Салье Т

ВЫСШЕЕ ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОЕ ОБРАЗОВАНИЕ
Т. Е.САЛЬЕ, Ю.М.ВАЛИЕВА, И.Н.ВОСКРЕСЕНСКАЯ
АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК ДЛЯ

СПЕЦИАЛЬНОСТИ «СВЯЗИ С
ОБЩЕСТВЕННОСТЬЮ»
ENGLISH FOR STUDENTS OF

COMMUNICATIONS
Головная(Республиканская) Научно-методическая библиотека ГУФК им. П.Ф. Лесгафта
Учебник
789168
789168
Рекомендовано Научно-методическим
советом по иностранным языкам Министерства образования и
науки Российской Федерации в качестве учебника для студентов
высших учебных заведений, обучающихся по специальности «Связи
с общественностью»
academ'a
Москва
Издательский центр «Академия» 2007
УДК 802.0(075.8) ББК 81.2Англ-923 С167
Авторы:
Т.Е.Салье (Units 1—43 — совместно с И.Н.Воскресенской, раздел 3 грамматического курса),
Ю.М.Валиева (лексический комментарий), И.Н.Воскресенская (Units 1—43 — совместно с
Т.Е.Салье, грамматический курс, кроме раздела 3)
Рецензенты:
доктор филологических наук, профессор кафедры английской филологии Российского
государственного педагогического университета им. А.И.Герцена
И. К. Архипов\
доктор филологических наук, профессор, зав. кафедрой английской филологии Санкт-
Петербургского государственного университета А. В. Зеленщиков',
кафедра английского языка Санкт-Петербургского университета экономики и финансов (зав.
кафедрой — кандидат филологических наук, доцент А. В. Набирухина)
Салье Т.Е.
С167 Английский язык для специальности «Связи с общественностью»
= English for Students of Communications : учебник для студ. фак.
журналиста™ и связей с общественностью высш. учеб. заведений
/ Т. Е. Салье, Ю. М. Валиева, И. Н. Воскресенская. — М. :
Издательский центр «Академия», 2007. — 512 с. ISBN 978-5-7695-
2083-9
Учебник содержит оригинальные тексты, заимствованные из английских и
американских научных, научно-популярных и общественно-политических изданий,
сопровождаемые лексическим и грамматическим комментариями, а также большое
количество упражнений. Основная цель книги — подготовить студентов к чтению
специальной литературы и обсуждению тем, связанных с многочисленными
проблемами современного общества (свобода слова, права человека, роль государства в
экономике и др.).
Для студентов факультетов журналистики и связей с общественностью высших
учебных заведений.
УДК 802.0(075.8)
ББК 81.2Англ-923
Оригинал-макет данного издания является собственностью Издательского центра

«Академия», воспроизведение его любым способом без согласия правообладателя запрещается
© Салье Т.Е., Валиева Ю. М., Воскресенская И. И., 2007 © Образовательно-издательский

центр «Академия», 2007 ISBN 978-5-7695-2083-9 © Оформление. Издательский центр
«Академия», 2007
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
Предлагаемый учебник адресован студентам 1 — 2 курса факультетов
журналистики и связей с общественностью высших учебных заведений.
Цель книги — подготовить студента к чтению специальной литературы и
обсуждению тем, связанных с многочисленными проблемами
современного общества — свободы слова, прав человека, религии и
свободы совести, прав меньшинств, роли государства в экономике,
охраны окружающей среды — и многих других.
Уроки построены на основе оригинальных текстов, взятых из
английских и американских научных, научно-популярных и об-
щественно-политических изданий. В упражнениях и примерах авторы
использовали американскую орфографию и транскрипцию.
Тексты сопровождаются лексическим и грамматическим ком-
ментариями. Работа с текстом включает разбор содержащихся в нем
трудностей; ответы на вопросы; выполнение разнообразных упражнений
по изучаемой тематике, направленных на закрепление лексического и
грамматического материала, представленного в уроке; обсуждение
затронутой проблематики и пересказ.
Одна из целей данного курса — научить студентов переводить с
русского языка на английский специальные и публицистические тексты,
чему служат упражнения на перевод как отдельных предложений, так и
целых статей.
Ряд текстов посвящен неоднозначным проблемам современного
общества, таким как свобода слова, совести и религии; этическим
вопросам, связанным с ростом численности населения, смертной казнью
и т.д. Их цель — ознакомить студентов с темами, постоянно
обсуждаемыми в западном обществе, помочь им выработать свою точку
зрения и научиться ее аргументировать. Обсуждение спорных вопросов
помогает научиться вести беседу, прислушиваться к мнению
собеседника, отстаивать свою позицию в споре, не обижая оппонента.
Опыт авторов показывает, что именно такие дискуссии способствуют
формированию навыков спонтанной речи, возбуждают интерес и
помогают молодому человеку лучше ориентироваться в современной
проблематике.
Грамматический курс представляет собой отдельный раздел учебника.
Его задача — научить студента переводить сложные специальные и
публицистические тексты и привить навыки грамотной английской речи,
как устной, так и письменной. Из курса исключены темы, уже изученные
в средней школе, в частности употребление времен в активе. Как правило,
коррекция ошибок, связанных с этими темами, осуществляется в
процессе изучения нового материала. Главный упор делается на
грамматических явлениях, представляющих сложность как в плане
перевода, так и в плане активного освоения языка, — неличных формах
глагола, сослагательном наклонении, употреблении союзов и др.
Особая часть учебника — лексический комментарий. Он не является
словарем, поскольку заведомо не включает всех лексем, встречающихся
в текстах учебника, а содержит слова, представляющие трудность для
3-
перевода в силу своей многозначности и отсутствия единого эквивалента
в русском языке, такие как to involve, to account for, subject, exposure,
advocate и др. Студенту при чтении текста предлагается обратиться к
лексическому комментарию, затем выполнить упражнения на перевод
предложений с английского языка на русский и с русского на английский.
Такой подход, по мнению авторов, способствует более прочному
усвоению лексики.
В целом все материалы учебника направлены на достижение трех
целей: привить навыки грамотной английской речи и перевода, научить
студентов участвовать в дискуссиях, посвященных неоднозначным
проблемам, и максимально расширить их культурный и общественно-
политический кругозор.
УСЛОВНЫЕ ОБОЗНАЧЕНИЯ И СОКРАЩЕНИЯ
Beware of False Friends of the Translator!
— Don't Confuse!
— Revise
— Pay Attention!
Ь — The Use in Special Context
Country-specific Information
The Use of Modals and Auxiliaries
MUS — The Use of Conjunctions

T
adj —AND adjective зд. — здесь

Am — American English изд. — издательское дело
ant. — antonym лат. — латинский
Br - British English лит. — литература
С- countable мат. — математика
colloq. — colloquial мед. — медицина
conj — conjunction напр. — например
esp. especially особ. — особенно
[.at. — Latin полит. — политика
n— noun рус. — русский
pi. - plural < см. — смотри
syn. — synonym г ср. — сравни
и- uncountable сущ. — существительное
v— verb . ■. фото — фотография
биол. — биология эк. — экономика
грам. — грамматика юр. — юриспруденция
? P a r t 1 LEARN
HOW TO STUDY
U n i t 1 . LEARN HOW TO REMEMBER
ГРАММАТИКА
Союз и наречие yet Конверсия
Условное предложение с модальным глаголом to be
Употребление пассивного залога в Present Progressive
Слово-заместитель that Отрицание в конструкциях с
инфинитивом
TEXT
Read and translate the text, paying close attention to the words in bold type and
the structures underlined. Below you will find special explanations and exercises
devoted to these words and structures.
Memory
If you do not use your arms and legs for some time, they become weak;
when you start using them again, they slowly become strong again.
Everybody knows this, and nobody would question this fact. Yet there are
many people who do not seem to know that memory works in the same way.
When someone says that he has a good memory, he really means that he
keeps his memory in practice by exercising it regularly, either consciously or
unconsciously. When someone else says that his memory is poor, he really
means that he does not give it enough opportunity to become strong. The
position is exactly the same as that of two people one of whom exercises his
arms and legs by playing tennis, while the other sits in a chair or in a car all
day.
If a friend complains that his arms are weak, we know that it is his own
fault. But if he tells us that he has a poor memory, many of us think
6
that his parents are to blame, or that he is just unlucky, and few of us realize
that it is just as much his own fault as if it was his arms and legs that were
weak. Not all of us can become extremely strong or extremely clever; but all
of us can, if we have ordinary bodies and brains, improve our strength and
our memory by the same means — practice. If your memory is to improve,
it must be exercised daily.
Have you ever noticed that people who cannot read or write usually have
better memories than those who can? Why is this? Of course, because those
who cannot read or write have to remember things: they cannot write them
down in a little notebook. They have to remember dates, times and prices,
names, songs and stories; so their memory is the whole time being exercised.
So, if you want a good memory, learn to practice remembering.
Commentary to the Text

Pay attention to the male bias of this text and some texts in the other units.
An abstract person is referred to as he. In order to avoid gender bias you may
say "he or she" or "they" when the person's gender is unimportant.
Answer the following questions:
1. What do teachers do to develop their students' memory?
2. What useful means of training one's memory can you suggest?
3. Do you think people still need memory — when computers can store
information better than a human mind and provide it instantly?
4. Do you think that having a good memory is important in your
profession?
5. What techniques do you use to improve your own memory?
6. When you have children or students of your own, what will you do to
help them develop their memory?
Vocabulary Study and Practice

I. Отрицательные приставки (unconsciously, unlucky) служат для
образования антонимов от различных частей речи: ил-: reasonable —
unreasonable ( a d j ) reality
' load in-: — unload ( v ) unreality (n)
visible ability invisible ( a d j )
im-: possible inability ( n )
impossible
(adj)
mortality immortality
mobilize (n)
immobilize ( v )
7
il-: legal — illegal ( a d j )
ir-: regular — irregular ( a d j ) dis-: honest — dishonest ( a d j ) order
— disorder (n) like — dislike ( v )
de-: escalate — deescalate ( v )
II. Глаголы to keep и to hold соответствуют русскому глаголу
держать, но to hold имеет значение физического действия (держать за
руку, в руке), a to keep — значение «держать, хранить» и употребляется
в таких выражениях, как держать обещание, держать в курсе дела и
т. д. Другие значения глагола to hold см. в лексическом комментарии и
в Unit 15.
Exercise 1. Find synonyms of the following words and phrases in the text:
bad, to make better, to understand, to practice.
Exercise 2. Translate the following sentences into Russian, paying attention to
the words in bold type. First, look these words up in the dictionary, keeping in mind
their various meanings; remember also that they may belong to different parts of
speech.
A. 1.1 don't know what this word means. 2.1 am sorry if I said anything
rude, I didn't mean to offend you. 3. He has bought a lot of books and means
to read them all. 4. Modern society needs a reliable means of communicating
rapidly over long distances. 5. The teacher must find means of presenting
knowledge in such a way as to minimize waste of time and effort in the
process. 6. Before the appearance of a cheap newspaper, the standard
newspapers usually were edited for people of means, and that can explain
the preponderance of conservatism in the press. 7. Payment for goods by
means of cheques and credit cards is very convenient. 8. This problem is by
no means easy.
B. 1. They kept their doors permanently locked. 2. We ask people to
keep in touch with us. 3. Jeremy always keeps his promises. 4. Mary keeps
a notebook in the kitchen for shopping lists. 5. Since I read this book, I keep
thinking about it. 6. John keeps a dog. 7.1 used to live with my aunt. She
kept a sweet-shop. 8. The manager always kept her subordinates well
informed about the business.
C. 1.1 was a student then and very poor. 2. They lived in a poor part of
the city. 3. The quality of the photograph was poor. 4. My sister was a poor
swimmer; I was always nervous when she was in the water. 5. In spite of her
poor health Mary continued working. 6. John has been sleeping poorly
lately. 7. My English is still poor, I'm afraid. 8. The farmers had a difficult
time with the poor land. ,,, ,,i ■> ...
D. 1. I don't suppose he will realize his dream. 2. Samuel realized he
had made a mistake.
Grammar Study and Practice
I. Everybody knows this... Yet there are many people who do not seem
to know that memory works in the same way. — Все это знают... Однако
многие люди, по-видимому, не понимают, что память работает так же.
8
Слово yet может играть роль союза и переводиться как однако, все-
таки, все же, тем не менее.
Наречие yet в утвердительных предложениях переводится как (все)
еще, в вопросительных — уже, в отрицательных — еще не.
We may win yet. — Мы (все) еще можем победить.
Have you read this book yet? — Вы уже читали эту книгу?
I haven't read this book yet. — Я еще не читал эту книгу.
Exercise 3. Translate the following sentences into Russian:
I. Mary knows Jack very well, but she hasn't met his parents yet. 2. Have
you had your lunch yet? 3. It will not be dark for half an hour yet. 4. The
director managed the company with a firm yet gentle hand. 5. John's Spanish
was poor at the time, yet he tried to practice it as much as possible. 6. We
never have enough time, yet we have all the time there is.
II. ...nobody would question this fact. — ...никто не будет оспаривать
этот факт.
В приведенном примере слово question — глагол, поскольку стоит
после вспомогательного глагола would и является частью сказуемого.
Свойство слова выступать в качестве различных частей речи в зави-
симости от его синтаксической функции называется конверсией.
Exercise 4. Translate the following sentences into Russian. Point out which parts
of speech the words in bold type belong to. Explain why.
1. The idea that language mirrors thought goes back to the most ancient
philosophy. 2. There was a big full-length mirror in the bedroom. 3. Ethnic
grievances and poverty fuel powerful nationalist passions in many parts of
the world.4.The membership of this organization numbers half a million. 5.
A student must use every opportunity to further her education. 6. These
experiments give valuable information for further research. 7. This group
thought that they could focus entirely on environmental activities. 8. As the
Sierra Club (an environmental group in the USA) was fighting against the
flooding of the Great Canyon in 1966, its membership mushroomed.
III. If your memory is to improve, it must be exercised daily. — Для
того чтобы/Если вы хотите, чтобы ваша память улучшилась, ее надо
регулярно тренировать.
Сочетание to be + infinitive в составе условного предложения
служит для выражения цели. Глагол to be в этом случае имеет мо-
дальное значение намерения, желания, а главное предложение
содержит идею долженствования, оформляемую модальным глаголом
must. (Грамматический курс, 4.7)
1. If students are to read widely on their subject, faculty libraries must be
adequately stocked. 2. If the economy is to improve, the inflation rate must
be brought down. 3. If the students are to acquire a good command of English,
they must talk regularly to native speakers. 4. If we are to begin early
tomorrow, we must go to bed now. 5. Freedom of speech is essential if
individuals, and ultimately society as a whole, are to determine what the truth
is and which are the best ideas.
9
IV. ...their memory is the whole time being exercised. — ...их память
постоянно тренируется.
Пассивный залог в Present Progressive широко употребляется в
выпусках радио- и теленовостей. (Грамматический курс, 2.1)
Exercise 6 . Translate the following sentences into Russian:
1. A new round of Arab-Israeli negotiations is being held in Washington.
2. The businessman is being criminally prosecuted for tax evasion. 3. Nego-
tiations are being conducted between the government and the opposition
leaders. 4. The press must watch budgets and programs to see if the public's
tax money is being spent properly. 5. As the 16th century began, printing
presses were turning out thousands of copies of books printed on paper. They
were being published in all European languages. 6. In the second half of the
19th century, experiments were being carried out successfully that were
prerequisite to motion pictures and wireless telegraphy (radio).
V. The position is exactly the same as that of two people... — Это
положение похоже на положение двух человек...
Указательное местоимение that (those) может употребляться для
замены предшествующего существительного во избежание его
повторения (position).
Exercise 7. Translate the following sentences into Russian, repeating or omitting
the noun replaced by the pronoun that:
1. No task is more important today than that of stopping terrorism. 2. The
field of sociology is especially close to those of psychology and
anthropology. 3. Females in modern society have an average life span of 7
years longer than that of males. 4. One of the language teacher's major
problems is that of forming groups for instruction. 5. The US wage levels are
many times more than those of workers in other parts of the world. 6. The
first telephone invented by Alexander Bell bore little resemblance to those
found now in every country in the world. 7. England has always been part of
Europe, and her history is inseparable from that of continental Europe. 8. In
high school, reading interests of girls differ greatly from those of boys.
- .„
VI. ...many people... do not seem to know... — ...многие люди... по-
видимому, не знают...
В субъектной конструкции с инфинитивом отрицание, которое
семантически (по смыслу) принадлежит инфинитиву, ставится при
сказуемом.
1. I didn't come here to quarrel with you. 2. Students don't seem to
understand this rule at once. 3. The dog doesn't appear to like this food. 4.
We didn't take a taxi to wait here for two hours. 5. Mary didn't read this book
just for pleasure; it was on the faculty reading-list.
10
TRANSLATION PRACTICE
Exercise 9. Translate the following sentences into English, using the words and
structures from the text and exercises above:
1. Если вы хотите иметь хорошую память, ее надо регулярно
тренировать. 2. Для того чтобы школьники много читали, в школе
должна быть хорошая библиотека. 3. Сейчас в столице проходят
переговоры между правительством и лидерами оппозиции. 4. Я все
время думаю об этой книге. 5. Когда я вошла, мой брат не заметил меня
и продолжал читать. 6. Пожалуйста, держите нас в курсе дела. 7.
Историю Англии невозможно отделить от истории континентальной
Европы. 8. Эту теорию сейчас подвергают сомнению. 9. Язык отражает
сознание. 10. Мы не для того брали такси, чтобы потом ждать два часа.
11. Студенты, по-видимому, не знают этого автора. 12. Билл всегда
держит свои обещания. 13. Где вы держите старые газеты? 14. Мери
держала в руке карандаш. 15. Вы уже сдали экзамены? 16. Джек был
очень болен, но все же продолжал работать.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 10. Comment on the following statements, using the vocabulary and
grammar from the text and exercises above:
1. The true art of memory is the art of attention (Paul Johnson, 1928—)
2. Memory is the thing you forget with. (Alexander Thompson Chase,
1926—)
3. Memory, of all the powers of the mind, is the most delicate and frail.
(Ben Johnson, 1573—1637)
Exercise 11. Discuss the role of memory in your education. Work in pairs.
V WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 12. Agree or disagree with the following statement. Write or print a
short essay (200 — 250 words) in support of your opinion.
Modern people don't need memory. Computers remember things for
them.
U n i t 2. LEARN HOW TO READ
Существительное в функции определения
Инфинитив в функции подлежащего Инфинитив в
функции именной части сказуемого
TEXT
11
Reading
Reading, as we now view it, is more than seeing words clearly, more than
pronouncing printed words correctly, more than recognizing the meaning of
individual words. When we read, we must think, feel and use our
imagination. The use that one makes of his reading largely determines what
he reads, why he reads and how he reads.
Reading is first of all a visual task. The reader has to identify individual
letters and words. Secondly, reading is associating the printed word with its
meaning. The third essential of the reading process is to understand the
meaning of a passage. Comprehension may involve various degrees of
thinking.
There is still another dimension of reading — reading and acting. As one
reads, he has feelings, mild or intense. He likes or dislikes the story, he agrees
or disagrees with it; not only does the reader get ideas — ideas get him.
Reading is responding.
Effective reading is purposeful; it is used in some way — to learn about
the nature of the world and of people; to enjoy leisure hours: to secure
information for solving problems; or to discover how to act in various
situations. The end result of reading is personal and social development.
There are many levels of comprehension. On the lower level, the reader
understands the meaning of individual words and phrases. This requires an
understanding of the language structure. Grammar and punctuation are an aid
to understanding at this level. In reading one has constant opportunities to
observe sentence structure in relation to sentence meaning and to use
punctuation and grammar to facilitate the grasp of meaning.
On the higher levels, reading involves getting the meaning from the
printed page by relating it to our experience and background. We can
understand a text on nuclear physics at the lexical and syntactic level, but we
can never grasp the meaning of the text unless we know some nuclear
physics.
Reading the lines, reproducing the author's words is merely parroting. To
translate the author's thoughts in our own words is more difficult.
Interpretation or critical reading involves grasping implied meanings or
reading between the lines. Whether or not the reader brings meaning to the
printed word depends on his background of experience, his purpose in
reading, his attitudes and points of view and his mental ability.
Critical reading involves the examination of ideas. Students should
examine a generalization, state it in their own words, note the evidence
offered in support of it, check it against their own experience and
information, and finally give their own appraisal of the statement.
12
Reading is a thinking process and thinking requires effort. The reader
cannot sit passively and expect the meaning to come to him. In this respect,
it differs from watching television. In the latter medium, the thinking has
been done by the producer, whose aim is to entertain. Entertainment
encourages passivity. Books encourage one to stop and think. The reader can
consider all sides of a question, enjoy an idea as it is presented, compare,
question, reconsider. He can delve more deeply into the meaning.
(from The Improvement of Reading by R.M.Strang, С. M.
McCullough, A. E. Traxler)
1. What are the essential stages of reading?
2. What levels of comprehension do you know? '
3. What does "reading between the lines" mean?
4. What is the difference between reading and watching television?
5. What is the use of recreational reading?
6. At what age did you learn to read? Describe your reading habits and
the importance of reading in your life.
I. Отрицательная приставка dis- (to dislike, to disagree) может

выражать как отрицание, так и противоположное значение. Сравните:
approve — disapprove достоинство — недостаток
одобрять — не одобрять appear — disappear
agree — disagree появляться — исчезать
соглашаться — не соглашаться
advantage —
disadvantage
Exercise 1. Find antonyms to the following words: /
to like, to organize, to please, loyal, order, respect.
II. Глаголы to solve (сущ. solution) и to decide (сущ. decision) озна-
чают «решать», но to solve употребляется, когда речь идет о решении
проблемы, и сочетается с существительным (to solve a problem), a to
decide — для выражения намерения совершить действие (She decided
to read this book).
Exercise 2. Find synonyms of the following words in the text:
understanding, to obtain, to react, a purpose.
the words in bold type. First, look these words up in the dictionary, keeping in mind
their various meanings; remember also that they may belong to different parts of
speech.
13
A. 1. Interviewing, broadly, involves asking questions that elicit a
response.
2. Major American corporations are involved in numerous projects to
improve the level of science and math instruction in American schools.
3. No teaching can take place if the person who is being taught is not
involved in it. 4. Carrying large sums of money involves considerable risk
of lost or theft. 5. Research work involves the ability to observe individual
facts and draw conclusions. 6. We usually like our job better if we are
involved in a task that suits our temperament and attitudes. 7. The most
valuable type of public relations activity involves planning to prevent
problems or at least solve them while they are still small.
B. 1. They tried to secure the bridge from any further attack. 2. The
candidate secured only 526 votes. 3. I spent the morning securing their
agreement. 4. It was a time when authority was secure and unchallenged. 5.
The chain seemed to be securely fastened. 6. Security forces were patrolling
the streets. 7. Children count on their parents for love and security. 8. He
gets more on social security than he got when he was working. 9. In 1534,
King Henry VIII ordered printers to secure royal permission to operate.
C. 1. The student prepared her first broadcast with the aid of her
professor. 2. Media interviews are usually handled by the chief executive
officer (CEO) with the aid of the PR person. 3. My grandmother wanted to
listen to the radio and turned on her hearing aid. 4. The government decided
to send humanitarian aid to the countries affected by the earthquake. 5. The
wounded were given first aid. 6. Every car must have a first-aid kit.
D. 1. The journalist described the economic background of the current
political crisis. 2. The epidemic broke out against a background of poor
housing conditions. 3. The artist depicted a group of people against a back-
ground of trees. 4. Mary always keeps herself in the background. 5. The
company inquired onto the family and social background of the new
employees. 6. A PR practitioner working in industry needs a strong
background in the social sciences and business.
E. 1. She stated positively that she had never seen that man. 2. At that
time, France was in a state of war. 3. The State of Israel was established in
1948. 4. Her state of health is poor at the moment. 5. How many states are
there in the United States of America?
I. Если два существительных следуют непосредственно одно за

другим, первое служит определением ко второму: reading process —
процесс чтения leisure hours — часы отдыха end result — конечный
результат
language structure — структура языка sentence
structure — структура предложения sentence
meaning — смысл предложения thinking
process — мыслительный процесс
attributive phrases:
14 I. The Gallup Poll is the best known public opinion survey organization
in the USA. 2. The experimenter traced the eye movements of children in the
process of reading. 3. Phonetics is a branch of linguistics studying speech
sounds. 4. Since World War II, newspaper circulation has increased, but it
has failed to keep pace with population growth. 5. Television is primarily an
entertainment medium, while a newspaper is primarily an information
medium. 6. In 1990, the first multi-party elections were held in Mongolia. 7.
A public relations practitioner must use scientific public opinion research
extensively.
II. To translate the author's thoughts in our own words is more difficult.
— Передать мысли автора своими словами труднее.
Инфинитив в начале предложения может быть как подлежащим, так
и обстоятельством цели. Для разграничения этих функций и,
соответственно, правильного перевода следует проанализировать все
предложение — если в нем есть «другое» подлежащее, то инфинитив
служит обстоятельством цели; в противном случае инфинитив является
подлежащим. (Грамматический курс, 3.1.2.1)
the use of the infinitive:
1. To prevent quarrels between the members of the group is the leader's
duty. 2. Her welcoming glance was affectionate and happy. Just to see her so
made him feel better. 3. Control over the actions of others is one of the
strongest temptations in the world. To be able to give an order and see it
executed satisfies one of our deepest needs. 4. Homecoming was the chief
event of the day now. To enter the flat in Martin Street and close the door
gave him a feeling of security and relaxation. 5. To see the cockpit of a
modern airplane was very interesting. 6. The car couldn't move forward
because there was a traffic jam in front of it. To go back and try alternate
route was equally impossible. 7. There was a time when to receive a telegram
made his heart stand still. He was always waiting for bad news. 8. What are
the psychological aspects of reading? To answer this requires a brief glance
at the psychology of perception. 9. To settle the conflict, the government had
to hold long negotiations with the opposition. 10. To see the engine in the
darkness, Jeremy used a torch.
III. The third essential of the reading process is to understand the
meaning of a passage. — Третий важный элемент чтения состоит в
том, чтобы понять смысл абзаца.
Инфинитив может выполнять функцию именной части составного
именного сказуемого. Такой оборот часто переводится при помощи
слов состоит в том, чтобы, заключается в том, чтобы.
(Грамматический курс, 3.1.2.2)
the infinitive as a part of the predicate:
1. Mary's plan was to leave London at once. 2. The purpose of this
organization is to provide humanitarian aid for the residents of the slum. 3.
Christopher Columbus' original purpose was to find an ocean route to India.
4. The duty of the mass media is to inform the public about the events. 5. The
function of a PR practitioner is to create a positive image of the organization.
6. The purpose of the poll was to find out how many teenagers were addicted
to drugs.
1. Чтение требует внимания. 2. К сожалению, я с вами не согласен.
3. Мы читаем научные книги, чтобы получить необходимую
информацию. 4. Цель этой программы — обеспечить гуманитарную
помощь жертвам землетрясения. 5. Научная работа требует умения
наблюдать факты и делать выводы. 6. Решить эту проблему будет очень
трудно. 7. Ученые ищут решение этой проблемы. 8. Студенты решили
обсудить эту книгу в группе. 9. Офицер должен уметь быстро
принимать решения. 10.. Функция СМИ — информировать общество о
текущих событиях. 1-1. Кандидату удалось получить только
16
647 голосов. 12. Силы безопасности патрулировали здание. 13. Мой
дедушка потерял свой слуховой аппарат. Надо купить ему новый.
14. Каждый полицейский должен уметь оказывать первую помощь.
15. Эта работа связана с риском. 16. В каждом автомобиле должна быть
аптечка.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 8. Comment on the following statements:
1. Reading after a certain time diverts the mind too much from its
creative pursuits. Any man who reads too much and uses his own brain too
little falls into lazy habits of thinking. (Albert Einstein, 1879— 1955)
2. I do not know any reading more easy, more fascinating, more
delightful than a catalogue. (Anatole France, 1844— 1924)
3. Reading is to the mind what exercise is to the body. (Sir Richard Steele,
1672-1729)
Exercise 9. Discuss your own reading practices. Work in pairs.
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 10. Write or print a short essay (200 — 250 words) about the use of
recreational reading. If you think recreation reading a useless pastime, don't hesitate
to write so and to explain why.
%
4) X
Unit 3. LEARN HOW TO LISTEN
Перевод герундиальных оборотов Инфинитив в функции
дополнения и глаголы, управляющие инфинитивом
Неопределенно-личное местоимение one в качестве
подлежащего
Прилагательное + инфинитив в функции именной части
сказуемого
TEXT
Read and translate the text, navine close attention to the words in bold type and the
structures underlined. Below you «ЩГФДО BH<Jal« filiation > and exercises devoted
to these words and <jtructHes.IL<I>. Лесгафта,
Санкт-Петербург»
17
Библио тека
The Purpose of Lectures
Lectures are designed to help you find your way through rapidly extending
fields of knowledge, to stimulate your interest in a subject and provoke you to
think about it and to provide you with a balanced and up- to-date survey of a
particular field of knowledge. Lectures must be amplified by your own reading
and thinking about the subject.
The technique of extracting information from lectures differs from the
technique of reading. You must not think that listening means passively writing
down what your lecturers say. It is an active process: you must take note as well
as take notes. The good lecturer will arrange his material in logical order, clarify
the most important concepts and will probably repeat or emphasize the significant
points. He may, especially if his subject is a language, a science, a technology or
a medical subject, aid your understanding by making frequent use of the
blackboard. It is highly likely that he will present his material in such a way as to
stimulate your interest in his subject, provoking you to think further about it and
to read further in it. To be a good listener, you must listen with critical intelligence
to what is being said, perceive what is fundamental and seek to relate what is being
said to your previous knowledge. You must not be a passive and uncritical
absorber of information. Remember that what you take away from a lecture
depends to no small degree on what you bring to it.
What notes should one take? Should one concentrate on listening to a lecture
and take no notes, but attempt to reconstruct it later on, or attempt to take it down
verbatim, or aim at some compromise between these two extremes? The
compromise solution is the most workable solution. One should never attempt to
make a verbatim report of a lecture. In any case, that will be impossible, unless
one writes shorthand, or the lecturer goes at a dictating speed, in which event he
will be dull to listen to. If you attempt to record every word of a lecture delivered
at a normal speed, you will soon find that you lose the train of the lecturer's thought
and that your interest and attention begin to flag. Think about what is being said
and use your own words for recording it except when something is said which
needs to be taken down verbatim; it compels us to participate in the learning
process, it aids our memory of the lecture and makes it possible for us to review it
later on. To do this effectively is an extremely difficult feat, but this is the most
effective way of listening to a lecture.
(from The Art of Study by A. Laing)
1. What is the purpose of lectures?
2. What is the difference between listening to a lecture and reading a book?
18
3. Why can't we just put down the lecture verbatim?
4. How can the lecturer aid the student's understanding of his subject?
5. Why can't lectures be delivered at a dictating speed?
I. Суффикс -fy (-ify) (to amplify, to clarify) служит для образования от

прилагательных и существительных глаголов, от которых, в свою очередь,
образуются существительные:
ample — amplify — amplification
clear — clarify — clarification
just — justify — justification
class — classify — classification
mode — modify — modification
satis (Lat. enough) — satisfy — satisfaction
II. Обратите внимание на многозначность следующих слов:
technique — 1. техника, мастерство, умение; 2. технический прием;
способ, метод; методика
technology — 1. техника, технические науки; 2. технология; 3. тех-
нические средства, аппаратура; 4. технический прием; способ, метод;
методика
intelligence — 1. интеллект; 2. информация; 3. разведка; Intelligence
Service разведывательная служба Великобритании; Central Intelligence
Agency (CIA) Центральное разведывательное управление США (ЦРУ)
intelligent — умный, разумный интеллигентный — cultured,
educated интеллигенция — intelligentsia {рус. заимствование)
лу III. to take note — to be attentive, to pay attention ■
to take notes — to write down important points
important, to try, to help, to write down, to enlarge.
Exercise 2. Translate the following sentences into Russian, paying attention to the
words in bold type. First, look these words up in the dictionary, keeping in mind their
various meanings; remember also that they may belong to different parts of speech.
A. 1. There are different ways of cooking fish. 2. When a person wants to say
something, he will find a way to say it. 3. This problem can be solved in several
ways. 4. Sociology is interested in the way groups interact with one another and
with the institutions they develop. 5. I never like the way doctors speak to you. 7.
Thank you for helping my brother the way
19
you have. 7. It is disgusting the way taxes keep going up. 8. The reporter changed
the story the way the editor wanted. 9. Much of what we do, even the way we
think, is based on habit. 10. The way you spend your time determines your life.
11. Technology has strongly affected the way newspapers are published.
B. 1. Without order, stability is impossible. 2. We must put the house in
order. 3. The duty of the police is to maintain order. 4. They came into the
restaurant and ordered dinner. 5. It is possible now to order goods by e-mail. 6.
At the restaurant, a waiter came to take their order. 7. The general ordered the
soldiers to storm the building. 8. The district court ordered the hospital closed. 9.
He had to hurry in order to reach the town before dark. 10. Many people learn
English in order to be able to travel.
C. 1. The needle of the compass points to the North. 2. All the evidence points
to his guilt. 3. I like the report in general, but there are points I object to. 4. Your
point of view will be discussed at the conference. 5.1 must point out that you are
making a mistake. 6. The astronomer pointed his telescope to the Moon. 7. At the
museum, he pointed out the finest pictures to me. 8. There is no point in asking
him questions. He will not tell us anything. 9. She was not listening and missed
the point of the story.
D. 1. US schools spend hundreds of millions of dollars each year on
technology. 2. Such programs are a poor use of expensive technology. 3. William
Caxton, the first English printer, learned the technique of printing in Germany. 4.
Mary learned modern management techniques in college. 5. People adopt certain
techniques for getting along in life. 6. As early as 2500 ВС, Native Americans
living in Massachusetts developed sophisticated fishing techniques. 7. The
technique of reading differs in many important respects from the technique of
extracting information from lectures. 8. If you have never learned about the best
studying techniques, you probably waste time and effort in your studying.
E. 1. He was recruited as a translator for the US military intelligence. 2.
Artificial intelligence is the study of how to make computers work in an
intelligent way. 3. Are their intelligent life forms on other planets? 4. The boy
was intelligent and his father tried to give him a good education.
F. 1. She didn't like to speak of her health and changed the subject. 2.
Geography was my favorite subject at school. 3. British subjects are allowed to
enter the country at all times. 4. He is subject to colds. 5. This area is subject to
floods. 6. The police are — like the rest of us — subject to the law. 7. The air
bases were subjected to an intense air attack.

I. You must not think that listening means passively writing down what your
lecturers say. — He надо думать, что слушать — это значит пассивно
записывать слова лектора.
Герундиальные обороты (passively writing down) переводятся
инфинитивом, деепричастным оборотом или придаточным предложением, а
также отглагольным существительным. (Грамматический курс, 3.2.1—
3.2.3)
20
I. The librarian of the school was very skillful in choosing suitable books, in
setting up many attractive displays, in acquainting students with the use of the
library and in helping those who needed guidance. 2. If you have a plastic card,
you can buy what you want, when you want, without having to carry around loose
cash. 3. Successful companies make money by offering high-quality products and
services their customers want. 4. Writing is the act of putting words on paper or
on a computer screen or of dictating words to a machine or a secretary. 5. In
interpersonal communication, hearing denotes perceiving sounds. Listening
means decoding and interpreting them correctly. 6. Companies have to earn the
goodwill of the people by acting, not by selling a false image. 7. "Fighting crime
and terrorism" is no justification for violating human rights. 8. Scribes in
monasteries kept literacy alive by transcribing ancient literary and religious works
onto parchment.
II. You must... seek to relate what is being said to your previous knowledge.
— Вы должны стремиться соотнести то, что говорит лектор, с тем, что вы
уже знаете.
Ряд глаголов и словосочетаний изменяют свое значение в сочетании с
инфинитивом в функции дополнения, приобретая значения возможности,
желания, долженствования и попытки осуществить действие. Так, глагол to
seek в сочетании с инфинитивом имеет значение «пытаться, стремиться что-
л. сделать». (Грамматический курс, 3.1.2.5)
1. During the Civil Rights movement, African Americans sought to secure
their voting rights. 2. At the great library at Alexandria, scholars seeking to codify
the knowledge of the ages accumulated more than half a million scrolls. 3.
Correspondents seek to tell as much as possible as soon as possible. 4. The UN
managed to prevent the conflict. 5. All the hotels in the city were overcrowded,
but the tourists managed to find a room. 6. She ached to know what had happened
to him. 7. Dan was very angry, but he fought to control his temper. 8. David was
very anxious to get back to his farm, to see his horses and his dogs. 9. I've taken
the liberty to write to the President recommending you for this post. 10. Benjamin
was in no mood to talk to his brother. 11. I am dying to see your new book. 12.1
didn't bother to take off my overcoat. Would you care to lunch with me?
III. Should one concentrate on listening and take no notes...? — Следует ли
сосредоточиться на слушании и не делать записей...?
One should never attempt to make a verbatim report of a lecture. — He
следует пытаться записать лекцию дословно.
...unless one writes shorthand... — ...если не стенографировать...
Предложения с подлежащим, выражаемым неопределенно-личным
местоимением one, часто переводятся неопределенно-личными
предложениями, а при наличии модального глагола — безличными
предложениями с модальными словами можно, нужно, следует, нельзя.
21
1. To speak and understand a language, one must know the meaning of its
words and grammatical structures. 2. One can't help noticing the ineradicable
southern intonations in this author's novels. 3. Through reading, one can
understand and appreciate the common achievements and goals of the whole
human family and the unique contribution of every nation. 4. To make an accurate
interpretation of the meaning of a story, one must take into account time and place,
the author's intent and purpose and other factors. 5. The use that one makes of his
reading largely determines what he reads, why he reads and how he reads. 6. As
one reads, he has feelings, mild or intense.
IV. ...he [lecturer] will be dull to listen to. — ...его [лектора] будет скучно
слушать.
Предложения с составным сказуемым, именная часть которого выражена
конструкцией «прилагательное + инфинитив», переводятся безличным
предложением со сказуемым — безлично-предикативным словом (скучно).
При этом подлежащее (he) является объектом действия, выраженного
инфинитивом (to listen). Обратите внимание на конечное положение
предлога в подобных конструкциях. (Грамматический курс, 3.1.2.4)
1. These people are nice to work with. 2. This smooth paper is pleasant to write
upon. 3. The future is difficult to predict. 4. The answers to these questions are not
easy to get. 5. This phenomenon is difficult to explain.
1. He следует пытаться записать лекцию дословно. 2. Многие предметы
в университете были для него слишком трудны. 3. С этим человеком
интересно разговаривать. 4. Слушать — это не значит дословно записывать
то, что говорит лектор. 5. Если лекция скучная, внимание студентов
начинает ослабевать. 6. На этой бумаге приятно писать. 7. Стрелка компаса
указывает на север. 8. Ваши успехи в университете зависят от того, как вы
слушаете лекции. 9. Я должен отметить несколько ошибок в вашей работе.
10. У этого пианиста прекрасная техника. 11. Ученые работают над
созданием искусственного интеллекта. 12. Существует несколько способов
приготовления этого мяса. 13. Это племя выработало сложные приемы
охоты. 14. Бессмысленно задавать ему вопросы. Он все равно ничего не
скажет. 15. Если вы пойдете в этот ресторан, не заказывайте рыбу. Ее там
плохо готовят. 16. Ее книги всегда в порядке. 17. Генерал приказал солдатам
штурмовать здание. 18. Его поведение трудно оправдать. 19. Чтобы быть
понятым, лектор должен разъяснить основные понятия. 20. Многие люди
изучают иностранные языки, чтобы иметь возможность путешествовать.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 8. Comment on the author's statement:
22
What you take away from a lecture depends to no small degree on what you
bring to it.
Comment on the following statement:
Listening is a magnetic and strange thing, a creative force. The friends who
listen to us are the ones we move toward, and we want to sit in their radius. When
we are listened to, it creates us, makes us unfold and expand. (Karl Menninger,
1918—1998)
Exercise 9. Discuss the various studying techniques described in the units above
(memorizing, reading and listening to lectures). Work in pairs.
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 10. Write or print a short essay commenting on the following statement:
Now that students can read all the materials they need in books or online,
lectures are absolutely useless.
Part 2
WELCOME TO THE PROFESSION
Unit 4. PEOPLE, GOVERNMENT AND COMMUNICATION
Употребление страдательного залога с предлогами
Предложения с вводящей конструкцией there is/ there are
TEXT
Read and translate the text, paying close attention to the words in bold type and the
structures underlined. Below you will find special explanations and exercises devoted to
these words and structures.
People, Government and Communication

Communication is the process of transmitting information from one individual
or group to another. Mass communication is the process by which individuals or
groups transmit information to large, heterogeneous and widely dispersed
audiences. The term mass'media refers to the technical devices employed in mass
communication. The mass media are usually divided into two types:
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1. Print media communicate information through the publication of written
words and pictures. Prime examples of print media are daily newspapers and
popular weekly and monthly magazines.
2. Broadcast media communicate information electronically through sounds
and sights. Prime examples of broadcast media are radio and television. Although
the telephone also transmits sounds, it is usually used for more personal
communication and is not typically included within the mass media.
In the United States, the mass media are in business to make money, which they
make mostly by selling advertising. Most of the income that
the American media collect comes directly from advertisers. Advertising directly
supports newspapers, radio and television. (Subscribers pay only a small part of the
cost of producing a newspaper.)
This means that most of the information and entertainment you receive from
television, radio, newspapers and magazines is paid for by people who want to sell
you products. You support the media industries directly by buying the products
that advertisers sell.
Advertising pays most of the bills. A 30-second commercial in prime time (8
pm to 11 pm) costs $120,000.
Though mass media are private businesses devoted to making a profit, there
are specific functions thev serve in the political system: covering the news,
interpreting the news, setting the agenda for government action, influencing
citizens' opinions and socializing citizens about politics1.
Special focus must be made on the role of the mass media in promoting
communication from the government to its citizens and from citizens to the
government. In totalitarian governments, information flows more freely in one
direction (from government to people) than in the other. In democratic
government, information must flow freely in both directions; a democratic
government can be responsive to public opinion only if its citizens can make their
opinions known. Moreover, the electorate can hold government officials
accountable for their actions only if voters know what their government has done,
is doing and plans to do. Because the mass media provide the major channels for
this two- way flow of information, they have the dual capability of reflecting and
shaping our political views.
(from Media Impact: An Introduction to Mass Media by S. Biagi)
1. Why isn't the telephone included within the mass media?
2. Where does the income of mass media come from?
3. What is your attitude to advertising? Do you think that there are too many
commercials on TV?
4. Do you think the government should support the mass media so that there is
less advertising in the media?
5. What are the social functions of the news media?
6. Do you think that the media in Russia perform these functions
satisfactorily?
1
Political socialization is a complex process through which individuals become aware of politics, learn
political facts and form political values.
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7. What is the difference between a totalitarian and a democratic government
as far as information is concerned?
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I. Суффикс -ous (heterogeneous) служит для образования прилагательных
от существительных:
heterogeneity — heterogeneous [.het^rau'c&i.-niss] {разнородный)
homogeneity — homogeneous [.hauma'cfcrnias] (однородный)
danger — dangerous
religion — religious
ambition — ambitious
glory — glorious
glamor — glamorous
I II. audience — 1. аудитория; слушатели лекции, доклада и т.п.;

слушатели и зрители радио- и телепередач; читатели печатного
издания; 2. аудиенция
auditorium — зрительный зал (в театре, филармонии и т.п.)
аудитория (в университете) — classroom
III. advertising — I. рекламирование, реклама; 2. рекламное дело
advertisement (ad, advert) — реклама в печатных и электронных
СМИ
commercial — реклама в электронных СМИ
IV. responsive — способный быстро реагировать responsible —
ответственный
a person, to use, a program, a resident of a state.
Exercise 2. Find words in the text meeting the following definitions:
1. A group of people who are watching or listening to a play, concert, film or
a public speaker, read a newspaper or watch TV or listen to the radio. 2. Something
that consists of many different types of things. (adjective) 3. The time when the
largest number of people watch television.
A. 1. Speaking in public, it is important to establish one-on-one contact with
individual members of your audience. 2. The children can work individually and
in small groups. 3. Handwriting varies from individual to individual. 4. My editor
was a large, red-faced individual called Frederick Pratt. 5. Individual freedom is
a basic value of a democratic society. 6. Public opinion is the sum of individual
opinions on a subject that affects them. 7. Sometimes the student understands the
meaning of individual words
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but doesn't understand the meaning of the sentence. Individuals try to adjust their
opinions and attitudes in response to group norms and pressures toward
uniformity.
1. The factory employs 40 people. 2. The newspaper employs a lawyer
advising the editors on legal matters. 3. You will need to employ a great deal of
tact and diplomacy in your work. 4. The scf'Pts employed for Semitic languages
(Arabic and Hebrew) were descendants of the Aramaic alphabet. 5. The
government employs every legal toe?1 at its disposal to hold the prisoners as long
as possible. 6. How do you employ your spare time? 7. An organization may
decide to employ outside public relations consulting to provide a third-party
opinion. 8. Newspeople must know their sources and employ good editorial
judgement aboi-»t what information to disseminate. 9. Anyone who
communicates may employ propaganda devices — spoken, written, pictorial or
whatever.
1. The bill for dinner was over 12 dollars. 2. The American Congress
passed a special bill forbidding the Army to waste any if10re money. 3. The
Vienna Chamber Opera is offering a double bill of Mozart and Haydn. 4. The two
singers were billed to appear together in tfe same pop show.
1. Snow covered the ground. 2. Jessica covered the child with a blanket.
3. Jeremy laughed to cover his nervousness. 4. By sunSet the travelers had
covered 30 miles. 5. The profit of the enterprise is so small it doesn't cover the
expenses. 6. His researches covered a wide field. 7. My editor asked me to go to
England to cover a British general election. 8. Your insurance policy doesn't
cover accidents. 9. The government put an immediate ban on all television
coverage of the police operation. 10. Some people say that the media give too
much coverage tО the government's opponents. 12. Magazines differ from
newspapers in the nature of their coverage and the frequency of their publication.
1. Mary was so tired she could not focus her eyes- 2. The photograph was
out of focus. 3. Changes in the environment are once again the focus of public
interest and discussion. 4. The administration was focused directly on the danger
posed by terrorism. 5. The negotiations focused on the status of the country's ethnic
minority. 6. These projects focus on helping homeless children.
1. One major factor in the development of the in ass media was the
revolution in communications. 2. There have been major changes in the country's
economy. 3. The student was asked to write a short list of the major courses she
took. 4. The book describes the major political roles of the news media. 5. Thomas
Hartnell was a major in the US army. 6. John decided to major in journalism. 7.
Steve Jandrell is 3 third-year English major. 8. Jessica graduated with a major
in public relations from Northern Illinois university. 9. Many reporters at
newspapers majored in history, political science or another field.
G. 1.1 saw this program on Channel 19. 2. The government decided to
channel the oil revenues into industry. 3. The English Channel separates England
from France and joins the Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea. 4. The tourists wanted
to see the canals of Venice. 4. In 1870 Giuseppe Verdi began work on Aid a, given
at Cairo Opera House at the end of 1871 to mark the opening of the Suez Canal
for navigation, which occurred in 1869.
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I. ...most of the information... you receive from television, radio, newspapers
and magazines is paid for by people who want to sell you products. — За
информацию... которую вы получаете по телевидению и радио, из газет и
журналов, в основном платят люди, которые хотят вам что-то продать.
В английском языке в отличие от русского пассивный залог может быть
образован от предложной конструкции. При переводе часто используются
неопределенно-личные предложения или конструкция в активном залоге с
соответствующим изменением порядка слов. (Грамматический курс, 2.5)
I. The time of the meeting was agreed upon. 2. This plan was objected to. 3.
New and revolutionary ideas are sometimes laughed at. 4. This occasion happened
long ago, but it was still talked about. 5. Professional athletes are looked at with
awe and respect by youngsters from poor families. 6. Church is often pointed to
as a keystone in the development of public relations. 7. Public opinion is a force
that has been reckoned with in all civilizations. 8. Works written by specialists to
be read by other specialists are generally referred to as professional books. 9. A
great land mass in the Southern Ocean was long referred to as "Terra australis
incognita". It attracted traders and explorers and was later called Australia. 10.
This problem was touched on in the previous chapter. 11. The event was remem-
bered and commented on. 12. The recent changes in public opinion were sensed
and acted upon by politicians. 13. The police said that my message had been
registered and would be acted upon.
II. ...there are specific functions they [the mass media] serve in the political
system... — ...существуют определенные функции, которые они [СМИ]
выполняют в политической системе/...они [СМИ] выполняют в
политической системе определенные функции.
Вводящая конструкция there is/there are служит для выражения
бытийности — указания на существование предмета или явления в каком-то
фрагменте мира. При переводе на русский язык обстоятельство места или
времени обычно ставится на первое место. (Грамматический курс, 1)
1. There are some rather definite rules about how the reporter should prepare
copy. 2. There are fewer heart attacks among those who engage regularly in
strenuous sports, than among those less active. 3. If there are more cows in the
world than there are hairs in the tail of any one cow, there must be some cows with
the same number of hairs in their tails. 4. There are hundreds of reporters and
correspondents and specialists on a metropolitan newspaper; they are supervised
by dozens of editors. 5. In 1850 there were about two copies of a daily newspaper
bought in the US for every 10 families. 6. If there is any area of newspaper
journalism that is undergoing revolution, it is page design.
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1. Коммуникация — это процесс передачи информации от человека к
другому человеку или к группе. 2. У этой газеты большая и разнородная
аудитория. 3. Эта аудитория слишком мала для нашей группы. 4.
Подписчики оплачивают лишь небольшую часть стоимости газеты. 5. СМИ
отражают и формируют наши политические взгляды. 6. Освещение новостей
— одна из самых главных задач СМИ. 7. СМИ могут влиять на общественное
мнение. 8. Суэцкий канал был открыт для навигации в 1869 году. 9.
Журналист должен находить свои каналы информации. 10. Правительство
направило доходы от продажи нефти на развитие образования. 11. Мой друг
окончил университет по специальности «связи с общественностью». 12. За
этим процессом стоит долгая историческая традиция. 13. Это сообщение
было передано по всем каналам. 14. Сергей учится на третьем курсе
английского отделения. 15. С общественным мнением считаются все
правительства. 16. В центральной (national) газете работают сотни
репортеров и корреспондентов. 17. Этот вопрос будет затронут в следующей
главе.
18. Переговоры были посвящены статусу автономных республик.
19. Читая текст, мы понимаем значения отдельных слов из контекста.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 7. Comment on the following statement:
Among the largest advertisers are makers of products that are the most
profitable but among the least necessary for human survival — cosmetics,
shampoos and beer, to make a few.
Exercise 8. Discuss the following topic in group:
Is advertising really necessary? Should the mass media be supported by
advertising or by the government?
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 9. Write a short summary of the group discussion. Try to take the following
statements into account:
People buy soap and cosmetics whether they are advertised or not. Some
commercials are really stupid.
If the mass media are financed by the government, they will be forced to voice
the government's point of view.
U n i t 5. WELCOME TO PUBLIC RELATIONS
Союз both... and Союз while
Конструкция «модальный глагол + инфинитив в стра-
дательном залоге»
Предложения с инфинитивом-подлежащим и вводящим it
Сочетания глагола to tend с инфинитивом
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TEXT '
Personal Traits of a PR Practitioner

Only a multitalented person can perform well the many activities
encompassed by public relations. The PR practitioner today needs to be a
researcher, counselor, strategic planner, educator, communicator and cheerleader.
In this section, we look at the personal traits and educational background needed
by a person choosing a career in public relations.
Personal Traits
PR practitioners have to master diverse skills. They must be creative in
solving problems and strong enough to withstand the considerable stress involved
in working between the institution and its various (and numerous) publics.
Solving the problems encountered in public relations often requires teamwork and
a tolerance for different views. As a public relations person, you need to gather
different views and help hammer them into a solution. At the same time, you must
express confidence and hope that a solution can be found. In a crisis, people in an
organization tend to turn to the public relations person for answers. Confidence
and hope depend on viewing and presenting problems with complete honesty and
learning to live with some that seem (at the moment at least) insoluble, while
diligently pursuing solutions. It is wrong to think that a PR practitioner just
provides a cover-up for problems and difficulties.
Here are some personal characteristics needed by the PR practitioner: (1)
character and integrity, (2) a sense of judgement and logic, (3) the ability to think
creatively and imaginatively, (4) truthfulness and discretion,
(5) projectivity, i. e. an ability to foresee changes and future problems,
(6) a deep interest in the solution of the problems, (7) a broad cultural background,
(8) intellectual curiosity, (9) effective powers of analysis and synthesis, (10)
intuition, (11) training in the social sciences and in the mechanics of public
relations.
As interest in public relations continues to grow both in the United States and
abroad, concern about what is being taught and who is teaching it increases.
Because many practitioners come into public relations from other fields, and
because public relations practice is constantly growing and changing, a
practitioner's education can now be divided into two parts: preliminary (pre-
practice) education at either the undergraduate or the graduate level, and
continuing education which PRSA1 now requires of its members to maintain their
accreditation.
The Job of the PR Practitioner

Both the functions and the values of public relations are still poorly
understood. Consequently, PR practitioners must be prepared to correct mistaken
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ideas and avoid false expectations. Many people wrongly think that public
relations means image-making in the sense of creating a false front or cover-up.
Here are some functions of public relations in the society.
Public relations represents and articulates the desires and interests of various
publics to society's sometimes unresponsive institutions. While speaking for
publics, it also speaks to them for the institutions.
Public relations helps establish smoother relationships between institutions and
society by encouraging mutual adjustment.
Public relations personnel often stimulate an institution's social conscience.
While the basic duties of a PR practitioner have not changed much over the
past several decades, the demands on the practitioner and the
' PRSA — Public Relations Society of America, a professional organization of PR practitioners.

way the practitioner carries out his or her duties have changed and will continue
to change. There's more call for depth and diversity of knowledge for this field
now that it is functioning at a global level. Practitioners need more command of a
greater array of communication technologies and the job now demands greater
sensitivity to multiculturalism.
(adapted from This Is PR. The Realities of Public Relations by D.
Newson, J. Van Slyke Turk, D. Krucksberg)
Answer the following questions: >,
1. What personal traits does the job of a PR practitioner require?
2. Do you think these qualities are all inborn or they can be acquired?
3. What is intuition? Do you think a PR practitioner should rely on his/her
intuition or on formal knowledge?
4. How can we learn to withstand stress?
5. How has globalization changed the demands on a PR practitioner?
6. How do you understand the words "broad cultural background"?
7. What mistaken ideas exist concerning public relations?
8. How do you understand the function of public relations in the society?
9. What changes have taken place recently?

I. Латинский корень multi- (multitalented, multiculturalism) означает
«много»:
multitalented — разносторонне одаренный
multiculturalism — многокультурность .
multicolored — многоцветный
multilateral — многосторонний
multimillionaire — мультимиллионер .
multiplication — умножение
multiplication table — таблица умножения
II. Приставка with- (withstand) служит для образования глаголов от
других глаголов и имеет значение «из», «против»:
withstand — противостоять
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withdraw — забирать, удаляться, устранять, выводить (войска) withhold
— удерживать, не давать +
III. cheerleader — a person who leads the crowd in cheering at a large public
event, especially a sports game
IV. public — общественность
publics — общественные группы
VI. decade — десять лет декада
— десять дней
Exercise I. Find synonyms of the following words in the text:
to learn, honesty, an opinion, to grow, to look for (a solution), abilities.
Exercise 2. Find expressions in the text meeting the following definitions:
1. A problem that can't be solved. 2. A person with many diverse talents. 3. An
individual or an institution slow to react to people, events and the demands of the
society. r«
A. 1. Most children master computer skills at school. 2. The dog obeyed only
his master. 3. A PR person must learn to master the styles of all media and
develop working relationship with media professionals. 4. The museum has a large
collection of paintings by the old masters. 5. Where is the master copy of the
document? 6. Mary took her business-school master's degree at a college near
Detroit. 7. The lights in the classrooms were turned off by a master switch.
B. 1. The way a PR person applies his or her special skill depends on the role
he or she plays in an organization. 2. Any democracy depends on the consent of
its citizens. 3. People in the United Kingdom depend heavily on coal both for
industrial and domestic use. 4. The doctors actually depend on the money they are
paid by their patients. 5. Children depend on their parents for food and clothing.
6. You can always depend upon John to be there when he is needed. 7. The success
of the operation depends on the weather. 8. He depends on his pen for a living. 9.
Today many people depend on broadcast media as their primary source of news.
10. Native Alaskans depend on the sea for food. , :
C. 1. The government pursued a policy of reconciliation. 2. His wealth
enabled him to pursue his passionate interest in art. 3. Immediate action should
be pursued in these areas. 4. The private detective pursued his own inquiries. 5.
The police pursued the car which hadn't stopped at the red light.
D. 1. She was a woman of strong character. 2. Character building is one of
the chief aims of education. 3. We need to emphasize the radical character of our
demands. 4. The main character of this film is a cowboy. 5. The English alphabet
has 26 characters.
E. 1. These dogs have an excellent sense of smell. 2. She was beginning to
sense a crisis in the relationship with the consumers. 3. Jennifer had a strong sense
of justice. 4. Let's take common-sense steps to help the situation. 5. Alan has very
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good business sense. 6. Children need to make sense of the world they live in. 7.
This course of action certainly makes sense. 8. Jeremy may not be lying in the
strict sense of the word, but he is certainly hiding something from us. 9. We are
trying to make people more sensitive to the problems of working mothers. 10. The
conference debated the sensitive issue of race relations! 11. She was too sensible
a person to believe these ridiculous lies.
F. 1. The constitution gives the President too much power. 2. The military
regime took power in 1964. 3. I'll do everything in my power to help you. 4. Steam
power was first used by James Watt in a machine pumping water from mines. 5.
The President asked the Congress for extraordinary powers. 6. In the 18th century,
America was a colonial land whose development enhanced the antagonism with
the imperial power. 7. He was so surprised, he lost the power of speech. 8. Faced
with pollution caused by burning coal, oil and gas, people are looking for new
sources of power.

I. As interest in public relations continues to grow both in the AND United
States and abroad... — Поскольку интерес к связям
с общественностью продолжает расти как в США, так и за
границей...
Сложный союз both ... and переводится как ... так и, и ... и.
1. Both reporters and editors must know where to go to get the news. 2. These
are diseases that threaten both children and adults. 3. This journalist's stories are
published both in the USA and abroad. 4. When the opinion poll was conducted,
the respondents were interviewed both personally and over the telephone. 5. The
Federal Trade Commission (FTC) looks out for the rights of both investors and
consumers. 6. When you write business letters, you must be both complete and
sensitive to the image your words convey to your business partner. 7. A PR
practitioner must appeal to various publics, both inside and outside the
organization.
II. While the basic duties of a PR practitioner have not changed AND much
over the past several decades, the demands on the
practitioner... have changed and will continue to change. — Хотя основные
обязанности специалиста по связям с обществен- ' ностью не изменились за
последние несколько десятилетий, требования к такому специалисту...
меняются и будут меняться.
Союз while употребляется в придаточных предложениях уступительных
и переводится союзами хотя, несмотря на то что.
В придаточных предложениях времени он соответствует союзам в то
время как, когда, пока:
We met a lot of people while we were on holiday. — Мы познакомились со
многими людьми, когда были в отпуске.
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1. When you are acting habitually, you can devote your attention to other
things while you carry out the task at hand. 2. While the new employee waited for
the head of the company, the personnel manager showed her around. 3. They
decided to find a less expensive place to stay while they were in Paris. 4. While
clothing or ornament is used universally to mark sex, age and status, "fashion" is
primarily a western and modern phenomenon, at least on a mass scale. 5. While
newspapers have gone out of business in many cities, television stations have
expanded their news departments to compete with other stations.
III. You must express... hope that a solution can be found. — Вы должны
выражать... надежду, что решение можно найти.
...a practitioner's education can now be divided into two parts... —
Образование пиар-специалиста можно разделить на две части...
Конструкция «модальный глагол + инфинитив в страдательном залоге»
обычно переводится при помощи модальных слов можно, нужно, нельзя.
1. As you analyze your problems, some solutions will be obvious and can be
implemented immediately. 2. When you travel, your hair should be styled simply
so that it needs a minimum of attention. 3. Research can be divided into two
categories: qualitative and quantitative. 4. Some pesticides in fruit and vegetables
can be removed with washing. 5. Interviews ought to be conducted face to face,
but this is not always possible. 6. This kind of research can be conducted only in
the laboratory.
IV. It is wrong to think that a PR practitioner just provides a cover-up for
problems and difficulties — He следует думать, что специалист по связям с
общественностью просто покрывает/прячет от общества проблемы и
трудности.
Местоимение it в данной конструкции выполняет функцию вводящего,
формального подлежащего, в то время как смысловым подлежащим
является инфинитив (to think), стоящий после сказуемого (is wrong). При
переводе на русский язык местоимение это не употребляется.
(Грамматический курс, 3.1.2.1) ^ ;, , т
Vm
1. When you analyze the publics of your organization, it is important not to
overlook any public. 2. It is impossible to predict all the results of this campaign.
3. When you plan a PR campaign, it is important to arrange for feedback. 4. To be
an effective public relations practitioner, it is necessary to master computer skills
and at least one foreign language. 5. It is difficult to measure public opinion. 6.
Before we discuss gathering the news, it is necessary to look briefly at how a
newspaper staff is organized. 7. It is usually possible to question only a sample of
the public to determine what the public as a whole thinks. 8. It is important to keep
in mind that public opinion can change very fast. 9. In the USA today, it is difficult
to find an indoor public place where people are permitted to smoke. 10. If you
intend to prepare commercials, it is advisable to hire a production company unless
there is an advertising expert on the staff.
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V. In a crisis, people in an organization tend to turn to the public relations
person for answers. — При кризисах работники организации обычно
обращаются к специалисту по общественным связям за помощью и советом.
Глагол to tend в сочетании с инфинитивом переводится словами обычно,
как правило. (Грамматический курс, 3.1.3.2.4)
1. We tend to like people we know well and to distrust those we don't know. 2.
Members of the same family tend to have m any common features in their
environment. 3. Members of this social group tend to buy smaller- priced gifts in
expensive stores, simply to get the store's label. 4. When an organization reports
only good news to its employees, it tends to lose credibility. 5. Such information
tends to be made available to the public through public relations people. 6. People
tend to remember meaningful material better than obscure material.
1. Персонажи этого романа — техасские ковбои. 2. Не следует думать,
что специалист по общественным связям должен прятать от общественности
проблемы и трудности. 3. Такая работа требует оптимизма и терпимости к
различным взглядам. 4. Дети должны овладеть компьютерными навыками в
школе. 5. Специалист по общественным связям должен уметь выдерживать
стресс. 6. Пиарщик должен обладать разносторонними способностями. 7.
Правительство проводит политику примирения. 8. Президент попросил пар-
ламент о чрезвычайных полномочиях. 9. У моего друга хорошее чувство
юмора. 10. Эта политика разумна. 11. Она слишком разумна, чтобы поверить
этим слухам. 12. Художник изобразил группу людей на фоне деревьев. 13.
Этот журналист хорошо известен как у себя на родине, так и за рубежом. 14.
Работа пиарщика требует широкого образования в области общественных
наук. 15. Военный режим пришел к власти в 1964 году. 16. Премьер-министр
подчеркнул радикальный характер реформ. 17. Энергия пара была впервые
использована Джеймсом Ваттом. 18. Демократия не может обойтись без
согласия граждан. 19. Этот журналист живет своим пером. 20. Успех
операции зависит от погоды. 21. Жители Аляски не могут обойтись без моря,
которое их кормит. 22. Я сделаю все, что в моей власти, чтобы помочь вам.
SPEAKING PRACTICE Exercise 10. Discuss the role of PR practitioners in their
organizations.
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 11. Write a short essay explaining why you have decided to become a
journalist or a PR practitioner.
35
U n i t 6. WRITING IN PUBLIC RELATIONS
Инфинитив в функции определения Союз
provided (that)
TEXT
Keep It Simple
As a PR practitioner, you will have to write various materials, such as news
releases, newsletters, brochures, pamphlets and manuals. Your objective will be to
inform, explain, instruct or persuade.
For these purposes, communication in readable, non-technical language is a
must in public relations writing.
In many offices where people are engaged in writing there is a large sign
bearing the letters KISS. Underneath, in smaller type, is the definition of this
acronym: "Keep It Simple, Stupid".
This is good advice for any writer. It becomes especially important when you
must translate technical information into something lay people will understand.
Here, the sign should change from KISS to MISS and the words beneath should
read "Make It Simple, Stupid", because your task is not to keep things simple.
Instead, there is complicated material to be made simple.
Above all, the copy must be understandable. It should be pretested on several
readers who are representative of the audience for which the publication is
intended. If they don't understand, the material should be rewritten. It may be
necessary in some cases to use technical language, but this should be explained in
nontechnical words.
Simplifying a complex idea is hard work. First, you must research the
information until you really understand it. It is impossible to explain anything that
you do not understand. To gain understanding, you must read the material and
question the people who created it.
In explaining a complicated subject, it is important not to overload the reader.
He or she should not be given any more than is needed. The language of
explanation must be plain. Jargon has no place here. If possible, there should be
no technical terms, but sometimes they must be used because there is nothing else
to serve the purpose. If it is necessary to use technical terms, they should be
described in layman's language.
In describing something new and different, use familiar words and go step by
step from a base of common understanding. A foolproof test of any writing that is
meant to simplify a complex subject is to pretest it. If several people who know
36
nothing about the subject do understand the explanation, it is probably adequate,
provided that the experts approve.
If the laity don't understand something, it must be rewritten until they do. And
if the experts disapprove, it is probably because the simplification is inaccurate.
Here again, a rewrite is called for.
(from Public Relations. The Profession and the Practice by
O.Baskin, C.Aronoff)
1. What is the purpose of writing in public relations?
2. What kind of materials do PR practitioners prepare?
3. Why is it so important to simplify complicated materials?
4. How do you make sure that your copy is understandable?
(
I. Прилагательные с суффиксами -able (readable, understandable) и -ible,
как правило, указывают на возможность действия, выраженного
однокоренным глаголом:
37
read — readable — (легко)читаемый
understand — understandable — понятный '> •
accept — acceptable — приемлемый convert —
convertible — обратимый
II. Приставка pre- (pretest) имеет значение «предварительно», «до»:
pretest — предварительная проверка
prejudice — предрассудок 1
precaution — предосторожность ")

Exercise 1. Find words of the same root in the following two groups:
a) president, to predict, to prescribe, preface, predicate, presumption,
presence, to prefer;
b) resident, to refer, to describe, absence, dictionary, consumption.
Exercise 2. Analyze the following words. Try to find out where pre is a
prefix and where it is part of the root:
pretty, to pretend, prevalent, to prevent, pressure, pregnant.
III. lay people, laity — people who are not trained, qualified or experienced
in a particular subject ,.ч<
IV. Обратите внимание на многозначность следующих русских слов и их
различные эквиваленты в английском языке:
переписывать — 1. сору (списывать)-, ;Г » -
2. rewrite (писать еще раз)
печатать — 1. type ( н а пишущей машинке, компьютере)', ( 2. print
(типографским способом)',
3. publish (издавать)-, ,
4. develop (фотографии) ;
0у V. jargon — жаргон, речь какой-л. социальной или профес- -
сиональной группы, отличающаяся от общеразговор
ного языка наличием особых слов и выражений, например
жаргоны ученых различных специальностей slang — сленг,
неформальная речь людей определенных возрастных групп,
профессий, например молодежи, пользователей Интернета,
содержащая особые слова, выражения и зачастую
ненормативную лексику
VI. familiar — 1. знакомый; 2. фамильярный
фамильярный — familiar, unceremonious, offhand
to acquire, to write again, essential, to study. : , ?
О Exercise 4. Find words in the text meeting the following definitions:
■
1. A person who was not specifically trained in the subject. 2.
Something well-known.
A. 1. John and Caroline are engaged to be married. 2 France and Britain
engaged in a succession of wars in Europe and the Caribbean at several intervals
in the 18th century. 3. The government is engaged in building infrastructure. 4.
Susan tried to engage her friend in a conversation. 5. The opera engaged the singer
for four months. 6. When an organization doesn't keep its promises, the public
might suspect that it is only engaging in rhetoric. 7. The emerging middle classes
in medieval England were engaged in manufacture, trade and overseas commerce.
8. The Pentagon has said US troops sent to Georgia would not be engaged in direct
fighting.
B. 1. There are several different types of accounts. 2. The respondents were
asked to type their answers on a computer. 3. In a complex document, it is sensible
to use bigger type for main headings and slightly smaller type for sub-headings
and text. 4. It's advisable to use twelve-point type for business letters, especially
for readers over forty. 5. Photographs in a newspaper should be used to break up
masses of type that otherwise become gray and unappealing to the reader.
C. 1. I'll send you a copy of the letter. 2. I'll copy this report on the
photocopier. 3. There are some rather definite rules about how the reporter should
prepare copy. 4. The reporters must hand in their copy by 4 pm. 5. Most public
libraries have a copy of this book. 6. The reporter studied some back copies of
the magazine in search of the necessary information. 7. A PR person must know
the exact copy deadlines for all local media.
D. 1. This case gained wide publicity. 2. The idea of equality gained
prominence only in the 20th century. 3. Many youngsters take up insecure low-
paid jobs in the service sector as a means of gaining work experience. 4. We all
hoped to gain from the company's recent success. 5. The speaker began to gain
confidence. 6. My watch gains about 10 minutes every day.
7. These ideas and values are gaining importance in American politics.
8. You learned as an infant what kind of behavior gained attention.
E. 1. I liked my first job. The work was interesting and the pay was adequate.
2. This problem has never been adequately addressed. 3. George's income is
inadequate to meet his basic needs.
г» Grammar Study and Practice

I. ...there is complicated material to be made simple. — Есть сложный
материал, который надо упростить.
Предложения с инфинитивом в функции определения часто имеют
модальное значение долженствования. Их можно переводить при помощи
придаточного предложения или составного глагольного сказуемого с
модальным значением (надо/необходимо/следует упростить).
39
1. If the manager avoids journalists, people begin to think he has something to
hide. 2. My wife is going to Saudi Arabia with me and we have some business to
work out before we leave. 3.1 can't stay any longer. I've got a train to catch. 4. Ash
had not slept. He had too many things to think of and a vital decision to make. 5.
Remember, you still have a great deal to learn. 6.1 can't go to the theater with you.
I have letters to write.
II. If several people... understand the explanation, it is probably AND
adequate, provided that the experts approve. — Если несколько человек...
понимают объяснение, оно, вероятно, достаточно ясно, при условии что его
одобрят специалисты.
Союз provided (that) служит для присоединения условного придаточного
предложения. Переводится союзом если, когда является синонимом союза if,
и союзами при условии если, при условии что, когда эквивалентен союзу on
condition (that) (т. е. означает «только при этом условии»).
1. The inflation rate can be brought down, provided the government introduces
radical reforms. 2. Children were allowed to come to these parties, provided they
kept quiet. 3. Cindy was ready to visit us, provided that she might bring her
daughter. 4. The press release will be published tomorrow, provided the PR person
meets the newspaper deadline. 5. These data can be stored on a computer, provided
the retrieval system is carefully considered.
1. Невозможно объяснить то, чего вы не понимаете. 2. Респондентов
попросили напечатать свои ответы на компьютере. 3. Я купила два
экземпляра этой книги. 4. Джон пришел на автобусную остановку и
переписал расписание. 5. Вы должны переписать эту инструкцию (manual):
ее трудно понять. 6. Мой друг устроился на эту работу, чтобы набраться
опыта. 7. Идеи равенства приобрели популярность только в XX веке. 8.
Пиарщик должен знать срок подачи материала в местных газетах. 9. Эта
брошюра должна быть понятна неспециалистам. 10. Правительство
занимается созданием инфраструктуры. 11. Вам предстоит многому
научиться. 12. Я не могу пойти с вами в театр. У меня много работы. 13. Мне
нечего скрывать. 14. Им не о чем разговаривать. 15. Статья была напечатана
мелким шрифтом. 16. Пресс-релиз не должен содержать технических
терминов. Профессиональный жаргон здесь неуместен. 17. Книга будет
напечатана (выйдет) в марте. 18. Моя сестра научилась печатать в школе.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
40
The day you write to please everyone you no longer are in journalism. You are
in show business.
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 10. Write a short essay, commenting on the following statement:

The power of accurate observation is often called cynicism by those who don't
have it. (Bernard Shaw, 1856— 1950)
Unit 7. WRITING FOR NEWSPAPERS
Местоимения и союзные слова whatever, whoever, whenever,
wherever, however
TEXT
Writing a News Story: an Inverted Pyramid

Writing for a newspaper is exciting. It enables reporters to meet all types of
people, to create and to be where the news is happening.
Reporters are the eyes and ears of their audiences. When reporters cover a
breaking news event, their first stories summarize what happened,
to whom, where, when, why and how. More in-depth stories may be written
later about people and things touched by the event, but initially, reporters are
there to gather the essential facts and write their stories as quickly and as near
their deadlines as possible.
Some hard news stories usually begin with a summary lead, a terse
opening paragraph that provides the gist of the story and invites readers
inside. Summary leads are used on news stories because they give the major
points of the story immediately. That way, people do not have to guess or
wait to find out the news. Most people do not have the time to read a
newspaper from start to end. Because they spend so little time with the news
and often do not read entire articles, they demand the most important points
at the start of the story.
41
The Inverted Pyramid
A summary lead generally tops a traditional writing form called an

inverted pyramid, in which the news is stacked in paragraphs in order of
descending significance.The lead summarizes the principal items of a news
event. The second paragraph and each succeeding paragraph contain
secondary and supporting details in order of decreasing significance. All the
paragraphs in the story contain newsworthy information, but each paragraph
is less vital than the one before it. This writing form puts the climax of a story
at the beginning, in the lead, and so it is different from a form often used for
novels, short stories and drama — and for some news features — in which
an author begins with background and works n to a climax.
Most journalism historians say that this concept was developed during
the American Civil War1. Newspaper correspondents in the field sent their
dispatches by telegraph. Because they were afraid that the system would
malfunction or the enemy would cut the wires, the correspondents squeezed
the most important information into the first few sentences. Wire services,
which used telegraphers to transmit their stories before computers were
introduced in the early 1970s, have continued to use the inverted pyramid as
their staple form of reporting. That enables the wire services to move stories
quickly in small chunks and their customers to use the stories in whatever
lengths they need.
Newspapers also adopted the inverted-pyramid form because it
capsulizes the news quickly. Readers can grasp the news of the day by
simply skimming lead paragraphs. The form allows readers to decide
whether they want to continue reading a story or leave it after any one of its
paragraphs. An inverted pyramid can also be trimmed from the bottom,
which makes it easier to fit it into the tight news holes of a newspaper.
'The Civil War (1861—65) was fought between the North and the South of the USA. The central
issue was the secession of the southern states from the Union, provoked by the abolition of slavery.
42
The Five Ws and H
A summary lead, generally in no more than 35 words, tells an audience the most
important of the six primary elements of an event, the five Ws and H. They are:
• Who the event happened to, or who acted on whom
• What happened or will happen
• Where the action occurred
• When it happened
• Why the action took place; the reason behind it
• How it happened
Reporters look for these elements whenever they cover a news event. It makes
no difference how big or small the story is. Reporters gather the facts to answer
who, what, where, when, why and how; they rate the importance of each fact; then
they are ready to write a lead and news story.
(from News Writing and Reporting for Today's Media by B.D. Itule,
D.A.Anderson)
1. How do news stories usually begin?
2. When and why was this form of writing adopted?
3. What question must a journalist answer in their news
4. How is an inverted pyramid organized?
5. What is the difference in the structure of hard news news features?
Vocabulary Study and Practice story?

I. Существительное news (новость, новости), имея stories and
форму множественного числа, согласуется с другими
членами предложения в единственном числе:
News doesn't happen only from 8 am, Monday through Friday. It often occurs
on holidays, in the middle of the night and on weekends.
hard news — important news events such as military conflicts, accidents,
speeches by national leaders etc. Hard news is covered almost automatically by
print and electronic media.
43
important (2), a client, to understand, to collect, to follow, at first, short.
Exercise 2. Translate the following sentences into Russian, paying attention to the words in
bold type. First, look these words up in the dictionary, keeping in mind their various meanings;
remember also that they may belong to different parts of speech.
A. 1. The dry weather was succeeded by a month of rain. 2. Queen Elizabeth
succeeded to the throne in 1952. 3. Somebody is going to succeed Murray as
editor. 4. Jeremy succeeded in getting a job with The Wall Street Journal. 5.
Nobody expected the strike to succeed. 6. The Congressman praised the
government for their success in reducing inflation. 7. Mr. Jones is a successful
writer. 8. The team won the European Cup three years in succession. 9. Successive
British governments have not managed to solve this problem.
B. 1. They had no children of their own, so they adopted a little girl. 2. This
program is aimed at helping people adopt healthy lifestyles. 3. After the
Revolution, the government adopted a more open policy towards the West. 4.
European dress has been adopted by people in many parts of the world. 5. There
are many people in the West now willing to adopt handicapped children.
C. 1. The boots fit Robert perfectly. 2. All my clothes fit into one suitcase. 3.
The chapel is so small that only 26 people fit into it. 4. There are always facts that
don't fit any theory. 5. The kitchen was fitted with a stainless steel sink. 6. Does
this plan fit our present and future needs? 7. They are both fit and healthy. 8. Mary
jogged every morning to keep fit.
That enables the wire services to move stories quickly in small chunks and their
customers to use the stories in whatever lengths they need. — Это позволяет
телеграфным агентствам передавать статьи быстро маленькими порциями, а
их клиентам — использовать статьи любой/нужной длины.
Местоимение whatever может также выполнять функцию союзного
слова. К этой группе местоимений относятся следующие: whatever —
что бы ни, какой бы ни whoever — кто бы ни whenever— когда бы ни,
всегда wherever — где бы ни, куда бы ни, везде however — как бы ни,
однако
1. By whatever name the sub-editors go, they form the link between the top
person, the managing editor, and the key people, the reporters. 2. Whenever you
can choose between two words that mean the same thing, use the shorter, more
common one. 3. Some people push the mute button whenever there is a
commercial on TV. 4. Whoever wins this civil war, there will be no peace in the
country. 5. Wherever he was, he was happy most of the time. 6. Whenever
coverage of a major story begins, someone has to check the files of stories written
in the past about similar incidents. 7. The general assignment reporter goes
wherever necessary to cover newsworthy events. 8. Civilization in the Middle
Ages was advancing, however slow and however bloody the process. 9. We
should not call these tribes nomads, for wherever they settled, they practiced
agriculture.
44
1. Новости появляются как в рабочие дни, так и в выходные. 2. Новости
сегодня хорошие. 3. Мой друг выключает звук всякий раз, когда по
телевизору передают рекламу. 4. Джеку удалось получить хорошую работу.
5. Три правительства подряд пытались решить эту проблему. 6. Этот костюм
не подходит мне по размеру. 7. Всегда есть факты, которые не укладываются
ни в какую теорию. 8. Люди в разных частях света стали носить европейскую
одежду. 9. Мери ходит в бассейн, чтобы быть в форме. 10. Многие бездетные
(childless) семьи хотят усыновить ребенка. 11. Правительство стало
проводить более открытую политику по отношению к Западу.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
1. It has been said that writing comes more easily if you have something to say.
(Sholem Asch, 1880- 1957)
2. Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact
man. (Francis Bacon, 1561 — 1626)
3. Writing is easy: all you do is sit staring at the blank sheet of paper until the
drops of blood form on your forehead. (Gene Fowler, 1937—)
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 6. Write a short story about an event in your university, following the
principle of an inverted pyramid. Try to follow the principle of six necessary elements of a
story (five Ws and H).
U n i t 8. THE ART OF EDITING
Предложения с инфинитивом-подлежащим, вводящим it и
сказуемым с именной частью — существительным
Объектная конструкция с инфинитивом Объектная
конструкция с инфинитивом при каузативных глаголах Союз
rather than
TEXT
45
The Editing Process
A newspaper's effort to get the news to its readers is only partly done when all
the reporters have turned in their copy. There remains the editing process, the
unglamorous but highly important side of news work. The people on the staff
involved in the process are copy editors. It is their job to prepare the copy for the
printer, to write the headlines, and to decide where on a given page each story will
be placed.
The job is vital because if an error has crept into the reporter's copy, it almost
certainly will get into the paper unless the copy editor catches it. The copy editor
is the last line of defense: what gets past the copy editor gets into the paper.
The copy editor must be a master of the style-book. Reporters certainly should
know style rules, too, but their job is to get the facts. The copy editor's job is to
polish. Copy editors have to know the rules of grammar, of spelling and of
punctuation. Every scrap of information, no matter how trivial, that the copy editor
can jam into his or her head may come in handy at some point. The editing job
requires a person to have a good memory, and an understanding of how to locate
information, in standard reference books for example.
Copy-editing work is vastly different from reporting; the copy editor has to be
content with processing the creative work of others. This is not to say that editing
isn't creative. It is, very definitely, but in a way that does not meet the eye as
readily as the great lead by a reporter. Copy editors are anonymous; they get no
bylines.
Copy editors need excellent judgement and the kind of minds that can make
fine distinctions in taste and word usage. They must have an ear for rhythm and
an understanding of reporting and writing, too, because a copy editor should never
change anything in a story unless the change improves it. Slavish adherence to
rules — any rules, whether of style or of structure — can lead to editing that harms
the copy rather than helps it.
If all the millions of words written about the art of copy editing had to be
condensed into one sentence, that sentence would be: Make sure it's accurate.
Copy editors do many things, but they do nothing more important than watch for
mistakes. Mistakes cost us credibility; they make people doubt us.
One of the keys to attaining accuracy in your news columns is having a staff
of competent copy editors. One of their secrets is knowing which facts to check.
Obviously there is not time to check every detail in every story, because you must
meet a deadline. So copy editors develop a sense, a suspicion about certain kinds
of things.
(from The Art of Editing by F. K. Baskette, J.Z.Sissors, B.S.Brian)

1. What are the duties of a copy editor?
2. What qualities are needed to be a copy editor?
3. How does the job of a copy editor differ from that of a reporter?
4. Would you prefer to be a reporter or a copy editor? Which job do you think
is more creative?
5. Why is it so important to get rid of mistakes?
46
6. In what way can a copy editor change a reporter's story?
I. При обозначении приблизительного количества слова million,

thousand, hundred употребляются во множественном числе: millions of
words
Her books give pleasure to millions of people. I have told you
thousands of times not to touch my books. Hundreds of people
took part in the protest march.
При обозначении точного количества эти слова употребляются в
единственном числе:
There are 3.9 million Chinese in Malaysia.
Jack bought a new apartment for fifty thousand dollars.
The airplane ticket costs five hundred dollars.
personnel, a mistake, orthography, precise.
Exercise 2. Translate the following sentences into Russian, paying attention to the words in
bold type. First, look these words up in the dictionary, keeping in mind their various meanings;
mind also that they may belong to different parts of speech.
A. 1. It is getting dark. We must go home. 2. It was a pity he couldn't get to
know Monica better. 3. What time will the travelers get back? 4. The company got
in touch with its lawyer. 5. The difficulties of the expedition tend to get
exagerrated by the media. 6. The firm got an answer from the customer. 7. David's
got a brother and a sister. 8. 1 got along really well with my colleagues. 9. It is
difficult to get rid of flies in summer.
B. 1. There was a pot of raspberry jam in the fridge. 2. Our car was stuck in a
traffic jam. 3. Reporters jammed microphones into the politician's face. 4. Fridges
won't work properly if you jam in so much food that the cold air can't circulate. 5.
More than seventeen thousand people jammed into the stadium for the final game.
6. The machine jammed and broke down. 7. There is a paper jam in the
photocopier.
C. 1. The best solution can only be found by a process of trial and error. 2.
The whole world now is in the process of Westernization. 3. This city is a center
of food-processing industry. 4. The visitors were processed carefully through the
security network before being let in. 5. A journalist must be able to process data
on a computer in order to obtain information.
D. 1. James met his future wife on the train from the Hague. 2. The
government's policies were meeting mounting criticism. 3. I am meeting my
parents at the airport today. 4. The government met in the morning to discuss the
situation. 5. Education in private schools must meet certain standards. 6. I am
meeting an important deadline and my computer broke down. 7. While Janice was
looking for a job, she made ends meet working as a waitress in a large restaurant.
8. The counseling firm developed an overall public relations plan and budget to
meet it.
47
E. 1.1 feel completely unable to come to any judgement about it at all. 2. In
our judgement, her plan has definitely succeeded. 3. Decision-making is an art
based on good judgement and experience. 4. We are still waiting for the court to
pronounce judgement on the case. 5. The personnel manager showed a lack of
judgement when she hired this reporter. 6. It's not something I can give you rules
for; you'll have to use your own judgement.
F. 1. There is a fine view from the top of the building. 2. "How are you?" —
"Fine, thank you." 3. "Would you like to wash your hands?" — "No, thank you, I
am fine." 4. The sand on the beach was very fine. 5. When in the fourteenth
century the English learned to weave fine cloth for the foreign market, the wool
enriched the country.
I. It is their job to prepare the copy for the printer... — Они должны
готовить материал к печати...
В предложениях с инфинитивом в функции подлежащего, вводящим it и
сказуемым, именная часть которого выражена существительным (job),
сказуемое, как правило, имеет модальное значение, т.е. указывает на
необходимость, желание, обязанность или намерение совершить действие,
выраженное инфинитивом. (Грамматический курс, 3.1.2.1)
I. It is not my purpose here to describe the geography of the country. 2. It is
the job of the reporter to evaluate events and to select from the variety of
occurrences those that will interest readers. 3. It is the duty of the mass media to
provide the public with the news. 4. It was the journalist's ambition to get a job
with The New York Times. 5. It was the colonel's habit to go to Brittany every
summer. 6. It is the policy in my office to deposit all the money received during
the day in my bank account. 7. It is the editor's job to check the copy for mistakes.
II. The editing job requires a person to have a good memory, and an
understanding of how to locate information... — Редакторская работа требует,
чтобы человек имел хорошую память и знал, где находить информацию...
В объектной конструкции с инфинитивом существительное или
местоимение в объектном падеже (a person) означает лицо или группу лиц,
которые совершают действие, выраженное инфинитивом. Такой оборот с
глаголами со значением желания или требования часто переводится при
помощи придаточного предложения (чтобы человек...). (Грамматический
курс, 3.1.3.1)
1. The new tax law requires taxpayers to declare their income. 2. In 1647 the
Massachusetts Bay Colony enacted a law, requiring every town having more than
50 families to establish a grammar school (a Latin school to prepare students for
college). 3. His job required him to stay in England for a year. 4. Under this plan,
the federal government would require all employers to provide health insurance to
their workers. 5. Some firms do not want their employees to know too much of
the position and the result of the business. 6. Journalists often complain that
presidents want the newspapers to print what they tell them, not what the public
wants to know.
48
III. ...they [mistakes] make people doubt us. — ...они [ошибки] за-
ставляют людей в нас сомневаться.
Объектная конструкция с инфинитивом употребляется и при
каузативных глаголах, т.е. глаголах со значением «заставлять». Глаголы, не
имеющие данного значения в других контекстах (make), приобретают его в
составе такой конструкции. (Грамматический курс, 3.1.3.1)
1. The only person who can make a man act in a given way is the man himself.
2. Shortage of skilled workers will pressure employers to raise wages. 3. These
events weakened the status of the established clergy and provoked believers to
rely on their own conscience. 4. When parents are interested in politics, they
influence their children to become more politically interested and informed. 5.
Great books and poems stimulate us to think about ourselves and our world. 6.
The firm experience has led the management to believe that it can choose or reject
job applicants on the basis of these tests. 7. During the Industrial Revolution, the
switch from domestic to factory production caused farm hands to migrate to the
towns by the thousand. 8. I can't get myself to read today.
IV. Slavish adherence to rules... can lead to editing that harms AND the
copy rather than helps it. — Когда редактор рабски следует правилам... он
портит материал, а не улучшает его.
Союз rather than переводится союзом а не.
1. In 1522, Martin Luther introduced public worship with liturgy in German
rather than Latin. Reformation spread. 2. Hebrew is written from right to left
rather than left to right as in English. 3. Medieval monks sought to preserve
rather than advance knowledge. 4. Many respondents said that if they watched
commercials at all, they focused their attention on the commercial itself rather
than on the product advertised.
Exercise 7. Translate the following sentences into English, using the words and structures
from the text and exercises above:
1. Новый закон требует, чтобы все водители получили новые права. 2. Я
делаю срочную работу, а мой компьютер сломался. 3. Эта дорога не
соответствует международным стандартам. 4. Джозеф познакомился со
своей будущей женой в самолете. 5. Ссоры между церковными лидерами
заставляют верующих полагаться на собственную совесть. 6. Рабское
следование правилам портит текст, а не улучшает его. 7. В XIV веке
английские ткачи научились выделывать тонкую шерсть. 8. Редактор должен
уметь чувствовать тонкие различия в значениях слов. 9. Наша машина
застряла в уличной пробке. 10. Миллионы людей умеют пользоваться
компьютером. 11. Ошибки в газете заставляют читателей сомневаться в
газетной информации. 12. Моника прекрасно ладит с коллегами. 13. Мы
должны связаться с юристом. 14. Становится темно. 15. Я хорошо узнал
49
моих коллег во время этой экспедиции. 16. Работа редактора состоит в том,
чтобы готовить материал к печати.
SPEAKING PRACTICE

1. An editor should tell the author his writing is better than it is. Not a lot better,
a little better. (Thomas Eliot, 1888—1965)
2. An editor — a person employed on a newspaper, whose business is to
separate the wheat from the chaff, and to see that the chaff is printed. ( T h e
Roycroft Dictionary)
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 9. Work in pairs. Edit the story written by your classmate (Unit 7, Ex. 6).
Part 3
FROM THE HISTORY OF CULTURE
Unit 9. THE HISTORY

OF THE CALENDAR
Предлог и союз since

Причастие в функции определения в составе причастного
оборота
Перфектный инфинитив с модальными глаголами may и
must
Причастный оборот в функции обстоятельства Объектная
конструкция с инфинитивом при глаголе to have
Объектная конструкция с инфинитивом при глаголах со
значением умственной деятельности, предположения,
мнения
50
TEXT 1
The Calendar
The solar calendar, based on the cycle of the sun, has been used in Europe
since the first century ВС. when the Julian calendar was introduced by
Julius Caesar in 45 ВС. It is the prototype of our modern calendar. In 1581,
it was replaced by the Gregorian calendar, which is a more precise
modification of the Julian calendar.
Solar calendars were preceded by lunar calendars, based on the Phases
of the moon. The phases of the moon are easier to watch than the cycle of the
sun, and that is why the lunar calendar appeared first.
The word "calendar" itself has been derived from the Latin "calends", the
day of the new moon and the first day of the ancient Roman month. The
history moves back farther still to the Egypt of the pharaohs, Babylon,
Sumer, and beyond, when an unknown person dressed in reindeer skin and
clutching a club gazed at the sky and got an idea to use the moon to measure
time. Though in early days calendar was required primarily for religious
observance, it was used for civic purposes as well. The calends were also the
days for paying debts.
Calendars are normally based on astronomical events, and the two most
important astronomical objects are the sun and the moon. Their cycles are
very important in the construction and understanding of calendars.
Our concept of a year is based on the earth's motion around the sun. The
time from one fixed point, such as a solstice or equinox, to the next is called
a solar year. Its length is 365.24 days. There is a leap year every four years
which has 366 days and makes up for approximately six hours which
accumulate each year.
Our concept of a month is based on the moon's motion around the earth,
although this connection has been broken in the calendar commonly used
now. The time from one new moon to the next is called a lunar month, and
its length is 29.5 days.
Our seven-day week has been used for millennia by the Christian, Jewish,
Islamic and Chinese calendars, yet its origins are most uncertain. The first
pages of the Bible explain how God created the world in six days and rested
on the seventh. This seventh day became the Jewish day of rest, the Sabbath,
Saturday. The week was known in Rome, however, before the advent of
Christianity. The seven-day week may have been chosen because its length
approximates one moon phase.
Besides watching the sun and the moon, primitive people were intrigued
by other celestial phenomena which displayed themselves in the clear night
skies. They had recognized stars long before written records were invented.
Principal stars were grouped into patterns which people identified with
51
familiar animals or with the gods, goddesses, heroes, heroines or creatures of
mythology. Since the appearance of the predominant constellations
coincided with the natural phenomena, it was possible to trace the path of
the moon and that of the sun through the sky. Those constellations were
visible just before sunrise, or just after sunset, so primitive man naturally
watched them as he rose with the dawn or "went to bed" at sundown. The
risings and settings of stars allowed to derive the position of the sun among
the stars and thus by means of long and careful measurement, the calendrical
year was ultimately obtained. • ■
Answer the following questions. If you can't find the answers in the text, look
elsewhere: consult encyclopedias, try returning to your school textbooks, ask people
who know astronomy and physics.
1. What was the first calendar based on? How long does the full cycle of
the moon take?
2. What is the difference between the lunar calendar and the solar
calendar?
3. What is the solar calendar based on?
4. What did ancient people need a calendar for?
5. Why was the solar calendar obtained later than the lunar calendar?
6. What do you know about Babylon and Sumer?
I. Запомните произношение и значения следующих слов:

Julius Caesar [.(fealias 'si:zo|
pharaoh [Те(э)гэи]
Babylon ['bsebila:n]
Sumer |'su:mo| — a city-state in the southern part of Mesopotamia which
existed in the fourth and third millennia ВС, Sumerian cuneiform script may
pre-date any other form of writing, and dates to no later than about 3500 ВС
solstice ['sa:lstis] — one of the two times when the sun is farthest away
from the equator. In the northern hemisphere, the summer solstice is on June
21 or 22 and the sun stands over the tropic of Cancer. In the southern
hemisphere, the summer solstice occurs on December 21 or 22, when the sun
stands over the tropic of Capricorn
equinox ['i:kwina:ks] — one of the two days (March 21 and September
21) in the year when day and night are of equal length. The sun stands directly
over the equator
II. Слова латинского происхождения solar (солнечный) и lunar
{лунный) характерны для научных контекстов, в других случаях
употребляются исконно английские слова sun, sunny и moon. На-
пример: the solar system, solar energy, the lunar calendar, но a sunny
day, sun shadow, sun glasses, a sundial (солнечные часы), moonshine.
52
III. Слова с корнем -duce-/-duct- (introduced) имеют латинское
происхождение (duct — вести, тянуть, приносить)', ср.: conduct
(conductor), reduce (reduction) и т.п. , ,,
IV. В большинстве слов, заимствованных из греческого языка, звук
[f] передается буквосочетанием ph: phase, phenomenon, photo,
phonetics, philosophy, sphere. Многие из этих слов являются интер-
национальными и имеют русские эквиваленты. Они были образованы
от древнегреческих корней и вводились в научный обиход начиная с
эпохи Возрождения, ч.. ч > - . .v . >
V. Некоторые существительные, заимствованные из латинского
(millennium) и древнегреческого (phenomenon) языков, сохранили
окончания множественного числа языка-источника (millennia,
phenomena). К этой группе относятся: criterion — criteria, datum —
data, stratum — strata и др.
Exercise 1. Find common elements in the two groups of words:
a) introduction, solar, Sabbath, predominant, equinox;
b) кондуктор, солярий, солнце, шабаш, суббота, доминировать,
эквивалент.
Exercise 2. Find common elements in the words below and try to explain their
meaning:
equinox, equivalent, equator, value, nocturnal.
to look, old, exact, different, a group of stars, main, well-known, a stick,
to be interested.
1. One of the two times of the year at which the sun reaches its highest or
lowest point in the sky at midday, marked by the longest and shortest days.
2. One of the two times of the year when the day and night are of equal length.
Exercise 5. Translate the following sentences into Russian, minding the words in bold
type. First, look these words up in the dictionary, keeping in mind their various meanings;
remember also that they may belong to different parts of speech.
A. 1. I didn't recognize David on the street: he was so ill. 2. When I heard
this tune, I recognized it at once. 3. The new government was recognized by
all major states. 4. Joshua recognized that he was not qualified for the post.
5. Everyone recognized Dr. Gibson to be the greatest living authority on
ancient Roman coins. 6. His services to the State were recognized and he
was made a knight. 7. Recognition of the new state is unlikely. 8. Are
qualifications obtained in Britain recognized in other European countries? 9.
She is a recognized authority on artificial intelligence.
B. 1. We were playing jazz records. 2. The scientist usually records all
the details of the experiment on a computer. 3. I'd like to record some of your
songs. 4. This scholar has a very distinguished record. 5. The thief was
caught red-handed, but as he had no criminal record, the sentence was light.
6. This remark is off the record. I don't want to be quoted. 7. China and
53
North Korea have a terrible human rights record. 8. For the record, I'd just
like to say that I totally disagree with this decision. 9. Newspapers routinely
carry stories about record-breaking weather, such as rainfall (or the lack of
it) and low and high temperatures.
Exercise 6 . Put in the missing words. Consult the text.
1. The longest day in the Northern Hemisphere is the day of the summer....
2. The ... calendar is based on the phases of the moon. 3. Days and nights are
equal in length at the .... 4. In ancient Rome, debts were paid during the ... .
5. Calendars were used both for religious and ... purposes.

AND I. The solar calendar... has been used in Europe since the first century
ВС... — Солнечный календарь используется в Европе с первого
века до нашей эры.
Since the appearance of the predominant constellations coincided with
the natural phenomena, it was possible to trace the path of the moon and that
of the sun through the sky. — Поскольку появление главных созвездий
совпадало с явлениями природы, стало возможно проследить путь
солнца и луны по небу.
Слово since может служить предлогом (с) и союзом, вводящим
придаточные предложения времени (с тех пор как) и причины ( т а к
как, поскольку).
I. The Gregorian calendar has been in use since the 16th century. 2. Since
Irish Christianity had developed in isolation from Rome, it was remarkable
for certain peculiarities. 3. Since no point in England is more than 70 miles
from the coast, a large proportion of her inhabitants had some contact with
the sea. 4. Since silent reading is the way people read at least 95 % of the
time, teachers of reading devote most of their attention to silent reading.
II. ...calendar, based on the cycle of the sun... — ...календарь,
основанный на солнечном цикле/календарь, который основан на
солнечном цикле...
...calendars, based on the phases of the moon. — ...календари, осно-
ванные на фазах луны/календари, которые основаны на фазах луны.
...an unknown person dressed in reindeer skin and clutching a club gazed
at the sky... — ...неизвестный человек, одетый в оленью шкуру и
держащий дубину, посмотрел на небо/неизвестный человек, который
был одет в оленью шкуру и держал дубину, посмотрел на небо...
В функции определения причастия могут употребляться в составе
причастных оборотов (clutching a club — причастие 1; based on the
phases of the moon; based on the cycle of the sun; dressed in reindeer skin
— причастие 2), которые переводятся или причастными оборотами в
54
соответствующем залоге, или определительными придаточными
предложениями. (Грамматический курс, 3.3.3.1)
1. According to a recent estimate there are about forty calendars used in
the world today. 2. The Julian calendar, introduced by Julius Caesar in 45
ВС, was a solar calendar with months of fixed lengths. 3. The Gregorian
calendar, introduced by Pope Gregory XIII in the 16th century, serves as an
international standard for civil use. 4. The recommendations of Pope
Gregory's calendar commission were instituted by the papal bull signed on
February 24, 1582. 5. The lunisolar calendar has a sequence of months based
on the lunar phase cycle; but every few years a whole month is intercalated2
to bring the calendar back in phase with the tropical year. 6. The Chinese
calendar is a lunisolar calendar based on calculations of the positions of the
sun and moon. 7. In India early allusions to a lunisolar calendar are found in
the hymns from the Rig Veda, dating from the second millennium ВС. 8.
Three decades ago, the majority of students coming out of journalism schools
used their talents primarily at newspapers.
III. The seven-day week may have been chosen because its
___ length approximates one moon phase. — Семидневная неделя,
возможно, была выбрана потому, что примерно соответствовала одной
фазе луны.
Перфектный инфинитив при модальных глаголах may и must
указывает на вероятность совершения события в прошлом. (Грам-
матический курс, 4.2, 4.5, 4.14)
1. It is known that the Vikings visited the coasts of America. They may
have visited Nova Scotia and New England. 2.1 can't find my glasses. I must
have left them at the office. 3. The criminal must have entered the house by
the window. 4. I may have seen this woman somewhere. Her face seems
familiar to me. 5. The first calendars must have been used both for religious
and civic purposes. 6. At that time these tribes may not have been very
numerous.
1. Солнечная энергия будет широко использоваться в XXI веке. 2. В
такую погоду он всегда носит солнечные очки. 3. Сегодня солнечная
погода. 4. Первые календари были основаны на фазах луны. 5. Все
демократические государства тотчас же признали новый режим. 6. Он
является признанным авторитетом по древним календарям. 7. Фазы
2
intercalate — insert in the calendar
55
луны легче наблюдать, чем циклы солнца. 8. Календарь использовался
как для религиозных, так и для светских целей. 9. Человек научился
распознавать основные созвездия. 10. Эти данные трудно найти. 11. С
этим человеком интересно разговаривать. 12. Викинги, должно быть,
посещали эти места. 13. Я потеряла очки. Должно быть, я оставила их в
магазине. 14. Министр сказал это не для печати. 15. Все детали
эксперимента были аккуратно записаны.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 11. Divide the following time intervals into natural and artificial. Remember
that natural time intervals are based on astronomical events, while artificial time intervals
have no such correlation:
an hour, a day, a week, a month, a year, a decade, a century, a millennium.
Some of the artificial time intervals used to be based on astronomical events. Explain
which ones.
TEXT 2
Eratosphenes: the Librarian Who Measured the Earth
Can you accomplish anything practical by observing the sun's shadow?

Well, Eratosphenes accomplished an astounding feat: observing the sun's
shadow, he measured the size of the earth, and proved it was round in the
year 200 ВС!
Eratosphenes was the head librarian in Alexandria, Egypt. He received
a letter from a friend in Syene, which lies on the Tropic of Cancer. His friend
passed on the remarkable fact that on the summer solstice the sun would
climb to be directly overhead at midday. The sun would shine to the bottoms
of the deepest wells, and the buildings would have no shadows.
In Alexandria, the sun was not directly overhead on the summer solstice.
It did not shine to the bottoms of wells and a vertical stick had a shadow. How
could this be? Thinking about this phenomenon. Eratosphenes figured that
if the earth were flat, shadows would be the same everywhere. So the surface
must be curved: a sphere.
The next year he went out and measured the midday shadow of a long
vertical pole on the summer solstice in Alexandria and it measured 7.2
degrees. There are 360 degrees in a circle. He divided 360 by 7.2 and found
that 7.2 degrees was about one-fiftieth of a circle. He then had a special
56
surveyor trained to walk with equal steps measure the distance between
Syene and Alexandria. Multiplying the distance between Syene and
Alexandria by 50, he calculated the circumference of the earth to be 24.662
miles. This is only 200 miles off of the actual circumference of the earth.
AH done with only sticks and shadows, careful measuring, and a brilliant
human mind in 200 ВС!

I. Запомните произношение следующих слов:
Eratosphenes [i,ra:t3'sfi:ni:z]
Alexandria [.aelig'zamdria]
Syene [sai'i:n] — Сиена
II. Русскому слову земля соответствуют следующие английские:
1. earth (часто Earth) (планета; почва)
The spacecraft has returned to earth.
I filled the pot with earth.
2. ground (поверхность земли', участок земли небольшой площади)
We sat on the ground.
On this piece of ground we can plant a few trees.
3. land (суша', страна, территория', землевладение',
сельскохозяйственные угодья)
After a week at sea, the sailors saw land.
It's my native land.
Land prices rise quickly.
This land is good for growing wheat.
4. soil (почва)
I filled the pot with soil.
III. Cancer — Рак (созвездие и знак зодиака, тж. Crab); the 5
Tropic of Cancer тропик1 Рака (ср. the Tropic of Capricorn
тропик Козерога)
cancer — рак (заболевание)
рак (зоол.) — crayfish ( B r ) , crawfish ( A m )
Exercise 12. Find words in the text meeting the following definition:
1. A difficult and impressive act or achievement. 2. A hole in the ground
from which a supply of water is extracted.
'Тропики — параллели с широтами 22°27'. В день летнего солнцестояния (21 — 22 июня)
Солнце в полдень находится в зените над Северным тропиком, или тропиком Рака, а в день
зимнего солнцестояния (21—22 декабря) — над Южным, или тропиком Козерога.
A. 1. The Earth rotates round the Sun. 2. The refugees had to sleep on
the ground. 3. Many wars have been fought for land. 4. The boat turned
away from land and headed out to sea. 5. The soil in this region is very fertile.
57
B. 1. Mary never eats sweets. She watches her figure. 2. Recent govern-
ment figures show that the unemployment in the country is going down. 3.
Susan brought a torch as she figured she might need it.

