МОСКОВСКИЙ ГОРОДСКОЙ

ПСИХОЛОГО-ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКИЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ

Л.М . Горина
Московский городской психолого-педагогический университет
Факультет информационных технологий
Кафедра зарубежной и русской филологии

JI. М. Горина

ENGLISH FOR STUDENTS

OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES

Учебное
пособие

Москва
2011
 ББК 81.2 Англ
Г67

Горина JI. М. English for Students of Information Technologies. Учебное пособие. - М.: МГППУ, 2011.
-62 с.

Учебное пособие рекомендовано к публикации

УМС кафедры Зарубежной и русской филологии МГППУ
и решением Ученого Совета факультета Информационных технологий МГППУ

Рецензент:
К А. Балыгина 一кандидат филологических наук, доцент МГППУ.

Учебное пособие предназначено для студентов, обучающихся по следующим направлениям:

«Прикладная информатика», «Математическое обеспечение и администрирование информацион­
ных систем», «Режиссура 一мультимедиа программ», а такж е для преподавателей и лиц, изучаю­
щих английскийязык самостоятельно.
Его цель — развитие уменийработать с аутентичным материалом по направлению обучения,
овладение навыками устных и письменных англоязычных коммуникаций, формирование языковой
профессиональной компетентности посредством профессионально-ориентированного английско­
го языка. Использована Британская и Американская специальная литература по информационным
технологиям.

ISBN 978-5-94051-098-7

© МГППУ, 2011.
© Горина Л. М., 2011.
 Contents

5
part l ...........................................................................................................................

5
Word Order...................................................................................................................

5
Question Words.............................................................................................................

5
Groups of Tenses (Active Voice)....................................................................................

6
Present (Active Voice). Usage, Formation and Examples............................................
Past (Active Voice). Usage, Formation and Examples................................................

7
Future (Active Voice). Usage, Formation and Examples.............................................

8
Future in the Past (Active Voice). Usage, Formation and Examples.............................

9
Groups of Tenses (Passive Voice)...................................................................................

0
Present (Passive Voice). Usage, Formation and Examples...........................................

0
Past (Passive Voice). Usage, Formation and Examples...............................................

1
Future (Passive Voice). Usage, Formation and Examples...........................................

2
Future in the Past (Passive Voice). Usage, Formation and Examples...........................

3
Direct and Reported Speech. Usage, Formation and Examples....................................... .

4
1. Sequence of Tenses...............................................................................................

4
2. Reported Speech..................................................................................................

4
3. Reported Questions..............................................................................................

5
4. Reported Commands/Instructions/Requests/Suggestions ......................................

5
The Gerund. Usage, Formation and Examples...............................................................
Conditionals. Usage, Formation and Examples..............................................................

5
6
PART 2 ...........................................................................................................................
Written Training Part ...................................................................................................
I. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct Present, Past, Future form in Active Voice (A)
II. Answer Key (B)..................... .................................................................................
III. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct Present, Past, Future form in Passive Voice. (A)
IV. Answer Key (B).................................................................................
V. Turn the sentences into (A) Reported Speech. / (B) Reported Questions.
VI. Answer Key (Reported Speech) (A)............................... .................... 20

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5
0 0 1 1 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 1
VII. Answer Key (Reported Questions) (B)..............................................
VIII. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct Gerund form (A)................
IX. Answer Key (B)...............................................................................
X. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct type of Conditionals (A)........
XI. Answer Key (B)................................................................................
PART 3 ....................................................................................................
(A) Tests.................................................................................................
Instructions........................................................................................
Test 1.................................................................................................
Test 2....................................................... .........................................
Instruction:........................................................................................
Test 2.................................................................................................
Test 3................................................................................................
Test 4................................................................................................
Test 5................................................................................................
Test 6................................................................................................
Test 7................................................................................................
Test 8................................................................................................
Test 9................................................................................................
Test 10..............................................................................................
Test 11..............................................................................................
Test 12...............................................................................................
Test 13..............................................................................................
(B) Answer Key.....................................................................................
Keys to Test 1...................................................................................
Keys to Test 2 ...................................................................................
Keys to Test 3 ...................................................................................
Keys to Test 4 ...................................................................................
Keys to Test 5 ...................................................................................
Keys to Test 6 ...................................................................................
Keys to Test 7 ...................................................................................
Keys to Test 8 ...................................................................................
Keys to Test 9 ..................................................................................
Keys to Test 10.................................................................................
Keys to Test 11..................................................................................
Keys to Test 12.................................................................................
Keys to Test 13.................................................................................
 2 2 2 3 3 3
5 5 5 5 5 5
PART 4 ......................
Creative work.......... .
Instructions......... .
PART 5 .......................
Texts for reading......
Tasks for each text

4
 Part 1
Word Order
Affirmative Sentence:
Subject +Predicate -t-Object +Adverbial Modifier of Place +Adverbial Modifier of Time.
Negative Sentence:
Subject +Auxiliary Verb/Modal Verb +Not + Main Verb + Object +Adverbial Modifier of Place +Adverbial
Modifier of Time.
Types of Questions:
1. General Question:
Auxiliary Verb/Modal Verb + Subject + Main Verb +Object +Adverbial Modifier of Place +Adverbial Modi­
fier of Time?
2. Alternative Question = General Question + or not? = Auxiliary Verb/Modal Verb + Subject + Main
Verb + Object +Adverbial Modifier of Place +Adverbial Modifier of Time or not?
3. Special Question = Interrogative Word + General Question? = Interrogative Word +Auxiliary -Verb/Modal
Verb + Subject + Main Verb + Object +Adverbial Modifier of Place +Adverbial Modifier of Time?
4. Question Tags^Disjunctive Question = Affirmative Sentence + short Negative General Question? = Sub­
ject + Predicate + Object + Adverbial Modifier of Place +Adverbial Modifier of Time, +Auxiliary Verb /Mod­
al + (Not) + Subject (in theform o f a pronoun)?
5. Negative General Question = General Question in Negative form? = Auxiliary Verb/Modal Verb+Not +Sub-
ject + Main Verb + Object +Adverbial Modifier of Place +Adverbial Modifier of Time?
6. Question to the Subject = Who /What +Predicate +Object+Adverbial Modifier of Place +Adverbial Modi­
fier of Time?

Question Words
How What (for)
How long When
How long ago Where
How many Which
How much Who
How often Whose

Groups o f Tenses (Active Voice)

Simple (S) Continuous (C) Perfect (P) Perfect Continuous (P.C.)
(Active Voice) (Active Voice) (Active Voice) (Active Voice)
Present S Present С Present P Present P.C.
Past S Past С Past P Past P.C.
Future S Future С Future P Future P.C.
Future S in the Past Future С in the Past Future P in the Past Future P.C. in the Past

Groups o f Tenses (Passive Voice)

Simple (S) Continuous (C) Perfect (P) (Passive Voice) = Perfect
(Passive Voice) (Passive Voice) Continuous (P.C.) (Passive Voice)
PresentS Present С Present P
Past S Past С Past P
Future S - (Future С = Future S) Future P ,
Future S in the Past - (Future С in the Past = Future S in the Past) Future P in the Past

5
 Present (Active Voice). Usage, Formation and Examples
Present Simple
(Active Voice)
Usage
For repeated actions, for timetables &
instructions;for sports commentaries &
narrations
Formation
(Aff)=S+main v.(+s， es， 3rd per.
sing).+object+adv.modif. of
place+adv. modif. of time.
(ᅳ )=S+aux.v.(do/does)
+not+v(lformHobiect+adv.modif. of
place+adv. modif. of time.
(?)=Aux.v.(do/ does)+s+v
(lform)+object+adv.modif. of
place+adv. modif. of time?
Examples
A computer includes both hardware and
software.
All computers do not include middleware.
Does a computer include both hardware
and software?
Present Continuous
(Active Voice)
Usage
For actions taking place at the momentof
speaking (inpwcessY with adverbs such
as: usuattv. alwavs. etc. to exaressaneer.
irritation: for actions that havealreadv been
arrangedto be done: for chaneine situations.
State verbs do not normally have
Continuous tenses fbelieve. feel. hear,
like, understand, to be, to have, modal
verbs. etc.V These verbs normallv have
Formation
(Aff)=S+aux.v.(am/is/are)+main
v. (+ing)+object+adv.modif. of
place+adv. modif. of time.
( >=S+aux.v.ram/is/areVbnot+main
v.(+]ng)+object+adv.modif. of
place+adv. modif. of time.
f?>=Aux.v.fam/is/
areHs+v(+ingHobject+adv.modif. of
place+adv. modif. of time?
Examoles
Different drill bits щ로performing
different functions now.
Different drill bits are not performine
different functions now.
Are different drill bits performing
different functions now?
Present Perfect
(Active Voice)
Usage
For an action which has recently or in the
past finished, but the exact oast time of
the action is not stated: with such time
expressions: even never. iusL alreadv. so
fan vet recenthK latelv: for an action which
has taken olace within the oeriod oftime
which is not over at the moment ofSDeakim
ftodav. this month, this week, etc.)
Formation
fAffi=S+aux.v.fhave/hasHmain
v .^ 1form/edHobiect+adv modif. of
place+adv. modif. of time.
(—)=S+aux.v.(have/has)+||fit+v(3nl
form/ed)+object+adv.modif. of
place+adv. modif. of time.
(7)=Aux.v.fhave/hasVHs+main
v.(3rfform/ed)+object+adv.modif. of
place+adv. modif. of time?
Examoles
This modem computer architecture has
included a processor, a memorv. and a set of
instructions stored in the memory this year.
This modem computer architecture has
not included a processor, a memorv. and
a set of instructions stored in the memory
this year.
Has this modem computer architecture
included a processor, a memorv. and a set
of instructions stored in the memory this
year?
Present Perfect Continuous
(Active Voice)
Usage
For putting an emphasis on
the duration ofthe action which started
in thepast and continues up to the
present {fyr' ^in^\ the result of the action
is visible in the present; to express anger,
irritation
Formation
(Afi)=S+柳 ;， Yr(J»av«/
hasHaux.v.rbeenVbmain vf+ineVfobiect+adv
modif. ofplace-Ksince/forVl-adv. modif. of
time.
(■ᅳ)=S+aux.v.(have/
has>+-notfaux.v.rbeen)+main
v.f+me>Hobiect+adv.modif ofnlaceKsince.
forHadv. modif. oftime.
f?>=Aiix.vniave/has>f^-aux.v (beenVHmain
v/+ineHobiect+adv.modif. ofnlace+^since.
forVHadv. modif. oftime?
Examoles
The processor has been retrieving
instructions from the memorv since five
o’clock.
The processor has not been retrieving
instructions from the memorv since five
o’clock.
Has the processor been retrieving
instructions from the memorv since five
o’clock or the printer?
 Past (Active Voice). Usage, Formation and Examples
Past Simple
(Active Voice)
Usage
1) For an action which took place at a
definite time in the past:
2) for repeated actions in the vast:
3) for actions which took place one after
the other in the past.
Formation
fAl!>=S+main v.fFT% ti부해Hobject+adv.
modif. ofplace+adv. modif. of time.
f-)=S+aux.v.fdid>fnot+main v, (I
form)+t)bject+adv.rnodif. ofplace+adv. modif.
oftime. f?1=Aux.v.rDid'H-sH-main v/T
form)+t)bject+adv.modif. ofplace+adv. modif.
oftime?
Examples
The architecture of the machine referred
to many combinations last year.
The architecture of the machine did not refer
to many combinations three years ago.
Did the architecture of the machine refer
to many combinations last year?
Past Continuous
(Active Voice)
Usage
П For an action which was in пго^гйхх at
a stated time in the vastx
2) for several simultaneous actions which
were in progress in the vast:
3) State verbs do not normallv have
Continuous tenses (believe, feel. like,
hear, understand, to be to have, modal
verbs. etc.V These verbs normallv have
Simnle tenses.
Formation
fAfn=S+aux. v.fwas/w이가)+main
v.f+ineHobiect+adv.modif of
place+adv. modif. of time.
(—)=S+aux.v.(was/wereHnot+main
v(+ing)+object+adv.modif. of
place+adv. modif. of time.
f?)=Aux.v.(,was/were>+S+main
v(+ing)+object+adv.modif. of
place+adv. modif. of time?
Examples
The hardware of a computer was doing
something particularly useful by itself two
hours ago
The hardware of a computer was not
doing anything particularly useful bv itself
two hours ago.
Was the hardware of a computer doing
anything particularly useful by itself two
hours ago or one hour ago?
Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous
(Active Voice) (Active Voice)
Usaee U sage
1 For an action which had taken place 1) For putting an emphasis on the
before another nast action or before a duration of the action which lasted for
stated time in the past (bv, tilL before). some time in the past (for. since) &
2) before another past action or stated
time in the past +fbyntiU, before).
Formation Formation
fAfn=S+aux.v.fhad)+main \(3^ form/ rAflV=S+aux.v.fhad beenHmain
ed)+obiect+adv modif. of olace+fbv. till. v(4~in2Vl~obiect+adv modif. of
beforeVbadv. modif. of time. place+fsince. forHadv. modif. of
(ᅳ )=S+aux.v.(had) not+main v(3rd time+(till, by, before) adv. modif. of time.
form/ed)+object+adv.modif. of place+fbv. (一 )=S+aux.v.(had) not+aux.v
till, beforeVbadv. modif. of time. (been)+main v(+ing)+object+adv.modif.
(?)=Aux.v.fhad)+s+main vC3riform/ of olace+fsince. forHadv. modif. of time.
ed)+obiect+adv.modif. of olace+fbv. till. f?^=Aux.vfhadHs+aux.v fbeenVbmain
before)+adv. modif. of time? v(+ing)+object+adv.modif. of place+(for，
since)+adv. modif. of time+(before，till,
by)+adv. modif. of time?
Examples Examples
A computer without The drill had been providing generic
software hadbeen ableautomaticallv to hardware for a month
balance a checkbook, transmit electronic mail, before the beginning of the test.
or even adda pair ofnumbers Щ1yesterday. The drill had not been providing generic
A computer without hardware for a month
software had not been able automaticallv before the beeinnine of the test.
to balance a checkbook， transmit Whv had the drill been providing generic
electronic mail， or even add a pair of hardware for a month
numbers till yesterday. before the beginning of the test?
Had a computer without software
been able automatically to balance a
checkbook, transmit electronic mail, or
even add a pair of numbers Ш1 yesterday?
 Future (Active Voice). Usage, Formation and Examples

