МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РОССИЙСКОЙ

ФЕДЕРАЦИИ
ФЕДЕРАЛЬНОЕ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЕ БЮДЖЕТНОЕ
ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНОЕ УЧРЕЖДЕНИЕ ВЫСШЕГО
ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ
«ВОРОНЕЖСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ»

Методические указания по работе

с видеофильмом по истории Британии

BBC HISTORY OF BRITAIN

учебно-методическое пособие для вузов

Составители:
Доц. Еремеев Я.Н.
Доц. Ивашенко О.В.
Доц. Шарова Н.А.

Под общей редакцией доц. Н.А. Шаровой

Воронеж 2013

УДК 811.111'373.26:94(410)(0758)

ББК 81.432.1-9-31

Печатается по рекомендации ученого совета факультета

романо-германской филологии (протокол № 9 от 24 июня 2013 г.)

 Научный редактор

кандидат педагогических наук, доцент кафедры английской филологии факультета романо-

германской филологии ВГУ

Н.А.Шарова

Рецензент

доктор филологических наук, профессор кафедры иностранных языков и технологии

перевода Воронежского государственного технического университета Э.П. Комарова;

BBC History of Britain : Методические указания по работе с видеофильмом по истории

Британии. – Воронеж : Воронежский государственный университет, 2014. – 103 с.

Учебно-методическое пособие состоит из заданий к видеофильму по истории Британии. Необходимость

создания данного учебного пособия вызвана тем, что оригинальный язык фильмов является сложным для студентов
факультета Романо-германской филологии, а обилие фактов и информации представляет дополнительную трудность. В
связи с вышеизложенным, задачами данного методического пособия являются снятие языковых трудностей и управление
деятельностью студентов при восприятии фильма.
Пособие подготовлено в качестве учебного пособия по курсу «История и культура стран изучаемого языка»
для студентов третьего курса факультета РГФ (специальности «Теория и методика преподавания иностранных языков и
культур» и «Межкультурная коммуникация»).

© Воронежский государственный

университет, 2014

Contents Pages
Методическая записка 4
Useful Tips 5
Simon Michael Schama 6
I. Beginnings. 7
II. Conquest 13
III. Dynasty 16
IV. Nations 20
V. King Death 25
VI. Burning Convictions 29

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VII. The Body of the Queen 41
VIII. The British Wars 50
IX. Revolutions 56
X. Britannia Incorporated 58
XI. The Wrong Empire 64
XII. Forces of Nature 70
XIII. Victoria and Her Sisters 76
XIV. The Empire of Good Intentions 82
XV. The Two Winstons 89
The Keys 99

Методическая записка
Предлагаемое учебно-методическое пособие состоит из заданий к
видеофильму по истории Британии. Фильм, BBC HISTORY OF BRITAIN,
создан Би-Би-Си и представляет собой прекрасно иллюстрированные
лекции известного историка и публициста профессора Саймона Шамы,
который был награжден Орденом Британской Империи.
Необходимость создания данного учебного пособия вызвана тем,
что оригинальный язык фильмов является сложным для студентов
факультета Романо-германской филологии, а обилие фактов и
информации представляет дополнительную трудность. В связи с
вышеизложенным, задачами данного методического пособия являются
снятие языковых трудностей и управление деятельностью студентов при
восприятии фильма.
Пособие разделено на 15 частей в соответствии с количеством
частей фильма. В самом начале пособия даются полезные советы о том,
как произносить даты, имена монархов, некоторые сокращения. Кроме
того, в начале пособия имеется информативная статья об авторе фильма
профессоре Саймоне Шаме. Каждая часть предваряется кратким
вступлением. Последующие задания разнообразны: заполнение пропусков
в предлагаемом тексте на основании прослушанного фрагмента (cloze);
классификация предложенных списком слов; нахождение соответствия
(match up); игровые задания на восстановление слов или предложений
(scrambler); поиск ответов на предложенные вопросы (scanning). Каждый
вопрос сопровождается списком ключевых слов из нужного фрагмента с
объяснением или переводом, или просто списком ключевых слов. В
некоторых частях задания предваряются хронологической таблицей, что
способствует лучшей ориентировке студентов в изучаемом материале. В
конце каждой части пособия приводятся дополнительные тексты для
самостоятельного чтения.

3
 Основными методическими принципами, на которые
ориентировались авторы пособия являются: принцип доступности,
наглядности, активности, коммуникативности и принцип
деятельностного подхода к обучению. Тщательная методическая
проработка предлагаемого учебного материала делает возможным для
студента самостоятельно работать с видеофильмами. В аудитории
студенты либо сдают письменные ответы на задания, либо задания
проверяются устно. Работа с видеофильмами не только поможет
студентам разобраться с тайнами истории Соединенного Королевства, но
и значительно обогатит их вокабуляр, разовьет умения аудирования,
чтения, а также расширит общий культурный кругозор.
Методические указания по работе с видеофильмом по истории
Британии предназначены для студентов второго-третьего курсов
языковых факультетов, в частности для студентов РГФ Воронежского
государственного университета. Указанное пособие может использоваться
в курсе «История и культура Британии»
Useful tips: how to pronounce historical expressions
Years
1666 = sixteen sixty-six; 1705 = seventeen-oh-five;
1800 = eighteen hundred; 1914 = nineteen fourteen;
2000 = the year two thousand; 2006 =two thousand and six
Decades
the 1790s= the seventeen-nineties
the 191Os = the nineteen-tens
Centuries
1500-1599 = the sixteenth century; 1700s= the seventeen hundreds
the XX century = the twentieth century; the XXI century = the twenty-first century;
the 1280s= the end of the thirteenth century
Abbreviations
CE/c.e. = Common/Current/Christian Era. Another way of indicating the same
period is
AD, the traditional calendar era, Anno Domini .
BCE/b.c.e. = Before the Common/Current/Christian Era (an alternative to
Before Christ, abbreviated BC).
The two notations (CE/BCE and AD/BC) are equivalent; thus "2013 CE" = "AD
2013" and
"399 BCE" = "399 BC".
Kings' and Queens' Names
For rulers we use Roman numbers:
Elizabeth I = Elizabeth the First
Elizabeth II = Elizabeth the Second
George III = George the Third
George IV = George the Fourth

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BBC History of Britain

Simon Michael Schama, CBE* (Commander of the Order of the British Empire)
was born 13 February 1945 in London. Simon Schama is a British historian and art
historian. He is a University Professor of History and Art History at Columbia
University. He is best known for writing and hosting the 15-part BBC documentary
series A History of Britain. Other works on history and art include The
Embarrassment of Riches, Landscape and Memory,Dead Certainties, Rembrandt's
Eyes, and his history of the French Revolution, Citizens. Schama is an art and
cultural critic for The New Yorker. He worked for short periods as a lecturer in
history at Cambridge, where he became a Fellow and Director of Studies in History,
and at Oxford, where he was made a Fellow of Brasenose College in 1976,
specialising in the French Revolution. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Schama
In 1980 Schama took up a chair at Harvard University. The year 2000 saw Schama
return to the UK, having been commissioned by the BBC to produce a series of
television documentary programmes on British history as part of their Millennium
celebrations, under the title A History of Britain. Schama wrote and presented the
episodes himself, in a friendly and often jocular style with his highly characteristic
delivery, and was rewarded with excellent reviews and unexpectedly high
ratings.Three series were made, totalling 15 episodes covering the complete span of
British history up until 1965; it went on to become one of the BBC's best-selling
documentary series on DVD. (www.imdb.com/name/nm0769988/)
* CBE is a special honour given to some British people for things they have done for
their country.

5
 I. "Beginnings"
3100 BC – 1000 AD. Stone age. Village of Skara Brae, Orkney. Over the next four
thousand years Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Vikings, Danes, and Christian missionaries
arrive, fight, settle and leave their mark on what will become the nations of Britain.
Task 1. Before watching the first part of the film, look through the brief timeline of
the period.
250,000–300,000 Earliest pre-human and human archaeological finds.
ca. 25,000 BC – 9,000 BC - Northern Europe was plunged into a deep Ice Age
8,500 BC - British Isles separate from Continent. Thanks to higher sea levels,
Ireland and Britain become separate islands divided by the Irish Sea. A warmer
climate led to the growth of forests all over Britain.
c.a. 6,000 b.c.e. Beginning of Neolithic (Stone) Age in Britain. The cultivation of
previously wild plants encouraged the growth of permanent farming settlements.
Animals were domesticated.
ca. 3000 b.c.e. Start of Stonehenge construction.
ca. 2300 b.c.e. Beginning of Bronze Age in Europe.
ca. 2000 b.c.e. Use of Stonehenge declines.
ca. 1500 b.c.e. Change in climate leads to sharp decline in population.
sixth century b.c.e. Beginning of Iron Age and Celtic culture in Britain.
ca. 325 b.c.e. Greek traveler Pytheas of Massilia circumnavigates Britain.
55 b.c.e. First Roman invasion of Britain, under Julius Caesar.
43AD Roman invasion under Claudius followed by conquest of most of Britain.
306 Constantine is proclaimed emperor at York.
410 The end of Roman rule in Britain.
(William E. Burns A Brief History of Great Britain
Copyright © 2010 by William E. Burns); (Richard Dargie A History of Britain,
Arctus Publishing Ltd., London, 2007)

Task 2. Listen to the introduction and fill in the gaps in the text.
From its earliest days 1)……… was an object of desire. Tacitus, a Roman writer and
historian, 2)…….. it worth a conquest. Britannia was thought to be rich in 3)…., 4)
……., 5)……. As far as the Romans were concerned Britannia was the 6) …. of the
world, but it was the edge of their world. If the Romans had traveled to the
northernmost part of the islands (Orkney), they would have seen unmistakable signs
of a 7)………… thousands of years older than the Rome.

6
Task 3. Find answers to the following questions and write a short summary of
Part 1:
 Where are the remains of Stone Age life most abundant?
Abundant – обильны, многочисленны
 What is the name of the Neolithic village that is circa 5000 years old and was
discovered in 1850?
Circa - около
 Who robbed the tombs in Scara Brae but left there their own legacy in the
form of graffiti? (the Vikings)
Tombs – гробницы, захоронения
 What were the most distinctive features of life of Stone Age people in
Britain?
Describe their settlements, houses, burials, everyday activities, eating habits,
tools, art
Oysters- устрицы;
thriving; bustling communities – процветающие поселения с активным
населением;
hearth - очаг ;
dressers – кухонные шкафы;
ivory necklaces – бусы из слоновой кости;
rudimentary tools – примитивные инструменты;
Solstice – равноденствие;
hoi polloi- обычные люди;
game – дичь, дикие животные;
shield – щит.
 Was Britain really an unbroken forest kingdom stretching from Cornwall to
Inverness?
 How did the life in Britain change in Iron Age (tools, settlements, social life,
art and craftsmanship, cults)?
Grisly brutality of the Druids – ужасная жестокость Друидов;
decapitated heads – отделенные от тел головы;
 Why were hill forts, towers and walls built in the Iron Age?
 How and when did Romans conquer Britain (Caesar’s campaigns, Claudius’s
campaign, Boadicea’s revolt, Colchester burnt, Hadrian’s wall)?
The lure of treasure - соблазн сокровищ;
seductive - соблазнительный;
what Roman generals craved the most - чего особенно жаждали римские
генералы; perennial secret British weapon, the weather – извечное
секретное оружие британцев, погода;
carrot and stick - кнут и пряник (морковь и палка);
oppida – укрепленная группа жилищ;
ally – союзник, сподвижник;
to realise on which side their bread was buttered – понимать, где выгода;
public flogging - публичная порка;

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 Her great insurrection ended in a gory, chaotic slaughter – Ее великое
восстание закончилось кровавым, хаотичным побоищем.
 What innovations did the Romans introduce to Britain? Describe the main
features of life in Roman Britain. How did the Roman rule end?
Genuine fusion – истинное слияние;
vulnerability - уязвимость;
 Describe the political and social situation in Britain after the withdrawal of
Romans. What is meant by “the vacuum of power” in 5th c. Britain? What
were the main stages and the aftermath of the Anglo-Saxon invasion?
Describe the relationship between the British and Anglo-Saxons during the
period.
… seemed a boon not a curse – казались благом, а не проклятием;
blunder - серьезная ошибка;
 What were the principal features of Anglo-Saxon society and way of life?
 How did the conversion of Britain to Christianity take place? (St. Patrick,
Augustine, Venerable Bede)
Conversion – обращение в христианство;
gospel – евангелие;
pagan – языческий;
 Describe the arrival of Vikings in Britain (raids, plunder, slavery). How did
the unification of England in the face of Viking threat take place? What was
the role of Alfred the Great in this process?
Heathen men – язычники;
plunder – грабеж, грабить ;
priests - священники;
a common foe- общий враг;
onslaught – наступление;
a startling and illuminating story – удивительная и поучительная
история;
warrior – воин;
consumption – употребление;
conceivable and even desirable – возможно и даже желательно;

Task 4. In Part 1 there are a lot of proper nouns: Orkney, Skara Brae, Tacitus,
Cornwall, Bath, Inverness, Colchester, Alfred, Ethelwulf, Boadicea, Caesar,
Claudius, Hadrian, Aran, Dover, Porchester, Vortigan, Bernicia, Northumbria,
Hibernia, Caledonia, Jarrow.
Classify them into two groups: names of people and names of places. Try to explain
what they are.
E.g. Hibernia – the name of a place. That is how the Romans called Ireland.
Boadicea – the name of a person. She was a Celtic Queen who revolted against
the Romans.

Task 5. Unscramble the names of some famous people mentioned in this part of the
film.
RASEAC, USCALUDI, FLAEDR, GUTSAUINE, CKATPIR.
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Task 6. Supplementary reading. Read the following information and say what
facts were not mentioned in the film.

The Iron Age Celts lived here 750 years before Jesus was born. The Iron Age ended
in AD43 (43 years after Jesus was born) when the Romans invaded Britain.
Why are the Celts called Iron Age Celts?
The period of time in Britain immediately before the Roman period is known as the
Iron Age. The name 'Iron Age' comes from the discovery of a new metal called iron.
The Celts found out how to make iron tools and weapons.
Before the Iron Age the only metal used in Britain to make tools was bronze, which
is an alloy (сплав) of copper (медь) and tin (олово) (hence the Bronze Age).
Where did the Celts come from?
The Celts lived across most of Europe during the Iron Age.
Several hundred years before Julius Caesar, they occupied many parts of central and
western Europe, especially what are now Austria, Switzerland, southern France and
Spain. Over several years, in wave after wave, they spread outwards, taking over
France and Belgium, and crossing to Britain.
Northwest Europe was dominated by three main Celtic groups:
 the Gauls
 the Britons
 the Gaels
(www.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk/Homework/celts.htm)
Roman Invasion

Rome invaded Britain because it suited the careers of two men. The first of
these was Julius Caesar. This great republican general had conquered Gaul and was
looking for an excuse to avoid returning to Rome. Britain afforded him one, in 55
BC, when Commius, king of the Atrebates, was ousted by Cunobelin, king of the

9
Catuvellauni, and fled to Gaul. Caesar seized the opportunity to mount an expedition
on behalf of Commius. He wanted to gain the glory of a victory beyond the Great
Ocean, and believed that Britain was full of silver and booty to be plundered.
His first expedition, however, was too hastily organised. With just two
legions, he failed to do much more than force his way ashore and win a token
victory that impressed the senate in Rome more than it did the tribesmen of Britain.
In 54 BC, he tried again, this time with five legions, and succeeded in re-establishing
Commius on the Atrebatic throne. Yet he returned to Gaul disgruntled and empty-
handed, complaining in a letter to Cicero that there was no silver or booty to be
found in Britain after all. Caesar's military adventurism set the scene for the second
exploitation of Britain - by the Emperor Claudius. He was to use an identical excuse
to Caesar for very similar reasons. Claudius had recently been made emperor in a
palace coup. He needed the prestige of military conquest to consolidate his hold on
power. Into this situation came Verica, successor to Commius, complaining that the
new chief of the Catuvellauni, Caratacus, had deprived him of his throne. Like
Caesar, Claudius seized his chance. In AD 43, he sent four legions across the sea to
invade Britain. They landed at Richborough and pushed towards the River Medway,
where they met with stiff resistance. However, the young general Vespasian forced
the river with his legion supported by a band of 'Celtic' auxiliaries, and the British
were routed. Meanwhile, Claudius arrived in Britain to enter the Catuvellaunian
capital of Colchester in triumph. He founded a temple there, containing a fine bronze
statue of himself, and established a legionary fortress. He remained in Britain for
only 16 days.
It took another 30 years to conquer the rest of the island (bar the Highlands).
Once in, Rome was prepared to defend her new acquisition to the death. Yet Britain
was originally invaded not for its wealth, not for strategic reasons, not even for
ideology, but for the plain and simple reason that it furthered a politician's career. It
has been said that Rome conquered an empire in a fit of absent-mindedness. Britain
is a case in point.
( www.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk/Homework/celts.htm)

The Roman empire was based on two things: lip service to the emperor, and
payment to the army. As long as you acknowledged the imperial cult and paid your
taxes, Rome did not really care how you lived your life.
In one respect, there were very few 'Romans' in Britain. There were
Batavians, Thracians, Mauretanians, Sarmatians: all brought in through service in
the army, and all eventually granted citizenship and a packet of land after their 25
years' service. They settled all over Britain, becoming naturalised British citizens of

10
the Roman Empire. Most of them settled in or near the fort where they had served,
staying close to their friends. Gradually, these urban settlements outside the fort
grew into townships, which were eventually granted municipal status.
The evidence for what life was like in these places has largely been eradicated
by the cities' urban sprawl, but in more remote areas, like at Vindolanda up on
Hadrian's Wall, you can still see just what the original Roman settlement looked
like. Vindolanda housed several units in its history, among them the Ninth Batavians
- from whom a large pile of correspondence was found written on thin wooden
writing tablets. There were over 200 of these writing tablets dating to AD 95-115.
Mainly official documents and letters written in ink, they are the oldest historical
documents known from Britain.
Among them is a set of letters between Sulpicia Lepidina, wife of the camp
commander, and her friend Claudia Severa, wife of the commander at Housesteads,
around ten miles up the road. They paint a picture of life on the frontier very much
like that of a British officer's wife on the north-west frontier: full of empty days,
relative discomfort, boredom and loneliness. Life for the ordinary people of the
village seemed a little more interesting than that of the upper classes, but it remained
harsh and unforgiving. In the third century AD, marriage for soldiers was permitted,
and the village, where their families had always lived, was rebuilt in stone. They
constructed a beautiful little bath-house where the soldiers could relax, and a guest-
house called a mansio, with six guest-rooms and its own private bath suite - for
travellers on official business - along the wall. By this time, all adults in the empire
had been granted blanket citizenship and the 'Romans' in Britain had become fully
assimilated with their British neighbours.
(www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/questions_01.shtml)

Anglo Saxons
In the Dark Ages during the fifth and sixth centuries, communities of peoples
in Britain inhabited homelands with ill-defined borders. Such communities were
organised and led by chieftains or kings. Following the final withdrawal of the
Roman legions from the provinces of Britannia in around 408 AD these small
kingdoms were left to preserve their own order and to deal with invaders and waves
of migrant peoples such as the Picts from beyond Hadrian's Wall, the Scots from
Ireland and Germanic tribes from the continent.
The invading communities overwhelmed or adapted existing kingdoms and
created new ones - for example, the Angles in Mercia and Northumbria. Some
British kingdoms initially survived the onslaught, such as Strathclyde, which was
wedged in the north between Pictland and the new Anglo-Saxon kingdom of
Northumbria.
By 650 AD, the British Isles were a patchwork of many kingdoms founded
from native or immigrant communities and led by powerful chieftains or kings. In
their personal feuds and struggles between communities for control and supremacy,
a small number of kingdoms became dominant: Bernicia and Deira (which merged
to form Northumbria in 651 AD), Lindsey, East Anglia, Mercia, Wessex and Kent.

11
 Until the late seventh century, a series of warrior-kings in turn established
their own personal authority over other kings, usually won by force or through
alliances and often cemented by dynastic marriages.
According to the later chronicler Bede, the most famous of these kings was
Ethelberht, king of Kent (reigned c.560-616), who married Bertha, the Christian
daughter of the king of Paris, and who became the first English king to be converted
to Christianity (St Augustine's mission from the Pope to Britain in 597 during
Ethelberht's reign prompted thousands of such conversions).
Ethelberht's law code was the first to be written in any Germanic language
and included 90 laws. His influence extended both north and south of the river
Humber: his nephew became king of the East Saxons and his daughter married king
Edwin of Northumbria (died 633).
In the eighth century, smaller kingdoms in the British Isles continued to fall
to more powerful kingdoms, which claimed rights over whole areas and established
temporary primacies: Dalriada in Scotland, Munster and Ulster in Ireland. In
England, Mercia and later Wessex came to dominate, giving rise to the start of the
monarchy.
Throughout the Anglo-Saxon period the succession was frequently contested,
by both the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy and leaders of the settling Scandinavian
communities. The Scandinavian influence was to prove strong in the early years.

II. "Conquest"

1000–1087. 1066 is not the best remembered date in British history for nothing. In
the space of nine hours whilst the Battle of Hastings raged, everything changed.
Anglo-Saxon England became Norman and, for the next 300 years, its fate was
decided by dynasties of Norman rulers.

King Harold King William I

Task 1. What was England like before Edward the Confessor became king?
Confessor - исповедник
Heir - наследник
To have no qualms – без угрызений совести
To seize the crown – захватить королевскую власть
An evil omen – дурное предзнаменование
12
 Moderate - умеренный
Norman knights – Норманнские рыцари
The peasants still ploughed the fields – крестьяне по-прежнему пахали поля
An inferior race – низшая раса
Canute/Cnut – сын короля Дании Свейна, правил Англией с 1016 по 1035.
A scheming, ruthless man – интриган и безжалостный человек
Treachery, murder and mutilation – измена, убийство и нанесение увечий

Task 2. Describe the main events of the reign of Edward the Confessor (reations
with Earl Godwin, Edward and Normandy, Edward and Duke William, Normans at
the English Court, building Westminster Abbey, Harold Godwinson and his trip to
Normandy, Harold and Tostig)
Blood-stained rival – соперник запятнанный кровью
Across the Channel – На другой стороне канала: имеется в виду Франция,
которую отделяет от Англии Ла Манш (English Channel)
Normandy – Нормандия, часть Франции
A refugee - беженец
Asylum - убежище
Formal homage – формальная клятва верности
Piety - благочестие
A bastard (illegitimate) son – ублюдок, незаконнорожденный сын
Vulnerable young boy – уязвимый юноша
A steely and ruthless young man – твердый и безжалостный
To rid himself of – избавиться от
To humiliate the king – унизить короля
A puppet king – король- марионетка
Was taken hostage – был взят в плен
Bayou tapestry – гобелен из города Байо
Oath - клятва
English succession – престолонаследие в Англии
Disastrous consequences – ужасные последствия
Hot head – горячий человек, сорви-голова
A mortal enemy- смертельный враг

Task 3. Describe the main events after the death of Edward the Confessor.
 What events followed the death of King Edward the Confessor? (Harold’s
coronation, William’s reaction, his planned crusade to England, two armies in
waiting)
Became outraged – пришел в ярость
Crusade – крестовый поход
A domestic feud – семейная распря
Infidel Harold – Гарольд неверный
 What was the outcome of Harold and Tostig’s feud?
Together they would be invincible – вместе они были бы непобедимы
Epic feat – героический подвиг
 Describe the Battle of Stamford bridge and its aftermath (последствия)

13
  What was the outcome of the Battle of Hastings?
Civilians – мирное население, гражданские лица
Coat of mail - кольчуга
To take heart – воспрянуть духом
 What happened on Christmas day 1066 in London?
 How did William the Conqueror impose his power on England?
Pledge – обещание
Resistance - сопротивление
Famine - голод
These columns speak of authority and raw power, they command obedience
and reverence, they are awesome. – Эти колонны говорят об авторитете и
неприкрытой власти, они внушают покорность и почтение, они вызывают
благоговение.
 Describe the basic political, social and cultural changes in the post-
Conquest England
They owned it lock, stock and barrel – они владели всем вместе взятым
Domesday Book – перепись населения, имущества и земельных угодий,
выполненная по приказу Вильгельма Завоевателя.
Impregnable – неуязвимый
Describe the final years of William I’ reign
A fitting end – достойный конец
A hermit – отшельник

Task 4. Match up the names of places and the names of people (some people are
connected with several places):
Normandy, Stamford Bridge, Hastings, Denmark ;
William I, Harold Godwinson, Tostig, Swein, Canute

Task 5. Supplementary reading. Read the following information and say what
facts were not mentioned in the film.
The Normans
The Normans came to govern England following one of the most famous
battles in English history: the Battle of Hastings in 1066. Four Norman kings
presided over a period of great change and development for the country.
The Domesday Book, a great record of English land-holding, was published;
the forests were extended; the Exchequer was founded; and a start was made on the
Tower of London.
In religious affairs, the Gregorian reform movement gathered pace and forced
concessions, while the machinery of government developed to support the country
while Henry was fighting abroad. Meanwhile, the social landscape altered
dramatically, as the Norman aristocracy came to prominence. Many of the nobles
struggled to keep a hold on their interests in both Normandy and England, as divided
rule meant the threat of conflict.
This was the case when William the Conqueror died. His eldest son, Robert,
became Duke of Normandy, while the next youngest, William, became king of

14
England. Their younger brother Henry would become king on William II's death.
The uneasy divide continued until Henry captured and imprisoned his elder brother.
The question of the succession continued to weigh heavily over the remainder
of the period. Henry's son died, and his nominated heir Matilda was denied the
throne by her cousin, Henry's nephew, Stephen.
There then followed a period of civil war. Matilda married Geoffrey Plantagenet of
Anjou, who took control of Normandy. The duchy was therefore separated from
England once again.
A compromise was eventually reached whereby the son of Matilda and
Geoffrey would be heir to the English crown, while Stephen's son would inherit his
baronial lands.
It meant that in 1154 Henry II would ascend to the throne as the first
undisputed king in over 100 years - evidence of the dynastic uncertainty of the
Norman period.
(http://www.royal.gov.uk/)

III. "Dynasty"

Henry II Eleanor of Aquitaine

1087–1216. There is no saga more powerful than that of the warring dynasty –
domineering father, beautiful, scheming mother and squabbling, murderous sons and
daughters, (particularly the nieces). In the years that followed the Norman Conquest,
this was the drama played out on the stage of British history.