I. ...observing the sun's shadow, he measured the size of the earth, and
proved it was round... — ...наблюдая за тенью от солнца, он измерил
Землю и доказал, что она круглая...
Thinking about this phenomenon, Eratosphenes figured... — Раз-
мышляя об этом явлении, Эратосфен понял...
В функции обстоятельства причастия могут употребляться в составе
причастных оборотов, которые переводятся при помощи
деепричастного оборота или придаточного предложения, если не-
возможно образовать соответствующее деепричастие. (Граммати-
ческий курс, 3.3.3.4)
I. Watching the sun and the moon, primitive people learned to measure
time. 2. Covering a news event, the journalist must check the spelling of all
the proper names. 3. Writing press releases, PR practitioners must avoid
difficult words and technical jargon. 4. Buying products advertised in the
media, we pay for our "free" television and cheap newspapers.
II. He then had a special surveyor... measure the distance... — Он
велел специальному землемеру... измерить расстояние...
Объектная конструкция с инфинитивом без частицы to при глаголе
to have имеет каузативное значение и переводится с помощью оборотов
распорядиться, чтобы, добиться, чтобы. (Грамматический курс,
3.1.3.1)
1. I'll have my driver take you to another bank. 2. The manager had the
cashier write out the bill. 3. I'll have my secretary bring you a fax- machine.
4. Instead of going out to lunch, they had the restaurant send some food to
the office. 5. The Jewish calendar is a combined solar/lunar calendar. It
strives to have its years coincide with the tropical year and its months
coincide with the synodic months.
III. ...he calculated the circumference of the earth to be 24,662 miles.
—
...он вычислил, что окружность Земли равна 24662 милям.
Объектная конструкция с инфинитивом при глаголах, выражающих
умственную деятельность, предположение, мнение и ряде других (to
find, to think, to know, to calculate, to decide, to read, to study и т.п.),
переводится дополнительным придаточным предложением типа знает,
что...-, считает, что... и т.п. (Грамматический курс, 3.1.3.1)
58
1. We know the reputation of your newspaper to be very good. 2. Some
scholars consider this theory to be a mistake. 3. The shop clerk appeared
unsure of himself and nervous. The customer judged him to be new to his job.
4. The new employee knew himself to be raw, inadequately trained and
capable of making mistakes. 5. Doctors know some forms of cancer to
become static for many years and even to improve.
1. Эратосфен велел землемеру измерить расстояние между Сиеной и
Александрией. 2. В день летнего солнцестояния солнце в Сиене
заглядывало в самые глубокие колодцы. 3. Эратосфен подсчитал, что
окружность Земли равна 24 662 милям. 4. В Ирландии большая часть
земли принадлежала англичанам. 5. После длительного плавания
моряки увидели землю. 6. Не сиди на земле! Ты простудишься. 7. Земля
здесь очень плодородная. 8. Наблюдая за фазами Луны, человек
научился измерять время. 9. Некоторые ученые считают эту теорию
ошибочной. 10. Наблюдая за звездами, кочевники (nomads) научились
находить дорогу в пустыне. 11. Работая с прессой, пиарщик должен
знать сроки подачи материала во всех газетах.
Exercise 18. Comment the following statement:
To every time there is season, and a time to every purpose under the
heaven. (Old Testament Ecclesiastes, ch. 3, v. 1)
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 19. Write a short essay, commenting on the following statement:

Time is a sort of river of passing events, and strong is its current; no sooner
is a thing brought to sight than it is swept by and another takes its place, and
this too will be swept away. (Marcus Aurelius, 121 —180)
59
U n i t 10. CHRISTMAS: HISTORY AND TRADITIONS
Вспомогательный глагол would

Субъектная конструкция с простым инифинитивом
Субъектная конструкция с перфектным инфинитивом
Эмфатические конструкции it is ... that
Конструкция «to have + существительное/местоимение +
причастие 2»
TEXT
The History of Christmas

The word "Christmas" comes from the old English "Cristes maesse"
meaning Christ's Mass. The Holiday celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ. The
actual birthday of Jesus is not known; therefore, the early church fathers in
the 4th century fixed the day around the old Roman Saturnalia festival (17
— 21 December), a traditional pagan festivity. The first mention of the
birthday of Jesus is from the year 354 AD. Gradually all Christian churches,
except the Russian Orthodox Church, accepted the date of December 25th.
In American/English tradition, Christmas Day itself is the day for opening
gifts brought by jolly old St. Nicholas. Many of current American ideals
about the way Christmas ought to be, derive from the English Victorian 1
Christmas.
The caroling, the gifts, the feast, and the wishing of good cheer to all —
these ingredients came together to create that special Christmas atmosphere.
The custom of gift-giving on Christmas goes back to Roman festivals of
Saturnalia and Kalends. Romans are known to have exchanged gifts at the
time of the winter solstice .The very first gifts were simple items such as
twigs from a sacred grove as good luck emblems. Soon that escalated to food,
small items of jewelry, candles and statues of gods. To the early Church, gift-
giving at this time was a pagan holdover and therefore severely frowned
upon. However, people would not part with it, and some justification was
found in the original gift-giving of the Magi, and
'Victorian England — England during the reign of Queen Victoria (1819—1901).
63
from figures such as St. Nicholas. By the Middle Ages gift-giving was
accepted. Before then it was more common to exchange gifts on New Year's
Day or Twelfth Night.
Santa Claus is known in Britain as Father Christmas. Father Christmas,
these days, is quite similar to the American Santa Claus, but his direct
ancestor is a certain pagan spirit who regularly appeared in medieval
mummer's plays. The old-fashioned Father Christmas was depicted wearing
long robes with sprigs of holly in his long white hair. Children write letters
to Father Christmas detailing their requests, but instead of dropping them in
the mailbox, the letters are tossed into the fireplace. The draft carries the
letters up the chimney, and theoretically. Father Christmas reads the smoke.
Gifts are opened Christmas afternoon.
The hanging of greens, such as holly and ivy, is a British winter tradition
with origins far before the Christian era. Greenery was probably used to lift
sagging winter spirits and remind the people that spring was not far away.
The custom of kissing under the mistletoe is descended from ancient Druid
rites. The decorating of Christmas trees, though primarily a German custom,
has been widely popular in England since 1841 when Prince Albert had a
Christmas tree set up in Windsor Castle for his wife Queen Victoria and their
children.
It is from Scandinavia that most of the yule log traditions derive. The dark
cold winters inspired the development of traditions concerned with warmth
and light. Yuletide, meaning the turning of the sun or the winter solstice, has
traditionally been a time of extreme importance in Scandinavia — a time
when fortunes for the coming year were determined and when the dead were
thought to walk the earth. For a long time, it was considered dangerous to
sleep alone on Christmas Eve. The extended family, master and servant, alike
would sleep together on a freshly spread bed of straw.
The popularity of the Nativity scene, one of the most beloved and
enduring symbols of the holiday season, originated in Italy. St. Francis of
Assisi asked a man named Giovanni Vellita of the village of Greccio to create
a manger scene. St. Francis performed mass in front of this early Nativity
scene, which inspired awe and devotion in all who saw it. The creation of the
figures or pastori became an entire genre of folk art.
1. What does Christmas celebrate?
2. Why is Christmas celebrated on December 25?
3. Why did the early Church disapprove of Christmas gift-giving?
4. What do people usually do on Christmas?
5. What pagan holdovers can be seen in Christmas celebrations?
6. Where does the Christmas-tree tradition come from?
7. When is Christmas celebrated by the Russian Orthodox Church and
why?
8. What pagan rites are preserved in Christmas celebrations?
Запомните произношение и значения следующих слов: Saturnalia
[.ssets'neilis] — сатурналии pagan f'peiganl — языческий,
нехристианский Слово происходит от латинского pagus — сельская
61
местность. Когда в Риме уже было принято христианство, а в
сельских местностях еще поклонялись местным божкам, слово
paganus обозначало одновременно сельского жителя и язычника (букв,
деревенщина). Отсюда же и русское поганый, изначальное значение
которого было «инородец», «захватчик».
St. Nicholas [s(a)nt 'nik(3)bs] — the bishop of Myra, Asia Minor (4th
century AD) who was universally loved for his generosity. Dressed in
bishop's garb and sporting a long white beard, he is supposed to have left
good children presents on his feast day, December 6.
Magi f'meicfeai] — three wise men of the East who visited Jesus soon
after he was born, bringing gifts for him
mummer — an actor in traditional Christmas pantomime holly —
остролист mistletoe — омела rite — ritual
yule log [ 'ju:l b:g j — a big log brought into houses at Christmas. It was
ceremoniously dragged in by many hands and placed on the fireplace on
Christmas Eve.
Nativity [na'trviti] — the birth of Jesus Christ. The word "Christmas"
refers to the holiday, while the word "Nativity" refers to the actual event.
St. Francis of Assisi [s(o)nt .foensis av a'srsi:] — an Italian monk
(1182—1226) who began the Franciscan order. He is remembered for his
lack of pride and love of animals. Greccio ['gretfia] — Гречио
manger ['meincfca] — a long container, open at the top in which food is
placed for horses and cattle
holiday, holy, clothes, merry, present-day.
A. I. Don't go into the river: the current is very strong. 2. The current
government is unlikely to undertake comprehensive economic reforms. 3.
There was a powerful electric current running through the wires. 4. The
World Health Organization is currently holding its annual conference in
Geneva. 5. He has a current account with the bank.
B. 1. The paper is rich in new and original ideas. 2. Reading books in the
original is much more interesting than reading translations. 3. They will
restore the house to its original state. 4. I stayed at the party later than I
originally intended. 5. This building was originally a toy factory. 6. New
York was originally named New Amsterdam. It became a part of British
colonies in 1644.
C. 1. Don't make any decision until you have considered the matter. 2.
We must consider the feelings of other people. 3. I consider this decision
quite fair. 4. Please give the matter your careful consideration. 5. The
proposals are still under consideration. 6. When marking Tom's examination
paper, the teacher took Tom's long illness into consideration. 7. Several
considerations have influenced my decision. 8. Carrying large sums of
62
money involves considerable risk of loss or theft. 9. He is very considerate
to his parents. He writes letters to them every week. 10. It was very
considerate of you not to play the piano while I was sleeping.
I I. However, people would not part with it [holdover]... — Од- *'"

нако люди не хотели расставаться с ним [пережитком]...
The extended family, master and servant, alike would sleep
together on a freshly spread bed of straw. — Вся патриар-
хальная семья, как хозяева, так и слуги, обычно спала на
свежерасстеленной соломе.
Глагол would выражает:
а) будущее действие в прошедшем времени;
б) нереальное действие;
в) действие, осуществленное (или не осуществленное) вопреки
препятствиям (первый пример);
г) обычное, повторяющееся действие в прошлом (второй пример).
(Грамматический курс, 4.10)
I. I could not and would not believe that he was becoming interested in
me. 2. Soames would often come down to watch with secret pride the
building of the house. 3. The chief of the tribe and his wife would sleep on a
dais or in an upper gallery; other members of the tribe slept about anywhere.
4. Space travel would be impossible without computers. 5. Mary said she
would come later. 6. Mrs. Renfold did not — or would not — understand that
her husband was dying.
Субъектная конструкция с простым инфинитивом употребляется,
когда действие, выраженное инфинитивом, происходит одновременно
с действием, выраженным сказуемым. Субъектом инфинитива служит
подлежащее предложения, а личный глагол в составе сказуемого
указывает на отношение действия к действительности — на его
известность, предсказуемость, вероятность. Переводится
сложноподчиненным предложением типа Известно, что...',
Считается, что...', Говорят, что..., а также с помощью вводных слов
по-видимому, вероятно и т.п. (Грамматический курс, 3.1.3.2.1)
1. President Franklin Roosevelt was said to rule the country from the
newspapers' front pages. 2. Every discipline seems to develop its own
terminology; sometimes, the same term is used in different ways by people
in different disciplines and professions. 3. Increased use of computer
technology is likely to decrease the number of practitioners working at lower-
level jobs and increase the number working at professional levels. 4. Levels
of stress in the family have been shown to change with changing economic
63
circumstances. 5. Human character is known to be influenced both by
hereditary and environmental factors.
III. Romans are known to have exchanged gifts at the time of the winter
solstice. — Известно, что римляне обменивались подарками во время
зимнего солнцестояния.
Субъектная конструкция с перфектным инфинитивом употреб-
ляется тогда, когда действие, выраженное инфинитивом, предшествует
действию, выраженному сказуемым. (Грамматический курс, 3.1.3.2.3)
1. The Bishop of Myra, St. Nicholas is considered to have been the
prototype of Santa Claus. 2. Dressed in bishop's garb, St. Nicholas is
supposed to have left good children presents on his feast day, December 6. 3.
The custom of hanging stockings on amantel in anticipation of small presents
is believed to have started as a homage to St. Nicholas. 4. Candles are known
to have been used for religious purposes as far back as Biblical times.
IV. It is from Scandinavia that most of the yule log traditions derive. —
Большинство традиций, связанных с рождественским поленом, пришло
из Скандинавии./ Именно из Скандинавии пришло большинство
традиций, связанных с рождественским поленом.
Данная эмфатическая конструкция служит для выделения об-
стоятельства места, которое помещается между местоимениями it и
that. При переводе эту часть предложения можно выносить в конец или
использовать слова именно, это.
1. The dinosaurs were very big and it was their size that finished them. 2.
I rang the bell. It was Hester who opened the door. 3. It was in 1920 that I
first met Helena Meredith. 4. He was a member of a social club in the East
End of London. It is there that he first met Rachel Constam. 5. The
Revolution in Britain decided the balance between Parliamentary and regal
power in favor of Parliament. It was only in the course of years that the details
of that new harmony were worked out, through the development of the
Cabinet system and the office of Prime Minister. 6.1 thought the house was
behind the trees. It was not until I reached the trees that I understood my
mistake. There was no house.
V. ...Prince Albert had a Christmas tree set up in Windsor Castle... —
...принц Альберт распорядился установить елку в Виндзорском
дворце... с, , . - • '-v,
Конструкция «to have + существительное/местоимение + причастие
2» обозначает действие, совершенное не самим лицом, выраженным
подлежащим, а по его приказу, просьбе и т.п. (Грамматический курс,
3.3.3.4.1.1)
1. The governor could no longer tolerate the journalist's satirical barbs
and had him thrown into prison on a charge of seditious libel. 2.1 rescued her
and had her admitted to the local hospital. 3. The editor had the story printed
64
on the front page. 4. The mayor had all the roads in the city repaired. 5. Every
Aryan (Indo-European) people had its legendary history crystallized in bardic
recitations, epics, sagas and Vedas as they were variously called.
8
1. Рождество празднуется через несколько дней после зимнего
солнцестояния. 2. В Эрмитаже имеются две картины «Рождество»
неизвестных итальянских художников (master). 3. Обычай дарить на
рождество подарки — это древняя языческая традиция. 4. Многие
элементы рождественских праздников имеют языческое про-
исхождение. 5. Принц Альберт велел устроить елку для королевы
Виктории и детей. 6. Эта работа связана со значительным риском. 7.
Том очень внимателен к своим родителям. 8. Известно, что некоторые
антибиотики опасны для детей. 9. В Сочельник дети вешают чулки в
камин, ожидая рождественских подарков. 10. Здесь опасно купаться.
Течение слишком сильное. 11. У меня текущий счет в этом банке. 12.
Премьер-министр выразил озабоченность по поводу роста
безработицы. 13. Первоначально в этом здании размещалась школа. 14.
Святой Николай, епископ города Мира в Малой Азии, считается
прототипом Санта-Клауса.
SPEAKING PRACTICE

Tradition means giving votes to the most obscure of all classes — our
ancestors. It is the democracy of the dead. Tradition refuses to submit to the
small and arrogant oligarchy of those who merely happen to be walking
around. (Gilbert Keith Chesterton, 1874—1936)
Exercise 10. Compare the celebration of Christmas and the New Year Eve in
Russia. Answer the following questions:
1. How do these traditions differ?
2. Which holiday is more popular in Russia and why?
3. Does Western Christmas (December, 25) mean anything to you?
4. Do you give presents to your family and friends for New Year Eve or
for Christmas?
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 11. Look at some examples of Christmas cards. Write a Christmas card
to your classmates, combining season greetings with some personal information. \
. . . „ „
65
To Dorothy and Family With Wishing to you a Merry Christmas and
happy New Year.
season's Greetings and All Sorry I've been so lax at keeping in touch.
good wishes for the New Year You and your family are far from
With Love & Best wishes From forgotten, I assure you. I still use the cups
Anne, Charles and Claire Barton you gave me last X-mas every day. Hope
Love, Claire ■ • - -; « to hear from you soon. Love, Brenda
Dear Mary,
Part 4
ENGLISH BEYOND ENGLAND
U n i t 11. THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE NEW WORLD
Субъектная конструкция с перфектным инфинитивом
(повторение)
Перфектный инфинитив с модальными глаголами may и
must (повторение)
Бессоюзное определительное придаточное предложение
Модальный глагол to be в прошедшем времени Наречие
never с глаголом в прошедшем времени
TEXT
66
The Discovery of America
The first Europeans to arrive in North America — at least the first for
whom there is solid evidence — were Norse, traveling west from Greenland
where Eric the Red had founded a settlement around the year 985. In 1001
his son Leif Ericson is thought to have explored the northeast coast of what
is now Canada and spent at least one winter there.
They landed at a place thev called Vinland. Remains of a Viking
settlement have been found in the Canadian province of Newfoundland. The
Vikines mav also have visited Nova Scotia and New England. They failed,
however, to establish any permanent settlements, and they soon lost contact
with the new continent.
Five hundred years later, the need for increased trade and an error in
navigation led to another European encounter with America. In late 15th-
century Europe, there was a great demand for spices, textiles and dyes from
Asia. Christopher Columbus, a mariner from Italy, mistakenly believed that
he could reach Far East by sailing 4,000 miles (6,400 km) west from Europe.
In 1492, he persuaded the king and queen of Spain to finance such a voyage.
Columbus sailed west, but he did not reach Asia. Instead he landed on
one of the Bahama Islands in the Caribbean Sea. Columbus never saw the
mainland United States, but the first explorations of the continent were
launched from the Spanish possessions that he helped establish.
He eventually explored most of the Caribbean area. He returned home
with some gold and within 40 years treasure-hungry Spanish adventurers had
conquered a huge empire in South and Central America. The Spanish also
established some of the earliest settlements in North America — St.
Augustine in Florida (1565), Santa Fe in New Mexico (1609) and San Diego
in California (1769).
Because of Spanish and Portuguese conquests, the inhabitants of Central
and South America speak Spanish and Portuguese'. That is why this part of
the world is referred to as Latin America.
In 1497, just five years after Christopher Columbus landed in the
Caribbean, a Venetian sailor named John Cabot arrived in Newfoundland
with a mission for the British king. Although fairly quickly forgotten, Cabot's
journey was later to provide the basis for British claims to North America.
The Europeans were initially drawn to the New World in search of
wealth. When Columbus and later Spanish explorers returned to Europe with
stories of abundant gold in the Americas, each European sovereign hastened
to claim as much territory as possible in the New World — along with
whatever wealth might be extracted from it.
Enforcing these claims could only be accomplished by establishing
settlements of Europeans on the territory. This requirement — combined
with the zeal of Spanish priests to convert the indigenous inhabitants of the
Americas to Christianity, the need of European religious and political
dissenters for refuge from persecution in their homelands, and the thirst for
adventure in some individuals — fueled the drive for the establishment of
colonies.
67
(from An Outline of American History ей. by H.Cincotte)
Answer the following questions. If you can't find the answer in the text, look
elsewhere.
1. When did Europeans first reach the New World?
2. What do you know about Leif Ericson? What was his father's name?
' Portuguese is spoken in Brazil. Other nations of Central and South America speak Spanish.
3. What country was Christopher Columbus looking for?
4. How are the indigenous inhabitants of America called? Why?
5. What attracted the first adventurers to the New World?
6. Why were European settlements established?
7. What kind of stories did Spanish adventurers tell at home?
8. What branch of Christianity did Spanish priests convert Indians to?
9. Why are South and Central America called Latin America?
10. What languages are spoken in Latin America?
I. Norse ( a d j ) — referring to people, language and culture of an early

period in the history of Scandinavia
Norseman — a Viking
11. Глагол to fail с инфинитивом может указывать не только на
неудачную попытку совершить действие, но и на неосуществление
действия, т.е. имеет значение отрицания:
The Fourteenth Amendment in 1868 failed to secure full legal rights to
the freed slaves. — Четырнадцатая поправка к американской кон-
ституции не обеспечила всех прав недавно освобожденным рабам.
III. Русским глаголам плыть, плавать соответству ют следующие
английские глаголы:
1. sail (о лодке, корабле) Columbus
sailed to the New World.
2. swim (о человеке или животном)
The children are swimming in the lake.
3. float (держаться на поверхности
воды) Ice floats on water.
We are trying to float the sunken ship.
large, a monarch, to set up, a shelter, a mistake.
1. A long journey, especially by boat. 2. A place where people have come
to live permanently.
68
A. 1. Catholics, who were facing religious persecution in Anglican
England, settled along the Potomac River in what became known as
Maryland. 2. They haven't yet settled when the wedding is going to be.
3. The details of the contract have not yet been settled. 4. If you don't settle
this account, nobody will lend you money any more. 5. Settlement of the
island of Manhattan began in the early 1620s. 6. In the 1630s, a Swedish
trading company with ties to the Dutch, attempted to set up its first
settlement along the Delaware River. 7. A speedy settlement of the strike
by the new government helped to avoid violence. 8. The parties reached an
out-of-court settlement. 9. The two countries must use the chance for a
peaceful political settlement.
B. 1. These protest marches seldom failed to attract attention. 2. He had
set his alarm clock for 7 am, but either he slept through its warning or it failed
to go off. 3. Let it not be said that at any point we failed to respect the law.
4. Whatever criticism might be leveled at the manager, no one could
complain that he had failed to make his viewpoint clear. 5. Through the entire
evening the Duke and the Duchess had failed to leave their hotel room.
C. 1. The policeman demanded to see their identity card. 2. The workers
are demanding higher wages. 3. Detective stories are widely read and are
always in great demand. 4. In market economy, prices are determined by
demand and supply. 5. A person who wants to buy something, but can't
afford it, doesn't create demand for this commodity.
D. l.This ship was launched two years ago. 2. The first manned
spaceship was launched in 1961.3. The government has launched a massive
anti-drug campaign. 4. The guerillas launched an attack against the police
and military barracks. 5. The new range of products launched last summer
is already selling well. 6. The newspaper was already selling millions of
copies just one year after the launch. 7. He launched into a long speech about
the dangers of taking drugs. 8. Sometimes a first job can serve as a launching
pad for starting a career. 9. South Dakota in the early 1980s launched its
own anti-drunk-driving campaign and had already sharply reduced the
number of young people involved in drunk driving fatalities.
E. 1. Indigenous peoples in many countries claim back the land lost by
their forefathers. 2. The terrorist organization claimed responsibility for the
attack. 3. The accident claimed ten lives. 4. Television news programs claim
far larger audiences than magazines and newspapers. 5. The freedom fighters
claim to control the city. 6. He claimed to be a Scot, but had a powerful
Liverpool accent. 7. The settlers claimed that they had paid the government
for the land. 8. When Columbus and later Spanish explorers returned to
Europe with stories of abundant gold in the Americas, each European
sovereign hastened to claim as much territory as possible in the New World.
9. The guerillas claim to have shot down 22 planes.
69
F. 1. This case drew intense publicity. 2. Local drug action teams have
drawn up co-ordinated action plans. 3. Their wedding day was drawing
nearer all the time. 4. The meeting was drawing to an end. 5. They drew
electricity from the national power network. 6. Research work involves the
ability to observe individual facts and draw conclusions. 7. He drew fifty
pounds from his current account.
I. ...Leif Ericson is thought to have explored the northeast

coast of what is now Canada... — ...считается, что Лейф Эриксон
исследовал северо-восточное побережье нынешней Канады...
Повторите субъектную конструкцию с перфектным
инфинитивом (Unit 10, Grammar Study and Practice, III;
Грамматический курс, 3.1.3.2.3).
1. Paleo-Indians are considered to have settled in all the unglaciated
corners of North and South America. 2. The population of Native peoples in
Central Mexico in 1518 is estimated to have been 25 million. 3. Ninety per
cent of the populations the Spaniards encountered in America are believed to
have been eliminated by epidemics of measles, chicken pox and smallpox to
which the natives had no immunities. 4. In medieval Italy people who
dissected dead bodies in order to study anatomy were considered to have sold
their souls to the devil.
II. The Vikings may also have visited Nova Scotia and New
England. — Викинги, возможно, посещали Новую Шотландию
и Новую Англию.
Повторите употребление модальных глаголов may и must с
перфектным инфинитивом (Unit 9, Text 1, Grammar Study and
Practice, III; Грамматический курс, 4.2, 4.5, 4.14).
1. These tribes must have followed several migration routes along the
California coast. They must have gathered wild plants and fished. 2. The
indigenous people of Greenland must have developed unique hunting
techniques and tools to survive in the remarkably harsh climate. 3. Asian
tribes must have pushed eastwards across the land bridge that is now covered
by the waters of the Bering strait pursuing the caribou, mammoths, and other
great beasts that were their game. 4. Before Columbus, English fishermen
from Bristol may have touched on North American shores.
71
III. a place they called Vinland — место, которое они назвали Вишанд
Определительное придаточное предложение в английском языке
может присоединяться бессоюзно. При переводе на русский язык
необходимо использование союзного слова который.
1. The people I spoke to told me about their problems. 2. The land the
Vikings discovered was covered with forests. 3. The language this tribe
spoke was unfamiliar to the explorer. 4. The wine they serve here is grown
in the south of France. 5. The roses they grow in this garden are sold
everywhere.
IV. Cabot's journey was later to provide the basis for British MUST
claims to North America. — Путешествие Кэбота позднее ~~ дало
основание англичанам претендовать на земли в Северной Америке.
Модальный глагол to be в прошедшем времени может иметь
значение обусловленности, закономерности («не могло не дать»),
1. In a print shop in Mainz, Germany, Johannes Gutenberg invented the
movable type printing press that was to revolutionize the process of
spreading information. 2. The invention of movable type in Germany in the
15th century spurred a printing revolution that was to shatter social structures
and encourage the spread of information among varied social classes. 3. The
state was small, isolated, decadent and torn by feuds, which were to leave it
an easy prey to the conquerors. 4. The city of London, which was to play so
great a part first in English and then in the world history, attained its original
importance under the Roman rule.
I. Помимо Лейфа Эриксона другие викинги, возможно, плавали к
берегам Америки. 2. Он не умеет плавать. 3. Дерево плавает в воде, а
железо тонет. 4. Этот корабль был спущен на воду три года назад. 5.
Английские колонисты устраивали поселения на атлантическом
побережье Америки. 6. Обе стороны (parties) должны пытаться достичь
мирного урегулирования конфликта. 7. Будильник не позвонил, и я
проспал (overslept). 8. Локальные войны каждый день уносят новые
жизни. 9. Рабочие требуют повышения зарплаты. 10. Партизаны
утверждают, что контролируют деревню. 11. Правительство
утверждает, что уровень безработицы падает. 12. Эта организация взяла
на себя ответственность за взрыв в ресторане. 13. В этой аварии
погибло 10 человек. 14. Первые поселенцы надеялись найти в Америке
72
убежище от религиозных преследований. 15. Колумб так и не посетил
американский материк, но исследо- вал острова Карибского моря.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 10. Make a presentation in your group covering the following topics:
The settlement of North America by British colonists.
The settlement of Alaska by Russian colonists.
African Americans and their history.
Exercise 11. Discuss in your group:
What would have happened if Europeans had not come to the New
World?
Keep in mind possible answers:
• Native Americans would have a rich and original civilization now.
• Forests would stand where New York City, Washington and
Philadelphia are now. Nomadic tribes with Neolithic culture would be
wandering about the continent.
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 12. Write an essay on any of the topics suggested for presentation or group
discussion.
U n i t 12. ENGLISH IN AUSTRALIA
Предложения со словами the first/the last и т. п. с
Отрицательные предложения с союзом until
Причастие 2, образованное от глаголов, русские
эквиваленты которых непереходны Глагол to come с
TEXT
73
Australia
During the Ice Age, people and animals of the Northern Hemisphere
began to drift southwards to escape the intense, advancing cold, as well as to
find new food supplies. As a result, more southerly groups were pushed even
further south, causing a chain reaction of migration.
The ice had built up in the waters of the sea, forming massive ice caps on
the North and South Poles, and lowering the level of water in the ocean. This
uncovered bridges between landmasses, nearly joining islands and making
migration possible. People in crude boats were able to "island hop" and the
first human inhabitants of Australia may have unknowingly entered the great
southern continent this way.
Australian aboriginals existed in almost total isolation for well over
40,000 years. They had no written history, so we now have only fragments
of legends, cave paintings and rock etchings to record their remarkable past.
There were about 600 aboriginal tribes on the Australian mainland before
European contact. Each tribe lived within its own tribal boundaries, where
they hunted or gathered food.
European explorers and cartographers had long referred to the great land
mass in the Southern Ocean as "Terra australis incognita" (the unknown
southern land). Many explorers, spurred on by trade and by constant reports
by Chinese and Malays who were frequent visitors to the area, sailed to the
Southern Ocean.
Although the Dutch explorers visited Australia as early as 1643, its
discovery and colonization is connected with the name of James Cook.
He was born on October 27, 1728 in Yorkshire, Britain. He was an apprentice
to a shipping company at age 18, and joined the British Navy at 27 in 1755.
In 1768, the Navy appointed him leader of a scientific expedition to Tahiti to
observe a solar eclipse by Venus. He also had secret orders to find a southern
continent geographers long believed kept the world in balance. He set out on
his first voyage round the world in the ship Endeavour.
The trip to Tahiti was successful. The search for the southern continent
was not. In October of 1769 Cook was the first European to visit New
Zealand, but he didn't visit Australia until 1770.
James Cook claimed the eastern coast of Australia in the name of King
George III of Great Britain and named it New South Wales. Within 20 years
Britain had established its first penal colony at Sydney, thus relieving the
pressure of the overcrowded prisons in England. The first fleet into Botany
Bay carried 717 prisoners and nearly 300 officials, guards and their families.
About 130,000 prisoners were transported during the 50 years after the
arrival of the "first fleet" in 1788. One linguistic consequence, often
remarked upon by early visitors to Australia, was the frequency of swearing,
which soon began to affect free settlers.
"Free" settlers, as they were called, also began to enter the country from
the very beginning, but they did not achieve substantial numbers until the
mid- 19th century. From then on, immigration rapidly increased. By 1850,
74
the population of Australia was about 400,000 and by 1900 nearly 4 million.
Today, it is over 17 million.
The British Isles provided the main source of settlers, and thus the main
influence on the language. Many of the convicts came from London and
Ireland (especially following the 1798 Irish Rebellion'), and traces of
Cockney and Irish English can be found in the speech patterns heard in
Australia today. Several words commonly thought of as Australian started
out in Britain, and may still be heard locally in British dialects, such as
cobber, tucker and joker (person). On the other hand, the variety contains
many expressions which have originated in Australia (including a number
from aboriginal languages) and in recent years the influence of American
English has been noticeable, so that the country now has a very mixed lexical
character.
A major issue in Australian social history has been the question of
identity. There has long been a tension between the preservation of British
cultural values and the promotion of Australian independence. Many
inhabitants have favoured the maintenance and development of cultural
continuity with Britain; many others have come to reject this tradition,
instead advocating nationalism, or some kind of internationalism (but
without a British focus). The linguistic consequences
'Irish Rebellion — a rebellion in Ireland (then a British colony) against the British rule in 1798.
of this issue can be clearly seen in the pattern of present-day usage variation.
(from The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language
by D. Crystal)
1. Why was the sea level in the Ice Age lower than it is now?
2. How did the first people come to Australia?
3. What did the aboriginal tribes do before the arrival of Europeans?
4. Who visited the continent before Europeans?
5. How did European explorers and cartographers call Australia?
6. How did Great Britain use the new colony?
7. How did the fact that Australia was a penal colony affect the language?

I. Существуют пары прилагательных, обозначающих положение
относительно сторон горизонта: North/Northern, South/Southern,
East/Eastern, West/Western.
Прилагательное с суффиксом -ern чаще указывает на собственно
географическое положение (Western/Eastern Europe), прилагательное
без суффикса — на административную единицу (South Africa, New
South Wales).
Ho: North America (континент), Northern Ireland (Северная Ир-
ландия, часть Соединенного Королевства).
75
Имена собственные с такими прилагательными рекомендуется
запомнить:
East/West Germany — Восточная/Западная Германия (до воссо-
единения в 1990 году Восточная Германия (Германская Демокра-
тическая Республика) была социалистическим, Западная Германия
(Федеративная Республика Германия) — капиталистическим
государством;
South/North Korea — Южная/ Северная Корея (Северная Корея
(Корейская Народно-Демократическая Республика) — одно из не-
многих оставшихся социалистических государств;
South Africa — Южно-Африканская Республика;
the West Bank — Западный берег реки Иордан (спорная территория
в конфликте Израиля с палестинцами);
the North Sea — Северное море.
II. to swear — 1. клясться; 2. ругаться
to swear in a witness — приводить свидетеля к присяге
Наличие у данного слова столь разных значений обусловлено, по-
видимому, тем, что при клятве призывается в свидетели высшая или
потусторонняя сила (ср. рус. божиться). Упоминание же
76
имени Бога всуе запрещено библейской заповедью (Thou shalt not say
my name in vain) и считается святотатством. В английском языке,
особенно в пуританских семьях, употребление слов Christ, Damn в
качестве междометий (ср. рус. боже мой) считается неприличным.
Отсюда второе значение слова to swear.
III. advocate ( n ) — сторонник (какой-л. идеи) advocate ( v ) —
отстаивать (что-л.) адвокат — lawyer
a continent, to influence, primitive, a problem, a journey (2).
1. A large group of related families who live in the same area and share
a common language, religion and customs. 2. The movement of large
numbers of people, birds or animals from one place to another.
A. 1. Great deposits of oil were discovered in the North Sea. 2. Violence
in Northern Ireland has always been a problem for British authorities. 3. The
tourists were traveling in Florida and other southern states. 4. South Africa
is famous for its diamonds. 5. Mr. Henderson had a strong northern accent.
6. Western values are unacceptable in many Islamic countries. 7. Canada is
the second largest state in North America.
B. 1. Rats carry very nasty diseases. 2. Any job carries with it daily
stretches of boredom. 3. The guards were allowed to carry guns. 4. The Wall
Street Journal carried a long article about crime. 5. The poster carried a
portrait of Churchill. 6. The lecturer spoke in a very faint voice, which
carried no farther than the first three rows. 7. Her opinion carries a lot of
weight. People always listen to it.
C. 1. John leant out of the car window and swore at the other driver. 2.
Do you swear to tell the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth? 3.
The witnesses were sworn in and the trial began.
D. 1. The weather favored the attacking army. 2. The climate in this part
of the country favors agriculture. 3. They are in favor of reforming the tax
laws. 4. I think the company will look with favor on your plan. 5. Their
views are very much out of favor now. 6. Do me a favor, give this book to
Jane, please.
E. 1. Advocates of free market oppose government control in economy.
2. The congressman advocated the creation of a permanent committee. 3.
This politician was a strong advocate of enlisting women
77
soldiers into the Union Army. 4. This organization calls for prompt trial for
all political prisoners, whether or not they have used or advocated violence.
I. ...Cook was the first European to visit New Zealand... — ...Кук был
первым европейцем, посетившим Новую Зеландию...
Предложения с составным именным сказуемым, включающим
слова the first/the last и т.п., с инфинитивом в функции определения
указывают на лицо или предмет, первым/последним и т.п. совершившие
действие, выраженное инфинитивом. (Грамматический курс, 3.1.2.6)
I. The Vikings were the first Europeans to visit North America. 2. In a
shipwreck, the captain is the last to abandon ship. 3.The leader of the
expedition was the first to see the danger. 4. British industry was the first to
harness the power of steam. 5. After the burglary the police asked who had
been the last to leave the office.
II. ...he [James Cook| didn't visit Australia until 1770. — ...он
[Джеймс Кук] посетил Австралию только в 1770 году.
...they [free settlers] did not achieve substantial numbers until the mid-
19th century. — До середины X I X века их [свободных поселенцев]
число было незначительно.
Отрицательное предложение с союзом until указывает на то, что
событие произошло позже, чем ожидалось. В русском переводе на это
может указывать наречие только, а отрицание снимается.
1. Paper was a Chinese invention and it didn't reach the western world
until the 9th century AD. 2. Indians were not given US citizenship until 1924.
3. Printing was introduced in Europe in the late 1400s, but early forerunners
of the newspaper didn't begin to appear until 1621, nearly a century and a
half later. 4. Women had to fight long and hard to win the right to vote. They
began to organize to obtain suffrage in mid- 1800s. Their first victory didn't
come until 1869, when Wyoming granted women the right to vote. 5. With a
few exceptions (see sentence 4) women in the USA were not allowed to vote
until 1920. 6. In Switzerland women didn't gain the right to vote on equal
terms with men until 1971. 7. Though Christian missionary work among the
Maori began from 1814, the official colony in New Zealand was not
established until 1840. 8. Not until the invention of the printing press in the
15th century did priests, political elites, scholars and scribes begin to lose
their monopoly on reading and writing.
III. One linguistic consequence, often remarked upon by early visitors
to Australia... — Одно языковое следствие, которое часто замечали
посетители Австралии...
78
Several words commonly thought of as Australian... — Некоторые
слова, которые считались австралийскими...
Причастие 2 в английском языке может быть образовано от гла-
голов, эквиваленты которых в русском языке являются непереходными,
в том числе и от таких, которые в активном залоге имеют предложное
управление. При переводе часто используется придаточное
предложение. (Грамматический курс, 3.3.3.2)
1. This campaign, paid for by the UNO, is aimed at eradicating illiteracy.
2. The new program agreed upon by the two countries envisaged an
interesting form of economic cooperation. 3. A great land mass in the
Southern Ocean, long referred to as "Terra australis incognita" attracted
traders and explorers. 4. There were three routes in Europe, followed by the
Vikings in their conquests. 5. The revolution, followed by a long civil war,
undermined the economy of the country. 6. The film is devoted to the
Olympic Games hosted by Germany in 1936. 7. The broadcast media
confront certain technical limitations not faced by the print media. 8. The
report was prepared by a committee chaired by the foreign minister of Egypt.
IV. ...many others have come to reject this tradition... — многие стали
отказываться от этой традиции...
Глагол to come в сочетании с инфинитивом обозначает постепенное
становление действия или признака. (Грамматический курс, 3.1.2.5)
1. She came to love the old house. 2. South African English has come to
comprise a range of varieties. 3. The rule of law, as it developed in the
medieval England, came to encompass a parliament and a court system. 4.
During the colonial era, Protestant peoples came to dominate the area that
would become the United States.
1. Джеймс Кук был первым европейцем, посетившим Австралию. 2.
Магеллан первым совершил кругосветное путешествие. 3. Во многих
европейских странах женщины получили право голоса только
79
в XX веке. 4. Постепенно я полюбила этот дом. 5. Американские ин-
дейцы требуют обратно землю, утраченную их предками. 6. Джеймс
Кук объявил часть Австралии владением короля Георга III. 7. Он был
сторонником свободного рынка. 8. Свидетелей привели к присяге. 9. В
газете «Тайме» напечатана интересная статья об экономической
ситуации. 10. Вам надо найти адвоката. 11. Этот радиоприемник сделан
в Южной Корее. 12. Канада — второе по величине государство в
Северной Америке. 13. Австралия находится в Южном полушарии.
14. В это время ситуация в Северной Ирландии была нестабильной.
15. Этот доклад был подготовлен комитетом под председательством
министра иностранных дел.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 9. Make a presentation in your group covering one topics:

of the following
1. The British Empire. Its geography and its role in the
2. British presence in India and its consequences.
world history.
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 10. Write a short description of any sovereign state which used to be a part
of the British Empire. Describe its geographical position, its history and the history of
British presence. For information, look at "Country Profiles" on the BBC site
www.bbc.co.uk.
80
Part 5
THE MODERN WORLD: DIVERSITY,
PROBLEMS, TRADITIONS
U n i t 13. CULTURAL DIVERSITY
Распознавание герундия и причастия в начальной

позиции
Отрицательное предложение и приемы его перевода
TEXT
Cross-cultural Communication
The term culture, in the sense of a group of people unified by shared
characteristics, defies precise definition. Members of a culture are united by
a number of demographic, psychographic and geographic traits. Beyond
clearly discernible demographic characteristics, professionals identify eight
elements that can help distinguish one culture from another: attitudes about
time; formality; individualism; rank and hierarchy; religion; taste and diet;
colors, numbers and symbols; and assimilation and acculturation.
Attitudes About Time
Different cultures have different attitudes about time. In some Latin

American countries, a dinner party scheduled for 8.00 may not really begin
until near midnight. In other cultures, arriving later than 8.00 would insult
vour hosts. In some cultures, a designated time is a flexible guideline; in
others, it is a specific target.
Attitudes About Formality
Should you address a new business associate from another nation by his
or her first name? Should you hug? Bow? Shake hands? The answers depend,
81
of course, upon cultural preferences. Asa rule, however, formality is safer
than informality in new business relationships.
Syrians often embrace new acquaintances. Pakistanis shake hands, though
never a man with a woman. Zambians shake hands with the left hand
supporting the right. Norwegians rarely use first names until relationships are
well established. Japanese almost never use first names in business settings.
A warm handshake and even an accompanying pat on the back would be
acceptable if you greet a Spanish visitor. The Spanish make no distinction
about shaking hands with men or women. With a Japanese guest, however,
be prepared to bow, even though he or she may offer to shake hands. You can
flatter your Japanese guest by bowing first. In Japan, the person who initiates
a bow is acknowledging the high social status of the other person. If you
exchange a business card with your Japanese visitor, bow slightly and
exchange it with both hands. You should accept your visitor's card in the same
manner and should look at it respectfully after receiving it.
Attitudes About Religion
Knowing the religious conventions and traditions of a culture can help

prevent unintended errors that can hamper cross-cultural communication. For
example, Muslims fast from dawn to sunset during the holy month of
Ramadan. Inviting an Islamic business associate to a working lunch during
that time would inadvertently suggest a lack of respect for his or her religious
beliefs. The Jewish Sabbath extends from Friday evening to Saturday
evening and, in Judaism, is a day of rest. Scheduling a Friday business dinner
in Israel, where Judaism is the dominating religion, could be a serious cultural
faux pas.
In October 1998, the frantic pace of round-the-clock US-sponsored
negotiations between the Palestine Liberation Organization and Israel was
due in part to the need to sign a pact before sundown on a Friday. The
delegations had met for nine days, and negotiators feared that a 24-hour delay
for the Sabbath might stall the momentum. An earlier cross-cultural mistake,
in fact, had made the US negotiators very aware of the Jewish Sabbath: a
week earlier, the Israeli Prime Minister and his entire delegation had declined
to attend a Friday evening dinner meeting hosted by the US Secretary of
State.
Religion and other cultural influences often prohibit the consumption of
certain foods. Hindus don't eat beef; cattle are exalted in that religion, which
encompasses the belief that souls return to Earth again and again as different
life forms. Strict Judaism and Islam forbid the consumption of pork, which is
considered unclean. Muslims don't drink wine — their religion forbids
alcohol.
Gestures and Clothing

Our broad definition of communication applies to interpersonal
communication. Our gestures, clothing and expressions can be every bit as
82
communicative as our words. In Taiwan, blinking at someone is considered
an insult. In the Islamic faith, shoes are absolutely forbidden on the grounds
of mosques. In many Asian cultures, shoes are removed and left at the front
doors of residences. The A-OK expression made by forming a circle of the
thumb and forefinger and raising the other three fingers is, like thumbs-up,
a sign of approval in the United States. But in Japan, it's a symbol for money.
In Australia and some Latin American countries, it's an obscene gesture.
Because people from almost every culture use their hands when they
speak, gestures — more so than clothing or expressions — can send
unintended messages during cross-cultural communication. Speaking to a
group of journalists in the Central Asian nation of Kvrgvzstan. one of your
authors illustrated a point by bringing one fist down on the other two or three
times. Halting in mid-sentence, his shocked interpreter leaned over and
hissed in his ear that he was signaling, in the crudest possible manner, that
he wanted to make love to his audience. Fortunately, your author's stricken
expression led his audience to forgive him with friendly laughter. That story
has two morals: cross-cultural mistakes can be very embarrassing — and
people can be very forgiving if they sense your good will.
(from Public Relations: A Values-driven Approach by D. Guth, Ch.
Marsh)
Answer the following questions. If you can't find the answers in the text, look in
encyclopedias and reference books.
1. How do greetings vary between cultures?
2. Why is it important to know about religious attitudes of your
associates?
3. How can you show respect to a Japanese visitor accepting his/her
business card?
4. Suppose you are ordering a dinner for Islamic visitors. Are you going
to order wine?
5. Suppose you were organizing a business lunch for Indian visitors.
What meat will you order and why?
6. Suppose you took your visitors to a Russian Orthodox church. How are
you going to dress and what will you advise your visitors to wear?
7. How do you think you should address the teacher in an American
classroom?
I. Запомните произношение и значения следующих слов: Ramadan
['rasmadaen] — the ninth month of the Islamic calendar. The Islamic
calendar is a lunar calendar, so Ramadan is a movable period. The daily
period of fasting starts at the breaking of dawn and ends at the setting of the
sun. In between — that is, during the daylight hours — Muslims totally
abstain from food, drink, smoking and sex.
Sabbath [ssebeeQ] — day of the week set aside for worship and obser-
vance of religious duties in Judaism. The Jewish Sabbath begins at sunset
on Friday and lasts until sunset the next day, during which time no ordinary
83
work or act of labor is performed (cf. Russian суббота). faux pas [,fau
'pu:] ( F r ) — a mistake in etiquette or protocol
II. cultural — belonging to a culture
cultured — educated
III. Русскому слову хозяин могут соответствовать следующие анг-
лийские слова:
host/hostess — хозяин/хозяйка (принимающие гостей)', to host —
принимать у себя
master — хозяин (напр., животного)', master in one's own house —
хозяин в собственном доме; one's own master — сам себе хозяин
owner — владелец, собственник, хозяин
landlord/landlady — землевладелец, владелец недвижимости (в том
числе хозяин сдаваемого внаем жилья)
employer — владелец предприятия, нанимающий работников
to refuse, wide, to take, to offend, a mistake, to know, indecent.
1. The customs, beliefs, art, way of life and social organization of a
particular country or group. 2. A period over which people do not eat,
especially for religious reasons.
A. 1. The children had shared the same room for years. 2. They traveled
by car together and shared the petrol costs. 3. There are a growing number
of women who want to share some of the traditional male roles. 4. The
children were being taught to share. 5. China and Japan share many
characteristics. 6.1 can't share your opinion. 7. A steadily increasing share
of the work is over to computers. 8. He tried to rob her of her share of her
father's estate. 9. The shares of the company have gone up in price.
B. 1. A number of measures must be taken to stop air and water
pollution. 2. A number of people brought their children to the protest march.
3. In the 18th century, a number of small newspapers were published in New
England. They were expensive and their circulation was limited. At that time
a number of publishers experimented with the idea of a cheap newspaper
that could be sold to urban masses. 4. A number of studies investigated the
influence of industrial noise upon animal life. 5. Environmental problems,
despite their relatively short history, have already been an object of a
number of international discussions. 6. The number of computers owned
by individuals is constantly growing. 7. We were all saddened when one of
our number was killed. 8. 861 is a three-figure number. 9.1 got on a
number 61 bus. 10. The army numbered almost a quarter of a million men.
11. His days are numbered. 12. Many people are suspicious of statistics and
feel that numbers neglect the human side of the story.
84
C. 1. The station was an easy target for an air attack. 2. In October 2001,
American warplanes bombed military targets in Afghanistan. The American
planes targeted government buildings, army barracks and communications
units. 3. The government program sets a target for economic growth in
excess of 4 % a year. 4. Her proposal was a target of much criticism. 5. The
company conducted market research to target potential customers. 6. Before
starting a magazine, the publishers must study their target audience. 7. High-
school students and recent graduates who might become college freshmen
are target publics for university recruitment. 8. Communication
effectiveness research is designed to measure the influence of advertising
upon the target audience. 9. Knowing who your target publics are implies
knowing what to say to them and how to say it.
D. 1. Because the public relations practitioner is so dependent on the
media, he must be aware of what is happening to the media. 2. As far as I
am aware, attention was first drawn to this phenomenon by American
researchers. 3. He was surprised by his students' political awareness. 4.
Public awareness of the need for conservation is necessary for
environmental protection.
E. 1. The ground all round was very wet and marshy. 2. This is one of
the world's best fishing grounds. 3. Muslims don't eat pork on religious
grounds. 4. The ideas of human rights are gaining ground everywhere. 5.
The pilot was grounded because of his health. 6. These accusations are
groundless.
F. 1. The chairman raised a hand for silence. 2. The family raises beans,
wheat and sugar beet at their farm. 3. George began to raise his voice in
protest. 4. The purpose of this campaign is to raise money for building
housing. 5. The tax system must raise enough money to finance the
government activity. 6. The king raised an army to fight the rebels. 7. His
children were raised in Catholic faith. 8. The Foreign Office raised no
objection to these measures. 9. Important questions were raised at this
conference.
I. ...arriving later than 8.00 would insult your hosts. — ...если вы
придете после восьми, вы обидите хозяев.
Knowing the religious conventions and traditions of a culture can help
prevent unintended errors... — Знание религиозных обычаев и условно-
стей той или иной культуры поможет избежать случайных ошибок...
В данных предложениях в начальной позиции находится герундий,
выступающий в функции подлежащего. При переводе возможно
употребление как отглагольного существительного (знание), так и
придаточного предложения (если вы придете).
Speaking to a group of journalists... one of your authors illustrated a
point by bringing one fist down on the other two or three times. — Выступая
85
перед группой журналистов... один из ваших авторов в подкрепление
своих слов ударил одним кулаком о другой два или три раза.
Halting in mid-sentence, his shocked interpreter leaned over and hissed
in his ear... — Остановившись в середине предложения, смущенный
переводчик склонился к нему и зашептал на ухо...
В приведенных примерах начальная форма на -ing является при-
частием в роли обстоятельства. Показателем синтаксической функции
такой формы служит наличие в предложении «другого» подлежащего.
Так, подлежащее one of your authors показывает, что оборот speaking
to a group of journalists является обстоятельством, следовательно,
speaking — причастие.
I. Upholding ethical standards in gathering, using and disseminating
information is very important in any type of research. 2. Interviewing a job
applicant, the manager asked her about her family. 3. Deciding which
research data are relevant and which are irrelevant is critical for objective
thinking. 4. Knowing your target publics means knowing what to say to them
and how to say it. 5. Using a computer will enable you to write letters, memos
and reports much more quickly. 6. Using a computer, Jane found the data she
needed very fast. 7. Sending a thank-you note will make people more willing
to help you in future. 8. Covering news, reporters must take care to spell all
the names correctly. 9. Watching the conflict from their living rooms,
televiewers criticized the police for using excessive force.
II. The Spanish make no distinction about shaking hands with men or
women. — Испанцы одинаково пожимают руки мужчинам и женщинам.
. з
В английском языке отрицание может стоять при любом члене

предложения: например дополнении (пример из текста), подлежащем
(предл. 1, 2, 7, 8 упр. 5), обстоятельстве (предл. 3 упр. 5). В русских
отрицательных предложениях обязательно отрицание при сказуемом.
1. No teacher can ever teach a student who doesn't want to learn. 2. No
task is more important for a woman than bringing up her children. 3. At no
time was the opposition to the government so strong. 4. A civil war knows
no winners. 5. The book is rich in factual material, but it contains no new
ideas. 6. Living organisms have two characteristics that no dead matter has:
they can assimilate other matter into themselves and make it part of
themselves and they can reproduce themselves. They eat and they breed. 7.
No day of the Prime Minister began later than six o'clock. 8. In the 18th
century, no transportation moved faster than a horse.
86
1. Собака слушается только хозяина. 2. Хозяин этого ресторана
любил обслуживать студентов. 3. Рабочие боялись своего хозяина. 4.
Уходя из гостей, мы поблагодарили хозяев. 5. Мой друг снимает
квартиру. Хозяйка не разрешает ему принимать гостей. 6. В 1936 году
Мюнхен принимал Олимпийские игры. 7. Все культурные люди знают
этого композитора. 8. Культурные различия часто препятствуют
общению. 9. В этом театре красивый зрительный зал. 10. У этого
писателя десятимиллионная читательская аудитория. 11. Когда пре-
подаватель пришел, студенты уже сидели в аудитории. 12. Она по-
просила аудиенции у министра. 13. Эта книга не содержит новых идей.
14. Гражданская война не знает победителей. 15. Оппозиция
правительству никогда не была так сильна.
л SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 7. Act out the dialog.

Student A:
You are a cross-cultural consultant hired by a foreign executive to do
business for the first time in your country you know well. Prepare some
advice that you would give your client about business practices. Use the
following topics to help you.
Use of language: Is these a special way of addressing (or greeting)
people? Formal? Informal?
87
Non-verbal communication: What are the various roles played by
handshaking, gestures and silence?
Business negotiations: How important is punctuality and respecting the
agenda? What kind of negotiating styles are preferred? (Direct? Indirect?)
When is the right moment to mention money?
Socializing: What are attitudes towards gift-giving, earing and humor?
What kind of conversation topics are avoided? (Religion? Politics? Salaries?)
Student B:
You are a business person going to negotiate in a foreign country. As part
of your preparation for your trip, you have arranged to meet a consultant
(Student A), who is an expert on the culture of this country. Draw up a list of
the questions that you would ask him/her.
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 8. Write a short story about visiting a foreign culture and encountering
problems created by cultural differences.
■ ( t' ^1 1
U n i t 14. CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND HUMAN RIGHTS
Герундий в функции обстоятельства образа действия
Инфинитивная конструкция с предлогом for
TEXT 1
Human Rights
In 1960, Peter Berenson, a British lawyer, read about two students who
had been sentenced to seven years' imprisonment for drinking a toast to
freedom during the Salazar dictatorship in Portugal. He joined with others to
start a campaign for prisoners of conscience — people who had never used
or advocated violence and were simply in prison for their
It
political or religious beliefs. This was the beginning of Amnesty Inter-
national, the largest of many organizations in the world which put pressure
on governments to observe human rights. By gathering information, creating
publicity and writing letters. Amnesty has helped to speed up the release of
such prisoners all over the world. Amnesty International also campaigns for
the rights of people who are arrested and kept in custody for peacefully
exercising their constitutional rights — taking part in protest marches,
pickets, boycotts and other acts of non-violent civil disobedience.
It campaigns for fair trials for political prisoners, an end to torture and
inhumane treatment and the abolition of death penalty. AI also campaigns
for humane treatment of all prisoners.
Human rights are different from constitutional rights. A constitutional
right is one that a state guarantees its own citizens; a human right is one to
which people all over the world are entitled, whatever their nationality and
wherever they live.
Human rights transcend political divisions. They are basic minimum
standards of freedom and security for all. When governments fail to meet
these standards, they are criticized by their own citizens, individuals in other
countries and even foreign governments. Alleging human rights violations,
some countries impose sanctions against others. Many countries restricted
trade with South Africa because of its policy of apartheid3. In 1999, the
NATO bombed Yugoslavia because of its policy of ethnic cleansing,
conducted against Kosovo Albanians.
Cultural Differences
Is criticism of or even intervention against another country justified?
Opponents of interference argue that moral standards are the products of
different cultures and it is wrong for one culture to impose its values on
another. The governments of some Islamic states have defended the veiling
of women and cutting off the hands of thieves as practices founded, in their
religion and which ensure a safe society. On the legal side, some have
claimed that the independence of nation states is the basis of the United
Nations, and that when one country interferes in the affairs of another, it is
because its economic and military power, not its human rights policies, is
superior.
On the other hand, human rights activists argue that basic moral
standards should not depend upon where a person lives.
Most countries of the world have signed international agreements
concerning the rights of the individuals. The Universal Declaration of
human rights was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1948 without a
dissenting vote. It sets out basic rights and freedoms to which all men
3
Under South African laws black people were kept apart from white people. They had different
schools, hospitals, universities etc. Now these laws have been repealed.
89
and women are entitled — among them the right to life, liberty and
nationality, to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, to work, to be
educated, to take part in government.
The UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, who coordinates all UN
human rights activities, is working with governments to improve their
observance of human rights, seeking to prevent violations and investigating
human rights abuses.
When the laws of a country violate human rights, groups like Amnesty
International protest to the government on moral and legal grounds. But
despite these protests and the development of legally binding national and
international conventions, millions of people in the world still do not enjoy
human rights.
1. How did Amnesty International appear?
2. What kind of people does Amnesty International protect?
3. What do you think is more important — the human rights or the
independence of a nation state?
4. Do you feel that you can exercise your human rights?
5. There is unemployment in some regions of Russia. Do you think it is a
violation of the right to work?
6. How would you describe the limits of personal freedom?
Vocabulary Study and Practice to meet (Unit 8), claim (Unit 11),
advocate (Unit 12)
I. human — человеческий, относящийся к человеку

О humane — человечный (гуманный) humanitarian —
я
гуманитарный humanitarian aid — гуманитарная помощь
90
political or social change, especially as a member of an organization with
particular aims.
A. 1. In the USA, a candidate for public office must campaign first to
win the party nomination, then to win the general election. 2. An antidrug
campaign should be targeted primarily at children. 3. There has been a
campaign by local fishermen to ban imported cod. 4. The prisoners' families
and friends campaigned for their release.
B. 1. Nearly a year after his release from prison he was still unable to
sleep properly. 2. I wish to be released from my contract. 3. The release of
staff for training purposes is actively encouraged. 4. The statement was
delivered to the public relations officer, who released it to the press. 5. The
company issued a press release.
C. 1. He walked to his office every day just for exercise. 2. The singer
always started his practice with scales and exercises. 3. They are carrying out
fleet exercises somewhere off the Cape of Good Hope. 4. These companies
exercise considerable influence in all western countries. 5. This pamphlet is
designed to help you exercise the right to receive free education. 6. Good
citizens must learn to perform their duties and to exercise their rights. 7. The
attempt of the management to exercise close control prompted resistance on
the part of the employees. 8. English monarchs, in their efforts to maintain
political and religious control, exercised prior restraint (censorship) over all
publishing. 9. Republicanism is a form of government in which power resides
in the people and is exercised by their elected representatives. 10. The King
James Bible, also known as the Authorized Version of the Bible, published
in 1611, exercised enormous influence on the development of the language.
11. In contemporary society, the family exercises a different kind of control
than it once did. 12. Organizations and authorities, family members and other
people you care about exercise leverage over you.
D. 1. She has long and fair hair. 2. The sun's rays can be very harmful,
beating on unprotected fair skin. 3. The judge was very fair, looking at
problems from both sides before reaching any conclusion. 4. It was a fair
mid-June evening. 5. The film received fair to good reviews. 6. The
information was fairly accurate. 7. Every person is entitled to a fair trial.
E. 1. Don't argue with me, George, just do as you are told. 2. Some
politicians argued against giving women the vote. 3. Some people argue that
the existence of nuclear weapons has helped to maintain peace. 4. The
children were arguing over which program they should watch on television.
F. 1. People nowadays are becoming accustomed to using legal means of
regulating their relations with each other. 2. A journalist doesn't have to be a
lawyer, but he often has to seek legal advice. 3. Divorce is legal in most
European countries, but illegal in Ireland. 4. Defendants who can't afford to
91
pay a lawyer are entitled to legal aid from the government. 5. The book is
devoted to comparing British and Continental legal systems.
G. 1. Government officials must not abuse their power. 2. Violence and
child abuse are urgent problems of our society. 3. The child's parents were
found guilty of child abuse. 4. Amnesty International seeks to disclose
human rights abuses accurately, quickly and persistently.
H. 1. In the last century, women did not enjoy the same rights as men.
2. From 1945 until 1970, the United States enjoyed a long period of
economic growth, interrupted only by brief and fairly mild recessions.
3. The government must enjoy the confidence of the people. 4. You and your
family have an annual income that allows you to enjoy various goods and
services, to live in a particular neighborhood, and to maintain a certain
standard of living. 5. The idea of liberty enjoyed great popularity in France.
6. He was well aware of the privileges he enjoyed.
I. By gathering information, creating publicity and writing letters,

Amnesty has helped to speed up the release of such prisoners... — Собирая
информацию, создавая огласку и отправляя письма, «Международная
амнистия» способствовала освобождению таких заключенных...
Герундий с предлогом by выступает в роли обстоятельства образа
действия. При переводе используется деепричастие или придаточное
предложение. (Грамматический курс, 3.2.3)
I. The residents of the town protested against building a nuclear power
plant in their district by mounting protest marches, picketing the Town Hall
and writing letters to the Mayor. 2. When you are at fault, you may build
goodwill by admitting that fact forthrightly. 3. Successful companies make
money by offering high-quality products and services their customers want.
4. Scribes in monasteries kept literacy alive by transcribing ancient literary
and religious works onto parchment.
II. ...it is wrong for one culture to impose its values on another. —
...нельзя, чтобы одна культура навязывала свои ценности другой.
В данной инфинитивной конструкции субъект инфинитива вводится
предлогом for. Такие конструкции могут служить различными членами
предложения, и для их перевода чаше всего используется придаточное
предложение. Иногда при этом приходится перестраивать всю фразу
(см. предложенный вариант перевода). (Грамматический курс, 3.1.3.3)
1. In a crisis, it is often important for the organization to tell its story

before the news media develop it on their own. 2. For society to exist, people
must achieve some minimum level of agreement, and this agreement is
92
usually reached through interpersonal and group communication. 3. It is
common for reporters and editors to monitor not only other newspapers but
electronic news media as well. 4. It is not unusual in a democracy for a group
to gather at a statehouse or city hall to dramatize its position on an issue —
say a tax increase.
1. «Международная амнистия» борется за отмену смертной казни. 2.

Каждый человек имеет право на справедливый суд. 3. Мы должны
рассмотреть правовую сторону вопроса. 4. «Международная амнистия»
помогла освободить многих узников совести. 5. Развод в Ирландии
запрещен. 6. Родителей признали виновными в жестоком обращении с
детьми. 7. Эта организация борется за освобождение политических
заключенных. 8. Многие люди в России отстаивают необходимость
смертной казни. 9. «Международная амнистия» призвала все страны
соблюдать права человека. 10. Этот политик — сторонник смертной
казни. 11. Члены этой организации пользуются определенными
привилегиями. 12. Правительство должно пользоваться доверием
народа. 13. Чиновники не должны пользоваться своим положением. 14.
Президент воспользовался своим правом вето. 15. Граждане должны
научиться пользоваться своими правами. 16. Можно мне
воспользоваться вашим телефоном? 17. Канонический текст Библии,
опубликованный в 1611 году, оказал огромное влияние на развитие
английского языка. 18. Законы этой страны не удовлетворяют
международным стандартам в плане прав человека. 19. Нельзя, чтобы
одна культура навязывала свои ценности другой. 20. Президент начал
кампанию против наркотиков. 21. Идея свободы пользовалась большой
популярностью во Франции. 22. Некоторые политики утверждают, что
существование ядерного оружия служило сдерживающим фактором (a
deterrent) и помогло избежать мировой войны. 23. Попытка руководства
осуществлять жесткий контроль за сотрудниками привела к конфликту.
TEXT 2
Read the text at home and discuss it in class:
A Case Study in Human Rights

Human rights activists keep pressure on Nigeria in woman's stoning case
B y E M M A ROSS, Associated Press
Writer Friday, September 27, 2002
LONDON — Human rights activists seeking a reprieve for a woman
sentenced to death by stoning in Nigeria intensified international pressure
93
Friday by delivering a petition signed by more than 1 million people to the
Nigerian High Commission.
The case of 30-year-old Amina Lawal, who is scheduled to be stoned to
death for having sex outside marriage, has provoked an international outcry.
Government and human rights groups around the world have urged
Nigerian President Olusegun Obasanjo's government to intercede in the
sentence passed down by a regional Islamic court.
Peter Ogbonnaya, chief of information at the Nigerian High Commission
in London, said Friday his government was confident Lawal would not be
stoned because such a sentence violates the Nigerian constitution.
"The appeal process has not been completed," he said. "The Nigerian
government cannot intervene without creating a political problem."
Activists for Amnesty International, who delivered the petition to the
High Commission, were not satisfied.
"Something needs to be done about the law. They need to be talking to
these regional governors and getting them to change the law so it's in line
with the constitution," said Amnesty's Nicki East. "We don't want women to
be sacrificed on the political alter."
Lawal was convicted in March by an Islamic court in the northern
Nigerian state of Katsina after she had given birth more than nine months
after divorcing her husband. Her execution was later postponed until January
2004 to allow her to finish weaning her baby.
In August, an Islamic high court in northern Nigeria rejected her appeal.
Islamic law, or Shariah, was introduced in a dozen predominantly Muslim
northern states of Nigeria in 2000, shortly after civilian rule replaced military
dictatorship.
The states' imposition of the harshest possible sentences under Islamic law
has sparked clashes between the country's predominantly Muslim north and
predominantly Christian south.
The death sentences have become an act of defiance by northern leaders
against Obasanjo, whom they accuse of neglect, and against the south as a
whole, where Nigeria's economic power lies.
Obasanjo's government has declared Shariah punishments such as
beheadings, stonings and amputations unconstitutional. Some northern states
have accused him of meddling.
Lawal is the second Nigerian woman to be condemned to death by Islamic
courts for having sex out of wedlock. The first, Safiya Hussaini, had her
sentence overturned in March on an appeal.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 7. Discuss the text, keeping in mind the following questions:
1. Do you think that stoning to death and beheading is an element of the
local culture that should be respected? 2. Do you think that the Federal
government in Nigeria can interfere in the affairs of the predominantly
Islamic states? 3. What do you think is more important: the autonomy of
94
individual states within a federation or human rights? 4. Would you sign the
petition of Amnesty International calling for the repeal of the sentence?
1. Those who are fond of setting things to rights have no great objection
to setting them wrong. (William Hazlitt, 1778— 1830)
2. A military occupation is a denial of human rights. (Douglas Hurd,
1930—)
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 9. Write a short essay saying whether you agree or disagree with the
following statements:
What men value in the world is not rights but privileges. (H. L. Mencken,
1880-1956)
U n i t 15 CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS
Субъектная конструкция с инфинитивом при глаголах to be
required, to be expected, to be supposed, to be called upon
TEXT 1
Easter
One of the holiest days of Christendom, Easter, commemorates Christ's

resurrection from the tomb where He had lain for three days following His
crucifixion. When He arose after the three days it was to fulfill His promise
to rise again as proof of eternal life.
Although Easter is based on events in the life of Christ, older traditions
have influenced the customs of the festival. The name Easter itself derives
from the ancient Norse festival of Spring sun (Eastre) which celebrated the
awakening of new life and the death of winter. The Christian Easter
gradually replaced the pagan festival, but some of the rites of spring were
retained, since Christ's resurrection had occurred during this season.
Jesus had come to Jerusalem to celebrate the Jewish festival of the
Passover4 shortly before He was arrested and sentenced to be crucified.
Jesus was crucified on the first day of the Passover. Consequently, for many
years Easter was celebrated on the same day of the Passover. But the
Passover, reckoned by the lunar calendar, was a movable festival and the
4
The Passover recalls how God rescued the people of Israel from slavery in ancient Egypt, the
event referred to as the Exodus from Egypt.
95
Christians believed that Easter should always fall on Sunday, the day Christ
rose from the grave. So in the year 325 AD, a council of churchmen, assisted
by astronomers, decreed that Easter should fall on the first Sunday after the
first full moon following the first day of spring (March 21). This settled the
matter until 1582 when the Julian calendar, which had been in effect at the
time the date was determined, was replaced by the Gregorian calendar,
resulting in a difference of 11 days. The new calendar was immediately
accepted by all Roman Catholic nations, but Great Britain and her colonies
did not make the change until 1752.
Most Christians observe Easter on the first Sunday after the first full
moon following the spring equinox in the Northern Hemisphere. Thus, the
festival can occur on any Sunday between March 22 and April 25.
Easter is properly designated as a "season", for it begins forty days before
Easter Sunday, in memory of Jesus' forty-day fast before crucifixion. In
English this period is called Lent, presumably from the Anglo-Saxon word
for springtime "lengten-tid" (a lengthening time).
In early times devout Christians were required to confess their sins the
day before Lent began. The old English term for confess was "shrive". Thus
the Tuesday preceding Lent became Shrove Tuesday. In preparation for the
forty-day fast it became popular to feast and make merry, and Shrove
Tuesday, the climax of the carnival period, gained the name Mardi Gras (Fat
Tuesday).
Ash Wednesday, the first day of Lent, takes its name from the Roman
Catholic custom of placing a cross of ashes on the foreheads of parishioners
as the beginning of public penance. The ashes are from the burned palms
saved from the previous Palm Sunday. Many churches, especially Roman
Catholic, Anglican and Lutheran, hold special services on this day.
In the Eastern Orthodox Churches, members attend an evening service on
the Sunday before Ash Wednesday. This Sunday is sometimes called
Forgiveness Sunday because at the end of the service worshipers ask the
priest and one another for forgiveness for their sins. Lent officially begins in
the Eastern Orthodox Churches on the next day, called Pure Monday.
Christians consider the Lent a time for penance — that is, a time to show
sorrow for sins and to seek forgiveness. One common form of Lenten
penance for Christians is fasting, which limits the kinds or the amounts of
food that are eaten.
During the Last Supper Jesus gave his disciples Final words of comfort,
help and guidance, and admonished them to keep His commandments, to love
the Father and each other. This is commemorated on Maundy Thursday,
observed by processions, prayers and penance.
Good Friday, commemorating the crucifixion, is the most solemn day of
Holy week.
Although everything connected with the celebration of Holy Week is
religious in nature, the symbols that have come to typify Easter (new clothes,
daffodils, baby chicks, bunny rabbits and Easter eggs) have no sacred
connotation and they are only remotely connected to the Resurrection.
96
Of all the symbols the egg and the hare (rabbit, bunny), considered from
ancient times to represent fertility and new life, are those most frequently
associated with Easter. Dyed eggs not unlike those seen today, were
exchanged at ancient spring festivals. Yellow stood for the returning sun and
red for the joy of life.
1. What does Easter commemorate?
2. Where did the events commemorated by Easter take place?
3. What do people do for Easter?
4. What period precedes Easter? Explain its origin.
5. What pagan traditions are observed during Easter?
Vocabulary Study and Practice to

gain (Unit 6), pagan (Unit 10)
Mardi Gras ['ma:di gra:] — последний день карнавала (букв, «жир-

ный вторник»)
II. Обратите внимание на значения слова sentence:
1. приговор, наказание; 2. предложение (грам.)
Русское слово предложение имеет следующие английские экви-
валенты: sentence (высказывание); proposal, suggestion (идея); offer
(предложение, напр. в магазине-, special offer специальное предложе-
ние).
to get, a quantity, old, often, a holiday, a pupil.
1. A set of beliefs, customs or practices that has existed for a long time
among a particular group of people. 2. A law given by God.
A. 1. Most of them could read a simple sentence in English. 2. He put the
phone down before she could finish the sentence. 3. If they are found guilty,
they will face a sentence of ten years in prison. 4. He is at present serving a
life sentence for murder. 5. From 1861 till 1958, 431 women were sentenced
to death in England and Wales. 6. Emigration was the only hope for thousands
of people sentenced to suffer poverty in their own country.
B. 1. The biologist spent hours observing the way the birds fed their
young. 2. It was difficult to observe any change in his expression. 3.1 would
only observe that he is well qualified for the post. 4. Do they observe
Christmas Day in this country? 5. Tourists traveling in a foreign country must
observe the laws of the country.
97
C. 1. An artificial heart can save his life. 2. They prayed for rain to save
the starving village. 3. The manager reorganized the office in an attempt to
save on labor costs. 4. We decided to save the cake for supper. 5. You can
save yourself a lot of work if you use a computer. 6. Jane is saving money
for a new car.
D. 1. She always held herself erect. 2. The prisoner was held in a cell. 3.
She was one of the greatest Prime Ministers who ever held office. 4. The
President promised he would hold elections in June. 5. The UN called for the
holding of multilateral talks. 6. They held me personally responsible for the
accident. 7. This scholar holds that people are all naturally creative. 8. The
lecturer found it difficult to hold the students' attention. 9. Members of ethnic
minorities in this country usually hold jobs of lower status.
10. Americans protested the Tea Act (1773) by holding the Boston Tea Party.
1 1 . Urban areas such as Detroit and Chicago hold greater opportunities for
jobs and personal freedom than the rural South. 12. Pluralist theory holds that
groups ought to be able to make government respond to their special
problems and needs.
E. 1. The Yanomani Indians of Brasil seek protection from the invasion
of their territory by 45,000 gold miners. 2. She was seeking to delve into the
secrets of his soul. 3. The company is seeking new sources of profit. 4. The
Harvard Business School graduates now tend to seek jobs with smaller
employers. 5. In the early 1630s, Orthodox Puritans seeking better lands and
opportunities began leaving Massachusetts Bay Colony. 6. Under the new
law, web sites must seek parental consent before gathering personal
information from children aged 12 and under. 7. On a January day in 1486, a
Genoan, Christobal Colon, or Christopher Columbus, rode into Cordoba to
seek an audience with the King and the Queen.
F. 1. The report indicated the amount of potatoes and bread people buy.
2. The amount of carbon dioxide discharged into the atmosphere is
constantly growing. 3. I was horrified by the amount of work I had to do. 4.
Laser disks are used to store data. They are cheap to manufacture and can
hold an enormous amount of information in any form — words, images,
sound, video and so on. 5. In the 16th century, the English did a considerable
amount of fishing off Newfoundland. 6. People for whom I had a certain
amount of respect turned out to be crooks. 7. The tuition fees at this institute
amount to $1,000 a year. 8. The Catholic Church holds that abortion
amounts to murder. 9. Acid rains have caused a huge amount of
environmental damage.
In early times devout Christians were required to confess their sins the
day before Lent began. — В ранние времена набожные христиане
должны были исповедоваться в грехах в последний день перед постом.
Субъектная конструкция с инфинитивом при глаголах to be
required, to be expected, to be supposed, to be called upon может иметь
98
значение долженствования, обусловленного общественными нормами
и требованиями. (Грамматический курс, 3.1.3.2.4)
1. The first school opened in Pennsylvania in 1683; it was free to the poor,
but parents who could were required to pay tuition. 2. The Budget of the
United States Government is the annual financial plan that the President is
required to submit to Congress in January of each year. 3. The graphics artist
was supposed to prepare new logo designs for a client whose company had
changed its name. 4. Before you can function effectively on your first job,
you must find out what you're supposed to do, for whom and why. 5. Citizens
are expected to control their representatives' behavior by choosing wisely in
the first place and by re-electing or defeating public officials according to
their performance. 6. A PR practitioner is expected to bring awareness and
objectivity to the job and to inject unvarnished, usable facts into the decision-
making process. 7. The members of the jury are called upon to see the
witnesses, to watch their behavior on the stand, to form their own opinions as
to the facts. 8. In this school, the teacher was called upon to do his own
teaching, to prepare his own material, to get along with a textbook that was
merely an aid, not an authority.
1. Празднуя Пасху, религиозные евреи отмечают исход евреев из
Египта. 2. Иисус был распят в первый день Пасхи. 3. Пасхе пред-
шествует длительный пост. 4. Во время тайной вечери Иисус сказал
своим ученикам последние слова любви и наставлений. 5. Хотя Пасха
является христианским праздником, многие пасхальные обряды имеют
языческое происхождение. 6. Иисус пришел в Иерусалим праздновать
Пасху. 7. Если его сочтут виновным, ему грозит 10 лет тюрьмы. 8. Я не
могу перевести это предложение. 9. Парламент рассмотрел
предложения правительства. 10. Мусульмане обычно соблюдают
Рамадан. 11. Правительство провело переговоры с представителями
оппозиции. 12. Президент компании провел пресс-конференцию. 13.
Иностранцы должны соблюдать законы страны, в которую они
прибывают.
TEXT 2
Read the text and discuss it in class:
The Return of the Golden Calf

And as soon as he came near the camp, and saw the calf and
the dancing, Moses' anger burned hot... And he took the calf
which they had made and burnt it with fire, and ground it to
99
powder, and scattered it upon the water, and made the people
of Israel drink it.
(from The Bible, The Exodus)
Tough punishment, perhaps, but Moses' fury was understandable. Before
he could even get the Ten Commandments down from Mount Sinai, his
people had already broken No. 2: Thou shalt not make for thyself a graven
image. Although idolatry had been forbidden under Hebrew Law since the
religion's birth, the Israelites' faith had wavered during their wanderings in
the wilderness, and they had built themselves a golden calf like those
worshipped by the Canaanites, who shared their ancestral homeland.
Calf worship comes up in other parts of the Bible as well, always derided
as an example of paganism. But while scientists have unearthed a few
examples of bovine idols, they have never found a calf that predates the
Exodus, which scholars think took place between 1500 and 1200 ВС. Last
week, though, a team of Harward University archeologists announced they
had done just that. During excavations, in the ancient port city of Ashkelon,
Rachel Stark, 20, a student volunteer, accidentally uncovered a statue of a
calf inside a pottery container. Says Stark: "I didn't realize what I had found."
Her bosses did. Says Harvard's Lawrence Stager, the dig director: "I am
an old farm boy and recognized it as a bull calf immediately." Judging from
the style of other pottery in the temple, he dates the figurine to about 1550
ВС. Because that is up to several years before the escape from Egypt, Stager
thinks the object might well have been the prototype for the calves mentioned
in the Bible. It also supports the belief that the Israelites took some of their
religious practices from Canaanites.
The object's significance may be as much artistic as it is religious:
incredibly well preserved, it is intact except for a missing left horn. Israeli
archeologists are in awe of its beauty. Says Abraham Biran, former director
of the Israeli Department of Antiquities: "People will be copying this because
it is so pretty, so delicately done."
The calf is tiny — about 12.5 cm long and it is made of bronze and
possibly of lead and silver as well, rather than gold. It may have been
burnished to a golden color, says Stager. The calf was probably displayed
emerging from the vessel in which it was discovered. He believes the idol
was worshipped not for its inherent holiness but because it was associated
with the Canaanite deity El, father of the gods, or his son Baal, god of storms.
The find was doubly lucky for Stager. Not only did his team make an
important discovery, but it did so during a visit by Leon Levy, a New York
businessman, who is the dig's financial backer. Levy's reaction was to extend
funding for the project, which started five years ago, for a decade.
(from Time, 1990)
Commentary to the Text
Thou shalt not make for thyself a graven image. — He сотвори себе
кумира.
100
Одна из 10 библейских заповедей. В архаичном библейском тексте
используется устаревшее, не употребляющееся ныне местоимение
второго лица единственного числа thou (ср. рус. ты)-, thee — тебя,
тебе, thy — твой. Обратите внимание на окончание -t глагола shall,
имеющего в данном контексте свое исконное значение «должен».
The Ten Commandments
1. 1 am the Lord thy God... Thou shalt have no other gods before me.
2. Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness of
any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in
the water under the earth.
3. Thou shalt not take the name of Lord thy God in vain.
4. Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy; six days shalt thou labor
and do all thy work; but the seventh day is the sabbath of the Lord thy God:
in it thou shalt not do any work, thou, nor thy son, nor thy daughter, thy
manservant, nor thy maidservant, nor thy cattle, nor thy stranger that is within
thy gates.
5. Honor thy father and thy mother: that thy days may be long upon the
land which the Lord thy God giveth thee.
6. Thou shalt not kill.
7. Thou shalt not commit adultery.
8. Thou shalt not steal.
9. Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor.
10. Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's house, thou shalt not covet thy
neighbor's wife, nor his manservant, nor his maidservant, nor his ox, nor his
ass, nor anything that is thy neighbor's.
(from The Bible. Book 2, Exodus, chapter 20)
1. How did the Israelites break the Second Commandment?
2. What do you know about the Exodus from Egypt?
3. What festival commemorates the Exodus from Egypt?
4. What other ancient peoples worshipped bovine idols?
5. What did the idiom "Golden calf" mean in the ancient Hebrew
culture?
6. What does this idiom mean now?
7. How was the golden calf unearthed?
8. How do you understand commandment No. 2 now?
9. How do you think it was understood originally?
10. What artistic consequences did this commandment have for orthodox
Judaism and orthodox Islam?
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Without culture, and the relative freedom it presumes, society, even
when perfect, is no more than a jungle. (Albert Camus, 1913 — 60)
101
Exercise 7. Discuss the Christian and pagan traditions in the Easter celebrations.
Support one of the two opposite views:
1. Celebrating the Resurrection Christians should get rid of pagan
elements in the festival.
2. The pagan traditions in Christian festivals are elements of folk culture,
which should be preserved as such.
Exercise 8. Make a presentation in your group covering the following topic. You are
welcome to speak of other holidays celebrated by other ethnic groups and religious
confessions.
Religious holidays in various cultures: the Halloween (Christianity), the
Ramadan (Islam), the Yom Kippur (Judaism).
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 9. Write a short essay descibing a traditional holiday in your family.
P a r t 6 SOME FACTS ABOUT THE

ENVIRONMENT
U n i t 16. HELPING THE ENVIRONMENT AROUND US
Перевод отглагольных существительных с суффиксами -er, -
or
Прилагательные с суффиксами -able, -ible Объектная
конструкция с инфинитивом при глаголах, выражающих
чувства и восприятие Предложения с нереальным условием
TEXT
ЬмЫил-
Survival Code
Concerned about pollution? Then start depolluting. If you're thinking of
buying a metal antipollution badge, don't. Metal badges are indestructible.
^tevu/tt^1»
The world's water supply is limited. If too much water is used, it has to
be recycled quickly — too quickly to be purified. Окончание
Cars are major polluters. Better for others if you walk or bike; better for
you too.
Stop smoking! It hurts you — and those around you. Be critical of
supersonic transport. (Remember there is such a thing as noise pollution. Is
Concorde really necessary?)
Fight litter and litterbugs. Next time vou see someone drop a sweet-
wrapper or an empty matchbox, pick it up and hand it back to him politely.
лгммЛл m7
Do you think colored tissues, kitchen towels and toilet paper make life
brighter? The only trouble is, if they're disposed of in water, the paper
dissolves, but the dye doesn't. That stays.
If we used only as much detergent as recommended by the manufacturer
on the packet, pollution of rivers and lakes would drop bv 40 %.
Be container-conscious: if you can't destroy it or give it back, don't buy
it. What happens to non-returnable glass bottles? And what happens to PVC
bottles (washing-up liquids, shampoos etc.)? They can't be burnt as PVC
(polyvinyl chloride) then gives off deadly hydrochloric acid.
Have you ever wondered why you are tired — even after a good night's
sleep? The chances are that though you weren't disturbed by noise in the
night, your dreams were and this, doctors say, is harmful. Keep your radio
and record player turned down at night and maybe your neighbors will do the
same.
These are just a few ideas of how to survive. How many more can you
think of?
(from Mozaika Angielska)
1. What can an average citizen do to abate environmental pollution?
2. Why does the author advise against buying an antipollution badge?
3. What does the author think about containers?
4. How do you think the problem of packaging should be solved?
5. How is the food you buy packed?
6. What happens to the containers once you throw them out?
7. How can citizens fight noise pollution?
8. Why does the author advise you to walk or bike to work?
Запомните экологические термины с суффиксами -ible (indestruct-

ible), -able (non-returnable) (см. Unit 6):
103
to degrade разрушать, biodegradable биоразложимый
разлагать biodegradable materials —
биоразложимые мате-
риалы (т.е. такие, которые,
разлагаясь, возвращаются в
биосферу и не
представляют эко-
логической угрозы)
to destroy уничтожать
104
to destruct намеренно indestructible неразложимый indestructible
уничтожать (об waste — Окончание
оборудовании, неразложимые отходы
особ, в целях без-
опасности)
to dispose избавляться disposable одноразовый

(of) (от) disposable cup — одноразовый
стаканчик
to drink пить drinkable пригодный для питья
drinkable water — вода,
пригодная для питья
to exhaust истощать inexhaustible неистощимый inexhaustible
supplies —
неистощимые запасы
to recycle вторично recyclable пригодный для вторичной
перерабатывать переработки recyclable
plastics —
пластмассы, пригодные для
вторичной переработки
to renew возобновлять renewable возобновимый renewable

resources —
возобновимые ресурсы
to return возвращать returnable многоразовый a returnable
bottle — многоразовая
бутылка returnable
packaging — многоразовая
упаковка одноразовый a
non-returnable non-returnable bottle —
одноразовая бутылка non-
returnable food and drink
containers — одноразовая
посуда
to sustain выносить, sustainable без истощения ресурсов,

выдерживать устойчивый sustainable
development — развитие
без истощения ресурсов
(современные экологи-
ческие клише — устой-
чивое развитие, неисто-
щительное природополь-
зование)
105
adjectives with the suffixes -able, -ible:
1. A hundred years ago, natural resources of the Earth seemed
inexhaustible. 2. The harvest of forests, fisheries, agricultural products and
other potentially renewable resources must be limited to the amounts that
can be sustained indefinitely. 3. Our use of the Earth's resources must be
planned so that they are sustainable over long periods of time. 4.
Degradable plastics are based on corn starch. They conserve nonrenewable
petroleum, the raw material of plastics, by replacing it with renewable corn.
5. At present, degradable plastics are used in diapers, grocery sacks and
compost bags. 6. The city council in Minneapolis unanimously banned all
food packaging that isn't returnable, recyclable or made of degradable
materials. 7. Oil, coal, gas and other fossil fuels are non-renewable natural
resources. 8. The natural world is of incalculable value to the human being
and must be protected and preserved. 9. The environmentalists found many
features of this plan objectionable. 10. The Rhine is navigable from
Strasbourg to the Sea.
1. Small pieces of rubbish such as paper, cans and bottles. 2. The process
of making air, water and soil dirty.
A. 1. Don't trouble yourself about things that don't concern you. 2. Where
children were concerned, he was very strict. 3. The Committee is mainly
concerned with the problems of development and rational utilization of
natural resources in developing countries. 4. Human communication has
been a concern of scholars since the beginning of social sciences. 5. He has
a concern in the business. He is a shareholder. 6. The head of the business
must be able at any time to have correct and complete information about all
matters concerned with the firm. 7. The President expressed concern over
the growing crime rate. 8. Today's newspapers heighten public concern
about particular social issues. Crime is a good example. 9. Everywhere,
people are expressing concern about the progressively diminishing number
of Americans who bother to vote.
B. 1. Germany is supplying much of the steel for the new pipeline. 2.
This town is supplied with electricity by a nuclear power plant. 3. There are
very large supplies of oil in the North Sea. 4. The world's food supply is
limited. 5. Most houses now have indoor lavatories and a hot water supply.
6. In some countries, gasoline is in short supply. 7. Economic stability can
only be reached if demand and supply are in balance. 8. In market economy,
prices depend on demand and supply.
I. Cars are major polluters. — Машины очень загрязняют воздух.
106
В английском языке свойство предмета или человека часто пере-
дается через отглагольное существительное с суффиксами -er, -or.
Например:
Не is a heavy smoker. — Он много курит./Он заядлый курильщик.
She is an early riser. — Она рано встает.
She is a poor sailor. — Она плохо переносит качку.
Не is a quick learner. — Он быстро схватывает.
nouns with the suffixes -er, -or. In the Russian phrase, use the verb.
I. Benjamin Franklin was a Firm believer in the principles of democracy.
2. He was an outspoken supporter of the government. 3. My brother is a poor
sailor. 4. Students are sometimes reluctant readers. 5. She is an occasional
smoker. 6. John is a heavy smoker. 7. My family are kitchen eaters. 8.
Business and medical schools are among the best users of computer
technology in the classroom. 9. I am a coffee drinker and my mother is a tea
drinker. 10. PR people have to be problem finders and solvers and,
preferably, problem preventers.
II. Next time you see someone drop a sweetwrapper or an empty
matchbox... — Следующий раз, когда вы увидите, что кто-то бросил
конфетную обертку или пустой спичечный коробок...
При глаголах, выражающих чувства и восприятие (see, hear, feel,
watch и т.п.), инфинитив в составе объектной инфинитивной
конструкции употребляется без частицы to. (Грамматический курс,
3.1.3.1)
1. We see environmental issues become increasingly important in
political terms. 2. Before television appeared, friends often gathered around
a radio to hear the president make an important address. 3. Ferdinand (the
King of Spain) disliked Christopher Columbus from the first, but paid some
notice when he heard the Genoan mention the gold of the Indies.
III. If we used only as much detergent as recommended by the
manufacturer on the packet, pollution of rivers and lakes would drop by
40%. — Если бы мы дозировали стиральный порошок так, как указано
производителем на коробке, загрязнение рек и озер уменьшилось бы на
40 %.
Для предложений с нереальным условием характерно употребление
глагола would с инфинитивом в главном предложении и сказуемого в
Past Simple в придаточном. (Грамматический курс, 5.1.2)
1. If we had our toilet tank repaired, we would use less water. 2. If there
were gas and water meters in our apartments, we would conserve these
valuable resources. 3. If we used more degradable plastics, the problem of
garbage disposal would be easier to solve. 4. If paper mills didn't pollute the
water, our rivers and lakes would be purer.
107
1. Рейн судоходен от Страсбурга до моря. 2. Нефть, газ и уголь —

невозобновимые природные ресурсы. 3. Одноразовые контейнеры
(бутылки, коробки и т.д.), не пригодные к вторичной переработке (non-
recyclable), представляют серьезную экологическую проблему. 4.
Президент выразил озабоченность по поводу состояния окружающей
среды. 5. Запас воды в мире ограничен. 6. Рак легких — болезнь тех, кто
много курит. 7. Биоразложимые материалы все больше используются
для упаковки пищевых продуктов. 8. Нефть является сырьем для
изготовления многих синтетических материалов. 9. Президент выразил
озабоченность по поводу высокого уровня преступности.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 8.
A. Divide the following resources into renewable and non-renewable:
oil, gas, timber, corn, wheat.
B. Divide the following materials into recyclable and non-recyclable:
iron, plastic, wood, paper, glass.
C. Divide the following substances into degradable and non-degradable:
plastic, glass, wood, paper, metal.
1. The environment is everything that isn't me. (Albert Einstein, 1879 —
1955)
2. It is exciting to have a real crisis on your hands, when you have spent
half your political life dealing with humdrum issues like the environment.
(Margaret Thatcher, 1925 — of Falklands campaign)
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 10. In your opinion, how active is the green movement in your country? Is
there much public interest in the environment? Write a short report.
U n i t 17. THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
Атрибутивные группы, состоящие из нескольких
существительных (повторение)
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TEXT 1
Read and translate the text, paying close attention to the words in bold type. Below
you will find special explanations and exercises devoted to these words and structures.
The Nature of the Greenhouse Effect
The greenhouse effect results from "the dirtying of the atmospheric

infrared window" by some atmospheric gases, permitting incoming solar
radiation to reach the surface of the Earth unhindered but restricting the
outward flow of infrared radiation. These atmospheric gases are referred to
as greenhouse gases. They absorb and reradiate this outgoing radiation,
effectively storing some of the heat in the atmosphere, thus producing a net
warming of the surface. The process is called the greenhouse effect.
Greenhouse gases include water vapor and some atmospheric gases, such
as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and some others. Scientists believe
that global warming trend results from the enhanced greenhouse effect. It
means that global warming is caused by the exponentially increasing
concentrations of anthropogenically introduced greenhouse gases over and
above the greenhouse effect caused by naturally occuring greenhouse gases.
Scientists suggest that the emissions of greenhouse gases could, by the end
of the 21st century, lead to an increase in global mean temperatures of about
1 — 4 degrees centigrate.
Potential Effects of Global Warming. This global warming trend can
cause a significant global climate changes. Human society is highly
dependent on the Earth's climate. Climate patterns and human adaptations
determine the availability of food, fresh water and other resources for
sustaining life.
An estimated 50 cm rise in sea level by the year 2100 could inundate more
than 5,000 square miles of dry land.
Answer the following questions. If you can't find the answers in the text, look
elsewhere, consult your school textbooks in chemistry and biology.
1. What gases are called greenhouse gases?
2. How does C02 originate? What is its role in biological processes? How
is it emitted and how does it return to the biosphere?
3. Why did the development of idustry contribute to the increase of
carbon dioxide emission?
4. What can global warming result in?
5. Why must the greenhouse effect be forestalled?
6. What will the sea level rise result from?

to result from — быть результатом чего-л. to
result in — приводить к чему-л.
infrared radiation — инфракрасное излучение (невидимые лучи,
лежащие ниже красного конца видимого спектра', от лат. infra —
ниже)
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steam, considerable, to grow.
Exercise 2. Find common elements in the following groups of words and try to explain
their meaning:
a) anthropogenic, dioxide, centigrade, genetic, hydrogen;
b) anthropology, gradual, century, oxygen, monoxide.
Exercise 3. Match the names of chemical substances to their chemical formulas:
1. carbon dioxide a. NO
2. carbon monoxide b. C02
3. nitrous oxide c. CO
TEXT 2
Fighting the Greenhouse (and you don't have to freeze in the dark to
do it)
Of course you know what it will take to save the world from the
greenhouse effect. To cut emissions of carbon dioxide — the gas emitted
when coal, gas or oil burn and the one responsible for more than half of the
impending global warming — you'll have to turn down the heater in winter
and break out the warm underwear. In summer, don't even think of air
conditioning. Chuck your 100-Watt bulbs, screw in 40s. Trade in the
dishwasher and clothes dryer for a dish drainer and laundry line.
But wait. Human nature being what it is, scientists realize that if we
depend on a penchant for sacrifice to forestall the greenhouse effect, we
might as well start building sea walls to hold back waters that will rise along
with the thermostat. Surveys show that only about one fifth of those
questioned would keep their homes warmer in summer or chillier in winter
to help the environment. Luckily, though, conservation 1990s style doesn't
mean freezing in the dark. "There is a host of technological changes we can
make that will let us keep the amenities we are used to," says Eric Hurst of
Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
The World Resources Institute announced new data that suggest that the
greenhouse threat is more serious than has been realized. Forty million to
fifty million acres of tropical forests are disappearing each year, said WRI —
50 per cent faster than earlier satellite photos showed. Deforestation is second
only to the burning of fossil fuels as a source of carbon dioxide (C0 2). Even
without the new data, an international panel convened at the urging of the
Bush administration and 38 other countries concluded that global warming
will raise sea levels enough to inundate the plains of Holland and Bangladesh,
among other disasters. It called for a 60 percent cut of C02 emissions.
Conservation is the cheapest and fastest way to do it, at least until solar and
wind power which emit no C02 are widely available. Efficiency alone could
cut global C02 emissions 3 billion tons a year by 2010.
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Breakthroughs are as close as the nearest window. During the winter,
windows in the United States leak as much heat as is provided by the oil
flowing through the Alaskan pipeline every year. Researchers can fix that
with a "superwindow". It has three layers of glazing and two coatings of
metal oxides that cut heat loss. The space between the panes is filled with
krypton and argon gases. Result: the window collects more heat on a winter's
day than it leaks at night. Soon special glass coatings will be introduced that
allow sunlight to penetrate better than it can through plain glass, providing
low-tech solar heating to a room. And there is also a "smart window" that
changes electronically from clear, which allows sunshine in on cold days, to
reflective, which diverts rays on scorchers.
Researchers have bright ideas for lighting, which accounts for almost 25
per cent of US electricity use. Replacing standard incandescents with the best
bulbs, compact fluorescents, can cut electricity use by as much as two thirds.
Although fluorescents can cost 20 times as much as incandescents, they last
10 times longer, saving the consumer money, and emit light indistinguishable
from incandescents. Since fluorescent bulbs draw less electricity,
substituting one for an incandescent prevents the emission of up to 382
pounds of C02 that would otherwise be emitted from power plants. Other
gizmos helped the Natural Resources
Defense Council cut its office energy bill by more than half: occupancy
sensors use infrared or ultrasonic signals to detect motion, turning lights off
when no one is in the room.
Electric utilities have led the charge toward energy efficiency partly from
environmental concern, but largely because of the bottom line: it costs 30 to
50 per cent to cut demand for power than to build new generating capacity.
Wisconsin Power Co. offers rebates for installing efficient refrigerators;
Southern California Edison will pay customers to install more efficient
windows; New England Electric has insulated more than 100,000 customers'
hot-water tanks for free. But only ten states let utilities earn a return on
investments in efficiency, hampering widespread adoption.
The White House questions whether the United States will suffer from
global warming and therefore opposes making possibly expensive changes to
control the greenhouse.
(from The Newsweek, 1990)
1. What phenomenon is called the greenhouse effect?
2. What can global warming result in?
2. How does carbon dioxide return to the biosphere?
3. What are the major sources of oxygen on the Earth?
4. What can we do to forestall the greenhouse effect?
5. What energy conservation devices are described in the text?
6. Do you know any other ways of energy conservation?
7. Why are utilities in the US launching energy conservation programs?

bill (Unit 4), to depend (on) (Unit 5), power (Unit 5),
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to draw (Unit 11)
I. conservation — сбережение, экономия (напр., энергии)-, energy
conservation энергосбережение (экологическое клише)
II. low-tech — requiring primitive technology high-
tech — requiring sophisticated technology
III. because of the bottom line — по финансовым соображениям;
bottom line нижняя строка балансовой ведомости (balance sheet), в
которой обозначены итоги — прибыли и убытки
energy, to prevent, to understand.
A. 1. The veranda was lit by a dim bulb. 2. Incandescent bulbs draw more
electricity than fluorescent bulbs. 3. Lily bulbs are planted in the fall.
B. You will recognize the products of this company by a diagonal red line
on the lable. 2. A good reader can read between the lines. 3. Entering the
yard, they saw clean laundry hanging on a line. 4. The wind had damaged the
power line and there was no electricity in the village. 5. They were dropped
by parachute behind enemy lines. 6. The company was developing a new line
of computer printers. 7. He was a worker at an assembly line.
C. 1. Does the panel think that the sale of these nationalized plants is
good for the country? 2. The house is built of prefabricated panels. 3. The
pilot looked at the control panel. 4. Developing renewable energy sources,
the Shell company recently installed solar panels on one of its oil platforms
off the coast of Brunei in Southeast Asia. 65 kW of power were produced.
D. 1. He had a current account with the bank. 2. Soviet people were not
allowed to have bank accounts in foreign currency. 3. The major oil
countries, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Libya, account for 1 % of world
population. The rich countries, or industrial countries, include the US,
Western Europe, Canada and Japan and account for over 15 % of world
population. 4. Exposure to high level of radiation in Chernobyl accounts for
a high number of deaths among fit young men. 5. These factors must be taken
into account. 6. The newspaper accounts of the accident were controversial.
7. There are over two thousand recognized countries or nation-states in the
world; the number of cultures is considerably greater on account of strong
regional variations.
E. 1. This engineer works at a plant making brake fluid for cars. 2. A
herbicide is a chemical that controls or destroys undesirable plants. 3.
Carbon dioxide is absorbed by plant cells in the process of photosynthesis.
4. When we plant trees, we help to forestall the greenhouse effect. 5. The
new law required every power plant to cut emissions of sulfur. 6. The
residents of the district objected to the building of a nuclear power plant. 7.
The terrorists managed to plant a bomb in the night club.
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F. 1. Suddenly the lion charged at the hunter. 2. The former Prime
Minister faces charges including embezzlement of state funds. 3. The police
arrested her on a charge of conspiracy. 4. He denied the crimes with which
he was charged. 5. The bank charges me 12 % interest on the loan. 6. Who
is in charge here? 7. This nurse is in charge of several babies. 8. Electrons
are negatively charged with electricity. Protons bear a positive electric
charge. 9. Be careful with this gun. It is charged. 10. Large trucks charging
along country lanes cause serious environmental problems.
G. 1. We couldn't start the engine because the gasoline tank was empty.
2. During the war, this man commanded a tank battalion. 3. If we all had our
toilet tanks repaired, we would conserve a lot of water.
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World Resources Institute — Институт мировых ресурсов US

electricity use — потребление электроэнергии Соединенными
Штатами
Natural Resources Defense Council — Совет по охране при-
родных ресурсов
Повторите сочетания существительного с препозитивными
определениями. Они переводятся справа налево, т.е. левое существи-
тельное является определением к правому. Так, Natural Resources
Defense является определением к слову Council. Внутри этого опре-
деления группа Natural Resources служит определением к Defense, a
Natural — определением к Resources (Unit 2, Grammar Study and
Practice, I).
1. Carbon dioxide emissions contribute to the greenhouse effect. 2. These
proposals will be discussed at the round table talks. 3. The tourist industry
helps to maintain rural employment levels. 4. Conventional energy com-
panies are looking for renewable energy sources. 5. Solar and other
renewable technologies may not be able to compete successfully with
conventional power sources. 6. The company is building a liquified natural
gas terminal in India. 7. More than 100 bills in Congress propose a market
approach to environmental problems. 8. Under the Clean Air Act, power
plants are to cut sulfur emissions by 50 %. 9. The invention of the movable
type printing press in the mid-1400s made it possible to publish a large
number of books relatively fast.
structures from the texts and exercises above:
Translation tips:
составлять (равняться чему-л.) — to amount to составлять (быть
частью чего-л.) — to account for
1. В такую погоду он всегда носит солнечные очки. 2. Ожидается,
что солнечная энергия будет широко использоваться в будущем. 3. Его
арестовали и обвинили в терроризме. 4. Этот сотрудник отвечает за
рекламу. 5. Долгое отсутствие Джима объясняется его болезнью. 5. Он
открыл текущий счет в банке. 7. Выбирая упаковочные материалы для
своих продуктов, фирма должна принимать во внимание стоимость их
вторичной переработки. 8. Глобальное потепление
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может привести к таянию полярных льдов. 9. Известно, что выброс
углекислого газа в атмосферу способствует парниковому эффекту. 10.
Растения поглощают углекислый газ в процессе фотосинтеза,
способствуя его возвращению в биосферу. 11. Электростанции сжигают
ископаемое топливо, которое относится к невозобновимым природным
ресурсам. 12. Сбережение энергии помогает предотвратить парниковый
эффект. 13. Плата за обучение (tuition fees) в этом институте составляет
1000 долларов в семестр. 14. Арабы составляют треть населения страны.
15. Количество углекислого газа, выбрасываемого в атмосферу,
постоянно растет.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 8. In groups of three, decide an environmental issue which you think is

important and which you would want to do something about. This list may be helpful:
Acid rain
Loss of rain forests
World populaton growth
Nuclear waste
The ozone layer
The greenhouse effect
Nuclear weapons
Experiments on animals
Exercise 9. Present a report from your group to the rest of class. Structure it like this:
• What the issue is
• Background facts
• Why it is important
• What can be done about it
• What difficulties will be met in doing this
• How long it will take to do it
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 10. Write a report based on your presentation.
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Part 7
SOME FACTS ABOUT ECONOMICS
U n i t 18. THE HISTORY AND THE ROLE OF MONEY
Перевод герундиальных конструкций Условные
предложения с нереальным условием в прошедшем
времени
TEXT
Money
The task of commerce is the exchange of goods. In earlier times it was

done on the basis of barter, i.e. goods were exchanged for goods. The
huntsman, who had more meat than he or his family could eat, exchanged
some meat for some fish of which his neighbor had too much. The
Phoenician merchants took the spices of the East and the purple dyes of Tyre
to the coasts of Cornwall in exchange for tin, or to the Baltic for the much-
prized amber.
But it is obvious that such a primitive system cannot satisfy the needs of
a more highly developed economic system. If I want to exchange a big piece
of meat for, say, a pair of trousers, I have not only to find a man who at that
same time has a pair of trousers that he wants to exchange. Moreover, the
man with the trousers may want only a small piece of meat — a far smaller
piece than the trousers are worth and, though I could cut off a piece of my
meat to supply his needs, he can't cut off a portion of the trousers of
equivalent value in exchange. And that brings us to another factor, namely
the need for a measure of value that barter doesn't supply. Again, though the
possessor of the trousers can afford to keep his goods and wait until perhaps
he can get what he wants for them, I can't keep my meat very long without
its going bad. What is needed, then, is some commodity which can be used
as a medium of exchange and at the same time as a measure of value.
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This commodity we call money.
Money is any generally acceptable means of payment in exchange for
goods and services and in settling debts.
It can take and has taken various forms. In China they used tea pressed
into bricks. The Incas of Peru used cocoa beans. The ancient Romans (and
other peoples) used cattle; other civilizations used salt, furs, ivory, shells,
olive oil, iron, tobacco and dried codfish. In prisoner-of-war camps cigarettes
served as money. These are called commodity money.
Commodity money is used as a medium of exchange and also is bought
and sold as an ordinary good.
Commodity monies are as valuable in commercial and other uses as they
are as money. When cocoa was used as both money and a drink, it had the
same value in both uses. How do we know that? Ask what would have
happened had cocoa been more valuable as money. Then no one would have
drunk it. If it had been more valuable as a drink, people would not have used
it for money. Thus it had the same value in both uses.
The "precious metals" gold and silver (and to a lesser degree copper) were
the best sort of commodity money, because they possessed most ideally the
qualities needed. Thus they, unlike the big piece of meat, have acceptability
(they will be taken willingly by anyone in exchange for goods and can be
easily recognized for what they are), divisibility (they can be divided into
small pieces and can be melted and re-united without loss), durability (they
will not easily wear out or go bad) and portability (considerable sums of
them can be carried around without too great inconvenience).
Gold fulfills all these functions best and has been adopted by almost every
nation in the world as the standard medium of exchange. Nowadays,
however, though gold may be used for settling international indebtedness, its
place as a medium of exchange for internal purposes has been largely taken
by paper money. In England, until 1914, gold coins, the sovereign and the
half-sovereign, were used as money, and bank notes could be converted
freely into gold sovereigns at any bank. But owing to the economic
difficulties of the war, in 1914 gold coins were called in and their place was
taken by "Treasury Notes". Gold coins have now disappeared completely
from circulation.
In the earliest stages of the use of gold as money it was usually weighed
out in bars. Later, to overcome the inconvenience that this caused, it was
made into coins, i.e. pieces of metal stamped to guarantee its weight and
fineness.
One of the reasons for the rapid spread of the use of coins was their
convenience. In situations where coins were generally acceptable at their
nominal value there was no need to weigh them and in everyday transactions
where relatively small numbers were involved counting was quicker and far
more convenient than weighing.
True coinage developed in Asia Minor as a result of the practice of the
Lydians, of stamping small round pieces of precious metals as a guarantee of
their purity. Later, when their metallurgical skills improved and these pieces
became more regular in form and weight, the seals served as a symbol of both
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purity and weight. The use of coins spread quickly from Lydia to Ionia,
mainland Greece and Persia.
In Britain, coins are made at the Royal Mint, established at the Tower of
London by William the Conqueror in the 11th century, but transferred to its
present building on Tower Hill in 1798.
In addition to metal coins there is a vast quantity of paper money (far
exceeding the metallic currency). Unlike gold, paper money is token money,
that is its value or purchasing power as money exceeds the cost of production
and the value in alternative uses.
A hundred pound bill, for instance, costs much more than a piece of high-
quality paper.
Coins and bank notes are used almost entirely in direct payments because
to send them by post for payment of debts at a distance is not only
inconvenient but involves considerable risk of loss or theft. For these
payments other methods are available.
1. Why is barter inconvenient?
2. What commodities were used as money?
3. What basic qualities must money possess?
4. When was gold withdrawn from circulation in the UK?
5. Why is gold no longer weighed out in bars?
6. When do people stop using money and resort to barter? If you can't
think of such occasions in your own life, ask your grandparents how they got
food during the war. Try to explain why they exchanged their clothes for food
instead of buying food.
to involve (Unit 2), power (Unit 5, 17), to supply (Unit 9)
I. Запомните произношение и значения следующих слов:

Phoenician [fi'nif(3)n] — финикиец, финикиянин (древний житель
восточного побережья Средиземного моря)', финикийский Tyre [tara]
— Тир (финикийский город-государство)
salary — the money that someone is paid for their job each month,
especially for professional or other non-manual job
wages — the amount of money that is regularly paid to a person for a
particular type of work, especially manual or unskilled work.
fee — 1. the sum of money you pay for to be allowed to do something
(registration fee); 2. the amount of money that a person or an organization is
paid for a particular job or service (tuition fees, doctor's fees)
royalties — payments made to authors, musicians, playwrights, who are
given a fixed percentage of the profits made from their books or records
price — the amount of money that you must pay in order to buy something
rent — the amount of money that you pay regularly to rent a house, an
apartment or a piece of land
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II. Познакомьтесь с происхождением некоторых английских слов:
pecuniary (денежный, финансовый) — от лат. pecus — скот
fee (гонорар) — от древнегерм. fieh — скот salary
(заработная плата) — от лат. sal — соль
III. Выучите следующие словосочетания: to
spend money (on something)
to borrow money (from somebody)
to lend money (to somebody) to buy
something (with money)
IV. От прилагательных с суффиксами -able, -ible образуются
существительные, оканчивающиеся на -ability, -ibility, со значением
«наличие свойства, выраженного прилагательным»:
acceptable — acceptability divisible
— divisibility durable — durability
portable — portability
great, to have, to set up, trade, simple, fast.
1. The system of money that a country uses. 2. A place where money is
made.
A. 1. In the 17th century, most transactions in Europe were probably still
conducted by barter; no money passed at all. 2. The peasants got what they
needed by bartering their livestock. 3. Barter deals are usually long and
cumbersome. 4. During the war, people bartered their jewelry for food.
B. 1. A chicken develops in the egg. 2. Developing countries receive aid
from the UNO. 3. He has taken a lot of photos and now he must develop the
films. 4. The development of a child is greatly influenced by his
environment. 5. He watched the latest developments in foreign affairs. 6.
The development of photographic films requires a dark room.
C. 1. The value of the coin is stamped on its face. 2. This book will be of
great value to him in his work. 3. Different generations have different
systems of values. 4. You mustn't take his words at face value: he doesn't
always tell the truth. 5. Everyone must learn to value one's time. 6. Do you
value her as a secretary? 7. This oil painting is very valuable.
D. 1. Energy is converted from one form to another. 2. During the war,
many passenger ships were converted to carry seaplanes. 3. She was
converted to Christianity by the Salvation Army. 4. The missionary schools
sought to produce converts to Christianity. 5. Money that is convertible can
easily be exchanged for the money of another country.
E. 1. He is never cold because he has good circulation. 2. Gold coins are
no longer in circulation. 3. The circulation of this newspaper is over a
million.
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F. 1. He was hungry and bought a Snickers bar. 2. The criminal found
himself behind bars. 3. Demands were made for the leader of the sect to be
barred from Britain. 4. The government introduced restrictions barring the
use of US-supplied weapons. 5. The orchestra played again the last ten bars
of the anthem. 6. The young lawyer was reading up for his bar exams.
Exercise 4. Complete the sentences, using the information from the text:
1. The Incas of Peru used ... as money. 2. The Royal Mint was established
by ... in ... . 3. In 1914 gold coins were called in in England owing to ... . 4.
Before coins appeared, gold was .... 5. In addition to metal coins there is ....
6. The Phoenician merchants took ... to the coasts of Cornwall in exchange
for.... 7. Jennifer earns a large ... as an accountant. 8. Everybody who wants
to take part in the conference must pay the registration .... 9. Mary and John
can't afford this apartment. The ... is too high. 10. To buy a new car, David
... money from the bank.

I. I can't keep my meat very long without its going bad. — Я не могу
долго хранить мясо так, чтобы оно не испортилось.
В данной герундиальной конструкции субъектом герундия going
bad служит местоимение its. Наиболее распространенный способ
перевода таких конструкций — придаточное предложение. (Грам-
матический курс, 3.2.4)
I. The business was facing bankruptcy. The owner was worried both
about his workpeople losing their jobs and about himself losing face and
credibility. 2. There is nothing new about police coming into schools to teach
survival skills. 3. Globalization is reflected by most major public relations
organizations having branches and affiliates worldwide. 4. Jeremy walked the
streets of his own city without anyone recognizing him.
II. If it [cocoa] had been more valuable as a drink, people would not
have used it for money. — Если бы оно [какао] имело большую ценность
как напиток, люди не использовали бы его в качестве денег.
В приведенном условном предложении нереальное условие (при-
даточное предложение) и гипотетическое следствие (главное пред-
ложение) относятся к прошлому. Для таких предложений характерно
употребление глагола would с перфектным инфинитивом в главном
предложении и сказуемого в Past Perfect в придаточном.
(Грамматический курс, 5.1.3)
1. If they had not been barbarians, they would not have destroyed Roman
civilization. 2. If the night watchman hadn't noticed the fire, the building
would have burnt down. 3. If Jane hadn't refused to work overtime, she would
have got promotion.
Exercise 7. Insert prepositions:
1. John bought a car ... his friends ... $10,000. 2. Jeremy borrowed some
money ... the bank. 3. What are you going to buy ... this money?
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1. Обмен товаров при помощи бартера — это сложная и неудобная
процедура. 2. Каждый человек должен научиться ценить свое время. 3.
Королевский монетный двор был учрежден Вильгельмом Завоевателем.
4. Мы не должны принимать его слова за чистую монету. 5. Результаты
встречи были неудовлетворительны. 6. Рубль стал конвертируемой
валютой в 1992 году. 7. Когда деньги ненадежны, люди прибегают к
натуральному обмену. 8. Деньги — это мера ценности и средство
обмена. 9. Во время войны люди меняли одежду и драгоценности на
еду. 10. Многие товары использовались в качестве денег. 11. Эта работа
связана с большим риском. 12. Что ты купишь на эти деньги? 13. Джек
купил у Джона лошадь за 300 фунтов.
14. Во время кризиса покупательная способность населения (the people)
упала. 15. Преступник оказался за решеткой. 16. Оркестр сыграл
несколько первых тактов гимна. 17. Молодой юрист готовился к
квалификационным экзаменам.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 9. Comment on the following quotations:
1. Money speaks sense in a language all nations understand. (Aphra Behn,
1640-89)
2. If you would know what the Lord God thinks of money, you have only
to look at those to whom he gives it. (Maurice Baring, 1874— 1945)
3. The love of money is the root of all evil. (New Testament)
4. No man should be in public office who can't make more money in
private life. (Thomas E.Dewey, 1902 — 71)
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 10. Write an essay supporting one of the opposite opinions given below:
1. Some people believe that young people should work for their spending
money.
2. Other people believe that young people should be given an allowance
(spending money given at a regular interval) without having to work for it.
U n i t 19. SOME PRINCIPLES OF MARKET ECONOMY
Предложения с нереальным условием (повторение) Бессоюзное
определительное придаточное предложение (повторение) Союз though
121
TEXT
The Role of the Market in the Economy
At the center of the analysis of the allocation of resources through the
price system is the notion of a market. We can think of a market as a place
where people get together to buy and sell, haggling over the prices of goods.
But the term "market" has a broader meaning.
A market is a set of arrangements by which buyers and sellers of a good
are in contact to trade this good.
In most countries now the market plays a central role in determining what
gets produced, how and for whom. We can think of markets as particular
places where some people bring goods to sell and others come to buy — for
example produce markets in many cities. Or we can think of a market such
as the stock market where people call on the telephone to buy and sell stocks.
But we do not need to go into these details. We use instead a general
definition of a market that fits those cases and others.
The market is a shorthand expression for the process by which consumers'
decisions about the consumption of alternative goods, firms' decisions on
what and how to produce and workers' decisions on how much and for whom
to work are all reconciled by adjustments of prices.
Prices of goods and resources such as labor, machines and land change
to ensure that the limited supplies of resources are used to produce those
goods and services that society demands.
Much of economics is devoted to studying how markets and prices enable
society to solve the basic what, how and for whom problems. You can get a
feeling of how markets and prices work by thinking of your typical daily
purchases. For example, suppose that you buy a hamburger for lunch at a
fast-food restaurant. What do the market and prices have to do with that?
There is first your side of the deal. Given your desire to eat and your
limited resources, the low price of a hamburger told you this was a good way
to satisfy your appetite. Probably you prefer steak, but that has a higher price.
The price is high enough to ensure that society answers the for whom
question about lunchtime steaks in favor of someone else.
Then there is the seller's side. The restaurant owner is in the business
because given the price of hamburger meat, the rent and the wages he has to
pay, he can sell the hamburgers for a price that is high enough to produce a
profit. If the rent were much higher, he could not operate a_hamburger
restaurant in this place. He might want to be in the same business somewhere
else or maybe in some other business. As it is, though, the prices at which
he can sell his product and buy the resources he needs to produce hamburgers
are at levels that lead him to put his money into this business.
The student behind the counter is working there because the wage he
receives is the best wage he can get for the type of part-time work he wants.
The best wage he can get is still pretty low because there are many People
who want this type of job. If the wage were much lower, though.
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he would probably look for a different job. Or perhaps he might stop working
altogether and try to borrow money to pay his way through college.
Prices are guiding your decision to buy a hamburger, the owner's decision
to sell hamburgers and the counter help's decision to take the job. Society is
allocating resources — the meat, the building, the labor — into the
production of hamburgers through the price system. If no one liked
hamburgers, thev couldn't be sold at a price that covered costs, the owner of
the restaurant wouldn't be in the hamburger-selling business, the society
wouldn't be devoting any resources to hamburger production. It is people's
desire to eat hamburgers that guides resources into hamburger production. If
the price of beef rose very high, the price of hamburgers would increase, and
people would begin to eat more tuna fish sandwiches. Thus we get some idea
of how prices enable society to allocate resources.
There were several markets involved in your purchase of a hamburger.
You and the restaurant owner were in the market for fast foods. The student
behind the counter is part of the local labor market. The restaurant owner is
also a buyer in the local wholesale meat market and in the local rent market
for buildings.
In each market, the adjustment of prices to allocate resources is the main
idea.
(adapted from Economics by S. Fischer, R. Dornbusch)
1. Are prices in free market economies stable or flexible?
2. When do prices go up and when do they fall?
3. Why do students take part-time jobs in fast-food restaurants?
4. What would happen to hamburger trade if wholesale meat prices rose?
5. What would happen to hamburger prices if people stopped eating
hamburgers?
6. What makes hamburger trade so active in the United States?
supply (Unit 9), demand (Unit 11)
I. produce |'praudu:s| — fruit, vegetables and other things that farmers

grow; dairy produce includes milk, cottage cheese, cream etc.
II. economics — экономика {наука) economy — экономика
{страны) economic — экономический (относящийся к
экономике) economical — экономичный
work, wide, a commodity, a wish.
1. Money that is earned in trade and business, after paying the costs of
producing and selling goods and services. 2. A fixed amount of money you
123
pay regularly for use a room, house, car, television etc. that someone else
owns.
A. 1. 1 hope the shop has some more of these machines in stock. 2. If you
want to obtain a bank credit, you may offer stocks and shares as security. 3.
The company deposited a controlling slice of their stock with trustees. 4. The
peace agreement required the destruction of existing stocks of weapons. 5.
The emergency committee had a chance to take stock of the situation. 6.
There was a sale of dairy stock at the farm. Fifty cows were offered for sale.
7. The library is well stocked with books on history.
B. 1. Many people still earn their living by manual labor. 2. Because of
their cheap labor, such nations as South Korea, Malaysia and Singapore
achieved great economic results. 3. Vacuum-cleaners, washing machines and
dishwashers are labor-saving devices. 4. Labor Exchange is a government
agency used by employers for finding workers and workers for finding jobs.
5. In countries with market economy there is no such thing as "labor
shortage"; there is only labor that is too cheap. As wages rise, "labor
shortage" will disappear as completely as did the "job shortage" before it. 6.
The Labor Party is in office now in Britain. 7. The woman was in labor for
seven hours. 8. He is a Labor MP for Ormskirk.
C. 1. Economics is a science that explains how society makes decisions
about consumption, production and the exchange of goods. 2. This section of
the book is devoted to the economics of racial and sex discrimination.
3. The American economy uses petroleum products in countless ways.
4. The economy is a very complex mechanism with interconnected parts.
5. A disturbance anywhere ripples through the entire economy.
D. 1. We had a deal of trouble that day. 2. It was probably the best
business deal I ever had. 3. She wrote books urging a new deal for women.
4. The growth of import dealt a heavy blow to domestic industries.
5. The shop deals only in trousers. 6. They learnt to deal with any sort of
emergency. 7. The film deals with a strange encounter between two soldiers.
8. By trade he was a dealer in antique furniture.
E. 1. He was a leading industrialist with business interests in Germany.
2. He set up a small travel business. 3. Many small businesses went bankrupt
during the crisis. 4. The company directors actually run the business.
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5. There are good profits to be made in the hotel business. 6. It's no business
of mine what you choose to read. 7. Please phone during business hours. 8.
50 % of these shops were not in business five years ago.

