in the Indian state of
Rajastan.
Both the sanctuary and the reserve provide an ideal habitat for
reviving the tiger population and are supposed to be protected by
environmental laws.
However, across vast tracts of the wildlife sanctuary, the mining
industry has taken root. Using dynamite to blase the area for soapstone,
mine owners are ripping up the habitat with blatant disregard for the
surrounding environment.
The impact on the tigers should not be underestimated: the loss of
habitat and prey means the ecosystem that can sustain a tiger population
is destroyed. T he territory o f a male tiger can range anything up to 100
sq km: it needs cover, food and water.
Tiger cubs spend tw o -an d-a-half years with their m other before
finding a territory o f their own. The destruction o f the forest, the
pollution, and the lowering of the water table, all caused by the mining,
destroy ideal breeding grounds for young tigers. It is estimated that India
is losing one tiger a day due in part to the loss o f reproductive habitats.
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Talc has several different grades and qualities. Its high therm al
and electrical resistance m eans it is used in the prod u c tio n o f paper
and tiles, and as coating in the m o to r industry for dashboards and
bumpers.
But it is the cosmetic industry that values its softness, purity and
natural whiteness the most. It is used in practically every m ake-up or
soap, including mascara, face powders, lipsticks and body lotions.
One mine operating in the region is the huge Dakota soapstone mine
at the village o f Dakota. The powder produced there is some o f the
finest anywhere and its soapstone mine is thought to be the largest.
However, the impact on local people, as well as tigers, has proved
devastating. Locals from the village are paid 50 rupees ($1) a day for
extracting and sorting the stone.
Desperately poor, m any villagers have been forced to work in the
mine to survive. They are given minimal protection and inhale the
particles of talc, a mineral that some medical experts believe has
carcinogenic properties and thought to cause tumors in the ovaries and
lungs.
VI. Read the dialogue and translate it into Russian in written form.
Anim als and Plants...D isappear...
— Why do some species o f animals and plants disappear from the
Earth?
The disappearance o f some species of animals and plants from the
Earth is the result of the pollution of air, land and water. City and
industrial waters, chemicals and fertilizers exhaust natural resources,
endanger stocks offish in the lakes, rivers and ponds. Moreover some
animals were exterminated because of the people’s greediness. These
animals were hunted for the sake of for or ivory, horns or tusks. In their
everyday activity people needed timber turning the areas of thick forests
into barren deserts.
— What can you say about global warming?
— Over the past two decades, the temperature o f the Earth’s
atmosphere has gradually increased. Global warming is one of the
climatic effects of polluted air. It worries Aot of people.
— What caused the «greenhouse effect»?
— The «greenhouse effect» is caused by carbon dioxide, which
prevents heat from escaping. Global warming or the «greenhouse effect»
can cause melting of the poral ice caps, raising of the sea level, and
flooding of the coastal areas o f the world. There is every reason to fear
that such a climatic change may take place.
— Has anything been done to solve ecological problems?
— In recent years people have understood the necessity o f protecting
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natural resources and wildlife. It becomes clear that to keep air and
water clean, strict pollution control is necessary. Num erous anti
pollution acts passed in different countries led to considerable
improvements. In many countries purifying systems for treatment of
industrial waters have been installed, measures have been taken to
protect rivers and seas from oil contamination. Reservations and
national parks for wild animals and undisturbed nature are being
developed in some parts of the world.
— What will happen if nothing is done to protect the environment?
— If pollution of land, water and air continues, the damage caused
by these to nature may become irreversible. If people carry on like this,
the world will eventually run out of energy, fresh air and clean water. It
can bring to the extermination o f the people and turning the whole
planet into either a desert or the N orth Pole. Serious actions must be
taken now to avoid disaster.
IX. Complete the following sentences using texts 49B and 49C:
1. For centuries Indian tigers have been prized....
2. The white powder, deriverd from soapstone and marble, is....
3. Britains leading cosmetic manufacturer, Unilever, is....
4. Both the sanctuary and the wildlife sanctuary....
5. Across vast tracts o f the wildlife sanctuary....
6. The impact of the tigers....
7. In recent years people have understood....
XI. Insert the proper words and translate sentences into Russian.
1. Why do some ... o f animals and ... disappears from the Earth?
2. City and industrial ..., chemicals and fertilizers exhaust natural
resources.
3. Global ... is one o f the climatic effects o f polluted air.
4. The greenhouse effect i s ... by carbon dioxide, which prevents heat
from escaping.
5. In many countries ... systems for treatment o f industrial waters
have been installed.
6. Reservations and national parks for ... animals and ... natures are
developed in some parts of the world.
XII. Use the following verbs in Passive constructions. Write down the
sentences using them:
to sell, to use, to protect, to derive, to desire, to centre, to suppose,
destroy, to operate, to practise, to mine, to exhaust, to hunt, to pollute.
XIV. Write down what part of speech the following words in bold prints
are and translate the sentences into Russian:
1. T he Indian tiger is facing extinction from an unlikely threat: the
passion for cosmetic m ade from talcum powder.
2. Desperately poor m any villagers have been forced to work in the
mine to survive.
3. Their work is to mine the minerals for surviving.
4. One mine operating in the region is the huge soapstone mine at the
village o f Dagota.
5. By all means they get tiger skins and organs for selling.
6. It means that they further cut the numbers o f the Indian tigers.
7. This cut on the tree is not so deep, so it is not so harmful.
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XV. Write down the antonyms:
appear, brief, whole, able, first, inorganic, indirectly, seldom,
demand, short-term, more, worth, natural, legal, vast, disregard,
destroy.
Uni t 50
THE DERELICT LAND PROBLEMS
I. Vocabulary notes:
pit n яма, углубление; шахта, карьер
tip п конец, край, оконечность
extraction п извлечение, добыча
ensure v обеспечить
avoid v избегать, избежать
beneficial а выгодный, прибыльный
priority п преимущество
constraint п принуждение, стеснение, нужда
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II. Write down the following words and underline prefixes. What parts
of speech are these words? Translate the words into Russian:
a) untrue, undesirable, unreasonable, uncomfortable, unable,
unseen, unwell, unexplored, uncom m on, unadopted, unfavorable,
unbearable, unavoidable, unchanged, unforgotten, unm entioned,
unbelieved;
b) decentralize, delocalize, decompose, degasify, dehumanize,
defoliate, deodorize.
I I I . Pronounce correctly:
ew -> [u ] j eweU chew, blew, crew
[ju:] new, few
ar[o:] warm, war, quarter
w [w] wet, wit, wool
w+ a [o :] wash, want
[ae:j swam, wax
V. Read the text and translate it into Russian. Write down 6 questions
using the text.
Text 50B. The After-Use o f Restored Land
The industrial production must not damage the land resources and
increase the am oun t of waste land. Considerable areas of dereliction are
being reclaimed each year. The after-use of the restored land resources
is to be tackled by land use planners. This work is being done very
efficiently by specialists o f irrigation and land reclamation.
It is possible to restore the derelict land to a new use or to a more
appropriate land use. The land sometimes is restored to its former
condition and may be used as it has been used before dereliction. The
agricultural production should gain the priorities among other uses.
Return to agriculture may mean a lower grade of land and lower
productivity or change from arable to grazing land. Local land use
deficiencies and the site constraints should be taken into consideration.
If the land was originally poor, badly drained, suffering from exhaustion
it may be possible to improve the site by additional restoration working.
The efficiency o f the land parcel may be improved. The field size may be
enlarged or rationalized, the boundaries of the land parcel planted with
hedges and shelterbelts.
The land use planner usually selects species to suit the soil and
climatic conditions. Forestry is a safe return on the poorer soils and in
upland districts. The site survey and analysis to be used may be useful,
for selecting the species to suit the restored land resources.
The general techniques for site survey and analysis are used for land
use planning o f restored areas. But there are special characteristics of
derelict land which raise difficult problems o f after-use. They need
identifying at an early stage o f land use planning.
