Назарова Н.А. Professional English in Use - Mathematics and Physics

Министерство науки и высшего образования Российской Федерации
Омский государственный педагогический университет
N. A. Nazarova, E. V. Panasenko, O. M. Tolstykh
Professional English in Use:

Mathematics and Physics
Н. А. Назарова, Е. В. Панасенко, О. М. Толстых
Профессиональный английский:
математика и физика
Учебное пособие
Омск
Издательство ОмГПУ
2018
УДК 811.111 Печатается по решению редакционно-издательского совета
ББК 81.432.1я73 Омского государственного педагогического университета
Н192

Назарова, Н. А.
Н192 Профессиональный английский: математика и физика = Professional English
in Use: Mathematics and Physics : учебное пособие / Н. А. Назарова, Е. В. Пана-
сенко, О. М. Толстых. – Омск : Изд-во ОмГПУ, 2018. – 124 с.
ISBN 978-5-8268-2184-8
Пособие направлено на развитие навыков и умений общения на английском языке
в профессиональной сфере, чтения оригинальной литературы по специальности, анноти-
рования и реферирования аутентичных текстов профессионального характера, а также на
знакомство с основными физико-математическими понятиями и узкоспециализированны-
ми терминами.
Предназначено для бакалавров и студентов физико-математических факультетов, для
магистрантов, обучающихся по специальностям «Физика» и «Математика», а также аспи-
рантов и слушателей специальных курсов физико-математической направленности.
УДК 811.111
ББК 81.432.1я73
ISBN 978-5-8268-2184-8 © Назарова Н. А., Панасенко Е. В., Толстых О. М.,

2018
© Омский государственный педагогический
университет, 2018
CONTENTS
Предисловие . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Part I. English for Students of Mathematics

Unit I. Maths is Real Life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Unit II. Four Basic Operations of Arithmetic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Unit III. Rational Numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Unit IV. Decimal Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Unit V. Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Unit VI. Famous Scientists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Application I. Rendering an Article. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Part II. English for Students of Physics

Unit I. Physics and Physical Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Unit II. Measurements in Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Unit III. The Metric System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Unit IV. The Kinetic Theory and the Three States of Matter. . . . . . . . . . 90
Unit V. Mass and Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Unit VI. Force, Work, Energy and Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Unit VII. Heat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Application II. Rendering an Article . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
List of Reference Books. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Internet Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
В соответствии с требованиями государственных программ Российс-

кой Федерации по подготовке бакалавров и магистрантов факультетов физи-
ческих и математических наук учебное пособие ставит своей целью разви-
тие профессиональной компетентности обучающихся через ее иноязычную
составляющую, то есть учебное пособие направлено на развитие навыков и
умений общения на английском языке в профессиональной сфере, навыков
чтения оригинальной литературы по специальности, умений быстро извлекать
информацию в пределах проработанной тематики, аннотировать и рефериро-
вать оригинальные тексты профессионального характера, совершенствовать
навыки письма.
Пособие состоит из двух частей: Part I. English for Students of Mathematics
Part II. English for Students of Physics.
Каждый раздел содержит тексты профессионального и научного харак-
тера и соответствующий комплекс лексических упражнений, обеспечивающих
ознакомление и усвоение специальной научной лексики, основных физических
и математических понятий, а также узко-специализированных терминов. Упраж-
нения разработаны на основе современных оригинальных источников с уче-
том возникающих трудностей и типичных ошибок студентов. В пособии также
содержатся физические и математические задания и тесты на английском язы-
ке, направленные на развитие и закрепление навыков практического владения
специализированной лексикой.
Коммуникативные задачи носят практический, профессионально-ориен-
тированный характер, помогают студентам представить себя в ситуации, при-
ближенной к реальной ситуации их будущей профессиональной деятельности.
Для того чтобы разнообразить учебный процесс и обеспечить более эффектив-
ное усвоение языкового материала, в пособии представлены упражнения и зада-
ния, разработанные в рамках интерактивного подхода, как например, решение
проблемных ситуаций и выполнение проектов и презентаций. Пособие также
содержит материалы (инструкции и речевые клише), обучающие составлению
реферирования публицистических статей по специальности и представлению
аннотаций научных статей. Статьи научного и публицистического характера
собраны в отдельный раздел и представляют собой аутентичный материал про-
фессиональной направленности.

Учебное пособие предназначено для бакалавров, студентов и магистран-
тов физико-математических факультетов, аспирантов, учителей физики и мате-
матики и учащихся средних общеобразовательных школ, лицеев и гимназий.
Оно будет также полезно в организации элективного курса для соответствую-
щих профилей.

Part I English for Students of Mathematics
Unit I. Maths is Real Life
Reading
Text 1. Read, translate and give a short outline of the text in English:
Many thousands of years ago
this was a world without numbers.
Nobody missed them. Primitive
men knew only ten number-sounds.
The reason was that they counted in
the way a small child counts today,
one by one, making use of their
fingers. The needs and possessions
of primitive men were few: they
required no large numbers. When
they wanted to express a number
greater than ten they simply
combined certain of the ten sounds
connected with their fingers. Thus, if they wanted to express “one more than ten” they
said “one-ten” and so on.
Nowadays Maths has become an inseparable part of our lives and whether we work
in an office or spend most of our time at home, each one of us uses Maths as a part of
our everyday life. No matter where we are as well as whatever we are doing, Maths
is always there whether you notice it or not.
When you buy a car, follow a recipe, or decorate your home, you are using Maths
principles. People have been using these same principles for thousands of years, across
countries and continents. Whether you are sailing a boat off the coast of Japan or
building a house in Peru, you are using Maths to get things done.
How can Maths be so universal? First, human beings did not invent Maths concepts;
we discovered them. Also, the language of Maths is numbers, not English or German
or Russian. If we are well-versed in this language of numbers, it can help us make
important decisions and perform everyday tasks. Maths can help us to shop wisely, buy
the right insurance, remodel a home within a budget, understand population growth,
or even bet on the horse with the best chance of winning the race.

Vocabulary Training
I. Find the English equivalents in Text 1:

Первобытный человек, считать, собственность, обозначить число, неотделимая
часть, повседневная жизнь, придерживаться рецепта, управлять лодкой,
справиться с задачей, всеохватывающая, человек, изобретать, выявлять, хорошо
разбираться в, язык чисел, принимать важные решения, решать повседневные
задачи, подходящая страховка, укадываться в бюджет, рост численности
населения, держать пари за, выйграть скачки.
II. Fill in the gaps with the words from Text 1:

1. Many thousands of years ago this was a world without _______.
2. Primitive men counted making use of _______.
3. The possessions of primitive men _______ no large numbers.
4. When they wanted to _______ they simply combined the sounds connected
with their fingers.
5. Nowadays Maths has become an ________ of our lives.
6. We use _______ when you buy a car, follow a recipe, or decorate your home.
7. How can Maths be so _______?
8. The reason is we did not _______ Maths concepts; we _______ them.
9. We should be _______ in the language of numbers.
10. Maths can help us make important _______ and _______ everyday tasks.
Reading
Text 2. Read and translate into Russian:

The system of numbers we use, called Arabic system, is a decimal system: that is,
it is based on tens. In this sytem the value a digit represents is determined by the place
it has in the number; if a digit is moved to the left one place, the value it represents
becomes ten times as great.
Our present-day number-symbols are Hindu characters. It is important to notice
that no symbols for zero occur in any of these early Hindu number system. They
contain symbols for numbers like twenty, forty, and so on. A symbol for zero had been
invented in India. The invention of this symbol for zero was very important, because
its use enabled the nine Hindu symbols 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 to suffice for the
representation of any number, no matter how great. The work of a zero is to keep the
other nine symbols in their proper place.
To make it easier to read large numbers, we separate the figures of the numbers by
commas into groups of three, counting from right to left. Each group is called a period
and has its own name.

682,000,000,000 847,000,000 136,000 592
Billions Millions Thousands Ones / Units
4 periods 3 periods 2 periods 1 period
These numbers are read: six hundred eighty-two billion, eight hundred forty-seven
million, one hundred thirty-six thousand, five hundred and ninety-two.
Vocabulary Training
III. Find the English equivalents in Text 2:

Десятичная система, значение, цифра, в десять раз больше, индоарабская
числовая система, быть достаточным для, ставить на подобающее место,
многозначные числа, отделять, единица, запятая, миллиард.
Writing
IV. Translate into English

Десятичная система нумерации возникла в Индии. Впоследствии ее стали
называть «арабской», потому что она была перенесена в Европу арабами. Цифры,
которыми мы теперь пользуемся, тоже называются арабскими.
В этой системе особо важное значение имеет десять, и поэтому система носит
название десятичной системы нумерации.
Чтобы легче читать многозначные числа, мы отделяем цифры в них запятыми
по три в группе. Группу из трех цифр мы называем периодом.
V. Read the numbers:

Note:
23 is read “twenty three”
578 is read “five hundred (and) seventy eight”
3578 is read “three thousand five hundred (and) seventy eight”
7425629 is read “seven million four hundred twenty five thousand six hundred
and twenty nine”
a (one) hundred books
hundreds of books
48; 392; 712; 947; 2,364; 6,839; 12,578; 83,740; 267,394; 847,253; 2,746,938;
4,957,816; 34,689,256; 67,912,378; 546,873,923; 489,736,263.

Speaking
VI. Answer the following questions:

1. When did people begin to count? 2. What purposes did the primitive people use
numbers for? 3. Why are mathematics and numbers important? 4. What spheres of
our life do we use Maths in? 5. What numeraration system do we use nowadays? 6.
How many digits do we use in our Hindu-Arabic system of numeration? 7. Why do
we separate figures of the numbers by commas? 8. How is each group of three figures
called? 9. How is the system of numbers we use called? 10. How many digits does a
period of a number contain? 11. What is the function of a zero?
NUMBERS. BASIC TERMINOLOGY
9658 – ABSTRUCT NUMBER – ��

отвлеченное��
число
��
А��
FOUR – FIGU��
RE NUMBER – 4–х значное число
9 – thousands – тысячи
6 – hundreds – сотни
5 – tens – десятки
8 – units – единицы
5 К��
G��
. – CONCRETE NUMBER – именованное число
2 – CARDINAL NUMBER – количественное число
2nd – ORDINAL ��
N��
UMBER – порядковое число
+5 – P0��
S��
IТIVE N��
��
UMBER – положительное число
–5 – NEGATI��
V��
E NUMBER��
– отрицательное число
��
а, b��
��
, с...... – ALGEBRAIC ��
S��
YMBOL��
S��
– алгебраические символы
3��
1/3
�� – MIXED NUMBER – смешанное число
3 – W��
Н��
OLE NUMBER (INTEGER) – ��
целое��
число
��
1/3 – FRACTION – дробь
2, 4, 6, 8 – EVEN NUMBER��
S ��
– четные числа
1,��
3,��
��
5,��
��
7 – ODD NUMBER��
��
S��
– нечетные числа
2, 3, 5, 7 – PRIME NUMBER��
S��
– простые числа
3+2��
–�1 – COMPLEX NUMBER – комплексное число
3 – REAL��
PART
�� – действительное число
2–1 – IMAGINARY��
P��
��
A��
RT – мнимая часть
2/3 – PROPER FRACTION� – правильная дробь
2 – NUMERATOR – числитель
3 – DENOMINATOR – знаменатель
3/2 – IMPRORER FRACTION – неправильная дробь

Reading
Introduction To Real – Number System

Mathematical analysis studies concepts related in some way to real numbers,
so we begin our study of analysis with the real number system. Several methods are
used to introduce real numbers. One method starts with the positive integers 1, 2, 3
….. as undefined concepts and uses them to build a larger system, the positive rational
numbers (quotients of positive integers), their negatives, and zero. The rational
numbers, in turn, are then used to construct the irrational numbers, real numbers
like √2 and π which are not rational. The rational and irrational numbers together
constitute the real number system.
Although these matters are an important part of the foundations of mathematics,
they will not be described in detail here. As a matter of fact, in most phases of
analysis it is only the properties of real numbers that concerns us, rather than the
methods used to construct them.
For convenience, we use some elementary set notation and terminology. Let S
denote a set (a collection of objects). The notation x∈S means that the object x is in
the set, and we write x∉S to indicate that x is not in S.
A set S is said to be a subset of T, and we write S⊆T, if every object in S is also
in T. A set is called nonempty if it contains at least one object.
We assume there exists a nonempty set R of objects, called real numbers, which
satisfy ten axioms. The axioms fall in a natural way into three groups which we refer
as the field axioms, order axioms, completeness axioms (also called the upper-bound
axioms or the axioms of continuity
Vocabulary Training
VII. Match the terms from the left column and the definitions from the right
column:
1. negative a. designating a number or a quantity expressible as
a quotient of two integers, one of which may be unity
2. positive b. a set of numbers or other algebraic elements for which
arithmetic operations (except for division by zero) are
defined in a consistent manner to yield another element
of a set
3. rational c. designating a quantity greater than zero or one to be
added
10
4. irrational d. the number of elements in a given group
5. order e. designating a real number not expressible as an
integer or as a quotient of two integers
6. quotient f. a mathematical set containing some or all of the
elements of a given set
7. subset g. a quantity less than zero or one to be subtracted
8. field h. any positive or negative number or zero: distinguished
from fraction
9. integer i. the result obtained when one number is divided by
another number
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Writing
VIII. Translate the following sentences into English.

1. В этой системе используются положительные и отрицательные числа.
2. Положительные и отрицательные числа представлены (to represent)
отношениями целых положительных чисел.
3. Рациональные (��
rational��
) числа, в свою очередь, используются для создания
иррациональных (��
irrational��
) чисел.
4. В совокупности рациональные и иррациональные числа составляют систему
действительных чисел.
5. Математический анализ – это раздел математики, изучающий функции
и пределы.
6. Множество Х является подмножеством другого множества У в том случае,
если все элементы множества Х одновременно являются элементами множества У.
7. Аксиомы, удовлетворяющие множеству действительных чисел, можно
условно разделить на три категории.
IX. ��
Project Ideas
Study the literature and analyze your everyday experience to explore the ways of
connecting mathematical ideas to real life problems. Discuss your ideas in groups.
Choose any field (e.g. economics, science, sports, etc.) of everyday life and
research the real world applications of maths there.
Prepare a short report and a presentation on the achieved results. Share your
ideas.
11
Unit II. Four Basic Operations of Arithmetic
NUMBERS. BASIC TERMINOLOGY
FUNDAMENTAL ARITHMETICAL OPERATIONS
I��
. ADDIТION – сложение
3 + 2 = 5 – в этом примере:
3&2 – ADDENDS – слагаемые
+ – PLUS SIGN – знак плюс
= – EQUALS SIGN – знак равенства
5 – ТНЕ SUM –��
��
сумма
��
II��
. SUBTRAC��
T��
ION��
– ��
вычитание
3 – 2 = 1��
– ��
в этом примере:
3 – ТНЕ MINUEND – уменьшаемое
– – MINUS��
SIGN
�� – знак минус
2 – ТНЕ SUBTRAHEND – вычитаемое
1 – ТНЕ DIFFERENCE – разность
III��
. MUL��
T��
IPLICAТION – умножение
3 × 2 = 6 –��
в этом примере:
��
3 –ТНЕ МULТIPLICAND – множимое
× – MULТIPLICAТION SIGN – знак умножения
2 – ТНЕ MULTIPLIER – множитель
6 – ТНЕ PRODUCT – произведение
3&2 –FACTORS – сомножители
IV. D��
I��
VISION – деление
6 : 2 = 3 –��
в��
этом примере:
6 – ТНЕ DIVIDEND – делимое
: – DIVISION SIGN – знак деления
2 – ТНЕ DIVISOR – делитель
3 – ТНЕ QUOТIENT� – частное
12
Reading
Four Basic Operations of Arithmetic

We cannot live a day without numerals. Numbers and numerals are everywhere. The
number names are: zero, one, two, three, four and so on. And here are corresponding
numerals: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4. In a numeration system numerals are used to represent numbers.
The numbers used in out numeration system are called digits.
In our Hindu-Arabic system we use only ten digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 to
represent any number. These digits may be used in various combinations. Thus, for
example, 1, 2 and 3 are used to write 123, 213, 132 and so on.
There are four basic operations of arithmetic. They are addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division.
An equation like 3 + 4 = 7 represents an operation of addition. An equation is a
mathematical sentence that has an equal sign or a sign of equality (=). In this case
we say: three plus four is equal to seven. So we add 3 and four and get 7 as a result.
3 and 4 are addends (or summands) and 7 is the sum. There is one more mathematical
symbol, a plus sign (+).
An equation like 7 − 2 = 5 represents an operation of subtraction. Here is seven is
the minuend and two is a the subtrahend. As a result of the operation you get 5. It is
the difference. We may say that subtraction is the inverse operation of addition since
5 + 2 = 7 and 7 − 2 = 5.
The same might be said about division and multiplication which are also inverse
operations.
In multiplication there is a number that must be multiplied. It is the multiplicand.
There is also a multiplier. It is the number by which we multiply. When we are
multiplying the multiplicand by the multiplier we get the product as a result. When
two or more numbers are multiplied, each of them is called a factor. In the expression
five multiplied by two (5Ч2), the 5 and the 2 will be factors. The multiplicand and the
multiplier are names for factors.
In the operation of division there is a number that is divided and it is called the
dividend; the number by which we divide is called the divisor. When we are dividing
the dividend by the divisor we get the quotient. But suppose you are dividing 10 by 3.
In this case the divisor will not be contained a whole number of times in the dividend.
You will get a part of the dividend left over. This part is called the remainder. In our
case the remainder will be 1. Since multiplication and division are inverse operations
you may check division by using multiplicaion.
13
Vocabulary Training
I. Match the following English terms with the Russian ones and fill in the
table below:
1. subtract a. делить
��
2. divisor b. сумма
��
3. quotient c. делимое
��
4. multiply d. ��
остаток
5. addend (summand) e. разность
��
6. divide f. ��
множимое
7.��
subtrahend
�� g. ��
частное
8. factor h. ��
уменьшаемое
9. remainder i. умножать
��
10. product j. сомножитель
��
11.��
dividend
�� k. ��
вычитать
12. add l. делитель
��
13.��
multiplier
�� m. произведение
��
14. difference n. ��
вычитаемое
15. sum o. ��
складывать
16. ��
minuend p��
. множитель
17. ��
multiplicand q��
. слагаемое
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
II. Match the answers to the following questions and fill in the table below:
1. What is the result of addition called? a. Remainder

2. What is the result of subtracting whole numbers called? b. Zero
3. What arithmetic operation is usually used to check c. Product
the answer of addition?
4. What is the result of multiplication is called? d. Meaningless
5. What is the result of division is called? e. Sum
6. What is the product of any number multiplied by zero? f. Quotient
7. What is the name of the part that is left over after the g. Difference
dividend has been divided equally?
8. What can we say about the following operation “n:0” h. Subtraction
for all values of n?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
14
Writing
III. Translate into English:

Числа, которые нужно сложить, называются слагаемыми, а результат
сложения, то есть число, получающееся от сложения, называется суммой.
Вычитанием называется действие, посредством которого (��
by��
means��
��
of��
��
which��
��)
по данной сумме и одному слагаемому отыскивается другое слагаемое.
Число, которое умножают, называется множимым; число, на которое
умножают, называется множителем. Результат действия, то есть число,
полученное при умножении, называется произведением.
Число, которое делят, называется делимым; число, на которое делят,
называется делителем; число, которое получается в результате деления,
называется частным.
IV. Translate into Russian:

Signs of Operations Used in Arithmetic
The signs most used in arithmetic to indicate operations with numbers are plus (+),
minus (–), multiplication (×), and division ( : ) signs. When either of these is placed
between any two numbers it indicates respectively that the sum, difference, product,
or quotient of the two numbers is to be found. The equality sign (=) shows that any
indicated operation or combination of numbers written before it (on the left) produces
the result or number written after it.
V. Solve the following mathematical problems and read them in English:
145 + 478 = 594 – 357 = 510 : 15 =

234 – 167 = 4810 : 65 = 296 +401 =
287 × 56 = 623 × 41 = 742 – 397 =
1260 : 28 = 827 + 511 = 92 × 172 =
Make your own mathematical problems and ask your partners to solve
them.
VI. Unscramble the words and find equivalents:
1. aqoneuti обратный
2. liunpmicladt различный
3. reivsen выражение
4. iulteayq уравнение
5. uraivos равенство
6. poseersinx вычитаемое
7. nuabrsedth множимое
15
VII. Read the sentences and think of a word which best fits each space.
1. Subtraction is _______ of addition.
2. Addition and subtraction are arithmetical _______ .
3. Positive and negative numbers are known as _______ numbers.
4. Minuend is a number from which we _______ subtrahend.
5. The process of checking subtraction consists of adding subtrahend to _______ .
6. In arithmetic only _______ numbers with no _______ in front of them are used.
7. The multiplicand is a number, which must be _______ by a multiplier.
8. The number y which we divide is _______ .
9. Division and multiplication as well as addition and _______ are inverse.
10. Division by _______ is meaningless.
11. The multiplicand and _______ the names for factors.
12. The product is get as the result of multiplying multiplicand and ________ .
13. The _______ is the part of the dividend left over after the division if the _______
isn’t contained a whole _______ of times in the dividend.
Writing
VIII. Translate into English:

1. ��
Умножение подобно сложению представляет собой двоичную операцию,
так как в любом действии умножения из множества чисел одновременно исполь-
зуются только два числа. 2. В любой системе счисления должны быть симво-
лы для чисел 0 и 1. 3. Если мы хотим показать порядок арифметических дейст-
вий, мы должны воспользоваться скобками. 4. Все четыре основных действия
арифметики являются двоичными действиями. 5. Прежде чем мы решим данное
уравнение, мы должны проделать следующие действия. 6. Решая такие уравне-
ния, студенты должны помнить о порядке арифметических действий. 7. Во вре-
мя лекции преподаватель привел ряд примеров, показывающих, что деление на
0 не имеет смысла. 8. Каковы действия, обратные вычитанию и делению? – Это
сложение и умножение. 9. Вы перемножаете эти два числа? – Нет. Я делю одно
число на другое. 10. Возможно ли разделить 231 на 6 без остатка? – Нет, невоз-
можно. – А каков будет остаток? – Разделите и вы увидите. 11. Сколько чисел
содержится в этом уравнении? 12. Как называется результат деления (умножения,
сложения, вычитания)? 13. Почему он сначала умножает, а потом вычитает?
Speaking
IX. Correct the following sentences:

1. In the Hindu-Arabic numeration system we use five digits. 2. The result of
multiplication is called the difference. 3. We get the sum as a result of subtraction.
16
4. Addition and multiplication are inverse operations. 5. Division and subtraction are
inverse operations. 6. In the expression 2 + 3 = 5 two and three are factors. 7. In the
equation 12 – 11 = 1 one is a minuend. 8. In the mathematical sentence 12 : 6 =2 two
is the divisor. 9. If you divide 15 by 4 you will get a whole number as a result. 10. If
we multiply 12 by 4 we’ll get 50 as a product. 11. The base of the binary system is ten.
12. The decimal system of numeration uses only five digits. 13. The use of parentheses
is not important in the following expression 20 × 30 +10 : 2 – 5 + 16. 14. When no
parentheses are used in a mathematical sentence it means that first you must add and
subtract and then multiply and divide. 15. Any operation is called a binary operation
when it is applied to only three numbers at a time.
X. Answer the questions:

1. Can people live without numerals? 2. How many digits do we use in our Hindu-
Arabic system of numeration? 3. Is a base five system used in modern computers?
4. Is subtraction an inverse operation of division? 5. Is addition an inverse operation
of multiplication? 6. Are subtraction and addition inverse operations? 7. Are division
and multiplication inverse operations? 8. Is the product the result of subtraction?
9. Is the difference the result of division? 10. Will there be a remainder if you divide
36 by 6? 11. Will there be a remainder if you divide 31 by 7? 12. How many basic
operations of arithmetic do you know?
XI. Complete the following definitions.

a) Pattern: The оре��
��
r��
а��
ti��
о��
n, which is the inverse of addition is subtraction.
1. The operation, which is the inverse of subtraction _______
2. The quantity, which is subtracted ________
3. The result of adding two от��
��
more numbers _______
4. The result of subtracting two от��
��
more numbers _______
5. To find the sum _______
6. To find the difference _______
7. The quantity number о��
��
r from which another number (quantity) is subtracted _______
8. The terms of the sum _______
b) Pattern: А��
��
number that is divided is а��
��
dividend.
1. The process of cumulative addition _______
2. The inverse operation of multiplication ______
3. ��
А��
number that must be multiplied _______
4. ��
А��
number by which we multiply _______
5. ��
А��
number by which we divide _______
6. ��
А��
part of the dividend left о��
��
ver after division _______
7. The number which is the result of the operation of multiplication ________
XII. Speak on the Topic “Four Basic Operations of Arithmetic”, give your

own examples.
17
Unit III. Rational Numbers
Reading
Rational Numbers
A rational number is the quotient of two integers. The rational numbers can be
named fractions. The following fractions name rational numbers:
⅓, ²⁄ , ⁄ , ⅜.
5
5
6
We might define a rational number as any number named by a/n where a and n
name integers and n≠0.
A fraction represents a part of one whole thing! A fraction indicates that something
has been cut or divided into a number of equal parts. For example, a pie has been
divided into four equal parts. If you eat one piece of the pie, you have taken one
part out of four parts. This part of the pie can be represented by the fraction 1⁄4. The
remaining portion of the pie, which consists of three of the four equal parts of the pie,
is represented by the fraction 3⁄4.
In a fraction the upper and lower numbers are called the terms of the fraction. The
horizontal line separating the two numbers in each fraction is called the fraction line.
The top term of a fraction or the term above the fraction line is called the numerator;
the bottom term or the term below the fraction line is called the denominator.
A fraction may stand for part of a group. There is a group of 5 apples. Each is 1/5
(one fifth) of the group. If we take away 2 apples, we say that we are removing 2/5 of
the number of apples present. If we take away 3 apples, we are removing 3/5 of the
apples present. In this instance, a fraction is being used to stand for a part of a group.
A fraction also indicates division. For example, one apple was divided into eight
parts and the man has eaten one part. Therefore, he has eaten 1/8 of the apple.
If in any fraction the numerator and denominator are equal, the fraction is equal to 1.
Types of fractions
Common Fraction. A common fraction is a number that has the numerator and
the denominator represented by numbers placed the one above, and the other below,
a horizontal line. 3/7 is a common fraction.
Proper Fraction. If the numerator of a fraction is less than denominator the fraction
is called a proper fraction. The value of a proper fraction is always less than 1. 6/7, 1/5
and 9/10 are proper fractions.
Improper Fraction. If the numerator of a fraction is equal to or larger than the
denominator, the fraction is called an improper fraction. The value of an improper
fraction is equal to or larger than 1. 5/3, 3/2, 8/8 are improper fractions.
18
Mixed number. A number which consists of a whole number and a fraction is called
a mixed number. 2 1/9, 5 1/4, 9 1/4 are mixed numbers.
Reducing a Fraction to Lower Terms. For convenience and clarity a fraction must
always be expressed in its simplest form. That is, it must be reduced to its lowest terms.
To reduce a fraction to its lowest terms, divide the numerator and the denominator by
the largest number that will divide into both of them evenly.
The process of crossing all common factors out of numerator is called the reduction
of a fraction to its lowest terms. The greatest (largest) quantity which is a common
divisor of two or more quantities is called a greatest common divisor of these quantities.
It is written G. C. D.
Vocabulary Training
table below:
1. fraction line a. простая