Future Simple Future Continuous (Active Voice) Future Perfect Future Perfect Continuous (Active
(Active Voice) (Active Voice) Voice)
Usage Usace Usage Usage
For an action which will take place at a For an action which will be in progress For an action which will have taken place For putting an emphasis on the duration
definite time in the future; for repeated at a stated time in the future; for several before another future action or before a of the action (for. since) ud to a certain
actions in the future; for actions which simultaneous actions which will be in stated time in the future (bv, tilL before). time in the future or another action in the
will take place one after the other in the progress in the future State verbs do not It is not used in the subordinate clauses future+fbv. till, before).
future. normallv have Continuous tenses (believe, of time and condition. Instead of Future It is not used in the subordinate clauses
It is not used in the subordinate clauses like, feel, hear, understand, to be, to Perfect of time and condition. Instead of Future
oftime and condition. Instead of Future have, modal verbs, etc.). These verbs only Present Perfect is used in these Perfect Continuous only Present Perfect
Simple normallv have Simole tenses. clauses. Continuous is used in these clauses.
only Present Simple It is not used in the subordinate clauses
is used in these clauses. oftime and condition. Instead of Future
Continuous only Present Continuous is
used in these clauses.
Formation Formation Formation Formation
ГАШ S+aux.v.rwil]/shallHmain (Afn=S+aux.v.fwill/shallHaux.v. fAfD=S+aux,v.fwilI/shain+aux.v. fAffHS+aux.v.fwffl/shaIlHaux.v.
v. (TfprmHobject+adv.modif. of (beHmain vT(+ingHobject+adv modif. fhaveHmain v.O1*1fprm/ rhave>+aux.v.(beenHmain
place+adv. modif. of time. of place+adv. modif. of time. edVHobiect+adv modif. of place+fbv. till, v.f+ingHobi ect+adv modif. of
(ᅳ )=S+aux.v.fwi]l/shallHnot+maSn (ᅳ )=S+aux.v.(will/shall) beforeVbadv. modif. of time. olace+fsince- forHadv. modif. of
v. (I form)+object+adv.modif. of not+aux.v.fbeVfmain (ᅳ )=S+aux.v. (wil!/shall)+aux.v. time+ftilL hv. beforeHadv. modif. of time.
place+adv. modif. of time. v.(+ing)+object+adv.modif. of fhaveHnot+main v.(3rdform/ (ᅳ )=S+aux.v.(will/
r?)=Aux,vfwilI/shainH-s+main place+adv. modif. of time. edVbobiect+adv.modif. of nlace+fbv. till, shallVfnot+aux.v.fhave been)+niain
v.(I form)+object+adv.modif. of (?)=Aux.v.rwiU/shalIHs+aux.v. before、+adv. modif. of time. v.(+ing)+object+adv.modif. of
place+adv. modif. of time? fbe)+main v.(+ing)+object+adv.modif. of f?)=Aux.v.fwill/shallHs+aux.v. olace+fsince. forHadv. modif. of
place+adv. modif. of time? (have)+main v.(3rdform/ time+fbefore. tilL bvHadv. modif. of time.
ed)+object+adv.modif. of place+(by, till, f?>=Aux.vfwiIl/shaHHS+aux.vihave)+
before)+adv. modif. of time? aux.v.(been+main v.(+ing)+object+adv.
modif. of olace-Kfon sinceHadv. modif. of
time+fbefore. till. bvHadv. modif. of time?
Examples Examples Examples Examples
Then the orocessor will retrieve instructions
Each of the bits will be providing specific This drill will have performed a new This software will have been separating
from the memory. hardware for performing a particular function bx the end of the experiment. from other creative works for a month Ш]
The processor will not retrieve instructions
function next time. This drill will not have performed a new the end of the work.
from the memory tomorrow. W ill the Each of the bits will not be providing function by the end of the experiment. This software will not have been separating
processor retrieve instructions from the specific hardware for performing a Will this drill have oerformed a new from other creative works for a month tUl
memory then? particular function next time. function by the end of the experiment? the end of the work.
What function will each of the bits be What work will this software have been
Droviding specific hardware for performing separating from other creative works for a
next time? month tiU the end of the work?
 Future in the Past (Active Voice). Usage, Formation and Examples.
Future Simple in the Past
(Active Voice)
Usage
It is used in the subordinate clause the
main clause is in the past and the subor­
dinate clause is in the future. It's usage
complies with all the rules and exclusions
of the Future S.
Formation
(Aff)=S+main v.(2ndform/ed)=He
informed-KthatHs+aia:v (would/
shoulit&mmi v.(letform)+object+adv.
modif. of place+adv. modif. of time.
(ᅳ ) He informed+fthat)+s+aux.v.
(would/should)+not+msdn v.
(1stform>+4)bject+adv.modif. of
place+adv. modif. of time.
(?)=They askgd if+aff. sent.=They askgd
(would/should) +main v. (1st
form)+object+adv.modif. of place+adv.
modif. of time.
Examples
(This software will differ from other cre­
ative works).
He informed the software would not differ
from other creative works.
He asked if the software would differ from
other creative works.
Future Continuous in the Past Future Perfect in the Past Future Perfect Continuous in the Past
(Active Voice) (Active Voice) (Active Voice)
Usage Usage Usage
It is used in the subordinate clause the It is used in the subordinate clause 표!the It is used in the subordinate clause j£ the
main clause is in the past and the subor­ main clause is in the past and the subor­ main clause is in the past and the subor­
dinate clause is in the future. It’s usa^e dinate clause is in the future. It’s usa^e dinate clause is in the future. It’s usage
complies with all the rules and exclusions complies with all the rules and exclusions complies with all the rules and exclusions
of the Future C. of the Future P. of the Future P.C
Formation Formation Formation
(Aff.)=S+main v. (2ndform/ed)=He (AfT)=S+main v.(2ndform/ed)=He (Af!)=S+main v. (2ndform/ed)=He
inform£S+(that)+s+aia:v (would/ informed+(that>+s+aux.v. informed+(that)+s+au\.v.(»voii/<//
should)+aux,v (be)+main v. f+ingHobject (would/should\+mx^t ■y/toi</i/)+aux.v.fhaveHaux.v.fbeenH
+adv modif. of place+adv. modif. of time. fhaveHmain v.G131form/ main v. e-wp>+object+adv modif. of
(—)=He informed+(thatHs+aux.v. edVbobject+adv modif. of place+fbv. till. place+fsince. forHadv. modif.
(would/should)+not+Bux.\.(he)+mmn beforeVt-adv. modif. of time. of time+TtilL hv. beforeVfadv. modif. of time.
v.f+ingHobject+adv.modif. of (—)He informed-Hthai)^s^-aux.v. (ᅳ )=He informed+fthatVbs+aux.v.
place+adv. modif. of time. (would/shouldHnot^aux.v. (would/should)^-nat^-m\.\.(have)+m
(?)=She ask£d+|f+s+aux.v. (have)+mmi v. (3rdform/ x.v.(^gg/i)+main v. (4-//i^)+object+adv.
(would/should) +aux.v. (be) +main 때 +object+adv.rnodif of place+fbv. till, modif. of place+fsince. for)+adv. modif. of
v. (+/wgj+object+adv.modif. of beforeVHadv. modif. of time. time+fbefore. till. bvHadv. modif. of time,
place+adv. modif. of time. (?)=She askfid if+s+aux.v/vvoM/々 (?)=She asked+if+s+aux.v.
should)+mx..w,{have)+main v. (З^/огт / (would /should)-^a\3x.y.(have+B.u\.v.(b
e^+object+adv.modif. of olace+dv. tilL egwJ+main v,(+wg)+object+adv.modif.
before)+adw. modif. of time. of place+(^?r. 5i/icgHadv. modif. of
tkneHbefore, tilL bvHadv. modif. of time.
Examples Examples Examples
(It wiUbe interacting with Ihe conpiter’s hard~ (Different executable software programs (It will have been interacting with the com­
waretomorrowtocausebe conyutertoperfmm will have obtained different physical struc­ puter hardware in unique ways to cause the
functions suchasdisplayingtextonthescreen). tures till the end of the experiment). computer to perform particular functions
They stated it would be interacting with the She told different executable software for three weeks till a certain signal).
computer’s hardware the next day to cause programs would have obtained different They informed it would have been interacting
the computer to perform functions such as physical structures till the end of the ex­ with the computerhardware in unique ways to
displaying text on the screen. periment. causethecomputer toperformparticular func­
They stated it would not be interacting Different executable software programs tions for threeweeks till a certain signal.
with the computer’s hardware the next day would not have obtained different physical They informed it would not havebera interact­
to cause the computer to perform functions structures till the end of the experiment. ingwiththecomputerhardwarein uniqueways
such as displaying text on the screen. They asked if different executable software to cause the computer to perfoim particular
They asked if it would be interacting with programs would have obtained different functions for threeweeks tilla certain signal.
the computer’s hardware the next day to physical structures till the end of the ex­ He asked why it would have been interacting
cause the computer to perform functions periment. with the computer hardware in unique ways
such as displaying text on the screen. to cause the computer to perform particular
functions for three weeks till a certain signal.

Present (Passive Voice). Usage, Formation and Examples.
Present Simple
(Passive Voice)
Usage
It is used when the subject of the sentence is not the doer
ofthe action, the action is performed/accomvlished over
the subiect It，s usa?e complies with all the rules and
exclusions ofthe Present Simple Active Voice
Formation
(Aff)=S+aux.v.(am/is/are)+mam v.(3~form/
eg/)+object+adv.modif. of place+adv. modif. of time.
(—)=S+aux.v.(am/is/are)+flSit+(3ri!form/ed)-H-object+adv.
modif. of place+adv. modif. of time.
f?)=Aux.v.fam/is/are')+s+Gnlform/ed)+obiect+adv.modif.
of place+adv. modif. of time?
Examples
Such a wide varietv of functions is performed bv a
universal machine.
Such a wide varietv of functions is not performed bv a
universal machine.
Is such a wide varietv of functions performed bv a
universal machine?
Groups o f Tenses (Passive Voice).
Present Continuous
(Passive Voice)
Usaee
It is used when the subject of the
sentence is not the doer of the action, 표 beine
Derformed ^ accomplished over the subiect. It，s usaee
comnlies with all the rules and exclusions ofthe Present
Continuous Apfiv우
Formation
(Aff)=S-^-3,ux.v.(am/is/are)+3ux.\.bem^main v.(3~form/
e^)+object+adv.modif. of place+adv. modif. of time.
( _ )=S+aux.v.(am/is/are)+ufit+aux.v being+O^fonn/
ed)+object+adv.modif. of place+adv. modif. of time.
r?)=Aux.v.fam/is/are)+s+aux.v. beine+O^form/
ed)+object+adv.modif. of place+adv. modif. of time?
Examples
A memory for storing instructions (software), and a
processing unit for retrieving instructions from the
memorv are being comprised bv its unique architecture.
A memory for storing instructions (software), and
a processing unit for retrieving instructions from
the memorv are not being comprised bv its unique
architecture.
What is being comprised bv its unique architecture?
Present Perfect (Passive Voice)=
=Present Perfect Continuous (Passive Voice)
Usage
It is used when the subject of the sentence has not been
the doer ofthe action, the action has been oerformed/
accomplished over the subiect It， s usage comnlies with
all the rules and exclusions ofthe Present PerfectActive
and the Present Perfect Continuous Active Voice
Formation
fAffHS+aux.v.^ave/와ayJ+aux.v. been+main v.(5Щогт/
efif)+object+adv.modif. of place+adv. modif. of time.
(—)=S+aux.v.(have/has)+flfit+aux.v been+(3rdform/
ed)+object+adv.modif. of place+adv. modif. of time.
f?)=Aux.v.(have/has)+s+aux.v. been+G^form/
ed)+object+adv.modif. of place+adv. modif. of time?
Examples
An input unit for receiving data from a human user has
also been included into the architecture.
An input unit for receiving data from a human user has
not been included into the architecture.
Has an input unit for receiving data from a human user
also been included into the architecture or not?
 Past (Passive Voice). Usage, Formation and Examples.
Past Simple (Passive Voice)
Usaee
It is used when the subject of the sentence was not
the doer ofthe action, the action was performed
(accomnlished) over the subiect. It， s usage complies
with all the rules and exclusions of the Past Simple_
Active Voice
Formation
fAflH=S+aux.v. fwas/wereVHmain vGriform/
edV^object+adv.modif. of place+adv. modif. of time.
(—)=S+aux.v.(was/were)+not+main ^(З^огт/
ed)+object+adv.modif. of place+adv. modif. of time.
(?)=Aux.v.(was/were)+S+main v/3 ^form/
ed)+object+adv.modif. of place+adv. modif. of time?
Examples
The fundamental distinction between software and
conventional electromechanical devices was the unique
process bv which software was designed
and instantiated.
The fundamental distinction between software and
conventional electromechanical devices was the unique
process bv which software was not designed and
instantiated.
Was software designed and instantiated?
Past Continuous (Passive Voice)
Usaee
It is used when the subject of the sentence was not being
the doer ofthe action, the action was beine performed
(accomvlished) over the subiect. It， s usa^e conwlies
with all the rules and exclusions of the Past Continuous
Active Voice
Formation
(Affl=S+aux.vfwas/were)+aux.v.(beinpHmain v.O^form/
ed)+object+adv.modif. of place+adv. modif. of time.
(—)=S+aux.v.(was/were)+not+aux.v.(being)+main
v.p^form/ed^object+adv.modif. of place+adv. modif.
of time. f?)=Aux.viwas/were)+S+aux.v.fbeineHmain
v^S^form/e^+object+adv.modif of place+adv. modif. of
time?
Examples
Some salient features of the processes were being
to design conventional electromagnetic machine
components at that moment.
Some salient features of the processes were not beinp
used to design conventional electromagnetic machine
components at that moment.
When wer^ salient features of the processes being
used to design conventional electromagnetic machine
components?
Past Perfect (Passive Voice)=
=Past Perfect Continuous(Passive Voice)
Usage
It is used when the subject of the sentence had not been
the doer ofthe action, the action had been performed
(accomnlished) over the subiect It， s usage comnlies
with all the rules and exclusions ofthe Past Perfect
Active Voice/the Past Perfect Continuous Active Voice
Formation
fAff)=S+aux.vfhad)+aux.v.fbeenHmain v.G^form/
edVHobiect+adv.modif. of nlace+fbv. till.
beforeYfadv. modif. of time.
(—
—)=S+aux.v.(had)+not+aux.v.(been)+main v.(3rdform/
edVHobiect+adv.modif. of nlace+fbv. tilTl+adv. modif.
of time. f?)=Aux.v.fhad)+S+aux.v.fbeen)+v.r3rdform/
edHobiect+adv.modif of place+fbv. tillHadv. modif. of
time?
Examples
Various models of the process of engineering design had
been proposed before the end of the session.
Various models of the process of engineering design had
not been proposed before the end of the session.
Had various models of the process of engineering design
been proposed before the end of the session?
^ Future (Passive Voice). Usage, Formation and Examples
Future Simple (Passive Voice)=Future Continuous (Passive Voice)
Usaee
It is used when the subiect of the sentence will not he the doer of the action, the action
will be oerfomed/accomvlished over the subiect It5s usaee comnlies with all the rules
and exclusions o f the Future Simple Active Voice/the Future Continuous Active Voice.
It is not used in the subordinate clauses oftime and condition. Instead ofFuture
Simole onlv Present Simole is used in these clauses.
Formation
(Aff)=^-\-Bux,vfwi!l/shall)+aux.v (be)^main ect+adv. modif. of
place+adv. modif. of time.
(ᅳ )=S+aux.v.(will/shall)+aux.v (be)+not+main v. (3Mform/ed)+object+adv.modif. of
place+adv. modif. of time.
(7뉴 Aux.v.fwill/shalH+S+aux.v fbeVHnain vi^fomi/edHobiect+adv. modif. of
place+adv. modif. o f time?
Examples
Executable software programs will be seoarated from hardware components of
computers.
Executable software programs will not be separated from hardware components of
computers.
W ill executable software programs be separated from hardware components of
computers or from scanners?
Future Perfect (Passive Voice)=Future Perfect Continuous (Passive Voice)
Usaee
It is used when the subject of the sentence will not have been the doer of the action, the
action will have been performed/accomvlished over the subiect. It， s usage comvlies
with all the. rules and exclusions ofthe Future Perfect Active Voice/the Future Perfect
Continuous Active Voice/the Future Perfect Continuous Active Voice.
It is hqI used in the subordinate clauses of time and condition. Instead of Future
Perfect onlv Present Perfect is used in these clauses.
Formation
(Affi=S-ba«xv (witl/shall)+aux,v fhave+beeni+main v.(3^form/ed)+obiect+adv.
modif. of place+fbv. tilH+adv. modif of time.
(ᅳ )=S+aux.v.(will/shall)+not+aux.v (have been)+main v. (^form/
edHobiect+adv. modif. o f olace+fbv. tiHVHadv. modif. of time.
f?)=Aux.v.fwiIl/shaIlHS+aux.v fhave beenHmain v.G^form/edHobiect+adv.modif. of
place+fby. tillHadv. modif. of time?
Examples
Such electromechanical devices will have been invented bv the end of the vear.
Such electromechanical devices w ill not have been invented bv the end of the vear.
How will such electromechanical devices have been invented bv the end of the vear?
 Future in the Past (Passive Voice). Usage，Formation and Examples.
Future Simple in the Past (Passive Voice)=
=Future Continuous in the Past (Passive Voice)
Usaee
It is used in the subordinate clauses if the main clause is in the past and the subordinate
clause is in the future. It is used when the subject o f the sentence w ill not be the doer
of the action. It’s usage complies with all the rules and exclusions of the Future Simple
Active Voice /the Future Continuous Active Voice
Formation
(Aff)=She informed+S+aux.v.(would/should)+aux.v. be+v(3rdform/
ed)+object+adv. modif. of place+adv. modif. of time.
(ᅳ )=She informed+S+aux.v.(would/should)+not+aux.v. be+(3rdform/
ed)+object+adv. modif. of place+adv. modif. of time.
(?)=She asked if+S+aux.v.(would/should)+be+(3rdform/ed)+object+adv. modif. of
place+adv. modif. of time
Examples
“This physical structure will be visible”.
He informed the physical structure would be visible.
He informed the physical structure would not be visible.
They asked if the physical structure would not be visible.
Future Perfect in the Past (Passive Voice)=
=Future Perfect Continuous in the Past (Passive Voice)
Usage
It is used in the subordinate clauses if the main clause is in the past and the subordinate
clause is in the future. It is used when the subject of the sentence will not have been the
doer of the action. It’s usage complies with all the rules and exclusions of the Future
Perfect Active Voice /the Future Perfect Continuous Active Voice
Formation
(Aff)=She informed+S+aux.v (would/should)+aux.v (have been)+main v.p^fbrm/
ed)+object+adv. modif. of place+(by, till)+adv. modif. of time.
(—)=She informed+S+aux.v.(would/should)+not+aux.v (have been)+main v. (B^form/
ed)+object+adv. modif. of place+(by, till)+adv. modif. of time.
(?)=She asked if+S+aux.v.(would/shou!d)+aux.v (have been)+main vX^form/
ed)+object+adv. modif. o f place+(by, till)+adv. modif. of time.
Examples
“This particular physical structure will have been stored physically in the computer’s
memory till tomorrow”.
She said the. particular physical structure would have been stored physically in the
computer’s memory till the following day.
She said the. particular physical structure would not have been stored physically in the
computer’s memory till the following day.
She asked why the. particular physical structure would have been stored physically in
the computer’s memory till the following day.
 Direct and Reported Speech. Usage, Formation and Examples
• Direct Speech is the exact words someone used. We use quotation marks (“ ，
，
) in direct speech.
• Reported Speech is the exact meaning of what someone said but nol the exact words. We do not use quota­
tion marks in Reported Speech.
• We change pronouns in Reported Speech, according to the meaning of the sentence.
• In Reported Speech when the main clause is in the Past Simple then the tenses in the subordinate clauses
are changed (Sequence o f Tenses) asfollows:
1. Sequence of Tenses.
• Sequence of Tenses is used in the subordinate clause i£the main clause is in the Past then the subordinate
clause is used in one o f the Past Tenses;
The Subordinate Clause
The Main
“Direct Speech” is changed when
Clause
the main clause is in the Past
Present Simple ■나 Past Simple
Present Continuous —> Past Continuous
Present Perfect —»■ Past Perfect
Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
~►
when the main Past Simple —»• Past Simple or Past Perfect
clause is in the Past Continuous —*• Past Continuous or Past Perfect
Past Continuous
Past Perfect —► Remains the same
Past Perfect Continuous —> Remains the same
Future Simple —* Future Simple in the Past
Future Continuous —► Future Continuous in the Past
Future Perfect Future Perfect in the Past

2. Reported Speech
(A). In Reported Speech when the main clause is in the Past some words are changed as follows:
The Subordinate Clause
The Main
“Direct Speech” (when the main clause is in the
Clause
Past)
now —»■ then, at that time
today, tonight —► that day, that night
yesterday —»• the day before, the previous day
tomorrow —> the following day, the next day
when the
this week —>■ that week
main clause is
these days —*■ those days
in the Past
last week —► the previous week, the week before
next week —>• the week after, the following week
two days ago —► two days before
here —*■ there
(B). In Reported Speech when the main clause is in the Past, then time expressions are changed as follows:
• In time expressions this / these are changed to that / those.
• When this / these / that / those are not used In time expressions, they are changed as follows:
1) This/these/that/those are changed to “the” when they are followed bv a noun, (e.g. “This programme is
interesting”，they told us. They told us the programme was interesting).
2) This/these/that/those are changed to “if ， or thev/them when they are not followed bv a noun, (e.g. “This
is an unusual idea”, the lecturer said. The lecturer said it was an unusual idea).
(C). In Reported Speech when the main clause is in the Past，then “would，could, might, should，ought to,
had better, used to，mustn’t” - do not change and when ttm ust， ，expresses a logical assumption it does not
change either.

14
 3. Reported Questions
• Reported Questions are introduced with the verbs ask> wonder, inquire or the expression want to know. The
question marks and words such as please, well, etc. are omitted.
• When the direct speech begins with a question word (when, why, what, etc.), then the reported question
is introduced with the question word+the affirmative sentence+a full stop at the end of the reported ques­
tion. (e.g. They inquired whv the result was not correct).
• When the direct speech begins with an auxilisiry/modal verb (do，has/can/may，etc.)，then the reported
question begins with if or whether+the affirmative sentence+a full stop at the end of the reported ques­
tion. (e.g. The students asked if the computer test would take place the following month).
• Question Tags=Disjunctive Question are omitted in reported speech.

4. Reported Commands/Instructions/Requests/Suggestions
Reported commands, instructions, requests or suggestions are used with the verbs ask, order, beg, tell+“to”
or “-ingform ，
，(e.g. The programmer told us not use the server).