The type of questions that need an answer are the following: Are the
levels such that the site can be used for agriculture without major earth
moving? Are the grades so steep that erosion would prevent planting
into present surfaces? Do the levels indicate that the natural drainage
pattern of the area has been destroyed?
The soil and vegetation as well as the previous land use are also the
questions that need answers: Is there any soil left on the site? Is there
301
any vegetation on the site? Is the site colonized by grass on weed
invasion?
If there is no vegetation the land use planner is to consider whether
this is due to lack of soil or some other reason, such as toxic chemicals
left in the ground. In this case laboratory tests may be necessary.
The land use planner must know everything about the history of the
site. It is possible that the previous use was a form of mining so that
drifts, shafts and subsidence risks exist on the site. The previous use
could be a smelting or chemical process such that toxic substances might
be left in the ground.
EXERCISES
V III. Find out Past Participle forms in these sentences. What are their
functions?
1. All the progress in the use o f natural resources can be summarized
in one word: intensification. 2. Large complicated machines permit
removal o f great quantities o f land in a short time. 3. There are large tips
of waste deposited on the surface. 4. Considerable areas o f dereliction
are being reclaimed each year. 5. The field size may be enlarged or
rationalized, the boundaries o f the land parcel planted with hedges and
shelterbelts. 6. The general techniques for site survey and analysis are
used for land-use planning o f restored areas. 7. There are detailed
methods of stabilization of slopes against possible slip. 8. Soil which is
stripped and stacked also deteriorates rapidly.
XI. Form Past Participles of the following verbs and use them in short
sentences:
to use, to reduce, to remove, to permit, to extract, to ensure, to avoid,
to restore, to return, to exhaust, to prevent, to take, to include, to obtain.
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X II. Insert the proper words and translate sentences into Russian.
1. You can get higher production from the more ... use o f lands
currently in use as well as from ... of new areas. 2. Today large expensive
complicated machines permit ... o f vast quantities of land in a short
time. 3. Large acreage’s of prime ... are often taken for non-agricultural
uses. 4. O f all mineral extraction ind ustries... is the one, which has given
rise to the greatest am ount of derelict land. 5. Land use for mineral
working must not be abandoned and left ... when the working is
finished. 6. The industrial production must not damage the land
resources and, increase the am ount of ... land. 7. It is possible ... the
derelict land to a new use or to a more appropriate land use. 8. The
agricultural production should gain ... among other uses.
XIV. Write down what part of speech the following words in bold prints
are. Translates the sentences into Russian.
1. The technological progress in the use o f land resources is
intensification. 2. More intensive use o f lands will result in higher
production. 3. Intensifying the use of lands we face some environmental
problems. 4. With increasing inputs o f capital and labour per unit of land
we usually get more production from this unit of land. 5. Our task now is
to increase production and to reduce costs. 6. Mining is the factor,
which has given rise to the greatest am ount o f derelict land. 7. This land
has been restored and can be used as it was used before dereliction.
Uni t 51
TRANSFORMATION OF ARID LANDS
I. Vocabulary notes:
fix v укреплять, закреплять
invade v нарушать, вторгаться, посягать (на чьи -ли бо права)
subsoil п подпочва
relevant а п р им ен им ы й , уместный, отн осящ ий ся к делу, зн ач и
тельный
phenomenon п явление, н еобы кновен н ое явление
dominate v доминировать, преобладать
alarm п тревога
halt v останавливать
replenish v пополнять, восполнять
bog п болото, трясина
II. Write down the following words and underline prefixes. What part
of speech are the following words? Translate them into Russian:
a) non-acceptable, non-resistance, non-durable, non-provided, non-
essential, non-inductive, no n-hum an, non-m oral, non-logical, n o n
natural;
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b) disadvantage, disappear, dissimilar, disconnect, disagree,
disorder, dissatisfy, disregard, displace, discharge, displease,
discomfort.
I I I . Pronounce correctly:
а + г е [ е э ] care, fare r+гласная [ е э :] Mary, arid
bur. are[a:]
ai+r[e9] air, pair, hair
[еэ] bear, wear
ea+ г [ia] clear, fear, year
ee+r[ia] steer, cheer
о г / а г [ э ] monitor, debtor, actor, collar
VI. Read the text and translate it into Russian in written form.
Text 5 1C. Cotton Cropland Reclamation
Cotton is a subtropical plant. It requires a long growing season and rather
high temperatures. Climate largely determines where cotton is grown.
Yields o f cotton have increased greatly. Better management, land
selection, a shift in production am ong areas, the use of more and better
fertilizers, improved methods o f controlling insects and weeds, better
varieties o f seed, irrigation are largely responsible for the increase.
307
The use of machinery in growing and harvesting cotton reduced the
am ount of labour needed to produce cotton. Lands on which machinery
can be used have become more important. Production has moved
southward in Uzbekistan, for example, where thousand hectares of
virgin land have been irrigated and new farms produce a great am ount of
cotton on the reclaimed land resources. The areas best adopted to
irrigation, mechanization and other improved techniques have gained an
advantage in production of cotton.
The Central Asia’s share of the grassland also grows larger year by
year. Opportunities for year-round grazing and emphasis on livestock
production would continue to increase.
Along with more and better livestock production, rapid strides have
been made in the protection of soils against erosion through the use of
cover crops.
M odern technological and scientific progress foretells the preservation
of lands. The conservation and enrichm ent of reclaimed lands for larger
production of more commodities at lower cost will continue.
Land reclamation in the arid zone o f Central Asia and other regions
has a wonderful future and will maintain and increase the gains it has
made.
EXERCISES
X II. Insert proper words and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Nearly all the cotton ... in the Central Asia. 2. Cotton is grown in
the area with ... summers and long ... season. 3. The deserts invade in
many forms — wind ..., drought and ... sands. 4. The first signal of
trouble in the desert is an increased ... of salts in the soil and subsoil
waters. 5. The final and most alarming signal is ... health among the
people living in the area. 6. The satellite information makes possible the
forecasting of undesirable phenom ena ... by m a n ’s activities. 7. Obtained
water must be used... . 8. The walls of canals must be ... with cement or
clay solutions.
XIV. Write down what part of speech the following words in bold prints
are. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Cotton is grown in Central Asia. 2. T o grow cotton crop you must
have an area with hot sum m er and long frost-free season.3. Increasing the
salt concentration in the soil and subsoil waters you get some changes in
the vegetation cover.4. To increase the concentration of salt in the soil and
subsoil waters means to change the vegetation cover of the area.
Uni t 52
LAND USE IN AREAS OF NEWLY ORGANIZED IMPROVEMENT
I. Vocabulary notes:
irrigate v орошать, обводнять
carry out v осуществлять
regulate v регулировать
simultaneously adv одноврем енно
determine v определять
composition n состав
volume n объем
previous а преж ний, предшествующий
deliver v доставлять
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II. Write down the following words and underline suffixes. Translate
the words into Russian:
newly, organized, exploitation, regional, solution, users, regulating,
category, solved, necessary, facility, border, settlement, previous,
previously, mainly, intensify, useful.
I I I. Pronounce correctly:
qu [kw] quater, question, request, require
kn [n] knee, know, knot
bt [t] debt, doubt
mb [m] comb, bom b, climb, limbs
V. Read the text and translate it into Russian. Write down 6 questions
using the text.
Text 52B. L and Use in Areas o f Newly Organized Irrigation
Part II
In areas where the farming was previously o f non-irrigation type, the
construction o f large irrigation systems causes the necessity of
311
reorganization o f the production and territory o f the most part of the
farms. The scope and specialization of production are changed, new
crops are introduced, and the production is intensified.
For this reason in such areas the size of land uses, composition of
their lands and alternation of crops are reconsidered. The number, size
and location of newly organized farms are determined, the volume of
water required for irrigation of farm lands being reorganized at present
and in the future as well as the time of feeding water to farms are
determined.
