Steel Structures PDF

Serban Bogdan
DIMA STEFANESCU
STEEL STRUCTURES
– basic elements –
DEDICATION
This book is a tribute to the memory of Professor Dragos GEORGESCU, the author
of the curricula of STEEL STRUCTURES courses at the French and English
Department of the Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest.
STEEL STRUCTURES – basic elements
CONTENTS
Chapter 1 : STEEL STRUCTURES ……………………………....…. 11
1.1. TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION WORKS WITH STEEL STRUCTURES ..… 11

1.2. DESIGN. FABRICATION. ERECTION ………………...…..………………… 13
1.3. BASIS OF DESIGN ………………………………...……………...…………… 14
1.4. STRUCTURAL MEMBERS ………………...…………………...…………….. 16
1.5. STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS ………………...…………………...……………... 22
1.5.1. Structural philosophy …………………………….………………….…….. 22
1.5.2. Structures with a single column …………………………….…..……….. 23
1.5.2.1. Structural philosophy …………………………..…………………...……… 23
1.5.2.2. Structural systems ……………………………..…………………………… 26
1.5.3. Structures with a number of columns in a line ………………….…….. 27
1.5.4. Structures with a number of orthogonal column lines ……..………... 28
1.5.4.1. Structural philosophy ………………….…………………………………… 28
1.5.4.2. Single storey buildings …………………………..………….……………… 29
1.5.4.3. Multi-storey buildings …………………………..………….…..…………… 30
Chapter 2 : RELIABILITY OF STEEL STRUCTURES ………....…. 33
2.1. GENERAL ASPECTS ..………………………………………………………… 33

2.2. ALLOWABLE STRESS METHOD (DETERMINISTIC METHOD) ….…….. 33
2.3. PROBABILISTIC ANALYSIS OF RELIABILITY ….………………………... 38
2.3.1. Probabilistic bases ……………………………….………………..……….. 38
2.3.2. Resistance randomness ……………….……….…….…….…...…..…….. 38
2.3.3. Force randomness …………………….………….………………..……….. 41
2.3.4. Safety analysis ……………………..………….…….…….……...…..…….. 42
5
2.3.5. Probabilistic methods …………………….………….…………....……….. 43

2.3.6. The semi-probabilistic limit states method (level 1) ………………….. 43
2.3.6.1. Limit states …………………………..……….…….…………..…………… 43
2.3.6.2. Actions …………………………..……………..……………….…………… 44
2.3.6.3. Design values of actions …………………………..………….…………… 45
2.3.6.4. Load combinations (combinations of actions) ……..…………….…....… 45
2.3.6.5. Material design properties ………….….……………..…….…...………… 48
2.3.6.6. Ultimate limit state …………………………..………..……….…….……… 49
2.3.6.7. Serviceability limit state …………………………..………….……….….… 50
2.3.6.8. Conclusive remarks ………….………………..….……….….….………… 51
2.3.7. The reliability index β method (level 2) ………………………………….. 51
2.3.8. The probabilistic method (level 3) ……….………….….……….……….. 55
Chapter 3 : STRUCTURAL STEEL ………....……………………….. 57
3.1. MATERIALS ..…………………………………………………………………… 57

3.2. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE ...…………… 58
3.3. STEEL MAKING ...……………………………………………………………… 63
3.4. ROLLING PROCESS INFLUENCE ...………………………………………… 64
3.5. RESISTANCE AGAINST BRITTLE FRACTURE ...………………………… 66
3.6. INFLUENCES OF TEMPERATURE ON THE PROPERTIES OF STEEL .. 67
3.7. FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR ...……………………………………………………… 67
3.8. CORROSION ..…………………….…………....………….…………………… 69
3.9. SHAPES ..……………………………………...………………………………… 70
3.9.1. General ……………………………………………………………….……….. 70
3.9.2. Structural imperfections ……………….………………………….……….. 71
3.9.2.1. Residual stresses …………………………..…...…………….….………… 71
3.9.2.2. Non-homogeneity of mechanical properties …….……….…..…..……… 72
3.9.3. Geometrical imperfections ….…………….….…………………..……….. 73
3.10. STRUCTURAL STEEL REQUIREMENTS …….…………………………… 73
3.11. STRUCTURAL STEEL GRADES …….….………………....….…………… 79
6
Chapter 4 : CONNECTING DEVICES ………....……………...…….. 81
4.1. GENERAL ..……………………………………………………………………… 81