The Gerund. Usage, Formation and Examples

1. The Gerund is a noun in the form of the present participle of a verb (verb+uing form ， ，
^ The Gerund
is the form o f the verb that shows an existing state or an action. The Gerund can be any member o f a sentence
except the predicate, but it can be a part o f the predicate. The Gerund is very often used after prepositions and
frequently replaces subordinate clauses.
Active Gerund Passive Gerund

Simple Active Gerund Simple Passive Gerund

Usape
Simole Aftiv^ Gerund is used when the action expressed bv
the Gerund 1) is in coniunction with the Derson or thine which
performs/accomplishes th 향 a^tiQn: 2) the action expressed by
the Gerund takes place simultaneously with the predicate of the
sentence..
Simple Active Gerund
Formation
main wA+^ing form ")=moving
Examples
The program would not be capable of causing the computer to do
anything.
Perfect Active Gerund
Usage
Perfect Active Gerund is used when the action expressed by
the Gerund 1) is in conjunction with the person or thing which
performs/accomplishes the action: 2^ Perfect Active Gerund is
used when the action expressed bv the Gerund orecedes the action
expressed by the predicate of the sentence.
Exclusions:
1) Perfect Active Gerund is not used after some prepositions: on.
upon, after. In such cases Simple Actlv? Q^rund is used.
Perfect Active Gerund
Formation:
havine+moved/S111form
Examples
Having derived a physical structural design from a functional
design, they went on their investigation.
Having derived a phvsical structural design from a functional
desien. thev did not go on their investigation.
Did thev po on their investigation having derived a phvsical
structural design from a functional design?
Usaee
Simole Gerund is used when the action expressed by
the Gerund: 1) is in conjunction with the person or thing over
which the action is being Derfprm^l/accomplished: 2) the action
expressed bv the Gerund takes nlace simultaneouslv with the
oredicate of the sentence. 3) Passive Gerund is not used after
the followine verbs: need. want, reauire. to be worth. Instead of
Passive Gerund only Active Gerund is used after these verbs.
Simple Passive Gerund
Formation
aux.v.fbe+ing)+main vi+ed/3MformV=being movpd/being dealt
Examnles
Computer hardware is designed so that the stored electrical signals
being processed bv the processor at a particular time activate
particular circuitry in the processor to perform the desired function.
Perfect Passive Gerund
Usage
Perfect Passive Gerund is used when the action expressed by the
Gerund: Л is in coniunction with the oerson or thine over which
the action is beinc Derformed/accomolished: 2) Perfect Passive
Gerund is used when the action expressed by the Gerund
the action expressed by the predicate of the sentence.
Exclusions:
1) Perfect Passive Gerund is not used after such prepositions:
on. upon, after. In such cases Simple Passive Gerund is used.
2) Passive Gerund is not used after the following verbs: need,
want reauire. to be worth. Instead of Passive Gerund onlv
Active Gerund is used after these verbs.
Perfect Passive Gerund
Formation:
haviny+been+moved/S1*1form
Examoles
Some generally applicable techniques having been used then thev
applied routinely in particular cases.
Some eenerallv applicable techniques havinp not been used then
they applied routinely in particular cases.
Did they apply routinely in particular cases then any generally
aDplicable techniques having been used?

15

There arefive types of Conditionals in English
Type Zero
(general truth)
Usage
1. Something which is always
true
Formation
Tf~clau하
(hypothesis)=If+present simple.
IWajp clause fresulO=present
simple
Examples
Electromechanical engineers
tvpicallv design the physical
structure of a particular device to
perform a particular function if
the ideal design model illustrates
it. Electromechanical engineers
tvpicallv do not design the
physical structure of a particular
device to perform a particular
function if the ideal design
model illustrates it. How do
electromechanical engineers
typically design the physical
structure of a particular device to
perform a particular function if
the ideal design model illustrates
it?
Conditionals. Usage，Formation and Examples
Type One
(real present)
Usage
1. Real/likely to happen in the
present or future
Formation
Tf-qlau하
(hypothesis)=If+present simple/
present cont./present perfect/
present perfect cont.
Main clause (result)=future/can/
may/must/should+present bare
infinitive
Examples
Conventional electromechanical
devices will be considered to
be special-purpose machines
if vou prove this. Conventional
electromechanical devices
will not be considered to be
special-purpose machinesj£you_
prove this. Will conventional
electromechanical devices be
considered to be special-purpose
machines if vou prove this?
Type Two
(unreal present)
Usage
1. Imaginary situation contrary
to facts in the present orfuture
Formation
If-^lau^ fhvpothesisV=If+past
simple/past continuous.
Main clause fresultV=would/
could/ might+present
Examples
A universal machine could
be made to perform different
functions iLthe appropriate
instructions were in the
machine’s memory.
A universal machine could not
be made to perform different
functions iLthe appropriate
instructions were in the
machine’s memory.
Could a universal machine
be made to perform different
functions iLthe appropriate
instructions were in the
machine’s memory?
Type three Type Four
(unreal past) (mixed Conditionals)
Usage Usage
1. Imaginary situation contrary 1. If the context permits it, by
to facts in thepast combining an if ᅵ clausefrom
one type with a main clause
from another
Formation Formation
If-우1ац하 fhvpothesisWf+past Н-с1ац$^ (hypothesis) from one
perfect/past perfect continuous. tvoe+main clause (result) =from
Main clause fresult)=would/ another type
could/might+present perfect
Examples Examples
Designing thephysical structure It tvpicallv would be necessarv
of an electromechanical machine to design a new special-purpose
could have beentedious, time machine for performing that
consuming, costly, andprone to function now if a modem
errorone year agoif thefounders of technolopv hadn’t been
modern computing had realizedthis developed two vears apo.
muchearlier. Designing thephysical It tvpicallv would not be
structureof an electromechanical necessary to design a new
machine could not havebeen special-purpose machine for
tedious， time consuming, costly, and performing that function now if
prone to етогone year agoif the a modem technology had been
founders of modemcomputing had developed two vears ago.
realizedthis much earlier. Would it typically be necessarv
How manv vears ago could to design a new special-purpose
designing the physical structure machine for performing that
of an electromechanical function now if a modem
machine have been tedious, time technology hadn’t been
consuming， ,costly, and prone to developed two vears aeo?
error if the founders of modem
computing had realized this
much earlier?
 Part 2
Written Training Part
L Put the verbs in brackets into the correct Present, Past, Future form in Active Voice (A)
• Use Simple，Continuous, Perfect or Perfect Continuous (Active Voice)
1. Data structures used in computers (have) a limited numeric domain, for two reasons: first, memory is limited
by design, second, dynamic data structures (require) a substantial amount of overhead processing too costly
for cryptography.
2. To manipulate data structures, we (need) operators.
3. For instance, the addition operator+defined over N (share) many properties with the+operator defined over
Z2 - associativity, commutativity.
4. That (be) equal to subtraction in Z2.
5. This (be) not true for N.
6. If you (start) with a less-featured version of Windows Vista, Microsoft graciously and easily (let) you upgrade
to any higher-priced version.
ᄀ . You (not even have) to buy another software Package.
8. The Windows Anytime Upgrade (let) you purchase your upgrade online, and then immediately upgrade the
version of Vista installed on your PC.
9. In cryptography, we (encounter) integer, binary and polynomial operations by the previous month, and found
out that each set of operations (have) its own interpretation of data.
10.The off-the-shelf definitions for integer and polynomial operations (be) not usable in algorithms operating in
silicon.
11.The reason is that these operations already (assume) that the underlying mathematical structure is infinitely
large.
12.1n short, there (be) a lot that’s new about Windows Vista-both on and below the surface.
13.If you’re an experienced Windows user, you (find) Vista both familiar and sometimes finstratingly different.
14.Over time, however, you (come) to appreciate the new features and improved operation.
15.But that’s why you (read) this book now-to learn all about what’s new and different in this new version of your
favorite operating system.
16. So let’s start with a look back, and see how Microsoft (get) from DOS to Vista, in just 20 short years.
17.Microsoft’s server-oriented Windows operating systems (grow) by leaps and bounds in capabilities, complexi­
ties, and sheer number of features since the release of Windows NT Server in the early 1990s.
18. With each release, system administrators (find) themselves grappling with new concepts, from domains, d
tory services, and virtual private networks, to client quarantining, disk quota, and universal groups.
19.Just when you (master) one set of changes, another comes along and suddenly you’re scrambling once again
to get up to speed.
20. But over the years, many of these books (become) as complex, and (accumulate) as much detritus, as the op­
erating systems they explain.
21 .There’s a limit to how many times you can (revise) something before it’s best to simply start from scratch.
22... .you (need) all of that obsolete information to do your job efficiently?
23.1 (involve) with hard disk cryptography for the first time in the year 2000.
24. This was much too early, since the regular desktop processors (not be able) to fulfill my performance expecta­
tions.
25.Two years later I (repeat) my attempt to encrypt my data by default, this time with loop-AES, a high perfor­
mance encryption package for Linux.
26. In previous versions of Windows, it (be) too easy for any user to inadvertently install dangerous software.
27. Windows Vista (make) it harder to do anything wrong by applying a new layer of User Account Control.
28. You (create) a separate account for each member of your family the next month.
29. You (set) which programs, games, and websites they can use and install a month more.
30. The unified look of Windows Vista and all Windows applications (be) the result of the common resources used
by the operating system.
 IL Answer Key (B).
1. have, require; 2. need; 3. shares; 4. is; 5. is; 6. start, lets; 7. don’t even have; 8. lets; 9. had encountered,
had; 10. are; 11. have already assumed; 12. there’s; 13. will find; 14. will come; 15. are reading; 16. got; 17. have
grown; 18. have found; 19. have mastered; 20. have become, have accumulated; 21. revise; 22. Do you need;
23. involved; 24. were not able; 25. repeated; 26. was; 27. makes; 28. will be creating; 29. will be setting; 30. is.

III. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct Present,

Past, Future form in Passive Voice. (A).
• Use Simple，Continuous or Perfect (Passive Voice).
1. They might (find) useful by you, but only if you enjoy dealing with 30 pounds of paper in your lap or on your
desk.
2. Only if it (be find) productive by you to wade through references to “how things worked， ，four versions of
Windows NT ago.
3. 1,200-plus-page monstrosities (can see) by you on the shelves of your friendly local bookstores now.
4. Major releases of popular operating systems (always accompany) by the publication of books written to sup­
port them, often encouraged by the software manufacturers.
5. A vicious cycle this IT business is one source of help for the beleaguered administrator (always be) the techni­
cal book market and its comnumities of authors, publishers, and user groups.
6. The content of this volume (trim) by him to include just enough background on a subject for you to understand
how different features and systems work in this version of Windows.
7. I want you to come away from reading sections with a firm understanding of what’s happening under the hood
of the system, but without the sense that a graduate course in OS theory (take) by you now.
8. A more compact presentation, a lower price, and a tighter focus on tasks than other books on the market (pro­
vide) by the book you’re either holding in your hands right now or reading online.
9. Your expectations (meet) by this work.
10.You turn to it again and again when the massive product that is Windows Server 2008 (need to understand) by you
11Л cooperate with bigger projects like Linux distributions or the Linux kernel primarily, because maintenance
work (take) away from me.
12.1 would have to reintegrate my work with all components when new versions (release).
13.1 started to put my efforts into another crypto project, which was to (include) into mainstream Linux, named
“kernel”.
14.Crypto loop (include) into the new release, and the Linux users received a hard disk encryption ready kernel
for the first time.
15.The attack (not take) seriously by users.
16.Unfortunately, most Linux users (not well educate) with respect to cryptography.
17.They (confuse) from the mixture of correct and nonobjective claims.
18.He (lead) by this undertaking much farer.
19.With Service hardening, all background services (run) in complete isolation from each other, and with the low­
est possible privileges.
20.Windows Bit Locker Drive Encryption legitimate services virtually impossible (to affect) by one bad service
- which makes your PC more secure than ever.
21.In large enterprises, even more security (can gain) by employing Vista’s new Bit Locker Drive Encryption.
22.The entire system drive, protecting data from physical theft (can encrypt) by Network administrators.
23.It’s also a great way to make sure that thieves can’t access your personal data if your notebook PC (ever steal).
24.Every task (not do) by Windows itself; it directs others to do what needs to be done, and then lets them do their
thing.
25. Just as a movie’s actors, camera operators, and lighting technicians need a director to tell them precisely wha
to do, your computers’ microprocessor, hard disk drive, memory controller, and video card need Windows to
tell them what (be process, store, and display) by them.
26.Without Windows there to direct the action, nothing (do).
27.What you see onscreen when you turn on your computer (also control) by Windows.
28.A11 Windows programs look and act similarly because they (supply) with common interface and operational
elements by Windows.
29.Each program doesn’t have to invent a unique way to save its files, for example: a common file saving opera­
tion that all programs use (provide) by Windows.
30.These common elements make it easy for users to leam new Windows applications, as basic operations (to be)
the same, no matter which program you use.

IV Answer Key (B).

1. be found; 2. is found; 3. can be seen; 4. have always been accompanied; 5. has always been; 6. has been
trimmed; ᄀ. is been taken; 8. are provided; 9. are met; 10. needs to be understood; 11. is taken; 12. are released; 13.be
included; 14. was included; 15. was not taken; 16. were not well educated; 17. were confiised; 18. was led; 19. are
run; 20. to be affected; 21. can be gained; 22. can be encrypted; 23. is ever stolen; 24. is not done; 25. is to be pro­
cessed, stored, and displayed; 26. will be done; 27. is also controlled; 28. are supplied; 29. are provided; 30. are to be.

К Turn the sentences into (A) Reported Speech. /(B ) Reported Questions.
1. He (stated that) beginning-to-intermediate system administrators (find this) book a very helpful reference to
learning how Windows Server 2008 (work) and the different ways to administer machines running (that) op­
erating system.
2. She added (this) book (have) step-by-step procedures, discussions of complex concepts such as Active Direc­
tory replication, DFS namespaces and replication, network access protection, the Server Core edition, Win­
dows Power Shell, and server clustering.
3. He explained that although (I’ve eliminated) material that (isn’t) relevant to day-to-day administration, you
(will still find) the chapters full of useful information.
4. They announced that advanced system administrators (will also find this) book useful for discovering new
concepts and components outside of their realm of expertise.
5. He summarized that (I’ve found) that senior system administrators often (focus) on one or two specific areas
of a product and (are) less familiar with other areas of the OS.
6. She confirmed that (this book provides) a stepping-stone for further exploration and study of secondary parts
of the operating system.
7. She stated that throughout the book (I’ve tried) to highlight the use of the command line in addition to (or in
some cases, as opposed to) graphical ways to accomplish tasks.
8. He informed that command lines, in (my opinion, are fabulous) for quickly and efficiently getting things done,
and they provide a great basis for launching into scripting repetitive tasks.
9. He agreed that Microsoft (has done) an excellent job of integrating command-line functions into (this) revision
of Windows, and (I’ve attempted) to do the effort justice within the text.
10. She underlined that none of (this should) make (you shy away) from (this) book: (you’ll still find) everything
(you’re accustomed) to within this volume.
11. They learned that data encryption (has been used) for individual precious documents in the past.
12.We supposed that with the advent of more powerfol desktop processors in the last decade, the data throughput
of ciphers (surpassed) that of hard disks.
13. She insisted that encryption (is no) longer a bottle neck， and regular users (become) more interested in the topic
of hard disk encryption.
14.He reminded that modem operating systems that (utilize) virtual memory swapping and temporary files (make)
tracking and confining sensitive data hard.
15.They recollected that to relieve the user of controlling every program’s swapping behaviour precisely, the en­
cryption of the hard disk as a whole (is) a comfortable option.
16. She stated that (this paper is) not about the encryption of a single file, but about the encryption of the whole
hard disk in a transparent way.
17.They confirmed that the file system (rests) on a virtual block device, which (is encrypted) in a way transparent
to the file system and its users.
18. They suggested before (we) discuss several cipher designs, (we) give a primer of the ingredients used in cryptography.
19.He remembered that (this) includes Galois Field theory and algorithms for its use in silicon.
20.The lecturer told that users familiar with (these) techniques (are invited) to skip (this) material.
21. She knows that Windows’ user interface (is) the part of Windows that the user, (sees) and with which he (in­
teracts).
22.He explained that when (you click) an onscreen button or press a key on the keyboard, Windows (translates
that) action and (sends) the appropriate instructions to the computer’s memory and microprocessor.
23. We added that Windows Vista (presents) a graphical user interface (GUI), as it (uses) icons, buttons, and other
graphical elements-instead of plaintext-to represent important operations.
24.She knows that Windows not only (manages) direct user input, it also (manages) the operation of all running
software programs-otherwise known as applications.
25.They remember that application management (involves) applying common interface elements to each applica­
tion, as well as routing application instructions to your computer’s memory, processor, and hardware.
26.He insisted that common operations (are accomplished) via the use of shared application programming inter­
faces that (are accessed) by all applications.
27.We know that Windows (is) a multitasking operating system, which (means) that multiple operations (take
place) simultaneously; this (is) how more than one program (can run) at once.
28.He objected to the idea that each application or process (needs) to temporarily store some degree of informa­
tion in system memory, Windows (has) to manage the use of that memory.
29. She explained that each process (is assigned) a specific memory location.
30.Не oriented that Windows (ensures) that each process (has) enough memory to operate and that the memory
space devoted to one process (doesn’t run) into the memory space used by another process.

VL Answer Key (Reported Speech) (A).

1. found the, worked, the; 2. the, had; 3. had eliminated, wasn’t, would still find; 4. would also find the; 5. he
had found, focused, were; 6. the book provided; ᄀ. she had tried; 8. his opinion, were; 9. had done, the, he had at­
tempted; 10. them should, us shy away, the， we would still find, we were accustomed; 11. had been used; 12. had
surpassed; 13. was, became; 14. utilized, made; 15. was; 16. the paper was; 17. rested, was encrypted; 18. they,
they; 19. it; 20. the, were invited, the material; 21. is, sees, interacts; 22. we, clicked, translated the，sent; 23. pre­
sented, used; 24. manages; 25. involves; 26. were accomplished, were accessed; 27. is, take place, is, can run;
28. needed, had; 29. was assigned; 30. ensured, had, didn’t run.