��
дробь
2. improper fraction b. ��
рациональное число
3. integer c. величина,
��
количество
4. numerator d. ��
смешанная дробь
5. lowest terms e. сокращение
��
дроби
6. G. C. D. f. ��
числитель
7.��
proper fraction
�� g. ��
величина, значение
8. value h. ��
обозначать
9. division i. неправильная
��
дробь
10. common fraction j. меньшие
��
члены
11.��
rational number
�� k. ��
равные части
12. mixed number l. наибольший��
��
общий��
��
делитель
��
13.��
reducing a fraction
�� m. дробная
��
черта
14. quantity n. ��
знаменатель
15. stand for o. ��
целое число
16. ��
denominator p��
. правильная дробь
17. ��
equal parts q��
. деление
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
19
II. Fill in the gaps with the words from the box:
A.
divisible divisor denominator value common
division fraction reduced numerator
Fractions indicate _______, _______ being a dividend, the _______ being a

divisor, and the _______ of the fraction being the quotient. A fraction can be_______
to lower terms if the numerator and the denominator are _______ by a single number,
that is if they have a _______ divisor. In order to reduce a _______ to its lowest terms,
therefore, it is seen at once that the greatest common ______ must be used.
B.
numerator unit fraction number denominator
The horizontal line separating the two numbers in each fraction is called _______
line. The number above the fraction line is the _______ and that below is the _____
__ of the fraction. The denominator names the fractional _______ and the numerator
indicates the _______ of those units contained in the fraction.
Quiz Overview
1. What fraction of the pizza is left on the plate?
A. 8/7 B. 5/8 C. 3/4 D. 7/8
2. For the fraction of pizza shown in the diagram, what is the numerator?
A. 3 B. 4 C. 5 D. 8
3. What fraction of the big square is colored?
A. 5/11 B. 1/3 C. 3/8 D. 5/16

20
4. What fraction of the big square is colored?
A. 5/8 B. 11/16 C. 11/5 D. 3/4
5. For the fraction of cake shown in the diagram, what is the denominator?
A. 1 B. 6 C. 7 D. 8
6. Andy has 1/7 of a cake and Bobbie has 2/7. Carl has the rest.
What fraction of the cake does Carl have?
A. 1/7��
��
B. 2/7��
��
C. 3/7��
��
D. 4/7
7. What fraction of the big triangle is colored dark?
A. 12/25 B. 1/2 C. 13/25 D. 3/5
8. John ate 1/8 of a pizza and Jane ate 3/4.

What fraction of the pizza did they eat altogether?
A. 7/8 B. 4/12 C. 1/3 D. 5/8
9. A square cake is cut into 16 equal parts. Ben eats 7/16 of the cake. Belle eats
1/4 of the cake. What fraction of the cake is left?
A. 5/16 B. 7/16 C. 12/20 D. 11/16
10. The diagram shows a triangular slab of toffee divided into several triangular
pieces. Dawn eats 2/5 of the toffee. Elijan eats 7/25 of the toffee. What
��
fraction of the
toffee is left?
A. 7/25 B. 8/25 C. 2/5 D. 3/5

21
Writing
IV. Translate into English:

Дробь представляет собой часть целого. Число, стоящее над чертой, называ-
ется числителем дроби. Число, стоящее под чертой, называется знаменателем
дроби. Числитель и знаменатель называются членами дроби.
Дробь, у которой числитель меньше знаменателя, называется правильной
дробью. Правильная дробь меньше единицы.
Дробь, у которой числитель ровен знаменателю, или больше его, называется
неправильной дробью. Таким образом, неправильная дробь или равна единицы,
или больше ее.
Числа, которые состоят из целого числа и дроби, называются смешанными
числами.
Сокращением дроби называется замена ее другой, равной ей дробью с мень-
шими членами, путем деления числителя и знаменателя на одно и то же число.
Это��
число��
��
называется��
��
наибольшим��
��
общим��
��
делителем�.
��
Speaking
IV. Answer the following questions:

1. What does a fraction represent? 2. What do we call “the terms of fractions”?
3. What is the numerator? 4. What is the denominator? 5. What does a fraction
indicate? 6. When is the fraction equal to 1? 7. What is a common fraction called?
Give the examples. 8. What is a proper fraction called? Give your examples. 9. Is the
value of a proper fraction more or less than 1? 10. What do we call mixed numbers?
Give your examples. 11. How do you reduce a fraction to its lower terms? 12. What
is an improper fraction called? Give your examples.
V. Make up True / False statements about different types of fractions. Ask

your group mates.
VI. Make a short report on the Topic “Who invented fraction?”
22
Reading
Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division of Fractions

To add fractions having the same denominator (like fractions) add their numerators
and write the sum over the common denominator (do not add the denominators).
Reduce the resulting fraction to lowest terms.
To add fractions having different denominators (unlike fractions) the fractions must
be changed to equivalent fractions which have the same or a common denominator.
The least number which will be a common denominator, for example, of 2/3 and 3/5
is 15, 15 is the least common denominator, or lowest common denominator of 2/3 and
3/5. The least common denominator is sometimes denoted by the letters L.C.D.
To subtract fractions having the same denominator subtract the numerators and
write the difference over the common denominator (do not subtract denominators).
To subtract fractions having different denominators first change the fractions to
equivalent fractions having a common denominator. To subtract the fractions when
they have a common denominator, subtract the numerators and write the difference
over the denominator.
To multiply a mixed number and a fraction: 1) reduce the fraction to its lowest
terms; 2) change the mixed number to an improper fraction; 3) multiply the two
numerators to obtain the numerator of the answer; 4) multiply the denominators to
obtain the denominator of the answer; 5) reduce the fraction obtained when possible.
Reduction can be done by dividing a numerator and a denominator by the same
number. The numbers that are divided are crossed out, and the quotients are written
as the new numerator and the new denominator.
To divide a whole number by a fraction, multiply the whole number by the
denominator of the fraction and divide the result by the numerator of the fraction.
Changing Fractions
The numerator and denominator of a fraction may be multiplied by the same
number without changing the value of the fraction. The resulting equivalent fraction
is actually the same fraction expressed in higher terms.
To change a mixed number to an improper fraction we must: 1) multiply the
denominator of the fraction by the whole number; 2) add the numerator of the fraction
to the product of the multiplication; 3) write the result over the denominator.
To change an improper fraction to a whole or a mixed number we must divide
the numerator by the denominator. If there should be a remainder, write it over the
denominator. The resulting fraction should then be reduced to its lowest terms.
To change a whole number to an improper fraction with a specific denominator:
1) multiply the specific denominator and the whole number; 2) write the result over
the specific denominator.
23
Fractions can be compared. To compare unlike fractions we must change them to
equivalent fractions so that all have like denominators.
When fractions have different numerators but the same denominator, the fraction
having the largest numerator has the greatest value.
When fractions have different denominators but the same numerator, the fraction
having the largest denominator has the smallest value.
Vocabulary Training
VII. Match the terms to the following definitions and fill in the table below:
1. The number which is left over in a division in a) a mixed number

which one quantity does not exactly divide another
2. The process of combining matrices, vectors, or b) like fractions
other quantities under specific rules to obtain their
product
3. Fractions which have the same denominator c) reduction
4. A result obtained by dividing one quantity by d) equivalent fractions
another
5. Different fractions that name the same number e) multiplication
6. A number consisting of an integer and a proper f) unlike fractions
fraction
7. Fractions with different numbers in the g) a remainder
denominator
8. The process of converting an amount from one h) a quotient
denomination to a smaller one, or of bringing down
a fraction to its lowest terms
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
VIII. Fill in the gaps with the words from the box:

A.
subtrahend divide denominator product L.C.D. sum
When fractions have a common _______, they can be added by simply adding the
numerators and writing the _______ over the same denominator. Any fractions with
24
a common denominator are subtracted by subtracting the numerator of the _______
fraction from that of the minuend fraction, and writing the remainder over the common
denominator to form the remainder fraction. Thus to add or subtract fractions, first
change them into ones with the _______, and then add or subtract the numerators, writing
the result as the numerator of a fraction with the common denominator. This fraction is
the desired sum or difference respectively. To multiply a fraction by a whole number,
multiply the numerator by that number, and write the _______ as the numerator of a
new fraction with the same denominator. This fraction is the desired product. In order
to _______ a fraction by any number, multiply the denominator by that number.
B.
affect values principles division same
When denominators and numerators of different fractions are both different, the
_______ of the fractions cannot be compared until they are converted so as to have
the _______ denominators.
Since fractions indicate _______, all changes in the terms of a fraction (numerator
and denominator) will _______ its value (quotient) according to the general principles
of division. These relations constitute the general _______ of fractions.
Writing
IX. Translate��
into��
��
English�:
��
A. Чтобы сложить дроби с одинаковыми знаменателями, надо сложить их
числители и оставить тот же знаменатель.
Чтобы сложить дроби с разными знаменателями, нужно предварительно при-
вести их к наименьшему общему знаменателю, сложить их числители и напи-
сать общий знаменатель.
Чтобы вычесть дробь из дроби, нужно предварительно привести дроби к
наименьшему общему знаменателю, затем из числителя уменьшенной дроби
вычесть числитель вычитаемой дроби и под полученной разностью написать
общий знаменатель.
Чтобы умножить дробь на целое число, нужно умножить на это целое число
числитель и оставить тот же знаменатель.
Чтобы разделить дробь на целое число, нужно умножить на это число знаме-
натель, а числитель оставить тот же.
B. Чтобы обратить смешанное число в неправильную дробь, нужно целое

число умножить на знаменатель дроби, к произведению прибавить числитель
25
и сделать эту сумму числителем искомой (��
sought��
��
for��
) дроби, а знаменатель оста-
вить прежним.
Чтобы обратить неправильную дробь в смешанное число, нужно числитель
дроби разделить на знаменатель и найти остаток. Частное покажет число целых
единиц; остаток нужно взять в качестве числителя, а знаменатель оставить пре-
жним.
Если числитель дроби уменьшить в несколько раз, не изменяя знаменателя,
то дробь уменьшится во столько же раз.
Если числитель и знаменатель дроби увеличить в одинаковое число раз, то
дробь не изменится.
C. 1. Мы уже знаем, что каждая дробь имеет числитель и знаменатель. 2. На

что указывает числитель? 3. На что указывает знаменатель? 4. Дроби подобные
⅔ или ⅜, называют правильными дробями. 5. Дроби, называющие числа боль-
шие, чем единица, - неправильные дроби. 6. Дайте пример смешанной дроби.
7. Мы только что разделили отрезок на равные части. 8. Что вы знаете об экви-
валентных дробях? 9. Вы, возможно, помните, что когда целое число умножают
на 1, оно остается неизменным. 10. Что вы изменили в этом уравнении? 11. В
этом уравнении вы заменили букву а цифрой. 12. Дробь 2/3 меньше единицы.
13. Дробь 5/3 больше единицы. 14. Возможно ли сократить эту дробь?
Speaking
Answer the following questions:

A. 1. What should one do in order to add fractions having the same denominator?
2. What should one do in order to add fractions having different denominators? 3. What
should one do in order to subtract fractions having the same denominator? 4. What
should one do in order to subtract fractions having different denominators? 5. How
do you multiply fractions having the same denominators? 6. How do you multiply
fractions having different denominators? 7. How do you multiply a mixed number and
a fraction? 8. What is an equivalent fraction? 9. How do you change a mixed number to
an improper fraction? 10. How do you change an improper fraction to a whole number
or mixed number? 11. How do you change a whole number to an improper fraction
with a specific denominator? 12. What must you do to compare unlike fractions?
13. How do you compare fractions?
B. 1. Is the fraction 6/2 a proper fraction? 2. Are there mixed fractions? Give
examples. 3. Is it possible to reduce the fraction 2/3 to lower terms? 4. Could you
change the fraction 2/4 to higher terms? 5. Is 20 divisible by 5? 6. Shall we change a
fraction if we multiply it by 1? 7. Shall we change a fraction if we divide it by 1? 8. Is
Ѕ a rational number? 9. Are principles of arithmetic valid in the case of mathematics?
26
10. Is a rational number another name for a fraction? 11. Does every fraction have a
numerator and a denominator?
X. Correct the following sentences:

1. Fractions like 2/3 are called improper fractions. 2. In the proper fraction the
numerator is greater than the denominator. 3. In the improper fraction the numerator
is less than the denominator. 4. A mixed fraction contains an integer and an improper
fraction. 5. If you change a fraction from 16/48 to 1/3 you will reduce it to its highest
terms.
XI. Speak on the Topic “Rational Numbers”, give your own examples.
Quiz Overview
1. What is 5/8 × 4/5 ?

A. 1��
��
B. 1/2��
��
C. 1/3��
��
D. 1/4
2. What is 2/7 × 4/3?

A. 8/21��
��
B. 2/3��
��
C. 4/21��
��
D. 4/7
3. What is 3/4 × 5/6?

A. 5/8��
��
B. 9/10��
��
C. 1/3��
��
D. 5/6
4. What is 5/12 × 4/9?

A. 5/27��
��
B. 5/18��
��
C. 5/9��
��
D. 15/16
5. What is 5/14 × 7/8?

A. 5/16��
��
B. 20/49��
��
C. 35/102��
��
D. 35/122
6. What is 1/12 × 1/4?

A. 1/48��
��
B. 1/3��
��
C. 3��
��
D. 48
7. What is 7/12 × 2/3?

A. 7/18��
��
B. 2 4/7��
��
C. 1 1/7��
��
D. 7/8
8. What is 6/7 × 3/14?

A. 4��
��
B. 1/4��
��
C. 9/49��
��
D. 5 4/9
9. What is 2/15 3/5?

A. 2/11��
��
B. 2/25��
��
C. 4 Ѕ��
��
D. 2/9
27
10. What is 3/8 × 5/12?
A. 1 1/9��
��
B. 9/10��
��
С. 5/32��
��
D. 4/5
11. Add 2/7 and 3/7.

A. 1/7��
��
B. 6/49��
��
С. 5/14��
��
D. 5/7
12. Add 1/4 and 3/8.

A. 5/8��
��
B. 4/12��
��
С. 1/3��
��
D. 5/16
13. Add 1/6 and 5/12.

A. 6/18��
��
B. 1/3��
��
С. 7/12��
��
D. 7/24
14. Subtract 1/12 from 5/12.

A. 4��
��
B. 1/12��
��
С. 5/6��
��
D. 1/3

A. 1��
��
B. 7/9��
��
С. 23/24��
��
D. 5/24

A. 3/10��
��
B. 1 Ѕ��
��
С. 6/5��
��
D. 1 1/5
17. Simplify the fraction 36/84 as much as possible.

A. 5/12��
��
B. 4/7��
��
С. 9/21��
��
D. 3/7
18. Simplify the fraction 315/405 as much as possible.

A. 6/9��
��
B. 35/45��
��
С. 7/9��
��
D. 3/4
19. What fraction has numerator 8 and is equivalent to Ѕ?

A. 4/8��
��
B. 8/16��
��
С. 8/12��
��
D. 8/9
20. What fraction has denominator 12 and is equivalent to 2/3?

A. 8/12��
��
B. 9/12��
��
С. 11/12��
��
D. 12/18
21. What is the least common denominator for the fractions 3/5, 4/9 and 2/3?
A. 12��
��
B. 27��
��
С. 45��
��
D. 135
28
Unit IV. Decimal Fractions
Reading
A decimal fraction is a special type of fraction written without a denominator
(which is 10 or a power of 10) but in which the number of figures on the right-hand
side of a dot, called the decimal point, indicates whether the denominator is 10 or a
higher power of 10; e.g. 2/10 is written as a decimal in the form 0.2, 23/100 as 0.23,
and 23/1000 as 0.023. If any figure of the number is moved one place to the left, the
value of the number is multiplied by 10.
Suppose you have been given 587.9 where 9 has been separated from 587 by a point,
but not a comma (a comma separates each group or period of numbers). The numeral
587 names a whole number. The sign (.) is called a decimal point. All digits to the left
of the decimal point represent whole numbers. All digits to the right of the decimal
point represent fractional parts of 1. The digits to the right of the decimal point name
the numerator of the fraction, and the number of such digits is the denominator.
The place-value position at the right of the ones place is called tenth. You obtain
a tenth by dividing 1 by 10. Such numerals like 687.9 are called decimals.
You read .2 as two tenth. To read .0054 you skip two zeroes and say fifty four ten
thousands.
Decimals like .777…, or 0.242424…, are called repeating decimals. In a repeating
decimal the same numeral or the same set of numerals is repeated over and over again
indefinitely.
In our development of rational numbers we have named them by fractional
numerals. We know that rational numerals can just as well be named by decimal
numerals. As you might expect, calculations with decimal numerals give the same
results as calculations with the corresponding fractional numerals.
Decimal fractions are added in the same way that the whole numbers are added.
Since only like decimals fractions can be added, that is hundredths to hundredths, the
tenths to tenths, the addends are arranged in a vertical column with the decimal points
directly below one another, all the way down to the answer.
In subtracting decimal fractions we must write decimal fractions so that the decimal
point of the minuend, subtrahend and remainder are below each other. Zeroes should
be annexed so that both minuend and subtrahend are carried out to the same number of
places. Check the answer the same way you check the subtraction of whole numbers.
In multiplying a decimal fraction or mixed decimals multiply as you do whole
numbers. Then, starting at the right, mark off as many decimal places in the product
as there are in the multiplier and multiplicand together.
To divide a number by 10 or any power of ten, move the decimal point in the dividend
as many places to the left as there are zeroes in the divisor. Add zeroes when needed.
29
Vocabulary Training
table below:
1. decimal fraction a. ��

дробная часть
2. decimal point b. ��
вычисления
3. power c. ��
периодическая дробь
4. denominator d. ��
десятичная дробь
5. whole number e. ��
неопределенно, бесконечно
6. fractional part f. ��
делитель
7. to skip g. ��
отделять
8. calculations h. ��
степень (матем.)
9. to annex i. ��
множимое
10. repeating decimal j. ��
целое число
11. indefinitely k. ��
слагаемое
12. subtrahend l. ��
остаток
13. divisor m. ��
десятичная точка (запятая)
14. addend n. ��
пропускать
15. multiplicand o. ��
вычитаемое
16. to separate p. ��
знаменатель
17. remainder q. ��
добавить, присоединить
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
II. Fill in the gaps with the words from the box:

A.
reduce point terms denominator fractional
place numerator common change
Since _______ parts of things may be written either as common fractions or as

decimal fractions, we should be able to _______ a decimal fraction to a _______
fraction.
To change a decimal fraction to a common fraction, take out the decimal _______
and write the decimal number as the _______ of the fraction. For the _______ write
the number as shown by the name of the last decimal _______. _______ the common
fraction to lowest _______.
30
B.
multiplicand right zeroes product straight
numerator subtraction multiplication
fractions decimal denominator
Decimals are _______ which always have a _______ of 10 or some power of

10, such as 100, 1000, etc. The denominator is usually not written down; but dot or
point called the “_______ point” is placed to the _______ of the digit in the _______,
which is distant from the extreme left of these digits by the number of ______ in the
denominator.
In addition or _______ of decimals, the decimal points must be placed in a ______
one under the other.
In _______ of decimals, point off as many places in the _______ as there are
decimal places in the multiplier and the _______.
Quiz Overview
Solving Decimal��
Word Problems
��
Problem 1: If 58 out of 100 students in a school are boys, then write a decimal for
the part of the school that consists of boys.
Problem 2: Five swimmers are entered into a competition. Four of the swimmers
have had their turns. Their scores are 9.8 s, 9.75 s, 9.79 s, and 9.81 s. What score must
the last swimmer get in order to win the competition?
Problem 3: To make a miniature ice cream truck, you need tires with a diame-
ter between 1.465 cm and 1.472 cm. Will a tire that is 1.4691 cm in diameter work?
Explain why or why not.
Problem 4: Ellen wanted to buy the following items: A DVD player for $49.95,
a DVD holder for $19.95 and a personal stereo for $21.95. Does Ellen have enough
money to buy all three items if she has $90 with her?
Problem 5: Melissa purchased $39.46 in groceries at a store. The cashier gave her
$1.46 in change from a $50 bill. Melissa gave the cashier an angry look. What did the
cashier do wrong?
31
Writing
IV��
. ��
Translate��
into��
��
English��:
��
А. Дроби, знаменателями которых являются числа, выраженные единицей
с последующими нулями (одним или несколькими), называются десятичны-
ми. Из двух десятичных дробей та больше, у которой число целых больше; при
равенстве целых та дробь больше, у которой число десятых больше и т. д.
Перенесение запятой на один знак вправо увеличивает число в десять раз. Что-
бы увеличить его в сто раз, нужно перенести запятую на два знака вправо и т. д.
При сложении десятичных дробей надо соблюдать следующий порядок: дро-
би записывают одну под другой так, чтобы во всех слагаемых разряды находи-
лись друг под другом и все запятые стояли в одном и том же вертикальном столб-
це; справа от десятичных знаков некоторых слагаемых приписывают такое число
нулей, чтобы все слагаемые после запятой имели одинаковое число цифр.
В. 1. Эти числа использованы в различных комбинациях. 2. Диаграмма оказа-

лась полезной. 3. Запятая отделяет периоды. 4. Этот знак называют десятичной
точкой. 5. В числе 5.2 цифра 5 находится слева от точки и обозначает целое чис-
ло. 6. Если мы разделим 1 на 10, то мы получим одну десятую. 7. Периодические
дроби были введены сегодня на уроке. 8. Рациональные числа могут быть выра-
жены в десятичных дробях. 9. Покажите мне диаграмму. 10. Где схема? 11. Эту
дробь нельзя сократить. 12. Отдели запятой эти три цифры.
Speaking
V. Answer the following questions:

1. What is the decimal fraction? 2. How do we write decimal fractions? 3. How
do you compare decimal fractions? 4. How do you change decimal fractions? 5. How
are decimal fractions added? 6. How do we write decimal fractions when we want
to subtract them? 7. How do we check the answer? 8. How do we multiply decimal
fractions? 9. How do we divide decimal fractions? 10. How do we arrange numbers
in adding decimal fractions?
VI. Correct the false sentences if there are any:

1. There are five digits in the decimal system of notation 2. The position of the
digit affects its value. 3. A point separates each period. 4. The digits to the right of
the decimal point represent whole numbers. 5. You obtain a tenth by dividing 1 by 10.
6. Rational numbers can be named by decimal numerals. 7. We must have a common
denominator before we add decimal numerals.
VII. Speak on the Topic “Decimal Numerals”, give your own examples.