In the course of intrafarm organization of land exploration on the
new land users should be so distributed that the best conditions for the
development o f each farm with the use o f irrigation should be provided
for.
In areas, where the considerable squares of land are organized for
irrigation, the intrafarm organization of land exploitation may be
connected with organization of new administrative districts. In this case
the area, boundaries and administrative centres of these districts are
planned in accordance with location of the co m m and zones of the
irrigations systems.
The main elements of econom y structure (composition and scope of
production branches, volume o f production, etc.) are determined
through preparation of main showings of the long-term plans of the
development of newly organised farms and the drafts of the internal
organization of their territory including the organization of arable lands
and distribution of lands for alternation of crops. These elements are
used then as a basis for solution of problems connected with the
organization of new land users and reorganization of previously existed
land users which are turned to the irrigation farming.
EXERCISES
V III. Find out Past Participles in the text 52A and explain their usage.
Give your own examples, using Past Participles.
X I. Insert the proper words and translate the sentences into Russian:
1. After all the preparatory actions the plans o f land exploration and
layout o f production centres and settlements a r e and realized.
2. For the development o f large o f lands which were not irrigated
previously o f water to these areas should be projected.
3. The irrigation system ... for this purpose should be projected as
well.
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4. For more than a century Sheffield was a ... and dirty city, and the
main characteristic o f it was the view o f smoking chimneys.
5. Today the environment o f Sheffield is ... different.
6. The administration and the city population o f Sheffield have made
great e ffo rts the problem o f pollution.
7. The factories and plants o f Sheffield were ... and modified.
8. A quarter o f a million ... were imported from Holland each year.
9. Only coloured tulips were ordered — the ..., the better.
XIV. Write down what part of speech the words in bold prints are and
translate the following sentences into Russian:
1. Sheffield is a steel-making centre o f the country with lots o f plants
and factories in it.
2. Widescale tree planting and rigid smoke control have changed the
whole environment.
3. They can plant m any new species here now.
4. You are not allowed to smoke here.
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5. G o ne are the smoke and dirt that once blackened the atmosphere.
6. They should project a new irrigation system in the area.
7. This project contains many new developments to control the
environment.
315
rainfall and runoff, or by holding runoff where it can soak into the
aquifers through permeable soil, not only restores the underground
supplies but is a way of keeping water where it will not be subject to
siltation or evaporation, and where, with care, it can be kept free from
pollution.
Unit 53
LAND RESTORED FOR RECREATION
I. Vocabulary notes:
incline v иметь тенденцию
recreation n восстановление сил, рекреация
consequently adv следовательно
circumstances n обстоятельства
obtain v получить, добы ть
believe v верить, полагать, считать
crowd n толпа / / v собираться, толпиться
prevail v превалировать, преобладать
prosperity n процветание
in particular в особенности
lead v вести
vehicle n транспортное средство
wealth n богатство
welfare n благосостояние
value n значимость, величина
mankind n человечество
appreciate v оценить (заботу)
afford v позволять себе
establish v устанавливать, основывать
I I I . Pronounce correctly:
ear [ia] clear near, hear, dear, fear
ea + г [э :] learn, earth
о + re [o:J ore, bore, more, therefore
re [e] theatre, metre, centre, litre
ph [f] photo, phonetics, sophisticate, sulphur
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IV. Read the tex t and translate it into Russian.
Text 53A. The Demand fo r Recreation Land
Part I
The dem and for outdoor recreation in a nation appears to vary with
the state o f urbanization and technology. People who live year-round in
the country are inclined to go to town for their vacation. They make
daily use o f the open space around them , but often view this activity as
part of daily routine rather than recreation. People who do not have
enough to eat are little inclined to seek recreation. Consequently, the
apparent internal d em and for outdoor recreation space in most of the
developing nations is small. The potential dem and, however, as the
circumstances o f the people improve, is probably great. It would be easy
for these countries to save open space now that the dem and is small. It
may be quite difficult to obtain space for recreation in the future when
the dem and is great.
In Japan, for example, with increasing prosperity, the dem and for
recreation has grown enormously. The nation has a respectable national
park system, but the parks are overcrowded. Millions o f visitors seek
them out during vacation and on weekend trips and, to an American,
almost unbelievable numbers o f people toil up the mountain trails and
climb the high peaks. Still greater numbers crowd the available beaches.
The weekend journey from Tokyo to M ount Fuji is a nightmare to one
who is used only to a New York level o f overcrowding. Similar
conditions prevail in European countries, and there has been an
increasing flow o f European tourists to recreation areas abroad.
In England there has been a long tradition o f using the countryside
for hiking, cycling, riding, shooting, and other outdoor activities. With
increasing prosperity, outdoor space has become crowded. The Nature
Conservancy, a government agency, has done an excellent job of
establishing and preserving a system o f national parks and other outdoor
areas, but it has been a difficult struggle, since pressure on lands for
other uses has also been increasing.
The interest o f people in the wealthier nations in preserving and in
visiting the natural treasures and outdoor resources o f the developing
nations has been an unexpected boom to the economies of some or
these countries. In Kenya, for example, tourism is a major industry and
the principal source o f foreign currency. Throughout East Africa, it has
had an econom ic impact far greater than was expected when these
nations were first independent. Nevertheless the support for the
preservation o f outd oor recreational space in developing nations must
come, to a large extent from outside their boundaries until such time as
the economic welfare o f their own peoples has improved. This is a
contribution which must be made by those who understand the value to
all mankind that these recreational resources represent.
317
V. Read the tex t and translate it into R ussian. W rite down 6 questions
using the text.
Text 53B. Faded Royal Parks Get Rescue
The historic glories o f Britain's royal parks are to be restored in a
£ 100 million rescue by private donors to reverse years o f decay.
A trawl o f international art galleries and map rooms by researchers
has yielded the secrets o f long-lost designs and features, some dating
from the parks’ Restoration and baroque heyday.
Work on cleaning L on d o n ’s «green lungs», which cover 5,000 acres,
will begin with the excavation of a vast water garden almost three
centuries after it was created in Bushy Park, near H am pton Court
Palace, by the first Earl o f Halifax.
O ther plans include replanting the circular avenues o f chestnut trees
in the baroque style at Greenwich Park; a £ 5 million pavilion and sports
facilities in Regent’s Park and a new nature trail in Hyde Park.
Construction work on the Diana, Princess o f Wales memorial fountain
began there some years ago.
The parks have long provided the backdrop to ceremonial events
such as processions along the Mall and are a retreat for millions of
tourists and Londoners. Some were royal hunting grounds before they
were donated by monarchs and several still have substantial roaming
herds of red and fallow deer.
However, private donors have intervened with ambitions to raise
£ 100 million after an official assessor’s report concluded that the parks
were falling into disrepair and, in some cases, squalor.
The Royal Parks Foundation, which secured charitable status, will
now work alongside the Royal Parks Agency (RPA), the government
body runs the parks, and looks after the gardens at 10 to 12 Downing
Street. It will receive £ 23.7 million o f taxpayers’ money this year.
Although Bushy Park is the least well known o f the eight royal parks,
the £ 7.2 million project to renovate its water garden and the adjoining
woodland garden is ambitious. Those involved in the scheme compare it
with the restoration o f the Lost Gardens o f Heligan, the 19th-century
gardens in Cornwall, which went into decline when most o f the staff
were killed in the first world war.
The central basin o f the elaborate network o f pools, channel and
cascades at Bushy probably disappeared by 1823 and the western basin
o f the canal silted up over the years. Further damage was caused during
the Second World War when General Dwight Eisenhower used the park
as the basins for testing torpedoes.
Now the RPA has com pleted an ingenious hunt for clues to the
earl’s original design. According to Greg M cErlean, the official in
charge of the restoration, vital evidence has recently emerged at the
State Hermitage M useum in St. Petersburg. «Catherine the Great
318
bought two drawing albums and in them there are about 32 drawings of
Bushy Park and H am pton Court,» he said. «They have been dated to
about 1780».