Task 1. Listen to the introduction and fill in the gaps in the text.

England 1154, nearly a century after the …… of …….. . The country was
torn apart by a savage ….. war. ……. the ……… was long dead. For thirty years his
children were in struggle. The realm was in ruins. And then there appeared a young
king, brave and charismatic who stopped the anarchy. His name was Henry. And he
would become the greatest of all the …….. …... He should be as well known as
Henry VIII or Elizabeth I, but if he is remembered at all today, it is as the king who
ordered …… in the ………, or as the father of the impossibly bad …. …. and the
impossibly glamorous ……. the …. ….. . Henry II has no great monument. Yet, he
made an indelible mark (неизгладимый след) on the country: the father of
Common Law*, the Godfather of the English State. But Henry II was cursed,

15
brought down by the ……, his children, and most of all by his wife, the beautiful all-
powerful Eleanor of Aquitaine*.

*Common law – англо-саксонское право: система, основанная на

интерпретации прецедентов
*Eleanor of Aquitaine - (1122 or 1124 - 1204) was one of the wealthiest and most
powerful women in Western Europe during the High Middle Ages, a member of
a dynasty of rulers in southwestern France. She became Duchess of Aquitaine in her
own right while she was still a child, then later queen consort of France (1137–1152)
and England (1154–1189). Eleanor's succession to the duchy of Aquitaine in 1137
made her the most eligible bride in Europe.
Task 2. Answer the following questions using the key words and phrases in
brackets.
 What was the origin of the Angevin dynasty on the English throne?
(named after the French province Anjou; had their roots in the civil war between
two cousins, Stephen and Matilda; Stephen seized (захватил) the crown;
Matilda married Jeffrey of Anjou, nicknamed Plantagenet; the son, Henry)
 What can you say about the early years of Henry II ?
(inherited steely single-mindedness, physical courage and foul (скверный)
temper (характер); charm and military intelligence; a perfect candidate became
available; Aquitaine was the greatest prize; grandeur, territory, wealth and
glamour; a deal was struck; heir; crowned in Westminster Abby; colossal
inheritance)
 What were Henry’s main steps in strengthening the royal power and
administration in England?
(monasteries were founded at a record pace; shire courts; sheriffs; judge and war
lord; protect the church, preserve intact the lands of your ancestors, do justice,
suppress evil laws and customs; professional courts; Law now had its own kind
of majesty)
 Describe the development of relations and conflict between Henry II and
Thomas Becket
(spiritual civil war; the strongest pillar (оплот) of Henry’s administration; the
first commoner; a merchant’s son; he enjoyed good food and drink;
Chancellor*; the match of opposites; the Archbishop of Canterbury; directly
anointed by God; subordinate relation of Church to King; “No traitor to the
King, the priest of God”)
government in exile – правительство в изгнании ;
sense of self-righteousness - уверенность в своей правоте;
traitor archbishop – архиепископ - предатель;
reconcile - помириться;
excommunicate – отлучить от церкви;
arrogance - высокомерие;
 What events marked the last years of Henry II reign?
(pilgrimage to Canterbury; barefoot; confessed his sins; whipped by the monks;
crowned criminals; a thriving (процветающая) network of courts; humiliation

16
 (унижение) of a string of mistresses; betrayed and alienated Eleanor turned her
formidable energy and intellect to get her justice through her children; rebelled
only to die of dysentery; trampled to death (затоптан насмерть) by a horse;
chivalrous (рыцарственный), brutally ambitious; vindictive (мстительный);
pinned her hopes; faced defeat; )
 What were the main features of Henry’s sons Richard and John’s
reigns?
(the darling (любимец) of popular folklore and legend; mercenary army(армия
наемников); plight (несчастье); ransom (выкуп); wretched failure; blackmail
and extortion; loss of Normandy;)
 In what way was Magna Charta important for the development of the
political system of England?
(from defeat sprang rebellion; the liberties boil down(права сводятся к) to tax
relief; the death certificate of despotism; accountable to the sovereignty of law)

⃰ Chancellor - When the king wished to issue legally binding orders, it was the
clerks of Chancery who wrote them. Charters, letters, were written, sealed with
the Great Seal of England, and copied on to rolls of sheepskin. The head of
Chancery was the Chancellor. Almost all Chancellors during the Middle Ages
were bishops.

Task 3. Supplementary reading. Read and say what facts were not
mentioned in the film.

Henry II and Thomas Becket

Becket was ordained a priest on 2 June 1162 at Canterbury, and on 3 June

1162 was consecrated as archbishop by Henry of Blois, the Bishop of
Winchester and the other bishops of Canterbury.
A rift grew between Henry and Becket as the new archbishop resigned his
chancellorship and sought to recover and extend the rights of the archbishopric. This
led to a series of conflicts with the king, including that over the jurisdiction of
secular courts over English clergymen, which accelerated antipathy between Becket
and the king. Attempts by King Henry to influence the other bishops against Becket
began in Westminster in October 1163, where the King sought approval of the
traditional rights of the royal government in regard to the church. This led to
Clarendon, where Becket was officially asked to sign off on the King’s rights or face
political repercussions.

The Constitutions of Clarendon

King Henry II presided over the assemblies of most of the higher English
clergy at Clarendon Palace on 30 January 1164. In sixteen constitutions, he sought
less clerical independence and a weaker connection with Rome. He employed all his
skills to induce their consent and was apparently successful with all but Becket.
Finally, even Becket expressed his willingness to agree to the substance of
the Constitutions of Clarendon, but he still refused to formally sign the documents.
17
Henry summoned Becket to appear before a great council at Northampton Castle on
8 October 1164, to answer allegations of contempt of royal authority and
malfeasance in the Chancellor's office. Convicted on the charges, Becket stormed
out of the trial and fled to the Continent. Henry pursued the fugitive archbishop with
a series of edicts, aimed at all his friends and supporters as well as Becket himself;
but King Louis VII of France offered Becket protection. He spent nearly two years
in the Cistercian abbey of Pontigny, until Henry's threats against the order obliged
him to return to Sens. Becket fought back by threatening excommunication and
interdict against the king and bishops and the kingdom.
In 1170, Pope Alexander sent delegates to impose a solution to the dispute.
At that point, Henry offered a compromise that would allow Thomas to return to
England from exile.
Assassination
In June 1170, Roger de Pont L'Évêque, the archbishop of York, along
with Gilbert Foliot, the bishop of London, and Josceline de Bohon, the bishop of
Salisbury, crowned Henry the Young King at York. This was a breach of
Canterbury's privilege of coronation, and in November 1170 Becket
excommunicated all three. While the three clergymen fled to the king in
Normandy, Becket continued to excommunicate his opponents in the church, the
news of which also reached Henry.
Upon hearing reports of Becket's actions, Henry is said to have uttered words
that were interpreted by his men as wishing Becket killed. The king's exact words
are in doubt and several versions have been reported. The most commonly quoted,
as handed down by "oral tradition", is "Will no one rid me of this turbulent
priest?", but according to historian Simon Schama this is incorrect: he accepts the
account of the contemporary biographer Edward Grim, writing in Latin, who gives
us "What miserable drones and traitors have I nourished and brought up in my
household, who let their lord be treated with such shameful contempt by a low-born
cleric?" Many variations have found their way into popular culture.
Whatever Henry said, it was interpreted as a royal command, and four
knights, Reginald fitz Urse,Hugh de Morville, William de Tracy, and Richard le
Breton, set out to confront the Archbishop of Canterbury.
On 29 December 1170 they arrived at Canterbury. According to accounts left
by the monk Gervase of Canterbury and eyewitness Edward Grim, they placed their
weapons under a tree outside the cathedral and hid their mail armour under cloaks
before entering to challenge Becket. The knights informed Becket he was to go
to Winchester to give an account of his actions, but Becket refused. It was not until
Becket refused their demands to submit to the king's will that they retrieved their
weapons and rushed back inside for the killing. Becket, meanwhile, proceeded to the
main hall for vespers. The four knights, wielding drawn swords, caught up with him
in a spot near a door to the monastic cloister, the stairs into the crypt, and the stairs
leading up into the quire of the cathedral, where the monks were chanting vespers.

18
 Canterbury Cathedral

Several contemporary accounts of what happened next exist; of particular

note is that of Edward Grim, who was himself wounded in the attack. This is part of
the account from Edward Grim:
...The wicked knight leapt suddenly upon him, cutting off the top of the
crown which the unction of sacred chrism had dedicated to God. Next he received a
second blow on the head, but still he stood firm and immovable. At the third blow he
fell on his knees and elbows, offering himself a living sacrifice, and saying in a low
voice, 'For the name of Jesus and the protection of the Church, I am ready to
embrace death.' But the third knight inflicted a terrible wound as he lay prostrate. By
this stroke, the crown of his head was separated from the head in such a way that the
blood white with the brain, and the brain no less red from the blood, dyed the floor
of the cathedral. The same clerk who had entered with the knights placed his foot on
the neck of the holy priest and precious martyr, and, horrible to relate, scattered the
brains and blood about the pavements, crying to the others, 'Let us away, knights;
this fellow will arise no more.

IV. "Nations"
1216–1348. This is the epic account of how the nations of Britain emerged from
under the hammer of England's "Longshanks" King Edward I, with a sense of who
and what they were, which endures to this day.

Edward I William Wallace Robert I Bruce

Task 1. Before watching Part 4 look through the timeline of events between Magna
Charta and the Hundred Years War.

19
1215 Magna Charta, treaty agreed between King John and his rebellious barons,
asserts some fundamental rights of free English people.
1216 – 1272 the reign of Henry III
1258 The Provisions of Oxford - a set of reform proposals imposed (навязанные) on
Henry III. A governing council was to be established which was the first step to
Parliament.
1264 The battle of Lewes was won by Simon de Montfort, and with both king Henry
III and Prince Edward in his custody (в плену), Montfort became a real ruler of
England.
1266 The Scots take over the Hebrides and the lordship of the Isle of Man from
Norway .
1267 England recognizes Gruffydd ap Llywelyn as prince of Wales.
1272 -1307 the reign of Edward I. Edward was crowned in Westminster Abbey in
1274.
1282 Conquest of Wales by English king Edward I.
1284 Declaration of Rhuddlan brings Wales under English rule.
1290 Edward I expels the Jews from England, confiscating their property;
English attempts at conquering Scotland.
1307 – 1327 the reign of Edward II
1314 Scottish victory over the English at Bannockburn.
1327 – 1377 the reign of Edward III
1328 In the Treaty of Edinburgh, England recognizes Scottish independence.
1337–1453 Hundred Years’ War between England and France.

Task 2. Watch the part and find answers to the following questions using the
key words in brackets:
 What is the introduction about?
What peoples began to realize their national identity and rose against the
English?
to do homage – присягать на верность;
 What were the principal events of Henry III’s reign ?
(Reconstruction of Westminster Abbey; conflicts with Barons, attempts to
strengthen Royal power, Simon de Montfort’s revolt, origin of Parliament,
battle of Lewes;)
drastic shrinkage of power – радикальное уменьшение власти;
repel – отвращать;
a horseback get away – побег на коне)?
 Describe the early years of Edward I reign.
(Edward and Simon de Montfort, Battle of Evesham;)
slaughter -побоище
 How did Edward I conquer Wales?
(Llywelin married Montfort’s daughter; second class citizens in their own
country;)
subjugation – подчинение;
castles – замки;
quaint –странный
20
  How did Edward treat the Jews?
(outlawed money lending, he forced them to wear yellow felt badges of
identification, in York, Lincoln and London)
hanged (вешал),
expelled (изгонял),
uprooted whole communities (вырвал с корнем целые коммуны)
 What is the origin of the name Charring Cross in London?
 Describe Edward I and Edward II attempts to invade and subjugate
Scotland.
(pretenders to the Scottish throne, the Bruces and the clan of John Balliol;
English occupation of Scotland, Edward took the stone of Scone* to
Westminster; William Wallace, battle of Stirling Bridge, battle of Falkirk,
second occupation, Bruce’s reconquest, battle of Bannockburn, Declaration
of Arbroath, Scots and Irish against England; Gaelic friends and English foes,
liberators; myth of invincibility)
Invincibility – непобедимость

*Scone /sku:n/, near Perth, the original site of the ‘Stone of Destiny’
(камень судьбы) on which Scottish kings were seated during their inauguration. In
1296, Edward I took the Stone (a block of reddish-grey sandstone) from Stone
Abbey to Westminster Abbey where it was placed under the Coronation Chair, since
when all newly enthroned English sovereigns have sat upon it. (The History Today
Companion to BRITISH HISTORY, edited by Juliet Gardiner & Neil Wenborn:
Collins & Brown Limited, 1995, p. 678)
The size of the Stone of Scone is about 26 inches (660 mm) by 16.75 inches
(425 mm) by 10.5 inches (270 mm) and its weight is approximately 336 pounds
(152 kg).
On 3 July 1996 it was announced in the House of Commons that the Stone
would be returned to Scotland, and on 15 November 1996, after a handover
ceremony at the border it was transported to Edinburgh Castle, arriving on 30
November 1996, where it remains along with the crown jewels of Scotland in the
Crown Room. The handover was done on St Andrew's Day (patron Saint of
Scotland); the Queen sent as her representative Prince Andrew. Provision has been
made to transport the stone to Westminster Abbey when it is required there for
future coronation ceremonies.
(en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_of_Scone)

21
Task 3. Put the following events in chronological order: battle of Bannockburn,
battle of Lewes, English occupation of Scotland, battle of Evesham, subjugation of
Wales, the reign if Henry III, the reign of Edward I, battle of Stirling Bridge, battle
of Falkirk.
Task 4. Match up the historical events and the historical personalities:
Historical personalities Historical events
Prince Edward and Simon de The battle of Evesham in 1265
Montfort

Edward II and Robert Bruce The battle of Falkirk in 1298

Henry III and Simon de Montfort The battle of Bannockburn in 1314

Edward I and William Wallace The battle of Lewes in 1264

Edward I and Llywelin Ap The stone of Scone was brought to Westminster

Gruffud Abbey

Edward I The Treaty of Montgomery in 1267

Edward I and William Wallace The battle at Stirling Bridge

Task 5. Who of the following people are the words of the film about? Several
quotations can match up with the same person.
Historical personalities Characteristics and descriptions from the film

Edward I Twelve crosses were built on the way of her body to

Westminster Abbey
Edward II
The first truly English king
Balliol
He wrote a book on partisan warfare.
Robert the Bruce He was the clear choice of Scotland, not imposed by
Edward
William Wallace
A leopard prince, brave, proud and powerful while
Simon de Montfort devious and treacherous

Eleanor of Castile The freedom fighter whose epic romance refuses to

go away
England’s own home grown Caesar

He was just a loser

22
 He knew he could only be successful if he became a
personification of Scotland

A French aristocrat, he was a man with a mission,

the most improbable revolutionary in English history

Task 6. Supplementary reading. Read the following information and say what
facts were not mentioned in the film.
The emergence of parliament as an institution
During the reign of Edward I, which began in 1272, the role of Parliament in
the government of the English kingdom increased due to Edward's determination to
unite England, Wales and Scotland under his rule by force. He was also keen to
unite his subjects in order to restore his authority and not face rebellion as was his
father's fate. Edward therefore encouraged all sectors of society to submit petitions
to parliament detailing their grievances in order for them to be sorted out. This
seemingly gave all of Edward's subjects a potential role in government and this
helped Edward assert his authority.
As the number of petitions being submitted to parliament increased, they
came to be dealt with, and often ignored, more and more by ministers of the Crown
so as not to block the passage of government business through parliament. However
the emergence of petitioning is significant because it is some of the earliest evidence
of parliament being used as a forum to address the general grievances of ordinary
people. Submitting a petition to parliament is a tradition that continues to this day in
the Parliament of the United Kingdom.
These developments symbolise the fact that parliament and government
were by no means the same thing by this point. If monarchs were going to impose
their will on their kingdom, they would have to control parliament rather than be
subservient to it.
From Edward's reign onwards, the authority of the English Parliament
would depend on the strength or weakness of the incumbent monarch. When the
king or queen was strong he or she would enough influence to pass their legislation
through parliament without much trouble. Some strong monarchs even bypassed it
completely, although this was not often possible in the case of financial legislation
due to the post-Magna Carta convention of parliament granting taxes. When weak
monarchs governed, parliament often became the centre of opposition against them.
Subsequently, the composition of parliaments in this period varied depending on the
decisions that needed to be taken in them. The nobility and senior clergy were
always summoned. From 1265 onwards, when the monarch needed to raise money
through taxes, it was usual for knights and burgesses to be summoned too. However,
when the king was merely seeking advice, he often only summoned the nobility and
the clergy, sometimes with and sometimes without the knights of the shires. On
some occasions the Commons were summoned and sent home again once the
monarch was finished with them, allowing parliament to continue without them. It
was not until the mid-14th century that summoning representatives of the shires and
the boroughs became the norm for all parliaments.

23
 One of the moments that marked the emergence of parliament as a true
institution in England was the deposition of Edward II. Even though it is debatable
whether Edward II was deposed inparliament or by parliament, this remarkable
sequence of events consolidated the importance of parliament in the English
unwritten constitution. Parliament was also crucial in establishing the legitimacy of
the king who replaced Edward II: his son Edward III.
In 1341 the Commons met separately from the nobility and clergy for the
first time, creating what was effectively an Upper Chamber and a Lower Chamber,
with the knights and burgesses sitting in the latter. This Upper Chamber became
known as the House of Lords from 1544 onward, and the Lower Chamber became
known as the House of Commons, collectively known as theHouses of Parliament.
The authority of parliament grew under Edward III; it was established that
no law could be made, nor any tax levied, without the consent of both Houses and
the Sovereign. This development occurred during the reign of Edward III because he
was involved in the Hundred Years' War and needed finances. During his conduct of
the war, Edward tried to circumvent parliament as much as possible, which caused
this edict to be passed.
The Commons came to act with increasing boldness during this period.
During the Good Parliament (1376), the Presiding Officer of the lower chamber, Sir
Peter de la Mare, complained of heavy taxes, demanded an accounting of the royal
expenditures, and criticised the king's management of the military. The Commons
even proceeded to impeach some of the king's ministers. The bold Speaker was
imprisoned, but was soon released after the death of Edward III. During the reign of
the next monarch, Richard II, the Commons once again began to impeach errant
ministers of the Crown. They insisted that they could not only control taxation, but
also public expenditure. Despite such gains in authority, however, the Commons still
remained much less powerful than the House of Lords and the Crown.
(en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_England)

V. "King death"

1348–1500. It took only six years for the plague (чума) to ravage the British Isles.
Its impact (влияние) was to last for generations. But from the ashes of this trauma
an unexpected and unique class of Englishmen emerged (возник).

24
 Task 1. Watch the part and find answers to the following questions using the
key words in brackets; write out the figures:
 How and when did the plague come to Britain?
A purgatory of unimaginable misery – чистилище неимоверных страданий
Calamities – несчастья
Hard on the heels of pestilence came rebellion and civil war – восстания и
гражданская война шли по пятам за эпидемией
Contagious - заразная
 What was the effect of the Black Death ravaging Britain?
(In cities like Bristol almost half of the population would have died in the first
year, husbands would’ve shunned (сторонились) wives, parents recoiled
(избегали) from contact with their children, the complete collapse
(крушение) of everything you took for granted (что казалось само собой
разумеющимся), in the face of King Death neither riches nor earthly fame
could buy salvation or secure immortality)
 What was the social and economic aftermath (последствия) of the Black
Death?
Potions – целебные настойки
Contrite – раскаявшийся
 How did the position of serfs change?
(tied to the lord, desperate shortage of working hands, supply and demand)
 Who were the Lollards?
(In 1349 a bishop authorized laymen to hear the confession of the dyeing; few
as they were, the Lollards were a dramatic threat to the security of the church;
translating the Bible, protection by John of Gaunt)
 What were the principal events of Richard II’s reign?
(coronation, anointing (помазание), a magical transformation from a little
boy to a little god, John of Gaunt’s regency, the most violent upheaval,
Peasants’ Revolt, they were up and comers and they were fighting not to
become down and outers, Wat Tyler, John Ball, the rebels remained fervently
loyal to the crown, churches were looted (разграблены), palaces were put to
the torch (сожжены), concession (уступка), “You shall have no captain but
me!”, implacable (безжалостный).
 What were Richard’s relations with nobility?
(omnipotence (всемогущество), your majesty as a form of address, it was
evident for nobility that he had lost touch with their common interest,
Merciless Parliament, guilty of treason (виновны в измене), Richard’s
revenge, Using the pretext (предлог) of an aristocratic plot (заговор), he
brutally disposed of the ring leaders of… (жестоко избавился от вожаков
…), Henry Bolingbroke’s exile and disinheritance, Irish expedition, to bring
the Irish princes to heel (заставить … повиноваться), Bolingbroke’s revolt,
Richard’s imprisonment, renunciation and death)
 Describe Lancaster and York dynasties, the Wars of the Roses.
(mayhem (хаос), to restore the chains of allegiance, the survivor, the English
country gent)

25
Task 2. A lot of geographical places are mentioned in this part of the film in
connection with some events. Match up proper nouns with events: Plague,
coronation of Richard II, Peasants’ War, imprisonment of Richard II, a great victory
of Henry V, Bosworth, Barnet, King Richard’s renunciation, Kent, Bristol, London
(Smithfield), Agincourt, Westminster Abbey, Tower of London, Wars of the Roses.
Task 3. Write an essay about the political and social situation in the15th c. England.
Task 4. Supplementary reading. Read the following information, and say what
facts were not mentioned in the film.

Peasants Revolt
Medieval England experienced few revolts but the most serious was the
Peasants’ Revolt which took place in June 1381. A violent system
of punishments for offenders was usually enough to put off peasants from causing
trouble. Most areas in England also had castles in which soldiers were garrisoned,
and these were usually enough to guarantee reasonable behaviour among medieval
peasants. An army of peasants from Kent and Essex marched on London. They did
something no-one had done before or since - they captured the Tower of London.
The Archbishop of Canterbury and the King’s Treasurer were killed. The
king, Richard II, was only 14 at the time but despite his youth, he agreed to meet
the peasants at a place called Mile End.
What were the peasants angry about and why had they come to London ?
1. After the Black Death, many manors were left short of workers. To
encourage those who had survived to stay on their manor, many lords had given the
peasants on their estates their freedom and paid them to work on their land. Now,
nearly 35 years after the Black Death, many peasants feared that the lords would
take back these privileges and they were prepared to fight for them.
2. Many peasants had to work for free on church land, sometimes up to two
days in the week. This meant that they could not work on their own land which
made it difficult to grow enough food for their families. Peasants wanted to be free
of this burden that made the church rich but them poor. They were supported in what
they wanted by a priest called John Ball from Kent.
3. There had been a long war with France. Wars cost money and that money
usually came from the peasants through the taxes that they paid. In 1380, Richard II
introduced a new tax called the Poll Tax. This made everyone who was on the tax
register pay 5p. It was the third time in four years that such a tax had been used. By
1381, the peasants had had enough. 5p to them was a great deal of money. If they
could not pay in cash, they could pay in kind, such as seeds, tools etc., anything that
could be vital to survival in the coming year. In May 1381, a tax collector arrived at
the Essex village of Fobbing to find out why the people there had not paid their poll
tax. He was thrown out by the villagers. In June, soldiers arrived to establish law and
order. They too were thrown out as the villagers of Fobbing had now organised
themselves and many other local villages in Essex had joined them. After doing this,
the villagers marched on London to plead with the young king to hear their
complaints. One man had emerged as the leader of the peasants - Wat Tyler from
Kent. As the peasants from Kent had marched to London, they had destroyed tax
records and tax registers. The buildings which housed government records were
26
burned down. They got into the city of London because the people there had opened
the gates to them.
By mid-June the discipline of the peasants was starting to go. Many got drunk
in London and looting took place. It is known that foreigners were murdered by the
peasants. Wat Tyler had asked for discipline amongst those who looked up to him as
their leader. He did not get it.
On June 14th, the king met the rebels at Mile End. At this meeting, Richard
II gave the peasants all that they asked for and asked that they go home in peace.
Some did. Others returned to the city and murdered the archbishop and Treasurer -
their heads were cut off on Tower Hill by the Tower of London. Richard II spent the
night in hiding in fear of his life.
On June 15th, he met the rebels again at Smithfield outside of the city’s
walls. It is said that this was the idea of the Lord Mayor (Sir William Walworthe)
who wanted to get the rebels out of the city. Medieval London was wooden and the
streets were cramped. Any attempt to put down the rebels in the city could have
ended in a fire or the rebels would have found it easy to vanish into the city once
they knew that soldiers were after them. At this meeting, the Lord Mayor killed Wat
Tyler. We are not sure what happened at this meeting as the only people who could
write about it were on the side of the king and their evidence might not be accurate.
The death of Tyler and another promise by Richard to give the peasants what they
asked for, was enough to send them home.