32
Unit V. Geometry
BASIC TERMINOLOGY
POINT ��
–��
��
точка
LINE –��
��
линия
��
ANGLE ��
–��
��
угол
POINT OF INTERSECTION – точка��
��
пересечения
��
ANGULAR��
POINT��
��
– угловая точка, вершина
STRAIGHT LINE ��
–��
прямая��
��
(��
линия�)
RAY ��
–��
луч
��
PENCIL OF RAYS – ��
пучок��
лучей
��
CURVED LINE ��
–��
��
кривая��
��
линия
RIGHT ANGLE ��
–��
��
прямой��
угол
��
REFLEX��
��
ANGLE��
– угол в пределах 180° ��
и 360°
ACUTE ANGLE ��
–��
��
острый��
угол
��
OBTUSE ANGLE ��
–��
��
тупой��
угол
��
CORRESPONDING ANGLE ��
–��
��
соответственный��
угол
��
ADJACENT ANGLE ��
–��
прилежащий��
��угол
��
SUPPLEMENTARY��
��
ANGLE��
– дополнительный угол [до��
180°]
COMPLEMENTARY��
��
ANGLE��
– дополнительный угол ��
[до 90°]
INTERIOR ANGLE ��
–��
внутренний��
��
угол
EXTERIOR ANGLE ��
–��
��
внешний��угол
��
PLANE TRIANGLE ��
–��
плоский��
��
треугольник
��
EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE –��
��
равносторонний��
��
��
ISOSCELES TRIANGLE ��
–��
равнобедренный��
��
��
ACUTE��
-��
ANGLED��
TRIANGLE��
��
– остроугольный треугольник
OBTUSE��
-��
ANGLED��
TRIANGLE��
��
– тупоугольный треугольник
RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLE –��
��
прямоугольный��
��
��
QUADRILATERAL ��
–��
четырехугольник
��
SQUARE��
– квадрат
RECTANGLE��
– прямоугольник
R��
НОМВ��
US ��
–��
ромб
��
R��
НОМ��
BOID ��
–��
ромбоид
��
TRAPEZIUM ��
– трапеция
DELTOID ��
–��
дельтоид
��
IRREGULAR QUADRILATERALS –��
неправильный четырёхугольник
POLYGON��
– многоугольник
REGULAR��
POLYGON��
��
– правильный многоугольник
CIRCLE��
– окружность, круг
33
CENTER��
– центр
CIRCUMFERENCE (PERIPHERY) ��
– окружность, периферия
DIAMETER��
– диаметр
SEMICIRCLE��
– полукруг, полуокружность
RADIUS��
– радиус
TANGENT��
– касательная
POINT OF CONTACT – точка��
��
касания
��
SECANT ��
–��
секущая
��
CHORD ��
– хорда
SEGMENT ��
– сегмент
ARC ��
– дуга
SECTOR��
– сектор
RING��
(ANNULUS) –��
��
кольцо
��
CONCENTRIC CIRCLES��
– концентрические окружности
AXIS OF COORDINATES – ��
координатная��ось
��
AXIS OF ABSCISSAE – ��
ось��
абсциссы
��
AXIS OF ORDINATE – ��
ось��
ординаты
��
VALUES OF ABSCISSAE AND ORDINATES – ��
значения��
абсциссы��
��
ординат
��
CONIC��
SECTION��
��
– коническое сечение
PARABOLA – парабола��
BRANCHES ��
О��
F P��
А��
R��
АВО��
L��
А��
– ��
ветви��
параболы
��
VERTEX О��
��
F P��
А��
R��
АВО��
L��
А��
– ��
вёршина��
��
параболы
ELLIPSE��
– эллипс
(sing. FOCUS) FOCI OF THE ELLIPSE – фокусы��
��
эллипса
��
TRANSVERSE��
AXIS��
��
(��
MAJOR��
AXIS��
��
) – пересекающая ось (главная ось)
CONJUGATE��
AXIS��
��
(��
MINOR��
AXIS��
��
) – сопряженная ось (малая ось)
HYPERBOLA��
– гипербола
ASYMPTOTE��
– асимптота
SOLIDS��
–��
��
твердые тела
CUBE –��куб
PLANE��
SURFACE��
��
(��
A��
PLANE��
��
) – плоская поверхность (плоскость)
EDGE��– грань
PARALLELEPIPED��
– параллелепипед
TRIANGULAR��
��
PRISM��
– трехгранная призма
CYLINDER ��–��
цилиндр
��
CIRCULAR PLANE ��
–��
��
плоскость��
круга
��
SPHERE ��
–��
сфера
��
CONE ��
–��
��
конус
34
Reading
Engineers, architects and people of many other professions use lines and figures in
their daily work. The study of lines and closed figures made by lines is called geometry.
Geometry is the branch of mathematics which investigates the relations, properties
and measurements of solids, surfaces, lines and angles.
Geometry is a very old subject. It probably began in Babylonia and Egypt. Men
needed practical ways for measuring their land, for building pyramids, and for
defining volumes. The Egyptians were mostly concerned with applying geometry to
their everyday problems. Yet, as the knowledge of Egyptians spread to Greek found
the ideas about geometry very intriguing and mysterious. The Greek began to ask
“Why? Why is that true?” In 300 B. C. all the known facts about Greek geometry
were put into a logical sequence by Euclid. His book called Elements, is one of the
most famous books of mathematics. In recent years men have improved on Euclid’s
work.
Today geometry includes not only the study of the shape and size of the earth and
all things on it, but also the study of relations between geometric objects.
The most fundamental idea in the study of geometry is the idea of a point. We
will not try to define what a point is, but instead discuss some of its properties. Think
of a point as an exact location in space. You cannot see a point, feel a point, or move
a point, because it has no dimensions. There are points (locations) on the earth, in the
earth, on the sun, and everywhere in space. When writing about points, you represent
the points by dots. Remember the dot is only a picture of a point and not the point
itself. Points are commonly referred to by using capital letters. The dots below mark
points and are referred to as point A, point B, and point C.
● B
● A
●C
If you mark two points on your paper and, by using a ruler, draw a straight line
between them, you will get a figure. The figure below is a picture of a line segment.
D●
●E
Points D and E are referred to as endpoints of the line segment. The line segment
includes point D, point E, and all the points between them.
35
Imagine extending the segment indefinitely. It is impossible to draw the complete
picture of such an extension but it can be represented as follows.
● ●
D E
Let us agree on using the word line to mean a straight line. The figure above is a
picture of line DE or line ED.
Vocabulary Training
II. Match the following English terms with the Russian ones and fill in the
table below:
1. to measure a. ��

форма
2. to define volumes b. ��
свойства
3. to apply c. ��
отрезок
4. a logical sequence d. ��
конечная точка
5. shape e. измерять
��
6. size e. ��
простираться, удлинять
7. point g. ��
местоположение
8. properties h. ��
размер
9. location i. ��
линия
10. capital letter j. ��
определять��
объем�
��
11. line k. ��
линейка
12. line segment l. ��
заглавная буква
13. a��
ruler
�� m��
. применять, внедрять
14. an��
endpoint
�� n��
. точка
15. to��
extend
�� o��
. логическая последовательность
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
III. Read the sentences and think of a word which best fits each space.
For ideas: shape, point (4), size, geometry, Euclid, object.
1. The Egyptians were mostly concerned with applying _________ to their everyday
problems.
2. In 300 B.C. all the known facts about Greek geometry were put into a logical
sequence by __________.
36
3. Today geometry includes not only the study of the _________ and ________
__ of the earth and all things on it, but also the study of relations between geometric
_________.
4. The most fundamental idea in the study of geometry is the idea of a _________.
5. You cannot see a _________, feel a _________, or move a __________, because
it has no dimensions.
IV. Fill in the gaps with the words from the box:

A.
points curved length angles
properties branch segments
Geometry is the __________ of mathematics which investigates the relations,

__________ and measurements of solids, surface, lines and __________.
The two __________ points may be at any distance apart, so a straight line may
be considered as having any _________.
A broken line is a line formed of successive sections or __________, of straight lines.
A __________ line, or simply a curve, is a line no portion of which is straight.
B.
capital extends end direction point two
infinite straight curved dot position
A __________ has no length, width or thickness. It merely indicates __________.

To represent a point in geometry we mark a __________ and label it with a __________
letter.
A line has no width or thickness. It has length and __________. An __________
number of straight lines can be drawn through one point.
Since a line __________ indefinitely in either direction, we must work with line
segments, or portions of lines. The segment is represented by ___________ capital
letters, one placed at each end.
A line joins two points. Only one __________ line can be drawn between two
points. There are three kinds of lines: straight, __________ and broken. AB is a
straight line, CD is a curved line, EF is a __________ line.
A B
C D
E F
Notice that the lines are labeled by capital letters placed at the __________ of the line.
37
Speaking

1. Is geometry an old subject? 2. What is geometry? 3. Did geometry begin in
England? 4. Were Egyptians mostly concerned with the practical use of geometry?
5. Did the knowledge of Egyptians spread to Greece? 6. Is Euclid’s book called
Elements famous? 7. Does geometry include only the study of the shape and size
objects? 8. Is the idea of a point fundamental in geometry? 9. Can one feel, see,
move or hold a point? 10. Has a point any dimensions? 11. How do we represent a
point in geometry? 12. Are points represented by dots? 13. How many lines can be
drawn through one point? 14. What is a segment? 15. Does a line segment include its
endpoints? 16. Can you draw a straight line by using a ruler? 17. How many lines can
be drawn between two points? 18. What kind of lines do you know?
Reading
Points and Lines

The world around us contains many physical objects from which mathematicians
have developed geometric ideas and these objects can serve as models of the geometric
figures. The edge of a ruler or an edge of this page is a model of a line. We have agreed
to use the word line to mean straight line. A geometric line is the property these models
of lines have in common, it has length, but no thickness and no width; it is an idea.
A particle of dust in the air, or a dot on a piece of paper is a model of point. A point
is an idea about an exact location; it has no dimension. We usually use letters of the
alphabet to name geometric ideas. For example, we speak of the following models of
points as point A, point B, and point C.
● B
● A

●C
We speak of the following as line AB or line BA.
A
38
The arrows on the model above indicate that a line extends indefinitely in both
directions. Let us agree to use the following figure to name a line. The symbol AB
means line AB. Can you locate a point C between A and B on the drawing of AB
above? Could you locate another point between B and C? Could you continue this
process indefinitely? Why? Because between any two points on a line there is another
point. A line consists of a set of points. Therefore, a piece of the line is a subset of
the line. There are many kinds of subsets of a line. The subset of AB shown below is
called a line segment as you might remember from the above.
B
●
A●
The symbol for line segment AB is marked as follows: AB (segment AB). You
already know that points A and B are the endpoints of the segment. A line segment is
a set of points consisting of the two endpoints and all of the points on the line between
them. Notice that the symbol for a line segment (AB) contains the letter naming the
endpoints, that is, only the endpoints need to be given while naming a line segment.
How does a line segment differ from a line? Could one measure the length of a
line? Of a line segment? You can judge from the above that a line segment has definite
length but a line extends indefinitely in each of its two directions.
Another important subset of a line is called a ray. The part of AB shown in black
below is ray AB and the symbol for it is a one way arrow over AB.
A●
A ray has infinite length and only one endpoint which is called a vertex. Traditionally,
the symbol AB in geometry might represent a line, a line segment, or a ray. We draw
the figures that is to be named above the letters (AB, AB, AB) to eliminate the possible
ambiguity.
It should be emphasized that in the drawings given above you see pictures of a line,
a line segment, and a ray and not the geometric ideas they represent. Let us agree that
to draw a geometric figure means to draw its picture. Obviously, if a geometric figure,
being formed by a set of points, is an abstract concept, it cannot be seen. Therefore,
we draw pictures of geometric figures just as we write numerals for numbers.
39
Vocabulary Training
VI. Match the following English terms with the Russian ones and fill in the
table below:
1. an edge a. ��

имеют общее
2. straight b. ��
толщина
3. have in common c. ��
стрелки
4. length d. ��
подмножество
5. thickness e. ��
бесконечный
6. width f. ��
ребро, край
7. dimensions g. ��
рисунок, чертеж
8. arrows h. ��
судить
9. a set i. ��
ширина
10. a subset j. ��
вершина
11. to judge k. ��
луч
12. a ray l. ��
прямой
13. infinite m. ��
множество
14. a vertex n. ��
размеры�
15. a drawing o. ��
длина
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Speaking
VII. Answer the following questions:

1. Does the world around us contain physical objects? 2. Can these objects serve
as models of the geometric figures? 3. Can the edge of a ruler serve as a model of a
line? 4. Has a line any thickness? Has it length? 5. Is a point an idea of exact location?
6. Do we usually use letters of the alphabet to name geometric objects? 7. Can you
locate as many points as you like between any two points? 8. Is a segment a subset of
a line? 9. Does a line segment consist only of two endpoints? 10. Has a line segment
definite length? 11. Is there any difference between a segment and a ray? 12. Does a
ray extend in two directions?
40
Writing

A��. 1. Мы рассчитываем улучшить систему. 2. Представить такую геометри-
ческую фигуру не трудно. 3. Мы обсуждали включение этой главы. 4. Не зная
размеров предмета, нельзя определить его объем. 5. Студенты начали изуче-
ние нового текста. 6. Задача состоит в изменении формы. 7. Продолжайте чер-
тить линию в этом направлении. 8. Частицы воздуха продолжают двигаться во
всех направлениях. 9. Через любые две точки можно провести прямую и при-
том только одну. 10. Если на плоскости взять какие-нибудь две точки и провес-
ти через них прямую линию, то все точки этой прямой будут находиться в этой
плоскости.
B�. При определении объема, посредством применения этого метода, протя-
жение прямой линии может, определение местонахождения точки в пространс-
тве будет.
Reading
Rays and Angles

You certainly remember that by extending a line segment in one direction we obtain
a ray. Below is a picture of such an extension.
N●
●
M
The arrow indicated that you start at point M, go through point N, and on without
end. This results in what is called ray MN, which is denoted by the symbol MN. Point
M is the endpoint in this case. Notice that the letter naming the endpoint of a ray is
given when first naming the ray.
From what you already know you may deduce that drawing two rays originating
from the same endpoint forms an angel. The common point of the two rays is the
vertex of the angel.
L
M
N
41
Angles, though open figures, separate the plane into three distinct sets of points:
the interior, the exterior, and the angle. The following symbol ∠ is frequently used
in place of the word angle. The angle pictured above could be named in either of the
following ways: a) angle LMN (or ∠LMN); b) angle NML (or ∠NML). The letter
naming the vertex of an angle occurs as the middle letter in naming each angle. Look
at the drawing below.
B
C
D
P A
Ray PA (PA) and ray PB (PB) form a right angle, which means that the angle
has a measure of 90° (degrees). Since PC (except for point P) lies in the interior of
∠APB, we speak of ∠CPA being less than a right angle and call it an acute angle with
a degree measure less than 90°. Since PD (except for point P) lies in the exterior of
∠APB, we say that ∠APD is greater than a right angle and call it an obtuse angle with
a degree measure than 90°.
Angles
An angle is a configuration of two lines (the sides or arms) meeting at a point (the
vertex). Often an angle is regarded as the measure of rotation involved in moving
from one initial axis to coincide with another final axis (termed a directions angle). If
the amount and sense of the rotation are specified the angle is a rotation angle, and is
positive if measured in an anticlockwise sense and negative if in a clockwise sense.
Angles are classified according to their measure:
– Null (or zero) angle – zero rotation (0°).
– Right angle – a quarter of a complete turn (90°)
– Flat (or straight) angle – half a complete turn (180°).
– Round angle (or perigon) – one complete turn (360°),
– Acute angle – between
��
0°
�� and
��
90°.
��
– Obtuse angle – ��
between 90°
�� and
��
180°.
��
– Reflex angle – between 180° and 360°.
��
– The angle of elevation of a point A from another point В� is the angle between the
line AB and the horizontal plane through B, with A lying above the plane. The angle
of depression is similarly defined with A lying below the plane. The angle at point
В� made by lines AB and CB is denoted by ∠ ABC.
Measuring and Constructing Angles with a Protractor

Angles of any given size may be drawn, or the size of any angle may be measured,
by using an instrument called a protractor.
42
A protractor is a semicircular plate graduated from
one extremity of the diameter to the other and used to
measure angles. The inside numbers show angles in
degrees beginning at 0° and going counterclockwise.
The outside numbers mark angles in degrees from 0°
going clockwise.
Notice that the upper part of the protractor is half a circle. It contains 180 parts.
The centre of the semicircle or protractor is at point 0. Notice that there are two sets
of numbers on the curved edge so arranged that one set of numbers begins at the right
side of the protractor and the other begins at the left side. This arrangement permits
us to measure angles that open at the left or the right sides.
Problem: Find the number of degrees in angle EFG.
Method: Place the centre of the protractor at point F so the point 0 of the protractor
is on point F and the zero division line at S on the protractor lies on side FG of the
angle. Now read the scale where line FE crosses the protractor. Reading from the zero
at the right we find that angle EFG contains 30°.
If you were to use the outside scale which starts at zero on the left side of the
protractor, the reading would be 150°. Since a 150° – angle would be obtuse, and EFG
is acute, you would not have the correct measurement for the angle.
Vocabulary Training
IX. Match the terms from the left column and definitions from the right column:
1. an angle a. formed by, or with reference to, a straight line or plane
perpendicular to a base
2. null� b. of less than 90
��
degrees�
��
3. right� c. designating an angle greater than a straight angle (180 degrees)
4. obtuse� d. height above a surface, as of the earth
5. flat� e. the shape made by two straight lines meeting at a common point,
the vertex, or by two planes, meeting along an edge
6. acute� f. a decrease in force, activity, amount, etc. - a decrease in force,
activity, amount, etc.
7. reflex� g. greater than 90 degrees and less than 180 degrees greater than 90
degrees and less than 180 degrees
8. elevation� h. designating of, or being zero, as: a) having all zero elements
(null matrix), b) having a limit of zero (null sequence), c) having no
members whatsoever (null set)
9. depression� i. absolute, positive�
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
43
X. Give the Russian equivalents of the following words and word
combinations:
1. side (arm) 7. vertex 13. right angle
2. acute angle 8. obtuse angle 14. flat (straight) angle
3. angle of depression 9. rotation 15. round angle (perigon)
4. direction angle 10. reflex angle 16. null (zero) angle
5. sense of rotation 11. rotation angle
6. clockwise sense 12. angle of elevation
XI. Give the English equivalents of the following words and word

combinations:
тупой угол, развёрнутый угол, нулевой угол, угол возвышения, угол пони-
жения, прямой угол, полный угол, сторона, направление вращения, вершина,
угол в пределах от 180°–360°, вращение (поворот), острый угол, по часовой
стрелке, против часовой стрелки, угол вращения, направляющий угол.
XII. Read the sentences and think of a word which best fits each space.
1. An angle is a __________ of two lines (the sides or __________) meeting at a
point called the vertex.
2. Flat (or __________) angle means half a __________ turn.
3. An obtuse angle is greater than an __________ angle.
4. The measure of a __________ angle is between 180° and 360°.
5. Angles are classified according to their __________.
6. Clockwise means the __________ in which the hands of a clock rotate.
7. The largest angle is the __________ angle being 360 degrees.
Speaking
XIII. Read and decide which of the statements are true and which are false.
Change the sentences so they are true.
1. An angle is often regarded as the measure of rotation involved in moving from
one initial axis to coincide with another final axis.
2. There’re eleven types of angles in their classification according to their
measure.
3. 90° – it is the measure of an acute angle.
4. An angle is positive if it is measured in a clockwise sense.
5. The measure of a reflex angle is between 180° and 360°.
6. The main difference of an angle of elevation of a points and its angle of depression
is the following one: in the case of the angle of elevation the point A lies above the
plane and in the case of the angle of depression – below the plane.
44
XIV. Answer the questions on the text “Angles”.
1. What is an angle?
2. Can one say that an angle is regarded as the measure of rotation involved in
moving from one initial axis to coincide with another final axis?
3. What are characteristics of a null angle?
4. An acute angle is an angle between 0° and 90°, isn’t it?
5. What are characteristics of an obtuse angle?
6. What are characteristics of a reflex angle?
7. Is there any difference between the angle of depression and the angle
of elevation?
8. What is a protractor used for?
9. What do inside numbers on the scale of a protractor show?
10. How many parts does the upper part of the protractor contain?
11. What permits us to measure angles that open at the left or at the right side?
Writing
XV. Translate the sentences into English.

1. Если две стороны и угол между ними одного треугольника равны соответс-
твенно двум сторонам и углу между ними другого треугольника, то такие треуголь-
ники равны. 2. Две прямые называются перпендикулярными, если они пересе
каются под прямым углом. 3. Какой угол называется прилежащим? 4. Докажите,
что вертикальные углы равны. 5. Сумма трех этих углов равна 270°. 6. Угол обра-
зуется, когда две прямые линии встречаются в точке. 7. Прямые линии называют-
ся сторонами угла, а точка, в которой они встречаются – вершиной угла. 8. Размер
угла зависит от той величины (��
amount��
), на которую одна сторона отклоняется от
другой. 9. Градус – это единица измерения, используемая при измерении угла.
10. Углы бывают прямые, острые, тупые. 11. Если одна сторона угла отклоняет-
ся на четверть полного круга от другой стороны, то образованный угол называ-
ется прямым углом. ��
12. ��
Прямой��
угол��
��
содержит��
��
90°.
Reading
Simple Closed Figures

A simple closed figure is any figure drawn in a plane in such a way that its boundary
never crosses or intersects itself and encloses part of the plane. The following are
45
examples of simple closed figures. Every simple closed figure separates the plane
into three distinct sets of points. The interior of the figure is the set of all points in the
part of the plane enclosed by the figure. The exterior of the figure is the set of points
in the plane which are outside the figure. And finally, the simple closed figure itself
is still another set of points.
A simple closed figure formed by line segments is called a polygon. Each of the
line segments is called a side of the polygon. Polygons may be classified according
to the measures of the angles or the measure of the sides. This is true of triangles –
geometric figures having three sides – as well as of quadrilaterals, having four sides.
C F
L
A B D E M K
In the picture above you can see three triangles ABC is referred as an equilateral
triangle. The sides of such a triangle all have the same linear measure. DEF is called
an isosceles triangle which means that its two sides have the same measure. You can
see it in the drawing above. LMK being referred to as a right triangle means that it
contains one right angle. In MKL,
∠M is the right angle, sides MK and ML are called the legs, and side KL is called
hypotenuse. The hypotenuse refers only to the side opposite to the right angle of a
right triangle. Below you can see quadrilaterals.
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are parallel. Then the

set of all parallelograms is a subset of all quadrilaterals. Why? A rectangle is a
parallelogram in which all angles are right angles. Therefore, we can speak of the set
of rectangles being a subset of the set of parallelograms. A square is a rectangle having
four congruent sides as well as four right angles. Is every square a rectangle? Is every
46
rectangle a square? Why or why not? A rhombus is a parallelogram in which the four
sides congruent. Thus, it is evident that opposite sides of a rhombus are parallel and
congruent. Is defining a square as a special type of rhombus possible? A trapezoidal
has only two parallel sides. They are called the bases of a trapezoidal.
Speaking
XVI. Answer the questions:

1. Do you remember how we form a ray? 2. Do we extend a line segment in two
directions when we form a ray? 3. Will two rays originating from the same endpoint
form an angle? 4. Do angles separate the plane into 2 distinct sets of points? 5. Is
the obtuse angle less than the right angle? 6. Is the right angle greater than the acute
angle? 7. Are triangles classified according to the measures of their angles? 8. Can
any triangle be referred to as equilateral? 9. Does a right triangle contain three right
angles? 10. Are opposite sides of a quadrilateral always parallel? 11. Are all the four
angles of a square congruent? 12. Is every rectangle a square?
Reading
A POLYGON
A polygon is a figure formed by three or more points (vertices) joined by line
segments (sides). The term is usually used to denote a closed plane figure in which no
two sides intersect. In this case the number of sides is equal to the number of interior
angles. If all the interior angles are less than or equal to 180°, the figure is a convex
polygon; if it has one or more interior angles greater than 180°, it is a concave polygon,
A polygon that has all its sides equal is an equilateral polygon; one with all its interior
angles equal is an equiangular polygon. Note that an equilateral polygon need not be
equiangular, or vice versa, except in case of an equilateral triangle. A polygon that is
both equilateral and equiangular is said to be regular. The exterior angles of a regular
polygon are each equal to 360° /n, where n is a number of sides.
The distance from the center of a regular polygon to one of its vertices is called
the long radius, which is also a radius of the circumcircle of the polygon. The
perpendicular distance from the center to one of the sides is called the short radius
or apothem, which is also the radius of the inscribed circle of the polygon.
A regular star polygon is a figure formed by joining every m-th point, starting with
a given point, of the n points that divide a circle’s circumference into n equal parts,
47
where m and n are relatively prime, and n is equal two or greater than 3. This star
polygon is denoted by {m/n}. When m = 1, the resulting figure is a regular polygon.
The star polygon {5/2} is the pentagram.
Speaking
XVII. Read and decide which of the statements are true and which are false.
Change the sentences so they are true.
1. A polygon is a figure formed only by three vertices joined by line segments.
2. No sides of a polygon usually intersect.
3. All the interior angles of a convex polygon are greater than or equal to180°.
4. An equilateral polygon is a polygon whose no sides are equal.
5. An equiangular polygon is a polygon whose all interior angles are equal.
6. The regular polygon is both equilateral and equiangular.
7. The perpendicular distance from the center to one of the sides is called the long
radius.
8. The long radius is also the radius of the inscribed circle of the polygon.
9. The star polygon is usually denoted by {m/n}.
Vocabulary Training
XVIII. Match the terms from the left column and definitions from the right
column:
1. apothem� A.
to draw a figure inside another figure so that their bounda
ries touch at as many points as possible
2. circle� B.
a) at right angles to a given plane or line,
b) exactly upright; vertical; straight up or down
3. convex C.
a) any of the four angles formed on the inside of two straight
lines when crossed by a transversal,
b) the angle formed inside a polygon by two adjacent sides
4. concave D.
any figure of five lines
5. equilateral E.
a geometrical figure having three angles and three sides
48
6. equiangular F.
a) the point of intersection of the two sides of an angle,
b) a comer point of a triangle, square, cube, parallelepiped,
or other geometric figure bounded by lines, planes, or lines
and planes
7. exterior angle G.
curving outward like the surface of a sphere
8. to inscribe H.
having all angles equal
9. interior angle I.
a closed plane figure, esp. one with more than four sides and
angles
10. pentagram J.
a) any of the four angles formed on the outside of two
straight lines when crossed by a transversal,
b) an angle formed by any side of a polygon and the exten-
sion of the adjacent side
11. perpendicular K.
a plane figure bounded by a singly curved line, every point
of which is equally distant from the point at the center of the
figure
12. polygon L.
hollow and curved like the inside half of a hollow ball
13. triangle M.
having all sides equal
14. vertex N.
the perpendicular from the center of a regular polygon to any
one of its sides
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
XIX. Give the Russian equivalents of the following words and word
combinations:
1. exterior angle 8. regular star polygon 15. equiangular polygon
2. circumcircle 9. pentagram 16. equilateral triangle
3. perpendicular 10. closed plane figure 17. regular polygon
4. apothem 11. interior angle 18. long radius
5. inscribed circle 12. convex polygon
6. star polygon 13. concave polygon
7. relatively prime 14. equilateral polygon
49
XX. Give the English equivalents of the following words and word
combinations:
равностронний треугольник, правильный треугольник, замкнутая плоская фигу-
ра, апофема (радиус вписанного круга), вписанная окружность, внутренний угол,
взаимно простые, радиус описанного круга, выпуклый многоугольник, описанная
окружность, пентаграмма (пятиугольная звезда), равноугольный многоугольник,
вогнутый многоугольник, многоугольник в виде звезды, правильный многоугольник
в виде звезды, внешний угол, перпендикуляр, равносторонний многоугольник.
XXI. Read and translate the sentences and the questions.