VII. Answer Key (Reported Questions) (B).

1. asked, found the, worked, the; 2. wanted to know, the, had; 3. inquired, had eliminated, wasn’t^ would still
find; 4. wondered, would also find the; 5. wanted to know, he had found，focused, were; 6. inquire, the book
provided; 7. asked, she had tried; 8. wondered, his opinion, were; 9. inquired, had done, the, he had attempted;
10. wanted to know, them should, us shy away, the, we would still find, we were accustomed; 11. asked, had
been used; 12. wondered, had surpassed; 13. asked, was, became; 14. wanted to know, utilized, made; 15. was;
16. inquired, the paper was; 17. wanted to know, rested, was encrypted; 18. asked, they, they; 19. it; 20. won­
dered, the, were invited, the material; 21. inquires, is, sees, interacts; 22. asked, we, clicked, translated the, sent;
23. wondered, presented, used; 24. asked，manages; 25. inquired, involves; 26. wondered, were accomplished,
were accessed; 27. ask, is, take place, is, can run; 28. inquired, needed, had; 29. wanted to know, was assigned;
30. wondered, ensured, had, didn’t run.

VIII. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct Gerund form (A).
1. In (structure) the contents of this book he has tried to make a logical progression through the product, from a
high-level overview through complete discussions and treatments of all its major components.
2. This chapter is designed for (give) the administrator a complete and systematic overview of the product.
3. (Use) Windows Deployment Services he included information on mass deployments, a vast improvement over
previous image installation options (offer) in the box.
4. The chapter begins with an overview of (share) and a guide to (create) shares, (publish) them to Active Direc­
tory, (map) drives, (use) the My Network Places applet, and (access) shares from the Start Run command and
from within Internet Explorer.
5. (Include) permission levels, “special” permissions, inheritance, and ownership he dived into a detailed discus­
sion of the Windows permission structure.
6. He wanted to include a separate treatment of how the domain name system or DNS works, (include) a discus­
sion of the different types of resource records and zone files supported, integration with Active Directory, the
split DNS architecture, and backup and recovery of DNS data.
20
7. Most installations of Windows Server 2008 will include installation of the Active Directory technology be­
cause so many products (require) the server OS are tightly integrated with Active Directory.
8. Chapter 5 provides a complete guide to the technical portion of Active Directory, (include) its logical and
physical structure, hierarchical components (domains, trees, forests, and organizational units), scalability and
replication.
9. (Plan) strategies, installed Active Directory onto Windows Server then he moved into the day-to-day admin­
istrative tools.
10.He began with (survey) of GP and Active Directory interaction, objects, and inheritance.
11. There is little hope for (find) a way to represent an infinitely large mathematical structure in a finite data structure.
12.Most users do not want to invest extra time or money in (buy) such products.
13.(Detect) that a sector is about to become unreadable by an excessive read error rate, the firmware secures the
content to a reserved disk area
14.(Iterative hash), the lack of entropy can be overcome, and the feasibility of dictionary attacks due to entropy
weak passwords can be partially offset
15.The user of the mode can decide, what portion of a message is available in plaintext, without (lose) the authen­
tication property.
16.7 AEAD modes are used for (rout) protocols, where you want the routing information to be available to all
intermediate routers.
17.A probability is significant in this context, when it is above the success rate that can be achieved by random
(guess).
18.When such an algorithm is found, the algorithm is then said (implement) a distinguishing attack
19. So if you find yourself (want) more features than you initially have, there’s more Vista available
20. This new technology prevents critical Windows services from (misuse) in the file system, in the Windows
registry, or on your network.
21.While (use) a software program, the program doesn’t interface directly with your computer hardware
22.WINDOWS Vista is responsible for (manage) all the operations on your computer system-your software, your
hardware, and all the file management tasks you initiate.
23.A mouse button (click) and Vista manages the operation.
24.The chapter is dedicated to (introduce) GP and its structure and operation.
25.Then he provided a complete procedural guide to (lock) down both a Windows network server and a standard
Windows client system.
26.lt provides a detailed guide to (install) the product in a variety of environments.
27.You are well versed in (lock) down your systems to protect both your own computers and the Internet com­
munity as a whole.
28.We provided a practical guide to (implement) GP through user and computer policies and administrative tem­
plates.
29. (Install) software through Group Policy they discussed IntelliMirror, a cool technology for application distri­
bution.
30.They cover security policy, (include) ways to manage it (use) predefined templates and customized policy
plans, and an overview of the Security Configuration.

IX. Answer Key (B).

1. structuring; 2. giving; 3. Having used, having been offered; 4. sharing, creating, publishing, mapping, us­
ing, accessing; 5. Having included; 6. including; 7. having required; 8. including; 9. having planned; 10. survey­
ing; 11. finding; 12. buying; 13. Having detected; 14. being iterative hashed; 15. losing; 16. routing; 17. guessing;
18. having implemented; 19. wanting; 20. being misused; 21. using; 22. managing; 23. having been clicked; 24. in­
troducing; 25. locking; 26. installing; 27. locking; 28. implementing; 29. Having installed; 30. including, using.

X. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct type o f Conditionals (A).
1. If the product (cover) on a very general basis, from Microsoft's philosophy behind the product itself then the
different versions of the product (be) available.
2. They (discuss) the file services built into Windows Server 2008 next time if you (raise) the question tomorrow.
3. If the overviews (cover) in this chapter they (be) the Distributed File System but they don’t.
4. If they (know) how to set it up two years ago, they (manage) it perfectly now.
5. If security considerations and a discussion of migration (include) in the programme the conference (end) suc­
cessfully.
6. If Discusses Group Policy (be) one of the most underappreciated management technologies in any server prod­
uct it (be) necessary to be very attentive to it.
7. All your programs (fight) for control of your computer’s scarce resources and each program (work) differently
from the others if there (be) no well-designed operating systems
8. If Windows (provide) all necessary resources for the program to run, then it (handle) all communication from
the software to the hardware.
9. Vista (manage) the operation yesterday if you (open) a new spreadsheet earlier.
10.You (also find) a guide to settings permissions next time if you (visit) the next meeting.
ll .I f a key hierarchy (require) additional storage on disk, it (be) necessary to follow the demand.
12.1f the user (decide) to delete a password two weeks ago, the respective key in the key storage (destroy) securely.
13.Operators always (tie) to a certain data structure even if it (appear) that some operators exist independently
from a data structure.
14.The deletion of the original content (be) infeasible three months ago if the original sector (be) inaccessible
through the regular disk interface two months ago.
15. We (reduce) the statistical chance if we (introduce) a method to artificially inflate information.
16.Next time we (call) this technique anti-forensic information splitting if the information (end up) in a backup
disk section.
17.1f special key tokens (use) by us to carry additional key material a month ago， most encryption solutions (have
to rely) solely on the password as key information now.
18.1f user passwords (be) short, they (be) too short to contain enough entropy to match the length of the keys
derived from them.
19.1f the firmware of a modem hard disk (be) programmed to preserve data then we (have a look) at Linux Uni­
fied Key Setup.
20.1f these benefits (come) for a small computational price last year, this (be) the reason for these designs to be
common then.
21 .If Vista (know) that only designated users can perform specific operations, it (make) sure that no unauthorized
use occurs.
22.1f Windows (manage) access to each file in some cases it (allow) you to edit the file’s metadata or contents.
23.The process automatically (load) your most-used applications into memory some weeks ago if Windows first
(launch) by you much earlier.
24.1fyou (use) Windows Explorer last month you (copy, move, rename, and delete) all your files and folders then.
25.If all operations from power on to power off and everything in-between, (manage) by Windows Vista operating
system Windows Vista (help) you manage your data.
26.1f Windows (load) into system memory by them some minutes ago, it (load) all necessary configuration set­
tings and device drivers at the same time.
27.1f Windows (load) a device driver it (enable) your printer to print, as well as launch a process that speeds up
the launching of the Adobe Reader program.
28.1f Windows (be) there at the beginning, and it’s there at the end, in computer terms, this means that Windows
(involve) with both the power on and power off processes.
29.lt (help) manage your computer when you turned it on yesterday, if it (make) sure that everything was properly
closed and safely put away when you turned your computer off earlier.
30.With Sleep mode in Windows Vista, you (not have to) turn off your computer if you (do) working for the day.

XL Answer Key (B).

1. covers, are; 2. will discuss, raise; 3. were covered, would be; 4. had known, would manage; 5. were included,
could end; 6. is, is; ᄀ. would be fighting, would work, were; 8. provides, handles; 9. would have managed, had
opened; 10. will also find, visit; 11. requires, is; 12. had decided, would have to be destroyed; 13. are always tied,
appears; 14. would have been, had been; 15. would reduce, introduced; 16. would call, ended up; 17. could have
been, had to be relied; 18. are, are; 19. is, will have a look; 20. had come, would have been; 21. knows, makes;
22.manages, will allow; 23. would have loaded, had been launched; 24. had used, would have copied, moved,
renamed, and deleted; 25. are managed, helps; 26. had been loaded, would have loaded; 27. loads, enables; 28. is,
is involved; 29. would have helped, had made; 30. don’t have to, have done.
22 '
 Part 3
(A) Tests
Instructions.

True If the statement agrees with the information

False If the statement contradicts the information
Not Given If there is no information on this
Yes If the statement agrees with the writer’s claims
No If the statement contradicts the writer’s claims
Not Given If it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
Test 1

№ Задание Choose the correct answer / Варианты ответа

Assignment Fill in the gaps Answer
1 Shares in sat-navigation device manufacturers ... yesterday after * has slumped
Google introduced tum-by-tum driving directions technology into * slumped
new versions o f its smart phone software. * have been slumping
2 Google’s new Google Maps Navigation product will provide real­ * are based
Choose the correct
time, tum-by-tum directions directly within smart phones that ...on * is based
form of the verb
the new version o f its Android software. * has based
3 While TomTom makes a software navigation app for the iPhone that * sell
... for $99.99 in the US, Google will offer the product for free. * have sold
* sells
4 Garniin and TomTom saw stock prices fall ... as the internet * sharp
search group added the sat-navigation market to the growing list of * sharpen
industries it is seeking to disrupt. * sharply
5 Choose the correct Shares in TomTom, based in The Netherlands, fell by more than 20 * heavily
answer per cent while Garmin, based in the US, experienced a dip in its * heavy
shares of more than 17 per cent in ... trading. * heaviest
6 Obviously, we like the price of free and consumers like that ...，
，Eric
， * as good
Schmidt, the chief executive, said (etc...) * as well
* as much

7 The names of some of these men can be seen in the photo of the wall * Yes
above. *N o
Can the name o f any of these men be seen on the wall above? * Not given

8 The navigation product, which features speech recognition, * Yes

represents a threat to companies like Garmin and TomTom, which *N o
sell specialised hardware navigation devices. * Not given
Does the product service represent a threat to companies like Garmin
Choose the correct and TomTom, which sell specialised hardware navigation devices?

9 answer TomTom, announcing its quarterly results yesterday, said that the * Yes
average selling price of its devices would continue to fall in the * No
fourth quarter. * Not given
D id TomTom say that the average selling price o f its devices would
continue to plunge in the fourth quarter?

10 Google said that the product would initially be limited to driving * Yes
directions in the US. *N o
Did Google say that the product would initially be spread out widely? * Not given

23
 Test 2

Instruction:
True If the statement agrees with the information
False If the statement contradicts the information
Not Given If there is no information on this
Yes If the statement agrees with the writer’s claims
No If the statement contradicts the writer’s claims
Not Given If it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

Test 2
№ Задание Choose the correct answer / Варианты ответа
Fill in the gaps Answer
1 At first glance, what our eyes can see on the screen forms ... *a
optical perception just like any other. * an
* (X) (no article)
2 . •. mass o f these so-called - 1 1 “pixels’，forms a two-dimensional *(X)
Fill in the gaps matrix - that assigns each individual point of the image a certain *A
with 4ta, Ш1, Ше or mixture o f the three base colors: red, green, and blue. * the
3 nothing (X) It deceives ... eye, which is meant to be unable to differentiate *(x) •
between individual pixels, with the illusion or image o f an image, *a
while in truth the mass of pixels, because of its thorough address - * the
ability, proves to be structured more like a text composed entirely
o f individual letters.
4 Now, for the first time in the history o f... media, it is possible to * optic
address a single pixel in the 849th row and 720th column directly * optical
without having to run through everything before and after it. * optically
5 Simplified accordingly, a computer image is a two-dimensional * additive
... mixture o f three base colors shown in the frame, or parergon * additively
(additional work)，o f the monitor housing. * addict
Fill in the gaps with
6 the correct Sometimes the computer image as such is less .. •，
as in the graphic * apparently
interface o f the newfangled operating systems, sometimes rather * parent
adjective / more, as in “images” in the literal sense o f the word. * apparent
noun/
7 adverb The computer image derives ... this addressability from early- * precise
warning systems. * precisely
* precious
8 The ... noise, or, technically speaking, “quantization hiss” * crackling
looming in digitally recorded music occurs in computer images * crackle
as a stepped effect or interference, as an illusory discontinuity or * cracked
continuity.
9 My semi-technical introduction to computer graphics will, * practical
however, provide only a half-answer, one that,..., cannot address * particular
Complete the the necessary comparison between paintings and computer images * in particular
sentences or between subtractive and additive color mixing.
10 The discrete, or digital, nature o f ... the geometric coordinates * as... and
... their chromatic values makes possible the magical artifice that * both...as
separates computer graphics from film and television. * both... and
11 * Is computer images the output of computer graphics? * Is computer images
the output o f computer
* Are computer images the output of computer graphics? graphics?

* Do computers images the output of computer graphics? * Are computer images

the output o f computer
graphics?
Choose the correct
variant of the * Do computer images
questions the output o f computer
graphics?
12 * What is computer images? * What is computer
* What has computer images? images?
* What are computer images? * Wbat has computer
images?
* What are computer
images?

24
13 Computer graphics ... software programs that, when run on the * has been
appropriate hardware, provide something to see and not just to * are
read. * was been
14 At any rate, the generation o f 2000 likely subscribes to the * has been
fallacy-backed by billions of doliars-that computers and computer * are
graphics ... one and the same. * are been
15 In the former, a given element.. only by a cross of neighbors. * is considered to be
surrounded
* are considered being
surrounded
* were considered
being surrounding
16 Radar screens, though, ...t o address the dots, which represent * must to be able
attacking enemy planes, in all dimensions and to shoot them down * must able
with the click of a mouse. * must be able
17 For this reason-and for this reason only-it ...n o problem for a * were
Put the verbs into
computer monitor to switch between text and graphics modes. * is
the correct tense * do
18 The twofold digitality and color value, however, creates certain * should mentioned
problem areas, o f which at least three * should mentioning
* should be
mentioned.
19 Third, the digitality o f computer graphics creates a problem * have ...tried
unknown to computer music. In an essayon time axismanipulation, * have trying
I ... previously ...t o show the leeway produced by the fact that * has tried
the digital sampling o f any given musical sequence falls into three
elements.
20 These three can be integrated or differentiated, exchanged or ^ was .. • explored
scrambled until the limits of modern academic and popular music * is ... explored
•.. truly ... . * are … explored.
21 In the heroic beginnings o f computer science, great mathematicians* has begin
...by formulating truisms, whence arose W. Ross Ashbyfs and * had to begin
John von Neumann's concepts of neighboring elements. * had begin
22 The computer image is thus prone to falsification to a degree * yes
that already gives television producers and ethics watch-dogs the * no
shivers; indeed, it is forgery incarnate. * not given
Is the computer image likely to give correct version to a degree
that already gives television producers and ethics watch- dogs the
shivers; indeed, it is forgery incarnate?
23 The three color canons of traditional television or computer * yes
monitors are simply not sufficient for producing all physically * no
possible colors. * not given
Are the pixels of traditional television or computer monitors
simply not sufficient for producing all physically possible colors?
24 Choose the correct Rather, experiments (which the industry seems to have considered * yes
answer too costly) have shown that it would require nine color canons to * no
even begin to approach the visible spectrum. * not given
Have experiments (which the industry seems to have considered
too costly) shown that it would demand nine color canons to even
begin to approach the visible spectrum?
25 As it stands, the so-called “RGB cube”, the three-dimensional * yes
matrix of discrete values of red, green, and blue, is a typical digital * no
compromise between engineers and management experts. * not given
Is the so-called “RGB cube， ’, the three-dimensional matrix
o f continuous values o f red, green，and blue, a typical digital
compromise between engineers and management experts?

25
 Test 3

№ Choose the correct answer / Fill in the gaps Варианты ответа

Answer
1 The perfect optics could be programmed just... within a finite time. * bare
* barely
* bared
2 Two algorithms present themselves as options, but these •.. contradict each other and, * practically
consequently, govern mutually exclusive aesthetics. * practical
* practice
3 What so-called ... can accomplish in nanoseconds with its parallel calculation drives its * naturally
alleged digital equivalent to overload. * nature
* natural
4 The step from mechanics to fields, from derivations to integrals wrote a ... blank check * mathematical
that was only cashed in as the century progressed/ * mathematics
* mathematically
5 That eats up time, of which computer graphics do not have an ... supply. * ordinary
* unlimited
* organized
6 The term “computer graphics” is meant... literally. * entirety
* entire
* entirely
7 Computer graphics would deserve the name only if they could render to vision what * distribute
appears unseen-the optical partial values of quantum-physically ... particle dynamics. * distributes
* distributed
8 A computer image is a two-dimensional ... mixture of three base colors shown in the * add
frame of the monitor housing. * added
* additive
9 The computer image derives ... this addressability from early-warning systems. * precise
* precisely
* many precisely
10 The optical m edia,... Western culture-not coincidentally-simultaneously with Gutenberg’s * having been changed
printing press, always approached optics as optics. * having changed
* being changed
11 The... variant o f essay computer graphics creates a problem unknown to computer music. * digitalized
* digital
* digitally
12 Universal discrete machines, which is to say, computers, can do anything so long as ... is *it
programmable. * they
* there
13 Computer graphics are differentiated from the cheap real-time effects of the visual * to
entertainment media ... a capacity to waste time that would rival that o f good old painters * from
if its users werejust more patient. * by
14 Computer architecture is looking itself ...its blind, binary eye. * at
* in
* on
15 All the difficulties computers encounter in the parallel processing of commands or in the * to
computation of networks also apply ... computer graphics. *in
* from
16 For it seems to be precisely this exorbitant capacity that elevates the medium of the * under
computer... all optical media in Western history. * on
* above
17 The first light ray whose refraction and reflections ... a virtual image was constructed in * was generated
the year o f our Lord 1637 by a certain Rene Descartes. * generated
* had generated
18 Only computers and, more precisely, computer languages that ...for recursive functions * allow
have the processing power to even trace the countless alternative cases or fates of a single * allows
light ray in a virtual space full o f virtual surfaces. * allowing
19 Whenever you encounter a computer image whose •.. highlights are a close second to * shining
heavenly Jerusalem's and whose stark shadows are a close second to Hell's, you are * shines
dealing with elementary ray tracing. * was shining
20 And thus it came to be that since 1986，the so-called computer graphics community ...to * rushing
the other side, albeit without great fanfare. * has rushed
* had been rushed

26
21 Much for the mathematically elegant theory behind radio paging, which again... originate * did not
from computer graphics any more than does the theory behind ray tracing. * was not
* does not
22 But digital computers ... just that-digital computers. * have been
* is
* are
23 We do have to ... computer graphics, though, for having been able to forge compromise * crediting
from mutual exclusivity. * credit
* credited
24 Computer graphics are software programs that, when run on the appropriate hardware,... * provides
something to see and not just to read. * provide
* providing
25 In contrast to computer medicine, which out o f necessity must render these bodies as * yes
three-dimensional, computer graphics automatically reduces the dimensions o f its input * no
to the two dimensions o f its output. * not given

Does computer graphics automatically soar the dimensions o f its input to the two
dimensions of its output?