Walworth, bottom left hand corner, killing Tyler. Richard II is just behind
Tyler and also addressing the peasants after Tyler's death

By the summer of 1381, the revolt was over. John Ball was hanged. Richard
did not keep any of his promises claiming that they were made under threat and were
therefore not valid in law. Other leaders from both Kent and Essex were hanged.
The poll tax was withdrawn but the peasants were forced back into their old way of
life - under the control of the lord of the manor.
However, the lords did not have it their own way. The Black Death had
caused a shortage of labour and over the next 100 years many peasants found that
they could earn more (by their standards) as the lords needed a harvest in and the
only people who could do it were the peasants. They asked for more money and the
lords had to give it.
(www.historylearningsite.co.uk › Medieval England)

27
 VI "Burning convictions"
1500–58. The upheaval was caused as a country renowned for its piety, whose king
styled himself Defender of the Faith, turns into one of the most aggressive
proponents of the new Protestant faith.
Task 1. Before watching the film, look through the timeline of the period:
1509 - Henry VIII becomes King. Marriage of Henry to Catherine of Aragon.
1516 – Birth of Princess Mary.
1533 – Henry divorces Catherine of Aragon. Marriage of Henry to Ann Boleyn.
Birth of Princess Elizabeth.
1536 – Ann Boleyn beheaded. Marriage of Henry to Jane Seymour.
1537 – Birth of Prince Edward. Death of Jane Seymour.
1540 – Marriage of Henry to Anne of Cleves. Henry divorces Anne of Cleves.
Marriage of Henry to Catherine Howard.
1542 – Catherine Howard beheaded.
1543 – Marriage of Henry to Catherine Parr.
1547 - Death of Henry VIII. Edward VI becomes King.
1553 – Death of Edward VI, aged 15. Mary I crowned.
1554 – Marriage of Marry I to Philip of Spain.
1558 – Death of Mary I. Elizabeth I becomes Queen.

Task 2.Watch the film and find answers to the following questions, using the key
words in brackets:
 Why are Walsingham (Norfolk) and the Holly Trinity Church (Suffolk)
mentioned in the introduction? What was the position of Catholicism in
England on the brink of the Reformation? ( regular and developed
piligrims, to walk barefoot to the shrine (=tomb, chapel where a saint is
buried), to dedicate a candle in thanks for smth., to be a dutiful son of the
church, ceremonies and rituals involving the whole community, Christ
Crucified would be there in flesh and blood, hand written Bibles etc.)
 What were the main steps of the Reformation in England ? (Tyndale’s
translation and mass publication of the English Bible, prosecutions and
burnings, Henry VIII’s ascension to the throne (восхождение на престол),
Thomas Wolsey, Ann Boleyn, Henry’s divorce case, Wolsey’s fall, the idea
of Royal supremacy, submission of the clergy, break from Rome, Thomas
Cranmer and Thomas Cromwell, anti-Roman propaganda, dissolution of
the monasteries, Ann Boleyn’s execution, Cromwell’s protestant reforms,
restrictions in Bible reading, Cromwell’s fall, counter-reform six articles,
radical reforms of Edward VI’s reign, Mary I counter-Reformation, her
marriage to Philip II of Spain, Protestants’ burnings, Elizabeth’s ascension,
re-establishment of Protestantism).
 When did Tyndale comlete his New Testament? What gruesome
(мрачные, ужасные) events followed? Why were these events called “an

28
 English version of the inquisition”? (book burnings, short trials, to be
condemned as a heretic, to lit fires).
 Describe Henry VIII when he ascended to the throne (to be supposed to
become a king, to acquire smb’s brother’s wife, marriage alliance between
England and Spain, Catherine of Aragon, a splashy debut, glamorous outfits,
the Battle of the Spurs, meeting with the young French king Francis I in 1520
at the Field of the Cloth of Gold)
 How is Thomas Wolsey described in the film? What events are associated
with Thomas Wolsey?
 Why is Ann Boleyn called “a historical prime cause” of English
Reformation? (maid of honour, aristocratic flirtation, a sophisticated,
ambitious young woman with a mind of her own, to exploit natural
vivaciousness, to play the game of courtly love, to begin to recoil (=move
backwards) from wife, to have no legitimate heir, the marriage had been
divinely cursed, passion for smb., to refuse to be a mistress, seize on divorce
as an answer to all the problems, to make the Pope a virtual prisoner,
Wolsey’s fall, the book “On the obedience of a Christian Man and how
Christian rulers ought to govern” by Tyndale, to learn about supreme power,
submission of the clergy, the church would be governed by the will of the
king, break from Rome)
 What historical events is the name of Thomas Cromwell connected with?
(Thomas Cromwell – Secretary of State, Cromwell’s protestantism, Thomas
Cranmer secretely married a German, to commit oneself to Luther’s ideas, to
break with Rome, the country had to be aroused to a new sense of a
sovereignty, the oath had to be sworn recognising the royal supremacy and
the legitimacy of heirs, visitations to the monasteries, uprooting of nearly 10
thousand monks and nuns, dissolution of the monasteries (роспуск
монастырей), execution of innocent people, execution of Ann Boleyn, a law
restricting the reading of the Bible in English to churchmen, noble people,
deprivation (лишения, нищета) for ordinary people, 1540 – Cromwell
executed)
 Why was Ann Boleyn executed? What do you get to know about Jane
Seymour and Anne of Cleves? (Catherine was dead, to think of
reconciliation (примирение) between Charles V and Henry VIII, Ann
miscarried (потеряла ребенка из-за выкидыша), to seduce smb through
witchcraft (колдовство), to be doomed, to celebrate the birth of a son,
scheme of alliance with Anne of Cleves for diplomatic reasons collapsed)
 What was Henry VIII final position on the matters of religion: a) a
national church divorced from Rome but married to an English throne or a) a
national church married to Rome. What facts prove your choice?
 Describe the main events of the reign of Edward I. (to be led by Thomas
Cranmer, to be educated by a protestant, to destroy idolatry, all the customs
and ceremonies of the old church were banned, the blessing of candles and
candle mass and palms on Palm Sunday were banned, the cults of saints were
forbidden, images, statues, stained glass paintings were attached with chisels
and limewash, no more stone altar but a user-friendly communion chair, to
29
 abolish distance between a priest and his flock, the familiarity of address to
the congregation)
 What happened during the reign of Mary I? (to return England to its
obedience to Rome, to produce a Catholic male heir, to ask forgiveness from
the Pope’s legate, orders went out for the repainting of churches, restoration
of masses, to be forgiven by mother Rome, the Catholic Philip II of Spain, a
Spanish consort, to love another real better than this, to cleanse her realm of
the protestant heresy, to undo Edward’s reformation by fire, 2020 men and 60
women were burnt, to die childless)
 What events marked the reign of Elizabeth I? (a middle way between the
courses chosen by her half brother and half sister, to outlaw the mass, to bring
back the book of common prayer, to be in no hurry to abolish the Catholic
calendar of saints days, to put out the fires of religious fanaticism, a truly
English way, Englishness was discovered, to offer a bless to anyone who
would assassinate Elizabeth, to be forced to choose between their church and
their queen, what was once a national church would become a faith on the
run)

Task 3. Who of the following people are the words of the film about:

William Tyndale, Henry VIII, Thomas Wolsey, Thomas Cromwell, Thomas

Cranmer, Ann Boleyn, Mary I, Philip II of Spain, Elizabeth I
 Fanatical, clear in his convictions (убеждения)
 An inexhaustible (неутомимый) hunter
 A psychologist in a cardinal’s head
 Defender of the Faith (защитник веры)
 A manipulator of patronage, honours, bribes and threats
 Could bang heads - even very aristocratic ones
 Represented everything that Catherine was not: 10 years younger, merry,
spirited…
 They were like two pillows: theological on the left and political on the
right and the king triumphant in the middle
 The least sentimental man ever to run a country
 The author of the bloody drama
 He tried to put the genie back in its bottle
 To have a martyr (мученик) complex
 English first female ruler since queen Matilda
 A bad match
 To cast herself as a healer

Task 4. Fill in the gaps in the Family Tree of the TUDORS:

HENRY VII m. Elizabeth of York

30
 wives:
m.
Arthur
children:

Task 5. What role did the following people play in turning Catholic England
into a Protestant country: a)William Tyndale, b)Henry VIII, c)Thomas Wolsey,
d)Thomas Cromwell, e)Thomas Cranmer, f)Catherine of Aragon, g)Ann Boleyn,
h)Edward VI, i)John Dudley, j) Mary I, k) Philip II of Spain, l) Elizabeth I?

Find them in the pictures and speak about their role in Reformation.

1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8.

9. 10. 11. 12.

Task 6. Supplementary reading. Read the Wikipedia information about English

Reformation. Which of the facts were not mentioned in the film?

Henry VIII
Henry VIII ascended the English throne in 1509 at the age of 17. He made a
dynastic marriage with Catherine of Aragon, widow of his brother Arthur, in June
1509, just before his coronation on Midsummer's Day. Unlike his father, who was
secretive and conservative, the young Henry appeared to be the epitome of chivalry
and sociability; an observant Catholic, he heard up to five masses a day (except
31
during the hunting season); of "powerful but unoriginal mind", he allowed himself to
be influenced by his advisors from whom he was never apart, by night or day; he
was thus susceptible to whoever had his ear. Between his young contemporaries and
the Lord Chancellor, Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, there was thus a state of hostility.
As long as Wolsey had his ear, Henry's Catholicism was secure: in 1521 he
had defended the Catholic Church from Martin Luther's accusations of heresy in a
book he wrote, probably with considerable help from Thomas More, entitled The
Defence of the Seven Sacraments, for which he was awarded the title "Defender of
the Faith" . Wolsey's enemies at court included those who had been influenced by
Lutheran ideas, among whom was the attractive, charismatic Anne Boleyn.
Anne arrived at court in 1522, from years in France where she had been
educated by Queen Claude of France, as maid of honour to Queen Catherine, a
woman of "charm, style and wit, with will and savagery which made her a match for
Henry".By the late 1520s, Henry wanted to have his marriage to Catherine annulled.
She had not produced a male heir who survived into adulthood and Henry wanted a
son to secure the Tudor dynasty. Before Henry's father (Henry VII) ascended the
throne, England had been beset by civil warfare over rival claims to the English
crown and Henry wanted to avoid a similar uncertainty over the succession.
Catherine's only surviving child was Princess Mary.
Henry claimed that this lack of a male heir was because his marriage was
"blighted in the eyes of God". Catherine had been his late brother's wife, and it was
therefore against biblical teachings for Henry to have married her;a special
dispensation from Pope Julius II had been needed to allow the wedding in the first
place.Henry argued that this had been wrong and that his marriage had never been
valid. In 1527 Henry asked Pope Clement VII to annul the marriage, but the Pope
refused. According to Canon Law the Pope cannot annul a marriage on the basis of a
canonical impediment previously dispensed. Clement also feared the wrath of
Catherine's nephew, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, whose troops earlier that year
had sacked Rome and briefly taken the Pope prisoner.
The combination of his "scruple of conscience" and his captivation by Anne
Boleyn made his desire to rid himself of his Queen compelling.The indictment of his
chancellor Cardinal Wolsey in 1529 for praemunire (taking the authority of the
Papacy above the Crown), and subsequent death in November 1530 on his way to
London to answer a charge of high treason left Henry open to the opposing
influences of the supporters of the Queen and those who sanctioned the
abandonment of the Roman allegiance, for whom an annulment was but an
opportunity.
Parliamentary debate and legislation
In 1529 the king summoned Parliament to deal with annulment, thus bringing
together those who wanted reform but who disagreed what form it should take; it
became known as the Reformation Parliament. There were Common lawyers who
resented the privileges of the clergy to summon laity to their courts; there were those
who had been influenced by Lutheran evangelicalism and were hostile to the
theology of Rome; Thomas Cromwell was both. Henry's Chancellor, Thomas More,
successor to Wolsey, also wanted reform: he wanted new laws against heresy.

32
 Cromwell was a lawyer and a Member of Parliament, an evangelical who saw
how Parliament could be used to advance the Royal Supremacy, which Henry
wanted, and to further evangelical beliefs and practices which both he and his
friends wanted.One of his closest friends was Thomas Cranmer, soon to be
Archbishop.

Thomas Cromwell, 1st Thomas Cranmer (1489– Thomas More, with John
Earl of Essex (c. 1485– 1556), Henry VIII's Fisher the leader of
1540), Henry VIII's chief Archbishop of Canterbury political resistance
and editor and co-author
minister 1532–40. against the break with
of the first and second
Books of Common Rome. Both were
Prayer. executed in 1535.

In the matter of the annulment, no progress seemed possible: the Pope seemed
more afraid of Emperor Charles V than of Henry. Anne and Cromwell and their
allies wished simply to ignore the Pope; but in October 1530 a meeting of clergy and
lawyers advised that Parliament could not empower the archbishop to act against the
Pope's prohibition. Henry thus resolved to bully the priests.
Actions by the king against English clergy
Having brought down Cardinal Wolsey, his Chancellor, Henry VIII finally
resolved to charge the whole English clergy with praemunire in order to secure their
agreement to his annulment. Praemunire, which forbade obedience to the authority
of foreign rulers, had been around since the 1392 Statute of Praemunire and had
been used against individuals in the ordinary course of court proceedings. Now
Henry, having first charged Queen Catherine's supporters, Bishops John Fisher,
Nicholas West and Henry Standish and archdeacon of Exeter Adam Travers, then
decided to proceed against the whole clergy.Henry claimed £100,000 from the
Convocation of Canterbury of the Church of England for their pardon, which was
granted by the Convocation on 24 January 1531. The clergy wanted the payment to
be spread over five years. Henry refused. The Convocation responded by
withdrawing their payment altogether and demanded Henry fulfill certain guarantees
before they agreed to give him the money. Henry refused these conditions, agreed
only to the five-year period of payment and then, to the payment which Henry
wanted the Convocation to accept, added five articles:

33
 1. that the clergy recognise Henry as the "sole protector and Supreme Head of
the Church and clergy of England"
2. that the King had spiritual jurisdiction
3. that the privileges of the Church were upheld only if they did not detract from
the royal prerogative and the laws of the realm
4. that the King pardoned the clergy for violating the statute of praemunire, and
5. that the laity were also pardoned.
Further legislative acts
In Parliament, Bishop John Fisher championed Catherine and the clergy; he
had inserted into the first article, the phrase "as far as the word of God allows". In
Convocation, however, Archbishop Warham requested a discussion but was met by
a stunned silence; then Warham said, "He who is silent seems to consent", to which
a clergyman responded, "Then we are all silent." The Convocation granted consent
to the King's five articles and the payment on 8 March 1531. That same year
Parliament passed the Pardon to Clergy Act 1531.
The breaking of the power of Rome proceeded little by little. In 1532,
Cromwell brought before Parliament the Supplication Against the Ordinaries which
listed nine grievances against the Church, including abuses of power and
Convocation's independent legislative power. Finally, on 10 May, the King
demanded of Convocation that the Church should renounce all authority to make
laws and, on 15 May, the Submission of the Clergy was subscribed, which
recognised Royal Supremacy over the church so that it could no longer make canon
law without royal licence, i.e. without the permission of the King; thus completely
emasculating it as a law-making body. (This would subsequently be passed by the
Parliament in 1534 and again in 1536.) The day after this More resigned as
Chancellor, leaving Cromwell as Henry's chief minister. (Cromwell never became
Chancellor; his power came – and was lost – through his informal relations with
Henry.)
Several Acts of Parliament then followed. The Act in Conditional Restraint of
Annates, which proposed that the clergy should pay no more than 5% of their first
year's revenue (annates) to Rome proved at first controversial, and required Henry's
presence in the House of Lords three times and the browbeating of the
Commons.The Act in Restraint of Appeals which was drafted by Cromwell, apart
from outlawing appeals to Rome on ecclesiastical matters, declared that "this realm
of England is an Empire, and so hath been accepted in the world, governed by one
Supreme Head and King having the dignity and royal estate of the Imperial Crown
of the same, unto whom a body politic compact of all sorts and degrees of people
divided in terms and by names of Spirituality and Temporality, be bounden and owe
to bear next to God a natural and humble obedience",thus declaring England an
independent country in every respect. English historian Geoffrey Elton has called
this Act an "essential ingredient" of the "Tudor revolution" in that it expounded a
theory of national sovereignty.The Act in Absolute Restraint of Annates outlawed
all annates to Rome, and also ordered that if cathedrals refused the King's
nomination for bishop, they would be liable to punishment by praemunire. Finally in
1534 the Acts of Supremacy made Henry "supreme head in earth of the Church of

34
England" and disregarded any "usage, custom, foreign laws, foreign authority [or]
prescription".
Meanwhile, having taken Anne to France on a pre-nuptial honeymoon, Henry
was married to her in Westminster Abbey in January 1533. This was made easier by
the death of Archbishop Warham, a stalwart opponent of an annulment, after which
Henry appointed Thomas Cranmer as his successor as Archbishop of Canterbury;
Cranmer was prepared to grant the annulment [24] of the marriage to Catherine as
Henry required. Anne gave birth to a daughter, Princess Elizabeth, in September
1533. The Pope responded to the marriage by excommunicating both Henry and
Cranmer from the Roman Catholic Church (11 July 1533). Henry was to be
excommunicated again in December 1538.
Consequently in the same year the Act of First Fruits and Tenths transferred
the taxes on ecclesiastical income from the Pope to the Crown. The Act Concerning
Peter's Pence and Dispensations outlawed the annual payment by landowners of one
penny to the Pope. This Act also reiterated that England had "no superior under God,
but only your Grace" and that Henry's "imperial crown" had been diminished by "the
unreasonable and uncharitable usurpations and exactions" of the Pope.
In case any of this should be resisted Parliament passed the Treasons Act
1534 which made it high treason punishable by death to deny Royal Supremacy; the
following year Thomas More and John Fisher were executed under this legislation.
Finally in 1536 Parliament passed the Act against the Pope's Authority which
removed the last part of papal authority still legal. This was Rome's power in
England to decide disputes concerning Scripture.
Dissolution of the Monasteries
In 1534, Cromwell initiated a Visitation of the Monasteries ostensibly to
examine their character, in fact, to value their assets with a view to expropriation.
The Crown was undergoing financial difficulties, and the wealth of the church, in
contrast to its political weakness, made appropriation of church property both
tempting and feasible. Suppression of monasteries in order to raise funds was not
unknown previously. Cromwell had done the same thing on the instructions of
Cardinal Wolsey to raise funds for two proposed colleges at Ipswich and Oxford
years before. Now the Visitation allowed for an inventory of what the monasteries
possessed, and the visiting commissioners claimed to have uncovered sexual
immorality and financial impropriety amongst the monks and nuns, which became
the ostensible justification for their suppression. The Church owned between one-
fifth and one-third of the land in all England; Cromwell realised that he could bind
the gentry and nobility to Royal Supremacy by selling to them the huge amount of
Church lands, and that any reversion back to pre-Royal Supremacy would entail
upsetting many of the powerful people in the realm.For these various reasons the
Dissolution of the Monasteries was begun in 1536 with the Dissolution of the Lesser
Monasteries Act, affecting smaller houses, those valued at less than £200 a year; the
revenue was used by Henry to help build coastal defences against expected invasion,
and all their land was given to the Crown or sold to the aristocracy. Whereas the
royal supremacy had raised few eyebrows, the attack on abbeys and priories affected
lay people.Mobs attacked those sent to break up monastic buildings; the suppression
commissioners were attacked by local people in several places. In Northern England

35
there were a series of uprisings by Catholics against the dissolutions in late 1536 and
early 1537. In the autumn of 1536 there was a great muster, reckoned to be up to
40,000 in number, at Horncastle in Lincolnshire which was, with difficulty,
dispersed by the nervous gentry. They had attempted without success to negotiate
with the king by petition. The Pilgrimage of Grace was a more serious matter.
Revolt spread through Yorkshire, and the rebels gathered at York. Robert Aske, their
leader, negotiated the restoration of sixteen of the twenty-six northern monasteries,
which had actually been dissolved. However, the promises made to them by the
Duke of Norfolk were ignored on the king's orders. Norfolk was instructed to put the
rebellion down. Forty-seven of the Lincolnshire rebels were executed and 132 from
the northern pilgrimage.Further rebellions took place in Cornwall in early 1537, and
in Walsingham (in Norfolk) which received similar treatment.
It took Cromwell four years to complete the process. In 1539 he moved to the
dissolution of the larger monasteries which had escaped earlier. Many houses gave
up voluntarily, though some sought exemption by payment. When their houses were
closed down some monks sought transfer to larger houses. Many became secular
priests. A few, including eighteen Carthusians, refused and were killed to the last
man.
Henry VIII personally devised a plan to form at least thirteen new dioceses so
that most counties had one based on a former monastery (or more than one); this was
only partly carried out. New dioceses were established at Bristol, Gloucester,
Oxford, Peterborough, Westminster, and Chester, but not for instance at
Shrewsbury, Leicester, or Waltham.
Edward's Reformation

King Edward VI of England, in whose reign the

reform of the Anglican Church moved in a more Protestant direction. Reigned
from 1547 to 1553.
When Henry died in 1547, his nine-year-old son, Edward VI, inherited the
throne. Edward was a precocious child, who had been brought up as a Protestant, but
was of little account politically. Seymour was made Lord Protector. He was
commissioned as virtual regent with near sovereign powers. Now made Duke of
Somerset, he proceeded at first hesitantly, partly because his powers were not
unchallenged. When he acted it was because he saw the political advantage.The
1547 Injunctions against images were a more tightly drawn version of those of 1538
but they were more fiercely enforced, at first informally, and then by instruction. All
images in churches were to be dismantled; stained glass, shrines, and statues were
defaced or destroyed; roods and often their lofts and screens were cut down; bells

36
were taken down; vestments were prohibited and either burned or sold; church plate
was to be melted down or sold;the requirement of the clergy to be celibate was
lifted; processions were banned; and ashes and palms were prohibited. Chantries,
means by which the saying of masses for the dead were endowed, were abolished
completely. How well this was received is disputed; Dickens contends that people
had "ceased to believe in intercessory masses for souls in purgatory";others, such as
Duffy, argue that the demolition of chantry chapels and the removal of images
coincided with the activity of royal visitors.The evidence is often ambiguous.In 1549
Cranmer introduced a Book of Common Prayer in English. In 1550 stone altars were
replaced by wooden communion tables, a very public break with the past, as it
changed the look and focus of church interiors.
In 1551 the episcopate was remodelled by the appointment of Protestants to
the bench. This removed the obstacle to change which was the refusal of some
bishops to enforce the regulations. Henceforth, the Reformation proceeded apace. In
1552 the prayer book, which the conservative Bishop Stephen Gardiner had
approved from his prison cell as being "patient of a Catholic interpretation", was
replaced by a second much more radical prayer book which altered the shape of the
service so as to remove any sense of sacrifice. Edward's Parliament also repealed his
father's Six Articles. The enforcement of the new liturgy did not always take place
without a struggle. Conformity was the order of the day, but in East Anglia and in
Devon there were rebellions,as also in Cornwall, to which many parishes sent their
young men; they were put down only after considerable loss of life. In other places
the causes of the rebellions were less easy to pin down but by July throughout
southern England, there was "quavering quiet" which burst out into "stirs" in many
places, most significantly in the so-called Kett's Rebellion in Norwich. And apart
from these more spectacular pieces of resistance, in some places chantry priests
continued to say prayers and landowners to pay them to do so; opposition to the
removal of images was widespread. In Kent and the southeast, compliance was
mostly willing and for many, the sale of vestments and plate was an opportunity to
make money (but it was also true that in London and Kent, Reformation ideas had
permeated more deeply into popular thinking). The effect of the resistance was to
topple Somerset as Lord Protector, so that in 1549 it was feared by some that the
Reformation would cease. The prayer book was the tipping point. But Lisle, now
made Earl of Warwick, was made Lord President of the Privy Council and, ever the
opportunist (he was to die a public Catholic), he saw the further implementation of
the reforming policy as a means of defeating his rivals.
There were many disputes between the government and parishes over church
property. Thus, when Edward died in July 1553 and the Duke of Northumberland
attempted to have the Protestant Lady Jane Grey made Queen, the unpopularity of
the confiscations gave Mary the opportunity to have herself proclaimed Queen, first
in Suffolk, and then in London to the acclamation of the crowds.
From 1553, under the reign of Henry's Roman Catholic daughter, Mary I, the
Reformation legislation was repealed and Mary sought to achieve the reunion with
Rome. Her first Act of Parliament was to retroactively validate Henry's marriage to
her mother and so legitimise her claim to the throne. Achieving her objective was,
however, not straightforward. The Pope was only prepared to accept reunion when

37
church property disputes had been settled which, in practice, meant allowing those
who had bought former church property to keep it.
Thus did Cardinal Pole arrive to become Archbishop of Canterbury in
Cranmer's place. Mary could have had Cranmer imprisoned as he was tried and
executed for treason – he had supported the claims of Lady Jane Grey – but she had
resolved to have him tried for heresy. His recantations of his Protestantism would
have been a major coup for her. Unhappily for her, he unexpectedly withdrew his
recantations at the last minute as he was to be burned at the stake, thus ruining her
government's propaganda victory.

If Mary was to secure England for Catholicism, she needed an heir. On the
advice of the Holy Roman Emperor she married his son, Philip II of Spain; she
needed to prevent her Protestant half-sister Elizabeth from inheriting the Crown and
thus returning England to Protestantism. There was opposition, and even a rebellion
in Kent (led by Sir Thomas Wyatt); even though it was provided that Philip would
never inherit the kingdom if there was no heir, received no estates and had no
coronation.He was there to provide an heir. But she never became pregnant, and
likely suffered from cancer. Ironically, another blow fell. Pope Julius died and his
successor, Pope Paul IV, declared war on Philip and recalled Pole to Rome to have
him tried as a heretic. Mary refused to let him go. The support which she might have
expected from a grateful Pope was thus denied her.
After 1555, the initial reconciling tone of the regime began to harden. The
medieval heresy laws were restored. The so-called Marian Persecutions of
Protestants ensued and 283 Protestants were burnt at the stake for heresy. This
resulted in the Queen becoming known as "Bloody Mary", due to the influence of
John Foxe, one of the Protestants who fled Marian England. Foxe's Book of Martyrs
recorded the executions in such detail that it became Mary's epitaph; Convocation
subsequently ordered that Foxe's book should be placed in every cathedral in the
land. In fact, while those who were executed after the revolts of 1536, and the St
David's Down rebellion of 1549, and the unknown number of monks who died for
refusing to submit, may not have been tried for heresy, they certainly exceeded that
number by some amount. Even so, the heroism of some of the martyrs was an
example to those who witnessed them, so that in some places it was the burnings
that set people against the regime.