1. This figure is formed by three points.
2. This term is usually used to denote a closed plane figure.
3. This polygon has only one interior angle.
4. This polygon is said to be regular.
5. The points divide a circle’s circumference into equal parts.
6. What are the main characteristics of a regular polygon?
7. The distance from the center of a regular polygon to one of its vertices is called
the long radius, isn’t it?
8. Is the apothem also the radius of the inscribed circle of the polygon?
9. What figure is called a regular star polygon?
10. What figure is usually understood in geometry as a polygon?
XXII. Match the words and the definitions:
interior angle convex polygon exterior angle
circumcircle pentagram concave polygon
inscribed circle regular polygon long radius
1) An angle formed outside a polygon.

2) A circle circumscribed about a given polygon.
3) A polygon that has all its angles less than or equal to 180°.
4) An angle between two sides of a polygon lying within the polygon.
5) A symmetrical five-pointed star polygon.
6) A polygon that has at least one interior angle greater than 180°.
Speaking
XXIII. Answer the questions on the text:

1. What figure is usually understood in geometry as a polygon?
50
2. No two sides in a polygon intersect, do they?
3. What is the usual measure of the interior angles of a convex polygon and of a
concave polygon respectively?
4. A polygon that has all its sides equal is an equiangular polygon, isn’t it?
5. A polygon in which all its interior angles are equal is an equilateral polygon,
isn’t it?
6. Must an equilateral polygon be equiangular?
Writing
XXIV. Translate the text into English.
Треугольники
Выпуклый треугольник называется правильным, если все его стороны рав-
ны и равны все его углы.
Многоугольник называется вписанным в окружность, если все его вершины
лежат на некоторой окружности. Многоугольник называется описанным около
окружности, если все его стороны касаются данной окружности.
Правильный выпуклый многоугольник является одновременно вписанным
в окружность и описанным около нее.
Углом выпуклого многоугольника при определенной вершине называется
угол, образованный его сторонами, которые сходятся в этой вершине. Внешним
углом выпуклого многоугольника при данной вершине называется угол, смеж-
ный с внутренним углом многоугольника при этой вершине.
Reading
Circles
If you hold the sharp end of a compass fixed on a sheet of paper and the turn the
compass completely around you will draw a curved line enclosing parts of a plane.
It is a circle. A circle is a set of points in a plane each of which is equidistant, that is
the same distance from some given point in the plane called the center. A line segment
joining any point of the circle with the center is called a radius. In the given figure R
is the center and RC is the radius. What other radii are shown? A chord of a circle is
a line segment whose endpoints are points on the circle. A diameter is a chord which
passes through the center of the circle.
51
C
A B
In the given figure AB and BC are chords and AB is a diameter. Any part of a circle
containing more than one point forms an arc of the circle. In the given figure, the points
C and A and all the points in the interior of ∠ARC that are also points of the circle are
called arc AC which is symbolized as AC. ⁀ ABC⁀ is the arc containing points A and C
and all points of the circle which are in the exterior of ∠ABC. Instead of speaking of
the perimeter of a circle, we usually use the term circumference to mean the distance
around the circle. We cannot find the circumference of a circle by adding the measure
of the segments, because a circle does not contain any segments. No matter how short
an arc is, it is curved at least slightly. Fortunately mathematicians have discovered, that
the ratio of the circumference (C) to a diameter (d) is the same for all circles. This ratio
is expressed C/d. Since d = 2r (the length of a diameter is equal to twice the length of
a radius of the same circle), the following denote the same ratio.
C/d = C/2r since d = 2r
The number C/d or C/2r, which is the same for all circles, is designated by π. This
allows us to state the following:
C/d = π or C/2r = π.
By using the multiplication property of equation, we obtain the following:
C = πd or C = 2πr.
Speaking
XXV. Answer the questions on the text:

A.
1. How can one draw a curved line enclosing part of a plane? 2. In what
geometric figure are all the points equidistant from the center? 3. Which line segment
passes through the centre of the circle? 4. Is a short arc also curved? 5. What have
mathematicians discovered about the ratio of the circumference C to the diameter
d? 6. Do we usually speak of a perimeter of a circle or do we rather use the term
circumference? Why?
52
B.
1. Can one draw a circle by using a compass? 2. Are all the points in a circle
equidistant from the center? 3. Does a diameter contain two radii? 4. Is the center of
the circle one of the endpoints of the radius? 5. Is a chord curved? 6. Is an arc curved?
7. Can a chord serve as a diameter? 8. Can we find the measure of the circumference
by adding the measure of the segments? 9. Does a circle contain any segments? 10.
Does the formula C/d=π mean the same as C/2r=π?
Vocabulary Training
XXVI. Use the figure for completing the following statements:

M N
K L
A.
1. RM is called a _______ of the circle.
2. KN is twice as long as _______.
3. LM is called a _______ of a circle.
4. RL has the same length as _______.
5. MRN is an _______ triangle.
6. Point R is called the _______ of the circle and the _______ of ∠KRL.
7. MN is called _______ of a circle.
⁀ is called an _______.
8. MN
9. ∠MRN is an _______ angle.
10. ∠MRK is a _______ angle.
B.
1. No matter how short an arc is, it is _______ at least slightly.
2. The term circumference means _______.
3. A diameter is a chord which _______.
4. A circle is a set of points in a plane each of which _______.
5. We cannot find the circumference of a circle by adding _______.
53
Reading
Circumference of a Circle
In traditional approaches to mathematics, the circumference of a circle has not
always been clearly defined. That is, sometimes the circle itself was called the
circumference, and at other times, the measure of the distance around the circle was
called the circumference. Here we shall define the circumference as the perimeter of
the circle, in other words, the measure of the entire path formed by the circle. This
definition is symbolized by the formula C = πd or the formula C = 2πr. There exist
more precise definitions of a circumference. To arrive at this more precise definition,
it is necessary to introduce the concept of limits. By using the limit concept, the
circumference of a circle may be defined as the limit of the perimeter of an inscribed
regular polygon. To illustrate this, we can first inscribe a square in a circle. The sum
of the sides of the square will be an approximation of the circumference of the circle.
Then, bisecting the central angles, which are subtended by the sides of the square we
can inscribe a regular octagon. The sum of the sides of the octagon will be a closer
approximation of the circumference. Next, bisecting the central angels subtended by
the sides of the octagon, we can inscribe a regular 16-gon. The sum of the sides of the
16-gon will be an even closer approximation of the circumference. By a similar process
we can then inscribe a regular 32-gon and 64-gon, and so on. Clearly the sum of n sides
of an inscribed regular n-gon can be made to approximate the circumference of the
circle as closely as desired by choosing n sufficiently large. Thus the circumference
of a circle may be defined as the limit of the perimeter of an inscribed regular n-gon
as n increases.
Speaking
XXVII. Answer the questions on the text:

1. Can one define the circumference of a circle? 2. Has the circumference of a circle
been always clearly defined? 3. Is there only one definition of a circumference? 4. Can
we define the circumference as the perimeter of the circle? 5. Is the definition of the
circumference symbolized by the formula C=2πd? 6. Is the limit concept necessary for
a precise definition? 7. Can one inscribe only a limited number of polygons in a circle?
8. Is the radius twice as long as the diameter? 9. Is the diameter twice as long as the
radius? 10. Can one continue the process of bisecting the central angle indefinitely?
11. Is the area of the inscribed polygon greater than the area of the circle? 12. Is the
area of the circle less than the area of the inscribed polygon?
54
Writing
XXVIII. Translate the following into English:

A. Иными словами; это определение представлено следующей формулой;
существует более точное определение; независимо от того как; путем деления
угла пополам; можно легко вписать; дважды в месяц; прийти к заключению; к
счастью для математиков; традиционный подход к решению таких задач; это
соотношение выражено; поскольку длина диаметра вдвое больше длины ради-
уса; вместо того, чтобы определять; чтобы проиллюстрировать это, мы можем
рассмотреть; периметр круга может быть измерен; с помощью аналогичной про-
цедуры; вписанный правильный ��
n��
-угольник.
B. Через любые две точки можно провести прямую и притом только одну.
Если на плоскости взять какие-нибудь две точки и провести через них прямую
линию, то все точки этой прямой будут находиться в этой плоскости.
Угол образуется, когда две прямые линии встречаются в точке. Прямые линии
называются сторонами угла, а точка, в которой они встречаются – вершиной
угла.
Размер угла зависит от той величины, на которую одна сторона отклоняет-
ся от другой.
Градус – это единица измерения, используемая при измерении угла.
Углы бывают прямые, острые, тупые. Если одна сторона угла отклоняется
на четверть полного круга от другой стороны, то образованный угол называет-
ся прямым углом. Прямой угол содержит 90°.
Для измерения углов употребляется специальный прибор – транспортир.
Этот прибор представляет собой полукруг, дуга которого разделена на 180 час-
тей. Чтобы измерить угол, накладывают транспортир так, чтобы центр транс-
портира совпадал с вершиной угла, а радиус был расположен на одной стороне
угла. Тогда число градусов, содержащихся в дуге, заключенной между сторо-
нами угла, покажет нужную величину. При помощи транспортира можно также
начертить угол, содержащий данное число градусов.
Треугольник – это плоская фигура, ограниченная тремя линиями и содержа-
щая три угла.
Треугольники бывают равносторонние, разносторонние, равнобедренные.
Четырехугольники – это тоже плоские фигуры. Если стороны четырех-
угольника равны и все углы прямые, то такой четырехугольник называется
квадратом.
Многоугольники – это также плоские фигуры. Пятиугольник имеет пять сто-
рон, шестиугольник – шесть, восьмиугольник – восемь, десятиугольник – десять
сторон.
Линия вокруг плоской фигуры называется периметром. Периметр плоской
фигуры равен сумме длин его сторон.
55
Отрезок прямой, соединяющей две какие-либо точки окружности, называет-
ся хордой. Хорда, проходящая через центр окружности, называется диаметром.
Диаметр равен сумме двух радиусов, и поэтому все диаметры одной окружнос-
ти равны между собой. Любая часть окружности называется дугой.
XXIX. Project Ideas

Speak on the Topics:
1. Geometry is a branch of mathematics
2. Points and Lines
3. Simple Closed Figures
56
Unit VI. Famous Scientists
Reading
Text 1. Read, translate and give a short outline of the text in English
Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein was born in Germany 1879. His unusual talent
for mathematics and physics began to show when he was a student
at a technical school in Zurich. At the age of 21, after four years
of study at the university, he began to work as a clerk at an office.
And in 1905 he made some revolutionary discoveries in science.
He published three papers.
In his first paper he explained the photoelectric effect with
the help of M. Plank’s quantum theory. His second paper was a
mathematical development of the theory of Brownian motion. His third paper was
about the “Special Theory of Relativity”. It must be mentioned that a great contribution
to the theory of relativity had been made earlier by the great mathematicians Lorentz
and Poincare. Einstein’s work was published in a physical journal. It stated that energy
equals mass multiplied by the square of the speed of light. This theory is expressed
by the equation: E= mc2.
Scientists all over the world met this Einstein’s work with interest and surprise.
But only very few physicists realized the importance of his theory at that time.
Another of Einstein’s great discoveries was his unified field theory. It was the result
of 35 years of intensive research work. He expressed it in four equations where he
combined the physical laws that control forces of light and energy with the mysterious
force of gravitation.
Albert Einstein gave all his life to science. He was an extremely talented man and
a great thinker. He was always looking at the world around him with his eyes wide
open and he was always asking: “Why? Why is that so?”
His ideas made a revolution in natural sciences of the 20th century.
Reading
M. V. Lomonosov
We think of M. V. Lomonosov as the father of Russian science. Some of his
scientific works were a great contribution to the world science. A. S. Pushkin wrote:
57
“Lomonosov was a great man. It was he who founded the first
Russian University and he himself was our first University”.
He worked a lot in the field of natural science, especially in
physics and chemistry. It was Lomonosov who originated the study
of geology, geochemistry and physical chemistry in Russia. He
also took great interest in history, mathematics and philosophy.
We know Lomonosov as the author of the first Russian book
on grammar. He was the first to use the Russian language when
writing scientific books.
Working in various fields of science he also gave much of his time to practical
application of natural sciences. He opened the first chemical laboratory and originated
the production of glass in Russia.
Reading
Isaak Newton
Sir Isaak Newton (1643–1727) was a brilliant English mathematician and physicist.
It is justly believed that he is one of the greatest men of science in the history of
mankind.
Newtonean theory of universal gravitation and his formulation
of the basic concepts and principles of mechanics are known as his
two great achievements.
They have made possible the creation of a physical picture
of the Universe which remained unshaken until the beginning of
the 20th century. It is very important for us to examine, in some
details the concepts he introduced and clarified in the course of
his work.
Ever since Galileo invented his telescope men had been studying the motions of
the planets with ever increasing interest and accuracy. In particular, a great deal of
observed data had been collected by Tycho Brache, a Danish astronomer (1546–1601).
From these Kepler deduced his famous three laws describing the motion of the planet
about the Sun. They amounted to:
1) The planets describe ellipses, with the Sun being at a focus.
2) The radius vector joining the Sun with the planet describes equal areas in equal
times, i.e. (that is) the rate of description of sectorial area is constant.
3) The cubes of the mean distances of the planets from the Sun are proportional
to the squares of their times of revolution, i.e. if 2a is the major axis of the elliptical
orbit and t is the periodic time, then we have t2 ∞ a3.
58
Newton was able to show that these laws were compatible with the assumption that
each planet possesses acceleration towards the Sun which is inversely proportional to
the square of their distance from it. Furthermore, he believed that this acceleration was
of the same nature as the acceleration of bodies falling near the Earth’s surface. This
generalization led him to the concept that all bodies taken in pairs, induce in each other
mutual acceleration. Translating this into terms of force required a new principle and
Newton supplied this principle in his law of: “action and reaction” – and this in its turn
provides us with a view of mass not possessed by any of Newton’s predecessors. This
concept distinguishes between mass and weight. The laws of motion which Newton
published in his “Principia” amount to the following:
Law I. Every body preserves in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight
line unless it is compelled to alter that state by impressed force.
Law II. Change of momentum is proportional to the impressed force and takes
place along the line of action of that force.
Law III. Action and reaction are always equal and opposite; that is to say, the
actions of two bodies upon each other are equal and directly opposite.
Reading
N. I. Lobachevsky
Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky was born in 1792 in Nizhny
Novgorod. After his father’s death in 1797 the family moved to
Kazan where Lobachevsky graduated from the University. He
stayed in Kazan all his life occupying the position of dean of the
faculty of Physics and Mathematics and rector of the University.
He lectured on mathematics, physics, astronomy.
Lobachevsky is the creator of a non-Euclidean geometry.
His first book appeared in 1829. Few people took notice of it. Non-Euclidean
geometry (as a matter of fact the name is due to Gauss) remained for several decades
an obscure field of science. Most mathematicians ignored it. The first leading scientist
who realized its full importance was Riemann.
There is one axiom of Euclidean geometry whose “truth”, that is, whose
correspondence with empirical data about stretching threads or lights rays, is by no
means obvious. This is the famous postulate of the unique parallel, which states that
through any point not on a given line one and only one line can be drawn parallel
to the given line. The remarkable feature of this axiom is that it makes a statement
concerning the whole extension of a straight line, imagined as extending indefinitely
in either directions, since to say that two lines are parallel, is to say that they never
59
intersect, no matter how far they may be produced. It goes without saying that there
are many lines through a point which do not intersect a given line within any fixed
distance, however large. Since the maximum possible length of an actual ruler, thread
or even a ray of light visible to a telescope is certainly finite, and since within any finite
circle there are infinitely many straight lines through a given point and not intersecting
a given line inside the circle, it follows that this axiom can be verified by experiment.
All the other axioms of Euclidean geometry have a finite character since they deal
with finite portions of lines and with plane figures of finite extent. The fact that the
parallel axiom is not experimentally verifiable raises the question of whether or not it
is independent of the other axioms. If it were a necessary logical consequence of the
others, then it would be possible not to regard it as an axiom and to give a proof of
it in terms of the other Euclidean axioms. For centuries mathematicians have tried to
find such a proof, because of widespread feeling among students of geometry that the
parallel postulate is of a character essentially different from the others. It is lacking
the plausibility which an axiom of geometry should by all means possess.
At that time, any geometrical system not in
absolute agreement with that of Euclid’s would
have been considered as obvious nonsense.
Kant, the most outstanding philosopher of the
period, formulated this attitude in his statement
that Euclid’s axioms are inherent in the human
mind, and therefore have no objective validity for
real space. But in the long run there appeared a
conviction that the unending failure in the search
for a proof of the parallel postulate was due not
to any lack of ingenuity, but rather to the fact that
the parallel postulate is really independent of the
others.
What does the independence of the parallel
postulate mean? Simply that it is possible to
construct a consistent system of “geometrical” statements dealing with points, lines,
etc., by deduction from a set of axioms in which the parallel postulate is replaced by
a contrary postulate. Such a system is called a non-Euclidean geometry. It required
the intellectual courage of Lobachevsky to realize that such a geometry, based on a
non-Euclidean system of axioms, can be perfectly consistent.
Lobachevsky settled the question by constructing in all detail a geometry in which
the parallel postulate does not hold.
Non-Euclidean geometry has developed into an extremely useful instrument for
application in the physical world.
After 1840 Lobachevsky published a number of papers on convergence of infinite
series and the solution of definite integrals. In modern reference books on definite
integrals about 200 integrals were solved by Lobachevsky.
60
Reading
Sophia Kovalevskaya
The outstanding Russian mathematician Sophia Kovalevskaya
was born in Moscow on February 15, 1850, in a well-off family of
an artillery general, Korvin-Krukovsky.
Sophia’s childhood was spent in Polibino, where the family
used to live the greatest part of the year. When Sophia was eight
an experienced teacher was invited to Polibino to instruct her in
arithmetic, grammar, literature, geography and history. Though she
liked literature so much that it seemed that literature would become
her ultimate object in life, the girl showed an unusual gift in mathematics and at the
age of twelve puzzled her teacher by suggesting a new solution for the determination
of the ratio of the diameter of the circle to its circumference.
In 1867 Sophia and her elder sister were taken to St. Petersburg. There Sophia
was allowed to go on with her studies privately. To attend lectures at the University a
woman had to obtain a special permission, and even then by no means would she be
allowed to take examinations, to say nothing of taking a degree.
This state of things remained unaltered despite the efforts of many scientists who
voiced an urgent demand that women should be granted the right to education. The only
way out for her was to go abroad, as some other Russian woman did. But in this case
there was a condition that the woman should be married. This made her marry Vladimir
Kovalevsky, with whom she soon left for Vienna. There the Kovalevskys were given
permission to attend lectures on physics at the Vienna University, but this did not
satisfy Sophia. She made up her mind to go to the Heidelberg University to study under
such scholars as Helmholz and Bunzen, as her intention was to take examinations for
a Doctor’s Degree in mathematics and mechanics. While in Heidelberg University,
she would attend eleven lectures a week, including eight lectures on mathematics and
do a lot of practical work as well.
In 1871 Sophia went to Berlin, where she read privately with professor Weierstrass,
as the public lectures were not then open to women. During the four years spent in
Berlin, Sophia succeeded not only in covering the university course of mathematics
but also in writing three dissertations. In 1874 the University of Gottingen granted her
a degree of Doctor of Philosophy in absentias excusing her from the oral examinations
in consideration of the three dissertations sent in, one of which, on the theory of partial
differential equations, was one of her most remarkable works.
When the Kovalevskys returned to Russia they planned to live and work in St.
Petersburg, but despite the efforts of Mendeleev, Butlerov and Chebyshev, Sophia
Kovalevskaya, a great scientist could not find a position there and was obliged to turn
to journalism.
61
In 1878 Sophia gave birth to a daughter and as her husband was promised
a lectureship at the Moscow University, she decided to take her Magister’s Degree
there. Great was her disappointment when she learned that her application had not been
accepted, though her personal experience should have suggested her that there was
no use in trying to get a degree in Russia. Again she went to Berlin to complete her
work on the refraction of light in crystals, but the news of her husband’s bankruptcy
and suicide caused her to return home.
In 1883 she was given an opportunity to report on the results of her research
at a session held in Odessa, but no post followed. Therefore, when she was offered
lectureship at Stockholm University she willingly accepted the offer and went there
with her little daughter.
In 1888 she achieved the greatest of her successes winning the highest prize
offered by the Paris Academy. The problem set was: “to perfect in one important
point the theory of a movement of a solid body about an immovable point.” The
solution obtained by her made a valuable addition to the results submitted by Euler
and Lagrange.
In 1889 she was awarded another prize by the Swedish Academy of Sciences. Soon,
in spite of her being the only woman-lecturer in Sweden, she was elected professor of
mechanics and held the post until her death.
Unfortunately Sophia Kovelevskaya did not live to reap the full reward of her
labour, for she died on February 10, 1891, at the age of 41, just as she had attained the
height of her fame and had won the recognition even in her own country by election
to membership of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.
I. Project Ideas
Study the literature about famous scientists. Choose one scientist and find the
following information about him:
– Biography and Family;
– Educational Background;
– Scientific Achievements.
Prepare a short report and a presentation on the achieved results. Share your
ideas.
62
Application I. Rendering an Article
THE ALGORITHM FOR RENDRING AN ARTICLE
The outline for rendering Some expressions to be used while rendering an article
1 The title of the article. The article is entitled ...

The headline of the article The article is headlined ...
The headline ( the title) of the article I have
2 read is ... .
The author, ( the reporter, The author of the article is ... .
the commentator, the newsman, The article is written by ... .
the interviewer, the pressman);
where, when the article was It is ( was) published in ...