According to McErlean, the recent identification o f the cascade in
Jacob Bogdani’s painting, A Pair o f Peafowl in a Park by an Ornamental
Pond, will also assist in reconstruction. It depicts the correct layout of
the cascade and the grottoes.
McErlean said that the water garden could be restored fully by
summer 2006 if he secures funding o f £ 5 million from the Heritage
Lottery Fund. The balance would be met by private donors.
The agency suffered a setback to its efforts to boost its funding from
commercial sources when it announced the cancellation o f the Route of
Kings, a series o f pop concerts due in Hyde Park. The RPA earns about
£ 5 million a year from concerts, filming rights and other events.
One music industry source said the RPA would now be forced to
reconsider its «tacky commercialism». The source said:
«The RP A should not have allowed events, which caused damage to
Hyde Park. They should remem ber what parks are for» / F r o m «The
Daily Telegraph», 2006/.
EXERCISES
VII. a) Give the Russian equivalents:
outdoor recreation; year-round; daily routine; to obtain space for
recreation; increasing prosperity; park system; weekend trips; climb the
peaks; increasing flow o f tourists; excellent job; outdoor areas; natural
treasures; major industry; developing nations.
b) Make up short sentences with these word combinations.
VIII. Write down the following sentences. Pay attention to the use of
Tense-forms. Explain why the particular form is used in the sentence.
1. People who do not have enough to eat are little inclined to seek
recreation.
2. The nation has a respectable national park system.
3. There has been an increasing flow o f European tourists to
recreational areas abroad.
4. In England there has been a long tradition o f using the countryside
for hiking, cycling, riding and shooting.
5. Throughout East Africa, the tradition has had an econom ic impact
for greater than was expected when these nations were first independent.
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X. Write down 8 special questions using the following word
combinations:
by private donors; international art galleries; long-lost designs;
«green lungs» of London; vast water garden; a circular avenue of
chestnut trees; sports facilities; a new nature trail; memorial fountain:
ceremonial events.
XI. Insert the proper words and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. People who live year-round in the country are inclined to go to...
for their vacation.
2. In Japan with increasing prosperity the dem and for... has grown
enormously.
3. The parks are... inspite of the fact that Japan has a respectable
national park system.
4. The weekend journey from Tokyo to M ount Fuji is... to a
holidaymaker even from a big city.
5. Outdoor space has become crowded with increasing...
6. Tourism is a major industry and the principal source of... currency
in Kenya.
7. We all have to understand the value of... resourses to all mankind.
XIV. Write down what part of speech the following words in bold prints
are and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. The demand for outdoor recreation varies greatly with the state of
urbanization and technology.
2. The country has a respectable national park system.
3. It is forbidden to park a car on the pavement.
4. This work demands special knowledge o f archeology.
5. More and more people crowd the available beaches of Spain in July.
321
6. Crowds o f people go from Tokyo to M ount Fuji to spend the
weekend there.
7. We understand that the population of big cities should value the
beautiful parks they can visit any time.
8. We are among those who understand the value o f recreational
resources o f the Mediterranean coastline.
Unit 54
THE CENTRE LANCASHIRE PROJECT
I. Vocabulary notes:
purpose n цель
unique а уникальны й
by a long way намного, значительно, гораздо
exist v существовать
forecast v прогнозировать
inhabitant n житель
therefore а итак, поэтому, следовательно
twice as much в два раза
design v проектировать, составлять план
designate v предназначать
provide v обеспечивать
estimate v оценивать
cater v поставлять провизию, обслуживать (о ресторанах, теат
рах)
sole а единственны й, единый
maintain v сохранять, содержать в порядке
spoil v портить
contemplate v рассматривать, намечать
complete v конкурировать, соревноваться
relate v относиться
network п сеть
recognize v признавать, узнавать
attract v привлекать
anticipate v ожидать, предчувствовать, предвосхищать
overspill п избы ток населения
self-sufficiency п самостоятельность, независимость
self-sustaining а способны й себя содержать, самодостаточный
disadvantage п вред, ущерб, невыгодное положение
lopsided а неровны й, имею щ ий перевес на одну сторону
323
II. Write down the following words and underline suffixes. Translate
the words into Russian:
biggest, population, inhabitants, naturally, designated, strategic,
prosperity, latest, growing, based, environmental, competitive, position,
relation, regional, national, economic, possibility, accordingly.
I I I . Compounds are words derived from two or more stems. Define the
structure of the following compounds. Translate the words into Russian.
Lancashire, forecast, therefore, brainchild, without, midlands,
transport, network, overspill, overcome, sunlight, railway, waterproof,
greenhouse.
V. Read the text and translate it into Russian. Write down 6 questions
using the text.
Text 54B. The Centre Lancashire Renewal
These are some o f the chief factors which lay behind the
G o vernm ent’s decision to make the Central Lancashire Designation
Order on 14th April 1970. The Development Corporation, the body set
up under the Act to secure the development o f the area, welcomes the
fact that this is to be a place which starts off with the benefits o f three
sizeable existing communities — Preston, Chorley and Leyland — all
with energy and character and a natural potential for growth. The
Corporation also accepts me challenge to use all the powers at its
disposal to accelerate, concentrate and co-ordinate this growth through
attracting new investment and new people.
In seeking to assist in the renewal of the older areas, we have been
very m uch aware that, while some of the existing communities have very
real social and econom ic problems, they are also the greatest social and
economic asset o f the area. They provide a firm basis for growth in three
important respects: first, because they contain an attractive range of
facilities for recreation, entertainment, education and shopping for
people moving to the area; secondly, because they have a broad
economic base and a skilled and adaptable labour force; and thirdly,
because the existing communities have in varying degrees a rich heritage
in both buildings and tradition that gives them character and stability
and engenders feelings o f local loyalty so necessary for a sense of
identity in any community.
It follows that o ur task is more accurately described as one of
generating prosperity on a sub-regional scale using the New Towns Act
rather than the creation of the single new urban development which the
title of the Act implies.
In arriving at ou r proposals we have had the benefit of the feasibility
study «Central Lancashire — Study for a City», commissioned by the
Ministry of Housing and Local G overnm ent and published in May
1967, which was prepared by Robert Matthew, Johnson-M arshall and
Partners who have continued to help in the preparation of this Plan.
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V I. Read the text and translate it into Russian in written form.
Text 54C. The Structure o f the Plan
The fact that our growth is based on the expansion of the existing
com m unities means that it is a dispersed development from the
beginning, aimed at exploiting the virtues of the good sized Lancashire
town and avoiding the expensive problems of the overgrown
metropolis — the sea of building extending uninterrupted for miles. For
the same reasons we are proposing to limit the ultimate size o f the
existing towns and provide for the balance of o u r new population by the
development of additional communities. These will eventually join with
the others to form a grouping of linked townships, each with its own
special character and identity and each separated from the others by a
green wedge o f open country and woodland. This means we must
control the use of more land than if we were contemplating a
continuous urban development within the designated area, as smaller
new towns on green field sites have been able to do, but we believe the
benefits amply justify this policy.
It also means that we can think in terms of housing all sorts of
p e o p le in a great variety of house types, many of them built for sale, at
the most generous densities possible with plenty o f landscaped green
space. At the same time we can present a variety of opportunities for
industrial and commercial investment, we can look forward to a
reduction in traffic congestion through the decentralisation o f activity,
and we can make a breathing space for the protection and improvement
o f the existing towns. A further advantage of dispersed development lies
in the opportunity it presents to achieve a high aggregate rate of growth
through the combined output of many different areas o f development.
Each o f these can enjoy the advantages of the relatively slow, small scale
building operation and thus avoid the m onotonous uniform it often
characteristic o f towns that have grown fast. N o previous development
corporation has been presented with such a rich com bination of
opportunities and problems on such a scale and we are conscious that a
situation as novel as this deserves something better than a routine
response.