27
 Test 4
№ Choose the correct answer / F ill in the gaps Answer
1 As the scale and complexity o f problems considered has developed ... computational *a
demands o f the work have increased. *(x )
* the
2 In recent years, the development o f theoretical and ... models for the types o f processes * numerical
occurring in these problems has had significant attention. * numerically
* numerals
3 This has led to the implementation o f ... performance computing techniques. * highly
* high
* highest
4 The objective of this paper is to describe the type o f... challenges. * computational
* computation
* computationally
5 Obviously the size, type and resolution o f domain ... for a particular analysis has a direct * required
bearing on the computation demands that an analysis w ill have. * require
* requiring
6 Analysis o f... problems can lead to large complex 3D domains. * really
* realize
* real
7 For many real problems such assumptions are not * defending
* defend
* defendable
8 The problems encountered in this area are often complex in respect to both the processes * my
occurring and .. • geometry and scale. * her
* their
9 It is often of value to undertaken numerical analyses of... problems. * this
* that
* these
10 The nature ...th e problems can be extremely varied. * on
* at
* of
11 The resolution o f the analysis is also ... importance. * in
*o f
* at
12 The development o f this discipline ... by a number o f major environmental concerns. * is driven
* were driven
* am driven
13 A typical numerical formulation .. .and applied to an example simulation. * are presented
* were presented
* is presented
14 Analysis of the long term behaviour o f the repositories * are required
* were required
* is required
15 These demands ...to those affected by the computation size o f the problem. * related
* relate
* relating
16 It is necessary to ensure that the domain ... has a suitable level o f resolution. * used
* use
* using
17 The phenomena under consideration ... adequately captured. * is
* am
* are
18 The geometry o f the proposed repositories generally ... a number o f tunnels. * include
* includes
* including

28
19 The analysis requires the inclusion o f the influence o f the ... host rock. * surrounding
* surround
* has surrounded
20 It is therefore necessary for the domain ... some hundreds o f meters in each direction. * extend
* to extend
* extends
21 Each of these areas is discussed in more detail in the following sections. * no
Is each of these areas discussed thoroughly in the following sections? * not given
* yes
22 For clarity a brief description o f the problem is presented below. * not given
Is a brief description o f the problem presented below for mixture? * no
* yes
23 There are a number o f proposed configurations for such repositories. * not given
Are there plenty o f proposed configurations for such repositories? * yes
* no
24 The nature of this geometry leads to a problem that requires a full 3D analysis. * yes
Does the nature o f this geometry lead to a problem that presents a full analysis? * not given
* no
25 The resolution required is an important factor. * no
Is the resolution required a significant factor? * yes
* not given

29
 Test 5
№ Choose the correct answer / F ill in the gaps Answer
1 Such sub-structuring methodologies for multi-processes architectures stem from the ... * widely
developed paradigm termed divide and conquer. * wide
* widest
2 Sub-structuring has been ... implemented in the finite element method by many authors in * successful
a variety of fields. * success
* successfully
3 Such approaches have been found to impact, in a positive way, on both computer storage * computation
requirement a n d ... time. * computational
* computationally
4 This leads to a series o f governing ... equations. * differential
* different
* differentially
5 In this section, the analysis o f a geoenvironmentai problem is described with a focus on ... *a
computational demands and data interrogation requirements. * the
* an
6 Both parallel computing and iterative solvers have been employed to enable ... analysis of *a
this problem. * the
* an
7 The actual physical geometry ... the problem can be viewed interactively. *o f
* at
* on
8 .. • perform this type o f visualisation a stereoscopic capable projector or monitor is required ♦In
in addition to a computation server. ♦To
* For
9 The problem is ... the issue o f deep geological repositories. * related with
* related on
* related to
10 This is a full-scale experiment currently being performed by SKB, at ... Hard Rock * them
Laboratory in Aspo, Sweden. * their
* they
11 The coupled highly non-linear nature ...th e problem requires a relatively fine mesh in the * by
regions close to the canisters. ♦ of
* at
12 The expected timescale ...th e experiment is approximately 20 years. * in
* by
* of
13 This ... via the implementation o f sub-structuring techniques. * can achieved
* can be achieved
* can be achieve
14 These data sets often ... both large spatial and temporal domains and include numerous * cover
variables. * covering
* covers
15 A particular feature o f the data sets ... their multiple dimensionality, with transient 3D data * are
being very common. * were
* is
16 In addition to the use of sophisticated contour plotting and animation techniques * has recently applied
the use of stereoscopic projection ...to geoenvironmentai problems. * has recently been applied
* have recently been applied
17 Such systems are very valuable in geoenvironmentai applications due to the need to * propose
communicate effectively both the problem and any ... solution. * proposes
* proposed
18 For many geoenvironmentai problems a description o f the coupled flow and deformation * are required.
behaviour o f soils . ... * were required.
* is required.

30
19 A set o f coupled governing differential equations are presented below ... heat and moisture * to described
flow coupled with the stress-strain response of soil. * to describe
* to describing
20 The complex geometry necessitates the use o f a 3D domain to correctly ... the processes * simulate
occurring. * simulated
* simulates
21 The use of parallel computing techniques and iterative solvers •.. therefore a requirement of * was
obtaining a solution o f the problem. * were
* are
22 This paper ... some o f the computational and visualisation challenges encountered in the * have discussed
field o f geoenvironmental engineering. * had discussed
* has discussed
23 The use of 3D visualisation techniques can significantly aid the interrogation and * no
communication o f such data. * not given
Can the use o f 3D visualisation techniques thoroughly aid the interrogation and * yes
communication o f such data?
24 Such data visualisation allows the processes occurring within the system under consideration * yes
to be directly identified. * no
Does such data visualisation prohibit the processes occurring within the system under * not given
consideration to be directly identified?
25 Such communication can occur at a number o f levels. * no
Can such communication occur at a few levels? * yes
* not given

31
 Test 6
№ Choose the correct answer / F ill in the gaps Answer
1 ... visualisation techniques can also be suggested. * More alternative
* Alternative
* Much alternative
2 For fuzzy data, it can also be used to categorise the membership of a ... data point. * particularly
* much particularly
* particular
3 In this section, we summarise some o f the ... important features and show examples o f * most
their mappings to visualization tasks. * more
* many
4 The ... saturated the hue, the more certain or crisp the value contained in that region is. * more
* much
* many
5 In the example we see that the membership o f... fuzzy terms can be illustrated by different * much different
hues. * different
* differently
6 Such adaptation would allow a user to gradually customize the visualisation system to his * not given
or her own application and subjective preferences. * no
W ould such adaptation prohibit a user to gradually customize the visualisation system to * yes
his or her own application and subjective preferences?
7 In previous work we have analysed in detail the mapping o f various visual features to * not given
visualization o f fuzzy logic information. * no
Have they analysed in detail the mapping o f various visual features to visualization o f * yes
fuzzy logic information in preceding work?
8 Luminance can also be used to directly indicate the Degree o f Fulfillment (DOF) value for * not given
a single membership function. * no
Can luminance also be used to directly indicate the Degree o f Fulfillment (DOF) value for * yes
a lot o f membership functions?
9 Graphs may also be used to represent the fuzzy membership functions or alpha cuts o f a * not given
fiizzy set. * no
May graphs also be used to develop the fuzzy membership functions or alpha cuts o f a * yes
fuzzy set?
10 Transparency can be used to show underlying structure, but in this context can be used to * possible
show the fuzziness o f the data by mapping the ... o f the fuzzy variable to the transparency. * possibility
* many possible
11 This would also remove the tedium o f having to go through a fixed pattern o f steps which * to
might not be relevant... one’s specific task, as often offered by a hard-wired visualization * on
system. * between
12 It can be used in a number ... ways to represent fuzzy scalar data via variation o f the * of
saturation. * to
* about
13 The cardinality ... the luminance feature can be varied to show the precision o f the data in * to
a similar manner to the cardinality o f the hue space. * of
* between
14 In the example in Fig. 4，the intensity represents the DOF value ... a fuzzy function o f the * for
term Hot. * between
* up
15 Texture may be applied ... objects to indicate the level o f precision, ambiguity or fuzziness * out
in the spatial location upon an object or upon a spatial location. * to
* up
16 Theregion where the colours overlap indicates intuitively the location where... membership * that
functions share areas o f the domain. * this
* these
17 An example of this is the variation of the size of error bars surrounding a datum point, to * its
indicate ... imprecision. * her
* their

32
18 Both glyphs and icons can create a problem and a possibility, as ... allow the representation * it
of data using an object or shape, etc. * he
* they
19 It also automatically ... choice of operations on fuzzy rules and degree o f fulfillment of * offers
outcomes. * offer
* offering
20 The number o f hue groups used in the mapping of values (cardinality) ...the level of * can indicate
precision in the values. * can indicates
* can indicated
21 Hue is heavily ...to highlight data that is different, or to represent gradients in the data. * uses
* used
^ using
22 The less precise solution ...fewer variations in hue values, while a more precise solution * has
has a smoother shaded appearance. * have
* had
23 Luminance ... to signify categories and highlight differences within scalar data. * may use
* may be used
* may used
24 The regions with the highest intensity ... where the term Hot has its highest DOF value. * has indicated
* indicate
* indicates
25 The size of objects ... to indicate the scalar component o f vector information. * can be used
* can used
* can be using

33
 Test 7
№ Choose the correct answer / Fill in the gaps Answer
1 A few current approaches have some limitations due to either their ad hoc nature, or their * specified
ability to deal with only a ... aspect o f the problem o f visualisation o f fuzzy systems. * specifically
* specific
2 Complex fu2zy systems exist in ... applications. * many
* much
* little
3 W hile .. • models are based on algebraic operations (equations, integrals), logic models * mathematically
rely on logic-type connectives (and, or, if-then\ often with linguistic parameters, which * mathematical
give rise to rule-based and knowledge-based systems. * mathematics
4 Fuzzy logic models can combine both these types o f modeling via the fuzzification of * logic
algebraic and ... operations. * logically
* logical
5 I t ... beneficial, therefore, to be able to visualise these effects. * would be
* would has been
* would have been
6 The usefulness of a visualisation system ... if it is driven primarily by those tasks that * would has been
need to be performed, and not by data sets, because such a system would link more enhanced
tightly with the analytical process which underpins human understanding and decision * would have been
making. enhanced
4 would be enhanced
7 Another advantage is that linguistic rules, when used in ftizzy systems, would not only * understands
make tools more intuitive, but also provide better ... and appreciation o f the outcomes. * understood
* understanding
8 Effective visualisation is required to gain insights into the nature and working o f some * yes
systems, especially in the implication of imprecision, its propagation and impacts on the * no
quality and reliability o f the outcomes. * not given
Effective visualisation is required to obtain insights into the nature and working of some
systems.
9 A software framework using a multi-agent approach is then presented with the aim to * yes
facilitate tiie organisation and flow o f complex tasks, their inter-relationships and their * no
interactions with users. * not given
Is a software framework using a multi-agent approach then presented with the aim to
eliminate the organisation and flow of complex tasks, their inter-relationships and their
interactions with users?
10 Many real world problems can be represented as complex fuzzy systems which may 本 yes
involve a large amount o f fuzzy data, fuzzy variables and fuzzy relationships. * no
Can many real world problems be represented as complex fuzzy systems which may * not given
argue about a large amount o f fiizzy data, fuzzy variables and fuzzy relationships.
11 However, the complexity arisen from information uncertainty makes it more difficult * yes
for a human to understand the way these systems work，especially how to interpret the * no
implication of the imprecision o f each variable on its interaction with other variables, and * not given
how the propagation o f such imprecision affects the level o f confidence in the outcomes
at every stage.
Does the complexity arisen from information uncertainty make it significant for a human
to understand the way these systems work?
12 The needs of users of a fuzzy system are very different from those who design such a * yes
system, or from those who design the visualisation system. * not given
Are the needs o f users of a fuzzy system very difficult? * no
13 For an inexperienced user, this might mean many trial-and-error attempts to determine * yes
how best to obtain insight into specific tasks. * no
M ight this mean for an inexperienced user many trial-and-error attempts to define how * not given
best to gain insight into specific tasks?
14 This paper presents a holistic approach ... the design of a visualisation system for fuzzy * towards
systems. * about
* out

34
15 We firstly analyse the requirements for such a visualisation system ... articulating * by
fundamental ontologies. * behind
* into
16 Fuzzy logic has been used extensively to model these systems in many application areas, * at
ranging from engineering, science and medicine ••. environmental planning and social * around
sciences. * to
17 In addition, visualisation methods are often focused ... data sets and only loosely coupled * to
with the analytical process. * on
* under
18 For some applications, fuzzy systems often perform better than traditional systems * their
because o f ... capability to deal with non-linearity and uncertainty. * its
* his
19 It is left to users to decide how they deploy ... visualisation tools provided. * that
* this
* those
20 Fundamental ontologies ...th e structure and operations of fuzzy systems. * underpin
* has underpin
* und^pins
21 We discuss visualization techniques for fuzzy data and fuzzy rules, and introduce methods * exist
to extend and improve some . •.techniques. * existing
* exists
22 There are three common classes of fuzzy logic models: inform ation processing models * models
which describe probabilistic relationships between sets o f inputs and outputs; control * have modeled
models which control the operations o f systems governed by many fuzzy parameters; and * model
decision models which ... human behaviour by incorporating subjective knowledge and
needs, using decision variables.
23 This understanding . •. not only by the users of these systems, but also by their designers * is required
who seek for ways to optimize the systems. * requires
* has required
24 Visualization has been used extensively during the last decade, the bulk of research work * has focused
...on those systems which involve crisp data and crisp relationships. * have been focused
* has been focused

35
 Test 8
True If the statement agrees with the information
False If the statement contradicts the information
Not Given If there is no information on this
Yes If the statement agrees with the writer’s claims
No If the statement contradicts the writer’s claims
Not Given If it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

№ Choose the correct answer / Fill in the gaps Answer

1 Although this technique provides a ... level analysis o f the most significant components * higher
o f the data, it has a drawback due to the loss o f information during the process. * high
* highly
2 We shall illustrate how the visualization o f fuzzy rules by parallel coordinates provided * visual
by these authors could be improved to make it more intuitive for users by judicious * visual
choice o f ... features. * much visual
3 A 3D height-field (expressed as a surface) could also be used to represent •.. * fuzzy
membership functions o f data displayed in 2D graphs. * fuzziest
* fuzzier
4 To visualise ... information, a cone tree method was introduced by Fujiwara et al. to * hierarchical
represent a tree structure. * hierarchic
* hierarchically
5 Different parameters could be used to highlight or suppress various factors in ... interactive * an
manner. *a
* the
6 This method may also be performed in ... non-interactive manner as a movie, using fixed * an
temporal effects. *a
* the
7 This is useful from a computer human interfaces perspective as the imprecision in the data * the
could be visualized over ... number of perceptual feature dimensions to reinforce various * an
combinations, and to allow interaction as another form o f visualisation technique. *a
8 The structure and inter-relationships o f rules may be illustrated by graphs, trees and * not given
flowcharts. * no
May the structure and inter-relationships of rules be explained by graphs, trees and * yes
flowcharts?
9 Another common technique is to project data for reduction o f dimensionality (e.g. * yes
Principle Component Analysis) and display results on a scatter plot. * not given
Is another common technique to project data for reduction of dimensionality and display * no
results on a disperse plot?
10 A 3D volume has spatial regions mapped to a location in n- dimensional space. * not given
Has a 3D volume spatial regions mapped to a transformation in n- dimensional space? * no
本 yes

11 B lurring or depth o ffield effects from spatial... components being removed in the * frequency
image plane can be used to show the indistinct nature o f data points. * frequent
* frequently
12 We can combine the use o f such visual features for denoting the imprecision in data with * upon
a number ... common representation methods employed to display spatial data in higher * of
dimensions: 2D, 3D, parametric, dynamic, metaphors and multimedia sensors. * out
13 2D graphs of various forms can be used to encode the colours and shapes into a display * between
on a Cartesian system, in order ... show the spatial relationships o f values. * up
* to
14 Some examples ... graphs are: histograms, bar charts, tree diagrams, time histories of ID ♦ of
slices, maps, iconic and glyph-based diagrams. * out
* up
15 Other techniques such as multi-dimensional scaling and parallel coordinates provide ways * without
to display multi-dimensional fuzzy data in 2D ... losing any information. * out
* up

36
16 The rule set is then visualised as a 2D scatter plot, where different grey scales denote * of
different classes and the size of each square denoting each class indicates the number ... * out
examples and hence the importance of the class. * up
17 The features o f the volume partitions could be modified to indicate the precision o f the * between
data ... the volume (e.g. varying intensity, colour saturation, texture). * within
* out
18 Particles could be used to represent the fuzziness o f a region or an object by varying the * themselves
space between them, and the colour o f the particles . ... * itself
* herself
19 ... graphs may not necessarily be related to a spatial location. * These
* This
* That
20 Variation in intensity or colour may be used to encode ... dimension on a 2D graph which * other
indicates the degree o f imprecision or fuzzy membership functions o f the data displayed. * another
* others
21 This ...a n unending list o f possible glyphs to use with regards to visualisation o f fuzzy * leave
information. * leaves
* leaving
22 The visual features listed above ... usually spatially arranged to form a coherent display in * is
graphic forms, which enable the perception of various patterns in the data. * was
* are
23 For multi-dimensional scaling, the authors introduced an algorithm to generate a 2D * minimize
view o f a set o f fuzzy rules which ...th e inter-point distances. * minimizes
* have minimized
24 For the parallel coordinates approach, n Cartesian coordinates are mapped into n parallel * have become
coordinates and an и-dimensional point... a series of (w-1) lines connecting the values * become
on n parallel axes. * becomes
25 These techniques ...to show classification boundaries in fuzzy classification methods. * may be used
* may use
* may be using