published ( printed taken from). It is ( was ) printed in ...
3 The key-note of the article. The main idea of the article is ...
The main idea of the article. The article is about ...
The article is devoted to ...
The article deals with ...
The article touches upon ...
The purpose of the article is to give The aim of the article is to provide
the reader some information on The reader with some material (date)
4 The contents of the article. Some a) Firstly, the author writes, states. stresses, considers,
facts, names, figures. points out, says, thinks, describes, comments on that…
b) Secondly, the author reports(says) that…
c) Thirdly, the author mentions the facts above ...
He concerns ( deals with) ...
d) In the fourth ( fifth) the author cites (quotes)
the words of ...
e) In conclusion ...
The author comes to the conclusion that ...
5 Your opinion of the article. I found the article interesting (important, up-to-date, out-
of-date, dull).
The article is of no value.
The article is too difficult for understanding.
In my opinion ... .
To my mind ... .
63
Article 1
Sundaram’s Sieve
Julian Havil
The primes are the atoms among

numbers. But how can we find them
all? The prime numbers so simple,
yet so mysterious. Primes are those
numbers that are divisible only by
themselves and the number 1. They
are the atoms amongst the integers
because every whole number can be
written as a product of a unique set
of primes. We have known since the
time of Euclid that there are infinitely
many primes there is no largest prime
but there is no general formula that generates all of them. Their distribution among
the other numbers is still a mystery and motivates some of the biggest open questions
in mathematics. As the eighteenth century mathematical genius Leonhard Euler put it,
“Mathematicians have tried in vain to this day to discover some order in the sequence
of prime numbers, and we have reason to believe that it is a mystery into which the
mind will never penetrate.”
However, all is not lost: we do have algorithms that can find all the primes up to a given
number. In this article we’ll look at an example of such an algorithm, in which the primes
pop out of a very simple, and highly regular, structure as if by magic. It’s called the sieve
of Sundaram, after an obscure East Indian mathematician by the name of S.P. Sundaram,
who discovered it in the 1930s. Sundaram’s algorithm is not a real sieve, of course, but a
clever way of spotting numbers that are not prime, thus “sieving out” those that are.
Sundaram’s sieve is based on an array of numbers formed from arithmetic
progression, in other words, sequences of numbers in which successive numbers are
exactly three steps apart, and which starts with the number 4:
4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, …
Next up is the sequence starting with the number 7 and with successive numbers
exactly 5 steps apart:
7, 12, 17, 22, 27, 32, 37, 42, …
Now consider the sequence starting with the number 10 and with a difference of 7
between successive numbers:
10, 17, 24, 31, 38, 45, 52, 59, …
64
You can see the pattern emerging: the starting point of each sequence is three steps
on from that of the previous one, and the distance between successive numbers is the
distance of the previous sequence plus 2. Writing the sequence beneath each other,
we get the following doubly infinite array:
4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 …
7 12 17 22 27 32 37 42 …
10 17 24 31 38 45 52 59 …
13 22 31 40 49 58 67 76 …
16 27 38 49 60 71 82 93 …
… … … … …. … … … …
The array exhibits a lot of structure: the first row is equal to the first column,
each row is an arithmetic progression, and the differences between entries in two
consecutive rows form the sequence which is itself an arithmetic progression.
Now pick any number in this array, double it, add 1, and ask yourself if the
resulting number is a prime. Repeat this a few times and you’ll find that your answer,
no matter which number from the array you pick, is always “no”. So what about the
numbers not in the array, for example 5, 6, 8, etc? A few calculations should convince
you that for a number N not in the array, the number 2N+1 is prime. That is, the first
set of calculations suggests that If N lies in the array, then 2N+1 is not prime. And
the second set of calculations suggests that If N does not lie in the array, then 2N+1 is
prime. We can roll the two statements into one as follows: 2N+1 is prime, if and only
if N does not lie in the array. If this statement is indeed true for all numbers N, then it
gives us a way of deriving the sequence of primes, with all its well-known irregularity,
from an array with a high degree of mathematical structure, and the simplest structure
as well: that of arithmetic progressions. Quite an amazing result!
But can we be sure that the statement is true for all N? We can indeed, because it
is possible to prove it in its full generality. But rather than giving you the proof to read
off the page, we challenge you to come up with your own version. It doesn’t require
any mathematical knowledge beyond a familiarity with multiplication and division,
and a tiny bit of algebra. If you get stuck, the three steps below guide you through the
process, and there are hints too, in case you need them.
Of course, there are other methods for “sieving out” primes, including the famous
sieve of Eratosthenes and the lesser-known visual sieve. These methods are altogether
different, although their workings are equally mysterious and the mathematics involved
is similarly elementary.
I. Project Ideas
Study the literature about Sieve Theories. Choose one of the sieve theories, prepare
a report and a presentation on the achieved results. Share your ideas.
65
Article 2
Evolutionary Maths
Marianne Freiberger
What is it that makes the human mind so unique and us human so different from
the other species we share this planet with? One thing that is universally present
throughout human cultures, but absent in all other species, is language. Over the last
few decades evolutionary psychologists have become increasingly interested in the
role that language might have in enabling other functions in the human behavioural
and cognitive repertoire. Some have argued that language is in fact a prerequisite for
a whole range of other intellectual activities, including mathematics.
“Some people have suggested that the human mind possesses some kind of unique
competence that is closely tied to language,” says Rosemary Varley, Professor in Cognitive
Neuroscience at the University of Sheffield and author of a number of studies on the
connections between language and maths. There is some evidence supporting this point
of view. In 2004 the psychologist Peter Gordon carried out a study with members of
an Amazonian tribe, who have explicit words only for the numbers 1 and 2 and refer to
everything else as “many”. It turned out that the tribe members were unable to perform
simple mathematical tasks as soon as numbers greater than three were involved. While
some researchers have read this as evidence for language as a prerequisite for thought,
others simply turn the argument on its head. Rather than lacking maths for a want of words,
it may be that tribe members lack number words because they have no need for maths.
Further evidence for a language/maths connection comes from neurology. “Brain
systems show us that there is some kind of correlation between the capacity for
language and the capacity for maths and language brain areas are very close together,
or that an injury to the brain happened to hit both areas.”
To explore whether maths really hinges on language, Varley and her colleagues
have conducted studies with people whose capacity for grammar has been severely
impaired by strokes or other types of brain damage. “In our first study we worked with
three individuals with severe grammatical impairment, and checked to see whether
their syntactic knowledge in maths was impaired in a parallel way. The results showed
strong differences between the two systems: people were still sensitive to structures
in mathematics that they could no longer understand in language.”
Varley and her colleagues asked their patients to consider reversible sentences
like “The boy kissed the girl”. “To understand the sentence, you have to work out that
the boy is the active person and the girl is the one who receives the action,” Varley
explains. “There are similar structures in maths: the expression 7 – 2, for example, is
completely different from the expression 2 – 7. In our study we found that patients
who were unable to discriminate between sentences like “the boy kissed the girl” and
“the girl kissed the boy” had no problem spotting the difference between 7 – 2 and 2
– 7, or 25/5 and 5/25.”
66
In another experiment, the patients were
tested on their ability to make sense of nested
expressions. Although they were unable to
understand embedded clauses like “the dog
that is chasing the cat is black”, they could
still evaluate expressions like 36/(2Ч3),
which depend on bracketing. “These, as
well as the other tests we performed, gave
clear evidence that language grammar is
not what drives mathematical insight,” says
Varley.
But maths isn’t just about arithmetic.
Advanced maths involves manipulating
symbols rather numbers; it’s about abstraction. And so is language. In the 1940s a
German neurologist called Kurt Goldstein was working with a woman who, when
shown an object, was unable to name its colour. To see whether this was due to
an inability to perceive colours, or to an inability to pin them down with words,
Goldstein performed a number of tests using coloured chips. It turned out that his
patient was perfectly able to match chips of a certain colour. However, when asked
to group together all the blues (light and dark), she failed. “At a concrete perceptual
level the lady was able to see two things as being the same, but when it came to an
abstract term like blue, which encompasses a range of perceptually different things,
she failed.”
Results like these clearly point to an independence of language and maths, at least
later on in life. They may also have interesting therapeutic applications. In another
case study Varley checked to see whether language ability could be regained on the
back of mathematical insight. The study again involved an individual who retained
maths, but had difficulty with language grammar. “We drew the individual’s attention
to something he understood very well in maths, for example that 7 – 2 is different
from 2 – 7. We then linked the 7 and 2 to subject and object of sentences like “the boy
kissed the girl” pointing out that these are different as well.
“Similarly, people with agrammatic aphasia are believed to have particular difficulty
with understanding verbs. Often they tend to neglect them, looking instead at those
nice chunky nouns that have lots of meaning associated to them. But as soon as you
start neglecting verbs, comprehension begins to fall apart, because you need the verb
to understand the relationship between nouns.” The mathematical analogue of a verb
in a sentence is an operator like a plus or minus sign. Varley gave her patient missing
operator problems: he was asked, for example, to complete the expression 10 ? 4= 40
so that it is correct. “We highlighted the importance of the operator and then pointed
out that operators are like verbs. “The boy hit the girl” and “ the boy kissed the girl”
are two completely different things. The verb is the glue of a sentence and you must
attend to it.”
67
So what about the initial question: did our capacities for maths and language evolve
separately, or is maths a by-product of language? Results like Varley’s hint towards
the former, but also show up the analogies between maths structures and language
structures. “One possibility is that language and maths co-evolved from some common
underlying ability,” says Varley. “There might be something about mind or brain that
enables both maths and language. If we happen to live in a language culture, which
all humans do, we acquire language, but if we happen to live in a culture which has
maths, then by that same faculty we acquire maths.”
A lot more work needs to be done to test hypotheses like this one, but it’s well
worth doing. Understanding the evolution of our various faculties will provide an
important clue to the riddle of human cognition.
Article 3
If maths is boring, what is the answer?

Marcus du Sautoy,
Professor of Mathematics,
Wadham College, Oxford
It therefore came as a huge shock to me

to discover recently that a school of Indian
mathematicians in Kerala in south India
arrived at this formula several centuries
earlier. It should, in fact, be called the
Madhava formula, in honour of the Hindu
scholar who first hit upon it.
π��
was not the only great mathematical
discovery made in India. Negative numbers
and zero – concepts that in Europe, as late
as the 14th century, were viewed with huge
suspicion – were being conjured with on the subcontinent
as early as the seventh century.
The authorities in Florence temporarily “banned”
the zero in 1299. Seeing how the mathematicians of the
past wrestled with the same problems that contemporary
students find difficult might help them realise that the
discipline did not appear from nowhere.
There is something empowering in knowing that mathematicians used to have
trouble with the concept of zero and negative numbers.
Some eminent mathematicians made their breakthroughs while at school.
68
The revolutionary French scholar Evariste Galois discovered a new language for
symmetry as a schoolboy before he was killed in a duel at the age of 20 over love and
politics. Some even went mad doing their maths.
Georg Cantor spent many years in a mental asylum after contemplating the
infinite. Stories like these can bring the subject alive for those who find the excitement
of pure mathematics hard to tap into.
It’s not as if mathematics and history are so far removed from each other; maths
has an inbuilt historical narrative. Each generation builds on the foundations of results
proved by those who had gone before.
Unlike in the other sciences, mathematical theories are not
overturned; the discoveries of the ancient Egyptians are as true
as they ever were.
Students who learn to calculate the area of a circle using
пи��
, or the volume of a pyramid using calculus, are treading in
the footsteps of 5,000 years of mathematicians. The Egyptians
needed such formulas to calculate how to tax pieces of land
carved out by the winding Nile, or to know how many bricks to
use in the pyramids of Giza.
Today, when footballers position themselves in the box to
tee up an incoming free kick, they are solving quadratic equations, a formula which,
according to workings found on Babylonian clay tablets, was being applied as early
as 1800BC.
Until recently, I didn’t know a lot about the history of my subject.
I believed that what matters most is the mathematics.
If you understand the theorems and the proofs, is it important who created them
or in what circumstances?
The way we are taught in school and at university reinforces this ahistorical
message. Sure, it is possible to teach mathematics as pure reason that transcends
cultural and national boundaries; that mathematics is a universal language is one of
its attractions.
But it is important to recognise that it is created by people.
The stories of why they battled to solve quadratic equations and invent calculus
provide a powerful motivation for one’s own journey across the mathematical
landscape.
I am certainly not advocating watering down the rigorous side of the subject.
When you are learning a musical instrument you’ll get nowhere without the graft of
doing your scales and arpeggios.
But supplement this with some of the tales of where mathematics has come from
and we might be on to a more engaging approach to learning maths.
69
Article 4
Why parents can’t do maths today

Rob Eastaway
Long division and long multiplication have been replaced in schools by
chunking and gridding. While the new methods are meant to make maths easier,
parents have been left scratching their heads, writes Rob Eastaway.
I used to think I had a good understanding of maths – until my daughter started

going to primary school. That’s when I discovered a revolution had taken place in
the way arithmetic is taught, and there were techniques and terminology that meant
nothing to me.
Let me give you a flavour. In most primary schools, maths lessons are called
numeracy. Children work using number lines and learn their number bonds, they fill
in Carroll Diagrams, and they calculate using the grid method and something that
carries the peculiar name of “chunking”.
Like most parents – numerate or otherwise – my first reaction to this was annoyance.
Why have they changed it? Now my child gets cross when I try to explain using my
methods. Is this why some people reckon the country’s maths is going to the dogs?
I decided to find out more, and ended up writing a book aimed at parents, like me, who
wanted to have a better understanding of how young children learn maths these days.
Researching the book was a revelation.
What became clear is that at school I was one of the lucky ones. Being strong with
numbers, I had no problem learning the black-box techniques of long multiplication
and long division, and usually got the right answer.
But for a huge proportion of children, these techniques were a meaningless chore.
Ask most adults today to carry out a long multiplication or division sum and they will
look blankly at you.
They may have, sort of, got it once, but they can’t remember how to do it. And
anyway, we have calculators now, don’t we?
The point about calculators is important. Many of the techniques we were taught at
school date back to Victorian times, when the country needed vast numbers of clerks
to perform calculations every day. Today, calculators and spreadsheets can do these
tasks far quicker, so the need for everybody to be able to do big calculations by hand
has largely disappeared.
That’s not to say we don’t need strong number skills.
We are inundated by numbers all the time, whether it’s somebody flogging us a
mobile phone package or a politician trying to convince us about a particular policy.
As a society we have to make sense of these numbers if we are to successfully manage
our lives.
Do we all need to be able to work out 27 × 43 precisely with a pen and paper?
Probably not. But we do need to know that 27 × 43 is roughly 30 × 40, and that this
70
is roughly 1,200. It’s partly the need to have a good feel for numbers that is behind
the modern methods.
The revolution in the teaching of maths at primary school kicked in with the National
Numeracy Strategy in 1999. The emphasis moved away from blindly following rules
(remember borrowing one from the next column and paying back?) towards techniques
a child understood.
One of the methods that has been adopted widely is the “grid method” for
multiplication, which links to a visual method that many children find easier to
understand.
Use the step-by-step guide below for a quick refresher on long multiplication, then
an introduction to the grid method.
Another important method, used for division, is “chunking”. To understand
chunking, you need to think about what division actually means. Division is usually
introduced through the idea of sharing. You want to divide 18 sweets fairly between
six children. How many sweets do they each get? 18 / 6 = 3.
But what if the problem is this: you need to put 18 sweets into bags of six. How
many bags do you need?
This isn’t about sharing, it’s taking away sweets in chunks of six until there are
none left, and then counting the bags. Here, “division” is really repeated subtraction,
but calculated in the same way, 18 / 6 = 3.
Chunking is a method based around repeated subtraction and many people find
it an easier way to tackle division problems. Ever wondered why six divided by Ѕ is
12? Think of it as “how many times can I take Ѕ a pizza away from six pizzas?” and
it becomes clear that the answer is indeed 12.
So is the nation’s maths better thanks to these new methods? Certainly the horror
stories of children being punished or humiliated for getting things wrong have all but
disappeared, as have the tedious lessons of endless sums. There is also some evidence
that children do have a better understanding of the methods they’re using, and make
fewer mistakes when they use them.
But that isn’t the full story. To become fully numerate you need to know when
to use these methods, you need to practise, and you also need to be able to estimate,
which means knowing your times tables off by heart.
My own experience, and the feedback I get from others, is that many children are
missing out on these basics. Is too much energy being diverted into taking Sates tests?
Does the problem lie with teachers who don’t have enough maths knowledge? Or is
too much emphasis being placed on enjoyment at the expense of rigour?
Perhaps it’s all of these things. But we shouldn’t be relying just on schools to impart
all this knowledge in any case. Children learn maths at home too, whether it’s helping
with cooking, playing board games or helping mum and dad to measure wallpaper.
Forcing a child to learn the methods we were taught can result in frustration and
tantrums. For the sake of harmony at home if nothing else, it’s not a bad idea to get
familiar with chunking, number lines and the rest.
71
Article 5
Perfect Buildings: the Maths of Modern Architecture

Marianne Freiberger
Architecture has in the past done great things for geometry. Together with the need
to measure the land they lived on, it was people’s need to build their buildings that
caused them to first investigate the theory of formand shape. But today, 4500 years
after the great pyramids were built in Egypt, what can mathematics do for architecture?
At last year’s Bridges conference, which explored the connections between maths and
art and design, “Plus” met up with two architects of the Foster + Partners Specialist
Modelling Group, Brady Peters and Xavier De Kestelier, to cast a mathematical eye
over their work.
Foster + Partners is an internationally renowned studio

for architecture led by Norman Foster and a group of senior
partners. It has created landmarks like 30 St. Mary Axe in
London (also known as the Gherkin), London City Hall and
the Great Court at the British Museum. Ongoing projects
include one of the biggest construction projects on the planet,
Beijing International Airport, as well as the courtyard of
the Smithsonian Institution in Washington DC and the new
Wembley Stadium in London.
Many of Foster + Partners’ projects have one thing in
common: they are huge. This means maximal impact on their
environment and its people. Designing such enormities is a delicate balancing act.
Maths describes the shapes of the structures to be built, the physical features that have
to be understood and it is the language of computers, and so it forms the basis for every
step of the modeling process. Computer models can stimulate the way the wind blows
around the building or sound waves bounce around inside it. Graphic programs can
explore different mathematical surfaces and populate them with panels of different
textures. And all the information you get from these models can be pulled together
in what is probably the most important innovation in architectural CAD tools recent
years: parametric modelling.
Take the Gherkin shown on the left as an example. It is one of the projects the SMG was
involved with and is a prime example of how geometry was chosen to satisfy constraints.
Going by the official name of 30 St Mary Axe, the building is 180 metres tall, three times
the height of the Niagara Falls. There are three main features that make it stand out from
most other skyscrapers: it’s round rather than square, it bulges in the middle and tapers to
a thin end towards the top, and it’s based on a spiraling design. All these could easily be
taken as purely aesthetic features, yet they all cater to specific constraints.
72
One thing that was decided at the outset was that the Gherkin should be as sustainable
a building as possible, and this meant choosing a shape that maximizes natural air
ventilation (to save on air conditioning) and the influx of natural sunlight (to save on
heating and lighting bills). Six triangular wedges were cut out of the circular plan of each
floor, penetrating deep into the building’s interior. These serve as light wells, and the
shafts they create increase natural ventilation. However, the wedges do not sit right on top
of each other. Aerodynamic modeling showed that ventilation is maximized if the plan of
one floor is rotated by several degrees with respect to the one below. Thus, the shafts the
wedges create spiral up the building and interact optimally with the air currents caused by
the building’s outward shape. Windows in the facade of the wedges open automatically
and draw fresh air into the building. As a result of this carefully chosen geometry, the
building reportedly uses 50 % less energy than others of comfortable size.
The London City Hall houses the Mayor
of London, the London Assembly and the
Greater London Authority. The use of glass
and a giant helical staircase in the interior are
supposed to symbolize the transparency and the
accessibility of the democratic process. What
is most striking when looking from the outside,
though, is the building’s odd shape.
What makes the Gherkin, the London
City Hall and many other Foster + Partners’
structures look so modern is the fact that their outer skins are made up of curved
surfaces. These are notoriously difficult and hence expensive to produce, so here’s a
geometer’s challenge: how do you best construct them from simpler shapes? “This is
one of our main challenges,” Kestelier, “in fact 99% of our projects don’t contain any
curved surfaces at all. The Gherkin, for example, only has a single curved panel and
that’s the lens right at the top.” The impression of the building being curved is created
by approximating the curved surface by a number of flat polygonal panels the more
panels the truer the illusion. The SMG have become experts at finding such flat panel
solutions to describe complicated surfaces. And, as De Kestelier explains, the geometry
is often determined by economy: “We tend to use quadrilateral panels, because that’s
more economical. It’s cheaper when you cut the material. With triangles you lose quite
a lot of material, but not with quadrilaterals. It’s also nice visually I think, because
with quadrilaterals you see less structure.” This is illustrated in the London City Hall
whose surface consists entirely of quadrilateral shapes.
Surfaces that can be described by mathematical equations such as slices of cones,
tori, or spheres often form the basis of SMG’s design. This is advantageous when
it comes to creating virtual models, as mathematically generated surfaces are easily
represented on a computer.
This process of rationalisation forms another important part of the SMG’s work.
But, as before, mathematical perfection has to make way for practicality: “The other
73
week someone came to me with the plan of a wall that was part of an ellipse,” says
De Kestelier. “Of course an ellipse is easy to describe mathematically, why would
you want to rationalize it further? Well, I decided to rationalize this piece of ellipse
into three circular arcs. The reason is, when the wall is being built, you need to cast a
concrete wall. This is done using a number of casting panels that fit together to give
the overall shape. If you have an ellipse, all your casting panels have to be different:
the curvature of an ellipse changes constantly as you go around it. If instead of an
ellipse you have three arcs, then you only need three sets of panels and the panels in
each set are the same. This is much easier.” What is ideal for a mathematician is not
always ideal for an architect.
II. Project Ideas

Study the literature about different unsolved mathematical problems. Choose one of
them, prepare a report and a presentation on the achieved results. Share your ideas.
74
Part II English for Students of Physics
Unit I. Physics and Physical Phenomena
Physics is a broad science about nature. In nature there exists a vast number of
different objects. Any object (a ruler, a pencil, sand, scissors, a drop of water, a stone,
the globe, etc.) is called a physical body or a body. All bodies consist of matter. Steel,
copper, rubber, water, air, a stone are different kinds of matter.
Upon carefully observing different physical bodies, we notice, without any particu-
lar difficulty, that various changes take place in these bodies. All changes which occur
in a physical body are known as phenomena. If a piece of ice is brought into a warm
room, it melts. Water in a tea-kettle boils for a long time, all of it will be transformed
into steam. A stone released from the hand falls to the earth. If we pass an electric cur-
rent through the wire, the wire will become heated. The melting of ice, the boiling of
water, the falling of a stone, the heating of a wire by an electric current, wind, light-
ning—all these are different phenomena.
Physics studies mechanics, sound, heat, electricity and magnetism, light and spec-
troscopy, atomic and nuclear physics and astrophysics. In addition to these fields of
physics, another fields are rapidly developing. These different fields are not distinct
but merge into each other. In all cases physics deals primarily with phenomena that
can be accurately described in terms of matter and energy.
Physics is one of the main sciences about nature, because the development of other
sciences depends in many respects on the knowledge of physical phenomena.
science наука
�� heat��
теплота
copper медь
�� merge��
соединяться, сливаться
observe наблюдать
�� lightning��
молния
change��
изменение sound��
звук
occur��
происходить release��
освобождать
light��
свет depend��
on��
��
зависеть
current��
поток exist��
существовать
wire��
проволока
to take place the boiling of water

a vast number of the falling of a stone
upon carefully observing the heating of a wire
the melting of ice
75
Vocabulary Training
I. Give Russian equivalents to the following words without using a dictionary:
globe [gloub] transform [træns’fɔ:m]

matter [‘mætǝ] pass [pa:s]
various [‘vɛəriəs] electrical [ɪ’lektrɪkəl]
magnetic [mæɡ’netɪk] astrophysics [æstrə’fɪzɪks]
biophysics [‘baɪou’fiziks] spectroscopy [spetrə’skoupɪ]
table below:
1. science a. происходить
��
2. copper b. ��
свет
3. observe c. поток
��
4. change d. ��
соединяться, сливаться
5. occur� e. молния
��
6. light f. ��
теплота
7. current g. ��
звук
8. wire h. ��
наука
9. heat i. существовать
��
10. merge j. изменение
��
11. lightning k. ��
медь
12. sound l. освобождать
��
13. release m. случаться
��
, происходить
14. depend��
on
�� n. ��
наблюдать
15. exist o. ��
проволока
16. ��
to take place p��
. зависеть��
от
��
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
III. Unscramble the words and find equivalents:

1. ��
sicnmaceh наблюдать
2. ��
vbsoere таяние
3. ��
emrtat природа
4. ��
lmenitg явление
5. ��
hennemoopn кипение
6. ��
truane вещество
7. ��
oniilbg механика
76
IV. Fill in the following words in the gaps.
water transformed phenomenon steam

light matter electric wire
1.��
��
All bodies consist of …. 2. Wind is a physical … . 3. We cannot imagine modern
civilization without the … current. 4. We … streets by an electricity. 5. Water will be
transformed into … . 6. A piece of ice will be … into … . 7. ��
Electrons would actually
move through the _____ in the opposite direction.
V. Translate from Russian into English:

Виды вещества, различные явления, любой предмет, звук, ядерная физика,
квантовая физика, физическое тело, разнообразные изменения, особая трудность,
зависеть от знания, превращаться в пар, электрический ток, падение камня, без
особого труда, кусок льда, огромное количество, наука о природе, различные
виды вещества, таяние льда, биофизика, электричество, молния, кипение воды,
внимательно наблюдая, одна из главных наук, капля воды, нагревание проволо-
ки, долгое время, во многих отношениях, быстро развиваться
VI. Match the words in 2 columns, what do these expressions mean? Make up

your own sentences with these word combinations.
1. ��
melting of a) in physical body
2. ��
physical b) each other
3. ��
to occur
�� c) ��
current
4. merge into d) ��
changes
5. ��
electric e) ��
ice
6. ��
various f) ��
a wire
7. ��
heating of g) ��
body
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
VII. Answer the following questions

1. What is physics?
2. What does physics study?
3. What is called a physical phenomena?
4. What does any body consists of?
5. When does the wire become heated?
6. When does a piece of ice melt?
77
VIII. Make up and write 5 sentences using the words given in the table:
Physics consist of different phenomena.

All bodies are for a long time.
Water is a science about nature.
Rubber and copper boils matter.
deals with different kinds of matter.
IX. Translate the following sentences and explain the use of tenses in them:
1.Modern civilization depends on science. 2.When we think of such things as
washing machines, refrigerators, television sets and motor cars, power stations,
foodstaffs, plastic and drugs, we realize that this is true. 3. In many subjects, in
history and geography for example, we learn facts and how to use or interpret them.
4. This is also true of science; but in addition, the method of discovering the facts, the
experimental method, is just as important as the facts themselves. 5. We will study
some of the important aspects of physics. 6. We will learn certain essential principles
of mechanics, heat, sound, optics, electricity, optics, magnetism and structure of
matter.
X. Make up and write questions using the words given in the table:
What do different changes melt?

When does a stone fall?
Where is a physical phenomenon? use?
are different kinds of matter? observe?
you occur?
a physicist
any object
a piece of ice
XI. Make up questions to the following sentences:

1.Physics deals with different phenomena. 2. Dynamics studies the motion in
bodies. 3. Various changes take place in bodies. 4. Physics is one of the main sciences
about nature. 5. Physicists observe the motion of bodies. 6. A piece of ice melts in a
warm room. 7. Electric current heats a wire. 8. Any body consists of matter.
XII. Read the dialogue and learn it by heart.