38
 There was a slow consolidation in Catholic strength in Mary's latter years.
The printing press was widely used to produce primers and other devotional
materials; recruitment to the English clergy began to rise after almost a decade;
repairs to long-neglected churches were begun. In the parishes "restoration and
repair continued, new bells were bought, and churches' ales produced their bucolic
profits". Commissioners visited to ensure that altars were restored, roods rebuilt and
vestments and plate purchased. Moreover, Pole was determined to do more than
remake the past. His insistence was on scripture, teaching and education and on
improving the moral standards of the clergy. It is difficult to determine how far
Catholic devotion, with its belief in the saints and in purgatory, had even been
broken by the previous reigns; but certainties, especially those which drew upon
men's purses, had been shaken: benefactions to the church did not return
significantly; trust in clergy who had been prepared to change their minds and were
now willing to leave their new wives – as they were required to do – was bound to
have weakened. Few monasteries, chantries and gilds were reinstated. "Parish
religion was marked by religious and cultural sterility", though some have observed
enthusiasm, marred only by the poor harvests which produced poverty and want.
Full restoration of the Catholic faith in England to its pre-Reformation state would
take time. Consequently, Protestants secretly ministering to underground
congregations, such as Thomas Bentham, were planning for a long haul, a ministry
of survival.Mary's death in November 1558, childless and without having made
provision for a Catholic to succeed her, would undo her consolidation.

Е M VII. "The body of

the Queen"
1. She was queen for 45 years +R T 1558–1603. This is
the story of two
2 The Spanish king wanted to marry her O H queens: Elizabeth I of
3. She married the Dauphin of France, U B England, the
Francis. In 1559 she briefly became queen Protestant virgin, and
consort of France, until 1560. Mary, Queen of Scots,
the Catholic mother. It
4. She had red hair and a white face. E M is also the story of the
birth of a nation.
5. She learned to play lute and virginals, A R
was competent in prose, poetry,
horsemanship, falconry, and needlework.
6. She was a magnet for conspiracy. S T
7. She wore a wig when she was older. D T
8. She spoke five languages. U R
9. After eighteen and a half years in M D
custody, she was found guilty of plotting.
10. She is considered a Catholic martyr. F L
39
11. A Spanish king wanted to marry her E H

12. She is acknowledged as a charismatic K Y

performer and a dogged survivor,
Task 1. Watch the film, and find answers to the following questions:
 Describe the early years of Elizabeth’s life (relations with Queen Mary,
imprisonment, education, coronation)
 What was the role of William Cecil at Elizabeth’s court (religion,
politics)?
 Describe the relations between Elizabeth and Robert Dudley
 What lay at the bottom of hostility between Elizabeth I and Mary Queen
of Scots?
 Describe Mary’s reign in Scotland (two marriages, murders and scandals,
birth of Prince James, Mary’s deposition and imprisonment, her escape to
England and new imprisonment)
 What plots were planned involving Mary as the replacement for
Elizabeth?
 Describe Elizabeth’s position and popularity during the second half of
her reign.
 How did the Intelligence service appear in England and what was its role
in leading Queen Mary to the scaffold?
 Describe the 1588 attempt of Spanish invasion of England.
 What were the main characteristics of the last years of Elizabeth’s
reign?
Task 2. Read the sentences about Elizabeth I (E) and Mary the Queen of Scots
(M) Mark these sentences E(Elizabeth) or M (Mary). The first is done for you.

The love of Queen Elizabeth I life was a married man. Look at the sentences
you marked as correct and read the name of Queen Elizabeth’ s great love.

Task 3. Supplementary reading. Read the Wikipedia information about English

Reformation and Mary the Queen of Scots. Which of the facts were not
mentioned in the film?

Elizabethan Settlement
Following Mary's childless death, her half-sister Elizabeth inherited the
throne. One of the most important concerns during Elizabeth's early reign was
religion. Elizabeth could not be Catholic, as that church considered her illegitimate.

40
At the same time, she had observed the turmoil brought about by Edward's
introduction of radical Protestant reforms.

Communion with the Catholic Church was again severed by Elizabeth. She
relied primarily on her chief advisors, Sir William Cecil, as her Secretary of State,
and Sir Nicholas Bacon, as the Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, for direction on the
matter. Chiefly she supported her Father's idea of reforming the church but made
some minor adjustments. In this way, Elizabeth and her advisors aimed at a church
that included most opinions. Two groups were excluded. Catholics who remained
loyal to the Pope were not to be tolerated. They were, in fact, regarded as traitors,
because the Pope had refused to accept Elizabeth as Queen of England. Roman
Catholics were given the hard choice of being loyal either to their church or their
Country. For some priests it meant life on the run, in some cases death for treason.
The other group not to be tolerated was made up of people who wanted reform to go
much further, and who finally gave up on the Church of England. They could not see
it as a true church any longer . They believed it had refused to obey the Bible, so
they formed small groups of convinced believers outside the church. The response of
the government was to use imprisonment and exile to try to crush these 'Separatists'.
Within the Church of England itself, three groups existed. Those who
believed the form of the church was just what it should be included leaders like John
Jewel and Richard Hooker. Others looked for opportunities to reintroduce some
Catholic practices. Under the Stuart kings they were to have their chance. Others,
who came to be called "Puritans", wanted to remove the traces of the old ways that
still remained. The Stuart kings were to give them a rough passage. At the end of
Elizabeth's reign, the Church of England was firmly in place, but within it were the
seeds of future conflict.
Parliament was summoned in 1559 to consider the Reformation Bill and to
create a new church. The Reformation Bill defined the Communion as a
consubstantial celebration as opposed to a transubstantial celebration, included
abuse of the pope in the litany, and ordered that ministers should not wear the
surplice or other Catholic vestments. It allowed ministers to marry, banned images
from churches, and confirmed Elizabeth as Supreme Governor of the Church of
England. The Bill met heavy resistance in the House of Lords, as Roman Catholic
bishops as well as the lay peers voted against it. They reworked much of the Bill,
changed the litany to allow for a transubstantial belief in the Communion and
refused to grant Elizabeth the title of Supreme Head of the Church. Parliament was

41
prorogued over Easter, and when it resumed, the government entered two new bills
into the Houses – the Act of Supremacy and the Act of Uniformity.
Puritans and Roman Catholics
Elizabeth's reign saw the emergence of Puritanism, which encompassed those
Protestants who, whilst they agreed that there should be one national church, felt that
the church had been but partially reformed. Puritanism ranged from hostility to the
content of the Prayer Book and "popish" ceremony, to a desire for church
governance to be radically reformed. Grindal was made Archbishop of Canterbury
in 1575 and chose to oppose even the Queen in his desire to forward the Puritan
agenda. "Bear with me, I beseech you Madam, if I choose rather to offend your
earthly majesty than to offend the heavenly majesty of God", he ended a 6,000 word
reproach to her. He was placed under house arrest for his trouble and though he was
not deprived, his death in 1583 put an end to the hopes of his supporters. His
successor, Archbishop Whitgift more reflected the Queen's determination to
discipline those who were unprepared to accept her settlement. A conformist, he
imposed a degree of obedience on the clergy which apparently alarmed even the
Queen's ministers, such as Lord Burghley. The Puritan cause was not helped even by
its friends. The pseudonymous "Martin Marprelate" tracts, which attacked
conformist clergy with a libellous humorous tone, outraged senior Puritan clergy and
set the government on an unsuccessful attempt to run the writer to earth.
Incidentally, the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 made it more difficult for
Puritans to resist the conclusion that since God "blew with his wind and they were
scattered" he could not be too offended by the religious establishment in the land.
On the other side there were still huge numbers of Roman Catholics, some of
whom conformed, bending with the times, hoping that there would be a fresh
reverse; vestments were still hidden, golden candlesticks bequeathed, chalices kept.
The Mass was still celebrated in some places alongside the new Communion service.
It was, of course more difficult than hitherto. Both Roman Catholic priests and laity
lived a double life, apparently conforming, but avoiding taking the oath of
conformity. It was only as time passed that recusancy, refusal to attend Protestant
services, became more common. The Jesuits and seminary priests, trained in Douai
and Rome to make good the losses of English priests, encouraged this. By the 1570s
an underground church was growing fast, as the Church of England became more
Protestant and less bearable for Roman Catholics. Roman Catholics were still a
sizeable minority.Only one public attempt to restore the old religion occurred: the
Rising of the Northern earls in 1569. It was a botched attempt; in spite of tumultuous
crowds who greeted the rebels in Durham, the rebellion did not spread, the
assistance they sought was not forthcoming, their communication with allies at
Court was poor; they came nowhere near to setting Mary Stuart, whose presence
might have rallied support, free from her imprisonment in Tutbury.The Roman
Catholic Church's refusal to countenance occasional attendance at Protestant
Services and the excommunication of Elizabeth by Pope Pius V in 1570 presented
the choice to Roman Catholics more starkly, and the arrival of the seminary priests,
while it was a lifeline to many Roman Catholics, brought further trouble. Elizabeth's
ministers took steps to stem the tide: fines for refusal to attend church were raised
from 12 d. per service to £20 a month, fifty times an artisan's wage; it was now

42
treason to be absolved from schism and reconciled to Rome; the execution of priests
began – the first in 1577, four in 1581, eleven in 1582, two in 1583, six in 1584,
fifty-three by 1590, and seventy more between 1601 and 1608. It became
treasonable for a Roman Catholic priest ordained abroad to enter the country.
Because the papacy had called for the deposing of the Queen, the choice for
moderate Catholics lay between treason and damnation. The List of Catholic martyrs
of the English Reformation was extensive.
There is, of course, always some distance between legislation and its
enforcement. The governmental attacks on recusancy were mostly upon the gentry.
Few recusants were actually fined; the fines that were imposed were often at reduced
rates; the persecution eased; priests came to recognise that they should not refuse
communion to occasional conformists. The persecutions did not extinguish the faith,
but they tested it sorely. The huge number of Roman Catholics in East Anglia and
the north in the 1560s disappeared into the general population in part because
recusant priests largely served the great Roman Catholic houses, who alone could
hide them.Without the mass and pastoral care, yeomen, artisans and husbandmen
fell into conformism. Roman Catholicism, supported by foreign or expatriate priests,
came to be seen as treasonous.
Act of Supremacy
The Act of Supremacy validated ten Acts that Mary had repealed and
confirmed Elizabeth as Supreme Governor of the Church of England. Supreme
Governor was a suitably equivocal title that made Elizabeth head of the Church
without ever saying she was. This was important for two reasons: (1) it satisfied
those who felt that a woman could not rule the church, and (2) it acted in a
conciliatory way toward English Catholics. For the clergy, Elizabeth's changes were
more wholesale than those of her half-brother, Edward, had been. All but one
(Anthony Kitchin) of the bishops lost their posts, a hundred fellows of Oxford
colleges were deprived; many dignitaries resigned rather than take the oath. The
bishops who were removed from the ecclesiastical bench were replaced by
appointees who would agree to the reforms.
On the question of images, Elizabeth's initial reaction was to allow crucifixes
and candlesticks and the restoration of roods, but some of the new bishops whom
she had elevated protested. In 1560 Edmund Grindal, one of the Marian exiles now
made Bishop of London, was allowed to enforce the demolition of rood lofts in
London and in 1561 the Queen herself ordered the demolition of all lofts. Thereafter,
the determination to prevent any further restoration was evidenced by the more
thoroughgoing destruction of roods, vestments, stone altars, dooms, statues and
other ornaments. The queen also appointed a new Privy Council, removing many
Roman Catholic counsellors by doing so. Under Elizabeth, factionalism in the
Council and conflicts at court greatly diminished. The Act of Supremacy was passed
without difficulty.
Act of Uniformity 1558
However, the Act of Uniformity 1558 which forced people to attend Sunday
service in an Anglican church, at which a new version of the Book of Common
Prayer was to be used, was passed by only three votes.The Bill of Uniformity was
more cautious than the initial Reformation Bill. It revoked the harsh laws proposed

43
against Roman Catholics, it removed the abuse of the pope from the litany and kept
the wording that allowed for both consubstantial and transubstantial belief in the
Communion.
After Parliament was dismissed, Elizabeth and Cecil drafted the Royal
Injunctions. These were additions to the settlement, and largely stressed continuity
with the Catholic past – ministers were ordered to wear the surplice. Wafers, as
opposed to ordinary baker's bread, were to be used as the bread at Communion.
There had been opposition to the settlement in rural England, which for the most
part was largely Roman Catholic, so the changes aimed for acceptance of the
settlement. What succeeded more than anything else was the sheer length of
Elizabeth's reign; while Mary had been able to impose her programme for a mere
five years, Elizabeth had more than forty. Those who delayed, "looking for a new
day" when restoration would again be commanded, were defeated by the passing of
years.

What facts about Mary’s imprisonment in England and her death struck you
the most?

Imprisonment in England
On 2 May 1568, Mary escaped from Loch Leven with the aid of George
Douglas, brother of Sir William Douglas, the castle's owner. She managed to raise
an army of 6000 men, and met Moray's smaller forces at the Battle of Langside on
13 May. She was defeated and fled south; after spending the night at Dundrennan
Abbey, she crossed the Solway Firth into England by fishing boat on 16 May. She
landed at Workington in Cumberland in the north of England and stayed overnight at
Workington Hall. On 18 May, she was taken into protective custody at Carlisle
Castle by local officials.
Mary apparently expected Elizabeth to help her regain her throne. Elizabeth
was cautious, and ordered an inquiry into the conduct of the confederate lords and
the question of whether Mary was guilty of the murder of Darnley. Mary was moved
by the English authorities to Bolton Castle in mid-July 1568, because it was further
from the Scottish border but not too close to London. A commission of inquiry, or
conference as it was known, was held in York and later Westminster between
October 1568 and January 1569.In Scotland, her supporters fought a civil war
against Regent Moray and his successors.
Casket letters

44
 Mary refused to acknowledge the power of any court to try her, since she was
an anointed queen, and refused to attend the inquiry at York personally (she sent
representatives) but Elizabeth forbade her attendance anyway. As evidence against
Mary, Moray presented the so-called casket letters—eight unsigned letters
purportedly from Mary to Bothwell, two marriage contracts and a love sonnet or
sonnets said to have been found in a silver-gilt casket just less than one foot (30 cm)
long, decorated with the monogram of King Francis II. Mary denied writing them,
argued that her handwriting was not difficult to imitate, and insisted they were
forgeries.They are widely believed to be crucial as to whether Mary shares the guilt
for Darnley's murder. The chair of the commission of inquiry, the Duke of Norfolk,
described them as horrible letters and diverse fond ballads, and sent copies to
Elizabeth, saying that if they were genuine they might prove Mary's guilt.
The authenticity of the casket letters has been the source of much controversy
among historians. It is impossible now to prove either way. The originals, written in
French, were probably destroyed in 1584 by Mary's son. The surviving copies, in
French or translated into English, do not form a complete set. There are incomplete
printed transcriptions in English, Scots, French and Latin from the 1570s.Other
documents scrutinised included Bothwell's divorce from Jean Gordon. Moray had
sent a messenger in September to Dunbar to get a copy of the proceedings from the
town's registers.
Biographers of Mary, such as Antonia Fraser, Alison Weir and John Guy,
have come to the conclusion that the documents were either complete forgeries, or
that incriminating passages were inserted into genuine letters, or that the letters were
written to Bothwell by some other person or by Mary to some other person. Guy
points out that the letters are disjointed, and that the French language and grammar
of the sonnets is too poor for a woman with Mary's education. However, certain
phrases of the letters (including verses in the style of Ronsard) and certain
characteristics of style would be compatible with known writings of Mary. The
casket letters did not appear publicly until the Conference of 1568, although the
Scottish privy council had seen them by December 1567. Mary had been forced to
abdicate and held captive for the best part of a year in Scotland. The letters were
never made public to support her imprisonment and forced abdication. Historian
Jenny Wormald believes this reluctance on the part of the Scots to produce the
letters, and their destruction in 1584, whatever their content, is proof that they
contained real evidence against Mary, whereas Weir thinks it shows the lords
required time to fabricate them. At least some of Mary's contemporaries who saw
the letters had no doubt that they were genuine. Among them was the Duke of
Norfolk, who secretly conspired to marry Mary in the course of the commission,
although he denied it when Elizabeth alluded to his marriage plans, saying "he
meant never to marry with a person, where he could not be sure of his pillow".
The majority of the commissioners accepted the casket letters as genuine after
a study of their contents and comparison of the penmanship with examples of Mary's
handwriting. Elizabeth, as she had wished, concluded the inquiry with a verdict that
nothing was proven, either against the confederate lords or Mary. For overriding
political reasons, Elizabeth wished to neither convict nor acquit Mary of murder, and
there was never any intention to proceed judicially; the conference was intended as a

45
political exercise. In the end, Moray returned to Scotland as its regent and Mary
remained in custody in England. Elizabeth had succeeded in maintaining a
Protestant government in Scotland, without either condemning or releasing her
fellow sovereign. In Fraser's opinion, it was one of the strangest "trials" in legal
history, ending with no finding of guilt against either party with one let home to
Scotland while the other remained in custody.
Plots
On 26 January 1569, Mary was moved to Tutbury Castle, and placed in the
custody of the Earl of Shrewsbury and his formidable wife Bess of Hardwick.
Elizabeth considered Mary's designs on the English throne to be a serious threat and
so confined Mary to Shrewsbury's properties, including Tutbury, Sheffield Castle,
Wingfield Manor and Chatsworth House, that were in the interior of England
halfway between Scotland and London, and distant from the sea. She was permitted
her own domestic staff, which never numbered less than 16, and needed 30 carts to
transport her belongings from house to house. Her chambers were decorated with
fine tapestries and carpets, as well as her cloth of state on which she had the French
phrase En ma fin est mon commencement ("In my end lies my beginning")
embroidered. Her bedlinen was changed daily, and her own chefs prepared meals
with a choice of 32 dishes served off silver plate. She was occasionally allowed
outside under strict supervision, spent seven summers at the spa town of Buxton,
and spent much of her time doing embroidery. Her health declined, perhaps through
porphyria or lack of exercise, and by the 1580s, she had severe rheumatism in her
limbs, rendering her lame. In May 1569, Elizabeth attempted to mediate the
restoration of Mary in return for guarantees of the Protestant religion, but a
convention at Perth rejected the deal overwhelmingly.[Norfolk continued to scheme
for a marriage with Mary, and Elizabeth imprisoned him in the Tower of London
between October 1569 and August 1570.Early in the following year, Moray was
assassinated. Moray's death coincided with a rebellion in the North of England, led
by Catholic earls, which persuaded Elizabeth that Mary was a threat. English troops
intervened in the Scottish civil war, consolidating the power of the anti-Marian
forces. Elizabeth's principal secretaries Sir Francis Walsingham and William Cecil,
Lord Burghley, watched Mary carefully with the aid of spies placed in Mary's
household. 1571, Cecil and Walsingham uncovered the Ridolfi Plot, which was a
plan to replace Elizabeth with Mary with the help of Spanish troops and the Duke of
Norfolk. Norfolk was executed, and the English Parliament introduced a bill barring
Mary from the throne, to which Elizabeth refused to give royal assent. To discredit
Mary, the casket letters were published in London. Plots centred on Mary continued,
and after the Throckmorton Plot, Walsingham introduced the Bond of Association
and the Act for the Queen's Safety, which sanctioned the killing of anyone who
plotted against Elizabeth and was aimed at preventing a putative successor from
profiting from her murder. In April 1585, Mary was placed in the stricter custody of
Sir Amias Paulet, and at Christmas she was moved to a moated manor house at
Chartley.
Trial
On 11 August 1586, after being implicated in the Babington Plot, Mary was
arrested while out riding and taken to Tixall. In a successful attempt to entrap her,

46
Walsingham had deliberately arranged for Mary's letters to be smuggled out of
Chartley. Mary was misled into thinking her letters were secure, while in reality they
were deciphered and read by Walsingham. From these letters it was clear that Mary
had sanctioned the attempted assassination of Elizabeth. [She was moved to
Fotheringay Castle in a four-day journey ending on 25 September, and in October
was put on trial for treason under the Act for the Queen's Safety before a court of 36
noblemen,[including Cecil, Shrewsbury, and Walsingham. Mary denied the charges
and was spirited in her defence. She told her triers, "Look to your consciences and
remember that the theatre of the whole world is wider than the kingdom of
England".[She drew attention to the facts that she was denied the opportunity to
review the evidence, that her papers had been removed from her, that she was denied
access to legal counsel and that as a foreign anointed queen she had never been an
English subject and thus could not be convicted of treason. Mary was convicted on
25 October and sentenced to death with only one commissioner, Lord Zouche,
expressing any form of dissent. Despite this, Elizabeth hesitated to order her
execution, even in the face of pressure from the English Parliament to carry out the
sentence. She was concerned that the killing of a queen set a discreditable precedent,
and was fearful of the consequences, especially if, in retaliation, Mary's son James
formed an alliance with the Catholic powers and invaded England. Elizabeth asked
Paulet, Mary's final custodian, if he would contrive a clandestine way to "shorten the
life" of Mary, which he refused to do on the grounds that he would not make "a
shipwreck of my conscience, or leave so great a blot on my poor posterity". On 1
February 1587, Elizabeth signed the death warrant, and entrusted it to William
Davison, a privy councillor. On the 3rd, ten members of the Privy Council of
England, having been summoned by Cecil without Elizabeth's knowledge, decided
to carry out the sentence at once.
Execution
At Fotheringhay on the evening of 7 February 1587, Mary was told that she
was to be executed the next morning. She spent the last hours of her life in prayer,
distributing her belongings to her household, and writing her will and a letter to the
King of France. The scaffold that was erected in the Great Hall was two feet high
and draped in black. It was reached by two or three steps and furnished with the
block, a cushion for her to kneel on and three stools, for her and the earls of
Shrewsbury and Kent, who were there to witness the execution. The executioners
(one named Bull and his assistant) knelt before her and asked forgiveness. She
replied, "I forgive you with all my heart, for now, I hope, you shall make an end of
all my troubles." Her servants, Jane Kennedy and Elizabeth Curle, and the
executioners helped Mary to remove her outer garments, revealing a velvet petticoat
and a pair of sleeves in crimson-brown, the liturgical colour of martyrdom in the
Catholic Church, with a black satin bodice and black trimmings. As she disrobed she
smiled and said that she "never had such grooms before ... nor ever put off her
clothes before such a company". She was blindfolded by Kennedy with a white veil
embroidered in gold, knelt down on the cushion in front of the block, on which she
positioned her head, and stretched out her arms. Her last words were, "In manus
tuas, Domine, commendo spiritum meum" ("Into thy hands, O Lord, I commend my
spirit"). Mary was not beheaded with a single strike. The first blow missed her neck

47
and struck the back of her head. The second blow severed the neck, except for a
small bit of sinew, which the executioner cut through using the axe. Afterward, he
held her head aloft and declared, "God save the Queen." At that moment, the auburn
tresses in his hand turned out to be a wig and the head fell to the ground, revealing
that Mary had very short, grey hair. A small dog owned by the queen, a Skye terrier,
is said to have been hiding among her skirts, unseen by the spectators. Following the
beheading, it refused to be parted from its owner's body and was covered in her
blood, until it was forcibly taken away and washed. Items supposedly worn or
carried by Mary at her execution are of doubtful provenance; contemporary accounts
state that all her clothing, the block, and everything touched by her blood was
burned in the fireplace of the Great Hall to obstruct relic-hunters.
(en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary,Queen of Scots)

VIII. "The British wars"

Charles I Oliver Cromwell

1603–1649. The turbulent civil wars of the early seventeenth century would
culminate in two events unique to British history; the public execution of a king and
the creation of a republic. Professor S. Schama tells us of the brutal war that tore the
country in half and created a new Britain – divided by politics and religion and
dominated by the first truly modern army, fighting for ideology, not individual
leaders.
Task 1. Listen to the introduction and fill in the gaps.
England and Scotland – two realms divided. In 1603 they’d come together in one 1)
…… : James VI of 2)…….. and James I of 3)……. . He wanted to be known as the
king of Great Britain. But what was it, this new kingdom? In the first half of the 17 th
century only the map makers could tell you. One of them, John Speed, published an
atlas of 4).. maps called ‘The Theatre of the Empire of Great Britain’ and covering
every inch of Scotland, Wales, Ireland and England. What lay behind Speed’s atlas
was an 5)………. vision of happy, harmonious Britannia coming together under a
king who was determined to bring 6)….. after centuries of war and 7)…… .
In 1642 King Charles I saw cannons, pikes and musketeers. By nightfall there would
be 3000 British corpses lying in the freezing mud. Here at Edgehill England had
become Golgotha*. Over the next long years the nations, that both James and

48
Charles yearned to bring together, would tear each other apart in murderous civil
wars. Hundreds of thousands of lives would be lost in battles, sieges (осады),
epidemics and famine (голод). One fails to measure the enormity of the disaster
(масштаб злодеяния этого несчастья). It reached every part of Britain from
Cornwall* to Connaught*, from York* to Hebrides*. It tore apart the communities
of parishes (приходов) and counties that all through the turmoil ( круговерть,
бурные годы) of the reformation had managed to agree about how the country
should be governed and who should do the 8)……… . Men who had broken bread
together, now wanted to break each other’s head. Men who had judged together,
now judged each other. At the end of it there would be a 9)…… ……. but it
wouldn’t be a united kingdom, it would be a united republic.
*Golgotha - was, according to the Gospels, a site immediately outside Jerusalem's
walls where Jesus was crucified.
*Cornwall – a county and peninsula (полуостров) in the South-West of England.
*Connaught – a region in Ireland
*York – an old town in the North of England famous for its York Minster (собор)
with beautiful stained glass windows (витражи)
*Hebrides – Inner and outer Hebrides are groups of islands to the West of Scotland.