37
 Test 9
№ Choose the correct answer / F ill in the gaps Answer

1 Section 4 discusses the ... and adaptability of certain visual features to the representation * relevant
of fuzzy data. * relevancy
* relevantly
2 Section 3 presents the structure and activities o f each o f these ... classes, and a plan for * agent’s
their implementation. * agents
* agent
3 ... detailed analysis on these requirements was presented in the article. * More
* Much
* Many
4 In addition, we present our own methods to provide significant improvement for certain * having existed
... techniques. * existing
* having been existed
5 Section 3 provides an overview o f the system and focuses on the design o f a multi-agent * yes
based visualisation framework with the aim to facilitate the organisation and flow of * no
complex tasks, their inter-relationships and their interactions with users. * not given
Does section 3 focus on the design of a multi-agent based visualisation framework with
the aim to initiate the organisation and flow o f complex tasks, their inter-relationships and
their interactions with users?
6 Section 6 gives a critical review of existing visualisation techniques for fuzzy rules. * yes
Section 6 gives a critical review of existing visualisation techniques for precise rules. * no
* not given
7 To design an effective generic framework for visualization of fuzzy systems, we need to * yes
understand their essence: what are they composed of, how things are related to each other, * no
what activities are being performed, and who are the main users of these systems. * not given
To design an effective generic framework for visualization of fuzzy systems, we need
to be a good judge of their essence: what are they composed of, how things are related
to each other, what activities are being performed, and who are the main users of these
systems.
8 The former includes the computation of numerical data，degree of fuzziness and the * yes
operation of fuzzy rules. * no
Does the former process the computation of numerical data, degree of fuzziness and the * not given
operation of fuzzy rules?
9 The latter covers the detection of unusual patterns, data mining, learning process, * yes
optimisation and prediction. * no
The latter imbraces the detection of unusual patterns, data mining, learning process, * not given
optimisation and prediction.
10 ... which underpin the working of a fuzzy system can be classified into five categories: * Relationship
data-data, data-task, data-user, task-task, and user-user. * Relationship’s
* Relationships
11 ... change the system state and exert influence on the system performance, hence it is * Event’s
crucial to note and record them. * Event
* Events
12 Events may be pre-scheduled, or may occur as a result o f another event, or o f a ... * user’s
interaction. * user
* users
13 Each of these categories needs to be examined carefully in order to find appropriate * to
visualization methods ... facilitate the understanding o f these relationships. * in
* under
14 Section 5 deals ... the problem o f higher spatial dimensions. * with
* to
* on
15 To facilitate the understanding ... the rest of this paper, we briefly describe these * of
requirements here. * under
* behind

38
16 The entities include both physical (e.g. machines, workers) and abstract (e.g. returns ... * between
investment). * of
* near
17 To distinguish the level o f complexity o f tasks，
they can be grouped.. .low-level and high- * about
level tasks. * into
* of
18 Section 2 discusses briefly the fundamental ontologies that underpin the characteristics of * their
fuzzy systems and ... visualisation requirements. * its
* her
19 The main reason is that while traditional systems make precise decisions at every stage, * draw
fuzzy systems retain the information about uncertainty as long as possible and only ... a * have drawn
crisp decision at the last stage. * drew
20 Another aspect th a t... to be considered is how to cater for different types o f users. * need
* needs
* needed
21 This paper … the work discussed in three previous conference papers which focused on * unifying
different aspects o f visualisation o f fuzzy systems. * unified
* unifies
22 Section 7 ... our methods for extending and improving some o f these techniques. * describe
* describes
* have described
23 We presented a thorough analysis on visualisation requirements for fuzzy systems by * has underpinned
investigating the fundamental ontologies which … the structure and requirements o f these * underpins
systems. * underpin
24 A typical fuzzy system ... of six main components: entities，data objects, relationships, ^ consists
events, tasks and outcomes. * consisting
* being consisted
25 D ata objects ... in different forms: numerical, symbolic (e.g. rules), visual (e.g. diagrams, * may be represented
images) or audio. * may represented
* may be representing

39
 Test 10
№ Choose the correct answer / Fill in the gaps Answer
1 As humans can perceive the effects o f ... common phenomena at a very fast speed, abstract * certainly
representations may be used as metaphors to represent data that is not easily visualised. * certain
* certainty
2 The 3D cone graph mentioned in the last section was later used by Fujiwara et al. to * hierarchical
produce a 3D flowchart to represent... rule structure in a rule-based program to facilitate its * hierarchic
understanding. * hierarchically
3 This section reviews ... methods that explicitly cater for fuzzy rules. * another
* others
* other
4 Although using colour plots to highlight a single cluster is ... for cluster separation, to do so * much effective
for all cluster at once would cause confusion. * effective
ф few effective
5 For example, expressions on human faces can be used to represent the quality o f the results, * good
where a happy/sad expression indicates ••• /bad quality. * well
* better
6 .. • first category aims to facilitate the understanding o f the complex nature o f a rule-based ♦The
fuzzy control system, while the second category helps to analyse the effectiveness of fuzzy *A
clustering algorithms. * An
7 Berthold and Holve mapped ... w-dimensional fuzzy rule to a point in 2D. *a
* an
* the
8 In ... first case, we extend the parallel coordinates approach to 3D graphs and 3D polygonal * the
surfaces. *a
* an
9 We now present two cases where we have extended and improved the capabilities o f ... * having existed
visualization methods for fuzzy data and fuzzy rules. * being existed
* existing
10 The propagation o f fuzzy rules can also be visualised by ... a truncated double cone * used
structure. * using
* having used
11 These methods fall into two categories: to model the causal flow between elements in a fuzzy * not given
system; and to represent fuzzy clustering or classification o f data. * no
Do these methods visualize two categories: to model the causal flow between elements in a * yes
fuzzy system; and to represent fuzzy clustering or classification o f data?
12 Rules are represented as squares with different grey intensities to distinguish the clusters. * not given
Are rules represented as squares with different grey intensities to investigate the clusters? * no
* yes
13 Cox et al. used 2D and 3D plots with various thresholds to represent convex hulls o f data * not given
point clusters. * no
Did Cox et al. use 2D and 3D plots with various thresholds to describe convex hulls o f data * yes
point clusters?
14 Glyphs with different shape and size are used for the data points. * not given
Are glyphs with different shape and size used for visualisation technique? * no
* yes
15 The size o f each square indicates the number o f data points and the ... o f the rule. * much important
* importance
* important
16 Various visual features discussed in the last section could be used to modify the animation to * out
display object behaviour over time, e.g. using motion blur levels, flickering, etc. to represent *of
the precision ... the measurements o f the object motion in a plane crash simulation. * into
17 Dickerson and co-workers used fuzzy cognitive maps in the form o f a graph to encode * between
relationships ... a complex interacting system. * up
* in

40
18 We shall show how these techniques can be extended to visualising fuzzy rules, where * into
appropriate visual features can be integrated ... the cone tree structure to express the degree * up
of uncertainty in each rule (e.g. each node is displayed with different degree of opacity). * out
19 The precision o f the representation o f the cluster membership depends … the accuracy o f the * into
projection of points into the convex hulls. * on
* about
20 The authors also presented another method o f using the colour hues from red (hot) ... blue * to
(cold) to represent the membership values o f data points. * out
* up
21 Haptic and audio feedback can be used to indicate precision, imprecision, e.g., mapping * are
mouse location to a form o f sound that is noisy and incoherent in imprecise regions, and * is
coherent and tonal in regions th at... precise. * was
22 In the last section, we mentioned how parallel coordinates and m ultiscaling... for representing * can be using
fuzzy data and fuzzy rules. * can be used
* can use
23 This technique is useful for encoding expert information which is commonly ... in fuzzy * present
control systems. * presents
* has present
24 The 2D function ...s o that the error values between two rules are minimised. * were constructed
* was constructing
* was constructed
25 Colour hues were also used by Lowe et al. to represent belief values in the form o f a flame to * making
facilitate decision ... in an anaesthetic monitoring system. * make
* have made

41
 Test 11
№ Choose the correct answer / Fill in the gaps Answer
1 The outcomes o f a fuzzy system include not only the values of state variables, but * confidently
also the level of acceptance o f quality, degree o f . . . ，and degree o f imprecision of * confident confidence
the outcomes.
2 We categorise four ... types of visualisation tasks. * main
* mainly
* more main
3 The second main type o f visualisation tasks is шХотайс computer-supported * specify
exploration to automatically highlight salient characteristics and unusual results; to * specified
display and compare alternatives (e.g. using statistical analysis); to optimise tasks * specifies
under ... constraints; and to support batch processing of tasks via scripting or visual
languages.
4 The users offuzzy systemswish to be able to interpret data and its salient characteristics, * setting up
to understand the implication o f each decision by ... ‘what-if，scenarios, and to adapt * having been set up
the system to their individual needs and preferences. * set up
5 The designers o f fuzzy systems require information on the internal structures o f these * having been planned
systems fo r ..., verification and analysis. * being planned
* planning
6 The third main type o f visualisation tasks is .. .feedbackfrom users such as instructions * having captured
on tasks; input parameters, variables, constraints. * capturing
* being capturered
7 The user can also intercept other agents to select different methods * performing
for ... an operation instead o f the default ones built in the system. * having performed
* having been performed
8 It is necessary to distinguish three main types of users and their different needs. * yes
Is it necessary to differentiate three main types of users and their different needs? * no
* not given
9 Our aim is to design a systematic framework based on a high level o f abstraction, * yes
where visualisation is driven by users’ needs, which in turn are driven by application * no
tasks and personal view points. * not given
Is visualisation motivated by users’ needs?
10 Fig. 1 shows a schematic diagram o f the system architecture. * no
Does F ig.l show a symbolic and simplified diagram of the system architecture? * not given
* yes
11 We wish to examine the visualisation requirements for fuzzy systems ... user- and * from
task-oriented points of view. * under
* by
12 They also seek for conditions under which optimal solutions are obtained ... each * between
stage. * at
* beneath
13 In addition to some specific requirements by these three types of user，there are some * to
common requirements that could be exploited in order ... design an effective generic * by
visualisation framework. * under
14 We propose a visualisation framework based ... five classes o f agents: control agent, * with
computation agent, symbolic agent, visualisation agent and profile agent. * out
* on
15 Visualization should be interwoven with the tasks being performed to provide more * their
insights to users and to improve ... decision making process. * them
* his
16 The designers o f visualisation systems wish to understand how users make use of * that
visualisation techniques and the effectiveness o f ... techniques with the intention to * these
identify drawbacks and to find ways to continuously improve the systems. * this
17 The first main type of visualisation tasks is interactive exploration to provide insights * its
into the degree of uncertainty of each variable and .•. effects on each task; the inter­ * their
dependency of two or more fuzzy variables or fuzzy rules; and the effects of different * his
operations performed on fuzzy rules.

42
18 Multi-agent approach has been increasingly adopted for application domains because * their
it provides an effective way to coordinate activities and ... interactions in a complex * its
system to satisfy some common goals. * his
19 An agent in our context is a computer program that can gather data about the * his
environment, interpret the data and modify ... behaviour to reflect the requirements * their
o f the environment. * its
20 A user ...to interact and select what to visualise and how to do it on the fly. * is allowed
* allow
* were allowed
21 Search and navigation methods and tools ... context sensitive and should operate * should had been
only on relevant information spaces. * should have been
* should be
22 The control agent receives users’ input w hich... specifications, queries and parameters. * were included
* have included
* includes
23 Based on such input, this agent distributes tasks to .. .agents. * appropriates
* appropriated
* appropriate
24 Another duty for this agent ...to generate new tasks if required based on the results * is
sent by other agents. * were
* are
25 The control agent... as a representative of the user in an automatic mode. * may view
* may be viewed
* may viewed

43
 Test 12
№ Choose the correct answer / Fill in the gaps Answer
1 The results o f the display then trigger the control agent or the user to issue ... task. * other
* another
* others
2 The main function o f the ... agent is to process queries directed at the knowledge database. * much symbolic
* symbolic
* many symbolic
3 It should be noted that these different agents run as different threads within the memory * having allowed
space o f the visualization system, and so can interact with each other, while still . •. the * allowing
user to interrupt the process to enforce new queries or parameters on the visualisation. * being allowed
4 ...a n object-based paradigm, the following subsections show the general methods and * Having used
variables within the agents as a specification of their functionality. * Having been used
* Using
5 In our model, the user can be included in the loop and allowed to intercept the control * no
agent in order to give different instructions if desired. * not given
Can the user be excluded from the loop and allowed to intercept the control agent in our * yes
model in order to give different instructions if desired?
6 The symbolic agent makes use o f the knowledge base to perform rule inference. * not given
Does the symbolic agent make use of the knowledge base to create rule inference? * yes
* no
7 Another cycle then continues. * not given
Does another cycle then intercept? * yes
* no
8 It is an essentially autonomous agent. * not given
Is it an essentially self-governing agent? * yes
* no
9 It is not an autonomous agent, as it is entirely controlled by the visualisation and control * not given
agents. * yes
It is not an autonomous agent, as it is partly controlled by the visualisation and control * no
agents.
10 This agent is the interface to the knowledge database for the visualisation system. * not given
Is this agent the interface to the knowledge database for the visualisation method? * yes
* no
11 It is not autonomous, as it simply provides a front end query interface to the knowledge * not given
database. * no
It is not autonomous, as it simply provides an oppose end query interface to the knowledge * yes
database.
12 The profile agent records the pattern o f the user’s behaviour in terms o f the selection of * visualize
tasks,... techniques, numerical methods or inference rules. * visualizing
* visualization
13 The computation agent performs all numerical computation required ...th e system (e.g. * by
statistics, probabilistic calculus, rough set operations, fuzzy set operations). * between
* near
14 It receives instructions ... both the control agent and the visualisation agent. * at
* from
* under
15 Based on this information, the profile agent then modifies the instructions issued ...th e * by
control agent (e.g. re-prioritise tasks, change preferences, modes o f display, etc.). * of
* behind
16 It communicates ... the profile, computation, visualization and symbolic agents. * up
*w ith
* to
17 I t ... instructions from both the control agent and the visualisation agent. * receive
* receives
* were receiving

44
18 The visualization agent receives instructions from the control agent and requests * has provided
information from the computation agent and rule agent, in order to select appropriate * providing
visualisation techniques to ... displays. * provide
19 It also receives results and demands from other agents when a task is completed or when * were needed
further information * is needed
* are needed
20 The control agent maintains a list of the other agent instantiations within the system and * are able
thus ...to control the flow o f data around the agent-based visualization system. * is able
4 were able
21 The main tasks of the control agent ...to process user events, distribute tasks to other * are
agents and to process agent results and demands. * is
* was
22 The main data stored by this agent includes the data to be visualised within the system, * can perform
and a complete list of operations th a t... by the computation agent. * can be performing
* can be performed
23 The user ...its tasks through the Process User Event method. * can override
* can be overridden
4 can overridden
24 I t ... a form o f automatic user within the system. * is
* are
* were
25 I t ... by the control agent and the visualisation agent. * are used
* uses
* is used

45
 Test 13
№ Choose the correct answer / F ill in the gaps Answer
1 This database contains knowledge o f appropriate visualisation techniques for the ... data. * fuzzier
* fuzzy
* fuzziest
2 As an example, we trace the execution of the visualization o f the Iris data shown, which * common
is a . •• used test data set for classification algorithms. * commonly
* many common
3 The visualization agent then requests the fuzzy data in an appropriate format for the ... * paralleling
coordinate technique. * paralleled
* parallel
4 This agent records a user’s profile in ... ways: patterns o f tasks performed; patterns of * much various
usage o f data and operations applied on fuzzy rules; specific types o f constraints; desired * variously
degree o f fulfillment o f outcomes; and choice o f visualisation techniques. * various
5 The data is received from ...th e computational agent, which is directed by the visualisation * being queried
agent to provide the data in a valid format for the visualization technique. * having queried
* querying
6 The control agent can, at the behest o f the user, override the visualisation agent by ... a * making
call to the Visualise Data method. * having made
* being made
7 The symbolic agent replies with a suggestion of ... the parallel coordinate visualisation * being used
technique. * using
* having used
8 By ... with both the user and the Control Agent, the Profile Agent uses these detected * having communicated
patterns to issue instructions to re-organise data and re-prioritise tasks. * being communicated
* communicating
9 The visualisation agent handles the graphical rendering o f data to the output device. * not given
Does the visualisation agent withdraw the graphical rendering of data out of the output * yes
device? * no
10 The control agent then commences the dialog by noting the multi-dimensional nature of * not given
the data to be visualised. * no
Does the control agent then commence the dialog by avoiding the multi-dimensional * yes
nature o f the data to be visualized?
11 The user requires a 3D version of the visualisation, and chooses this using the appropriate * not given
menu options. * no
The user develops a 3D version o f the visualisation, and researches this using the * yes
appropriate menu options.
12 The visualization agent then commences the rendering o f the2D parallel coordinate * not given
visualization. * no
The visualization agent then commences the rendering of the2D corresponding coordinate 本 yes

visualization.
13 The agent returns the appropriate information about techniques, parameters to use, etc., as * responses
... to queries from the control and visualization agents. * responding
* responded
14 In this case the user commences the system and inputs the Iris data file as the beginning *of
... the visualisation. * with
♦by
15 The control agent then passes this information ...th e visualization agent. * onto
* under
* between
16 The visualisation agent then queries the symbolic agent ... suggested visualisation * for
techniques. * at
* after
17 This is then rendered by the visualisation agent, whereupon control is given ... the user to * back with
interact with the visualisation. * back to
* back at

46
18 This process is then repeated until termination ... the user. *b y 1
* between
* on
19 Any information required for the visualisation is queried from the computational and * its
symbolic agents, by using ... querying methods. 4 their
* our
20 There is only one major function . . . ， as the visualization agent is fairly autonomous in its * listing
ability to organise a visualisation o f data. * listed
* lists
21 This agent draws direction from the symbolic agent, and is able to thus ... a visualisation * recommend
technique automatically, based upon the qualities inherent in the data. * recommends
* recommended
22 The classification . •. based on a training set o f 75 plants, 11 fuzzy rules, 4 features (sepal * is done
length, sepal width, petal length and petal width) and 3 classes. * is doing
* were done
23 Information about the nature o f the visualization ... from the user, who specifies a * are elicited
visualization for rule culling purposes. * is elicited
* were elicited
24 In this method, n Cartesian coordinates... into n parallel coordinates, and an n dimensional * is mapped
point becomes a series o f (w-1) lines connecting the values on n parallel axes. * are mapped
* was mapped
25 The control agent at this stage interrupts the visualization agent thread, and then ... a 3D * enforces
parallel coordinate visualisation, as shown. * enforce
* enforcing