– Hello, Nick! How are you?
– Fine, thank you . And you Pete?
– Pretty well, thanks. Do you study or work, Nick?
78
– I study. And you, Pete?
– I work at a plant. Where do you study, Nick?
– At the Pedagogical Institute. I am a first year student of the Faculty of Physics. I
study physics which is my favourite subject, as you know.
– Do you know, Nick, what physics is?
– Certainly. Physics is a broad science. It deals with different phenomena.
– Can you tell anything about them?
– Certainly I can. All changes which occur in a physical body are known as
phenomena. The melting of ice, the boiling of water, the falling of a stone, the heating
of a wire by an electric current, wind, sound, light are called physical phenomena.
– Oh, I see. Physics is a very interesting subject, isn’t it?
– Yes, it is. We will study some of the important aspects of physics.
– Yes, and also you will learn essential principles of mechanics, heat, sound, light,
optics, electricity and magnetism
Text 2. Read the text and note the important details:

1. The scientific problems that Lomonosov worked at.
2. Lomonosov as the father of Russian science.
M. V. Lomonosov
The great scientist, M. V. Lomonosov, was born in 1711, far
off in the��
North.
��
He did not go to school, but he learned to read
at an early age and soon knew by heart the few books that he
had. His thirst for knowledge was so great that at age of 19 he
left his father’s home and started on foot to Moscow, where he
entered the Slavonic- Greek-Latin Academy. His first years of
study were difficult, but he worked hard and made great prog-
ress. He continued his studies in Petersburg and later on in for-
eign countries.
Lomonosov had studied phylosophy, chemistry, mathematics, physics and foreign
languages before he came back to Petersburg. At the age of 35 he was already a pro-
fessor.
It is impossible to name a scientific problem that did not attract his attention. He
always tried to find a practical application for scientific problem and stood for close
cooperation between theory and practice. He founded the first chemical laboratory in
Russia. He formulated the main principles of one of the basic laws in physics – the
law of conservation of matter and motion. He also made a number of experiments
with atmospheric electricity and gave much time to the study of the natural resources
of the earth and the ocean.
He lectured on physics and other subjects, taught students, translated the works
of various foreign scientists into Russian. He himself wrote books in the Russian
79
language. He give much attention to scientific research in the Russian language and
grammar.
Lomonosov died in April, 1765. He devoted his whole life to the development of
Russian science, and all that he did, he did for his people and for his country.
We call Lomonosov the father of Russian science because he is really the first
Russian scientist in the true sense of the word.
Vocabulary Training
I. Read the following words and translate them:

Phylosophy, mathematics, physics, professor, problem, theory, practice, laboratory,
ocean, principle, experiments, natural, resources
II. Read and translate the following word groups:
science – scientist – scientific; formulate – formula;

to know – knowledge; electricity – electrical;
home – homeless; found – foundation;
difficult– difficulties; various – variety;
problem – problematic; really – realization.
theory – theoretical;
III. ��
1. How and when did Lomonosov learn to read?
2. What Academy did Lomonosov enter at the age of 19?
3. What subjects did Lomonosov study?
4. What scientific problems was Lomonosov interested in?
5. What did he lecture on?
80
Unit II. Measurements in Physics�
Physics is a subject which deals with electricity, magnetism, heat, light, sound,
mechanics and properties of matter. In all these branches of physics very little real
progress was made until measurements were attempted, and today it is generally rec-
ognized that a trained physicist must be able to measure accurately distances, volumes,
masses, time and temperature as well as other quantities such as electric current and
voltage. Every physical quantity has its own unit of measurement. To make any mea-
surement we need some fixed quantity called a unit, so we must consider this subject
first. For scientific and engineering purposes there are three quantities of fundamental
significance. These are mass, time and length. We must learn the units of measurement
of these quantities before considering other aspects. This is because all other quanti-
ties – of volume, force, electric power or even the chemical energy stored in a lump
of coal – are measured in units whose values depend on our choice of the fundamen-
tal units of mass, time and length.
Realize that the way in which we choose to define a unit is left to our own conve-
nience. In England the fundamental unit of length is the yard. In France, on the other
hand, the standard of length is the metre, rather more than the yard. Naturally, in the
course of time, different countries have chosen their own values for the fundamental
units. This did not matter much until trade between countries became extensive. In recent
times scientists in countries all over the world have agreed to use a particular system in
science, called the metre-kilogramme-second, or M.K.S., system. The metre is the unit
of length, the kilogramme is the unit of weight, the second is the unit of time, while the
litre is the unit of volume. We say that the milk is measured by the litre, the coal is mea-
sured by the ton, the cloth is measured by the metre and so on. Without a unit accuracy
is impossible. To measure the size of anything means to compare it with the standard
with which other people compare the size of things measured by them. For instance, we
measure the length of a table by comparing it with the length of a metre.
Vocabulary Training

mechanics [mi’kæniks] fundamental [fʌndə’mentl]
accurately [‘ækjuritli] mass [mæs]
distance [‘distəns] aspect [‘æspekt]
temperature [‘tempritʃə] chemical [‘kemikəl]
voltage [‘voultidʒ] yard [ja:d]
fixed [fikst] system [sistim]
81
table below:
1. deal with a. количество

��
2. measurement b. ��
сравнивать
3. property c. длина
��
4. weight d. ��
иметь дело с
5. length e. рассматривать
��
6. consider f. ��
физик
7. volume g. ��
измерение
8. quantity h. ��
признать
9. unit i. объём
��
10. recognize j. вес
��
11. store k. ��
единица
12. compare l. свойство
��
13. physicist m. вмещать
��
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
III. Find in the text English equivalents for these words and word combinations
Физическая величина, единица измерения, химическая энергия, зависит от
выбора, в последнее время, для научных целей, измеряются в единицах, напри-
мер, единица веса, фундаментального значения, опытный физик, фиксированное
количество, прежде чем рассматривать другие аспекты, с течением времени
IV. Match the words to their meaning on the right:
1) unit a) the amount of space that a substance or object occupies

2) volume b) an amount of something that can be counted or measured
3) property c) a single thing or a separate part of something larger
4) quantity d) the length, height etc of something
5) measurement e) an attribute, quality, or characteristic of something
1 2 3 4 5
V. Fill in the following words in the gaps.

unit, size, measurements, volume, deals, quantity, trained, property, use
1. Every … physicist makes a lot of measurements. 2. We measured the _____ of
room last time. 3. What do you use to measure the ____ of milk. 4. Physics ____ with
many phenomena. 5. We make _____ every day in our laboratory. 6. Elasticity is
82
the ____ of solid bodies. 7. Every physical _____ has its own _____ of measurement.
8. We ____ different units of length.
VI. Correct the following sentences:
1. In France, on the other hand, the standard of length is the yard. 2. The metre
is the unit of weight. 3. The milk is measured by the kilogram. 4. For scientific and
engineering purposes there are two quantities of fundamental significance. 5. To make
any measurement we need some fixed quantity called a metre. 6. The minute is the
unit of time. 7. Only several physical quantities have their own unit of measurement.

1)What do we need to make any measurement?
2)How do we measure the length of the table?
3) What unit does a physicist use to measure the weight of a body?
4) What is a unit of volume?
5) What is the metre?
6) What is the ton?
7) What must a trained physicist be able to measure accurately?
VIII. Translate��
into��
��
English�:
��
1) Физика изучает теплоту, звук, свет и свойства материи. 2) Каждая физи-
ческая величина имеет свою единицу измерения. 3) Жидкость измеряется лит-
ром. 4) Вес измеряется килограммом, длина измеряется метром. 5) Мы говорим,
что литр – это единица объема, метр – единица длины и тонна – единица веса.
6) Примерами основных величин являются длина и время. 7) В метрической сис-
теме каждая величина измеряется в трех основных единицах – метр, килограмм,
секунда. 8) Часто определения физической величины записывается в виде мате-
матической формулы.
IX. Listen to this dialogue and learn it by heart:

– Now, Nick, let us have a talk about measurement. What do you need to make
any measurement?
– I need some fixed quantity called a unit.
– That’s all right. You are familiar with the idea that measurement requires a system
of units, aren’t you?
– Certainly, I am. Every physical quantity has its own unit of measurement.
– You are quite right. What units of volume do you know?
– Oh, it depends on the system. In the M.K.S. system the unit is the cubic metre,
though the litre and the millilitre are widely used. Do you know the volume of 1 litre?
– Yes, I do. 1 litre is the volume of exactly 1 kilogramne of water, measured at a
temperature of 4° Celsius.
83
Text 2. Read the texts and note the important details.
Measurement of Volume
For measuring the volume of a liquid, different graduated
glass vessels are available, the choice of which depends on the
circumstances. Volumes are measured in cubic centimetres (cu. cm.)
or millilitres (ml). The litre is equal to 1000 cu.cm.
The unit of volume for all scientific purposes is the volume of
a cube each edge of which is one centimetre in length. This unit is
called the cubic centimetre, and is generally written cu.cm. or cm3.
The unit of volume in the metric system is the litre which is
the volume of a kilogramme of pure water at the temperature of its
maximum density (4 °C). The litre is thus for all practical purposes equal to 1000
cubic decimetres.
Different measuring vessels are used in the laboratories. They are: the measuring
cylinder, flask, pipette, burette and others. The measuring cylinder is for measuring on
pouring out various volumes of liquid; the measuring flask and pipette for obtaining
fixed, prechosen volumes. The burette delivers any required volume up to its total
capacity, usually 550 cumin and is long and thin to increase its sensitivity. The
divisions may represent 0.1 cu.cm, while in the case of the measuring cylinder they
may represent 1.5 or 10 cu. cm. according to the size of the cylinder.
Time
Time as mass and length are fundamental physical quantities. We all realize instinctively
what is meant by this word. The earth moving in its orbit round the sun and daily rotating
on its axis forms a reliable natural “clock” which we can use to provide a satisfactory unit
of time. To us on earth it is the sun which appears to move. The time interval which, on the
average, separates the two successive moments when the sun is highest in the sky is called
the mean solar day. Exactly one twenty-fourth of this is the hour, one sixtieth of the hour is
the minute, and one sixtieth of the minute is the mean solar second. The mean solar second
is the fundamental unit of time in both the British system and the M.K.S system. Time is
measured by clocks of various kinds. Mechanical clocks are, however, a comparatively
recent invention. The latest scientific clocks are electrical.
I. Guess the meaning of these words:

graduated, cubic, system, maximum, practical, decimetres, laboratory, cylinder,
flask, pipette, divisions.
II. Answer the questions below about details of the text:

a) What does the choice of measuring vessels depend on?
b) What is the unit of volume for all scientific purposes?
c) What measuring vessels are used in the laboratories?
84
III. Match the nouns to their meaning on the right:
1) litre a) a unit of time equal to sixty seconds

2) cylinder b) a unit of capacity equal to one thousandth of a liter
3) second c) an object with flat circular ends and long straight sides.
4) milliliter d) unit of capacity equal to one cubic decimeter
5) minute e) a slender tube attached to or incorporating a bulb, for measuring
out small quantities of liquid, especially in a laboratory.
6) pipette f) a sixtieth of a minute of time
1 2 3 4 5 6
IV. Fill in the gaps using the nouns from exercise III. Translate the sentences
into Russian:
1. The kit contains test tubes, _______, funnels and other lab materials necessary
for multiple experiments and activities.
2. Historically, the word “_______” comes from the Latin pars minuta prima,
meaning “first small part”.
3. The new pump should produce an additional 220,000 ________ per hour.
4. The _______ is also part of several other units of measurement like velocity,
acceleration, and frequency.
5. Pour exactly 100 ml of sulphuric acid into a measuring _________.
6. Did you know there are millions of picoplankton in a ______ of water?
V. Speak on the Topic “Measurements in Physics”, give your own examples.
85
Unit III. The Metric System
During the last decade of the eighteenth century, the French Government made
an entirely new standard of length – the metre. This was intended to be 1/40,000,000
of the circumference of the earth measure through the poles. The present standard,
a bar of a platinum-iridium alloy which is very resistant to the corrosion in the earth’s
atmosphere, was set up in 1875. Later, more precise measurements have shown that
this standard is not quite correct in the terms of the earth’s circumference, but for all
that remains the standard. The system of measurement based on the metre, the Metric
System, was designed for simplicity, and other units used are obtained from the metre
by multiplying or dividing by tens. The secret of the simplicity of the Metric System
is that it is a “decimal” system. It was hoped originally that, because of the great
convenience of the Metric System, it would be adopted universally. An International
Bureau was set up at Sevres to handle the standardization of metric units, and copies
of the metre were distributed to thirty-one nations. Scientists over the world were
quick to see the advantages of the Metric System, and it is used in all scientific work,
wherever it is carried out. It is therefore the system of measurements with which we
shall be mainly concerned in our work in physics.
In 1961 the new state standard “International System of Units” (SI) was adopted
in our country.
Vocabulary Training
decade [‘dekeid] corrosion [kə’rouʒən]

standard [‘stændəd] correct [kə’rekt]
pole [poul] based [beizd]
platinum [plætinəm] secret [‘si:krit]
iridium [ai’ridiəm] universally [juni’və:səli]
copies [‘kopiz] bureau [bjuə’rou]
II. Rearrange the letters in the anagrams to form equivalents for the Russian
words:
lalyo сплав
rsnisttae устойчивый
edsgin проектировать
86
errnciumefecc окружность
iotnba получать
ptiyullm умножать
eidvdi делить
croennc касаться, соприкасаться
idnten намереваться
aehtr земля
III. Match the words in A with the words in B to form word combinations:
A B
resistant to measurement
system of work
last corrosion
scientific units
metric decade
IV. Find English equivalent to the following words and expressions:

C��
истема измерения, платино-иридиевый сплав, десятичная система, более точ-
ное измерение, в последнее десятилетие, окружность Земли, устойчивый к корро-
зии, преимущества, получены из метра, научная работа, атмосфера Земли
V. Fill in the following words in the gaps.

metre, alloy, obtained, designed, advantages, length, resistant
1. The French Government made an entirely new standard of ____ – the metre.
2. The ____ was intended to be the unit of length. 3. A bar of a platinum-iridium ___
is very resistant to the ____ in the earth’s atmosphere. 4. The other units were _____
by multiplying or dividing the metre by tens. 5. The new system of measurements was
_____ for simplicity. 6. We were quick to see the _____ of the metric system
VI. Correct the following sentences:

1. The present standard is not resistant to the corrosion in the earth’s atmosphere.
2. The Metrix system is based on the milimetre. 3. The other units of Metric system
are obtained from the metre by multiplying or dividing by five. 4. In our county the
new state standard “International System of Units” was adopted in 1915. 5. The French
Government made an entirely new standard of length in the 19th century. 6. The Metric
system is a binary system.

1. When did the French Government made an entirely new standard of length?
2. When was the present standard set up?
87
3. What is the Metric System?
4. What was the Metric System designed for?
5. What are the other units of measurement obtained from?
6. Where was the International Bureau set up?
7. How is the standard metre defined?
8. What is the Metric System used for?
9. Who uses the Metric System?

В системе единиц для каждой физической величины должна быть предусмот-
рена соответствующая единица измерения. Таким образом, отдельная единица
измерения нужна для длины, площади, объема, скорости и т. д.
Метрическая система – международная десятичная система единиц, осно-
ванная на использовании метра. В метрической системе для любой физической
величины существует лишь одна главная единица и набор единиц, образуемых
от неё стандартным образом с помощью умножения или деления на 10. В Рос-
сии метрическая система была введена 30 апреля 1917 г. До этого времени дейс-
твовала традиционная русская система мер.
Ученые начали выводить новые единицы для разных физических величин,
с которыми они имели дело.
Text 2. Read
��
the text and get its central idea. Write sentences that best tell
the central idea.
Origin of the Metric System

The metric or decimal system is the international system of measures and weights
based on the metre and the kilogramme. That system was recognized by all the coun-
tries of the world except England and America.
Previously to the introduction of the Metric System, the terms “foot” and “pound”
that were used for hundreds of different weights and lengths, caused serious difficul-
ties in the commercial relations among various countries.
The idea of securing a uniform system of measures and weights dates from long
ago, but it was only at the close of the 18th century that it was realized. In 1791 a com-
mission set up by the French Academy of Science recommended that the standard of
length should be one ten-millionth part of the distance from the Earth’s Equator to the
North Pole measured along the meridian.
The two French mathematicians who were charged with the task of defining these
units, took the distance from the North Pole to the Equator, on a line running through
Paris, and divided it into ten million equal parts. One of these parts they called a metre.
For shorter measurements they divided the metre by ten or used the decimal sys-
tem. For longer things they multiplied the metre by tens. Whenever they divided, they
88
did it in Latin, and whenever they multiplied, they did it in Greek. Thus “millimetre”
is Latin for “a thousandth of a metre”, while “kilometre” is Greek for “a thousand
metres” and so on with the other terms. It was easy to use the same metre for vol-
ume. The weight of one cubic centimetre of water was called a gramme, one thousand
grammes making a kilogramme. Thus the metric or decimal system was created, that
has found such a wide application in the world of today.
Why Hasn’t The U.S. Adopted The Metric System?

While most nations use the Metric System – those units of decimals that are uni-
versally employed in science – the U.S. still clings to pounds, inches, and feet. Despite
several high-profile attempts to change that, Americans refuse to convert.
Thomas Jefferson first tried to move the nation toward a decimal-based system in
1789. But without support from scientists, his idea flopped. More than a century later,
in 1906, telephone inventor Alexander Graham Bell told Congress that “few people
have any adequate conception of the amount of unnecessary labor involved in the use
of our present weights and measures.”
Strong words, but still no change.
Things looked promising in 1968, when Congress authorized a three-year study
that eventually recommended converting to metric and laid out a 10-year plan to get
there. But they did not make the switch mandatory. Instead, business owners and peo-
ple who opposed big government and globalization –and who saw conversion as ced-
ing control –won the battle for hearts and minds. A Gallup poll at the time showed
that 45 percent of Americans opposed the switch.
Today, the problem with metric is the same as it’s always been: The benefits of
switching are negligible, but the costs are huge. Manufacturers would have to con-
vert values on packaging. Everyday people would have to replace their tape measures,
switch to metric wrenches, waste time figuring out what it means to say its 20 degrees
Celsius outside.
Even metric fans see the hassle. “Like all educated people, I just assumed it made
perfect sense to go metric,” says Donald Hillger, president of the U.S. Metric Asso-
ciation, which was founded a century ago to promote conversion. “Now I look at it
and think: ‘Exactly what am I personally going to get from this? I’m going to get
annoyed.’”
Still, metric creep is already here. We buy soda by liters, machine car parts in milli
meters, and measure medicine in milligrams. “It is going to happen,” Hillger says, “but
at the rate we’re going, it will take a while.”
Appropriately, it will be a game of inches.
89
Unit IV. The Kinetic Theory and the Three States of Matter
Many scientific facts can be explained by assuming two things:

1) Molecules always possess some motion. This is the basis of the kinetic theory,
since “kinetic” means “in motion”.
2) Molecules exert forces of attraction on each other if they are close enough
together. A force of attraction is something which urges the molecules together and
tends to prevent their escape from one another. It is believed that the forces are only
really large if the molecules are extremely close to each other. The attraction weak-
ens very rapidly with distance. These two assumptions enable the three states of mat-
ter to be explained.�
The gaseous state. A gas is a
substance which: a) has no set shape
of its own, b) fills any vessel into
which it is put, c) exerts a pressure
on anything with which it comes into
contact.
Now suppose that in a certain
container there is a collection of mol-
ecules which are moving about with very high velocities in all directions. Then they
will continually collide with each other, knocking each other violently aside. They will
therefore keep each other at a distance and their average distance apart will be suffi-
ciently large for the forces of attraction between them not to matter. The molecules
will make full use of all the space available in the containing vessel. In their constant
collisions with the walls of the vessel or anything placed in their path, they will exert a
pressure there. They rebound from each other immediately on collision, they can exert
no lasting forces of attraction and so will not take up any fixed shape of their own.
The liquid state. A liquid is a substance which: a) possesses a definite volume, yet
b) has no shape of its own, but takes up the shape of that part of the containing vessel
with which it comes into contact, c) Also, if heated, it will evaporate and eventually
boil; while if it is cooled, it will eventually freeze and become solid.
Suppose the velocities of the molecules referred to above are by some means pro-
gressively reduced. Then the violence of their mutual collisions will steadily weak-
en. Soon the attractive forces will cause them to collapse together and their average
distance apart to become very small. Each molecule will have little chance of escap-
ing from the forces of attraction of its neighbouring molecules, though it can wander
about amongst them. As a result, all the molecules will be weakly held together and
will thereby occupy a much smaller but definite space. These are just the fundamental
properties of the liquid states.
90
The solid state. A solid is a substance which: a) possesses a definite volume, b)
has a fixed shape, c) shows a measure of mechanical strength which resists any effort
made to change its shape.
If the motions of molecules are reduced enough, individual molecules may not be able
to escape from the attractive forces of their immediate neighbours. On the average, the
molecules will become closer together than they were in the liquid state – almost touch-
ing, and the forces between them will be correspondingly greater. The motion of each mol-
ecule will have been reduced to a mere vibration to and fro about some fixed position in
the solid structure. Molecules can no longer wander amongst one another as they could in
the liquid state. Each forces its neighbours to stay in their places; and thus the collection
as a whole retains its own shape. This state of affairs represent the solid state.
Vocabulary Training

kinetic fix
theory progressively
molecule chance
distance result
pressure occupy
contact fundamental
container mechanical
collection individual
constant vibration
structure position
table below:
1. exert a. удариться
��
2. prevent b. ��
соприкасаться
3. substance c. выпаривать
��
4. vessel d. ��
сталкиваться
5. move e. сохранять
��
6. velocity f. ��
жидкость
7. collide g. ��
стремительность
8. knock h. ��
оказывать
9. liquid i. приблизиться
��
10. touch j. вещество
��
91
11. attraction k. ��
пространство
12. escape l. скорость
��
13. shape m. препятствовать
��
14. reduce n. ��
сосуд
15. violence o.��
среднее число
16. collapse p.��
уменьшать
17. space q.��
двигаться
18.average r.��
форма
19. retain s.��
притяжение
20. ��
evaporate t.��
избавиться
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
III. Find��
in��
��
��
the��
��
text��
English��
��
equivalents��
��
for��
��
these��
��
words��
��
and��
��
word��
��
combinations
��
Газообразное состояние, сила притяжения, научные факты, среднее расстоя-
ние, жидкое состояние, кинетическая теория, три состояния материи, оказывать
давление, определенный объем, изменить форму, движение молекул, скорости
молекул, основные свойства, сохраняет свою форму, заполняет сосуд, испарять-
ся, соприкасаться/вступать в контакт, сталкиваться друг с другом, такое состо-
яние дел, во всех направлениях, очень близко друг от друга
IV. Complete the following sentences:

1. Water can be transformed into … 2. A solid body has a definite …. 3. … readily
alters its shape and adapt itself to the vessel containing it. 4. It is difficult … a solid body.
V. Match the words to their meaning on the right:
1) liquid a) the smallest unit into which any substance can be divided
2) gas b) a container for holding liquids
3) solid c) the amount of space between two places or things
4) vessel d) a substance such as air, which is not solid or liquid, and usually
cannot be seen
5) velocity e) the form that something has, for example round, square, triangular etc
6) molecule f) a substance that flows freely but is of constant volume, having
a consistency like that of water or oil.
7) shape g) the speed of something that is moving in a particular direction
8) distance h) hard or firm, with a fixed shape
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
92
VI. Fill in the following words in the gaps.
gas can shape volume bend

tools destroy alters velocity liquid
1. A substance can be transformed from the _____ state into the solid. 2. It is impos-
sible to fill half of the bottle with ____ as it ____ be done with liquids. 3. Milk in a
glass has the ____ of the glass. 4. Every solid has a definite shape and ____ . 5. We
can ____ a glass tube by heating it. 6. You cannot break a stone without some special
____. 7. You may ____ a glass releasing it from your hand. 8. A liquid ____ its shape.�
9. The speedboat reached a _______
��
of
��
120 mph

1. How can many scientific facts be explained?
2. When do molecules exert forces of attraction?
3. When are forces of attraction really large?
4. In what states may matter exist?
5. What substance is a gas?
6. In what state of a substance are all the molecules weakly held together?
7. In what state of a substance will the molecules become closer together?
8. What does a liquid readily alter?
9. What two characteristics are needed for a substance to be a solid? ��
10. How is a
liquid different from a solid?
VIII. Translate��
into��
��
English�:
��
– ��
Какие основные состояния материи вы знаете?
– ��
Я знаю три состояния: твердое, жидкое и газообразное.
– ��
Вода – это жидкость или газ?
– ��
Это жидкость. Ее можно превратить в пар, не так ли?
– ��
Конечно. Если вы будете кипятить воду долгое время, она превратится
в пар. Вода имеет форму?
– ��
Нет. Она принимает форму сосуда, в котором содержится.
IX. Suggested topics for oral narration:

1. Tell us about assumptions enable the three states of matter to be explaned.
2. Give the definition of a) the gaseous state, b) the liquid state, c) the solid state.
3. What are the three states of matter? Explain how these three states can be
accounted for in terms of attracting molecules possessing kinetic energy.
93
Text 2. Read and give a short outline of the text in English
The Kinetic Theory of Matter

All matter is made of moving particles. Any object in motion has kinetic energy.
Kinetic energy is often called the energy of motion. All the moving objects you see
around you –from cars to planes to butterflies –have kinetic energy. Even objects so
small that you cannot see them, such as atoms, are in motion and have kinetic energy.
An object’s kinetic energy depends both on its speed and mass. The more massive and
faster moving an object is, the more kinetic energy it has.
The states of matter are the result of how particles of matter behave. The kinetic
theory of matter states that all of the particles that make up matter are constantly in
motion. As a result, all particles in matter have kinetic energy. You have already seen
how particles move in the three states of matter. The kinetic theory of matter is what
explains the different states of matter –solid, liquid, and gas.
The particles in a solid, such as concrete, are not free to move around very much.
They vibrate back and forth in the same position and are held tightly together by forc-
es of attraction. The particles in a liquid, such as water in a pool, move much more
freely than particles in a solid. They are constantly sliding around and tumbling over
each other as they move. In a gas, such as the air around you or in a bubble in water,
particles are far apart and move around at high speeds. Particles might collide with
one another, but otherwise they do not interact much.
Particles do not always move at the same speed. Within any group of particles,
some are moving faster than others. A fast-moving particle might collide with another
particle and lose some of its speed. A slow-moving particle might be struck by a faster
one and start moving faster. Particles have a wide range of speeds and often change
speeds.
Take this Mini-Quiz to check your understanding of the material.