I. If the rent were much higher, he could not operate a
hamburger restaurant in this place. — Если бы арендная плата
была намного выше, он не смог бы держать гамбургерную в
этом месте.
If the wage were much lower, though, he would probably look
for a different job. — Однако если бы зарплата была гораздо
ниже, он, наверное, стал бы искать другую работу.
If no one liked hamburgers, they couldn't be sold at a price that covered
costs. — Если бы никто не любил гамбургеры, их нельзя было бы
продавать по цене, покрывающей затраты.
Повторите раздел о предложениях с нереальным условием (Unit 16,
Grammar Study and Practice, III; Грамматический курс, 5.1.2).
Exercise 4. Complete the following sentences:
1. If people stop eating hamburgers... 2. If the rent were higher, the
restaurant owner... 3. If money didn't exist, people would... 4. Everybody
would resort to barter if... 5. If fish went up in price...
II. ...the rent and the wages he has to pay... — ...аренда и зарплата,
которые он должен выплачивать...
Повторите раздел о бессоюзно присоединяемых
определительных придаточных предложениях (Unit 11, Grammar
Study and Practice, II).
Exercise 5. Translate the following paragraph into Russian:
Because there is no money in barter economy, the only trading that can
take place is between two people each of whom has something the other
wants. To buy a hamburger, you have to give over something the owner of
the hamburger stand wants. To visit a movie house, you have to pay
something the owner wants directly. The seller and buyer each must have
something the other has to offer.
III. As it is, though, the prices at which he can sell his product AND
and buy the resources he needs to produce hamburgers are at
levels that lead him to put his money into this business. — Однако
при нынешнем положении вещей цены, по которым он может
продавать свою продукцию и закупать ресурсы, необходимые
для производства гамбургеров, таковы, что побуждают его
вкладывать деньги в это дело.
125
If the wage were much lower, though, he would probably look for a
different job. — Однако если бы зарплата была гораздо ниже, он,
наверное, стал бы искать другую работу.
Уступительный союз though может употребляться не только в
сложноподчиненном, но и в самостоятельном предложении. В этих
случаях его переводят при помощи слов однако, все-таки, тем не
менее.
1. The situation is serious. I wouldn't worry too much, though. 2. Mary's
children have excellent marks at school. She always worries about them,
though. 3. Jack had been working non-stop for ten hours. He didn't feel tired,
though. 4. The house was not very comfortable. It was pretty, though.
1. Дешевая рабочая сила позволила многим странам Юго-Восточной
Азии добиться экономического роста. 2. Цены зависят от спроса и
предложения. 3. Если бы арендная плата была пониже, я открыл бы
здесь магазин. 4. Потребители покупают товары у розничных
торговцев. 5. Спрос и предложение уравновешиваются при помощи
цены. 6. Покупатели стараются покупать товары по самым низким
ценам. 7. Рыночная экономика позволяет обществу решать
многочисленные проблемы. 8. Владелец ресторана должен платить
арендную плату и зарплату своим служащим. 9. Студенты охотно
нанимаются на место с неполной занятостью. 10. В рыночной эко-
номике не может быть дефицита рабочей силы. 11. Он нашел работу на
бирже труда. 12. Эти лампы очень экономичны. Они потребляют мало
энергии. 13. Если спрос на какой-то товар растет, его цена тоже
поднимается. 14. Система цен позволяет обществу уравновесить спрос
и предложение. 15. Его статья посвящена экономическим вопросам. 16.
Мой друг изучает экономику в университете. 17. Инфляция очень
опасна для экономики страны. 18. Когда вы покупаете гамбургер, в этом
участвуют несколько рынков.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 8. Suppose you want to open a fast-food restaurant. Discuss the three
alternative locations:
a) in the center;
b) in the outskirts of the city;
c) on a highway leading out of the city.
Complete the advantages and disadvantages of operating a restaurant in each location.
WRITING PRACTICE
126
Exercise 9. Write an essay describing the fast-food restaurants in your city. Analyze
the location, the clientele and the help. Explain why you think the business is profitable
or not.
U n i t 20. TAXES IN THE ECONOMY
Союз for
Абсолютная причастная конструкция
TEXT
Taxation
Governments in the United States — federal state and local — together
collect in taxes about one third of the GNP (gross national product) or total
income earned in the country. The government is financed primarily by
taxes. A small part of government revenue comes from fees and charges for
government services, but most of the revenue is from taxes.
At the federal level, the tax money is spent mainly on national defense,
Social Security and welfare. Education, highways and social welfare are
major spending categories for state government. Government in the United
States provide health services, the Library of Congress, the services of FBI
and CIA, the national parks and much more.
Historically, customs duties and tolls were the main sources of tax
revenue. They were easy to raise in ports and at crossroads, and there was
no need for an elaborate bureaucracy to administer the tax system. We are
very far from that today. Tax revenue comes from taxes on labor and capital,
from property taxes, and from taxes on retail sales or on the sale of specific
commodities such as tobacco or liquor.
Here we single out a few taxes for special discussion.
The payroll tax is a tax on wages. It is actually the individual's
contribution to the Social Security system, which entitles the contributor
to retirement and disability payments. But because it is not voluntary, we call
it a tax rather than an insurance premium. Contributing to the Social
Security system is made compulsory on the argument that people may not be
sufficiently far-sighted to provide for their own needs in retirement and in
case they become disabled.
The capital gains tax is the tax on the amount by which the value of the
asset has risen. Someone who buys a share of Ford Motor Company for $18
127
and later sells it for $26 has a capital gain of $8. He has to pay taxes on that
gain of $8.
The property tax is a tax on houses and land and it accounts for less than
8 % of total government revenue.
The chief source of government revenue is the personal income tax,
which accounts for more than one-third of total revenue.
We should also mention the value-added tax or VAT. VAT is widely used
outside of the USA, especially in Europe. As the name suggests, VAT is a
tax on the value added to a good in production. VAT is special because it is
levied at every stage of production and sale — when goods are sold by
producers to wholesalers, when retailers buy from wholesalers and ultimately
when retailers sell to the final consumers. What is taxed at each stage is only
the value added, which is the sales price less than the cost of purchased
inputs. Thus, the retail store that buys goods from a wholesaler is taxed only
on the retail sales price less the wholesale price.
By adding all the taxes collected at different stages, we realize that VAT
works out to be the same as a general retail sales tax levied at a common rate
on all goods sold in the economy.
Thus the VAT is equivalent to a retail sales tax, but it is collected at
several stages in the production and distribution process.
Taxes are collected in different ways. The United States relies relatively
heavily on income and corporate profits taxes, while European countries rely
relatively more on revenue through VAT. Of course, in the USA retail sales
taxes are also used at state and local levels.
There are also excise taxes on specific goods and transactions, including
mainly alcohol and tobacco.
The tax system must raise a certain amount of revenue to finance
government activities.
How to Tax Fairly. Economists, to say nothing of taxpayers, have long
been concerned about how the benefits and the burdens should be spread.
There are two main ethical precepts that are widely accepted. The first is
horizontal equity and the second is vertical equity.
The rule of horizontal equity is that equals should be treated equally by
the tax laws.
The rule of vertical equity is that unequals should be treated unequally.
Applying these principles is difficult.The first problem is defining equals.
We might start with current income, but that is certainly not a reasonable
measure of how well off a person is. A medical student earning the same
income as a janitor is better off than the janitor, for the medical student has
the higher lifetime income. Perhaps we should define equals by their lifetime
incomes.
Even defining equals by lifetime incomes raises difficult issues. Consider
two people, each of whom earned the same income while working. Both are
now retired. One saved while he was young and lives well. One had a good
time while he was young and lives very poorly now. Are they equal?
Or consider two people, each working at the same factory, doing the same
work, getting the same pay. One of them is married and has children, and the
128
other is single. Are they equal? Different states deal with these difficult cases
in different ways.
(adapted from Economics by S. Fischer, R.
Dornbusch)
1. Why are taxes necessary?
2. What activities are financed with the tax money?
3. How were the first taxes collected?
4. What taxes do American citizens pay?
5. What taxes do we pay in Russia?
6. Do you think taxes in Russia are too high or too low?

to raise (Unit 13), fair (Unit 14), amount (Unit 15), concern (Unit
16), to account (Unit 17)
I. income — доход отдельного лица или семьи revenue —
доход фирмы, государства; доход от недвижимости или
инвестиций (то же что income)
II. state — 1. государство; 2. штат государство — 1. state; 2.
country; 3. nation государственный — 1. state; 2. national; 3.
federal [напр., о США)
1. Money that an individual gets from working or from investing money.
2. An amount of money an individual has to pay to the government that it
uses to provide public services and finance its activity. 3. Someone whose
job is to sell large quantities of goods to shops or small businesses.
Exercise 2. Translate the sentences with the words from the earlier units:
1. Concern for gender equity in American society certainly encompasses
language issues, along with other sociopolitical concerns. 2. It wouldn't be
fair to the others if she is paid more. 3. There was initially a certain amount
of dialect variation among the different groups of British settlers in South
Africa; but in due course a more homogeneous accent emerged — an accent
that shares many similarities with the accent of Australia. 4. Doubts have
been raised about the company's right to use this land. 5. We need your help
to raise money for urgent medical research.
6. The Japanese market accounts for 35 % of the company's revenue. 7. His
earnings are said to amount to $250,000 a year.
A. 1. European governments earn immense tax revenues from the sale of
tobacco products. 2. They have to earn a living somehow. 3. He has earned
his place in history. 4. Most people here earn about $30,000 a year. 5. The
129
company earned profits of about $ 14 million this year. 6. Working for this
company, Jessica earned her colleagues' respect.
B. 1. As a doctor, it was his duty to preserve life. 2. When the riot started,
there were only two policemen on duty. 3. Jeremy was the chief of local
police force. He had many duties to perform. 4. The government imposed
customs duties to protect domestic industries. 5. We bought this wine at a
duty-free shop.
C. 1. A toll-free business center offering e-commerce, e-mail, order
taking, customer service and credit-card processing opened at the hotel. 2.
The stress was beginning to take its toil on their marriage. 3. Anyone
traveling across this bridge has to pay a toll. 4. The epidemic of plague in the
14th century took a heavy toll on the people of England. 5. Smallpox took an
enormous toll of life in the 18th century.
D. 1. A questionnaire is often administered in face-to-face interviews.
2. The territory was administered by South Africa. 3. The economic crisis
administered a heavy blow to their hopes. 4. The patient was very nervous,
so the doctor administered a sedative. 5. Correspondence and communi-
cation of people in custody should not be restricted beyond what is necessary
for the administration of justice. 6. Throughout President Ronald Reagan
administration, the US government supported the Nicaraguan rebels.
7. The University administration held negotiations with the student union.
E. 1. Newton's contribution to physics was great. 2. The students
contributed stories and poems to the class magazine. 3. This experiment
contributes useful information for our research. 4. From birth to old age,
each period of life makes its contribution to the development of abilities and
interests. 5. Reading contributes directly to personality development. 6.
Carbon dioxide emission contributes to the greenhouse effect. 7. Minor
political parties have not enjoyed much electoral success in America,
although they have contributed ideas to the Democratic and Republican
programs.
F. 1. Any money earned in the country is taxed at the rate of 15 %.
2. There is a close link between a rising rate of unemployment and a rising
suicide rate. 3. The bank offers a very good interest rate compared with other
banks. 4. The birth rate in the Third World is very high. 5. The government
is seeking to bring down the inflation rate. 6. He was rated by his colleagues
as one of the best geologists in the country. 7. The virtues of kindness and
generosity tend to be rated above all others.
G. 1. The industrial age has brought innumerable benefits. 2. For the
benefit of those who weren't here last week, I'll repeat everything again.
3. With the benefit of hindsight we can see that this was a mistake. 4. The
family moved to a better district, for the benefit of the children. 5. Families
with many children are entitled to child benefit. 6. A benefit concert was
organized for the refugees. 7. The firm benefited from his ingenuity. 8. We
need a medical service which will benefit the rich and the poor. 9. Your
fringe benefits will include free health insurance.
130
I. A medical student earning the same income as a janitor is AND better off
than the janitor, for the medical student has the higher lifetime income. —
Студент-медик, получающий столько же, сколько вахтер, на самом
деле богаче вахтера, так как за всю жизнь он получит больший доход.
Союз for может иметь причинное значение.
I. Moira spent most of her free time at her aunt's place, for she had
nowhere else to go. 2. The manager was always busy, for she had many duties
to perform. 3. Businessmen were unwilling to invest in the economy of the
countiy, for the taxes were too high. 4. We didn't go skiing yesterday, for the
weather was very cold.
II. ...consider two people, each working at the same factory, doing the
same work, getting the same pay. — ...рассмотрим двух человек; они
работают на одном предприятии, делают одинаковую работу и
получают одинаково.
Each working at the same factory — абсолютная причастная кон-
струкция. Причастие working имеет свой субъект each, а вся конст-
рукция служит обстоятельством сопутствующих условий. При переводе
она может передаваться при помощи придаточного или отдельного
предложения. (Грамматический курс, 3.3.4.3)
131
1. To the men of London and of Devon the unmapped world beyond the
ocean seemed an archipelago of fairy islands, each hiding some strange
wonder of its own, each waiting to be discovered by some adventurous
knight. 2. The Vikings' fleet included sometimes three hundred ships, each
ship carrying perhaps a hundred men. 3. Only a shell of the original building
remained, the interior having been refurbished and remodeled many times. 4.
Two revisions of this agreement have been made in the light of advances in
scientific understanding, the latest being in 1992. 5. In the 1700s, there were
significant cultural developments in the country, many of them coming from
abroad.
1. Люди с низкими доходами имеют право на различные льготы. 2.
Налогоплательщики имеют право знать, как расходуются их деньги. 3.
Один из основных принципов демократии состоит в том, что не должно
быть налогов без представительства. 4. Налог на добавленную
стоимость взимается на каждой стадии производства и продажи товара.
5. Деятельность правительства финансируется из налоговых
поступлений. 6. Правительство пытается снизить уровень инфляции. 7.
Эпидемия чумы в XIV веке нанесла большой урон Англии. 8. Спиртные
напитки и предметы роскоши облагаются акцизным налогом. 9. Налоги
являются главным источником правительственных доходов. 10.
Население Индии составляет 600 миллионов человек. 11. Арабы
составляют 40 % населения этой страны. 12. Мы все платим
подоходный налог. 13. Его доходы составляют 20 000 долларов в год.
14. Зарплата составляет треть его дохода. 15. Налог на имущество
составляет 8 % от всех налоговых поступлений. 16. Низкие налоги
способствуют развитию производства. 17. Чтение способствует
развитию личности. 18. Налоги — это наш вклад в систему социального
страхования. 19. Это платная дорога.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 7. Comment on the following statements; agree or disagree with them:

1. Taxation without representation is tyranny, (the slogan of the
American Revolution)
2. Money is much better off in the hands of the average citizen than it is
in the greedy hands of those who live off the public payroll.
3. The government must provide "a safety net" for the citizens, so that
those who need assistance get it.
4. The higher the unemployment benefits, the less incentive an individual
has to look for a job.
Exercise 8. Take the above statements into account when discussing the topic
suggested below:
The advantages and disadvantages of low and high taxes.
Think over whether the social benefits listed below result from high taxes or low taxes:
a) free health care and free higher education;
b) a lot of welfare programs;
c) an intensively developing economy;
d) a lot of jobs;
e) good conditions for investment.
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 9. Write an essay covering the topics listed below:

1. Many British pop stars and Russian businessmen move to other
countries to avoid paying high taxes or they put their money in offshore
accounts. Which country nearest to yours offers tax-free, offshore accounts?
Do you think offshore accounts are a good idea? Why? Why not?
2. If I had a lot of money, I would:
a) spend it;
b) invest it in a Russian company;
c) put in a bank;
d) move it to an offshore zone to avoid paying taxes.
Part 8
YOUR EDUCATION: TECHNOLOGY AND
SELF-ORGANIZATION
U n i t 21. ORGANIZING ONESELF
Союз и наречие yet (повторение)

Наречие still
Слова со значением «еще»
Герундиальные обороты с предлогом from при глаголах
to prevent, to stop, to prohibit, to keep и др.
Определенный артикль в сочетаниях существительных с
прилагательными right, wrong
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TEXT
Time
Nothing is longer, since it is the measure of eternity. Nothing

is shorter, since it is insufficient for the accomplishment of our
projects.
Nothing is more slow to him that expects', nothing more rapid
to him that enjoys.
All men neglect i f , all regret the loss of i f , nothing can be
done without it.
Time is a paradox. We never seem to have enough time, yet we have all
the time there is. No matter how much we do, there are always endless
alternatives for spending time. The solution to the paradox of time, then, is
to focus on the most important things first, realizing that there is always
enough time for the really essential matters.
3. The government must provide "a safety net" for the citizens, so that
those who need assistance get it.
4. The higher the unemployment benefits, the less incentive an individual
has to look for a job.
Exercise 8. Take the above statements into account when discussing the topic
suggested below:
The advantages and disadvantages of low and high taxes.
Think over whether the social benefits listed below result from high taxes or low taxes:
a) free health care and free higher education;
b) a lot of welfare programs;
c) an intensively developing economy;
d) a lot of jobs;
e) good conditions for investment.
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 9. Write an essay covering the topics listed below:

1. Many British pop stars and Russian businessmen move to other
countries to avoid paying high taxes or they put their money in offshore
accounts. Which country nearest to yours offers tax-free, offshore accounts?
Do you think offshore accounts are a good idea? Why? Why not?
2. If I had a lot of money, I would:
a) spend it;
b) invest it in a Russian company;
c) put in a bank;
d) move it to an offshore zone to avoid paying taxes.
Part 8
YOUR EDUCATION: TECHNOLOGY AND
SELF-ORGANIZATION
U n i t 21 ORGANIZING ONESELF
Союз и наречие yet (повторение)
Наречие still
Слова со значением «еще»
Определенный артикль в сочетаниях существительных с
прилагательными right, wrong
TEXT
Time
Nothing is longer, since it is the measure of eternity. Nothing is

shorter, since it is insufficientfor the accomplishment of our
projects.
Nothing is more slow to him that expects; nothing more rapid to
him that enjoys.
All men neglect i f , all regret the loss of i f , nothing can be done
without it.
Time is a paradox. We never seem to have enough time, yet we have all the
time there is. No matter how much we do, there are always endless alternatives
for spending time. The solution to the paradox of time, then, is to focus on the
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most important things first, realizing that there is always enough time for the
really essential matters.
Many people refer to time as a resource. A resource is something that lies
ready for use, or something that can be drawn upon for aid. Time fits this
definition. Time is a tool that can be drawn upon to help you accomplish
results, an aid that can take care of a need, an assistant in solving problems.
However, time is not like other resources, because you can't buy it, sell it, rent
it, steal it, borrow it, lend it, store it, save it, multiply it, manufacture it or
change it. You can only spend it.
As a resource, time poses another paradox: If you don't use it, it disappears
anyway. Thus, the quality of your resource depends on how well you use it.
The knowledge that you are wasting this very personal resource when you do
not spend it properly should make you decide to spend your time better.
Time is free — you don't have to buy it. You receive 24 hours simply by
waking up each morning. Many people don't place much value on things that
cost nothing. If you had to "buy" your time, you'd probably spend it much
differently than you do now.
Time is one of the truly democratic aspects of our lives. Everyone receives
exactly the same amount each day. But this is a deceptive quality, since some
people always manage to get more out of their 24 hours than others.
Since you cannot increase the quantity of time you receive, the quality of
time is the only variable. Your time is your time. It belongs to no one else. No
one else can spend it for you. Other people may make demands on how you
spend your time, but it is still you who must do the spending. Only you can
improve the quality of your time.
No one can force you to spend your time effectively; no one can prevent
you from wasting your time. Many people maintain that others control their
time, but this is not totally true. No one has any more control over your time
than you are willing to allow.
If you are to control your time effectively, you must learn to analyze your
time expenditures. You must know where your time goes. You can't solve your
time problems without analyzing their true nature.
One result of people's failure to analyze time is that they misperceive the
nature of their time problems. Things simply are not the way most people think
they are. We have often asked people to describe their job as they think it is —
to make a list of what they believe they do and how much time they spend
doing it. When they compare the list with an actual record of what they do,
large differences appear. We are so accustomed to doing things we do, day in,
day out, that we act without thinking.
Although we may claim to remember where our time goes, countless
studies have demonstrated that we often have no idea of what is happening.
Furthermore, because we misperceive time, we frequently think of it as
beyond our control. No doubt some of it is beyond our control, but much of it
is within our control. Before we can control time, though, we must understand
how our time is actually being used. We must accept the fact that we are the
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cause of most of our time problems — and that solutions must also come from
us, not from others.
Because all of us have so many time problems, it is important to analyze
time. No problem can be solved until it is well defined. Quite often, if we try
to solve the problem as we think it is, we end up solving the wrong problem,
or we make the existing problem worse. Good information about time use leads
to good problem definition, which leads to good solutions. Sometimes a careful
time analysis will reveal that the problem is not nearly as serious as we
believed. In order to analyze how we use our time we can collect data that can
be used to gain insight into our present time habits.
Daily Time Record Log. What exactly do you do? Keeping a daily time
log can help you discover how your time is used. Many people are unwilling
to keep a time log. They believe it involves too much work and time when they
are already overloaded. Besides, they really think they do know where their
time goes and a time log would be a useless exercise.
We disagree. From talking to thousands of people about how they use their
time, we know that people's memory is not that accurate. We know that almost
everyone who has kept a time log has been rewarded for the effort. People gain
valuable insights into their time expenditures, and they always uncover
surprises.
As you analyze your time log, you are certain to receive some surprises.
You may discover that you are quite different from what you thought you were.
You may be better in some ways and not so good in other ways. You may
discover that you are wasting time in ways you never realized. All this
information can help you verify exactly how you spend your time so you can
make decisions about how to use it better.
1. Why is it so important to manage one's time?
2. What way of analyzing time does the text suggest?
3. Have you ever tried to record your time expenditures?
4. Try keeping a daily time log and discuss the results with your fellow-
students.
5. How long does it take you to do your homework every day?
6. Has it become more difficult for you to organize your time at the
university? Compare your time organization at the university with your school
schedule.
7. Do you feel that you have a lot of time or are you short of time?
8. Do you think you can get rid of some of your time wasters?

decision, solution (Unit 2), focus (Unit 4), record, since (Unit 9),
claim, fail (Unit 11)
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I. Приставка mis- (misperceive) имеет значение «неправильно», «плохо»:
to misperceive — неправильно воспринимать
to mislay — положить не туда, потерять
mischief — шалость
misconduct/misbehavior — плохое поведение
misrepresentation — неправильное представление
misunderstanding — недоразумение
II. accurate — точный аккуратный — tidy, neat
important, to understand, exact, often, instrument, say.
1. We make no claims for charity or for the creation of special privileges.
We call for the justice of restoring our rights. 2. The wave of bombings,
protests and street clashes is claiming new lives every day. 3. The company
claims that it is not responsible for the pollution of the river. 4. The militant
group claimed responsibility for the terrorist attack. 5. The story focused
public attention on a serious problem. 6. We had better be careful about what
we're saying because it's being recorded. 7. The trade union leader said off
the record that he disagreed with the government's proposal. 8. She
complained about my failure to prepare the documents in time. 9. The country
gained independence 40 years ago. 10. You will never be able to gain control
over all your time; indeed, some of the time wasters that plague your days are
an important part of your life.
Exercise 3. Translate the following sentences into Russian, paying attention to the words
in bold type. First, look these words up in the dictionary, keeping in mind their various
meanings; remember also that they may belong to different parts of speech.
A. 1. Free press prevents officials from abusing their power. 2. Within the
EEC there is of course free movement of labor. 3. The uprising was an attempt
to free the country of the dictator. 4. This law will give the government a free
hand to suppress the mass democratic movement in the country. 5. "Are you
employed by any newspaper?" — "No, I am a freelance journalist." 6. You
are free to come and go as you please. 7. The company has given me a free
hand to negotiate a deal. 8. They agreed to let us live there rent-free.
B. 1. Please keep still while I take your photograph. 2. The forest was*
very still and quiet. 3. The development of the typical still life painting took
place mainly in the Netherlands.
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C. 1. I wanted to maintain my friendship with her. 2. It is the duty of the
government to maintain law and order. 3. The role of the UN in maintaining
peace can't be overestimated. 4. For this process to go on, one has to maintain
the temperature at a very high level. 5. I need the money to maintain my family
for at least the next month, until I start ajob. 6. The cost of maintaining the
equipment is rising. 7. The police maintained that the criminal had acted alone
in the shooting. 8. Who is responsible for the maintenance and care of the
buildings?
D. 1. The book gives an accurate picture of social history. 2. The manager
must have accurate information on all the affairs concerning the firm.
I. We never seem to have enough time, yet we have all the time there
is. — Кажется, у нас никогда нет достаточно времени, но все
время, которое есть, — наше.
Напомним, что слово yet может выступать как в роли
противительного союза, так и наречия (Unit 1, Grammar and Study
Practice, I).
II. Other people may make demands on how you spend your time, but it is
still you who must do the spending. — Другие люди могут предъявлять
права на ваше время, но все же тратите его именно вы.
Наречие still5 может иметь следующие значения:
1. все-таки, все же, несмотря на это (синонимично наречию yet)
2. до сих пор, все еще, по-прежнему
Do you still play football? — Ты все еще играешь в футбол?
3. еще, даже (в сравнении)
It's hot today, but it'll be still hotter tomorrow. — Сегодня жарко, а завтра
будет еще жарче.
4. кроме того, еще
Не gave still another reason. — Он привел еще одну причину.
III. Русскому слову еще соответствует ряд английских эквивалентов:
1. yet (см. Unit 1)
2. still (см. выше)
3. more
Have you any more problems you want to discuss? — Вы хотели бы
обсудить еще какие-то проблемы?
Will you take some more coffee, Colonel? — He хотите ли еще кофе,
полковник?
4. else (еще, другой)
What else do you want to say? — Что еще вы хотите сказать?
5
Примеры со still в функции прилагательного приведены в упр. 3.
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I can't help you. Ask someone else. — Я не могу вам помочь. Попросите
кого-нибудь другого.
5. another (еще один, другой)
As a resource, time poses another paradox. — Как ресурс, время
представляет еще один парадокс.
Another terrorist attack was committed in the Middle East. — Ha
Ближнем Востоке был совершен еще один теракт.
Следует помнить, что more употребляется в сочетании с неис-
числяемыми существительными или с существительными во мно-
жественном числе, a another — с исчисляемыми существительными,
чаще в единственном числе.
Ср.: Would you like more coffee?
Would you like another cup of coffee?
1. My sister is still a child — she is not yet sixteen. 2. In June, it is still light
at 10 pm. 3. However tired she might be, she still spends some time with her
children. 4.1 hadn't seen Jeremy for twenty years. Still, I recognized him
immediately. 5. When they had dealt with the fire, another crisis arose. 6.
There isn't much else to tell you. 7. Mary can't help us. We'll have to ask
someone else. 8. We'll have to wait for two more days. 9. If you need more
paper, there is some in the drawer.
IV. ...no one can prevent you from wasting your time... — ...никто не
может помешать вам тратить время зря...
Глаголы to prevent, to stop, to prohibit, to keep в сочетании с
предлогом from и герундием имеют значение «помешать». Предложения
с такими конструкциями содержат отрицание, т.е. указывают, что
действие, выраженное герундием, не осуществляется. (Грамматический
курс, 3.2.9)
1. In 1950s, the authorities of the southern states tried to keep their black
citizens from voting. 2. Women talk of the "glass ceiling" phenomenon that
prevents them from breaking through to top management ranks. 3. Today's PR
practitioner tries to prevent crises and, once they occur, tries to keep them from
getting out of hand. 4. Some people think that gun laws impede law-abiding
citizens from obtaining and carrying firearms, and therefore encourage gun
violence. 5. The judge issued an order prohibiting the press from publishing
any information from a public trial. 6. There was a special safety system to
prevent the poisonous gas from entering the outside atmosphere.
Y. the wrong problem
Существительные в сочетаниях с прилагательными right, wrong в
значениях «тот», «не тот» требуют употребления определенного артикля.
1. They are the wrong people for the job. They don't have the necessary
skills. 2. We are driving in the wrong direction. 3. Mary made the wrong choice
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when she married Jack. 4. Looking back on it, are you sure that was the right
decision? 5. It is very important for a journalist to be in the right place at the
right time.
Exercise 7. Translate the following sentences from Russian into English, using the
words and the structures from the text:
Translation tips:
количество (исчисляемых предметов) — number
количество (неисчисляемой субстанции) — amount
1. Никакую проблему нельзя решить, пока она не сформулирована. 2.
Мы решили пойти на дискотеку. 3. Решение этой проблемы было найдено
в XIX веке. 4. Менеджер должен уметь быстро принимать решения. 5.
Правительство утверждает, что экономическая ситуация улучшается. 6.
Этот конфликт каждый день уносит новые жизни. 7. Террористы взяли
на себя ответственность за взрыв в ресторане. 8. Боевики утверждают, что
контролируют город. 9. Люди с низкими доходами могут претендовать
на бесплатную медицину. 10. Журналист неправильно написал мое имя.
11. К сожалению, я с вами не согласен. 12. Он точно описал все события.
13. Этот ребенок всегда чистый и аккуратный. 14. Количество
персональных компьютеров постоянно растет. 15. На лазерных дисках
может храниться огромное количество информации. 16. Глиняные
таблички, найденные в Месопотамии, содержат преимущественно
деловые и административные записи. 17. В неофициальном разговоре ми-
нистр заметил, что не одобряет эту политику. 18. Что еще вы хотите
сказать? 19. Я еще не читал эту книгу. 20. Сейчас 10 часов вечера, а Джон
еще работает. 21. Хотите еще чаю? 22. Хотите еще чашку чаю? 23. На
Среднем Востоке произошел очередной теракт.
SPEAKING PRACTICE

1. Most of us spend too much time on the last twenty-four hours and too
little on the last six thousand years.
2. What may be done at any time will be done at no time.
3. Proper prior planning precludes poor performance.
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 9. In a short essay, explain how you manage your time on a daily basis. Try to
answer the following questions:
• How do you plan your daily schedule?
• Do you meet deadlines easily?
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• Do you work towards long-term goals?
• Would you say you are an organized person?
• What kinds of situations are difficult for you?
U n i t 22. COMPUTERS IN EDUCATION
Объектная конструкция с причастием
TEXT 1
The Challenge Is to Match Educational Needs with Computer Power
Intelligent use of information technology can help the learning process, but
traditional teaching methods will continue to play a vital role in and outside
the classroom, says Jan Hawkins.
US schools spend hundreds of millions of dollars each year on technology.
Hooking every American classroom up to the Internet has been a priority of
Clinton administration. In a recent US Education Department survey, parents
placed technological skills just below reading and writing as the areas their
children most needed to master to ensure a successful future.
Yet the case for improving education through technology is still weak. Two
months ago, a Boston Magazine survey showed that in the New England area,
state schools spent a lot of money on technology; their scores on standardised
tests, however, were very low.
So is technology a waste of money or a panacea for a troubled school
system?
Neither, according to Jan Hawkins, a guru of technology's impact on
learning and a professor at Harvard's School of education. "Technologies
themselves won't bring revolutions," says Ms Hawkins. "Scores won't magically
rise when you put computers in the classroom. But computers can help people
to learn."
In fact, they are doing so in some unexpected ways. Many people, when they
envision technology in the classroom, think of the computer itself as a teacher.
A child may be seated in front of a sophisticated maths software program, for
instance, to gain supplemental instruction. "While some educational software is
146
good," says Ms Hawkins, "such programs are a poor use of expensive
technology. Using technology in that way does not boost examination scores."
Some of the best uses of technology, in fact, do not involve the child at all,
Ms Hawkins points out. At US schools, for example, teachers and administrators
have used the technology to good effect by reducing paperwork, thus freeing
up time to spend on instruction.
Universities are relying on technology to cut through red tape as well. At
the Wharton School of Business at the University of Pennsylvania, students
use an Intranet to register for courses, download course assignments and
deliver homework.
Improved communication, through the Internet, has also proved a powerful
tool for better learning. Ms Hawkins points to the experience of the Union City
school district in New Jersey. In the early 1990s, Union City's school district
was distressed. Test results were terrible. Officials knew major changes were
needed in curriculum, scheduling and teaching methods.
At the same time, Bell Atlantic, the US telephone company, was looking
for a school to use as a test case for new technology like the Internet. The school
was wired and computers were installed in every classroom. Test scores
improved dramatically.
Union City has become such a success story, in fact, that it has become a
model for the use of technology in the classroom. But perhaps the biggest
surprise in the experiment is that much of the added learning did not take place
in the classroom at all.
"One of the most important things that happened in Union City was that
Bell Atlantic connected the parents to the system as well," says Ms Hawkins.
"Every seventh grader was given a computer to use at home, and the parents,
as well as the kids, were trained in how to use it."
As a result, parents became far more involved in their children's education.
They used the Internet to find out if their children had homework, then made
sure assignments were complete. Through e-mail, they were constantly
appraised of their children's performance, and so were able to respond much
more quickly when problems arose.
The Internet also improved student-to-student and teacher-to-teacher
communication at the school. Through e-mail, teachers were able to
collaborate far more easily on interdisciplinary projects. Students began to
send each other e-mails as well, sometimes just to gossip.
"One of the big surprises was the impact the technology had on writing
skills," says Ms Hawkins. "The kids suddenly had an incentive to actually put
their thoughts into words. Having an audience makes a big difference." In fact,
Union City school children now outperform other students in the area in writing
skills on standardised tests.
Success stories abound, says Ms Hawkins. Yet she still sees a lot of waste:
technology and computer programs that are not integrated with the rest of the
curriculum, systems that are used heavily by a few teachers and all but ignored
by others.
147
"I see the most serious mistakes happening less." says Ms Hawkins. "But
we still haven't come completely to terms with how best to use technology in
the classroom. Computers can be oversold as a magical device. In reality, they
can be an enhancement, but not a replacement, of non-technology-based
learning."
(from The Financial Times, 1998)

1. What skills do American parents consider as the most important for
their children's career?
2. What skills are considered as the most important in this country?
3. What skills do you think you need most for your career?
4. How are computers used in schools and universities mentioned in the
text?
5. How are computers used in your university?
6. Why was the experiment conducted at the Union City school so
successful?
7. Do you think the same results could have been achieved without
computers?
8. How were your parents involved in your education at school?
9. Do you often discuss your education with your parents now?
10. How do you use a computer in your education?
involve (Unit 2), point, way (Unit 3)
I. Обращение Ms [miz] (Ms Hawkins) употребляется перед фамилией

женщины независимо от ее семейного положения и принято в деловом и
профессиональном общении.
III. red tape — official documents, rules and processes that cause delays.
The phrase was coined because official documents in Great Britain were tied
with red tape.
IV. Приставка out- в глаголах (to outperform) соответствует русской
приставке пере- и указывает на превосходство одного лица над другим в
чем-либо:
to outperform somebody — делать что-л. лучше, чем кто-л. другой;
перегнать кого-л. по показателям
to outtalk somebody — заговорить («переговорить») кого-л.
to outdistance somebody — перегнать кого-л.
to outdance somebody — перетанцевать кого-л.
to outdo somebody — превзойти кого-л.
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to outfox somebody — перехитрить кого-л.
important, influence, a task, complicated, a school program.
1. The North American Free Trade Agreement, involving Canada, the US
and Mexico, has brought a trade boom for Canada. 2. The new project involved
so much writing that the company enlisted the aid of a publicity writer it
worked with occasionally. 3. Public relations involves research into all
audiences: receiving information from them, advising management on their
attitudes and responses, and constantly evaluating the effectiveness of all PR
programs. 4. Public relations involves deciding what to tell, whom to tell it to,
how to tell it and through what media to communicate. 5. The lawyer's reports
were always brief and to the point. 6. Look at the photograph and see if you can
point out the man who has attacked you. 7. Please, point out to me where I made
a mistake. 8. 1 began making TV commercials as a way into television. 9. Many
people are disappointed with the way the government has been introducting
reforms. 10. We were on the point of leaving when the phone rang. 1 1 . He
pointed out that we had three hours of free time before dinner.
A. 1. Mount Everest presented a challenge to people. 2. These ideas are open
to challenge. 3. The general strike is a means of challenging the total authority of
the government. 4. US business today is challenged by aggressive overseas
competitors. 5. She likes her job to be a challenge. 6. She performed the most
challenging tasks without a mistake. 7. Your objectives should be challenging,
but they must also be attainable. 8. King Henry V I I I challenged the church by
requesting a divorce from his first wife Catherine of Aragon. 9. The challenge
of democracy is making difficult choices. 10. One of the most challenging
public relations positions since the 1970s has been working for an electric
utility with a nuclear plant. 11. The opposition is going to challenge this law in
court.
B. 1. These tribes are a classic case of people living in harmony with their
environment. 2. The influence of economists or, in any case, the influence of
economics is far-reaching. 3. I've got the key in case we want to get inside. 4.
The company manufactures a wide range of materials which rival, and in many
cases surpass, standard materials. 5. There are regimes under which divorce is
constitutionally prohibited (as is the case in the Irish Republic). 6. The patient
was definitely a mental case. 7. The doctor was studying case histories of his
patients. 8. The courts have decoded numerous cases that define how far
freedom of the press can extend under the law. 9. The American courts have
recognized a strong Constitutional case against press censorship. 10. In the
early American newspapers, foreign news was likely to get more space than
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local news, which had been the case since the founding of the first English
newspapers in the 17th century.
C. 1. In this game the team scored a lovely goal. 2. The score of the game
was 2-2. 3. In the last three tests she scored 100. 4. His score on the writing test
last year was very disappointing. 5. His examination scores were low. 6. I've
got the scores of all his sonatas. 7. The Liberals have scored a dramatic victory
in this election. 8. Cars were breaking down by the score. 9. The actor received
scores of letters.
D. 1. Athletes are forbidden to take drugs to improve their performance. 2.
After the performance I went round to see the actress in her dressing room. 3.
Many people are disappointed with the performance of this government. 4.
Teachers have to measure students' performance against specific criteria. 5. The
UN Commission on Human Rights, an intergovernmental body, holds public
meetings to review the human rights performance of States.
"I see the most serious mistakes happening less..." — «Я вижу, что
количество серьезных ошибок уменьшается...»
Причастие happening имеет свой субъект mistakes, в сочетании с
которым образует сложное дополнение. При переводе чаще всего
используется придаточное предложение. (Грамматический курс, 3.3.4.1)
1. The witness saw the car leaving the parking lot. 2. During the protest
marches, televiewers heard horrified commentators criticizing the police for
using excessive force. 3. She watched two people — a woman and a boy —
being taken into a small bus, apparently against their will. 4. In the end of the
20th century people see computers performing most difficult tasks.
1. Университеты часто используют технику, чтобы избавиться от

лишней писанины. 2. До подключения к Интернету родители не
занимались образованием своих детей. 3. Мы еще не научились в полной
мере пользоваться техникой. 4. Цель этой программы — вовлечь
родителей в процесс образования детей. 5. Существуют сильные
аргументы в пользу подключения всех школ к Интернету. 6. Ученики
этой школы выполняют письменные задания лучше других. 7. Родители
узнавали об оценках своих детей по электронной почте. 8. Мне не
нравится, как ты разговариваешь со мной. 9. Она любит трудные и
интересные задачи. 10. Оппозиция собирается оспаривать этот закон в
150
суде. 11. Спортсменам запрещено принимать лекарства для улучшения
своих показателей. 12. Многие люди недовольны работой правительства.
13. В настоящее время компьютерные навыки чрезвычайно важны для
любой работы. 14. Она получила высший балл на экзамене по
математике. 15. Ученики этой школы превосходят других на письменных
экзаменах.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 6. Discuss the text. Explain why the performance of the seventh graders
improved after the computers were installed. Think whether the same problems could have
solved without a computer.
Exercise 7. Ask your parents how they studied at school and tell your fellow- students
about it. Try to answer the following questions:
TEXT 2
Read the text:
Computers in the Modern World
For centuries, people have been terrified that their programmed creations
might outsmart them, overpower them or put them out of work. The fear has
long been played out in Fiction, from the medieval Jewish legend of the
Golem, a clay automaton animated by an inscription of the name of God placed
in his mouth, to HAL, the mutinous computer of "2001: a Space Odyssey"6.
But when the branch of engineering called "artificial intelligence" (AI) was
born in the 1950s, it looked as though fiction was about to run into frightening
fact. It is easy to imagine a computer calculating pi7 to a million decimal places
or keeping track of a company's payroll, but suddenly computers were also
proving theorems in logic and playing respectable chess. In the years following
there came computers that could beat anyone but a grand master, and programs
that outperformed most experts at recommending treatments for bacterial
infections and investing pension funds. With computers solving such brainy
tasks, it seemed only a matter of time before a robot or a Terminator would be
available from the mail-order catalogues; only the easy tasks remained to be
programmed. According to legend, in the 1970s Marvin Minsky, one of the
founders of AI, assigned "vision" to a graduate student as a summer project.
6 How did your parents' teachers inform their parents about their
performance at school?
7 How did your teachers inform your parents about your performance?
151
But household robots are still confined to science fiction. The main lesson
of thirty-five years of AI research is that the hard problems are easy and easy
problems are hard. The mental abilities of a four-year-old that we take for
granted — recognizing a face, lifting a pencil, walking across a room,
answering a question — in fact solve some of the hardest engineering problems
ever conceived. Do not be fooled by the assembly- line robots in the
automobile commercials; all they do is weld and spray- paint, tasks that do not
require these clumsy Mr Magoos3 to see or hold anything. And if you want to
stump an artificial intelligence system, ask it questions like: Which is bigger,
Chicago or a breadbox? Do zebras wear underwear? Is the floor likely to rise
and bite you? If Susan goes to the store, does her head go with her? Most fears
of automation are misplaced. As the new generation of intelligent devices
appears, it will be the stock analysts and petrochemical engineers and parole
board8 members who are in danger of being replaced by machines. The
gardeners, receptionists and cooks are secure in their jobs for decades to come.
Understanding a sentence is one of these hard easy problems. To interact
with computers we still have to learn their languages; they are not smart enough
to learn ours. In fact, it is all too easy to give computers more credit at
understanding than they deserve.
(from The Language Instinct by S. Pinker)
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 8. Discuss the text. Speak about the tasks that computers perform now and
think whether you agree or disagree with the author that difficult tasks are easy and easy
tasks are difficult.
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 9. Describe in writing how you use your computer or a computer at your
university. Point out which tasks are easier to perform on a computer.
8
Parole boards — committees which decide whether prisoners can be released for good behavior
before their sentence is due to end.
Part 9
MODERN JOURNALISM AND PR: HISTORY
AND PROBLEMS
U n i t 23. FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION IN HISTORICAL

PERSPECTIVE
Сослагательное наклонение
Употребление little, few и a little, a few
Предлог under при словах law, rule, agreement и т. п.
TEXT
Freedom of Speech
Throughout human history, events have shown that freedom of expression
is greatly feared by many people and by governments. Whether it is Chinese
students assembling in Beijing's Tiananmen Square' to express their desire for
reform, or novelist Salman Rushdie9 writing candidly about a religious faith,
many have faced — and many continue to face — hostility for ideas freely
expressed.
It is important that every communications student understand First
Amendment3 dynamics because the Amendment has in some way influenced
some of American communications industries, and it will continue to permeate
some of the biggest communications issues of tomorrow. The First Amendment
is the nation's ultimate protection for communicators.
9
Salman Rushdie (born June 19, 1947, Bombay, India) is an essayist and author of fiction mostly
set on the Indian subcontinent. He grew up in Bombay, then graduated with honors from King's
College, Cambridge, in England. Living in the UK, he published The Satanic Verses, a book clearly
influenced by Mikhail Bulgakov's classic Russian novel The Master and Margarita. The publication of
The Satanic Verses in 1989 caused controversy
153
To appreciate the First Amendment, you must know something of its
historical background in England and in American colonies. Even before the
beginning of mass communication in Western civilization — the advent of the
movable type printing press in the mid-1400s — governments had attempted
to control the free expression of ideas. Such a freedom could lead to public
criticism of those in power, and the powerful viewed criticism as a kind of
disease that could topple them from command. So when the printing press
arrived with its ability to mass produce ideas at relatively little expense, it was
greatly feared by those in control.
In the seventeenth century, the British government began to make steady
attempts to control mass communication. Through a tight system of licensing,
the government decided who would have the right to publish, both in England
and in the colonies. Under this system, the government also exercised prior
restraint by prohibiting certain manuscripts or passages from being published
at all, which is commonly called censorship.
One of the first arguments for freedom of the press was made by the poet
John Milton in 1644 with the publication of Areopagitica. Milton argued for
what today would be considered a rather cramped notion of free expression:
only Protestant English men ought to have the right to free expression, argued
Milton, who also served as a government book censor. Although Areopagitica
had little effect when it was published, Milton's eloquent call for freedom of
expression has left its mark on the ages.
Along with the ability to control publication in advance, of course, came
the ability to punish after the fact those who did not follow the rules.
Promoting ill opinions of the government and advocating change was regarded
as a serious crime, often called seditious libel. In the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, hundreds were convicted and punished by fines, imprisonment,
whipping and the pillory.
in the Fundamentalist Muslim world, due to his irreverent depiction of the prophet Muhammad. On
February 14, 1989, he was sentenced to death by Islamic fundamentalists who called his book
"blasphemous against Islam". Furthermore, they condemned Rushdie for the crime of "apostasy", i.e.
attempting to leave Islam, which according to the Qur'an is punishable by death.
'The First Amendment is the first article of the Bill of Rights, ratified in 1791 as the first ten
amendments to the American Constitution. The First Amendment reads in full: "Congress shall make
no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free expression thereof; or abridging
the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people Peaceably to assemble, and to petition
the government for a redress of grievances."
The power of the crown in Great Britain was curbed over time, as
democratic tendencies increased. In the area of free speech, the first big step
toward greater liberty came with the 1694 abolition of the licensing system in
England. Governors of the colonies retained licensing a little longer. But
public sentiment forced its demise and it was finally abolished in 1720s.
Though the formal licensing scheme was beaten, other oppressive forms of
control over expression remained in effect. Even after the American
independence, some of the controls, such as laws against seditious libel, were
adopted in some form by the new nation.
154
(from Communications Law. Liberties, Restraints and
the Modern Media by J. D. Zelezny)
1. What is the attitude of many governments to freedom of speech?
2. What do you know about students' protests in Tiananmen Square in
Beijing?
3. Who is Salman Rushdie and what book did he write?
4. What technological innovation made a newspaper possible?
5. How did British government attempt to control mass communication in
the 17th and 18th centuries?
background (Unit 2), power (Units 5, 17), to adopt (Unit 7), to

advocate (Unit 12), to argue, to exercise (Unit 14)
nation — 1. народ; 2. государство
national — 1. (обще)национальный; 2. государственный nationality
— 1. гражданство; 2. национальность национальность, национальная
принадлежность — 1. nationality; 2. ethnicity, ethnic background
Exercise 1. Find synonyms of the following words in the text: ,
freedom, to try, bad, to consider, final. *r >1
1. An official document that gives you permission to do, use or own
something. 2. The process of removing parts of books, newspaper stories, films
etc. that are considered unsuitable for moral, religious or political reasons.
1. The planters of Maryland and Virginia built great houses, adopted an
aristocratic way of life and kept in touch as best as they could with the world
of culture overseas. 2. The Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet ana
adapted it to their language. 3. The parliament wanted to form a government
with sharply defined powers. 4. Separation of powers safeguards liberty by
ensuring that all government power does not fall into the hands of a single
person or group of people. 5. For broadcast media, the government's regulatory
powers in technical areas go beyond granting licenses. 6. The first newspapers
were political organs, financed by parties and advocating party causes. 7. In
1790, when Philadelphia Quakers opened the Walnut Street Jail, the first
prison in the world to use confinement as punishment for crime, they were
following the lead of Cesare Beccaria, the Italian criminologist, who
advocated imprisonment as an alternative to execution. 8. Amnesty
International seeks the immediate and unconditional release of individuals
imprisoned for the exercise of their human rights, whose imprisonment cannot
be reasonably attributed to the use or advocacy of violence. 9. An extensive
155
literature in economics and sociology documents the crucial importance of
family and community backgrounds in determining a child's later success in
life. 10. Russia has never exercised its veto power in the UN Security Council.
11. Milton argued that licensing of the press restricted the dissemination of
truth.
A. 1. She wanted to end the conversation without too much loss of face. 2.
He had to resign, to save face. 3. On the face of it, it sounds like a good idea.
4. In 1988, Speaker of the House Jim Wright, a Democrat from Texas, faced
allegations of a number of ethical violations — among them, the charge that
he had improperly aided some Texas oil ventures. 5. I am nervous. I've never
faced a group of children before. 6. If they are found guilty, they will face a
sentence of ten years in prison. 7. The broadcast media confront certain
technical limitation not faced by the print media.
B. 1. The issue of racial segregation in schools was first heard by the
United States Supreme Court late in 1952. 2. The article was published in the
previous issue of the newspaper. 3. The management of the company issued a
press release. 4. The board members opposed the president's position on the
issue. 5. The town council makes decisions on road repairs, building
maintenance and other town issues. 6. A political agenda is a list of issues that
need government attention. 7. The WTO (World Trade Organization) issued a
draft resolution on Saturday to force member countries to cut farm subsidies.
C. 1. I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a
nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the
content of their character. (Martin Luther King) 2. The Constitution listed the
powers of the national government. 3. During the 50s and 60s, the national
government in the USA assumed the task of promoting social equality by
combating racism and poverty. 4. The leaders of western nations protested
against the suppression of the Tiananmen Square protests by the Chinese
authorities. 5. While America was prospering in the 1920s, European nations
were struggling to rebuild themselves after the damage of the First World War.
D. 1. Broadcasters can use public airwaves only by obtaining a license
from the Federal Radio Commission. 2. The FCC's (Federal Communications
Commission) regulatory powers go beyond granting licenses. 3. In Britain,
dogs have to be licensed. 4. These men are licensed to carry firearms. 5. The
car is licensed and insured. 6. Wolves can be killed under license in those
areas. 6. It's a German product, made under license in British factories.
E. 1. President Nixon once called his opponents traitors. 2. The
chairperson called the speaker to order. 3. The 9 o'clock train calls at every
station between Glasgow and Edinburgh. 4. The chairperson of the conference
called on the partici pants to classify all attacks on civilians as terrorism —
including those by Palestinian suicide bombers. 5. Amnesty International is
156
calling on the authorities of the Chechen Republic and the leadership of the
Chechen armed groups to respect international humanitarian law. 6. The Pope
called on the participants of the conflict to stop the violence. 7. The 1954
landmark decision of the Supreme Court called for racial integration of public
schools.

I. It is important that every communications student understand First
Amendment dynamics... — Важно, чтобы всякий, изучающий ком-
муникацию, понял динамику/развитие Первой поправки...
В сослагательном наклонении глагол не изменяется по лицам и в 3-м
лице единственного числа окончание -s отсутствует. Бытийный глагол в
таких случаях выступает в форме be (упр. 5, предл. 1).
Сослагательное наклонение указывает на необходимое или жела-
тельное действие и, как правило, переводится придаточным предло-
жением, вводимым союзом чтобы. (Грамматический курс, 6.1, 6.2)
1. It is vital that all prisoners be brought before a judicial authority promptly
after being taken into custody. 2. Amnesty International insists that
governments be held publicly accountable for the fate of prisoners of
conscience. 3. The judge demanded that the journalist walk out. 4. Standard
edited English requires that each sentence have a subject and verb and that the
subject and verb agree. 5. Economic theory suggests that general training, of
use in numerous jobs, be funded by the trainee, who, after all, stands to reap
the benefits. Firm-specific training, for skills that are of use primarily to a
particular organization, should be funded by that organization.
II. Although Areopagitica had little effect when it was published, Milton's
eloquent call for freedom of expression has left its mark on the ages. — Хотя
«Ареопагитика» осталась практически незамеченной, когда была
опубликована, красноречивый призыв Мильтона к свободе оставил свой
отпечаток.
Обратите внимание, что little, few и a little, a few имеют абсолютно
разные значения. Если a little, a few указывают на наличие каких-либо
предметов, субстанции или признака, то little, few — на малое
количество или слабовыраженность признака и по значению
приближаются к отрицанию.
1. There is little doubt that human language development is made possible,
at least in part, by man's biological characteristics. 2. There is little professional
disagreement among economists over a large range of issues. 3. Many people
see little sense in reading when they can look at pictures and watch television.
4. While there is little doubt that the problem of global pollution is acute, there
are a few bright spots on the horizon. 5. Few daily newspapers have a really
large circulation. In the United States, only 15 dailies have circulation of more
157
than half a million and only five have circulation of more than a million. 6.
Few regions in the world have escaped the effect of global pollution. 7. During
the Great Depression, millions of workers were unable to find employment and
there were few public agencies to turn to. 8. There are few departments of
human activity in which measurement, and therefore number, is not involved.
9. Although nearly a third of the American labor force works in blue-collar
jobs, there are few former blue-collar workers in Congress.
to the unemployed will be increased. 4. He was the Chairman of his department
for three years under the University's rotating system. 5. Under this plan, the
federal government would require all employers to provide health insurance to
their workers or to pay a new payroll tax.
1. Правительство стоит перед политическим кризисом. 2. Вы столк-

нетесь со многими проблемами в вашей работе. 3. Научиться пользо-
ваться своими правами не менее важно, чем выполнять свои обязанности.
4. Этот человек имеет лицензию на ношение оружия. 5. Каждая
радиостанция в США должна получить лицензию в Федеральной
комиссии средств коммуникации. 6. В статье рассмотрены эко-
номические предпосылки нынешнего политического кризиса. 7. Этой
компании угрожает банкротство. 8. Печатный станок с рассыпным
шрифтом был изобретен Иоганном Гутенбергом. 9. Правозащитники
требуют, чтобы этих заключенных немедленно отпустили. 10. Очень
важно, чтобы эти меры были приняты немедленно. 11. Мало кто знал о
его решении. 12. Вряд ли можно сомневаться, что его предложение будет
принято. 13. По многим вопросам между этими политиками практически
не существует разногласий. 14. Он посоветовался со своим адвокатом. 15.
Эта организация отстаивает права политических заключенных. 16. Он
сторонник свободного рынка. 17. Важно, чтобы права заключенных
соблюдались. 18. Президент воспользовался своим правом вето.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 9. Make presentations in your group covering the following topics:
1. The invention of printing and its role in the cultural and social
development of Europe.
2. The first European newspapers.
3. The development of press freedom in Britain.
4. The First Amendment to the American Constitution and its history.
158
People hardly over make use of the freedom they have, for example,
freedom of thought; instead they demand freedom of speech as a compen-
sation. (Soren Kierkegaard, 1813 — 55)
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 11. Write a short essay saying whether you agree or disagree with the following
statement:
Freedom of the press is guaranteed only to those who own one. (J.Libing)
U n i t 24. FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION
Модальный глагол to be в составе условного предложения
Прилагательное likely в составе субъектной конструкции с
Условные предложения с сочетаниями if it were not for..., if it
had not been for..., had it not been for..., but for...
Прилагательное free с инфинитивом
TEXT
Reasons for Freedom of Speech

Since Milton's time many well-known writers, philosophers, legal scholars
and political figures have made forceful pleas for a policy of freedom of
speech. But what does this concept actually mean? How much freedom? In
what circumstances? Does freedom of speech simply mean the absence of any
prior restraint on publication as the great British judge and author William
Blackstone argued in the 1760s? Or should it mean something more?
Debate over the proper parameters of freedom of speech continues today.
Considering the main reasons or justifications that have been forwarded for
protecting speech, we can divide them into social reasons and individualistic
reasons.
Social Reasons
Social reasons for freedom of speech are those that presuppose some
particular, functional benefits to society. Among those most commonly cited
are the following:
159
Discovery of Truth. The premise is that freedom of speech is essential if
individuals, and ultimately society as a whole, are to progress in determining
what the truth is and which are the best ideas. Learning what is true and best
requires exposure to multiple voices, to all sides of an issue. Only then can
judgements truly be enlightened ones, and this exposure is a process that must
be continual.
This theory argues that in a truly open marketplace of ideas, the truth
ultimately will prevail. Even widely accepted truths should be tested from time
to time against seemingly absurd ideas, and the way to combat erroneous views
is not to outlaw them, but to inject superior views into the marketplace.
Participation in Democracy. Some of the founding fathers of this nation
viewed free and continual expression of ideas as essential to the successful
functioning of a democracy. Without freedom of speech voters would be more
likely to be ignorant or apathetic or more easily deceived by the authorities in
power. With freedom of speech voters would be more likely to participate
meaningfully in democracy.
Check on Government. Another social justification for freedom of speech
is that it serves to deter or bring to light abuses of power by public officials.
One of the best examples of this check-on-government benefit was the
uncovering of the Watergate scandal 1 during President Richard Nixon's
administration. The egregious abuses of authority — including campaign
sabotage, wiretapping, laundering campaign money, and obstructing
investigations — might have never been uncovered and punished had it not
been for news media free to serve as aggressive watchdogs on government.
History is replete, of course, with examples of government corruption.
American media sometimes help to curb the abuses by disclosing at the local
level, for example, squandered funds, payoffs, political favors, fraud and
conflict of interest.
Social Stability. Another functional view is that freedom of speech actually
helps assure social stability, contrary to the traditional assumption of some
government officials that it disrupts society. A free flow of information allows
society to see its problems better and to respond with continual, incremental
adjustments. It also allows displeased individuals to vent their anger before
they reach the boiling point, a sort of therapeutic or safety valve effect. On the
other hand, government suppression of speech in a quest for "order" breeds
fear, resentment and hate — the perfect mix for social unrest and a violent
eruption against authority.
'A famous political scandal in the US in the early 1970s that caused President Nixon to leave his
job before Congress could impeach him. It was discovered that Nixon had agreed to an attempt to
obtain information about the Democratic Party's plans for the next election, by secretly going into their
offices in the Watergate building in Washington, D.C. President Nixon later tried to prevent this
information from being discovered.
160
Individualistic Reasons
Another approach to justifying freedom of speech is to argue that it is

simply a natural or ethical right of individual human beings, that it is
fundamentally good in itself, independent of any pragmatic benefits.
By the late 1700s, the founders of this nation and the framers of the US
Constitution, most notably Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, viewed
government power as inherently limited. The limits are not determined by
people, but by natural law, they argued. This term denotes rules of human
conduct that conform to inherent, universal rights — rights emanating from
nature or from God. In a natural law system, governments would be obliged to
protect, not infringe upon, inherent individual liberties.
Another slant to this argument focuses on self-fulfillment. The theory is
that free speech and free thought together are part of a person's essential nature
and dignity and that people morally must be free to discover their true natures,
to experience the unique characteristics of being human.
(from Journalism Today by D. L. Ferguson, J. Patten)

1. Why is freedom of speech necessary in a democratic society?
2. What are the social reasons for the necessity of freedom of speech?
3. What happens if a citizen is denied the right to express dissatisfaction
with the authorities?
4. What are the individualistic reasons for freedom of speech?
5. Do you agree that access to information is an inalienable right of every
individual? (
6. In what way does free speech prevent public officials from abusing their
position?
7. Do you think that freedom of speech should be limited in any way?
legal (Unit 14), benefit (Unit 20)

behavior, freedom, mistaken, practical, to regard.

1. A place where buying and selling occurs. 2. To use money, time or other
resources in a foolish or wasteful way.
161
1. Some citizens try to influence government to obtain benefits for
themselves, their immediate families or close friends. 2. Every government
faces the conflict between the provision of welfare benefits for those in need
and an incentive to work. If people are assured that their basic needs will be
taken care of, their incentive to work is reduced. 3. Neither the reporter nor the
copyeditor need be a lawyer, but both should know enough about legal aspects
of journalism to know when to consult a lawyer. 4. One obvious source of
power is the legal system, which has laws that demand compliance.
A. 1. Attending training seminars together, managers and secretaries are
exposed to joint concerns and have an opportunity to discuss how these
concerns will affect their team relationship. 2. Exposure to high levels of
radiation is very dangerous for all forms of life. 3. The Mayflower reached the
Plymouth harbor in December 1620. During the winter, nearly half the
colonists died of exposure and disease. 4. After the accident, 75,000 people
were treated for injuries sustained from exposure to the gas. 5. How can it be
that so many people are so ignorant of political affairs when they are exposed
to so much news on the media? 6. Exposure to high level of radiation in
Chernobyl accounts for a high number of deaths among fit young men.
B. 1. The trade union continued to seek dialog with the authorities. 2.
Respect for the authority of the State is everywhere reduced. 3. She is the
greatest authority on African fish. 4. The Health authorities are making
diphtheria vaccinations compulsory. 5. An officer exercises authority over the
soldiers under him.
I. ...freedom of speech is essential if individuals, and ultimately society

as a whole, are to progress in determining what the truth is and which are
the best ideas. — ...свобода слова необходима для того, чтобы
граждане и общество в целом могли находить истину и выбирать
лучшие идеи.
Повторите придаточные предложения с союзом if и модальным
глаголом to be (Unit 1, Grammar Study and Practice, III; Грамматический
курс, 4.7).
162
I. If the government is to solve the problems facing the nation, it must
enjoy the confidence of the people. 2. If news media are to cover their
production costs and earn a profit, they must publish advertising. 3. There are
important factors on which we should focus if we are ever to provide a quality
education for all our children.
II. Without freedom of speech voters would be more likely to be
ignorant or apathetic... — He имея свободы слова, люди обычно/ чаще
ничего не знают и... становятся безразличны к политике...
With freedom of speech voters would be more likely to participate
meaningfully in democracy. — В условиях свободы слова люди принимают
более активное участие в политике.
Прилагательное likely в составе субъектной конструкции с ин-
финитивом имеет значение вероятности, если глагол в инфинитиве
указывает на единичное действие в будущем. Если же речь идет о
регулярно повторяющемся действии, likely + infinitive имеет значение
«статистической» вероятности и сочетания more likely, less likely обычно
переводятся на русский язык при помощи слов чаще, реже, больше,
меньше. (Грамматический курс, 3.1.3.2.4)
1. Businesses owned by women are more likely than those owned by men
to adopt innovative personnel policies, especially policies important to women.
2. All of us are more likely to assume attitudes and accept ideas uncritically
from people we love and trust. 3. This campaign of intimidation makes AIDS
patients less likely to seek medical help for treatable conditions. 4. Girls from
poor backgrounds are 10 times more likely to become teenage mothers than
girls from professional ones.
have survived the first winter in America. 3. But for the invention of the
movable type printing press, modern newspapers might never have appeared.
4. But for computers and the Internet many disabled people would not be able
to work. 5. But for Hiroshima, nuclear weapons might have been used in
Europe during the Cold War. 6. But for the invention of steam-powered presses
and mechanical type-setting machines, large- scale book production would not
have been possible.
IV. ...people morally must be free to discover their true natures... —
...люди должны иметь возможность познавать свою истинную при-
роду...
В сочетании с инфинитивом прилагательное free имеет значение
возможности, обусловленной отсутствием ограничений. (Грам-
матический курс, 3.1.2.5)
1. Under the rules of the library, students were free to choose anything they
wanted to read. 2. We are free to come and go as we please. 3. Mary had a
driving license and was free to explore the countryside. 4. After the first Native
163
Americans came from Siberia their descendants were free to explore and
disperse slowly through the continents of the Western Hemisphere.
1. Власти отказались выдать ему визу. 2. Профсоюз ищет диалога с
властями. 3. Семьи с тремя детьми и более имеют право на пособия. 4.
Для того чтобы решить проблемы страны, правительство должно
пользоваться доверием народа. 5. Если бы не СМИ, эти злоупотребления
никогда не были бы разоблачены. 6. Если бы не ваша помощь, мы не
сделали бы эту работу вовремя. 7. Пресса должна пользоваться своими
правами, но не злоупотреблять ими. 8. Подростки из неблагополучных
семей (unstable families) чаще совершают преступления, чем другие
подростки. 9. Столкнувшись с экологическим кризисом, человечество
ищет новые источники энергии. 10. Свободная печать мешает
чиновникам злоупотреблять властью. 11. В этом докладе содержится
информация о нарушении правительством прав человека. 12. Мы можем
приходить и уходить, когда захотим. 13. По правилам библиотеки
студенты могли свободно подходить к полкам. '
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 10. Agree or disagree with the following statements. Formulate and support
your opinion.
1. The greatest blessing of our democracy is freedom. But in the last
analysis, our only freedom is the freedom to discipline ourselves.(Bernard
Baruch, 1870—1965)
2. If people have to choose between freedom and sandwiches, they will
take sandwiches. (Lord Boyd-Orr, 1880—1971)
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 11. Which of the reasons for freedom of expression seems most important to
you?
U n i t 25. A CASE STUDY IN JOURNALISTICS

ETHICS
, ГРАММАТИКА
164
Субъектная конструкция с перфектным
инфинитивом (повторение)
Значения глаголов, управляющих придаточным изъяс-
нительным предложением с союзом that
TEXT
Judge Fines Journalist £5,000 for Contempt »
A journalist who was prepared to go to jail rather than reveal the source of
confidential information about a company's financial affairs escaped with a
£5,000 fine in the High Court yesterday.
William Goodwin, aged 24, a trainee reporter on the weekly trade magazine
The Engineer, faced prison for contempt of court after refusing to hand over
notes of a phone call last November which revealed a refinancing plan for the
company.
His appeal against the High Court order that he must disclose the source
of the information in the interests of justice failed in the House of Lords last
week. The Law Lords ruled that the threat of severe damage to the business of
the company from a possible disloyal employee overrode a journalist's right to
protect sources under the Contempt of Court Act 1981.
Mr Justice Hoffman imposed the fine after hearing Mr Goodwin earned
£10,500, had savings of £1,500, and undertook to pay the first £2,000
personally. "That would deprive him of his life's savings to date," his counsel,
Geoffrey Robertson QC, told the judge.
He was ordered to pay costs estimated at more than £100,000. His solicitor,
Geoffrey Bindman, refused to say who would pay, but his employer. Morgan
Grampian, is believed to have backed the case.
Afterwards Mr Goodwin said: "I am very relieved at the outcome but I
regret that as the law stands, journalists who come after me will be in danger
of prison sentences demanded by anonymous companies. I urge Parliament to
amend section 10 of the Contempt of Court Act to stop this happening again."
Jake Ecclestone, deputy general secretary of the National Union of
Journalists, said the decision was good for journalism and for freedom of
expression.
The Independent's business correspondent, Jeremy Warner, the last
journalist punished for refusing to reveal sources, was fined £20,000 in 1988.
Mr Goodwin used the information from the source to write an article, but
the company won an injunction stopping publication and protecting its
identity. Mr John McDonnell QC, for the company, told the judge his clients
165
believed six months' prison was the right sentence, but they had decided not
to ask for Mr Goodwin's imprisonment. "They have not been able to find it in
them to send this young trainee journalist to prison, particularly with the
prisons in their present state of unrest."
Thev also felt he had been guided by wrong advice, particularly from the
National Union of Journalists, and might believe his future career as a
journalist would be shut off if he complied with the court order.
Mr Justice Hoffman told Mr Goodwin: "All our freedom, including the
freedom of the press, is based on law and public respect for the democratic
procedures by which the law is made and changed.
"The fabric of the law can survive the occasional disobedience and it can
survive yours, but it must be emphasized deliberate disobedience is quite
unacceptable. You are very young and subject to influence and pressure from
senior colleagues in your profession who ought to know better, but are not
before the court today."
The judge said he included in the category the Press Council, if the rule
against disclosure of sources in its new code of practice was absolute, as Mr
Robertson suggested, "which I can hardly believe".
He was satisfied that the financial information was out-of-date and had not
leaked out. "The prisons have quite enough problems without having to take
in an otherwise law-abiding and honourable person like yourself."
(from The Guardian, 1990)
1. Why did the company take Bill Goodwin to court?
2. What organization supported the journalist in his refusal to disclose his
source?
3. What position did the editor of the magazine take?
4. Why didn't the judge send the journalist to prison?
5. Why didn't the company insist on a prison sentence for the journalist?
Analyze the PR effect of this move.
subject (Unit 3), sentence (Unit 15)
I. contempt of court — the criminal act of disobeying an instruction from

a judge or a court of law
II. QC (Queen's counsel) — the highest title of a barrister (a lawyer who
specializes in representing clients in court)
III. fabric — 1. ткань; 2. структура
Тот факт, что первые промышленные предприятия вырабатывали
текстиль, объясняет происхождение русского слова фабрика —
предприятие легкой промышленности.
166
a prison, to support, to change the wording (of a law), to direct.
1. Information which is meant to be kept secret or private. (adjective) 2. A
citizen who obeys the law. (adjective) 3. Someone who is employed at a junior
level in a particular job in order to learn the skills needed for that job.
1. The judge sentenced him to ten years' imprisonment. 2. Traffickers in
hard drugs would be subject to a minimum seven-year sentence and their
assets would be seized. 3. The first American newspapers were mouthpieces
of the British government and news was subject to British approval. 4. In the
19th century, the economy was even more subject to booms and busts than
anything we have known since the 1930s. 5. Regardless of its source, once
money enters the household, its allocation and uses are subject to rules quite
distinct from the market. 6. Students in a mass communication class were used
as subjects for a survey on media use. 7. The African community of Alabama
had been subjected over the years to a series of galling indignities. 8. Because
the broadcast media are licensed
167
to use the public airwaves, they are subject to some regulation of the content
of their news coverage that is not applied to the print media. 9. When Palestine
was a part of the Ottoman Empire, Muslims considered themselves to be
Ottoman subjects.
A. 1. It is impossible to use this evidence in court. 2. She had to appear in
court to give evidence. 3. The case was settled out of court. (An out-of- court
settlement was reached.) 4. I told them I could take them to court. 5. The Lords
are the final court of appeal for all other courts. 6. They arrested General Lee
for disobedience and ordered a court martial. 7. The king commanded his
presence at court. 8. David had been courting Jane for six months before
marriage. 9. Common courtesy dictates that a guest should receive a welcome.
10. Our customers should always receive courteous treatment.
B. 1. The fire severely damaged the school. 2. The mud huts were
damaged by the rains. 3. Unofficial strikes were damaging British economy.
4. The earthquake caused damage estimated at $300 million. 5. That
unpleasant incident damaged his career and reputation. 6. He won the case in
court and was awarded $400,000 in damages.
I. ...his employer, Morgan Grampian, is believed to have backed

the case. — ...считается, что его наниматель, Морган Грам- пиан,
поддержал его в этом судебном процессе.
Повторите субъектную конструкцию с перфектным инфинитивом
(Unit 10, Grammar Study and Practice, III; Грамматический курс,
3.1.3.2.3).
I. The law firm of Winston & Strawn in Chicago is believed to have been
the first to hire a public relations specialist as a salaried partner. 2. Nobody
appeared to have witnessed what had happened. 3. The official history of the
USA is considered to have begun in 1620, with the voyage of the Mayflower
— a ship that carried one of the first groups of Pilgrims to the New World.
II. The Law Lords ruled that the threat of severe damage to the business
of the company... overrode a journalist's right to protect sources... — Судьи
палаты лордов решили, что угроза ущерба для компании... важнее, чем
право журналиста на защиту источников...
168
They also felt he had been guided by wrong advice... — Они также
считали, что он последовал неправильным советам...
[Не]... might believe his future career as a journalist would be shut off if
he complied with the court order. — Возможно... [он] считает, что его
журналистская карьера не состоится, если он выполнит постановление
суда.
Не was satisfied that the financial information was out-of-date and had
not leaked out. — Он удостоверился в том, что финансовая информация
устарела и ее утечки не произошло.
Многие глаголы в сочетании с придаточным изъяснительным
предложением, вводимым союзом that или бессоюзно, имеют значения
коммуникативных глаголов, а также глаголов восприятия и умственной
деятельности, т.е. «понять», «узнать», «знать», «думать», «сказать»,
«считать» и т.д., несвойственные им в других контекстах.
1. Many teachers hold that the best age at which to begin learning a foreign
language is that between the tenth and twelfth years. 2. The animal rights
activists hold that animals have a right, just as human beings do, to be free
from pain and suffering. 3. I gathered that the guests were not going to stay
for dinner. 4. American officials contend that the vast majority of the attacks
against the American forces in Iraq are driven by remnants of former president
Saddam Hussein's government and the Baath Party. 5. The justices of the
Supreme Court contended that any racial quota system supported by the
government violated the Civil Rights Act of 1964. 6. The British Government
ruled that General Pinochet (the former Chilean dictator) was too ill to be
extradited to Spain where a judge wanted him tried on charges of human rights
abuses. 7. Supporters of Franklin Roosevelt and the New Deal charged that
much of the press was opposed to socioeconomic reform. 8. The report
claimed that hundreds of civilians had crossed the border to escape the
fighting. 9. The company still maintains that the medicine is safe. 10. The
Mayor argued that the building of the new road would be too expensive.
Translation tips:
суд (учреждение) — court 7
суд (процесс) — trial t■
1. Билл Гуд вин мог попасть в тюрьму за неуважение к суду. 2. Она
проиграла дело в суде и выплатила 3000 долларов в возмещение ущерба.
3. Журналист отказался назвать свой источник. 4. Судья счел, что угроза
ущерба для компании важнее, чем право журналиста на защиту
источника. 5. Король призвал генерала ко двору. 6. Сюзанне предстоит
давать показания в суде. 7. По этому делу было достигнуто внесудебное
169
решение. 8. Компания подала на журналиста в суд. 9. Суд начнется в
октябре. 10. После суда адвокат устроил пресс- конференцию. 11. В
колониальный период статьи в американских газетах должны были
получать одобрение Британии. 12. Студентов использовали как
испытуемых в этом эксперименте. 13. Он подвержен простудам. 14.
Электронные СМИ подчиняются некоторым ограничениям в освещении
новостей. 15. Военная база была подвергнута бомбардировке. 16. Здание
было повреждено взрывом. 17. Джон выиграл свое дело в суде и получил
400 000 долларов в возмещение ущерба.
SPEAKING PRACTICE

1. Truth is the only merit that gives dignity and worth to history. (Lord
Acton, 1834-1902)
2. Truth is the ciy of all, but the game of the few.
3. The truth that makes men free is for the most part the truth which men
prefer not to hear. (Herbert Agar, 1897— 1980)
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 9. Choose one of the statements and write a short essay arguing for or against
this statement.
U n i t 26. JOURNALISTS AT WORK
Употребление предлога into после существительных
investigation, inquiry
Модальный глагол can/could с перфектным инфинитивом
TEXT .
Investigaive Reporter
James Risser
In Washington, D.C. where there are more reporters than in any other city,
there is more story than all those reporters could ever write. The problem for
most reporters assigned to the capital is learning which stories to discard.
170
James Risser, a reporter in Washington for Des Moines (Iowa) Register for
several years, says that's the case for him.
But the most interesting story Risser says he's ever worked on — one that
won him the 1976 Pulitzer Prize for national reporting — could just as easily
have ended up in the trash.
A "short and blandly worded" news release from the US Department of
Agriculture said that five grain inspectors in Houston, Tex., had been
suspended from their jobs after being indicted for accepting bribes.
Presumably, that news release crossed the desks of scores of other
reporters, but Risser, a journalist with a law degree who always kept his eyes
open for possible conflict of interest stories, noticed that the five inspectors
were not the government employees. They worked for private companies that,
he correctly guessed, were controlled by the very people whose grain the
inspectors were supposed to be checking.
For nearly a year, Risser spent almost all his time writing stories about
widespread scandal in the grain exporting business. His stories led to other
indictments, a congressional investigation into the case and legislation.
The results of an investigative reporting job aren't always as dramatic as
those of Risser's book at the grain industry.
The work isn't dramatic either. Hours of poring over records and calling
officials who didn't want to talk to him were as much a part of the investigation
as the "cops and robbers" atmosphere "where you're chasing the crooks",
Risser said.
An interest in "government programs and how they work" or don't work
keeps Risser and three other reporters on the go as they file stories for the Iowa
paper whose circulation dominates that state.
Risser said he looks at everything with the skeptic's eye, searching for real
motives behind the political actions and trying not to become cynical over such
things as why Congress doesn't work very well.
Risser worked on the student newspaper in high school, but decided in
college he wanted to be a lawyer. While he was in law school, he began dating
the then managing editor of the university daily. Her interest in journalism
rekindled his. "I used to go in there and help her write headlines so we could
go out," Risser said. They are now married.
He practiced law for two years before deciding he would rather be a
reporter. Working part-time, he took all the undergraduate journalism courses
required for a degree.
He joined The Register in Des Moines and for five years covered city and
state government.
What he does now is not much different from what he did, covering local
and state government, except his readers are 1,000 miles away.
At the Iowa legislature, Risser said, "I would write a story and I would
know that everybody in the legislature was reading it." He got "immediate
feedback. Everybody would tell me it was a terrific story or it was a rotten
story. The stories I write now are basically not read in Washington."
171
"As a result," he said in an interview in his office two blocks from the White
House, "some Washington bureaucrats don't feel the same compulsion to talk
to you or to return your calls as they would if they knew your story was going
to be read here."
Compensating for the problems caused by distance is the freedom he has
to pursue the stories he finds interesting.
Risser considers himself as an investigative reporter, but he does day-to-
day news coverage of Congress, the executive departments, and the regulatory
agencies too.
Most of the time, though, the Washington Bureau of the Des Moines
Register, however, usually leaves reporting on national news to the wire
services and concentrates on the types of projects the wire services aren't
equipped to handle.
The bureau, of which Risser is chief, covers the Iowa members of Congress
and senators (who all read The Register daily), stories that other reporters aren't
covering or aren't covering well, Risser said.
The reporters don't have specific beats, but Risser generally follows
consumer and environmental issues. During presidential election years, he
attends the conventions and spends some time covering the campaign.
He said his background as a state and local government reporter was the
best preparation for what he does now. He recommends against reporters
taking time to earn a law degree, while admitting it sometimes helps in
deciphering a bill or doing research.
And, he said, he wouldn't hire anyone for the Washington bureau who
hadn't spent several years as he did working for a local paper, learning about
the paper and the state.
(from Journalism Today by D.L.Ferguson, J.Patten)
What newspaper does Risser work for?
What made Risser start his investigation?
How did he find out that the inspectors worked for the very companies
they were supposed to inspect?
What education did Risser get before he became a journalist?
How does his background in law help him to work?
What sources does a state newspaper use for covering national and
international news?
What issues would you like to cover when you graduate?
to cover (Unit 4), to pursue (Unit 5), release (Unit 14), score (Unit
22), issue (Unit 23)
I. to indict [in'dait] — to charge (someone) officially with an offence in
law
indictment [in'daitmant] — an official charge (accusation) made to a
person
172
II. conflict of interest — a situation in which someone cannot make a fair
decision because he/she will be affected by the results
III. feedback — comments and information about something someone has
done
IV. bureaucrat — 1. чиновник, правительственный служащий; 2.
формалист, волокитчик
a policeman, an article, a subject.
1. A strong desire to do something. 2. Information about something that a
person or a machine has done. 3. The part of government that makes and
changes laws.
1. African-American youth have made enormous progress in high school
completion, in better test scores, in greater college enrollment. 2. In April
1961, the Soviets scored another triumph in space: Yuri Gagarin became the
first man to orbit the Earth. 3. Most people take an interest in foreign policy
issues when they believe those issues affect them directly. 4. Campaigning for
office is a type of political news that lends itself to media coverage, especially
if the candidates create a media event — a situation that is too newsworthy to
pass up. 5. Animal rights activists will go to great extremes to pursue their
goals, even at the expense of human welfare. 6. Canada pursues a foreign
policy that is distinct from that of the US. 7. She was arrested for shoplifting
but was released on bail. 8. There are strict rules on the release of official
information.
A. 1. A model airplane was suspended above the stage. 2. Dozens of
balloons were suspended from the ceiling. 3. A cloud of smoke was suspen-
ded in the air. 4. There were demands that trial by jury be temporarily
suspended. 5. The people involved in the incident were suspended from duty.
6. This football player is still suspended and will miss the semi-final. 7. If he
is found guilty, he could face suspension from duty. 8. The suspension of
security payments caused protest marches. 9. There are defense programs
whose suspension would increase domestic unemployment. 10. I try to add an
element of suspense and mystery to my stories. 11. I didn't leave him in
suspense but quickly informed him that he'd misjudged the situation.
B. 1. In 1984, Nicaragua filed a case with the ICJ (International Court of
Justice) charging that US support of the Contra rebels and its mining of
Nicaraguan harbors violated international law. 2. Five former hostages and the
relatives of three people who died have filed a $7.5 million lawsuit against the
city of Moscow for moral and material damages suffered during the theater
173
raid in October 2002. 3. The report on candidates filing to run for office
received routine play for such stories. The newspaper runs such stories on the
front page. 4. The visitors filed through the entrance to the ticket office. 5. The
report was stolen from the government files and given to the newspapers. 6.
Mary forgot to save the file on her computer and the information was lost. 7.
James Hall initially filed a complaint with the Human Rights Commission
claiming that he had been denied promotion based on his sexual orientation.
C. 1. The new firm opened an office in London. 2. Which party will be in
office after the next general election? 3. Although the idea of American royalty
was far from popular among framers of the American Constitution, they knew
that some type of executive office had to be created. 4. The framers of the
American Constitution were determined not to create a presidential office
whose occupant could become an all-powerful dictatorial figure. 5. Members
of Federal Communications Commission (FCC) are chosen by the president
for terms of seven years. They can be removed from office only through
impeachment or conviction. 6. In democratic countries, citizens vote to choose
candidates for public office. 7. The Committee may co-opt not more than two
additional members who shall hold office until the close of the next meeting
of the International Council. 8. President Clinton left office in December 2000.
9. President Bush's first decision on taking office was on abortion. 10. In early
1989, shortly after President Reagan left office, Democratic Congressman
Richard Gephardt visited Japan. 11. The Prime Minister was voted out of
office.
Exercise 5. Replace the words and phrases in bold type by the words and phrases from
the text: \
1. He got immediate response to his stories. 2. Lots of reporters saw this
press-release. 3. Washington officials didn't always want to talk to journalists.
4. The newspaper writes about the Iowa members of Congress. 5. The reporter
generally follows consumer and environmental problems.
* Grammar Study and Practice
I. a congressional investigation into the case — расследование дела
конгрессом ......
Существительные investigation, inquiry требуют дополнения с
предлогом into.
Exercise 6 . Translate the following sentences into Russian:
1. It was the reporter's intention to launch an investigation into the accident.
2. There will be an official inquiry into the conditions at the plant. 3. There
has been a long-running investigation into allegations that journalists at The
Mirror bought shares in companies they had inside information about. 4. In
1951, Democratic Senator Estes Kefauer of Tennessee called for public
television coverage of his committee's investigation into organized crime. 5.
The FBI launched an investigation into the circulation of computer-generated
counterfeit money.
174
II. ...the most interesting story Risser says he's ever worked
___ on... could just as easily have ended up in the trash... — ...самая
интересная статья, над которой работал Риссер... вполне могла
очутиться в мусорной корзине.
Модальный глагол could с перфектным инфинитивом может
обозначать возможное, но не осуществившееся действие (как в
приведенном примере) или указывать на вероятность осуществления
действия в прошлом. (Грамматический курс, 4.1)
1. She performed the task better than could have been expected. 2. Diana
could have heard this conversation from the kitchen. 3. The investigation
showed that the accident could have been avoided. 4. A month ago you could
have gone to this country as a tourist, but now it is impossible. 5. The first
European settlers in Canada could not have survived a winter without the aid
and advice of the Indians.
structures from the text and exercises above: обычно освещает экологические
сюжеты. 7. Бывшие заложники подали в суд на правительство Москвы.
8. Эти инспектора не были правительственными служащими. 9.
Расследование показало, что инспектора работали в тех самых
компаниях, которые должны были проверять. 10. Десятки журналистов
пишут об этой проблеме. 11. Разведывательные полеты над территорией
Колумбии были приостановлены три года назад. 12. Члены комитета
занимают свой пост в течение года. 13. Журналист немедленно получил
отклики на свою статью. 14. Первые поселенцы в Канаде не смогли бы
выжить без помощи коренных жителей.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 9. Agree or disagree with the following statement:
Politicians have a higher claim to speak for the people than journalists.
(John Birt, 1944 —)
Exercise 10. Comment on the main principles of journalism:
• Being informed
• Being organized
• Being objective
• Being flexible
• Being creative
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 11. Think of a story to illustrate this moral and write an essay:
175
You may fool all the people some of the time; you can even fool some of
the people all the time; but you can't fool all of people all the time. (Abraham
Lincoln, 1809 — 65)
U n i t 27 PUBLIC RELATIONS AT WORK
Объектная конструкция с причастием
TEXT
Ethical Issues in Public Relations
Every profession has a moral purpose. Medicine has health. Law has
justice. Public relations has harmony — social harmony.
Through their work, public relations professionals promote mutual
understanding and peaceful coexistence among individuals and institutions.
They serve as a vital link in the communications process. Whether representing
a corporation, a presidential candidate, a charitable organizaton, or any other
entity, public relations professionals keep information flowing between their
empoyers and clients and their publics.
Public relations professionals counsel client organizations regarding the
public implications of decisions and ensure that organizational actions are in
the best interests of not only the organizations, but also of those affected by
the actions.
Unfortunately, today's practitioners find themselves operating in an
environment in which efforts to "reform" socially irresponsible companies
seem to be only partly successful. American society is facing a crisis involving
a lack of public trust.
Today's crisis is based on Americans' lack of confidence in their society's
institutions. Questions of responsibility and ethics have become the cause of
much concern in all segments of society. The "ethics crisis" is a familiar topic
in corporate boardrooms, university classrooms and many other forums.
Because much of the distrust of public relations professionals derives from
the lack of public trust in the institutions they represent, public relations
professionals face a complex task in improving their reputation. They must
improve their position and also improve the social responsibility of client
organizations.
176
The Duties of Public Relations Professionals
Duty to Self. Professionals in public relations must first consider loyalty
to self. They must define their own value system and decide which, if any, of
those values they are willing to compromise in carrying out their professional
obligations. A tough decision is whether personal values should ever be
sacrificed for the sake of the firm or client.
Duty to Employer. Where does loyalty to the one who signs the paycheck
end? Determining when organizational loyalty may be misplaced involves
agonizing decisions on the part of employees. Professional disagreements
about the way a company operates is one thing; condoning activities that place
others at risk is another. The professional who knowingly allows potentially
harmful deeds to continue violates his or her duty to the public, which must
take precedence over duty to the employing organization.
Duty to the Profession. A public relations professional has an obligation
to support his or her chosen profession and the colleagues with whom he or
she associates. The true professional will place recognition from fellow public
relations practitioners above recognition from an employer, while a careerist
will indicate more concern for acceptance from an organizational superior who
deals with salaries and promotions.
Duty to the Society. Service to society is a key component of every
profession and high on the list of professional values. Practitioners take the
role of mediators and promote understanding between an organization an its
publics. This model incorporates the idea that both the organization and its
publics may change in maintaining positive relationships. If the changes are
positive, the public relations professional has performed his or her duty to the
society.
(from Public Relations by Ph. Seib, K.
Fitzpatrick)
1. What kind of organizations do PR professionals represent?
2. What is their role in the society?
3. What difficult choices do public relations practitioners face?
4. What are the duties of a public relations professional?
5. Do Americans trust their social institutions?
6. How can public relations practitioners improve the social atmo-
sphere?

involve (Units 2, 22), to face (Unit 23)
painful, to give advice, confidence.
177
1. The opinion that people have about the person based on what has
happened in the past. 2. A person or an organization that tries to reconcile two
or more people or groups disagreeing with each other.
1. The report investigated the impact of the new law on the crimes
involving handguns. 2. Public relations professionals are becoming more
involved in the development of ethical codes for the companies they represent.
3. Many of the shipyard workers face losing their jobs. 4. All PR professionals
sometimes face difficult dilemmas involving conflict of duties.
A. 1. The legal profession have always resisted change. 2. We admit that
a few members of our profession have behaved badly. 3. He is a teacher by
profession. 4. The medical profession is always telling us we should exercise
more. * •
B. 1. The government is committed to promoting the development and
use of public transport. 2. The opposition parties have deliberately promoted
and condoned violence. 3. In 1992 he was promoted to the rank of sergeant.
4. If I am not promoted within the next two years, I am going to change jobs.
5. This area is being promoted as a tourist destination.
C. 1. She has a very good reputation among her fellows. 2. He is a fellow
of the royal Institute of Chemistry. 3. Your fellow-students will not like your
behavior.

...public relations professionals keep information flowing between their
employers and clients and their publics. — ...специалисты по общественным
связям обеспечивают обмен информацией между клиентами и
общественными группами.
Unfortunately, today's practitioners find themselves operating in an
environment in which efforts to "reform" socially irresponsible companies
seem to be only partly successful. — К сожалению, сегодняшние про-
фессионалы работают в условиях, когда попытки «реформировать»
социально безответственные компании удаются лишь отчасти.
В объектной конструкции с причастием последнее имеет свой субъект
(information, themselves), а вся конструкция служит в предложении
дополнением. Наиболее распространенный способ перевода —
придаточное предложение или полная перестройка всего предложения.
178
1. You will find yourself relying heavily On survey data for information. 2.
In 1986, many families in the USA found themselves emptying savings
accounts and going in debt, often to meet the soaring price of home- ownership
or to put a child through college. 3. A poll found a majority calling unfair
foreign competition a threat to the US. 4. A 1988 poll found "job security"
reemerging as employees' number one concern. 5. The professionals who still
find themselves implementing someone else's policies might think about why
they remain in technical positions and consider broadening their level of
expertise and skill.
179
1. Специалисты по общественным связям должны обеспечивать
постоянный обмен информацией между организациями и обществом. 2.
Долг пиарщика — мирить между собой общественные группы и
обеспечивать гармонию в обществе. 3. Специалист по общественным
связям должен повышать уровень социальной ответственности своих
клиентов. 4. Специалист по общественным связям должен добиваться,
чтобы его клиенты соблюдали этические стандарты. 5. Джон получил
повышение и стал главным менеджером. 6. Медицинское сообщество
возражает против этих мероприятий. 7. Сокурсники Дженнифер не
одобрили ее поведение. 8. Мы все иногда стоим перед непростым
выбором.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 7. Work in groups of three. Consider the following hypothetical and explain
your behavior in the situations described below:
1. Your firm is going up against one of your fiercest competitors for a big
corporate account. You are asked by the potential client to comment on the
abilities of the competing firm, which in your opinion always overstates its
abilities. What will you say?
2. You have been asked to prepare a news release to address concerns about
your company's involvement in illegal activities. Legal counsel tells you to
deny any involvement on the part of the company. You have information that
indicates that some illegal acts may have occurred. What will you do?
3. Your agency has been approached by a well-financed organization
whose members oppose cloning. They want you to organize a national
campaign to promote their philosophy. Although you and your staff don't
support these views, you know it would be a lucrative account. What will you
do?
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 8. Write an essay answering one of the questions posed in Ex. 7.

P a r t 1 0 FROM THE HISTORY OF THE
UNITED STATES
U n i t 28. POLITICAL CAMPAIGNS IN THE USA
Определение, состоящее из причастия и существи-
тельного
Пассивная форма герундия Причастие в функции
обстоятельства с союзом Окказиональные каузативы в
сочетании с герундием или отглагольным
существительным
TEXT
The Civil Rights Movement

Well before the Civil War1 racial segregation was a way of life in the South:
blacks lived and worked separately from the whites. After the war, southern
states began to enact Jim Crow laws that enforced segregation. Blacks were
required to live in separate and generally inferior areas; they were restricted to
separate drinking and toilet facilities, and separate sections of streetcars, trains,
schools, jails and parks. Each day, in countless ways, they were reminded of
their inferior status.
After World War II, however, the situation began to change. Black troops had
fought with honor — albeit in segregated military units — in the war. Blacks
and whites were working together in trade unions and
'A war between the North and the South (1861 — 65) which resulted in the abolition of slavery.
181
religious organizations. Social change and some court decisions suggested that
government-imposed segregation was assailable.
President Harry S.Truman risked his political future with his strong support
of black civil rights. In 1947, he established the President's committee on Civil
Rights. The committee's report, issued later that year, became the agenda for
the civil rights movement over the next two decades. It called for federal laws
prohibiting racially motivated brutality and segregation, and for guarantees of
voting rights and equal employment opportunity. In 1948, Truman ordered the
desegregation of the armed forces.
The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
(NAACP) was at the forefront of the civil rights campaign. Founded in 1909,
it campaigned for school desegregation, for voting rights for the blacks and
desegregation of public accommodations and bus routes.
The Montgomery Bus Boycott: Civil Disobedience. The Montgomery
Bus Boycott officially started on December 1, 1955. That was the day when
the blacks of Montgomery, Alabama, decided that they would boycott the city
buses until they could sit anywhere they wanted, instead of being relegated to
the back when a white boarded.
The call to action to desegregate buses was sounded by Rosa Parks, a black
woman living in Montgomery, Alabama. In December 1955, Parks boarded a
city bus on her way home from work. The city's Jim Crow ordinance required
blacks to sit in the back of the bus and, when asked, to give up their seats to
whites. Tired after the day's work, Parks took an available seat in the front of
the bus; she refused to give up her seat when asked to do so and was arrested
and fined $10 for violating the city ordinance.
Community leaders were just waiting for the right person to be arrested, a
person who would anger the black community into action, who would agree to
test the segregation laws in court, and who, most importantly, was "above
reproach". When a fifteen-year-old girl was arrested early in 1955 for refusing
to give up her seat, NAACP activists thought they had found the perfect person,
but the girl turned out to be pregnant. Rosa Parks, on the other hand, had a
spotless record.
Montgomery black community responded to Parks's arrest with a boycott
of the city's bus system. Blacks walked and car-pooled or simply didn't make
trips that were not absolutely necessary. As the bus company moved closer to
bankruptcy and downtown merchants suffered from the loss of black business,
city officials began to harass blacks, hoping to frighten them into ending the
boycott. But Montgomery's black citizens now had a leader — a charismatic
twenty-seven year-old Baptist minister named Martin Luther King, Jr.
King called on people to hold on, and they did. A year after the boycott
began, the federal courts ruled that segregated transportation systems violated
the Constitution. The boycott proved to be an effective weapon.
Martin Luther King was totally committed to nonviolent action to bring
racial issues into the light. To that end, he advocated civil disobedience, the
willful but nonviolent violation of unjust laws.
182
Another nonviolent tactic was the sit-in. On February 1, 1960, four black
students walked into a store in Greensboro, North Carolina, purchased some
school supplies, then went to the lunch counter and asked to be served. They
knew they probably would not be. The four freshmen at the North Carolina
Agricultural and Technical College were black, and this lunch counter was
segregated. When they wouldn't leave, they were abused verbally and
physically. Soon there were similar sit-in demonstrations, throughout the
South, and then in the North. When Northern students heard of the movement,
they decided to help their Southern counterparts by picketing local branches of
chain stores that were segregated in the South. The students would be dressed
up in their best Sunday clothing, they remained nonviolent and respectful.
The first few weeks of sit-ins were fairly quiet. Blacks were not served, but
they were not harassed much either. Then, on February 27, sit-in students in
Nashville were attacked by a group of white teenagers. Police arrived, but they
let the white teens go while arresting the protesters for "disorderly conduct".
As each group of protesters was arrested, a new group would take its place. By
August 1961, the sit-ins had attracted over 70,000 participants and generated
over 3,000 arrests. They continued in some areas of the South until and even
after the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which declared segregation
at lunch counters unlawful. In addition, the technique of the sit-ins was used to
integrate other public facilities, such as movie theaters.
1. What was the status of African Americans before the Civil War?
2. What were the forms of segregation before World War II?
3. How did World War II change the situation?
4. What do you know about Harry S.Truman presidency?
5. What did Jim Crow laws require African Americans to do?
6. How was the civil rights campaign conducted?
7. What is the difference between human rights and civil rights?
r Vocabulary Study and Practice
record (Unit 9), abuse, campaign (Unit 14)
I. Jim Crow — a derogatory term for a black person

II. car-pooling — a system under which people take turns in driving each
other to work or driving each others' children to different events
to buy, illegal, though, to forbid, to publish, cruelty.
183
1. A leader who can attract, influence and inspire people by his/her personal
qualities. (adjective) 2. A refusal to do business with a firm or individual as an
expression of disapproval or a means of coercion. 3. A willful but nonviolent
violation of unjust laws.
Exercise 3. Find American equivalents to the following British words in the text:
a shop, a tram.
1. In the early 1960s, Mississippi was the poorest state in the nation. 86 %
of all nonwhite families lived below the national poverty line. In addition, the
state had a terrible record of black voting rights violations. 2. While most of
the cuneiform tablets found in Mesopotamia are such things as contracts, sales
receipts and tax records, a number of very important literary texts have been
found as well. 3. Despite a police record, Martin Luther King's killer was able
to purchase his weapon over the counter. 4. Our mission is to undertake
research and action focused on preventing and ending grave abuses of the
rights to freedom of conscience and expression, and freedom from
discrimination. 5. In the USA, a candidate for public office must campaign
first to win the party nomination, then to win the general election.
A. 1. She had no cooking facilities in her room. 2. The neighborhood is
known for the lack of play facilities for young children. 3. Only six countries
had the facilities and know-how to produce advanced weapon systems like this
one. 4. He began to learn German and, having a facility for languages, was
soon fluent in it. 5. Under the "separate but equal" doctrine, equality of
treatment is accorded when the races are provided substantially equal facilities,
even though these facilities be separate. 6. The basic sit-in technique was to
take a seat in a white facility and refuse to move when ordered or to fight back
when attacked. 7. Canada has 11 heart surgery facilities, one for every 2.3
million people.
B. 1. The advertisement was displayed on the bulletin board. 2. The hotel
^/as charging a low price for bed and board. 3. Room and board charges vary
from campus to campus. 4. He boarded with an Italian family. 5. There were
few passengers on board the ship. 6. Jeremy decided to board a train for
Geneva. 7. All the decisions are made by the board of directors. 8. The board
included such influential people as the mayor, superintendent of schools and
the Hospital administrator.
С. 1. About 17 % of all crime in 1938 was committed by people under 21.
2. He committed suicide because he was in despair. 3. Rolls Royce must
commit its entire resources into the project. 4. David commits an hour to
reading the newspapers every morning. 5. They want to experiment with
computers without committing themselves to any capital expenditure. 6. He
184
refused to commit himself by talking about the crime. 7. I won't commit
myself to that course of action. 8. The patient was committed to a mental
hospital. 9. The United Nations was established on 24 October 1945 by 51
countries committed to preserving peace through international cooperation
and collective security. 10. Nations joining this organization must prove their
firm commitment to the principle of nonviolence.

I. ...government-imposed segregation was assailable. — ...с сегрегацией,
введенной правительством, можно бороться.
При переводе определения, состоящего из причастия и суще-
ствительного, чаще всего используется придаточное предложение,
иногда — сложное слово — аналог подобного словосочетания (на-
пример, наркопреступность в упр. 6, предл. 2).
I. The Supreme Court interpreted the Fourteenth Amendment as
proscribing all state-imposed discriminations against the African Americans.
2. This organization conducts research into the statistics of drug-related crime.
3. Lung cancer and heart disease belong to smoking-related illnesses. 4. In
February 2003, Germany, France and Russia refused to support the US-led war
with Iraq. 5. The company adopted some community-oriented methods of
communication. It arranged meetings and exhibitions to show the role of the
company in the community. 6. The country has committed troops to the
American-led war on terror, but refuses to support the US trade embargo on
Cuba. 7. Many families moved to this city under a government-sponsored
migration program. 8. Economic psychologists stress that money-related
behavior results in part from people's feelings, beliefs and even transient
moods.
II. ...until they could sit anywhere they wanted, instead of being relegated
to the back when a white boarded. — ...пока не смогут сидеть где хотят,
вместо того чтобы пересаживаться назад/чтобы их изгоняли назад,
когда садится белый человек.
Наиболее распространенный способ перевода пассивного герундия —
придаточное предложение. (Грамматический курс, 3.2.2)
1. She was unused to being talked to like that. 2. He had a feeling of being
followed. 3. Many of our saddest memories of childhood are feelings of not
being accepted by the group. 4. Employees in industry worry about being
replaced by robots. 5. Most of the studies find that the chances of being
imprisoned for murder do seem to affect the murder rate. 6. The criminals used
a rental car, hoping to lessen the chances of being noticed.
III. The city's Jim Crow ordinance required blacks to sit in the back of the
bus and, when asked, to give up their seats to whites. — Городские законы
185
требовали, чтобы черные сидели на задних местах и, когда их просят,
уступали их белым.
...she refused to give up her seat when asked to do so... — ...она
отказалась встать со своего места, когда ее попросили...
...they [the police] let the white teens go while arresting the protesters for
"disorderly conduct". — ...они [полицейские] отпустили белых
подростков, хотя арестовали протестующих за нарушение обще-
ственного порядка.
Если перед причастием в функции обстоятельства стоит союз, то при
переводе, как правило, используется придаточное предложение с
аналогичным союзом. (Грамматический курс, 3.3.3.5)
1. The first settlers in America, though living in primitive cabins, were firm
devotees of education and they made great efforts to attract teachers to their
settlements. 2. When preparing a commercial for radio, writers have to create
images with words and sounds. 3. If caught, the criminals risk a maximum
penalty of 14 years. 4. All the documents are ready and will be submitted
immediately, if required. 5. Conservatives are not above restricting freedom
when threatened with the loss of order. 6. Before the Civil War, slave states
often imposed the death sentence upon blacks for crimes that were punished
by only two or three years' imprisonment when committed by whites.
IV. ...a person who would anger the black community into action... —
...человек, который рассердит черную общину и заставит ее дей-
ствовать...
...hoping to frighten them into ending the boycott. — ...надеясь запу-
гать их и заставить прекратить бойкот.
Ряд глаголов, преимущественно со значением психического воз-
действия, приобретают каузативное значение («заставить действовать»),
если сопровождаются герундием (ending) или отглагольным
существительным (action), вводимым предлогом into. (Грам-
матический курс, 3.2.10)
1. Editors and reporters instinctively bristle at the thought of an advertiser's
attempt to blackmail the newspaper into running — or not running — a story.
2. The general was deceived into thinking that the enemy were retreating in
disorder. 3. The company spokesperson tried to hypnotize the people into
thinking that the accident was under control. 4. Don't let them trick you into
giving yourself away. 5. Nobody is going to kid me into assuming the problem
doesn't exist. 6. His careless gestures deceived people into believing he was
less than thorough. 7.1 wish my parents would approve of my marriage instead
of worrying themselves into peptic ulcers. 8. I'll try to coax my parents into a
more reasonable frame of mind. 9. The terrible noise scared the child into a
screaming fit. 10. The chairman frowned the audience into silence. 11. Poirot
186
continued to goad her into further revelations. 12. During World War II, the
German submarines blockading Britain were trying to starve Britain into
submission. 13. The king taxed his subjects into beggary.
the structures from the text and exercises above:
1. Мартин Лютер Кинг призвал народ сопротивляться. 2. Папа
призвал к прекращению насилия на Ближнем Востоке. 3. Государства —
члены ООН должны доказать свою приверженность делу мира. 4.
Законы, действующие в Монтгомери, требовали, чтобы чернокожие
пересаживались назад, когда входит белый человек. 5. Комиссия по
образованию одобрила эти меры. 6. У Китая ужасная репутация в плане
соблюдения прав человека. 7. После войны черные активисты
почувствовали, что с введенной правительством сегрегацией можно
бороться. 8. Этот комментарий не для печати. 9. Люди, имеющие
судимость, не могут работать в полиции. 10. У нее безупречная
репутация. 11. Этот доклад посвящен алкогольной преступности. 12.
Принципы ненасильственного гражданского неповиновения были
разработаны Ганди. 13. Борцы за гражданские права были привержены
принципам ненасилия.
" SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 11. Discuss the following topics in groups of three; later, report the
results to the group:
1. Various techniques of nonviolent civil disobedience. > : j ■
2. The PR aspect of the civil rights campaign. Why did the black
activists win the sympathy of the nation?
3. Racism in Russia. If it exists, what is the difference between racism in
Russia and racism in the US before the civil rights campaign?
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 12. Think of an example to illustrate this statement and write a short
essay:
Politics is not a good location or a vocation for anyone lazy, thin- skinned
or lacking a sence of humor. (John Bailey, 1938—)
187
U n i t 29. A DIFFICULT PERIOD IN THE
AMERICAN HISTORY
Атрибутивные группы, состоящие из нескольких существительных
(повторение) Конструкция it takes... с инфинитивом Бытийное
предложение без вводящего there
TEXT
The Great Depression
The "roaring twenties" was an era when the USA prospered tremendously.
The rapid increase in industrialization was fueling growth in the economy, and
technology improvements had the leading economists believing that the uprise
would continue. During this boom period, wages increased along with
consumer spending, and stock prices began to rise as well. Billions of dollars
were invested in the stock market as people began speculating on the rising
stock prices.
The core of the problem was the immense disparity between the country's
productive capacity and the ability of people to consume. Great innovations in
productive techniques during and after the First World War raised the output
of industry beyond the purchasing capacity of US farmers and wage earners.
Thursday, October 24, 1929 has the dubious honor of being called Black
Thursday because it was on this day that the New York Stock Exchange
crashed heralding the end of the "Roaring Twenties" and the beginning of the
Great Depression. By the end of the day, the New York Stock Exchange had
lost four billion dollars, and it took exchange clerks until five o'clock am the
next dav to clear all the transactions. By the following Monday, the realization
of what had happened began to sink in, and a full-blown panic ensued.
A wave of panic selling of stocks swept the New York Stock Exchange.
Once started, the collapse of share and other security prices could not be
halted. Trying to sell their holdings before they lost their value, investors
contributed to the panic that would drag the world into the Great Depression.
Thousands of ordinary working people were financially ruined. By 1932,
thousands of banks and over 100,000 businesses had failed. Industrial
188
production was cut in half, farm income had fallen by more than half, wages
had decreased 60 per cent, new investment was down 90 per cent.
One out of every four workers was unemployed. Bread lines appeared in
most cities. Hundreds of thousands roamed the country in search of food, work
and shelter. "Brother, can you spare a dime?" went the refrain of a popular
song.
Farmers were hit especially hard during the Depression. Having borrowed
huge sums of money from banks in the 1920s — in order to purchase seed
stocks and farm equipment — they were in serious financial debt when the
crash came. As the wave of economic depression rolled across the country,
farmers were unable to repay their loans. As a result, banks, which were also
struggling to make ends meet, foreclosed on their land thereby forcing farmers
out of their homes. Many farmers resorted to migrant labor, as it was the only
source of income to be found.
The Republican president, Herbert Hoover, asked employers not to cut
wages, and he tried to reduce interest rates and support farm prices. In 1932,
he approved the creation of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation. which
loaned money to troubled banks.
But these measures were inadequate to deal with the economic collapse,
and Hoover resisted proposals for federally funded relief and work projects.
He assured the public that recovery was "just around the corner", but the
economy continued to decline. To masses of unemployed workers, Hoover
seemed uncaring and unable to help them. In 1932 election, he was
resoundingly defeated by Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt, who promised "a
New Deal for the American people".
Jaunty, optimistic and a commanding public speaker, Roosevelt, a former
governor of New York State, was able to inspire public confidence as
Hoover could not. "The only thing we have to fear is fear itself," Roosevelt
stated at his inauguration, and he took prompt action to deal with the
emergency. Within three months — the historic "Hundred days" — Roosevelt
launched a great number of programs aimed at aiding the recovery of the
economy. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) put young men to work in
reforestation and flood control projects. The Agricultural Adjustment
Administration (AAA) paid farmers to reduce production, thus raising crop
prices. The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) built a network of dams in the
Tennessee River area, in the southeastern region of the United States, to
generate electricity, control floods and manufacture fertilizer. And the
National Recovery Administration (NRA) regulated fair competition among
businesses and ensured bargaining rights and minimum wages for workers.
In 1935, the Social Security Act established old-age pensions, as well as a
joint federal-state program of unemployment insurance. The Wagner Labor
Relations Act banned unfair employment practices and protected the workers'
right to collective bargaining and forming unions.
The Works Progress Administration (WPA) was one of the most effective
of the New Deal measures, probably because it was based on the belief,
originating with the Puritans and almost universally accepted among later
189
Americans, that working for one's livelihood is honorable and dignified, but
receiving help which one doesn't earn — "charity"— is demeaning and robs
people of their independence and their sense of their worth. Financed by taxes
collected by the Federal government, the WPA created millions of jobs by
undertaking the construction of roads, bridges, airports, hospitals, parks and
public buildings.
Although the WPA was probably more expensive than a system of
handouts, it kept workers on the job, thus preserving their skills and their self-
respect. In a series of friendly radio broadcasts — "fireside chats"— the
President explained his policies to the public.
The President was greatly helped by his wife, Eleanor Roosevelt, who had
special interest in the needs of children, minorities, women and the poor.
Traveling nearly two hundred days a year, visiting with southern blacks and
migrant workers, she absorbed an unprecedented knowledge that allowed her
to determine which of her husband's programs were working or failing,
wasteful or underfunded. And when she returned, in contrast to the filtered
accounts that deferential subordinates too often provide their superiors, she
was brutally honest in telling Franklin what she had seen, giving him the base
of knowledge he needed to alter his programs or change his approach.
Although the economy improved as a result of Roosevelt's program of
government intervention, it took the defense buildup prior to America's
entering the Second World War to end the Depression. This buildup,
undertaken to aid the allies of the United States in their battle against
aggression, absorbed the surplus manpower into war industries and the armed
forces. But many Americans, young and old, still feel great affection for
Franklin D. Roosevelt, the president who remembered "the forgotten man at
the bottom of the economic pyramid".
1. How was the period between 1919 and 1929 called?
2. What changes were happening in the American economy at that time?
3. Why is Thursday October 24 called "Black Thursday"?
4. What happened to share and security prices during the stock market
crash?
5. In what way did people attempt to save their money from the stock
market crash?
6. How did "panic selling" affect the situation?
7. What was the economic situation like during the Great Depression?
8. What measures did President Hoover take to deal with the emergency?
9. What kind of person was President Roosevelt?
10. What measures did he take to improve the economy?
11. Why do many Americans still remember President Roosevelt?
12. How did Mrs. Roosevelt help her husband?
190
to launch (Unit 11), share (Unit 13), account (Units 17, 20),
business, labor (Unit 19), rate (Unit 20)
I. to foreclose — to take someone's property because they failed to pay
their debts
II. emergency — чрезвычайная ситуация
emergence — возникновение, появление
III. policy — 1. политика, курс, линия поведения (не только в
политике)-, 2. система страхования; insurance policy стра-
ховой полис
politics — 1. политика (область деятельности)] 2. меж-
партийная борьба; 3. система политических взглядов
fast; to follow; to produce; growth; to forbid; just, honest; unjust; great;
building.
1. A fast increase or development in something. 2. A person who moves
from one place to another, especially to Find work.
1. The terrorist group launched an offensive into Iran in 1988, and was
beaten back. 2. In 1704, Cambridge, Massachusetts, launched the colonies'
first successful newspaper. 3. The United States had traditionally placed tariffs
on imports from foreign countries in order to protect American business. 4.
The high rate of destruction of the Amazon by loggers and cattle ranchers is a
major environmental worry. 5. Adult black males have not had an
unemployment rate less than 10% since the seventies. 6. A number of factors
account for the differences between these two groups. 7. Farmed fish accounts
for close to one-third of the fish consumption by human beings. 8. The
Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, adopted in 1870, prohibited the
states from denying the right to vote "on account of race, color, or previous
condition of servitude". 9. He has no right to a share in profits. 10. When John
was a student, he shared an apartment with five other people. 11. Working in
groups enables patients to share information and offer each other support. 12.
The national Labor Relations Act, sometimes called the Wagner Act after its
sponsor, established the basic regulatory and legal framework for collective
bargaining. 13. When employees are represented by a labor union or other
collective associations, it is easier for them to protect their rights. 14. After the
terrorist attack, all citizens support tight security measures. 15. In 1935, the
Social Security Act became law, creating the social security fund that workers
pay into, then collect income from during old age. 16. Securities and Exchange
191
Commission in the USA oversees securities trading. 17. Security forces were
patrolling the building.
A. 1. Some feminists say that women have been oppressed for 30,000
years. That is just about the time of the emergence of modern humans. 2. The
plane made an emergency landing. 3. After the explosion, the crowd rushed
for the emergency exits. 4. The Prime Minister held an emergency cabinet
meeting. 5. A state of emergency was declared in the Republic. 6. The patient
underwent emergency surgery.
B. 1. The President assured the government there would be no change in
policy. 2. The government was criticized for pursuing a policy of
reconciliation with the extremists' groups. 3. The company specialized in
selling cheap insurance policies to local residents. 4. She had no interest in
politics. 5. His politics at that time could be described as radical. 6. After the
end of the war in Vietnam, American students began rejecting radical politics
and generally became more oriented towards individual careers. 7. Because
American society has changed greatly since the Constitution was written and
the government formed, politics today is vastly different from politics two
hundred years ago.
Exercise 5. Fill the blanks with the words and phrases from the text:
1. Great innovations in productive techniques during and after the First
World War raised the output of industry beyond the ... of US farmers and wage
earners. 2. To masses of unemployed workers, Hoover seemed ... and unable
to help them. 3. Trying to save their money people ... to the panic. 4. The
Wagner Labor relations Act ... unfair employment practices and ... the workers'
right to collective bargaining. 5. ... subordinates often provide their superiors
with ... accounts.
I. the New York Stock Exchange — Нью-Йоркская фондовая

биржа
share and other security prices — цены на акции и другие
ценные бумаги
the Reconstruction Finance Corporation — Финансовая кор-
порация по восстановлению
reforestation and flood control projects — программы восста-
новления лесов и борьбы с наводнениями the Tennessee Valley
Authority — администрация долины Теннесси
the Tennessee River area — район реки Теннесси
the Wagner Labor Relations Act — Закон Вагнера о трудовых
отношениях
192
the Social Security Act — Закон о социальном страховании
unfair employment practices — нечестные приемы найма the
Works Progress Administration — администрация развития
работ/администрация общественных работ
Повторите атрибутивные группы, состоящие из нескольких слов (Unit
2, Grammar Study and Practice, I; Unit 17, Grammar Study and Practice, I).
Обратите внимание, что вся группа, стоящая слева от существительного,
может включать не одно, а несколько определений. Так, в
словосочетании unfair employment practices существительное practices
имеет два определения: unfair и employment. При этом unfair относится
ко всему сочетанию employment practices.
1. President Reagan launched numerous attacks against the Freedom of
Information Act. 2. The president's national security adviser recommended that
the troops be withdrawn immediately. 3. The final committee report said the
documents had been destroyed illegally. 4. Public relations practitioners use
various techniques in helping promote blood donation drives. 5. Despite the
enormous gains made by the civil rights and women's rights movements,
women and people of color still face unfair obstacles in business and education.
6. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 put state electoral procedures under federal
supervision, increasing the registration of black voters. 7. Amnesty
International urges all governments to observe the rule of law, and to ratify and
implement human rights standards; it carries out a wide range of human rights
educational activities.
II. ...it took exchange clerks until five o'clock am the next day to clear
all the transactions. — ...служащие биржи оформили все сделки только к
пяти утра.
...it took the defense buildup prior to America's entering the Second
World War to end the Depression. — ...депрессия прекратилась только с
ростом оборонной промышленности перед вступлением Америки во
Вторую мировую войну.
Конструкция it takes... с инфинитивом указывает на время или
условия, необходимые для осуществления действия, выраженного
инфинитивом. {Грамматический курс, 3.1.2.1)
1. It will take a few minutes to get the insurance policies together. 2. It took
the family twenty years to pay the mortgage on their house. 3. It took Adam a
moment to recognize Cyrus, and much longer to get used to him. 4. There were
perhaps forty men waiting outside. It would take the doctor the best part of the
day to examine them all properly — an impossible situation. 5. It took Adam
five days to cross the short distance into Georgia. 6. It took me some months
to recover my health after my son was born. 7. It took the King a month to
gather all his forces from the whole of England.
193
III. ...a full-blown panic ensued — ...последовала/разразилась насто-
ящая паника.
A wave of panic selling of stocks swept the New York Stock Exchange.
— Нью-Йоркскую биржу охватила паника; все продавали акции.
Bread lines appeared in most cities. — В большинстве городов появи-
лись хлебные очереди.
В бытийных предложениях, обозначающих существование или
появление какого-либо предмета или явления, подлежащее употреб-
ляется с неопределенным артиклем (во множественном числе артикль
отсутствует), а глагол-сказуемое указывает на существование или
возникновение данного предмета или явления. При переводе подобных
предложений на русский язык рекомендуется менять порядок слов,
вынося подлежащее на последнее место в предложении.
1. Willie entered the office. A woman of thirty-seven or so sat at the desk.
2. A horrid sight confronted him on the bridge. 3. A shadow fell across the
page of his book. Looking up, he saw Stillwell standing in the doorway. 4. A
tall, dark man came to the door of the hut. 5. After World War I, customs duties
were introduced in Britain with the aim of protecting and encouraging certain
key industries. 6. A number of studies have been carried out to establish the
relationship between unemployment and crime. 7. Attempts have been made
to solve this problem. 8. A huge red truck stood in front of a little roadside
restaurant. 9. An emergency meeting of the government was held on Tuesday.
10. A number of techniques have been worked out to measure air and water
pollution. 11. A university was established in Constantinople in 425, teaching
being conducted both in Latin and Greek. 12. In the early 1330s an outbreak
of deadly bubonic plague occurred in China. It was only a matter of time
before the outbreak of plague in China spread to Western Asia and Europe.
1. Зарабатывать на жизнь своим трудом достойно и почетно. 2. Акции
этой компании упали в цене. 3. После террористического акта
правительство приняло жесткие меры безопасности. 4. Многие
предприятия разорились во время кризиса. 5. Пытаясь спасти свое
имущество, люди продавали акции и таким образом только увеличивали
панику. 6. На улицах появились хлебные очереди. 7. Правительству
понадобилось несколько месяцев, чтобы справиться с кризисом. 8. Я не
могу разделить ваше мнение. 9. Дети жили в одной комнате. 10. Во время
кризиса уровень безработицы в Америке был очень высок. 11. Эти меры
направлены на повышение покупательной способности населения. 12.
Библиотека хорошо укомплектована. 13. Его очень ценят коллеги. 14.
194
Нью-Йоркскую биржу охватила паника. 15. В комнату вошла женщина.
16. После Первой мировой войны в Англии были введены таможенные
пошлины. 17. В четверг состоялось чрезвычайное заседание
правительства. 18. Перед домом стояла машина. 19. Оппозиция
критиковала политику правительства. 20. Мои друзья не любят говорить
о политике.
SPEAKING PRACTICE

Working for one's livelihood is honorable and dignified, but receiving help
which one doesn't earn — "charity" — is demeaning and robs people of their
independence and their sense of their worth.
195
Discuss the issues of unempoyment and unempoyment benefits in the light of this
statement.
Exercise 11. Make presentation in your group covering the following topics:
1. The fist British colonies in America
2. The American Revolution
3. The drive to the West
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 12. Write an essay summing up the group discussion.