Task 2. Find answers to the following questions:

 What were the main issues of the Civil War in Britain? (a war if ideas,
liberty and obedience, the crucible of modern history, out of the fires of these
wars came out the constitutional monarchy)
Lethal - смертельный
Crucible – емкость, в которой плавят металл
Survivors – выжившие
 In what other countries were there civil wars about similar issues?
(America – 17… and …. – 1789)
 What was King Charles I like? (secretive, pallid, ominously distant, father
of the nation, young, insecure)
Pallid - бледный
Uncouth- неуклюжий
Insecure – неуверенный в себе
 What triggered the conflict in England? What was the conflict about?
(war against Spain, the Duke of Buckingham, a bid to woo the Spanish princess,
returned empty handed, the gloves were off, no tax could be lawful without the
consent of Parliament, Petition of Rights, Buckingham assassinated to the national
cheering, Peter Paul Rubins, Inigo Jones’s masterpiece : the Banqueting House in
Whitehall, a piece of Italy transplanted to Britain, Puritans, Holy Scripture)
Trigger – дословно : спустить курок; здесь - начать
Crusade – крестовый поход
Upstart nobody – никчемный выскочка
Woo – ухаживать, предлагать замужество
Blow – выбросить деньги на ветер, растратить
Dismiss Parliament – распустить парламент
Assassinate – cовершить политическое убийство
49
 Holy Scripture - Священное Писание
 What were the ideas and views of the Puritans? (unbridgeable division
between the saved and the damned, betrayal of reformation, peace with Catholics,
war against any signs of Romanism: paintings or statues, crucifixes, a faith of
merchants, artisans and the gentry, dissidents had their ears cut off, obsession with
unity, cantankerous Presbyterian Kirk*, hatred and division, absentee king,
Calvinism*)
Costly error – ошибка, которая дорого обошлась
Betrayal – предательство
Crucifix – распятие
Artisans – ремесленники
Gentry – мелкопоместное дворянство
Obsession – одержимость
Cantankerous – ворчливый, недовольный
* Presbyterian Kirk – is the protestant, Calvinist Church of Scotland, known
informally by its Scots language name, the Kirk. The church of Scotland traces its
roots back to the beginnings of Christianity in Scotland, but its identity is principally
shaped by the Scottish Reformation of 1560.
(en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Scotland)
*Calvinism - is a major branch of Western Christianity that follows the
theological tradition and forms of Christian practice of John Calvin and
other Reformation-era theologians. Calvinists broke with the Roman
Catholic church but differed with Lutherans on the real presence of Christ in
the Lord's supper, theories of worship, and the use of God's law for believers.
(en.wikipedia.org/wiki)
 What was the effect of Charles’s intention to introduce a new Prayer
Book in Scotland?
(St. Giles’ Cathedral, a deafening outburst of shouting and whaling, rebels, snag, a
truce was hastily signed, reading public, John Pym, Lord Stafford at the head of
Catholic Irish army invaded Scotland, later beheaded, betrayal, Ireland erupted, an
unmitigated fiasco, a blundering despot, the abyss facing the country)
 What were the major events of the Civil war?
(the battle of Edgehill, The Earl of Essex at the head of Parliamentary army, South-
western campaign, Parliament demoralized, the King established court and a
military government in Oxford, an alliance between Parliament and the Scots, the
battle of Naseby, New Model Army*)
Foresake smb. – отказаться от кого-либо, бросить
Infantry - пехота
Animosity - враждебность
* New Model Army - was formed in 1645 by the Parliamentarians in the English
Civil War, and was disbanded in 1660 after the Restoration. Its soldiers became full-
time professionals, rather than part-time militia. To establish a professional officer
corps, the army's leaders were prohibited from having seats in either the House of

50
Lords or House of Commons. This was to encourage their separation from the
political or religious factions among the Parliamentarians.
 What is said about Oliver Cromwell?
 What was the end of the second Civil war? (they wanted Charles Stuart to
feel the wrath of God, a trial, a republic, a kingless state of God, martyr or
traitor, the anointed sovereign answerable only to the Almighty)
Folly – прегрешение, глупость
Task 3. Supplementary reading. Read the Wikipedia information about the
Civil War in England. Which of the facts were not mentioned in the film?
The First English Civil War

In early January 1642, a few days after his failure to capture five members of
the House of Commons, fearing for the safety of his family and retinue, Charles left
the London area for the north of the country. Further negotiations by frequent
correspondence between the King and the Long Parliament through to early summer
proved fruitless. As the summer progressed, cities and towns declared their
sympathies for one faction or the other. Throughout the summer months, tensions
rose and there was brawling in a number of places, with the first death from the
conflict taking place in Manchester.
At the outset of the conflict, much of the country remained neutral, though
the Royal Navy and most English cities favoured Parliament, while the King found
considerable support in rural communities. Historians estimate that between them,
both sides had only about 15,000 men. However, the war quickly spread and
eventually involved every level of society. Many areas attempted to remain neutral.
Some formed bands of Clubmen to protect their localities against the worst excesses
of the armies of both sides, but most found it impossible to withstand both the King
and Parliament. On one side, the King and his supporters fought for traditional
government in Church and state. On the other, most supporters of the Parliamentary
cause initially took up arms to defend what they thought of as the traditional balance
of government in Church and state, which the bad advice the King had received
from his advisers had undermined before and during the "Eleven Years' Tyranny."
The views of the Members of Parliament ranged from unquestioning support of the
King – at one point during the First Civil War, more members of the Commons and
Lords gathered in the King's Oxford Parliament than at Westminster – through to
radicals, who wanted major reforms in favour of religious independence and the
redistribution of power at the national level. However, even the most radical
supporters of the Parliamentarian cause still favoured the retention of Charles on the
throne.
After Hull, Charles moved on to Nottingham, where on 22 August 1642, he
raised the royal standard. When he raised his standard, Charles had with him about
2,000 cavalry and a small number of Yorkshire infantry-men, and using the archaic
system of a Commission of Array, Charles's supporters started to build a larger army
around the standard. Charles moved in a south-westerly direction, first to Stafford,
and then on to Shrewsbury, because the support for his cause seemed particularly
strong in the Severn valley area and in North Wales. While passing
through Wellington, in what became known as the " Wellington Declaration," he
51
declared that he would uphold the "Protestant religion, the laws of England, and the
liberty of Parliament."
Two weeks after the King had raised his standard at Nottingham, Essex led
his army north towards Northampton, picking up support along the way (including a
detachment of Cambridgeshire cavalry raised and commanded by Oliver
Cromwell). By the middle of September Essex's forces had grown to 21,000 infantry
and 4,200 cavalry and dragoons. On 14 September he moved his army
to Coventry and then to the north of the Cotswolds, a strategy which placed his army
between the Royalists and London. With the size of both armies now in the tens of
thousands, and only Worcestershire between them, it was inevitable that cavalry
reconnaissance units would sooner or later meet. This happened in the first major
skirmish of the Civil War, when a cavalry troop of about 1,000 Royalists
commanded by Prince Rupert, a German nephew of the King and one of the
outstanding cavalry commanders of the war, defeated a Parliamentary cavalry
detachment under the command of Colonel John Brown in the Battle of Powick
Bridge, at a bridge across the River Teme close to Worcester.
The first pitched battle of the war, fought at Edgehill on 23 October 1642,
proved inconclusive, and both the Royalists and Parliamentarians claimed it as a
victory. The second field action of the war, the stand-off at Turnham Green, saw
Charles forced to withdraw to Oxford. This city would serve as his base for the
remainder of the war.
In 1643 the Royalist forces won at Adwalton Moor, and gained control of
most of Yorkshire. In the Midlands, a Parliamentary force under Sir John
Gell besieged and captured the cathedral city of Lichfield, after the death of the
original commander, Lord Brooke. This group subsequently joined forces with Sir
John Brereton to fight the inconclusive Battle of Hopton Heath (19 March 1643),
where the Royalist commander, the Earl of Northampton, was killed. Subsequent
battles in the west of England at Lansdowne and at Roundway Down also went to
the Royalists. Prince Rupert could then take Bristol. In the same year, Oliver
Cromwell formed his troop of "Ironsides", a disciplined unit that demonstrated his
military leadership ability. With their assistance, he won a victory at the Battle of
Gainsborough in July.
In general, the early part of the war went well for the Royalists. The turning
point came in the late summer and early autumn of 1643, when the Earl of Essex's
army forced the king to raise the siege of Gloucester and then brushed the Royalist
army aside at the First Battle of Newbury (20 September 1643), in order to return
triumphantly to London. Other Parliamentarian forces won the Battle of
Winceby, giving them control of Lincoln. Political manoeuvering to gain an
advantage in numbers led Charles to negotiate a ceasefire in Ireland, freeing up
English troops to fight on the Royalist side in England, while Parliament offered
concessions to the Scots in return for aid and assistance.
With the help of the Scots, Parliament won at Marston Moor (2 July
1644), gaining York and the north of England. Cromwell's conduct in this battle
proved decisive, and demonstrated his potential as both a political and an important
military leader. The defeat at the Battle of Lostwithiel in Cornwall, however, marked
a serious reverse for Parliament in the south-west of England. Subsequent fighting

52
around Newbury (27 October 1644), though tactically indecisive, strategically gave
another check to Parliament. In 1645 Parliament reaffirmed its determination to
fight the war to a finish. It passed the Self-denying Ordinance, by which all
members of either House of Parliament laid down their commands, and re-organized
its main forces into the New Model Army ("Army"), under the command of
Sir Thomas Fairfax, with Cromwell as his second-in-command andLieutenant-
General of Horse. In two decisive engagements—the Battle of Naseby on 14 June
and the Battle of Langport on 10 July — the Parliamentarians effectively destroyed
Charles' armies.
In the remains of his English realm Charles attempted to recover a stable base
of support by consolidating the Midlands. He began to form an axis between Oxford
and Newark on Trentin Nottinghamshire. Those towns had become fortresses and
showed more reliable loyalty to him than to others. He took Leicester, which lies
between them, but found his resources exhausted. Having little opportunity to
replenish them, in May 1646 he sought shelter with a Presbyterian Scottish army
at Southwell in Nottinghamshire. Charles was eventually handed over to the English
Parliament by the Scots and was imprisoned. This marked the end of the First
English Civil War.

The Second English Civil War

Charles I took advantage of the deflection of attention away from himself to
negotiate a secret treaty with the Scots, again promising church reform, on 28
December 1647. Under the agreement, called the "Engagement", the Scots
undertook to invade England on Charles' behalf and restore him to the throne on
condition of the establishment of Presbyterianism for three years.
A series of Royalist uprisings throughout England and a Scottish invasion
occurred in the summer of 1648. Forces loyal to Parliament put down most of the
uprisings in England after little more than skirmishes, but uprisings in Kent, Essex
and Cumberland, the rebellion in Wales, and the Scottish invasion involved the
fighting of pitched battles and prolonged sieges.
In the spring of 1648 unpaid Parliamentarian troops in Wales changed sides.
Colonel Thomas Horton defeated the Royalist rebels at the Battle of St Fagans (8
May) and the rebel leaders surrendered to Cromwell on 11 July after the protracted
two-month siege of Pembroke. Sir Thomas Fairfax defeated a Royalist uprising in
Kent at the Battle of Maidstone on 1 June. Fairfax, after his success
at Maidstone and the pacification of Kent, turned northward to reduce Essex,
where, under their ardent, experienced and popular leader Sir Charles Lucas,
the Royalists had taken up arms in great numbers. Fairfax soon drove the enemy
into Colchester, but his first attack on the town met with a repulse and he had to
settle down to a long siege.
In the North of England, Major-General John Lambert fought a very
successful campaign against a number of Royalist uprisings—the largest that of
Sir Marmaduke Langdale in Cumberland. Thanks to Lambert's successes, the
Scottish commander, the Duke of Hamilton, had perforce to take the western route
through Carlisle in his pro-Royalist Scottish invasion of England. The
Parliamentarians under Cromwell engaged the Scots at the Battle of Preston (17–19

53
August). The battle took place largely at Walton-le-Dale near Preston in Lancashire,
and resulted in a victory by the troops of Cromwell over the Royalists and Scots
commanded by Hamilton. This Parliamentarian victory marked the end of the
Second English Civil War.

IX. "Revolutions"

General George Monсk Charles II William III and Mary II

1649–1689. Political and religious revolutions racked Britain after Charles I
execution, when Britain was a joyless, kingless republic led by Oliver Cromwell.
His rule became so unpopular that for many it was a relief when the monarchy was
restored after his death, but Cromwell was also a man of vision who brought about
significant reforms.
Task 1. Watch the film and find answers to the following questions:
 What questions were asked by people after the execution of the king?
(Who would stop the…; pillaging; a strong ruler, who embodies all the
people; anarchy)
Embody – воплощать,
Pillage - грабеж
Righteous – уверенный в своей правоте
Rapture - восторг
Grief – горе
 How did religion influence the personality of Oliver Cromwell?
Plight – несчастье
Albion – поэтическое название Британии
Seeker – искатель
Vanities – тщеславие, здесь - все мелкое
Untrustworthy – недостойные доверия
 How did Oliver Cromwell’s career develop? ( East Anglia country
gentleman; a sense of divine appointment; supremely confident; a driving
force of the godly revolution; never reckless; an aura of invincibility began to
cling to him,
Novice – новичок

54
 Reckless - безрассудный
Invincibility – непобедимость
Idolatry – поклонение идолам
Incorruptible – непогрешимый
 Who was the head of Levellers*, what was the role of women levellers?
(John Lilburn, a petitioning campaign, Elizabeth Lilburn)
*The Levellers were a political movement during the English Civil War which
emphasised popular sovereignty, extended suffrage, equality before the law,
and religious tolerance, all of which were expressed in the manifesto "Agreement
of the People". From July 1648 to September 1649 they published a
newspaper The Moderate,[1] and were pioneers in the use
of petitions and pamphleteering to political ends. They identified themselves by
sea-green ribbons worn on their clothing.
 How did Cromwell suppress a mutiny in Ireland? (atrocity, what it wasn’t
– was an indiscriminate butchery of women and children, no eyewitnesses of
that; in any case it was an act of unspeakable murder; 3000 soldiers butchered
at Drogheda, the vast majority after they had surrendered and disarmed; not a
genocidal lunatic but a narrow-minded, pig-headed protestant bigot and
English imperialist; pacification)
Atrocity – чудовищная жестокость
Indiscriminate – без разбора
Butchery – бойня, побоище
Eyewitness – свидетель
Surrender – сдаваться в плен
Bigot – самоуверенный
Pacification - умиротворять
 What kind of republic was Cromwell’s Britain? (exhausted, time to heal,
the Rump*, niceties were tossed aside, musketeers, Parliament was shut
down, coup d’etat*, from mere bullying to outright dictatorship, Assembly,
piety, he was working for God, unworkable Assembly collapsed, he was king
in all but name, piety and pragmatism were at odds (сталкивались) in his
heart, the blueprint of Constitutional Monarchy,)
*The Rump Parliament is the English Parliament after Colonel Pride purged
(очистил) the Long Parliament on 6 December 1648 of those members hostile to
the intention to try King Charles I for high treason. "Rump" normally means the
hind end of an animal; (хвост)
*Coup d’etat – государственный переворот
 What happened after Cromwell’s Death? (General George Monсk,
restoration, He was a king full of charisma, Tyburn*, voting for joy over
piety, this was the king for whom his alpha and omega was the real world,
1664 – a comet, apocalypse, the plague, 1666 – the Great fire of London)
Exile - изгнание
*Tyburn was a village in the county of Middlesexclose to the current location
of Marble Arch in present-day London. For many centuries, the name was
synonymous with capital punishment, its having been the principal place for

55
execution of London criminals and convicted traitors, including many
religious martyrs.
 How did London change after the Great Fire? (13200 houses burned,
Christopher Wren, 50 new churches )
 What was the attitude to Catholics? ( Guy Fawkes, James, the Duke of
York, a compromise, historical memory is a double-edged sword)
 What was the fate of James II? (William of Orange, Louis XIV, 600
vessels, a Declaration of Rights, a Glorious Revolution)

X. Britannia Incorporated
1690–1750. As the new century dawned, relations between Scotland and England
had never been worse. Yet half a century later the two countries would be making a
future together based on profit and interest.

Prince Charles Edward Duke of Cumberland Robert Walpole

Stuart
1692 William III massacres the Jacobites at Glencoe
1707 Act of Union between Scotland and England. The Scottish
parliament was dissolved and England and Scotland became one
country.
GeorgianBritain

In 1714 the British throne passed to a German family, the Hanoverians.

1714 George of Hanover, Germany succeeds Queen Anne to the Throne
1721 Sir Robert Walpole becomes the first Prime Minister
1746 Bonnie Prince Charlie is defeated at the Battle of Culloden
1757 First canal in Britain is completed
1776 America declares independence from Britain
1780's Industrial Revolution Begins
1783 Steam powered cotton mill invented by Sir Richard Arkwright

Task 1. Watch the film and find out who the following people were:

56
William III, James II, Jacobites, William Patterson, James Edward Stuart, Queen
Ann, Louis XIV, Whigs and Tories, Jesuits, George I, Robert Walpole, Earl of Mar,
William Hogarth, Thomas Coram, Bonnie Prince Charlie, Red Coats, Duke of
Cumberland, David Hume, Adam Ferguson, Robert Adam, Adam Smith.

Task 2. While watching the film pay attention to the descriptions of the
following events and places: Battle of Killiecrankie, Glencoe, Glorious Revolution,
Darien, Treaty of the Union, Jacobite Rising of 1715, 1745 Uprising, Battle of
Prestonpans, Culloden.
Task 3. Watch the film and find answers to the following questions:
1. What were the political and social consequences of the Glorious Revolution?
2. What was the origin of the Jacobite movement?
3. Describe the origin and the realisation of the Darien scheme.
4. What events preceded and followed the Act of the Union?
5. Describe the process of dynastic change and the first years of Hanoverian
Rule in Britain
6. What were the major events of Jacobite uprising of 1715?
7. Describe the political career of Robert Walpole and the transformation
Britain underwent during his term of service as Prime Minister
8. What were the social conditions in Britain in the first half of the 18th c.?
9. How did the 1745 uprising begin and what were its major events?
10. What were the immediate results of the Uprising?
11. Describe the changes in the political, social and cultural life in Scotland after
1746
Obstinately loyal – верный до конца
To make the pledge – принести клятву
Massacre – массовое кровопролитие
Purgatory– чистилище (перен. – место страданий)
God’s wrath – гнев Божий
Ship cargo – корабельный груз
Lairds of the lagoon – лорды (шотл. лэрды)
Anglophobia– англофобия, ненависть к Англии и англичанам
Crisis over succession – кризис, вызванный отсутствием единого кандидата на
престол
Trade concessions – благоприятные условия для торговли
Carrot stick – политика кнута и пряника
Writing on the Wall– надпись на стене (библ.), дурное предзнаменование
Serfdom – крепостное право
Intermission - перерыв
Sceptered Isle – остров под скипетром, Британия
Religious convictions – религиозные убеждения
Patronage – патронаж, протекция
Xanadu – Занаду, земной рай (из поэмы Кольриджа)
To demolish-уничтожить
Self-indulgence – потакание себе

57
Hanoverian Britain – Британия времен правления Ганноверской династии
(1714 - 1901)
To kindle – разжигать, инициировать
Virtue- добродетель
To jostle – сражаться, противостоять
Consumerism - потребительство
Debtor’s prison – долговая тюрьма
Smallpox- оспа
Foundling hospital – приют для брошенных детей
Connoisseur – знаток, ценитель (франц.)
Effigy – изображение, чучело

Task 4. Supplementary Reading. Read the following texts and mark the facts
that were not mentioned in the film
The Acts of Union 1707
The Acts of Union were two Acts of Parliament: the Union with Scotland
Act 1706 passed by the Parliament of England, and the Union with England Act
passed in 1707 by the Parliament of Scotland. They put into effect the terms of the
Treaty of Union that had been agreed on 22 July 1706, following negotiation
between commissioners representing the parliaments of the two countries. The Acts
joined the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland (previously separate
states, with separate legislatures but with the same monarch) into a single, united
kingdom named "Great Britain".
The two countries had shared a monarch since the Union of the Crowns in
1603, when King James VI of Scotland inherited the English throne from his double
first cousin twice removed, Queen Elizabeth I. Although described as a Union of
Crowns, until 1707 there were in fact two separate Crowns resting on the same head
(as opposed to the implied creation of a single Crown and a single Kingdom,
exemplified by the later Kingdom of Great Britain). There had been three attempts
in 1606, 1667, and 1689 to unite the two countries by Acts of Parliament, but it was
not until the early 18th century that both political establishments came to support the
idea, albeit for different reasons.
The Acts took effect on 1 May 1707. On this date, the Scottish Parliament
and the English Parliament united to form the Parliament of Great Britain, based in
the Palace of Westminster in London, the home of the English Parliament. Hence,
the Acts are referred to as the Union of the Parliaments.
Treaty and passage of the Acts of 1707
Deeper political integration had been a key policy of Queen Anne from the
time she acceded to the throne in 1702. Under the aegis of the Queen and her
ministers in both kingdoms, the parliaments of England and Scotland agreed to
participate in fresh negotiations for a union treaty in 1705.
Both countries appointed 31 commissioners to conduct the negotiations. Most
of the Scottish commissioners favoured union, and about half were government
ministers and other officials. At the head of the list was Queensberry, and the Lord
Chancellor of Scotland, the Earl of Seafield. The English commissioners included
the Lord High Treasurer, the Earl of Godolphin, the Lord Keeper, Baron Cowper,

58
and a large number of Whigs who supported union. Tories were not in favour of
union and only one was represented among the commissioners.
Negotiations between the English and Scottish commissioners took place
between 16 April and 22 July 1706 at the Cockpit in London. Each side had its own
particular concerns. Within a few days, England gained a guarantee that the
Hanoverian dynasty would succeed Queen Anne to the Scottish crown, and Scotland
received a guarantee of access to colonial markets, in the hope that they would be
placed on an equal footing in terms of trade.
After negotiations ended in July 1706, the acts had to be ratified by both
Parliaments. In Scotland, about 100 of the 227 members of the Parliament of
Scotland were supportive of the Court Party. For extra votes the pro-court side could
rely on about 25 members of the Squadrone Volante, led by the Marquess of
Montrose and the Duke of Roxburghe. Opponents of the court were generally known
as the Country party, and included various factions and individuals such as the Duke
of Hamilton, Lord Belhaven and Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun, who spoke forcefully
and passionately against the union. The Court party enjoyed significant funding
from England and the Treasury and included many who had accumulated debts
following the Darien disaster.
In Scotland, the Duke of Queensberry was largely responsible for the
successful passage of the Union act by the Scottish Parliament. In Scotland, he
received much criticism from local residents, but in England he was cheered for his
action. He had received around half of the funding awarded by the Westminster
treasury for himself. In April 1707, he travelled to London in order to attend
celebrations at the royal court, and was greeted by groups of noblemen and gentry
lined along the road. From Barnet, the route was lined with crowds of cheering
people, and once he reached London a huge crowd had formed. On 17 April, the
Duke was gratefully received by the Queen at Kensington Palace.
(www.wikipedia.org)
The Jacobites
The Glorious Revolution
To modern eyes the complex web of religious and political loyalties which
underpinned Jacobitism can seem alien and unsympathetic. The whole movement
might be said to span the century from the deposition of James II in the Glorious
Revolution of 1688 to the lonely alcohol-sodden death of Bonnie Prince Charlie in
1788.
A Catholic himself, James decided that by promoting edicts of religious
tolerance, he would be able to surreptitiously re-establish Catholicism as the official
faith of the British Isles. This notion produced near-hysteria in James's Protestant
subjects - who had been taught to abhor this faith. When a son was born to the King
and Queen, British Protestants were faced with the prospect of never waking up
from their worst nightmare: a Catholic dynasty.
They turned to James's Protestant son-in-law William of Orange. In 1688 he
led a successful invasion of England. James panicked and fled. As Scotland
wavered, James wrote an utterly tactless letter to the Scottish National Convention in
Edinburgh. They declared for William. James's most zealous Scottish supporter,
Viscount Dundee, turned to a military solution. The first Jacobite rising broke out.