1. What is the first assumption of the Kinetic Theory of Matter?
a) Matter consists of molecules and atoms
b) Gases are the same in all matter
c) Matter is the same as kinetic energy
2. What determines how close molecules are to each other?

a) The diameter of the molecules
b) There is no way to tell
c) The state of phase of the material
3. What happens when particles collide?

a) Molecules break into atoms
b) They exchange or transfer kinetic energy
c) The change the state of the material
94
Unit V. Mass and Weight
By the mass of a body we mean the quantity of matter it contains. The unit of mass
is the lump of platinum kept at Paris together with standard metre already mentioned.
It is called the Standard Kilogramme.
By the weight of a body we mean the pull with which the earth attracts it. The
weight of a body varies slightly according to where it happens to be on the earth’s sur-
face, but the mass remains constant wherever the body may be.
Weight is actually a force. Everything on Earth is pulled down towards the ground
by gravity. The weight of an object is how hard gravity pulls down on it. Larger objects
get pulled more strongly, so they weigh more than smaller objects. When scientists
want to talk about how much stuff is inside something, they talk about its mass. Objects
with a larger mass contain more matter. Mass is weighed in grams and kilograms.
Forces are normally measured in Newtons, but weight is special. We often measure it
in kilograms as though it were mass. In space, where there is no gravity, objects are
weightless. But they still have mass.
The Common (Chemical) Balance. Since weight is proportional to mass we are able
to measure the mass of a body by comparing the earth’s pull on it with the earth’s pull on
a standard mass. For this purpose we use a balance and a box of “weights”, which is really
a box of “masses”.
Balances used in laboratories differ from those used in shops in that they are more
sensitive. This means that they respond to much smaller changes of weight in the
pans.
The Process of Weighing. The object to be weighed is placed in the left-hand pan,
and standard masses in the other. The beam is raised and, if necessary one pan is gen-
tly fanned with the hand to set it swinging. The weights (standard masses) are adjust-
ed until the pointer swings equal numbers of divisions on either side of the zero. The
masses in the two pans will then be equal.
95
Vocabulary Training
table below:
1. keep a. поверхность
2. mention b. рычаг
3. weight c. весы
4. pull d. чувствительный
5. attract e. реагировать
6. surface f. упоминать
7. balance g��
. в соответствии с , согласно
8. sensitive h. поверхность
9. respond i. притягивать
10. beam j. совпадать
11. swing k. вес
12. adjust l. тянущая сила
13. according to m. раскачивать
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
II. Unscramble the words and find equivalents:
1. yictrdel постоянный
2. aotstnnc равный
3. rnptpiaoloro поверхность
4. quela прямо
5. uafrecs пропорциональный
6. rtiavgy количество
7. inqauytt сила тяжести
III. Fill in the following words in the gaps.
constant masses laboratory unit balances

experiment matter sensitive weight container
1) The mass of a body is a quantity of ______ in it. 2) The ______ of a body is

the pull with which the earth attracts it. 3) The mass of an object is _______. 4) We
96
must weigh some substances for our ______ . 5) You should do it in the physical ___
____ using a beam balance. 6) A box of “weighs” is really a box of “______”. 7) The
standard kilogram is the _____ of mass. 8) Balances used in laboratories are more
_______ . 9) Laboratory ______ measure the mass of an object. 10) Place the ______
with the substance on the balance platform.
IV. Match the words in 2 columns, what do these expressions mean? Make

up your own sentences with these word combinations:
1. mass of a) matter
2. left-hand b) laboratory
3. quantity of c) surface
4. physical d) “weights”
5. the earth’s e) platinum
6. a box of f) a body
7. lump of g) pan

1) What do we mean a) by the mass of a body? b) by the weight of a body?
2) How can we measure the mass of a body?
3) When do you use a balance and a box of weights?
4) Where is the object to be weighed placed in?
5) Where is standard masses placed in?
6) What is the unit of mass?
7) What remains constant?
8) Why does weight change from place to place?

VI. Suggested topics for oral narration:
1) Give the definition of a) the weight of a body b) the mass of a body. What is the
difference between them?
2) Describe a beam balance using the figure 1.
3) Describe the process of weighing.
VII. Read the text and give a short outline of the text in English:
The Force of Gravity

When you drop any object – such as a pen, a book, or a football – it falls to the ground.
As the object falls, it moves faster and faster. The fact that the object accelerates means
there must be a force acting on it. The downward pull on the object is due to gravity. Gravity
is the force that objects exert on each other because of their masses. You are familiar
with the force of gravity between Earth and objects on Earth. Gravity is present not only
between objects and Earth, however. Gravity is considered a universal force because it acts
97
between any two masses anywhere in the universe. For example, there is a gravitational
pull between the Sun and the Moon. Even small masses attract one another. The force of
gravity between dust and gas particles in space helped form the solar system.
If there is a force between all masses, why are you not pulled toward your desk
by the desk’s gravity when you walk away from it? Remember that the net force on
you determines how your motion changes. The force of gravity between you and the
desk is extremely small compared with other forces constantly acting on you, such
as friction, the force from your muscles, Earth’s gravity, and the gravitational pull
from many other objects. The strength of the gravitational force between two objects
depends on two factors, mass and distance.
The Mass of the Objects. The more mass two objects have, the greater the force
of gravity the masses exert on each other. If one of the masses is doubled, the force
of gravity between the objects is doubled.
The Distance Between the Objects As distance between the objects increases, the
force of gravity decreases. If the distance is doubled, the force of gravity is one-fourth
as strong as before.
Gravity on Earth
The force of gravity acts on both masses equally, even though the effects on both
masses may be very different. Earth’s gravity exerts a downward pull on a dropped
coin. Remember that every action force has an equal and opposite reaction force. The
coin exerts an equal upward force on Earth. Because the coin has an extremely small
mass compared with Earth, the coin can be easily accelerated. Earth’s acceleration due
to the force of the coin is far too small to notice because of Earth’s large mass.
The acceleration due to Earth’s gravity is called g and is equal to 9.8 m/s2 at Earth’s
surface. You can calculate the force of Earth’s gravity on an object at Earth’s surface
using the object’s mass and this acceleration. The formula that expresses Newton’s
second law is F = ma. If you use g as the acceleration, the formula for calculating the
force due to gravity on a mass close to Earth’s surface becomes F = mg.
98
In a vacuum – that is, where there is no air – all falling objects have the same
acceleration. Look at the diagram above. Objects with different masses fall with
the same acceleration. The quarter falls at the same rate as the penny when they are
dropped together. Because the quarter has more mass, gravity exerts more force on
it. But greater mass also means more inertia, so the greater force does not produce
a larger acceleration. Horizontal velocity does not affect acceleration due to gravity.
A coin that is dropped falls at the same rate as one that is thrown forward. Because
gravity is directed downward, it changes only the downward velocity of the coin, not
its forward velocity.
Answer the questions:
1) What is gravity ?
2) Why is gravity considered a universal force?
3) How do mass and distance affect the force of gravity?
4) Compare the times it takes two objects with different masses to fall from
the same height.
99
Unit VI. Force, Work, Energy and Power
Force. Mechanics is that branch of science which
deals with the action of force. We know that: 1) A force
may move the body from rest. When a body is pushed,
the force used causes it to move. A bar magnet exerts
a force of attraction on a piece of iron. The iron moves
up to the magnet. 2) A force may change the motion of a body already moving. The
brake of a motor-car exerts a force which slows up the car. 3) A force may fail to pro-
duce a motion if opposed by another force. A body A may pull another body B, but if
B pulls A with an equal but opposite force no movement occurs.
Work. In everyday conversation the word “work” is used to refer to almost any
kind of physical and mental activity, but in the language of science it has special mean-
ing only. An engine pulling a train is doing work: the engine exerts a force on the train,
and the force moves it through a distance.
For work to be done we must have a force and it must produce motion. Thus work
is done when a force is acting over a distance. The amount of performed work is equal
to the product of the force by the distance. Work = Force X Distance.
Power. Machines may be classified by the speed with which they do work; thus,
there are motor-car engines of small “power”, as they are rated or large power. Power
is defined as the rate of doing work. It is equal to the work divided by the time which
is required to perform it.
Power = Work/Time
Energy. We define energy as capacity to perform work. The world we live in
abounds in energy in a variety of different forms. Perhaps the most important of these
is chemical energy. Another important form of energy is electrical energy. Many hydro-
electric power installations were built in our country and all over the world.
Vocabulary Training
mechanics [mi’kæniks] oppose [ə’pouz]

energy [‘enədʒi] special [‘speʃəl]
act [ækt] machine [mə’ʃi:n]
activity [æk’tiviti] engine [‘endʒin]
opposite [‘opəzit] produce [prə’dju:s]
100
table below:
1. power a. тормоз
2. push b. не удаваться
3. brake c. определять
4. slow up d. деятельность
5. fail e. расстояние
6. refer f. изменять
7. speed g. мощность
8. rate h. установка
9. define i. темп, скорость
10. capacity j. тормозить, замедлять
11. amount k. оказывать
12. installation l. толкать
13. activity m. способность
14. distance n. делить
15. change o. двигатель
16. exert p. количество
17. engine q. скорость
18. divide r. относиться
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
III. Find in the text English equivalents for these words and word
combinations
Химическая энергия, сила притяжения, противоположная сила, разделенное на
время, гидроэлектростанции, обладать энергией, умственная деятельность, язык
науки, электроэнергия, по всему миру, область науки, количество выполненной
работы, могут быть классифицированы,��
��
автомобильные двигатели, делёной на
время, способность выполнять работу
IV. Fill in the following words in the gaps.
rest motion force energy work

exert slows engines distance power
1. When we are speaking of ____ time is taken into account. 2. The ability to do
work is called ______. 3. A change from a state of _____ to a state of _____ is con-
nected with the application of ______ . 4. The brakes of a motor-car _____ a force
which _____ up the car. 5. ________ is done when a force is acting over a distance.�
101
6. In physics, ______ is used to describe the rate at which energy is used. 7. Another
common unit for power that is used for automobile _______ and machines is horse-
power. 8. In general, the energy transferred depends on the amount of force and the
_______over which that force is exerted.
V. ��
1. What force does a bar magnet exert?
2. When is work done?
3. What may force produce?
4. How many machines be classified?
5. How is power defined?
6. How do you define energy?
7. What the most important forms of energy do know?
VI. Translate into English:

В обыденной жизни под понятием “работа” мы понимаем всё. В физике поня-
тие работа несколько иное. Это определенная физическая величина, а значит, ее
можно измерить. В физике изучается прежде всего механическая работа.
Механическая работа прямо пропорциональна приложенной силе и прямо
пропорциональна пройденному пути. Если направление силы совпадает с на-
правлением движения тела, то данная сила совершает положительную работу.
Если же движение тела происходит в направлении, противоположном направ-
лению приложенной силы, то данная сила совершает отрицательную работу.
Мощность – физическая величина, характеризующая скорость совершения
работы. В Международной системе (СИ) единица мощности называется ватт
(Вт).
VII. Suggested��
topics��
��
for��
��
oral��
��
narration�:
��
1) Tell about the action of force. Give examples of force.
2) Give the definition of a) work, b) power, c) energy.
VIII. Listen to this short dialogue and learn it by heart:

– When work is done, what happens to the energy?
– Let us consider a motor car going on a journey. First, where is any petrol poured
into?
– It‘s poured into the tank.
– That’s right. This contains chemical energy. And what contains electrical
energy?
– The car battery. Some of the electrical energy is used in overcome friction and
to turn the engine.
– You are right. The energy used against friction is liberated as heat.
– What happens to the remainder energy?
102
– It becomes the energy of motion. The heat energy thus becomes mechanical
energy and the car is made to move.
– Thus energy may exist in many forms.
Text 2. Read the text

Watt was a Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer, renowned for his
improvements in steam engine technology.
James Watt was born in Greenock on 18 January 1736. His father was a prosperous
shipwright. Watt initially worked as a maker of mathematical instruments, but soon
became interested in steam engines.
The first working steam engine had been patented in 1698 and by the time of Watt’s
birth, Newcomen engines were pumping water from mines all over the country. But the
Newcomen engine was not universal: it could work only as a pump. In around 1764,
Watt was given a model Newcomen engine to repair. He realised that it was hopelessly
inefficient and began to work to improve the design. He designed a separate condensing
chamber for the steam engine that prevented enormous losses of steam. His first patent
in 1769 covered this device and other improvements on Newcomen’s engine.
Watt’s partner and backer was the inventor John Roebuck. In 1775, Roebuck’s
interest was taken over by Matthew Boulton who owned an engineering works in
Birmingham. Together he and Watt began to manufacture steam engines. Boulton &
Watt became the most important engineering firm in the country, meeting considerable
demand. Initially this came from Cornish mine owners, but extended to paper, flour,
cotton and iron mills, as well as distilleries, canals and waterworks. In 1785, Watt and
Boulton were elected fellows of the Royal Society.
By 1790, Watt was a wealthy man and in 1800 he retired and devoted himself
entirely to research work. He patented several other important inventions including
the rotary engine, the double-action engine and the steam indicator, which records the
steam pressure inside the engine.
James Watt introduced the term “horse power”. Ponies and horses were used for the
generation of power before the invention of the engine.
James Watt studied the power usage by ponies to lift the
material in coal mines. After several experiments and
calculations, he found that a pony was able to complete
22,000 foot-pounds of work per minute i.e., the pony
lifted 22,000 pounds to a height of one foot in one minute.
Going by the estimate that a horse is 50 % more powerful
than a pony, Mr. Watt arbitrarily estimated the value of
a mechanical horse power to be 33,000 foot-pounds per
minute. Thereafter, the term horsepower came into popular use. The exact value of the
mechanical horsepower calculated by James Watt was 32,400 foot-pounds per minute.
However, it was afterward rounded off to the value of 33,000 foot-pounds per minute.
103
Watt died on 19 August 1819. A unit of measurement of electrical and mechanical
power – the watt – is named in his honour.
IX. Answer the following questions on the text:

1. Where was James Watt born?
2. Why was Newcomen’s engine not universal?
3. What made steam engines more efficient?
4. What other inventions belong to James Watt?
5. What term did he introduce?
X. Be ready to speak about Watt’s life and his discoveries.
Energy
Scientifically, energy is defined as the ability to do work. While there are many
forms of energy, they can be grouped into two categories: potential energy, or stored
energy; and kinetic energy, or energy of motion. Chemical energy is a form of potential
energy and it is possessed by things such as food, fuels and batteries.
Within each category of energy, there are many different forms of energy. Chemical
energy is one form of potential energy, along with mechanical energy, gravitational
energy, nuclear energy and electrical energy. All of these forms of energy are stored
within an object and are converted to forms of kinetic energy when a force or change
is applied. The different forms of kinetic energy are radiant energy, which includes
light, x-rays and radio waves, heat, motion and sound.
As stated by the first law of thermodynamics, energy can neither be created nor
destroyed; it can only be converted from one form to another. During chemical
reactions, molecules can be created or destroyed. If a product is created, the chemical
energy is stored in the bonds that make up the molecules. If something is broken down,
the chemical energy is released, usually as heat. If a reaction releases energy, it is
called exothermic, and if it absorbs energy, it is called endothermic.
One example of chemical energy is that found in the food that we eat. Energy is
stored in the bonds of the molecules that make up food. When we eat the food, the
large molecules are broken down into smaller molecules that can be used by the cells
of the body. The process of breaking down and using the food by our cells is called
respiration. During respiration, the chemical energy is converted to heat, kinetic energy,
and other forms of chemical energy, like that stored in the fat cells in our body.
Food is just one example of a fuel – it is how animals, including humans, fuel their
bodies. Other forms of fuel include wood and chemicals, such as petroleum. When
wood is burned, the chemical energy within the cells of the wood break and heat is
released. In the engine of a car or truck, the energy in the gasoline is converted to heat
and motion, to make the car move.
104
XI. Decide if these sentences are correct (True) or incorrect (False):
1) Energy is the ability to do work.
2) Nuclear energy is a form of kinetic energy.
3) Energy can be created and destroyed.
4) An exothermic reaction is a chemical reaction that releases energy by light or heat.
5) A hamburger has no potential energy.
6) Energy equals power multiplied by time.
7) Energy can transfer or move from one store to another in different ways.
XII. Classify the following as a type of potential energy or kinetic energy (use

the letters K or P)
1. A bicyclist pedaling up a hill _____
2. An archer with his bow drawn _____
3. A volleyball player spiking a ball _____
4. A baseball thrown to second base _____
5. The chemical bonds in sugar _____
6. The wind blowing through your hair _____
7. Walking down the street _____
8. Sitting in the top of a tree _____
What examples can you find in your home that are examples of kinetic and
potential energy? (name two for each type of energy)
11. Kinetic: _______________________________________________________
12. Kinetic: ______________________________________________________
13. Potential: ______________________________________________________
14. Potential: ______________________________________________________
Energy Experiments
Tie a piece of string onto the stem of an apple. Tie the string
to a high place so that the apple is at the same height as your
forehead. Give the apple room to swing back and forth. Standing
several feet away and pull the apple towards you until it touches
your forehead. Let go and it will swing away from you. Stand
completely still and watch the apple as it then swings back
towards you. The apple will not hit you in the face, although it looks like it will. Some
of the kinetic energy that causes the apple to move is now converted to potential energy
due to gravity. This causes the apple to slow down as it continues to swing.
XIII. Suggested��
topics��
��
for��
��
oral��
��
narration�:
��
1) Describe what happens to the potential energy and the kinetic energy of a ball
as it rolls down a hill from a position of rest to the top of the hill.
2) Give three examples of potential energy.
3) What has more potential energy: a boulder on the ground or a feather 10 feet
in the air?
105
Unit VII. Heat
Text 1. Read,
��
translate and give a short outline of the text in English:
Heat
What is heat? The ancient Egyptians tried to answer the
question in 3000 BC. They considered that heat was related
to origin mythologies. The father of medicine Hippocrates
postulated that it was a quantity which was derived from an
internal fire. In the 11th century AD, Abu Rayhan Biruni
cited movement and friction as causes of heat which in turn
produced the element of fire. And he noted that a lack of
movement meant cold.
There have been many other theories to explain the nature
of heat.
In 1761, Scottish chemist, Joseph Black discovered that Joseph Black��
was a
ice absorbed heat without changing temperature when melting. Scottish physician
and chemist, known
That made him conclude that the heat combined with the ice for his discoveries of
particles and beca��
me latent. ��
The scientist pictured heat to be magnesium, latent heat,
a liquid that could flow into a body to warm it and out of it specific heat, and carbon
to cool it. He named this liquid calor after the Latin word for dioxide
heat. Between 1759 and 1763 he formulated a theory of latent
heat.
The notion was accepted by a French chemist, Antoine Lavoisier, who renamed
the fluid caloric. In 1783 he demonstrated the importance of oxygen in burning.
Approximately at the same period, Mikhail Lomonosov, a Russian polymath, scientist
and writer, demonstrated failure of the caloric theory and stated that heat phenomena
were due to the motion of molecules. That statement of
his was the result of many carefully performed laboratory
experiments, of study and observations. M. ��
Lomonosov�� ’s
theory laid the foundation for the present-day molecular-
kinetic theory of heat.
Later it was realised that heat was a form of work. A cannon
manufacturer, Sir Benjamin Thompson noticed that the boring
of cannon barrels became extremely hot, particularly as the
boring tool became progressively duller. He made the bold
James Prescott Joule was
an English physicist,
assumption that the heat was generated by the friction of the
studied the nature of boring tool against the barrel. Benjamin Thompson performed
heat, and discovered experiments and attempted to establish the energy equivalent
its relationship to of mechanical work but his calculations contained errors that
mechanical work prevented an agreement with his measured values. Forty-four
106
years later, a German physician named Julius Mayer corrected those calculations, but
his contributions were ignored by the scientific community of the time.
James Prescott Joule carried out extremely careful measurement to establish the
equivalence of the heat generated to the mechanical work producing it. By the 1850
the contributions of Joule were recognised by the Royal Society.
Today heat is known to be a form of energy. The coal that burns in a boiler
vaporises the water and speeds up the steam molecules. The molecules of steam
bombard the pistons in the cylinders of the locomotive so that a heavy train can be
hauled across a continent. The chemical energy of coal is transformed into heat energy
of the molecules of steam. The motion of the steam molecules is transformed to the
motion of wheels by which the train is moved.
Vocabulary Training
I. Find English equivalent to the following words and expressions:

теплота, первоначальный, получать, внутренний огонь, движение и трение,
недостаток движения, природа тепла, поглощать, таять, частицы, скрытый, жид-
кость, скрытая теплота, принимать, жидкость, кислород, примерно, провал, тео-
рия теплоты, феномен теплоты, лабораторный эксперимент, наблюдение, моле-
кулярно-кинетическая теория, пушечное дуло, особенно, буровой инструмент,
постепенно, незаконченный, смелое допущение, вызывать/порождать, пытаться,
расчеты, ошибка/погрешность, совпадение, значение/величина, вклад, научная
общественность, измерение, паровой котел, испарять, молекулы пара, тащить/
везти, тепловая энергия.
II. Answer the following questions:

1. When was the question of “heat” brought up for the first time?
2. What was the postulation of Hippocrates concerning heat?
3. Who considered that movement and friction caused production of the element
of fire?
4. What does the word “calor” mean?
5. What does the caloric theory mean?
6. Who began to think about heat in terms of molecular motion?
7. What did Lomonosov’s theory lay the foundation for?
8. What event made Benjamin Thompson consider that heat was generated by
friction?
9. Why was not Benjamin Thompson’s assumption accepted?
10. What was Julius Mayer’s contribution to heat studies?
11. What is heat known today?
12. What makes a heavy train be hauled across a continent?
107
III. Match the verbs to their meaning on the right:
1) to postulate a) to suppose, to believe

2) to consider b) to prove the validity or truth of something
3) to cite c) to express in terms
4) to discover d) to put forward to consideration, discussion or adoption
5) to conclude e) to notice or learn something by making an effort

6) to formulate f) to assume or assert the truth, reality, or necessity of
7) to establish g) to quote, to refer to
8) to propose h) to arrive at an opinion by the process of reasoning
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
IV. Fill in the gaps using the verbs from exercise III (more than one variant
is possible). Translate the sentences into Russian:
1. The phlogiston theory is a scientific theory that __________ that a fire-like element
called phlogiston is contained within inflammable bodies and released during burning.
2. Robert Boyle carried out some experiments and _________ that the commonly
accepted phlogiston theory was false.
3. Mikhail Lomonosov and Antoine Lavoisier are regarded as the ones, who ____
______ the law of mass conservation.
4. Joseph Black __________ that different substances had different specific heat.
5. James Prescott Joule __________ the Joule’s laws, which later influenced the
First Law of Thermodynamics.
6. Benjamin Thompson __________ that the energy was equivalent of mechani-
cal work.
7. Daniel Bernoulli __________ that gases consisted of great numbers of mole-
cules moving in all directions.
8. Benjamin Thompson __________ that it was possible to convert work to heat.
9. Joseph Black __________ that heat combined with particles of ice and became
latent.
10. Francis Bacon __________ that heat itself, its essence is motion and nothing
else.
V. Look through the text and write who:

1) discovered the law of mass conservation.
2) supported the theory that heat was related to origin mythologies.
3) demonstrated that heat and work were equivalent forms of energy.
4) postulated that heat was caused movement and friction and produced the ele-
ment of fire.
5) concluded through study that heat was a fluid.
108
6) corrected those calculations which proved that
the energy was equivalent of mechanical work.
7) proved the failure of the caloric theory.
8) considered that heat could be derived an
internal fire.
9) formulated a theory of latent heat.
10) talked of the importance of oxygen in
burning.
QuickLab
VI. Translate into English Fill three cups with tap water: one hot,
1. Ученые рассматривали теплоту, как one cold, and one lukewarm. Dip your
жидкость и полагали, что она передается left index finger into the hot water and
между объектами. your right index finger into the cold
2. Юлиус Майер рассчитал, исходя из тео- water. Slowly count to 20, then quickly
dip both fingers into the lukewarm
ретических оснований, механический экви-
water. What do you feel?
валент тепла.
3. Римляне считали, что тепло образуется при движении внешних объектов.
4. Фрэнсис Бэкон утверждал, что суть тепла было движение.
5. Тепло – это передача энергии от одного объекта другому вследствие тем-
пературных различий этих объектов.
6. Михаил Ломоносов, ученый физик, попытался воспроизвести опыт Робер-
та Бойля в 1673 году.
7. Джон Робинсон интересовался вопросом пара как источника двигатель-
ной энергии.
8. Машина Ньюкомена получила распространение в угольных шахтах Англии.
9. Герман фон Гельмгольц сформулировал закон сохранения энергии
в 1847 году.
10. Юлиус Майер указывал на эквивалентность затрачиваемой работы и про-
изводимого тепла.
11. Королевское научное общество не принимало результаты Джеймса Джой-
ля до 1850 года.
12. Михаил Ломоносов опроверг теорию теплоты. Он доказал, что причиною
теплоты является внутреннее вращательное движение связанной материи.
13. Бенджамин Томпсон заметил, что в пушечном стволе выделяется боль-
шое количество тепла при высверливании.
14. Благодаря свойствам тепла, Томас Ньюкомен изобрел и разработал паро-
вой двигатель.
15. Мы часто ассоциируем понятие температуры на основании того, насколь-
ко холоден или горяч предмет при нашем касании.
16. Антуан Лавуазье переименовал эту жидкость в тепловую.
17. Прошло примерно одно столетие, когда ученые пришли к выводу, что
теплота – это не форма жидкости, а вид работы.
109
18. Бенджамин Томпсон выполнил эксперименты и попытался установить,
что энергия эквивалентна механической работе.
19. Джеймс Джойль, английский физик, пытался вычислить механический
эквивалент тепла.
20. Бенджамин Томпсон продемонстрировал, что с помощью трения можно
преобразовать работу в тепло.
VII. Models:
a) to be known/considered e.g. Heat is known to be a form of energy.
Lomonosov is known to be the first who discovered the law of mass conserva-
tion. The first law of thermodynamics is considered to be simple. He is known to be
the greatest researcher and scientist. These types of experiments are considered to be
very dangerous.
b) to carry out e.g. James Prescott Joule carried out extremely careful measure-
ments.
The scientists carried out the tests and proved their supposition. It is important that
they should carry out the analysis. We need to carry out more research. These tests
can be carried out only in vacuum. The tests were carried out to prove the efficiency
of the medicine.
c) to be the first/second to do something e.g. John Black was the first to state
that heat was a liquid.
Sir Benjamin Thompson was the first to notice that heat was generated by the fric-
tion. She was the second to come to the lecture, I was glad I was not alone. He was
the first to know the results of the experiment.
d) used to do something e.g. Scientists used to think of heat as a fluid.
He used to carry out his experiments in the university laboratory. Francis Bacon
used to think that the essence of heat was motion. She used to come to the library
every day.
VIII. Fill in the gaps using the words from the box:
invisible heat caloric hauls

performs speed up molecular-kinetic particles
internal oxygen agreement energy
1. An object heated in a flame became full of __________.