4.2. WELDING ..………………….………….…….……….………………………… 81
4.2.1. General ……………………………………………………………….……….. 81
4.2.2. Weldability ……………………………………..…………………….……….. 82
4.2.3. Structural welding process and materials ……………….…….……….. 83
4.2.4. Metallurgic phenomena in the welding process ……………….…..….. 85
4.2.5. Thermal phenomena in welding process …….….…….…….….…..….. 86
4.2.6. Welding positions ……………………………………………..…….…..….. 87
4.2.7. Weld details …………………...………………………………..…….…..….. 88
4.2.8. Welding defects …………….……...….…………….…….…..…….…..….. 89
4.2.9. Weld inspection methods …………….……....……...………..…..…..….. 90
4.2.10. Strength of welded joints …………………...……...………..…...…..….. 91
4.2.10.1. Butt welds ………………..….…………………………………………...… 92
4.2.10.2. Fillet welds ………………..….……...……...…………………………...… 95
4.3. BOLTS ..……………………………….…….…………………………………… 102
4.3.1. General ……………………………………………………………….……….. 102
4.3.2. Classification of bolts ……………………………………….…….……….. 103
4.3.3. Behaviour and design resistance of bolts ……………………...…..….. 104
4.3.3.1. Loading and tightening ………………..….……………………………...… 104
4.3.3.2. Behaviour of normal bolts in shear connections …….…….….……....… 105
4.3.3.3. Behaviour of high strength bolts in slip connections …………….……… 109
4.3.3.4. Behaviour of bolts in tension …………….………………………………… 111
4.3.3.5. Design resistance of bolts according to STAS 10108/0–78, C133–82 .. 112
4.3.4. Spacing of holes ……………………...…..…………………………………. 113
4.3.5. Categories of bolted connections according to EUROCODE 3 …….. 114
4.3.6. Examples of calculation ………………………………….………...…..….. 115
4.3.6.1. General aspects ………………...…..……….…………………………...… 115
4.3.6.2. Connection loaded only in its plane …….………...……….……….......… 116
4.3.6.3. Connection loaded normally on its plane ……….………..…….……...… 118
7
Chapter 5 : DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS ……….....….. 121
5.1. BASIS OF DESIGN ..…………………………………………………………… 121

5.1.1. Design method …………….………………………….…………….……….. 121
5.1.2. Stability of steel structures …………….………………………………….. 121
5.1.3. Cross-section particularities …………….……………………….……….. 122
5.1.4. Classification of cross-sections …………..….….………….……….…... 123
5.1.5. Elastic and plastic design ………….….…..…..……….…….……..…….. 126
5.2. TENSION MEMBERS ..………………………………………………………… 129
5.2.1. General …………….…………….…………….……….…………….……….. 129
5.2.2. Types of single and built-up members …….………..………….……….. 129
5.2.3. Calculation ……….….………….…………….……….…………….……….. 131
5.3. COMPRESSION MEMBERS ..………………………………………………… 132
5.3.1. General …………….…………….…………….……….…………….……….. 132
5.3.2. Buckling ………………….……………….…….….……….………...…..….. 133
5.3.2.1. Buckling and local buckling ………………....…..……….……………...… 133
5.3.2.2. Forms of buckling …………………………....…..……….……………...… 134
5.3.2.3. Approach methods ………….………………....…..……..……………...… 134
5.3.2.4. Bifurcation and divergence of equilibrium ………….…………..……...… 137
5.3.2.5. The general equation of stability ………….……………………..……...… 138
5.3.2.6. Flexural buckling ………….………………………..……………..……...… 141
5.3.2.7. Buckling curves ………….………….……………...……………..……...… 145
5.3.3. Practical design of compressed members …….…….….……...…..….. 151
5.3.3.1. Cross-section philosophy ………………....…..…...…….……………...… 151
5.3.3.2. Types of members in compression …….………….....…..….....……...… 152
5.3.3.3. Connecting elements of a compressed member ………………..........… 153
5.3.3.4. Checking procedure for members in compression ……………….......… 156
5.4. FLEXURAL MEMBERS ..…………….…………….….……….……………… 164
5.4.1. General …………….…………….…………….……….…………….……….. 164
5.4.2. Beams and plate girders …….…….….……...………………………...….. 164
5.4.2.1. Cross-section philosophy ………………....…..…...…….……………...… 164
5.4.2.2. Behaviour of beams ………………............…..…...…….……………...… 168
5.4.2.3. Main checks for a member in bending ………….….…......…………...… 171
8
5.4.2.4. Procedure for sizing of the cross-section ………………....…………...… 178