Part 11
SOME CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES DISCUSSED
IN THE MEDIA
U n i t 30. LANGUAGE AND DISCRIMINATION
ГРАММАТИКА Глагол to tend с
инфинитивом (повторение)
TEXT
Political Correctness
Some of the most loaded words in the language are those associated with
the way society talks about itself, and especially about groups of people
whom it perceives to be disadvantaged or oppressed.
The most sensitive domains are to do with race, gender, sexual affinity,
ecology and (physical or mental) personal development.
During the 1980s, an increasing number of people became concerned to
eradicate what they saw to be prejudice (especially language prejudice) in
these areas. The label racialist was already known from the turn of the
century, and racist from the thirties. Sexist was added in the 1960s, and
followed by a series of other -«/terms which focused on real or imagined areas
of linguistic discrimination. Many of the critics were members of progressive
or activist groups (e.g. advocates of minority rights), especially in universities
and thus, as the movement grew, attracting hard-line extremists alongside
moderates, it drew down upon itself the antagonism of conservative
academics and journalists. By the 1990s, this hard-line linguistic orthodoxy
was being referred to, pejoratively, as political correctness (PC).
Anyone who used vocabulary held to be "politically incorrect" risked
severe condemnation by the PC activists. The word "black", for example, was
felt to be so sensitive that some banned its use in all possible contexts
(including blackboard and black pieces in chess). The generic use of man was
widely attacked. Mentally handicapped people were to become people with
learning difficulties. Disabled people were to be differently abled. Third
World countries were to be developing nations. All but the most beautiful or
handsome were aesthetically challenged. And in the academic literaiy world
there would need to be safeguards against the unhealthy influence wielded
by DWEMs (Dead White European Males) as Shakespeare, Goethe and
Moliere.
Critical Reaction. In the early 1990s, many people reacted strongly to
what they saw as a trend towards terminological absurdity. Newspaper
headlines contained references to "the end of freedom of speech". And
certainly there were cases cited of academics who had criticised the PC
position being labeled racist or sexist and losing their courses or their case
for promotion. PC had become, according to an Economist editorial of the
time, "the most pernicious form of intolerance".
The arguments continue. Critics of PC believe that the search for a
"caring" lexicon is pointless, as long as the inequalities which the language
reflects do not change. Proponents of PC argue that the use of language itself
helps to perpetuate these inequalities. At present the speed at which fashions
change in the use of PC terms suggests that it is not so easy to manipulate
language as the reformers think. Dissatisfaction over one term tends to spread
to its replacements as has been seen with such sequences as Negro to black
to Afro-American to African American.
Political correctness has become one of the most contentious issues on the
US socio-political scene in recent years, and attitudes continue to harden.
Those who adopt a PC line typically do so with an aggressiveness which
creates antagonism even among those who might themselves be concerned
about traditional labels. However, extreme positions quickly attract ridicule
and it is not surprising to find several publications in the 1990s beginning to
satirise them. It may yet be humour which will restore a balanced perspective
to the debate.
(from The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language
by D. Crystal)
197
1. When and how did political correctness appear?
2. Do you think it is important to speak about members of disadvantaged
groups without offending them?
3. Why was the use of the word "black" banned?
4. What words were outlawed by the rules of political correctness?
5. What happened to opponents of political correctness in universities?
6. What happened to "politically correct" words in the course of time?
way (Unit 3), concern (Units 16, 20), a case, challenge (Unit 22)
I. Сравните:
Politically incorrect terms Politically correct terms
air stewardess flight attendant Native American ( A m )
American Indian ( B r )
African American
black, colored, Negro (considered
offensive) chairperson, chairwoman, chair fire
chairman fighter
fireman senior citizens, elderly people developing
old people nations
Third World nations
II. Запомните значения следующих слов:

ableism — discrimination by the able-bodied against those with physical
or mental difficulties; ableist
ageism — discrimination against those of particular age, typically the
very young or the very old; ageist
racism — discrimination against a race, typically whites against blacks;
racist
sexism — discrimination against sex, typically men against women;
sexist
■ III. academic (n) — a member of a university or college who teaches
£ or does research
академик (член академии) — academician
an advocate, an opponent, hostility, debatable, uncompromising, to
forbid, to wipe out.
1. Unkind laughter at someone or something. 2. An unreasonable dislike
of or preference for something.
198
1. As you analyze your time log, look for patterns and trends in the way
you spend your time. 2. If you are a Democrat, you look at things one way,
and if you're a Republican, another way. 3. Coffee conversations in the
office seldom concern work. 4. If money is your main concern, forget a
news career and head for Wall Street. 5. The level of business concern
199
about education has increased in recent years. Many big companies are
involved in programs aimed at improving the instruction level in American
schools. 6. The mayor said he would base his decision whether to allow the
protest march on public safety concerns. 7. Many people have voiced
concern about the proposed changes in the law. 8. The plaintiff took his case
to the Supreme Court. 9. The radical right wing would have us believe that
women and people of color earn less because we don't work as hard or we're
not as smart. That simply isn't the case. 10. If conservatives don't have a
constitutional case for drug prohibition, they may think they have a cultural
case. In their view, drugs are part of a left-wing package deal they want no
part of. 11. Art is sometimes transformed into patriotic propaganda,
particularly during times of war. Such was the case with The Four Freedoms
series Norman Rockwell painted in 1943. 12. Critics make a persuasive case
against expenditures for large, costly, high-technology weapons. 13. The
challenge of democracy is making difficult choices — choices that inevitably
bring important values into conflict.
1. After the school adopted the new program, the students' academic
performance improved. 2. The academic year is drawing to an end. 3. The
course is a combination of academic and practical work. 4. The academic
standards of the school were high. 5. Conservative academics objected to the
new program. 6. The matter was one of only academic interest; it was of no
practical importance.
Exercise 5. Replace the words in bold type by the words and phrases from the text:
1. Proponents of political correctness wanted to eliminate prejudice. 2.
Political correctness has become one of the most controversial issues in the
US. 3. Extreme positions quickly attract mockery. 4. Critics of PC believe
that the search for a "caring" lexicon is useless, as long as the inequalities
exist.
Dissatisfaction over one term tends to spread to its replacements. —

Неудовлетворенность одним словом обычно переходит на слово,
его заменяющее.
Повторите сочетания глагола to tend с инфинитивом (Unit 5,
Grammar Study and Practice, V; Грамматический курс, 3.1.3.2.4).
200
1. More affluent societies tend to spend more on health care than less
affluent ones. 2. Most governments are inherently conservative, they tend to
resist social change. 3. Working journalists are often at odds with their own
editors who tend to be more conservative. 4. Sociologists tend to reject
materialistic definitions of money, preferring, like anthropologists, to focus
on the social relationships that monetary transactions involve.
1. Политическая корректность стала одним из самых спорных
вопросов в США. 2. Неудовлетворенность словом обычно переходит на
слово, его заменяющее. 3. Их разговоры редко касаются политики. 4.
Президент выразил озабоченность по поводу роста количества
разводов. 5. Такая агрессивность порождает антагонизм.
6. Политическая корректность высмеивается в некоторых газетах.
7. Сторонники политической корректности хотели искоренить
предрассудки против бедных и угнетенных. 8. Сторонники прав мень-
шинств всегда боролись за политическую корректность. 9. Если вас
больше всего интересуют деньги, журналистская карьера не для вас. 10.
Многие граждане высказывают опасения по поводу новых законов. 11.
С переходом школы на новую программу успеваемость учащихся
заметно выросла. 12. Противники этой программы приводят весомые
аргументы против производства новых видов оружия.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 8. In a group discussion, try to answer the following question:

Does political correctness help to eradicate prejudice?
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 9. Write a short essay covering the following topic: A universal
language should replace all languages. Discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of a universal language.
201
U n i t 31. AFFIRMATIVE ACTION: HELPING THE
UNDERPRIVILEGED OR REVERSE DISCRIMINATION?
Модальные глаголы с инфинитивом в страдательном
залоге(повторение)
TEXT 1
Read and translate the texts, paying close attention to the words in bold type and the
The Principle of Affirmative Action
Affirmative action commonly refers to taking action to give certain groups

"preferential" or "equal" (depending on one's point of view) access to
benefits, such as education, employment, health care and social welfare. It
can refer to anything from "equal opportunity" hiring practices to enforce
demographically-representative (or over/underrepre- sentative) diversity in
an environment, to practices that actively prefer minorities, such as racial
quotas and lowered performance requirements for applicants belonging to
particular group(s).
When underrepresented minorities are actively sought or preferred, the
stated reason is usually that this is necessary to compensate for historical
advantages and racism/sexism which groups such as males or those of
European descent are claimed to possess. Some claim that racial preferences
have in effect caused a reverse discrimination against a historically-dominant
group (white males in Europe and North America).
In the US, the most common form of affirmative action centers around
access to education, in particular entrance to university. Race, ethnicity,
native language, class, geographic origin and gender are taken into account
along with test scores examination results. Individuals can also be awarded
scholarships and have fees paid on the basis of the hitherto-listed criteria.
In the United States, affirmative action programs at universities usually
benefit only black African Americans, Hispanic Americans and Native
Americans. Asian Americans, although a racial minority, do not benefit at
most colleges because their makeup in the student body exceeds their
makeup in the general US population. Whites do not benefit in universities
where their makeup in the student body is less than their makeup in the
general US population because they are not racial minorities.
202
TEXT 2
Michigan Unveils Admissions Standards: University Alters Policy on

Race Following the Court Ruling
By Greg Toppo
An affirmative action policy unveiled Thursday for admissions at the
University of Michigan eliminates automatic advantages for minorities but
still allows the school to consider race.
The plan also demands more work of the university and its applicants,
who must write more personal essays and provide information about their
lives and family backgrounds, including parents' education and income.
The new policy is the widely anticipated answer to the Supreme Court's 6
— 3 ruling in June that Michigan's previous plan for boosting
undergraduate minority enrollment was unconstitutional. That plan gave 20
points to any minority candidate on a 150-point scale that weighed factors
such as grades, difficulty of course work, standardized test scores, athletic
prowess, extracurricular activities and an essay.
Those achievement markers will remain paramount, but University
Provost Paul Courant said race "will continue to be considered" in
applications. "We're looking at it as one element of the whole person," said
Marvin Krislov, the university's general counsel.
The new policy will take effect for the freshman class of 2004.
Sheldon Steinbach, general counsel for the American Council on
Education, which represents college presidents, suggested the Michigan plan
won't have much impact on other schools.
"This process is already in place at almost all other selective institutions
and has been for quite a long time," he said.
The court's rulings were the first on affirmative action in a quarter-
century. In a separate 5 — 4 ruling on the admissions policy for the uni-
versity's law school, the court said race can be considered but can't be the
only factor. The law school policy considers race along with other
characteristics, such as extracurricular activities.
The new undergraduate application borrows from the law school's,
focusing primarily on academic qualifications.
Two short essays will be added to the current requirement for a long essay.
Prospective students will be able to choose from a range of topics, including
a few that ask how a student's presence on campus would add to its diversity.
It also asks applicants to "describe an experience that you've had where
cultural diversity has made a difference to you".
"It remains to be seen whether the new system is constitutional," said
Terry Pell, president of the Center for Individual Rights, the Wa- shington-
based non-profit group that represented the three white plaintiffs challenging
the old policies. "If race continues to trump all other factors, then the new
203
system will be as legally vulnerable as the system the Supreme Court just
struck down."
Courant said the new system will require the university to hire 16 part-
time application readers and five full-time admissions counselors but will not
raise the university's $40 application cost.
Michigan receives more than 25,000 applications for about 5,200 spaces
in its freshman class. In 2002, minority students accounted for 11 % of
applicants but 14% of undergraduates.
"We're changing things, and they will change more," Courant said. But
he predicted that the diversity of next fall's freshman class will differ little
from this fall's.
(from The USA Today, 2004)
1. How has the Michigan admissions policy been changed?
2. How was the old affirmative action admissions policy enacted?
3. Why were the changes necessary?
4. What did the rejected white applicants do?
5. Does the new policy take race into account?
6. What information must applicants provide about themselves?
7. What other factors are important?
8. What kind of an essay will the applicants be required to write?
9. Why don't Asian Americans (immigrants from China, Japan and
Southeast Asia) benefit from affirmative action?
10. The text says that Asian Americans (for example, the Japanese and
the Chinese) are overrepresented in colleges. Why do you think it happens?
11. Do you think there are ethnic groups in Russia entitled to affirmative
action treatment?
point (Units 3, 22), challenge (Units 22, 30)
student — 1. слушатель университета или колледжа; 2. (амер.)

учащийся школы; high school student старшеклассник; 3. человек,
изучающий что-л.; She was a student of French literature. Она изучала
французскую литературу.
undergraduate — студент университета или колледжа, не имеющий
степени бакалавра
freshman — студент первого курса
Exercise 1. Find synonyms of the following words and phrases in the texts:
dominant, future (adjective), existing, to regard, to abolish, a college
student, influence, a first-year student.
204
Exercise 2. Find words in the texts meeting the following definitions:
1. The area or land that contains the main buildings of a university. 2.
Someone who formally asks to be given something, such as a job or a place
at a college or university. 3. A person who brings a legal case against
someone in a court of law.
1. Raising children is a positive challenge for many young couples.
2. Finding qualified people has become a challenge for American cor-
porations. Even a college diploma doesn't guarantee a high level of education.
3. The oil companies are likely to challenge this decision. 4. Self- expression
is good up to a point, but you can't let these kids run wild. 5. We were on the
point of leaving when the phone rang. 6. He pointed out that we had three
hours of free time before dinner. 7. Education is a matter of pointing the
children to ways in which they can improve the world, and then leaving the
work for them.
1.1 had no experience in working with children then. 2. Everyone learns
best from his own experience. 3. The funeral was a painful experience for
the child. 4. My experiences in this community taught me to be very careful
when speaking about race. 5. Few of the soldiers had experienced combat.
6. He experienced a pang of sadness. 7. Susan Hartley is an experienced
lecturer.
the texts:
1. The court ruling required the university to change its admissions
policy. 2. The new policy abolishes automatic advantages for minorities.
3. Standardized test scores will remain most important for applicants.
4. In writing their essays, future students will be able to choose from a range
of topics. 5. The Michigan plan won't have much influence on other schools.
...race can be considered but can't be the only factor. — ...расу
можно принимать во внимание, но она не должна быть един-
ственным фактором.
Повторите правила перевода сочетаний модальных глаголов с
инфинитивом в страдательном залоге (Unit 5, Grammar Study and
Practice, III).
1. Under the Communications Act passed in 1934, no radio station could
be directed to put a particular program on or off the air. 2. The
antiestablishment activity in the USA can be traced to student movements of
205
the late 1950s at Berkeley, Chicago, Columbia, Michigan and Oberlin. 3.
Although the Pacific war opened with a "sneak attack" against Pearl Harbor
(December 7, 1941), it can be argued that war between the United States and
Japan had been inevitable because of the American presence in the
Philippines since 1898, Japan's desire to spread its influence in Asia without
western interference and other factors. 4. This subject can be argued about
endlessly.
1. Эта система уязвима в правовом отношении. 2. Результаты тестов
имеют первостепенное значение при приеме в университет. 3.
Представители меньшинств составляют 11 % поступающих и 14 %
студентов. 4. Белые абитуриенты оспаривали политику приема в суде.
5. Новая система вступит в силу в 2004 году. 6. Фирма организовала для
своих будущих клиентов экскурсию по заводу.
7. Университет предлагает широкий спектр внеучебных занятий.
8. Раса и социальное происхождение принимаются в расчет при приеме
в этот университет. 9. Некоторые студенты могут получить стипендию
по вышеперечисленным критериям.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 8. Analyze the following opinions concerning affirmative action: For:

Affirmative action programs were developed to eliminate the current
effects of past discrimination and to provide equal opportunity to individuals
and groups of individuals that have been systematically discriminated against
because of their race and/or gender. Because progress for a select few has
been made — at least according to recent statistics — there are some who
believe that all affirmative action programs should be eliminated. The effort
is to ensure that African Americans, in particular, should not be entitled to
attend the more prestigious colleges and universities. A few African
Americans will be admitted, but it will be very difficult to achieve the critical
mass necessary to ensure diverse thinking. It is well known that colleges and
universities actively recruit international students in order to strengthen the
education of American students and study abroad programs provide
American students with a real life exposure to a different way of life. The
existence of a critical mass of students of color has a similar impact on the
culture of a campus. Additionally, the opportunities to interact with students
who are different are at the very root of a liberal education.
Against:
The University of Michigan admissions process... is nothing more than an
illegal quota system. (President G. W. Bush)
206
Affirmative action is dangerous for minorities. It creates uncertain
perceptions about the qualifications of those minorities who benefit from it.
In an employment situation... if it is known that different selection criteria are
used for different races... it is reasonable to expect lower performance from
persons of the race that were preferentially favored in selection. Using race
in the employment, in other words, creates objective incentives for
customers, co-workers, and others to take race into account after the
employment decision has been made. (G.C. Lowry. Beyond Civil Rights)
Exercise 9. Compare the text from this Unit with the texts from Units 28 and 30.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of affirmative action.
Exercise 10. Make presentations in your group covering the following topics:
1. The policy of the Soviet Union concerning the smaller peoples of the
North.
2. The ethnic and racial composition of the population of the USA.
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 11. Write an essay summing up the group discussion.
U n i t 32. DRUGS: TO OUTLAW OR TO LEGALIZE?
Сослагательное наклонение (повторение) Предлог by в
составе определения при отглагольных су ществител ьн
ых
TEXT
Some Arguments in Favor of Legalizing Drugs

Conservatives are generally good at arguing against gun control. Besides
the case — that the Second Amendment protects an individual right to keep
and bear arms — they are also well-versed in the "pragmatic" arguments. For
example, they say that gun laws will not be respected by people intent on
committing crimes of violence because a person who has no moral scruples
against committing murder, assault or robbery would not shrink at running
afoul of mere gun laws. The firearms restrictions have not prevented gun
violence, including horrific shootings by teenagers. On the contrary: to the
extent that gun laws impede law-abiding citizens from obtaining and carrying
firearms, those laws encourage gun violence.
Conservatives also justifiably raise the specter of the black market when
gun controllers propose making it tougher, if not impossible, to buy guns
207
legally. With at least 65 million handguns in private hands currently, black-
market thugs would have no difficulty finding a supply.
If the demand is there, the supply will follow. And since guns are the tools
of the criminal trade, the demand will be there.
Gun restrictions (or prohibition) combined with the black market in guns
for outlaws result in the endangerment of law-abiding citizens, who are
rendered defenseless by law in the face of well-armed criminals. Thus gun
control not only is futile; it makes things many times worse. The corollary is
that gun ownership by law-abiding people makes things better.
Conservatives understand all this — which makes it puzzling as to why
they favor laws against the manufacture, sale and use of narcotics and other
illegal drugs.
The pragmatic arguments against gun control and drug control are similar.
Not much argument is required to show the futility of drug control. The war
on drugs has been fought for decades. Yet today drugs are more plentiful,
more potent, and cheaper than ever. New drugs are developed all the time.
The authorities can't keep drugs out of prisons — which fact alone should end
all argument.
There is one key difference between a legal and an illegal market. In the
latter a premium is placed on skill at employing violence. In a black market,
normal security and dispute-resolution procedures are unavailable. So
"justice" is procured more directly. This offers an advantage to people
proficient in the use of physical force. The drug trade is violent not because
of drugs, but because of the war against drugs. If drugs are outlawed, only
outlaws will sell drugs. And outlaws tend to be not only skilled but also
uninhibited in the use of force.
The conservatives may respond that someone who wrecks his life using
drugs harms not only himself but his family and others. But that is also true
of someone who wrecks his life with alcohol or gambling. Yet most
conservatives do not seek a new prohibition of alcohol or gambling. Not
everyone who uses, say, marijuana, wrecks his life or hurts other people. By
what right does the state intervene before an actual crime of force is
committed? Guns can harm innocent people, but conservatives properly
demand that government not interfere with any gun owner until he has
actually committed a crime.
Violent resolution of drug disputes can also set a tone for the wider
community where affluent gang members with fancy cars and flashy firearms
are objects of admiration and role models for fatherless boys. The willingness
to use a gun to settle scores and gain respect can become part of a
subculture's way of life. The 6-year-old boy who shot a schoolmate to death
with a stolen handgun lived in his uncle's crack house. Since drug dealers
can't call the police and tend to avoid banks and other legitimate security
measures, they are tempting targets for thieves.
Decriminalizing the use of and trade in drugs would take the drug industry
away from the most violent elements of society and place them in the open
208
marketplace, where civil dispute resolution would replace gunfights. It would
also deprive thugs of a super-lucrative occupation.
To defend the freedom to use drugs is not to advocate the use of drugs.
Conservatives seem to understand that for tobacco. Why the lapse when it
comes to drugs?
1. Why do conservatives object to gun laws?
2. Do you think that guns should be freely sold in this country?
3. What are the arguments in favor of legalizing drugs?
4. What are the arguments against legalizing drugs?
5. Do you think drugs should be legalized in this country?
6. Do you think alcohol and tobacco should be outlawed in this country?
7. What is the difference between drugs, alcohol and tobacco?
8. What happened when people were forbidden to sell, buy and drink
alcohol? (To answer this question, you will have to do some research. You
might try to find the information in the Internet. Use "prohibition" as a key
word.)

to employ (Unit 4), to gain (Unit 6), to settle (Unit 11), to raise
(Unit 13), to seek (Unit 15), to commit (Unit 28)
I. scruples — сомнения, колебания
scrupulous — щепетильный, разборчивый в средствах
unscrupulous — беспринципный, неразборчивый в средствах
скрупулезный — thorough
II. Запомните следующие слова и выражения, относящиеся к
проблеме наркотиков:
addictive (adj) — вызывающий пристрастие
drug addict — наркоман
drug dealer — торговец наркотиками
drug pusher — мелкий торговец наркотиками
drug-related crime — наркопреступность
alcohol-related crime — алкогольная преступность
substance abuse — химическая зависимость (в том числе
(including drug addic- наркомания, курение и алкоголизм)
tion, smoking and
alcoholism)
rich, to carry, to answer, to ruin, legal, to attack, only, to obtain.
209
1. An activity, job or business deal that earns you a lot of money or makes
large profits. (adjective) 2. Moral principles and beliefs that make you
unwilling to do something that seems wrong. 3. A period of ten years.
1. The purpose of this tax was to raise revenues for colonial admi-
nistration. 2. When an organized group seeks to influence government policy,
it is called an interest group. 3. Protests against the war in Vietnam in 1968
forced President Lyndon Johnson not to seek reelection. 4. Modern PR
practitioners have learned a lot by studying the strategies employed by earlier
experts. 5. The authors of this report found no evidence that this law had
reduced the availability of heroin on the streets of New York City or reduced
the kinds of property crimes often committed by drug users. 6. President
Bush emphasized his commitment to human rights and religious freedom. 7.
The UK Foreign Secretary arrived in Iran in an effort to gain Tehran's support
for the international coalition against terrorism. 8. Women's important roles
as employees, consumers, business owners and voters have gained increasing
recognition in recent years. 9. The insurance company refused to settle the
claim. 10. The case was settled out of court.
210
I. ...conservatives properly demand that government not interfere
with any gun owner until he has actually committed a crime. —
...консерваторы справедливо требуют, чтобы правительство
не трогало владельца оружия, пока он не совершит
преступление.
Повторите основные значения сослагательного наклонения
(Unit 23, Grammar Study and Practice, I; Грамматический курс, 6.2.1).
I. In many countries there is a requirement that 1 % or so of payroll
(wages) be spent on training. 2. The judge demanded that the journalists walk
out. 3. Learning an academic discipline requires that the student master its
vocabulary. 4. The Customs officers insisted that the box be opened. 5.
Partridge suggested that Kettering do the interview. 6. The hostage recounted
her ordeal in an interview this evening from her hospital bed but asked that
her last name not be used. 7. My father didn't like to go to church, so Mother
and 1 preferred that he stay at home and read the paper.
II. horrific shootings by teenagers — ужасные убийства из огне-
стрельного оружия, совершаемые подростками
gun ownership by law-abiding people — оружие в руках законопо-
слушных граждан (зд. ...оружие в руках законопослушных граждан
улучшает ситуацию./...когда законопослушные граждане владеют
оружием, ситуация улучшается.)
Определение при отглагольном существительном, указывающее на
лицо, осуществляющее действие, вводится предлогом by.
1. Much of the bad publicity an organization gets can be attributed to
errors by management. 2. The report documents human rights abuses by the
government. 3. The organization is concerned about numerous continuing
allegations of torture and ill-treatment by police throughout the country. 4.
During World War II, a massive PR effort by government and industry
convinced the American public that the international situation made it
appropriate for large numbers of single and married women to enter the paid
labor force. 5. Human rights lawyers in Spain have welcomed the decision by
a Chilean court to strip the former Chilean dictator General Augusto Pinochet
of his immunity from prosecution.
211
1. Ограничения на продажу оружия не мешают преступникам
покупать его на черном рынке. 2. Все конфликты на черном рынке
разрешаются с помощью насилия. 3. Наркодилеры в роскошных
машинах часто служат предметом для подражания мальчикам из
городских трущоб. 4. Легализация наркотиков лишит дельцов их
супердоходного бизнеса. 5. Война с наркотиками идет уже не одно
десятилетие. 6. Запрет на наркотики не мешает наркоманам покупать
их. 7. Правительство требует, чтобы парламент принял этот закон. 8.
Таможенник настаивал на том, чтобы пассажиры открыли чемоданы. 9.
Законодательство требует, чтобы один процент зарплаты расходовался
на переподготовку персонала. 10. Эта группа требует, чтобы курение в
общественных местах было запрещено. 11. Члены этой группы готовы
применять оружие для сведения счетов.
SPEAKING PRACTICE

1. Drugs are in many ways the ultimate free-market product. The more
addictive they are, the more brand loyalty they have built into them. The
consumer cannot resist.
2. The only true danger is the over-indulgence of drugs and so is the over-
indulgence of alcohol, sugar, work, sports you name it.
Exercise 8. Discuss the issue of drug legalization in the group. Try to find arguments
supporting both legalizing drugs and outlawing drugs. Try to answer the following
questions:
1. Will drug legalization increase or reduce drug-related crime?
2. Will the availability of drugs increase drug consumption?
3. What measures can be taken against drug consumption besides
outlawing drugs?
Exercise 9. Discuss the issue of gun control. Take the following information into
account:
States that recognize citizens' right to carry concealed handguns have seen
their crime rates go down.
Do you think that citizens of Russia should be allowed to buy, keep and bear firearms?
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 10. Write a short essay discussing the consequences of drug abuse and ways
to deal with the problem.
212
U n i t 33. SMOKING: A BAD HABIT OR A HUMAN
RIGHT?
ГРАММАТИКА Предлог to при
глаголе to object
TEXT 1
Tough New EU Laws Aim to Change Image of Smoking "Forever"

By William Drozdiak
" The true costs of smoking will finally start to hit home."
BRUSSELS. The European Parliament on Tuesday approved some of the

world's toughest laws against smoking, ordering blunt health warnings to be
printed on cigarette packs and enabling governments to demand that they
carry pictures of scarred lungs, rotting teeth and other smoking-induced
afflictions. The landmark legislation, which will take effect in the 15
European Union member nations in October 2002, bans tobacco
manufacturers from using terms such as "mild" and "low tar" on the grounds
they are misleading. The companies will also be required to disclose all
ingredients and drastically cut the levels of tar and nicotine in their cigarettes.
The measures reflect a new determination in one of the world's biggest
tobacco markets to wage a vigorous crusade against smoking, which has long
been tolerated, even encouraged, by European governments that earn
immense tax revenues from the sale of tobacco products. Among the EU's
375 million citizens, one out of three is believed to be a Regular smoker.
But with health care costs soaring as Europe's population ages rapidly,
governments now realize they must take urgent steps to educate young people
better about the dangers of smoking and contain what EU officials describe
as an epidemic of smoking-related diseases. The EU's health problems are
likely to worsen as it embraces new members from Eastern Europe, where
cigarettes are even more popular than in the West.
"These are badly needed, state-of-the-art rules based on solid science,"
said the EU health commissioner, David Byrne, whose immediate goal is to
cut the number of smokers to no more than 20 per cent of Europe's population.
"The European Union is firmly committed to reduce the death toll from
smoking and I am convinced that today's legislation will help achieve this
objective."
213
Mr. Byrne said the dramatic and far-reaching nature of the legislation was
propelled in part by recent US court cases against the tobacco industry10,
which provided anti-smoking campaigners with highly documented evidence
of health dangers and the well-orchestrated efforts by the companies who
sought to deceive the public about the hazards of cigarettes.
Under the new rules passed by the 626-seat assembly, all cigarette
packages sold in the European Union after September 2002 must carry
explicit health warnings bearing the words "Smoking kills" or "Smoking
seriously harms you and others around you". The slogans must cover at least
30 per cent of the front of the pack and 40 per cent of the back.
National governments will be given the option of demanding that the
packages carry graphic color photographs depicting the noxious effects of
smoking on human health, such as cancerous lesions on the lungs, mouth and
throat.
In addition, tobacco companies must reveal exactly what is contained in
the cigarettes, including all potentially harmful additives that will be
published on the pack. The laws will also prescribe limits for dangerous
substances, including a maximum of 10 milligrams of tar, one milligram of
nicotine and 10 milligrams of carbon monoxide.
The ban on such terms as "light" and "low tar" will mean that such
premium brands as Camel Lights and Marlboro Lights will no longer be
allowed to suggest that their products are less toxic. Such brands now account
for about 30 per cent of all cigarettes sold in Europe and represent the fast-
growing sector of the market among women and young people.
The law will apply to all cigarettes marketed or produced in European
Union countries. The tobacco industry warned that cutting the level of tar
will have a ruinous effect on European exports to Asia, Australia and Africa
— where consumers prefer stronger cigarettes — and place as many as 8,000
jobs at risk.
John Carlisle, a spokesman for the Tobacco Manufacturers Association in
Britain, objected to the proposed use of grisly pictures on cigarette packages.
"We think this is just a gimmick," Mr. Carlisle said. "This kind of graphic
description should not have a role in a sophisticated society. It's a rather
tasteless, worthless exercise."
But anti-smoking crusaders described the new law as a major
breakthrough that will start to reverse the popularity of cigarettes in Europe.
"The message about the true costs of smoking will finally start to hit home,"
said Catherine Stihler, a member of the European Parliament and
spokeswoman on health issues for Britain's ruling Labor Party.
"The days of glamorous cigarette packs with obscure health warnings are
finally over," she said. "This legislation will transform the way cigarettes are
sold and alter the public perception of smoking forever."
10
In 1997, the Attorney General of the USA and Attorneys General of some states brought
lawsuits against major tobacco companies, alleging that they had harmed the public health, which had
cost the American taxpayers billions of dollars.
214
(from The Washington Post Service, 2002)
1. Do you approve of the laws passed by the European Parliament in
2001?
2. Do you think that the number of smokers has gone down since 2002,
when the law was passed?
3. Do cigarette packages sold in Russia carry pictures of scarred lungs
and rotten teeth?
4. Would you like cigarette packages to carry grisly pictures of scarred
lungs and rotting teeth?
5. Do you think smokers are entitled to compensation?
6. Why do you think Europe's population is aging rapidly? Is it good or
bad?
7. What will happen at the labor market if cigarette manufacturing is
stopped?
8. How do you feel about tobacco companies building their plants in
Russia? Do you think the move will create new jobs and help the economy,
or do you think the companies should move out?
9. Why did European governments tolerate and even encourage
smoking?
10. What is the difference between smoking and using drugs? Is there
anything in common between the two habits?
11. Do you think that drinking alcohol should be outlawed in Russia? (To
answer this question, find some information about the anti-alcohol campaign
of 1985 — 88.)
ground (Unit 13), toll (Unit 20)
state-of-the-art — very modern and using the most recent ideas and
methods
a purpose, to show, poisonous, to grow rapidly, to change. Exercise 2. Find
words in the text meeting the following definitions:
1. Money that a government receives through taxation. 2. A new and
successful development or achievement.
1. Public support for the long-running battle has waned significantly. One
reason is the heavy toll in casualties. 2. During the terrorist attack, the actions
of an alert security guard apparently prevented a higher death toll. 3. As the
patient's condition deteriorated, the toll on his wife increased. 4. At least
175,000 people are known to have died as a result of the tsunamis in
December 2004 and the count is still taking place. The true final toll may
never be known. 5. The Act prohibits discrimination on the grounds of
215
gender and race. 6. They oppose the bill on the grounds that it is too
restrictive. 6. The law was challenged on constitutional grounds.
1. She carried a shopping basket containing groceries. 2. At present, the
urban areas contain some 970 million people. 3. Measures to contain
population growth have met little success so far. 4. The news was so exciting
that Philip could hardly contain himself.
1. The companies will have to disclose all ingredients and drastically cut
the levels of tar and nicotine in their cigarettes. 2. The health costs grow as
Europe's population ages fast. 3. Governments now understand they must
take urgent steps to educate young people better about the dangers of
smoking. 4. The law will apply to all cigarettes sold or manufactured in
European Union countries. 5. European governments receive immense tax
revenues from the sale of tobacco products.
John Carlisle... objected to the proposed use of grisly pictures on

cigarette packages. — Джон Карлейль... возражал против ужасных
картинок на сигаретных пачках.
Глагол to object употребляется с предлогом to.
1. Lots of physicians object to plastic surgery for healthy people in
general. 2. Pacifists object to enormous defense spending on moral and
political grounds. 3. The opposition objected to these measures by the
government. 4. Several Democratic members of the Budget Committee
objected to Gramm's participation in their meetings. 5. My mother and I went
to a little Methodist church with a friendly pastor. There were plenty of kids
in Sunday School, so I didn't object to being scrubbed and starched on Sunday
morning and led off to school.
TEXT 2
Read the text:
Black Death Cigarettes

BLACK DEATH cigarettes are a direct protest from smokers against the
strongly increasing intolerant anti-smoking movement.
BLACK DEATH smokers want to maintain their rights and they do not
want to be socially discriminated by arbitrary legal measures.
216
BLACK DEATH smokers live according to the following principles:
1) Smoking is a human right and has to be respected as such, in
accordance with the articles on human rights of the United Nations.
2) The choice to smoke must be respected as part of bigger subjects in
life. As such, no country at all can interfere in this.
3) The violation of smoking citizens' rights will immediately create a
precedent for further interfering in the personal freedom and the behavior of
all citizens.
4) The relations between smokers and non-smokers must be based on
consideration, courtesy, tolerance, mutual respect and freedom of choice and
not on commandments or national regulation and intolerance.
BLACK DEATH smokers want to enjoy in peace the right to continue
to smoke!
1. Этот закон вступит в силу в октябре. 2. Оппозиция возражала
против мер, принимаемых правительством. 3. Расходы на здраво-
охранение в Европе стремительно растут, так как население стареет. 4.
Эти марки составляют 30 % сигарет, продаваемых в Европе. 5. Новый
закон требует, чтобы производители сигарет помещали на пачках
предупреждения о вреде курения. 6. Во время кризиса 1998 года цены
на продукты взлетели. 7. Прекращение производства сигарет грозит
утратой 8000 рабочих мест.
Exercise 8. Translate this article into English or render it in English as close to the text
as possible:
Ttranslation tips:
уменьшить число смертей — to bring down the death toll
начать кампанию — to launch a campaign
10 миллионов врачей начали глобальную кампанию по борьбе с курением
Организации, представляющие 10 миллионов врачей всего мира,
призывают правительства стран согласиться с новой конвенцией,
ограничивающей употребление табака. Врачи настаивают на повы-
шении налогов на табачную продукцию, запрете рекламы табака и
признании незаконными утверждений о том, что некоторые сигареты
относительно неопасны. По мнению представителей Всемирной
медицинской ассоциации (World Medical Association), эти меры
необходимы для того, чтобы уменьшить число смертей, происходящих
в результате заболеваний, связанных с курением. На данный момент
ежегодно по этой причине умирает 4,9 миллиона человек.
217
Требования врачей представлены в Женеве Всемирной организации
здравоохранения, где в настоящий момент обсуждается рамочная
Конвенция по контролю за оборотом табачных изделий. Эта конвенция
должна быть одобрена представителями 192 стран к маю будущего
года.
Огромное число проблем, связанных с курением, в развивающихся
странах, где торговля табаком практически не регулируется,
описывается врачами как эпидемия. «Врачи каждый день видят
разрушающий эффект табака у курящих людей и пассивных ку-
рильщиков», — сообщил главный секретарь Всемирной медицинской
ассоциации доктор Делон Хьюман (Delon Human).
По его словам, врачи должны объединиться, чтобы «предотвратить
эту эпидемию». В своем манифесте врачи требуют:
- четкого, информативного предупреждения на каждой пачке
табачной продукции;
- запрета «вводящих в заблуждение заявлений» о том, что неко-
торые сигареты безопаснее других;
- защиты некурящих от табачного дыма;
- запрета рекламы табака.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 9. Using the materials of the two texts, speak about the dangers of smoking
and the policy of different states concerning smokers. Try to answer the following
questions:
1. Do you think the state must do everything to prevent the citizens from
smoking or respect it as a personal choice of a free person?
2. Do you hold different opinions concerning smoking, alcohol and
drugs?
Exercise 10. Comment on the following passage:
State governments are suing to recover Medicare money spent on elderly
people with tobacco-related illnesses. The theory is that the ailments
suffered by elderly smokers drain the states' Medicare coffers. So the deep-
pocketed tobacco companies should pay. What a mess of fallacy!
Why should the companies pay? When people get heart disease, states
don't sue beef cattle farmers or meat packers. It is more than likely that people
who die prematurely from smoking save the taxpayers' money. Those people
will not linger for years in costly nursing homes or get far more costly
diseases like Alzheimer's. Maybe the tobacco companies should get bonuses.
Use the following epithets to praise the author:
rational, reasonable, practical, realistic.
Use the following epithets to criticize the author:
cynical, callous, hard-hearted.
218
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 11. Write a short essay in support of one of the following alternatives:
The state should/should not regulate the citizens' bad habits such as
smoking, drinking alcohol and taking drugs.
U n i t 34. EUTHANASIA: MERCY OR MURDER?
TEXT 1
Terminally 111 Australian Man Uses New Suicide Law

SYDNEY — A terminally ill man became the first person to commit
suicide under a new voluntary euthanasia law in Australia, his doctor said.
Bob Dent, 66, ended his life "with dignity" at his Darwin home in the
presence of his wife, Judy, said Dr. Philip Nitscke, a longtime euthanasia
activist who helped Mr. Dent die.
* The doctor said the former carpenter had suffered great pain for five years
from incurable prostate cancer.
The Northern Territory's legislature adopted a voluntary euthanasia law
last year. It took effect on July 1.
Although the law is technically the first in the world to permit euthanasia,
other countries have permissive laws on the subject. In the Netherlands,
euthanasia is technically illegal, but lawmakers approved guidelines in 1993
that let doctors help patients commit suicide under certain conditions.
The Dutch Justice Ministry said the Australian suicide was unlikely to
speed up government deliberations over whether to formally legalize
euthanasia in the Netherlands, where about 1,500 cases of mercy killing are
reported annually.
"We have our own legal proceedings and what happens abroad will not
affect the decision-making here," a Justice Ministry spokesman said.
219
In the United States, a federal court blocked voluntary euthanasia
legislation from taking effect in Oregon, despite its approval in a 1995
referendum. Similar measures were defeated in Washington and California.
Dr. Nitscke said he attached tubes to Mr. Dent from an apparatus that
administered a lethal mix of barbiturates and muscle relaxants. The machine
allows a patient to indicate a final wish to die by pressing a key on a bedside
laptop computer, the doctor said. A patient can also change his or her mind
at the last moment.
"He communicated to me that he wished to go ahead and I could carry out
this particular wish of the patient," Dr. Nitscke said.
In a letter he wrote before his death, Mr. Dent passionately defended his
right to end his life. "The church and the law should be separate," he wrote.
"If you disagree with voluntary euthanasia, don't use it, but please, don't deny
the right to me to use it if I want to."
The law will be challenged next month in Australia's highest court. Anti-
euthanasia politicians also are planning legislation in Parliament that, if
approved, would override the territory's law.
The head of the Roman Catholic Church in Australia, Cardinal Edward
Clancy, denounced legal suicide as shameful.
"This first case of legalized euthanasia in all the world is an act of reckless
disregard for the convictions of people around the globe and will be widely
condemned," Cardinal Clancy said.
Dr. Nitscke said the strict conditions of the law had been met, including
a nine-day waiting period before a lethal injection is administered.
(from The International Herald Tribune, 1996)
1. What disease did Bob Dent suffer from?
2. What were his views concerning euthanasia?
3. What was his doctor's name?
4. Why did the doctor agree to help his patient?
5. Why is euthanasia called "mercy killing"?
6. What other countries (besides Australia) had permissive laws on the
subject in 1996? How has the situation changed since then? (To answer this
question, you will have to do some research. You might try to find the
information in the Internet. Use "euthanasia" as a keyword.)
7. What did the federal court of the USA rule on the subject?
8. What was the position of the Roman Catholic Church concerning
euthanasia?
9. Do you think euthanasia should be legalized in Russia?
220
meet (Unit 8), to administer (Unit 20)
I. legislation — законодательство, закон ■

legislature — законодательный орган
II. technically — формально
to indicate, to permit, to wish, to denounce, to defend, opinion.
Exercise 2. Find antonyms to the following words in the text:
to approve, legal.
Exercise 3. Explain the meaning of the following words and phrases:
to legalize, to administer an injection, a laptop computer, annually,
legislature, voluntary.
1. A physician who writes a prescription for a lethal dose of medication,
for example, is less directly involved in the patient's death than a physician
who actually administers medication that causes death. 2. The British
government believed that taxing the American colonies was the obvious way
to meet the administrative costs. 3. Most local libraries purchase government
documents to meet the most common information needs of their users. 4.
The tobacco industry of the country already meets a considerable amount of
healthcare costs associated with smoking.
1. By the early 18th century, the colonial legislatures in America held
two significant powers: the right to vote on taxes and expenditures and the
right to initiate legislation. 2. Each new legislature seems committed to
writing more legislation, and more complex legislation, than the legislature
that preceded it. 3. The Iowa legislature has passed a bill prohibiting assisted
suicide. 4. Public opinion was neither strong enough nor stable enough to
force state legislatures in the USA to outlaw the death penalty.
1. Dr. Philip Nitscke is a longtime euthanasia proponent. 2. This first
case of euthanasia in all the world is an act of reckless disregard for the views
of people. 3. The law adopted in Australia was the first in the world to allow
euthanasia. 4. What happens abroad will not influence our decision-making
here.
221
...a federal court blocked voluntary euthanasia legislation from
taking effect in Oregon... — ...федеральный суд не допустил
вхождения в силу закона о добровольной эвтаназии, принятого
в штате Орегон...
Повторите значения герундиальных оборотов с предлогом from при
глаголах to prevent, to stop, to prohibit, to keep и др. (Unit 21, Grammar
Study and Practice, IV; Грамматический курс, 3.2.9).
1. The existing freedom of expression should not deter editors and
publishers from maintaining a constant vigil to preserve and extend our
liberties. 2. This law is meant to deter drivers from drinking. 3. The owner of
the building is prevented by law from making any major changes. 4. England
was too weak to conquer and govern Ireland, but strong enough to prevent
her from learning to govern herself. 5. Usually the courts strike down
government attempts to restrain the press from publishing or broadcasting the
information, events or opinions that it finds newsworthy. 6. The Spanish
Catholicism was sufficiently strong to keep the sects of Protestantism from
taking root in Iberia. 7. The Washington statute prohibits physicians from
prescribing life-ending medication for use by terminally ill, competent adults
who wish to hasten their own deaths. 8. The police couldn't stop the rioters
from entering the consulate building.
1. Парламент принял этот закон в декабре. 2. Закон вступил в силу с
первого января. 3. Эта группа борется за добровольную эвтаназию. 4.
Многие группы оспаривают этот закон. 5. Это очень трудная задача. 6.
Как сторонники, так и противники эвтаназии понимают, что это очень
сложная проблема. 7. Церковь возражает против эвтаназии, считая ее
убийством. 8. Это общество борется за право больных умереть
добровольно с помощью врача. 9. Многие врачи возражают против
эвтаназии, считая, что этим законом будут злоупотреблять. 10.
Католическая церковь осудила легализацию эвтаназии в Нидерландах.
11. Доктор Нитшке — неутомимый поборник добровольного ухода из
жизни. 12. Парламент принял новое законодательство. 13. По
действующему закону два врача должны были подтвердить, что
пациент неизлечимо болен.
TEXT 2
Compare the views expressed in Texts 2 and 3 below. Try to formulate your own
opinion concerning euthanasia and assisted suicide.
222
Arguments in Favor of Euthanasia
Dan Callahan, who is a well-known American bioethicist and a Catholic,
wrote:
"In the name of medical progress, we have carried out a relentless war
against death and decline, failing to ask in any probing way if that will give
us a better society. The proper question is not whether we are succeeding in
giving a longer life to the aged. It is whether we are making old age a decent
and honorable time of life. Neither a longer lifetime nor more life-extending
technology is the way to that goal." And there is another American
bioethicist, called Paul Menzel, who recently wrote, "Let's just take a few of
the gloves off our moral language here: dying more cheaply is not just
admirable sacrifice; sometimes it is morally required.
I think there may come a time soon when, if one undertakes a global
utilitarian analysis, it would show that voluntary euthanasia is an absolutely
essential part of any society's way of coping with old age and death. There
are places where that happens already, quietly. I was intrigued a few years
ago, when I was teaching a human rights in medicine course in Yugoslavia,
that whenever there were any senior Yugoslav doctors present at the public
discussion, euthanasia was always absolutely taboo. But after the session, a
GP from Montenegro came up to me and said, "Don't believe a word of what
you have heard. Up in the hills in Montenegro, it has been accepted for many
years that old people, when they feel that they are no longer of value to the
village, when they are becoming a drag on their families, will go along to the
family doctor in that village, and he will provide them with what they need
to end their lives.'
If we are to help ourselves create a stable globe, using only our fair share
of the world's resources, that will have to become common practice in our
country too."
TEXT 3
Euthanasia: Killing the Dying. It's OK — Isn't It?

Euthanasia is the intentional killing of a person, for compassionate
motives, whether the killing is by a direct action, such as a lethal injection,
or by failing to perform an action necessary to maintain life. For euthanasia
to occur, there must be an intention to kill.
Euthanasia has usually been proposed only for those with terminal illness
with severe suffering, but more recently the concept has been extended to
include persons who wish to die for some relatively trivial social reason, such
as being tired of life.
223
Is There a Real Need for Euthanasia?
Those who care full-time for the dying rarely encounter a request to be
killed, and when they do, it is almost always associated with depression or
an intractable social problem. The advocates of euthanasia give the
impression that there is a great need for it, but they never provide any
evidence to support this view. The reasonable conclusion is that when dying
persons are well cared for, they have no need to ask to be killed. In that case,
to introduce euthanasia would be doubly tragic, because it would be both
inhumane and unnecessary.
Why Is Euthanasia Proposed?

Because it is not widely known that modern care of the dying, called
palliative care, can now effectively relieve almost all severe pain and
significantly relieve emotional distress. Both those who wish to relieve
distress by appropriate care and those who propose killing through ignorance
are motivated by compassion. But there are enormous differences in the two
approaches, involving morality, medicine, the law and the good of society.
Euthanasia is said to be an expression of such things as death with dignity,
the right to die, autonomy and so on. For the most part, these are used as
slogans, without understanding their true meanings. Dying persons are
treated with true dignity when their genuine needs are met by providing
effective, loving care which values the worth of every fellow human, in
distress or not.
Although a right to die is claimed, what is meant instead is a right to be
killed. There has never been a right to be killed in any code of ethics. It is a
spurious concept, and no argument is ever made to support it. The right to
respect for one's autonomy (self-determination) is different, in that it is a
genuine human right, but one which is often misunderstood. In the context of
euthanasia, it is implied that a person's wish to die must be so respected as to
give it power to bind others to act. That is both simplistic 1 and wrong, since
nobody may have anything in life just because he or she asks for it, no matter
how sincerely. Since there is no right to be killed, others are not required to
kill, nor should they do so.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 9. Discuss the issue of euthanasia in your group. Speak about the idea of
personal freedom and its limits. The questions below may help you to better formulate
your opinion. Some of them are outrageous, but the views described were expressed in the
discussions on the subject. None of them were invented by the authors of the textbook.
1. Do you think that euthanasia and assisted suicide should be legal

because a free person can choose when and how to die?
224
2. Do you think that every person should be allowed to commit suicide
when he/she desires and regardless of the reason?
3. How do you understand the term "incurable disease"?
4. Do you think that it is the duty of a doctor to help his/her patient die
subject to certain conditions?
5. If you disapprove of euthanasia, is your opinion based on the fear that
legalized euthanasia will be open to abuse?
WRITING PRACTICE

Let's just take a few of the gloves off our moral language here: dying more
cheaply is not just admirable sacrifice; sometimes it is morally required. (Paul
Menzel, an American bioethicist)
'A word showing disapproval. A simplistic view makes the issue seem much simpler than it really
is.
U n i t 35. BIOETHICS
Перевод герундиальных конструкций (повторение)
Сослагательное наклонение с глаголом should Вводные
конструкции
TEXT 1
A Right to Life, But not to Stay Alive
Operation that will kill one conjoined twin to save sister can go ahead.
The fate of the conjoined twins Judy and Mary hung in the balance last
night after the court of appeal gave the go-ahead for them to be separated but
also agreed that the girls' parents could take their objections to the operation
to the House of Lords.
At the conclusion of an appeal that has gripped the nation and attracted
worldwide attention, taking in the most complex legal, moral and religious
225
issues, the judges overruled the wishes of the parents, who don't want the
operation to take place.
The Roman Catholic Church and "pro-life" campaigners condemned the
judgement, arguing that as the procedure would inevitably lead to the death
of the weaker girl, Mary, it enshrined in law a dangerous precedent that it
could be lawful to take an innocent life to save another.
Technically the operation could happen immediately as the court did not
order that it should be delayed until after any further appeal, but the hospital
where the six-week-old twins are being treated said it would wait.
The parents' legal team said they had not yet decided whether to take their
case further. But through their counsel the father and mother, devout
Catholics who object to the operation on religious grounds, promised not to
flee Britain to their homeland (the Maltese island of Gozo).
Unusually Lord Justice Ward, the senior judge, commented on the
difficulties the three had coming to their decisions as he arrived at the court,
telling the BBC: "It has been excruciatingly difficult. One's heart bleeds for
the family. Fifty per cent of the population will agree with the decision; 50 %
will think we have gone potty."
Later during a dramatic hearing he described how he and his colleagues
had carried out the most delicate and agonising balancing act to decide if the
operation should go ahead. After considering authorities from Aristotle
onwards, all had finally decided that it was right that it should take place.
He said: "Mary has always been fated for early death. Though Mary has
the right to life, she has little chance to be alive. She is alive only because, to
put it bluntly but nonetheless accurately, she sucks the lifeblood of Jodie and
her parasitic living will soon be the cause of Jodie ceasing to live.
"Jodie is entitled to protest that Mary is killing her. The best interest of
the twins is to give the chance of life to the child whose actual bodily
condition is capable of accepting the chance to her advantage even if it has
to be at the cost of the sacrifice of a life. I am left in no doubt at all that the
scales come down heavily in Jodie's favour."
The Roman Catholic Church, which had supported the parents'
objections, reacted with anger. The catholic Archbishop of Birmingham,
Vincent Nicholas, said: "1 express dismay at the judgement that has been
reached as it amounts to the direct killing of an innocent person, whose basic
right to life will be denied."
The Archbishop of Westminster, Cormac Murphy O'Connor, who made
submissions during the appeal, said: "I have been particularly concerned
that a precedent might be set in English law that could allow an innocent
person to be killed, or lethally assaulted, to prolong the life of another."
The Pro-life Alliance said it was "horrified". A spokesperson said: "The
eugenic reasoning adopted by the judges is a severe blow to the rights of the
weak and disabled, and enshrines in English law a terrifying precedent which
leaves the most vulnerable members of society in grave danger."
The judges argued that such were the "unique" circumstances of the case
that no precedent would be set. A packed public gallery heard Lord Justice
226
Ward, who is the father of twin girls, spell out the background to the case and
the judges' reasoning.
The children were born at St Mary's Hospital, Manchester, joined at the
abdomen. Mary was severely disabled. Her heart and lungs did not function
and she relied on her sister for oxygenated blood. Doctors realised that both
would die, perhaps within six months, if they didn't separate them, because
Jodie's heart could not stand the extra pressure. But if the operation took
place, Mary would be bound to die within minutes. The parents said they
could not give permission for an operation that would lead to the death of one
of their babies.
The doctors were granted permission at the high court to carry out the
operation but the parents and the official solicitor, who is representing Mary's
interests, appealed.
The judges agreed yesterday to lift an order banning the parents' country
being identified after being told that it was in effect in the public domain in
the Internet.
TEXT 2
Siamese Twin Returns Home

The Siamese twin whose life was saved by an operation to separate her
from her sister has returned home to the Maltese island of Gozo.
Gracie Attard flew out of Manchester Airport with her parents at
1100BST after leaving the city's St Mary's Hospital, where she had been
cared for as "Jodie" since her birth 10 months ago.
The operation followed a court case in which her parents Michaelan- gelo
and Rina Attard argued it was wrong for doctors to "play God" and decide
that one sister should die.
Despite their initial opposition, the couple have told newspapers they are
relieved the judges stopped them from letting nature take its course,
condemning both girls to death.
At the time the children were referred to as Jodie and Mary, but on Friday
a judge lifted an order banning their identification and the first pictures of
Gracie have been published. The parents named the twin who died Rosie.
Mr Attard, 44, told The News of the World. "My wife Rina and I didn't
want to separate them ever. It was against our strong religious beliefs.
"Of course we're now happy that we still have Gracie — this is the
greatest Father's Day gift I could ever have wished for."
(from www.bbc.co.uk, 2001)
1. When and where were the conjoined twins born?
2. What did the separation of the twins result in?
3. What would happen to the twins if the operation hadn't been
performed?
4. Why did the parents object to the operation?
227
5. What was the position of the Roman Catholic Church?
6. On what grounds did the church object to the operation?
7. What other organization protested against the twins being separated?
8. How did the judge explain the court ruling?
9. What would you do if you were the judge?
10. Why did the judges feel that no precedent would be created by their
ruling?
amount (Units 15, 20), concern (Unit 16)
I. Pro-life — a group that seeks to secure the protection of the law for all
human life from the one cell embryo stage until natural death. Pro- lifers
object to abortion, euthanasia, death penalty, embryo research and cloning.
They object to the above said operation because one of the girls was sure to
die.
II. Eugenics — the study of how to improve the human race by carefully
selecting parents that would produce strong children. The Nazi Germany was
infamous for its eugenics programs, which attempted to maintain a "pure"
German race. A special program was established in order to maintain the
supposed purity (eugenics) of the so-called Aryan race by systematically
killing children and adults born with physical deformities or suffering from
mental illness. Since then, the word "eugenics" has acquired a "bad" meaning.
Exercise I. Find synonyms of the following words in the texts:
painful, sadness, a lawyer, worried.
Exercise 2. Find words in the texts meeting the following definitions:
1. An action or official decision that can be referred to in order to justify
taking a similar action or decision in future. 2. A group of people who work
together for a particular purpose.
1. If people smoke indoors, no amount of ventilation can remove all the
toxic substances from the air. 3. The pro-life group holds that abortion and
euthanasia amount to murder. 4. Like citizens worldwide, Americans have
always been concerned about the information they give to the government
about themselves. 5. Amnesty International is concerned at the apparent
failure by the authorities to take adequate measures to protect people from
attacks on account of their ethnicity or sexual orientation.
A. 1. In a written submission to the court, the parents disagreed with the
doctors' prognosis for the surviving twin. 2. The state of emergency involved
228
the submission of the press to the military. 3. We try to encourage the widest
possible submission of applications. 4. In its submission to the Commission,
the association claimed that most of the prisoners were innocent. 5. He bullied
his wife into submission.
B. 1. A new wave of immigrants arrived on the shores of Massachusetts
Bay in 1630, bearing a grant from King Charles I to establish a colony. 2.
Women are granted a year's maternity leave after giving birth. 3. It is taken
for granted that every child should learn mathematics. 4. Thank you very
much for granting me so much of your valuable time. 5. At last he was
granted an exit visa. 6. The government granted concessions to the rebels.
7. After the Civil War in the USA, slaves were granted freedom, but not
equality.
229
С. 1. David lifted the glass to his mouth. 2. Jennifer lifted her voice for
the children to hear. 3. Our car broke down, but our friends gave us a lift. 4.
The opposition urged the government to lift all controls on textile imports. 5.
When the grain embargo became unpopular, it was lifted by President
Reagan.
the texts:
1. The doctors received permission at the high court to carry out the
operation. 2. This judgement is equal to killing an innocent person. 3. The
judge officially ended his order banning the girls' identification. 4. Pro- lifers
are worried that a precedent might be set in English law that could allow an
innocent person to be killed.
Exercise 6. Having been drawn from British sources, these texts display British
spelling. Find words in the text that are spelled differently in British and American
English.

I. ...her parasitic living will soon be the cause of Jodie ceasing to
live. — ...ее паразитическое существование скоро приведет к
тому, что Джоди тоже умрет.
The judges agreed yesterday to lift an order banning the parents'
country being identified... — Судьи согласились снять запрет на раз-
глашение названия страны, из которой приехали родители...
Повторите правила перевода герундиальных конструкций (Unit 18,
Grammar Study and Practice, I; Грамматический курс, 3.2.4)
1. This approach results in employees being considered as unrelated to
management instead of as part of the same team. 2. 1 insist on a full report
being made to the manager. 3. Do your parents mind my coming here every
day? 4. Even a suspicion that the boxes were in any way unusual could result
in their being opened at the Customs. 5. Though he did not expect to avoid
security attention entirely, he gambled on its being more informal there than
at the main entrance. 6. An intelligence tip had been received about an
incoming flight carrying contraband. 7. Jeremy walked the streets of his own
city without anyone recognizing him.
II. ...the court did not order that it [operation] should be
delayed... — ...суд не вынес постановления о том, чтобы от-
MUST ложить ее [операцию]...
...all [the judges] had finally decided that it was right that it
[operation] should take place. — ...все [судьи] пришли к выводу,
что она [операция] должна состояться/что будет правильно, если она
состоится.
230
Сослагательное наклонение, обозначающее необходимое, же-
лательное или предполагаемое действие, может образовываться с
помощью глагола should. (Грамматический курс, 6)
1. Amnesty International demanded that the government should disclose
the names of all those detained in "filtration camps". 2. It was arranged that
Celia should go home to Switzerland. 3. Martin was anxious that I should
meet him at the station. 4. The High Court ruled on August 25 that the girls
should be separated, against their parents' wishes. 5. The doctor described the
patient's condition and urged that she should be evacuated as soon as possible.
III. She is alive only because, to put it bluntly but nonetheless accu-
rately, she sucks the lifeblood of Jodie... — Она жива только потому, что,
выражаясь резко, но точно, сосет соки из своей сестры...
Инфинитивный оборот to put it bluntly but nonetheless accurately
выступает здесь в функции вводного члена предложения.
1. His behavior was strange, to say the least. 2. The results of the refe-
rendum are unexpected, to put it mildly. 3. To put it mildly, the government
didn't deal with the crisis adequately. 4. To cut a long story short, they thought
it would be cheaper to live in the country.
1. Родители оспаривали решение суда в апелляционном суде. 2. Это
дело затрагивает сложные моральные, правовые и религиозные
вопросы. 3. Это дело привлекло внимание всего мира. 4. Операция
должна была привести к смерти одной из девочек. 5. Католическая
церковь осудила решение суда. 6. Церковь считает, что такая операция
равноценна убийству невинного человека. 7. Решение суда может
создать опасный прецедент. 8. Врачи получили разрешение Верховного
суда на операцию. 9. Архиепископ выдвигал ходатайства во время
апелляционного суда. 10. Родители девочек возражали против операции
по религиозным соображениям. 11. По мнению специалистов клиники,
близнецы обречены на смерть в течение ближайших месяцев, так как у
них на двоих имеются всего одно сердце и одна пара легких. 12.
Кардинал выразил озабоченность по поводу растущего количества
разводов. 13. Россия снимает запреты на торговлю с Ираком. 14.
Правительство отменило запрет на вывоз зерна. 15. Судья отменил
распоряжение, запрещающее называть девочек по имени.
Exercise 11. Translate the text into English or render it in English as close to the text
as possible:
231
Сейчас в Англии решается вопрос о разделении родившихся недавно
сиамских близнецов-девочек, в результате которого одна из них
погибнет точно, а жизнь второй окажется под вопросом. В этом случае
задействованы и церковь, и государство — вопрос решается в суде.
Рождаются ли у нас сиамские близнецы и делают ли им операцию по
разделению?
Чуть больше месяца назад в одном из барнаульских роддомов, не
прожив и месяца, от чрезмерной нагрузки на сердце умерли сиамские
близнецы-девочки. Оно у них было общее, так же как и печень. О
разделении близнецов речи не велось, так как никто из медиков на
такую операцию не решился. В мае этого года в Италии прошла
подобная операция. Родители девочек-близняшек из Перу дали на нее
свое согласие, изначально зная, что одна из девочек должна погибнуть
(у них было общее сердце). Врачам удалось устранить порок сердца,
разделить печень, восстановить работу кишечника той девочке,
которую спасали. Оставалось «воссоздать» грудную клетку, но девочка
умерла.
Раньше подобных операций не делали. Первые сиамские близнецы,
братья Чанг и Энг Банкеры, родившиеся на Сиаме (Таиланд) в XIX веке,
прожили 63 года, женившись на сестрах, имели более 20 детей и умерли
один за другим с разницей в час.
(«Аргументы и факты», 2000)
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 12. Comment on the following statment:
The world has achieved brilliance without wisdom, power without

conscience. Ours is a world of nuclear giants and ethical infants. (Omar
Bradley, 1893-1981)
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 13. Write an essay to answer the following questions:
1. Do you think that it is morally acceptable to kill an innocent person to

prolong the life of another person?
2. What ruling would you make if you were a judge at that trial?
3. Do you agree with the court ruling?
4. Do you think that this trial will create a dangerous precedent?
U n i t 36. ANIMAL RIGHTS
232
Эмфатическая конструкция it is... that (повторение)
TEXT 1
Why I Adopted a Vegan Diet

The reason I hear for adopting a vegan diet, is the growing understanding
that animals feel pain in the same way we do — in fact, it's this realization,
that animals are not automatons, that forms the basis of the modern animal
rights movement.
A friend of mine sent me a book by a theologian at Oxford University,
Dr. Andrew Linzey, who argues that animals were designed with certain
needs, desires, species-specific behaviors and inclinations, and so forth and
that animals have the capacity for pain and suffering, just as human beings.
From Dr. Linzey's perspective, denying animals the things they were
designed to do and inflicting pain on them for reasons of convenience are
categorically unethical. Linzey argues that causing pain to an animal is the
moral equivalent of causing pain to a human being.
The logic of this argument spoke to me on a deep level. Of course, if
animals have the same right to be free from pain and suffering as do humans,
we certainly can't eat them, rip their skins off to wear them, experiment on
them, or beat them into doing senseless acts in circuses or rodeos. It was this
argument that caused me to become an animal rights activist. The animal
rights perspective holds that animals have a right, just as human beings do,
to be free from pain and suffering.
Some authors compare the treatment of human slaves in the 16th through
19th centuries to the way animals are treated today. "The animals of the world
were not made for humans any more than black people were made for whites
or women were created for men."
The animal rights movement is a movement for justice, just like abolition,
suffrage, civil rights and women's rights. Most people today understand that
bias on the basis of race or gender or religion or nationality — any bias
against other human beings — is wrong. The neglected link, for many, is
species bias — having the idea that just because certain beings are not human,
we can do whatever we wish with them.
Dr. Albert Schweitzer put it well when he stated that "compassion, in which
all ethics must take root, can only attain its full breadth and depth if it
embraces all living creatures and does not limit itself to [hu]mankind".
Nobel laureate Dr. Isaac Bashevis Singer, who fled Nazi-occupied Poland,
called species bias the "purest form of racism" and animal rights the purest
form of justice advocacy, because animals are the most vulnerable of all the
233
downtrodden. He felt that mistreating animals is the epitome of the "might
makes right" moral paradigm — a moral paradigm that is ethically bankrupt.
Another reason for adopting a vegan diet is a recognition that eating
animal products supports cruelty to animals. If we do not want to pay people
to inflict gratuitous abuse on animals, veganism is the only diet that makes
sense.
I want to be clear: even if veganism were no better for the planet and even
if a vegan diet were not healthier than one with meat and dairy products, a
vegan diet is still the only clear and consistent ethical choice we can make
where animals won't be bred, abused and inevitably butchered on our behalf.
We share the planet with an array of amazing beings, and if we would prefer
not to contribute to their extreme suffering, we should not eat them.
The indisputable fact of the matter is that the production of all animal
foods in modern agriculture settings, no matter if they are meat, dairy or eggs,
always involves killing the animals when they are no longer profitable, and
this is always a gruesome and violent process. Furthermore, factory farms are
abusing animals — they are treating animals in ways that would be illegal,
were dogs or cats treated so abusively. Everything natural to animals is denied
them; their entire lives, from birth to death, are characterized by unmitigated
misery. Animal rights activists have a phrase for eating animal products: they
call it "eating misery".
Sometimes people ask about dairy products, since the animal abuse in the
dairy industry isn't as obvious. It may be surprising to hear that animal abuse
in dairy production is worse than that in most other animal product-based
industries. Cows give milk for the same reason all animals give milk — for
their babies. But we take their babies away from them within 24 hours of birth
and add the females to the dairy herd. Many of the males are raised for veal.
You might say that there is a hunk of veal in every glass of milk.
There is no way of getting around the fact that the production of dairy and
meat involves very similar aspects of pain and suffering for the animals. It is
best not only for us but also the animals if we can give up these products as
quickly as we are able to do. Thanks to the creation of so many fantastic soy
products in recent years, it is now easier to do than ever.
Make no mistake: if someone eats meat, dairy or egg products, that person
is contributing to serious animal cruelty, no matter how good of a person
they are in the rest of their life. And it's animal cruelty that, if it were done to
a dog or a cat, would warrant animal abuse charges against everyone
involved. This isn't a comfortable thing to deal with, I know, but it is the truth.
And how can we turn our backs once we know this?
1. How does the author explain his reasons for adopting a vegan diet?
2. Do you think that people should stop eating meat?
3. How do we treat animals we don't eat — rats, for example?
4. Do you think it is unethical to kill rats or mice?
5. Is it ethical to kill cockroaches who live in our homes or should we
create a friendly environment for them?
234
6. If we stop eating meat and drinking milk, will there be more or fewer
cows in the world?
7. In Arctic regions, there is no other food except meat. Do you think
people should stop living there?
8. What do you think should be changed in agriculture if we are to eat
meat and dairy products?
9. If you are a vegetarian or a vegan, explain your reasons.
hold (Unit 15), to contribute (Unit 20)
vegan — a vegetarian who doesn't eat any animal products, such as

cheese, butter or milk. A person who eats dairy products and eggs, but not
meat or fish is called a vegetarian.
prejudice, sex, a wish, horrible, defenseless.
1. Someone who studies the nature of God and His relationship with and
influence on people. 2. A feeling of pity and sympathy for somebody who is
suffering and a desire to help them.
1. The weakness of the international economy certainly contributed to
the Great Depression. 2. In this country, owning property is not a requirement
for holding public office. 3. People hold different opinions about the merits
of government policies.
235
1. The girl suffered more than her behavior had warranted. 2. The
situation is serious enough to warrant special investigation. 3. A warrant
was issued for his arrest. 4. The police entered the house with a search
warrant. 5. The company must warrant that the goods meet the general
standards.
...it's this realization, that animals are not automatons, that forms
the basis of the modern animal rights movement. — ...именно
понимание того, что животные не автоматы, лежит в основе
современного движения за права животных.
It was this argument, that caused me to become an animal rights
activist. — Именно этот аргумент заставил меня бороться за права
животных.
Повторите эмфатическую конструкцию It is... that (Unit 10, Grammar
Study and Practice, IV).
1. Henry V had begun to build a royal fleet. Henry VII had encouraged
the mercantile marine, but had not built a fleet for fighting purposes only. It
was Henry VIII who built an effective fleet of royal fighting ships. 2. The
papers carried candid pictures caught by news photographers of a woman in
tragic trouble. But it was not the news pictures that interested me most at the
moment. It was the story of what had happened that night. 3. The content of
early motion pictures mattered little to anyone. It was the novelty of the
movement that was the important factor. 4. He closed the door behind him
and waited for me to speak. When I said nothing, it was he who spoke first.
5. William was always the first person I turned to when I was in trouble. So
when my husband disappeared, it was to William that I turned.
TEXT 2
World Week for Animals in Laboratories Is Time for Truth

As April 22 — 29 has been designated World Week for Animals in
Laboratories, it is a good time to dispel some myths. Experimenters like to
claim, for example, that animals in laboratories are protected by strict
236
legislation. Nothing could be further from the truth. The Animal Welfare Act
is the only federal law that covers the use of animals in experiments, and it
deals primarily with housing and maintenance standards. There are no
regulations that limit what an experimenter can do to animals, no matter how
painful. Just as troubling is the US Department of Agriculture's (USDA's)
enforcement of these minimal standards. Technically, the Act covers all
warm-blooded animals, but the USDA has always interpreted it to exclude
birds, mice and rats. As these small, but sentient, creatures make up more
than 90 per cent of all animals used in laboratories, almost every animal in a
laboratory today is without any legal protection.
Under pressure from animal activists, the courts and some members of
Congress, the USDA recently decided to enforce the Act as written and
include mice and rats, but animal experimenters are fighting this tooth and
nail, as though filling out paperwork on the animals they cage and use is just
too much trouble.
Consider these experiments:
At the University of Rochester, an experimenter addicts monkeys to crack
cocaine, and has spent a quarter of a million dollars on an elaborate crackpipe
for the animals to use.
At the University of Oregon, monkeys are used in nicotine addiction
experiments though the danger of cigarettes to humans is well documented.
Similar research projects funded by RJ Reynolds and Philip Morris use mice
and rats.
At the Oregon Health Sciences Center, an experimenter conducts
experiments involving "maternal infant deprivation", in which baby animals,
usually monkeys, are deprived of their mothers' care and stuck in barren cages
without comfort. These wretched studies, pioneered by famed experimenter
Harry Harlow (who has been accused of sadism even by his own colleagues)
have been continuing for decades despite volumes of scientific literature
already published.
All these experiments are taking place now, in facilities inspected by the
government.
As these examples illustrate, not all experiments on animals are
"necessary" and not all are conducted in an effort to find cures for conditions
and diseases that afflict humans. Our government doles out more than $6
billion of taxpayer money every year to animal experimenters, and there is
no one in Washington, D.C., saying, "Only use animals if you're trying to find
a cure for a disease." Literally millions of animals suffer and die in
experiments that have nothing to do with AIDS, cancer, Alzheimer's.
Even if all animal studies were directed toward these and other frightening
ailments, it would still be incorrect to believe that animals hold the answers.
After years and years of experiments on animals, we have no cure for cancer,
no cure for AIDS, no cure for Alzheimer's, no cure for mad cow disease or
other life-threatening illnesses. Using animals for drug development and
testing has been downright dangerous.
237
Ultimately, the question we must ask is quite simple: Is it right to imprison
and harm other beings even if it may one day help humans? I join the
thousands of scientists, physicians, ethicists and every day people who
believe we need to extend compassion to all beings capable of suffering. I
have tremendous faith in the ingenuity of today's most forward-thinking
researchers who believe we can — and must — cure and prevent disease in
humans without harming animals.
facilities (Unit 28)

an attempt, a rule, an illness, to show, treatment, great.
1. The laws that are passed by a government or state concerning a
particular situation or thing. 2. An untrue idea or explanation which is
commonly believed. 3. The condition of taking harmful drugs and being
unable to stop taking them.
1. During a tour of Casey House, Harrison explains that the facility offers
its patients sophisticated medical technology wrapped in a homey setting. 2.
Intelligence reported that as many as 300 secret weapons facilities were
functioning in the district. 3. The knowledge of an ancient language involves
a fluent reading ability and some facility in writing. 4. If American Indians
or Alaska Natives residing in a county-owned nursing home or incarcerated
in a correctional facility are not being provided adequate medical care,
human rights group can investigate and file a lawsuit against the appropriate
governmental authority to force improvements in the quality of care.
TEXT 3
For All Our Sakes, Stop This Rabbiting on About Animal Rights
The good news is that the number of animal experiments carried out in
Britain could reportedly double, with the planned construction of three new
vivisection facilities. The bad news is that it may not happen, if the public
mood hardens further against animal research — a mood well illustrated by
recent reports that our schools have abandoned animal dissections.
238
If the medical benefits of past animal research are anything to go by, it
would seem sensible to conclude that the more mice and rats are used in
experiments, the better. From organ transplants and open-heart surgery, to
antibiotics and safe anaesthetics, no major medical advance would have
happened without animal research. As the Oxford geneticist Sir Walter
Bodmer says: "There is no one that has not benefited from drugs that depend
on animal work" — unless of course the protesters outside the laboratories
have never been vaccinated or used a painkiller. Yet biomedicine finds itself
besieged by a powerful virus known as the animal rights lobby. The
withdrawal of investment that brought Huntingdon Life Sciences to the brink
of collapse revealed how many are embarrassed to be associated with
scientific success if animal research is involved.
The usual explanation for the change of mood is the threat from "animal
extremists". No doubt high-profile scientists should take sensible
precautions. Yet the ragbag army of students, misfits and middle-aged
matrons picketing for animal rights seems unlikely to strike fear into the hard
hearts of the financial and political worlds.
The bigger problem is that the irrational demand for animal rights is no
longer "extreme" at all. It has infected the mainstream, and put statesmen and
even scientists who should know better on to the defensive.
The chairman of the Association for Science Education says the ending of
school dissections reflects "the general concern in society about animals".
The British Union Against Vivisection quotes a MORI poll in which 64 per
cent opposed animal experiments.
This trend is not restricted to the animal-loving Brits. In America, the
philosopher Peter Singer, whose new book asserts that we should never kill
any animal because "mere difference of species is surely not a morally
significant difference", is now taken seriously enough to be appointed
something called Professor of Bioethics at Princeton University.
It is not as if the animal rights lobby offers any powerful new arguments.
Listen to the woman from People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals say
that "six million Jews died in concentration camps, but six billion broiler
chickens will die this year in slaughterhouses", or to the man from In Defence
of Animals insist that, if the death of one rat could cure all human disease, it
would not be worthwhile. They still sound as mad as March hares, although
they would probably take that as a compliment.
In fact, the hostility towards animal research has little to do with changing
attitudes to animals. The rise of animal rights is more a side- effect of the
declining public stock of humanity itself. The new misgivings about
sacrificing mice for medical science reveal a society that has lost faith in its
own achievements.
When we seem unable to reach a consensus as to what behaviour is right
or wrong on everything from child rearing to genetically modified food, many
have turned to the animal kingdom in search of some moral certainty.
Estelle Morris, the School Standards Minister, might claim that schools
no longer deem dissection appropriate because children today have "different
239
sensitivities". But it is more a case of adults adopting what would once have
been considered childish sensitivities and squeamishness.
Faced with this outbreak of infantilism, science could do with some
grown-up government support. Downing Street did rally financial backing
for Huntingdon Life Sciences, declaring that the Prime Minister is "very pro-
science in relation to this". But it would have helped if the Labour Party had
not already indulged the anti-science lobby by withdrawing its pension fund
investment from the company.
It would help a lot more if the Government were to relax the stranglehold
of red tape that means it can take six months to start new animal research.
Last summer 110 top scientists wrote to the Science Minister, Lord Sainsbury
of Turville, pointing out that researchers overseas could have completed vital
animal experiments and begun acting on the results, while the British queued
for official permission to kill a rat. Those 110 are one unrepresentative
minority of activists to whom we really should listen.
(from www.bbc.co.uk)

depend (Unit 5), to benefit (Unit 20)

support, agreement, reasonable.
1. A group of people who try actively to persuade a government that a
particular law should be changed or that a particular thing should be done. 2.
A person who tries to bring about political or social change by campaigning
in public or working for an organization.
1. In the USA, the media depend on advertising revenue to cover their
costs. 2. Under the system of school segregation, specific benefits enjoyed
by white students were denied to African students of the same educational
qualifications. 3. A survey showed that children benefit from seeing their
fathers do housework.
A. 1. According to a poll conducted last week, 75 % of the public support
the Prime Minister. 2. The country will be going to the polls in less than a
month. 3. In 1989, the candidate polled 43.7 % of the votes.
B. 1. Their friendship is regarded with suspicion and hostility. 2. The
shooting was the worst incident since major hostilities in Iraq were declared
over May 1, and it served to intensify talk here of the heavy- handedness of
240
American troops. 3. The shooting was a highly provocative act, which could
result in hostilities escalating out of control. 4. Germany's declaration of war
on Russia on August 1, 1914 obligated the Ottoman Empire to enter the
hostilities on Germany's side.
C. 1. She believed that the voters would rally to the conservatives if an
election were held. 2. She was invited to address a big anti-war rally in New
York City. 3. When a country goes to war, the public rallies around its leader,
in part because it is just to scary not to.
Exercise 13. Find metaphors and puns in the text based on animals and scientific
jargon.
Exercise 14. The text was drawn from a British source, so British spelling is used.
Find words in the text that are spelt differently in British and American English.
1. Производство новых лекарств невозможно без экспериментов на
животных. 2. Опросы общественного мнения показали, что население
поддерживает правительство. 3. Польза от экспериментов на животных
очевидна всем. 4. Ученые, проводящие эксперименты на животных,
должны принимать определенные меры предосторожности. 5. Ее
пригласили выступить на антивоенном митинге. 6. Экспериментаторы
утверждают, что лабораторных животных защищает законодательство.
7. Многие люди переходят на чисто растительную диету по этическим
соображениям. 8. Детям полезно видеть, как их отцы занимаются
хозяйством.
Exercise 16. Translate the following text into English or render it in English as close
to the text as possible:
Translation tips:
божья корова — наиболее уместным вариантом перевода пред-
ставляется holy cow — английский фразеологизм, обозначающий
«что-то святое» учинить самосуд — to lynch толпа — mob
смотреть сквозь пальцы — to turn a blind eye (to something)
забивать животных — to slaughter animals
Божья корова
Правительство Индии запретит всем без исключения жителям

страны убивать коров и есть говядину
Законопроект, который запретит жителям Индии, независимо от их
вероисповедания, убивать коров, внес на рассмотрение парламента
кабинет министров. До сих пор эти животные, которые считаются
священными только у индуистов, шли на нужды пищевой и кожевенной
промышленности в семи штатах Индии, где живет много мусульман и
христиан. Теперь, по новому закону, за убийство коровы в любом
241
регионе страны виновному грозит наказание до 5 лет тюрьмы или
штраф до 200 долларов.
Абсолютно новыми инициативы правительства не назовешь —
местные законы, запрещающие убивать коров, сегодня действуют во
многих штатах. И соблюдаются весьма строго — время от времени
индийская пресса сообщает о случаях, когда разъяренная толпа учиняла
самосуд над людьми, которых обвиняли в убийстве коров.
Тем не менее это не мешает местным предпринимателям отправлять
буренок на скотобойни в города, где промышленный забой скота не
считается преступлением. И получать обратно шкуры животных,
которые потом поступают на нужды весьма развитой в Индии
кожевенной промышленности. Правда, перевозки скота из
«вегетарианских» в «мясоедческие» штаты происходят ночью, чтобы
лишний раз не оскорблять чувства верующих.
Национальная комиссия по скотоводству, которую называют
инициатором нового закона, сформулировала государственную
позицию в области животноводства — благополучие коров превыше
всего. Раньше даже в штатах, где существовал запрет на убийство коров,
власти сквозь пальцы смотрели на некоторые исключения. И иногда
разрешали уничтожать старых и больных животных. Теперь подобная
практика прекратится.
«Владельцы предприятий по переработке молока держат коров до
тех пор, пока они приносят пользу. А затем выгоняют их на улицу, где
животные гибнут под колесами машин», — возмущаются защитники
прав животных. В новом законе подобную практику власти называют
«жестокой» и планируют положить ей конец.
Оппозиционные партии называют главным лоббистом нового закона
премьер-министра Атала Бихари Ваджпаи (Atal Bihari Vajpayee). И
утверждают, что таким шагом премьер решил подогреть чувства
индуистского большинства и тем самым добиться победы на
парламентских выборах 2004 года.
Все увещевания «мясоедов» о праве населения без государственных
подсказок выбирать себе пищу встречают негодование сторонников
коровьего благополучия. «Есть немало людей, которые, может быть,
любят пить человеческую кровь, но это не значит, что общество должно
разрешать подобные действия», — говорит глава общества любителей
коров.
Между тем экономика Индии готовится к предстоящему нокауту.
Предполагаемые потери государства только от сокращения экспорта
кожевенных изделий составят два миллиарда долларов в год. И это без
учета потерь, которые понесет продовольственный рынок страны в
северных районах, где в некоторых городах христиане составляют 85 —
90 процентов населения. Новый законопроект — это потеря рабочих
мест для миллионов жителей Индии.
(«Известия», 2003)
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SPEAKING PRACTICE

1. Animals are not ours to eat, wear, perform experiments on or use for
entertainment. 2. Animal rights activists react with outrage to the wearing of
fur or leather. Nevertheless, it was God Himself who clothed Adam and Eve
with skins in the garden. (Genesis 3:21) 3. Animal rights activists often
condemn the eating of animal flesh. However, animals eat people, and they
eat each other. Why shouldn't people eat animals?
Exercise 18. Compare Texts 1, 2 and 3 and try to formulate your opinion on the issue
of animals being used for food and in experiments. Discuss this issue in your group. The
following tips may help you to better understand the problem:
• The word "vaccine" is derived from Latin "vacca" — cow, because the
vaccine against smallpox was based on the cow blood serum.
• Native peoples in Siberia, Alaska and Canada depend on meat for
survival because agriculture is impossible in arctic regions.
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 19. Express in writing your opinion about animal experiments. Think of the
following questions:
1. If you approve of the use of animals in experiments, do you mean only
medical experiments or experiments conducted by cosmetic firms?
2. Can you imagine the modern world without vaccines against smallpox,
poliomyelitis, diphtheria, measles and tuberculosis?
3. What measures do you think scientists should take in conducting
experiments involving animals?
4. Do you think that the experiments described in Text 2 are justified?
U n i t 37. ABORTION AND DEATH PENALTY
Модальный глагол should с перфектным инфинитивом
TEXT
243
Florida Executes Anti-abortionist Killer
Gary Younge in New York
The anti-abortion extremist who murdered a doctor who carried out
abortions and his driver went to his death unrepentant last night, saying he
was "looking forward to glory" shortly before he was executed by lethal
injection.
Paul Hill, 49, a former Presbyterian minister, was the first person in the
US to be executed for anti-abortion violence, as clinics braced themselves for
a violent backlash.
Hill shot the doctor, John Britton, 69, and his bodyguard, James Barrett,
74, at the Ladies centre in Pensacola, Florida in July 1994.
He claimed the shooting amounted to "justifiable homicide". He was
denounced by moderate anti-abortionists but embraced by hardliners called
the Army of God. A website created by that group contains many messages
of support: "By your fulfilling scripture, you indeed will be remembered,"
said one message writer called Judy.
Hill was executed by lethal injection yesterday at Florida state prison.
A father of an 18-year-old son, and daughters, age 15 and 13, Hill had
told reporters in a jailhouse interview earlier this week that he was a martyr
in the anti-abortion cause and that he hoped his death would inspire more
clinic attacks.
But Hill's actions have split the anti-abortionists over how far they are
willing to go to make their case.
The Reverend Ed Martin, of the anti-abortion group Rescue America, told
the newspaper Orlando Sentinel: "It's wrong to take the life of an unborn
child. But it is equally wrong to take the life of an abortionist or his worker."
Pro-choicers minced no words in their denunciations of Hill.
"Paul Hill is a dangerous psychopath," stated Marti McKenzie, the
spokeswoman for James S Pendergraft, a doctor who runs several Florida
women's clinics. "The bottom line is that when you work in the industry,
you're aware those people are out there every single day."
Extra law enforcement officers, explosives-sniffing dogs and undercover
officers were in place outside the Starke, Fla. prison yesterday to prevent
protests from 50 abortion and death penalty foes from getting out of hand.
Opponents of capital punishment had urged Gov. Jeb Bush to halt the
execution. And some abortion rights advocates warned that Hill's death
would unleash more violence against abortion clinics.
Several Florida officials connected to the case received threatening letters
last week, accompanied by rifle bullets. Opposition to his execution produced
an unlikely alliance of rightwing anti-abortionists and liberals opposed to the
death penalty.
"The sooner 1 am executed, the sooner 1 am going to heaven," Hill said
in his interview. "1 expect a great reward in heaven. I am looking forward to
glory. I don't feel remorse. More people should act as I have acted."
244
Using his right as a death row prisoner under Florida law to hold a press
conference before his execution, Hill said on Tuesday: "I believe the state by
executing me will be making me a martyr. 1 think I have some natural
apprehension, but no, I'm not afraid."
Jeb Bush, the governor of Florida and brother of the US president, George
Bush, said he had no intention of changing his mind over Hill's execution.
"I'm not going to change the deeply held views that I have on the death
penalty because others have deeply held views that disagree," he said. Bush
said he would not be "bullied" into stopping the execution.
Over the past decade there have been at least 10 attempts to kill doctors
and others involved in abortion services in the US and Canada, according to
the abortion federation. The most recent killing was in 1998 in Amherst, New
York.
Comments by pro-life and pro-choice groups

Pro-life
The Execution of Paul Hill Nothing Less than Murder
Paul Jennings Hill is scheduled to die by lethal injection today in the state
of Florida for the murder of a Pensacola abortionist and his security guard in
1994. The following is a joint statement released by Operation Rescue West
and the California Life Coalition regarding today's execution:
"Today's scheduled execution of Paul Hill is not justice, but is another
example of the judicial tyranny that is gripping our nation. A Florida judge
denied Rev. Hill his right to present a defense that claimed that the killing of
the abortionist was necessary to save the lives of the pre-born babies that were
scheduled to be killed by abortion that day.
Our system of justice is based upon 'innocent until proven guilty', but in Rev.
Hill's case, there was no justice because the court prevented him from
presenting the legal defense that his conduct was justifiable defensive action.
"Paul Hill should have been given the opportunity to defend himself with
the defense of his choosing in a court of law. Because he was denied this
right, the full truth and motivations behind Hill's actions were kept hidden
from the jury. If Paul Hill's life can be taken by the state without the full
advantage of the protections afforded him by due process simply because of
the unpopularity of his views, then we have to wonder who is next? No one
is safe from being denied a defense by an out-of-control and biased judicial
system. Execution under these circumstances is nothing less than murder of
a political prisoner."
245
Pro-choice
The Execution of Paul Hill and the Attempted Murder
of Choice in America
Statement from the Reproductive Freedom Task Force for Refuse &
Resist!
On September 3rd, 2003, Paul Hill became the first person in the US to
be executed for anti-abortion violence. He murdered Dr. John Britton and
James Barrett, who was escorting Dr. Britton into the clinic, and seriously
wounded Barrett's wife, June. Paul Hill's actions were repugnant, but justice
will not be served in the least by this hypocritical execution, carried out by a
regime that is, itself, one of the most women hating in American history.
Hill's execution occurred in, and as an outgrowth of, the very same repressive
political climate that spawned his vicious attack.
Despite our feelings towards Paul Hill, the Reproductive Freedom Task
Force joins with the many diverse voices that opposed his execution. We
remain unalterably opposed to the death penalty. This so-called "ultimate
punishment" is a fundamentally racist, reactionary tool in a criminal justice
system. It does not deter crime. It is unfairly applied to those least able to
defend themselves against the highest form of punishment. The death penalty
is also used to suppress dissent, by attempting to blatantly silence progressive
political prisoners with tremendous popular support. The execution of Paul
Hill will not and does not change the fundamental character of the death
penalty.
Executing Paul Hill will not make one clinic, doctor, staff person or
woman in this country safer. In fact, we are faced with the prospect of more
violence toward abortion providers in the wake of Hill's execution. It took
place at a time of unprecedented legislative attacks against all forms of
reproductive freedom, in which 87 % of all US counties have not a single
abortion provider, and in a society where women's reproductive freedom is
seen as shameful, abortion itself is called murder, and doctors are labeled
"murderers". On Wednesday, September 3rd, one anti- abortion extremist
was put to death — but the attempt to murder choice in this country will go
on unabated.
1. Why was Paul Hill executed?
2. What was his motive for killing the doctor and his bodyguard?
3. Did he repent of his crime?
4. Why did liberals disapprove of the execution?
5. How did the doctors in abortion clinics say about the event?
6. On what grounds did anti-abortion groups condemn the death
sentence?
7. How do anti-abortion groups campaign against abortions?
8. What other places do they picket besides abortion clinics and why?
9. What is your opinion of the execution?
246
10. How do you think the execution will influence the anti-abortion
movement?
case (Unit 22)
"л! liberals (in the USA) — oppose conservatives in being more ■ tolerant
to deviant lifestyles — for example, homosexual behavior; by
promoting equality; by supporting laws ensuring that homosexuals
receive equal treatment in employment, housing and education; by
promoting laws requiring private businesses to hire and promote
women and members of minority groups; by requiring public
facilities to provide equal access to the handicapped; by promoting
and supporting welfare programs
либерал (in Russia) — an advocate of free-market policies and an
opponent of government interference in the economy. An approximate
English equivalent is libertarian.
to manage, death penalty, a priest, to kill, disgusting, to try, various.
1. A person who suffers or is killed because of his/her political or
religious beliefs and therefore gives strength to people who share those
beliefs. 2. A person who wishes to bring about political or social change by
doing things that other people consider too severe, especially by using
violence. 3. A person who supports a strict, fixed set of ideas that are often
extreme and who refuses to accept any change in them. 4. Use of physical
force on other, expecially to hurt or harm illegally.
A. 1. Martin Luther King was a Baptist minister. 2. The Minister for
Education spoke on the radio yesterday. 3. The doctors ministered to the
wounded.
B. 1. The cause of the fire was carelessness. 2. We can't get rid of war until
we get rid of the causes of war. 3. It is pleasant to work for a good cause. 4.
We have a good idea what causes earthquakes. 5. Fear caused him to make a
terrible mistake. 6. He has championed the cause of using solar energy for 20
years. 7. You can help this cause by making it your cause. 8. Hill, whose own
murderous rampage was inspired by a 1993 shooting death of another
abortion doctor, was remorseless to the end, even using his last statement to
urge others to take up his cause.
247
C. 1. My insurance policy has only another week to run. 2. Twins run in
my family. 3. He had been running around the city trying to find me. 4. You
don't need a degree in mathematics to run a computer. 5. The Senator will not
be running in the next election. 6. She ran the office as a captain runs a ship.
7. We'll check everything and then run the experiment again. 8. The
university runs a course for local teachers. 9. On the day before some
important event, non-profit organizations may ask local radio stations to run
some announcements immediately. 10. The newspaper ran this story on the
back page. 11. The Libertarian Party ran candidates in every presidential
election from 1976 through 1988.
D. 1. She was the last woman to be executed in Britain. 2. I never doubted
that I would be able to execute my plans. 3. The pilot began to execute a series
of playful aerobatics. 4. After Mr. Prescott died, his will was duly executed. 4.
An officer is not supposed to discuss his orders. He is supposed to execute
them. 5. American presidents use their personal staffs and the large Executive
Office of the President to centralize control over the entire executive branch.
6. As a president pursues his policies, he draws on the great resources of the
executive branch of government.
1. Anti-abortionists consider that the court ruling was prejudiced. 2. The
conservatives are trying to unashamedly silence political prisoners. 3. The
death penalty is used to curb dissent. 4. Death penalty doesn't prevent crime.
5. Paul Hill's actions were disgusting, but justice will not be served in the least
by this execution. 6. Paul Hill was supported by fundamentalists called the
Army of God.
Paul Hill should have been given the opportunity to defend MUST
himself... — Полу Хиллу надо было дать возможность защитить себя...
Модальный глагол should с перфектным инфинитивом выражает
сожаление о совершении или несовершении действия, обозначенного
инфинитивом. (Грамматический курс, 4.12)
1. 1 suppose that I should have been grateful for his consideration, but I
wasn't. 2. 1 should never have married George. I never loved him. 3. The
management should have taken these measures long ago.
1. Она управляла небольшой компанией в Висконсине. 2. Эта партия
выдвигает кандидатов на все парламентские выборы. 3. Газета
поместила эту статью на первой странице. 4. Хилл провозгласил себя
248
мучеником за дело борьбы с абортами. 5. Его завещание было в
точности исполнено. 6. Офицер должен не обсуждать, а выполнять
приказания.
Exercise 7. Translate the following text into English or render it in English as close to
the text as possible:
Непримиримый борец с абортами перед казнью объявил себя мучеником
Американский активист движения за запрещение абортов Пол Хилл

(Paul Hill), приговоренный судом Флориды к смерти за убийство врача
и охранника клиники, специализирующейся на прерывании
беременности, заявил о том, что он добровольно стал мучеником, и
призвал всех последователей взять с него пример.
Как сообщает агентство Рейтер, Хилл — бывший пресвитерианский
священник — признался журналистам, собравшимся на его последнюю
перед казнью пресс-конференцию, что он является противником
любого убийства, но нисколько не жалеет о содеянном.
«Многие люди должны последовать моему примеру. Разве вам
нужно какое-то разрешение от государства, когда речь идет о защите
ваших близких?» — сказал осужденный.
49-летний Пол Хилл совершил двойное убийство в 1994 году в
клинике Пенсаколы. Он не пытался скрыться с места преступления и не
отрицал свою вину. Во время судебного процесса он отказался от
апелляций и с удовлетворением воспринял вынесение ему смертного
приговора, который должен быть приведен в исполнение 3 сентября
2003 года.
Власти штата опасаются, что действия Хилла могут вызвать целую
волну подражаний среди сторонников запрещения абортов. В процессе
следствия некоторые чиновники администрации Флориды получали
анонимные письма с угрозами и вложенными в конверты пулями. В
специфических медицинских учреждениях приняты дополнительные
меры безопасности.
(from www.lenta.ru, 2003)
SPEAKING PRACTICE

1. It is equally as heinous intentionally to kill a human being in existence
at fertilization, as to kill a child.
2. Reproductive freedom — the fundamental right of every individual to
decide freely and responsibly when and whether to have a child — is a
reaffirmation of the principle of individual liberty cherished by most people
worldwide. It helps ensure that children will be wanted and loved, that
249
families will be strong and secure, and that choice rather than chance will
guide the future of humanity.
WRITING PRACTICE

Abortion is advocated only by person who have themselves been born.
(Ronald Reagan, 1911 — 2004)
U n i t 3 8 COMPUTERS IN OUR LIFE: NEW

POSSIBILITIES AND NEW PROBLEMS
ГРАММАТИК
А Значения глагола to prove

Герундиальные обороты с предлогом at после глагола to
aim
Изолированное причастие 2 в функции определения
250
TEXT 1
Dress Optional for Telehubbies
Life can be much more relaxed when you work from home. Some people
are so laid back they work in pyjamas or even nothing at all. It leads to a
more balanced day allowing time to take breaks to keep fit, do the housework
or even a spot of gardening.
Conventions have changed and so has the working day for the increasing
army of those working online from the sitting room.
The rise of teleworking has been much hyped over the past five years as
a revolution in the workplace. But Brussels' expects 10% of Britain's
population to be teleworkers by 2004. The country already has the highest
penetration of Internet use in the major economies, according to the EU.
Some home workers are even called telehubbies, following the discovery
that men outnumber women at the screen.
The latest research, revealing unconventional dress habits, comes from
British Telecom in a survey carried out last month. It did 369 telephone
interviews among independent teleworkers with no links with ВТ, which
currently has 3,500 home workers, a number it says is doubling annually.
This is in addition to 24,000 people who work from home occasionally for
various employers throughout Britain.
Three quarters of the sample said their day was more balanced and work
more productive and stress-free away from the office. It meant they rarely
took time off sick.
The majority wear casual clothes. But 19% have worked in their pyjamas.
More than a third, or 34 % preferred to work early in the morning, but 12 %
chose to operate late at night. A third said they worked more than 48 hours a
week, higher among the self-employed.
Commuting was the biggest bug-bear with 69 % saying it was a waste of
time which could be better spent working. A third have an office of their own
at home, but the remainder spread themselves through the home, "wherever
there is space".
The results will be of interest to small and medium-sized businesses
whose accountants have realized that providing an office-based desk costs
about £6,000 a year, although it is used, on average, for less than 40 % of
working hours.
Tome Selton, director of a specialist unit inside ВТ, said: "Working from
home is proving to be one of the greatest revolutions in the workplace.
1
Brussels (the capital of Belgium) is also the capital of the European Union (EU).
253
People would rather save the time spent commuting to strike a better work
and lifestyle balance by choosing when they work. While the affordability of
technology was once at the heart of a decision to work from home, it's
increasingly a lifestyle choice."
Neil McLocklin, head of BT's workstyle consultancy groups, says:
"Successful home working depends on a number of factors: a job which is
suitable for flexible working, the technology to get the job done, and the
desire of the individual.
"It's not right for everyone. But it's not just about working from home —
that's just one option — it's simply using technology as effectively away from
the office as in it."
Apart from large companies training staff over to teleworking, the
Telecottage association caters for 2,000 members at more than 140 sites in
Britain and Ireland. Its centres are equipped with computers, faxes and other
machines and offer training and back-up for both individuals and small
businesses. Most of them are in rural centres.
Alan Denbigh, the chief executive, says: "These centres respond to a real
need both in urban and rural areas."
(from The Daily Telegraph, 1999)
1. Why do people choose to work at home?
2. How does working from home affect their habits?
3. How do teleworkers prefer to dress?
4. Where do they work at home?
5. What problems does working at home solve?
6. If you worked from home, would you prefer to live in a city or in the
country?
7. What kind of work can be done at home? Think about teaching,
translating, accounting, assembling cars, editing books and other types of
work.
8. What technology is necessary to work at home?
9. When you work, will you prefer to work from home or commute to
the office?
10. What traits of character are necessary to work from home efficiently?
11. How will teleworking affect traffic and traffic jams?
12. Why are accountants of small and medium businesses enthusiastic
about teleworking?

I. telehubby — a man working from home; a blend of words "teleworker"
and "hubby" (an informal word for husband)
II. -free (stress-free) употребляется как вторая часть сложных слов со
значением «не содержащий чего-л., свободный от чего-л.».
252
peaceful, informal, equipment.
1. The ways of thinking and behaving that are believed to be normal and
right by most people in a particular society. 2. Traveling a long distance
regularly between home and work. 3. Something you can choose to do in
preference to one or more alternatives.
A. 1. He had two options: to resign from the university or to apologize to
the Dean. 2. David leased the apartment for two years, with an option to buy.
3. The child's mother had no option but to work. 4. We've discussed all the
marketing options and decided to go for television advertising. 5. The college
offered optional courses on linguistics and French cinema.
B. 1. A lot of usual conventions are ignored when you go on holiday. 2.
The Geneva convention requires that prisoners of war be treated humanely. 3.
The amiual convention of the Union was being held in Chicago.
C. 1. Kidney patients are advised to eat salt-free food. 2. The commercial
advertised sugar-free chewing-gum. 3. The university authorities established
nicotine-free zones on the campus. 4. Error-free software was installed on her
computer.
the text:
1. The latest research shows unconventional dress habits. 2. Most
teleworkers wear informal clothes. 3. Successful home working is impossible
without a number of factors. 4. This society is famous for its strict rules of
behavior.
Working from home is proving to be one of the greatest revolutions in the

workplace. — Работа дома оказывается одной из величайших революций на
рабочем месте.
Глагол to prove в составе субъектной конструкции с инфинитивом или в
сочетании с прилагательным имеет значение «оказываться»; в сочетании с
прямым дополнением или придаточным предложением, а также в форме
пассива этот глагол имеет значение «доказывать».
1. Severity of punishment may prove to be the enemy of certainty and
speed. 2. All versions of Marxism have proven to display the same totalitarian
characteristics. 3. The presumption of innocence holds that every person is
253
considered innocent until proven guilty. 4. For ten years he has been fighting
to prove his innocence. 5. He has proved that his hypothesis is correct. 6. His
hypothesis was proved to be correct. 7. His hypothesis proved to be correct.
1. Тем, кто работает дома, не обязательно одеваться. 2. Бухгалтеры
маленьких фирм понимают, что работа дома помогает экономить
офисное пространство. 3. Работа дома помогает вести более здоровый
образ жизни. 4. Те, кто работает дома, реже берут больничный лист. 5.
Врачи порекомендовали больному бессолевую диету. 6. Мои друзья
сняли квартиру на два года, с правом продления контракта. 7. В городе
проходит съезд хирургов. 8. Гаагская конвенция запрещает жестоко
обращаться с военнопленными. 9. В этом обществе очень строгие
условности. 10. Работа дома поможет избавиться от транспортных
пробок. 11. Жители столицы жалуются, что тратят слишком много
времени, добираясь до работы. 12. Работа дома все больше становится
вопросом выбора образа жизни. 13. Работая дома, люди могут
организовать гибкое расписание.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 7. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of working from home. Would
you like to be a teleworker?
TEXT 2
Appeal for Internet Law to Limit Child Data
The US Federal Trade Commission yesterday proposed legislation to

limit the ability of website operators to gather personal information from
children using the Internet. Such laws would be the first in the US specifically
aimed at regulating the Internet.
The FTC proposal, presented in a report to Congress on online privacy,
signals a significant reversal. Previously the commission, in its role as a
consumer protection agency, had backed industry demands for "self-
regulation" of the Internet.
High-tech industry groups fear that government regulation could stymie
efforts to expand electronic commerce. Websites gather user information —
254
either through registration forms or automatically through technology that
monitors website activity — to target potential customers and to boost
website advertising. However, Robert Pitofsky, FTC chairman, said
electronic commerce "was unlikely to reach its full potential until consumers
are confident that adequate protections are in place to protect their personal
information".
In a report highly critical of the Internet industry, the FTC concluded that
consumers have "little privacy protection on the Internet. Industry's efforts to
encourage voluntary adoption of the most basic fair information practices
have fallen short of what is needed to protect consumers".
Based on a survey of more than 1,400 websites, the commission found
that only 14 per cent provided users with any notice of their information
collection practices, including the type of data gathered and what the data
were used for.
Only 2 per cent of websites surveyed laid out a comprehensive privacy
policy.
Most troublesome, the FTC report concluded, were the practices of
websites aimed at children. The majority, 89 per cent of more than 200
children's websites surveyed, collect personal information such as names and
addresses from children. Fewer than 10 per cent provided some form of
parental control over this data gathering.
The commission proposed legislation forcing websites to seek parental
consent before gathering information from children aged 12 and under if that
information can be used to contact the child via telephone or mail. Websites
would have to inform parents if they collected information from older
children.
Protecting children's privacy was the first and most urgent step, the
commission said. However, further recommendations for measures to protect
all Internet users would be made this summer.
"Protecting the privacy of all online consumers continues to be a high
priority for the commission," said Mr Pitofsky.
In a last ditch effort to avoid government regulation, a dozen industry trade
groups, representing more than 11,000 American information technology
companies, preempted the FTC report on Wednesday with revised proposals
for a self-regulatory plan contained in a letter to President Bill Clinton.
However, the industry maintained that a "flexible" approach to privacy
protection was needed.
(from The Financial Times, 1999)
1. What legislation did the Federal Trade Commission propose?
2. What is the purpose of this legislation?
3. How were the FTC proposals presented?
4. What is the function of FTC?
5. Why is gathering personal information from children objectionable?
6. How can personal information gathered from children be used?
255
7. What personal information about yourself would you rather keep
private and why?

target (Unit 13), to seek (Units 15, 32), to maintain (Unit 21)
I. last ditch effort — последняя попытка (ditch — канава, окоп); to be in

the last ditch стоять перед лицом поражения (букв, «сидеть в последнем
окопе»)
complete, to say, permission, to collect, to support, honest.
1. The freedom to do things without other people watching you or
knowing what you are doing. 2. Something important, that must be done first
or needs more attention than anything else.
1. It would be hard for Pakistani armed forces to maintain surveillance
over the whole length of the mountainous frontier with Afghanistan.
2. Israeli pinpoint strikes targeted the leaders of Palestinian militants.
3. Justice lawyers have estimated they need $57.6 million in the coming
fiscal year to continue the government's lawsuit, which seeks more than $100
billion in damages from tobacco companies. 4. Martin Luther King did not
seek leadership in Montgomery; leadership sought him.

I. Such laws would be the First in the US specifically aimed at regulating
the Internet. — Это были бы первые законы в США, направленные на
регулирование Интернета.
Обратите внимание на употребление предлога at при герунди-
альном обороте после глагола to aim, указывающем на цель закона,
программы, мероприятия и т.п. (Грамматический курс, 3.2.6)
I. This program was aimed at preventing the collapse of the bank system.
2. The scientist evolves theories and then devises experimental situations
aimed at proving or disproving his theories. 3. The activity of the committee
was aimed at involving the poor themselves in administering the anti-poverty
programs. 4. New Deal policies were aimed at meeting the needs of the poor
by redistributing income. 5. Chocolate manufacturers, human rights groups
256
and Ivory Coast Government signed a pact in 2002 aimed at ending the abuse
of child labor in chocolate industry.
II. Only 2 per cent of websites surveyed laid out a comprehensive privacy
policy. — Только два процента обследованных сайтов разработали
комплексные меры информационной защиты.
...89 per cent of more than 200 children's websites surveyed, collect
persona] information... — 89 % из более 200 сайтов собирают у детей
персональную информацию...
В формальном стиле английского языка изолированное причастие 2
в функции определения (surveyed) может стоять после определяемого
слова. (Грамматический курс, 3.3.3.3)
1. An increase in the price of a good must reduce the quantity demanded.

2. In an Islamic country drinking alcohol in public would warrant criminal
charges against everyone involved. 3. The majority of those polled wanted
stricter law enforcement. 4. When substantially different opinions are
averaged together, the result may be very different from the original opinions
stated.
1. Эта программа направлена на регулирование электронной
торговли. 2. В Москве проходит электронная конференция по правам
меньшинств. 3. Правительство приняло комплексную программу по
борьбе с бедностью. 4. Сбор личной информации помогает интернет-
компаниям находить потенциальных покупателей. 5. Веб-сайты должны
получать согласие родителей, прежде чем собирать информацию у
детей моложе 12 лет. 6. Государственное регулирование может
затормозить попытки расширять электронную торговлю. 7. Эта
комиссия является агентством по защите потребителя.
Exercise 14. Translate the following text into English or render it in English as close
to the text as possible:
Translation tips:
почтовый адрес — street address
257
Дети в Интернете
В сети накапливается персональная информация о юных пользо-

вателях.
С января 2001 года Федеральная торговая комиссия США ввела
новые правила защиты персональной информации, которую сообщают
дети при обращении к сайтам Интернета. В России информацией о
«детях Паутины» может пока пользоваться кто угодно.
Четвертую часть аудитории Интернета составляют подростки в
возрасте от 10 до 18 лет. Они, несомненно, являются и самыми
активными пользователями сети — в Интернете они общаются, играют,
скачивают информацию, делают покупки. Однако часто, чтобы зайти на
сайт, необходимо предоставить информацию о себе. Дети делают это,
не задумываясь о последствиях. Как показали результаты опроса,
проведенного Национальной лигой потребителей США, более 65 %
родителей боятся, что такая информация, как имена, адреса, доходы,
будет без ведома родителей предоставлена ребенком через Интернет
третьим лицам. Как же американцы решили эту проблему?
Теперь веб-операторы обязаны ознакомить юного пользователя и
его родителей со своей политикой по сбору и использованию
персональной информации. Оператор должен заручиться согласием
родителей, поскольку сбор информации у детей, не достигших 13 лет,
является незаконным.
Обратившись на крупнейшие зарубежные детские сайты в Ин-
тернете (Nick.com, foxkids.com, Walt Disney), мы везде нашли стра-
ничку, рассказывающую о том, какие обязательства берет на себя
администрация сайта по защите информации о своих маленьких
посетителях.
В Рунете такой деликатности нет и в помине. В «каталоге детских
ресурсов Интернета» любой желающий может заглянуть в «гостевую
книгу», где выставлены данные сотен детей в возрасте от 8 до 16 лет, а
особо любопытные могут ознакомиться и с коллекцией собственных
фотографий, присланных на сайт малолетками. Никаких обязательств
по сохранению персональной информации не берут на себя и
российские интернет-магазины, торгующие товарами для детей.
Но может быть, личные данные охраняются законом? На этот вопрос
отвечает адвокат Кирилл Добродеев: «Федеральный закон требует
обязательного лицензирования деятельности негосударственных
организаций и частных лиц, связанных с обработкой и
распространением персональных данных. Однако порядка лицен-
зирования до сих пор не существует. Нет и ясного определения, что
такое «персональные данные». Специалисты не могут сойтись даже в
таком простом вопросе, подпадает ли почтовый адрес человека под это
определение».
Так что защита персональной информации пока остается в России
делом самих пользователей Интернета. И здесь им пригодятся советы,
258
которые дает родителям вице-президент Национальной лиги
потребителей Сьюзан Грант. По ее мнению, родители должны усвоить
ряд простых правил и довести их до сведения детей.
• Не раскрывайте персональной информации, пока вы не узнали, кто
ее собирает, зачем и как она будет использоваться.
• Перед тем как выдать персональную информацию, удостоверьтесь
в личности абонента сети (электронный адрес легко подделать).
• Не разрешайте несовершеннолетним детям совершать без вашего
ведома покупки в Интернете.
• Остерегайтесь иметь дело с компаниями в Интернете, которые
предлагают вам «заработать».
(«Известия», 2001)
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 15. Discuss the following issue in your group:

Are computers a threat to your privacy?
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 16. Compare and contrast the way of life that you have with that without
computers. Write a short essay.
Part 12
SOME TYPICAL NEWS EVENTS
U n i t 39. A STATE VISIT
Абсолютная причастная конструкция (повторение)
TEXT
259
Putin's Regal Diplomacy

By Martin Walker
UP1 Chief International
Correspondent
Back home in Moscow again after his historic official visit to Britain,
Russia's President Vladimir Putin will barely have time to unpack the silver
tea service the Queen gave him before he uses it to welcome her son, Prince
Charles, who arrives for a 4-day visit on July 13. (2003)
Maybe they are just making up for lost time. It has been 129 years since a
Russian leader was last invited for an official visit by a British monarch, with
the 21-gun salute, the formal dinner at Windsor Castle and another at the City
of London given by the Lord Mayor. Even Putin's late arrival for his first
meeting with the Queen (delayed by London's notorious traffic) was hallowed
by tradition. His predecessor, Tsar Alexander II, was late for Queen Victoria
when his yacht ran aground on a sandbank.
Putin's visit to Britain was long on ceremony and on business. He only
had 30 minutes with Prime Minister Tony Blair, and much longer with British
Petroleum, which now looks like becoming the biggest foreign investor in
booming Russia. A spanking 7-percent growth rate in the first half of this
year, with oil and gas production up 11 per cent, means that, as Rossiyskaya
Gazeta put it, "British business has started to trust Russia".
Former Energy Minister Brian Wilson says Britain will be producing two-
thirds of its electricity from natural gas by the year 2020, and with the North
Sea reserves running out. 90 per cent of that gas will be imported. And with
Putin agreeing to a joint venture to lay new gas pipelines through the Baltic
Sea to serve the German and British markets, a lot of that gas will be Russian.
But business and protocol were not the only motives behind the visits of
Putin and Prince Charles. The courtship of British royalty is but the most-
glittering act in a much-longer drama of intense Russian diplomacy.
A month ago, the Group of Eight leaders — and others — were all invited
to the 300th birthday of Putin's hometown, St. Petersburg. The summit gave
the Russian leader the opportunity to stage some high- profile personal
summits with President George W. Bush, China's Hu Jingtao, France's
Jacques Chirac, Germany's Gerhard Schroeder and Japan's Junichiro
Koizumi. And to back his proposal that the G811 should think about becoming
the G10 with India and China, India's Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee
was also invited.
The Russia Journal commented: "Russia's political and economic
importance in the world have increased dramatically in the last few years,
which is why US Bush and his British counterpart cannot afford to either
11
G8 — The Group of Eight — Большая восьмерка
260
ignore it or, in the case of Iraq, let their disagreements blossom into full-
fledged animosity. Russia is now a member of the G8, the NATO Council of
20 and quite possibly the most important country in the 'anti-terrorism
coalition'. As such, Russia's opinions and capabilities matter, and matter
enough for Britain to invite its head of state for a history-making meeting in
posh style."
Putin's talks with the Indian and Chinese leaders, carefully timed ahead
of Vajpayee's own visit to Beijing, carried an interesting sub-plot. They
discussed India's joining the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, a body that
has yet to appear on Washington's radar screen but that has been the vehicle
for the sharp improvement in Sino-Russian ties since Putin came to power,
and also the forum where they work out their differences in the highly charged
border zone of Central Asia. India, increasingly a player in the region, is keen
to join.
It would be easy to concoct grand geopolitical schemes around this, to
talk of Putin putting together a Eurasian block of Russia, China and India as
a potential counterweight to American hegemony. Easy, but glib. All three
countries have their own very good reasons to remain on excellent terms with
Washington. And if that were Putin's ambition, he would be working very
much harder with the French and Germans and the European Union to build
an anti-American block.
It simply isn't happening. And for all his friendly talks with the French
and Germans, Putin is getting nowhere with his big strategic objective of
joining the World Trade Organization — a project that is being stalled by the
Europeans who object to Russia charging foreigners more for Russian gas and
oil than local customers. The test will be this week's WTO working group
meeting on Geneva, which is to publish a report on Russia's WTO hopes.
And if Putin were really planning an anti-American coalition, he would
hardly have made the British Royal Family such a feature of his blizzard of
diplomacy. No, Putin just wants to be friendly to everybody, to get lots more
foreign investment, to sell lots of oil and gas — and get re-elected next year.
Images of him with the Queen, Bush and other global grandees can only help.
1. Who was the last Russian Monarch to visit Britain?
2. Why was the Russian Tsar late for a meeting with Queen Victoria?
3. Why was Mr. Putin late?
4. Why did President Putin spend so much time with British Petroleum?
5. What events did Mr. Putin stage during the celebration of St. Pe-
tersburg's 300th anniversary?
6. How were Mr. Putin's talks with Indian and Chinese leaders timed?
7. What factors prevent Russia from joining the WTO?
8. How does the author describe Mr. Putin's major objectives?
261
charge (Unit 17)
■ I. protocol — дипломатический протокол * протокол

(заседания, собрания) — minutes
3. A system of rules about the correct way to act on important formal
occasions, for example at meetings between the governments of different
countries.
1. The affirmative action policy required executive agencies to have civil
rights officers in charge of monitoring the hiring of minorities, women, people
with disabilities and others. 2. The organization provides a wide range of
services free of charge. 3. The investigation resulted in criminal charges. 4.
Media reports reflected the highly charged atmosphere of the trial. 5. The
reports charged that Lee was unqualified for the job. 6. You will be charged a
small fee for food and lodging. 7. The phone won't work if the battery isn't
charged.
A. 1. This animal's body is about the size of a rabbit. 2. Her mind was
floating somewhere apart from her body. 3. The students went in a body to the
Assembly Hall. 4. There is a growing body of evidence pointing to these
effects. 5. The government has set up a new body to inspect secondary
schools. 6. There is a large body of people who would use public transport if
fares were cut. 7. Susan had to take two jobs just to keep body and soul together.
B. 1. If this policy is pursued, we will never achieve our objectives. 2. This
meeting will help the students to come to a more objective view of their
situation. 3. The opposition raised objections to this plan.
C. 1. Career guidance discussions were the most important feature of our
final year in college. 2. Jeremy was slightly taller than me, with very regular
features. 3. Only the other week the local newspaper ran a feature on drug
abuse. 4. This film features two of my favorite actors. 5. A sign outside the
bar featured a one-legged pirate. 6. He was in a feature film with Julia Roberts.
1. Russia's political and economic importance has increased considerably.
2. The Russian leader organized some high-profile summits. 3. The president's
purpose is for Russia to join the WTO.
262
...with the North Sea reserves running out, 90 per cent of that gas will
be imported. — ...поскольку запасы в Северном море
истощаются, большую часть газа будут импортировать.
...with Putin agreeing to a joint venture to lay new gas pipelines through the
Baltic Sea to serve the German and British markets, a lot of that gas will be
Russian. — ...так как Путин согласился на то, чтобы совместное
предприятие проложило трубопровод через Балтику для нужд
германского и британского рынков, большая часть газа поступит из
России.
Повторите абсолютную причастную конструкцию. Обратите вни-
мание, что такая конструкция может присоединяться к предложению
при помощи предлога with (Unit 20, Grammar Study and Practice, II;
Грамматический курс, 3.3.4.3).
1. A questionnaire is often administered in face-to-face personal
interviews, with the interviewer asking the questions and noting the
interviewee's responses on a form. 2. Rio de Janeiro's carnival gets under way
on Friday, with the government for the First time sending troops onto the
city's streets following a wave of violence by drug gangs. 3. The carnival
celebrations are going on as normal, with some streets packed with drunken
revelers following samba bands.
1. Российский министр иностранных дел провел переговоры со
своим французским коллегой. 2. Правительство учредило новую
организацию, которая будет отслеживать (to monitor) состояние
атмосферы. 3. Поскольку запасы газа в Северном море истощаются,
Британия будет импортировать российский газ. 4. Во время празд-
нования юбилея Санкт-Петербурга президент провел несколько встреч
на высшем уровне. 5. Россия заставляет иностранцев платить за газ
дороже, чем местных покупателей. 6. По протоколу министр
иностранных дел должен встречать своего германского коллегу в
аэропорту. 7. На вывеске бара был изображен одноногий пират. 8. Я
люблю художественные фильмы. 9. Джейн поступила на вторую
работу, чтобы свести концы с концами. 10. Европейские страны
пытаются воспрепятствовать вступлению России в ВТО.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 8. A. Speak about a high-profile visit by a foreign head of state to Russia, or

about the President's visit abroad which happened shortly before you work at this unit.
263
B. Speak about the G8 summit in St. Petersburg in July 2006.
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 9. Write a story about the latest summit attended by the President of Russia.
Use the inverted pyramid format. Cover the following aspects of the summit:
• The venue (the place of holding the summit)
• The agenda
• Other heads of state attending the summit
U n i t 40. AN EPISODE OF THE ARAB-ISRAELI

CONFLICT
Причастный оборот, включающий субъектную конструкцию с
TEXT 1
This text will help you better understand the background of the current events in the
Middle East:
The Short History of the Arab-Israeli Conflict
The present state of Israel encompasses a substantial portion of what was

once called Palestine. The Jews, who entered the land in the 12th century ВС,
believed that the land had been given to them by their God Yahweh. Palestine
refers to the Philistines, a people of Greek origin, who settled in the coastal
plains of the area approximately at the same time that the Jews took over the
hill country in the interior. In 63 ВС Palestine, which was then known as
Judea, was incorporated into the Roman Empire as an autonomous unit.
In the 7th century AD, Palestine was invaded and conquered by Arabs,
Semitic people, racially and linguistically related to Hebrews (Jews).
In 1517, Palestine became part of the Ottoman Empire. The Turkish Sultan
invited Jews fleeing the Catholic inquisition to settle in the Turkish Empire,
including several cities in Palestine.
In 1897, the Zionist movement was started in Basel, Switzerland.
Zionism's goal was to establish "for the Jewish people a home in Palestine
secured by public law". Jews from Eastern and Central Europe began
immigrating to Palestine.
Socialism had great impact on Zionism, and in early stages of Jewish
immigration to Palestine, a large part of the immigrants were Marxists.
During World War I (1914 — 18), the Ottoman Empire joined Germany
and Austria-Hungary against the Allies.
264
In 1917, British forces occupied Palestine. After the war, the League of
Nations put Palestine under the British mandate. In November 1917, before
occupying Palestine, Britain issued the Balfour Declaration, which stated
Britain's support for the creation of a Jewish national home in Palestine,
without violating the civil and religious rights of the existing non-Jewish
communities.
Between the two world wars, the Jews organized their own social and
political institutions, which exercised much control over their own
population. Hebrew language was fostered, and the Hebrew University was
founded in Jerusalem.
Jewish immigration swelled in the 1930s, driven by persecution in Eastern
Europe, even before the rise of Nazism. Large numbers of Jews began to
come from Poland. The rise of Hitler in Germany added to this tide of
immigration.
Arab Revolt and the White Paper. In 1936 the Arab Revolt broke out.
Hundreds of Arabs and Jews were killed.
In response to the riots, the British began limiting immigration and the
1939 White Paper decreed that 15,000 Jews would be allowed to enter
Palestine each year for five years. Thereafter, immigration would be subject
to Arab approval.
After the war, it was discovered that the Germans had murdered about six
million Jews in Europe, in the Holocaust. The British restriction of
immigration to Palestine had cost hundreds of thousands of lives. The Jews
were now desperate to bring the remaining Jews of Europe, about 250,000
people being held in displaced persons camps, to Palestine.
Partition. In December 1947, Palestine was divided by the UN into an
Arab state and a Jewish state. Jerusalem was to be put under international
administration.
It soon became evident that the scheme could not work. Mutual
antagonism would make it impossible for either community to tolerate the
other. The Arab League declared a war to rid Palestine of the Jews.
On May 14, 1948, the Jews proclaimed the independent State of Israel. In
the following days and weeks, neighboring Arab nations invaded Palestine
and Israel.
Palestinian attempts to set up a real state were blocked by Egypt and
Jordan.
About 726,000 Arabs fled or were driven out of Israel and became
refugees in neighboring Arab countries, which continued to refuse to
recognize Israel or to sign a permanent peace treaty with Israel.
The refugee problem wasn't solved. Negotiations broke down because
Israel refused to readmit more than a small number of refugees.
In the summer of 1956, Israel, France and Britain colluded in a plan to
reverse the nationalization of the Suez Canal by the Egyptian pro- Soviet
government. The plan was carried out beginning October 29, 1956. Israel
swiftly conquered Sinai.
265
Israeli troops remained in Sinai for many months and were withdrawn
under pressure from the UN and in particular the United States. A UN force
was stationed in Sinai.
The 1967 6-Day War. Tension began developing between Israel and Arab
countries in the 1960s.
In several summit conferences beginning in 1964, Arab leaders
established the PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization), declared their
resolve to destroy Israel, and decided to divert the sources of the Jordan river
that feed the Sea of Galilee, to deprive Israel of its water resources. Against
this background, in mid-May, 1967, Egyptian President Gamal Nasser again
closed the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping and dismissed the UN peace
force from the Sinai Peninsula.
At the UN, PLO Chairman Ahmed Shukairy announced that "The PLO
would expel from Palestine all Zionists who had arrived after 1917 and
eliminate the State of Israel".
Israel attacked the Egyptians beginning on June 5, 1967. In the first hours
of the war, Israel destroyed over 400 enemy aircraft to achieve total air
superiority. Israeli troops quickly reconquered the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza.
After dealing with Egypt and Jordan, Israel decided to conquer the Golan
heights, despite opposition and doubts of some in the government. Israel
agreed to a ceasefire on June 11, 1967.
The 6-day war changed the balance of power in the Middle East. Israel
had acquired extensive territories — the Sinai Desert, the Golan heights and
the West Bank, that were several times larger than the 1948 borders.
The disastrous defeat of the Arabs contributed to the rise of Islamic
fundamentalism and brought about a million Palestinian Arabs under Israeli
rule.
After the 6-day war, Ahmed Shukairy, who had headed the PLO, was
replaced as Chairman by Yasser Arafat.
An increasing number of Jewish settlements on the newly acquired
territories were established as it became evident that Arab states would not
negotiate with Israel.
As of 2003, about 220,000 Israelis had settled in areas of the West Bank
and Gaza, and an additional 200,000 were settled in areas of Jerusalem and
environs conquered in 1967. About 15,000 Jews were settled in the Golan
heights taken from Syria.
Peace with Egypt. Subsequent shuttle diplomacy by US Secretary of State
Henry Kissinger resulted in partial Israeli withdrawals from the Sinai
Peninsula.
The First Intifada. Palestinians in the occupied territories took their fate
into their own hands. Beginning in 1987, a revolt called the Intifada began in
the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. Negotiations were held to settle the
Palestinian problem. In 1993 and 1995, Israel and the PLO signed an
agreement in Oslo. Israel and Jordan signed a peace treaty in 1994. Israeli
troops were withdrawn from the Gaza Strip and most cities and towns of the
West Bank by early 1996.
266
In January 1996, Palestinians in the Gaza Strip and the Palestinian-
controlled parts of the West Bank elected a legislature (the Palestinian
Authority), with Yasser Arafat as Chairman to administer these areas.
The Second Intifada. Negotiations for a final settlement ended in deadlock
July, 2000. Palestinians insisted that refugees should have the right to return
to Israel, which would produce an Arab majority in Israel. Israel insisted on
annexing key portions of the Palestinian areas and on leaving most
settlements intact, and offered only a limited form of Palestinian statehood.
Palestinian violence erupted on September 28, 2000.
Palestinians rejected a settlement offer mediated by President Clinton, and
shortly thereafter, Israeli PM Barak, who had furthered the peace process,
was voted out of office and replaced by a right-wing government headed by
Ariel Sharon. Meanwhile however, terror and suicide attacks and Israeli
reprisals continued.
Yasser Arafat declared a cessation of violence several times, but this did
not seem to affect the frequency or severity of suicide bombings and
ambushes. The Israelis, for their part, continued with their policy of
assassinating wanted men in the Palestinian areas. In November 2004, Yasser
Arafat died. He was succeeded by Mahmoud Abbas, who in January 2005
won convincingly in the election for president of the Palestinian Authority.
A highly intellectual man, Mahmoud Abbas studied law in Egypt before
doing a doctorate in Moscow. He is the author of several books.
Mahmoud Abbas resumed negotiations with Israel which politicians hope
will give the two nations a chance for peace.
TEXT 2
Mideast Fighting Intensifies; Both Sides Vow More Bush Shows No Sign of
Intervening
By Lee Hockstader and Daniel Williams

Washington Post Foreign Service
Wednesday, March 6, 2002
JERUSALEM, March 5 — Israelis and Palestinians pounded one another
with missiles, bombs, rockets and rifle fire today as fresh attacks
and counterattacks brought the 17-month-old Palestinian uprising to a new
level of intensity. After days of double-digit death tolls, each side prepared for
continued fighting and vowed to inflict even more casualties on the other.
Warning that the conflict could spin out of control. President of Egypt
Hosni Mubarak visited President Bush in Washington to urge him to push for
peace talks.
267
Although the State Department explicitly criticized Israel's retaliatory
attacks in civilian areas, there was no sign the Bush administration would
abandon its reluctance to intervene forcefully here until the killing subsides.
It was a measure of the violence that today's toll — five Israelis and at
least a half-dozen Palestinians dead, including two attackers, plus dozens
injured — seemed modest compared with the 17 Palestinians killed Monday
or the 22 Israelis killed over the weekend.
A bomb planted at a Palestinian school in East Jerusalem evoked a new
threat today of attacks against Palestinian civilians by revenge-seeking
Jewish vigilantes. It exploded just as several hundred pupils were arriving for
their morning lessons. Seven children and a teacher were lightly injured.
A hardening of attitudes on both sides has destroyed several time- tested
assumptions in the Palestinian uprising against continued Israeli occupation
in the West Bank and Gaza Strip.
For most of the 1990s, Israelis and Palestinians routinely dismissed the
idea that their conflict could be resolved by force; now large numbers on both
sides have come to believe they have been left no choice.
The result has become a grueling test of national wills, a daily trading of
punches that has raised the number of victims, most of them noncombatants,
and transformed news reports into extended obituaries. Large majorities on
both sides seem convinced that they have the national will, stamina and
righteousness to outlast the other.
Shimon Peres, the Israeli foreign minister, was among the few prominent
dissenting voices on either side. "It's a mistake to base strategy on power
alone," he said today. "I'm not sure that military pressure will bring about a
decrease of violence or an escalation."
Prime Minister Ariel Sharon, however, told reporters Monday that his
approach is to kill Palestinians at a rate sufficient to force them to stop
attacking Israeli soldiers and civilians.
"Now they have to be hit... They must be beaten," said the Israeli leader.
"We have to cause them heavy casualties and then they'll know they can't
keep using terror and win political achievements."
Palestinian street leaders have issued a similar call, urging militants to
strike Israelis hard. "We have reached the point of no return," said Marwan
Barghouti, the West Bank chief of Yasser Arafat's Fatah organization, which
has an armed spinoff known as the al-Aqsa Mar-
268
1. Under a law passed in 2000, Washington issues an annual list of nations
that are "significant" contributors to this growing global problem of
trafficking in humans (slave trade). 2. Police have been issued orders to patrol
the city round the clock. 3. The gang leader has now been transferred to
another high security jail. 4. With a massive security operation, the police say
they have killed seven gang members in the last two days.
Exercise 4. Translate the following sentences into Russian, paying
attention to the words in bold type. First, look these words up in the
dictionary, keeping in mind their various meanings; remember also that they
may belong to different parts of speech.
A. 1. Peter recently injured his hand in a training accident. 2. The soldiers
dragged their injured comrades with them. 3. His injured professional pride
quite overcame any desire for reconciliation. 4. Building workers risk injuries
by not wearing helmets. 5. Most people protect themselves from injury to
their self-esteem. 6. In northern Kuwait, one US soldier has been killed and
12 others injured in a grenade attack at a US military camp.
B. 1. The china was displayed in a glass cabinet. 2. You will find cotton
wool and iodine in the bathroom cabinet. 3. The room contained a couch, a
glass cabinet and a desk. 4. The Prime Minister held an emergency cabinet
meeting. 5. In cabinet, Benn was criticized for undermining the government.
Exercise 5. Replace the words and phrases in bold type by the words and
phrases from the text:
1. The State Department openly criticized Israel's retaliatory attacks in
civilian areas. 2. The terrorist attack occurred about 2 am at a fashionable
seafood restaurant and nightclub in Tel Aviv. 3. I'm not sure that military
pressure will bring about a lessening of violence. 4. Large majorities on both
sides seem convinced that they have the national will, strength and
righteousness to outlast the other. 5. The Prime Minister convened top
government ministers for a meeting to deal with the growing violence. 6. The
police did not arrive until after the explosion. 7. The US government didn't
want to intervene. 8. The school bombing took place in Sur Bakhar, a
Palestinian village seized by Israel in the 1967 Middle East war and joined to
Jerusalem.