2. They thought about __________ in terms of molecular motion.
3. It is defined as the transfer of __________ across the boundary of a system.
4. His calculations did not have any __________ with the measured values.
5. The locomotive __________ a heavy train.
6. He __________ some experiments.
7. They __________ the process of transformation.
110
8. He laid the foundation of the theory for the present-day __________ theory of
heat.
9. The heat combined with the ice __________ and became latent.
10. Heat was considered to be an __________ substance.
11. __________ is important for burning.
12. Heat was was derived from an __________ fire.
IX. Read and discuss. Choose one of the experiments, carry it out and
explain:
Let’s have some tea

Why is it that tea made with microwave-heated water doesn’t taste as good as tea
made with teakettle water? The main reason is that microwaves heat only the outer
inch or so of the water all around the cup, because that’s as far as they can penetrate.
The water in the middle of the cup gets hot more slowly, through contact with the outer
portions. When the outer portions of the water have reached boiling temperature and
start to bubble, you can be tricked into thinking that all the water in the cup is that hot.
But the average temperature may be much lower, and your tea will be short- changed
of good flavour.
Egg into a Bottle
Perhaps the most intriguing physics-in-the-kitchen demonstration
for all ages is getting a hard-boiled egg with the shell removed into a
bottle that has an opening diameter smaller than the minimum diameter
of the egg. One solution is to very carefully drop some bits of burning
paper into the upright bottle and then place the egg at the opening.
Soon, if the sequence is done with the correct timing, the egg will
have the urge to go inside. What is the correct timing, and why does
the egg have this urge?
Egg out of a Bottle
Perhaps the most challenging physics-in-the-kitchen demonstration
for all ages is getting a hard-boiled egg with the shell removed out
of a bottle that has an opening diameter smaller than the minimum
diameter of the egg. Of course, one could cut up the egg with a knife
inserted into the bottle and then pour out the pieces. However, we
want the egg out whole and undamaged. Long ago, physics professor
Julius Sumner Miller, (who was Professor Wonderful on the early
Mickey Mouse Club shows) was on the Tonight Show with host Johnny
Carson and showed first how to get the egg into the bottle and then,
taking no more than three seconds, had the same egg back in his hand.
What is the procedure? (Hint: the same physics principles that put the egg into the
bottle can get the egg out.)
111
X. Project Ideas
1. Describe the relationship between the colour of a hot object and its tempera-
ture. Note in particular the colour you would first see as the temperature of an object
increases, and how the colour changes as the object continues to heat up?
2. What do we mean by the terms “red-hot” and “white-hot”?
3. Which is hotter “red-hot” and “white-hot”?
4. Is it possible for an object to be “green-hot”? Explain.
112
Application II. Rendering an Article
THE ALGORITHM FOR RENDRING AN ARTICLE
The outline for rendering Some expressions to be used while rendering an article
1 The title of the article. The article is entitled ...

The headline of the article The article is headlined ...
The headline ( the title) of the article I have
2 read is ... .
The author, ( the reporter, The author of the article is ... .
the commentator, the newsman, The article is written by ... .
the interviewer, the pressman);
where, when the article was It is ( was) published in ...

published ( printed taken from). It is ( was ) printed in ...
3 The key-note of the article. The main idea of the article is ...
The main idea of the article. The article is about ...
The article is devoted to ...
The article deals with ...
The article touches upon ...
The purpose of the article is to give The aim of the article is to provide
the reader some information on The reader with some material (date)
4 The contents of the article. Some a) Firstly, the author writes, states. stresses, considers,
facts, names, figures. points out, says, thinks, describes, comments on that…
b) Secondly, the author reports(says) that…
c) Thirdly, the author mentions the facts above ...
He concerns ( deals with) ...
d) In the fourth ( fifth) the author cites (quotes)
the words of ...
e) In conclusion ...
The author comes to the conclusion that ...
5 Your opinion of the article. I found the article interesting (important, up-to-date, out-
of-date, dull).
The article is of no value.
The article is too difficult for understanding.
In my opinion ... .
To my mind ... .
113
Article 1
Inspiring through games

Hannah Renshall argues that tabletop games can
be a powerful tool to get more people interested in physics
Hannah Renshall is the Institute of Physics’s regional officer
for the North West of England
Ask any scientist why they do science and they often say it’s because of a deep
passion to learn and understand nature. Ask a scientist why they do outreach and
usually the response is to inspire more young people into science. After all, what better
way to inspire someone than by sharing your passion and knowledge?
But sometimes there can be disadvantages to scientist-led outreach. While scientists
are very knowledgeable, they may not have the necessary skills to engage with some
audiences. It can then be hard for them to simplify their work to a level that is inspiring,
rather than perplexing. Those drawbacks can sadly be amplified for audiences that
are most under-represented in science – such as those from low socio-economic
backgrounds or those that live in geographically remote areas. These audiences
may switch off when meeting a scientist, whom they assume cannot be related to as
“someone like me” – instead assigning a stereotypical caricature.
Informal learning
While some scientists are indeed excellent
communications, what if we could also use
groups that have the same interest of raising
career aspirations in science but already provide
informal learning opportunities? I am thinking
of staff at organisations supporting young
homeless people and children from disadvantaged
backgrounds, say, as well as librarians, activity
organisers for semi-retired and retired people, and
employment consultants from local chambers of Tabletop strategy games such
as Terraforming Marscan bring physics
commerce. How could we go about working with to a wider audience
these people to engage their communities with
aspirational activities and opportunities?
Sam Illingworth and Paul Wake, the co-directors of the Games Research Network
at Manchester Metropolitan University, UK, suggest that one avenue is through table
top games – anything played on a flat surface, such as a board game or card game.
Such activities not only provide a highly effective way to engage different audiences
with complex topics, but also offer the opportunity for further discussion and debate.
Such games, in addition, allow for shared social experiences and can be easily
modified and adapted depending on the targeted audience. Given they are so flexible
114
as a communication tool, we decided that they would provide the perfect platform to
introduce community leaders to physics-based activities and opportunities that could
be used with their audiences.
During a training session for community leaders that we ran on 1 December 2017
at Manchester Metropolitan University, four commercially available tabletop games
were played: Math Fluxx, Women in Science, Lab Wars and Terraforming Mars. After
playing each of these games, the organizers led a discussion about the pros and cons of
each, exploring the ways in which they might be used to address key issues in physics
and, more widely, within science.
For example, while Women in Science provided a wonderful opportunity to
discuss the way that women have been perceived and continue to be perceived
in science, Terraforming Mars prompted a more extended discussion of physics,
climate change, wildlife conservation, and energy production. Playing as teams of
two, participants enacted the role of powerful corporations vying for control of the
red planet, experiencing some of the ethical and economic dilemmas associated with
humankind’s plans to colonize other planets.
Following the success of the session, plans are now under way to implement
tabletop games as a science communication tool by all of the community leaders. For
example, Women in Science will be used at the Dukes Theatre in Lancaster, running
a community project with an audience of young girls from the travelling community.
Most girls from this community leave school at age seven or eight, so by also involving
their parents in the activities we hope it will boost their children’s education and career
aspirations. Terraforming Mars will feature in school-based projects across Cheshire
in northern England led by the local chamber of commerce.
Of course, some people might be asking why we should bother doing this for
audiences that might not traditionally see themselves as future scientists? For example,
if young women in the travelling community have already left school, the chances of
them returning and studying to be scientists might be slim. Would our efforts not be
better spent with school students? We would argue not.
Supporting aspirations
The Institute of Physics, which publishes Physics World, also wants to work
towards a society in which parents, grandparents and community leaders support a
child’s aspirations in science. So raising the value of science in those audiences is
important too. We are working with the University of the Third Age – an international
organization to educate older members of the community – to support members to
encourage their grandchildren’s science aspirations and in a similar session for parents
with social-services involvement.
Overall, this work has led to non-scientists going away with the confidence and
skills to inspire new audiences in science in a way that best works for them. We should
do more of it.
115
Article 2
Has the ‘hyperfine puzzle’ been solved?

Hamish Johnston is the general-physics editor of Physics World
A huge discrepancy between the observed hyperfine splitting in highly-ionized

bismuth-209 atoms and the expected value could be a calculation error rather than
evidence for new physics. That is the conclusion of Leonid Skripnikov at St Petersburg
State University in Russia and colleagues, who have shown that the magnetic moment
of the bismuth-209 nucleus – which is used to calculate the hyperfine splitting – is
much smaller than the currently accepted value.
Hyperfine splitting is a small shift in electron energy levels that arises because of
the interaction between the dipole magnetic moment of the atomic nucleus and the
orbital motion of the electrons. Very precise spectroscopic measurements of hyperfine
splitting offer a way of testing quantum electrodynamics (QED). Finding discrepancies
between QED and experimental observations could point towards physics beyond the
Standard Model of particle physics.
Hyperfine experiment: the Experimental Storage Ring in Darmstadt
Sole electron
In 2017, Wilfried Nцrtershдuser of the Technical University of Darmstadt and
colleagues injected bismuth-209 atoms into the Experimental Storage Ring (ESR)
at GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in Darmstadt. The atoms were
stripped of all but one of their electrons. This remaining electron is tightly bound
in hydrogen-like orbits that have very large overlaps with the bismuth nucleus. The
bismuth-209 nucleus has a huge magnetic moment – and this combined with the close
proximity of the electron makes the system ideal for testing QED.
116
There is an important snag, however, because quantum fluctuations make it
extremely difficult to calculate the distribution of magnetization in the nucleus –
something called the Bohr-Weisskopf effect. To get around this problem, the team
also created lithium-like ions by stripping bismuth-209 atoms of all but three of their
electrons. By comparing measurements of the hydrogen-like and lithium-like ions, the
team could cancel-out the Bohr-Weisskopf effect and measure the difference between
the hyperfine splitting of the hydrogen-like and lithium-like ions.
Whopping deviation
Much to their surprise, the team found that this difference had a whopping 7σ
deviation from that predicted by theory, which could be indicative of new physics.
But now, new measurements and calculations done by Skripnikov and colleagues
(including Nцrtershдuser) suggest a more mundane explanation.
Calculating the hyperfine splitting from the experimental data requires an accurate
value for the nuclear magnetic moment of bismuth-209. Nцrtershдuser along with
Darmstadt’s Michael Vogel and colleagues used nuclear magnetic resonance
spectroscopy to measure the magnetic moment of the nucleus. This was done by
placing an aqueous solution of bismuth nitrate in a powerful superconducting magnet
and measuring its radio-frequency spectrum.
An important challenge in making this measurement is accounting for the effect
of the bismuth nitrate solution on the local magnetic field that is felt by the bismuth
nuclei. This was worked-out by Skripnikov and colleagues, who did sophisticated
quantum-mechanical calculations that revealed that the effect on the local field was
much greater than expected.
Good agreement
When the new value of the magnetic moment was used to calculate the hyperfine
splitting, the result was in good agreement with the original experiment.
“It would be too early to state that this represents the complete solution to the
hyperfine puzzle,” says Nцrtershдuser, adding “nevertheless, it is for sure a significant
part of the solution”. “Further experiments are still needed to achieve complete clarity
about the interplay between the atomic nucleus and the shell and, therefore, to verify
the theoretical predictions of the nature of quantum mechanics in very strong fields”.
Article 3
Knowledge by simplification: Scientists explore strong force

Sebastian Kцnig
The “strong force” plays a crucial role for the existence of matter in the visible universe.
Scientists at TU Darmstadt are carrying out research in that field and recently published
117
their results in “Physical Review Letters”. To describe the processes in the nucleus they
used a method of theoretical simplification which might be applicable to heavier nuclei.
The recent publication concerns the so-called “strong force” that plays a crucial
role for the existence of matter in the visible universe. Just how exactly this mecha-
nism, fundamentally described by the theory of Quantum Chromodynamics as the
interaction between quarks and gluons (elementary particles that can however not be
observed in isolation), brings about the force that binds protons and neutrons together
in atomic nuclei is still a matter of active research.
The scientists made use of an important concept in modern theoretical physics:
effective field theories. Simply put, such theories boil down microscopic details to
their essential content by tailoring the mathematical formalism to the level of detail one
aims to describe. This approach can be interpreted as choosing an appropriate “theo-
retical resolution,” much like screens that are watched only from a large distance can
have much larger pixels than a smartphone to ensure the same visual impression.
Looking from a distance can in fact enable one to see more, i.e., the famous “big-
ger picture”. In this case, this means starting the description of nuclei with something
very simple: in what is known as the “unitarity limit,” systems of protons and neutrons
exhibit universal behavior which they share with seemingly very different particles
like atoms in ultracold gases. In this limit, a single parameter, related to the interac-
tion between three particles, governs the physical properties of observed states. The
scientists show that indeed atomic nuclei up to four constituents (i.e., helium) can be
well approximated by this simple limit, and that it is possible to systematically increase
the theoretical resolution by calculating a sequence of corrections.
This way, a good description of experimentally observed binding energies is
achieved with a minimum number of information used as input. The scientists involved
conjecture that this approach can also be useful to describe heavier elements.
Besides scientists from TU Darmstadt, the project involved researchers from
George Washington University as well as Universitй Paris-Sud and the University of
Arizona in an international collaboration.
Article 4
Existence of new form of electronic matter
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Researchers have produced a “human scale” demonstration of a new phase of mat-

ter called quadrupole topological insulators that was recently predicted using theoreti-
cal physics. These are the first experimental findings to validate this theory.
The researchers report their findings in the journal Nature.
The team’s work with QTIs was born out of the decade-old understanding of the
properties of a class of materials called topological insulators. “TIs are electrical insu-
lators on the inside and conductors along their boundaries, and may hold great poten-
118
tial for helping build low-power, robust computers and devices, all defined at the
atomic scale,” said mechanical science and engineering professor and senior investi-
gator Gaurav Bahl.
The uncommon properties of TIs make them a special form of electronic matter.
“Collections of electrons can form their own phases within materials. These can be
familiar solid, liquid and gas phases like water, but they can also sometimes form more
unusual phases like a TI,” said co-author and physics professor Taylor Hughes .
TIs typically exist in crystalline materials and other studies confirm TI phases pres-
ent in naturally occurring crystals, but there are still many theoretical predictions that
need to be confirmed, Hughes said.
One such prediction was the existence of a new type of TI having an electrical
property known as a quadrupole moment. “Electrons are single particles that carry
charge in a material,” said physics graduate student Wladimir Benalcazar. “We found
that electrons in crystals can collectively arrange to give rise not only to charge dipole
units -- that is, pairings of positive and negative charges -- but also high-order mul-
tipoles in which four or eight charges are brought together into a unit. The simplest
member of these higher-order classes are quadrupoles in which two positive and two
negative charges are coupled.”
It is not currently feasible to engineer a material atom by atom, let alone control
the quadrupolar behavior of electrons. Instead, the team built a workable-scale ana-
logue of a QTI using a material created from printed circuit boards. Each circuit board
holds a square of four identical resonators -- devices that absorb electromagnetic radi-
ation at a specific frequency. The boards are arranged in a grid pattern to create the
full crystal analogue.
“Each resonator behaves as an atom, and the connections between them behave as
bonds between atoms,” said Kitt Peterson, the lead author and an electrical engineer-
ing graduate student. “We apply microwave radiation to the system and measure how
much is absorbed by each resonator, which tells us about how electrons would behave
in an analogous crystal. The more microwave radiation is absorbed by a resonator, the
more likely it is to find an electron on the corresponding atom.”
The detail that makes this a QTI and not a TI is a result of the specifics of the con-
nections between resonators, the researchers said.
“The edges of a QTI are not conductive like you would see in a typical TI,” Bahl
said, “Instead only the corners are active, that is, the edges of the edges, and are anal-
ogous to the four localized point charges that would form what is known as a quadru-
pole moment. Exactly as Taylor and Wladimir predicted.”
“We measured how much microwave radiation each resonator within our QTI
absorbed, confirming the resonant states in a precise frequency range and located pre-
cisely in the corners,” Peterson said. “This pointed to the existence of predicted pro-
tected states that would be filled by electrons to form four corner charges.”
Those corner charges of this new phase of electronic matter may be capable of stor-
ing data for communications and computing. “That may not seem realistic using our
119
‘human scale’ model,” Hughes said. “However, when we think of QTIs on the atomic
scale, tremendous possibilities become apparent for devices that perform computa-
tion and information processing, possibly even at scales below that we can achieve
today.”
The researchers said the agreement between experiment and prediction offered
promise that scientists are beginning to understand the physics of QTIs well enough
for practical use.
“As theoretical physicists, Wladimir and I could predict the existence of this new
form of matter, but no material has been found to have these properties so far,” Hughes
said. “Collaborating with engineers helped turn our prediction into reality.”
The National Science Foundation and U.S. Office of Naval Research supported
this study.
Article 5
Physicists lay groundwork to better understand the birth of the universe
New research extends fundamental thermodynamic

theories to describe microscopic systems at high
energies, like the universe at the Big Bang
Anthony Bartolotta, Sebastian Deffner
Sebastian Deffner at UMBC and Anthony Bartolotta at Caltech have developed the
first techniques for describing the thermodynamics of very small systems with very
high energy – like the universe at the start of the Big Bang – which could lead to a
better understanding of the birth of the universe and other cosmological phenomena.
To date, theoretical physicists have developed theories that explain how parts of the
universe work: classical mechanics for objects at everyday sizes and speeds, quantum
mechanics for very tiny objects at everyday speeds, special relativity for things that
approach the speed of light. But no theory yet has managed to explain the behavior
of very small objects that also have very high energy, and “this final case is very
important if you want to understand where the universe comes from,” says Deffner.
Current theories assume that systems are at least locally stable, which doesn’t
hold for some of the most interesting cases, from the Big Bang to black holes. “If we
want to understand all these cosmological models,” Deffner says, “and we want to
understand the thermodynamics of the universe, we actually have no means to do that.”
That may be about to change.
Deffner and Bartolotta’s new paper in Physical Review X builds on an explosion
of research in the field of quantum stochastic thermodynamics in the last decade.
This field describes the laws of thermodynamics – one of the fundamental pillars of
physics – at a microscopic level for the first time. Importantly, it takes into account
120
how the immediate surroundings affect small systems in a way that differs from how
the environment affects larger systems. Deffner and Bartolotta’s work extends this
field even further to examine tiny systems at very high energies that are changing
quickly.
That extension “is really uncharted territory...a completely new idea,” says Deffner.
“And the reason no one has done it before is because stochastic thermodynamics is
only 20 years old. Quantum stochastic thermodynamics is only 10 years old. As a field,
we’ve just learned how to stand. We don’t even know how to walk yet.”
The work is pioneering, but it fits into a larger ecosystem of existing physics
theories. For example, “Quantum field theories are the most general way of attacking
a physics problem,” broader than special relativity or quantum mechanics, explains
Bartolotta. He and Deffner chose to test, using new equations they developed, whether
one specific quantum field theory held true in the rare case of a system of extremely
small size and extremely high energy – and it did.
In addition, they found that in their model system with high energy and at small
scale, the system was much more likely to return multiple particles upon sending in just
one, than to come out with the initial particle and no more, which was a huge surprise.
It is possible at high energies, like those generated at the Large Hadron Collider in
Switzerland, to end up with a different number of particles than you started with,
because the famous equation e=mc2 allows mass to be created from energy when the
energy is extremely large. Even so, finding the multiple particle result so frequently
was shocking.
The math to calculate it all was “incredibly hard,” Deffner reflects, but the end
result, which involved finding a way to compute an infinite number of possibilities,
“was actually quite beautiful,” says Bartolotta. He shares, “Our hope is that this paper
will now open the doors for other people in other fields that previously couldn’t use
these techniques to now use them.”
Deffner’s overall research goal is to broaden the uses of the framework of
thermodynamics, “until we find neat things that no one has ever seen before,” and his
latest paper fits that bill.
“I’m still totally blown away by the result,” Deffner says, but he’s also already
contemplating possibilities for future research directions. When it comes to untangling
the mysteries of the early universe, he notes, “There’s a lot that we have to do next.”
121
LIST OF REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Гречина О. В., Миронова Е. П. Пособие по английскому языку для мате-

матических факультетов педагогических вузов : учеб. пособие. – М. : Высшая
школа, 1974. – 111 с.
2. Самойленко О. И. Пособие по английскому языку для студентов физичес-
ких факультетов педагогических вузов : учеб. пособие. – М. : Высшая школа,
1975. – 164 с.
3. ��
Физика: профессионально-ориентированное общение (Physics: academic
reading and speaking) : учеб.-метод. пособие для студентов, магистрантов и ас-
пирантов естеств. фак. БГУ / авт.-сост.: О. И. Комкова [и др.]. – Минск : БГУ,
2008. – 65 с.
4. Шаншиева С. А. Английский язык для математиков (интенсивный курс для
начинающих) : учебник. – 2-е изд., доп. и перераб. – М. : Изд-во МГУ, 1991. –
400 с.
5. English��
��
For��
��
Students��
��
Of��
��
Mathematics ��
: учеб. пособие / сост.: Ф. Х. Исмаева,
Е. С. Хованская. – Казань : КГУ, 2008. – 112 c� ��.
6. Shipman J. T., Wilson J. D. An Introduction to Physical Science. – Massachu-
setts Toronto : D.C. Heath and company, 1990. – 630 p.
INTERNET SITES
1. Oxford Dictionaries. Language matters. – URL: http://www.oxford dictionaries.

com/words.
2. Five Simple Math Problems No One Can Solve. – URL: http://www.
popularmechanics.com/science/g2816/5-simple-math-problems/
3. The Arithmetic Teacher. – URL: http://www.worldcat.org/title/arithmetic-
teacher/oclc/1514052
4. Mathematics Journals. – URL: https://www.omicsonline.org/mathematics-
journals.php?gclid=CIKWoavEqdMCFV1kGQodZKAJuQ
5. Physics in Society. – URL: http://www.physics.org/
6. Introduction to physics. – URL: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/
one-dimensional-motion/introduction-to-physics-tutorial/v/introduction-to-physics
122
Учебное издание
Nazarova Natalia Alexandrovna, Panasenko Ekaterina Vladimirovna,

Tolstykh Olesya Mikhailovna
Professional English in Use:

Mathematics and Physics
Назарова Наталья Александровна, Панасенко Екатерина Владимировна,

Толстых Олеся Михайловна
Профессиональный английский:
математика и физика
Учебное пособие
Технический редактор Е. А. Балова
Подписано в печать 06.12.2018. Формат 60×84/8.

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Министерство науки и высшего образования Российской Федерации

Омский государственный педагогический университет

N. A. Nazarova, E. V. Panasenko, O. M. Tolstykh

Professional English in Use:

Н. А. Назарова, Е. В. Панасенко, О. М. Толстых

ISBN 978-5-8268-2184-8 © Назарова Н. А., Панасенко Е. В., Толстых О. М.,

Part I. English for Students of Mathematics

Part II. English for Students of Physics

List of Reference Books. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

Internet Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

В соответствии с требованиями государственных программ Российс-

Unit I. Maths is Real Life

I. Find the English equivalents in Text 1:

II. Fill in the gaps with the words from Text 1:

Text 2. Read and translate into Russian:

III. Find the English equivalents in Text 2:

IV. Translate into English

V. Read the numbers:

VI. Answer the following questions:

NUMBERS. BASIC TERMINOLOGY

9658 – ABSTRUCT NUMBER – �����������������

Introduction To Real – Number System

VIII. Translate the following sentences into English.

NUMBERS. BASIC TERMINOLOGY

FUNDAMENTAL ARITHMETICAL OPERATIONS

Four Basic Operations of Arithmetic

1. What is the result of addition called? a. Remainder

III. Translate into English:

IV. Translate into Russian:

V. Solve the following mathematical problems and read them in English:

145 + 478 = 594 – 357 = 510 : 15 =

VI. Unscramble the words and find equivalents:

VIII. Translate into English:

IX. Correct the following sentences:

X. Answer the questions:

XI. Complete the following definitions.

XII. Speak on the Topic “Four Basic Operations of Arithmetic”, give your

1. fraction line a. простая

Fractions indicate _______, _______ being a dividend, the _______ being a

1. What fraction of the pizza is left on the plate?

A. 8/7 B. 5/8 C. 3/4 D. 7/8

A. 3 B. 4 C. 5 D. 8

3. What fraction of the big square is colored?

A. 5/11 B. 1/3 C. 3/8 D. 5/16

A. 5/8 B. 11/16 C. 11/5 D. 3/4

A. 1 B. 6 C. 7 D. 8

7. What fraction of the big triangle is colored dark?

A. 12/25 B. 1/2 C. 13/25 D. 3/5

8. John ate 1/8 of a pizza and Jane ate 3/4.

A. 7/8 B. 4/12 C. 1/3 D. 5/8

A. 5/16 B. 7/16 C. 12/20 D. 11/16

A. 7/25 B. 8/25 C. 2/5 D. 3/5

IV. Translate into English:

IV. Answer the following questions:

V. Make up True / False statements about different types of fractions. Ask

VI. Make a short report on the Topic “Who invented fraction?”

Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division of Fractions

1. The number which is left over in a division in a) a mixed number

VIII. Fill in the gaps with the words from the box:

B. Чтобы обратить смешанное число в неправильную дробь, нужно целое

C. 1. Мы уже знаем, что каждая дробь имеет числитель и знаменатель. 2. На

Answer the following questions:

X. Correct the following sentences:

9658 – ABSTRUCT NUMBER – ��

Fractions indicate ___, _ being a dividend, the _____ being a

1. decimal fraction a. ��

Decimals are _ which always have a _ of 10 or some power of

1. to measure a. ��

A has no length, width or thickness. It merely indicates .

1. an edge a. ��