This Plan therefore has to perform a somewhat different function
from the «customary new town plan», and this is reflected in its
structure. To start with, part I o f the Plan dwells at considerable length
on the existing characteristics of the area. This emphasis reflects not
only its size and complexity but also the strength o f its settlements and
their value for the future. We have -attempted to distil from the
information available both the opportunities which are ready for
exploitation and enhancem ent and the problems of the area and its
people which must be dealt with if it is to assume the full stature o f a
regional growth point o f national significance.
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The successful im plementation of this kind of plan depends on the
seizing of opportunities as they present themselves and the shrewd dis
crimination and encouragement of those trends which contribute
towards the major objective of growth. It is a truism that planning must
be done with an eye to the future but this is specially true in our case. If
our Plan cannot respond quickly and effectively to the changing
pressures of the times it will fail in its m ain purpose.
EXERCISES
327
X. Write down 8 special questions using the following word
combinations:
the Development Corporation; chief factors; a natural potential for
growth; the renewal of the older area; existing communities; an
attractive range of facilities for recreation; a broad econom ic base; a rich
heritage; urban development.
XI. Insert the proper words and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Our growth is based on the ... of the existing com m unities of the
good sized Lancashire towns.
2. We are proposing to limit the ultimate size of the ... towns and
provide for the balance o f our new population by the development of
additional communities.
3. We must control the use of more ... than if we were contemplating
a continuous urban development within the designated area, as smaller
new towns on green field sites have been able to do.
4. We can think in terms o f ... all sorts of people in a great variety of
house types, many of them built for sale, at the most generous densities
possible with plenty of landscaped green space.
5. We can present a variety of... for industrial and commercial investment.
6. We can look forward to ... o f traffic conjection through the
decentralization o f activity.
7. We can make a breathing ... for the protection and improvement
of existing towns.
8. N o previous corporation development has been presented with
such a rich ... of opportunities and problems on such a scale and we are
concious that a situation as novel as this deserves something better than
a routine response.
9. It is truism that planning must be done with an eye to ... but this is
specially true in our case.
XIV. Write down what part of speech the following words in bold prints
are and translate the sentences into Russian:
1. The project is Lancashire’s brainchild.
2. They have projected a lot of changes in the region.
3. That transformation could not change the total strategy of the
development.
4. They forecasted the smaller increase of the population that we
observe now.
5. The weather forecast was wrong.
6. This means we must control the use of more land.
7. By all means they have to develop this rural settlement.
8. We have to use every opportunity to reduce traffic congestion here.
9. If our Plan cannot respond quickly and effectively the changing
pressures o f the times it will tail in its main purpose.
10. In our Plan you have to consider all the existing mains, roads and
bridges.
Unit 55
THE LAND USE BUDGET (Part I)
I. Vocabulary notes:
budget n запас, резерв, бюджет
relate v относить, относиться
assume v допускать, предполагать
329
consume v потреблять
consumer n потребитель
consumption n потребление
built-up area территория застройки
propose v предлагать
allocate v размещать, помещать, распределять
allocation of National resources распределение государственных
ресурсов
dwelling жилье, жилой, желищ ны й
demolish v сносить (строение)
II. Write down the following words and underline suffixes. Translate
the words into Russian:
assumption, strategic, activity, housing, em ployment, recreation,
necessary, decision, explained, summasize, designated, actually,
seventh, suitable, regional.
330
V. Read the text and translate it into Russian. Put 6 questions to the
text.
Text 55B. Land fo r housing
P a r ti
We noted that by 2001, 61,800 dwellings will be needed to
accom m odate the increase in population at an occupancy o f 2.9 persons
per dwelling, and a further 15,800 dwellings to replace houses which will
be demolished. We assume that all the 4,000 dwellings demolished for
environmental im provement will need new sites as well as half the
11,800 dwellings demolished as a result o f obsolescence. This means
that 9,900 dwellings will be built on sites outside the existing urban
areas, giving a total requirement o f 71,700 dwellings on new sites by
2001. Between 1971 and 1986 we estimate a total need for
34,900 dwellings.
For the reasons we have given we assume for the period up to 1986
that dwellings will be built within a range o f densities from
22.5 dwellings per hectare (9 dwellings per acre) to 30 dwellings per
hectare (12 dwellings per acre), giving an average net dwelling density of
26 dwellings per hectare (10.5 dwellings per acre).
VI. Read the text and translate it into Russian in written form.
Text 55C. Land fo r Housing
Part II
In order to arrive at land needs for housing areas as a whole, we have
added allowances for primary and secondary schools, local and district
centres, local open space and children’s play areas, and roads and
parking. This enlarged area provides the basis for the district residential
density and a net residential density of 26 dwellings per hectare (10.5 per
acre) is equivalent to 21 dwellings per hectare (8.5 per acre) at district
residential density. F or the period 1986—2001 we have, however,
calculated residential land needs at a district residential density of
18 dwellings per hectare (7 per acre), equivalent to a net residential
density o f 22.5 dwellings per hectare (9 per acre), in order to increase
the safety factor in ou r calculations for this more remote period.
We noted that the overall population density o f the designated area
in 1971 was 16.6 persons per hectare (6.7 per acre). By 2001 this will
have risen to 29.4 persons per hectare (11.9 per acre). This is below the
average expected density o f the twenty new towns in England which had
been designated prior to the establishment o f Central Lancashire —
31.6 persons per hectare (12.8 per acre) — but higher than the recent
larger new towns (Warrington, Peterborough, Telford, Milton Keynes
and N ortham pton), in which the overall expected densities range from
27.2 to 28.4 persons per hectare (11.0 to 11.5 per acre).
331
EXERCISES
XI. Insert the proper words and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. W hen yqp are planning land needs for housing you should also
consider ... for schools, shopping centres, open space, roads and
parking.
2. This ... area provides the basis for the district residential density.
3. The land budget includes existing use o f land, proposed land needs
and ....
4. Some lands such as woodlands, slopes more than 10 % and ... are
considered to be underdevelopable lands.
5. If the area is o f ... noise it cant be considered as the land suitable
for development.
332
XII. Write down a short composition, using your own ideas of planning
the district residential (Text 55C) density.
XIV. Write down what part of speech the following words in bold prints
are and translate sentences into Russian.
1. We need large am ounts of land when we plan the development of
areas for dwelling area.
2. When we develop the building area we need a lot o f estimations.
3. Recreation areas consume large amounts o f land.
4. This area contains good woodland, so it is not being developed for
other purposed.
5. In order to arrive at land needs for housing areas as a whole we
have added allowances for schools, local centres, open space, roads and
parking.
Uni t 56
THE LAND USE BUDGET (Part II)
I. Vocabulary notes:
job n рабочее место
intensity n интенсивность
accommodate v давать убежище, помещ ение
significant а значим ы й, значительный
disperse v разгонять, распространять, разбегаться, рассеиваться
residential density плотность разм ещ ения жилья
warehouse п склад, хранилище
subsequent а последующий
expand v расширять, растягивать
junction п развязка (дорожная)
flexibility п гибкость
II. Write down the following words and underline suffixes. Translate
the words into Russian:
category, intensity, significant, density, currently, automation,
employer, employee, estimation, junction, ultimate, maintain,
flexibility, reserving, amenity, adventure.
V. Read the text and translate it into Russian. Put 6 questions to the
text.
Text 56B. Land fo r Open Space Uses
P a r ti
Within each district land is needed for parks, adventure playgrounds,
playing fields and sports centres. These needs am ount to 2.13 hectares
(5.3 acres) per 1,000 persons or a total o f 890 hectares (2,230 acres) for
the whole population at 2001, in addition to the 0.56 hectares (1.4 acres)
per 1,000 persons for open space needs within housing areas,
260 hectares (650 acres) are currently used for these purposes in the
existing communities and a further 630 hectares (1,560 acres) are
needed to make up the present deficiency and to provide for the new
population.