...a member of Arafat's presidential guard alleged to have been involved in a
dozen attacks on Israelis since October 2000. — ...член президентской
охраны Арафата, которая, как утверждается, участвовала в десятках
нападений на израильтян с октября 2000 года.
В данном предложении причастный оборот включает субъектную
конструкцию с инфинитивом. Если бы субъектная конструкция
представляла собой самостоятельное предложение, она выглядела бы
следующим образом:
274
Arafat's presidential guard is alleged to have been involved in a dozen
attacks... — Утверждается, что президентская охрана Арафата
участвовала в десятках нападений...
В приведенном выше примере пассив is alleged усечен до причастия
alleged, а все предложение трансформировано в причастный оборот.
При переводе обычно используются вводные слова, такие как как
утверждается, как известно и т.п.
1. Some militants, alleged to have committed atrocities against civilians,
were put on trial. 2. Some Nazi officers, known to have been involved in mass
murders of Jews during the Holocaust, were caught by the Israelis, tried and
executed. 3. Only those leaders believed to be gods or chosen by gods could
afford to ignore public opinion. 4. An explosion on a bus in Karachi thought
to have been caused by a bomb injured at least 10 people. 5. There are 110
trains reported to be at a standstill across the country because of the power
failure.
Translation tips:
вредить, повредить (о неживом предмете или абстрактном поня-
тии) — to damage
повредить, травмировать (о человеке) — to injure
1. Начальник полиции провел пресс-конференцию около школы. 2.
Полиция приехала в школу только после взрыва. 3. Крайне правые
политики призывали премьер-министра предъявить палестинцам
ультиматум. 4. Боевики прятались и тренировались в лагере беженцев.
5. Политики нейтральных стран предупреждали, что конфликт может
выйти из-под контроля. 6. Администрация Буша не хочет вмешиваться
в этот конфликт. 7. Эти меры могут привести к эскалации насилия. 8.
Здание было повреждено взрывом. 9. Джим повредил руку на
тренировке. 10. Кабинет министров одобрил эти меры. 11. В музее нам
показали кабинет работы Чиппендейла. 12. Вы найдете аспирин в
аптечке. 13. Палестинские боевики взорвали ресторан в Тель-Авиве. 14.
Армия понесла тяжелые потери. 15. Полиция получила приказ
круглосуточно патрулировать город. 16. При пожаре многие люди
получили травмы. 17. В этом конфликте погибло 25 гражданских лиц.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 8. Describe the situation in Israel. Suppose you were:
275
• a Palestinian refugee
• a Jewish settler in the Occupied territories
• an Arab living outside Palestine
• a Jew living outside Israel
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 9. Describe the latest event in the Middle East that caught your attention. Use
the inverted pyramid format.
TEXT 3
Read the text:
Mid-East Leaders Announce Truce
Palestinian leader Mahmoud Abbas and Israeli Prime Minister Ariel

Sharon have declared a truce to end four years of Middle East violence.
Mr. Abbas said the ceasefire, which begins immediately, would lead to a
"new era of peace and hope".
Mr. Sharon vowed to cease military action against Palestinian targets after
militant groups halted violence.
In response, US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice said it was the best
chance for peace in years.
Mr. Sharon and Mr. Abbas did not sign a formal ceasefire deal. Their talks
were wide-ranging and also included agreements on the release of Palestinian
prisoners and the handover of five West Bank towns to Palestinian control.
The meeting in the Egyptian resort of Sharm al-Sheikh was the highest-
level discussion between the two sides since the Palestinian intifada
(uprising) began more than four years ago.
Israeli officials said after the summit that Mr. Sharon had invited Mr.
Abbas to his farm in southern Israel.
Speaking in Paris, the US Secretary of State welcomed the truce.
"Success is not assured, but America is resolute," said Ms. Rice. "This is
the best chance for peace we are likely to see for some years to come — and
we are acting to help Israelis and Palestinians seize this chance."
The CNN's Heba Saleh in Sharm al-Sheikh says Mr. Abbas so far seems
to have secured an informal truce by Palestinian factions, but it is not clear
whether they will accept the Israeli offer.
The Hamas militant group gave a lukewarm reaction to the summit, with
its representative in Lebanon, Osama Hamdan, saying the ceasefire
declarations were "not binding" on its members.
"New Era". TV pictures showed Mr. Abbas and Mr. Sharon smiling as
they shook hands across a table at the talks.
276
"We have agreed on halting all violent actions against Palestinians and
Israelis, wherever they are," Mr. Abbas said. "The calm which will prevail in
our lands starting from today is the beginning of a new era."
Mr. Sharon said: "For the first time in a long time, there is hope in our
region for a better future for us and our grandchildren." He said Israel had
made some painful sacrifices for the Palestinians. "To our Palestinian
neighbors, I would like to promise that we have a genuine intention for you
to live in independence. We do not want to control your lives," he said. Mr.
Sharon also said the two sides had agreed on transferring "certain Palestinian
areas" from Israeli to Palestinian control.
Under the arrangement, Israel will withdraw its troops from Jericho and
four West Bank towns within three weeks, Palestinian negotiator Hassan Abu
Libdeh said later.
Agreement was also reached on the release of Palestinian prisoners,
officials from both sides said. A batch of 500 would be freed soon, with
another 400 to follow later, they said.
Envoys to Return. The talks were also attended by Egyptian President
Hosni Mubarak, who hosted the summit, and Jordan's King Abdullah.
Mr. Mubarak hailed the "positive spirit" of the meeting, saying: "The task
is very great, but our hopes are greater."
Egyptian Foreign Minister Ahmed Aboul Gheit told reporters at the
summit that Egypt and Jordan would soon be returning their ambassadors to
Israel after a four-year absence.
Mr. Sharon had refused to meet the previous Palestinian leader Yasser
Arafat, saying he was an obstacle to peace.
But since Arafat's death and the election of Mr. Abbas as president of the
Palestinian Authority, the Israelis believe they have a partner they can do
business with.
(from www.cnn.com, 2005)

1. What kind of agreement did the two leaders reach?
2. Did they sign a formal document?
3. What other leaders attended the summit in Sharm al-Sheikh?
4. Was the meeting friendly or not?
5. How did the radical Palestinian groups such as Hamas respond to the
agreement?
6. What was the response on the part of the foreign leaders?
7. What concessions on the part of Israel does the agreement envisage?
8. What did Palestinians vow to do?
9. What is the situation in the Middle East like as you are working with
this text?
277
U n i t 41 A TERRORIST ATTACK
Предикативная конструкция с причастием 2 при
глаголе to have
TEXT
Truck Blast at UN's Iraq HQ Kills 20
By Sameer N. Yacoub, Associated Press Writer

A cement truck packed with explosives devastated the United Nations
headquarters in Iraq on Tuesday, killing the top UN envoy and 19 other
people in an unprecedented attack against the world body. At least 100 people
were wounded.
The bombing blasted a 6-foot-deep crater and shredded the facade of the
Canal Hotel, which housed the UN offices. The suicide attack stunned an
organization that had long been welcomed by Iraqis, even by many who
protested the presence of US-led occupation forces.
Emergency workers pulled bloodied survivors from the rubble and lined
up the dead in body bags. Survivors reported other victims still buried.
The 4:30 pm blast may have specifically targeted Sergio Vieira de Mello,
the top UN envoy, said L. Paul Bremer, who heads the US-led administration
in Iraq. "The truck was parked in such a place here in front of the building
that it had to affect his office," Bremer said.
Vieira de Mello — a 55-year-old veteran diplomat serving in what one
UN spokesman called the UN's toughest assignment — was meeting with other
UN officials in his office when the explosion brought the room down around
them. Vieira de Mello was wounded and trapped in the rubble, and workers
gave him water as they tried to extricate him. Hours later, the United Nations
announced his death.
"Those who killed him have committed a crime, not only against the
United Nations but against Iraq itself," UN Secretary General Kofi Annan
said in a statement, calling the Brazilian diplomat "an outstanding servant of
humanity".
UN officials vowed to continue their mission in Iraq. But the blast, the
shock at being targeted and the death of their colleagues struck deep. All the
national flags that ring the UN headquarters' entrance in New York were
removed from their poles, and the blue-and-white UN flag was lowered to
278
half staff. Staffers, tears in their eyes, gathered in hallways and watched in
shock as televisions reported on his death.
The suicide bombing on the UN headquarters focused on a high- profile
target with many civilians inside and resembled attacks blamed on Islamic
militants elsewhere in the world. It was far more sophisticated than the
guerrilla attacks that have plagued US forces, featuring hit-and- run shootings
carried out by small bands or remote control roadside bombs.
US forces have been focusing on trying to put down Saddam loyalists
thought to be behind the guerrilla campaign against American troops. But the
military has also warned of foreign Islamic militants slipping into the country
and has said an al-Qaida linked group, Ansar al-Islam was a possible suspect
in the Jordanian Embassy bombing.
Dia'a Rashwan, an expert on radical Islam at Egypt's al-Ahram Center for
Political and Strategic Studies, said the attack fits "the ideology of al-Qaida.
They consider the UN one of the international actors who helped the
Americans to occupy Palestine and, later, Iraq".
UN spokesman Fred Eckhard said that if Tuesday's attack was confirmed
to be a suicide bombing, "it would, to my knowledge, be the first on a UN
facility". In Tuesday's attack, the blast occurred while a news conference was
under way in the building, where 300 UN employees work.
Fifteen bodies in white bags were counted by a UN worker at the hotel,
and a survey of Baghdad hospitals by The Associated Press found five other
people who had died in the blast.
An AP reporter counted 40 wounded people lying in the front garden and
receiving first aid. Some were loaded into a constant stream of helicopters
that ferried the injured away. A senior UNICEF official also was seriously
wounded in the blast, UN officials said.
Bremer, the top US administrator, walked through the scene of destruction
as workers dug through the rubble with their hands.
One wounded man had a vard-long. inch-thick aluminum rod driven into
his face just below his right eve. He identified himself as a security consultant
for the International Monetary Fund saying he had just arrived in the country
over the weekend.
Deputy Syrian ambassador Fayssal Mekdad, whose country holds the
Security Council presidency, said "such terrorist incidents cannot break the
will of the international community" and that UN programs would continue.
The United Nations distributes humanitarian aid and is developing
programs aimed at boosting Iraq's emerging free press, justice system and
monitoring of human rights. United Nations weapons inspectors worked out
of the hotel during the period before the war.
1. What was the background of the terrorist attack in August 2003? What
was happening in Iraq at the time?
2. How was the attack mounted?
3. What happened to the perpetrator?
279
4. Why do you think people decide to become suicide terrorists?
5. How can the government prevent people from taking their own lives in
terrorist attacks?
6. What religion did the perpetrators of the attack confess?
7. What was the position of the UN prior to the American invasion into
Iraq in March 2003?
8. What was the UN doing in Iraq at the time of the attack?
9. If you were the UN Secretary General, would you pull the UN staff out
of Iraq?
Vocabulary Study and Practice claim (Units
11, 21), to hold (Units 15, 36)
I. envoy — посланник, эмиссар, уполномоченный {как правило,

находится в другой стране для выполнения определенного поручения)
ambassador — посол
II. spokesman (spokeswoman, spokesperson) — представитель {как
правило, для общения с прессой)
III. profile — the amount of attention a person or organization gets from
the public or journalists
high-profile — заметный
low-profile — незаметный
an organization, cruel, to shock, ruins.
1. Someone who remains alive after an event that could have killed
him/her. 2. Someone whose job is to officially represent an organization, for
example in dealing with journalists. 3. A senior official who lives in a foreign
country and represents his/her country there. 4. A representative of a
government or organization who is sent to another country to deal with a
particular situation.
1. Many individuals hold similar positions on these issues. 2. The UN
Secretary General Kofi Annan held a Security Council emergency meeting
devoted to the terrorist attack. 3. That coalition, if it holds firm, will isolate
the Communist Party on the left. 4. Temporaiy members of the Executive
Committee shall hold office for one year and shall be eligible for re-election.
5. In August 1968, the majority of Americans surveyed in a Gallup poll
claimed the US had made a mistake sending troops to Vietnam. 6. The militant
group claimed responsibility for the terrorist attack. 7. The accident claimed 21
lives. 9. The guerillas claim to control the city.
280
One wounded man had a yard-long, inch-thick aluminum rod driven into
his face... — Одному человеку вонзился в лицо алюминиевый прут...
Предикативная конструкция с причастием 2 при глаголе to have
может обозначать действие, осуществленное по заказу или рас-
поряжению, а также действие, совершенное помимо воли субъекта
глагола to have. (Грамматический курс, 3.3.4.1.1)
1. The consulate had its front windows blown out by the explosion. 2. He
felt uncomfortable at having his mind read so easily. 3. If this treatment is
used, the vast majority of patients can have their pain and symptoms
satisfactorily controlled and they can get on with the work of their last few
months of their lives. 4. The doctor had the patient watched round the clock.
5. In the concentration camp, the inmates had their heads shaved. 6. At this
farm, cows have their horns cut from their heads. 7. Every man who has his
land invaded, all he possesses taken and his rights denied has a right to resist.
1. Правительство принимает меры, направленные на предот-
вращение терактов. 2. Организация «Исламский джихад» взяла на себя
ответственность за теракт. 3. В машину посла подложили взрывное
устройство с дистанционным управлением. 4. Террорист-смертник
взорвал автобус с паломниками. 5. Жертвами теракта стали 28 человек.
6. Не все погибшие были опознаны. 7. Спасатели говорят, что под
развалинами находятся люди. 8. Взрывом в здании выбило окна. 9.
Теракт в Багдаде был направлен против ООН. 10. Здание было сильно
повреждено взрывом. 11. Машины «скорой помощи» прибыли на место
происшествия через несколько минут. Жертвы теракта получили
первую помощь. 12. В июне боевики объявили прекращение огня. 13.
Эмиссар ООН в Палестине провел переговоры с представителями
Палестинской автономии (the Palestinian Authority). 14. Премьер-
министр Палестины Махмуд Аббас решительно осудил теракт,
совершенный палестинскими боевиками. 15. Боевики нашли заметную
цель. 16. Взрыв произошел, когда в здании шла пресс-конференция.
Exercise 6. Translate the following text into English or render it in English as close to
the text as possible:
Translation tips:
тротиловый — TNT уголовное дело —
criminal proceedings подозреваемый — a suspect
причастность — involvement протаранить
ворота — to ram into the gate
281
1 августа 2003 года около 19.00 по московскому времени КамАЗ с
грузом взрывчатки протаранил ворота военного госпиталя в Моздоке и
взорвался на его территории. В результате взрыва здание было почти
полностью разрушено. По имеющимся данным, мощность взрыва
составила около полутора тонн в тротиловом эквиваленте.
В результате теракта погибли 50 человек, 82 получили ранения.
Генпрокуратура России возбудила по факту взрыва уголовное дело.
Следственными органами, ведущими дело о теракте в Моздоке,
были задержаны двое подозреваемых в причастности к этому
преступлению, сообщает Интерфакс. Об этом вечером в воскресенье
заявил заместитель генпрокурора РФ Сергей Фридинский.
«В настоящее время по делу у нас двое подозреваемых, — сказал
Фридинский. — Работа по выявлению остальных лиц, причастных к
теракту, продолжается».
Ранее представитель правоохранительных органов Северной Осетии
сообщил, что по предварительной информации заказчиком теракта в
военном госпитале в Моздоке был чеченский террорист Шамиль Басаев.
Он также сообщил, что задержан продавец автомашины КамАЗ,
которую, как считают в правоохранительных органах, использовал
террорист-смертник при взрыве моздокского госпиталя.
Источник также подчеркнул, что теракт в моздокском военном
госпитале был направлен именно против войсковых подразделений.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 7. Discuss the causes of terrorism. Try to take the following factors into
account:
• A high unemployment rate
• Powerful propaganda by Islamic fundamentalists
• Protest against foreign occupation or alien culture
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 8. Write an essay covering one of the topics given below:

1. How can terrorism be prevented?
2. Death penalty as a measure against terrorism.
U n i t 42. A RELIGIOUS CONFLICT
Субъектная конструкция с причастием и союзом as при
глаголах to report, to quote, to interpret и т. п.
282
Модальный глагол will
TEXT 1
Death Penalty for Missionary Killer
An Indian court has handed down a death sentence to the ringleader of a

group of men convicted of murdering an Australian missionary and his two
young sons.
Twelve others received life imprisonment for burning Graham Staines
alive, along with his sons — Philip, who was 10, and Timothy, eight.
The court found them guilty last week of rioting, arson and culpable
homicide amounting to murder.
Hundreds of police were deployed outside churches in Orissa ahead of
sentencing.
The prosecutors had pushed for the death sentence by hanging, but
defence lawyers had asked for a lenient sentence on the grounds that the men
were poor tribesmen and the sole earners in their families.
All 13 will lodge an appeal against their sentence.
The death penalty is used rarely in India and is reserved for the most
serious crimes.
Defendants have the right to appeal all the way to the Supreme Court and
can then ask for a presidential pardon.
Mr Staines had spent 30 years working with leprosy patients in Orissa.
His widow, Gladys, still lives in India, continuing the work, and says she
has forgiven the killers.
"I have no bitterness because forgiveness brings healing and our land
needs healing from hatred and violence," she said in a statement. "But
forgiveness and the consequences of the crime should not be mixed up... No
individual is above the law of the land."
The missionary's brother John Staines had argued against a death
sentence, fearing it would stir up more extremism. "They committed a terrible
crime, but the sort of thing that Jesus Christ espoused was that if we can't
forgive our fellow men, then how can he forgive us," he said in Melbourne,
Australia.
The Staines died when the jeep they were sleeping in was torched outside
a church in the remote village of Manoharpur in Orissa in January 1999.
The killings sparked condemnation in India and around the world.
Right-wing Hindus who complained that Hindus were being pressured to
convert to Christianity were blamed at the time of the attack.
However, an official inquiry into the attack said there was no evidence
organised Hindu groups were behind it.
283
One of the convicted men has been quoted as saying he was provoked bv
the "corruption of tribal culture" bv the missionaries.
"I did this because of the bitter relations with the Christians," Mahendra
Hembram was quoted as saving bv The Hindustan Times in a letter to his
sister-in-law.
The accused men have been on trial for the past two and a half years. Dara
Singh is also accused of organising attacks on a Muslim businessman and
Roman Catholic priest after the Staines were killed.
Police believe villagers helped him hide for a year out of sympathy with
his campaign against Muslims and Christians.
India has been plagued by religious conflict since it gained independence
from the British Empire in 1947. The country was then divided into an
Islamic state (Pakistan) and a Hindu state (India), but the conflicts
284
between Hindus, Muslims and Christians, who live mostly in the North,
haven't stopped.
1. Why was the ringleader of the group sentenced to death?
2. What sentence was handed down to the other members of the group?
3. Why did the defense ask for a more lenient sentence?
4. How did one of the criminals explain his behavior?
5. Who was blamed for encouraging the attack?
6. Why did the brother of the murdered missionary argue against the death
sentence?
Vocabulary Study and Practice to convert (Unit 18), court (Unit
25), to commit (Unit 27)
I. to pardon —■ помиловать to forgive — простить

II. to blame (somebody for something) — возлагать вину (на кого-
л. за что-л.)
to accuse (somebody of something) — обвинять (кого-л. в чем-л.)
III. sympathy — сочувствие, жалость симпатия — liking
seldom, forgiveness, extreme dislike, punishment.
1. A violent protest by a crowd of people. 2. A leader of a group of
people who are doing something illegal or wrong.
1. Thousands of lower-caste Hindus have taken part in a mass conversion
ceremony in the Indian capital Delhi to become Buddhists, in a bid to escape
the social stigma of the caste system. 2. The organizers had hoped for a
million converts. 3. He was a leader committed to ending violence. 4.
Though violence was sharply reduced during the seven weeks the ceasefire
lasted, the Islamic groups Hamas and Islamic Jihad were never committed
to stopping the conflict.
A. 1. The severe housing shortage is partly to blame for high rents. 2.
Delinquency is often blamed on the fact that more mothers are working.
285
3. The manager was blamed for the accident. 4. The organizers of the
conversion ceremony blamed the police for preventing more people from
attending. 5. Moscow blamed the Chechen military leader Khattab for two
murderous attacks in the southern region of Stavropol.
B. 1. Power and wealth corrupted him. 2. It is claimed that television
corrupts young people. 3. Corrupting the morals of a minor is a criminal
offence. 4. In the past two hundred years Europe has destroyed or corrupted
a great number of ancient cultures. 5. The politician fought for reform in a
city riddled with corruption.
C. 1. He was accused of embezzlement. 2. The government is often
accused of incompetence. 3. The rights of the accused in court should be
observed.
Exercise 5. Replace the words in bold type by the words and phrases from the
text:
1. The defense asked for a light sentence. 2. One of the murderers claimed
to have committed the crime "because of the unpleasant relations with the
Christians". 3. The criminals were provoked by the disintegration of the
tribal culture. 4. The missionary's brother argued against a death sentence,
fearing it would provoke more extremism.

One of the convicted men has been quoted as saying he was provoked
by the "corruption of tribal culture" by the missionaries. — По словам
одного из приговоренных, его спровоцировало разрушение племенной
культуры миссионерами.
"I did this because of the bitter relations with the Christians," Mahendra
Hembram was quoted as saying by The Hindustan Times in a letter to his
sister-in-law. — «Индустан Тайме» цитирует письмо Махендры
Хембрама к жене брата: «Я сделал это из-за конфликта с христианами».
Субъектная конструкция с причастием при глаголах to report, to
quote, to interpret и т.п. в пассивной форме включает союз as.
{Грамматический курс, 3.3.4.2)
1. The Prime Minister was reported as saying that he would do everything
in his power to stop religious conflicts. 2. Mr. Annan, the UN Secretary
General, is on record as having expressed sympathy for Israel over its
isolation in the UN. 3. The policy of separating the races is usually interpreted
as denoting the inferiority of the African-American group. 4. In this essay
Russia is portrayed as standing at a critical crossroads, having progressed
from the tumultuous transition to capitalism but still unable to compete
against "highly developed" nations.
286
1. По словам преступника, он ненавидел всех христиан. 2. Пре-
ступление было спровоцировано разрушением племенной культуры. 3.
Власти опасались, что смертный приговор спровоцирует дальнейшее
насилие. 4. Суд вынес убийцам смертный приговор. Их обвиняли в
убийстве и поджоге. 5. Суд длился полгода. 6. Обвинение требовало
смертного приговора. 7. Индуисты возлагали вину за конфликт на
христиан. 8. Защита просила более мягкого приговора. 9. Деревенские
жители прятали преступников из сочувствия к их борьбе против
мусульман и христиан. 10. Правоверные индуисты возражают против
обращения в христианство. 11. После уличных беспорядков полиция
усилила меры безопасности. 12. Миссионер работал в больнице для
прокаженных. 13. Американский президент, уходящий со своего поста,
имеет право помиловать нескольких преступников. 14. Вдова
миссионера простила убийц своего мужа.
TEXT 2
Fears for India's Secularism

By Charles Havitand, BBC correspondent in Madras
Recent laws outlawing forced religious conversions in two Indian states are creating growing
controversy.
The Pope has recently condemned the laws in the southern state of Tamil
Nadu and Gujarat in the west of the country.
The country's Christian and Muslim minorities, which feel the laws are
directed against them, say they undermine India's secular status and its
constitution, which guarantees the freedom both to practice and to propagate
one's faith.
The laws, passed in Gujarat in April and in Tamil Nadu last October,
forbid any religious conversions carried out through what they term "force,
fraud or allurement", including the granting of material benefits.
They have proved highly popular with supporters of the Hindu revivalist
ideology which now permeates India's central government.
"Inducement". Cho Ramaswamy, a colourful playwright-journalist
close to Tamil Nadu's leadership, feels the legislation is reasonable.
287
"There have been complaints in various pockets of India that Christian
sects are offering people education and financial assistance, but saying they
must become Christian if they're to benefit," he says. "That is inducement."
But church and mosque leaders fear the broad new definitions will
endanger their work, for instance in education or helping the poor.
Bishop Ezra Sargunam's Evangelical Church of India is a fast-growing
independent church dedicated to spreading the Christian gospel.
He says the new law is already being abused.
"We have evangelists who've been stopped by the police — who say, hey,
no proselytising here! You know there's a law against it?
"That's what we are bothered about," he says.
He is echoed by Abdul Jalil of a Tamil Muslim party, the TMMK.
People used to come forward voluntarily to accept Islam, says this mild-
mannered scientist. "Now people are coming out less," he laments. "They're
going to neighbouring states like Kerala or Pondicherry because they don't
want to convert here."
Caste Hatred. But there is one good reason people do still want to convert
— Hinduism's rigid social hierarchy, the caste system.
At the very bottom are dalits, once known as "untouchables". For them, a
new religion can mean a more equal existence. In the little village of
Koothirambakkam, I met some of these dalits who are being driven away from
Hinduism by sheer caste hatred.
Lower-caste Hindus say their plight has not improved in centuries.
It has been nearly 50 years since the caste system was abolished, legally
at least. But in many Indian villages it is still taboo for lower castes to use the
well to draw water or enter Hindu temples or the homes of their high-caste
neighbours. The higher-caste Hindus will not let the village deity be paraded
through the dalit area, claiming the people are "unclean".
And in March, when dalits took up fishing rights in a pond, they were
attacked. A dozen villagers showed me their injuries. One woman, over 70,
was beaten until her hand was broken. Another was cut on her arm, beaten
and had abuse hurled at her. Now these dalits have had enough and say they
will convert to Islam.
That includes even Karunanidhi, 35, who has always devoutly adored one
Hindu goddess.
"So many of us have suffered from these atrocities — now I'm angry with
this goddess for not saving us," he says. "So I'm leaving this religion for the
sake of my people."
India's political leaders see this type of development and fear the majority
religion — 80 % of Indians are Hindu — is being eroded.
Hinduism is the predominant religion in India, while Islam and
Christianity enjoy a strong cultural heritage, having arrived through trade
even before foreign invasions.
1. Why do the authorities of some Indian states forbid conversions?
2. What is the predominant religion in India?
288
3. What tactics do Christians and Muslims employ to encourage
conversions?
4. Why do devout Hindus leave their religion and convert to Christianity
or Islam?
5. How are "the untouchables" discriminated against?
6. How do Indian authorities react to mass conversions?
7. Do you approve of these methods?
8. Do you think the predominant Indian religion should be preserved?
to draw (Unit 1 1 )
secular — светский, гражданский (нецерковный, нерелиги- j

озный)
светский — social; светская жизнь social life, high life; светское
мероприятие social event; светская хроника (в газете) gossip
column
disagreement, to forbid, to complain, strict, aid, non-religious, sensible,
New Testament, a pagan god.
1. Cruel and violent acts, usually committed during a war. 2. A building
used for the worship of a god or gods, especially in the Buddhist, Hindu or
pagan religions.
1. One of the world's best known advocates of non-violent social change
strategies, Martin Luther King, Jr., synthesized ideas drawn from many
different cultural traditions. 2. For many people, no distinction can be drawn
between these two types of crimes. 3. The presidential electoral campaign is
drawing to an end. 4. The government drew its support from moderate
conservatives. 5. This order drew little notice when it was issued.
Exercise 11. Replace the words and phrases in bold type by the words and phrases
from the text:
1. Lower-caste Hindus say their predicament has not improved in
centuries. 2. India's political leaders fear the majority religion is dis-
appearing. 3. Many lower-caste Hindus sincerely love their Hindu gods.
4. Missionaries are forbidden to propagate their religion in some districts.
5. The army was accused of committing mass violent crimes in the occupied
regions. 6. The untouchables were forbidden to get water from the local well.
7. The politician said that these measures were sensible.
289
The higher-caste Hindus will not let the village deity be paraded MUST
through the dalit area, claiming the people are "unclean". — Индуисты из
высших каст не разрешают проносить местную богиню через район
далитов, утверждая, что они «нечисты».
Глагол will в данном случае употреблен в своем исходном мо-
дальном значении «хотеть» (ср. рус. велеть, воля). (Грамматический
курс, 4.9)
1. I will not have all the responsibility thrown on my shoulders. 2. She
begins to act very strangely; she will not eat, she will not speak. She just lies
on her bed. 2. You may laugh if you will, but was sure I would see her there.
1. Россия — многонациональное и многоконфессиональное го-
сударство со светским законодательством. 2. Дети в школе должны
получать светское образование. 3. Для участников конференции был
организован ряд светских мероприятий. 4. Мы прочитали о пред-
стоящей свадьбе кинозвезды в светской хронике. 5. Хотя кастовая
система была отменена законом 50 лет назад, многие члены низших
каст все еще испытывают дискриминацию. 6. Многие индуисты
принимают христианство или ислам из-за кастовой ненависти к
неприкасаемым. 7. Неприкасаемым запрещали брать воду из местного
колодца. 8. Армию обвиняли в зверствах против местного населения. 9.
Трудно установить четкие различия между этими явлениями. 10.
Семестр приближается к концу. 11. Правительство опирается на
поддержку умеренных консерваторов.
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 14. Discuss the two texts in the group. Try to find answers to the
following questions:
1. Should local traditions be preserved even when they are cruel and
involve discrimination?
2. Should the activity of missionaries be forbidden in India?
3. There are quite a lot of Catholic and Protestant missionaries in Russia
encouraging Russians to convert to Catholicism and Protestantism. Should
their activity be forbidden?
In discussing these issues, try to use the following expressions:
the preservation of local traditions, freedom of conscience, religious
tolerance.
290
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 15. Write a short essay describing your attitude to members of non-
Christian religious confessions.
U n i t 43. AN ACCIDENT
Субъектная конструкция с инфинитивом при глаголах to
be required, to be expected, to be supposed, to be called
upon (повторение)
Сочетание существительного failure с инфинитивом
TEXT
Chicago Club Owners Face Charges
The Mayor of Chicago, Richard Daley, has confirmed that charges will be
filed against the owners of a nightclub where 21 people were crushed to death
and 58 injured this week.
City lawyers are now expected to File criminal contempt charges over
the tragedy at the E2 club where a release of pepper spray caused a stampede.
The mayor said that the owners of the club had defied a court order
banning use of the dance space after a string of violations.
But a lawyer for E2 said the order had not covered the dance hall and
criminal charges were "not in any way appropriate".
Mayor Daley said the court order had been "very clear". "The second floor
of the building was not to be occupied, yet the club continued to occupy the
second floor," he told reporters.
He promised to use "every tool, every resource at [the city's] disposal to
make sure justice is done". Correspondents say the tragedy is the worst to hit
the city in 20 years.
Police Inquiry. Earlier reports said a judge ordered the owners to close
the club last July because of numerous safety violations, including failure to
provide enough exits.
"The owner knows that he was not to open that second-floor facility," Fire
Commissioner James Joyce commented shortly after the tragedy.
291
Mr. Joyce estimated that about 500 people had been inside the club.
"There are people who were trying to get out and could not get out," he said.
"We can't explain how management or ownership would allow that."
State prosecutors are awaiting the outcome of the police inquiry to decide
whether the building's owners, Lesly Motors Inc, and the E2 club's operator,
Le Mirage, should face criminal charges.
The lawyer for E2 said that there had been a deal with officials in October
to allow the club to remain in operation until a new court hearing in March.
"If this club was not supposed to be open, they would not have been
[advertising] on the radio and bringing in high-proFile entertainment," Andre
Grant said. "Criminal charges are not in any way warranted... This was a
tragic, tragic accident."
"Like the Titanic". Panic broke out when the Mace spray was released
on the upper floor of the two-storey Epitome complex on the city's South
Side.
The E2 club, located above a restaurant, had been packed in the early
hours of Monday — the President's Day public holiday in America.
Many of the young, mostly black clubbers were trampled as people rushed
for the exits.
Dozens of distraught families went to the Cook County morgue to identify
the dead, many of whom had horrific injuries.
"These bodies were smashed faces, torsos, legs. It's like a steamroller
rolled over them," the Reverend Eric Sloss, who helped families identify their
loved ones, told The Chicago Tribune.
Reports say that the spray was used by club security officers to break up
a fight among a group of young women. Clubbers rushed down a staircase to
try to get out when the spray was released and as some fell, others simply
poured on top of them.
"It was like the Titanic in a nightclub," said 22-year-old survivor Kristy
Mitchell. "No one could help us. I told the other ladies, 'Stop screaming,
you're wasting our air.'"
1. Why are Chicago club owners facing criminal charges?
2. What are they going to be charged with?
3. What happened in the night club?
4. What provoked the panic?
5. Why were many people killed in the accident?
6. Do you think criminal charges against the club owners are warranted?

to cover (Units 4, 26), release (Units 14, 26), to face (Unit 23),
court (Unit 25), file (Unit 26), warrant (Unit 36)
criminal contempt charges — обвинение в неуважении к суду
292
В американском и британском законодательстве невыполнение
решения суда квалифицируется как неуважение к суду и является
уголовным преступлением (см. Unit 25).
result, investigation, to cry, to disobey, to forbid.
1. A sudden rush by a lot of people who all want to do the same thing or
go to the same place. 2. A large heavy vehicle with wide solid wheels or
rollers which is used to flatten the surface of a road.
1. The court's decision on the University of Michigan admissions policy
upheld affirmative action. 2. The two men faced each other across the table.
3. Many of the shipyard workers face losing their jobs. 4. A third of the
Russian prison population, about 350,000 inmates, will be released this year,
provoking fears of a crime wave and a massive rise in cases of tuberculosis
and AIDS. 5. The manager released some details of yesterday's meeting. 6.
In the process of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is absorbed by a plant cell
and oxygen is released into the atmosphere. 7. They filed an application to
have their case heard early. 8. The court issued a warrant for his arrest. 9.
What he did was not serious enough to warrant punishment. 10. The
warranty doesn't cover damage caused by misuse of the product.
1. The concept of sentence in linguistics defies exact definition. 2. The
commander defied a direct order to surrender. 3. They are wrong to defy
293
the order of the court. 4. This theory helps to explain a number of phenomena
that otherwise defy analysis. 5. 1 defy you to produce one shred of evidence.
6. The term "culture" defies precise definition.

I. If this club was not supposed to be open, they would not have
been [advertising] on the radio... — Если клуб нельзя было
открывать, его не рекламировали бы по радио...
Повторите субъектную конструкцию с инфинитивом при
глаголах to be required, to be expected, to be supposed, to be called upon,
имеющую значение долженствования, обусловленного общественными
нормами и требованиями (Unit 15, Grammar Study and Practice;
Грамматический курс, 3.1.3.2.4).
I. What are you doing here? You are not supposed to enter this part of the
building. 2. Children are not supposed to read such books. 3. In this society,
pregnant women were not supposed to appear in public. 4. Amelia says girls
are not supposed to play chess, but I've always thought that's a very silly rule.
5. I'm sorry if I'm not supposed to know, but .1 would have had to be blind
and deaf not to notice.
II. failure to provide enough exits — отсутствие достаточного ко-
личества выходов
Сочетание существительного failure с инфинитивом может служить
лишенным дополнительных значений показателем отрицания.
Наиболее приемлемый способ перевода — придаточное предложение
или именная фраза с отрицанием. (Грамматический курс, 3.1.2.6)
1. I was angry with him for his failure to take me seriously. 2. Failure to
recognize the power of trade unions has led many managers into trouble. 3.
Some mistakes were the result of policymakers' failure to accept and interpret
the intelligence properly. 4. The manager was difficult to deal with because
of his failure to understand how important deadlines were to the news media.
5. This failure to investigate and prosecute adequately perpetuates a climate
of impunity. 6. One of Israel's chief rabbis, Yisrael Meir Lau, continues to
insist that Pope now must specifically apologize for the failure of Pope Pius
XII to speak out on behalf of the Jews during World War II.
294
Translation tips:
безопасность {от преступников, террористов и т.д.) — security
безопасность (от природных и техногенных факторов) — safety
жесткий (напр., о мерах) — tough выполнить в срок — to meet the
deadline
1. Его обвинили в неуважении к суду. 2. Хозяев клуба ждет суд из-
за нарушения требований техники безопасности. 3. После теракта
правительство приняло жесткие меры безопасности. 4. Это явление не
поддается объяснению. 5. Сотрудники службы безопасности распылили
в клубе слезоточивый газ. 6. Хозяева клуба не подчинились решению
суда. 7. Сотрудника уволили, потому что он не выполнил работу в срок.
8. Подростки часто сердятся на родителей за то, что те не принимают их
всерьез. 9. Владельцам клуба предъявили обвинения в преступной
халатности. 10. Больного выписали из больницы. 11. «Международная
амнистия» требует освобождения политических заключенных. 12. По
мнению евреев, Папа должен попросить прощения за то, что
католическая церковь не заступилась за евреев во время холокоста. 13.
Детям не полагается участвовать в таких мероприятиях.
Exercise 8. Translate the following text into English or render it in English as
close to the text as possible:
Хозяев чикагского клуба ждет суд
Мэр Чикаго сообщил, что владельцам ночного клуба Е2, жертвами

давки в котором стал 21 человек, будут предъявлены обвинения в
преступной халатности и неуважении к суду.
По словам мэра, ранее чикагский суд вынес постановление, по
которому владельцы клуба должны были закрыть танцевальный зал из-
за целого ряда нарушений норм безопасности.
Юристы клуба утверждают, что в решении суда речь о самом
танцевальном зале не шла, а стало быть, дело против хозяев заведения
возбуждать нельзя.
Но мэр сдаваться не намерен. Он обещает сделать все, чтобы
«восторжествовала справедливость».
Двери были закрыты? Паника в ночном клубе началась после того,
как в здании был распылен слезоточивый или перечный газ. Как
утверждают спасатели, большинство погибших — жертвы давки,
возникшей после того, как посетители клуба ринулись к аварийным
выходам.
Представители полиции сообщили, что многим так и не удалось
выйти из клуба из-за того, что двери были заперты, а проходы
заблокированы посторонними предметами.
295
По некоторым оценкам, в момент трагедии в клубе могло находиться
до 1500 человек.
Эксперты пытаются выяснить подробности случившегося. По
некоторым предположениям, газ могли использовать охранники клуба,
которые пытались прекратить драку, начавшуюся в одном из углов
танцевального зала.
Как передает из Вашингтона корреспондент Би-би-си, паника лишь
усилилась оттого, что многие американцы в последние месяцы живут в
постоянном ожидании теракта. По словам свидетелей, большая часть
посетителей клуба ринулась к выходу, расположенному на первом
этаже здания. По дороге несколько человек упали, и толпа буквально
прошла по их телам.
«Большинство погибших были задавлены или пострадали в ре-
зультате удушения», — заявил представитель полиции. Оззи Род- ригес
Реджи Кларк (Ozzi Rodriguez Reggie Clerk), которая находилась в клубе
вместе со своей сестрой, сказала газете «Чикаго сан- таймс»: «Все
оказались смяты, люди кричали, не могли дышать».
SPEAKING PRACTICE
Exercise 9. Speak about safety measures designed to prevent an accident and
ways of surviving in an accident. In doing so, try to answer the following questions:
1. Does the building of your university meet the safety standards?
2. Are the emergency exits always open?
3. Are there fire extinguishers in conspicuous places?
4. Do you know how to operate a fire extinguisher?
5. Do you know what to do in case of a fire?
WRITING PRACTICE
Exercise 10. Write an essay describing your behavior in a possible accident.

ГРАММАТИЧЕСКИЙ КУРС
1. КОНСТРУКЦИИ С ВВОДЯЩИМ there 1.1.
КОНСТРУКЦИЯ there is/there are

Конструкция there is/there are относится к конструкциям с фор-
мальным подлежащим. Она служит для выражения бытийности —
указания на существование предмета или явления в каком-либо
фрагменте мира.
There is milk in the jug. — В кувшине есть молоко.
There is a long historical tradition behind this process. — Такому ходу
развития предшествовала долгая историческая традиция.
Поскольку в русском языке бытийное предложение имеет сле-
дующий порядок слов: фрагмент мира (место или время) — бытийный
глагол — бытующий предмет, то перевод данной конструкции
целесообразно начинать с обстоятельства места или времени. Если
такие обстоятельства отсутствуют, можно пользоваться словами есть,
имеется, существует. Иногда употребляют иные глаголы, не
являющиеся бытийными.
There was menace in his voice. — В его голосе звучала угроза.
Упражнение 1. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая вни-
мание на порядок слов:
1. There is a great number of theories about behavior and development in
psychology. 2. There have been many attempts in recent years to apply formal
semantics to natural language. 3. In a language that is spoken by any large
number of people there are great differences of dialect. 4. While the
ecological situation is dire, it is not hopeless. There are solutions, sensible
strategies, that will clean up pollution and reverse the decline of our waters.
5. There are an estimated 75 million cubic yards of contaminated sediments
spread over the lake bottom to a depth of 15 inches. 6. Commerce along the
American coast was slowly increasing in the 17th century and there was
thriving trade with the West Indies. 7. In Europe there had been a long
tradition of affiliation between the postal service and journalism. Many of the
early continental newspapers had been published by postmasters. 8. So many
people had died of the plague in the 14th century, that there were serious labor
shortages all over Europe.
9. By 1950 there were an estimated 17,000 men and 2,000 women employed
as experienced practitioners in public relations. 10. There were 1,700
religious magazines by 1970 in the USA, including 1,100 Protestant, 400
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Catholic and 200 Jewish. 11. By 1965 there were anti-Vietnam rallies (rallies
against the war in Vietnam) at Berkeley and at the University of Michigan.
1.2. КОНСТРУКЦИЯ С ВВОДЯЩИМ there С ГЛАГОЛАМИ

ПОМИМО to be
В конструкции с вводящим there вместо различных форм глагола to

be могут употребляться другие глаголы со значением существования,
появления или движения:
to live — жить to come — приходить
to occur — случаться to follow — следовать и др.
There came Lucy running up the hill. — По холмику бегом подни-
малась Люси.
мание на значение глагола-сказусмого:
1. As the number of radio transmitters grew, there developed an annoying
number of instances where two stations were operating near enough to each
other so that the program of one would be imposed upon the sound of the
other. 2. While Europe in the 9th century was still a disorder of war and
pillage, there flourished a great Arab Empire in Egypt and Mesopotamia. 3.
It always seemed to them that there hung about the house faintly the acrid
smell of opium. 4. There entered John and Lucy holding each other's hands.
Упражнение 3. Переведите предложения на английский язык, употребляя
конструкцию there is/there are. Используйте либо глагол to be, либо другой
подходящий по смыслу глагол.
1. В эпоху Возрождения в Америке процветала самобытная местная
культура. 2. В том доме жила очень странная пара. 3. В XVIII — XIX
веках во многих европейских городах появились биржи. 4. В коло-
ниальный период в Америке появилось много новых газет. 5. В комнате
пахло табачным дымом. 6. В последнее время в России появилось
множество мобильных телефонов. 7. В этом языке наблюдаются
значительные диалектные различия. 8. В XIV веке в Европе был
значительный дефицит рабочей силы. 9. В 2003 году в Америке прошли
митинги против войны в Ираке. 10. За этим процессом стоит долгая
историческая традиция.
1.3. КОНСТРУКЦИЯ С ВВОДЯЩИМ there С СУЩЕСТВИТЕЛЬНЫМ,
ОБОЗНАЧАЮЩИМ ДЕЙСТВИЕ ИЛИ ПРИЗНАК
Если в состав конструкции с there is/there are входит существительное

со значением действия или признака, при переводе можно использовать
иную синтаксическую структуру, преобразовав это существительное в
глагол или прилагательное:
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There is wide-spread opinion... — Многие думают...
There is an impression among some people... — Некоторые считают...
There are fears among the officials... — Чиновники опасаются...
There is considerable skepticism among western officials and defense
specialists that NATO will complete its mission. — Должностные лица и
военные специалисты на Западе все больше сомневаются, что НАТО
выполнит свое предназначение.
Упражнение 4. Переведите предложения на русский язык, перестраивая их
структуру в соответствии с приведенными выше примерами:
1. There are fewer heart attacks among those who engage regularly in
strenuous sports, than among those less active. 2. There is an impression
among some people that a man is a better man after having tasted sin, after
knowing evil by experience, then repenting, being forgiven and restored. 3.
There is a growing insistence among professional teachers to treat pupils not
as mere recipients, but as active participants in the work of school. 4. There
is the fear that our civilization may be completely destroyed by the new
weapons of destruction that scientists have placed in the hands of their rulers.
5. There is a widespread opinion among scholars that these manuscripts
belong to the pre-conquest period. 6. There is growing concern among the
environmentalists about deforestation. 7. There is growing conviction among
scientists that these phenomena can be explained by the same theory. 8. In
the 1920s, there was a great amount of criticism of advertising messages. 9.
There was heavy criticism of the new policy among conservatives. 10. After
the Glorious Revolution in England (1688) there were no serious persecutions
of journalists. 11. There was a swelling of pride throughout America in July,
1969, when Americans stood on the Moon. 12. The study of oral and written
traditions is not an invention of the modern age. However, since the 19th
century, there has been a widespread growth of interest among historians in
the media of communications and their influence.
Упражнение 5. Переведите предложения на английский язык, используя
конструкцию there is/there are:
1. Ученые все больше склоняются к мысли, что эти захоронения
принадлежат к III веку до нашей эры. 2. Среди ученых бытует мнение,
что эти рукописи относятся к III веку до нашей эры. 3. Многие
считают/Существует распространенное мнение, что экономические
реформы всегда болезненны для народа. 4. Многие опасаются, что
строительство этого завода нарушит экологию (damage the environment)
тундры.
1.4. КОНСТРУКЦИЯ С ВВОДЯЩИМ there С

ИНФИНИТИВОМ ИЛИ ГЕРУНДИЕМ
Конструкция с вводящим there часто употребляется с герундием и

инфинитивом в отрицательной форме:
There was no stopping him. — Его было невозможно остановить.
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There was never any telling when he would turn up. — Никак нельзя было
предугадать, когда он появится.
Также следует запомнить следующие устойчивые обороты со
словами sense, point, use с герундием и need с инфинитивом:
There is no sense in making him angry. — He нужно/Нет смысла сердить
его.
Is there any point in talking about it again? — Нужно ли опять об этом
говорить!
Do you think there is any use trying to explain? — Вы считаете, что нужно
попытаться как-то это объяснить?
There is no need to hurry — we've got plenty of time. — Нет необхо-
димости торопиться, у нас много времени.
Подобные обороты имеют модальное значение, т.е. указывают на
возможность/невозможность, желательность/нежелательность
осуществления действия, выраженного герундием.
мание на их модальные значения:
1. When David saw that there was no persuading Daniel to stay, he ceased
to urge it. 2. After all, there was no harm in trying. 3. There's no need to speak
about it any further. 4. There is no knowing what he is going to do. 5. Once
the conflict spins out of control, there is no stopping it. 6. There is no point in
talking about this again. 7. Although there was a lot of competition between
the radio and the newspapers in the 1920s, there was no stopping radio's
ability to cover major events.
конструкцию there is/there are и лексику из предыдущих упражнений:
1. Невозможно было уговорить его остаться. 2. Когда военный
конфликт выходит из-под контроля, его невозможно остановить. 3. Нет
смысла больше об этом говорить. 4. Нет смысла делать эти упражнения
еще раз. 5. Трудно сказать, когда он вернется. 6. Нельзя отрицать, что
она права. 7. Остановить его было невозможно. 8. Невозможно было
определить, поверила она моему рассказу или нет. 9. Мир переменился,
и возврата назад быть не может. 10. Нет смысла проводить эту пресс-
конференцию. 11. Неизвестно, что этот автор напишет в будущем. 12.
Когда эта девочка начинает говорить, ее не остановить. 13. Неизвестно,
как будут развиваться коммуникативные технологии в XXI веке.
2. СТРАДАТЕЛЬНЫЙ ЗАЛОГ
2.1. УПОТРЕБЛЕНИЕ И ФОРМЫ СТРАДАТЕЛЬНОГО ЗАЛОГА
В английском языке страдательный залог используется значительно

шире и чаще, чем в русском (в русском языке пассивная форма носит
300
более официальный и скорее письменный, чем разговорный характер, а
потому менее употребительна).
Страдательный залог образуется при помощи вспомогательного
глагола to be в соответствующем времени и п р и ч а с т и я п р о -
ш е д ш е г о в р е м е н и смыслового глагола. Д о п о л н е н и е дей-
ствительного оборота становится п о д л е ж а щ и м страдательного
оборота.
Active Voice (действительный залог): Columbus discovered America in
the 15th century. — Колумб открыл Америку в XV веке.
Passive Voice (страдательный залог): America was discovered (by
Columbus) in the 15th century. — Америка была открыта (Колумбом) в
XV веке.
Запомните соответствие активных форм и их пассивных экви-
валентов:
Tense/Verb Form Active Voice Passive Voice
Present Simple keeps is kept

Present Progressive is keeping is being kept
Past Simple kept was kept
Past Progressive was keeping was being kept
Present Perfect has kept has been kept
Past Perfect had kept had been kept
Future Simple will keep will be kept
Future in the Past would keep would be kept
Future Perfect in the Past would have kept would have been kept
Времена Present Perfect Progressive, Past Perfect Progressive, Future

Progressive не включены в таблицу, так как практически не употреб-
ляются в пассивном залоге.
В разговорной речи вместо глагола to be часто используется глагол to
get:
You'll get (= be) sacked if you take any more time off. — Если ты еще
будешь пропускать работу, тебя уволят.
2.2. ПРЕДЛОГИ В ПАССИВНЫХ КОНСТРУКЦИЯХ
Предлог by употребляется в пассивной конструкции, когда не-

обходимо указать, кем или чем совершается действие:
This picture was painted by Rubens. — Эта картина была написана
Рубенсом.
Однако в пассивном предложении указание на «агента» действия
часто опускается.
Предлог with употребляется, когда речь идет о материалах или
орудиях, при помощи которых совершается действие:
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The paper was cut with a knife.
This door is opened with a key.
The letter was written with a pencil.
При переводе пассивных конструкций обычно используются не-
определенно-личные предложения или, если присутствует дополнение,
указывающее на производителя действия, активный залог:
Television is watched more in larger than in smaller families. — В боль-
ших семьях больше смотрят телевизор, чем в маленьких.
The chemical composition of air was established by Priestley. —
Химический состав воздуха установил Пристли.
мание на время глагола-сказуемого и изменяя, где необходимо, структуру
предложения:
1. Drug trade is banned by national laws and international conventions. 2.
What is taught in a school has no right to be dull. 3. Bell's telephonic
apparatus was demonstrated at the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition in June
of 1876. 4. Right now, only about 1 per cent of America's plastic waste is
recycled. 5. When improperly treated sewage is discharged into coastal
waters, bacteria and viruses can survive and contaminate Fish. 6. In the
Middle Ages, Latin was studied simply for its practical use. The Latin
language was the key to knowledge. 7. In the medieval school, the mother
tongue was not taught at all. It was taken for granted that when a pupil came
to school, he could speak English sufficiently to communicate with his
teachers and with his fellows. 8. Prior to the 15th century, books were
reproduced in Europe by preparing MANU SCRIPTI, copies of existing
books laboriously printed by hand. 9. By 1600, at least 174 books, possibly
more, had been published. 10. In the first half of the 19th century, railroads
were built between the principal cities in the eastern part of the USA. 11. In
the USA, the smoking ban on airliners was extended to nearly all domestic
flights in February 1990. 12. He was being criminally prosecuted for tax
evasion. 13. By the time the dangers of once popular pesticides were
discovered, irreversible damages had already been done. 14. Swimming in
California Santa Monica bay has been declared unsafe because of intensive
and chronic untreated sewage dumping. 15. In many areas, marshes are being
destroyed through diking and draining to make way for buildings and roads.
16. In California, an artificial wetland has been built on the site of an
abandoned dump, and is being used to treat sewage instead of dumping it into
a nearby bay. 17. As the 16th century began, presses with movable type were
turning out thousands of copies of books printed on paper. They were being
published in all European languages. 18. In England, the needs of the growing
middle class were met by such skillful writers and journalists as Addison,
Steele, Samuel Johnson and Daniel Defoe. 19. When a means was found to
finance a cheap paper for wide distribution, and the techniques were invented
for rapid printing and distribution, the first true mass medium was born in the
form of the penny press. 20. By 1739, thirteen newspapers were being
published in British America. 21. The publication of corantos (the early
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forerunners of the newspaper) was strongly regulated by the government. 22.
The public is sometimes excluded from the court if the judge feels that a
witness or a member of a jury is being threatened by someone watching the
proceedings.
пассивные конструкции и обращая внимание на предложное дополнение:
1. Закон всемирного тяготения открыл Ньютон. 2. Во многих
районах болота уничтожаются для строительства зданий и дорог.
3. Печатный станок с рассыпным шрифтом был изобретен в XV веке.
4. Только 1 0 % пластмассовых отходов подвергаются вторичной
переработке. 5. Предприниматель (businessman) подвергся уголовному
преследованию за уклонение от налогов. 6. В Калифорнии построено
искусственное болото, которое используется для очистки сточных вод
(for treating sewage). 7. В средневековых школах английский язык
вообще не преподавался. 8. То, что преподается в школе, не должно
быть скучным.
2.3. ПЕРЕВОД ПАССИВНЫХ КОНСТРУКЦИЙ С ГЛАГОЛАМИ,

ЭКВИВАЛЕНТЫ КОТОРЫХ В РУССКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ НЕПЕРЕХОДНЫ
Пассивный залог в английском языке может образовываться от

глаголов, эквиваленты которых в русском языке непереходны. В таких
случаях его целесообразно переводить неопределенно-лич- ным
предложением или иной синтаксической структурой:
The journalist knew that his movements were being watched. — Жур-
налист знал, что за ним следят.
When a child is born, he is dominated by selfish desires and primitive
emotions. — Когда ребенок рождается, им владеют эгоистичные
желания и примитивные эмоции.
Упражнение 3. Переведите предложения на русский язык:
1. The achievements of US scientists are known and admired throughout
the world. 2. This plant was owned by General Motors. 3. People who have
fled war, persecution or human rights abuse — refugees and displaced
persons — are assisted by the UN. 4. The print media (newspapers and
magazines) are privately owned in the western democratic countries, but the
broadcast media usually are not. 5. By the end of the colonial period, the
American Colonies were inhabited by 500,000 slaves, 15,000 Huguenots
(French Protestants), 100,000 Germans and the Scotch- Irish. 6. Living
among other ethnic groups, the Germans were admired for their hard work
and thrift. 7. Today's viewer is amused at the stereotyped facial expressions
and the gross body movements of the actors in early films. 8. These offices
are reached by a private elevator. 9. When the Gregorian Calendar was being
created for religious purposes, clergymen were assisted by astronomers. 10.
This newly developed method was followed by a number of others. 11. The
revolution was followed by a long civil war. 12. During the first decade of
the 20th century, motion pictures became a form of family entertainment.
This was soon followed in the 1920s by the development of household radio
303
and in the 1940s by the beginnings of home television. 13. The demand for a
good is affected not only by its own price, but also by the prices of related
goods. 14. The protest march against the war in Iraq was also joined by some
relatives of victims of the attack on the World Trade Center, marching as
"9/11 families for peace". 15. The press conference was well attended by
print, television and radio reporters.
Пассивные конструкции часто используются при переводе газетных
клише:
В конференции участвова*?... — The conference was attended by...
В демонстрации участвовал ... — The march was joined by...
На процесс влияет... — The process is influenced/affected by...
пассивные конструкции:
1. Немцев уважают за трудолюбие и аккуратность. 2. Достижениями
российских ученых восхищается весь мир. 3. К концу ледникового
периода в Австралии жили различные первобытные племена. 4. Этим
людям помогает ООН. 5. На собрании председательствовал декан. 6.
Журналист знал, что за ним следят. 7. Печатные С М И в
демократических странах являются частной собственностью. 8. На
продовольственные цены влияет множество факторов. 9. Сегод-
няшнему зрителю смешно смотреть на мимику и жесты актеров в
первых фильмах. 10. Во время раскопок археологам помогали
добровольцы. 11. За гражданской войной последовала длительная
экономическая депрессия. 12. На пресс-конференции присутствовали
многие журналисты. 13. В заседании кабинета принял участие премьер-
министр. 14. В митинге протеста (the protest rally) участвовали многие
актеры. 15. К мирной демонстрации присоединились студенты. 16. В
пресс-конференции участвовал представитель правительства
(government spokesperson).
2.4. КОСВЕННОЕ ДОПОЛНЕНИЕ В КАЧЕСТВЕ

ПОДЛЕЖАЩЕГО ПАССИВНОЙ КОНСТРУКЦИИ
Подлежащим страдательного оборота может быть не только прямое

дополнение, которое фигурировало бы в действительном залоге, но и
косвенное дополнение, указывающее на адресата действия.
Пассивные предложения с косвенным дополнением в роли под-
лежащего в английском языке используются чаще. Так, предложению
Someone gave her a dog соответствуют два пассивных оборота:
She was given a dog;
A dog was given to her, первый из которых является гораздо
более употребительным.
При переводе подобных конструкций целесообразно использовать
неопределенно-личные предложения:
304
The children were told an interesting story. — Детям рассказали
интересную историю.
Запомните наиболее распространенные глаголы, сопровождаемые
двумя дополнениями — прямым и косвенным:
• глаголы с общим значением «давать», «передавать»: to give, to
bring, to send, to lend, to pay, to deny, to offer, to grant (permission), to issue
(an order);
• глаголы с общим значением «говорить», «показывать»: to tell, to
promise, to show, to advise.
The headmaster was sent an invitation to the graduation ceremony. —
Директору школы прислали приглашение на церемонию выпуска.
You were lent ten thousand pounds last year. — В прошлом году вам
дали в долг 10 000 фунтов.
The tourists were advised to leave the beach. — Туристам посовето-
eajiu уйти с пляжа.
The visitors were shown a collection of old manuscripts. — Гостям
показали коллекцию старых рукописей.
Если в подобных предложениях на первое место все-таки ставится
прямое дополнение, то предлог перед косвенным дополнением часто
опускается:
This watch was given (to) me by my father. — Эти часы подарил мне
мой отец.
Обратите особое внимание на глаголы explain и suggest. В пред-
ложениях с этими глаголами на п е р в о м м е с т е всегда стоит
прямое дополнение.
The problem was explained to the children by the teacher. — Эту задачу
детям объяснил учитель.
This solution was suggested to us by our colleagues. — Это решение было
предложено нам нашими коллегами.
1. After an anti-war rally in front of the Capitol in Washington, D.C.,
newspaper readers were given various estimates of the size of the crowd. 2.
In 1600, The East India Company was granted a monopoly of trade with Asia,
Africa and America. 3. During the Great Depression, when the US faced a
crisis of confidence, President Roosevelt was given a carte blanche by the
Congress. 4. Newsmagazines are afforded a little more time than newspapers
to digest the significance of contemporary developments. 5. Before the civil
rights campaign in the USA, African Americans in many states were denied
the right to vote. 6. Before the civil rights campaign broke out, black college
graduates in the South were told by employers that they could apply for jobs
as janitors and maids, but not as salesclerks and receptionists. 7. A friend of
ours was recently denied a promotion he felt he deserved. Another manager
was given the job and wound up as Bob's superior. 8. The police were issued
an order to patrol the city. 9. PR persons have been reminded of their own
ethical responsibilities. 10. The Congressman was denied reappointment to
the Budget Committee. 11. After the revolution of 1688 in England, which
brought a change in the monarchical institutions, journalists were accorded
305
considerable freedom. 12. The journalists were told that the Prime Minister
would hold a press conference. 13. It was explained to the journalists why the
Prime Minister could not take part in the press conference.
пассивную конструкцию:
1. Ост-Индская компания получила монополию на торговлю с
Азией, Африкой и Америкой. 2. Моему другу предложили интересную
работу. 3. Во многих южных штатах чернокожие американцы были
лишены избирательного права. 4. Конгрессмену прислали приглашение
на встречу с выпускниками колледжа. 5. Полиция получила приказание
усилить меры безопасности (to step up security). 6. Служащим компании
обещали повысить зарплату. 7. Мне сказали, что Джон получил
повышение. 8. В тоталитарном государстве общество (the public)
лишено правдивой информации о событиях в стране и за рубежом. 9.
Нам объяснили правила игры. 10. Журналистам сказали, что пресс-
конференция начнется через два часа. 11. Журналистам объяснили, что
ситуация находится под контролем.
2.5. ПАССИВНЫЕ КОНСТРУКЦИИ С ГЛАГОЛАМИ СО ЗНАЧЕНИЕМ

ПРОСЬБЫ, СОВЕТА, РАЗРЕШЕНИЯ И ПРИНУЖДЕНИЯ
Пассивные конструкции с глаголами просить, советовать, а также

с глаголами с общим значением «разрешать», «заставлять» имеют
значения «его попросили», «ему посоветовали», «его заставили».
I. David had been ordered by my mother to meet me at the railway station
and escort me to the town house. 2. Before 1992, Soviet citizens were not
permitted to buy and own foreign currency. 3. Before the patient was wheeled
into the operating room, her mother was permitted to see her briefly. 4. The
children were forbidden to enter this room. 5. The tourists were advised to
buy souvenirs in this shop. 6. The company employees were allowed to buy
the stock of the company at lower prices. 7. The rats in the laboratory were
conditioned to use one exit and avoid the other. 8. The students were told to
discuss these problems in groups. 9. If the teacher does not present interesting
reading materials, the students are not motivated to read effectively. 10. The
diplomat was ordered to leave the country for foreign service.
Если в пассивной конструкции с глаголами со значением при-
нуждения отсутствует дополнение с предлогом by, указывающее на
источник принуждения (кто заставил или что заставило), конструкция
приобретает модальное значение вынужденного долженствования
(«пришлось»). Это прежде всего относится к сочетаниям:
to be forced + infinitive
to be obliged + infinitive
(ср. рус. его вынудили/он был вынужден). Например:
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The government was forced to declare a state of emergency. — Пра-
вительство было вынуждено объявить чрезвычайное положение.
Сочетание to be called upon + infinitive имеет значение должен-
ствования, обусловленного моральным долгом.
мание на значение сказуемого:
1. During the war, the government was forced to raise taxes twice. 2. The
President was forced to make some unpopular decisions. 3. We didn't know
about your plans and were forced to ask Captain Butler. 4. My husband's
friends were very cold to me, and 1 didn't understand
why. I was forced to assume that my great sin lay in being an eighteen- year-
old foreigner. 5. The UN is called upon to solve the problem of poverty.
объясненные выше пассивные конструкции:
1. Больному (the patient) посоветовали поехать на юг. 2. Поли-
цейскому приказали арестовать преступника. 3. Солдатам приказали
штурмовать здание. 4. Студентам сказали прийти к девяти часам. 5.
Собаку приучили находить наркотики. 6. У многих студентов
отсутствует мотивация к чтению. 7. Мать была вынуждена уйти с
работы, так как ее ребенок часто болел. 8. Служащим компании
запрещено пользоваться компьютерами в офисе для личной переписки.
9. Работникам офиса разрешали пользоваться кухней. 10. Полиции
приказали круглосуточно (round the clock) наблюдать за заданием.
2.6. УПОТРЕБЛЕНИЕ ПАССИВНОЙ КОНСТРУКЦИИ С ПРЕДЛОГАМИ
Пассивный залог в английском языке может быть образован и от

предложной конструкции. При этом предлог стоит непосредственно за
глагольной формой:
Active Voice Passive Voice
He looked after the children well. The children were well looked after. They
sent for the police. The police was sent for.
К числу наиболее употребительных глаголов, с которыми возможны
подобные страдательные обороты, относятся:
to account for sthg. — объяснять что-л.
to agree upon sthg. — договариваться о чем-л.
to allude to sthg. — намекать на что-л., касаться чего-л.
to arrive at sthg. — достигать чего-л. (соглашения т. п.)
to comment upon sthg. — комментировать что-л.
to deal with sthg./sbdy. — иметь дело/обращаться/справляться
с чём-л./кем-л. to depend on
sthg./sbdy. — полагаться на что-л./кого-л. to dispose of sthg.
— ликвидировать что-л.
to enter into sthg. — вступать (в соглашение и т.п.)
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to insist on/upon sthg. — настаивать на чем-л. to interfere with sthg./sbdy. —
мешать чему-л./кому-л., вмешиватьс^
во что-л.
to laugh at sthg./sbdy. — смеяться над чем-л./кем-л. to listen to sthg./sbdy. —
слушать что-л./кого-л. to look at sthg./sbdy. — смотреть на что-л./кого-
л.
to lose sight of sthg./sbdy. — терять из виду что-л./кого-л. to provide for
sthg. — предусматривать что-л.
to refer to sthg. — ссылаться на что-л.
to refer to sthg./sbdy. as — называть что-л./кого-л. to rely on sbdy. —
полагаться на кого-л.
to resort to sthg. — прибегать к чему-л. (к какому-л.
средству)
to speak of/about sthg./sbdy. — говорить о чём-л./ком-л. to send
for sthg./sbdy. — посылать за чем-л./кем-л. to take care of sbdy.
— заботиться о ком-л.
to find fault with sthg./sbdy.— придираться, критиковать что-л./
кого-л.
to make use of sthg. — использовать/употреблять что-л.
1. In a democratic society, newspapers must be sure that their news
coverage will not be interfered with. 2. The case has been reported to the FBI
(Federal Bureau of Investigation) and it is being looked into. 3. After the
explosion, people were only allowed to leave the building when everyone
inside was identified and their presence accounted for. 4. A change of course
in the government's economic strategy was hinted at last night in the Prime
Minister's speech. 5. Native Americans were referred to as Indians because it
was thought for a while that Columbus had discovered India. 6. I have never
been spoken to like that before. 7. The first settlers of California were referred
to as the Encinitas culture. 8. This program, exceeding the budget, was
embarked upon without the manager's advance approval. 9. This statement,
the Senator said, should be looked at in the light of what was said at the
previous meeting. 10. The misunderstanding was dealt with by a telephone
call. 11. In the 20th century, many dangerous diseases were done away with.
12. When people can't settle their disputes legally, violence is often resorted
to. 13. One day the world will learn of the intrigues and provocations that
were resorted to in pushing the country into this suicidal policy. 14. In this
country, religious minorities are severely discriminated against. 15. The
creation in the 17th century of the Con- gregatio de Propaganda (an office of
propaganda) by the Roman Catholic Church is often pointed to as a keystone
in the development of public relations. 16. Mary felt she was being looked at.
17. We all like to be listened to.
конструкции и лексику из предыдущих упражнений:
1. Коренных жителей Америки называли индейцами, поскольку
долгое время считалось, что Колумб открыл Индию. По этой же
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причине острова в Карибском море называют Вест-Индия. 2. Если люди
знают, что о них позаботятся, у них пропадает стимул к труду. 3. Когда
политики не могут найти мирного решения проблем, прибегают к
насилию. 4. Эта программа была начата без предварительного
одобрения правительства. 5. Ученые полагают, что в XXI веке будет
покончено со многими опасными болезнями. 6. Это недоразумение
было быстро разрешено. 7. Общественное мнение — это сила, с которой
всегда считались.
2.7. ГЛАГОЛЫ В АКТИВНОМ ЗАЛОГЕ С ПАССИВНЫМ

ЗНАЧЕНИЕМ
Некоторые английские глаголы, употребляемые в активном залоге,

следует переводить пассивным залогом, когда этого требует смысл:
This house does not let. — Этот дом не сдается.
This work does not pay. — Эта работа не оплачивается.
This article reads well. — Эта статья легко читается.
The drawers open with difficulty. — Ящики с трудом открываются.
This counts for nothing. — Это не считается.
3. НЕЛИЧНЫЕ ФОРМЫ ГЛАГОЛА (ВЕРБАЛИИ)
К неличным формам глагола (иначе вербалиям) в английской

грамматике относят инфинитив, причастие и герундий. Они называются
неличными, потому что в них отсутствуют глагольные категории лица
и числа. Неличные формы глагола отличаются двойственным
характером: они сочетают признаки глагола с признаками других
частей речи. Так, инфинитив и герундий имеют признаки глагола и
имени существительного, причастие обнаруживает как глагольные
характеристики, так и признаки прилагательного и наречия. При
дальнейшем рассмотрении этих частей речи мы будем учитывать
соотношение в них глагольных и неглагольных признаков.
3.1. ИНФИНИТИВ
3.1.1. Формы инфинитива
Инфинитив, как и другие неличные формы глагола, сочетает в себе

глагольные и именные признаки. Глагольные категории, присущие
инфинитиву, видны из следующей таблицы:
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Время Залог
Активный Пассивный
Общее to write to be written
Перфектное to have written to have been written
—
Длительное to be writing
—
Перфектно-длительное to have been writing
Таблица показывает, что инфинитив имеет категорию залога (т.е.

существует в активной и пассивной форме) и категорию времени
(употребляется в неперфектной и перфектной форме, а в активном
залоге — также в длительной и перфектно-длительной форме). Время,
выражаемое инфинитивом, является не абсолютным, обозначающим
отношение к моменту речи, а относительным, т.е. обозначает
отношение действия, выраженного инфинитивом, к действию,
выраженному личной формой глагола:
I am glad to see you. — Я рад вас видеть.
Инфинитив to see выражает состояние, одновременное с состоянием,
выражаемым сказуемым am glad.
Если сказуемое обозначает прошедшее действие или состояние, то к
прошлому относится и неперфектная форма инфинитива:
1 was glad to see her yesterday. = I was glad yesterday + I saw her yesterday.
Неперфектный инфинитив может обозначать как настоящее, так и
будущее действие:
I hope to receive this information tomorrow. — Я надеюсь получить эту
информацию завтра.
Отнесение действия к будущему подтверждается обстоятельством
времени tomorrow.
Действие или состояние, выраженное перфектным инфинитивом,
предшествует действию или состоянию, выраженному сказуемым:
I am proud to have met this actor. — Я горжусь тем, что был знаком с
этим актером.
Инфинитив to have met обозначает действие, предшествующее
действию, выраженному сказуемым am proud.
3.1.2. Функции инфинитива в предложении

3.1.2.1. Инфинитив в функции подлежащего
Инфинитив может быть подлежащим предложения:

То translate the author's thought into one's own words is more difficult
than to reproduce them verbatim. — Передать мысли автора своими
словами труднее, чем воспроизвести текст дословно.
To be recognized on the streets pleased her. — Ей было приятно, когда ее
узнавали на улицах.
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Однако инфинитив не так часто встречается в функции подле-
жащего, предшествующего сказуемому. Гораздо более частотной
является конструкция, внутри которой функцию вводного или
формального подлежащего выполняет местоимение it, а инфинитивный
оборот занимает положение после сказуемого. Сказуемое в подобных
предложениях чаще всего бывает составным именным, состоящим из
глагола-связки и прилагательного в функции именной части сказуемого:
It is difficult to establish the origins of this theory. — Трудно установить,
как появилась эта теория.
It is very useful to learn a foreign language in a foreign country. — Очень
полезно изучать иностранный язык за границей.
Именная часть сказуемого может быть выражена и существи-
тельным. Это чаще всего такие существительные, как duty, job, policy,
intention, habit, task и т. п. В этом случае при существительном стоит
определение, называющее субъекта действия, выраженного
инфинитивом, а само существительное указывает на обязательность,
намеренность, привычность этого действия, т.е. имеет значение,
близкое к модальному.
It is the job of the historian to keep on reminding us of the cyclical nature of
the civilization. — Задача историков — постоянно напоминать нам о
цикличном характере цивилизации. /Историки должны постоянно
напоминать нам о цикличном характере цивилизации.
It was the Customs Bureau's policy to give travelers the utmost opportunity
to make voluntary declarations. — На таможне считали, что пассажиры
должны иметь максимальную возможность добровольно предъявлять
свой багаж.
It was his habit to discuss with his wife what he had been doing during the
day. — Он привык рассказывать жене, что он делал в течение дня.
В инфинитивных конструкциях с вводным it может появляться и
простое глагольное сказуемое:
It saddens me to part with you. — Мне грустно с вами расставаться.
It grieves me to see a man who will never know financial want behaving
greedily. — Мне грустно видеть, как жадничает человек, который
никогда не будет знать нужды.
Если в составе глагольного сказуемого выступает глагол to take, оно
указывает на время или усилия, необходимые для осуществления
действия, выраженного инфинитивом:
Taxis were scarce and it took him a quarter of an hour to flag one down. —
Такси почти не было, и ему понадобилось четверть часа, чтобы
поймать машину/и он четверть часа ловил машину.
He knew well how much maturity it took to withstand loneliness and
boredom. — Он хорошо знал, какая нужна душевная зрелость, чтобы
бороться со скукой и одиночеством.
мание на инфинитив в функции подлежащего:
311
1. То say that psychology is a science is not to say that it is an exact
science like chemistry. 2. He had never asked the firm for favors and to leave
the shop at three o'clock was a departure from lifetime standards. 3. You can
go straight through a gap in the hedge into the Majestic garden. To go through
the Majestic garden is the shortest way to the town. 4. The Burmans have no
quarrel with the British people. But to be governed by English sahibs is
unbearable. 5. Poirot clung firmly to the continental breakfast. To see me
eating eggs and bacon upset and distressed him — so he always said. 6.
Reading the lines, reproducing the author's words is merely parroting. To
translate the author's thought into one's own words is more difficult. 7.
Despite the large number of women in the workforce, assumptions about
male and female spheres of responsibility were so deeply ingrained that to
question them amounted to heresy. 8. At the time of the Crusades, Catholics
believed that to die in the name of the cross of Jesus would assure more
immediate access to heaven.
Упражнение 2. Переведите предложения на русский язык. Имейте в виду,
что в соответствующих предложениях в русском языке местоимение это не
употребляется.
1. It is often more difficult to find and to formulate a problem than to
solve it. 2. In this short introduction, it is not appropriate to go into details. 3.
It's difficult to understand the minds of children. 4. It's difficult to predict the
results of the presidential election next year. 5. I think it's fair to let you know
where I stand. 6. If there is a chapter summary in the book, it is often more
useful to read this summary before you actually read the text. 7. In beginning
a new language, it is important to have as wide view as possible of
grammatical forms. 8. It is necessary to classify the various kinds of groups
before we can study their properties. 9. It's interesting to note that such
projects often receive unanimous support.
10. It's disturbing to learn that we are not the center of the universe.
11. It has become fashionable to say that parents no longer understand their
children. 12. It has become fashionable to blame the media for most of the
nation's major social ills — such as civic apathy, decline in educational
standards and rising rates of crime and corruption. 13. The sea, as a system,
is complex and changeable. It is impossible to give a brief but full account of
all the factors affecting its physical and chemical characteristics. 14. It is
important to remember that what enters the sea via rivers, lakes and
precipitation is not just water. The water flowing and raining into the sea
brings with it a wide range of substances. 15. It is interesting to observe the
reaction of the French under the strong leadership of De Gaulle as compared
to their instability under weaker leadership. 16. It was the journalist's
intention to follow the manager whenever he went. 17. I didn't like the
assumption that it was my duty to be taught and his to teach. 18. For thirty
years, it had been the colonel's habit to go to Brittany each summer. 19. It's
not my business to interfere, but I think that you are making a mistake. 20.
It's my job as the security officer to keep the cultural center out of trouble.
21. It is not my purpose now to recount in detail my journey around America.
312
22. I don't think there is a swimming pool in this district. It would be fun to
have one. 23. It is the task of public relations to supply accurate information
concerning subjects of interest to the public. 24. Do you think it would amuse
her to join our party for a while? 25. He was well grounded in the classics
though it had never occurred to his father to send him to college. 26. It may
interest you to know that last week a deputation of the workers approached
the manager, who invited me to supervise their team. 27. "I wouldn't eat too
much pastry, George. It doesn't agree with you." "I know," he retorted with
some crispness. It annoyed him to be warned against dishes he particularly
liked. 28. It might not hurt the child to have a little sunshine. 29. She enjoyed
the prestige and affluence of being the wife of a famous musician and it made
her feel good to believe her influence steadied him. 30. She was knocked
down by a car. It took her several seconds to collect her thoughts, but she
realized that a policeman was standing over her. 31. Southern girls were
taught to be helpless, clinging, doe-eyed creatures. Really, it took a lot of
sense to cultivate and hold such a pose. 32. It takes great self-control to judge
one's own actions with any degree of objectivity. 33. It took me some months
to recover my strength after my son was born. 34. People had stopped saying
"One more victory and the war is over"... It was obvious to all now that the
enemies were far from cowardly and it would take more than one victory to
conquer them.
Упражнение 3. Переведите предложения на английский язык, используя:
а) инфинитив с вводным it:
1. Иногда труднее найти и сформулировать проблему, чем решить
ее. 2. Сейчас неуместно обсуждать этот вопрос. 3. Очень важно решить
эту проблему быстро. 4. Сейчас модно говорить, что родители не
понимают своих детей. 5. Трудно предсказать результаты выборов. 6.
Она с удовольствием наблюдала за птицами. 7. Ему было смешно
слышать этот разговор. 8. Изучая иностранный язык, очень важно
хорошо знать грамматику. 9. Мой долг как начальника охраны — не
пускать в здание посторонних. 10. Задача специалиста по
общественным связям — предоставлять руководству компании точную
информацию. 11. Не мое дело вмешиваться, но мне кажется, что вы
делаете ошибку.
б) конструкцию типа: It took Mary two hours to translate this text.
1. Парламенту понадобилось два месяца, чтобы принять этот закон.
2. Путешественникам понадобилось две недели, чтобы достичь
побережья. 3. Ему понадобилось два часа, чтобы написать эту статью. 4.
Сколько вам нужно времени, чтобы добраться до университета? 5. Для
того чтобы учить маленьких детей, нужно терпение. 6. Ему
понадобилось два года, чтобы выучить китайский язык.
3.1.2.2. Инфинитив как часть составного именного сказуемого
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Инфинитив не бывает сказуемым предложения, так как в качестве
сказуемого может выступать только личная форма глагола.
Инфинитив может быть частью сказуемого — как составного
именного, так и составного глагольного. В составе именного сказуемого
он выполняет функцию предикатива (именного члена):
The main role of this organization is to promote international trade with a
view to accelerating economic development. — Главная роль этой
организации состоит в том, чтобы способствовать международной
торговле и таким образом ускорять экономическое развитие.
Инфинитив в функции именной части сказуемого часто переводится
при помощи оборотов: состоит в том, чтобы..., заключается в том,
чтобы...
мание на инфинитив в составе сказуемого:
1. The teacher's first step is to gain the confidence and the good will of his
students. 2. The aim of this program is to help young people improve their
reading skills. 3. The leader's duty is to give every aid he can to the total
efficiency of the group. 4. Although it is not always completely articulated,
one of the chief complaints young people make against their parents is to
deplore the absence of home discipline. 5. The hardest lesson for the clever
teacher to learn is to let clever pupil be clever in his own way. 6. When a
student wants to say something in a foreign language, he will find a way to
say it, and the teacher's part is to improve the form of expression. 7. The aim
of psychology is to obtain rules by which we may be able to understand and
predict the behavior of people. 8. The tendency in the new teaching is to
recognize definitely the two kinds of teaching, the individual and the
collective, and rather to emphasize the individual. 9. Sometimes it is taken for
granted that the pupils are eager to learn and all that is needed is to give them
more freedom to learn. 10. If the returns from a business enterprise are
considered to be a pie, there are two ways for the trade union to get more pie.
One way is to fight for as big a piece as can be obtained. The other way is to
increase the size of the pie.
3.1.2.3. Сочетание to be + infinitive
В данном сочетании глагол to be может быть либо модальным, либо

связочным:
The conference is to begin tomorrow. — Конференция должна начаться
завтра, (глагол to be имеет модальное значение)
Your task is to help at the conference. — Ваша задача — помогать на
конференции, (глагол to be является связкой)
Распознать функцию глагола to be можно на основании значения
подлежащего. Если подлежащее выражено абстрактным суще-
ствительным со значением долженствования (duty), цели (purpose),
задачи (task), способа (way) или такими сочетаниями, как what you must do,
the first step (см. упр. 6), глагол to be является связкой и входит в составное
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именное сказуемое. Если же подлежащее выражает другое значение,
глаголу to be присуще модальное значение долженствования.
мание на тип сказуемого:
1. I was to find out a few minutes later that I was wrong. 2. The function
of the small group of protesters against the war in Vietnam was to crystallize
the thinking of a majority of the American people. 3. What am I to do with
these documents? 4. If a group is in danger, the normal reaction is to draw
closer together in mutual support against the threat. 5. The essential thing is
to see that this unpleasant situation doesn't happen again. 6. His wife was soon
to arrive in London.
Упражнение 6. Переведите предложения на английский язык:
1. Задача этой организации — защищать права национальных
меньшинств. 2. Долг учителя — давать знания своим ученикам и
воспитывать их. 3. Задача полиции — защищать граждан от пре-
ступников. 4. Цель этой программы — помочь безработным в трудо-
устройстве. 5. Все, что нам нужно сделать, — изучить эти документы. 6.
Первая задача учителя иностранного языка состоит в том, чтобы
сформировать учебные группы.
3.1.2.4. Инфинитив в составе предикативного члена
Инфинитив может быть частью предикативного члена в конст-

рукциях следующего типа:
This client is difficult to please. — Этому клиенту трудно угодить.
This woman is interesting to talk to. — С этой женщиной интересно
разговаривать.
В этих конструкциях употребляются такие прилагательные, как easy,
difficult, pleasant, unpleasant, possible, impossible и др.
Упражнение 7.
A. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на опи-
санную выше конструкцию с инфинитивом:
I. This phenomenon is difficult to explain. 2. Some words are impossible
to translate. 3. This car is easy to drive. 4. The consequences of this conflict
are difficult to predict. 5. The garden is pleasant to look at. 6. This man is
unpleasant to talk to. 7. This house is expensive to maintain. 8. Laser disks
are relatively cheap to manufacture. 9. This professor's lectures are dull to
listen to.
Б. Трансформируйте предложения по следующему образцу:
It is difficult to translate this sentence. — This sentence is difficult to translate.
1. It is interesting to read this book. 2. It is impossible to predict his
behavior. 3. It is pleasant to live in this house. 4. It is interesting to talk to this
woman. 5. It is difficult to understand this author's style. 6. It is easy to operate
this computer. 7. It is impossible to repair this car.
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B. Переведите предложения на английский язык:
1. Эти стихи легко запомнить. 2. С этим человеком интересно
разговаривать. 3. Эту книгу скучно читать. 4. Этих студентов приятно
учить. 5. Это явление трудно описать. 6. Лекции этого профессора
интересно слушать. 7. С ней приятно работать. 8. Эта машина дорога в
эксплуатации.
ЗЛ.2.5. Инфинитив как часть составного глагольного сказуемого и

в функции дополнения
Инфинитив в составном глагольном сказуемом сопровождает
модальный глагол (составное модальное сказуемое) либо глагол со
значением начала, конца или продолжения действия (составное
аспектное сказуемое):
This phenomenon must be studied in detail. — Это явление должно быть
подробно изучено.
This organization began to function after World War II. — Эта орга-
низация начала работать после Второй мировой войны.
Кроме того, инфинитив может сопровождать глаголы и прила-
гательные, имеющие значения желания, намерения, долженствования,
способности, попытки, готовности совершить действие, а также
выражающие эмоциональное отношение к действию:
Perhaps you'd like to tell me a bit more about this when you've had some
breakfast. — Может быть, вы захотите еще что-нибудь мне рассказать,
после того как позавтракаете.
Tanya was still at the table when Mel returned, though preparing to go. —
Когда Мэл вернулся, Таня все еще сидела за столиком, но уже
собиралась уходить.
He brought her a cup of tea and some bread and butter on a tray. She sat
there, relaxed, content to have him gently fussing over her. — Он принес ей
чаю и хлеба с маслом на подносе. Она сидела, отдыхая, и ей очень
нравилось, что он о ней заботится.
Есть глаголы, которые в сочетании с инфинитивом имеют иные
значения, нежели в других контекстах:
• to mean — иметь намерение, собираться:
She had meant to make him many questions about the manor. — Она
собиралась задать ему много вопросов о поместье.
• to manage — близкое к русскому суметь, удаться:
1 hope you'll manage to meet my cousin Berel. — Я надеюсь, что вам
удастся встетиться с моим двоюродным братом Берелем.
• to seek — пытаться:
They questioned him very intently, seeking to trip him and make him
contradict himself. — Они допрашивали его очень тщательно, пытаясь
сбить и заставить себе противоречить.
• to fail — не только имееет значение неудавшейся попытки, но и
может указывать на сознательное неосуществление действия:
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Не rang the number again, failed to get a connection. — Он снова набрал
номер и не мог дозвониться, (значение неудачной попытки)
A dishonest barman could steal from his employer by failing to ring every
sale into the cash register. — Нечестный бармен мог обкрадывать хозяина,
не пробивая чеков за проданные напитки, (указание на сознательное
неосуществление действия)
• to come утрачивает значение движения и обозначает постепенное
становление действия или признака:
She came to love the old house. — Она постепенно полюбила этот
старый дом.
Прилагательное anxious в сочетании с инфинитивом утрачивает
значение «тревожный» и приобретает значение желания:
Не was very anxious to get back to his farm, to see his horses and his dogs.
— Он очень хотел вернуться домой, на ферму, увидеть своих лошадей
и собак.
Глаголы, прилагательные и словосочетания, управляющие ин-
финитивом, приобретают значения желания, попытки или способности
совершить действие, хотя не имеют этих значений в ином
синтаксическом окружении:
Would you care to lunch with me? — Хотите, позавтракаем вместе?
There was a question she ached to ask. — Был один вопрос, который ей
очень хотелось задать.
1 am dying to renew my acquaintance with her. — Я безумно хочу
возобновить с ней знакомство.
1 was in no position to contradict him. — Я не мог ему возражать.
1 was in no mood to drink at dinner. — Мне не хотелось пить за обедом.
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They've had the sense to recognize your talent. — У них хватило ума
признать твой талант.
мание на значение сказуемого:
1. No one could complain that the manager had failed to make his
viewpoint clear. 2. Through the entire evening the Duke and the Duchess had
failed to leave their hotel suite. 3. The insurgents threatened to burn the house
of every able-bodied man who failed to come to the rendezvous. 4. Failing to
identify the problem properly is perhaps the greatest obstacle to solving it. 5.
I didn't bother to take off my overcoat. 6. She asked him if he would care to
have her copy of the newspaper. 7. He suddenly felt very weak and fought to
remain conscious. 8. The reporter took care to avoid biasing his story in favor
of or against the government. 9. I took care to greet her with almost as much
enthusiasm as I had greeted other people. 10. In the library, students were
free to choose anything they wanted to read, except comics. 11. When a
parent takes the time and trouble to correct a child, he does so out of love for
the child, not out of resentment or anger. 12. When a Southerner took the
trouble to pack his trunk and travel twenty miles for a visit, the visit was
seldom shorter than a month, usually much longer. 13. Carl took pains to
emphasize his next words. 14. She was in a fever to look out of the window
at the fascinating street and to examine the sumptuous hotel rooms. 15. She
chafed to be gone and tell the story to her husband. 16. I've been dying to
read your manuscript. 17. The aging proprietor of the newspaper had for some
time been anxious to sell. 18. The Duchess was anxious to hasten to the
banquet, which could not start until she arrived. 19. He is very, very anxious
to speak to you before you go. 20. From the fourth century, when it had
become the state religion of the Roman Empire, Christianity came to regard
the Jewish faith, from which it had originated, as an enemy. 21. The corporate
PR officer is in a good position to assist corporate counsel in planning
strategies and suggesting how various publics may receive legal actions.
1. Я не посмела возражать. 2. Он не хочет/не в настроении идти в
кино. 3. Я до смерти хочу прочитать эту книгу. 4. Я не в состоянии вам
помочь. 5. Она изо всех сил старалась удержаться от слез. 6. Ей не
терпелось попасть домой и все рассказать родителям. 7. Я взял на себя
смелость написать это письмо. 8. Он очень хочет поговорить с вами. 9.
Она не удосужилась мне позвонить. 10. Автор статьи постарался
объяснить свою точку зрения. 11. Ей очень хотелось выглянуть в окно.
12. Вы можете приходить и уходить, когда хотите. 13. Она постепенно
полюбила этот старый дом. 14. Четырнадцатая поправка к
американской конституции не обеспечила полных прав освобожденным
рабам.
3.1.2.6. Инфинитив в функции определения
Инфинитивное определение в английском языке сопровождает
такие абстрактные существительные, как ability, wish, desire, attempt,
intention, right и другие, обозначающие способность, возможность,
желание, намерение или попытку осуществить действие:
A leader's success depends on his/her ability to understand and predict the
behavior of other people. — Успех лидера зависит от способности
понимать и предсказывать поведение других.
In 1938, an alliance with the Soviet Union gave the Western powers a
chance to stop Germany. — В 1938 году союз с СССР давал западным
державам возможность остановить Германию.
Особое внимание следует обратить на существительное failure с
инфинитивным определением, которое указывает на неосуществление
действия, выраженного инфинитивом. Такое сочетание обычно
переводится при помощи придаточного предложения с отрицанием.
I was angry with him for his failure to take me seriously. — Я сердилась на
него за то, что он не принимал меня всерьез.
His friends remarked on his failure to appear at the party. — Его друзья
говорили о том, что он не пришел на вечеринку.
1. Sociologists say that our sprawling cities, plus our recent tendency to
live in suburbs, many miles from our jobs, have made the keeping of a car a
necessity rather than a luxury. 2. We adults have a tendency to forget the
traumas and difficulties of growing up. 3. Parents have no right to delegate
their responsibilities to any other agency. 4. The speed at which traffic moves,
the closeness of other vehicles, the need to keep a sharp lookout for signs and
directions — all exert severe pressure on the physical and emotional state of
a driver. 5. I'll probably never have another chance to see where my parents
were born. 6. David followed his wife to the kitchen and hung about in one
of his awkward attempts to help in cooking a meal. 7. His failure to start the
car after many attempts made him furious. 8. Failure to recognize the power
of trade unions has led many managers into trouble. 9. Scarlett tried to think
of some plausible lie to explain Mrs. Elsing's failure to appear. 10. The First
Amendment generally prohibits punishing someone for a failure to live up to
the majority's standards for good taste or proper judgement in expression. 11.
The teacher reproached his students for their failure to read regularly.
Инфинитив может быть определением и при конкретном суще-
ствительном, местоимении или порядковом числительном. Пред-
ложения, включающие the first, the last с инфинитивом, указывают на
лицо или предмет, первым или последним совершившие данное
действие:
In 1825, The New York Advertiser became the first American newspaper to
install a steam-powered press. — В 1825 году газета «Нью-
Ч9П
Йорк адвертайзер» впервые в Америке установила паровой печатный
пресс.
Sir Walter Raleigh was the first Englishman to sail round the world. — Сэр
Уолтер Рейли был первым англичанином, совершившим кругосветное
путешествие.
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Существительное или местоимение, сопровождаемое инфинитивом,
может обозначать субъект действия, выраженного этим инфинитивом:
Orphanages take in children who have no families to look after them. — В
детские дома берут детей, у которых нет семьи, (families look after
children).
Оно может указывать:
• на объект или адресат этого действия:
1 have many letters to write. — Мне нужно написать много писем. (I
write many letters)
I need someone to talk to. — Мне надо с кем-нибудь поговорить. (I talk
to someone)
• на инструмент, необходимый для осуществления действия:
1 have no pen to write with. — У меня нет ручки, мне нечем писать. (I
write with a pen)
• на место осуществления действия:
She has a good house to live in. —■ У нее был хороший дом, где она
могла жить, (she lives in a house)
Если такое сочетание образовано из глагола с предложным до-
полнением или обстоятельством, предлог стоит после глагола:
She takes care of her three children. — She has three children to take care
of.
He talks to his friends. — He has friends to talk to.
Сочетания с инфинитивным определением могут иметь модальное
значение, т.е. указывать на возможность или необходимость
осуществления действия, выраженного инфинитивом:
You have your children to think of. — Вам надо/Вы должны думать о
своих детях.
Упражнение 11. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая
внимание на сочетания с инфинитивным определением:
1. In 1814 The London Times was the first newspaper to adopt the newly
invented cylinder press, which was powered by steam. 2. Being the chief of
local police force, he had many duties to perform. 3. There are lots of things
to write stories about in this country. 4. The editor had a lot of readers' letters
to read and to answer. 5.1 have many telephone calls to make. 6. The young
journalist could hardly remember his first week of work: there had been so
much to learn and so much to do. 7. There are several reasons to account for
the present economic crisis. 8. When people are short of money, they often
think it's something to be ashamed of. 9. In deciding what advertisement to
accept or to reject, the newspaper has its reputation to think of. 10. If a public
official refuses to talk to the media, it will inevitably be thought that he has
something to hide. 11. People living on farms often have only their families
to talk to and radio to listen to. 12. The soldiers had received no pay for
months, because the authorities insisted that there was no money in the
exchequer to pay them. 13. Investigating the crime, the police had very little
evidence to go on. 14. Most of the advertising in present-day Russia is aimed
at the newly rich who have money to spend on luxuries. 15. We'll have a
nightcap and a cozy little fireside chat and you'll see that there's really nothing
to get upset about. 16. Planning an advertising campaign, the media people
select the media to be used by taking the budget and the composition of the
audience into consideration. 17. People who have a marked craving for
outstanding success in the business world, work as much for the satisfaction
of their ego needs as they do for the money and power to be found at the top.
18. During the war with England in the 16th century, the Spaniards had slaves
to row their galleys and magnificent soldiers to fight from their ships.
Admiral Drake, on the other hand, laid down his golden rule: "Gentlemen
must hale and draw with the mariner". Starting from that point, the
"gentlemen" gradually learnt their place on board English men-of-war
(warships) and gradually became "mariners" themselves. 19. Extreme
asceticism is not a characteristic of an underdeveloped agrarian society where
the general standard of living is marginal and frugal in any case. Asceticism
must have a wealthy society, the fleshpots and temptations of urban economy
to revolt against.
сочетания с инфинитивным определением:
1. Вам не о чем беспокоиться. 2. Нам надо о многом поговорить. 3.
Эта девочка — сирота, о ней некому позаботиться. 4. У нее нет дома, ей
негде жить. 5. У них плохо с деньгами, им приходится кормить троих
детей. 6. Мне нужна ручка, чтобы писать. 7. Мне нужно с кем-нибудь
поговорить. 8. Я не могу пойти в театр, у меня много работы. 9. У меня
есть хорошие новости. 10. Мы не должны терять время. 11. Нам не к
кому обратиться за помощью. 12. Им не о чем разговаривать. 13. Он
последним ушел из офиса. 14. Магеллан первым совершил
кругосветное путешествие. 15. Есть ли в доме кто-нибудь, кто мог бы
поухаживать за больным, пока придет сестра? 16. Вот человек, с
которым можно поговорить на эту тему. 17. Она всегда найдет над чем
посмеяться. 18. Не о чем было беспокоиться. Больной чувствовал себя
лучше. 19. Пьеса оставляет желать лучшего. 20. Вот статья, которую
надо прочитать. 21. План нашей работы будет обсуждаться на
заседании, которое должно состояться завтра. 22. Ему нечего сказать.
23. Мне надо написать несколько писем. 24. При расследовании
преступления полиции не на что было опереться. 25. Публикуя рекламу,
каждая газета должна думать о своей репутации.
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3.1.2.7. Инфинитив в функции обстоятельства
Как и в русском языке, инфинитив может выступать в роли
обстоятельства цели и при этом присоединяться как бессоюзно, так и
при помощи союза in order to — для того чтобы:
In order to be profitable, the company has to raise sales by at least 60 %. —
Для того чтобы стать прибыльной, компания должна повысить объем
продаж по крайней мере на 60 %.
At last I rose to go to bed. — Наконец я поднялся, чтобы идти спать.
They stopped to nod to him or to shake his hand. — Они останавливались,
чтобы кивнуть ему или пожать ему руку.
Обратите внимание, что сочетание глагола to stop с инфинитивом
означает «остановиться, чтобы что-л. сделать», а не «перестать что-л.
делать».
Инфинитивное обстоятельство цели может занимать и начальное
положение:
То conceal my emotion, I buried my face in my hands. — Чтобы скрыть
свои чувства, я закрыла лицо руками.
Инфинитив может быть также обстоятельством меры и степени. В
таких случаях в предложении присутствуют частицы too и enough.
The boy is big enough to learn to swim. — Мальчик достаточно большой,
чтобы учиться плавать, (the boy can learn to swim)
The weather is too cold to go out. — Погода слишком холодная, чтобы
выходить, (we can't go out)
Частица enough указывает на возможность совершения действия,
выраженного инфинитивом, a too — на его невозможность. Иными
словами, наречие too указывает на неосуществление действия,
выраженного инфинитивом, т. е. содержит отрицание.
Упражнение 13. Объедините два предложения в одно по следующему
образцу:
The water is warm. We can swim. = The water is warm enough to swim.
The child is very young — he can't walk. = The child is too young to walk.
1. The tea is very hot. We can't drink it. 2. The student is clever. She can
do this task. 3. The problem is very difficult. We can't solve it. 4. The child is
very young. He can't learn to play the piano. 5.1 am very tired. I can't work
any longer. 6. The patient is very weak. He can't get up. 7. The water in the
lake is warm. It is possible to swim. 8. She has a lot of money. She can buy
this car. 9. You are very tired. You can't work any longer. 10. Jack was very
angry. He couldn't speak. 11. He was very far. He couldn't see what his son
was doing. 12. You work very slowly. You can't do this work in time.
Инфинитив в английском языке может также служить обстоя-
тельством сопутствующих условий (an adverbial modifier of attendant
circumstances). От обстоятельства цели его отличает непреднамеренный
характер действия, выраженного инфинитивом:
I have lost my respect, my good name, my standing — lost it, never to get
it again. — Я потерял уважение людей, доброе имя, положение — и
никогда не смогу всего этого вернуть.
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Обратите внимание, что отрицание, которое принадлежит ин-
финитивному обстоятельству, стоит при глаголе:
I didn't come here to discuss this topic. — Я не для того сюда приехал,
чтобы обсуждать эту тему.
1. Я не для того брал такси, чтобы ждать тебя два часа. 2. Я не для
того пришла, чтобы с тобой поссориться. 3. Я не для того учился в
университете, чтобы стоять за прилавком. 4. Я не для того приехал в
Англию, чтобы говорить по-русски. 5. Я не для того дал тебе эти деньги,
чтобы ты их транжирил.
3.1.2.8. Инфинитив в функции вводного члена предложения
Инфинитив может употребляться в функции вводного члена

предложения, который относится не непосредственно к какому- либо
члену предложения, а ко всему предложению в целом. Вводный член
обычно выражает отношение говорящего к содержанию высказывания:
То begin with, he didn't like the way his editor spoke to him. — Прежде
всего, ему не нравилось, как с ним говорил редактор.
внимание на инфинитивный оборот в функции вводного члена предложения:
1. То speak frankly, I am not in favor of long engagements. 2. To cut a
long story short, I've found you. 3. He brought with him a collection of Indian
curios, to say nothing of money. 4. To tell the truth, I have little respect for
this man.
3.1.2.9. Функции инфинитива в начальной позиции
Инфинитив в начале предложения может выполнять следующие

функции:
• подлежащего:
То look out of doors gave him the creeps. — Ему было страшно
выглянуть на улицу.
• обстоятельства цели:
То read her letter, he put on his glasses. — Чтобы прочесть ее письмо,
он надел очки.
• вводного члена:
То tell the truth, I don't like this sort of music. — Сказать no правде, я не
люблю такую музыку.
Отличить инфинитив-подлежащее от инфинитива-обстоятель- ства
цели позволяет отсутствие или наличие «другого» подлежащего. За
инфинитивом-подлежащим сразу следует сказуемое; за инфинитивом-
обстоятельством следует подлежащее, обозначающее лицо или группу
лиц. Инфинитивный оборот в функции вводного члена распознается по
смыслу (см. упр. 15).
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внимание на синтаксическую функцию инфинитива в начале предложения:
1. То reproach himself for his cousin's death was only natural. 2. The
woman's eyes were on him. At this moment, to speak required more effort
than he could make. 3. To inspect the big car from various angles, Sam used
a torch. 4. To get the job done, Jean stayed up all night. 5. To see the cockpit
of a modern airplane was very interesting. 6. To understand this process is
very important for further research. 7. To understand this process, it was
necessary to conduct a number of experiments. 8. To tell the truth, Jean is not
a very capable student. 9. To do her justice, she works very hard.
3.1.3. Инфинитивные конструкции
Будучи формой глагола, инфинитив может быть частью преди-

кативной конструкции, т.е. выступать в сочетании с именным эле-
ментом (существительным или местоимением), обозначающим субъект
действия, выраженного инфинитивом:
Mary saw Jane cross the street. = Jane crossed the street + Mary saw it.
These manuscripts are known to be very old. = These manuscripts are very
old + it is known.
It is customary for textbooks to begin with an introduction. = Textbooks
begin with an introduction + it is customary.
It was so nice of you to help me. = You helped me + it was nice.
He found it pleasant to talk to her. = He talked to her + it was pleasant.
3.1.3.1. Объектная конструкция с инфинитивом
Объектная конструкция с инфинитивом может сопровождать

глаголы со значениями чувства и восприятия, умственной деятельности,
желания, ожидания. Она называется объектной потому, что выполняет
в предложении функцию дополнения. В английской грамматике ее
принято называть Complex Object — сложное дополнение. Например:
We see children of this age regulate their behavior to conform to male or
female roles. — Мы видим, как дети в этом возрасте регулируют свое
поведение, чтобы вписываться в мужские или женские роли.
A few yards from the intersection, the driver felt a tyre go flat. — Отъехав
несколько ярдов от перекрестка, водитель почувствовал, что спустило
колесо.
If the manufacturer wants his goods to be sold, he must maintain quality. —
Если производитель хочет, чтобы его товары покупали, он должен
поддерживать качество на должном уровне.
Не always set a store by you and he always expected Suellen to marry you.
— Он всегда уважал вас и ожидал/надеялся, что Сьюэллен выйдет за
вас замуж.
С глаголами to see, to hear, to feel, to watch инфинитив в подобных
конструкциях употребляется без частицы to.
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Объектая конструкция с инфинитивом употребляется и при глаголах
с каузативным значением, т.е. имеющих значения «заставить»,
«служить причиной»:
If he's forgotten me, I'll make him remember me. — Если он забыл меня,
я заставлю его меня вспомнить.
The hippies made the American public take a good long look at the
underlying ethics of society. — Хиппи заставили американцев пере-
смотреть этические принципы общества.
I'll have someone drive you to another bank. — Я попрошу кого- нибудь
отвезти вас в другой банк.
You can't get people to come and work in the outback. — Невозможно
добиться, чтобы люди приезжали работать в эту глушь.
С глаголами to have, to let и to make инфинитив употребляется без
частицы to.
внимание на значение глагола, принимающего сложное дополнение с инфи-
нитивом:
1. They saw Robert leave the group, pass through the gate and disappear.
2. Ashley watched Scarlett go and saw her square her small thin shoulders as
she went. 3. You have no doubt seen children whisper to themselves when
they are beginning to read. 4. The six decades of Queen Victoria's reign saw
Britain rise to the peak of her industrial and imperial might. 5. The US
President Harry Truman himself traveled to Fulton, Missouri, to hear
Churchill give a speech after receiving an honorary degree at Westminster
College there. 6. Before television, friends often gathered around a radio to
hear the president make an important address. 7. Some parents want their
children to read well, but don't set them a good example.
8. Editors want the newspaper page to be attractive, inviting and readable.
9. Those who wanted television to become a medium for enlightenment
became increasingly discouraged during the 1960s. 10. Reading is a thinking
process and thinking requires effort. The reader cannot sit passively and
expect the meaning to come to him. 11. The regular moviegoers who own
VCR (video cassette recorders) do not consider their VCRs to be in direct
competition with the theaters. 12. In the past, persons under thirty have found
films to be a satisfying way to spend their free time, and with increased leisure
on the horizon, they may continue to do so. 13. Inerviewing requires the
reporter to develop an ear not only for what the people say but for the way
they say it. 14. While technology creates new jobs, it eliminates old ones,
requiring employees to retrain. 15. An ordinance by the city of San Francisco
in 1983 required the employers to provide separate areas for workers who
smoke. 16. The new laws require the manufacturers of tobacco products to
disclose all previously non-public internal laboratory research and all new
internal laboratory research generated in the future relating to the health
effects or safety of their products. 17. The aim of this school is to get deaf
children to talk. 18. The reporter must direct the conversation and ask
questions that will get people to supply the information the reporter wants.
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19. Great books or poems may be a source of self-revelation. They stimulate
us to explore ourselves and our world. 20. Increases in the price of gasoline
cause people to use the subway and buses more, since car use becomes relati-
vely more expensive. 21. The traumatic 1985 layoffs at Apple caused many
managers to want to avoid such a situation. 22. The warm rays of sun make
people doff their winter garments and eagerly hunt railway timetables for
summer resorts. 23. The manager had his driver take us to the station.
Предложения, включающие объектную конструкцию с инфи-
нитивом при глаголах to want, to like (I'd like you to), to expect,
часто имеют значение просьбы или распоряжения.
внимание на значение сказуемого:
1. The concierge told me that Mr. Fabian expected me to come up to his
room. 2. Appearance is very important to the firm. We expect our lawyers to
dress sharp and conservative. 3. When we arrive, I want to see you well
dressed in your best suit with your hair properly cut and brushed. I shall
expect you to be civil, welcoming and attractive. 4.1 would like you to find
something for Miss Lash specially. Something good. 5. I'd just like you to
open your bag and check that nothing is missing. 6. Most people expect local
government to solve wide range of social problems. 7. Readers expect all
business documents to be well-designed and error- free. 8. In the early
American colonies the authorities expected all citizens to be church members.
Those who dissented were free to go elsewhere.
Упражнение 19. Вставьте частицу to, где необходимо:
1. The room made him ... feel embarrassed. 2. She saw her sister ... follow
the doctor into the room. 3. I was shocked when I saw him ... come into the
bar. 4.1 watched the big plane ... take off from the Geneva airport. 5. Isabel
watched the knight ... mount his horse and cross the drawbridge. 6. I would
like you ... believe that I tell the truth. 7. I wanted Evelyn ... see the picture
and the letter. 8. I want you ... find out where he is. 8. I'll have Howard ...
drive you to the railway station. 9.1 have seen this advertisement. I've also
had a dozen people ... direct my attention to it. 10. Open the door please. I
heard someone ... shout for help. 11. He heard Christine ... say: "We're almost
home."
объектную конструкцию с инфинитивом:
1. Он услышал, как Джейн закрыла дверь. 2. Я скажу кассиру, чтобы
он приготовил вам счет. 3. Он почувствовал, как кто-то тронул его за
плечо. 4. Он ожидал, что его семья вернется в город на следующий день.
5. Новый закон требует, чтобы производители алкоголя получали
лицензию (to obtain a license). 6. Я слышал, что кто-то позвал на помощь.
7. Преподаватель иностранного языка должен заставить студентов
говорить. 8. Мои родители хотели, чтобы я стал врачом. 9. Она любила
смотреть, как птицы кормят птенцов (their young). 10. Он наблюдал, как
дети играли с собакой. 11. Начальник распорядился, чтобы кассир
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подготовил счет. 12. Мой начальник хочет, чтобы мы приготовили все
документы сегодня. 13. Она слышала, как дети пели. 14. Я знаю, что он
справедливый человек. 15. Я надеюсь, что вы придете на работу
вовремя. 16. Многие родители хотят, чтобы их дети получили хорошее
образование.
3.1.3.2. Субъектная конструкция с инфинитивом

В субъектной конструкции с инфинитивом субъектом инфинитива
служит подлежащее предложения, а личный глагол в составе сказуемого
указывает на отношение действия к действительности — на его
известность, предсказуемость, вероятность:
The vegetables were found to contain pesticides. — Было обнаружено, что в
этих овощах содержатся пестициды.
3.1.3.2.1. Значения глагола-сказуемого в составе субъектной
конструкции с инфинитивом
Сказуемое в составе субъектной конструкции с инфинитивом может:
• иметь значение кажимости (глаголы to seem, to appear):
Lack of parental love seems to be a powerful factor in the production
of delinquency. — Отсутствие родительской любви, по-видимому,
является важным фактором, порождающим преступность.
The war appeared to have reached a state when he no longer understood it.
— Война, казалось, достигла такой стадии, когда он перестал понимать
ее.
• представлять действие, выраженное инфинитивом, как ожидаемое:
The government's proposal is expected to go to the round table talks. —
Ожидается, что предложения правительства будут рассмотрены на
переговорах за круглым столом.
• указывать на вероятность действия:
The weather is likely to change. — Погода, вероятно, изменится.
В качестве сказуемого широко употребляются пассивные формы
глаголов со значением знания (to know), умственной деятельности (to
think, to consider, to believe, to expect), речи (to say, to report):
Both heredity and family environment are known to affect the development
of a child. — Известно, что на развитие ребенка воздействует как
наследственность, так и семейная среда.
Levels of stress in the family have been shown to change with changing
economic circumstances. — Доказано, что уровень стресса в семье
изменяется в зависимости от экономических условий.
1. Total abstention from food appears to lead to great imaginative activity
and is used in various religions. 2. Nowadays in the Western world, many
diseases seem to result from overeating. 3. The former Prime Minister is said
to be under house arrest. 4. Children are reputed to have a poor sense of time.
5. Behavioral problems are believed to represent conflicts between individual
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behavior and social requirements to behavior. 6. The Prime Minister is
understood to be holding talks with the opposition. 7. Several million people
still live in areas where the official radiation level is thought to be exceeded.
8. The child who is handled with tenderness, surrounded with affection,
approached gently and fed regularly seems to experience neither fear nor
anger. 9. The excesses of yellow journalism appear to be the thing of the past.
10. During the First World War young French children were found to be
retarded one or two years in growth. 11. Pesticides have been known to cause
cancer, nerve disorders, birth defects and genetic defects. 12. Certain
commonly used drugs, some antibiotics for example, have been shown to
have enduring effects upon developing organisms. 13. The disturbances and
deprivations of youth have been shown repeatedly to affect child growth. 14.
70% of the population of the country are estimated to be below the poverty
line.
Упражнение 22. Преобразуйте предложения, употребляя субъектную
конструкцию с инфинитивом вместо сложного предложения в соответствии с
образцом. Имейте в виду, что сказуемое согласуется с подлежащим в лице и
числе.
It is expected that this law will be passed in May. — This law is expected to
be passed in May.
It is expected that ten people will attend the meeting. — Ten people are expected to
attend the meeting.
1. It's unlikely that they will argue about it. 2. It's certain that they will
come. 3. It seems that they like our proposal. 4. It appears that the language
consists of a great variety of idioms. 5. It is expected that the official opening
will take place next week. 6. It's believed that the plane is heading for Turkey.
7. It's known that they are working together. 8. It is expected that the
conference will be held tomorrow. 9. It's reported that the crew of the ship are
safe. 10. It's understood that he has no connection with the affair. 11. It has
been shown that child growth is affected by the economic conditions of the
country. 12. It is known that lack of parental love contributes to delinquency.
субъектную конструкцию с инфинитивом:
1. Известно, что Волга — самая большая река в Европе. 2. Он
обязательно придет сегодня. 3. Ожидается, что переговоры состоятся
завтра. 4. Сообщают, что уровень безработицы в стране растет. 5.
Парламент, вероятно, одобрит эти предложения. 6. Обнаружено, что
пестициды и гербициды вызывают ряд заболеваний. 7. Считается, что
нынешнее изменение климата является результатом человеческой
деятельности. 8. Известно, что вода состоит из водорода и кислорода. 9.
Говорят, что акции этой компании растут в цене.
10. Установлено, что 50% населения живет за чертой бедности.
11. Я случайно видел эту аварию. 12. Я случайно увидел его в клубе. 13.
Доказано, что некоторые пестициды вызывают врожденные за-
болевания.
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3.1.3.2.2. Субъектная конструкция с
инфинитивом в отрицательном
предложении
Если субъектная конструкция с инфинитивом содержит отрицание,
она по смыслу относится к ситуации, выраженной конструкцией, но
формальным ее показателем служит отрицание при сказуемом:
She doesn't seem to understand me. — Она, по-видимому, меня не
понимает, (отрицается не факт кажимости, а факт понимания)
The weather is not expected to change. — Погода, вероятно, не
изменится, (отрицается не вероятность, а изменение погоды)
Упражнение 24. Переведите предложения на английский язык, обращая
внимание на место отрицания.
1. Он, кажется, меня не слушает. 2. По-видимому, ситуация не
улучшается. 3. Эти упражнения, по-видимому, нетрудные. 4. Эта книга,
по-видимому, неинтересная. 5. Кажется, ему не нравится наше
предложение. 6. Погода вряд ли изменится. 7. Он вряд ли примет наше
предложение.
3.1.3.2.3. Субъектная конструкция с перфектным

При переводе предложений с перфектным инфинитивом обратите
внимание, что действие, выраженное инфинитивом, предшествует
действию, выраженному сказуемым:
Anaxagoras is known to have been much interested in a falling meteor.
— Известно, что Анаксагор (древнегреческий философ) интересовался
падением метеоритов, (известно сейчас, а интересовался давно)
1. In passing this law, the Congress appeared to have had several major
purposes in mind. 2. The first primates are believed to have made their
appearance on the Earth 70,000,000 years ago. 3. Chaucer appears to have
had a considerable knowledge of the science, or natural philosophy, as it was
then called, of his time. 4. Writing appears to have been developed
independently in several areas of the world. 5. While the anesthetic effect of
certain drugs seems always to have been known, the real surgical usage of
modern times dates only from 1846. 6. Aeschylus is said to have composed
about ninety plays in all, of which only seven have survived. 7. Aristotle, who
is said to have been in intellect the most remarkable of men, was both a
philosopher and a scientist. 8. In a clash with the police, the militants are
reported to have thrown hand grenades at the police barricades. 9. Five people
are reported to have been injured in the train accident. 10. In the early period
of the industrial revolution, some members of the newly rich are even said to
have hired portrait painters to manufacture for them a set of distinguished
relations.
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субъектную конструкцию с перфектными и пассивными формами ин-
финитива:
1. Сообщают, что в этом конфликте погибло много людей.