59
But it was not very popular at all. Most Scottish nobles took the attitude of wait and
see.
Dundee's forces destroyed William's with a devastating highland charge at the
battle of Killiecrankie in 1689, but their leader died in his hour of glory. This left the
movement headless. The wait and see-ers kept waiting, and the rising petered out.
So how did Jacobitism come back from the political grave in Scotland? In a
few words: William and The Union.
So how did Jacobitism come back from the political grave in Scotland? In a
few words: William and The Union. The new King's Scottish reign was
characterised by government tactlessness and economic disasters. The most
important of the latter was the Darien Scheme. William refused all English
assistance to this Scottish venture to found a colony in Panama. When the scheme
failed, leaving most of the would-be colonists dead, the King was widely blamed.
Thus to the die-hard believers in the hereditary right of James were added the
dissatisfied. Jacobitism became a magnet for almost anyone with a grudge against
the government. The Union of 1707 then produced what was for many Scots the
grudge to end all grudges.
The ink was hardly dry on the treaty before it was being widely denounced,
and Scotland was ripe for sedition. The French, who were at war with Britain,
suddenly saw an advantage to be gained here. They would land the new Jacobite
heir, James III 'The Old Pretender' in his ancestral kingdom and start a rebellion. It
was an excellent opportunity to unite much of the nation, even many Presbyterians,
on the Jacobite side against the Union.
The abortive 1708 rising was dogged with bad luck, however, and possible
sabotage. The invasion fleet arrived tardily in the Firth of Forth to find the Royal
Navy waiting for them. The French commander refused to put the furious James
ashore. The invasion that might have united Scotland against the Union was a damp
squib.
The '15 Rebellion
However Jacobitism was still very dangerous. The promised benefits of the
Union had failed to arrive for many people. Instead, heavy excise duty and increased
tax caused much ill feeling. Added to these were humiliations at the hands of the
English-dominated Westminster parliament.
Yet rebellion when it came, sprang from a most unexpected quarter. When
George I of Hanover succeeded to the throne in 1715, he sacked one of Scotland's
most influential politicians: John Erskine, Earl of Mar. Mar decided to retaliate by
raising the standard for the house of Stuart. On one side of his banner he put the
arms of Scotland and on the other 'No Union'. Thousands flocked to it. Soon almost
the entire north of Scotland was in his hands. He did this without even bothering to
warn the Jacobite court.
This was not a phenomenon of a backward rural people rising for archaic
notions of loyalty to the king over the water. There was strong support for the
Jacobite cause in the trading burghs of north-east Scotland, as well as in the
Highlands.
Historian Bruce Lenman characterised the backbone of the rising as 'Patriotic
Scots and Disgruntled Britons'. The government commander, the Duke of Argyll

60
warned his own side that 'Beyond the Forth the rebels have a hundred to one at least
against us'. The Union was in serious danger.
Argyll seized the strategically vital ground around Stirling, but he was
heavily outnumbered. Then at the battle of Sheriffmuir, when all seemed lost, Mar
lost his nerve and suddenly withdrew. The belated landing of the Pretender couldn't
retrieve things, and the leaders of the rising fled ingloriously to France.
The 1715 was like no other Jacobite rising since Killiecrankie. It was totally
indigenous to Britain and not started from abroad. It was also the only occasion
when a sizeable rebellion also broke out in England - in heavily Catholic and
financially broke Lancashire.
This was not a phenomenon of a backward rural people rising for archaic
notions of loyalty to the King over the water.
The moment had passed, however, and the exiled Stuarts now became no
more than useful pawns in foreign hands. The next European power to play the
Jacobite card was Spain in 1719.
Unluckily for the Spanish, their main invasion fleet was destroyed by a storm
before it ever set sail for England. Only a tiny diversionary force made it to the
north-west of Scotland. There they garrisoned the ancient fortress of Eilean Donan
but were scattered by the energetic response of the local Hanoverian commander at
the battle of Glen Shiel.
Lowland Scotland had settled down under a Hanoverian regime, which
though sometimes unloved, did not move it to outright revolt. Faced with the Stuart
association with foreign enemies, most Scots preferred to keep a hold of their
Hanoverian nurse 'for fear of finding something worse'. But what George II and his
ministers could not inspire was enthusiasm, and this was to prove near-calamitous
when the Jacobite card was played again.
The '45 Rebellion
After major French invasion plans collapsed in 1744, Charles Edward Stuart
put together his own tiny invasion force to land in Scotland. The Prince came
without the men, money and guns that he had been expressly told that he needed.
Instead, he brought himself and his unassailable self-belief.
Guaranteed by Charles that he would be compensated if the rising failed, the
Chief of Clan Cameron committed his people to the cause. In this case, the support
of a few key western clans was crucial to the rising. Without them, the Jacobite
standard could never have been raised: with them, the '45 was begun.
The rebellion had remarkable initial success. Many Hanoverian troops had
been withdrawn to fight the regime's wars abroad, and only a handful remained to
defend Scotland. This, plus the general reluctance of the population to martyr
themselves for George II, allowed Charles to occupy Edinburgh virtually
unopposed.
In a move to whip up popular support, he decreed the Union to be abolished.
Meanwhile, the government forces under General Cope appeared belatedly to take
him on. They were surprised by the Jacobite army at the battle of Prestonpans and
torn apart, according to one observer in the space of 'seven or eight minutes'.
The Jacobite army now possessed Scotland. There was nothing to stop them
marching into England - but was this a wise decision?

61
 Charles Edward assured his commanders that his loyal English subjects
would join them, and that massive French military aid would be forthcoming. It soon
turned out that the Prince's promises were mostly empty.
The Jacobite army was in danger of being cut off from Scotland and
massacred. At Derby, his military council forced a retreat. The decision sowed
discord between the prince and his most gifted commander, Lord George Murray.
Murray managed to carry off a successful retreat to Scotland, and then to win the
battle of Falkirk against superior government forces. Little gratitude he got,
however.
Finished cause
At Culloden, the fruits of Charles's rancour with Murray appeared. After the
failure of a surprise night-attack on the government forces, the Prince insisted on
taking command.
He chose to give battle on the most unsuitable terrain possible for a Highland
charge. Hanoverian artillery cut the Jacobite troops to pieces, and Culloden was a
slaughter. The prince became the hunted fugitive in the heather, so well known to
romantic legend.
Ironically, the savage government repression after Culloden was as
unnecessary as it was brutal.
Ironically, the savage government repression after Culloden was as
unnecessary as it was brutal. Many former Jacobites were only too willing to seek
terms with the State.
Within a relatively short time a large number of them were to be found
serving the Hanoverians in a military capacity abroad. Jacobitism had been exposed
by the '45 as no longer militarily viable. With the exception of a few half-hearted
plots, it continued withering away.
The Bonnie Prince died, a sad old drunkard, in Florence. His brother Cardinal
Henry later effectively recognised the Hanoverians, although theoretically he
maintained his own claim to the throne. Eventually admiration for Jacobitism was
adopted, along with tartan, by the Hanoverians themselves as part of a general
nostalgia for the good old days. There could be no more telling comment on the
decease of Jacobitism as a political force.
(http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/civil_war_revolution/
scotland_jacobites_01.shtml)

XI. The Wrong Empire

1750–1800. The exhilarating and terrible story of how the British Empire came into
being through its early settlements—the Caribbean through the sugar plantations
(and helped by slavery), the land that later became the United States and India
through the British East India Company--and how it eventually came to dominate
the world. A story of exploration and daring, but also - one of exploitation, conflict,
and loss.

62
 George III William Pitt George Washington Robert Clive

1776 America declares independence from Britain

1780's Industrial Revolution Begins
1783 Steam powered cotton mill invented by Sir Richard Arkwright
1788 First convict ships are sent to Australia
1796 Edward Jenner invented a vaccination against small pox

1800 Act of Union with Ireland

The first census. Population of Britain 8 million

1801
Ireland made part of the United Kingdom

Task 1. Who were the following people: George III, William Pitt, General Wolfe,
John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, George Washington, the Mughals, Persians,
Afghans, Robert Clive, Siraj Ud Daulah, Warren Hastings, Richard Wellesley,
Tippu Sultan ?
Task 2. What do you know about the following events and places : The
Caribbean, Indian subcontinent, Appalachian Mountains, Massachusetts, West
Indies, Barbados, the Seven Year War, Nova Scotia, Quebec, Montreal, Boston Tea
Party, Yorktown, Delhi, Pondicherry, Madras, the Black Hole of Calcutta, Battle of
Plessey, Bengal?
Task 3. Answer the following questions:
1. Describe the character and main features of the early British colonization
2. What were the main reasons of the transportation of African slaves to
America
3. Describe Anglo-French rivalry in America in 17-18th c.
4. What were the principal events of the Seven Year War in North America?
5. What were the political and social causes of the American Revolution?
6. Describe the progress and results of the American War of Independence
7. Describe early British trade and colonizing activities in India
8. What were the main features and principal events of the British colonisation
of India

63
 9. Describe the British Raj in India in the 18th c.
Deprived of– быть лишенным
Manifold blessings – различные блага
To endure– переносить испытания
Coercion-принуждение
Quest-поиск
Swamps-болота
Commodity-товар
Acre – акр, мера площади
Deck-палуба
Venture-предприятие
Hold- трюм
Loathsome-ненавистный
Inconceivable- невероятный
Flogging- бичевание
The world was their oyster– все было в их руках
Alpha and omega - альфа и омега (первая и последняя буквы греческого
алфавита), от начала до конца
To wipe out-уничтожить
Setback- препятствие
Stronghold - укрепление
Martyr- мученик
Status quo – существующее положение вещей (лат.)
Shrine – языческий храм
Yield – поддаваться (соблазну, искушению и пр.)
Repeal - отменить
Irrevocable– безвозвратный, окончательный
Valour - доблесть
Muskets - мушкеты
Militiamen– народное ополчение
To bite one’s nails– кусать локти, быть в состоянии бессильной злобы
Plunder- добыча
Whim– каприз
Benevolence- благоволение
Famine–повсеместный голод
To perish-погибнуть
Bhagavad-Gita – одна из частей Махабхараты, древнеиндийского
религиозного эпоса
Conquerors- завоеватели
Standstill– полная остановка
Sepoys – сипаи, индийские наемники
Raj – британское правление в Индии
Foundation stone– фундамент, базис
Immensity– огромный размер
Tomfoolery-дурачество
Grandeur–величие

64
Task 4. Supplementary Reading. Read the following texts and mark the facts
that were not mentioned in the film
Sea power
Britain's development between 1714 and 1837 had an important international
and military dimension. An empire based on commerce, sea power and naval
dominance consolidated British overseas settler societies.
At the beginning of the 18th century, Britain possessed colonies along the
eastern seaboard of North America, numerous sugar islands in the Caribbean and a
foothold in Bengal. Georgia became a British colony in 1732. Britain acquired the
Ceded Islands in 1763.
The triangular slave trade was an important feature of British transatlantic
commerce.
Despite the disastrous loss of the 13 North American colonies in the
American War of Independence in 1783, Britain subsequently acquired settlements
in New South Wales, Sierra Leone, Trinidad, Demerara, Mauritius and the Cape
Colony. She also extended her hold over Bengal and Madras.
British oceanic enterprise provided the shipping, commerce, settlers and
entrepreneurs that held these far-flung territories together. In the Indian Ocean, the
English India Company dominated trade with India, south east Asia and China.
In the Atlantic Ocean, most trade was carried out by private merchant vessels.
The triangular slave trade was an important feature of British transatlantic
commerce, taking over three million black slaves as workers for the plantations in
America and the West Indies until the trade was abolished in 1807.
Trade was backed by naval power and by efficient handling of private and
public credit, including substantial public borrowing via the Bank of England.
A flourishing power
The long 18th century, from the Glorious Revolution until Waterloo, was the
period in which Britain rose to a dominant position among European trading
empires, and became the first western nation to industrialise.
The extent of economic change between 1688 and 1815 can be discerned
through a glimpse at the state of economic and social conditions at home, and the
growth of trade and empire at the beginning and end of that period.
In 1688 England and Wales had a population of 4.9 million, and the internal
economy was still largely based on agricultural work and production.
Domestic industry flourished, with many workers pursuing dual occupations
on a seasonal basis in industry and agriculture. English society contained a
flourishing and more extensive middling sector than any other western country,
including the Dutch Republic. This provided a strong platform for commerce with,
and settlement in, far-flung territories.
The long 18th century was the period in which Britain rose to a dominant
position among European trading empires...
Merchants sent out ships to trade with North America and the West Indies,
where England had established a network of colonies, following on from the
permanent settlement of Virginia in 1607 and the acquisition of Barbados in 1625.

65
Some 350,000 people had emigrated from England across the Atlantic by the end of
the 17th century.
In 1686 alone these colonies shipped goods worth over £1 million to London.
Exports to the colonies consisted mainly of woollen textiles; imports included sugar,
tobacco and other tropical groceries for which there was a growing consumer
demand.
The triangular slave trade had begun to supply these Atlantic colonies with
unfree African labour, for work on tobacco, rice and sugar plantations. It was based
around the activities of the Royal African Company, with headquarters in London.
Trade and settlement also occurred in Asian waters. This was mainly based
around the activities of the East India Company, a large joint-stock company based
in London. The ships of the East India Company fleet traded mainly in bullion,
textiles and tea with Bengal.
Overseas commerce was conducted within the mercantilist framework of the
Navigation Acts, which stipulated that all commodity trade should take place in
British ships, manned by British seamen, trading between British ports and those
within the empire.
Despite these developments, in 1688 Britain was still a vulnerable competitor
for stakes in overseas colonies and trade - her rivals were the trading empires of
France and the Netherlands, as well as Spain and her client state, Portugal.
Which came first?
To what extent were these changes between 1688 and 1815 a case of trade
stimulating empire, or of empire stimulating trade? The answer is that trade and
empire went hand in hand, with a symbiotic relationship to each other.
Growing overseas commerce with colonies stimulated merchants to provide
ships, as well as goods for expanding settler societies. The slave trade also became a
vehicle for establishing an empire of slavery in the Caribbean and southern
American colonies, and emigrants sailed to the colonies in search of better material
conditions. They also, in some cases, had to emigrate to escape religious
persecution.
Rapid population growth in 18th-century North America provided a large
market for British exports. In the quarter century before the American Revolution,
British foreign trade changed its commodity composition to provide a wider range of
textiles, notably linen and cotton fabrics.
This was in addition to a range of metalware and hardware, fabricated to meet
the demands of a burgeoning colonial population with less advanced industrial
processes than were current in the home country, and with some restrictions on their
own manufacturing.
The answer is that trade and empire went hand in hand...
The slave trade stimulated British manufacturing production by the derived
demand for goods such as plantation utensils, and clothing needed for slaves and
estates. Colonies became linked to the metropolis by complex bilateral and
multilateral shipping routes.
An integrated Atlantic economy came into being after the mid-18th century,
in which merchants in British, American, West Indian and Iberian ports established

66
firm commercial ties and a modern, enterprising outlook with regard to making
money through imperial trade.
To what extent was British hegemony in empire, trade and industry based on
the growth of imperial commerce? Many historians have discussed this basic
question, and disputed the level of stimulus to the domestic British economy, and
hence to industrialisation, that was provided by the growth of empire.
A negative assessment would emphasise that the profits of slavery and the
slave trade were more modest than the bonanza that was once thought to have taken
place, and that the contribution of slavery and the slave trade to national income was
marginal at best.
Sceptics would also argue that British manufacturing production owed more
to demand from the domestic market than from overseas customers; they would
stress agricultural productivity and other supply-side factors as the vital components
of British economic growth.
Others would suggest that the protectionist trade network led to the Caribbean
colonies becoming a burden on the mother country, once defence and administration
costs are considered, and that trade with India, with an imbalance between imports
and exports, was a similar drain on British capital.
Those wishing to downgrade the role of overseas trade in industrialisation
also argue that gains by British financial services, both from trade and empire, were
essentially derivative and parasitical.
The impact of imperial trade
Although there is no space in this article to cite detailed data, a more positive
assessment of the impact of trade and colonies on British development can,
however, be made.
Revenue from slavery and the slave trade filtered back into the British
economy in indirect ways, with bankers, insurance specialists and country
gentlemen all participating as active investors. Some historians think that the profits
of slavery and the slave trade, as a proportion of national income, were impressive.
British manufacturing production, it has been argued, received the additional
stimulus of a large overseas trading bowl, that induced producers to increase
productivity and introduce new technologies to meet this additional demand.
Modern studies have shown that the net drain to the British economy from
protecting the British Caribbean colonies, or from participating in the East India
trade, have been exaggerated. There can be little doubt that trade and empire gave a
significant boost to the proliferation and sophistication of financial services, and that
this was of considerable benefit to the long-term development of the British
economy.
British hegemony in empire and trade by 1815 was such that Britannia did
rule the waves......
No historian would argue that trade and empire had a minimal impact on
emerging British industrialisation; the question is, rather, exactly how important was
that impact?
The current consensus is that trade and empire were significant for British
economic growth in the Hanoverian period, even if they were not decisively
important. British hegemony in empire and trade by 1815 was such that Britannia

67
did rule the waves; but this would not have been achieved without the strong support
provided by the 'military-fiscal' state and the Royal Navy.
The expansion of British imperial endeavours was accompanied by many
years of warfare: over half of the 18th century saw the British at war, principally
against France.
The ability of the British government to raise taxes and loans to support
aggressive military policies by Hanoverian governments, and the superiority of the
Royal Navy over other European navies, both played a large part in creating the
conditions through which trade and empire could flourish.
(http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/
trade_empire_01.shtml)

XII. Forces of Nature

1780–1832. Britain never had the kind of revolution experienced by France in 1789,
but it did come close. In the mid-1770s the country was intoxicated by a great surge
of political energy. Re-discovering England's wildernesses, the intellectuals of the
"romantic generation" also discovered the plight of the common man, turning nature
into a revolutionary force.

Napoleon Admiral Nelson Duke of Wellington

1805 Lord Nelson defeats Napoleon at the Battle of Trafalgar

1807 Abolition of Slave Trade

1815 Duke of Wellington defeats Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo

1825 World's first railway opens between Stockton and Darlington

1829 Robert Peel set up the Metropolitan Police force

68
 The Poor Law set up workhouses, where people without homes or
1834
jobs could live in return for doing unpaid work.

Task 1. Who were the following people: Duke of Wellington, Jean-Jacque

Rousseau, Richard Davenport, Joseph Wright, Oliver Goldsmith, Philip Thickness,
Thomas Buick, Richard Price, George III, Louis XIV, William Wordsworth,
Edmund Burke, Charles James Fox, Tom Paine, William Blake, Mary
Wollstonecraft, Jacobins, Whigs, William Godwin, William Cobbett, Henry Hunt?
Task 2. What do you know about the following events and places: Arcadia, the
Industrial revolution, the Bastille, the Pennines, the French Revolution, Trafalgar,
Waterloo?
Task 3. Answer the following questions:
1. What was the impact of J.J. Rousseau’s ideas on British public opinion and
social life?
2. Describe the initial reactions of British politicians, poets and writers to the
French Revolution?
3. What events caused the change of the public attitude towards the French
revolution in Britain?
4. Describe the political and social situation in Britain prior and during the
French revolution
5. How did the Industrial Revolution affect the economic and social life in
Britain?
6. Who was the first British feminist? What do you know about her life and
ideas?
7. What were the main events of the Napoleonic Wars and their aftermath in
Britain?
To relish-наслаждаться
The gentry– мелкопоместное дворянство
Crag- утес
Crusade – крестовый поход
Chainmales-кольчуга
Terminally diseased– смертельно больной
Antidote - противоядие
Contaminate – портить, засорять
To cram-переполнять
Disciple-ученик
Desolation-запустение
Decay– упадок, разложение
Absentee – отсутствующий землевладелец
To smuggle – ввозить контрабандой
To be bonded – быть связанным
To turn a blind eye – намеренно игнорировать
Tempting- соблазнительный

69
Sycophantic-угоднический
Scoundrel-негодяй
Forerunners- провозвестники
Blissfully- блаженно
Denounce – осуждать, расторгать
Fraternal- братский
Wrack-сокрушить
Violate-нарушить
Hatchet-топор
Conspicuous – очевидный, заметный
Defiance – вызов, неповиновение
First flush– первый период влюбленности
Pariah-изгой
Exuberance-изобилие
A fifth column– пятая колонна, предатели внутри страны
Salvation- спасение
Lethal danger– смертельная опасность
Habeas Corpus– закон о неприкосновенности личности
Vulnerable-уязвимый
Repression- подавление
Stakes- ставки
Insurrection-восстание
Slaughter–(массовое) убийство
To scar– оставлять след
Fervent – пылкий
At peril to one’s life– с опасностью для жизни
The destitute– бедные, неимущие
Woes- горести
Cradle- колыбель
Work house– работный дом для бедных
Climax – кульминация
Carnage- резня
Slump– резкий спад
Weavers- ткачи
Spinners- прядильщики
Belligerent- воинственный
Parasites– паразиты, живущие за счет других
Yeomanry– добровольческие полки
Artisan- ремесленник
Dismount– сходить, спешиваться
Toembark- отправляться
Ferocity– гнев, ярость
To be embraced– быть встреченным с радостью
Abolitionism– аболиционизм, движение за отмену рабства
Wither– увядать, уменьшаться
Accomplice– сообщник

70
Task 4. Supplementary Reading. Read the following texts and mark the facts
that were not mentioned in the film

War with France

When war broke out between Britain and Revolutionary France in the spring
of 1793 there was no immediate threat of French invasion. Britain relied on the
Royal Navy for defence and planned a series of sorties against the French forces in
mainland Europe. But the picture started to change in 1796. French military
successes and British military frustrations started to alter the balance of power and
the British Government began to repair and reinforce coastal defenses and to raise,
train and equip a huge force of volunteers.
...the British Government began to repair and reinforce coastal defenses and
to raise, train and equip a huge force of volunteers.
During 1796 the most successful and charismatic of France's revolutionary
soldiers - General Hoche - started to hatch a grand and complex plan for the co-
ordinated invasion of England, Wales and Ireland. Important to the French was the
Irish patriot Theobald Wolfe Tone. A member of the Society of United Irishman
Wolfe Tone was a Protestant who by the mid 1790s was convinced that change
could come only through violent insurrection. In 1796 he was in France seeking aid
and promoting the invasion of Ireland by a French army of liberation.
Wolfe Tone and Hoche met and their aspirations coincided. Wolfe Tone
promised popular support if the French invaded and, in late December 1796, a
French invasion fleet of around 50 ships carrying 15,000 veteran troops set sail from
Brest for Bantry Bay in south-west Ireland. The plan was to land, ignite the country
in rebellion against the Protestant English overlords, seize the port of Cork and be in
Dublin within the fortnight. But nothing went right for the French - the weather was
so violent that no troops could be put ashore - and by the first week of January 1797
the French invasion fleet, battered and dispersed, crept back to Brest.
Napoleon's pro-invasion policies
The failure of this and other invasion plans brought the British only a short-
term reprieve. The Government continued to fear the enemy within and increased
the power of sedition laws to break and stifle individuals and societies that appeared
to be supporting pro-French Republican views. These fears seemed to be fully
realised in April and May 1797 when elements of the Royal Navy - the first and
major bulwark against invasion - mutinied at Spithead and the Nore. The mutiny -
not primarily political in its nature - was dealt with and the British naval victory in
October 1797 over a French-led and sponsored Dutch invasion fleet at Camperdown
suggested that the Royal Navy was still in possession of its fighting spirit. But
despite this British success the French still appeared to be closing in for the kill.
General Hoche - the champion of invasion - died in mysterious circumstances in
September 1797 but General Napoleon Bonaparte, whose prestige and power were
rapidly on the rise following his victories in Italy, took up Hoche's anti-British and
pro-invasion policies.

71
 Napoleon Bonaparte, whose prestige and power were rapidly on the rise
following his victories in Italy, took up Hoche's anti-British and pro-invasion
policies.
In late 1797 Bonaparte declared to the Directory Government that France
'must destroy the English monarchy, or expect itself to be destroyed by these
intriguing and enterprising islanders... Let us concentrate all our efforts on the navy
and annihilate England. That done, Europe is at our feet.'
When 1,100 French soldiers - led by General Jean Humbert - landed at Killala
Bay on the 22nd August 1798 they came too late. The Irish were too demoralised or
too terrified to join the French would-be liberators and Wolfe Tone - who could
perhaps have raised more resistance in Ireland - was captured en route by the Royal
Navy and subsequently committed suicide while waiting execution as a traitor. In
early September Humbert surrendered his tiny army which - although the invasion
proved futile - had given a good account of itself. But it was not Humbert's surrender
that saved England from immediate invasion; that had been achieved before
Humbert even set foot on the British Isles.
On the 1st August 1798 Admiral Nelson had destroyed a French fleet in
Aboukir Bay - an action which not only marooned Bonaparte and his army in Egypt
but also removed from France the ability to defend an invasion army as it crossed
the English Channel. In March 1802 Britain appeared to have weathered the storm
when, with the Treaty of Amiens, France - now a dictatorship with Bonaparte as the
autocratic head-of-state - made peace with Great Britain. But both sides were
intensely suspicious of each other, the terms of the treaty were not honoured and, in
May 1803, Britain was once more at war with France, more powerful and a more
sinister enemy than ever before.
Hourly threat
By the end of 1803 Bonaparte had amassed on the cliffs around Calais an
Army of England 130,000 strong and a flotilla of 2,000 crafts to carry the host
across the Channel. The presence of the army put huge pressure on the British
Government to come to terms with Bonaparte who, in May 1804, had his position
strengthened still further by getting the French senate to confer upon him the title of
Emperor Napoleon I.
Napoleon realised that with invasion, as with most things, time was of the
essence.
Napoleon realised that with invasion, as with most things, time was of the
essence. If he could get his men ashore, getting them moving and to London before
the British could fully mobilise or deploy their forces then victory would be his. The
British also realised that timing was all important and knew that the job of its land-
based defences - both coastal fortifications and volunteer regiments - was to delay
and disrupt enemy forces until British regular forces could be gathered and a
counter-attack launched. In the dark days of 1803 and 1804 - when a French
invasion was expected on an almost hourly basis - Britain started to construct a vast
network of coastal defences as well as relying on the skill and resilience of the Royal
Navy. As Admiral Earl St Vincent said at the time: 'I do not say the French can't
come, I only say they can't come by sea.'

72
 The British reckoned the French would almost certainly choose the shortest
invasion route and that they would aim to land at, or near, a port which, if captured,
could be used for the rapid reinforcement and re-supply of its army. This pointed to
three prime invasion targets: Dover and the beaches around it, Chatham and the
River Medway (which the Dutch has successfully raided in 1667) and the flat, wide
beaches of the Romney Marsh adjoining the small port at Rye. So Prime Minister
William Pitt, a firm believer in the benefits of fixed fortifications, followed the
advice of a number of military engineers, notably General Twiss, and approved
plans to strengthen the defences of these prime targets.
Land attack
The lines defending Chatham from land attack were strengthened by
additions to Fort Amherst and by the construction of Fort Clarence. The greatest
weakness of Dover was vulnerability to land attack. The ancient castle - despite
being greatly strengthened during the 1790s - was also vulnerable to attack from
land, especially from the neighbouring Western Heights from which modern artillery
could rapidly reduce the castle to ruins.
The answer hit upon by the military was to transform the Western Heights
from the weak link in Dover's defence into its greatest strength. From 1804 until
1814 was turned into one of the great artillery fortresses of Europe. It housed
batteries firing out to sea and inland, and barracks for a large garrison of troops that
was given rapid access to the sea by means of the spectacular Great Shaft, a 140 foot
deep cylinder containing three staircase designed to allow troops to move to and
from the Western Heights and the harbour with maximum speed. The Western
Heights was also provided with an impressive strong point - a place of great
defensive and offensive power - called the Drop Redoubt. This fortress with its
massive, brick-clad earth walls, deep ditch, well sited gun embrasures and vastly
strong casemates and magazine remains one of the wonders of British post-medieval
military design.
The greatest weakness of Dover was vulnerability to land attack.
The defence of the Romney Marches was a trickier problem. Flooding was
one possibility but this would have destroyed many homes and much productive
land. In late 1804 a Royal Engineer colonel John Brown came up with a better idea:
dig a 62-foot wide canal along the north edge of the march; keep its water level high
with the use of sluices; and build a military road and rampart along its north bank so
that it would function as a defended moat in case of French attack. The idea was
approved immediately by Prime Minister William Pitt and the Royal Military Canal
was completed by 1809. Its construction was a colossally expensive exercise -
£234,310 - and was subsequently much mocked as an act of absurd military folly.
William Cobbett's reaction in 1823, in his Rural Rides, was typical; 'Here is a
canal ... made for the length of thirty miles ... to keep out the French: for those
armies that had so often crossed the Rhine and the Danube were to be kept back by a
canal.' Cobbett had a point but he missed the main one: the canal was only a part of
a co-ordinated system of defence intended to wrong-foot the French invader, not to
stop him.