G o lf courses are another major land use. There are five courses
already in the area, with two others close at hand outside. Using the
standard of one course for every 30,000 people as a rough guide, we
estimate that seven further courses will be needed. The size o f golf
courses varies greatly with ground conditions, but for the purpose of the
land budget we have assumed a need for a further 480 hectares
(1,190 acres) for golf courses.
VI. Read the text and translate it into Russian in written form.
Text 56C. Land fo r Open Space Uses
Part II
In addition to recreation facilities close to the home, we have set
aside 730 hectares (1,800 acres) for regional parks and playing fields.
This derives less from any theoretical standard than from the leisure
potential o f the two main landscape features o f the area, the Ribble
valley and the valley o f the Lostock through Cuerden Park. Much of the
land in these parks, and particularly in the Ribble valley, will of course
remain as active farmland throughout the Plan period.
Some 820 hectares (2,030 acres) o f the land which is not capable of
being developed will be used for tree belts and as part o f the landscape
framework and only a further 30 hectares (70 acres) of developable
land will be needed for this purpose. The final category o f land in the
budget is unallocated farmland. This land is likely to remain in
agricultural use and will provide visual breaks between the
com m unities in the designated area, but will also be available to meet
unexpected needs.
335
EXERCISES
XI. Insert the proper words and translate the sentence into Russian.
1. Within each... land is needed for parks, playing fields and sport
centres.
2. In the existing com m unities 260 hectares are... used.
3. A further 630 hectares are needed... the present deficiency and to
provide for the new population.
4. The size o f golf courses... greatly with ground conditions.
336
5. We have... a need for a further 480 hectares for golf courses.
6. We consider the... for open space which we have adopted and the
new land needs for open space.
7. There are five golf courses already in the... , with two others close
at hand outside.
8. We estimate that seven further... will be needed.
XIV. Write down what part of speech the following words in bold prints
are and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Playing fields and play grounds need a considerable amount o f
land within each district.
2. You need special facilities for children to play.
3. It is important that recreation facilities should be close to the
homes o f people.
4. The shops in the area are closed by 18 o ’clock.
5. He is my close friend.
6. We need to maintain flexibility for the future by reserving in
advance all the land likely to be needed by 2008.
7. They have started an advanced course o f English.
U n it 57
THE PATTERN OF PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AT 2001
I. Vocabulary notes:
devise v 1. выдумывать, измышлять; 2. завещать недвижимость;
3. изобретать / / п 1. изобретение; 2. наследство, завещанное иму
щество
township 1. район (часто округ); 2. участок, отведенный под го
родское строительство
pattern of development схема развития
springboard п трамплин
criterion п мерило, критерий
approve v одобрять, принимать
internal а внутренний
synthesis п синтез
substantial а существенный
enchance v 1. повышать; 2. увеличивать; 3. усиливать
congestion п скопление, затор (в порту)
II. Write down the following words and underline suffixes. Translate
the words into Russian:
principal, device, asset, proposal, satisfy, objective, following,
influence, devermine, strategy, government, boundary, inhabitant,
consultant, essential, township, attractiveness, congestion, length,
developed, improvement, com m unity, enchancem ent, rehabilitation,
arrangement, tenure, recognisable, necessarily, significance, identity
V. Read the text and translate it into Russian. Put 6 questions to the
text. Write them down and answer them.
Text 57B. Population and Housing
Large parts of Preston and Chorley provide poor living conditions
and in order to make sure that the whole area is attractive to new growth
we would support the improvement and replacement of dwellings and
the enhancem ent o f the environment in these areas to ensure that
changes in the pattern of centres, or the contruction o f new roads, do
not add to their problems. We suggested that the poor level o f housing
conditions in some parts o f the designated area justified substantial
involvement by the Development Corporation in the renewal and
rehabilitation process provided that acceptable arrangements could be
made with the District Councils concerned.
With regard to new housing, our principal aim is to create conditions
in which attractive housing can be made available to all income groups
who might wish to live in the area. This means providing the right type
o f housing at the right time and in the right place. We have discussed our
policies relating to housing tenure, density and design as well as factors
affecting the timing of development.
So far as the location of new housing is concerned, three factors are
of particular significance. To begin with, we must develop our housing
areas in such a way that people can identify the place they live in as a
recognisable physical unit as well as, to a lesser extent, a recognisable
social unit. There is some evidence to suggest that at the kind of density
we are proposing these criteria can be satisfied within a population unit
of about 3,000 people. A more tangible consideration that affects the
attractiveness o f housing is convenient access for the residents to shops,
schools and other facilities and we discuss this in more details below.
Our studies o f the supply of facilities in relation to population size make
it clear that below a population of about 3,000 very few local facilities
are justified, whereas with a larger population a wider range of services
can be supported. In order that residents should have at least the
m inim um facilities to satisfy daily needs within five to ten m inutes’
walk, we propose that the village o f at least 3,000 people should,
wherever possible, be the smallest unit of development. However, a
m uch better choice o f facilities begins to be viable in populations of
20.000 and above. Thus there appear to be good reasons, wherever
possible, to build up three or four village units into a district of at least
20.000 people.
340
VI. Read the text and translate it into Russian in written form.
Text 57C. Population and Housing
Part I I
Above this district size we have seen tnat the larger-cornniunities
become the more they attract better quality facilities, but what we have
called the townships do not necessarily have a social significance or
identity in the way that villages and districts might. People living in the
Preston township, for instance, will always feel their lives, to a greater or
lesser extent, focussed on Preston town centre, whereas people living in
what we have called the Chorley township will be m uch more likely to
identify with the district in which they live, be it Euxton, Whittle-le-
Woods or Chorley itself.
The optim um size o f new housing areas is thus the first important
factor in determining the pattern of development and we therefore use
the village and the district as a flexible framework for our planning
proposals. The second major factor is the pattern of communities
already in the area and the extent to which they could benefit from
growth. From our studies o f the existing situation it is clear that in many
of them facilities such as shops and schools are too far away for
convenience or too few to present a reasonable choice, and in many
cases this inadequacy can be attributed to the small size of the local
population. It follows that an important part o f our proposals is that
these communities should be expanded in such a way as to make a
reasonable provision of facilities possible.
The third factor which determines the location o f residential
development is the topography and landscape of the area into which the
new dwellings must fit. The landscape policies which we set out before
and the landscape structure which we have derived from them define,
with the two factors m entioned above, the areas which are most suitable
for new housing development.
VII. a) Give the Russian equivalents:
our principal air; to devise a pattern; a pattern of development;
geographical assets; a spring-board for new growth; general aim; a
num ber of objectives; to a large extent; the shape o f designated area; the
general strategy for development; the public inquiry; possible patterns of
development; the internal planning; planning requirements; internal
planning.
b) Make up short sentences with these word combinations.
VIII. Write down the following sentences, underline the used Tense
forms of the verbs and explain their usage.
1. Our principal aim has been to devise a pattern of development
which makes the most of the many social econom ic and geographical
assets o f the area as a start for new growth.
341
2. Our proposals must satisfy a number o f objectives.
3. We shall describle the criteria which have had most influence on
the form o f the Plan.
4. The general strategy was aproved by the Minister o f Housing and
Local Government.
5. The decisions were evaluated using a range o f criteria related both
to the impact o f the proposals on the sub-region and the internal
planning of the designated area.
6. The essential principles o f development have not changed.
XI. Insert the proper words and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Large parts o f Preston and Chorley provide...conditions.
2. We would s u p p o r t ... and replacement o f dwellings.
3. With regard to new housing areas ... aim is to create conditions in
which attractive housing can be made available to all ... groups.
4. A good decision means providing the ... type o f housing at the right
time and in the right place.
5. In the text chapter we will discuss factors...
6. We have discussed our policies relating to housing ... density and
design in this chapter.