2. Сообщают, что эта партия получила большинство на выборах.
3. Известно, что Эсхил написал 90 пьес. 4. Считают, что Аристотель
был величайшим мыслителем древности. 5. Известно, что римляне
завоеавали Британию в I веке до нашей эры. 6. Известно, что греки
переняли финикийский алфавит. 7. Считается, что Америку открыл
Христофор Колумб, хотя известно, что первыми к берегам Америки
плавали викинги. 8. Сообщают, что самолеты НАТО нанесли удар по
военным объектам Югославии. 9. Сообщают, что парламент принял
этот закон. 10. Известно, что Нормандское завоевание оказало большое
влияние на английский язык. 11. Говорят, что премьер-министр
встретился с предводителем повстанцев (rebels). 12. Обезболивающее
воздействие некоторых лекарств, по-видимому, всегда было известно.
13. Сообщают, что от наводнения пострадало много домов. 14.
Известно, что в качестве денег использовались различные товары. 15.
Сообщают, что американский подросток застрелил двух своих
одноклассников.
3.1.3.2.4. Значения некоторых глаголов и прилагательных в составе
субъектной конструкции с инфинитивом
• Сочетание to be likely в составе субъектной конструкции с

инфинитивом может иметь разные значения. Если инфинитивная
конструкция указывает на единичное событие в будущем, это сочетание
обозначает вероятность:
The changes are likely to be announced in the next year budget. — В
бюджет следующего года, вероятно, будут внесены изменения.
Если же речь идет о регулярно повторяющихся событиях, сочетание to
be likely будет указывать на обычность события, а сочетания more
likely, less likely будут иметь значения «чаще», «реже»:
The student who reads a lot is likely to write well. — Студент, который
много читает, обычно хорошо пишет.
Women in their thirties are more likely to give birth to twins than are
women of any other age. — У женщин от 30 до 40 чаще рождаются
близнецы, чем у женщин других возрастных групп.
• Глагол to tend в сочетании с инфинитивом имеет значение
«обычно, как правило»:
We tend to read newspapers primarily for pleasure rather than strictly for
information. — Мы обычно читаем газеты для удовольствия, а не только
для получения информации.
• Обороты to be expected и to be supposed могут иметь модальное
значение долженствования, близкое к русскому «полагается»:
One is not supposed to speak ill of the dead. — Нельзя плохо говорить
о мертвых.
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• Оборот to be required также имеет значение долженствования,
обусловленного общественными требованиями:
The Budget of the United States Government is the annual financial plan
that the President is required to submit to Congress in January of each year.
— Бюджет США — это ежегодный финансовый документ, который
президент должен представить конгрессу в январе каждого года.
• Сочетание to be sure обычно указывает на уверенность говорящего
в наступлении события, обозначаемого инфинитивной конструкцией:
She is sure to want to know all about you. — Она, несомненно, захочет
все о вас узнать.
Однако в повелительном наклонении это сочетание служит сред-
ством интенсификации просьбы (ср. рус. обязательно)-.
Be sure to keep a copy of this letter. — Обязательно сохраните копию
этого письма.
1. Parents who dance attendance upon a child from babyhood to
adolescence are likely to find that the twenty-year-old is as egocentric as he
was at two. 2. A teacher who is strict but fair is less likely to arouse
resentment than a teacher who is lenient but obviously has favorites. 3. If
what has been learned is useful, interesting and has meaning, we are less
likely to forget it. 4. In the early American newspapers, foreign news was
likely to get more space than local news, which had been the case since the
founding of the first English newspapers in the 17th century. 5. Lily is likely
to come in any moment and I don't like to frighten her. 6. He had enough
money for anything he was likely to require in his lifetime. 7. As a child
grows older, his affections tend to extend increasingly beyond the family
circle. 8. The United States is the richest country in the world, and more
affluent societies tend to spend more on health care than less affluent ones.
9. As individuals, we tend to exaggerate our personal feelings when the group
is in trouble. 10. Family resemblances in abilities and personality tend to be
viewed as direct manifestations of heredity. 11. Editors constantly sort
through the day's events. They tend to place emphasis on the unusual, the
sensational, the spectacular as well as on the criminal and on the deviant. 12.
Working journalists are at odds with their own editors who tend to be more
conservative. 13. Even though we do not always understand our own motives
for responding to advertising appeals, we tend to consume and display
products that tell the world what we would like to tell it about us. 14.
According to the rules of the school, the teacher was expected to prepare his
own material and to present it to the pupils in the form of a compromise
between a lecture and a lesson. 15. A naval officer isn't supposed to speculate
about his orders. He's supposed to execute them. 16. Before marriage, young
girls must be, above all other things, sweet, gentle, beautiful and ornamental,
but, after marriage, they were expected to manage households that numbered
a hundred people or more, and they were trained with that in view. 17. What
are we supposed to do in an emergency? 18. "Henry, you should speak to the
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boy." My father had no idea what he was supposed to say to me, but he never
argued with my mother. 19. In the airport, ticket agents were supposed to note
damaged bags at the check-in, lest the passengers should complain later. 20.
Under the laws passed in some southern states after the Civil War, blacks
were required to live in separate and generally inferior areas, to use separate
and inferior sections of the hospitals, separate schools and toilet facilities. 21.
Be sure to alert the airport police, so they can prepare for a possible terrorist
attack.
субъектную конструкцию с инфинитивом:
1. Студентам полагается сдавать свои работы в декабре. 2. Он
обязательно придет сегодня. 3. У людей с сидячим образом жизни часто
бывают сердечные заболевания. 4. Отдыхающие не должны появляться
в ресторанах в купальных костюмах. 5. Он, вероятно придет сегодня. 6.
Переводчикам на переговорах не полагается жевать резинку. 7. Если вы
поедете на экскурсию, обязательно возьмите путеводитель. 8. Вряд ли
погода улучшится в ближайшем будущем. 9. Кажется, она меня не
узнала. 10. Повышение курса доллара обязательно отразится на ценах.
11. Члены клуба знают, как они должны себя вести. 12. Подростки
обычно критикуют своих родителей. 13. Если лекционный материал
скучен, студенты обычно быстро забывают его. 14. Традиционно
мужчина должен быть сильным, а женщина — слабой.
3.1.3.3. Инфинитивная конструкция с for
В данной инфинитивной конструкции субъект инфинитива вводится

предлогом for. Сама конструкция может играть роль различных членов
предложения, и для ее перевода часто пользуются придаточным
предложением. Иногда при этом приходится перестраивать все
предложение. Например:
It is perfectly possible for union and management to cooperate on some
things and to compete on others. — Профсоюз и руководство
предприятия вполне могут сотрудничать в одних областях и сопер-
ничать в других.
She was waiting for somebody to help her. — Она ждала, когда кто-
нибудь ей поможет.
внимание, каким членом предложения является инфинитивная конструкция
с for:
1. I was standing at the meat counter, waiting for some rib lamb chops to
be cut. 2. Journalism deals with too broad a range of subject matter for
reporters to be knowledgeable about every subject they are likely to discuss
with a news source. 3. If individuals did not want to trade, there would be no
reason for them to be in contact with each other, that is, to live in cities. 4. It
is a traumatic experience for a worker to leave one work and be oriented into
332
another. 5. It is common for a friendship to spring up between a new member
of the work group and the first person who makes him feel welcome. 6. He
was offered a good job in the Johannesburg gold mines. It was not unusual
for good drillers to be tempted out to the gold mines on the Rand, where the
drill work was similar and the pay much better. 7. Man being what he is, it is
ridiculous for others to command him not to take his problems with him into
his work group. 8. He had no wish for his name to be known. 9. It is not
unusual for a mid-sized television station to have multi-million dollar a year
operating budget, but to bring in twice as much in advertising dollars. It is
customary for journalism textbooks to begin with a long search for a
definition of the word "news". 1 ]. As white Americans refused to cooperate
with the blacks during the civil rights movement, it became necessary for
black Americans to seize the initiative, take control of their own lives, and
create new vehicles for protest. 12. Unaware of American experience and
lacking native perspective, other nations accepted American movie fantasies
for fact. While American movies were produced in America for the
entertainment of Americans, as an escape from reality, there was no reason
for other nations not to accept them as truth. 13. Television networks have to
plan early in the day for the news outputs, and the closer it gets to the
deadline, the less chance there is for events to be covered. 14. I arranged for
Emily to look after my dog while I was away.
инфинитивную конструкцию с for:
1. Мне трудно выполнить эту работу. 2. Нужно, чтобы кто-нибудь ей
помог. 3. Книга слишком сложная, вам ее не перевести. 4. Погода
слишком холодная; детям нельзя купаться. 5. Она ждала, пока Джон
заговорит. 6. Вам нужно пойти туда. 7. Если вы пойдете туда, это будет
ужасно. 8. Лучшее, что вы можете сделать, — это поговорить с Джейн.
9. Я принесла вам книгу почитать. 10. Часто бывает, что учебники по
журналистике начинаются с определения слова «новости». 11. Вам
незачем участвовать в этой дискуссии. 12. Секретарь подготовил
документы, чтобы начальница их подписала.
3.1.3.4. Инфинитивная конструкция с of

Инфинитивная конструкция с предлогом of может появляться
только в структурах с вводящим it. Она служит для выражения
характеристики субъекта действия, обозначенного инфинитивом, в
связи с выполненным им действием:
It was so nice of you to help me. — Как мило с вашей стороны, что
вы мне помогли!
внимание на инфинитивную конструкцию с предлогом of:
1. How wonderful of that dear man to remember us when he had so much
else to think of! 2. "It's quite ungallant of you not to think that I might get
hurt," she said tartly. 3. It was rude of him to say such things — most ill
333
advised. 4. It was decent of her to offer us the house at such a low price. 5. It
was grand of you to get this soap for us, but you did take a frightful risk.
3.1.3.5. Оборот с вводящим it в позиции дополнения

В качестве сложного дополнения может появляться конструкция с
вводящим it:
The President found it necessary to establish a new government agency.
= It was necessary to establish a new government agency + the President
thought so. — Президент счел необходимым учредить новое
правительственное агентство.
Modern telescopes make it possible to trace the movement of distant
stars. — Современные телескопы дают возможность следить за дви-
жением далеких звезд.
внимание на конструкцию с вводящим it в позиции дополнения:
1. Many people find it a terrifying experience to drive their cars on
freeways. 2. Installment buying makes it possible for people of modest means
to buy expensive consumer goods. 3. The knowledge of psychology makes
it possible for us to make many predictions about human behavior. 4. Some
groups of population find it easy to shelter income from taxes.
конструкцию с вводящим it в позиции дополнения:
1. Многим людям очень трудно говорить на иностранном языке.
2. Организация сочла необходимым учредить пост вице-президента.
3. Правительство сочло необходимым ввести таможенные пошлины. 4.
Некоторым людям очень трудно даются точные науки. 5. Суд счел
необходимым пересмотреть это решение. 6. Мне было очень неприятно
с ним разговаривать. 7. Ему легко было выполнить это задание.
3.2. ГЕРУНДИЙ
3.2.1. Общие сведения
Герундий образуется при помощи прибавления к основе глагола

окончания -ing (write — writing, live — living). Подобно инфинитиву
герундий сочетает именные и глагольные признаки. Однако в отличие
от инфинитива герундий ближе к существительному. Он употребляется
с предлогом (но не с артиклем) и в предложении выполняет те же
синтаксические функции, что и существительное, — служит
подлежащим, дополнением, частью сказуемого, обстоятельством,
определением. Глагольные свойства герундия выражаются в том, что
он принимает все глагольные зависимые — дополнения и
обстоятельства. Например:
334
A Californian novelist John Steinbeck dedicated himself to analyzing the
consequences of the social conflicts of the thirties. — Калифорнийский
романист Джон Стейнбек занимался анализом последствий социальных
конфликтов тридцатых годов.
На уровне предложения герундий analyzing служит предложным
дополнением, сам же он принимает прямое дополнение the consequences
of the social conflicts of the thirties.
Так как герундий в отличие от русского отглагольного суще-
ствительного принимает все глагольные зависимые, обороты с
герундием часто невозможно перевести при помощи отглагольного
существительного. В этом случае можно использовать инфинитив,
деепричастный оборот или придаточное предложение.
Упражнение 34. Найдите в следующих предложениях герундий или ге-
рундиальный оборот и переведите предложения на русский язык:
1. The Egyptians discovered a method of making paper from papyrus. 2.
The mass media in America are competitive enterprises devoted to making a
profit. 3. Sometimes the student is able to recognize an unfamiliar word by
dividing it into morphemes. 4. The emergence of free and independent mass
media is a key element in developing and preserving democracy. 5. The
energetic merchant will not be satisfied with supplying an already existing
demand; he will be on the look-out to discover fresh openings and find new
customers. 6. In 1973, when the OPEC oil embargo went into effect and
America faced serious oil shortages, the Bell Telephone system committed
itself to reducing energy consumption. 7. Throughout much of the 20th
century, many newspapers and magazines have survived by seeking smaller
and more specific audiences. 8. In 1865, after studying the flower colors and
other characteristics of pea plants, Gregor Mendel formulated the laws of
heredity.
3.2.2. Временные и залоговые характеристики герундия
Будучи формой глагола, герундий, как и инфинитив, обнаруживает

глагольные категории времени и залога. Пассивные и перфектные
формы герундия имеют следующий вид:
активный пассивный
Общее writing being written
Перфектное having written having been written
Как и инфинитив, герундий выражает не абсолютное время,

соотнесенное с моментом речи, а относительное, соотнесенное с
временем личной формы глагола.
335
мание на временные и залоговые формы герундия. Имейте в виду, что наи-
более распространенный способ перевода герундиального оборота — это
придаточное предложение.
1. Most people do not like being told what to do. 2. He avoided mentioning
the subject for fear of being criticized. 3. The thief left the building without
being stopped by the police. 4. They made their decision after being told of
the terms contained in the joint union-management statement. 5. Soon after
being elected, the president launched his antidrug campaign. 6. Any theory
that stays alive over a period after being subjected to many tests and not being
rejected by the data tends to become accepted. 7. All governments require
people to surrender some of their freedom in the process of being governed.
8. It is well known that predictable events — those to which reporters and
cameras can be assigned in advance — stand the greatest chance of being
covered. 9. Johann Gutenberg is credited with having invented the movable
type printing press. Although the Chinese had invented movable type several
hundred years earlier, Europeans in the 15th century did not know about this
Asian achievement. 10. Admiral Nelson was killed after having defeated the
French and Spanish fleets at Trafalgar. 11. By 1968, the United States
Supreme Court granted states the power to prevent children from being
exposed to books and films suitable only for adults. 12. During the anti-
smoking campaign, tobacco companies maintained that being exposed to
someone else's cigarette smoke is not as harmful as many people have
maintained, and appealed to legislators and business establishments not to
pass blanket "no smoking" policies. 13. In many countries victims remain
unaccounted for after being taken into custody by security forces.
Упражнение 36. Переделайте предложения, преобразуя придаточное пред-
ложение в герундиальный оборот:
1. Не made his decision after he was told all the facts. 2. The criminal was
afraid that he would be sent to prison. 3. She wrote her essay after she had
read all the necessary books. 4. Mary always read the newspaper before she
went to work. 5. When he read her letter, it made him happy. 6. Jack was
afraid that he would be criticized. 7. The travelers were afraid that they would
be attacked by highway robbers. 8. President Bush (1988 — 1992) launched
his anti-drug campaign soon after he was elected.
сложные формы герундия:
1. Он все время боится, что его будут критиковать. 2. Грегору

Менделю принадлежит заслуга открытия законов наследственности. 3.
Рабочие прекратили забастовку после того, как им сказали об условиях
соглашения. 4. Вдыхать дым чужой сигареты вредно для здоровья. 5.
Преступники боялись, что их увидят. 6. Вскоре после своего избрания
президент Джордж Буш (старший) объявил войну наркотикам.
336
3.2.3. Синтаксические функции герундия
Герундий может выполнять в предложении те же функции, что и
существительное:
• подлежащего:
Reading her letter made him sad. — Прочитав ее письмо, он загрустил.
• именного члена составного именного сказуемого (предикатива):
His main duty was writing letters. — Его главной обязанностью было
писать письма.
• дополнения, как предложного, так и беспредложного:
The government considers imposing new taxes. — Правительство
собирается ввести новые налоги.
In recent years, adults from all walks of life have become tremendously
interested in increasing their education. — В последние годы взрослые
люди, принадлежащие к разным социальным группам, захотели
расширить свое образование.
• определения:
The only method of acquiring the language is to use it. — Единственный
способ овладеть языком — это говорить на нем.
• обстоятельства:
The students should learn the meaning of foreign words by observing how
they are used and by themselves using them. — Студенты должны узнавать
значения новых слов, наблюдая, как они употребляются, и употребляя
их самостоятельно.
Упражнение 38. Переведите предложения на русский язык и определите
синтаксическую функцию герундия. Используйте различные способы пере-
вода (см. упр. 34).
1. The research worker starts by simply gathering all available data,
without attempting to interpret it. 2. In our consideration of the book as a mass
medium in society, we begin by taking a look into history and then
concentrate on significant twentieth-century factors relevant to the publishing
industry. 3. People learn to live in society by adapting to the groups in which
they have membership. 4. We cannot communicate knowledge without to
some extent modifying character and to that extent educating.
5. People vary in their reading abilities: some are capable of comprehending
difficult and abstract material, others can read widely in many fields.
6. Joseph Pulitzer (a famous American journalist of the 19th century) went
beyond his predecessors by not only reporting news, but actually making it,
through active intervention in public affairs. 7. Maintaining employment
levels sometimes compels organizations to find new tasks for people, often
with surprising results. 8. Helping employees in their personal development
now appears to be the best means of motivating them towards effective work.
9. As you analyze your activity, you may discover that your problem is being
unable to say no to people when you ought to. 10. Sometimes looking at
things from another perspective helps us realize that we are responsible for a
greater portion of our problems than we thought. Other people are not always
337
the culprit. 11. Using a computer will enable you to write letters, memos and
reports much more quickly.
Упражнение 39.
А. Преобразуйте предложения из сложных в простые, заменяя придаточное
предложение герундиальным оборотом. Обратите внимание на предлоги:
обороты с предлогами before и after синонимичны соответствующим
придаточным предложениям времени; для передачи действия, одновремен-
ного действию, выраженному сказуемым, употребляется герундиальный
оборот с предлогом in. Например:
Several factors should be considered when we evaluate experimental results. =
Several factors should be considered in evaluating experimental results.
1. After Mary had published her paper, she received a lot of letters. 2.
After the scientist had changed the experimental conditions, he repeated the
experiment. 3. Susan always watered her potted plants before she went to
bed. 4. Before George went to work, he usually read the morning newspaper.
5. Before the manager made a decision, he considered the problem from all
angles. 6. After David read a book on psychology, he understood his time
problems better. 7. When the scientist was comparing the results of two
experiments, he found an error.
Б. Преобразуйте предложения, заменяя придаточное (или часть слож-
носочиненного предложения), обозначающее неосуществленное действие,
герундиальным оборотом с предлогом without или instead of:
1. A teacher cannot communicate knowledge if she doesn't to some extent
change her students' character. 2. The manager signed the contract, but she
didn't read it properly. 3. Mary didn't go to the theater; she concentrated on
her work. 4. Our business partners didn't telephone us; they sent an e-mail. 5.
William didn't pay for his clothes in cash; he used a credit card. 6. This man
never worked for a living; he borrowed money from friends or lived on
charity. 7. Fred didn't turn off the radio when he was leaving the house. 8. If
you have a credit card, you can buy what you want, and you don't have to
carry cash.
Упражнение 40. Ответьте на вопросы по образцу, употребляя герунди-
альный оборот с предлогом by для обозначения способа достижения цели:
How did Mendel understand the laws of heredity? (to compare the colors of pea
plants) = Mendel understood the laws of heredity by comparing the colors of pea
flowers.
1. How can the government protect domestic industries? (to impose high
customs duties) 2. How can we understand an unfamiliar word? (to divide it
into morphemes) 3. How do people participate in democracy? (to elect public
officials who make government decisions) 4. How did the government deal
with the economic crisis? (to bring down the taxes) 5. How did John manage
to pay his debts? (to sell his car) 6. How did the teacher keep her class
occupied? (to give every student an individual task) 7. How can a corporation
help the local economy? (to buy local goods and services)
3.2.3.1. Герундий как часть составного глагольного сказуемого
338
Герундий часто выступает в роли составного глагольного сказу-
емого. При этом личная форма глагола указывает на начало, про-
должение или конец действия, выраженного герундием:
It started raining. — Пошел дождь.
Nobody can go on living without some belief. — Человек не может
продолжать жить без какой-то веры.
The phone rang, but she didn't answer it, and carried on talking to me.
— Зазвонил телефон, но она не взяла трубку, а продолжала со мной
разговаривать.
I have left off shooting. — Я перестал охотиться.
внимание на сочетания герундия с личной формой глагола:
1. The company began selling its goods abroad. 2. Doctor keeps coming
and having a look at me. 3. The sea was rough, but I kept on rowing. 4. After
the lunch break, we went on discussing the new project. 5. Mary stopped
talking to her neighbors after this incident. 6. Willoughby gave up singing
and looked at Karen and Yates. 7. Despite all the measures taken by the
government the situation keeps getting worse. 8. In Germany in 1887, the
physicist Hermann Hertz began experimenting with radio waves, which
became known as Hertzian waves. 9, The fax machine began printing a
message.
3.2.4. Герундиальные конструкции

Будучи формой глагола, герундий может иметь собственный
субъект, выраженный местоимением или существительным в при-
тяжательном или общем падеже:
I said something about my clock being slow. — Я сказала, что мои
часы отстают.
I heard a sound of a car starting. — Я услышала, как тронулась
машина.
внимание на герундиальные конструкции. Имейте в виду, что наиболее рас-
пространенным способом перевода подобной конструкции является прида-
точное предложение. В первых двух предложениях герундиальная конст-
рукция для большей наглядности заключена в скобки.
1. Emerging industrialization and a new individual division of labor will
contribute (to Asia's becoming the growth center of the world in the 21st
century). 2. I object to (his having any acquaintance at all with my sister). 3.
Government officials say the coalition could be formed by the government
agreeing to a key opposition demand for partial elections in May. 4. Without
language there is no understanding among people and without understanding
there is no chance of their being able to work together. 5. Any chance of
Kosovo becoming a free and fair society will depend on Nato and the
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). 6. Trials must
take place within a reasonable time of the defendant's first being brought
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before a judge and should normally be in public. 7. Under the current law,
continued unsanitary conditions in a restaurant may lead to its being closed.
8. In Japan, there have been reports of women being strip-searched even for
traffic offences. 9. He wanted to live his life without anyone else interfering
in it. 10. Americans traditionally do not like to think about the possibility of
a friendly foreign leader being ousted by his disgruntled people.
3.2.5. Употребление различных глаголов с герундием

Герундий употребляется в качестве беспредложного дополнения
при следующих глаголах: to admit, to avoid, to delay, to deny, to enjoy,
to forget, to involve, to miss, to postpone, to practice, to remember, to
report, to resist, to risk, to suggest и др.
внимание на употребление глаголов с герундием:
1. Until the early 1960s, most people reported getting more of their news
from newspapers than from any other source. 2. The Coast Guard has
reported seeing a foreign ship in the Gulf. 3. The criminal avoided drawing
attention to himself. 4. When Hester had lost her job, she sold all her jewelry,
but still resisted parting with her mother's ring. 5. You might consider moving
to a smaller house. 6. The witness denied having seen the defendant on the
day of the crime. 7. The defendant denied stealing the money. 8. 1 don't enjoy
watching TV very much. 9. Susan admitted driving too fast. 10. The
Congressman suggested cutting down the welfare programs. 11. Reading
involves getting the meaning from the printed page by relating it to our own
experience. 12. You shouldn't risk entering the building in its present
condition. 13. Many people postpone seeing a doctor until the disease
becomes critical. 14. Iraq eventually acknowledged making three types of
biological weapons using anthrax bacteria and two kinds of biological toxins.
герундий при глаголах to admit, to avoid, to consider, to deny, to enjoy, to postpone,
to suggest:
1. Он собирался купить машину. 2. Мы старались не говорить на эту
тему. 3. Свидетельница отрицала, что видела подсудимого. 4. Лидер
политической партии предложил провести пресс-конференцию. 5. Он
откладывал поход к врачу, пока серьезно не заболел. 6. Ему всегда
нравилось наблюдать за птицами. 7. Она всегда с удовольствием учит
иностранные языки. 8. Президент предложил сократить расходы на
вооружения (defense budget). 9. Подсудимый признался, что был в
здании в ночь убийства. 10. Она помнила, как впервые увидела море. 11.
Если ты будешь опаздывать, ты рискуешь потерять работу. 12.
Преступники прятались в подвалах, чтобы их не поймали. 13. Когда
Джейн работала, она всегда выключала телефон, чтобы ей не мешали.
14. Он старался не говорить с коллегами о политике. 15. Во время
опроса (poll) многие респонденты сообщали, что работают в нескольких
местах (to have more than one job).
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3.2.6. Употребление герундия с предлогами
Сочетая в себе свойства глагола и существительного, герундий, как

можно было видеть из упражнений, широко употребляется с
предлогами.
Запомните следующие предложные сочетания с герундием (те же
предлоги употребляются и с существительными): to insist on doing
something — настаивать на чем-л. to object to doing something —
возражать против чего-л. to succeed in doing something — суметь
что-л. сделать to refrain from doing something — воздержаться от
какого-л. поступка, не делать чего-л.
to be used/accustomed to doing something — привыкать к чему-л. to
be good at doing something — хорошо уметь делать что-л. to be aimed at
doing something — быть направленным на что-л. (о программе,
мероприятии, кампании)
to accuse somebody of doing/having done something — обвинять кого-
л. в чем-л.
to charge somebody with doing/having done something — обвинять
кого-л. в чем-л. (глагол to accuse указывает на обвинение общего
характера, a to charge — на формальное обвинение, предъявленное в
суде)
to suspect somebody of doing something — подозревать кого-л. в чем-
л.
to reproach/criticize/punish/praise somebody for doing something —
упрекать/критиковать/наказывать/хвалить кого-л. за что-л. to complain
of something — жаловаться на что-л. to be credited with having done
something — считаться изобретателем/открывателем чего-л.
внимание на употребление герундиальных оборотов и конструкций с пред-
логами:
1. This political party succeeded in winning the election. 2. The visitors
are asked to refrain from smoking. 3. 1 refrained from asking further
questions. 4. Julie insisted on helping us with the work. 5. He was quick at
understanding new problems. 6. The defendant was charged with having
killed a man in a fight. 7. The children are accustomed to listening to the
radio. 8. Mrs. Keith was not used to being argued with. 9. The Prime Minister
objected to taking these measures. 10. Governments often falsely accuse
people of having been involved in violence when in fact they are imprisoned
solely because of their non-violent exercise of their human rights. 11. Since
the mid-1930s, US companies have succeeded in reducing the proportion of
the work force covered by collective bargaining, in passing legislation that
restricts trade union power — in short, perpetuating their dominance and
control in the work place. 12. The UN Secretary General sometimes
undertakes "preventive diplomacy" aimed at resolving disputes before they
escalate. 13. Johann Gutenberg is credited with having invented the movable
type printing press. 14. The prisoner complained of being detained in
humiliating conditions.
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Упражнение 46. Вставьте необходимые предлоги. Переведите предложения
на русский язык:
1. Не was accused ... having killed a man in a fight. 2. Gregor Mendel is
credited ... having discovered the laws of heredity. 3. She is used ... being
treated like a child. 4. These measures are aimed ... helping homeless children.
5. The defendant was charged ... having embezzled the bank's money. 6. The
management succeeded ... bringing down the production costs. 7. She is good
... translating business documents. 8. The manager objected ... hiring more
employees. 9. The manager insisted ... hiring more people. 10. The children
are used ... getting up early. 11. This program is aimed ... overcoming the
crisis. 12. The boys were punished ... fighting on the playground.
предложные сочетания с герундием:
1. Эта программа направлена на снижение уровня инфляции. 2.
Правительству удалось добиться экономического роста. 3. Узник
жаловался, что его содержат в ужасных условиях. 4. Его обвинили в том,
"что он убил человека в драке. 5. Он привык слушать радио за едой. 6.
Цель военной операции — заставить террористов сдаться. 7. Заслуга
изобретения паровой машины (steam engine) принадлежит Джеймсу
Ватту. 8. Она настояла на том, чтобы сделать всю работу
самостоятельно. 9. Экономическая политика правительства направлена
на снижение безработицы. 10. Она хорошо переводит экономические
материалы.
3.2.7. Употребление глаголов с герундием и с инфинитивом
Ряд глаголов употребляется как с инфинитивом, так и с герундием,

имея при этом разные значения.
• То remember, to forget
Инфинитив в сочетании с этими глаголами указывает на будущее
действие, герундий — на прошедшее действие. Сочетания первого
типа имеют значения «вспомнить/забыть что-л. сделать», сочетания
второго типа указывают на воспоминание/забывание прошлого
действия:
Не remembered to close the door. — Он не забыл закрыть дверь. She
remembered closing the door. — Она помнила, что закрыла дверь.
Не forgot to close the door. — Он забыл закрыть дверь. Не forgot closing
the door. — Он забыл, что закрыл дверь.
• То regret
to regret doing something — сожалеть о сделанном to regret to
say/tell/inform — используется в формальной переписке для
предварения неприятных сообщений
1 regret to inform you that the company doesn't need your services any
longer. — Вынужден сообщить Вам, что фирма более не нуждается в
Ваших услугах.
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• То go on
to go on doing something — продолжать делать то же самое to go on to do
something — переходить от одного действия к другому
• То stop
to stop doing something — переставать что-л. делать
to stop to do something — останавливаться, чтобы что-л. сделать
• Used to
Это сочетание с инфинитивом указывает на прошлое (больше не
осуществляемое) действие:
Sheila used to live with her grandmother as a child. — В детстве Шейла
жила у бабушки.
В сочетании с герундием to be used to указывает на привычное действие:
Mary is used to getting up early. — Мери привыкла вставать рано.
• То report
to report doing something — сообщать об осуществляемом действии (т.е.
говорящий сообщает о действии, совершаемом им самим)
to be reported + infinitive — субъектная конструкция с инфинитивом (см.
3.1.3.2):
Many buildings are reported to have been damaged by the flood. —
Сообщается, что от наводнения пострадало много домов.
• To try
to try to do something — пытаться что-л. сделать
Scientists have been trying to solve this problem for a long time, but have
been unsuccessful so far. — Ученые давно пытаются решить эту
проблему, но пока им это не удалось.
to try doing something — действие, выраженное герундием, служит
способом для достижения другой цели, и сама возможность его
осуществления не ставится под сомнение. Например:
I couldn't find James today. I tried phoning him at his office (= 1 phoned
him at his office), but he wasn't there. — Я звонила Джеймсу на работу, но
его там не было.
внимание на сочетания с герундием и инфинитивом:
1. I regret to say that my conscience doesn't trouble me at all about
deserting you. 2. You are a trifle wrong here, Mrs. Page, I regret to inform
you. 3. Mary regretted having written this letter. 4. He regretted having
spoken to them about that. 5. However disheartened he felt, he always
remembered to pull himself together as he reached home. 6. 1 remember
laughing aloud and the laugh being carried by the wind away from me. 7.
Daniel forgot to lock his safe when he was leaving the office and had to return
and do it in the evening. 8. The minister went on talking for two hours. 9.
After describing the economic situation, the Prime Minister went on to outline
the new tax policy. 10. Many people taking part in the poll reported reading
more than one newspaper. 11. Many people are reported to object to the
government's policy. 12. George tried once or twice to amuse the girl at his
right (at the dinner table), but elicited only a shy smile. 13. Sue needed to
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borrow some money. She tried asking her parents, but they were short of
money too.
Упражнение 49. Преобразуйте предложения, используя сочетания вы-
шеприведенных глаголов с инфинитивом или герундием:
1. She remembered that she had seen this man somewhere. 2. David didn't
feed the cat because he forgot about it. 3. Mary stopped and talked to her
neighbor. 4. Mary didn't speak to her neighbors any more because she was
angry with them. 5. John remembered that he must pay for the telephone. He
did it on his way from the office. 6. When the telephone bills came, Drew
remembered that he had paid for the telephone already and complained to the
company. 7. On her way to work, Susan suddenly remembered that she had
locked the cat in the bathroom. 8. After the quarrel, the neighbors no longer
talked to each other. 9. Entering the church, the parishioners always stopped
and talked to the priest.
сочетания вышеописанных глаголов с герундием или инфинитивом:
1. По дороге домой Мери всегда останавливалась, чтобы поговорить
с соседкой. 2. Она поссорилась с соседкой и перестала с ней
разговаривать. 3. Джон хорошо помнил, как в первый раз увидел море.
4. Он не заметил, что я вошла, и продолжал говорить. 5. Оратор описал
экономическую ситуацию, а потом перешел к рассмотрению текущей
политики правительства. 6. Дэвид забыл, что уже заплатил по счетам, и
пошел платить второй раз. 7. Джейн забыла покормить собаку, и она
съела мясо со стола. 8. Многие люди сообщали, что видели террористов
на вокзале. 9. Сообщали, что авиация НАТО нанесла удар по базам
террористов.
сочетания used to do something и to be used to doing something:
1. Раньше мы ходили в кино каждую неделю, а теперь мы смотрим
телевизор. 2. В молодости он часто ездил на рыбалку. 3. Она привыкла
читать в постели. 4. Дети привыкли есть суп каждый день. 5. Мери
привыкла, что с ней обращаются как с ребенком. 6. Работники фирмы
привыкли, что их постоянно контролируют (to supervise). 7. В детстве я
любила мороженое. 8. Мы раньше проводили каникулы в этой деревне.
3.2.8. Устойчивые сочетания с герундием

I can't help doing something. — Я не могу удержаться от чего-л.
i feel like doing something. — Мне хочется что-л. сделать.
The book is worth reading. — Книгу стоит прочитать.
The house wants/needs painting. — Дом надо покрасить.
1. Этот фильм стоит посмотреть. 2. Эта программа не стоит того,
чтобы ее обсуждать. 3. Читая его письмо, Сьюзан не могла удержаться
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от слез. 4. Мне хочется пойти погулять. 5. Слушая оратора, мы не могли
удержаться от смеха. 6. Это платье надо постирать.
Упражнение 53. Закончите предложения по образцу, употребляя приве-
денные выше сочетания с герундием:
Your windows are dirty, (to clean) — They need/want cleaning.
1. The jeans are dirty, (to wash) 2. My hair is too long, (to cut) 3. The shirt
is crumpled, (to iron) 4. The screws are loose, (to tighten) 5. The garbage bin
is full, (to empty) 6. The piano is out of tune, (to tune)
3.2.9. Герундиальные конструкции при глаголах to keep, to prevent,

to prohibit
Глаголы to keep, to prevent, to prohibit указывают на препятствие к
осуществлению действия, выраженного инфинитивом, т.е. конструкции
с ними содержат имплицитное (не выраженное частицами no, not)
отрицание.
внимание на отрицание:
1. The framers of the American Constitution wanted to keep power from
being concentrated in the hands of a few. 2. The UN has worked to prevent
conflicts from breaking out. 3. The First Amendment to American
Constitution prohibits Congress from abridging the freedom of the press. 4.
In the 18th century, experiments were conducted in inoculating healthy
persons to prevent them from contracting smallpox. 5. A number of factors
prevent the country from liberalizing its labor market. 6. Major industrial
nations are taking action to stop growing tension in Kosovo from spreading
to southern Serbia. 7. Tobacco companies are prohibited from advertising
their products on television. 8. John's disability prevents him from driving. 9.
High import duties prevented foreign goods from being sold in the country.
10. The country has a law prohibiting employees from striking. 11. The
existing freedom of the press should not deter editors and publishers from
maintaining a constant vigil to preserve and extend those liberties. 12. Some
historians argue that constitutional monarchy prevents politicians from
usurping power and has prevented a dictator from dominating Great Britain
since Oliver Cromwell's short rule in the 17th century. 13. Some politicians
consider that high income taxes prevent the rich from investing in new
industrial enterprises.
глаголы и герундиальные конструкции из предыдущего упражнения:
1. Шум мешал мне спать. 2. Первая поправка к американской
конституции запрещает конгрессу ущемлять свободу слова. 3. При-
вивки делаются для того, чтобы защитить людей от заражения ин-
фекционными болезнями. 4. Целый ряд факторов мешают правитель-
ству снизить налоги. 5. Адвокат пытался помешать прокурору запугать
(to harass) свидетеля. 6. Разумные законы должны мешать чиновникам
злоупотреблять властью. 7. Туман помешал солдатам увидеть врага. 8.
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ООН стремится предотвратить возникновение конфликтов. 9.
Создатели американской конституции стремились предотвратить
концентрацию власти в одних руках. 10. Эта политика должна
предотвратить распространение конфликта на другие регионы.
3.2.10. Герундиальные конструкции при глаголах,

приобретающих окказиональное каузативное значение
Есть ряд глаголов, приобретающих значения положительной или

отрицательной каузативности (т.е. обозначающих факторы, спо-
собствующие или препятствующие осуществлению действия) только в
сочетании с герундиальной конструкцией. Так, например, сочетание to
talk somebody into doing something означает «уговорить кого-л. сделать
что-л.», a to talk somebody out of doing something —
«уговорить кого-л. не делать чего-л.». Вне сочетаний с герундием глагол
to talk такого значения не имеет.
внимание на глаголы, управляющие герундиальной конструкцией:
1. My father sought me out a week before my twenty-first birthday and
steamrollered me into accepting his invitation to dine at his place. 2. He tried
to badger me into having a drink with him. 3. On Wednesday I sweet-talked
a colleague into taking my classes that day. 4. The baby in her arms misled
him into thinking she was married. 5. He tried to coax the younger sister into
joining the talk between himself and her brother. 6. The lawyer tricked the
witness into asserting as a fact that the money had been stolen. 7. The
gangsters frightened the bank teller into giving them all the money. 8. Sue
bullied Harold Finnegan into lunching with her in a fashionable bar. 9. Harvey
always tried to prod his brother into becoming more active physically. 10. To
fight means to frighten the other side into stopping the war.
конструкции с окказиональными каузативами:
1. Грабители угрозами заставили кассира отдать им деньги. 2. Он
уговорил своих друзей купить машину. 3. Адвокат обманом заставил
свидетеля признать факт грабежа. 4. Она отговорила брата покупать эту
квартиру.
3.3. ПРИЧАСТИЕ
3.3.1. Общие сведения

Причастие сочетает в себе свойства, с одной стороны, глагола, а с
другой — прилагательного и наречия. Будучи формой глагола, оно
подобно инфинитиву и герундию принимает все дополнения и
обстоятельства, присущие личной форме глагола. Свойства при-
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лагательного и наречия выражаются в том, что причастие выполняет в
более крупной структуре (предложении) функцию определения или
обстоятельства. В русском языке свойства глагола и прилагательного
сочетает причастие, свойства глагола и наречия — деепричастие.
В английском языке существует два вида причастия — активное и
пассивное, или первое и второе (Participle 1 (writing) и Participle 2
(written)). Причастие 1 подобно герундию имеет формы времени и
залога.
3.3.2. Формы причастия
активный пассивный
Общее writing being written
Перфектное having written having been written
Как и у остальных неличных форм, время, выражаемое причастием,

соотнесено не с моментом речи, а с действием, выраженным личной
формой глагола. Неперфектные формы обозначают действие,
одновременное с тем, которое выражено сказуемым; перфектные —
предшествующее действие.
3.3.3. Функции причастия в предложении 3.3.3.1. Причастие в
функции определения
В этой функции употребляются простая (неперфектная активная)
форма причастия 1 и причастие 2:
The literature dealing with this problem has been expanding rapidly in
recent years. — Количество публикаций, посвященных этой проблеме,
последнее время стремительно растет.
The book is divided into six sections, prefaced by introductions. — В
книге шесть разделов, каждому из которых предпослано введение.
Следует помнить, что оборот с причастием синонимичен при-
даточному предложению:
There were many publishing houses catering to a mass demand for works
of fiction. = There were many publishing houses which catered to a mass
demand for works of fiction.
Следовательно, при переводе можно пользоваться как причастным
оборотом, так и придаточным предложением.
внимание на обороты с причастием 1 в функции определения. Преобразуйте
причастные обороты в придаточные предложения.
1. People living near the highway were disturbed by the noise. 2. The
newspaper employs a lawyer advising the editors on legal matters. 3. The
religion of the ancient Hebrews was monotheistic, recognizing only a single
god. 4. Adam Smith argued that individuals pursuing their self-interest are
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led "as by an invisible hand" to do things that are in the interests of others and
society as a whole. 5. This book discusses translation problems arising from
lack of equivalence on word level. 6. Among the factors contributing to the
expansion of newspapers was the national growth in population and even the
improvement of home lighting. The transition from candles to oil, and then to
gas made nighttime reading more inviting. 7. At the great library at
Alexandria, scholars seeking to codify the knowledge of the ages
accumulated more than half a million scrolls. 8. The young lawyer worked
for a small firm giving advice to people on welfare rights and immigration
procedures. 9. In most countries, once a lawyer is fully qualified, he receives
a certificate proving his right to sell his services. 10. Amnesty International
research shows that more than 60 lawyers investigating cases against people
accused of political crimes were murdered in 1990. 11. The earliest known
inscription recording the ambition of a city ruler to dominate the entire region
— to be the first "universal" monarch in history — was found in Mesopotamia
and dates from 2350 ВС.
Упражнение 59. Преобразуйте предложения, превращая придаточное
предложение в причастный оборот:
1. People who exercise their own rights often help to protect the rights
of others. 2. People who live along this road suffer from traffic noise. 3. The
people who are sitting at that table are my colleagues. 4. Archeologists
digging in Mesopotamia found about 5,000 clay tablets that provide us both
with economic and administrative records and literary texts. 5. The story
of Noah and the Ark in the Bible echoes the ancient legend of the Sumerians
that tells of a single disastrous flood from which only a few people were
saved. 6. People who work for this company enjoy a number of benefits. 7.
This scholar is interested in literature which deals with ancient legal
systems.
Обратите внимание, что в функции определения не употребляются
перфектные формы причастия. В английском языке нет формы
действительного причастия прошедшего времени наподобие русского
читавший. Поэтому такое причастие передается при переводе с
русского на английский язык при помощи придаточного предложения.
причастный оборот для передачи причастия настоящего времени и при-
даточное предложение для передачи причастия прошедшего времени:
1. Он увидел двух девушек, сидящих на скамейке. 2. Люди,

прочитавшие книги этого писателя, пришли познакомиться с ним. 3.
Люди, участвующие в демонстрации, несли лозунги. 4. Люди,
участвовавшие в демонстрации накануне, снова пришли на площадь. 5.
Студенты, сдающие экзамен, сидели в аудитории. 6. Студенты, сдавшие
экзамен, пошли в кафе. 7. Люди, изучавшие иностранный язык в
детстве, обычно хорошо говорят на нем. 8. Студенты, изучающие
иностранный язык, должны много читать.
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3.3.3.2. Причастие 2 в функции определения
Обороты с причастием 2 также являются свернутой формой
придаточного предложения. В этом случае «развернутое» предложение
содержит пассивную конструкцию:
The books sold in this shop are very interesting. = The books which are
sold in this shop are very interesting.
внимание на обороты с причастием 2. Преобразуйте причастный оборот в
придаточное предложение.
1. Pulp paper made from wood and improved printing presses helped to
make books cheaper. 2. By 1877, a third of nearly five thousand books
published annually were produced in paperback. 3. English is probably the
most widely translated language in the world. 4. The Oxford Gazette became
the first regularly published English newspaper in 1665. 5. Freedom 's
Journal, the first newspaper published for blacks in the United States, was
started in New York 16 March 1827. 6. A newspaper is a regularly issued
medium printed on unbound paper. 7. There are probably as many women
employed in the newspaper industry, as there are men. 8. Repeated
experiences of failure, accompanied by disparaging comments from other
people, help to create the negative self-concept, so often found among poor
students. 9. The fundamental principle of press freedom was a newspaper
doctrine, disseminated by the Founding Fathers and subsequently applied to
all the media. 10. Works written by specialists to be read by other specialists
are generally referred to as professional books.
Причастие 2 в английском языке может быть образовано от глаголов,
эквиваленты которых в русском языке непереходны. В таких случаях
необходимо пользоваться иными средствами, в частности придаточным
предложением:
It is worth remembering that National socialism rested initially on policies
of strong patriotic appeal, followed by the systematic elimination of
dissenting opinion. — Следует помнить, что национал-социализм
поначалу опирался на привлекательную для патриотов политику; затем
последовало систематическое искоренение инакомыслия.
внимание на причастные обороты:
1. One of difficult tasks faced by today's professionals is keeping accurate
records of time spent on different tasks. 2. The executives of the company
worked in hushed, quiet offices, reached by a private elevator. 3. This chapter
on a newspaper in American society begins with a definition of the medium,
followed by a brief history of the newspaper in both European and American
settings. 4. Jack spent his summer holidays on a horse farm in Virginia owned
by the family of a school friend. 5. Farmers opened up poor lands long
allowed to remain idle or never before cultivated. 6. The new program agreed
upon by the two countries envisaged an interesting form of economic
cooperation. 7. In 1997, UN food aid reached 19.1 million people affected by
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conflict situations. 8. The issues typically negotiated by trade unions are
wages, hours, conditions of work including health and safety, benefits and
other aspects of the employment relation. 9. The UN report was produced by
a panel chaired by Lakhdar Brahimi, a former Algerian foreign minister. 10.
Income for the elderly, health care, subsidizing housing and nutrition are
among the concerns addressed by government social welfare programs.
Упражнение 63. Преобразуйте придаточное предложение в причастный
оборот:
1. The peace settlement, which was negotiated in Geneva, satisfied both
parties. 2. The students discussed a newspaper story which was published in
the University newspaper. 3. Celluloid, which was invented in 1860's, was
the prototype of modern plastics. 4. The experiment which was conducted
in our laboratory yielded interesting results. 5. The issues which are
addressed by this organization include food aid and emergency relief. 6.
The Pilgrim guide of 1130 is perhaps the first tourist guide that was ever
written. 7. William the Conqueror, who was crowned on Christmas day,
1066, by the archbishop of York, became the first Norman monarch of
England.
Упражнение 64. Выберите нужную форму причастия:
1. The manager worked in an office (reaching, reached) by a private
elevator. 2. Journalists (writing, written) for the newspapers must check the
spelling of proper names. 3. Stories (writing, written) by this journalist are
always very interesting. 4. Clothes (manufacturing, manufactured) by this
company are always of excellent quality. 5. There is stiff competition among
companies (manufacturing, manufactured) computers. 6. A scientist
(conducting, conducted) such experiments must keep careful records. 7. The
experiments (conducting, conducted) in this laboratory yielded interesting
results. 8. The problems (discussing, discussed) at the conference were very
important. 9. Scientists (discussing, discussed) cloning often disagree on
ethical issues.
3.3.3.3. Позиция причастного оборота в предложении
Обратите внимание, что в английском языке распространенное

причастие не может стоять перед определяемым словом, а может
находиться лишь в постпозиции к нему. Так, предложение Полиция
нашла зарытые в саду деньги следует переводить: The police found the
money buried in the garden.
внимание на положение причастного оборота:
1. Мы нашли потерянные вчера деньги. 2. Она убрала в холодильник
купленные на рынке продукты. 3. Он гладил выстиранное накануне
белье. 4. Писатель получил гонорар (royalties) за изданную в США
книгу. 5. Студентка купила компьютер на заработанные летом деньги.
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6. Студенты обсуждали прочитанную накануне книгу. 7. На
конференции ученый описывал проведенные в этом году опыты.
В английском языке изолированное причастие 2 может стоять после
определяемого слова. Особенно это касается нехудожественного
(делового, политического или научного) текста. В русском языке
изолированное причастие может стоять только в препозиции к
определяемому слову.
внимание на позицию причастия:
1. A teacher of literature must find some means of helping his class to see
the beauty of the texts studied. 2. The production costs are low, when
compared with the substantial revenue derived. 3. The problem considered is
very difficult. 4. Most interviews are one-to-one situations, in which the
reporter has the full attention of the person interviewed. 5. In critical
situations, many managers hesitate to make the tough decisions required. 6.
Efficiency concerns the cost of doing something, or the resource utilization
involved. 7. During protests, workers sometimes destroyed machinery and the
products being produced. 8. At this plant, the workers are paid by the number
of pieces produced. 9. People express opinions on issues, persons and events
according to pre-existing attitudes and beliefs that they associate with the
question being asked. 10. Everyone would prefer higher prices for goods sold
and lower prices for goods bought.
изолированное причастие в постпозиции к определяемому слову:
1. Успех эксперимента зависит от используемых материалов. 2.
Затраты на производство невысоки по сравнению с полученным
доходом. 3. Эти меры не дали ожидаемого результата. 4. В этой компа-
нии рабочим платят по количеству единиц произведенной продукции.
5. Предложенные методы могут увеличить производительность труда.
6. Обсуждаемые проблемы касались вопросов безопасности.
3.3.3.4. Причастие и причастный оборот в функции обстоятельства

В этой функции могут выступать все формы причастия — как
неперфектные, так и перфектные, как активные, так и пассивные.
Причастный оборот чаще всего выполняет функцию обстоятельства
времени, причины или образа действия:
The northern part of the country, being unsuited for agriculture, was
very sparsely settled. = The northern part of the country was veiy sparsely
settled because it was unsuited for agriculture. — Северная часть страны
была мало заселена, так как была непригодна для земледелия.
Asked, in a recent poll, their priorities in life, 67 per cent British workers
put home, family and leisure first. = When British workers were asked, in a
recent poll, their priorities in life, 67 per cent of them put home, family and
leisure first. — Когда в одном из последних опросов британских рабочих
спросили, что они больше всего ценят в жизни, 67 % поставили на
первое место дом, семью и досуг.
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Сам причастный оборот не указывает на тип семантической связи,
его надо определять по смыслу.
внимание на причастные обороты в функции обстоятельства:
1. People tend to do jobs with short-time demands first, putting off jobs
that require a lot of time. 2. Individuals in free market pursue their own
interests, trying to do as well for themselves as they can without government
interference. 3. Government taxes and spending affect the distribution of
income, imposing burdens on some and conferring benefits on others. 4.
Many teachers began to treat children as if they were little adults, yielding to
them the responsibility of determining when, if and even what they would
study. 5. The first American "penny paper" was The New York Sun, which
appeared in 1833. Hawked daily on the streets for a penny per copy, it
introduced a new price, a new way to sell papers, and a new content to daily
journalism. 6. On February 1, 1960, four young black freshmen at North
Carolina A&T college set forth on a historic journey that would ignite a
decade of civil rights protests. Walking into the local shop, they purchased
toothpaste and other small items, and then sat at the lunch counter and
demanded equal service with white persons. 7. Reared in the relative
prosperity of Atlanta's black middle class, Martin Luther King had been
sheltered from many of the worst aspects of white racism. 8. Swedish films
were and still are dominated by the genius of Ingmar Bergman who, more
successively than anyone else, introduced metaphor in film, raising cinema
to an art form and exploring in the ancient Greek traditions the timeless
themes of life, death and truth. 9. Concerned that they may be in violation of
federal, state or local law, a great many newspapers, magazines, radio and
television stations have created their own standards that govern what
advertising they will accept or reject. 10. Gas and electric companies today
focus ironically enough on energy conservation, seeking to slow rather than
promote growth. Their generating capacity is outdistanced by demand,
resulting in shortages and blackouts (or brownouts) with an accompanying
acceleration of public dissatisfaction. 11. Women suffer economic and social
inequality throughout the world, either doing less well paid work than men
or being paid less for the same work.
внимание на обороты с перфектными формами причастия. Имейте в виду, что
действие, выраженное перфектной формой причастия, предшествует
действию, выраженному личной формой глагола.
1. Having arrested someone suspected of committing a crime, the police
must decide if they have enough evidence to make a formal accusation. 2.
The mass media are generally divided into print media and electronic media.
The print media are older, having developed over the last 500 years, while
electronic media are products of the 20th century. 3. Having triumphed over
France in the Seven Year War (1756— 1763), Britain was now compelled to
face a problem that it had hitherto neglected — the governance of its empire
in America. 4. Having raised these questions, the author left them
352
unanswered. 5. This letter, having been addressed to the wrong house, never
reached my friend. 6. Having discussed the communication process and the
various theories of how mass communications influence people, we now
focus upon the individual. 7. Having looked at the process of communication,
let's now look how mass communications affect public opinion. 8. Germany
and Japan, having risen from the ashes of war, began to compete successfully
against the US companies, both inside the US and abroad. 9. The American
statesman and scientist, Benjamin Franklin had a keen interest in the English
language, and especially in its typography, having been a printer in his youth.
10. She had never married, never having met an available man to whom she
wanted to tie herself permanently.
неперфектное причастие для обозначения действия, одновременного с
действием, выраженным сказуемым, и перфектное причастие для обозначения
действия, предшествующего выраженному сказуемым:
1. Когда Джон писал эту статью, он много работал в библиотеке. 2.

Написав статью, Джон отнес ее редактору. 3. Читая эту книгу, Генри
нашел много полезной информации. 4. Прочитав книгу, Мери отнесла
ее в библиотеку. 5. Дэвид хорошо знал минералы, так как в университете
изучал геологию. 6. Джейн не пошла с нами в кино, так как уже видела
этот фильм. 7. Сьюзан хорошо знает русский язык, так как в детстве
жила в России. 8. Мы знаем взгляды этого ученого, так как читали его
статьи.
3.3.3.5. Причастные обороты с союзами
Причастный оборот в английском языке может вводиться союзом,

указывающим на тип обстоятельственного отношения. Способы
перевода при этом практически не отличаются от способов перевода
бессоюзного причастного оборота:
The party will never win the election unless supported by agricultural
workers. — Эта партия никогда не победит на выборах, если ее не
поддержат сельскохозяйственные рабочие.
внимание на причастные обороты с союзами:
1. Edison came upon many of his inventions while looking for something
else. 2. Some high school pupils insisted that they could study while watching
television. 3. When considering a problem so large as the degradation of the
global environment, it is easy to feel overwhelmed, utterly helpless to effect
any change whatsoever. 4. An all-pervasive federal government, unless
checked, may take away our most precious personal freedoms, while
shattering the very foundations of our economic system. 5. Behaviorists hold
that any behavior, if reinforced, is likely to occur again. 6. Some of the causes
of cancer are known, and the condition can be cured if treated early enough.
353
7. The presumption of innocence holds that every individual is considered
innocent until proven guilty. 8. The defendant is facing life imprisonment if
found guilty. 9. Opinion polls are based on the assumptions that most people
will, if asked the right question, give an honest answer. 10. In the USA equal
pay for equal work provisions, when enforced, reduce the employment of
non-white people. 11. While seeking a change of the law, we will only act
within the law as it stands. 12. The captain told his troops not to fire unless
fired at first.
Упражнение 72. Преобразуйте выделенное придаточное предложение в
причастный оборот:
1. While she was traveling to work, she thought over her plans for the
day. 2. This disease can be cured if it is treated early enough. 3. When she
wrote business letters, she always kept a copy. 4. Small children do not do
their homework unless they are supervised. 5. Jonathan always helps his
friends if he is warned in advance. 6. Mary always wrote letters while she
was traveling. 7. Many people waste valuable work time while they are
traveling. 8. This experiment, if it is carefully conducted, may yield good
results.
причастные обороты с союзами:
1. Каждый человек считается невиновным, пока его вина не
доказана. 2. Эту болезнь можно вылечить, если начать лечение рано. 3.
Хотя эти люди имеют разные политические взгляды, они успешно
работают вместе. 4. Этот эксперимент может дать хорошие результаты,
если его тщательно провести. 5. Хотя этот человек вырос в богатой
семье, он всегда понимал нужды бедных. 6. Он всегда хорошо работает,
если ему не мешать (to disturb). 7. Читая эту книгу, он нашел много
ошибок.
3.3.4. Предикативные конструкции с причастием
3.3.4.1. Объектная предикативная конструкция
Подобно инфинитиву и герундию причастие может выступать в
составе предикативной конструкции, т.е. в сочетании с существи-
тельным или местоимением, называющим субъект действия, вы-
раженного этим причастием. Предикативная конструкция с причастием
может выполнять в предложении функцию сложного дополнения:
She found her brother waiting for her. — Она увидела, что брат ее
ждет.
Магу heard the children quarrelling in the next room. — Мери слы-
шала, как дети ссорились в соседней комнате.
Предикативные конструкции с причастием 1 встречаются в ос-
новном при глаголах чувства и восприятия (ср. с объектной конст-
рукцией с инфинитивом, 3.1.3.1).
внимание на предикативные конструкции с причастием:
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1. The witnesses saw the criminal entering the building. 2. The policeman
heard people crying for help. 3. They saw a fire burning in the distance. 4.
They, heard somebody singing in the distance. 5. I found my brother writing
letters at my computer. 6. Although the first white men to reach the Great
Plains found the Indians riding horses, this did not mean that the horse was
native to America. 7. After a number of unwise moves, the company found
itself losing money. 8. The Congress found itself facing various groups that
stood in the way of tax reform. 9. The company sees an important component
of its success coming from customer service and from working with
specialized groups of customers. 10. Watching the conflict on television,
Americans heard horrified commentators criticizing the police for using
excessive force on the protesters. 11. Hawke saw two men looking at him and
talking with their heads close together. 12. We can easily imagine this tactic
being used by authoritarian governments, but it is used by democratic
governments as well. 13. After the quarrel, he didn't want his daughter's name
mentioned in his house. 14. A study of newspaper coverage of crime found
more attention given to violent crimes (murder, rape and assault) than was
justified by official police statistics. 15. Managers are advised to keep their
secretaries fully informed on all matters concerning the firm. 16. When the
American Constitution was being drafted, the more populous states wanted
representation based on population; they didn't want their power diluted. 17.
As a bill moves through the dance of legislation, it is amended again and
again, in a search for a consensus that will get it passed and signed into law.
18. After observing suspicious-looking bails being moved from an airplane
to a truck, the manager telephoned police. 19. She watched two people — a
woman and a boy — being taken into a small bus, apparently against their
will.
В английском языке для передачи таких смыслов, как «видел, что...»,
«видел, как...», «слышал, как...», не используются придаточные
предложения, а употребляются объектные конструкции с инфинитивом
и с причастием.
конструкции с инфинитивом и с причастием:
1. Полицейский слышал, как потерпевший (victim) звал на помощь.
2. Мы видели, как водитель припарковал машину у тротуара. 3.
Телезрители слышали, как журналисты критиковали полицию за
применение силы против демонстрантов. 4. Покупатели видели, как
террористы вошли в супермаркет. 5. Дети, играющие во дворе, видели,
как к дому подъехала машина. 6. Прохожие видели, как машина
проехала на красный свет.
3.3.4.1.1. Некоторые значения объектных предикативных

конструкций с причастием
Предикативная конструкция с причастием 2 при глаголе to have
обозначает действие, выполненное «по заказу»:
to have one's hair cut — постричься (в парикмахерской)
355
to have a suit dry-cleaned — отдать костюм в химчистку to have
one's shoes mended — отдать обувь в починку to have one's TV
repaired — починить телевизор (в мастерской) Однако иногда эта
конструкция описывает нежелательные, неблагоприятные ситуации,
возникающие помимо воли субъекта: Не had his money stolen. — У
него украли деньги.
внимание на сочетание «глагол to have + причастие 2»:
1. For the New Year's Eve party at the consulate, the consul had all the
furniture moved from the drawing-room. 2. She had her car stolen at the
airport. 3. After the car crash he had his leg amputated. 4. I must have my
driver's license renewed. 5. Jeremy had the window of his car smashed in his
driveway. 6. Dorothy had her driver's license revoked after she got in a bad
accident. 7. All nations which have broad-based representative governments
and civil liberties have most of their economic activities organized by the
market. 8. Every young man falls in love sometime and has his heart broken.
9. They telephoned a Chinese takeout restaurant and had food sent to the
office. 10. The patient had his appendix removed. 11. The building had its
windows blown out by the explosion.
сочетание «глагол to have + причастие 2»:
1. Я должен постричься. 2. Мне надо починить телевизор. 3. Ей надо
отдать костюм в чистку (to dry-clean). 4. Они всегда чинят машину в этой
мастерской (garage). 5. У него украли деньги. 6. Ему сломали руку в
драке. 7. Жертвам аварии перевязали раны. 8. Секретарь позвонил в
винный магазин и сказал, чтобы в офис привезли шампанского. 9. Они
позвонили в ресторан, чтобы в офис прислали бутерброды.
3.3.4.2. Субъектная конструкция с причастием

В субъектной конструкции с причастием субъектом действия,
выраженного причастием, служит подлежащее предложения. Ска-
зуемое при этом имеет значение восприятия или речемыслитель- ной
деятельности.
The car was seen leaving the parking lot. — Видели, как машина
выезжала с парковки.
Субъектная конструкция с причастием часто сопровождается
союзом as:
Madmen were sometimes viewed as being inhabited by devils or
demons
and treatment consisted of exorcism — the driving out of these demons by
religious ceremonies or by physical punishment. — Иногда считалось, что
в сумасшедших вселяется дьявол, и их лечили, изгоняя этого дьявола
при помощи религиозных церемоний или физической боли.
С союзом as употребляется и объектная конструкция с причастием:
356
It is customary to think of English before about 1700 as being one
language, with no specifically American characteristics yet visible. —
Принято считать, что английский до 1700 года был единым языком, в
котором еще не проявились специфические американские особенности.
внимание на причастные конструкции с союзом as:
1. Speakers of British English immediately recognize speakers of
American English as being fellow English speakers, and yet also members of
a distinct culture. 2. The author of this book sees each form of English as
comprising a constellation of varieties, which differ according to the speaker
or writer, his purpose and his immediate situation. 3. These phonetic
differences don't constitute a serious barrier to communication, but identify
the speaker as being American or English. 4. With the emergence of the
concept of varieties in language, the educational aim now can be expressed
as enabling the individual to operate in as many relevant varieties as possible.
5. The politician was quoted as saying that he supported these measures by
the government. 6. Few magazines today can be described as being broad
both in subject and audience. The Reader's Digest is one of the few. 7.
Officially this program is aimed at reducing poverty, but politicians see it as
having a wider mission.
3.3.4.3. Независимая причастная конструкция
В абсолютной причастной конструкции причастие имеет свой

субъект, а вся конструкция в целом служит в предложении обстоя-
тельством:
There are many approaches to the study of language, each dealing with
a different aspect and each having its own intrinsic significance and
variety. — Существует много подходов к изучению языка; каждый
связан с определенным аспектом и имеет свою собственную внутрен-
нюю ценность и своеобразие.
Причастие dealing имеет субъект each; выделенная конструкция
является обстоятельством сопутствующих условий.
При переводе целесообразно пользоваться придаточным пред-
ложением либо разделять предложение на две части и выделять
независимую причастную конструкцию в самостоятельное пред-
ложение (см. приведенный выше пример). Можно также пользоваться
придаточным предложением с союзом причем.
внимание на независимую причастную конструкцию. В первых трех предло-
жениях для большей наглядности независимая причастная конструкция за-
ключена в скобки.
1. The prices of newspaper advertisement are based on circulation, (with
larger circulation naturally demanding a higher price). 2. Many American
rivers empty into the Atlantic and offer access some distance into the interior,
(the best being the Hudson, up which vessels of the European settlers could
sail 150 miles before encountering the first block to navigation). 3. (School
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time being short), it is necessary for the teacher to use every minute in
teaching with definite ends in view. 4. Among the eleven members of the
Security Council there are five permanent members, each having a veto
power. 5. Discharges of waste and industrial by-products should be reduced
as much as possible, with special attention given to pollutants with long-
lasting or highly toxic effects. 6. Many Westerners thought Stalin and Hitler
were two of a kind, each reflecting a bloodthirsty obsession with power no
matter what the cost of human dignity. 7. The scope of the government's role
in the modern economy is highly controversial. With government in the USA
taking nearly a third of income in taxes, and with governments in other
countries going even above the 50 percent mark, many people argue that the
government interferes with the efficient working of the economy. 8. During
the Second World War, the number of Blacks employed in manufacturing
grew from 500,000 to 1.2 million, with the proportion of blacks in the iron
and steel industries growing to more than 25 per cent. 9. Despite some
improvements in job opportunities for blacks during the War, most openings
were at low levels, with blacks primarily hired as janitors or scrubwomen,
rather than as technicians, secretaries or skilled craftsmen.
10. World War II officially ended September 2, 1945, when the Japanese
signed surrender documents on the battleship Missouri in Tokyo, with
General Marshall presiding. 11. Scotland and Ireland were joined to England
in legislative and economic union, their members sitting in Parliament at
Westminster, their traders selling and buying freely in the English market. 12.
By the start of the 17th century, England began to take a greater interest in
the New World. A series of naval victories over Spain, the greatest being the
defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, gave her merchants the courage to
invade this part of the world. 13. In the USA, the period from 1900 to 1920
had been one of general farm prosperity and rising farm prices, with the
unprecedented wartime demand for US farm products providing a strong
stimulus for production.
абсолютную причастную конструкцию:
1. Так как ветер был очень сильным, судно не выходило из порта. 2.
Организация имеет пять филиалов, каждый из которых работает в своем
регионе. 3. Так как огонь был очень сильным, пожарные не могли войти
в здание. 4. Так как налоги были слишком высоки, промышленность
развивалась медленно. 5. В городе пять ресторанов быстрого питания,
каждый из которых обслуживает свой район. 6. В Совете Безопасности
ООН пять постоянных членов, каждый из которых обладает правом
вето. 7. Когда Томас Эдисон изобрел электрическую лампочку, стал
возможным массовый показ фильмов. 8. Когда Гутенберг изобрел
печатный станок с рассыпным шрифтом, стало развиваться
издательское дело.
Упражнение 81. Преобразуйте сложноподчиненное предложение в пред-
ложение с независимой причастной конструкцией:
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1. As the economic situation was unstable, few investors brought their
money to Russia. 2. The industry developed slowly, because the taxes were
prohibitive. 3. As guerillas were hiding in the mountains, traveling along the
roads was dangerous. 4. When the movable type printing press was invented,
book publishing became possible.
4. МОДАЛЬНЫЕ ГЛАГОЛЫ
К модальным глаголам относятся следующие: can, may, must, ought,

to need, will, shall.
Модальные глаголы в английском языке употребляются не са-
мостоятельно, а только в сочетании с инфинитивом другого глагола.
Они обозначают возможность, вероятность, способность,
необходимость совершения действия, выраженного глаголом в
инфинитиве.
Инфинитив, следующий за модальным глаголом, употребляется без
частицы to. Исключением является глагол ought, при котором частица to
употребляется.
Модальные глаголы не имеют окончания -s в 3-м лице един-
ственного числа настоящего времени.
В отличие от других глаголов модальные глаголы не имеют всех
временных форм.
Глаголы must, ought, to need имеют только форму настоящего
времени.
Глаголы can, may, shall, will имеют форму прошедшего времени.
Временные формы модальных глаголов
настоящее время прошедшее время
сап could
shall should
may might
will would
При этом, как будет показано ниже, глаголы will/would, shall/ should
имеют разные значения.
У модальных глаголов нет неличных форм инфинитива, герундия,
причастия.
Модальное значение долженствования и возможности имеют также
следующие сочетания глаголов и прилагательных с инфинитивом:
to have значение долженствования
to be
to be able
,, , > значение возможности
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to be allowed
В отличие от собственно модальных глаголов эти сочетания со-
храняют все формы — временные и неличные.
4.1. МОДАЛЬНЫЙ ГЛАГОЛ сап/could
Глагол сап (форма прошедшего времени could) в сочетании с

простой формой инфинитива выражает:
• физическую возможность или способность совершить действие:
Не can read and write. — Он умеет читать и писать.
• вероятность действия (так называемая окказиональная веро-
ятность):
Measles can be quite dangerous (= sometimes they are quite dangerous).
— Корь может быть/иногда бывает очень опасной.
Head injuries can be very serious. — Травмы головы могут быть очень
опасны.
В значении вероятности может употребляться и форма could:
Russia could suffer if there is a perception the rule of law is not being
fully implemented. — Россия может пострадать, если возникнет впе-
чатление, что законы не полностью выполняются.
• просьбу о разрешении совершить действие (в вопросительной
форме):
Can we have a word with you in private? — Мы можем поговорить
наедине?
• просьбу (чаще употребляется форма could):
Could you pass the salt, please? — Передайте, пожалуйста, соль./ Вы
не могли бы передать соль?
• разрешение или (в отрицательной форме) запрещение:
She cannot marry without my consent until she comes of age. — Она не
может выйти замуж без моего согласия, пока не достигнет
совершеннолетия.
• указание на вероятность действия, а в отрицательной форме —
отрицание возможности совершения действия в настоящий момент или
в прошлом:
Dr. Barrington said she had been murdered. But it couldn't be Nicky. —
Доктор Баррингтон сказал, что ее убили. Но не может быть, чтобы
это была Ниш.
Не couldn't be driving the car himself. — He может быть, чтобы он
сам вел машину.
Глагол could (реже сап) с перфектным инфинитивом обозначает:
• вероятность осуществления действия в прошлом:
I have lost my credit card. I could have left it in the supermarket. — Я
потеряла кредитную карточку. Возможно, я оставила ее в супер-
маркете.
• указание на событие, которое могло произойти, но не произошло:
Jane often told her husband that she could have become a great
360
actress. — Джейн часто говорила мужу, что могла бы стать великой
актрисой.
Не left his job. But he could have continued working for this company.
— Он ушел с работы. Но он мог бы остаться в этой компании.
• в отрицательной форме глагол could с перфектным инфинитивом
выражает уверенность в том, что действие не могло совершиться:
Не can't/couldn't have done a thing like that. — He может быть,
чтобы он так поступил.
Глагол сап не и м е е т формы будущего времени. Для выражения
значения возможности в будущем времени используется сочетание to
be able to do something:
You will be able to solve your problems better when you understand
them. — Вы сможете решить свои проблемы, когда поймете их.
Это сочетание употребляется только в значении возможности, но не
вероятности.
Глагол could р е д к о у п о т р е б л я е т с я для обозначения од-
нократной реализованной возможности совершить действие. В таких
случаях используется сочетание to be able, а также глаголы to manage
(to do something) и to succeed (in doing something) (ср. рус. я мог — я
смог/сумел):
New York was a place where anyone could start a business. — В Нью-
Йорке каждый мог начать свое дело, (устанавливается теоретическая
возможность осуществления действия)
The rain had stopped and they were able to continue their journey. —
Дождь прекратился, и они смогли продолжить свое путешествие.
They didn't want to talk to me at first, but I managed to ask them why
they wished to come in. — Сначала они не хотели со мной разговаривать,
но я все-таки спросила их, почему они хотят войти.
The management succeeded in avoiding major layoffs. — Админи-
страции удалось избежать массовых увольнений, (в трех последних
примерах речь идет о р е а л и з о в а н н о й возможности совершить
действие)
4.1.1. Устойчивые сочетания с глаголом сап/could
• I can't/couldn't help doing something. — He могу не...

I can't help thinking she has made a mistake. — Я не могу не думать,
что она совершила ошибку.
• 1 cannot but... — Мне ничего не остается, как...
I cannot but ask you for help. — Мне ничего не остается, как
попросить вас о помощи.
Упражнение 1. Переведите предложения на русский язык; определите, в
каком из вышеперечисленных значений выступает глагол сап:
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1. A small group of people can agree to make democratic decisions
directly by using the principle of universal participation. 2. Most adults can
participate in the electoral process. 3. Media owners can make more money
by increasing their audiences, either by enlarging existing audiences or by
acquiring additional publications or stations. 4. In large complex societies
people cannot assemble in one place to participate directly in government. 5.
Governments can promote equality through policies that do not redistribute
income. 6. The powerful national legislature can override local laws. 7. A law
that requires a corporation to install expensive antipollution devices can
reduce stockholders' dividends, depress salaries and postpone expansion. 8.
The relationship between the two states can be jeopardized by this incident.
9. If the absence of legal safeguards hits investor confidence and the economy
suffers, nationalist politicians could come to the fore, with aggressive and
anti- western policies. 10. Such was the paralysis of surprise that I could do
nothing except stare at him. 11. Without Indian villages, it is entirely possible
there could have been no European settlements in the New World. 12. No one
could have known beforehand that she was going to be in that house. 13. No
one could have predicted at the time of Martin Luther King's birth that he
would become one of the greatest spiritual leaders of mankind. 14. A nuclear
war between the USA and the Soviet Union could have cost 40 million
American lives, plus untold numbers of Soviet, Cuban and European
casualties. 15. On his desk there was a picture of an aristocratic, slightly
severe-looking lady who could only have been his mother. 16. He was able
to see for himself that Florentyna had achieved tremendous success. It was
obvious that she could not have done it without her husband's common sense
and cautious approach. 17. The capital of the company consisted entirely of
bank loans and my personal investment. I received offers from people who
were prepared to buy into the company. I could have sold part of the capital
to an outside investor.
Упражнение 2. Переведите предложения на английский язык, используя:
а) модальный глагол сап:
1. В этой стране большинство взрослых граждан могут участвовать
в выборах. 2. Этот инцидент может поставить под угрозу отношения
между двумя странами. 3. Правительство может влиять на экономику,
вводя новые налоги и таможенные пошлины. 4. Эта ситуация может
быть опасной. 5. Погода может измениться завтра. 6. Эти меры могут
вызвать нежелательный эффект.
б) модальный глагол could с перфектным инфинитивом:
1. Первые поселенцы в Америке не могли бы выжить без помощи
индейцев. 2. Ядерная война могла уничтожить все человечество. 3. Мы
могли продать этот дом, но мы этого не сделали. 4. Мери могла слышать
этот разговор из кухни. 5. Никто не мог знать, что я сегодня приеду. 6.
Я не знаю, где этот документ. Я могла оставить его на работе (at the
office).
в) сочетания to be able to do something, to succeed in doing something, to manage
to do something:
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1. Дождь перестал, и мы смогли выйти погулять. 2. Дэвид сумел
купить билеты на этот спектакль. 3. Правительство сумело быстро
провести (to introduce) реформы. 4. Руководству компании удалось
избежать увольнений (layoffs). 5. Компания сумела сократить про-
изводственные затраты (poduction costs). 6. Шторм кончился, и суда
смогли покинуть порт. 7. На следующий день больной чувствовал себя
лучше и смог погулять в парке.
4.2. МОДАЛЬНЫЙ ГЛАГОЛ may/might
4.2.1. Глагол may/might в свободных сочетаниях
Глагол may (форма прошедшего времени might) выражает:
• официально установленное разрешение или запрещение со-
вершить действие; в вопросительной форме — просьбу о разрешении
совершить действие. Он более характерен для формальной речи, нежели
глагол сап.
May I use your telephone? — Можно от вас позвонить?
Candidates may not bring books into the examination rooms. — Кан-
дидатам запрещено приносить книги в экзаменационные залы.
• вероятность в настоящем или будущем:
There may be things that you know which I do not. — Может быть,
есть что-то такое, что вы знаете, а я нет.
I may not be able to play on Sunday. — Может быть, я не смогу
играть в воскресенье.
• предположение, относящееся к прошлому (в сочетании с пер-
фектным инфинитивом):
The studies relied on 2000 Census data, and the picture may have
changed somewhat since then. — Эти исследования опираются на данные
переписи 2000 года, и картина могла с тех пор измениться.
Значение вероятности присуще глаголу may и в отрицательной
форме:
This analysis of the pluralist nature of American democracy may not
mean much to you now. — Этот анализ плюралистической природы
американской демократии, может быть, не имеет значения для вас в
настоящее время.
You may not have heard about this author. — Вы, может быть, не
слышали об этом писателе.
Значение глагола may в отрицательной форме несколько отличается
от значения глагола сап. Если сап означает «не может быть чтобы», то
may имеет значение «возможно не».
Глагол might употребляется:
• в косвенной речи (в соответствии с правилом согласования
времен):
I asked if I might smoke. — Я спросил, можно ли курить.
• в условных предложениях II и I I I типа (см. 5);
• для выражения упрека, жалобы или порицания (в сочетании с
перфектным инфинитивом):
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You might have told us about this! — Могла бы и рассказать нам об
этом!
You might at least have helped! — Мог бы и помочь нам.
В большинстве случаев глагол might используется как более мягкая
и более вежливая форма глагола may, а также подразумевает большую
степень неуверенности в получении разрешения.
Might с перфектным инфинитивом также может обозначать
возможное, но не осуществившееся действие:
Giuseppe Verdi might have taken a post as organist at Monza, but
returned to Busseto where he became town music master in 1836. —
Джузеппе Верди мог бы стать органистом в городе Монза, но вернулся
в Буссето, где стал директором филармонического общества.
При выражении вероятности глагол might передает меньшую
степень уверенности, чем may.
4.2.2. Устойчивые сочетания с глаголом may/might
• May as well/might as well/might just as well + infinitive

Слово well после глагола may/might означает «вполне», «с успе-
хом», «пожалуй»:
I may as well take this letter with me. — Я, пожалуй, возьму это
письмо с собой./Пожалуй, лучше будет взять это письмо с собой.
One might as well ask whether the present Administration is as honest as
the previous one. — Иногда возникает вопрос, является ли нынешняя
администрация столь же честной, сколь предыдущая.
• It might have been worse. — Могло быть и хуже./В конце концов,
дела обстоят не так уж и плохо.
• Не might have been taken for... — Его можно было принять за...
• Не might have fallen. — Он чуть не упал.
• I might have known. — Я так и знал.
Глагол may обычно употребляется в придаточных предложениях
после таких выражений, как I fear, I'm afraid, а также в придаточных
предложениях цели после that, so that и придаточных уступительных
после whatever, however. Как правило, в этих случаях глагол may не
переводится на русский язык.
She is afraid we may miss our only chance. — Она боится, что мы
упустим наш единственный шанс.
I fear he may fall into the trap. — Я боюсь, что он попадет в ловушку.
They are determined to achieve this aim, however difficult it may seem.
— Они решили достичь своей цели, как бы трудно это ни было.
мание на различные значения глагола may/might:
1. I'm afraid I may not be able to catch this train. 2. The visitors may use
the swimming pool in the afternoon. 3. A small technical error may result in
364
a serious accident. 4. That is a long and difficult problem to find the answer
to and it may take many efforts in the coming years to find the right answer.
5. Pension plans may not interest you just now. 6. The Roman law, according
to which a girl may marry at twelve, was adopted by the Church. 7. You may
not believe me, but I am telling the truth. 8. The same citizens who contact
public officials to obtain special benefits may not vote regularly, participate
in campaigns or even contact officials about broader social issues. 9. A
gigantic meteorite may have wiped out the dinosaurs 65 million years ago.
10. The biblical account of the beginnings of the ancient Hebrews now seems
reasonably authentic. They may well have migrated from Ur sometime after
1950 ВС when that Sumerian center in southern Mesopotamia was destroyed.
11. The influence of these tribes may have spread North to the southwestern
part of the present US. 12. US counterterrorism officials are fearful that the
attackers may have come from an al-Qaeda cell they knew nothing about. 13.
Choosing between candidates according to personal attributes might be
defended, but it is not rational voting according to democratic theory. 14. He
might inadvertently have written something that could be useful to the enemy.
15. Richard waited for Florentyna under the canopy, beginning to fear that
she might not have been able to get away.
Упражнение 4. Переведите выдержки из устава организации «Между-
народная амнистия» (Amnesty International), обращая внимание на глагол may,
имеющий в формальном тексте значение разрешения:
1. Groups of not less than five members may, on payment of an annual
fee determined by the International Council, become affiliated to AMNESTY
INTERNATIONAL or a section thereof. 2. Individuals residing in countries,
states, territories or regions where there is no section may, on payment to the
International Secretariat of an annual subscription fee determined by the
International Executive Committee, become members of AMNESTY
INTERNATIONAL with the consent of the International Executive
Committee. 3. Sections consisting primarily of individual members rather
than groups may as an alternative appoint additional representatives. 4. A
section unable to participate at an International Council may appoint a proxy
or proxies to vote on its behalf. 5. The Committee may co-opt not more than
two additional members who shall hold office until the close of the next
meeting of the International Council.
4.3. СРАВНИТЕЛЬНАЯ ХАРАКТЕРИСТИКА ГЛАГОЛОВ may И can В

ЗНАЧЕНИИ РАЗРЕШЕНИЯ
Следует различать употребление глаголов may и сап в значении

разрешения с местоимениями 1, 2 и 3-го лица:
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May Can
1-е лицо
В значении разрешения употребляется I can take a day off whenever I want. I can
только в вопросительном leave the office as soon as I have finished.
предложении: May I use your telephone?
Косвенная речь
Не says I/we may leave. He said I/we He says I/we can leave. He said 1/we
might leave. could leave.
2-е лицо
Употребляется в ситуациях, когда Более характерен для разговорной речи
только говорящий, а не кто-либо (informal English) по сравнению с may:
другой дает разрешение: You шау park You can parkhere. — Здесь_мож«о пар
here. — Можете оставить машину коваться./Здесь разрешена парковка.
здесь. Предложение приобретает
неопределенно-личное значение:
парковаться может кто угодно,
разрешающим тоже может быть любое
лицо (I allow it. The police allow it.
People have the right to park here.)
3-е лицо
Употребляется в ситуациях, когда только Более характерен для разговорной речи
говорящий дает разрешение: (informal English) по сравнению с may:
Не may take my car. Наиболее Не can take my car. A police officer can
характерен для ситуаций, когда речь ask a driver to take a breath test.
идет о разрешении органов власти на
что-либо: In certain circumstances a
police officer may (has the right to) ask a
driver to take a breath test.
В тех случаях, когда употребление сап и may невозможно, разре-

шение передается сочетанием to be allowed to do something (см. 2.5),
которое употребляется во временах группы Perfect:
Since the accident George hasn't been allowed to drive. — После
аварии Джорджу запретили водить машину.
Оно также употребляется, если значение разрешения осложнено
другими модальными значениями:
The patient may be allowed to get up tomorrow. — Возможно, завтра
больному разрешат встать.
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Для выражения запрета используется форма mustn't (см. 4.5).
модальные глаголы сап и may, сочетаниия to be allowed to, to be able to,
глагол to manage:
1. Здесь можно оставить пальто. 2. Нам нельзя здесь курить. 3. Он не
мог нам показать расчеты, так как они не были закончены. 4. Он смог
показать нам расчеты, так как они были готовы. 5. Он сказал, что мы
можем идти. 6. Я умел плавать, когда мне было пять лет. 7. Они очень
милые со мной. Просто невозможно быть более вежливыми и
услужливыми (helpful). 8. Я могу вернуться автобусом. 9. Я мог бы
вернуться автобусом. 10. Здесь можно парковаться. И. Вы можете
уехать завтра пораньше и вернуться только в субботу. 12. Он попал в
аварию два года назад. С тех пор ему не разрешают садиться за руль. 13.
Им не позволили потратить все деньги. 14. Детям разрешили лечь спать
попозже. 15. Во время заседания никому не разрешили покинуть зал. 16.
Раньше туристам разрешалось провозить через границу только очень
небольшие суммы денег. 17. Нам разрешили оставить машину на этой
стоянке до завтра. 18. Вы можете отдохнуть в моем кабинете. 19. Ты не
мог бы прийти немного позже? 20. Ты можешь делать все, что захочешь.
21. Он спросил, можно ли поработать за моим компьютером. 22. Здесь
не разрешается оставлять личные вещи. 23. В этой церкви сегодня
можно фотографировать. 24. Можно мне от вас позвонить? 25. Я могу
уходить с работы, когда захочу. 26. Нельзя ли мне взглянуть на ваше
водительское удостоверение? 27. Может быть, я мог бы заплатить на-
личными? 28. Я, пожалуй, задержусь еще на час. 29. Я не смог не
согласиться с ними. Мы смогли убедить шефа в том, что необходимо
уволить нового охранника. 30. Я слышал, что они о чем-то говорят, но
не смог разобрать ни слова. Мне удалось услышать только последние
слова. 31. Мне ничего не оставалось делать, как уволить его.
вопросительное предложение с глаголом could для выражения просьбы:
1. Вы не могли бы мне помочь перевести это предложение? 2. Вы не
могли бы открыть окно? 3. Вы не могли бы говорить погромче? Я вас не
слышу. 4. Сделайте, пожалуйста, радио потише. Я работаю. 5. Купите
мне, пожалуйста, газету по дороге домой. 6. Вы не могли бы подать (to
submit) ваш отчет завтра? 7. Расскажите, пожалуйста, об этом проекте
подробнее. 8. Не могли бы вы выступить сегодня на собрании? 9. Джон
опять опаздывает, будьте добры, позвоните ему, пожалуйста. 10. Не
могли бы вы поработать завтра сверхурочно? (overtime) 11. Не могли бы
вы послать нам эти документы завтра?
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4.4. СРАВНИТЕЛЬНАЯ ХАРАКТЕРИСТИКА ГЛАГОЛОВ may/might И сап
В ЗНАЧЕНИИ ВЕРОЯТНОСТИ
Значения глаголов may/might и сап разные для утвердительной,

вопросительной и отрицательной форм:
May/might Сап
Утвердительное предложение
Имеет значение общей вероятности, Наряду с общей имеет значение
причем might выражает большую «окказиональной вероятности»
степеньсомнения
Вопросительное предложение
Не употребляется Can Dorothy be there now? — Воз-
можно ли, что Дороти сейчас там?
Could she have overheard this con-
versation? — Могла ли она подслушать
этот разговор?
Отрицательное предложение
Допускается неосуществление Исключается всякая возможность
действия: действия:
You may not know this woman's name. She can't/couldn't have done it! — He
— Возможно, ты не знаешь имени может быть, чтобы она это сделала!
этой женщины.
глаголы may и сап для передачи значения вероятности:
1. Это секрет, но он может проболтаться своим друзьям. 2. Я пе-
ребрал в уме все возможные случаи, когда я мог бы с ним позна-
комиться. 3. Может быть, он не захотел выступать. 4. Иногда эта
болезнь может быть очень опасной. 5. Может быть, он все еще ждет
нашего звонка. 6. Если сегодня не будет дождя, можно поехать за город
на велосипеде. 7. Он сказал, что, может быть, и выступит на этом
собрании. 8. Жители города могут и не поверить предвыборным
обещаниям кандидата в губернаторы. 9. Может ли наш рейс
задержаться? 10. Кого же они могут здесь ждать? 11. Возможно, они нас
уже и не ждут. 12. Не может быть, чтобы они нас все еще ждали. 13.
Неужели я допустил ошибку в расчетах? 14. Возможно, президент этого
и не говорил. 15. Не может быть, чтобы президент такое сказал. Вам,
наверное, послышалось. 16. Может быть, он не захотел выступать. 17.
Не может быть, чтобы он выступал на этой конференции. 18. Не может
быть, чтобы они заключили эту сделку. Возможно, они и не подписали
договор. 19. Не может быть, чтобы он сейчас беседовал с нашим
преподавателем по-английски. Он не знает языка. Может быть, он и не
разговаривает с ним по-английски. Вполне вероятно, что наш
преподаватель знает немецкий. 20. Джейн могла подслушать этот
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разговор. 21. Он ушел из фирмы, а мог бы проработать там еще год. 22.
Она могла стать прекрасной балериной. К сожалению, она сломала ногу
на репетиции. 23. Я не мог не согласиться с ними. 24. Он, вероятно, ждет
нас на станции уже целый час. 25. Никто не смог бы произвести на меня
большее впечатление, чем это сделал ты. 26. Ему не могло быть больше
тридцати лет, когда мы с ним познакомились. 27. Ты мог бы и позво-
нить. 28. Как дела? — Могло быть и хуже. 29. Он чуть не опоздал на
самолет. 30. Он уставился на письмо: «И откуда оно могло прийти?»
4.5. МОДАЛЬНЫЙ ГЛАГОЛ must
Глагол must выражает:

• долженствование, необходимость совершить действие:
An officer must learn to remain calm and to make fast decisions in a
crisis. — Офицер должен научиться сохранять спокойствие и быстро
принимать решения в критической ситуации.
This country must import vital raw materials for industrial production.
— Страна должна ввозить жизненно важное сырье для про-
мышленного производства.
Значение долженствования присуще этому глаголу лишь в со-
четании с простой формой инфинитива;
• уверенное предположение. В этом значении он сочетается со всеми
формами инфинитива:
Не must be over 30. — Ему, должно быть, больше тридцати.
The police are stopping all the cars. They must be looking for the escaped
prisoner. — Полиция останавливает все машины. Она, должно быть,
ищет беглого заключенного.
It must have been raining all the night. — Дождь, должно быть, шел
всю ночь.
The burglar must have entered the building through the window. —
Грабитель, должно быть, проник в здание через окно.
Глагол must передает более сильную степень уверенности, чем may
и сап. Если последние два глагола подразумевают альтернативу —
могло произойти это, а могло что-то другое, — то при употреблении
must такой альтернативы не допускается:
Imagine that we have three keys on a ring and we know that one of the
keys opens a cellar door. We might begin by picking one key and saying:
This may/might be the key (perhaps this is the key). But after trying two keys
unsuccessfully, we'll pick up the third key and say: This must be the key (no
other choice remains).
Глагол must в значении вероятности не и с п о л ь з у е т с я для
выражения действия в будущем времени. В этом случае употребляются:
• формы будущего времени в сочетании с probably, evidently:
Не will probably come tomorrow. — Он, вероятно, придет завтра.
• субъектные конструкции с инфинитивом с сочетаниями to be sure
to so something, to be certain to do something (см. 3.1.3.2.4).
В отрицательной форме глагол must выражает запрет:
369
You must not smoke here. — Ты не должен здесь курить.
Отрицательная форма musn't не у п о т р е б л я е т с я в вероят-
ностном значении. Отрицание вероятности передается глаголом сап/
could с отрицанием (см. 4.4) или другими средствами: наречием never,
местоимением по one, лексическими средствами и т.п.
No one must have told you about it. — Должно быть, никто вам об
этом не сказал.
They must never have guessed the truth. — Они, должно быть, не
догадались о правде.
She must have misunderstood you. — Она, должно быть, не поняла
вас.
Глагол must не и м е е т форм прошедшего и будущего времени. Для
передачи значения долженствования в прошедшем и будущем времени
используются другие языковые средства (см. примеры выше).
Упражнение 8. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внима-
ние на модальный глагол must в значениях долженствования и вероятности:
1. Some politicians contend that a democratic state must guarantee
unemployment benefits and adequate public housing. 2. If nations want
democracy, they must achieve it through some form of representative
government. 3. The reader must remember that in the land of Mesopotamia,
for countless years letters, records and accounts were all written on
comparatively indestructible clay tablets. 4. Whatever we do, we mustn't let
this thing break our old friendship. 5. This ring must be valuable to you. 6.
Daily life in the first city states of the Old World must have been very similar
in both Egypt and Mesopotamia. 7. Witnesses said that at the time of the
terrorist attack the hotel must have been filled with about 300 people enjoying
the restaurants, bars and a disco. 8. No doubt there must have been many
words which failed to survive their day and generation. 9. In his science
fiction books, Herbert Wells seems to have foreseen the future.The
description of refugees streaming out of London before the assault of the
Martians must have seemed unbelievable fantasy to the comfortable
Victorians; to us, it is more like straight news reporting. 10. The native
inhabitants of Arizona and New Mexico must have had great knowledge of
desert environment and the harvesting of wild plants and seeds. They must
have laid the groundwork for the extensive agricultural development of later
peoples in the same region. 11. These indigenous peoples of America must
have shaped their societies around agriculture and highly inventive
horticultural techniques, which were often supplemented by hunting and
fishing. 12. It must have been hard for them to agree to this resolution, but at
that time there was no alternative course open to them.
глагол must для выражения долженствования и указания на вероятность. В
отрицательных предложениях используйте иные средства выражения
отрицания. Помните, что must не употребляется для указания на вероятность
в будущем.
370
1. Я должен написать отчет сегодня же. 2. Его просьба должна быть
выполнена немедленно. 3. Мы заблудились. Мы, должно быть,
повернули не в ту сторону. 4. Он, должно быть, сейчас в библиотеке.
Он, вероятно, готовится к экзамену. 5. Я не смогу встретиться с вами.
Меня, вероятно, не будет в городе в это время. 6. Кто этот человек? —
Новый президент компании. — Ты, вероятно, шутишь. — Я не шучу.
Ты, должно быть, не читал газет. 7. Он, конечно же, не встретил вас на
станции. 8. Он, должно быть, вас не так понял. 9. Никто, наверное, не
сказал ей об этом. 10. Дети, должно быть, уже пообедали. 11. Грабитель,
должно быть, проник в дом через окно. 12. Эти коренные народы,
должно быть, владели сложными приемами охоты. 13. Эти племена,
должно быть, пришли (to migrate) с севера.
4.6. МОДАЛЬНЫЙ ГЛАГОЛ to have
Глагол to have в сочетании с инфинитивом с частицей to имеет

модальное значение вынужденной необходимости:
The staircase was on fire, so the people had to jump out of the windows.
— Лестница была в огне, и людям приходилось выпрыгивать из окон.
John's parents were killed in a car crash and he had to take care of his
little brother and sister. — Родители Джона погибли в автокатастрофе, и
ему пришлось заботиться о младшем брате и сестре.
Глагол to have употребляется в будущем времени:
You will have to overcome many difficulties in your work. — В вашей
работе вам придется преодолеть много трудностей.
В прошедшем времени глагол to have имеет значение реализо-
ванного долженствования:
The government had to impose new taxes. = The government imposed
new taxes. — Правительству пришлось ввести новые налоги. = Пра-
вительство ввело новые налоги.
В отрицательной форме глагол to have означает отсутствие не-
обходимости:
The protest march was peaceful and the police didn't have to use force.
— Демонстрация протеста была мирной, и полиции не пришлось
применять силу.
глагол to have для выражения вынужденной необходимости:
1. Правительству придется принимать непопулярные решения.
2. Мой пылесос сломался, мне придется купить новый. 3. Мне при-
ходится вставать очень рано, так как я живу далеко от работы. 4. Если
автобус не придет, мы должны будем взять такси. 5. Армия была
вынуждена отступить. 6. Компания была вынуждена уволить 50
сотрудников. 7. Для того чтобы заплатить долги, Джеку пришлось
продать машину.
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mustn't для выражения запрета и don't/doesn't have (to) для указания на
отсутствие необходимости:
1. Люди, которые работают дома, не должны ездить на работу
каждый день. 2. Дети не должны смотреть телевизор слишком долго.
3. Вам не надо идти на это собрание. 4. Больному еще нельзя вставать.
Он слишком слаб. 5. Вы не должны винить себя, что бы ни случилось.
6. Демонстрация была мирной, и полиции не пришлось применять силу.
7. Полиция не должна применять силу в столкновениях с
демонстрантами (protesters). 8. Сотрудники не должны курить в
помещении, где работают. 9. Хорошо, что детям по субботам не нужно
ходить в школу. 10. Вам нет необходимости печатать ваши сочинения
(papers, essays), но писать вы должны разборчиво.
11. Вам не надо так много работать. Подумайте о своем здоровье.
12. На новом месте Джону не приходится много работать; у него много
свободного времени. 13. Нам незачем уделять столько внимания этому
проекту. 14. Нам не обязательно слушать всех ораторов. 15. Кандидатам
(applicants) не разрешается приносить книги на экзамен. 16. Не нужно
звонить, у меня есть ключ. 17. Я оказался свидетелем несчастного
случая, но, к счастью, мне не пришлось давать показания.
4.7. ГЛАГОЛ to be В МОДАЛЬНОМ ЗНАЧЕНИИ
Глагол to be в сочетании с инфинитивом имеет модальное значение

и употребляется:
• для выражения долженствования, обусловленного договорен-
ностью или планом:
The expedition is to start in a week's time. — Экспедиция должна
отправиться через неделю.
• для выражения долженствования, обусловленного приказом или
инструкцией:
No one is to leave this building without the permission. — Никто не
должен покидать здание без разрешения.
• для передачи приказов и инструкций в косвенной речи:
Не says: "Wait till I come."
He says that we are to wait till he comes.
He said, "If I fall asleep at the wheel wake me up."
He said that if he fell asleep at the wheel, she was to wake him up.
"Where shall I put it, sir?" he asked.
He asked where he was to put it.
• в газетном стиле при описании предстоящих событий:
The Prime Minister is to make a statement tomorrow. — Премьер-
министр сделает заявление завтра.
В заголовках to be часто опускается:
The Prime Minister to make a statement tomorrow.
372
• в прошедшем времени для обозначения предстоящего действия
(близок к русскому «суждено», «предстояло»):
The conquest of England by the Normans in 1066 was to have profound
influence not only upon the history of the country, but also upon its language.
— Нормандскому завоеванию 1066 года предстояло ока- затб/ Н орм
ai щс кое завоевание 1066 года оказало огромное влияние не только на
историю страны, но и на историю английского языка.
• в прошедшем времени с перфектным инфинитивом для обо-
значения запланированного, но не осуществленного действия:
Professor Ericson was to have spoken at the plenary session of the
conference yesterday, but unfortunately he could not arrive. — Профессор
Эриксон должен был выступать вчера на пленарном заседании
конференции, но, к сожалению, не смог приехать.
• в составе условного предложения со значением желательного
действия, при этом все предложение приобретает значение цели (ср.
рус. если мы хотим, чтобы...', для того чтобы...)'.
If the government is to introduce reforms, it must enjoy the confidence
of the people. — Для того чтобы правительство могло провести ре-
формы, оно должно пользоваться доверием народа.
• для выражения возможности, обычно в сочетании с пассивным
инфинитивом:
This plant is to be found in the mountains. — Это растение можно
найти в горах.
4.7.1. Устойчивые сочетания с модальным глаголом to be
• What am I to do? — Как мне быть!/Что мне делать?
• What is to become of me? — Что со мной будет?
• Where am I to go? — Куда же мне идти?/Куда же мне деваться?
внимание на употребление глагола to be:
1. I asked who was to be my partner. 2. Selecting the source of your
information depends on the purpose this information is to serve. 3. Aristotle
sowed the seed of scientific knowledge that was one day to revolutionize the
world altogether. 4. The greatest stimulus to the development of the American
press of the colonial period was the rising political tension that was to
culminate in the American Revolution. 5. Native Americans raised various
crops unknown in Europe (potatoes, corn, chocolate, vanilla, peanuts), which,
after the 15th century, were to revolutionize European agriculture. 6. In 1853
Verdi went — with Giuseppina Streppo- ni, the soprano with whom he had
been living for several years, and whom he was to marry in 1859 — to Paris.
7. The book was to have been a trilogy, but in the end the author found that
he had only enough material for two volumes. 8. His mare was to have run in
tomorrow's race but he said this morning that she was sick. 9. If this report is
to be believed, we are going to have a very severe drought. 10. Scottish plays
were to be found on English stages, but they had a longer life span in Scotland
and spawned other plays which took a romantic view of Scottish history.
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Упражнение 13. Преобразуйте предложения по образцу, используя глагол to
be для обозначения долженствования, обусловленного планом или
договоренностью:
The conference opens tomorrow. — The conference is to open tomorrow.
1. The Prime Minister will make a statement on Wednesday. 2. The trial
will begin a week from Monday. 3. The contract will be signed tomorrow. 4.
The President will hold a news conference tonight. 5. The applicants will
have their first test on Friday. 6. Jane will have her first job interview
tomorrow. 7. Dorothy's son will graduate from college next year. 8. The
Prime Minister will submit the draft law to the Parliament next Wednesday.
глагол to be для выражения необходимости, обусловленной договоренностью,
и в значении «суждено», «предстояло» и глагол to have для обозначения
вынужденной необходимости:
1. Он должен был увидеться со своим начальником за обедом, но не
счел нужным рассказывать об этом коллегам. 2. Мы знали, что договор
должен быть подписан вечером. 3. Нам пришлось туда добираться на
автобусе. 4. Мы должны были начать переговоры вчера, но из-за
сильного тумана рейс отменили, поэтому мы не смогли вылететь в
Лондон. 5. Я был очень удивлен, увидев в зале, где я должен был
выступать, столько людей. 6. По радио объявили, что вечером должен
выступать президент. 7. Мы должны были подойти поближе, чтобы
услышать его. 8. Рабочие должны были построить двухэтажный дом, но
у заказчика кончились деньги, и дом уже второй год стоит
недостроенный. 9. Я и не предполагал, что мне суждено с ним
встретиться еще раз.
4.8. ГЛАГОЛ to need
Глагол to need может употребляться:

• как модальный глагол, сочетаясь с инфинитивом без частицы to
(преимущественно в отрицательной форме — need not, needn't,
обозначая отсутствие необходимости). В этом случае отрицательная и
вопросительная формы образуются без вспомогательного глагола:
This is the only thing you need do. — Это единственное, что ты
должна сделать.
You needn't go with us if you do not want to. — Можешь не ходить с
нами, если не хочешь.
We needn't do this work today. We'll do it tomorrow. — Мы можем не
делать это сегодня. Мы сделаем это завтра.
Need we do this work? — Мы должны делать эту работу?
Needn't с перфектным инфинитивом означает, что действие было
совершено, хотя необходимости в этом не было.
I needn't have written to him because he phoned me shortly afterwards.
— Я напрасно написал ему, он вскоре сам мне позвонил.
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Needn't употребляется только в настоящем времени. Для передачи
этого значения в прошедшем и будущем времени можно использовать
отрицательные формы глагола to have с инфинитивом (см. 4.6);
• как полнозначный переходный глагол со значением «нуждаться»:
I need а реп. — Мне нужна ручка.
В сочетании с инфинитивом последний употребляется с частицей to:
Before we answer this question, we need to look briefly at the economy
of the country. — Прежде чем ответить на этот вопрос, мы должны
вкратце рассмотреть экономику страны.
Отрицательная форма прошедшего времени глагола to need с
инфинитивом означает, что действие не было осуществлено, поскольку
в этом не было необходимости:
We didn't need to wait: Peter was already in the office. — Нам не
пришлось ждать: Питер был уже в офисе.
Упражнение 15. Вставьте нужные по смыслу модальные глаголы. Ис-
пользуйте mustn't цля указания на запрет и needn't для обозначения отсутствия
необходимости.
1. We ... smoke in this room. 2. You ... write this translation. You can do
it orally. 3. You ... wait for me. I have a key and I'll come in quietly. 4. You
... buy this book. It is \jery expensive and we are hard up at the moment. 5.
You ... buy this book. I'll lend you my copy for as long as you want. 6. You
... go out today. Your cough is still bad. 7. We ... go out today. There is plenty
of food in the house.
4.9. ГЛАГОЛ will
Глагол will происходит от древнеанглийского глагола wilan —

хотеть (ср. рус. велеть, воля).
Will — многофункциональный глагол. Может употребляться как
вспомогательный глагол для образования форм будущего времени:
I will write this letter tomorrow. — Я напишу это письмо завтра.
Также имеет следующие модальные значения:
• предположение:
Ring his home number. He will be at home now. (= I'm sure he is at
home.) — Позвоните ему домой. Он наверняка сейчас дома.
He'll be expecting a call from you. (= I'm sure he is expecting a call.) —
Он ждет вашего звонка.
На русский язык обычно передается настоящим или прошедшим
временем глагола и наречиями или наречными словами несомненно, по
всей вероятности, должно быть.
Глагол will с перфектным инфинитивом передает предположение со
значительной долей уверенности, относящееся к прошлому:
Some kind of decision will have been taken by now. — Какое-то
решение наверняка уже принято.
Не will have finished his breakfast. (= I'm sure he has finished his
breakfast.) — Он уже кончил завтракать.
• обещание или угроза:
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I will talk to your parents if you do that again! — Если ты будешь так
себя вести, я поговорю с твоими родителями.
I promise I won't smoke again. — Я больше не буду курить.
• сочетание will you с инфинитивом выражает вежливое распо-
ряжение или наставление, оформленное как просьба:
Will you get me a newspaper when you are out? — Когда пойдешь на
улицу, купи, пожалуйста, мне газету.
Will you be quiet, please! — Пожалуйста, не шуми!
В значении просьбы глагол will может употребляться в условном
предложении:
If you will come this way, I'll show you the company's office. — Если вы
пройдете сюда, я покажу вам офис компании.
Это более вежливый способ выражения, чем If you come this way.
4.9.1. Устойчивые сочетания с глаголом will
• Boys will be boys. — Мальчишки остаются мальчишками.