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 Victory at Waterloo
The victory at Waterloo in 1815 left Britain the dominant power in Europe
with the Royal Navy the strongest fleet in the world - despite suffering a series of
significant but small-scale reverses during the War of 1812 with the fledgling United
States Navy. For 40 years threats of invasion were forgotten but then, in the late
1850s, emerged in a sudden and most dramatic manner. France - revived as an
empire with immense territorial ambitions under Napoleon III - was once again the
enemy and in the late 1850s Britain led by its Prime Minister Lord Palmerston
undertook to spend vast sums on defence.
In 1859 a Royal Commission recommended the protection of Britain's main
dockyards on both seaside and landward approaches with massive new forts being
constructed at Portsmouth, Saltash, Plymouth, Milford Haven, Sheerness and
Chatham. The total cost of these works - mostly completed during the 1860s - was a
staggering $11.6 million, equal to around £520 million in modern money.
The speedy defeat of France by Prussia in 1870 and the ridiculous light it
shed on the military worth of Britain's new and expensive generation of
fortifications did not end the British fear of invasion. On the contrary, it merely
identified a new enemy. Initially the British had been gratified by the discomfiture
of their traditional enemy but by the end of 1870 Prussian brutality, its cold-blooded
military efficiency and its territorial ambitions had made it the next potential
invader.
(http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/
french_threat_01.shtml)

XIII. Victoria and Her Sisters

1830–1910. As the Victorian era began, the massive advance of technology and
industrialisation was rapidly reshaping both the landscape and the social structure of
the whole country. To a much greater extent than ever before women would take a
centre-stage role in shaping society.

Queen Victoria and Ch. Dickens E. Gaskell Mary Seacole

her family

1837 Queen Victoria becomes Queen at the age of 18

1840 The first postage stamps (Penny Post) came into use

74
1842 Mines Act ended child labour

1845 - Ireland suffered the Great Potato Famine when entire crops of
1849 potatoes, the staple Irish food, were ruined. The famine was a
consequence of the appearance of blight, the potato fungus. About
800,000 people died as a result of the famine. A large number of
people migrated to Britain, the United States, Canada and Australia.

1850s The first post boxes were built

The Great Exhibition

1851 Census showed just over half of Britain's population (of 20 million)
lived in towns

1854 Crimean War

1854 A cholera epidemic led to demands for a clean water supply and
proper sewage systems in the big cities

1856 Britain defeats Russia in the Crimean War

1860 The first public flushing toilet opens

1861 Death of Prince Albert

1863 London Underground opens

The foundation of the Football Association

1868 Joseph Lister discovers disinfectant

1868 The last public hanging

1869 The first Sainsbury's shop open in Dury Lane, London

1870 Education Act means school for everyone

1871 Queen Victoria opens the Albert Hall

Alexander Bell invented the telephone

1876
Primary education was made compulsory

1877 The first public electric lighting in London

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 1883 First electric railway

1887 The invention of the gramophone

1891 Free education for every child

1901 Population of Britain 40 million

Task 1. Who were the following people: Victoria, George IV, William IV, Lord
Chamberlain, Archbishop of Canterbury, Lord Melbourne, King Leopold, Prince
Albert, Elizabeth Gaskell, Thomas Carlyle, Augustus Pugin, Dickens, Chartists,
Fergus O’Connor, John Stuart Mill, Harriet Taylor, Florence Nightingale, Mary
Seacole, Elizabeth Garrett, Julia Cameron, Tennyson, G.B.Shaw, Annie Besant,
suffragettes, viceroy?
Task 2. What do you know about the following events and places: Chrystal
Palace, the Great Exhibition, Babylon, Jerusalem, Isle of Wight, Osborne House,
Reform Act, the Crimean War, Windsor?
Task 3. Answer the following questions:
1. How did Victoria’s reign contrast with those of George IV and William IV?
2. Describe Victoria’s coronation and the first years of her reign
3. What impact did Prince Albert have on political and social life of Victorian
Britain?
4. What were the standards of life of the low classes in Victorian Britain? What
factors helped to improve it towards the end of the reign?
5. Describe the origin and the progress of the Chartist movement
6. What was the position of women in Victorian Britain?
7. Describe Victoria’s family life and its impact on the family values of the 19th
c. Britain
8. What major events of Victorian reign are described in the film?
Awe - благоговение
Showcase – выставка
Turnstiles – турникеты
Prophets of doom – предсказатели несчастий
Magic wand – волшебная палочка
Ogres - людоеды
Mrs. Average – типичная замужняя женщина
Small hours – ночные часы
To do homage – приносить присягу
Regalia – символы королевской власти
Whistleblower- первопроходец
Unitarian– унитаристский (член протестантской секты унитариев)
To be clammed - голодать
Contrivance – выдумка, затея
Conversion – обращение (в христианство)
Thrift - бережливость
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Charter – хартия, политический документ
Mob - толпа
Funfair – парк развлечений
Rally – собрание, митинг
Sellout - предательство
Unleash – выпускать, освобождать
Self-sufficient - самодостаточный
Brainchild – замысел, детище
Slums - трущобы
Compel - принуждать
Tormentor - мучитель
Property transaction– передача собственности
Renounce – отрицать, отказываться
T.b. - туберкулез
Refectory - столовая
Eminent- выдающийся
Paroxysm – приступ, взрыв
The Almighty – Всемогущий (Бог)
Distraught– смятенный, обезумевший
Exuberant - обильный
Spinster – незамужняя женщина
Conscript – призывать на военную службу
Lavish - щедрый
Bestow - даровать
Domesticity – семейная домашняя жизнь
Cloister – монастырь, уединение
Effigy – изображение

Task 4. Supplementary Reading. Read the following texts and mark the facts
that were not mentioned in the film
Naval supremacy
'When Britain really ruled the waves, in good Queen Bess's time' was the
assessment of the late Victorian age's leading satirist, WS Gilbert. (He put these
words into the mouth of a spoof peer of the realm in the comic opera 'Iolanthe',
which he wrote with Arthur Sullivan in 1882.)
Gilbert's Lord Mountararat got it wrong. Naval exploits in the age of
Elizabeth I are regularly romanticised and their significance exaggerated.
Late 16th century England, though growing in importance under an able,
crafty and ruthless monarch, remained a bit-part player on the European stage.
Britain's naval might was not openly challenged on the high seas between the
battles of Trafalgar and Jutland.
Britain 'really ruled the waves' throughout Gilbert's own lifetime. He lived
from 1836 to 1911, during the reigns of Victoria and her successor, Edward VII.
Britain's naval might was not openly challenged on the high seas between
Admiral Horatio Lord Nelson's famous victory at Trafalgar in 1805 and the World
War One Battle of Jutland with the German navy in 1916.

77
 During the Victorian age, Britain was the world's most powerful nation.
Though not always effortlessly, it was able to maintain a world order which rarely
threatened Britain's wider strategic interests.
The single European conflict fought during Victoria's reign - the Crimean
War of 1854 - 1856 - contrasted markedly with the 18th century, during which the
British were involved in at least five major wars, none of which lasted less than
seven years.
The Victorians believed that peace was a necessary pre-condition of long-
term prosperity.
Industrial Revolution
Victoria came to the throne during the early, frenetic phase of the world's first
industrial revolution. Industrialisation brought with it new markets, a consumer
boom and greater prosperity for most of the propertied classes.
It also brought rapid, and sometimes chaotic change as towns and cities
expanded at a pace which precluded orderly growth.
Life expectancy at birth - in the high 30s in 1837 - had crept up to 48 by
1901.
Desperately poor housing conditions, long working hours, the ravages of
infectious disease and premature death were the inevitable consequence.
The Victorians wrestled with this schizoid legacy of industrialism. The
Victorian town symbolised Britain's progress and world pre-eminence, but it also
witnessed some of the most deprived people, and depraved habits, in the civilised
world.
Taming, and then improving, Britain's teeming cities presented a huge
challenge. Mortality data revealed that, in the poorer quarters of Britain's larger
cities, almost one child in five born alive in the 1830s and 1840s had died by the age
of five. Polluted water and damp housing were the main causes.
Death rates in Britain as a whole remained obstinately above 20 per thousand
until the 1880s and only dropped to 17 by the end of Victoria's reign.
Life expectancy at birth, in the high 30s in 1837, had crept up to 48 by 1901.
One of the great scourges of the age - tuberculosis - remained unconquered,
claiming between 60,000 and 70,000 lives in each decade of Victoria's reign.
Civic engagement
Despite substantial medical advances and well-informed campaigns, progress
in public health was desperately slow in Victoria's reign.
This had much to do with healthy scepticism about the opinions of experts,
particularly when those experts advocated greater centralised state interference in
what they considered to be the proper sphere of local authorities and agencies.
Furthermore, state involvement meant higher taxes and higher taxes were said
to hamper both business and job creation. Localism undoubtedly stymied many
public health initiatives at least until the last two decades of the reign.
Christian gentlemen considered it a duty to make legacies to worthy causes.
The Victorian era saw considerable expenditure on monuments to civic pride.
The competitive ethic which drove so much business enterprise was channelled by
local worthies into spending on opulent town halls and other civic buildings.

78
 By no means all of these were intended for the use of a propertied elite.
Libraries, wash-houses and swimming baths were all funded as part of a
determination to provide working people with the means to improve themselves.
Civic identity and civic engagement were more powerful forces in Victorian
than in early 20th-century Britain.
Nor were the Victorian middle and upper classes parsimonious over
charitable giving. The 1860s alone saw the formation of the Society for the Relief of
Distress, the Peabody Trust, Barnardo's Homes and the Charity Organisation
Society.
These national organisations were multiplied several-fold by local charities.
Christian gentlemen considered it a duty to make legacies to worthy causes.
True, much of this giving came with strings. Most Victorian charities were
aimed at those sections of the working classes disposed towards helping themselves.
Its overall impact, however, should not be underestimated.
Politics
What, finally, of the Victorian political structure? It is easy to see that it was
far from democratic.
At the beginning of Victoria's reign, about a fifth of adult males were entitled
to vote. That proportion increased, through parliamentary reform acts passed in 1867
and 1884, to one-third and two-thirds respectively.
No women could legally vote in parliamentary elections until almost 18 years
after Victoria's death - and the queen herself was no suffragist. Women did,
however, play an increasingly influential role both in locally-elected school and poor
law boards and in local government from the 1870s onwards.
During the Victorian era, the United Kingdom could plausibly be considered
the world's superpower.
If not democratic, the political system was becoming increasingly
representative. By 1901, few argued - as had frequently been asserted against the
Chartists in the 1830s and 1840s - that to allow working men to vote would be to
cede power to an ignorant, insensate and unworthy majority.
Victorian politicians increasingly learned how to 'trust the people'. They also
noted how many among 'lower orders' could help themselves economically while
improving themselves educationally.
The working-class Victorian autodidact was an increasingly significant
figure. His modest successes enabled his 'betters' to claim that Britain was a
specially advanced, perhaps even a divinely favoured, nation.
Britain managed to modernize its political system without succumbing to the
political revolutions that afflicted virtually all of its European competitors.
The quality of political debate in Victorian Britain, in newspapers and in both
houses of parliament, was also very high. The struggle for political supremacy
between William Gladstone and Benjamin Disraeli in the late 1860s and 1870s
represents perhaps the most sophisticated political duel in the nation's history.
During the Victorian era, then, the United Kingdom could plausibly be
considered as the world's superpower. However, Germany and the United States had
already begun to surpass its industrial capacity and Germany's naval build-up would
shortly present a powerful challenge to long-held British supremacy.

79
 On the home front, the nation was only beginning to get to grips with
widespread poverty while considerably more than half the adult population remained
without a vote. Victorian supremacy by 1901 was only skin deep.
(http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/
overview_victorians_01.shtml)
XIV. The Empire of Good Intentions
1830–1925. This episode charts the chequered life of the liberal empire from Ireland
to India – the promise of civilisation and material betterment and the delivery of
coercion and famine.

William Gladstone Benjamin Disraeli Charles S. Parnell

Task 1. Who were the following people: Lord Curzon, Thomas Macaulay, Charles
Trevelyan, Quakers, John Mitchell, civil servants, Sir George Gilbert Scott, Disraeli,
Gladstone, Robert Peel, Empress of India, imam, Sufi, Rudyard Kipling, Sir Richard
Temple, Charles Stuart Parnell, Lord Frederic Cavendish, Gandhi, George V?
Task 2. What do you know about the following events and places: Taj Mahal,
Karachi, Ganges valley, Punjab, Durbar
Task 3. Answer the following questions:
1. What were the characteristic features of British Raj in India?
2. Describe Thomas Macaulay and Charles Trevelyan’s views on British rule in
India
3. Describe the conditions of life in Ireland in the middle of the 19th c.
4. What were the causes and aftermath of the famine of 1847 in Ireland?
5. Describe the causes and the progress of the Indian mutiny in 1867
6. What measures were taken by the British administration to improve Anglo-
Indian relations after the Mutiny?
7. What were the principal points of difference in Disraeli and Gladstone’s
political ideas and practices?
8. Describe the main events of Anglo-Irish relations in the second half of the
19th c. What was Parnell’s role in the development of those relations?
9. What was the leading British political forces’ attitude to the idea of Irish
Home Rule? What was the direct consequence of that attitude?
Famine – массовый голод
Crippled - искалеченный

80
Authentic - оригинальный
To be toiled – быть измученным трудом
Impose– налагать, навязывать
Bustle - суета
Sahib – господин (хинди)
Complacency - благодушие
Plot – участок земли
Fungus - грибок
Infestation - заражение
Magnitude – величина, значительность
Futile - бесплодный
Deter – задерживать, препятствовать
Bog - болото
Heath – пустошь, степь
Tenants – жильцы-съемщики
Evicted – выселенные, изгнанные
Consecrated - освященный
Trudge – идти с трудом, тащиться
Clearance – насильственное массовое изгнание людей с места жительства
Red tape - бюрократия
Calamity – тревога, опасность
Grandeur - величие
Cartridge – магазин для патронов
Swagger - расхаживать
Squalor – запущенность, убожество
Dome - купол
Siege - осада
Retribution - возмездие
Relentlessly - неустанно
Gaudy – броский, яркий
Dormitory - спальня
Surplus – прирост, избыток
Fetish – фетиш, объект поклонения
Paternally - покровительственно
Righteousness - праведность
New Testament – Новый Завет
Revelation – Откровение, книга Апокалипсиса
Gospel - Евангелие
Providence - Провидение
Patrician – патриций, аристократ
Charismatic - харизматичный
Fiddler - скрипач
Trigger – инициировать, привести в действие
Eviction - выселение
Arson - поджог
Militants - бойцы

81
Futile - бесплодный
Home Rule – государственное самоуправление
Adamant – несгибаемый, стойкий
Oblivion - забвение
Boon – благодеяние, дар
Beseech - умолять
Spinning wheel - прялка
Clutches – когти, лапы

Task 4. Supplementary Reading. Read the following texts and mark the facts
that were not mentioned in the film.

Victoria's empire
In 1882 Britain was in the later stages of acquiring the largest empire the
world had ever seen. By the end of Victoria's reign, the British empire extended over
about one-fifth of the earth's surface and almost a quarter of the world's population
at least theoretically owed allegiance to the 'queen empress'.
These acquisitions were not uncontested. A number of colonial wars were
fought and insurgencies put down as bloodily as the colonisers considered
necessary.
Many colonial administrators took on their duties with a fierce determination
to do good.
It would be a gross exaggeration to claim, as many contemporaries did, that
those living in a British colony felt privileged to be ruled by a people anxious to
spread the virtues of an ordered, advanced and politically sophisticated Christian
nation to those 'lesser breeds' previously 'without the law'.
That said, there is no gainsaying the fact that both many colonial
administrators and Christian missionaries took on their colonial duties with a fierce
determination to do good.
Britain's status as the financial capital of the world also secured investment
inflows which preserved its immense prosperity.
One has only to walk along Liverpool's waterfront and view the exceptional
'Three Graces', (the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, Royal Liver and Cunard
buildings) planned and erected in the decade or so after Victoria's death, to
understand the centrality of commerce and overseas trade in making Britain the
world's greatest power during the 19th century.
Liverpool's status as a World Heritage City is fitting testament to a period
when Britain did indeed 'rule the waves'.
Ireland
The United Kingdom's population at Victoria's accession in 1837 was about
25.5 million, eight million of whom lived in Ireland. At her death in 1901, it had
risen to 41 million.
These figures, however, mask an enormous contrast. While the population of
England and Wales increased by some 116% (15 million to 32.5 million), that of
Ireland almost halved (eight million to 4.5 million), its population declining in every
decade of the reign.

82
 Ireland lost more than one million people to the famine in the 1840s.
This stark contrast is explained by two linked factors. Ireland, the Protestant
north east around Belfast excepted, did not experience an industrial revolution in the
Victorian age.
It also endured a devastating famine from 1845 - 1847, the result of a failed
potato crop among a peasant population dangerously dependent on one food source
for sheer existence.
Ireland lost more than one million people to the ravages of famine in the
1840s. It lost far more over the next half century to the steady drip of emigration to
Britain, the Americas and Australia.
This ticking demographic timebomb had far-reaching consequences. Large
numbers of Irish Catholics - both those who stayed and those who left - blamed the
British government for the famine and saw in it the ultimate proof that the Act of
Union had been a ruse from which Britain benefited and for which Ireland continued
to suffer.
The famine extinguished any realistic hope that the Irish, like the Scots a
century earlier, might come to realise the economic, commercial and cultural
benefits of political union with a larger and more prosperous national partner.
Inevitably, 'home rule' campaigns grew in both numbers and violence in the
second half of Victoria's reign. These also impacted massively on British politics.
'The Irish Question' dominated the last phase of the career of William
Gladstone, probably Victoria's ablest - and certainly her most driven - prime
minister.
His Liberal party's split on home rule for Ireland in 1886 began the long
process of marginalisation of the political party which dominated much of the
queen's reign. Ireland would not get home rule in Victoria's lifetime, but it set the
political agenda unlike any other issue.
(http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/overview_victorians_01.shtml)
1858: Beginning of the Raj
In 1858, British Crown rule was established in India, ending a century of control by
the East India Company. The life and death struggle that preceded this formalisation
of British control lasted nearly two years, cost £36 million, and is variously referred
to as the 'Great Rebellion', the 'Indian Mutiny' or the 'First War of Indian
Independence'.
Inevitably, the consequences of this bloody rupture marked the nature of political,
social and economic rule that the British established in its wake.
It is important to note that the Raj (in Hindi meaning 'to rule' or 'kingdom') never
encompassed the entire land mass of the sub-continent.
Two-fifths of the sub-continent continued to be independently governed by over 560
large and small principalities, some of whose rulers had fought the British during the
'Great Rebellion', but with whom the Raj now entered into treaties of mutual
cooperation.
The 'Great Rebellion' helped create a racial chasm between ordinary Indians
and Britons.

83
 Indeed the conservative elites of princely India and big landholders were to
prove increasingly useful allies, who would lend critical monetary and military
support during the two World Wars.
Hyderabad for example was the size of England and Wales combined, and its
ruler, the Nizam, was the richest man in the world.
They would also serve as political bulwarks in the nationalist storms that
gathered momentum from the late 19th century and broke with insistent ferocity
over the first half of the 20th century.
But the 'Great Rebellion' did more to create a racial chasm between ordinary
Indians and Britons. This was a social segregation which would endure until the end
of the Raj, graphically captured in EM Forster's 'A Passage to India'.
While the British criticised the divisions of the Hindu caste system, they
themselves lived a life ruled by precedence and class, deeply divided within itself.
Rudyard Kipling reflected this position in his novels. His books also exposed the
gulf between the 'white' community and the 'Anglo-Indians', whose mixed race
caused them to be considered racially 'impure'.
Government in India
While there was a consensus that Indian policy was above party politics, in
practice it became embroiled in the vicissitudes of Westminster.
Successive viceroys in India and secretaries of state in London were
appointed on a party basis, having little or no direct experience of Indian conditions
and they strove to serve two masters. Edwin Montagu was the first serving secretary
of state to visit India on a fact-finding mission in 1917-1918.
1,200 civil servants could not rule 300 to 350 million Indians without
indigenous 'collaborators'.
Broadly speaking, the Government of India combined a policy of co-
operation and conciliation of different strata of Indian society with a policy of
coercion and force.
The empire was nothing if not an engine of economic gain. Pragmatism
dictated that to govern efficiently and remuneratively, 1,200 Indian civil servants
could not rule 300 to 350 million Indians without the assistance of indigenous
'collaborators'.
However, in true British tradition, they also chose to elaborate sophisticated
and intellectual arguments to justify and explain their rule.
On the one hand, Whigs and Liberals expounded sentiments most iconically
expressed by TB Macaulay in 1833: 'that... by good government we may educate our
subjects into a capacity for better government, that, having become instructed in
European knowledge, they may, in some future age, demand European institutions.
Whether such a day will ever come I know not. ... Whenever it comes, it will be the
proudest day in English history.'
On the other hand, James Fitzjames Stephen, writing in the 1880s, contended
that empire had to be absolute because 'its great and characteristic task is that of
imposing on Indian ways of life and modes of thought which the population regards
without sympathy, though they are essential to its personal well-being and to the
credit of its rulers.'

84
 What was less ambiguous was that it was the economic interests of Britain
that were paramount, though as the 20th century progressed, the government in India
was successful in imposing safeguards. For instance, tariff walls were raised to
protect the Indian cotton industry against cheap British imports.
Financial gains and losses
There were two incontrovertible economic benefits provided by India. It was
a captive market for British goods and services, and served defence needs by
maintaining a large standing army at no cost to the British taxpayer.
However, the economic balance sheet of the empire remains a controversial
topic and the debate has revolved around whether the British developed or retarded
the Indian economy.
Controversy remains over whether Britain developed or retarded India's
economy.
Among the benefits bequeathed by the British connection were the large scale
capital investments in infrastructure, in railways, canals and irrigation works,
shipping and mining; the commercialisation of agriculture with the development of a
cash nexus; the establishment of an education system in English and of law and
order creating suitable conditions for the growth of industry and enterprise; and the
integration of India into the world economy.
Conversely, the British are criticised for leaving Indians poorer and more
prone to devastating famines; exhorting high taxation in cash from an inpecunious
people; destabilising cropping patterns by forced commercial cropping; draining
Indian revenues to pay for an expensive bureaucracy (including in London) and an
army beyond India's own defence needs; servicing a huge sterling debt, not ensuring
that the returns from capital investment were reinvested to develop the Indian
economy rather than reimbursed to London; and retaining the levers of economic
power in British hands.
The Indian National Congress
The foundation of the Indian National Congress in 1885 as an all India,
secular political party, is widely regarded as a key turning point in formalising
opposition to the Raj.
It developed from its elite intellectual middle-class confines, and a moderate,
loyalist agenda, to become by the inter-war years, a mass organisation.
It was an organisation which, despite the tremendous diversity of the sub-
continent, was remarkable in achieving broad consensus over the decades.
Also split within Congress were those who advocated violence and those who
stressed non-violence.
Yet it was not a homogenous organisation and was often dominated by
factionalism and opposing political strategies. This was exemplified by its
splintering in 1907 into the so-called 'moderate' and 'extremist' wings, which
reunited 10 years later.
Another example were the 'pro-changers' (who believed working the
constitutional structures to weaken it from within) and 'no-changers' (who wanted to
distance themselves from the Raj) during the 1920s.
There was also a split within Congress between those who believed that
violence was a justifiable weapon in the fight against imperial oppression (whose

85
most iconic figure was Subhas Chandra Bose, who went on to form the Indian
National Army), and those who stressed non-violence.
The towering figure in this latter group was Mahatma Gandhi, who
introduced a seismic new idiom of opposition in the shape of non-violent non-
cooperation or 'satyagraha' (meaning 'truth' or 'soul' force').
Gandhi oversaw three major nationwide movements which achieved varying
degrees of success in 1920-1922, 1930-1934 and in 1942. These mobilised the
masses on the one hand, while provoking the authorities into draconian repression.
Much to Gandhi's distress, self-restraint among supporters often gave way to
violence.
Reasons for independence
The British Raj unravelled quickly in the 1940s, perhaps surprising after the
empire in the east had so recently survived its greatest challenge in the shape of
Japanese expansionism.
The reasons for independence were multifaceted and the result of both long
and short term factors.
The pressure from the rising tide of nationalism made running the empire
politically and economically very challenging and increasingly not cost effective.
This pressure was embodied as much in the activities of large pan-national
organisations like the Congress as in pressure from below - from the 'subalterns'
through the acts of peasant and tribal resistance and revolt, trade union strikes and
individual acts of subversion and violence.
With US foreign policy pressurising the end of western imperialism, it
seemed only a matter of time before India gained its freedom.
There were further symptoms of the disengagement from empire. European
capital investment declined in the inter-war years and India went from a debtor
country in World War One to a creditor in World War Two. Applications to the
Indian Civil Service (ICS) declined dramatically from the end of the Great War.
Britain's strategy of a gradual devolution of power, its representation to
Indians through successive constitutional acts and a deliberate 'Indianisation' of the
administration, gathered a momentum of its own. As a result, India moved
inexorably towards self-government.
The actual timing of independence owed a great deal to World War Two and
the demands it put on the British government and people.
The Labour party had a tradition of supporting Indian claims for self-rule, and
was elected to power in 1945 after a debilitating war which had reduced Britain to
her knees.
Furthermore, with US foreign policy pressurising the end of western
subjugation and imperialism, it seemed only a matter of time before India gained its
freedom.
(http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/independence1947_01.shtml)

XV. The Two Winstons

1910–1965. In the final episode, Schama examines the overwhelming presence of
the past in the British twentieth century and the struggle of leaders to find a way to
86
make a different national future. As towering figures of the twentieth century,
Churchill and Orwell (through his 1984 character Winston Smith) in their different
ways exemplify lives spent brooding and acting on that imperial past, and most
movingly for us, writing and shaping its history.