7. As the location o f new ... is concerned, three factors are of
particular significance.
8. We must develop our housing areas in such a way that ... can
identify the place they live in as a recognizable physical unit.
9. They also can identify it as a recognizable ... unit as well.
342
XII. Write down a short composition: «I wish to see my place as a
recognizable physical and social unit».
XIV. Write down what part of speech the following words in bold prints
are and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. In order to achieve the general aim our proposals must satisfy a
num ber o f objectives.
2. Do not order any new furniture. We are satisfied with these pieces
we bought some years ago.
3. This work is aimed at the improvement o f the environment here.
4. We propose that most growth should take place by means o f the
expansion o f the existing towns.
5. Our studies o f the supply of facilities in relation to population of
about three thousand are justified whereas with a larger population a
wider range o f services can be supported.
6. We may supply more facilities with a larger population.
7. They study the opportumities that the locality offers.
XVI. Draw the Transport plan of locality (roads for cars, buses,
railways, if there are some, trolley-buses, railways, if there are some.
Mark the route that you usually use getting to your university).
Unit 58
THE PATTERN OF THE TOWNSHIP’S GROWTH
I. Vocabulary notes:
previous а предыдущий, предварительный
incorporate v включать(ся); давать населенной местности права
муниципалиста
343
expand v расширять(ся)
expansion n расш ирение
community n сообщество
II. Write down the following words and underline suffixes. Translate
the words into Russian:
previous, accom m odation, discussion, preposition, township,
topography, recognizable, contrasting, existing, sufficient efficiency,
settlement, improvement, proposal, addition, com m unity, expansion,
reorganization.
V. Read the text and translate it into Russian. Put 6 questions to the
text.
Text 58B. Employment
Economic expansion is one o f our principal aims. In order to ensure
that existing and new industries have the right conditions in which to
thrive and expand we propose a systematic reorganisation o f the
transport network in the existing towns in parallel with new road works.
The aim o f this is to remove industrial traffic from the housing areas and
to provide it with alternative purpose-m ade routes. To provide for
incoming em ploym ent and firms who have no room to expand on their
existing sites, we will ensure that new sites offer really good physical and
com m unication features and in the following paragraphs we describe a
pattern o f em ploym ent that fulfils these aims.
On the basis o f the criteria for size and location set out before we
propose a pattern o f eight new major em ployment areas: one in
Grimsargh, off the Longridge Road at Red Scar; one next to M6 in
Fulwood; one in Preston, west o f the docks; one south o f the Ribble in
Penwortham; three to the south and west o f Leyland; and one at Walton
Summit. These will provide jobs close to residential areas throughout
Central Lancashire and at the same time will offer to employers a variety
o f sites which all have good road connections to the motorway network.
At Walton Summit, Red Scar and west o f Leyland there are
opportunities for rail links for passengers and goods. In addition, we
propose a num ber o f smaller areas in Walton and Chorley.
VI. Read the text and translate it into Russian in written form.
Text 58C. About Jobs
1. Central area jobs. Our policy towards central area employment is
to encourage Preston in its efforts to limit the growth o f office
development in its centre so as to reduce the dem and for space for new
roads and car parks to a level which can be woven into the fabric o f the
town without damaging its overall character, and in particular some of
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its great environmental assets such as Avenham Park. At the same time
we want to encourage new office development in Chorley and Leyland.
However, as a natural consequence o f Preston’s history as an important
regional centre and in particular as the centre for a wide range o f public
transport services, we estimate that the total num ber o f jobs it contains
could increase very substantially to between 35,000 and 40,000 (up to
twice the 1971 level) well before 2001 if all current com m itm ents are
fulfilled and proposals for redevelopment implemented expect the bulk
o f this increase to be in office employment. A job concentration on this
scale makes it imperative to rely heavily on public transport for journeys
to work.
2. Dispersed jobs. We have seen that about a third o f the jobs will be
dispersed: that is, they will not be in the main em ploym ent areas nor in
the town centres. The importance o f these jobs lies in the fact that they
bring both opportunities for work and the services they supply to the
com m unity within easy reach o f homes. Most o f them will be related to
district or village centres and since these will have good road access it
will be possible to keep the commercial traffic that is generated out of
residential areas.
EXERCISES
VIII. Write down the following sentences and underline «-ing» forms.
Explain the function of the words ending in «ing».
1. We have seen from previous planning that the total population to
be accom m odated in new buildings is about two hundred thousand.
2. We were interested in the quality o f the existing buildings.
3. We are trying to improve the roads in the existing villages.
4. The aim o f this project is to remove industrial traffic from the
housing areas.
5. To provide for incoming em ploym ent and firms who have no
room to expand on their existing sites we supply a pattern of
em ploym ent in the area.
6. On the arriving the group started to work in the neighboring
village.
7. The group was measuring the area when it was interrupted by the
person who had offered to have some rest first.
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IX. Complete the following sentences using text 58A:
1. We have discussed the pattern o f growth we propose....
2. We propose that the township should contain....
3. About half the acreage o f the Walton Township is....
4. The Chorley township is....
5. About half o f it’s area cannot....
6. The article consists o f the patterns of....
XI. Insert the proper words and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Econom ic ... is one o f our principal aims.
2. We propose ... reorganization o f the transport network.
3. The aim is to remove ... traffic from housing area.
4. We propose a pattern o f eight new ... areas these will provide jobs
close to residential areas through out Central Lancashire.
5. At the west o f Leyland there are ... for rail links for passengers and
goods.
6. We also ... a num ber o f smaller areas in Walton and Chorley.
XII. Write down a short composition «I have some proposals for the
pattern of my district growth».
XIV. Write down what part of speech the following words in bold prints
are and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. The total population to be accommodated in new housing area is
about 30 thousand people.
2. We need some accommodation for newcomers in this district.
3. Our policy is to encourage Preston in its efforts to limit the growth
o f office development in its centre.
4. We have to plan our developments within the limits of this area.
5. The factory can employ only 50 people this year.
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6. The aim is to reduce the demand for space for new roads and car
parks.
7. They demanded some area for the factory’s garage.
Unit 59
THE PATTERN OF TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT
I. Vocabulary notes:
transport network транспортная сеть
constrain v 1. стеснять; 2. сдерживать, принуждать
constraint п 1. принуждать; 2. принуждение, стеснение
transport facilities транспортны е возможности (средства, удоб
ства)
strain v 1. напрягать; 2. сжимать; 3. превыш ать
vehicle п транспортное средство
congestion п скопление
traffic congestion затор в уличном движении
reduce v ослаблять, редуцировать
relieve v 1. освобождать, облегчать, уменьшать давление; 2. раз
гружать
disperse v рассеивать, разгонять
bottleneck п узкое место, затруднение
alleviate v облегчать, смягчать
inevitable а неизбежный, неминуемый
emerge v 1. появляться, возникать из; 2. выясняться
ample а 1. о б ш и рны й ; 2. просторный; 3. ш ирокий
escarpment п скат, крутой откос, насыпь, эскарп
II. Write down the following words and underline suffixes. Translate
the words into Russian:
com m unity, driver, easily, possible, objective, integrated,
congestion, alternative, lengthy, efficient, priority, primary, acceptable,
amenity, ownership, residential, electrified, considerably.
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III. a) Define the structure of the following compounds:
Scotland, Midlands, Lancashire, Preston, Blackpool; footpath,
transport, throughout, railway, highway, motorway, network, high
speed road
b) Use the words in short sentences.
V. Read the text and translate it into Russian. Put 6 questions to the
text.