• Accidents will happen. — Без несчастных случаев не обходится.
• I will not/won't have you do something. — Я не допущу, чтобы
ты/вы...
I won't have you speak to me like that! — Я не допущу, чтобы ты со
мной так разговаривал.
внимание на значения глагола will:
1. She will tell the same story again and again. 2. Bring him back, if he'll
come. 3. A dog will obey his owner but a cat will not. 4. Ring his home
number, he'll be at home now. 5. What time is it? — Half past ten. — Well,
the last bus will have left. 6. You will have heard the news, I'm sure. 7. You
won't have seen our new model. It is not in the shops yet. 8. If you'll step this
way, please, I'll show you our main office.
4.10. ГЛАГОЛ would
Глагол would является формой прошедшего времени глагола will, но

отличается от него по значению.
Глагол would употребляется:
• в качестве вспомогательного в группе времен «будущее в про-
шедшем»:
The Prime Minister promised she would hold a news conference. —
Премьер-министр обещала, что проведет пресс-конференцию.
• для обозначения нереального действия:
I wouldn't let a daughter of mine do such work. — Я бы не разрешила
своей дочери делать такую работу.
• в условных предложениях и формах сослагательного наклонения
(см. 5);
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• в качестве модального глагола:
- для выражения повторяющегося действия в прошлом (в переводе
на русский язык, как правило, употребляются слова бывало, обычно):
Не would work on his design for hours. — Он часами работал над
своим проектом.
- в отрицательных предложениях для выражения упорного не-
желания совершить действие:
I asked him very politely, but he wouldn't tell me. — Я спрашивал его
очень вежливо, но он ничего мне не сказал.
The car wouldn't start again this morning. — Сегодня утром машина
опять не завелась.
- для выражения критического отношения к чему-либо с помощью
предложений, где на слово would падает логическое ударение:
Не was a nice boy, but he would talk about himself all the time. — Он
милый мальчик, но он все время говорил о себе.
- для критики о д н о к р а т н о г о действия в прошлом. На русский
язык такие предложения обычно переводятся с помощью слова все-
таки:
You would tell Mary about the party. I didn't want to invite her. — Ты
все-таки сказал Мери о вечеринке. Я не хотела приглашать ее.
- для выражения говорящим сомнения в правильности сказанного
им:
I would think that possibly in this climate we might have a few problems.
— Я думаю, что в нашем климате у нас могут появиться проблемы.
Comedy, I would submit, is just as true as tragedy. — Я бы сказал, что
комедия столь же правдива, как трагедия.
- для выражения предположения:
That would be him! — Это, должно быть, он! It would be in the year
1910. — Это было примерно в 1910 году. Why are you asking him? He
wouldn't know about it. — Зачем вы его спрашиваете? Вряд ли он об
этом знает.
Неопределенно-личный оборот you wouldn't в сочетании с гла-
голами guess и know используются для того, чтобы подчеркнуть
неочевидность чего-либо:
You wouldn't guess that from the text. — Из текста этого не понять.
You would never know she was a native speaker. — Невозможно дога-
даться, что она говорит на неродном языке.
Прилагательное would-be используется для называния человека,
стремящегося к чему-либо, мечтающего о чем-либо:
a would-be MP — человек, стремящийся попасть в парламент a
would-be writer — человек, мечтающий о карьере писателя would-be
poets — люди, мечтающие стать или воображающие себя поэтами
a would have been poet — человек, из которого не вышло поэта I
first met him when I was a young would-be writer. — Я впервые
встретил его, когда был совсем молодым и мечтал о карьере писателя.
Сочетания I would rather/I'd rather do something и I would sooner/
I'd sooner do something имеют значение предпочтения:
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I don't want tea. I'd rather drink something cold. — Я не хочу чаю. Мне
бы хотелось чего-нибудь холодного.
внимание на значения глагола would:
1. She wanted to speak, but the words would not come out. 2. She argued
with him, but he would not listen to reason. 3. These tribes raised crops of
wheat, but they didn't settle by their crops; they would reap and move on. 4.
When Hester lost her job, her friends offered her money, but she wouldn't
hear of it. 5. Primitive Aryans enlivened their wanderings by feasts at which
a special sort of men, the bards, would sing and recite. 6. Often, for reasons
she had never been able to understand, the designer would come to a sketch
a few hours or days after she had drawn it and find it weak and uninteresting,
even though, earlier, she had thought it fine. 7. In the afternoon, Miss
Tredgold and Florentyna would set off on some expedition which the
governess had carefully planned that morning without Florentyna's
knowledge. 8. During the summer vacation Florentyna worked in
Congressman Osborne's campaign headquarters. She and other volunteers
would fill envelopes with "a message from your congressman". She would
then lick the flap of each envelope and place it on a pile according to district.
She would return home thirsty and sick. 9. The protest march ended in
violence because the state governor would not allow even this peaceful mode
of political protest. 10. If you would kindly wait here a moment I'll ring the
director's office. 11. He talked of his new car the whole evening. — He would.
12. She has emigrated. — Has she? I would have expected her to stay in this
country.
модальные глаголы will и would:
1. Он попытался объясниться, но я не стал его слушать. 2. Мы
попытались открыть дверцу шкафа, но она никак не поддавалась. 3. Он
не согласился со мной. — Он такой! 4. Он обычно проводил вечера за
игрой в карты. 5. Я не позволю тебе так вести себя в моем доме. 6.
Каждый вечер она рассказывает одну и ту же историю. 7. Если бы вы
любезно согласились подождать, то директор смог бы уделить вам
внимание через двадцать минут. 8. Давай зайдем к нему, уж он, конечно,
сейчас дома. 9. Ты все-таки рассказал ему о нашем проекте, а я так
просил тебя не делать этого. 10. Уж он, конечно, закончил свой отчет!
4.11. ГЛАГОЛ shall
Исторически глагол shall имел модальное значение долженство-

вания. Он также употреблялся для образования форм будущего вре-
мени, однако в настоящее время форма shall в качестве вспомога-
тельного глагола будущего времени используется гораздо реже, чем
форма will, и совсем не используется в этом качестве в американском
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варианте английского языка. В большинстве случаев shall имеет
модальное значение.
В современном английском языке использование формы shall
ограничено следующими случаями:
• с местоимениями 1-го лица в вопросительных предложениях при
обращении к собеседнику с целью предложить услугу или получить от
него распоряжение, указание, совет. В этом случае shall придает
значению оттенок долженствования:
Shall I carry your bag? — Давайте я понесу вашу сумку.
What time shall we come and see you? — Когда нам прийти навестить
вас?
How shall 1 cook this fish? — Как готовить эту рыбу?
Let's go and see him, shall we? — Давай проведаем его, хорошо?
• в контрактах, правовых документах, при составлении сводов
правил:
The constitution mandates that each chamber shall have all other powers
necessary for a branch of the General Assembly of a free and independent
state. — Конституция предписывает, что каждая палата должна иметь
все полномочия, необходимые для ветви Генеральной Ассамблеи
независимого государства.
Bills received by the governor during the last three days of the session
shall be signed or vetoed within 30 days. — Счета, полученные губер-
натором в течение последних трех дней сессии, должны быть оплачены
или опротестованы в течение 30 дней.
The hirer shall be responsible for maintenance of the vehicle. —
Наниматель осуществляет текущий ремонт машины.
• в библейских заповедях:
Thou shalt not steal. — He кради.
Окончание -t в глаголе является архаичным показателем 2-го лица
единственного числа.
Упражнение 19. Переведите на русский язык выдержки из устава орга-
низации «Международная амнистия», обращая внимание на глагол shall в
значении долженствования:
Any dispute as to whether a group should be or remain affiliated shall be
decided by the International Executive Committee.
Each section shall maintain and make available to the International
Secretariat a register of affiliated AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL groups.
Groups shall act in accordance with the core values and methods of
AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL.
The International Secretariat shall maintain a register of such members.
The International Council shall consist of the members of the International
Executive Committee and of representatives of sections and shall meet at
intervals of not more than two years on a date fixed by the International
Executive Committee.
Notice of the number of representatives proposing to attend an
International Council, and of the appointment of proxies, shall be given to
379
the International Secretariat not later than one month before the meeting of
the International Council.
The Chairperson of the International Council and an alternate shall be
elected by the preceding International Council. The Chairperson or, in his or
her absence, the alternate, shall preside at the International Council.
Except as otherwise provided in the Statute, the International Council
shall make its decisions by a simple majority of the votes cast.
The International Council shall be convened by the International
Secretariat by notice to all sections and affiliated groups not later than 90
days before the date thereof. The Chairperson of the International Executive
Committee shall at the request of the Committee or of not less than one third
of the sections call an extraordinary meeting of the International Council by
giving not less than 21 days' notice in writing to all sections.
The International Council shall elect a Treasurer, who shall be a member
of the International Executive Committee.
The agenda for the meetings of the International Council shall be prepared
by the International Secretariat under the direction of the Chairperson of the
International Executive Committee. The method of voting shall be subject to
approval by the International Executive Committee on the proposal of the
staff members.
4.12. ГЛАГОЛ should
Исторически глагол should является формой прошедшего времени

глагола shall, однако имеет и другие значения в различных функциях:
• служит вспомогательным глаголом для образования форм со-
слагательного наклонения (см. 5);
• выражает долженствование в высказываниях со значением совета
или пожелания:
You should read this book. It's very good. — Прочти эту книгу. Она
очень хорошая.
They shouldn't allow parking here; the street is too narrow. — Нельзя
разрешать здесь парковку. Улица слишком узкая.
• может иметь общее значение долженствования:
There should be an investigation into the cause of the disaster. —
Необходимо расследовать причины аварии.
• с перфектным инфинитивом выражает сожаление о совершении
или несовершении действия. При этом утвердительная форма указывает
на несовершившееся действие:
We should have told her about this letter. — Надо было сказать ей об
этом письме (а мы не сказали).
Отрицательная же форма означает, что действие было совершено,
хотя делать этого не следовало:
You shouldn't have eaten so much last night. Now you are sick. — He
надо было вчера так много есть. Теперь тебе плохо.
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внимание на значения глагола should-.
1. How far should government go to maintain order, provide public goods
(roads, parks, hospitals etc.) and promote equality? 2. Animal welfare groups
have gathered enough support for a referendum on whether animals should
be legally recognized as living beings. 3. Union leader
Marc Blondel declared that the Prime Minister should listen to his electorate.
4. Citizens should not have to risk their life and property to participate in
politics and they should not have to take direct action (protest marches, sit-
ins etc.) to force their views to be heard in government. 5. Each citizen's
ability to influence government should be equal to that of every other citizen.
6. When something terrible happens, every parent I know says the same kind
of thing: "I should have done more", "I should have been wiser", "I should
have been stricter", but their kids would go their own way, whatever
happened at home.
Упражнение 21. Определите, в каких случаях речь идет об осуществленном
действии, а в каких — о неосуществленном. Переведите предложения на
русский язык.
1. Dear Mary! I know I should have written sooner, but I was very busy.
2. The restoration of Charles II after the revolution of 1640 was a period of
political reaction. James II, who succeeded Charles, should have learned that
it was dangerous to flout the good will of his subjects, but James was even
more unpopular than his predecessors. 3. You shouldn't have told Mary about
the party. It was supposed to be a secret. 4. They shouldn't have changed the
design. They should have tested the new design more carefully. 5. We should
have spent more time on developing our sales network. 6. Everything should
have been perfect, Claire thought, but it wasn't. 7. The suspect should have
been informed about his rights. Now his confession can't be used against him
in court. 8. The press release should have been sent to the newspaper two
hours ago. Now we have missed the copy deadline.
глагол should с разными формами инфинитива:
1. Вы должны были перевести эту статью вчера. Почему вы этого не
сделали? 2. Правительство должно было принять антиинфляционные
меры год назад. 3. Не надо было давать ребенку столько мороженого.
Теперь у него болит живот. 4. Эта авария произошла по вашей вине. Не
надо было ехать так быстро. 5. Простите меня. Я не должен был так с
вами разговаривать. 6. Компания должна была обратить больше
внимания на обслуживание клиентов. 7. Полицейский должен был
сообщить подозреваемому о его правах. Теперь обвинение не может
использовать его признание в суде. 8. Эту информацию надо было
отправить в газету вчера. Теперь мы опоздали.
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4.13. МОДАЛЬНЫЙ ГЛАГОЛ ought
Модальный глагол ought употребляется с инфинитивом с частицей

to. Глагол указывает на долженствование:
If you have a true friend, you ought to tell him the truth. — Если у
человека есть настоящий друг, ему надо говорить правду.
Глагол ought с перфектным инфинитивом синонимичен глаголу
should. Утвердительная форма выражает сожаление о том, что не
совершилось желательное действие:
I ought to have come over first and got the place decently ready for you.
— Я должен был приехать первым и убрать в доме к твоему приезду.
Отрицательная форма передает критику напрасно совершенного
нежелательного действия:
I ought not to have bought this blue dress. — He надо было покупать
это синее платье.
В настоящее время глагол ought гораздо менее употребителен, чем
глагол should.
4.14. СРАВНЕНИЕ ЗНАЧЕНИЙ ОТРИЦАТЕЛЬНЫХ ФОРМ

МОДАЛЬНЫХ ГЛАГОЛОВ should, ought И to need
В СОЧЕТАНИИ С ПЕРФЕКТНЫМ ИНФИНИТИВОМ
Глаголы should и ought с перфектным инфинитивом употребляются

в случаях, когда совершение действия имело отрицательные
последствия, и содержат отрицательную оценку ситуации:
You shouldn't have been so rude to Mary. She is crying. — He надо
было грубить Мери. Она плачет.
I oughtn't to have come here. — Напрасно я сюда приехала.
Needn't с перфектным инфинитивом сигнализирует о ненужном
действии, не принесшем вреда. В отличие от should и ought здесь
отсутствует критика ситуации:
You needn't have bought a new dictionary. I could have lent you mine. —
Ты мог не покупать новый словарь. Я бы одолжил тебе свой.
Упражнение 23. Переведите предложения на русский язык, сравнивая
значения глаголов shouldn't, oughtn't и needn't в сочетании с перфектным
инфинитивом:
1. I should have told you about my debts earlier, but I thought I could pay
them without your help. 2.1 needn't have worried. My family accepted my
boyfriend and liked him very much. 3. What does your father do? — He is in
jail. — Oh, I'm sorry. I shouldn't have asked. 4. I'll be glad to go back. Perhaps
I oughtn't to have come. 5. You really oughtn't to have made a scene before
other people.
Упражнение 24. Разделите предложения на три группы по следующему
принципу:
1) действие, выраженное инфинитивом, было осуществлено;
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2) действие не было осуществлено;
3) осуществление действия утверждается с большей или меньшей сте-
пенью вероятности.
1. You shouldn't have left the meat on the table. The dog ate every bit of
it. 2. You should have been taught how to behave in public. 3. In 1920 the
Illinois Central Railroad began what was to become the oldest continuous
national advertising campaign in America. 4. Now, after three months of
closer scrutiny, at the point at which the bills were to have been presented to
Parliament, they have suddenly been withdrawn for redrafting. 5. This
unfortunate army was to have invaded and conquered Scotland. 6. The
government had to raise the taxes to finance the new welfare programs. 7.
Civil rights workers in the South had to operate outside government
institutions in order to influence policymaking. They had to resort to
unconventional methods of political participation. 8. No one could have
known beforehand that she was going to be in that house. 9. They might have
left the village altogether. 10. She must have rung up the Vicarage and said
that they were coming. 11. It must have been a fearful shock for her.
4.15. МОДАЛЬНЫЕ ГЛАГОЛЫ С ПАССИВНЫМ

ИНФИНИТИВОМ
Модальные глаголы с пассивным инфинитивом сохраняют свои
значения. В тех случаях, когда речь идет о возможности или дол-
женствовании, при переводе обычно используют модальные слова
можно, нужно, нельзя, следует.
1. As you uncover your time problems, some solutions will be obvious
and can be implemented immediately. 2. Perpetrators of human rights abuses
should be brought to justice in accordance with international fair trial
standards, and without recourse to the death penalty. 3. Through effective
time management, the constant interruptions in our day can be minimized and
controlled, but they can never be completely eliminated. 4. No amnesties,
pardons or similar measures should be granted that would prevent the
emergence of the truth. 5. Women and ethnic and religious groups must not
be discriminated against in the creation of government and institutions, and
their meaningful participation must be assured. 6. Explicit guarantees must
be given for an immediate end to serious abuses such as unlawful killings,
including reprisal killings based on ethnic identity, arbitrary detentions, rape,
torture and cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment or punishment.
5. УСЛОВНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
Условные предложения в английском языке представляют собой
сложноподчиненные предложения, которые состоят из главного и
придаточного предложений, соединенных союзами if, in case,
suppose/supposing, provided, unless. Придаточное предложение со-
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держит условие, при котором может быть осуществлено действие
главного предложения.
5.1. ТИПЫ УСЛОВНЫХ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЙ
5.1 Л. Придаточное условия относится к настоящему

или будущему времени и описывает реальное условие
В этом типе условных предложений используется будущее время в

главном предложении и настоящее время — в придаточном:
If London airport is clear of fog, we'll land there. — Если в лондонском
аэропорту нет тумана, мы приземлимся там.
5.1.2. Придаточное условия относится к настоящему времени,

но имеет значение нереального,
невыполнимого условия
В таких случаях и в главном предложении описывается нереальная

ситуация:
If we lived on another planet, we would see the Earth in the sky. — Если
бы мы жили на другой планете, мы бы видели Землю в небе.
If you played for lower stakes, you wouldn't lose so much. — Если бы
ты не играл на такие высокие ставки, ты бы столько не проигрывал.
Для второго типа условных предложений характерно употребление
глагола would с инфинитивом в главном предложении и сказуемого в
Past Simple — в придаточном. При этом глагол to be обычно имеет
форму were как во множественном, так и в единственном числе (форма
was более распространена в разговорной речи):
If the hospital were not so overcrowded, we would take you there. —
Если бы больница не была переполнена, мы бы отвезли вас туда.
5.1.3. Действия главного и придаточного предложений

относятся к прошедшему времени
В этих случаях употребляются глагол would в сочетании с пер-
фектным инфинитивом в главном предложении и глагол в Past Perfect
в придаточном:
Rome would have been captured by her enemies if the geese hadn't
cackled. — Рим захватили бы враги, если бы гуси не загоготали.
5.1.4. Условные предложения смешанного типа
В условных предложениях смешанного типа действия придаточного
и главного предложений относятся к разным периодам времени. В таких
случаях в каждой части условного предложения употребляются формы,
требуемые по смыслу.
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• Придаточное предложение относится к прошлому, а главное — к
настоящему:
If I had caught that plane, 1 would be dead now. — Если бы я летел
на этом самолете, меня бы сейчас не было в живых.
• Главное предложение описывает нереальную ситуацию в про-
шлом, а придаточное — ситуацию, актуальную и для настоящего
времени:
If I knew the language, I would have read this book in the original long
ago. — Если бы я знала язык, я бы давно прочитала эту книгу в
оригинале.
мание на тип условного предложения:
1. If it were just another scandal, editors and readers alike would have to
fight to stifle yawns and keep their eyes from glazing over. 2. If this proposal
were acted upon, the fundamental nature of the economy would in no way be
altered. 3. There would not have been a review if the estimate's conclusions
had totally supported the administration charges. 4. The blacks believe that if
white children had been involved, the tragedy would have received huge
public and press attention. 5. US Embassy sources stressed that the visas
would never have been issued to the five officers, who were represented as
diplomats going for routine consultations with their own embassy, if their
military function had been known. 6. If people's behavior showed no
consistency, so that the way he/she behaved in one situation gave no ground
for predicting how he/she would behave in a new related situation, we should
not feel any need for such terms as "personality" or "character". 7. If we kept
a record of all the phone calls we received for a period of time, most of us
would find that only a small proportion of the calls are really important. 8. If
they had not been barbarians, they would not have destroyed Roman
civilization. 9. The early novels by Herbert Wells are sagas of ordinary people
in turn- of-the-century England. They belong to the best traditions of Dickens
and would have assured Wells' fame even if he had never written about
Martians. 10. If the minister's proposals had been acted upon, we would have
a booming economy now. 1 1 . 1 wouldn't have called you if the matter
weren't important.
внимание на условные предложения:
1. Если бы налоги не были так высоки, экономика развивалась бы
быстрее. 2. Если эти меры будут приняты, цены на нефть упадут.
3. Если бы мы записывали все наши телефонные разговоры, мы бы
увидели, что большинство из них бесполезны. 4. Если бы китайский
язык не был так труден, многие люди захотели бы изучить его. 5. Если
бы Вильгельм не завоевал Англию в 1066 году, английский язык был бы
совсем иным.
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5.2. УСЛОВНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ С МОДАЛЬНЫМИ
ГЛАГОЛАМИ
Вместо would в главном предложении могут употребляться мо-

дальные глаголы сап и may, которые помимо нереальности условия
передают соответствующее модальное значение:
If you had spoken more slowly, he might have understood you. — Если
бы вы говорили медленнее, он, возможно, понял бы вас.
Упражнение 3. Переведите предложения на русский язык, учитывая зна-
чения модальных глаголов:
1. If the framers of the Constitution had been able to foresee modern
advertising, much of the controversy over its control might have been
reduced. 2. If the Indians had been more crowded, they might have been
annoyed at the appearance of the Pilgrims and attacked their group. 3. If these
measures had been taken earlier, they might have borne fruit. 4. If Jules Verne
hadn't been quite so interested in politics, history and society, he might have
written fewer, but better books. 5. If Ashton had accepted this offer, it might
have done him a lot of good.
5.3. УСЛОВНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ С ГЛАГОЛОМ should
В придаточном предложении условия может употребляться глагол

should, и тогда предложение имеет значение маловероятного условия:
If you should see Mary, could you ask her to call me? — Если ты вдруг
встретишь Мери, попроси ее, пожалуйста, мне позвонить.
Should you have any problem, be sure to consult me. — Если у вас
появятся какие-нибудь трудности, обязательно спросите меня.
1. Objections to this plan, if there should be any, should be reported to the
committee at once. 2. Better employ a solicitor if anything should go wrong.
3. Be careful about the key. If you should lose it, we'll never open the safe. 4.
If my letter should be late, a slight loss of time will make no difference.
5.4. БЕССОЮЗНЫЕ УСЛОВНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
Придаточное условное предложение может присоединяться к

главному бессоюзно, с помощью инверсии, т.е. изменения порядка слов:
The course of English history would have been very different, had not the
royal family of Wessex provided a long succession of able warriors and
statesmen, including Alfred the Great. — История Англии была бы
совершенно иной, если бы Уэссекская королевская династия не дала
длинный ряд блестящих воинов и государственных мужей, включая
Альфреда Великого.
The bank will lend us more money, should the need arise. — Банк даст
нам дополнительный кредит, если в этом будет необходимость.
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1. Had the traveler remained awake for another half-hour, he would have
seen a strange thing. 2. There were so many coincidences in Gandhi's life that
seemed to nudge him towards a transformation from a mere Mohan to
Gandhi. Had he not gone to England, had he not been exposed to English
intellectuals, had he not studied law, had he not been a failure in India, had
he become a school teacher, had he not accepted the invitation to South
Africa, had he not had that false sense of dignity and, above all, and had South
African whites not had aggravating racial prejudices, we would not be writing
or reading about Gandhi today. 3. The president would not have made that
remark, had he been particularly conscious of the composition of his
audience. 4. Had the Indians been more crowded, they might have been
annoyed at the appearance of the Pilgrims and attacked their group. 5. Should
this program be carried out, we shall then face a serious change in the
situation.
5.5. НЕРЕАЛЬНОЕ УСЛОВИЕ, ВВОДИМОЕ СОЧЕТАНИЯМИ but

for... , if it were not for... , had it not been for...
Нереальное условие может быть выражено не только придаточным

предложением, но и существительным со значением действия, события
или признака, вводимого сочетаниями but for... , if it were not for... , had
it not been for... (ср. рус. если бы не):
But for the strength of their character, the Pilgrims might not have
survived the first winter in America. — Если бы не сила характера,
пилигримы могли бы не выдержать первую зиму в Америке.
мание на обстоятельство условия:
1. If it were not for her husband's poor health, Mary would be absolutely
happy. 2. We would have enjoyed our holiday, but for the bad weather. 3. But
for the terrorist attack, the peace talks would be in full swing. 4. Had it not
been for the extraordinary strength of their religion, the Hebrews would have
been just another people of the ancient Near East, less numerous than most at
the time, less talented artistically than any. 5. But for the work of the
archeologists, we would know very little about this ancient culture. 6. But for
the reforms, the country would be still living under the Communist regime.
7. If it were not for your help, we would not have met the deadline. 8. But for
affirmative action programs, many companies would still hire only white
males.
1. Если бы не изобретение книгопечатания, мы бы не могли сейчас
читать газеты. 2. Если бы не война, экономика страны развивалась бы
быстрее. 3. Если бы не забастовка, рабочим не повысили бы зарплату. 4.
Если бы не стипендия (scholarship), Дэвид не смог бы учиться в
387
университете. 5. Если бы не старый собор, город был бы неинтересен
для туристов. 6. Если бы не сила религии, все бы давно забыли о
еврейском народе. 7. Если бы не знаменитые фрески, никто бы не
заходил в эту церковь. 8. Если бы не археологи, мы бы ничего не знали
об этом древнем городе.
6. СОСЛАГАТЕЛЬНОЕ НАКЛОНЕНИЕ
Сослагательное наклонение в английском языке, как и в русском,

указывает на то, что действие является предполагаемым, желательным,
вероятным или возможным при известных условиях. Некоторые формы
сослагательного наклонения достаточно редко встречаются в
современном разговорном языке и более характерны для официального
стиля и американского варианта английского языка.
6.1. ФОРМЫ СОСЛАГАТЕЛЬНОГО НАКЛОНЕНИЯ
В английском языке употребляются простая и сложная формы

сослагательного наклонения.
Простая форма сослагательного наклонения омонимична ин-
финитиву. Изменения по лицам не происходит. Глагол to be имеет
форму be для всех лиц.
The Customs officers insisted that the box be opened. — Таможенник
настоял на том, чтобы ящик открыли.
Standard edited English requires that each sentence have a subject and
verb and that the subject and verb agree. — Стандартный английский
язык требует, чтобы в предложении были подлежащее и сказуемое и
чтобы сказуемое согласовывалось с подлежащим.
При отрицании употребляется частица not без вспомогательного
глагола.
The former hostage asked that her last name not be used. — Бывшая
заложница просила не называть ее фамилию.
They demanded that he not resign. — Они потребовали, чтобы он не
уходил в отставку.
Сложная форма сослагательного наклонения образуется путем
сочетания вспомогательных глаголов should, would или модальных
глаголов can/could, may/might с инфинитивом:
Mary spoke loudly so that everybody might/could hear her. — Мери
говорила громко, чтобы все ее слышали.
The Congressman insisted that this law should be repealed. — Конг-
рессмен настаивал на том, чтобы этот закон отменили.
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6.2. УПОТРЕБЛЕНИЕ СОСЛАГАТЕЛЬНОГО НАКЛОНЕНИЯ
6.2.1. Употребление простой формы сослагательного

наклонения
Простая форма сослагательного наклонения употребляется:

• в придаточных предложениях, начинающихся с союза that, после
безличных оборотов типа:
It is necessary... — Необходимо...
It is important... — Важно...
It is desirable... — Желательно...
It is vital... — Жизненно необходимо...
It is desirable that he be there at 7 o'clock. — Желательно, чтобы он
был здесь в 7 часов.
It is vital that all the documents be ready before the opening of the
conference. — Очень важно, чтобы все документы были готовы до
открытия конференции.
Форма настоящего времени сослагательного наклонения упо-
требляется независимо от того, в каком времени стоит глагол в главном
предложении;
• после глаголов волеизъявления:
to ask/request — просить
to demand/require — требовать
to insist — настаивать
to order — приказывать
to prefer — предпочитать
to propose/suggest — предлагать to
recommend — рекомендовать
The judge demanded that the journalist walk out of the courtroom. —
Судья потребовал, чтобы журналист покинул зал суда.
• в отрицательных придаточных предложениях цели после союза lest
(чтобы не):
We covered the goods with canvas lest they be damaged by rain. —
Мы накрыли товары брезентом, чтобы их не испортил дождь. Здесь
также возможно употребление глагола should. John wrapped the vase in
cotton wool lest it should be broken. — Джон завернул вазу в вату,
чтобы она не разбилась.
Такие формы сослагательного наклонения характерны преиму-
щественно для американского варианта английского языка. В бри-
танском варианте после таких конструкций и глаголов употребляется
сочетание should + infinitive:
I ask/request/demand/require that he should come tomorrow. — Я
прошу/требую, чтобы он пришел завтра.
Необходимо помнить, что после всех этих глаголов отрицание
выражается только при помощи частицы not:
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We insisted that he not be elected Chairman. — Мы настаивали, чтобы
его не избирали председателем.
мание на употребление сослагательного наклонения:
1. In order to create the conditions for the respect and protection of human
rights in the former Yugoslavia, it is imperative that those responsible for
these crimes be brought to justice. 2. Mr. Mori (the Prime Minister of Japan)
proposed that Japan's borders be expanded to include the Kuril islands —
known in Japan as the Northern Territories. 3. Learning an academic
discipline requires that the student master its vocabulary. 4. For money to
keep its value, the essential condition is that there be control over the right to
print money. 5. A demonstration of 700 angry teachers, parents and students
demanded that the council withdraw its $3 million cuts in education. 6. The
paper recommended that the eligibility age for retirement benefits be raised
gradually from 65 to 68 by the year 2012. 7. He attempted to make the
apparently reasonable request that the General Assembly reach decisions
through voting. 8. Miss Rose suggested that Florentyna take a new course,
something she might never have another chance to study in depth. 9. At the
end of the first term Mary suggested they should go to Barbados and was
disappointed to find he intended to stay put in Boston and continue studying.
10. Mr. Kane insisted that his wife leave the room. 11. In modern societies it
is desired that a large element of the nation understand the writing and speech
of foreign contemporaries. 12. The reporter insisted that his story be
published immediately. 13. Animal rights activists demand that animal
experiments be stopped.
формы сослагательного наклонения. Помните, что глагол to suggest не упо-
требляется с инфинитивом и требует после себя сослагательного наклонения.
1. Журналист настаивал на том, чтобы его статья была опубликована.
2. Судья потребовал, чтобы журналисты покинули зал суда. 3. Рабочие
требовали, чтобы им повысили зарплату. 4. Необходимо, чтобы
виновных в этих преступлениях призвали к ответу. 5. Конгрессмен
предложил, чтобы этот законопроект обсуждался на следующей неделе.
6. «Международная амнистия» требует, чтобы политзаключенные были
немедленно освобождены. 7. Доклад рекомендует, чтобы пенсионный
возраст постепенно повышался. 8. Изучение иностранного языка
требует, чтобы студент встречался с носителями языка. 9. Мы говорили
очень тихо, чтобы дети не проснулись. 10. «Международная амнистия»
настаивала на том, чтобы судебный процесс был открытым. 11. Мери
предложила поехать в Венецию. 12. Джон предложил вместе поехать в
Мексику. 13. Конгрессмен предложил пересмотреть политику в
отношении иммигрантов. 14. Демонстранты требовали, чтобы
правительство не отказывалось от социальных программ. 15. Доклад
рекомендует повысить пособия по безработице (чтобы пособия по
безработице были повышены).
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6.2.1.1. Устойчивые сочетания с сослагательным наклонением
• Long live the Queen! — Да здравствует королева! Да

• Success attend you! — сопутствует тебе успех!
• God bless you. — Благослови тебя Бог. Да
• So be it. Let it be so! — будет так! Да сопутствует
• May success attend you! — тебе успех! Что бы ни
• Come what may. — случилось. К черту хорошие
• Manners be hanged! — манеры! Я далек от того,
• Far be it from me to... — чтобы... Достаточно
• Suffice it to say... — сказать, что... Если
• If need be... — понадобится... По правде
• If truth be known... — говоря...
6.2.2. Формы прошедшего времени сослагательного наклонения

Глагол to be — единственный глагол, имеющий форму прошедшего
времени сослагательного наклонения were, остальные глаголы
употребляются в форме Past Simple.
Формы прошедшего времени сослагательного наклонения упо-
требляются:
• после глагола to wish, где они выражают сожаление о ситуации,
имеющей место в настоящем или относящейся к прошлому. При этом
утвердительная форма указывает на сожаление о благоприятном, но не
осуществленном действии, а отрицательная форма — на сожаление по
поводу напрасно совершенного неблагоприятного действия:
She wished she were young. — Она жалела, что немолода. I wish I
could speak Spanish. — Жаль, что я не говорю по-испански. I wish I
didn't live here! — Как жаль, что я здесь живу\ 1 wish I hadn't called
you. — Я жалею, что позвонил тебе. I wish I had called you. — Жаль, что
я не позвонил тебе. Если в сочетании с глаголом to wish употребляется
форма сослагательного наклонения с глаголом would, то предложение
указывает не на сожаление о невозможном, а на пожелание или просьбу:
I wish you would be quiet. — Мне бы хотелось, чтобы вы вели себя
спокойно.
I wish you would come to my party tomorrow. — Мне бы хотелось,
чтобы вы пришли завтра на вечеринку.
I wish they wouldn't make so much noise. — Мне хотелось бы, чтобы
вы прекратили шуметь.
Часто такая просьба содержит оттенок раздражения, как в последнем
примере. Поэтому в деловом и формальном общении этой конструкцией
пользоваться не следует.
Отрицание в предложениях при глаголе to wish стоит только во
второй части предложения:
I wish my father didn't work so hard. — Жаль, что моему отцу
приходится так много работать.
391
• после сочетания if only
If only по значению близко к I wish, но имеет более яркую эмо-
циональную окраску. После if only употребляются те же самые вре-
менные формы, что и после I wish:
If only I had more money! (but I haven't)
If only you were here! (but you are not)
If only the sun would come out!
If only I had listened to you! (but I didn't)
If only he could have explained! (but he wasn't able to)
• после глаголов и сочетаний, выражающих опасение, таких как to
fear и to be afraid. Сослагательное наклонение после подобных глаголов
и сочетаний вводится с помощью союза lest с глаголом should или
придаточных предложений с союзом that. В придаточных употребляется
глагол may/might:
I feared lest I should be detained. — Я опасался, как бы меня не
задержали.
She feared/was afraid that she might lose her job under the circumstances.
— Она беспокоилась, как бы в данных обстоятельствах не остаться без
работы.
392
В современном британском варианте английского языка подобные
предложения с lest встречаются крайне редко. Они более присущи
американскому варианту;
• в придаточных предложениях, вводимых союзами though, although
{хотя), whatever {что бы ни), whenever {когда бы ни), however {как бы
ни), even if, even though {даже {если бы)), as if, as though {как если бы),
provided {при условии, если бы):
Provided he took care not to tread on sensitive corns of the country's
nationals, he could make a good ambassador. — Если бы он постарался не
задевать чувствительности граждан этой страны, он мог бы стать
хорошим послом.
The man spoke as if he were an expert. — Этот человек говорил так,
как если бы был специалистом.
• после выражения it's (high) time (пришло время, давно пора):
It is high time that Canada abandoned thi%course and changed course
while there is still time to do so. — Канаде давно пора отказаться от
старого курса и поменять направление, пока еще это возможно.
• после сочетаний I'd rather и I'd sooner:
I'd rather you didn't tell Mary about this. (= If you didn't tell Mary about
this, it would be better.) — Было бы лучше, если бы ты не говорил Мери
об этом.
Actually, I'd sooner we left now. — Я бы предпочел, чтобы мы уехали
сейчас.
• после глаголов suppose и imagine:
Suppose you saw a ghost. What would you do? — Представь, что ты
увидел привидение. Что бы ты сделал?
Imagine you were the president of the country. What would you do? —
Вообрази, что ты президент страны. Что бы ты сделала?
Упражнение 3. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык:
1. I'd rather the two of you didn't quarrel about it. 2. It's high time the
children went to bed. 3. I wish the weather were cooler. 4. I wish we hadn't
moved to this district. It is so noisy here. 5. I wish you wouldn't call me so late
at night. 6 . 1 wish you didn't have to work so much. 7 . 1 wish the children
would be quieter in the evening. 8. I'd rather you hadn't told me that. 9. Would
you rather I cooked lunch today? You have so much to do. 10. She will follow
him whenever he might go. 11. She will welcome him whenever he might
come.
Упражнение 4. Переведите следующие предложения на английский язык,
используя формы сослагательного наклонения:
1. Вообрази, что ты заблудился в незнакомом городе. 2. Представьте
себе, что вы генеральный секретарь ООН. Что бы вы сделали? 3. Нам
давно пора уходить. 4. Как жаль, что сегодня так холодно! Мы бы
поехали за город. 5. Напрасно мы купили эту машину. Она все время
ломается. 6. Жалко, что мне надо уходить.
ЛЕКСИЧЕСКИЙ КОММЕНТАРИЙ
ABUSE (л) [s'bjurs]

1. bad or cruel treatment
дурное или жестокое обращение
child/animal abuse — дурное/жестокое обращение с детьми/животными Animal
abuse is receiving a great deal of attention from the media. — Средства массовой
информации уделяют пристальное внимание проблеме жестокого обращения
с животными.
2. unkind, cruel or rude words
оскорбление, брань
She greeted him with a stream of abuse. — Она встретила его потоком брани.
The soldiers were greeted by abuse. — Солдат встретили оскорблениями. to
break out into abuse — разразиться бранью to heap/shower abuse on/upon —
осыпать/поливать бранью to receive abuse — подвергаться нападкам
3. wrong use злоупотребление
He was afraid the system was open to abuse. — Он боялся, что эта система
уязвима/открыта для злоупотреблений. This book is about the abuses of power. —
Эта книга о злоупотреблениях властью, alcohol abuse — алкоголизм drug abuse —
наркомания
The problem of drug abuse continues to grow. — Продолжает расти проблема
наркомании. human rights abuse — нарушения прав человека
An independent committee will look into alleged human rights abuses. —
Независимая комиссия займется расследованием случаев нарушений прав
человека.
The government is responsible for serious human rights abuses. — Пра-
вительство в ответе за серьезные нарушения прав человека.
ABUSE (v) [a'bju:z]

1. to treat someone in a cruel or immoral way
2. to say unkind, cruel, rude things to or about
394
обижать, ранить (словом или несправедливым отношением), оскорблять
(физически или морально)
Всегда подразумевается преднамеренность, нарочитость действия. Не was fined
$10,000 for verbally abusing a policeman. — Его оштрафовали на 10 000
долларов за то, что он оскорбил полицейского. Не abuses his wife. — Он
третирует свою жену. Prisoners reported being regularly abused by their
guards. — Заключенные заявили о том, что охранники плохо с ними
обращаются.
You can abuse your health by a strict diet. — Вы можете нанести вред своему
здоровью строгой диетой.
3. to put to wrong use, especially for one's own advantage злоупотреблят ь
to abuse one's authority/position — злоупотреблять служебным положением,
превышать полномочия
The police officer abused his authority by searching a house without a warrant. —
Обыскивая дом без ордера на обыск, полицейский превысил свои полномочия.
It is important not to abuse your position as the boss's wife. — Вам, как жене
начальника, нельзя злоупотреблять своим положением.
to abuse one's power — пользоваться своей властью ради собственной выгоды
They were accused of abusing their power to keep prices artificially high. — Их
обвинили в том, что они пользуются своим положением, чтобы искусственно
завышать цены.
to abuse one's confidence — обманывать доверие
Не has abused my confidence in letting this secret become known. — Он обманул
мое доверие, выдав секрет.
ACCOUNT (и) [a'kaunt] 1. arrangement with bank; record of money банковский счет
There was only $50 in his bank account. — У него на счету было всего 50
долларов.
The accounts showed a loss of $50 million. — Банковские счета показали
убытки в 50 миллионов долларов.
395
2. report; description
сообщение, отчет
There were accounts of the incident in the papers. — Газеты поместили
сообщения об этом случае.
I believe you gave a very good account of what happened. — Думаю, вы очень
хорошо описали случившееся, an eyewitness account — свидетельства/показания
очевидца
According to eyewitness accounts, soldiers opened fire on the crowd. —
Согласно свидетельствам очевидцев солдаты открыли огонь по толпе, to take into
account — принимать во внимание, учитывать
We'll take your opinion into account. — Мы учтем ваше мнение, on account
of something — из-за/по причине
My doctor told me not to run, on account of my asthma. — Доктор сказал,
чтобы я не бегал — из-за астмы. on no account — ни в коем случае/ни под каким
видом
On no account must strangers be let in. — Ни под каким видом нельзя пускать
посторонних.
ACCOUNT FOR ( v ) [o'kaontj

1. to be the reason why something exists or happens
объяснять что-л.
His long illness accounts for his absence. — Его долгая болезнь объясняет его
отсутствие.
2. to be part of something
составлять часть чего-л.
Christians account for 90 % of the population. — Христиане составляют 90 %
населения страны.
ACCURATE ( a d j ) ['aekjurat] exactly correct

1) точный (показывающий, передающий что-л. в полном соответствии с
действительностью)
Is the station clock accurate? — Станционные часы точные?
The article was an accurate reflection of the facts. — Статья являлась
точным изложением фактов.
Be accurate in what you say. — Будь точен в том, что ты говоришь. Are the
scales accurate? —
Весы точные?
2) меткий (спорт)
Не took an accurate aim. — Он точно прицелился.
396
I
■
Русское однокоренное слово аккуратный, означающее «исполнительный»;
«соблюдающий во всем порядок»; «чистый»; «тщательный, выполненный
старательно и точно», переводится на английский язык словами: 1. exact, thorough
(a thorough worker); 2. tidy, neat.
ADAPT ( v ) [s'daept]
to make or become suitable for new needs or different conditions
1) приспосабливаться к новым потребностям или условиям
Не soon adapted himself to the new situation. — Он быстро приспособился к
новой ситуации.
I'm afraid he can't adapt to the idea of having a woman as his boss. — Боюсь, он
не может привыкнуть к мысли о том, что его начальник — женщина.
2) приспосабливать для каких-л. нужд
Не adapted an old car engine to fit his boat. — Он приспособил к лодке мотор от
старой машины.
ADEQUATE ( a d j ) [asdikwit]
good enough or large enough for a particular purpose
1) достаточное для чего-л. количество и/или качество (FOR)
В этом значении всегда стоит перед неисчисляемым существительным в
единственном числе.
We had adequate money for the journey. — У нас было достаточно денег для
путешествия.
The prisoners received adequate food. — Заключенных нормально кормили.
I need a salary adequate to support a family. — Мне нужна зарплата,
достаточная для содержания семьи.
The city's water supply is no longer adequate for its needs. — Водоснабжение
уже не обеспечивает потребностей города.
His thoughts could not find adequate expression. — Он не мог как следует
выразить свои мысли.
ш
Перед существительными во множественном числе вместо adequate употребляются
прилагательные enough, sufficient.
Are there enough apples for everyone? — Хватит ли всем яблок?
2) необходимые для определенной деятельности качества (ТО)
Не is adequate to his post. — Он справляется с работой.
ADMINISTER ( v ) [sd'minista]
to be responsible for managing a company, organization or institution официально
руководить и вести дела, выполнять исполнительные функции The courts
administer the law. — Суды исполняют законы. We do our best to see that
justice is administered fairly. — Мы делаем все, что в наших силах, чтобы
проследить за справедливым исполнением правосудия.
397
The company's finances have been badly administered. — Финансовые дела
компании велись плохо, to administer a drug — давать лекарство
This drug can be administered either as tablets or as an injection. — Это
лекарство можно давать как в виде таблеток, так и применять в инъекциях.
to administer an injection — делать укол to administer justice — исполнять
правосудие
It is not the job of the police to administer justice; that falls to the courts. —
Исполнять правосудие — работа судов, а не полиции, to administer an oath to
someone — приводить кого-л. к присяге
After administering the 35-word oath to the nation prescribed in the constitution
George Washington added the words "I swear, so help me God". — После
предписанной конституцией присяги своему народу, состоящей из 35 слов,
Джордж Вашингтон произнес: «Я клянусь, и да поможет мне Господь», to
administer the estate of a deceased or incompetent person — вести дела/ быть
душеприказчиком покойного или опекуном недееспособного лица
to administer a sacrament — совершать обряд ADMINISTRATION (л) [ad
mini'streij(3)n]
1. the management or direction of the affairs of a business, government управление
делами, руководство предприятием, правительством
You will need some experience in administration before you can run the
department. — Прежде чем вы сможете руководить отделом, вам нужно
приобрести опыт управления.
2. the people who direct the affairs of a business
органы исполнительной власти, управления', руководящие должностные лица,
правительство, администрация
the Putin administration — администрация Путина (необходим определенный
артикль)
The Clinton administration created over one million new jobs. — Адми-
нистрация Клинтона создала свыше миллиона новых рабочих мест. I think the
accountants will want to talk to the college administration. — Я думаю, что
бухгалтеры захотят переговорить с руководством колледжа.
3. the period of government, especially of a particular president or ruling party период
правления конкретного президента или политической партии (полит.)
during the Kennedy administration — при администрации Кеннеди
ГТ|
■
В русском языке слово администрация может употребляться как по отношению к
правительству и органам исполнительной власти (районная администрация), так и
по отношению к дирекции гостиниц, театров и т.д., чему в английском языке
соответствует manager (a hotel manager, a theater manager), management.
ADOPT ( v ) [a'daipt]
398
1. to take someone else's child into one's family forever and to take on the full responsibility
in law of a parent
усыновлять, удочерять
an adopted child — усыновленный/удочеренный ребенок
There is no stigma attached to being an adopted child. — Нет ничего позорного в
том, чтобы быть приемным ребенком.
adoptive parents — приемные родители
All kinds of people make good adoptive parents and it doesn't matter if you are
married or not. — Хорошие приемные родители получаются из самых разных
людей, и не имеет значения — состоят они в браке или нет. an adoption agency
— официальная или неофициальная организация, занимающаяся усыновлением
All adoption agencies are obliged to offer you counseling to ensure that you
understand your rights and responsibilities. — Организации no усыновлению
обязаны проконсультировать вас и убедиться в том, что вы поняли ваши права
и обязанности.
2. to take and use as one's own
усваивать, перенимать (методы, привычки), принимать (законы и т.д.),
заимствовать (слова иностранного языка), выбирать (кандидата)
Не is adopting bad habits very quickly. — Он быстро подхватывает дурные
привычки.
When did Russia adopt Christianity? — Когда Россия приняла христианство?
His methods should be adopted. — Следует перенять его методы. These words
"isle" and "apron" are adopted from French. — Слова isle и apron
заимствованы из французского. He was adopted as candidate. — Его
кандидатуру приняли. The committee adopted my suggestions. — Комитет
ш принял мои предложения.
Усыновляя ребенка, семейная пара становится его юридическими родителями (legal

parents). В свидетельстве о рождении (birth certificate) указываются имена приемных
родителей (adoptive parents), соответственно меняется фамилия ребенка. Обычно
родным отцу и матери (natural parents) не разрешается видеть ребенка, знать его
новый адрес. В Великобритании, когда ребенку исполняется 18 лет, он имеет право
узнать, кто его настоящие родители, и при желании может найти их. В Америке
законы штатов различаются, но в большинстве штатов приемные дети не имеют права
знать имена настоящих родителей, хотя могут узнать их, если биологические
родители согласны. В Великобритании не так просто усыновить ребенка. Прежде чем
дать разрешение на усыновление, проводится тщательная проверка семейного и
финансового положения, учитывается и возраст претендентов. В Америке ставится
гораздо меньше условий для усыновления.
ADVOCATE (я) ['aedvakit, -keit]

1. a person who speaks for or supports an idea, way of life etc.
защитник, сторонник
He is a strong advocate of prison reform. — Он является убежденным
сторонником тюремной реформы./Он энергично отстаивает тюремную
реформу.
399
Не is known as an advocate of equal pay for men and women. — Он известен тем,
что выступает за равную оплату труда мужчин и женщин.
2. in Scotland a lawyer qualified to conduct court cases
адвокат (в Шотландии)
V
■
Русскому слову адвокат, означающему юриста, которому поручается и защита
чьих-л. интересов в суде, и участие в подготовке дела к суду, соответствуют
несколько английских слов:
lawyer — общее понятие, обозначающее тех, кто занимается юриспруденцией,
ведет судебные процессы, консультирует клиентов по правовым вопросам, может
выступать в защиту интересов клиента в суде.
В Англии и Уэльсе существуют специалисты двух классов в зависимости от
полученного образования и выполняемых обязанностей — solicitor и barrister:
solicitor — солиситор, поверенный, консультирует по гражданским делам, таким
как договоры, завещания, дела о покупке и продаже собственности; может
представлять интересы своего клиента в мировом суде, в настоящее время имеет
право выступать в Высоком суде, хотя до 1992 г. такого права не имел;
barrister — барристер, адвокат высшего ранга, имеющий право выступать в Высоком
суде. Солиситор может готовить дело клиента для представления барристером в суде,
но содержание речи на процессе всецело зависит от барристера;
advocate — адвокат, выполняет в Шотландии те же обязанности, что и барристер в
Англии и Уэльсе, т.е. ведет дело в суде.
Однако во время судебных заседаний используется официальное обращение counsel.
Этот термин употребляет судья по отношению к юристам, ведущим дело клиента в
суде или консультирующим клиента во время процесса.
After consulting with counsel, the defendant changed his plea. — Посо-
ветовавшись с адвокатом, подсудимый изменил свои показания.
devil's advocate — адвокат дьявола (человек, постоянно подвергающий сомнению
какие-л. идеи, планы и т.д., но не с целью опровержения, а для того чтобы убедиться
в их справедливости)
Не wouldn't join in the argument, but just played devil's advocate. — Он не
вступал в спор, а лишь выступал в роли адвоката дьявола. Изначально адвокатом
дьявола называли служителя католической церкви, чья обязанность состояла в
официальной проверке правомерности причисления к лику святых.
ADVOCATE ( v ) ['sedvakeit]
to speak in favor, to support an idea or plan
говорить в защиту, поддерживать (идею или план), отстаивать', советовать',
рекомендовать
По сравнению с нейтральными по тону recommend и advise глагол advocate имеет
более ярко выраженное значение поддержки высказываемых идей. She was
advocating complete abstinence as the best way to combat alcoholism. — Она
рекомендовала полное воздержание от спиртного как лучший способ борьбы с
алкоголизмом.
400
Не advocates reducing military spending. — Он выступает за сокращение
расходов на вооружение.
Do you advocate keeping all children at school till the age of 16? — Ты за то,
чтобы дети учились в школе до 16 лет?
AID ( п ) [eid]
help, assistance
помощь,
поддержка
to call on someone's aid — прибегать к чьей-л. помощи to
lend/give aid to — оказывать помощь кому-л.
Giving aid to a developing country may give the donor country prestige within the
international community. — Оказание помощи развивающейся стране может
поднять престиж страны-донора в мировом сообществе.
to go to someone's aid — приходить кому-л. на помощь
We went to the aid of the injured man. — Мы поспешили на помощь
пострадавшему.
They had rushed to her aid. — Они помчались ей на помощь. first
aid — первая помощь
Не gave the child first aid. — Он оказал ребенку первую помощь.
humanitarian aid — гуманитарная помощь
Humanitarian aid efforts have been stopped by the terrorist attacks. —
Мероприятия по оказанию гуманитарной помощи были прерваны из-за
терактов.
legal aid — бесплатная юридическая помощь, предоставляемая государством людям,
у которых нет достаточных средств
The defendant was granted legal aid. — Подсудимому был предоставлен
защитник. a hearing aid — слуховой аппарат
She is deaf and has to wear a hearing aid. — Она плохо слышит и пользуется
слуховым аппаратом. in aid of — благотворительный, в помощь кому-л.
What is the collection in aid of? — На что собирают деньги? We collect money
in aid of AIDS research fund. — Мы собираем деньги в исследовательский фонд
борьбы со СПИДом, an aid agency — организация по оказанию гуманитарной
помощи
Another harvest has failed, and international aid agencies warn of the threat of
mass starvation. — Случился еще один неурожай, и иностранные организации по
оказанию (гуманитарной) помощи предупреждают об угрозе массового голода,
mutual aid — взаимопомощь
foreign aid — помощь из-за рубежа (оказываемая деньгами, продуктами и т.д.)
нуждающимся странам
This education program is dependent on foreign aid. — В реализации этой
образовательной программы не обойтись без помощи из-за рубежа.
to be an aid to/in — служить средством, помогающим/облегчающим ка- кой-л.
процесс
401
A dictionary is an invaluable aid in learning a new language. — Словарь —
бесценный помощник в изучении нового языка. Grammar and punctuation are
an aid to understanding a text. — Знание грамматики и пунктуации помогают
понять текст.
AID ( v ) [eid]
to give support to (WITH, IN) (syn. to help) помогать
If he is in need, I'm ready to aid (= to help). — Если он нуждается, я готов помочь.
Не was to aid (= to help, to assist) the professor in preparation for the experiment.
— Его обязанностью было помочь профессору в подготовке эксперимента.
Не asked me to aid (= to help, to assist) him with English. — Он меня попросил
помочь ему с английским.
ш
Предпочтение глаголу to aid отдается в двух случаях: 1) когда речь идет об
абстрактных действиях — investigation, preparation и т.д.; 2) когда важно
подчеркнуть отсутствие необходимых средств у объекта и наличие средств у
источника помощи.
We were greatly aided in our investigation by the cooperation of the police. — В
нашем расследовании нам очень помогло сотрудничество с полицией.
Mr. Nelson aided in the preparation for the meeting. — Мистер Нельсон
помог в организации встречи, to aid the developing countries — помогать
развивающимся странам to aid a country with loans and subsidies — помогать
стране займами и субсидиями
to aid and abet — помогать нарушителям закона
The police say he aided and abetted the thief in robbing the bank. — Полиция
говорит, что он был соучастником ограбления банка.
AIDE (и) [eid]

a person who helps, especially a person employed to help a government minister
помощник, консультант, референт, советник a home aide — советник по вопросам
внутренней политики a presidential aide — помощник/советник президента
An aide confirmed this week that the President will not be running for re-election.
— На этой неделе помощник президента подтвердил, что президент не будет
баллотироваться на новый срок. As a teacher's aide, I help watch the children. — Как
помощник учителя, я помогаю присматривать за детьми. Первоначально
употреблялось в армии по отношению к младшему офицеру. В настоящее время
часто встречается в переносном значении на страницах СМИ, особенно в
заголовках, когда речь идет о лице, поддерживающем какую-л. идею, выступающем
на чьей-л. стороне.
AMOUNT ( п ) [a'maunt] a
quantity of something
количество чего-л.
402
Употребляется только с неисчисляемыми существительными, такими как
information, money и т.д.
the amount of money — сумма денег
This amount should be paid within two weeks. — Эта сумма должна быть
выплачена в течение двух недель. Часто выступает с определениями small, large,
vast, certain, и в таком случае существительное употребляется с неопределенным
артиклем:
A computer can store a vast amount of information. — В компьютере может
храниться большое количество информации.
A certain amount of stress can be a good thing. — Небольшой стресс может
быть полезен.
ш
По отношению к и с ч и с л я е м ы м существительным для обозначения количества
служит слово number:
The number of books in the library has risen to five million. — Количество книг
в библиотеке достигло пяти миллионов. Обратите внимание, что сказуемое в
данном случае принимает форму единственного числа.
AMOUNT ТО (г;) [a'maunt]

1. to be a equal to in quantity
составлять определенную сумму, достигать определенного количества What does
the population of the country amount to? — Какова численность населения этой
страны?
Her income amounts to £ 1,000 a year. — Ее доход составляет тысячу фунтов
в год.
The expenses amount to $400. — Расходы составляют четыреста долларов.
2. to be equal to in meaning
быть равносильным, равноценным чему-л.
These conditions amount to a refusal. — Эти условия равносильны отказу. Not
punishing these hooligans amounts to condoning their behavior. — He наказать
этих хулиганов — все равно что назвать их поведение приемлемым.
Some people think that abortion amounts to murder. — Некоторые полагают, что
аборт равноценен убийству.
ARGUE ( v ) ['crrgju:]
to state one's opinion about something
отстаивать определенную точку зрения в процессе обсуждения, в споре, дискуссии
to argue that... — утверждать, что...
He argued that the money should be shared. — Он утверждал/доказывал, что
деньги следует разделить, to argue against — возражать против чего-л.
403
The senator argued against the passage of the bill. — Сенатор выступил против
принятия законопроекта, to argue for — приводить доводы в защиту чего-л.,
выступать в поддержку чего-л.
Не argued for the proposed tax cuts. — Он выступил в поддержку пред-
ложенного снижения налогов, to argue someone into doing something — уговорить
кого-л. что-л. сделать
I failed to argue him into accepting the proposal. — Мне не удалось убедить его
принять предложение. to argue someone out of doing something — отговорить кого-л.
от какого-л. поступка
She argued him out of leaving his job. — Она уговорила его не уходить с работы.
to argue with someone over/about something — спорить с кем-л. о чём-л., препираться,
ссориться, возражать
They are always arguing about/over money. — Они всегда спорят из-за денег.
Don't argue with me, just do as you're told. — He спорь со мной, делай, что тебе
говорят.
ш
Глагол to argue может употребляться по отношению к какому-л. документу или
ситуации. В таком случае он близок по значению к глаголу to show
('демонстрировать, показывать).
The way he spends money argues that he is rich. — Его манера тратить деньги
показывает, что он богат.
Her essay argued a thorough knowledge of the facts. — Ее сочинение
демонстрирует хорошее знание фактов.
ARGUMENT (п) ['curgjumant]

1. a reason given to support or disprove something
довод, приводимый в дискуссии как доказательство
The risk of heart disease is a powerful argument against smoking. — Риск
сердечных заболеваний — это один из серьезных доводов против курения.
2. a disagreement, especially one that is noisy
спор
They got into an argument about politics. — Они вступили в спор о политике.
Who won the argument? — Кто победил в споре?
AUTHORITY («) [3'9a:riti, э'Эо:-]
1. a position that gives someone the ability, power or right to control and command (FOR,
OVER)
власть; право принимать решение
They don't have the authority to close the canal. — У них нет права закрывать
канал.
to exercise authority over someone — пользоваться властью над кем-л. Не enjoys
exercising his authority over his staff. — Ему нравится пользоваться своей властью
над персоналом, to be in authority — нести ответственность за решения,
распоряжения, обладать должными полномочиями a person in authority —
человек, облеченный властью
404
Who is in authority here? — Кто здесь главный/начальник! Who gave you
authority over me? — Кто вам дал право мне приказывать?
2. a person or group with this power or right орган власти
Употребляется как в единственном, так и во множественном числе: власти.
The government is the highest authority in the country. — Правительство
является верховной властью в стране.
The French authorities refused to give him a visa. — Французские власти
отказались выдать ему визу.
3. a person, book etc. whose knowledge or information is good and respected
знаток, эксперт, авторитет
He is an authority on Greek. — Он крупный специалист no греческому языку.
Не speaks with authority. — Он говорит авторитетно/со знанием дела.
After these events his authority was shattered. — После этих событий его
авторитет пошатнулся, to carry /have authority — пользоваться авторитетом
Не had no natural authority and no capacity for imposing his will on others. — Он
не обладал врожденной способностью завоевывать авторитет и навязывать
свою волю другим, on one's own authority — на свою ответственность; по
собственному почину
I did it on his authority. — Я это сделал по его поручению. I said it on
his authority. — Я сказал это, сославшись на него. to have something on
good authority — знать что-л. из верных рук
I have it on good authority. — Я это знаю из достоверного источника.
published by authority of parliament — опубликованный по указу парламента
authority to sign — право подписи
They had no authority to sign the document. — Они не имели права подписывать
этот документ.
BACKGROUND (и) ['bsekgraund]

1. the part of a picture or pattern that is behind the main people or things in it фон: задний
план картины или фотографии
The castle forms a background to this photograph of the family. — Ha этой
фотографии семья снята на фоне замка.
On the front page there is a yellow cross on a green background. — Ha первой
странице изображен желтый крест на зеленом фоне. In the foreground you can see a
peasant smoking a pipe and some apple trees in the background. — На переднем
плане вы видите крестьянина, который курит трубку, на заднем плане — яблони.
В значении «фон» слово background употребляется не только по отношению к
визуальному изображению, но и к звуковому сопровождению на заднем плане.
There were several people talking in the kitchen, a song of the Beatles was heard
in the background. — В кухне разговаривали и негромко звучала песня «Битлз», to
be/remain in the background (переноси, знач.) — быть незаметным, оставаться в
тени
Не has a lot of power, but likes to remain in the background. — Он обладает
значительной силой, но предпочитает оставаться в тени.
2. the situation or past events that explain why something happens in the way that it does
405
предпосылки события или ситуации, объясняющие их причины; исторический
фон
The lecturer explained the political background of the current economic situation.
— Преподаватель объяснил политические предпосылки нынешней
экономической ситуации. В переводе на русский язык значение может
передаваться описательно: We need to know the background to the case. — Нам
необходимо знать, что предшествовало данной ситуации.
The talks took place against a background of widespread unemployment. —
Переговоры были вызваны ростом безработицы.
3. the type of career, training or education that someone has had биографические данные
человека: полученное образование, имеющийся опыт работы, социальное и
семейное происхождение и т.д.
His musical background helps him a lot in his job. — Полученное им музыкальное
образование очень помогает ему в работе.
She has a background in law. — У нее юридическое образование.
We are looking for PR practitioners with a background in psychology. —
Нам требуются специалисты по связям с общественностью, имеющие
психологическое образование.
Her job deals with children from disadvantaged backgrounds. — Она
работает с детьми из неблагополучных семей.
4. information on an author's life and times

информация о времени написания художественного произведения, его авторе, в
том числе его мировоззрении, принадлежности тому или иному литературному
направлению (лит.)
BAR (я) [beer]

1. a long narrow piece of something
предмет вытянутой формы (брусок, полоска, палка и т.п.) a bar of
chocolate — плитка шоколада
Не bought a bar of chocolate and a jar of jam. — Он купил плитку шоколада и
банку варенья, a bar of soap — кусок мыла a bar of gold — золотой слиток
штанга (спорт)
a horizontal bar — перекладина parallel
bars — брусья
Gymnastics are physical exercises, often using equipment such as horizontal bars,
parallel bars, ropes, that develop your strength, coordination, and agility. —
Гимнастика — это комплекс физических упражнений, в котором
используются спортивные снаряды, такие как перекладина, брусья, канат,
помогающие развить силу, координацию и ловкость.
406
2. something that prevents another thing from happening (TO); an order stating that
something is not allowed (ON) затвор, засов; преграда; препятствие
His bad English is a bar to his getting a job. — Плохое знание английского
языка мешает ему получить работу.
The government has announced a total bar on imports of luxury cars. —
Правительство объявило полный запрет на ввоз в страну дорогих автомашин.
a bar to marriage — препятствие к вступлению в брак
bars — решетка, в том числе на окнах
There were bars across the windows of the prison. — На окнах тюрьмы были
решетки. a prisoner at the bar — подсудимый to be behind bars — сидеть в
тюрьме/за решеткой
Fisher was put behind bars last night, charged with attempted murder. — Фишера
вчера отправили за решетку по обвинению в покушении на убийство.
3. a group of notes and rests in music that add up to a particular time value тактовая
черта, такт (муз.)
She sang the first three bars of the song. — Она спела первые три такта песни.
The song is 12 bars long. — Песня длится 12 тактов.
4. a place where you go to buy and drink alcoholic drinks бар
Ш
В Америке в баре предлагаются алкогольные напитки. В Великобритании бар —
один из залов паба, в котором есть стойка, а также сама стойка. There were no free
tables, so they stood at the bar. — Свободных столиков не было, поэтому они стояли
у стойки.
Where will you be, in the lounge or the bar? — Где ты будешь, в зале или в
баре? a milk bar — молочный бар a snack bar — закусочная
5. 1) the group of people who are barristers (Br) 2) an

organization consisting of lawyers (Am) адвокатура
{юр.)
Всегда требует определенного артикля и пишется с заглавной буквы. (The Bar)
Не was called to the Ваг. — Он получил право адвокатской практики/выступать
как барристер (см. комментарий к слову advocate), the bar exams —
квалификационные экзамены на адвоката/барристера
BAR ( v ) [ba:r]
1. to close firmly with a bar
запирать (на засов), запираться
The house was barred up for the winter. — Дом был заколочен на зиму. Bar the
door and don't let anyone in. — Запри на засов дверь и никого не впускай.
407
She barred herself in her room. — Она заперлась у себя в комнате. 2. to forbid
официально запрещать, не разрешать что-л. делать Обычно
употребляется в пассивном залоге.
Traffic has been barred from the city centre. — Дорожное движение в центре
города запретили.
Обратите внимание на употребление данного глагола с герундием (to bar

somebody from doing something) (Грамматический курс, 3.2.9).
The football player has been barred from playing for two weeks because of bad
behavior. — Из-за плохого поведения футболисту было в течение двух недель
запрещено играть.
3. to prevent from entering
стоять на пути, не давать пройти, преграждать дорогу
Guards were everywhere, barring the entrance. — Везде стояла охрана,
преграждая вход.
BENEFIT (и) f'bemfit]

1. an advantage you get from a situation
преимущество, благо
Tom has had the benefit of a first-class education. — Том получил все
преимущества хорошего образования.
For the benefit of those people who arrived late, I'll just go over the plan again. —
Для тех, кто приехал позже, я еще раз повторю план, for the benefit of the poor —
ради блага бедных for the benefit of mankind — на благо человечества
2. money or other help that the government gives people who need financial help, for
example because they do not have a job
льготы, пособия
maternity benefit — пособие по беременности и родам tax benefit — налоговые
льготы
Daniel gets tax benefit because he supports his old mother. — Дениел получает
налоговые льготы, так как на его иждивении пожилая мать, unemployment benefit
— пособие по безработице
Is Jeremy entitled to unemployment benefit? — Джереми полагается пособие no
безработице?
fringe benefits — льготы, предоставляемые на работе
The (fringe) benefits include health insurance and a company car. — Льготы
включают медицинскую страховку и пользование служебным транспортом.
3. an event organized in order to make money for a person or a charity

благотворительность, благодеяния
On Sunday it was a benefit concert to raise money for the famine victims. — В
воскресенье был благотворительный концерт в пользу голодающих.
for somebody's benefit — для кого-л., ради кого-л.
408
She wore a new dress for his benefit. — Она надела новое платье ради него.
Не said that for my benefit. — Он сказал это специально для меня.
BENEFIT ( v ) I'bemfit]
1. to be useful, profitable or helpful to
приносить пользу, быть полезным
The system mainly benefited people in the south of the country. — Программа
оказалась полезной в первую очередь для населения юга страны.
2. to gain advantage; receive benefit (as a result of something) извлекать пользу,

выгоду
How should the information be used and who will benefit? — Как использовать
эту информацию и кто получит от этого пользу!
BILL (и) [bil]

1. the amount of money you have to pay for something счет
Could we have the bill, please? — Принесите, пожалуйста, счет. (в ресторане)
to pay/foot the bill — заплатить по счету; оплатить
He never pays his bills on time. — Он никогда вовремя не оплачивает счета.
to run up a bill — взять большую сумму денег в долг, много задолжать
2. a written plan for a new law, which is brought to parliament for it to consider
законопроект
There was a long debate in Parliament on the government's new transport bill. —
В парламенте прошло обсуждение нового государственного закона о
ш
транспорте.
Законопроекты в британском парламенте обычно составляются (to produce)

правительством, проходят первое чтение (to read out) и обсуждение в палате общин
(the House of Commons). После второго чтения законопроект рассматривается (to
examine) во всех подробностях специальным комитетом — это так называемый
комитетный этап (the committee stage). За этим следует дискуссия. После третьего
чтения проект поступает в палату лордов (the House of Lords). Иногда палата
лордов отсылает проект обратно с предложенными изменениями. Наконец, проект
закона должен быть подписан королевой, получить королевскую санкцию (The
Royal Assent), и тогда он вступает в силу. В США законопроект обычно
составляется группой членов конгресса или одним конгрессменом. Первым
чтением (the first reading) здесь называется представление (to introduce) проекта
закона в палате представителей (the House) или в сенате (Senate). Законопроект
передается в специальный комитет для изучения, а затем обсуждается и проходит
голосование в палате представителей или в сенате, в зависимости от того, где он
впервые был представлен. Если законопроект проходит голосование (to pass), его
рассматривает вторая половина конгресса, в которой также происходит
голосование. После того как весь конгресс одобрил (to approve) проект, он
409
поступает к президенту. Президент подписывает его, и закон вступает в силу (to
become law). Но президент может и отклонить проект (to veto).
3. a piece of paper money (Am)
банкнота
Jack gave him a ten-dollar bill. — Джек дал ему десятидолларовую банкноту.
4. a printed notice объявление
a (theater) bill — театральная афиша; программа концерта
Stick no bills. — Наклеивать объявления воспрещается, (предупреждение)
There were some famous names on the bill. — В программе было несколько
известных имен.
BOARD (и) [bo:rd]

1. a flat piece of wood доска
Boards have been nailed across the broken window. — Разбитое окно было
забито досками.
The exam results were pinned on the board. — Результаты экзаменов были
вывешены на доске объявлений.
2. a group of people that manages something
совет, комиссия
Dorothy has recently been appointed to the board of directors. — Дороти недавно
включили в совет директоров.
She was appointed to the board investigating lapses in airport security. — Ее
включили в комиссию, расследующую упущения в системе безопасности
аэропортов.
3. meals
еда, питание (в отеле, пансионе и т.п.) board
and lodging — стол и квартира
The staff are provided with board and lodging. — Персонал обеспечивается
жильем и питанием за счет фирмы, full board — полный пансион в гостинице
(цена включает проживание и трехразовое питание)
half board — полупансион в гостинице (цена включает проживание, завтрак и
ужин)
on board — на борту корабля, самолета
The plane had 125 passengers and crew on board. — На борту самолета было
125 пассажиров и экипаж, above board — честно, без обмана
That house deal was all above board. — Эта сделка с домом была честной.
BOARD ( v ) [to:rd]
to get into (a ship or public vehicle)
садиться на корабль, всходить на борт судна, садиться в самолет, поезд и т.п.
410
When 1 got to the airport, my flight was already boarding. — Когда я приехал в
аэропорт, на мой рейс уже шла посадка. Не boarded the wrong train. — Он сел
не на тот поезд.
to live at another person's house in a room that you pay for; to live at school with other
students during the part of the year that you go to lessons снимать жилье с питанием;
столоваться; жить/учиться в пансионе
Tom was boarding at a friend's house. — Том столовался в доме друга. From the
age of nine John boarded at his school in Hampshire. — С девяти лет Джон учился
в пансионе в Хэмпшире.
to supply meals and lodging for payment
предоставлять жилье и питание за плату
She arranged to board some students from the university. — Она договорилась,
что примет у себя в доме несколько студентов из университета.
BUSINESS (и) ['biznis]
1. the work of buying or selling products or services for money
коммерческая деятельность, торговля
She wants to go into business when she leaves college. — После окончания
колледжа она хочет заняться коммерцией. They advertised their services to
drum up business. — Они дали рекламу, чтобы поднять уровень продаж.
2. organization that buys or sells products or services for money
фирма, предприятие, магазин
He runs a small business in the town. — У него своя небольшая фирма в
городе.
Many small travel businesses appeared in the country after the tax reform. —
После налоговой реформы в стране появилось много мелких туристических
агентств.
to build up/establish/launch a business — открыть свое дело to
manage/operate/run a business — управлять предприятием, быть владельцем
предприятия
3. one's responsibility or concern обязанности
He made it his business to find out her new address. — Он счел своим долгом
узнать ее новый адрес.
It is his business to keep a record. — Его обязанность — вести записи.
В выражениях, обозначающих род деятельности, слово business употребляется без

артикля; в значении «фирма, предприятие» слово business подчиняется общим для
всех исчисляемых существительных правилам.
to be in some business — торговать чем-л.
He was in the coffee beans business. — Он торговал кофе. to put out of
business — разорять
I am afraid he can put you out of business. — Боюсь, он может разорить тебя.
business hours, hours of business (of an office) — часы приема/занятий/ работы
411
Our business hours are from 9 to 5. — Наши рабочие часы с 9 до 5. business
card — визитная карточка
She took his business card and went out of the room. — Она взяла его визитную
карточку и вышла из комнаты.
business class — бизнес-класс; салон в самолете, условия в котором комфортнее,
чем в туристическом классе (tourist class), но проще, чем в первом классе (first
class).
He always travels business class. — Он всегда путешествует бизнес- классом.
4. an affair or matter дело, вопрос
I don't understand this business. — Я этого не понимаю, to get down to
business — перейти к делу
We'd better stop chatting and get down to business. — Хватит болтать, лучше
перейдем к делу. to do business with someone — иметь дело с кем-л.
It's a pleasure to do business with you. — С вами приятно иметь дело. to talk
business — говорить по делу/существу
Не is looked up by everybody, he always talks business. — Его все уважают, он
всегда говорит по делу. monkey business — нечистое дело
The tax office had a lot of questions about Mr. Johnson's declared profits. They
obviously thought there was some monkey business going on. — У налоговой
инспекции было немало вопросов к мистеру Джонсону о задекларированных
им доходах. Очевидно было, что дело здесь нечисто.
like nobody's business — (делать что-л.) как никто другой
She can play the violin like nobody's business. — Она замечательно играет на
скрипке.
Business before pleasure. — Делу время, потехе час.
Everybody's business is nobody's business. — У семи нянек дитя без
глазу.
ш
Следует учесть, что некоторые разговорные выражения звучат грубо и являются
неуместными по отношению к деловым партнерам. В своей речи следует избегать
таких выражений, как:
What is your business here? — Что вам здесь надо? It is none of your business. —
Это не ваше дело./Это вас не касается. Mind your own business. — He
вмешивайтесь./Не суйтесь не в свое дело. Felix asked me how much I earned, so I
told him to mind his own business. — Феликс спросил, сколько я зарабатываю, и я
ответил, что это его не касается.
You have no business to say that. — He вам это говорить.
CAMPAIGN (я) [ksem'pein] 1. a series of actions by an

army trying to win a war военная кампания
The king found it difficult to raise money for his campaign. — Король с трудом
находил средства на военную кампанию.
412
2. actions intended to produce political or social change ряд
мероприятий в поддержку или против какой-л. идеи an election
campaign — предвыборная кампания an advertising campaign
— рекламная кампания to launch/begin a campaign —
развернуть кампанию
The government has launched a campaign against smoking. — Правительство
развернуло кампанию против курения, to fight/carry on/conduct a campaign —
проводить кампанию
She fought a successful election campaign. — Она успешно провела пред-
выборную кампанию. to take part/participate in a campaign — принимать участие
в кампании
CAMPAIGN ( v ) [kaem'pein]
to lead, take part in or go on a campaign (FOR, AGAINST) участвовать в кампании,
проводить кампанию, ненасильственно бороться за какую-л. идею или против нее
Joan campaigned for women's right to equal pay. — Джоан боролась за право
женщин на равную оплату труда.
Не путайте слова кампания (campaign) и компания (company). CARRY ( v )
['kaeri]
1. to take someone/something somewhere нести, переносить, перевозить,
перемещать
She carried her baby on her back. — Она несла ребенка на спине. They lifted
the table and carried it up the stairs. — Они взяли стол и понесли его вверх по
лестнице.
The little boat was carried out to sea on the tide. — Во время прилива лодочку
унесло в море.
This is a dangerous area, so don't carry too much cash on you. — Здесь
небезопасно, поэтому не берите с собой много денег наличными. The police in
Britain don't usually carry guns. — В Великобритании полицейские обычно не
имеют при себе оружия.
2. to publish/broadcast something
передавать, распространять, опубликовывать информацию
This radio station doesn't carry any advertising. — Эта радиостанция не
передает рекламу.
All the newspapers carried articles about the pop star's marriage. — Bee газеты
опубликовали сообщения о свадьбе поп-звезды.
3. to spread disease
разносить, переносить болезни
Many serious diseases are carried by insects. — Многие серьезные заболевания
переносятся насекомыми.
413
4. to be able to reach a certain distance
разноситься, доноситься, долетать, достигать (о голосе, звуке, пуле и т.д.)
We couldn't hear her at the back of the hall because her voice doesn't carry well.
— Ее голос не долетал в дальний конец зала, и мы не слышали, что она
говорила.
5. to move or hold oneself in a certain way держать себя определенным образом
They carried themselves like soldiers. — Они держали себя/вели себя как
солдаты.
6. to be able to support the weight of something without moving or breaking
подпирать, поддерживать
These two pillars carry the whole roof. — Эти две колонны поддерживают
крышу.
7. to win the sympathy, support завоевывать симпатию, поддержку
The government carried most of the country and won the election. —
Правительство завоевало поддержку у большей части страны и выиграло
выборы.
CASE (п) [keis]

1. a particular occasion or situation случай, ситуация
I think we can make an exception in your case. — Я думаю, в вашем случае мы
можем сделать исключение.
2. an example пример, иллюстрация
The Greens are a classical case of American family. — Грины представляют
собой классический пример американской семьи.
It really is a case of "no news is good news". — Это как раз тот случай, когда
«нет вестей — хорошие вести».
3. a large box or container, in which goods can be stored or moved
ящик, футляр, чемодан
If you buy more than 500 cases of wine, we can offer you a 10 % discount. — Если
вы купите больше 500 ящиков вина, мы предложим вам десятипроцентную
скидку.
The musician put his violin back in its case. — Музыкант убрал скрипку в
футляр.
414
The porter will carry your cases up to your carriage. — Носильщик принесет ваши
чемоданы к вагону.
4. a question to be decided in a court of law

судебное дело (юр.)
The case against the local council will be heard today. — Дело против
муниципального совета будет слушаться завтра. That case had to do with a young
man accused of pickpocketing. — Это было дело о молодом человеке,
обвинявшемся в карманных кражах. Характер дела может быть конкретизирован:
a civil/criminal case — гражданское/уголовное дело a murder case — дело об
убийстве
At least half a dozen officers are investigating the murder case. — Дело об
убийстве расследуют по крайней мере полдюжины полицейских.
a rape case — дело об изнасиловании a libel
case — дело о клевете a robbery case —
дело об ограблении
Police are investigating the case of robbery. — Полиция ведет расследование
дела об ограблении. a case against someone — дело против кого-л.
Не was confident the case against him would be dropped. — Он был уверен,
что дело, возбужденное против него, будет приостановлено, to win/lose a case —
выиграть/проиграть дело в суде
Не would do anything to win a case. — Чтобы выиграть дело, он сделал бы все
что угодно.
the case for the prosecution/the defense — аргументы/доказательства (версия)
обвинения/защиты
Mr. Pulmer informed the judge that he had completed the case for the prosecution.
— Мистер Палмер объявил судье, что он представил доказательства
обвинения.
5. a patient
пациент (мед.)
The doctor had several cases to see that morning. — В то утро у врача было
несколько пациентов.
6. an instance of disease
случай заболевания (мед.)
415
He had to admit that it was a hopeless case. — Ему пришлось признать: случай
был безнадежный. case history — история болезни
Не was holding her case history. — Он держал в руках ее историю болезни.
7. the form of a noun, adjective or pronoun showing its relationship with other words in
a sentence падеж (грам.)
"Me" is the object case of "I". — «Ме» — это винительный падеж от «I».
this is/isn't the case — это так/это не так (служит для подтверждения или
опровержения мысли, высказанной ранее)
The majority, led by Pablo, argued that this was the case. — Большинство, во
главе с Пабло, утверждали, что это так. in any case — в любом случае (вводное
выражение)
In any case, she didn't have enough money for a ticket. — В любом случае у нее
не хватало денег на билет.
James isn't interested in games. In any case, he hasn't enough time for sport, as he
spends all his time and money on books. — Джеймс не интересуется
спортивными играми. В любом случае у него нет времени заниматься спортом,
так как он все деньги тратит на книги и проводит все свое время за чтением,
in case, in case of — в случае; на случай если (союз в сложноподчиненном
предложении с придаточным условия)
Take an umbrella in case it rains. — Возьми зонт на случай дождя. I'll make
some sandwiches, just in case we get hungry later on. — Я сделаю бутерброды
на случай, если мы проголодаемся. In case of bad weather, the wedding will be
held indoors. — В случае плохой погоды свадебная церемония будет
проходить в помещении.
CAUSE (п) [ko:z]

1. an event, thing or person that makes something happen причина
Nobody knew the cause of the explosion. — Никто не знал причины взрыва.
cause and effect — причина и следствие
2. an idea or principle that a particular group of people supports or is fighting for
дело, идея
He is sympathetic to our cause. — Он сочувствует нашему делу.
It's all in a good cause, so please be generous. — Деньги пойдут на доброе дело,
так что, пожалуйста, не скупитесь, the cause of world peace — дело мира
Eleanor Roosevelt is remembered for her devotion to the cause of world peace. —
Элеанор Рузвельт помнят за ее преданность делу мира.
CAUSE ( v ) [ko:z]
to make something happen
быть причиной чего-л.
What caused the accident? — Что было причиной несчастного случая?
416
Cigarettes may cause cancer. — Курение может вызвать рак.
to cause damage/problems/troubles — наносить ущерб/приносить пробле-
мы/неприятности
The storm caused widespread damage. — Буря нанесла/причинила большой
ущерб.
Why do you always cause trouble? — Почему ты всегда приносишь одни
неприятности? Употребляется с объектной конструкцией с инфинитивом: to cause
someone to do something — заставить кого-л. что-л. делать
His illness caused him to miss the game. — Болезнь заставила его пропустить
игру.
По сравнению с глаголом to make, широко употребляющимся в объектной

конструкции с инфинитивом в разговорной речи (to make someone do something),
данная конструкция с глаголом to cause характерна для официального стиля.
The earthquake caused several buildings to collapse. — Землетрясение вызвало
разрушение нескольких зданий.
It's a sad film; it'll make you cry. — Это грустный фильм. Ты будешь плакать.
CHALLENGE (и) ['tjaelincfe]

1. something that needs a lot of skill, energy and determination
трудность, которую надо преодолеть
The challenge for policy-makers is to achieve economic growth without damaging the
environment. — Проблема, стоящая перед политиками, — добиться экономического
роста без ущерба для окружающей среды. В некоторых контекстах слово challenge
означает что-л. трудное, но одновременно интересное.
I was bored with my job and felt I needed a new challenge. — Мне надоела моя
работа; мне хотелось чего-нибудь нового, пусть трудного, но интересного.
to meet a challenge — успешно решить (трудную) задачу/проблему Are western
nations ready to meet the enormous environmental challenges? — Готовы ли
западные страны справиться со сложнейшими экологическими проблемами? to
face a challenge — столкнуться с проблемой
The new government is facing the challenge of completing the building in time.
— Перед новым правительством стоит трудная задача: закончить строительство в
срок. 2. an action or idea that questions whether something is true, accurate or legal
возражение, сомнение; вызов (власти, авторитету и т.д.)
The strike was seen as a direct challenge to the authority of the government. —
Забастовку считали прямым вызовом власти правительства. Recent discoveries
pose a serious challenge to accepted views on the age of the universe. — Недавние
открытия заставляют усомниться в общепринятых взглядах относительно
возраста Вселенной.
CHALLENGE ( v ) ['tjaelincfe]
1. to invite someone to compete or fight бросать вызов
417
The girls challenged the boys to a cricket match. — Девочки вызвали мальчиков
на игру в крикет.
2. to question whether something is true, accurate or legal; to refuse to accept someone's
authority
оспаривать
This decision is likely to be challenged by the oil companies. — Нефтяные
компании наверняка будут оспаривать это решение.
3. to refuse to accept someone as a member of a jury

давать отвод присяжным заседателям, исключать кого-л. из состава присяжных
заседателей (юр.)
His lawyer challenged three of the jury. — Его адвокат дал отвод трем
присяжным заседателям, mentally/physically challenged — политкорректные
выражения для обозначения психической или физической неполноценности
This is a school for mentally challenged children. — Это школа для детей с
задержкой умственного развития.
CHARACTER (я)['кэепк1з] 1. qualities of personality характер человека

Часто используется с определениями.
firm character — твердый характер mild
character — мягкий характер reserved
character — сдержанный характер
He is a man of independent character. — Он человек независимого ха-
рактера.
The brothers look alike but have very different characters. — Братья внешне
похожи, но характеры у них очень разные. the Russian national character —
русский национальный характер
2. the combination of qualities which make a particular person or thing different from
others
отличительное свойство, особенность
If they pull down the old houses in the center of the town, the whole character of
the place will be changed. — Если эти старые дома снесут, весь центр города
потеряет свой вид. in character — свойственный кому-л., в чьем-л. духе
I can easily understand why Ann refused to help; it seems so in her character. —
Я понимаю, почему Энн отказалась помочь, мне кажется, это в ее духе. out of
character — нетипичный для кого-л.
Why did she do that? It's quite out of character. — Почему она так поступила?
Совсем на нее не похоже.
3. the opinion that other people have about a person репутация
The defendant is a man of previous good character. — У подзащитного
хорошая репутация.
4. a person in a book, play etc.
герой художественного произведения
It's a good story, but I find some of the characters rather unconvincing. — Это
неплохой рассказ, но не все герои выглядят убедительно.
418
main character, major character (syn. central figure) — главный герой The main
character in the novel is Becky Sharp, the daughter of poor artists. — Главная
героиня романа — Бекки Шарп, дочь бедных художников.
minor characters — второстепенные персонажи
5. a letter, mark or sign used in writing or printing буква, символ или другой печатный
знак
The password may be up to 9 characters long. — Пароль может состоять из 9
знаков.
My new printer operates at 100 characters per second. — Мой новый принтер
печатает со скоростью 100 знаков в секунду. The advertisement was printed in
Chinese characters. — Рекламное объявление было напечатано китайскими
иероглифами.
CHARGE (n) [tfarcfe]
1. amount of money to pay wiama за
товары или услуги
Перевод на русский язык варьируется в зависимости от стиля речи — разговорного
или официально-делового.
What are the charges in this hotel? — Каковы цены в этой гостинице? Is there
any charge for having the goods delivered? — Берут ли плату за доставку
товаров?
The admission charge is $5. — Плата за вход 5 долларов. There is no charge
for using the library. — За пользование библиотекой плата не взимается, free of
charge — бесплатно
The faulty part was replaced free of charge. — Бракованную деталь заменили
бесплатно. to reverse the charges — звонить по телефону за счет абонента (т. е.
того, кому адресован звонок)
Fancy! Her fiance calls her every day but always reverses the charges. — Только
представь, ее жених звонит ей каждый день, и все время за ее счет.
2. a responsibility полномочия,
ответственность
to be in charge of something — отвечать за что-л. Who
is in charge here? — Кто здесь главный?
I'm leaving the children in your charge. — Я оставляю детей на ваше попечение.
to take charge of someone/something — брать на себя заботу о ком-л./ брать на себя
ответственность за что-л.
She intended to take charge of the boy herself. — Она намеревалась взять на
себя заботу о мальчике. to have charge of someone/something — заботиться о
ком-л./присматри- вать за кем-л.
Не has charge of the children while his wife is in hospital. — Пока жена в
больнице, заботится о детях он.
3. an official accusation официальное
обвинение
on a charge of — по обвинению в (употребляется в официальном обвинении)
419
Не was arrested on a charge of murder. — Он был арестован по обвинению в
убийстве. to face a charge — быть под угрозой обвинения
They are facing criminal charges. — Им грозит уголовное обвинение.
to counter the charge — отвечать на обвинение/опровергать обвинение (часто
употребляется в журналистике)
The president tried to counter the charge that the budget favored the rich. —
Президент попытался опровергнуть обвинение, что бюджет составлен в
пользу богатых.
to drop the charges — снять уголовное обвинение
She was accused of shoplifting, but the police later dropped the charges. — Ее
обвинили в краже из магазина, но позднее полиция сняла с нее обвинения.
4. an attack running fast атака, бросок
Captain Walker led a charge straight into the enemy stronghold. — Капитан
Уолкер атаковал укрепления противника.
5. amount of electricity or explosive
заряд (ружейный или электрический)
The proton has positive electrical charge. — Протон несет положительный
электрический заряд.
CHARGE (г;) [tfarnfe]

1. to ask in payment
требовать в качестве оплаты
How much do you charge for a single room? — Какую плату вы берете за
комнату на одного?
The shop doesn't charge for delivery. — Этот магазин не берет плату за
доставку.
2. to record to someone's debt записывать на чей-л. счет
to charge something to someone's account — записать сумму/покупку на чей-л.
счет
Charge the purchases to my account. — Запишите эти покупки на мой счет.
3. to accuse someone of crime
обвинять кого-л. в уголовном преступлении
to charge someone with something — обвинять кого-л. в нарушении закона
Данное выражение встречается в основном в контексте судопроизводства.
Употребляется чаще в пассивном залоге.
Не was charged with robbery. — Его обвинили в ограблении.
The girl who used to live next door has been charged with stealing the jewels. —
Девушку, которая раньше жила в соседней комнате, обвинили в краже
драгоценностей.
Обратите внимание на различие в значениях глаголов to charge и to accuse, to
accuse someone of doing something — обвинять кого-л. в чем-л. Употребляется в
более широком контексте, не обязательно связанном с обвинением в уголовном
преступлении.
The article accused the government of shirking its responsibilities. — Автор статьи
обвинил правительство в том, что оно отказывается выполнять свои
обязанности.
420
4. to rush as if in an attack
броситься на кого-л.
Suddenly the wild animal charged at us. — Внезапно этот дикий зверь бросился
на нас.
The children charged into the playground. — Дети бросились/стремглав
побежали на площадку.
5. to put electricity or explosive into
заряжать (ружье или аккумулятор)
The phone doesn't work if the battery isn't charged up. — Телефон не работает,
если батарейка не заряжена.
CLAIM (п) [kleim]

1. right to something (TO, ON) право на что-л.
She has no claim on her brother's estate. — Она не имеет права на наследство
своего покойного брата, claim to fame — предмет чьей-л. гордости
The town's claim to fame is that it has the country's oldest church. — Предмет
гордости этого городка — старейшая во всей стране церковь.
2. a demand or request for something which one has a right to have (FOR, ON)
притязание, требование
There are so many competing claims on our attention these days. — Сейчас так
много дел требуют нашего внимания.
pay claim — требование увеличения заработной платы
The management is considering the union's pay claim. — Руководство
рассматривает требование профсоюза увеличить заработную плату. to raise a
claim — предъявлять претензию to put something in a claim — предъявлять права
на что-л. to lay claim to something — заявлять права на что-л.
Не laid claim to the throne. — Он заявил свое право на трон.
Both Palestine and Israel laid claim to the territory. — И Палестина, и Израиль
заявили свое право на эту территорию, luggage reclaim (Br)/baggage claim (Am) —
место получения багажа в аэропорту
3. an official request for money that you believe you have a right to
заявление на получение денег
Your claim should reach us no later than 31 January. — Ваше заявление должно
поступить к нам не позднее 31 января, insurance claim — страховое требование
(заявление о выплате страхового возмещения)
insurance claims — требования/претензии по гарантии
4. statement without proof
заявление, утверждение
I don't believe his claims that he fought in Vietnam. — Я не верю его
утверждениям, будто он воевал во Вьетнаме.
The government say they have reduced personal taxation, but I would dispute this
claim. — Правительство заявляет, что снизило налог на движимое имущество,
но я подверг бы сомнению это утверждение.
CLAIM (г;) [kleim]
421
to say something is yours
притязать на что-л., заявлять права на что-л.
Henry VII claimed the English throne after defeating Richard III. — Генрих VII
заявил права на английский престол после того, как победил Ричарда III.
1) требовать денег, на которые человек имеет право
Are you claiming unemployment benefit? — Вы подали заявление на пособие по
безработице?
2) требовать возмещения ущерба от страховой компании
Can you claim on your insurance for damage to furniture? — Вы имеете право на
возмещение ущерба, связанного с повреждением мебели? to claim one's luggage
(Br)/baggage (Am) — получать багаж в аэропорту to claim responsibility — брать
на себя ответственность (напр., за теракт) The militants claimed responsibility for
the explosion on the train. — Боевики взяли на себя ответственность за взрыв в
поезде.
to claim some lives — уносить жизни
The fire has claimed 50 lives. — На этом пожаре погибло 50 человек.
2. say something is true
утверждать что-л. в споре, делать спорное заявление Употребляется с
придаточным предложением и с инфинитивом.
The report claims that hundreds of civilians crossed the border to escape the fighting.
— В докладе утверждается, что сотни мирных жителей пересекли границу,
спасаясь от войны.
The militants claim to control the city. — Боевики утверждают, что
контролируют город.
COMMIT ( v ) [ks'mit]
1. to do something illegal or morally wrong
совершать что-л. противозаконное или безнравственное to
commit a crime — совершить преступление
The study aims to find out what makes people commit crimes. — Цель этого
доклада — выяснить, что заставляет людей совершать преступления. to commit a
sin — совершить грех to commit suicide — покончить жизнь самоубийством to
commit murder — совершить убийство
2. to make someone agree to something
обязывать кого-л. что-л. сделать
The agreement commits them to a minimum number of performances per year. —
Соглашение обязывает их дать какое-то минимальное количество
представлений в год.
3. to promise (oneself, one's property etc.) to a certain cause, position, opinion or course
of action
давать обещание что-л. сделать; вкладывать (деньги или другие ресурсы);
посвящать время чему-л.
Употребляется в следующих конструкциях:
422
to commit to (doing) something
to commit something to something
to commit somebody to (doing) something
to commit oneself to (doing) something
He is a good worker who is committed to his family as well as to his work. — Он
отличный работник, все свое время посвящает семье и работе.
I must go, I have committed myself to the club tonight and the members are
expecting me. — Я должен идти, я обещал сегодня быть в клубе, и меня ждут.
Не would have to commit to spending several thousand pounds. — Ему
пришлось бы дать слово вложить несколько тысяч фунтов. They'll have to
commit more money to the project if it is to succeed. — Для того чтобы этот
проект был успешным, в него надо вложить дополнительные средства.
He has clearly commited his government to continuing down the path of
economic reform. — Он твердо пообещал правительству продолжить
экономические реформы, commit oneself — принимать на себя обязательство;
высказывать определенное мнение о чем-л.
Take a little time to think before committing yourself. — Подумай, прежде чем
брать на себя обязательства.
It was the first time in her life that she had committed herself to a man. —
Впервые она завязала серьезные отношения с мужчиной. In talking to the
press, the politician refused to commit himself. — Политик избегал
определенности в разговоре с прессой. I should not like to commit myself to
an opinion at this stage. — Пока я не хотел бы выражать свое мнение. 4. to
send to prison or a mental hospital (TO)
брать под стражу (в качестве меры пресечения), заключать в тюрьму, помещать
в психиатрическую лечебницу
Не was found guilty and committed (to prison). — Его признали виновным и
посадили в тюрьму.
The judge committed the men to prison for contempt of court. — Судья
приговорил этих людей к тюремному заключению за неуважение к суду.
She was committed to a mental hospital. — Ее поместили в психиатрическую
больницу.
COMMITMENT (п) [ka'mitmsnt]

1. a promise to do something обещание,
обязательство
to honor/fulfill/meet a commitment — сдерживать обещание/выполнять
The government will continue to honor its commitment to pensioners. —
Правительство непременно сдержит свои обязательства перед пен-
сионерами.
to make a commitment (to do something) — брать на себя обязательство We've
made a commitment to help, and we will. — Мы взяли на себя обязательство
помочь, и мы его обязательно выполним, to give a commitment — давать
обещание
423
Не gave a clear commitment to resume disarmament talks. — Он дал твердое
обещание возобновить переговоры по разоружению.
2. duty or responsibility долг,
My husband, because of his own professional commitments, is in Cambridge every
week. — Мой муж каждую неделю ездит в Кембридж по своим
профессиональным делам/в связи с его профессиональными обязанностями.
3. a strong belief that something is good and that you should support it; enthusiasm
верность принципу, энтузиазм
The company's success this year would not have been possible without the
commitment and dedication of the staff. — Без преданного персонала и
верности принципам компания не добилась бы такого успеха в этом году.
t am delighted with the level of commitment you have all shown. — Я восхищен
вашей преданностью.
Her laziness and lack of commitment are appalling. — Ее лень и отсутствие
всякого энтузиазма ужасают.
CONCERN (п) [kan's3:rn]

1. feeling of worry; anxiety (U) (FOR, ABOUT, OVER, AT)
беспокойство, озабоченность, тревога
There is a lot of public concern about new methods of teaching in primary schools.
— Большую озабоченность общественности вызвали новые методы
преподавания в начальной школе.
There is no cause for concern; the accident was not serious. — Нет причины для
беспокойства, авария не была серьезной.
В этом значении concern употребляется с глаголами: to express/voice concern
(about/at/over/for) — выражать обеспокоенность The report expressed serious
concern about the doctor's competence. — В отчете выражается серьезная
обеспокоенность компетентностью этого врача.
In Russia many politicians express concern over moves to restore the death penalty.
— В России многие политики выражают озабоченность по поводу попыток
вернуть смертную казнь. Some journalists have voiced concern over the
proposed changes in the law. — Ряд журналистов выразил обеспокоенность
предложенными изменениями в законе.
to cause concern — вызывать тревогу
The doctor says her condition is causing concern. — Врач говорит, что ее
состояние вызывает тревогу. to be a cause for concern — быть причиной для
беспокойства growing concern — растущая тревога
There is growing concern about the safety of the traffic in this district. —
Безопасность дорожного движения в этом районе вызывает все большую тревогу.
widespread concern — всеобщая обеспокоенность serious/grave/great concern —
серьезная обеспокоенность
2. a feeling that you care about someone and want them to be happy and well (U) (FOR)
забота
424
He showed a complete lack of concern for the children's welfare. — Благополучие
детей его совершенно не заботило.
3. something you think important; something that worries you (C)
предмет интереса, озабоченности, волнения
В переводе на русский язык часто предпочтителен перифраз:
What are the concerns of ordinary people? — Что беспокоит простых людей?
The trip was put off because of concerns about safety. — Поездка была отложена
по соображениям безопасности.
I'm only worried about your work. Your private life isn't my concern. — Меня
волнует ваша работа. Ваша личная жизнь меня не интересует. chief concern —
главный вопрос
main/primary/principal concern — основная/первостепенная проблема Thirty per
cent of people in big cities say unemployment is their main concern. — Тридцать
процентов населения больших городов говорит, что больше всего их
беспокоит безработица.
His only concern was to pass his final exams. — Он думал только о том, чтобы
хорошо сдать выпускные экзамены.
Our primary concern is to give our clients practical care. — Реальная забота о
клиенте — наша первоочередная обязанность.
4. a business company
бизнес, дело
The restaurant is a family concern. — Этот ресторан содержит семья./ Этот
ресторан — семейный бизнес.
It was five years before the business was a going concern. — Через пять лет дело
стало приносить доход/это предприятие стало доходным делом.
CONSIDER О) [kan'sidsr] 1. to
think about, to examine
обдумывать, изучать, рассматривать
You suggestions are being considered. — Ваши предложения рассмат-
риваются .
My neighbor has decided to move but is still considering where to go to. — Мой
сосед решил переехать, но все еще думает куда. The jury went out to consider
ш
its verdict. — Присяжные удалились для вынесения решения.
После consider может следовать герундиальный оборот.

He's considering buying a new car. — Он думает купить новую машину.
2. to take into account
принимать во внимание
If you consider that she has only been studying French for a month, she speaks it
very well. — Если принять во внимание тот факт, что она учит французский
только месяц, то говорит она очень даже хорошо.
3. to regard as
425
считать (иметь мнение)
Do you consider him suitable for the job? — Вы считаете, что он справится с
этой работой?
They all considered him a coward. — Они все считали его трусом. Consider it
done. — Считайте, что это уже сделано, (выражение готовности помочь что-л.
сделать в ответ на просьбу)
Could you possibly fetch the mail for me? — Consider it done! — He могли бы
вы принести почту? — Считайте, что уже принес!
all things considered — приняв все это во внимание (вводное предложение,
которое предваряет вывод)
CONSIDERABLE (adj) [kon'sid(o)rob(o)I| large in size, amount or degree большой

(по размеру, количеству), значительный
She has considerable influence with the President. — Она имеет большое
влияние на президента.
A considerable number of people support the government's attitude to
immigration. — Значительная часть граждан поддерживает позицию
правительства по вопросу иммиграции, a considerable amount of money —
значительная сумма денег a matter of considerable importance — вопрос большой
важности
CONSIDERATE (adj) [bn'sid(o)nt|

thinking about the feelings and needs of other people (TOWARDS, TO)
внимательный no отношению к другим
His grandchildren are always very considerate towards him. — Внуки очень
внимательны no отношению к нему, it is/was very considerate of someone to do
something — одно из выражений благодарности в речевом этикете
It was very considerate of you to let us know you were going to move. —
Спасибо, что сообщили нам о том, что переезжаете.
COPY (п) L'ka:pi]

1. а thing made to be exactly like another копия
Ask the secretary to make a copy of the document. — Попроси секретаря сделать
копию документа.
It's not a genuine Rembrandt. But it's a good copy. — Это не подлинный
Рембрандт, но хорошая копия.
Keep back-up copies of all your files. — Сохрани на всякий случай копии всех
своих файлов.
I sent the letter, but kept a copy for my files. — Я отправил письмо, но оставил
себе копию для архива.
2. single example of a magazine, book, newspaper
экземляр газеты, книги или журнала
His first album sold 10,000 copies. — Его первый альбом был распродан в
количестве 10 ООО экземляров.
426
ь
Обратите внимание на активный залог, употребляемый в английском предложении
(см. пример выше).
При переводе на русский язык предложений типа I have got a copy of the book/CD
etc. слово экземпляр часто опускается:
Has he got a copy of Bob Marley's CD? — У него есть диск Боба Марли?
Have you got a copy of today's newspaper? — У тебя есть сегодняшняя газета?
3. something written in order to be printed in a newspaper, magazine, advertisement

печатный материал для публикации (изд.)
All copy must be typed and sent to the editor by Friday morning. — Весь материал
должен быть к пятнице отослан редактору в печатном виде.
COPY ( v ) ['ka:pij
1. to make a copy of делать копию
Would you copy the letter for us, please? — Сделайте для нас, пожалуйста,
копию этого письма.
2. to imitate подражать
Street fashion tends to copy the clothes produced by famous European designers.
— Уличная мода подражает, как правило, моделям знаменитых европейских
дизайнеров.
3. to cheat by writing (FROM, OFF) списывать у кого-л., с чего-л.
The essays are exactly the same — one of the students must have copied from the
other. — Эти сочинения абсолютно одинаковые, должно быть, один из
студентов списал.
COURT ( п ) [ko:rt]
1. a place where trials take place and legal cases are decided суд
(учреждение) in court — в суде
Silence in court! — Тишина в зале!
ш
He gave evidence in court. — Он дал показания в суде.
Пока вина полностью не доказана (beyond reasonable doubt), человек всегда считается
невиновным перед лицом закона (to be innocent in the eyes of the law). В случае
признания вины судом (to be proved to be guilty/to be found guilty by a court) может
быть подана апелляция в высший суд (ask for permission to appeal to a higher court),
чтобы изменить решение суда. Судебная система Великобритании
The Magistrates' Court — the lowest court in England and Wales where magistrates hear
and decide on less serious criminal cases or decide if there is enough evidence for a more
serious criminal case to go to a higher court.
427
Магистратский (или мировой) суд — низшая судебная инстанция в Англии и Уэльсе.
В магистратском суде слушаются уголовные дела, связанные с несерьезными
правонарушениями (такими, например, как кража), заседания — открытые.
Магистраты (или мировые судьи) (a magistrate, or a Justice of the Peace, JP) также
выносят решение о том, достаточно ли оснований для передачи дела в суд выше
инстанцией (насколько серьезно правонарушение, имеются ли улики). Более 90 %
всех уголовных дел рассматривается в магистратском суде. Магистраты не имеют
специального юридического образования. Они получают юридические
консультации, но принимают решение самостоятельно. Магистраты — люди,
уважаемые в обществе, работают в свободное от постоянной работы время, на
добровольных началах. The Crown Court — part of the Supreme Court of England and
Wales which hears serious criminal cases and appeals from a Magistrates' Court.
Суд короны — отделение Верховного суда в Англии и Уэльсе, в котором
слушаются серьезные уголовные дела и рассматриваются апелляции, поступившие
из магистратского суда. The County Court hears civil cases.
Суд графства (высшая судебная инстанция графства) — занимается рассмотрением
гражданских дел.
The High Court (of Justice) — the lower branch of the Supreme Court of England and
Wales consisting of the Queen's Bench Division, the Chancery Division and the Family
Division.
Высокий суд правосудия — входит в состав Верховного суда и состоит из трех
отделений: Королевской скамьи, Канцелярского отделения (для рассмотрения дел о
банкротствах, ликвидации компании и т.д.) и Отделения по делам об утверждении
завещаний, о разводах и т.д. The Court of Appeal — the highest court to which one may
take a criminal or civil case.
Апелляционный суд — суд высшей инстанции, в котором рассматриваются как
уголовные, так и гражданские дела.
House of Lords — the group of law lords of the House of Lords who make up the highest
Court of Appeal.
Палата лордов — суд последней инстанции, рассматривающий апелляции. His case
will be heard in the High Court. — Его дело будет слушаться в Высоком суде.
The libel cases have been taken to the Court of Appeal. — Дела о клевете были
переданы в Апелляционный суд. При аресте решение о передаче дела в суд принимает
магистрат. Если имеется достаточно оснований для передачи дела в суд (веские
улики) (enough evidence against the person for the case to go to court) и дело относится
к числу серьезных, обвиняемого (the accused) отправляют в суд короны, уголовное
отделение Высокого суда, где он предстает перед судом — судьей (a judge) и 12
присяжными заседателями (the jury). Присяжные должны решить, виновен
обвиняемый или нет. Если присяжные выносят решение (the verdict) о виновности
обвиняемого, судья определяет наказание (to decide the sentence). Если имеются
веские улики против обвиняемого, но правонарушение не относится к числу
серьезных (например, нарушение правил дорожного движения (traffic offence)), дело
рассматривается в магистратском суде.
Если обвиняемый признан виновным судом короны, он может обратиться в
Апелляционный суд и судья Апелляционного суда выслушает его. Шотландия имеет
свою судебную систему. При аресте решение о передаче дела в суд принимает
прокурор (procurator fiscal). Если имеется достаточно оснований для передачи дела в
428
суд и дело относится к числу серьезных, обвиняемого отправляют в Высший
уголовный суд (the High Court of Justiciary), где дело рассматривается судьей и
присяжными. В отличие от Англии и Уэльса в Шотландии 15 присяжных заседателей.
Если правонарушение не относится к числу серьезных, дело слушается в суде шерифа
(sheriff court). Апелляции из суда шерифа поступают в Высший уголовный суд.
Судебная система США
В Америке существует два вида судов:
суд штата (state court) разбирает дела, связанные с нарушением законодательства
конкретного штата;
в федеральном суде (federal court) слушаются дела о нарушении законодательства и
Конституции США, а также дела, в которых правительство США выступает одной из
сторон.
Уголовные дела, не относящиеся к числу серьезных, обычно рассматриваются судом
штата. Что касается серьезных правонарушений, то в зависимости от конкретного
случая они могут быть рассмотрены как судом штата, так и федеральным судом.
Например, дела, в которых преступление было совершено на территории другого
штата, обычно рассматриваются федеральным судом.
После ареста решение о привлечении обвиняемого к суду принимает или мировой
судья (a magistrate), или присяжные (grand jury), число которых может колебаться от
16 до 25 человек. Если имеется достаточно оснований для привлечения обвиняемого
к суду, он должен в суде признать свою виновность или заявить о своей
невиновности. В последнем случае дело слушается или в суде штата, или в
федеральном суде, где рассматривается судьей и присяжными (от 6 до 12 граждан).
Если обвиняемый признан виновным, он также может подать апелляцию в высшую
судебную инстанцию. Для суда штата такой инстанцией является апелляционный суд
(appellate court), а затем верховный суд штата (state supreme court). Для
федерального суда такими инстанциями являются Апелляционный суд США (Court of
Appeals) и Верховный суд США (Supreme Court).
9
■
Суд как судебный процесс — trial.
2. the people (law officers and members of the jury) who are gathered together in a court
to hear and judge a law case
члены суда
Употребляется только в единственном числе, с определенным артиклем.
The court sentenced him to ten years in prison. — Суд приговорил его к десяти
годам заключения.
The court stood when the judge entered. — Когда судья вошел, члены суда
встали.
The defendant told the court that he had never seen the woman before. —
Подсудимый заявил суду, что он никогда не видел эту женщину.
3. the official home of a king or queen; the king or queen with his/her family and the
officials, noblemen, servants etc.
королевский двор
He is well known at court. — Он хорошо известен при дворе.
the court of Henry VII — двор Генриха VII
429
4. area for sport
корт (для тенниса, бадминтона и т.п.)
The hotel has two tennis courts. — При отеле есть два теннисных корта.
Are the players on court yet? — Игроки еще на поле?
COURT ( v ) [ko:rt]
1. (of a man) to visit and pay attention to a woman he hopes to marry ухаживать (с
целью вступить в брак)
Jack courted Susan for five years before they got married. — Джек пять лет
ухаживая за Сьюзан, прежде чем они поженились.
2. to pay attention to an important or influential person in order to gain favor, advantage,
approval
искать расположения, популярности
This party is courting middle-class voters. — Эта партия пытается добиться
расположения среднего класса.
The teacher tried to court popularity by giving his students very little work. —
Стремясь завоевать популярность у студентов, учитель мало задавал.
to court danger/disaster — привлечь опасность/навлечь несчастье COVER ( v )
['клуэг]
1. to put one thing over another, in order to protect or hide it покрывать, накрывать,
закрывать что-л. чем-л.
Cover the food with a cloth. — Накрой еду салфеткой.
The noise was so loud that she covered her ears with her hands. — Шум
был настолько громким, что она зажала уши.
The furniture was covered with dust. — Мебель была покрыта пылью. Перевод
может варьироваться в зависимости от контекста.
She covered her face in (= with) her hands. — Она закрыла лицо руками. His
face is covered with freckles. — У него все лицо в веснушках/ усеяно
веснушками.
The hills are covered with fir-trees. — Холмы поросли ельником. The
road was covered with snow. — Дорога была занесена снегом. The apple-
trees were covered with blossom. — Яблони были в цвету.
2. to fill an area
занимать определенную площадь
The city covered 15 square miles. — Город раскинулся на 15 квадратных миль.
3. to complete a distance by traveling преодолеть какое-л. расстояние
We aimed to cover 400 miles before nightfall. — Мы собирались до наступления
темноты преодолеть 400 миль.
4. to include, to deal with a subject, period of history охватывать круг вопросов, тем
The lectures covered a wide field. — Лекции охватывали широкий круг
вопросов.
430
The rules cover every possible case. — Эти правила предусматривают все
возможные случаи.
Your insurance doesn't cover accidents. — Ваша страховка не охватывает
несчастные случаи.
5. to give a report or description of an event on television or radio, or in a newspaper
освещать события (в СМИ)
The reporter covered the conference. — Этот корреспондент освещал ход
конференции.
coverage ( и ) — освещение событий в СМИ
The president's visit got blanket coverage. — Визит президента получил широкое
освещение в СМИ.
DAMAGE (и) ['daemicfe]

1. physical harm caused to something, so that it is broken or spoiled; negative effects on
something or someone (TO)
вред, ущерб', отрицательное воздействие
untold damage — бесчисленные повреждения/непоправимый ущерб These
revelations caused untold damage to his political reputation. — Эти разоблачения
нанесли непоправимый ущерб его политической репутации.
serious/severe/extensive damage — значительный вред
The fire caused serious damage to their appartment. — Их квартира очень
пострадала от пожара.
storm/flood/fire/bomb damage — ущерб, нанесенный штормом/навод-
нением/пожаром/взрывом
Experts have been assessing the level of flood damage. — Эксперты оценивают
ущерб, причиненный наводнением.
to cause/do damage, to inflict damage on — причинять/наносить вред/ ущерб/убыток
The flood caused serious damage to the crop. — Наводнение нанесло серьезный
ущерб урожаю.
to suffer/sustain damage — терпеть убытки
2. damages (pi.)
money that a court orders someone to pay to someone else as a punishment for harming
them or their property
сумма ущерба, выплачиваемая ответчиком по суду пострадавшему в качестве
возмещения убытков
Mary lost her case in court and was ordered to pay damages of $10,000. — Мери
проиграла дело в суде и должна выплатить 10 000 долларов в возмещение
ущерба.
/DAMAGE (v) ['daemicfc]
to harm something physically; to have a negative effect on something
вредить, портить, наносить ущерб
Smoking can damage your health. — Курение вредит вашему здоровью.
431
The building was severely damaged by the explosion. — Это здание серьезно
пострадало в результате взрыва.
--DEPEND ( v ) [di'pend]
1. to vary according to (it depends) зависеть
How much is a year's tuition fee? — It depends what year you are in. — Какова
плата за год обучения? — Плата за обучение зависит от того, на каком курсе
ты учишься.
You can buy TV-sets in all sizes — it depends how much you are prepared to
spend. — Ты можешь купить телевизор любого размера, все зависит от того,
какую сумму ты готов потратить.
How much will I have to pay for a car? — It depends what sort of car you want.
— Сколько я должен заплатить за машину? — Все зависит от того, машину
какой марки вы хотите. That (all) depends./It all depends. — Поживем —
увидим!
Данное разговорное выражение употребляется в ситуациях, когда невозможно
дать определенный ответ, так как в зависимости от обстоятельств возможен
разный поворот событий.
2. to trust (ON, UPON)
доверять кому-л., полагаться, рассчитывать на кого-л.
You can depend on Tom. He always arrives in time. — Ты можешь поло-
житься на Тома. Он всегда приезжает вовремя. После depend on может
следовать инфинитивная или герундиальная конструкция.
We are depending on you to finish the job by Friday. We are depending on you
finishing the job by Friday. — Мы рассчитываем, что вы закончите эту
работу к пятнице.
3. to be supported by (ON, UPON)
жить чём-л., получать средства к существованию от чего-л.
The country depends heavily on its tourist trade. — Экономика страны
держится большей частью на туризме.
4. to need something or someone in order to survive or be successful (ON, UPON)
быть неспособным обойтись без чего-л./кого-л.
Употребляется в конструкциях:
to depend on someone or something for something
Young birds depend on their parents for food for several weeks. — Несколько
недель птенцы не могут обойтись без родителей, которые их кормят.
to depend on someone to do something
The animals all depend on Mr. Jackson to feed them. — Эти животные
полностью зависят от мистера Джексона, который их кормит.
5. to vary according to (ON, UPON) зависеть
He употребляется во временах группы Progressive.
ш
Значения 1 и 4 близки, однако depend on/upon является фразовым глаголом и
употребляется без начального it.
432
The price of the shares will depend on the number of people who want to buy them.
— Цена на акции зависит от того, сколько человек хотят их купить.
The amount you pay depends on where you live. — Сумма оплаты зависит от
того, где вы живете.
DEVELOP ( v ) [di'vebp]
1. to become bigger or more successful (FROM, INTO) развивать, развиваться
Указывает на процесс или результат развития у объекта каких-л. новых свойств,
качеств, признаков. От того, какие именно изменения в состоянии объекта
происходят, произошли или намечены, зависят способы перевода на русский язык.
London developed into a great city. — Лондон разросся в большой город.
She has developed an interest in politics. — Она заинтересовалась политикой.
In less than five years, it develops from a seed into a full-grown tree. — За какие-
то пять лет из зернышка вырастает взрослое дерево. They do exercises to
develop their muscles. — Они делают зарядку, чтобы укрепить мускулатуру.
From small beginnings the business has developed into a big multinational
company. — Начав с малого, предприятие превратилось в большую
международную компанию.
The council are planning to develop the area to the west of the town center. —
Совет планирует освоить территорию к западу от центра города.
2. to study, think out, talk about in detail
разрабатывать идею, обсуждать
I'd like to develop this idea a little more before I go on to the next point. — Прежде
чем перейти к следующему вопросу, мне бы хотелось обсудить эту идею
поподробнее.
3. to treat a film with chemicals in order to make photographs

проявлять пленку, проявляться; печатать фотографии (фото)
These photographs haven't developed very well. — Эти фотографии не очень
хорошо проявились.
Our holiday photos haven't been developed yet. — Мы еще не отпечатали
фотографии, сделанные за время отпуска.
DRAW (v) [dro:]