47
 (В) Answer Key
Keys to Test 1 Keys to Test 3
№ Test 1 № Test 3
1 * slumped 1 * barely
2 * are based 2 * practically
3 * nature
3 * sells
4 * mathematical
4 * sharply
5 * unlimited
5 * heavy
6 * entirely
6 * as well 7 * distributed
7 *No 8 * additive
8 * Not given 9 * precisely
9 ♦Yes 10 * having changed
10 ♦No 11 * digital
12 * it
13 * by
14 * in
Keys to Test 2
15 * to
№ Test 2 16 * above
1 * an 17 * generated
2 *The 18 * allow
3 * the 19 * shining
4 * optical 21 * has rushed
5 * additive 22 * does not
6 * apparent 23 * are
7 * precisely 24 * credit
8 * crackling 25 * provide
9 * in particular 26 * no
10 * both... and
11 * Are computer images the output of computer
Keys to Test 4
graphics?
12 * What are computer images? № Test 4
13 * are 1 * the
14 * are 2 * numerical
15 * is considered to be surrounded 3 * high
16 * must be able 4 * computational
17 * is 5 * required
18 * should be mentioned. 6 * real
19 * have ... tried 7 * defendable
20 * are ... explored. 8 * their
21 * had to begin 9 * these
22 * no 10 * of
23 * not given 11 ♦ of
24 * yes 12 * is driven
25 * no 13 * is presented
14 * is required
15 * relate
16 * used
17 * are
18 * includes
19 * surrounding
20 * to extend
21 * yes
22 * no
23 * yes
24 * no
25 * yes

48
 Keys to Test 5 Keys to Test 7
№ Test 5 № Test 7
1 * widely 1 * specific
2 * successfully 2 * many
3 * computational 3 * mathematical
4 * differential 4 * logical
5 * the 5 * would be
6 * the 6 * would be enhanced
7 * of 7 * understanding
8 ♦To 8 * yes
9 * related to 9 * no
10 * their 10 * not given
11 * of 11 * not given
12 *o f 12 * not given
13 * can be achieved 13 * yes
14 * cover 14 * towards
15 * is 15 4 by
16 * has recently been applied 16 *to
17 * proposed 17 * on
18 %is required. 18 * their
19 * to describe 19 * those
20 * simulate 20 * underpin
21 * was 21 * existing
22 * has discussed 22 * model
23 * yes 23 * is required
24 * no 24 * has been focused
25 * no
Keys to Test 8
Keys to Test 6
№ Test 8
№ Test 6 1 ♦high
* Alternative 2 * visual
* particular 3 * fuzzy
* most 4 * hierarchical
* more 5 * an
* different 6 *a
* no 7 *a
* yes 8 * yes
* not given 9 * yes
* no 10 * not given
* possibility 11 * frequency
* to 12 *of
* of 13 * to
*of 14 *of
* for 15 * without
* to 16 *of
* these 17 * within
* its 18 * themselves
* they 19 * These
* offers 20 * another
* can indicate 21 * leaves
* used 22 * are
* has 23 * minimizes
* may be used 24 * becomes
* indicate 25 * may be used
* can be used

49
 Keys to Test 9 Keys to Test 11
№ Test 9 № Test 11
1 * relevancy 1 * confidence
2 * agent 2 * main
3 * More 3 * specified
4 * existing 4 * setting up
5 * not given 5 * planning
6 * no 6 * capturing
7 * yes 7 * performing
8 * not given 8 * yes
9 * yes 9 *yes
10 * Relationships 10 * yes
11 * Events 11 * from
12 * user’s 12 * at
13 * to 13 * to
14 * with 14 * on
15 * of 15 * their
16 *of 16 * these
17 * into 17 * its
18 * their 18 * their
19 * draw 19 * its
20 * needs 20 * is allowed
21 * unifies 21 * should be
22 * describes 22 * includes
23 * underpin 23 * appropriate
24 * consists 24 * is
25 * may be represented 25 * may be viewed

Keys to Test 10 Keys to Test 12

№ Test 10 № Test 12
1 * certain 1 * another
2 * hierarchical 2 * symbolic
3 * other 3 * allowing
4 * effective 4 * Using
5 * good 5 * no
6 *The 6 * no
7 * an 7 * not given
8 * the 8 * yes
9 * existing 9 * no
10 * using 10 * yes
11 * not given 11 * yes
12 * not given 12 * visualization
13 * yes 13 * by
14 * not given 14 * from
15 * importance 15 * by
16 * of 16 * with
17 * in 17 * receives
18 * into 18 * provide
19 * on 19 * is needed
20 * to 20 * is able
21 * are 21 * are
22 * can be used 22 * can be performed
23 * present 23 * can override
24 * w a s constructed 24 * is
25 * making 25 * is used

50
 Keys to Test 13
№ Test 13
1 * fuzzy
2 * commonly
3 * parallel
4 * various
5 * querying
6 * making
7 * using
8 * communicating
9 * no
10 * no
11 * not given
12 * yes
13 * responses
14 *o f
15 * onto
16 * for
17 * back to
18 * by
19 * their
20 * listed
21 * recommend
22 * is done
23 * is elicited
24 * are mapped
25 * enforces
 Part 4
Creative work.
Instructions.
I. An Opinion Essav

An Opinion Essay is a formal item of writing. It，

s necessary to give your opinion on any topic，presenting dif­
ferent points of view supported by reasons or examples.
A successful Opinion Essay consists of:
1) an introductory paragraph in which you present the topic and your opinion;
2) a main body which includes some sections each describing one point of view supported by reasons and your
reasons why you don’t agree with it;
3) a conclusion in which you confirm your opinion exploiting other words.

II. Detailed synopsis (sing.)，detailed synopses (plur.).

A Detailed Synopsis is a survey or a form al item o f writing which presents and analyses the findings or
the results o f any research concerning reaction to anything and general assessment，recommendations, ideas,
conclusions.
A detailed synopsis should have:
1) an introduction in which you present the aim and content of the synopsis;
2) a m ain body w hich includes all inform ation in detail connected w ith the topic;
3) a final paragraph in which you summarise the items mentioned earlier and add your suggestions.

III. Memo. (An Example)

Prince of Wales Road

Sheffield 194 ex
To All employees
From The chief Executive
Date 17 September 2011
Subject Redundancies
I ’m writing to confirm with regret that we have to announce a 10 % reduction in the workforce. The reason is
that rising production costs and a fall in demand for our products have caused the company to run at a loss for the
past year. Those employees affected will meet individually with their managers over the next two weeks.

The Chief Executive

IV. Tasks for preparing presentations in written and oral forms

(in compliance with each target topic):

1. Opinion Essaysfor 200-250 words,

2. Detailed Synopses.
3. Memos.

52
 Parts
Texts for reading1
Tasks for each text.
1. Read the text.
2. Translate it.
3. Retell the text.
4. Prepare a summary of the text (in written & oral form).
5. Pair work: Ask & answer one general & four or five special questions.
6. Discuss the text in your group.
7. Suggest your ideas concerning the text.
8. Transform the text into the present, past, future situations.
9. Reacting to the text: comment on it，give your impressions of the text.

Text I.
To be fair, the power on process starts before Windows loads, but loading Windows is definitely part of the
process. Your computer has to boot up and perform some rudimentary tests (as directed by the BIOS on your PC’s
motherboard) before it accesses the hard disk, which is where the Windows program code resides. The Windows
code is dien read from the hard disk into your computer’s memory, where it goes to work. It generally takes only
a couple of seconds for the BIOS to hand over control of the system to Windows.
It also launches a variety of behind-the-scenes processes and (sometimes) applications-again, items that Win­
dows needs loaded to perform essential operations. For example, these drivers, processes， and applications remain
in memory, where they can quickly be called into action when needed. (Loading a process or program from hard
disk takes a lot longer than it does to access that same process or program in memory).
Windows Vista adds a few new wrinkles to the whole power on/power off process. First, Vista incorporates a
Fast Boot and Resume function it helps to speed up the whole startup process. With Fast Boot and Resume, not all
processes are loaded before the Windows desktop appears; some processes are loaded in the background after the
initial startup, so you can see the desktop and start working faster than you could before.
Also new is the enhanced Sleep mode.; when you put your computer to sleep, your hardware stays powered
on (but in a low-power mode) while your open applications and documents are stored away for fast relaunching
when you wake up your system. Microsoft so likes this new Sleep mode that when you click the Power button on
the Start menu, you no longer turn off your PC; instead, clicking the Power button puts your computer into Sleep
mode. If you’re like most users, you’11find that Sleep mode is preferable to powering off your computer and then
going through the whole power on process the next morningᅳit， s a lot quicker, both on and off!

Text II.
To help your programs run more efficiently, Vista includes a memory management scheme called Super Fetch.
Pre-loading these programs lets you get working quicker when you open an application. Windows Vista also man­
ages all the users on your computer, through the new User Account Control feature.
It’s not just a way of creating personalized desktop experiences for each user, it’s also a means of making your
PC more secure. Finally, Windows manages all the data stored on your computer-your Word documents, Excel
spreadsheets, PowerPoint presentations, digital photos, digital music, digital movies, and so on. Windows man­
ages where each file is stored, and how. And this file management is made easier in Windows Vista, thanks to
improved navigation pointers (in the form of a “breadcrumb” trail of folders in each window) and the ability to
view “live” nails of each file’s contents. Windows Vista
In most < you never even know what’s going on under the surface; it’s Vista’s job to perform its duties
without getting in the way of your day-to-day computing activities. But you’d know it if Vista wasn’t around-ifs
what makes your computer run!

1 Sources: (texts I-1II): 1) Miller M. “How Microsoft Windows Vista Works’，

. Indianapolis: Que Publishing, 2007. - 273 c.; (texts IV-
XIX): 2) GURGLE 一 GNU Report Generator Language
httpiZMm!^agesanf.gd.ac.\ik/timc/gui^le/gurgle.html; 3) GNU Coding Standards http://ww.gnuJ_or|^prep/standgr^standards,hlm
 Text III.
WINDOWS Vista is a complex and sophisticated piece of computer software. The operating system itself en­
compasses literally tens of thousands of individual system files-all of which have to be managed and monitored,
as do all the devices that Vista is tasked with managing. It’s a lot of information to track.
With all these files and devices to manage, it should come as no surprise that Vista is an extremely organized
piece of software. To that end, thousands of individual configuration settings are stored in a single database called
the Windows Registry. The Registry is where Windows turns when it needs to find out anything about any part of
the system; it houses all manner of settings for everything from the window color and translucency to the brand
and model number of printer you’re using. This type of centralized configuration storage makes it easy for Win­
dows to find precise settings, when necessary.
To that end，every time you make a configuration change, that information is automatically written to the
Registry. Change the system time, and the Registry is updated; change your desktop wallpaper, the Registry is
updated; change the home page in Internet Explorer, the Registry is updated. The Registry is also updated when­
ever you install a new software program or hardware device. And it all happens automatically, in the background.
You make most configuration changes from the Windows Control Panel. The Control Panel in Windows Vista
is subtly different from the one in Windows XP, most noticeably in the new Control Panel Home view. Settings
are grouped more logically than they were in Windows XP, and the most common tasks are accessible from the
Home page, via a series of text links. O f course, if you like the old way of doing things, you can still display each
of the control settings individually, by selecting the Classic view.
Windows Vista also makes a lot of other system information accessible to the average user. You’re probably
familiar with My Computer (called the Computer Explorer in Windows Vista), which lets you view information
about your PC’s hard disk and other storage devices. A lot of similar utilities in Windows Vista let you monitor or
configure all sorts of system settings, from your PC’s processor and memory specs to detailed information about
specific device drivers. Everything you want to know about your system is available somewhere within Windows
Vista-if you know where to look!

Text IV.
Which Languages to Use.
When you want to use a language that gets compiled and runs at high speed, the best language to use is C.
Using another language is like using a non-standard feature: it will cause trouble for users. Even if GCC supports
the other language, users гйау find it inconvenient to have to install the compiler for that other language in order
to build your program. For example, if you write your program in C++, people will have to install the GNU C++
compiler in order to compile your program.
С has one other advantage over C-и- and other compiled languages: more people know C, so more people will
find it easy to read and modify the program if it is written in G. So in general it is much better to use C, rather than
the comparable alternatives. But there are two exceptions to that conclusion:
It is no problem to use another language to write a tool specifically intended for use with that language. That
is because the only people who want to build the tool will be those who have installed the other language anyway.
If an application is of interest only to a narrow part of the community, then the question of which language it
is written in has less effect on other people, so you may as well please yourself.
Many programs are designed to be extensible: they include an interpreter for a language that is higher level
than C. Often much oflhe program is written in that language, too. The Emacs editor pioneered this technique.
The standard extensibility interpreter for GNU software is Guile, which implements the language Scheme (an
especially clean and simple dialect of Lisp). Guile also includes bindings for GTK+/GNOME, making it practical
to write modem GUI functionality within Guile. We don’t reject programs written in other “scripting languages”
such as Perl and Python, but using Guile is very important for the overall consistency of the GNU system.

TextV.
Using Non-standard Features.
Many GNU facilities that already exist support a number of convenient extensions over the comparable Unix
facilities. Whether to use these extensions in implementing your program is a difficult question.
On the one hand, using the extensions can make a cleaner program. On the other hand, people will not be able
to build the program unless the other GNU tools are available. This might cause the program to work on fewer
kinds of machines.
54
 With some extensions, it might be easy to provide both alternatives. For example, you can define functions with
a “keyword” INLINE and define that as a macro to expand into either inline or nothing, depending on the compiler.
In general, perhaps it is best not to use the extensions if you can straightforwardly do without them, but to use
the extensions if they are a big improvement.
An exception to this rule are the large, established programs (such as Emacs) which run on a great variety of
systems. Using GNU extensions in such programs would make many users unhappy, so we don’t do that.
Another exception is for programs that are used as part of compilation: anything that must be compiled with other
compilers in order to bootstrap the GNU compilation facilities. If these require the GNU compiler, then no one can
compile them without having them installed already. That would be extremely troublesome in certain cases.

Text VI.
Non-GNU Standards.
The GNU Project regards standards published by other organizations as suggestions, not orders. We consider
those standards, but we do not “obey” them. In developing a GNU program, you should implement an outside
standard’s specifications when that makes the GNU system better overall in an objective sense. When it doesn’t，
you shouldn’t.
In most cases, following published standards is convenient for users-it means that their programs or scripts
will work more portably. For instance, GCC implements nearly all the features of Standard С as specified by that
standard. С program developers would be unhappy if it did not. And GNU utilities mostly follow specifications of
POSIX.2; shell script writers and users would be unhappy if our programs were incompatible.
But we do not follow either of these specifications rigidly, and there are specific points on which we decided
not to follow them, so as to make the GNU system better for users.
For instance, Standard С says that nearly all extensions to С are prohibited. How silly! GCC implements many
extensions, some of which were later adopted as part of the standard. If you want these constructs to give an error
message as “required” by the standard, you must specify ‘--pedantic’, which was implemented only so that we can
say “GCC is a 100 % implementation of the standard/’ not because there is any reason to actually use it.
POSIX.2 specifies that6d r and 4du’ must output sizes by default in units of 512 bytes. What users want is units
of lk, so that is what we do by default. If you want the ridiculous behaviour “required” by POSIX, you must set the
environment variable ‘POSIXLY CORRECT， (which was originally going to be named TOSIX_ME_HARDER’).
GNU utilities also depart from the letter of the POSIX.2 specification when they support long-named com­
mand-line options, and intermixing options with ordinary arguments. This minor incompatibility with POSIX is
never a problem in practice, and it is very useful.
In particular, don’t reject a new feature, or remove an old one, merely because a standard says it is “forbidden”
or “deprecated.”

Text V II.
Writing Robust Programs.
Avoid arbitrary limits on the length or number of any data structure, including file names, lines, files, and sym­
bols, by allocating all data structures dynamically. In most Unix utilities, “long lines are silently truncated”. This
is not acceptable in a GNU utility.
Utilities reading files should not drop NUL characters, or any other nonprinting characters including those with
codes above 0177. The only sensible exceptions would be utilities specifically intended for interface to certain
types of terminals or printers that can’t handle those characters. Whenever possible, try to make programs work
properly with sequences of bytes that represent multibyte characters, using encodings such as UTF-8 and others.
Check every system call for an error return, unless you know you wish to ignore errors. Include the system
error text (from реггог, strerror, or equivalent) in every error message resulting from a failing system call, as well
as the name of the file if any and the name of the utility. Just “cannot open foo.c” or “stat failed” is not sufficient.
Check every call to malloc or realloc to see if it returned zero. Check realloc even if you are making the block
smaller; in a system that rounds block sizes to a power of 2，realloc may get a different block if you ask for less space.
In Unix, realloc can destroy the storage block if it returns zero. GNU realloc does not have this bug: if it fails,
the original block is unchanged. Feel free to assume the bug is fixed. If you wish to run your program on Unix,
and wish to avoid lossage in this case， you can use the GNU malloc.
You must expect free to alter the contents of the block that was freed. Anything you want to fetch from the
block, you must fetch before calling free.
55
 If malloc fails in a noninteractive program, make that a fatal error. In an interactive program (one that reads
commands from the user)，it is better to abort the command and return to the command reader loop. This allows
the user to kill other processes to free up
Use getoptᅳlong to decode arguments, 。 „ ___ lable. When static stor­
age is to be written in during program execution, use explicit С code to initialize it. Reserve С initialized declara­
tions for data that will not be changed.
Try to avoid low-level interfaces to obscure Unix data structures (such as file directories, or the layout of kernel
memory), since these are less likely to work compatibly. If you need to find all the files in a directory, use readdir
or some other high-level interface. These are supported compatibly by GNU.
The preferred signal handling facilities are the BSD variant of signal, and the POSIX sigaction function; the
alternative USG signal interface is an inferior design.
Nowadays, using the POSIX signal functions may be the easiest way to make a program portable. It is up to
you whether to support systems where signal has only the USG behaviour, or give up on them.
In error checks that detect “impossible” conditions, just abort. There is usually no point in printing any mes­
sage. These checks indicate the existence of bugs. Whoever wants to fix the bugs will have to read the source code
and run a debugger. So explain the problem with comments in the source. The relevant data will be in variables,
which are easy to examine with the debugger, so there is no point moving them elsewhere.
Do not use a count of errors as the exit status for a program. That does not work, because exit status values are
limited to 8 bits (0 through 255), A single run of the program might have 256 errors; if you try to return 256 as the
exit status, the parent process will see 0 as the status, and it will appear that the program succeeded.
If you make temporary files, check the TMPDIR environment variable; if that variable is defined, use the speci­
fied directory instead of Vtmp'.