1902 Britain defeats Dutch settlers in Boer War in South Africa

1902 The first old age pension
1914 - First World War
1918 Compulsory military service and food rationing introduced
1920 Republic of Ireland gains independence
1937 Sir Frank Whittle invents the Jet Engine
1939 -
The Second World War
1945
1951 Festival of Britain
1952 Elizabeth II becomes Queen
1953 Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II
Task 1. Who were the following people: Winston Churchill, Winston Smith,
George Orwell, Home Secretary, Richard Blair, Eric Blair, St. Catherine of Sienna,
Venerable Bede, Oswald Mosley, Stanley Baldwin, Neville Chamberlain, Franco,
Stalin, Hitler, Nazis, Lord Halifax, Big Brother?
Task 2. What do you know about the following events and places: Oceania,
Shanghai, Gallipoli, Burma, Jarrow, Czechoslovakia, Munich, Prague, Battle for
Britain, Dunkirk, New Jerusalem?
Task 3. Answer the following questions:
1. Describe the families and early years of Winston Churchill and Eric Blair?
Were they in any way similar?
2. What major political and social events formed the characters and outlook of
Churchill and Blair? What were their respective views on the British Empire
and further development of Britain?
3. Describe the political career of W.Churchill prior to the World War II.
4. What transformation did Eric Blair undergo on his return to Britain?

87
 5. Describe the political and social life in Britain in 1930s
6. What was the attitude of the leading British politicians to German aggression
in Europe in 1930s?nbhytf
7. What political events inspired G.Orwell’s books Animal Farm and 1984 ?
8. What was Churchill’s contribution to Britain’s victory in the World War II?
9. What political and social changes marked the post-war decade in Britain?
Butchery – массовое кровопролитие
Millstone – мельничный жернов, тяжкий груз
Scrap yard - свалка
Penal servitude– тюремное заключение
Ardent - ревностный
Impetuous – стремительный, бурный
Apprenticeship- ученичество
Fake – подделка, поддельный
Ordeal – мука, испытание
Sardonic – язвительный
Sweatshop - предприятие, в котором рабочие работают в чрезвычайно тяжелых
условиях
Second fiddle – вторая скрипка, вспомогательная роль
Perish - погибать
Trenches - окопы
Machine gun - пулемет
Expiation-искупление
Premature -преждевременный
Cowardice -трусость
Hollowness -пустота
Glee - радость
Franciscan – францисканский, в подражание Франциску Ассизскому
Destitution - нищета
Gruesome -отвратительный
Gutter – сточная канава, трущоба
Bedrock - основание
Underworld – криминальный мир
Purgatory - чистилище
Balaclava – вязаный шлем
Conspicuous - очевидный
Gymkhana – конноспортивное мероприятие
Appeasers – умиротворитель, соглашатель
Spineless - бесхребетный
Equilibrium - баланс
Lament – плач, оплакивать
Handthereins – передать управление
Gaunt - сухопарый
Geezer – парень, эксцентричный человек
Goodegg – славный парень
Defiant - дерзкий

88
Fret - хмуриться
Outrage – оскорбление, злодеяние
Endure - переносить
Fuhrer – фюрер, вождь (нем.)
Closeshave – на волосок от гибели
Indefatigable - неутомимый
Defeatist - пораженческий
Carnivorous - хищный
Landslide – лавинообразный, мощный
IronCurtain – «Железный Занавес»,граница между западноевропейскими
странами и странами коммунистического блока во второй половине 20 в.
Doublespeak – демагогия, термин из романа «1984»
Guerrilla - партизанский
Repel – отражать, отбивать

Task 4. Supplementary Reading. Read the following texts and mark the facts
that were not mentioned in the film.

War and democracy

In 1901 Britain had a constitutional government, but it was not a fully-
fledged democracy. In 1918 it became a democracy, with the introduction of
universal adult male suffrage and votes for women aged over 30.
World War One determined the timing of democratic change.
What mattered more by then was the fact that the country was engaged in the
greatest war of modern times, one in which Britain's military deaths were more than
twice those it would suffer in World War Two.
World War One may not have initiated democratic change, but it determined
its timing. Ironically, the war's demands also weakened the exercise of constitutional
government, albeit temporarily.
Freedom of speech was curtailed by the Defence of the Realm Act in 1914.
Elections, due in 1915, were deferred until the war was concluded. And the
formation of a coalition government in the same year all but silenced parliamentary
opposition.
When Britain entered World War One, it did so in the name of 19th century
liberal values - the rights of small nations and the rule of law.
What justified these claims, which became the touchstone of British
propaganda, was Germany's invasion of Belgium, as its army bypassed France's
eastern defences by swinging round them to the north.
Wooing the workers
But 19th century liberalism, although it had a provided powerful rhetoric in
foreign affairs, had been more limited in its domestic aspirations. 'Household
suffrage', adopted in 1867, tied political responsibility to the ownership of property.
Although increasing affluence meant that the boundaries of this suffrage were
porous, in 1914 Britain had the most restrictive franchise of any power in Europe,
with the exception of Hungary. Many of those killed in action in 1914-1918 were
fighting for a state that denied them the vote.

89
 The Conservative party dominated government for the decade after 1886 -
when William Gladstone's Liberal party had split over the issue of 'home rule' for
Ireland. The Liberals were returned to power at the end of 1905, winning elections
in 1906 and 1910 (twice), even if with dwindling majorities.
Many of those killed were fighting for a state that denied them the vote.
Their recovery was founded in part on their readiness to embrace social
reform. The long-term issue for the Liberals was whether they or the Labour party
would be the preferred party of the working classes, and on that would hang their
survival in government.
The 'new' Liberals struck a deal with the Labour party in 1903, pledging
themselves to avoid clashes in seats dominated by Tory interests. When in
government, they introduced old age pensions, unemployment benefit and public
health provision.
The Liberals' shift to the left was aided by fact that the association of the
Labour party with the trades union movement truncated the growth of political
socialism in Britain, and so tied Labour to the material interests of the working class,
more than to a radical and reforming ideology.
Reform and crisis
This did not mean that the Liberal government did not tackle political reform
before 1914. The House of Lords had not really been touched by the reform acts of
the 19th century and increasingly behaved as a Conservative opposition when the
Liberals were in power.
In 1909, the Lords vetoed the budget, a package of tax proposals which
Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George had adroitly presented as designed
to finance welfare reforms, when in reality they were driven as much by the
requirements of defence.
The ensuing crisis, which spanned two general elections, culminated with the
Lords losing their power of veto and becoming a revising chamber only.
Incipient domestic breakdown was usurped by international crisis.
The other great constitutional issue remained unionism. By 1912 - 1913
Ireland was threatening to break the Liberal party once again. The 1910 elections
left the Liberals without an overall majority and dependent on the Irish nationalists,
the price of whose support was Irish 'home rule'.
In Ireland itself, the Ulster Protestants refused to be separated from Britain
and in March 1914 elements of the army made clear that they would not force them,
even if ordered to do so by the elected government of the day.
Thus the political ramifications extended beyond debates within Westminster
to include the power of extra-parliamentary actors, and even the danger of civil war
in Ireland.
For those anxious to generate a sense of crisis there were other straws
blowing in the same wind. Strikes by the major trade unions between 1912 and 1914
and the militancy of the women's suffrage movement suggested that defining
government in terms solely of parliamentary sovereignty could be self-defeating.
In the event, the sense of incipient domestic breakdown, as intense in July
1914 as in any of the immediately preceding summers, was usurped by international
crisis.

90
 Binding the powers
At the beginning of the 20th century, Britain had struggled in its three-year
war with the Boer republics of South Africa, and realised that it needed not just to
reform the army but also to tackle issues of finance, public health and colonial
government.
The reforms it initiated were designed to enable it better to deal with the
responsibilities of imperialism, up to and including war. A sequence of international
agreements created regional balances and so mitigated the consequences of global
responsibility.
Greater issues revolved round the balance of power in Europe.
In 1901, the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty accepted American domination of the
western Atlantic. In the following year, Britain and Japan entered an alliance which
enabled Britain to offset its fears of Russia in the Far East.
Anglo-French hostility, so often the leitmotif of both sides' foreign policies
for the previous two centuries, was finally buried with an entente in 1904.
Ostensibly this settled the two powers' rivalries in North Africa and the
Mediterranean, but increasingly what was designed as a settlement of colonial
disputes came to carry European connotations.
This process was made even clearer with the fourth and final stage of the
process, the entente with Russia in 1907. At one level this laid to rest Britain's long
standing fears about the security of India from attack on its north western frontier.
At another, it completed the creation in Europe of a Triple Entente to match
the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. Germany's attempts to
rupture the Entente, principally through engineering crises over Morocco in 1905
and 1911, had the reverse effect.
They bound the powers tighter together and convinced them that colonial
clashes had to be subordinated to the greater issues revolving round the balance of
power in Europe.
Sea power
This was the underlying dynamic which explained Britain's entry to World
War One. Formally speaking, Britain was not under any obligation to support
France, let alone Russia, in a war with Germany.
Indeed, the first response of the foreign secretary, Sir Edward Grey, was to
call on Germany to cooperate in convening a conference of the great powers. When
Germany refused, Grey confronted the fact that imperial obligations and European
policy were indivisible.
Politically, Britain could not afford to alienate either France or Russia, given
its reliance on them for the system of global security which it had constructed.
Strategically, its maritime power meant that it could not permit a mighty and hostile
European power to dominate the Low Countries and so threaten the English
Channel.
The implication was that Britain would wage war as a sea power.
Germany's invasion of Belgium became the mechanism by which such
thoughts could be rendered in popular and more universal terms: great power
politics were presented as ideologies.

91
 The implication was that Britain would wage war as a sea power, which was
exactly how Grey made his case to the House of Commons on 3 August 1914.
The French government was even more anxious to ensure that Britain
honoured the Anglo-French naval agreement of 1912 - which had left the defence of
France's northern coast in the hands of the Royal Navy - than to secure the despatch
of a British Expeditionary Force to the continent.
Architects of victory
Without the navy, Britain could not have stayed in the war. Although it
fought only one fleet action, at Jutland on 31 May 1916, it prevented the German
navy from breaking out of the confines of the North Sea.
In this way, maritime trade between the Entente powers and the rest of the
world, and above all the United States of America, was sustained. Britain became
the arsenal and financier of the alliance, weathering even the German decision to
declare unrestricted submarine warfare in February 1917.
But Britain did more than that. It provided a mass army as well. Lord Horatio
Kitchener may have called that army into being, but the principal manufacturer of
the tools with which it fought became David Lloyd George.
Britain became the arsenal and financier of the alliance.
As chancellor of the exchequer, Lloyd George struck deals with the labour
movement to ensure the provision of skilled workers. As minister of munitions, he
converted industry to war production. And as prime minister from December 1916,
he committed Britain to a war on both the domestic and fighting fronts.
The strategic architects of the war did not like him, but they could not think
of a better substitute.
Finding a voice
Sir William Robertson, the chief of the imperial general staff from December
1915, recognised that the nature of trench war would shape the course of the conflict
- that it would be dependent on material resources and would be a slow process of
attrition.
Appointed at the same time, the commander-in-chief of the army in France,
Douglas Haig, continued to believe that a breakthrough would be possible, but his
steadfast conviction in ultimate victory bound him more tightly to the prime minister
than either of them cared to acknowledge.
Such a war could not be waged without conscription, adopted in 1916. For its
liberal opponents, compulsion threatened Britain with self-defeat, forcing it to
militarise society and so become too like its principal enemy, Germany.
War reduced debate to slogans, but it widened politics.
But in practice the issues were not that clear-cut. The war was fought by
citizens - temporary soldiers anxious to return home when the fighting was over.
They were also determined to exercise the political voice which the popular press -
thriving on international crisis - had helped them find.
The war may have reduced debate to slogans, but it also widened the political
constituency, and its memory shaped much of the discourse of the succeeding years.
(http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/britain_wwone/
overview_britain_ww1_01.shtml)

92
 The Home Front
The concept of a 'Home Front' - when civilians are mobilised en masse to
support the war effort during a conflict - dates from World War One, as far as the
British are concerned. It was re-activated in 1938 during the Munich crisis, when
civilians were encouraged to enrol in Air Raid Precautions (ARP) or the Auxiliary
Fire Service (AFS).
Anticipating terror from the air
ARP was a reaction to the fear, shared throughout Europe in the 1930s, of the
mass bombing of civilians from the air. In the 1930s, government estimates
calculated that 600,000 people would be killed and 1.2 million injured in air raids
during a future war.
Evacuation had already been running for two days by the time war with
Germany was announced on 3 September 1939. Throughout the war, three million
people were moved beyond the reach of German bombers, in what became a
fundamentally life-changing event for many. The internment of German and
Austrian 'aliens' also commenced at the outbreak of war, and those considered high
risk were interned immediately. Later, Italian aliens were 'rounded up' under
Churchill's orders after Italy joined the war in June 1940.
'Doing your bit'
The nation's labour was once again mobilised, and to an even greater extent
than World War One. Half a million women joined the uniformed services, and
millions more worked in the factories and on the land. Both men (from 1939) and
women (from 1941) were conscripted. Men were even conscripted into the coal
mines - one in ten of those enlisted domestically.
The regulation of society
Ration books were issued when food rationing came into force in January
1940. Imported items including meats, sugar, tea and coffee were divided equally
between all adults and children. These goods arrived by merchant ship and were
vulnerable to submarine attacks and blockades. Imported non-food items such as
textiles, soap and petrol were also rationed.
The invasion scare of June-September 1940 caused all road and rail signposts
and maps to be removed. A call for scrap metal to recycle into Spitfires resulted in
the removal of decorative iron railings surrounding many civic spaces, and
aluminium saucepans were collected by the million.
Public awareness was heightened by the protective sandbagging of public
buildings and monuments, and the growth of allotments (3.5 million by 1943) in
every spare area of playing field or village green. The pace of life was controlled by
air raid alerts and all clears, as well as the enforcement of a war-long blackout.
Everywhere, Home Front posters exhorted citizens to 'Dig for Victory',
remember that 'Careless Talk Costs Lives', whilst others repeated Churchill's phrase
'Let us Go Forward Together'.
Battling the Blitz
But it was the Blitz that really tested the public's mettle. After the RAF had
beaten off the Luftwaffe during the Battle of Britain in the summer of 1940, the
German air force began their attempt to bomb British civilians into surrender. This
continued until May 1941 when Hitler turned the force of his military on the

93
Russians. The Germans came back at Britain during 1943 and 1944, however, firing
their terrifying V1 bombs and launching V2 rockets from the continent.
A united nation?
The Home Front meant that daily life was disrupted and inconvenienced to an
extraordinary degree, but life did go on. However, whilst the majority of the nation
pulled together in its hour of need, some decided to make the most of the conflict.
Crime rates rose substantially during the blackout, and the black market thrived.
The end of the war was celebrated jubilantly on 8 May 1945. Many partied
and danced in the streets, but for others, it was marked by a sense of anti-climax and
a loss of purpose.
(http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/histories/home_front)
Changing population
Britain and the British have changed profoundly since 1945. A principal
driver of change has been a major growth in population, matched by rapidly rising
expectations about lifestyle.
Demands for mobility (cars) and space (houses) have ensured the transfer of
land from agriculture and natural landscape to roads and housing, with multiple
consequences for the environment and for the human experience.
Large-scale immigration has made the population ethnically far more diverse,
with important cultural consequences.
The composition of the population has undergone a marked transformation,
due primarily to advances in medicine. In line with a general trend around the
developed world, life expectancy has risen greatly for both men and women.
This has meant that the average age has risen, a process accentuated by the
extent to which the birth rate has remained static.
Furthermore, large-scale immigration, particularly from the West Indies and
South Asia, but also from other areas such as Eastern Europe, has made the
population ethnically far more diverse, with important cultural consequences.
In 1970 there were about 375,000 Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs in Britain. By
1993 the figure was about 1,620,000, with the rise in the number of Muslims being
particularly pronounced.
Moral codes
Social and cultural change has also reflected the extent to which the population has
become more individualistic and less deferential.
The moral code that prevailed in 1945 broke down, a process formalised by
legal changes in the 1960s. Abortion and homosexuality became legal, capital
punishment was abolished, and measures were taken to improve the position of
women.
By the 1990s, only one in seven Britons was an active member of a Christian
church.
These changes were linked to shifts in religious practice. By the 1990s, only
one in seven Britons was an active member of a Christian church, although more
claimed to be believers.
But for most believers, formal expressions of faith became less important.
The failure in the 1990s of the heavily church-backed 'Keep Sunday Special'

94
campaign (to prevent shops from opening on the Sabbath) confirmed the general
trend.
More generally, the authority of age and experience were overthrown and, in
their place, came an emphasis on youth and novelty.
This was seen in politics with, for example, the lowering of the voting age to
18; in the economy, with the rise of the youth consumer; and in culture, with marked
changes in popular music.
The 1960s destroyed a cultural continuity that had lasted since the Victorian
period.
Alongside the apparent continuity in popular culture of works such as the
James Bond films, the novels of Dick Francis and the radio soap 'The Archers', there
were also important shifts, for example in popular music.
In the 1960s, pop music - not least that of the Beatles and the Rolling Stones -
gave Britain a very different feel in the world to that it had enjoyed as the world's
predominant empire.
The Liverpool Sound, the Swinging Sixties, and the London of Carnaby
Street created an image far removed from that of 1956 when, in a last major flourish
of imperial power, Britain had unsuccessfully sought to intimidate Egypt in the Suez
Crisis.
End of empire
In 1945, Britain still had the largest empire in the world. This empire had
largely been granted independence by 1964, beginning with independence for India
and Pakistan in 1947.
Fragments remained. A war was successfully fought with Argentina in 1982
when the latter attacked the Falkland Islands, a colony inhabited by British settlers
since 1833.
The most populous of Britain's remaining colonies, Hong Kong, was only
handed over to China in 1997.
Britain became an active member of international organisations, not least the
United Nations.
As empire receded fast, Britain seemed a diminished power. Nonetheless, it
became the third state in the world to gain the atom bomb in1952, followed by the
hydrogen bomb in 1957.
Defence in the post-war era largely consisted of the protection of Western
Europe against the threat of Soviet invasion, and Britain played a key role in this
confrontation which became known as the Cold War.
Britain became an active member of international organisations, not least the
United Nations, of which it was a founder member and held a permanent seat on the
Security Council.
Britain was also a founder member of North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
(NATO) in 1949, and sent a contingent of troops to take part in the Korean War
(1950 - 1953) against Communist North Korea.
Closer to home, troops were deployed in Northern Ireland from 1969 in
response to an outbreak of sectarian violence, which rapidly became a major terrorist
challenge. In the 1990s, a peaceful end to the 'Troubles' was negotiated, but tension
continues.

95
 Domestic policies
In contrast to the situation in Northern Ireland, Welsh and Scottish
nationalism remained essentially non-violent, and in 1997 each gained a devolved
assembly exercising a considerable amount of local control.
At times, Britain itself appeared to be going the same way, as entry into the
European Economic Community (EEC) - later European Union (EU) - in 1973 led to
a marked erosion of national sovereignty and to a transfer of powers to Europe.
At the national level, government was controlled by the Labour Party (1945 -
1951, 1964 - 1970, 1974 - 1979 and 1997 onwards) and its Conservative rival (1951
- 1964, 1970 - 1974, 1979 - 1997), with no coalition ministries.
The Labour and Conservative parties shared major overlaps in policy.
These two parties shared major overlaps in policy throughout the post-war
period, for example in maintaining free health care at the point of delivery - the basis
of the National Health Service.
But there were also major contrasts, particularly between 1979 and 1990
when Margaret Thatcher held power as the country's first female prime minister.
The Conservatives tended to favour individual liberties and low taxation,
while Labour preferred collectivist solutions and were therefore happier to advocate
a major role for the state.
This was particularly evident in Labour 's support for the nationalisation of
major parts of the economy during their pre-1979 governments. Most, in turn, were
denationalised again under the Conservatives between 1979 and 1997.
Manufacturing
Uncertain public policy in the post-war period played a role in the marked
relative decline of the British economy, which was particularly pronounced in the
field of manufacturing. This contributed to a sense of national malaise in the 1970s,
which also owed much to very high inflation and to a sense that the country had
become ungovernable, as strikes by coal miners led to the failure of government
policies on wages.
Spending became a major expression of identity and indeed a significant
activity in leisure time. Manufacturing decline was matched by the rise in the service
sector, resulting in a major change for many in the experience of work. This rise was
linked to a growth in consumerism that also owed something to an extension of
borrowing to more of the population.
Spending became a major expression of identity and indeed a significant
activity in leisure time. The move to 24-hour shopping and the abolition of
restrictions on Sunday trading were symptomatic of this shift.
Shopping patterns also reflected social trends in other respects with, for
example, a major change in the diet, as red meat declined in relative importance,
while lighter meats, fish and vegetarianism all enjoyed greater popularity.
So too did products and dishes from around the world, reflecting the extent to
which the British had become less parochial and readier to adopt an open attitude to
non-British influences.
Increased foreign travel and intermarriage were other aspects of a relatively
un-xenophobic and continually-changing society - trends that continue to this day.
(http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/overview_1945_present_01.shtml)

96
 The KEYS
 Beginnings, Task 2
From its earliest days Britannia was an object of desire. Tacitus, a Roman writer and
historian, declared it worth a conquest. Britannia was thought to be rich in gold,
silver, pearls. As far as the Romans were concerned Britannia was the edge of the
world, but it was the edge of their world. If the Romans had traveled to the
northernmost part of the islands (Orkney), they would have seen unmistakable signs
of a civilization thousands of years older than the Rome.
 Beginnings, Task 5
Caesar- was a Roman general, statesman, Consul and notable author of Latin prose.
He played a critical role in the events that led to the rise of theRoman Empire.
( wikipedia.org/wiki/),
Claudius - Claudius I was the emperor who added Britain to the Roman Empire.
www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/ ,
Alfred - As King of Wessex at the age of 21, Alfred was at the head of resistance to
the Vikings in southern England. Alfred the Great was King of Wessex from 871 to
899. Alfred successfully defended his kingdom against the Viking attempt at
conquest, and by the time of his death had become the dominant ruler in England.
( wikipedia.org/wiki/),
Augustine - a Benedictine monk who became the first Archbishop of
Canterbury in the year 597. He is considered the "Apostle to the English" and a
founder of the English Church.
Augustine was the prior of a monastery in Rome when Pope Gregory the
Great chose him in 595 to lead a mission, usually known as the Gregorian mission,
to Britain to Christianize King Æthelberht and his Kingdom of Kent from their
native Anglo-Saxon paganism.
Patrick - was a Romano-British and Christian missionary, who is the most
generally recognized patron saint of Ireland or the Apostle of Ireland,

 Conquest Task 4.

Normandy – William I; Stamford Bridge – Harold and Tostig; Hastings – William

and Harold;
Denmark – Swein and Canute

 Dynasty Task 1.

England 1154, nearly a century after the Battle of Hastings. The country was torn
apart by a savage civil war. William the Conqueror was long dead. For thirty years
his children were in struggle. The realm was in ruins. And then there appeared a
young king, brave and charismatic who stopped the anarchy. His name was Henry.
And he would become the greatest of all the medieval kings. He should be as well

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known as Henry VIII or Elizabeth I, but if he is remembered at all today, it is as the
king who ordered murder in the Cathedral, or as the father of the impossibly bad
King John and the impossibly glamorous Richard the Lion Heart. Henry II has no
great monument. Yet, he made an indelible mark (неизгладимый след) on the
country. The father of Common Law, the Godfather of the English State. But Henry
II was cursed, brought down by the Church, his children, and most of all by his wife,
the beautiful all-powerful Eleanor of Aquitaine.

 Nations Task 4

Historical personalities Historical events

Prince Edward and Simon de The battle of Evesham in 1265

Montfort

Edward II and Robert Bruce The battle of Bannockburn in 1314

Henry III and Simon de Montfort The battle of Lewes in 1264

Edward I The stone of Scone was brought to Westminster

Abbey
Edward I and Llywelyn Ap The Treaty of Montgomery in 1267
Gruffud

Edward I and William Wallace The battle at Stirling Bridge in 1297

 Nations Task 5.

Historical personalities Characteristics and descriptions from the film

Edward I The first truly English king

---------“ ----------- A leopard prince, brave, proud and powerful while

devious and treacherous
--------“------- England’s own home grown Caesar

Edward II He was just a loser. He left his shield, his seal, his
honour on the battlefield.
John Balliol He was the clear choice of Scotland, not imposed by
Edward
Robert Bruce He wrote a book on partisan warfare

---------“----------- He knew he could only be successful if he became a

personification of Scotland.
William Wallace The freedom fighter whose epic romance refuses to
go away

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Simon de Montfort A French aristocrat, he was a man with a mission,
the most improbable revolutionary in English history
Eleanor of Castile Twelve crosses were built on the way of her body to
Westminster Abbey

 King Death Task 2

Bristol – the plague;
Westminster Abbey – coronation of Richard II;
Kent – Peasants’ war;
London (Smithfield) - Peasants’ war;
Tower of London – imprisonment of Richard II;
Agincourt - a great victory of Henry V;
Bosworth, Barnet - Wars of the Roses

 The British Wars. Task 1.

1) person, 2) Scotland, 3) England, 4) 67, 5) optimistic, 6) unity, 7) hatred,8)
governing, 9) united Britain

 Burning Convictions. Task 4.

1) -b Henry VIII
2) - c Thomas Wolsey
3) - f Catherine of Aragon
4) - g Catherine of Aragon
5) -e Thomas Cranmer
6) -a William Tyndale
7) -d Thomas Cromwell
8) -j Philip II of Spain
9) -h Edward VI
10)-I Mary I
11)-k Elizabeth I

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