1. to make a picture of something with a pencil or pen рисовать;
чертить; делать набросок, эскиз
Tom has drawn a map of the island. — Том нарисовал карту острова. I can't
draw at all. — Я совершенно не умею рисовать. Не starts a painting by quickly
drawing simplified shapes. — Он начинает работу над картиной с быстрых
общих набросков.
2. to pull something; to take or pull out тащить, вытаскивать
The horse drew the carriage up the hill. — Лошадь тащила коляску в гору.
433
Не drew a handkerchief from his pocket. — Он вытащил из кармана носовой
платок.
Don't let yourself get drawn into the argument. — He позволяй втянуть себя в
спор.
to draw the curtains — открывать и задергивать занавески
The curtains were still drawn at noon. — Занавески в полдень все еще были
задернуты. to draw a nail — вытаскивать гвоздь to draw a tooth — удалять зуб
to draw water from the well — набирать воду из колодца
The travelers were allowed to draw water from the well. — Путешественникам
разрешили набрать воду из колодца. to draw a sum of money from the
account — снимать деньги со счета Customers can draw up to $250 a day from
this account. — С этого счета клиенты могут снимать до 250 долларов в
день, to draw electricity (from a particular source) — потреблять
электричество They draw electricity from the national power network. — Они
потребляют электричество из национальной системы энергоснабжения.
to draw breath — перевести дыхание
I've hardly had time to draw breath today. — Сегодня у меня и времени не было,
чтобы перевести дыхание.
3. to get ideas, inspiration or knowledge from something
черпать идеи, вдохновение
She drew inspiration for her stories from her childhood. — Она черпала
вдохновение для своих рассказов в детских воспоминаниях.
4. to attract attention
привлекать внимание
John left the party without drawing attention to himself. — Джон ушел из
гостей, не привлекая к себе внимания.
5. to get a particular reaction from people вызывать реакцию у
кого-л.
to draw praise/criticism — вызвать одобрение/критику
The new policy has been drawing a lot of criticism. — Новая политика
подвергается резкой критике. to draw a refusal/denial — вызывать опровержение
The claims drew an immediate denial from the President's office. — Эти
заявления были немедленно опровергнуты администрацией президента.
6. to decide that the conclusion is true; to consider the ways in which two things are
different or similar
приходить к какому-л. выводу, проводить (сравнения), устанавливать (отличия)
to draw a conclusion — приходить к какому-л. выводу
She drew the wrong conclusion from the meeting. — Она сделала непра-
вильные выводы из этой встречи, to draw a parallel — проводить параллель
The writer drew parallels between the two societies. — Писатель провел
параллель между этими двумя обществами, to draw a comparison — сравнивать to
draw a line/distinction/boundary — разграничивать
Perhaps it is appropriate to draw the distinction between the private and
governmental assistance provided to the families of the terrorist attack victims. —
Возможно, следует разграничивать частную и правительственную помощь
семьям жертв теракта.
434
to draw near/closer — приближаться (о событии, периоде времени) Their wedding
day was drawing nearer all the time. — День их свадьбы неумолимо приближался.
to draw to a close/an end — подходить к концу mi ;:> ..;
Our stay in England was drawing to an end. — Наше пребывание в Англии
приближалось к концу.
7. to finish without side winning in a game such as football (esp. Br)
сыграть в ничью (спорт)
Brazil and Spain drew in the World Cup. — На Кубке мира Бразилия и
Испания сыграли вничью.
/6UTY (/;) |'du:ti|

1. a legal or moral obligation
2. things that you have to do as part of your job
долг, обязанность', обязанности , ,...
Употребляется как в форме единственного, так и множественного числа.
I feel it's my duty to help them. — Мне кажется, мой долг — помочь им.
It's the duty of a lawyer to act in the best interests of his clients. —
Обязанность адвоката — защищать интересы клиентов. Your duties
also include taking letters to the post and making coffee. — В ваши
обязанности также входит доставлять письма на почту и заваривать
кофе.
to assume a duty — принимать на себя обязанность to carry out/do/perform one's
duty — выполнять обязанность
She did her duty and cared for her aging parents for ten years. — Она
выполняла свои обязанности и в течение 10 лет заботилась о своих
пожилых родителях.
to shirk one's duty — уклоняться от выполнения обязанностей to take
up one's duties — приступить к своим обязанностям to be on duty —
быть на службе/при исполнении/на дежурстве
The nurse on duty called for a doctor. — Дежурная медсестра вызвала
врача.
Не fell asleep while on guard duty. — Он заснул на посту. to be off
duty — быть выходным, не дежурить ' '
"'*'
"
I was off duty when they called me in. — Когда они зашли ко мне, у меня
был. выходной {день). to act out of duty — делать что-л. только из чувства
долга - И to feel duty bound, to be (in) duty bound — чувствовать себя
обязанным что-л. сделать
We felt duty bound to challenge the decision. — Мы чувствовали себя
обязанными оспорить это решение.
I am (in) duty bound to visit my uncle. — Я чувствую себя обязанным
навестить дядю.
435
Не путайте значение «чувствовать моральный долг» — to be duty bound и
«иметь денежный долг, долги» — to be in debt.
■ I'm heavily in debt at the moment but I am duty bound to work extra hours to
get out of debt. — Я сейчас весь в долгах и, чтобы их все выплатить, должен
работать сверхурочно. • 3. a tax that you must pay
on something you buy, or on something you bring into one country from another
country налог, пошлина, сбор
The house buyer has to pay duty at 1 % of the purchase price. — При покупке
дома покупатель должен заплатить налог в размере 1 % от стоимости.
В большинстве случаев имеет форму множественного числа duties, customs
duties — таможенные пошлины death duties on property — налог на наследство
stamp duty — гербовый сбор (при покупке дома)
duty-free — беспошлинный (стало международным словом, обозначающим
товары, не облагаемые налогом)
There is a duty-free shop at the airport. — В аэропорту есть магазин дъюти-
фри (магазин, в котором продаются товары, не облагаемые пошлиной,
т.е. дешевле).
EMPLOY ( v ) [im'pbi] -' s. '

1. to engage, hire ,
нанимать на работу
The new contract will enable us to employ about 50 extra people. — Новый
контракт позволит нам принять на работу еще 50 человек, employer —
работодатель
employee — работник ,{
2. to work, to provide work
обеспечивать работой •.•.>' • -•
The firm employs 500 men. — В фирме работают 500 человек, to
be employed — работать по найму
Не is employed in a publishing house. — Он работает в издательстве. Не
was employed as an accountant. — Он работал бухгалтером.
3. to use ■■■! ■ ''Vri'iacsb' ..««« , ... t>- i-; ■ ';.)> ■„'№.t»:>«.{ ^.ь» .>;»'>" -t>
применять
The police had to employ force to break up the crowd. — Чтобы разогнать
толпу, полиции пришлось применить силу. This bird employs its beak as
a weapon. — Эта птица пользуется клювом как оружием.
ENJOY (r) [in'cfeDi] «, . - .-.v- . 'Ml?
to get pleasure from something ''
получать удовольствие от чего-л., делать что-л. с удовольствием Перевод
зависит от контекста. .
I enjoyed the film. — Мне понравился фильм.
I enjoyed going to the cinema. — Я с удовольствием сходил в кино.
1 enjoyed seeing you again. — Было приятно снова повидаться с вами.
436
I just wanted you to know how much I enjoyed your performance. — Я только
хотел, чтобы вы знали, какое огромное удовольствие я получил от вашей
игры.
In his eighties he enjoys life. — Хотя ему за восемьдесят, он радуется жизни.
Глагол enjoy требует после себя с у щ е с т в и т е л ь н о г о , м е с т о и м е н и я или
г е р у н д и я . И н ф и н и т и в после enjoy не употребляется. Не enjoys traveling by
train. — Ему нравится путешествовать поездом. Did you enjoy your holiday? —
Yes, 1 enjoyed it very much. — Вы хорошо отдохнули? — Да, замечательно.
to have something as a benefit or advantage обладать преимуществом
He enjoys good health. — Он обладает хорошим здоровьем./У него хорошее
здоровье.
They enjoy a good income. — У них хороший доход. The hotel enjoys a
magnificent view of the lake. — Из гостиницы открывается чудесный вид на озеро,
to enjoy rights/benefits/privileges/immunity — обладать правами/льгота-
ми/привилегиями/неприкосновенностью
Mr. Baker was well aware of the privileges he enjoyed. — Мистер Бейкер был
хорошо осведомлен о привилегиях, которыми обладал.
to be happy
to enjoy oneself — хорошо/приятно проводить время "
We enjoyed ourselves very much. — Мы прекрасно провели время. Goodbye,
enjoy yourself — До свидания, желаю приятно провести время!
EXERCISE ( v ) [eksarsaiz]
1. to do a physical activity in order to stay healthy and make your body stronger
тренироваться', упражняться в чем-л.
Athletes must eat properly and exercise regularly. — Спортсмены должны
нормально питаться и регулярно тренироваться.
2. to use your power, right or influence; to use a skill or personal quality пользоваться
правом, властью или полномочием л; ) ;< и ..;.'.•
to exercise a right/power/authority — пользоваться правом/властью/полномочием
They exercise considerable influence in all western countries. — Они
пользуются значительным влиянием на Западе. The President exercised his veto
power. — Президент воспользовался своим правом вето. to exercise
control/influence on/over someone/something — контролировать/оказывать
воздействие на кого-л./что-л.
The invention of printing exercised enormous influence on the development of
culture. — Изобретение книгопечатания оказало огромное влияние на
развитие культуры.
to exercise patience/caution/responsibility — проявлять терпение/осторожность/
ответстве н ность
Caution must be exercised in operating this equipment.— При работе с этим
оборудованием нужна осторожность/нужно проявить осторожность.
EXPOSE ( v ) [iks'psuz]
437
1. to allow something that is covered or hidden to be seen открывать,
показывать
The melting snow exposed the spring flowers. — Из-под растаявшего снега
показались весенние цветы.
2. to deliberately make something known publicly because you believe it is wrong
разоблачать, показывать
He could expose some political scandals. — Он мог рассказать о некоторых
политических скандалах.
The videotape of the meeting exposed the official as thoroughly corrupt. —
Видеозапись встречи помогла разоблачить коррумпированного чиновника.
After the scandal was exposed, the colonel committed suicide. — Когда скандал
получил широкую огласку, полковник покончил с собой. His business rivals have
threatened to expose his activity to the newspapers. — Его конкуренты
пригрозили, что расскажут о его деятельности в прессе.
3. to fail to protect someone from something harmful or dangerous (TO)
подвергать, подвергаться (опасности, критике, действию радиации и т.п.)
The sale exposed the company to widespread criticism. — Из-за этой продажи
компания подверглась критике.
to be exposed to new ideas/problems/information — знакомиться с новыми
идеями/проблемами/информацией
Attending training seminars together, managers and secretaries are exposed to joint
concerns. — Посещая совместные учебные семинары, менеджеры и секретари
знакомятся с общими проблемами.
At school, children are exposed to the classics. — В школе дети знако-
мятся с классической литературой.
We were exposed to the latest theories on child care. — Нас познакомили
с современными теориями о воспитании детей.
EXPOSURE (ri) [iks'p3u39r]
1. telling public about something (OF) разоблачение
The journalist was famous for his exposure of corruption within the
government. — Этот журналист был знаменит своими разоблачениями
коррупции в правительстве.
2. being in a position or situation in which something affects you or
influences you very strongly (TO)
подверженность воздействию внешней среды
Prolonged exposure to the sun affects your skin. — Длительное пребы-
вание на солнце влияет на кожу.
Не was suffering from exposure to nuclear radiation. — Он страдал от
последствий радиоактивного облучения.
This is an age when youngsters are receiving maximum exposure to new
ideas. — В этом возрасте подростки наиболее активно знакомятся
с новыми идеями/подвергаются влиянию новых идей.
3. harm from cold weather переохлаждение
The passengers of the Titanic died of exposure. — Пассажиры «Титани-
ка» погибли от переохлаждения.
438
At least five homeless people died of exposure in St. Petersburg
overnight. — По меньшей мере пять бездомных замерзли ночью в
Петербурге.
4. the amount of film used for taking one photograph кадр (фото)
5. the amount of time you allow light to reach the film in a camera when
taking a photograph
выдержка (время воздействия на пленку солнечных лучей) (фото) This
camera is capable of taking a hundred of exposures before the film
needs changing. — На этом фотоаппарате можно сделать сто
снимков без смены пленки.
FACE ( v ) [feis] 1. to be turned to

быть обращенным к кому-л./чему-л.\ стоять лицом к кому-л./чему-л.
Субъектом действия может быть как человек, так и неодушевленный
объект. Перевод на русский язык зависит от контекста.
The former friends faced each other but kept silent. — Бывшие
друзья стояли лицом друг к другу, но продолжали молчать. The house
faces the park. — Дом выходит окнами на парк. В значении
«располагаться определенным образом» to face употребляется как без
предлогов (см. примеры, приведенные выше), так и с предлогами,
конкретизирующими направление:
to face onto/towards/away from
The building faces onto a busy road. — Здание выходит на
оживленную дорогу.
2. to deal with a problem
стоять перед проблемой, угрозой
Each time reporters conduct interviews, they face the risk that their
sources will request anonymity. — Каждый раз, когда журналист
берет интервью, есть риск, что источник информации захочет
остаться анонимным.
The country is now faced with the prospect of war. — Страна сейчас
стоит перед угрозой войны.
The main difficulty that faces us today is of supplying food to those in
need. — Главная задача, которая стоит перед нами сегодня, — на-
кормить голодных.
How to combine a career and children is a dilemma facing many women.
— Как совместить карьеру и воспитание детей — вот вопрос,
который стоит перед многими женщинами.
3. to accept or deal with a problem or unpleasant situation firmly and without
trying to avoid it.
смело смотреть в лицо трудностям, опасности, не бояться признать
определенные факты
439
We have to face the reality that, so far, the treaty has had little effect.
— Нам приходится признать тот факт, что к сегодняшнему дню до-
говор не возымел большого действия.
to face the facts — прямо смотреть в лицо фактам
She had to face the fact that she still missed him. — Ей пришлось
признать, что она все еще скучает по нему.
These people will face the facts. — Этим людям все равно придется
смириться с фактами. to face up to the truth — смотреть правде в глаза
1 decided I must face up to the truth. — Я решил, что должен смот-
реть правде в глаза.
to be faced with — находиться перед опасностью
to face up to — справляться с трудностью/со сложной ситуацией и т.д.
She was too young to face up to the truth about her mother. — Она была
слишком молода, чтобы выдержать правду о своей матери.
John is the only one who has faced up to the problem. — Джон —
единственный, кто справился со сложной ситуацией.
to face about — менять свое мнение
The middle of an election is no time to face about. — В самый разгар
выборов не время менять свое мнение. to face down — запугивать, отпугивать;
опровергать, оспаривать
They showed they could face down the opposition. — Они показали, что могут
победить оппозицию.
The speaker faced his opponent down. — Докладчик полностью опроверг своего
оппонента.
FACILITY (п) [fa'siliti]

1. equipment, building, services etc. that are provided for a particular purpose
сооружения, оборудование, удобства
Чаще используется во множественном числе. Перевод зависит от контекста.
sporting facilities — спортивные сооружения
medical facilities — медицинские учреждения >...
research facilities — лаборатории, институты
play facilities — игровые площадки
toilet facilities — туалет
public facilities — общественные места (парки, рестораны и т.д.)
The hotel has excellent leisure facilities. — В отеле все великолепно
оборудовано для досуга.
Where are the facilities? — Где туалет?
The school has excellent sporting facilities. — Школа хорошо оборудована
спортивным инвентарем.
The house is well situated in reach of good shopping and transport facilities.
— Дом расположен в районе, где много магазинов и хорошее транспортное
сообщение.
2. a natural ability (IN, WITH)
440
способность ' ■ ; -г ' ••. t и' .
Не has a facility in/with languages. — У него способности к языкам.
FILE (п) [fail] - З л е w . t - штыг-*, > »

1. a box or container in which papers are kept together ' -
папка, скоросшиватель, контейнер для хранения документов
She kept the documents in standard cardboard files. — Она держала документы в
стандартных картонных папках.
441
2. a collection of papers concerning one subject (ON)
досье, дело
Before talking to the employees, the manager always read their personal files. —
Прежде чем беседовать с сотрудниками, управляющий всегда читал их личные
дела.
Here is our file on the USA. — В этой папке документы, касающиеся Америки.
The insurance company may want to check your medical files. — Страховая
компания может поинтересоваться вашей медицинской карточкой.
The company keeps personal files on all its employees. — В компании заведены
личные дела на всех сотрудников.
to make up/open a file — заводить дело
to keep/hold a file on someone/something — вести дело на кого-л./касательно чего-
л.
These documents are kept on file. — Эти документы подшиты к делу. to close
a file — закрывать дело
The police file on this particular case has been closed. — Полиция закрыла
дело, связанное с этим случаем. a newspaper file — подшивка газеты
Where is the file of The Times? — Где подшивка « Тайме»!
3. a collection of information for a computer stored under one name on a disk
компьютерный файл
I've forgotten the file name. — Я забыл имя файла. to
copy a file — скопировать файл to create a file — создать
файл
You have to create a new file. — Вы должны создать новый файл. to delete a
file — удалить файл to edit a file — редактировать файл to print a file —
распечатывать файл
FILE ( v ) [fail]
1. to put documents in a container with other documents подшивать документы
The reports were filed in alphabetical order. — Все отчеты были подшиты в
алфавитном порядке.
Please file this letter (away), Mrs. Black. — Миссис Блэк, пожалуйста, подшейте
это письмо.
2. to take an official action подавать жалобу, подавать в суд
The African-American students filed a complaint of discrimination and participated in the
investigation.— Афроамериканские студенты подали жалобу на дискриминацию и
участвовали в расследовании.
They filed an application to have their case heard early. — Они подали заявление
о том, чтобы слушание по их делу было проведено раньше назначенного дня.
Complaints should be filed with the Federal funding agency. — Жалобы следует
подавать в федеральное агентство, to filed for — начинать судебный процесс
His wife filed for divorce. — Его жена подала на развод.
FOCUS (я) ['faukssl

1. a center of attention, activity or interest (OF) центр
внимания, предмет интереса и т.д. Употребляется
только с определенным артиклем.
Не always wants to be the focus of attention. — Он всегда хочет быть в центре
внимания.
In 1941, the focus of the war moved to the Eastern Front. — В 1941 году
основные военные действия перешли на Восточный фронт. I'd like to see more
focus on economic policy. — Мне бы хотелось, чтобы больше внимания было
уделено экономической политике, the main/primary/major focus — главный
вопрос
The main focus of the discussion was the way in which women are portrayed in
advertising. — Основным в той дискуссии был вопрос о способах изображения
женщин в рекламе, focus for study — предмет изучения
We have chosen four politicians as the focus for our study. — В качестве
предмета изучения мы выбрали четырех политиков, to shift/change/move the
focus — перенести центр внимания
They are trying to shift the focus more towards domestic policy. — Они пытаются
перенести центр внимания на внутреннюю политику, bring/throw something into
focus — концентрировать внимание на чем-л.
These issues were brought into sharp focus by the Gulf crises. — Кризис в
Персидском заливе поставил эти проблемы в центр внимания.
2 . when something is seen clearly

фокус (фото)
to be in/out of focus — быть в фокусе/не в фокусе (о качестве фотографии)
This photo of John isn't in focus, I can't see his face. — Эта фотография не в
фокусе, лицо Джона плохо видно.
Щ .... ' ''

Слово происходит от латинского focus — очаг. Очаг считался центром дома,
отсюда значение «центр» (внимания, интереса и т.д.).
FOCUS (v) | 'fookosl
1. to direct one's attention to something (ON) концентрировать внимание на чем-
л.
All eyes were focused on him. — Все смотрели на него. Focus your
attention on your work. — Сосредоточьтесь на работе. Широко
употребляется в политическом тексте. Обратите внимание на
взаимозаменяемость активной и пассивной конструкций.
The negotiations are focused on the status of the Kuril Islands. — Пред-
метом переговоров является статус Курильских островов. This university
course focuses on media's influence on politics. — Главное внимание в этом
курсе уделяется влиянию СМИ на политику.
443
Schools should not focus entirely on exam results. — Школы не должны
сосредотачиваться на одних лишь результатах экзаменов.
2. to arrange the lens in so as to obtain a clear picture
настроить оптический прибор на работу
The astronomer focused his telescope on the Moon. — Астроном настроил
телескоп на луну.
GAIN ( v ) [gein] ',
1. to get/achieve something :
добиться чего-л. (какого-л. положительного для себя результата)
This political party gained 20 % of the vote. — Эта политическая
партия получила на выборах 20 % голосов.
Не gained access to the files by showing a false pass. — Он получил доступ
к этим материалам по фальшивому пропуску, to gain victory — добиться
победы ,, „;,,
to gain aim — добиться цели
to gain independence — добиться независимости ■.t
Ireland gained independence in 1921. — Ирландия добилась независи-
мости в 1921 году, to gain fame — добиться славы to gain liberty —
добиться свободы to gain position — добиться положения to gain right —
добиться права to gain majority — добиться большинства
to gain advantage over someone — добиться преимущества перед кем-л.
2. get benefit/advantage (syn. to win, to earn)
приобретать (какое-л. свойство)
I hope you'll gain by the experience. — Я надеюсь, этот опыт пойдет вам на
пользу.
I think we'll gain nothing by firing him. — Я думаю, увольняя его, мы ничего
не приобретаем.
Не has gained himself a reputation for unfairness. — Он приобрел репу-
тацию несправедливого человека, to gain experience — приобрести опыт
You can gain much experience by working abroad for a year. — Проработав
год за границей, вы можете приобрести хороший опыт. to gain
knowledge — приобрести знания to gain popularity — завоевать/приобрести
популярность to gain someone's sympathy — снискать чье-л. расположение to
ш
gain someone's confidence — завоевать чье-л. доверие
Обратите внимание на контексты употребления синонимов данного глагола

в этом значении. Как to gain, так и to win означают «добиться чего-л.», т.е.
затратить большие усилия или обладать большими способностями, чтобы
добиться какого-л. положительного результата.
People disliked her at first, but in the end her kindness gained/won their respect. —
Ее сначала не любили, но в конце концов она'своей добротой завоевала их
444
уважение. В отличие от глагола to earn, предполагающего, что человек
заслужил то, чего он добился, to gain означает, что человек добился чего-л.
независимо от того, заслуживает он этого или нет.
Take a rest. You've earned it! — Отдохни. Ты это заслужил. >
3. to have an increase in ,.
повышать, увеличивать (скорость, вес и т.п.)
She has gained weight. She should keep to a vegetarian diet. — Она набрала
вес. Ей следует посидеть на вегетарианской диете. The lorry gained speed
and turned round the corner. — Грузовик набрал скорость и свернул за
угол.
4. to arrive somewhere
достигать (места), добираться (особенно если это сопряжено с труд-
ностями, с необходимостью прилагать усилия)
We cut a path through the forest and gained the river next day. — Сокращая
путь, мы отправились через лес и на следующий день добрались до
реки.
to gain on/upon — нагонять, догонять
Drive faster! The police are gaining on us. — Прибавь скорость! Полиция на
xeocmel
He was gaining on the leader throughout the finishing lap. — На последнем
круге он стал нагонять лидера забега.
5. when clock goes too fast -:•'
убегать вперед, спешить (о часах)
My watch is gaining 15 minutes a day. — Мои часы каждый день убегают
вперед на 15 минут. to gain ground — стать популярнее, сильнее (ant. to lose
ground)
The idea that smoking is unhealthy has gained ground considerably in recent
years. — В последние годы представление о том, что курение вредно,
получает все большее подтверждение. This party is gaining ground in
St. Petersburg. — В Петербурге эта партия набирает вес.
GROUND (и) [graund]

surface of the earth (U) поверхность земли
The leaves were slowly fluttering to the ground. — Листья медленно падали
на землю. below ground — под землей
The miners were working below ground. — Шахтеры работали под
землей.
above ground — на поверхности земли
Moles seldom come above ground. — Кроты редко выбираются на по-
верхность.
soil; earth (U) .■ .
почва, грунт; местность
Prepare the ground for planting. — Подготовь почву для посадки,
sandy/stony/marshy/boggy ground — песчаный грунт/каменистая почва/
болотистая почва 5 5
445
fertile/barren ground — плодородная/скудная почва (как в прямом, так и в
переносном значении)
Germany in the 1920s and 30s was fertile ground for such ideas. — В 1920—
30-х годах Германия была благодатной почвой для развития подобных
идей.
open ground — открытая местность -
waste ground — пустошь, пустырь '
an area of land used in a certain way (С) > , •••. «шч
угодья (охотничьи, рыболовные)
В американском варианте английского языка употребляется преимуще-
ственно во множественном числе, в британском варианте может упо-
требляться как во множественном, так и в единственном числе.
The fishing grounds off the coast of Norway are rich in salmon. — Рыболовные
угодья у норвежских берегов богаты лососем. These fields served as a hunting
ground for the local people. — Эти поля используются местным населением
как охотничьи угодья./В этих полях местное население охотится.
a subject or area of knowledge, study or experience (U)
тема, область изучения
It was absurd to try to cover so much ground in such a short lecture. — Пытаться
раскрыть такую широкую тему за время столь короткой лекции было
абсурдно.
There's no point in going over the same ground twice. — Бесполезно повторять
одну и ту же тему дважды, middle ground — консенсус (syn. consensus)
Is there likely to be any middle ground in this negotiation? — Возможно ли
прийти к какому-либо консенсусу на этих переговорах?
a reason or argument for something to exist or happen (FOR) причины,
основания
Употребляется преимущественно во множественном числе, grounds
for (doing) something
What grounds do you have for firing him? — Какие у тебя основания для его
увольнения?
Не believes he has reasonable grounds for making the demand. — Он считает, что у
него есть серьезные основания для этого требования. Adultery was a ground for
divorce. — Супружеская измена стала одним из оснований для развода, on (the)
grounds of/on the grounds that — на основании/по причине/под предлогом
Не was always declining their invitations on grounds of ill health. — Ссылаясь
на слабое здоровье/Под предлогом/По причине слабого здоровья он никогда
не принимал их приглашения. They refused to publish the report on the
grounds of cost. — Они отказались опубликовать этот доклад по денежным
соображениям. We oppose the bill on the grounds that it discriminates against
women. — Мы выступаем против этого законопроекта, так как/на том осно-
вании что он ущемляет права женщин. ,. . ,. ,, on
moral/legal/medical etc. grounds — по моральным соображениям/на
юридическом основании/по медицинским показаниям
446
The proposal was rejected on moral grounds. — Предложение было отклонено
no моральным соображениям. to be burnt/razed to the ground — сровнять с
землей (сжечь, разрушить до основания)
Many villages were razed to the ground. — Многие деревни были разрушены
до основания.
to drive/hammer someone or something into the ground — выжимать все соки,
изнашивать
Не hammered his car into the ground and then bought a new one. — Он
выжал из машины все, что мог, и затем купил новую.
to lose/gain ground — см. to gain HOLD ( v ) [haold]

1. to keep or support something or someone держать
She was holding a baby in her arms. — У нее на руках был ребенок. Hold a
knife in your right hand and a fork in your left hand. — Нож нужно
держать в правой руке, а вилку — в левой.
2. to stay in or keep something in a particular place, position or state держать
что-л. в определенном положении, состоянии, месте; удерживать
кого-л. в определенном месте и т. д.; держаться, удерживаться (о
погоде, состоянии)
She was holding her hand to her heart. — Она держалась за сердце.
They said they'd hold the reservation for 24 hours. — Нам сказали, что наш
заказ будет действителен в течение 24 часов.
How long will this good weather hold? — Как долго простоит такая
хорошая погода?
, If our luck holds, we'll win the competition. — Если удача не изменит нам, в
этом соревновании мы победим.
What I said yesterday still holds. — To, что я сказал вчера, все еще в сшге.
The ship held a northwesterly course.— Корабль держал курс на северо-
восток.
to hold someone prisoner/hostage — удерживать кого-л. заложником The
terrorists held them hostage/prisoner. — Террористы удерживали их в
качестве заложников. hold something shut/still/apart etc. — держать что-л. в
закрытом виде/ неподвижно/раздельно/по раздельности
Hold your textbooks shut. — He смотрите в учебники. 1 .
3. to put arms around someone
" обнимать 1 '''
She kissed him and held him tight. — Она поцеловала и крепко обняла его.
4. to contain „ , ,
вмещать
The stadium holds 80,000 people. — Стадион вмещает 80 000 зрителей.
Life holds many surprises. — В жизни много удивительного.
5. to keep the interest or attention of someone . . удерживать
интерес, внимание
447
It's difficult to hold children's attention for more than 15 minutes. —
Трудно удерживать внимание детей больше чем 15 минут. His speech
held everyone's attention. — Его речь захватила всеобщее внимание.
6. to organize an event
проводить мероприятие (переговоры, конференцию, заседание, собрание и
т.п.)
The presidential election was held on April 25. — Президентские выборы
прошли 25 апреля.
In 1945 he decided to hold meetings of party officials. — В 1945 году он
решил провести встречи партийных функционеров.
7. to own money or property; to have a document that allows you to do something
владеть имуществом; занимать пост: иметь ученую степень или
диплом
Характерно для официального стиля речи. Не употребляется во временах
группы Progressive.
Не holds a US passport. — У него американский паспорт.
In this country, members of ethnic minorities usually hold jobs of lower status.
— В этой стране представители этнических меньшинств обычно имеют
непрестижную работу.
Mr. Davies holds a degree in medicine. — У мистера Дэвиса диплом врача.
to hold the office/post — занимать пост/должность
She is the first woman to hold this post. — Она первая женщина,
занимающая этот пост.
Не held a position of trust and responsibility. — Он занял ответственный
пост.
■ ■• ' ' ■ ■ ■ ■ ' . ; . " ■ . • : ilk
цЫЬЖтУ'')
to hold powers — иметь полномочия
By the early 18th century, the colonial legislatures in America held two
significant powers: the right to vote on taxes and expenditures and the right
to initiate legislation. — К началу XVIII века колониальная власть в
Америке имела два важных полномочия: право голосовать по нало-
говым вопросам и расходам и право законодательной инициативы.
8. to have or express an opinion/belief etc. ч ,r иметь
мнение
He употребляется во временах группы Progressive.
She holds strong left-wing views. — Она придерживается крайних ле-
вых взглядов в политике.
The court held him to have told the truth. — Суд сделал заключение, что
он сказал правду.
People hold different opinions about the merits of government policies. —
Люди имеют различные мнения/придерживаются различных мнений о
политике правительства.
448
This scholar holds that people seldom reach their full potential. — Этот
ученый считает, что люди редко реализуют свой потенциал полностью.
Hold (on)./Hold the line. — He вешайте трубку./Подождите. (во время разговора
по телефону)
Do you want to call back later? — No, I'll hold. — Вы перезвоните попозже?
— Нет, я подожду.
Can you hold the line, please? — Вы не могли бы подождать?
INDIVIDUAL (п) [.individual]

1. a single person or thing
частное лицо, человек, отдельно взятый индивид
The colleges were usually built with donations from private individuals. —
Университеты обычно строили на пожертвования частных лиц. The
rights of the individual are perhaps the most important rights in a free
society. — Права человека — возможно, самые важные права в свободном
обществе.
2. a person whose ideas may not be the same as other people's личность
Do social pressures make it hard for us to become individuals? — Затрудняет
ли давление общества личностный рост?
INDIVIDUAL (adj) [ mdi'vicfeual]

1. separate or particular отдельный, индивидуальный
individual items of furniture — отдельные предметы мебели
The education department decides on general teaching politics, but exact
details are left to the individual school. — Министерство образования
определяет образовательную политику в целом, а конкретные решения
остаются на усмотрение (отдельных) школ.
2. unusual or different from anyone or anything else
особый, своеобразный, ни на что не похожий '
Не has found a very individual poetic voice. — Он обрел особый поэтический
голос.
She wears very individual clothes. — У нее свой стиль в одежде. The new
shopping center contains many highly individual gift shops. — i>: В новом
торговом центре есть несколько оригинальных отделов подарков.
INTELLIGENCE (и) [in'telicfe^ns] .■ ?»
1. good ability to learn, reason and understand "
интеллект
A boy of high intelligence. — Мальчик с высоким интеллектом. intelligence
test — тест на уровень развития интеллекта ,
intelligence quotient (IQ) — уровень развития интеллекта artificial
intelligence — искусственный интеллект
2. a government organization that collects information about the secret plans and
activities of a foreign government, enemy
449
разведка (организация, занимающаяся разведывательной деятельностью) или
получаемая разведывательная информация
Не works in intelligence. — Он работает в разведке.
They use a satellite to gather intelligence. — Они используют спутник для
сбора разведывательной информации.
Intelligence Service — британское разведывательное управление
INTELLIGENT ( a d j ) [in'tehd$(3)nt] >•

having or showing powers of learning, reasoning or understanding to a high degree
умный, разумный
Human beings are much more intelligent than animals. — Люди гораздо
умнее животных.
ГТ1 ■
Русское слово интеллигентный передается на английский язык прила-
гательными cultured, educated или существительным an intellectual, а также
редко употребляемым в английском языке словом intelligentsia,
заимствованным из русского языка.
an intelligent person — человек с быстрым, сообразительным умом an

intellectual (person) — человек, получивший хорошее образование,
занимающийся каким-л. предметом, требующим длительного изучения. Для
описания, например, маленького ребенка или животного можно употребить
слово intelligent, но не an intellectual. В британском варианте английского
языка слово intellectual может иметь дополнительное значение: человек,
который свысока смотрит на людей, не получивших достаточного
образования. В американском варианте английского языка это слово не
содержит негативного подтекста, an intellect — человек с незаурядным умом,
но не очень приспособленный к практической жизни
450
I am sure he is a real intellect, but he'd be nowhere without his wife. — Я
уверен, он умнейший человек, но он вряд ли способен обходиться без
жены.
INVOLVE ( v ) [in'vcdv] ,>;?
1. to encourage or allow someone to take part in something (IN, WITH)
втягивать, впутывать, вовлекать кого-л. во что-л.', вмешиваться,
впутываться во что-л., запутываться в чем-л. самому
Don't involve other people in your mad schemes! — He впутывай других в
свои безумные планы!
I don't want to involve you in expense. — Я не хочу вовлекать вас в
расходы.
The goal is to involve workers in the decision-making process. — Задача
заключается в том, чтобы вовлечь рабочих в процесс принятия решений.
В этом значении to involve часто употребляется в страдательном залоге.
Обратите внимание на варианты переводов:
By force of circumstances we got involved in the affair. — В силу обсто-
ятельств мы оказались вовлечены в это дело.
Не is involved with the criminals. — Он связался с какими-то преступ-
никами.
Several people were involved in the crime. — В преступлении было заме-
шано несколько человек.
I have no wish to be involved in your quarrel. — У меня нет никакого
желания быть втянутым в вашу ссору.
Twenty trucks were involved in building the road. — В строительстве дороги
были задействованы двадцать грузовиков.
The performance has been a great success and I would like to thank all those
involved. — Спектакль прошел с большим успехом, и я хочу
поблагодарить всех, кто участвовал в постановке.
We were involved in the negotiations up until the last minute. — Мы до
последней минуты принимали участие в переговорах.
We want all departments to be involved in the new project. — Мы хотим,
чтобы все отделы приняли участие в новом проекте.
2. to include something as a necessary part of an activity, event or situation
включать в себя как необходимый элемент
the course involves — курс включает/предполагает ' "iif the job involves —
работа заключается в/предполагает В этом значении to involve употребляется
без предлога, часто за ним следует герундий: involve doing something.
The course involves a great deal of individual work. — Этот курс предпо-
лагает много самостоятельной работы.
What exactly does the job involve? — В чем именно заключается работа?
ч Most research projects involve some element of risk. — Большинство
исследовательских проектов предполагает элемент риска/связано с
риском.
The job involves traveling abroad for three months each year. — Эта
работа предполагает ежегодные поездки за границу на три месяца.
KEEP ( v ) [ki:p]
1. to have without needing to give back
оставлять что-л., не требующее возврата, себе
You can keep it. I don't need it. — Вы можете оставить это себе. Мне
не нужно.
The price is $4.50, sir. Here's $5; keep the change. — Цена 4 доллара 50
центов, сэр. Вот 5 долларов, сдачу оставьте себе.
2. to store
хранить, сохранять, держать что-л. в определенном
месте Употребляется как в прямом, так и в переносном
смысле.
Will you keep my place in the queue for me while I go and make a phone call?
— Вы скажете, что я стою (в очереди), я отойду позвонить? These old
clothes are not worth keeping. — Эту старую одежду не стоит
хранить.
Не kept the chairmanship of the committee, despite strong opposition. —
Несмотря на сильную оппозицию, он остался председателем ко-
митета.
The medicine must be kept in a cold place. — Это лекарство должно
храниться в холодном месте.
Can you keep all that in your head? — Вы можете удержать все это в
голове?
Не kept his hands in his pockets. — Он держал руки в карманах, to
keep promise/word — держать обещание/слово
You can rely on him. He always keeps his word. — Вы можете поло-
житься на него. Он всегда держит слово. to keep an appointment —
прийти на назначенную встречу (не нарушить договоренность) ■
My train was badly delayed, so I was unable to keep my appointment. —
Отправление поезда, на котором я ехал, сильно задержали, поэтому я не смог
приехать на назначенную в с т р е ч у . . , , to keep a secret —
хранить секрет/не выдать тайну
She kept his secret for 15 years, — Она хранила его тайну 15 лет.
3. to own (syn. to own, to run) re s / ,
:•> быть владельцем чего-л.
He can afford to keep horses. — Он может позволить себе держать
лошадей.
s • She keeps a small shop. — У нее маленький магазинчик./Она хозяйка
маленького магазинчика.
4. to remain in a particular state or condition "
продолжать что-л. делать
Употребляется с герундием: to keep doing something. Слово продолжать не
всегда употребляется в переводе.
She kept smiling, but everybody knew she was in a fury. — Она продол-
жала улыбаться, но все понимали, что она в ярости. Keep going till you
452
reach the traffic lights. — Идите до самого светофора. The children kept
pestering me take them to the zoo. — Дети все упрашивали меня сводить
их в зоопарк, to keep a diary — вести дневник
Did you keep a diary while you were traveling in Europe? — Вы вели
дневник во время путешествия по Европе? to keep an account — вести
счет/учет чему-л. to keep in touch with someone — поддерживать связь с кем-
л.
Не hasn't kept in touch with people he knew at school. — Он не поддер-
живал связь со своими одноклассниками. to keep in with someone —
поддерживать хорошие отношения с кем-л. Не has learnt to keep in with all
kinds of people. — Он научился ладить с разными людьми.
5. to continue to be in a particular condition
поддерживать определенное
состояние
Обратите внимание на грамматические конструкции, в которых встречается
глагол to keep в этом значении: to keep someone/something
warm/amused/smooth etc.; to keep someone/something somewhere.
Переводится обычно описательно. « • «,• ? <
The coat will keep you warm. — В пальто тебе будет не холодно. The
computers keep the traffic smooth. — Компьютеры регулируют дорожное
движение.
This will keep the children busy. — Это не даст детям скучать. The illness
kept her in bed for six months. — Болезнь приковала ее к постели на
шесть месяцев.
6. to take care of «v - ,v -ы »»
заботиться о ком-л., содержать кого-л.
Не kept her sister's children when she was in hospital. — Когда сестра
лежала в больнице, он заботился о ее детях, to keep one's shirt on (colloq.) —
не выходить из себя
It was only a joke — keep your shirt on! — Это была только шутка. Не
злись.
to keep body and soul together — еле сводить концы с концами
She was hard up at the moment and had hardly enough to keep body and
soul together. — В то время ей с большим трудом удавалось сводить
концы с концами и денег едва хватало на жизнь.
to keep one's head — сохранять спокойствие/хладнокровие, владеть собой
The situation was serious, but he kept his head. — Ситуация была не-
простой, но он сохранял спокойствие.
to keep a stiff upper lip — мужественно переносить невзгоды, не выдавать
своих чувств
Не knew that his case was hopeless but forced himself to keep a stiff upper
lip. — Он знал, что безнадежно болен, но заставлял себя мужественно
переносить страдания. .■
453
ш '
В Великобритании считается достоинством скрывать свои чувства, не давать
воли эмоциям. Выражение to keep a stiff upper lip является похвалой.
Американский этикет не препятствует свободному выражению эмоций.
LAUNCH (v) [lo:ntJ]

1. to send a missile into the air or into space; to put a boat or a ship into water
запускать (ракету, спутник); спускать корабль на воду
The organization will launch a new weather satellite next month. — Орга-
низация запустит новый метеорологический спутник в следующем
месяце.
The ship was launched two years ago.— Корабль был спущен на воду два
года назад.
2. to begin an activity, plan, way of life; to start selling a new product
начинать какие-л. действия; выпускать новый продукт; начинать выпуск газеты
и т. п.
The company announced it would launch a new version of its software in
January. — Компания объявила, что выпустит новый программный
продукт в январе.
In 1704 Cambridge, Massachusetts, launched the colonies' first successful
newspaper. — В 1704 году в Кембридже (штат Массачусетс) был начат
выпуск первой успешной газеты в американских колониях.
An inquiry was launched into the incident. — Начато расследование
этого инцидента, to launch a campaign — развернуть кампанию ■
The Society of Vegetarians has launched an international campaign
encouraging religious communities to address diet-related concerns. —
Общество вегетарианцев начало международную кампанию, побуждая
религиозные общины заняться вопросами, связанными с едой.
to launch a program — разработать программу to launch an attack/a
strike — нанести удар
Both groups have been actively launching attacks on Israel since the uprising
began. — Обе эти группы атакуют Израиль/наносят удары по
Израилю с тех пор, как началось восстание.
MAJOR (п) ['meicfcsr]

1. an officer of middle rank in the British or US army майор
He was a major in the British army. — Он был майором британской армии.
2. chief of special subject at a university (Am) предмет
специализации в университете
Her major is psychology. — Предмет ее специализации — психология.
3. a student studying a chief or special subject at a university (Am) (syn. to major in
something)
студент, имеющий определенную специализацию
454
Не is a Japanese literature major. — Он специализируется в японской
литературе.
4. a person who has reached the age at which they are responsible in law for their
actions
лицо, достигшее совершеннолетия и, следовательно, несущее ответствен-
ность по закону (юр.)
Возраст совершеннолетия в Великобритании и Америке в настоящее время
начинается с 18 лет. Ср. minor — не достигший совершеннолетия.
MAJOR ( a d j ) ['meicfpr]
' i' .. . . ' . ' >. '.'.■■ ..'( 1 1 f't i ■■'■'. 1.
important, serious, large or great
важный, значимый (ant. minor — небольшой, второстепенный)
Shipbuilding used to be one of major industries in Great Britain.— Раньше
судостроение было одной из главных отраслей промышленности
Великобритании.
The company is facing major problems. — У этой компании довольно
серьезные проблемы.
The car needs major repairs. — Машина требует большого ремонта, major
shift/change — важное/коренное изменение
455
Further major changes will be recommended by the board of directors. —
Советом директоров будут рекомендованы дальнейшие серьезные
изменения.
major breakthrough — важное открытие/достижение major contribution
— значимый вклад major influence — значительное влияние
major problem/obstacle — главная/основная проблема; вопрос о перво-
степенной важности
One of the major problems facing our planet is global warming. — Одна
из главных проблем, стоящих перед нашей планетой, — это проблема
глобального потепления, major source — главный источник major cause
— основная причина/первопричина
2. greater when compared with others in size, number, importance; important,
serious, large or great больший (по сравнению с другим) the major portion
— большая часть
the major part of someone's life — большая часть чьей-л. жизни
Не spent the major part of his life in Egypt. — Большую часть жизни
он прожил в Египте.
Прилагательные major и minor не употребляются в сравнительной кон-

струкции с союзом than.
Синонимичные прилагательные superior, inferior; senior, junior упо-
требляются только в конструкции to be superior ш something. В сравни-
тельной конструкции с союзом than данные прилагательные также не
употребляются.
She is senior to everyone else in the company. — Она старше всех в
компании.
This hotel is superior to the one we usually stay at. — Эта гостиница лучше
той, в которой мы обычно останавливаемся.
■ i\
3. being or based on a musical scale on which there are semitones between the
third and fourth and the seventh and eighth notes
мажор (муз.) v f .
- ■ 4
, г, a symphony in D major — симфония ре мажор W ;.?» }};s:;V
MEAN ( v ) [mi:n]
'4't . <» - ' i j * S f f
He употребляется во временах группы Continuous. 1.
to have a particular meaning
456
означать ■
The red light means "Stop". — Красный свет означает «Остановиться».
What does this Italian word mean? — Что означает это итальянское
слово?
2. to have in mind as a purpose
иметь в виду,
подразумевать
What do you mean he has left? — Что вы имеете в виду, говоря, что он
ушел?
Не said Monday, but he meant Sunday. — Он сказал «понедельник», а
имел в виду воскресенье
3. to intend
намереваться
Употребляется с инфинитивом.
I mean to go there tomorrow. — Я намереваюсь пойти туда завтра. I'm
sorry. I didn't mean to imply that you were dishonest. — Простите, я не думал
обвинить вас в нечестности, to mean business — иметь серьезные
намерения
Watch out. I think the guy with the gun means business. — Будь начеку. Я
думаю, парень с ружьем имеет серьезные намерения/настроен
серьезно.
to mean well (to do or to say) — иметь хорошие намерения
I agree it was a bit tactless of him to say that, but he meant well. — Согласен, с
его стороны было нетактично говорить это, но у него были хорошие
намерения. I mean — данное выражение часто употребляется в разговоре,
когда требуется прояснить то, что сказано, добавить новую информацию,
повторить или объяснить что-л.
My boss, I mean the person in charge of the office, left last week. — Мой
начальник, а именно он отвечает за работу в офисе, уехал на прошлой
неделе.
I mean to say — это выражение обычно показывает недовольство чем-л.
Не can't be allowed to behave like that. I mean to say, he's a grown man. —
Ему непозволительно вести себя так. Я хочу сказать, что он взрослый
человек.
She asked me to lend her my car. — Well, I mean to say! — Она попросила
меня одолжить ей мою машину. — Что тут сказать!
What do you mean..? — показывает раздражение или несогласие с чем-л. из
сказанного
What do you mean, you don't like my cooking? — Что ты имеешь в
виду/На что ты намекаешь, говоря, что тебе не нравится, как я
готовлю?
MEANS (n) [mi:nz] •
a method or way of doing rr
способ,
средства (совершения, достижения чего-л.)
two
The end justifies the means. — Цель оправдывает средства.
We have no means of finding out what happened. — У нас нет способа
узнать, что случилось.
Use whatever means you can to persuade him. — Используй любые
средства, чтобы убедить его.
Testing is the common means by which pupils' progress is measured. —
Тестирование является общепринятым способом оценить успеваемость
учащихся.
Have you got any means of identification? — Есть ли у вас какое-
нибудь удостоверение личности ? by means of — с помощью/при
помощи
We express our thoughts by means of words. — Мы выражаем мысли при
помощи слов.
by all means — конечно (формула речевого этикета) (syn. certainly, please
do)
May I borrow your pen? — By all means. — Можно воспользоваться
вашей ручкой? — Пожалуйста./Да, конечно. by no means — совсем не
(усиливает значение отрицания) It is by по means certain. — Это еще не
совсем точно. It is by по means cheap. — Это отнюдь не дешево.
The performance was by no means excellent but still better than the
rehearsal. — Спектакль был далек от совершенства, но лучше, чем на
репетиции.
money, income t .;. j
денежные средства ., , ,,;,„
Have you the means to support a family? — У вас есть средства, чтобы
содержать семью? private means — личное состояние , . . . ,..,/.;•
They have private means. — Они люди со средствами. a man of
means — человек со средствами (syn. a rich man, a well-off man) Не had
the appearance of a man of means. — У нею была внешность богатого
человека. »---ц •• >..;<-л
beyond one's means — не по средствам ь
Не lives beyond his means. — Он живет не по средствам. •->•■■■ Many
medical charges are beyond the means of poor families. — Многие
медицинские расходы не по средствам малообеспеченным семьям. Слово
means может согласовываться с глаголом как во множественном, так и в
единственном числе, причем единственное число предпочтительнее.
* 458
The quickest means of travel is by plane. — Путешествовать самолетом — самый
быстрый способ.
Не thinks all means are fair. — Он считает, что все способы хороши. OFFICE
(п) ['o.fis, 'а:-]

1. a room or building where the people in an organization or department work кабинет
On the wall of his office was a large map. — Ha стене его кабинета висела
большая карта.
We have converted the spare bedroom into an office. — Мы переделали спальню
для гостей в кабинет.
2. a government department
учреждение, административное помещение, офис компании
The company's head office is now in Paris. — Главный офис компании сейчас
находится в Париже, office hours — рабочее время a box office — касса театра
a lost property office (Br)/lost and found (Am) — стол находок
A lost property office is a place where lost property is kept and where it can be
claimed back by the owner. — Стол находок — это место, где хранится
забытый багаж, куда владелец может обратиться за пропажей.
a left luggage office — камера хранения на вокзале
In a left luggage office, you can pay to leave your luggage for a short period of time.
— В камере хранения вы можете за плату оставить на время багаж.
3. a government department
правительственный орган, министерство (особенно в Великобритании)
The Home Office (Br) — Министерство внутренних дел
The Home Office is responsible for the police, immigration and broadcasting. —
Министерство внутренних дел отвечает за деятельность полиции,
иммиграционной службы и средств массовой информации. The Foreign Office (Br)
— Министерство иностранных дел
The Foreign Office has responsibility for the government's dealing and relations
with foreign governments. — Министерство иностранных дел несет
ответственность за отношения страны с другими государствами.
4. a position in a large and powerful organization, especially in a government важный
пост (правительственный, государственный)
Members of Federal Communications Commission can be removed from office only
through impeachment or conviction. — Члены Федеральной комиссии no
коммуникации могут быть смещены со своего поста через импичмент или
судебный приговор.
to hold office — занимать пост/служить
The Committee may co-opt not more than two additional members who shall hold
office until the close of the next meeting of the International Council. — Комитет
может кооптировать/принять в свой состав не более двух членов, которые
должны занимать этот пост до конца следующего заседания
Международного совета, to take office — вступать в должность
459 *
President Bush took office in December 2000. — Президент Буш вступил на
свой пост в декабре 2000 года, to leave office — покидать занимаемый пост
to run for office — избираться/участвовать в выборах на государственный пост
David plans to run for office next year. — Дэвид думает принять участие в
избирательной кампании, которая состоится в следующем году.
Обратите внимание, что в этих выражениях слово office употребляется без
артикля.
someone's good offices — протекция
I got the job through the good offices of a friend. — Я получил работу по протекции
друга.
ORDER (и) ['o:rdar]

1. the state in which things are carefully arranged in their proper place порядок
to be/put in order — содержаться в порядке/приводить в порядок
She kept the house in perfect order. — Она содержала дом в абсолютном порядке.
Give me ten minutes to put my desk in order. — Дай мне десять минут привести
в порядок стол.
Mr. Black put his business affairs in order before he died. — Перед смертью
мистер Блэк привел в порядок свои дела, to be out of order — быть не в
порядке/в неисправности My liver is out of order. — У меня не в порядке
печень. They found that the telephone was out of order. — Они обнаружили, что
телефон не работает. in alphabetical/chronological order — в
алфавитном/хронологическом порядке
Plot is a sequence of events in their logical order. — Сюжет — это по-
следовательность событий в их логическом порядке.
2. a command or direction, given by a person who has the right to command приказ
I'm here by order of the general. — Я прибыл no приказу генерала, to
obey/disobey orders — подчиняться/не подчиняться приказам
You must obey my orders. — Вы должны подчиняться моим приказам.
to give an order — отдавать приказ to carry out orders — выполнять приказы
■'•' *
3. request to supply goods
заказ
Shall I take your orders now? — asked the waiter. — Могу ли я принять
заказ? — спросил официант.
A major order for six ships will guarantee the company's future. — Крупный
заказ на шесть кораблей обеспечит будущее компании. Не collected his
order from the shop. — Он забрал заказ из магазина. The textbook you
require is temporary out of stock, but it's on order. — Учебника, о котором
вы спрашиваете, сейчас нет в продаже, но он заказан.
to make to order — делать на заказ
Her shoes were made to order. — Ее туфли были сделаны на заказ.
460
Last orders — В Великобритании этой фразой раньше предупреждали
посетителей пабов (баров), что заведение закрывается и время сделать
последние заказы.
4. a sum of money sent by post t . .
денежный перевод, почтовый перевод (money order, postal order)

He received a money order, but he didn't know who had sent it. — Он получил
денежный перевод, но не знал, кто его послал.
5. special honor given by government for service, bravery
орден
He was awarded an order. — Его наградили орденом. in order to (conj) —
для того чтобы
He stood on a chair in order to reach the top shelf. — Он встал на стул,
чтобы добраться до верхней полки.
ORDER ( v ) ['o:rdar] о-
1. to command (syn. to direct, to instruct, to tell, to ask)
отдавать приказы, команды, распоряжения
Не ordered that the men should fire the guns. — Он приказал, чтобы был
произведен выстрел из ружей. Следует учесть, что приказания, выражаемые
синонимами данного глагола, не столь категоричны. Что касается глагола to
command, он относится главным образом к военным приказам.
to order someone about/around — помыкать кем-л.
His elder sister is always ordering him about. — Его старшая сестра
постоянно им помыкает.
2. to ask for something to be brought or made in return for payment
заказывать
I've ordered new curtains for the bedroom. — Я заказала новые зана-
вески для спальни.
3. to arrange . ., .' V приводить в
порядок
Take time to order your thoughts before you write the essay. — Прежде чем
писать сочинение, соберитесь/приведите мысли в порядок.
PANEL {п) |'pa-nl |
1. the part of a vehicle or machine where the switches and other instruments are
found
a control/instrument panel — приборная доска в машине, самолете и т.п. The
equipment was monitored from a central control panel. — За обо-
рудованием следили с помощью центральной приборной доски/цен-
трального пульта управления.
The pilot looked at the control panel. — Летчик посмотрел на прибор-
ную доску.
2. a flat piece of wood, glass or other material forming part of something панель;
секция витража; вставка из другого материала (на платье и т.д.)
461
There was glass in the upper panels of the door. — Верхняя часть двери
состояла из стеклянных секций.
She was wearing a silk kimono with a few panels of embroidery. — Она
была одета в шелковое кимоно, украшенное вышивкой, solar panel —
солнечная батарея (используемая для получения солнечной энергии)
3. a group of people who make decisions or judgements
комиссия', группа специалистов, экспертов
The EU's veterinary panel imposed a ban on the export of meat and milk
products from the UK. — Ветеринарная комиссия стран EC наложила
запрет на экспорт мяса и молочных продуктов из Великобритании. The
advisory panel disagreed with the decision. — Комиссия экспертов не
согласилась с решением.
a panel game — передача, в которой известные люди отвечают на вопросы
What do/does the panel think? — Каково мнение экспертов по этому
вопросу?
PERFORMANCE (п) [par'foxmons] ,,

1. the process of doing a job or action . v, s
работа, деятельность', результаты, показатели (учебные, спортивные,

технические)
The report said the performance of the museum staff was outstanding. — В
докладе отмечено, что сотрудники музея работали прекрасно. The
reports comments on the relatively poor academic performance of this group
of high-school students. — Доклад отмечает довольно низкие показатели
успеваемости этой группы старшеклассников. The institution admits its
students on the basis of their performance on the Admission Test. — Это
учебное заведение принимает студентов по результатам приемных
испытаний.
2. the act of performing a play, dance or other form of entertainment
представление, спектакль
The first performance of the opera was in 1936. — Первое исполнение
оперы состоялось в 1936 году.
The orchestra will give two more performances before leaving Britain. —
Оркестр даст еще два концерта в Великобритании.
3. how well a car or other machine works
характеристика работы (машины), эксплуатационные качества
The car's performance on mountain roads was impressive. — Машина
прекрасно себя показала на горных дорогах.
PLANT ( п ) IpUcnt]
1. a living thing that grows in earth растение
All plants need water and light. — Всем растениям необходимы вода и
свет.
2. a factory завод
462
A new chemical plant has just been built. — Недавно был построен новый
химический завод. a power plant — электростанция
3. heavy machinery used for industrial processes >;:
производственное оборудование
They decided to invest in new plant for our factory. — Было решено купить
для фабрики новое оборудование.
4. a person who is put into a group or organization to find out information secretly
подсадная утка (негласный осведомитель, тайно внедренный в какую-л.
организацию)
One of them must be a plant, but which one? — Один из них, должно быть,
тайный осведомитель, но кто именно?
5. something that has been hidden on someone so that it will be found, and they will
seem guilty
тайно подложенный предмет (бомба или ложная улика)
James swore to the police that the drugs were a plant. — В полиции Джеймс
клялся, что наркотики ему подложили.
PLANT ( v ) [plant] д
1. to put trees, plants or seeds in the ground so that they will grow there сажать,
сеять
Tomatoes are planted late in May in this region. — В этой местности
помидоры сажают в конце мая. to plant something with something —
засаживать
We drove past fields planted with potatoes. — Мы проехали мимо полей,
засаженных картофелем, to plant doubt/suspicion — сеять
сомнение/подозрение
The propaganda had planted the seeds of doubt in their minds. —
Проводимая пропаганда заронила зерна сомнения в их головы, to plant an
idea — внушать мысль
Both candidates made promises and plant ideas, trying to earn trust. — ..
Оба кандидата давали обещания и предлагали новые идеи, чтобы завоевать
доверие.
Whatever planted that idea in/into your head? — Что внушило тебе эту
мысль?
2. to put someone in a group or organization so that they can find out information
secretly
внедрять осведомителя (в группу)
The police have planted an officer in the club to catch the drug dealers. —
Чтобы поймать торговцев наркотиками, полиция подсадила в клуб
своего офицера.
3. to hide stolen or illegal goods on someone so they will be found and the person
will seem guilty (ON)
подбрасывать ложную улику
These drugs aren't mine. They must have been planted on me. — Эти
наркотики не мои. Мне их, должно быть, подбросили. The officer was
463
accused of planting evidence in the suspect's room. — Этого офицера
обвинили в том, что он подложил улику в комнату подозреваемого. ;
4. to hide bomb for explosion
закладывать бомбу ,%<
The bombs were planted in the railway station. — Бомба была заложена
: . • в здании вокзала. . . , ....
POINT (п) [point] ' , . . ,гЬ, „ , ,

1. a sharp end ,
острие
I pricked myself with/on the point of a needle. — Я укололся иголкой, at
the point of a gun — под дулом г»;<ч iq :
He won't make concessions at the point of a gun. — Он не уступит даже
под дулом пистолета.
2. particular time or place
место, точка в пространстве, пункт; момент (времени)
Употребляется как в прямом, так и в переносном значении.
The only point of contact between them was their love of hunting. —
Единственной точкой соприкосновения у них была страсть к охоте. I
can't see any weak points in your plan. — В вашем плане я не вижу слабых
мест.
Mathematics is not my strong point. — Я не силен в математике. At one
point at the lesson she nearly lost her temper. — Был один момент на
уроке, когда она готова была выйти из себя. I'd like to argue that point. —
Я хотел бы возразить по этому пункту плана.
to he on the point of (doing) something (syn. to be just about to do something) —
собираться что-л. сделать
I was on the point of leaving when the phone rang. — Я почти собрался
уходить, когда позвонил телефон.
a sore point — больное место
How to divide the housework became a sore point between us. — Вопрос о том,
как нам распределить между собой домашнюю работу, стал больным
местом.
the point of no return — обратного пути нет
It was the point of no return, she had to leave, she had to. — Обратного
пути не было, ей оставалось только одно — уйти.
a point (of view) — точка зрения
My point is that we're spending too much time on details and forgetting the big
issues. — Я считаю, что мы тратим слишком много времени на детали и
забываем о серьезных вопросах.
From the government's point of view it would be better if this information were
kept secret. — Для правительства/С точки зрения правительства
было бы лучше, если бы эта информация не была разглашена.
a starting point — отправная точка a turning point — поворотная точка
464
It was a turning point in her life. — Это была поворотная точка в ее
жизни./Этот момент изменил всю ее жизнь.
a boiling point — точка кипения (температура, при которой начинается
кипение жидкости)
Oil has a low boiling point. — У масла низкая температура кипения.
freezing point — точка замерзания воды (температура, при которой вода
превращается в лед)
It's very cold today; the temperature has dropped to freezing point. — Сегодня
очень холодно, температура упала до нуля градусов.
465
3. the main idea contained in something said or done смысл,
суть
He seems to have missed the whole point of the book. — Кажется, он не уловил
основную мысль книги.
What's the point of locking all the doors? — Какой смысл в том, чтобы
закрывать все двери?
There is no point in repairing that old car. — Нет смысла ремонтировать эту
старую машину.
There is no point in waiting any longer. — Ждать ее больше не имеет
смысла.
I don't get the point. — Я не улавливаю смысла. to come/get to the point —
перейти к делу
Не looks reliable but when it comes to the point, he never does. — У него вид
надежного человека, но когда доходит до дела, он часто не выполняет своих
обещаний, to keep to the point — не отклоняться от темы
Please keep to the point. — Пожалуйста, не отклоняйтесь от темы. to
be beside the point — не относиться к делу
That is beside the point. — Это не относится к делу.
to be to the point — быть достойным внимания, относиться к делу, говорить по
существу вопроса
I think his suggestions are completely to the point and should be heard. — Я думаю,
4. any of the units used for recording the score in various sports очко
(спорт)
You have a point. — Очко в вашу пользу!
его предложения прямо по делу, их следует выслушать.

5. a sign (.) used for separating a whole number from any following decimals входит в
название десятичных дробей (мат.)
Five point twelve. — Пять целых двенадцать сотых.
POINT ( v ) [point]
466
1. to draw attention to something, to show with finger (TO, AT)
указывать на какой-л. предмет, показывать
She pointed to the house on the corner and said, "That's where I live." — Она
указала на дом на углу и сказала: «Вот здесь я живу». It's rude to point at
people. — Невежливо показывать пальцем на людей.
467
The arrow pointed north. — Стрелка указывала на север. Если в
предложении говорится, кому показывается тот или иной предмет, употребляется
выражение to point out:
In the gallery she pointed out a Matisse to me. — В картинной галерее она
показала мне картину Матисса. Употребляется также в переносном смысле:
«служить знаком чего-л.». All the evidence points towards Randall as the murderer.
— Все улики указывают на Рэндала как на убийцу.
2. to aim or direct (AT, TOWARDS)
наводить (оружие), целиться; направлять (прибор) в какую-л. сторону
You should never point a gun at a man. — Никогда не целься в человека.
3. to draw attention to the fact (OUT)
отмечать, замечать (говорить)
May I point out that if we don't leave now, we will miss the bus. — Хочу
заметить, если мы не уйдем сейчас, то опоздаем на автобус, to point the finger
at — грозить пальцем кому-л. to point up — акцентировать внимание на чем-л.
The increasing number of accidents pointed up the need for stricter road-safety
measures. — Увеличение количества несчастных случаев указывает
на/подчеркивает необходимость принять более строгие меры безопасности
на дороге.
POLICY (и) f'pcriisi]

1. a set of plans or actions agreed on by a government, political party, business or other
group
политика (позиция государства, политической партии или какой-л. организации
в определенном вопросе); проводимая линия (система убеждений, мнений,
основанная на оценке потребностей, интересов, целей, принципов); принятый
курс (разработанный план действий в той или иной области, не обязательно в
политике)
What is the company's policy on employing disabled people? — Какова позиция
компании в вопросе предоставления рабочих мест инвалидам? It is not the
hospital's policy to disclose the names of patients. — He в правилах больницы
раскрывать имена пациентов. What are their policy objectives? — Каковы цели
проводимого ими курса?
the government's economic policy — экономическая политика правительства
home/foreign policy — внутренняя/внешняя политика the cornerstone
of a policy — краеугольный камень политики
We will make human rights the cornerstone of our foreign policy. —
Мы, без сомнения, сделаем защиту прав человека краеугольным камнем
нашей внешней политики.
Wage control is the cornerstone of the government's economic policy. —
Контроль уровня заработной платы — это самый важный пункт эко-
номической политики государства.
to be in line/in accordance/in keeping with a policy — согласно проводимому курсу
The university will be expanding in line with the government's policy to
468
increase student number. — Университет будет увеличивать набор студентов,
придерживаясь правительственного курса.
to pursue/operate/conduct/implement a policy — придерживаться определенной
позиции, проводить определенный курс
The new government is expected to pursue a vigorous environmental policy. —
Ожидается, что новое правительство будет проводить курс охраны
окружающей среды.
to formulate/develop a policy — выработать курс
The government has undertaken to formulate new anti-racist policies. —
Правительство пообещало выработать систему мер, направленных
против расовой дискриминации.
to shift/change/reverse of policy — изменить позицию/курс
In an apparent reversal of policy, the government refused to fund the project. —
Правительство, по-видимому, изменило свою политику и отказалось
финансировать проект.
В отличие от русского слова политика слово policy в этом значении имеет форму
множественного числа.
The president explained his policies to the public. — Президент объяснял свою
политику народу, policy on/regarding something — позиция в вопросе
What is the party's policy on/regarding immigration? — Какова пози-
ция/линия партии в вопросе иммиграции? policy towards — позиция по
отношению
What is Russia's policy towards Iraq? — Какова позиция России no
отношению к Ираку? policy for — курс на, линия на
The company has set out its policies for future mineral development. —
Компания определила линию на дальнейшее развитие добычи полезных
ископаемых, a policy of neutrality/appeasement — позиции
нейтралитета/соглашательства
The government pursues a policy of neutrality/appeasement. — Правительство
придерживается позиции нейтралитета/соглашательства.
2. a principle or set of ideas that you think is sensible or wise
общепринятое правило или убеждение, которому следует человек
It's bad policy to give children a lot of money. — He следует давать детям
много денег.
As they say, honesty is the best policy. — Как говорится, честность —
лучшее правило. ■:,-•■■ <• v-
3. a contract between an insurance company and a person or organization
страховой полис (insurance policy)
Read the wording of your policy very carefully. — Внимательно прочтите
условия страхования.
POLITICS (п) ['pcditiks]

1. art or science of government
политика как наука или искусство управления; политология
469
She took her degree in politics. — Она получила диплом по полито-
логии.
I wonder if politics is taught at the university. — Интересно, преподают ли
политологию в этом университете.
2. profession of politician
политика как род занятий, сфера деятельности
Не entered politics at the age of 21. — Он стал заниматься политикой в
21 год.
I decided to quit politics although I might have had a great career in it. —
Я решил уйти из политики, хотя мог бы сделать хорошую карьеру.
3. political opinions
политические взгляды '•'" -»h vw ;v
Her politics became more conservative as she grew older. — С возрастом ее
политические взгляды становились все более консервативными.
it i>
В первом и втором значениях слово politics согласуется, как правило, в
единственном числе, в то время как в значении «политические взгляды»
употребляется только во множественном числе.
Politics has never interested me. — Политика никогда меня не инте-
ресовала.
What are her politics? — Каковы ее политические взгляды?
4. the ideas and activities used by people within a particular group to try to get power
v . : ■ ■ , ■ > . }.;» ■■ ,1 ft
межпартийная или внутрипартийная борьба, интриги
Try not to get involved in office politics. — Постарайся оставаться в
стороне от интриг. ■ >> ' • < v-
Politics ends at the water edge. — Когда грозит настоящая опасность,
интриги прекращаются.
В русском языке политика — многозначное слово. Сложность перевода на
английский язык заключается в том, что значению «принятый государством
или организацией курс» (например, политика России по отношению к Европе)
соответствует слово policy; значениям «политическая жизнь», «наука»,
«профессия» (интересоваться политикой, говорить о политике) — politics.
Давайте не будем говорить о политике. — Let's not talk about politics
now.
Она активно участвует в местной политической жизни. — She's heavily
involved in local politics.
В статье раскрывается основной принцип политики России по от-
ношению к Европе. — The article covers the cornerstone of Russia's policy
towards Europe.
POOR ( a d j ) [риэг]
1. having very little money _. , ,
бедный ' ; х4г „.,{..„ ..
470
We were very poor and could barely afford the necessities of life. — Мы были
очень бедны, и нам едва хватало денег на самое необходимое. Как и русское
слово бедный, употребляется для выражения жалости. Poor David has failed
his driving test again. — Бедный Давид опять не сдал экзамен по вождению.
2. far below the usual standard, low in quality
П Л О Х О й •■■ ji /„'■ Л" ■,
He is still in poor health after his illness. — После болезни у него все еще
неважно со здоровьем.
We had a poor crop of beans last year. — В прошлом году у нас был низкий
урожай фасоли.
The weather has been very poor this summer. — Этим летом была плохая
погода.
poor sailor — человек, плохо переносящий морскую качку poor
student — плохо успевающий студент
POWER (и) Грашг] ■•

1. ability (OF) ' "
способность; силы
Употребляется как в единственном, так и во множественном числе. Не lost
the power of speech. — Он потерял дар речи, зн о!'( She is nearly 80 and very ill,
and her powers are failing. — Ей около восьмидесяти лет, и она очень больна,
силы покидают ее.
When he wrote that book, he was at the height of his powers as a writer. —
Когда он писал эту книгу, он был в расцвете творческих сил. She claims
to have the power to see into the future. — Она утверждает, что обладает
способностью предсказывать будущее.
2. control over others; influence (OVER) власть
She interviewed some women who have reached position of great power and
influence. — Она взяла интервью у нескольких женщин, достигших власти и
влияния, to assume/take/seize power — получить/захватить власть
The military regime took power in 1964. — В 1964 году к власти пришла
военная диктатура.
Now I've got him in my power. 1 can make him do anything I want. — Теперь он
в моей власти. Я могу заставить его сделать все, что я хочу.
That year the generals seized power in a bloody coup. — В том году генералы
захватили власть с помощью кровавого путча.
to come into power — приходить к власти
to exercise power — использовать власть
to exercise one's veto power — использовать свое право вето
Russia has never exercised its veto power in the UN Security Council. —
Россия ни разу не использовала свое право вето в Совете Безопасности
ООН.
the powers that be — власть имущие (употребляется при выражении несогласия с
решениями властей)
471
Because you are old, the powers that be presume that you no longer have needs.
— Власть имущие полагают, что, раз ты стар, тебе больше уже ничего не
нужно.
powers — полномочия/права должностного лица
extraordinary powers — чрезвычайные полномочия
3. a country that is very rich, or important, or has strong military forces
мощное государство, держава
In the 19th century, Britain was a major naval power. — В XIX веке Британия
была мощной морской державой.
4. energy; electricity (U) энергия
Power has been restored to most parts that were hit last night by high winds. —
Подача электроэнергии была восстановлена в большинстве мест, где
вчера из-за сильного ветра была повреждена линия электропередач.
This drill isn't working. — You haven't turned on the power. — Дрель не
работает. — Ты не включил ее в сеть.
steam power — паровая тяга (энергия пара)
Не is planning to use steam power for his later version. — В следующий раз он
думает использовать паровую тягу.
Steam power was heavy used in the industry in the 19th century. — В XIX веке
энергия пара часто использовалась в промышленности, solar power —
солнечная энергия
power cut/failure (Br)/outage (Am) — отключение электроэнергии power
plant — электростанция
RAISE ( v ) [reiz]
1. to lift поднимать
The chairperson raised a hand for silence. — Председатель поднял руку,
призывая к молчанию.
Не raised the fallen child to its feet. — Он помог встать упавшему ребенку.
2. to increase
увеличивать размер, количество чего-л.; повышать звание и т.д.
The bank raised its interest on deposits rates to attract new customers. — Банк
увеличил процентную ставку по кредитам, чтобы привлечь новых
вкладчиков.
Не was raised to the rank of captain. — Ему дали звание капитана./Его
повысили в звании до капитана, to raise one's voice in anger — поднимать голос
(на кого-л.)
3. to collect together (money, army etc.) собирать (деньги, армию и т.д.)
The benefit concert was organized to raise money for building a new hospital. —
Благотворительный концерт был организован для того, чтобы собрать
деньги на строительство новой больницы.
4. to mention something
упоминать о чём-л., заводить разговор о чем-л. to raise a
question/issue — поднимать/ставить вопрос
472
We will raise the issue of wages with the management. — Мы будем говорить
о зарплате с администрацией.
There is an important point I want to raise. — Есть один важный вопрос, который
я хотел бы поднять/поставить.
5. to cause feeling, reaction
вызывать определенные чувства (страх, сомнения, возражения)
This plan raised great doubts. — Этот план вызвал большие сомнения.
6. to take care of children воспитывать, растить детей
I know my own son. I've raised him. — Я знаю моего сына. Я сам его
вырастил.
to raise the davil/hell/the roof (colloq.) — устраивать скандал, поднимать шум
Mother will raise hell if you wake the baby. — Если ты разбудишь малыша,
мама устроит скандал.
REALIZE (г;) ['rislaiz]

1. to understand and believe понимать, осознавать
He didn't realize his mistake. — Он не осознал свою ошибку.
She doesn't realize the risks she was taking. — Она не понимает, как
она рискует.
You don't seem to realize how serious it is. — Вы, кажется, не понимаете,
насколько это серьезно.
She spoke English so well that I never realized she was Russian. — Она
говорила по-английски так хорошо, что я не понял, что она русская.
Часто употребляется в вежливом обращении к собеседнику с вопросом. I
realize you're busy, but could I talk to you for a few minutes? — Я знаю, что вы
заняты, но не могу ли я поговорить с вами несколько минут? Также может
выражать раздражение.
Do you realize you're half an hour late? — Вы понимаете, что вы опоздали
на полчаса?
2. to make real
реализовать (план), осуществлять (мечту), реализоваться
She realized her ambition of becoming an actress. — Она осуществила свое
желание стать актрисой.
My worst fears were realized when I saw what the exam questions were. —
Когда я увидел экзаменационные билеты, сбылись мои худшие
опасения.
1 wish her dream would be realized. — Как бы мне хотелось, чтобы ее
мечта сбылась\
3. to change into money by selling
реализовывать (товар) (т.е получать деньги с продажи), продавать We
realized a profit on the house. — Мы получили доход от продажи дома.
The car realized $1000. — Мы продали машину за 1000 долларов.
SAVE ( v ) [seiv] -
1. to make it possible for someone or something to avoid danger ■ • спасать
473
A cure for lung cancer can save thousands. — Средство излечения от рака
легких может спасти тысячи людей.
Only hard work will save this company from bankruptcy. — Только упор-
ный труд спасет эту компанию от банкротства.
2. to prevent the loss or waste of some useful commodity экономить (время,
деньги); копить деньги
1
Traveling by plane is more expensive, but it saves time. — Летать дороже,
чем ездить, но это помогает сэкономить время.
3. to keep or store something for the future
оставить на будущее
Let's eat a piece of cake now and save the rest for tea. — Давай съедим кусок
пирога сейчас, а остальной оставим к чаю.
to save a computer file — сохранить компьютерный файл
SECURE ( a d j ) [si'kjuar] • « ..
safe, protected against danger or risk ' • -*
1) безопасный, надежно з а щ и щ е н н ы й * ' • • • • 4 ■ . . . . . . . . . .
You will be secure in this place. — В этом месте ты будешь в безопас-
ности.
She always felt secure with her mother. — С матерью она всегда чув-
ствовала себя защищенной.
The little island seemed to be quite a secure place for them. — Этот
маленький остров казался им безопасным местом.
2) надежный, прочный
The poet has made a secure place for himself in the history of English poetry.
— Поэт занял прочное место в истории английской поэзии. His position in
Chicago was secure. — В Чикаго у него было прочное положение.
SECURE ( v ) [si'kjmr] \.'*•
1. to make safe "" . * . ...... ...
обеспечивать безопасность, обезопасить ■
A police escort secured the route of the American President. — Полицейский
эскорт обеспечивал безопасность американского президента.
2. to achieve something important
обеспечивать, добиваться чего-л. !
Перевод зависит от контекста. i V!, ^,
to secure victory — одерживать победу
The team secured their second victory of the season. — Команда одер-
жала вторую победу за сезон, to secure good results — обеспечивать
хорошие результаты to secure support — обеспечивать поддержку
to secure someone's release — добиваться чьего-л. освобождения
We are seeking their assistance in securing the release of the hostages. — Мы хотим с
их помощью добиться освобождения заложников.
3. to get as the result of effort
доставать что-л. (пользующееся спросом), получать что-л. (приложив
усилия)
474
Не has managed to secure tickets to the ballet. — Ему удалось достать билеты на
этот балет.
How many votes has the candidate secured? — Сколько голосов набрал этот
кандидат?
SECURITY (л) [si'kju(a)riti]

the state of being secure безопасность
It is the security of his family that has always been of great importance for him. —
Самым важным для него всегда была безопасность семьи.
protection against lawbreaking, violence, enemy acts etc.
система безопасности (меры, направленные на обеспечение безопасности);
служба безопасности (сотрудники, отвечающие за обеспечение безопасности)
Strict security measures were in force during the President's visit. — Bo время
визита президента были приняты серьезные меры безопасности.
Terrorists somehow slipped through the tight security net. — Террористам
удалось пробраться несмотря на систему безопасности. I'll have to inform
Security about this. — Я должен буду предупредить об этом службу
безопасности.
The security forces/services were unable to keep order on the streets. — Силы
правопорядка/Полиция и армия были не способны обеспечить порядок на
улицах.
national security — безопасность страны
This decision made at the negotiations is in the interests of national security. —
Решение, принятое на переговорах, — в интересах безопасности страны.
personal security — личная безопасность
Who guarantees his personal security? — Кто обеспечивает его личную
безопасность! security guards — охрана, телохранители
Security guards stood around the president. — Вокруг президента стояли
телохранители. Security Council — Совет Безопасности (орган в составе
Организации Объединенных Наций (The United Nations), страны-участницы кото-
рого решают задачу сохранения мира)
475
social security — система социального страхования
Security Council works to keep peace in the world. — Работа Совета
Безопасности заключается в сохранении мира на земле.
3. securities (pi.)
stocks, shares and bonds which are bought as investments
ценные бумаги, которые приобретаются для вложения средств (эк.)
SEEK (г») [si:k]

1. try to find or get (AFTER, FOR)
искать (добиваться); добиваться, стремиться получить
We are seeking after the truth. — Мы ищем 11равду/добиваемся правды.
Hundreds of people sought refuge in the British Embassy. — Сотни людей искали
убежища в посольстве Великобритании, to seek compensation/damages —
добиваться компенсации/возмещения ущерба
to seek reelection — избираться на второй срок (о выборном лице) The Mayor will
not seek reelection. — Мэр не будет избираться на второй срок.
to seek approval/permission — добиваться одобрения/разрешения to seek one's
fortune — искать счастья/удачи/денег
He has decided to leave his village to seek his fortune. — Он решил покинуть
свою деревню и искать счастья на стороне, to seek to do something —
стремиться/пытаться что-л. сделать
Public officials must seek to protect the democratic rights of citizens. —
Должностные лица должны стремиться защищать демократические
права граждан.
2. to ask for; go to request
обращаться за помощью, просить кого-л. о чем-л. to seek advice —
просить совета
You should seek advice from your lawyer on this matter. — Вам следует
обратиться за советом к своему адвокату.
Seek medical advice if the symptoms get worse. — Обратитесь к врачу,
если состояние ухудшится, to seek help from someone — обращаться за помощью
к кому-л.
SHARE (л) [Jea]

1. a part of a total amount or number that is divided between several people
( I N , OF) доля, часть
476
We should all have a share in profits. — Мы все должны получить долю в
прибылях.
Please, let me take a share in the expenses. — Пожалуйста, разрешите мне
поучаствовать в расходах/заплатить за себя. Jane has accepted her
share of the blame. — Джейн взяла часть вины на себя.
2. one of the equal parts of a company that you can buy as a way of investing money
акция (эк.)
The scheme allows employees to buy shares in the company. — Этот план
позволяет сотрудникам покупать акции компании. She has got all her money
in stocks and shares. — Она хранит деньги в акциях и облигациях.
SHARE ( v ) [ / е э ]
1. to use or have something at the same time as someone else пользоваться чем-л.
совместно с кем-л.
Не shared his office with another teacher. — Он работал в кабинете вместе с
другим учителем.
2. to give a part of something to someone else делиться чем-л.
The eldest son shared the money inherited from the parents with his brothers and
sisters. — Старший сын поделился родительским наследством с братьями и
сестрами.
3. to have the same opinion or feeling as someone else разделять чье-л. мнение,
придерживаться того же мнения
The foreign minister's opinion was shared by the other members of the Cabinet. —
С мнением министра иностранных дел согласились другие члены кабинета.
4. to have the same quality иметь общие свойства
All magazines share two characteristics: they are published regularly and each
appeals to some specific segment of society. — Все журналы имеют два общих
признака: они регулярно выпускаются и адресованы определенной аудитории.
5. to tell someone something
сообщать информацию, делиться информацией, опытом и т.д.
Would you like to share your experiences with the group? — Вы не хотите
поделиться с группой своим опытом?
STOCK { п ) [sta:k| 1. stocks (pi.)
supply of something (OF) запас, фонд
Their stocks of ammunitions were sufficient for a long siege. — У них был
достаточный запас боеприпасов для долгой осады. How long will coal stocks
last? — На какое время хватит запаса угля? We have laid in stocks of food in
case there are shortages later. — Мы запаслись едой на тот случай, если
наступит дефицит продуктов. 2. goods in shop
ассортимент в магазине
Have you any linen sheets in stock? — У вас (в магазине) есть льняные
простыни?
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We haven't much stock left after the Christmas rush. — После рождественской
распродажи выбор товаров в нашем магазине совсем небольшой.
in stock — иметься в наличии (о товаре) out of stock — быть
распроданным
This furniture is out of stock now. — Этой мебели сейчас нет./Эта мебель
распродана.
■ 3. one of the equal parts into which the value of a company is divided (share) акция,
ценная бумага (эк.)
Употребляется в единственном и множественном числе.
Не made a living buying and selling stocks and shares. — Он зарабатывал на
жизнь, торгуя ценными бумагами. Stock Exchange — фондовая биржа
stockholder — акционер
Her father is the majority stockholder in an oil company. — Ее отец владеет
большей частью акций одной из нефтяных компаний, stockbroker — биржевой
маклер
4. farm animals (syn. livestock)
скот, племя, порода (племя) скота
The new bull improved our stock. — Благодаря новому быку стадо/ племенные
характеристики стада улучшились.
5. type of family род, семья
of good stock — из хорошей семьи
She is of Irish stock. — Она ирландка по происхождению, to take
stock of something — обдумать что-л.
He had to take stock of what he had overheard. — Он должен был обдумать
то, что услышал.
SUBJECT (и) fsAbcfeikt]
1. something being talked about
тема, сюжет (о произведении искусства), предмет разговора
The subject of the painting is the Battle of Waterloo. — Сюжет этой картины
— битва при Ватерлоо.
В некоторых случаях предпочтительнее давать описательный перевод. The subject
of her book is sailing. — Ее книга посвящена мореплаванию.
The budget has been the subject of much debate. — Бюджет был предметом
долгих обсуждений и споров.
Не had no wish to talk about his private life, and tried to change the subject. — У
него не было никакого желания говорить о своей личной жизни, и он пытался
сменить тему разговора.
2. a branch of knowledge studied
учебный предмет
She is taking two subjects in her exams. — Ей предстоят экзамены по двум
предметам.
478
History is his favorite subject at school. — История — его любимый школьный
предмет.
3. a person who lives in the land of a certain state and is protected by it or someone ruled
by king/queen
подданный (страны, государства)
I'm a British subject. — Я являюсь подданным Британского королевства.
4. a noun, noun phrase or pronoun that usually comes before a main verb and represents
the person or thing that performs the action of the verb or about which something is
stated подлежащее (грам.)
Define the subject of the sentence, "Elephants are big". — Определите
подлежащее в предложении: «Слоны большие».
5. a person or animal to whom something is done in an experiment

подопытный (биол., мед.)
They took an experiment to study the effects of smoking, with mice as the subjects.
— Чтобы изучить влияние курения на организм, был проведен эксперимент с
мышами в качестве подопытных.
SUBJECT ( a d j ) ['sAbtfcikt]
1. tending or likely to have (TO)
подверженный чему-л.
He is subject to ill health. — Он часто болеет.
All train times are subject to change in bad weather conditions. — Время
прибытия поездов может измениться в условиях плохой погоды.
2. to be governed (by) or dependent on (TO)
зависящий от чего-л., подвластный чему-л.
All building firms are subject to tight controls. — Все строительные фирмы
строго контролируются.
All such gatherings are subject to the laws on political meetings. — Bee подобного
рода мероприятия регулируются законом о политических митингах.
SUBJECT ( v ) [sab'cfcekt]
1. to bring under firm control
подчинять
The Aztecs subjected the neiboring tribes. — Ацтеки подчинили соседние
племена.
2. to make someone experience something unpleasant
подвергать
The air bases were subjected to intense air attacks. — Воздушные базы были
подвергнуты интенсивным бомбардировкам.
479
■
Не путайте прилагательное subject (to) (ударение на первом слоге) и глагол to
subject. Прилагательное subject (to) дает характеристику, описывает свойства чего-
л. — подверженный (болезням, тенденциям и т.д.), подвластный. Глагол to
subject (to) указывает на сознательное воздействие — подвергаться).
Не was subjected to torture. — Его подвергли пыткам.
The scientists subjected the products to a number of tests. — Ученые
подвергли результаты многочисленным проверкам.
SUSPEND ( v ) [sa'spendj
1. to hang something from something else (FROM)
вешать, подвешивать
A huge chandelier was suspended above the table. — Над столом висела
огромная люстра.
2. to officially stop someone from doing their duty or going to school because they have
done something wrong (FROM)
отстранять (от работы, занятий, спортивных состязаний)
The Football Association suspended the player for spitting at an opponent. —
Футбольная ассоциация отстранила футболиста от игр за то, что он
плюнул в лицо противнику.
Не was the first member to be suspended from the party. — Его первого
исключили из партии. 3. to officially stop something for a short time
приостанавливать
Work at the plant has been suspended because of safety concerns. — Работа на
заводе была приостановлена по соображениям безопасности. Parliament
has been suspended because of the civil unrest. — Работа парламента была
приостановлена из-за акций гражданского неповиновения.
4. a suspended sentence — условный приговор (юр.)

Не got a two-year suspended sentence. — Он получил два года условно.
SUSPENSE (я) [ss'spens]

a state of uncertainty about something that is undecided or not yet known
неизвестность, неопределенность
Please, don't keep me in suspense, f need to know everything. — Пожалуйста, не
оставляй меня в неизвестности, я должна все знать. The competitors in the
beauty contest were kept in suspense waiting for the result. — Участниц
конкурса красоты держали в неведении до объявления результатов.
SUSPENSION (л) [s3'spenj(s)n]
the act of delaying something or stopping it from being in effect for a while
приостановка, отстранение
A new outburst of violence caused a suspension of the peace talks. — Мирные
переговоры были прерваны новой вспышкой насилия. The player is back
480
after a two-month suspension. — Игрок вернулся в команду после того, как
был отстранен на два месяца.
TARGET (л) ['ta:rgit]
1. something that you want to hit in a game or sport; a person, building or area that
someone intends to attack мишень, цель
Употребляется как в прямом, так и в переносном значении.
Few players managed to get their shots at targets. — Лишь немногие играющие
попали в цель.
Foreigners became targets for attack by terrorists. — Иностранцы стали
мишенью для нападений террористов.
In 2003, American planes attacked military targets in Iraq. — В 2003 году
американские самолеты бомбили военные объекты в Ираке. In their search
for a scapegoat, the government made an easy target in the unions. — В поисках
козла отпущения правительство обрушилось на профсоюзы/сделало
своей мишенью профсоюзы.
2. something that you try to achieve; goal план, цель, срок
June is our target date for completion. — Июнь — срок окончания работы.
This program helps staff to achieve their sales target. — Эта программа
помогает сотрудникам выполнить план продаж.
I've set myself a target of saving $20 a week. — Я поставил цель откладывать
каждую неделю 20 долларов.
3. someone you are trying to get as a customer or audience
потенциальная аудитория или потенциальные покупатели
We think teenagers are a prime target for an anti-smoking campaign. — Мы
считаем, что кампания против курения должна быть адресована в первую
очередь подросткам.
What is the target readership of this paper? — Какова потенциальная
аудитория этой газеты?/Кому адресована эта газета?
target audience — целевая аудитория
TARGET ( v ) ['targit]
1. to attack or criticize someone
делать мишенью для нападения или критики
During the Cold War, nuclear missiles were targeted on big cities. — Bo время
«холодной войны» ядерные ракеты были наведены на крупные города.
Не targets the economy as the root cause of deteriorating political situation. — Он
считает, что причиной ухудшения политической ситуации является
экономика.
2. to appeal to a particular group of people or affect them
обращаться с сообщением к людям определенной группы с целью
воздействия
This television commercial is targeted at children. — Эта телевизионная
реклама адресована детям.
481
TYPE (п) [taip]
1. a group of people or things with similar qualities тип, вид
This builder does all types of building work. — Этот строитель выполняет все
виды строительных работ.
The store sells most types of wine. — В этом магазине продаются всевозможные
сорта вин.
I like Italian-type ice cream. — Мне нравится итальянское мороженое, blood
type — группа крови 2. letters, printed in a book, magazine or newspaper шрифт
The book is produced in large type and on thick paper. — Книга напечатана
крупным шрифтом на толстой бумаге, bold type — жирный шрифт italic type
— курсив
TYPE ( v ) [taip]
to write something using a keyboard
печатать на пишущей машинке или компьютере
I didn't know you could type. — Я не знал, что ты умеешь печатать. She
can type 40 words a minute. — Она печатает со скоростью 40 слов в минуту.
to find out the type of something распознавать, определять тип чего-л.
The doctor was unable to type the rare disease. — Врач не смог определить
ь
это редкое заболевание.
Обратите внимание на английские эквиваленты русского слова печатать:

1. печатать на пишущей машинке или компьютере — to type
2. печатать типографским способом — to print
3. печатать (издавать) — to publish
4. печатать фотографии — to develop
WAY (и) [wei] 1. the road путь, дорога

High trees barred their way. — Высокие деревья загородили им дорогу. Слово
way не используется, когда имеется в виду конкретная дорога, тропинка и т.д. Ср.:
We followed a muddy path through the forest. — Мы шли через лес по
размокшей тропинке.
to be in the way/in someone's way — загораживать дорогу, мешать
Her family was in the way of her work. — Ее семья мешала ее работе.
to be on the one's way to — направляться куда-л., быть на пути куда-л.
She is on her way to meet Jack at the station. — Она идет на станцию
встретить Джека.
The new hospital is well on the way to being finished. — Новая больница
почти построена.
to be under way — находиться в процессе (работы, разработки и т.д.)
The great ship is under way.— Строится гигантский корабль, to lead the
way — идти впереди, возглавлять
482
They claim to be leading the way in their fight against terrorism. — Они
утверждают, что ведут борьбу с терроризмом. Не led the way along the
corridors. — Он вел нас no коридорам. Mr. Brown led the way out of the
labyrinth. — Мистер Браун вывел нас из лабиринта.
to lose one's way — заблудиться
If you lose your way, ask a policeman. — Если вы заблудились/потеря-
лись, обратитесь к полицейскому.
It got dark and he lost his way. — Стемнело, и он заблудился. to make one's
way — направляться
He made his way to the market. — Он направился/пошел на рынок.
Употребляется и в переносном значении.
2. direction направление
Come this way. — Идите в ту сторону.
Can you tell me the way to the bank? — Скажите, пожалуйста, как пройти к
банку.
3. a method or manner of doing something способ, манера
Слово способ в переводе часто отсутствует.
There are many ways of doing it. — Это можно сделать разными способами.
These vegetables can be cooked in several different ways. — Эти овощи можно
приготовить по-разному.
What's the right way to say this in English? — Как это сказать по- английски?
Обратите внимание на способы перевода слова way в предложениях следующего
типа:
Ann doesn't enjoy her job the way she used to. — Анна уже не получает
такого удовольствия от работы, как это было раньше. I never like the way
he speaks to you. — Мне никогда не нравилось то, как он говорит с тобой.
483
(in) one's own way — по-своему (что-л. решать, поступать)
If I had my own way, these drug dealers would be shot. — Если бы я
мог решать, я бы пристрелил всех торговцев наркотиками, by the way
— между прочим (вводное слово)
а
Это выражение не обязательно вводит второстепенную информацию.
By the way, I wonder if we could discuss my salary some time? — К
слову, не найдется ли у вас времени обсудить мою зарплату?
ЛЕКСИКА, ИЗУЧЕННАЯ В УРОКАХ
Слово Разбирается в Unit Повторяется в Unit
abuse*1 14 28
academic 30
account, account (for)* 17 20, 29
accurate* 21
accuse 42
adequate* 6
administration, administer* 20 34
adopt* 7 23
advocate* 12 14, 23
aid* 2
amount (to)* 15 20, 35
argue* 14 23
audience 4
authority, authorities* 24
aware 13
background* 2 23
bar* 18
barter 18
benefit* 20 24, 36
bill* 4
blame 42
board* 28
body 39
bulb 17
business* 19 29
'Знаком * отмечены слова, содержащиеся в лексическом комментарии.
485
Продолжение
cabinet 40
call 23
campaign* 14 28
carry* 12
case* 22 30, 37
cause* 37
challenge* 22 30, 31
channel, canal 4
character* 5
charge 17 39
circulation 18
claim* 11 21, 41
commit* 28 32, 42
concern* 16 20, 30, 35
considerable, considerate, 10
consider*
contain 33
contribution, contribute 20 36
convention 38
conversion, convertible, convert 18 42
copy* 6
corruption, corrupt 42
court* 25 42, 43
cover* 4 26, 43
current 10
custody 14
damage 25
deal 19
defy 43
demand 11 19
486
487
depend (on)* 5 36
develop* 18
draw* 11 17, 42
duty* 20
earn 20
economics, economy 19
emergence, emergency 29
employ 4 32
engage* 6
enjoy* 14
execution, execute 37
exercise* 14 23
experience 31
exposure, expose* 24
face* 23 27, 43
facility* 28 36
failure, fail 11 21
fair 14 20
favor 12
feature 39
fellow 27
figure* 9
file* 26 43
fine 8
fit* 7
focus* 4 21
free 21 38
gain 6 15, 32
get 8
grant 35
488
489
ground* 13 33
hold* 15 36, 41
hostility 36
individual 4
injury, injure 40
intelligence* 3
involve, involvement* 2 18, 22, 27
issue 23 26, 40
jam 8
judgement 8
keep* 1
labor 19 29
launch* 11 29
legal 14 24
legislation, legislature 34
license 23
lift 35
line 17
maintain 21 38
major* 4
master 5
means, mean* 1
meet* 8 34
minister 37
nation 23
number 13
observe 15
office* 26
option 38
order* 3
490
491
original 10
pagan 10 15
panel* 17
performance, perform* 22
plant* 17
point* 3 22, 31
poll 36
poor 1
policy, politics* 29
power* 5 23
process 8
profession 27
promote 27
pursue 5 26
raise* 13 20, 32
rally 36
rate 20 29
realize 1
recognize 9
record 9 21, 28
release 14 26, 43
run* 37
save* 15
score 22 26
security, secure* 2 29, 40
seek* 15 32, 38
sense 5
sentence 15 25
settlement, settle 11 32
share* 13 29
492
Still 21
stock* 19
subject* 3 25
submission, submit 35
succeed 7
supply 16 18, 19
suspension, suspend* 26
swear 12
tank 17
target* 13 38
technique, technology 3
toll 20 33
type 6
value 18
warrant 36 43
way* 3 22, 30
СПИСОК ИСПОЛЬЗОВАННОЙ ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ
Англо-русский синонимический словарь / Ю.Д.Апресян и др. -

М., 2000.
Томахин Т.Д. США: лингвострановедческий словарь. — М.,
2000.
Фоломкина С. К. Англо-русский словарь сочетаемости. — М.,
1999.
Collins COBUILD English Dictionary for Advanced Learners. 3rd
ed. - 2000.
Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary. — 1990.
Hayakawa S. I. The Penguin Guide to Synonyms and Related Words.
- 1994.
Окончание
Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture. — 1992.
Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners. — 2002. Room
A. R. W. Dictionary of Great Britain. — Moscow, 2000.
Карачарова H. M., Масленникова А. А., Осипова Э. Ф. и др.

Английский язык. — СПб., 1999.
Рощина Е. В. Тексты на английском языке для студентов-
психологов. — Л., 1974.
Шерешевская М. А., Эльянова Н. М. Учебник английского языка
для филологов и историков. — Л., 1973. — Ч. 1. An Outline of
American History. The Department of State. — 1994.
Baskin O., Aronoff C. Public Relations. The Profession and the
Practice. — W. C. Brown Publishers, 1988. Biagi S. Media Impact.
— Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1992. Eckersley С. E., Kaufmann W.
A Commercial Course for Foreign Students. - L., 1964. - Vol. 1.
Ferguson D. L., Patten J. Journalism Today. — National Textbook
Co., 1982.
FischerS., Dornbusch R. Economics. — McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1983.
Guth D., Marsh C. A Values-driven Approach. — McGraw-Hill, Inc.,
2005.
Janda K, Berry J. M., Goldman J. The Challenge of Democracy.
Government in America. — Houghton Mifflin Co., 1989. Newson
D., Turk J., Kruckeberg D. This Is PR. The Realities of Public
Relations. — Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1996.
Pinker S. The Language Instinct. — N. Y.: William Morrow, 1994.
Powell R. Law Today. — Longman, 1993. Strang R. M.,
McCullough С. M., TraxlerA. E. The Improvement of Reading. -
N. Y. ; Toronto ; L„ 1961. Также использованы материалы из
журналов Mozaika Angielska, Newsweek, газет The Financial
Times, The Guardian, The International Herald Tribune,
The Times, Аргументы и факты, Известия, Интернета.
СОДЕРЖАНИЕ
Предисловие .................................................................................................................... 3
Условные обозначения и сокращения ......................................................................... 5
Part 1. Learn How to Study ............................................................................................ 6

Unit 1. Learn How to Remember........................................................................ 6
Unit 2. Learn How to Read ............................................................................... 12
Unit 3. Learn How to Listen ............................................................................. 17
Part 2. Welcome to the Profession ............................................................................... 24
Unit 4. People, Government and Communication ............................................ 24
Unit 5. Welcome to Public Relations................................................................ 30
Unit 6. Writing in Public Relations .................................................................. 37
Unit 7. Writing for Newspapers ........................................................................ 42
Unit 8. The Art of Editing................................................................................. 47
Part 3. From the History of Culture ............................................................................ 53
Unit 9. The History of the Calendar ................................................................. 53
Unit 10. Christmas: History and Traditions ...................................................... 63
Part 4. English Beyond England .................................................................................. 70

Unit 11. The Early History of the New World ................................................. 70
Unit 12. English in Australia ............................................................................ 77
Part 5. The Modern World: Diversity, Problems, Traditions ................................... 84

Unit 13. Cultural Diversity ............................................................................... 84
Unit 14. Cultural Diversity and Human Rights ................................................ 91
Unit 15. Cultural and Religious Traditions ....................................................... 98
Part 6. Some Facts About the Environment ............................................................. 107
Unit 16. Helping the Environment Around Us ............................................... 107
Unit 17. The Greenhouse Effect ..................................................................... 113
Part 7. Some Facts About Economics ........................................................................ 120
Unit 18. The History and the Role of Money ................................................. 120
Unit 19. Some Principles of Market Economy ............................................... 126
Unit 20. Taxes in the Economy ...................................................................... 132
Part 8. Your Education: Technology and Self-organization .......................... 139
Unit 21. Organizing Oneself ........................................................................... 139
Unit 22. Computers in Education .................................................................... 146
Part 9. Modern Journalism and PR: History and Problems .......................... 154
Unit 23. Freedom of Expression in Historical Perspective ............................. 154
Unit 24. Freedom of Expression ..................................................................... 161
Unit 25. A Case Study in Journalistics Ethics.... ............................................. 167
Unit 26. Journalists at Work ............................................................................ 172
Unit 27. Public Relations at Work .................................................................. 178
Part 10. From the History of the United States ............................................... 183
Unit 28. Political Campaigns in the USA ....................................................... 183
Unit 29. A Difficult Period in the American History ...................................... 190
Part 11. Some Controversial Issues Discussed in the Media .......................... 199
Unit 30. Language and Discrimination ........................................................... 199
Unit 31. Affirmative Action: Helping the Underprivileged
or Reverse Discrimination? ............................................................. 204
Unit 32. Drugs: to Outlaw or to Legalize? ...................................................... 209
Unit 33. Smoking: a Bad Habit or a Human Right?........................................ 215
Unit 34. Euthanasia: Mercy or Murder?.......................................................... 221
Unit 35. Bioethics ............................................................................................ 228
Unit 36. Animal Rights ................................. ................................................ 235
Unit 37. Abortion and Death Penalty .............................................................. 246
Unit 38. Computers in Our Life: New Possibilities and New
Problems .......................................................................................... 252
Part 12. Some Typical News Events .................................................................. 262
Unit 39. A State Visit ...................................................................................... 262
Unit 40. An Episode of the Arab-Israeli Conflict ........................................... 267
Unit 41. A Terrorist Attack ............................................................................. 278
Unit 42. A Religious Conflict ........................................................................ 283
Unit 43. An Accident ...................................................................................... 291
Грамматический курс...................................................................................... 297
1. Конструкции с вводящим there....................................................................... 297
1.1. Конструкция there is,/there are ......................................................................... 297
1.2. Конструкция с вводящим there с глаголами помимо to be ......................... 298
1.3. Конструкция с вводящим there с существительным, обозначающим действие
или признак ................................................................................................. 299
1.4. Конструкция с вводящим there с инфинитивом или герундием .............. 300
2. Страдательный залог ...................................................................................... 301
2.1. Употребление и формы страдательного залога ....................................... 301
2.2. Предлоги в пассивных конструкциях ....................................................... 302
2.3. Перевод пассивных конструкций с глаголами, эквиваленты которых в
русском языке непереходны .................................................................... 303
496
2.4. Косвенное дополнение в качестве подлежащего пассивной конструкции
....................................................................................................................... 305
2.5. Пассивные конструкции с глаголами со значением просьбы, совета,
разрешения и принуждения .................................................................... 307
2.6. Употребление пассивной конструкции с предлогами ................. 308
2.7. Глаголы в активном залоге с пассивным значением ................. 310
3. Неличные формы глагола (вербалии)................................................ 310
3.1. Инфинитив ........................................................................................... 310
3.1.1. Формы инфинитива ........................................................................ 310
3.1.2. Функции инфинитива в предложении ........................................ 311
3.1.2.1. Инфинитив в функции подлежащего ...................................... 311
3.1.2.2. Инфинитив как часть составного именного сказуемого ..... 315
3.1.2.3. Сочетание to be + infinitive ...................................................... 316
3.1.2.4. Инфинитив в составе предикативного члена ........................ 316
3.1.2.5. Инфинитив как часть составного глагольного сказуемого
и в функции дополнения ........................................................................... 317
3.1.2.6. Инфинитив в функции определения ........................................ 320
3.1.2.7. Инфинитив в функции обстоятельства ................................... 323
3.1.2.8. Инфинитив в функции вводного члена предложения .......... 324
3.1.2.9. Функции инфинитива в начальной позиции ........................ 324
3.1.3. Инфинитивные конструкции........................................................ 325
3.1.3.1. Объектная конструкция с инфинитивом ................................ 325
3.1.3.2. Субъектная конструкция с инфинитивом .............................. 328
3.1.3.2.1. Значения глагола-сказуемого в составе субъектной конструкции с
инфинитивом................................................................................ 328
3.1.3.2.2. Субъектная конструкция с инфинитивом
в отрицательном предложении ................................................................ 330
3.1.3.2.3. Субъектная конструкция с перфектным инфинитивом ..... 330
3.1.3.2.4. Значения некоторых глаголов и прилагательных в составе
субъектной конструкции с инфинитивом .............................. 332
3.1.3.3. Инфинитивная конструкция с for ........................................... 334
3.1.3.4. Инфинитивная конструкция с of ............................................. 335
3.2. Герундий ............................................................................................... 336
3.2.1. Общие сведения .............................................................................. 336
3.2.2. Временные и залоговые характеристики герундия ................. 337
3.2.3. Синтаксические функции герундия ............................................ 339
3.2.3.1. Герундий как часть составного глагольного сказуемого ...... 341
3.2.4. Герундиальные конструкции........................................................ 341
3.2.5. Употребление различных глаголов с герундием ...................... 342
3.2.6. Употребление герундия с предлогами......................... ............... 343
3.2.7. Употребление глаголов с герундием и с инфинитивом ........... 345
3.2.8. Устойчивые сочетания с герундием ............................................ 347
3.2.9. Герундиальные конструкции при глаголах to keep, to prevent,
to prohibit .................................................................................................... 347
3.2.10. Герундиальные конструкции при глаголах, приобретающих
окказиональное каузативное значение ................................... 348
3.3. Причастие .................................................................................................. 349
3.3.1. Общие сведения ..................................................................................... 349
3.3.2. Формы причастия.................................................................................. 350
497
3.3.3. Функции причастия в предложении ....................... .......................... 350
3.3.3.1. Причастие в функции определения ............................................... 350
3.3.3.2. Причастие 2 в функции определения ............................................ 352
3.3.3.3. Позиция причастного оборота в предложении............................ 353
3.3.3.4. Причастие и причастный оборот в функции обстоятельства.. 354
3.3.3.5. Причастные обороты с союзами .................................................... 356
3.3.4. Предикативные конструкции с причастием .................................... 358
3.3.4.1. Объектная предикативная конструкция...................................... 358
3.3.4.1.1. Некоторые значения объектных предикативных
конструкций с причастием........................................................ .......... 359
3.3.4.2. Субъектная конструкция с причастием ....................................... 360
3.3.4.3. Независимая причастная конструкция ........................................ 361
4. Модальные глаголы .................................................................................. 362
4.1. Модальный глагол сап/could............................................................... 363
4.1.1. Устойчивые сочетания с глаголом сап/could ................................. 365
4.2. Модальный глагол may/might ............................................................. 367
4.2.1. Глагол may/might в свободных сочетаниях..................................... 367
4.2.2. Устойчивые сочетания с глаголом may/might................................ 368
4.3. Сравнительная характеристика глаголов may и сап в значении
разрешения.............................................................................................. 369
4.4. Сравнительная характеристика глаголов may/might и сап
в значении вероятности.................................................................................. 372
4.5. Модальный глагол must ........................................................................ 373
4.6. Модальный глагол to have ................................................................... 375
4.7. Глагол to be в модальном значении .................................................... 376
4.7.1. Устойчивые сочетания с модальным глаголом to be.................... 377
4.8. Глагол to need.......................................................................................... 379
4.9. Глагол will ................................................................................................ 380
4.9.1. Устойчивые сочетания с глаголом will ............................................ 380
4.10. Глагол would .......................................................................................... 381
4.11. Глагол shall ............................................................................................ 383
4.12. Глагол should ......................................................................................... 385
4.13. Модальный глагол ought..................................................................... 386
4.14. Сравнение значений отрицательных форм модальных глаголов should,
ought и to need в сочетании с перфектным инфинитивом .......... 387
4.15. Модальные глаголы с пассивным инфинитивом ........................... 388
5. Условные предложения .............................................................................. 388
5.1. Типы условных предложений ................................................................ 389
5.1.1. Придаточное условия относится к настоящему или будущему времени и
описывает реальное условие ............................................................... 389
5.1.2. Придаточное условия относится к настоящему времени,
но имеет значение нереального, невыполнимого условия ...................... 389
5.1.3. Действия главного и придаточного предложений относятся
к прошедшему времени .................................................................................. 389
498
5.1.4. Условные предложения смешанного типа .................................................. 390
5.2. Условные предложения с модальными глаголами...................................... 391
5.3. Условные предложения с глаголом should ........................................ 391
5.4. Бессоюзные условные предложения .............................................................. 392
5.5. Нереальное условие, вводимое сочетаниями but for... ,
if it were not for... , had it not been for........................................................ 392
6. Сослагательное наклонение ................................................................................ 393
6.1. Формы сослагательного наклонения ............................................................ 393
6.2. Употребление сослагательного наклонения ............................................ .. 394
6.2.1. Употребление простой формы сослагательного наклонения ............... 394
6.2.1.1. Устойчивые сочетания с сослагательным наклонением ..................... 396
6.2.2. Формы прошедшего времени сослагательного наклонения ................. 396
Лексический комментарий...................................................................................... 399
Лексика, изученная в уроках .................................................................................. 499
Список использованной литературы .................................................................... 505
Учебное издание
Салье Татьяна Евгеньевна

Валиева Юлия Мелисовна
Воскресенская Ирина
Никитична
Английский язык для специальности «Связи с общественностью»
English for Students of Communications
Учебник
Редактор Г. В. Лаврик
Технический редактор О.Н.Крайнова
Компьютерная верстка: Н.Н.Лопашова
Корректоры Е. И. Полякова, В. П.
Белоножко
Изд. № 101108571. Подписано в печать 29.09.2006. Формат 60x90/16.
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Тираж 3000 экз. Заказ № 2674.
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Санитарно-эпидемиологическое заключение № 77.99.02.953.Д.004796.07.04 от 20.07.2004.
117342, Москва, ул. Бутлерова, 17-Б, к. 360. Тел./факс: (495)330-1092, 334-8337.
Отпечатано с электронных носителей издательства.
ОАО "Тверской полиграфический комбинат", 170024, г. Тверь, пр-т Ленина, 5. Телефон:
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Home page - www.tverpk.ru Электронная почта (E-mail) - sales@tverpk.ru *
V. Русскому прилагательному различный могут соответствовать
слова different, diverse — разный, несходный, иной и various — раз-
нообразный, разносторонний.
II. Корень mal- (malfunction) происходит от латинского прила-
гательного malus и имеет значение «плохой», «неправильный»:
malfunction — несрабатывание, отказ
malformation — уродство
malnutrition — плохое/неправильное питание
malpractice — злоупотребление; некомпетентность
malice — злоба
to maltreat — плохо обращаться
II. ...the dead were thought to walk the earth. — ...считалось, что
мертвые ходят по земле.
V. Columbus never saw the mainland United States. — Колумб так и
не увидел материковую часть США.
Наречие never в сочетании с глаголом в прошедшем времени,
обозначающим единичное действие, выражает запланированное или
предполагаемое, но не осуществленное действие. Переводится
оборотом так и не.
1. Richard I went to France to defend his Angevin inheritance. He never
returned to England. 2. The government planned economic reforms, but
never introduced them. 3. John left his home town at the age of eighteen and
never returned to it. 4. The unprovoked attack by two unknown men sent the
reporter to a hospital. The attackers were never found.
II. Запомните следующие словосочетания:
human rights groups —- правозащитные группы
human rights activists — правозащитники
the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCHR) —
верховный комиссар ООН по правам человека
to free, to fight, to say, just, to defend.
I. A series of planned activities that are intended to achieve a particular
social, commercial or political aim. 2. A person who works to achieve
I. Запомните произношение и значения следующих слов: Easter
['i:sta] — христианская Пасха — праздник, отмечающий воскресение
Христа
the Passover [paesauva] — еврейская Пасха, празднуемая в память
исхода евреев из Египта
II. software — компьютерные программы
Слово образовано по аналогии с hardware — сам компьютер,
«железо».
4. Do your grandparents like the way you were taught at school?
'A well-known science fiction book of 1970s.
2
Pi (к) — a number, approximately 3.142, which is equal to the circumference of a circle divided
by its diameter.
3
Mr. Magoo — a clumsy character in an American cartoon.
' Tiananmen Square is the central square in Beijing, where mass pro-democracy protests were
staged by students in spring and early summer of 1989. The protests were brutally suppressed. The
crackdown resulted in the massacre of hundreds of unarmed civilians in Beijing, the arrest of tens of
thousands of demonstrators in major cities and provinces around China and the injury of several
thousand people.
III. Under this system, the government also exercised prior restraint by
prohibiting certain manuscripts or passages from being published at all... —
При этой системе правительство также устанавливало
предварительные ограничения, запрещая опубликование некоторых
рукописей или их отрывков...
Предлог under употребляется при словах law, rule, agreement и т.п.
в значении «согласно/по закону», «в соответствии с норма-
ми/правилами», «по условиям соглашения» и т.п.
1. Under the terms of the agreement, our company will receive 40 % of
the profits. 2. Equal pay for men and women is guaranteed under English
law. 3. Under Thursday's agreement, the minimum benefit paid
III. The egregious abuses of authority... might have never been
uncovered and punished had it not been for news media free to serve as
aggressive watchdogs on government. — Вопиющие злоупотребления
властью... возможно, не были бы выявлены и наказаны, если бы не
СМИ, следящие за правительством, как сторожевые псы.
Существительные, вводимые сочетаниями if it were not for..., if it
had not been for..., had it not been for..., but for..., употребляются
вместо условного придаточного предложения со значением нере-
ального условия и переводятся при помощи сочетания если бы не.
1. Had it not been for the extraordinary cohesiveness of their religion, the
Hebrews would have been just another people of the ancient Near East, less
numerous than most at the time, less talented artistically than any. 2. But for
the strength of their character, the Pilgrims might not
1. Эта статья могла оказаться в мусорной корзине. 2. Президент
Клинтон покинул свой пост в январе 2000 года. 3. Поскольку у
преступника не было судимости, он отделался условным приговором.
4. Приостановка этой оборонной программы приведет к росту
безработицы. 6. Все работники, замешанные в этом происшествии,
были отстранены от дел на время расследования. 6. Этот журналист
II. counterpart — (зд.) правительственный служащий, выполняющий
в другом государстве сходные функции (общепринятый перевод —
коллега)
a purpose, hostility, an organization, very good.
1. A meeting at which world leaders or leaders of countries discuss
important problems. 2. A complete set of dishes, plates, cups and saucers.

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ВЫСШЕЕ ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОЕ ОБРАЗОВАНИЕ

Т. Е.САЛЬЕ, Ю.М.ВАЛИЕВА, И.Н.ВОСКРЕСЕНСКАЯ

АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК ДЛЯ

ENGLISH FOR STUDENTS OF

Оригинал-макет данного издания является собственностью Издательского центра

© Салье Т.Е., Валиева Ю. М., Воскресенская И. И., 2007 © Образовательно-издательский

Beware of False Friends of the Translator!

Ь — The Use in Special Context

The Use of Modals and Auxiliaries

MUS — The Use of Conjunctions

adj —AND adjective зд. — здесь

U n i t 1 . LEARN HOW TO REMEMBER

Commentary to the Text

Vocabulary Study and Practice

Vocabulary Study and Practice

I. Отрицательная приставка dis- (to dislike, to disagree) может

Grammar Study and Practice

I. Если два существительных следуют непосредственно одно за

Unit 3. LEARN HOW TO LISTEN

Vocabulary Study and Practice

I. Суффикс -fy (-ify) (to amplify, to clarify) служит для образования от

Grammar Study and Practice

Exercise 8. Comment on the author's statement:

Unit 4. PEOPLE, GOVERNMENT AND COMMUNICATION

People, Government and Communication

I II. audience — 1. аудитория; слушатели лекции, доклада и т.п.;

U n i t 5. WELCOME TO PUBLIC RELATIONS

Personal Traits of a PR Practitioner

The Job of the PR Practitioner

' PRSA — Public Relations Society of America, a professional organization of PR practitioners.

Vocabulary Study and Practice

Grammar Study and Practice

SPEAKING PRACTICE Exercise 10. Discuss the role of PR practitioners in their

precaution — предосторожность ")

г» Grammar Study and Practice

Exercise 9. Comment on the following statement:

Exercise 10. Write a short essay, commenting on the following statement:

Unit 7. WRITING FOR NEWSPAPERS

Writing a News Story: an Inverted Pyramid

A summary lead generally tops a traditional writing form called an

Vocabulary Study and Practice story?

Grammar Study and Practice

Answer the following questions:

Vocabulary Study and Practice

I. При обозначении приблизительного количества слова million,

Exercise 8. Comment on the following statements:

Unit 9. THE HISTORY

Предлог и союз since

Vocabulary Study and Practice

I. Запомните произношение и значения следующих слов:

Grammar Study and Practice

Eratosphenes: the Librarian Who Measured the Earth

Can you accomplish anything practical by observing the sun's shadow?

Vocabulary Study and Practice

Grammar Study and Practice

Exercise 19. Write a short essay, commenting on the following statement:

Вспомогательный глагол would

The History of Christmas

Grammar Study and Practice

I I. However, people would not part with it [holdover]... — Од- *'"

Exercise 9. Comment on the following statement:

U n i t 11. THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE NEW WORLD

Vocabulary Study and Practice

I. Norse ( a d j ) — referring to people, language and culture of an early