Text 59B. The Western and Eastern Prim ary Corridors
The western and eastern primary corridors are the main features of
the network. The Western Primary starts at the existing junction 8 on
M61, north o f Charley, passing south o f Extol where a new junction
with M6 will be provided. It then swings north and keeps to the west of
Leyland, eventually joining the route o f the old Preston-Southport
railway line to by-pass Penwortham before joining the present road
network at Strand Road. From here to the Blackpool Road it runs along
the northern side of the Blackpool railway line. The route then
continues as a district distributor through Haslam Park and runs to the
west of Ingol and the north o f Fulwood, crossing M6 on the existing
D ’Urton Lane bridge into Haighton.
The eastern corridor starts as a district distributor at a junction with
Longridge Road east o f Grimsargh. South o f Grimsargh it continues in a
westerly direction as a primary corridor, making a new junction with M6
with north-facing slip roads only. It then passes north of Ribbleton and
turns south to continue along Blackpool Road from the Longridge
railway bridge to New Hall Lane. From here the route continues south
across Fishwick Bottoms, over the Ribble on a new bridge to a junction
with A6 at Walton Flats and with the Preston southern motorway a little
further on. It proceeds as a by-pass to the west o f W alton-le-Dale and
Bamber Bridge as far as A49, close to-its junction with A6 at the Hob
Inn. We propose that from this point it should be extended southward
over M6 and the River Lostock to join M61 at a new south-facing
junction at Walton Summit. The provision o f this junction is not yet
certain and can only finally be decided as part o f the much more
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complex junction between the proposed Calder Valley route and M6,
which lies immediately to the north.
The Western Primary provides Leyland with a high-class link to the
new M6 junction at Euxton, enabling the present Leyland junction to be
closed with consequent environmental benefits to the town. The north-
facing slip roads, which form the new junction between M6 and the
Eastern Primary at Grimsargh depend on the relief given to M6 by the
western and southern bypasses round Preston. They will provide a m uch
more convenient access. Between Preston and the north and will make it
possible to close the north-facing slip roads at the Samlesbury junction.
This will help to relieve this junction of some o f its heavy traffic problems
and will also help to improve conditions on Brockholes Brow.
VI. Read the text and translate it into Russian in written form.
Text 59C. Public Transport Network 2001
In our plan placed great emphasis on the need for an efficient and
convenient public transport system and, although future changes in
G overnm ent policy towards the financing o f public transport may
change the picture, we recom m end at present that a system based on
buses, or other road vehicles, will give the best service in Central
Lancashire.
The m inim um requirements o f the bus system are that it should aim
to provide a service to within five minutes’ walk o f all housing areas as
well as providing fast journeys to shopping centres and major
em ploym ent centres. We will plan all housing in such a way that buses
can easily serve them on uncongested roads and we propose a series of
bus priority routes, in places on bus-only roads, running throughout the
designated area and passing through the main centres. South of the
Ribble, A6 will be one o f these routes, while another will run from
Chorley through Euxton, Leyland and Lostock Hall into Preston,
perhaps using the disused part o f the east Lancashire railway line. N orth
of the Ribble a num ber o f existing roads radiating from the centre of
Preston will be developed to include bus priority routes. The local and
express services need not be separate: a person could catch a local bus in
the suburbs o f Chorley which, after picking up more passengers in the
residential area, would join the priority route and travel to the centre of
Preston with the m inim um num ber of stops. Such a system serving
Penwortham and Winckley Square would provide a quality o f service
undreamed of by today’s com m uter sitting in his car waiting to move on
Penwortham bridge.
Long distance journeys to the South East, the Midlands and
Scotland will be catered for by the electrified rail service from Preston
which will operate on a frequency and time schedule equal to the
services from the other major centres in the region. The Journey times
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have recently been very considerably shortened by the completion of
electrification to Preston. They will continue to improve as this is
extended to Glasgow and with the introduction o f the Advanced
Passenger Train which is scheduled to come into service before the end
o f this decade. To ensure that full use is made o f this facility the railway
station will be served by major bus routes operating in the area. Ample
car parking can be made available at the station, linked to the business
district around Winckley Square by a direct footpath system. Journeys to
Manchester and Blackpool would be quicker if these routes were also
electrified. This improvement, linked to a better bus service to stations,
would help to attract com m uters republic transport.
EXERCISES
VIII. Write down the following sentences and underline words ending
in «-ed». Explain the function of these words in these sentences.
1. The existing network is becoming strained by the increasing
numbers o f vehicles.
2. We anticipated that by 2000 our existing roads would be improved
by local administration.
3. This pattern, com bined with the dispersal o f major activities, will
produce an even distribution o f traffic over the network.
4. Although in many instances the areas affected will be at the end of
their acceptable life, in some cases sound houses will inevitably have to
be demolished while others will need to be protected against traffic noise
or their inhabitants com pensated for loss o f amenity.
5. The Corporation and the highway authorities are very much aware
o f these problems and will seek to ensure that as few people as possible
are affected in this way.
6. The network we are showing, however, indicates, clearly the broad
corridors o f m ovement which we feel must at this stage be reserved.
XI. Insert the proper words and translate the sentences into Russian
using text 59B:
1. The western Primary starts at the ... junction 8 on M61, north of
Chorley.
2. It then swings north and ... to the west o f Leyland.
3. It runs from along the northern ... of the Blackpool railway line.
4. The eastern corridor starts as a district ... at a junction with
Longbridge Road east of Grimsargh.
5. The provision o f this ... is not yet certain and can only finally be
decided.
6. The Western Primary provides Leyland with a ... class link to the
new M6 junction at Euxton.
7. The north-facing slip roads, which form the new ... between M6
and the Eastern primary at Grimsargh, depend on the relief given to M6
by the western and southern bypasses round Preston.
8. They new roads will provide a m uch more convenient access ...
Preston and the north.
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соединяет поселок с главной магистралью с ми н им альн ы м числом
левых и правых поворотов.
3. Окончательные размеры дорог зависят от многих факторов, в
том числе от роста численности населения и числа владельцев ма
ш ин в дан ном регионе.
4. При строительстве дорог важное значение имеет ф актор ре
льефа, который необходимо учитывать при оценке стоимости
строительства.
XIV. Write down what part of speech the following words in bold prints
are and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. In our plans we placed great emphasis on the need for an efficient
and convenient public transport system.
2. We will plan all housing in such a way that buses can easily serve
them.
3. The local and express services need not be separate: a person could
catch a local bus in the suburbs of Chorley.
4. The Western Primary starts at the existing junction 8 on M61,
north of Chorley.
5. Building of the junction was a good start for making this road
system easy to use.
6. This place will get a letter junction next year.
7. We emphasize that this part of the road should provide a new
junction with the motorway.
XVI. Try to draw the most efficient Public Transport Network for your
region (the area where you live). Try to explain why you are planning the
roads and their junctions with the motorways where you are planning
them. Write down the existing names of towns and settlements in their
proper position on the map. Give your own ideas and proposals.
Unit 60
LANDSCAPE AND RECREATION
I. Vocabulary notes:
advantage n преимущество
establish v устанавливать, учреждать, основывать
equal а равный
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resident n житель
generate v генерировать, вырабатывать
robustly adv бурно, сильно
meeting room место для собраний, встреч
squash court корт для игры в мяч (вроде тенниса)
augment v прибавлять, увеличивать, умножать
augmentation п прирост, увеличение
pub п п и в н а я ,т р а к т и р
weir п запруда, плотина, гать
entertain у развлекать
irreplaceable а незаменимый
appreciate v ценить, оценивать
offer v предлагать (вещь, услугу)
recreation п рекреация, место отдыха, восстановления сил
II. Write down the following words. Underline prefixes and suffixes.
Translate the words into Russian:
recreation, replace, remain, reclamation, irreplaceable, adaptable,
designated, inevitably, unjustifiably, expectation, revised, pretend,
redevelopment, unem ployment, integrated, contribution, undue,
impose.
VI. Read the text and translate it into Russian in written form.
Text 60C. The Need fo r Flexibility
In the preceding paragraphs we have discussed our aims and how we
hope to achieve them in relation to one pattern of development. We do
not pretend that this is the only plan that meets these aims but it is cle