TextYHL
Library Behaviour.
Try to make library functions reentrant. If they need to do dynamic storage allocation, at least try to avoid any
nonreentrancy aside from that of malloc itself.
Here are certain name conventions for libraries, to avoid name conflicts.
Choose a name prefix for the library, more than two characters long. All external function and variable names
should start with this prefix. In addition, there should only be one of these in any given library member. This usu­
ally means putting each one in a separate source file.
An exception can be made when two external symbols are always used together, so that no reasonable program
could use one without the other; then they can both go in the same file.
External symbols that are not documented entry points for the user should have names beginning with The
should be followed by the chosen name prefix for the library, to prevent collisions with other libraries. These
can go in the same files with user entry points if you like.
Static functions and variables can be used as you like and need not fit any naming convention.

Text IX.
Standards for Interfaces Generally.
Don’t make the behaviour of a utility depend on the name used to invoke it. It is useful sometimes to make a
link to a utility with a different name, and that should not change what it does.
Instead, use a run time option or a compilation switch or both to select among the alternate behaviours.
Likewise, please don’t make the behaviour of the program depend on the type of output device it is used with.
Device independence is an important principle of the system’s design; do not compromise it merely to save some­
one from typing an option now and then. (Variation in error message syntax when using a terminal is ok, because
that is a side issue that people do not depend on.)
If you think one behaviour is most useful when the output is to a terminal, and another is most usefiil when the
output is a file or a pipe，then it is usually best to make the default behaviour the one that is useful with output to
a terminal, and have an option for the other behaviour.
Compatibility requires certain programs to depend on the type of output device. It would be disastrous if Is or
sh did not do so in the way all users expect. In some of these cases, we supplement the program with a preferred
alternate version that does not depend on the output device type. For example, we provide a dir program much like
Is except that its default output format is always multi-column format.
56
 Text X,
Standards for Graphical Interfaces.
When you write a program that provides a graphical user interface, please make it work with the X Window
System and the GTK + toolkit unless the functionality specifically requires some alternative (for example, “dis­
playing jpeg images whiln addition, please provide a command-line interface to control the functionality. (In
many cases, the graphical user interface can be a separate program which invokes the command-line program.)
This is so that the same jobs can be done from scripts.
Please also consider providing a D-bus interface for use from other running programs, such as within GNOME.
(GNOME used to use CORBA for this, but that is being phased out.) In addition, consider providing a library inter­
face (for use from C), and perhaps a keyboard-driven console interface (for use by users from console mode). Once
you are doing the work to provide the functionality and the graphical interface, these won’t be much extra work.

Text XI.
Standards for Command Line Interfaces.
It is a good idea to follow the POSIX guidelines for the command-line options of a program. The easiest way to do
this is to use getopt to parse them. Note that the GNU version of getopt will normally permit options anywhere among
the aiguments unless the special argument is used. This is not what POSIX specifies; it is a GNU extension.
Please define long-named options that are equivalent to the single-letter Unix-style options. We hope to make
GNU more user friendly this way. This is easy to do with the GNU function getopt long.
One of the advantages of long-named options is that they can be consistent from program to program. For ex­
ample, users should be able to expect the “verbose” option of any GNU program which has one, to be spelled pre­
cisely ‘--verbose， . To achieve this uniformity, look at the table of common long-option names when you choose
the option names for your program (see Option Table).
It is usually a good idea for file names given as ordinary arguments to be input files only; any output files would
be specified using options (preferably 4-о， or ‘--output’). Even if you allow an output file name as an ordinary ar­
gument for compatibility, try to provide an option as another way to specify it. This will lead to more consistency
among GNU utilities, and fewer idiosyncrasies for users to remember.
All programs should support two standard options: ‘--version’ and 6—help9. CGI programs should accept these
as command-line options, and also if given as the PATH INFO; for instance, visiting http://example in a browser
should output the same information as invoking "p.cgi —help’ from the command line.

Text X II.
Introduction2
The gurgle program reads record and field information from a dBase3 +file, delimited ascii text file or from an
SQL query to a RDBMS and produces a report listing. Although the program was originally designed to produce
TeX/LaTeX formatted output, plain ascii text, troflf, PostScript, HTML, XML, shell scripts or any other kind of
ascii based output format can be produced just as easily.
The program is ideal for generating large bodies of text where small parts of that text are substituted with in­
formation from a database. So its great for generating static web pages which have some dynamic content.
The formatting process of is controlled by a definition file which holds the report, page, and record layouts,
what fields to display, and where. Other usefiil functions supported in the definition file include sorting, filtering,
and data manipulation of records in the databases.

Text X III.
Running GURGLE.
The gurgle program takes one argument，the name of the definition file to use. This can be given with or with­
out a .grg extension. If the .grg extension is not given with the filename and a filename without the extension is
found then this will be used， else the .grg extension will be automatically appended and a filename must exist with
this extension.
The default output file name will be the basename of the GRG file with .tex as the replacement extension. For
example, if the GRG file to be used is test.grg then the program would be called as gurgle test (or gurgle testgrg)
and the output file produced by the program, according to the directions given in the test.grg file would be test.tex.
2 GURGLE - GNU Report Generator Language http://homepages.inf.ed.ac.uk/timc/gnrgle/gurgle.html
57
 The default output filename and extension can be easily changed from within the GRG file. The output file­
name can also be changed at certain points during generation of the output so that multiple files can be created
from one input database file.
There is only one fixed option that can be given to the gurgle program, and this is -d [1234]. All variants en­
able debug mode. When the -d option is used the program will display the GRG file subsequent to preprocessing
and will also dump the contents of user defined macros, equates, environment variables, as well as the definitions
assigned to system variables, and the text bodies. The -dl variant dumps DFA state tables (from pattern matching
definitions). The -d2 variant does the same as -dl but also dumps the actual processing of pattern definitions. The
-d3 variant does the same as -d but also dumps the memory allocations during pre-processing and output process­
ing. The -d4 variant dumps details of the loading and field references of any .dbf file.
The GRG file is processed in two stages (see Structure and Processing Sequence for more details). The first
stage reads all the predefined macro definitions and expands any user defined macros. The entire file is broken
down into its component parts and stored internally. The output file is then generated in the second stage by
writing the stored text bodies at the appropriate places. The record text body is written for each record in the
master database file (subject to sort and filter definitions)，and the page text bodies are written at the start of
each page. The header text body is written at the start before anything else and the footer text body is written
at the end after everything else. References to database fields, interpolation of user text bodies, and processing
of equates are all done at this stage.
The GRG file can have as its first line a #! sequence followed by the path of the gurgle program and can then be
made self-executable exactly like a shell script. Note however that only a line starting with # as the first line in the
GRG file is interpreted this way and that # does not start a comment line in any other place in the file (as it would
in a shell script). Command line options and arguments can be included after the path so a line like #!/usr/local/bin/
gurgle -d is acceptable. This is one situation where it is common to not have the .grg extension as part of the filename.
The above allows the GRG file to act as a filter in a pipe by defining the database input file to be standard input
and redefining the output file to be standard output.
The gurgle program will accept any number of additional command line arguments where each is a predefined
macro and its arguments (these are discussed in more detail in Predefined Macros). These are processed after
parsing the GRG file. This is so that the command line arguments can overwrite any value in the GRG file. The
processing order is described in more detail in Processing Sequence. A predefined macro argument can include
quotes and escaped quotes. These must be given differently in a command line argument to prevent shell escape.
Note that it is safest when using command line predefined macros to always include a terminating macro to avoid
any pos ' continuation errors (when the actual file is processed).
The le program will also accept any number of additional command line arguments in any format which
custom processing can be added to either convert them into predefined macros or to set internal values, etc. See
later section on this.

Text XIV.
Structure.
A GRG file is processed in three modes. The default is STANDARD mode where only predefined macro lines,
comment lines or blank lines may be seen. Anything else will be treated as an error. The ARGS mode is used
to process each of the arguments following a predefined macro name, until a newline where the mode reverts to
STANDARD mode again. Some predefined macros may switch processing to the TEXT BODY mode. Within this
mode user defined macros are expanded and equates are called. User defined macros are not expanded anywhere
else. From TEXT BODY mode STANDARD mode is returned to when a predefined macro is encountered. The
EQUATE mode is a special variant of TEXT BODY mode used only for processing equate definitions (user de­
fined macros are also expanded in this mode).
Comments can be included in a GRG file in the STANDARD mode and the TEXT BODY mode. They
are flagged by a %% sequence, followed by at least one whitespace character (space, tab or newline). This
sequence and anything else up to and including a newline will be discarded. In TEXT BODY mode comments
can only occur at the very start of a line (no preceding whitespace) whereas in STANDARD mode there can be
any amount of preceding whitespace on the line. In the EQUATE mode С style comments are also supported
and can occur anywhere. They are started with a /* sequence and ended with a * / sequence. Unlike C, nested
comments are allowed.

58
 Text XV.
Predefined Macros.
Predefined macros must start at the beginning of a line (or only be preceded by whitespace on the line). There
must be nothing else on the line other than any arguments to the predefined macro. Predefined macros are not case
sensitive (all upper case or all lower case or mixed case will be treated as the same macro name), for example
%% Sorton is identical to %% SORTON. Predefined macros cannot be used within a text body. They can occur in
any order (there are no dependencies during parsing) with the exception that user defined macros must be defined
before they are used (otherwise they will not be expanded).
All predefined macros start with a %% sequence，followed by the rest of the macro name.
Some predefined macros have arguments. These have the following forms. A numeric argument is any decimal
number. A string argument is enclosed in double quotes and can include any character except a double quote. A
string argument cannot extend over a newline. A field argument is the name of a database field. As in text bodies
the name must be in capitals and should be preceded by the % character. A macro argument is a macro name fol­
lowed by a space or a newline. If followed by a space than anything else up to a newline is taken to be the macros
definition. A macro name must start with an alphabetic or underscore character, but can be followed by any upper
or lower case alphabetic character, numeric character， or underscore character. Note that unlike predefined macros
the macro name is case sensitive.
Other predefined macros start a text body on the following line. A text body can include almost any characters
whatsoever. A text body is terminated by any line starting with a %% sequence and followed by a valid predefined
macro. A line starting with %% followed by whitespace will be treated as a comment and discarded from the text
body. Apart from at the start of a line a %% sequence is treated as the start of a user defined macro or equate the
name of which should immediately follow. In the former case the user defined macro is expanded and the defini­
tion replaces the %% and user defined macro name sequence. Similarly an equate is processed and the result ex­
panded in place (an equate need not return a result in which case the result will be blank and the %% plus equate
name sequence is removed). The # sequence can also be used to refer to an equate to process and expand (but not
a user defined macro). This could be used where an equate name and a user defined macro name share the same
name, since if a macro of the same name exists this will always be favoured over the equate, but by using a hash
character instead it makes it explicit that an equate is being called and not a user defined macro.
The name of an equate can be immediately followed by (...) which contains a comma separated list of argu­
ments to the equate, each argument can be any expression (or expressions) that results in a value. The equate
name and the entire contents of the brackets is replaced by the evaluation of the equate and argument expressions.
Note that the argument expressions should be given in unreversed order if the equate was defined unreversed and
reversed order otherwise.
If the result of an equate that is called from within a text body is a string which is itself an equate (or includes
an equate) then this will get reprocessed and so on. This is similar to the way user defined macros will continually
get expanded.
A \<newline> sequence at the end of a line in a text body will escape the newline. This is useful if a text body
is a one line equate call that may not print anything, without adding this to the end you will always get at least
one blank line.
A % sequence followed by a field name in a text body will be expanded with the contents of that field from the
current record of the master database file.

Text XVI.
Defining,
Equate expressions are defined using the EQUATE predefined macro. This has one argument which is the
name of the equate which can be in upper or lower or mixed case and is case sensitive. The first character of the
equate name should be an underscore or an alphabetic character (A—Z or a-z), the remaining characters can be
these as well as the numeric characters (0-9). There is a maximum name length. The equate definition is given
within a text body on the subsequent line and continues until the text body terminates. Only one equate definition
can be within the text body so it can only include the definition of one function, named by the predefined macro.
An equate that takes arguments can be defined by immediately following the name with an open bracket,
comma separated list of variable names (none is allowed), and then a close bracket Alternatively the inputs key­
word can be used as described in Calling Other Equates. Below are some examples of equate definitions (none of
them have a body so none of them would do anything). The body of an equate is defined as a text body on the line
immediately below the name/arguments definition.

59
 Text X V II.
Reversed Equate Expressions.
The reversed equate expression language is a postfix (reverse polish) notation (read cryptic but efficient in
terms of space and speed) language. It is rather FORTH like in its appearance. The normal equate expressions
are tokenised and converted into this language for processing. However an equate can be defined directly in this
language if preferred (it is retained for compatibility since it used to be all there was). An understanding of this
language can be usefiil for debugging purposes as this is what any trace output will currently show. However for
most users there should be no need to know anything about this (except perhaps if defining equate based filter
expressions or patterns which currently require reversed equates) so you can skip to the next part (Hard Limits):
All operators are single or double character combinations. Five interchangeable data types are supported. The
language is stack based but in addition global variables, local variables, and system variables are available. Most
operators accept an immediately following variable operand instead of one stack operand. Looping and condi­
tional structures can also be used 一 as well as a function call mechanism. All in all there are a total of about 34
unique operators, some of which have multiple fimctions dependent on the data types of their operands.
Due to the large number of operators some have become ambiguous and it is recommended that separators are
used almost exclusively between them, the most obvious separator being whitespace.

TextXVIIL
Reversed Equate Calling Mechanism.
The # operator is immediately followed by the name of an equate. It results in a call to that equate. Arguments
can be passed by pushing values on the stack before calling the function, and any results can be left on the stack
before returning where they can subsequently be popped off. The equate need not be defined before it is called.
It is not actually necessary to use the # operator as any variable name will be looked up first as an equate call
and if it is not an equate call then as a variable reference. The # operator is still required to flag an equate call from
within a text body so it is retained for compatibility.
Equate calls can be given arguments as comma separated items between brackets. Each item must leave a value
on the stack. This is identical to just pushing arguments on the stack before calling the function, but is clearer,
and makes the separation of each argument more obvious. It also has the advantage that the brackets surround
effectively any equate and the same syntax can be used in text bodies (to pass field arguments for example). This
can be a useful way of doing some equate processing within the text body itself before calling the function. Note
that user defined macros will be expanded within a text body even if within the equate function call. A function
can be called with no arguments like f() if preferred. The comma separator is not necessary, any separator can be
used (or even none).

Text X IX .
AWK Patterns.
The first which matches on the default initial mode matches any character on the input stream (but leaves the
input stream as it is) jumps to the start of record mode, returning the start of record token in the process. In the start
of record mode there are three possible matching patterns. They match on whitespace, the null character and on the
newline character. Whitespace is ignored (so that multiple spaces and tabs in the input are not interpreted as multiple
fields), whereas the <null> flags the start of a field and sets the mode to start of field mode. Since the <null> is defined
after the pattern for whitespace it will only match when the input is not whitespace. The newline character (which
should actually also be defined above the <null> pattern) sets the mode back to the initial mode and flags the end of
the record. The remaining patterns only match in start of field mode. The three possible matching characters are the
delimiter (normally whitespace), any other character except newline, and the null character again. The order these are
declared in is important. A character which is a delimiter character will always match first and sets the mode back to
start of record mode (in preparation for another field or end of record) and flags the end of field). Otherwise the char­
acter will match the next pattern (except if newline) and this leaves the mode the same but flags that the character is
to be appended to the field definition. Finally on a newline the <null> character matches and flags the end of the field
and puts the mode back to start of record mode. Note that just matching a newline here (rather than null) wouldn’t
work as the newline signals the end of the record but would be taken off to flag the end of the field and end of record
would not then be flagged. So using the <null> matches the newline to return end of field but leaves the newline on
the input stream so tiiat in the start of record mode it can be matched by the last pattern definition to indicate the end
of the record. This is necessary since usually the last field does not have a delimiter after it.
60
 Text XX.
Using GUILE.
If your version of GURGLE has been compiled with support for GUILE (you will get a banner saying so when
you start it up) then you can define equates in the scheme language rather than the GURGLE language. The re­
sulting equates can be used in exactly the same way as those defined in the native language - they can be called
from native language equates and from text bodies. They cannot be used where a reversed equate is required.
A native language equate can pass any number of arguments to the GUILE equate (the types of which will be
silently mapped) and the GUILE equate can return a numeric or string argument to the native language equate.
From the GUILE side any native language equate can be directly called if it takes no arguments or only one argu­
ment and if it returns one argument this will be returned as the result. There are also some additional functions
that can be called from the GUILE side defined below. This support is relativelyA scheme equate is defined with
the EQGUILE predefined macro. Arguments must currently be given as a white space separated list following
the name of the equate (as seen from the native language side and the GUILE side). You should not include the
define construct as this will be wrapped around automatically (to include the specified arguments). Any define
commands used within the body of the scheme equate will only be visible from the GUILE side.

Text XXI.
Referring to Proprietary Programs3
Don’t in any circumstances refer to Unix source code for or during your work on GNU! (Or to any other pro­
prietary programs).
If you have a vague recollection of the internals of a Unix program, this does not absolutely mean you can’t
write an imitation of it, but do try to organize the imitation internally along different lines, because this is likely
to make the details of the Unix version irrelevant and dissimilar to your results.
For example, Unix utilities were generally optimized to minimize memory use; if you go for speed instead,
your program will be very different. You could keep the entire input file in memory and scan it there instead of us­
ing studio. Use a smarter algorithm discovered more recently than the Unix program. Eliminate use of temporary
files. Do it in one pass instead of two (we did this in the assembler).
Or, on the contrary, emphasize simplicity instead of speed. For some applications, the speed of today’s comput­
ers makes * ler algorithms adequate.
Or go winerality. For example, Unix programs often have static tables or fixed-size strings, which make
for arbitrary limits; use dynamic allocation instead. Make sure your program handles NULLs and other funny
characters in the input files. Add a programming language for extensibility and write part of the program in that
language.
Or turn some parts of the program into independently usable libraries. Or use a simple garbage collector in­
stead of tracking precisely when to free memory, or use a new GNU facility such as obstacles.

GNU Coding Standards http://www.gnu.org/prep/standards/standards.html

Горина Jl. М.
English for Students of Information Technologies. Учебное пособие.

Отпечатано в Отделе оперативной полиграфии МГППУ

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