5.4.3. Lattice girders …….…….….……………….....………………………...….. 180
5.4.3.1. General ………………....…..…...………………………...……………...… 180
5.4.3.2. Geometric schemes ………………....…………………...……………...… 182
5.4.3.3. Cross-sections of bars ………………....………………...……………...… 183
5.4.3.4. Joint details ……………………………...………………...……………...… 183
5.4.3.5. Calculation of efforts in bars ……………....……….…....……………...… 184
5.4.3.6. Main checks ……………...…………………..…………...……………...… 184
BIBLIOGRAPHY ……….....…………………………………………..... 185
9
10
1. STEEL STRUCTURES
Chapter 1
STEEL STRUCTURES
1.1. TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION WORKS WITH STEEL STRUCTURES
Construction works is the general term including both buildings (apartment

houses, offices, schools, etc.) and civil engineering works (TV towers, tanks, etc.).
Structure (Structural system) is an assemblage of load carrying structural
members joined to provide the required strength, stiffness and ductility of a
construction work.
Cladding is the exterior covering of the structure.
By cladding (roof + side wall) a certain volume is separated from the atmosphere.
This separation is made to create in the interior all the conditions required by a
human activity that can not be developed in open air.
Construction works with steel structures can be classified in three types, depending
on the presence or role of cladding:
1. Type S.C. (Construction work = Structure + Cladding)
This is the most general type (Fig. 1.1).
Side wall Roof Structure Cladding
Fig. 1.1. Type S.C. construction work
This type (S.C.) of construction works is largely represented by all kind of buildings:
• one storey industrial buildings (Fig. 1.2a);
• apartment houses, offices, hotels, schools, colleges etc. (Fig. 1.2b);
• sport halls, theatres etc.
11
1. STEEL STRUCTURES
Cladding
Structure
Cladding
Structure
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.2. Examples of type S.C. construction works
2. Type S. (Construction work = Structure only)

This type (Fig. 1.3) is represented by all kind of civil engineering works when
cladding is not necessary, like:
• transmission towers (Fig. 1.3a);
• pipe-lines (Fig. 1.3b) etc.
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.3. Examples of type S. construction works
12
1. STEEL STRUCTURES
3. Type C. (Construction work = Structural cladding)

This type (Fig. 1.4) is represented by all kind of civil engineering works when
cladding is structural, like:
• tanks (Fig. 1.4a);
• spherical vessels (Fig. 1.4b);
• chimneys (Fig. 1.4c);
• silos etc.
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.4. Examples of type C. construction works
1.2. DESIGN. FABRICATION. ERECTION
A steel structure results by assembling on site a number of various structural

members, like beams, columns etc. (Fig. 1.5) prefabricated in fabrication shops.
p
p
p M M
H
Truss Beam
N N N
H
Beam-column Column
M M
Q Q Q
Fig. 1.5. Examples of structural members
13
1. STEEL STRUCTURES
The main steps to realise a steel structure are:

• design of the structure;
• fabrication of structural members in fabrication shops (using plates and
profiles which are produced in steel works);
• transport of structural members on site;
• erection of the structure by assembling structural members on site.
All the technical activities involved, meaning design, production of shapes and
plates, fabrication of the structural members and erection must comply with
requirements contained in principles and application rules provided by the codes.
1.3. BASIS OF DESIGN
A structure shall satisfy the following requirements during its intended lifetime:
1. It must sustain with appropriate degrees of reliability all actions to occur during its
construction and intended use.
2. It must remain fit for its required use.
This usually leads to two types of requirements to be checked:
• strength requirement – in order to resist all actions to occur during its intended
lifetime;
• stiffness requirement – in order to remain fit for its required use (allowable
displacements).
Calculation scheme
IB
Actual
h IC IC
configuration h
L L
Effects of actions
p M+ Q+
+
H N x z
Actions x
y y
z
Fig. 1.6. Main steps to create and analyse the model of a structure
14
1. STEEL STRUCTURES
The strength requirement is expressed by

E d ≤ Cd ( 1.1 )
In eq. (1.1) and in figure 1.6:

Ed is the design value of that effect of actions:
N – axial force (+ tension; - compression);
M – bending moment;
Q – shear force;
Mt – torsion moment.
N, M, Q, Mt are efforts and they are effects of external forces.
Cd is the design capacity of the structural member, for the considered effort N, M,
Q or Mt.
The stiffness requirement is expressed by:
∆ ≤ ∆a ( 1.2 )
where:
∆ – the calculated deformation;
∆a – the allowable deformation.
Example
p
MSd
Fig. 1.7. Example
Strength requirement
p ⋅ L2
Ed = MSd = (calculated)
8
Cd = MRd = W ⋅ R (calculated)
15
1. STEEL STRUCTURES
p ⋅ L2
E d ≤ Cd MSd ≤ MRd ≤ W ⋅R
8
Stiffness requirement
5 p ⋅ L4
∆=f= ⋅ (calculated)
384 EI
L
∆ a = fa = (allowable)
300
5 p ⋅ L4 L
∆ ≤ ∆a f ≤ fa ⋅ ≤
384 EI 300
In the above relations:
W – section modulus of the cross-section;
R – design strength of the steel grade that is used;
EI – stiffness of the cross-section of the member.
The strength requirements and the stiffness ones can be found in codes of
practice as principles and application rules.
Principles comprise:
• general statements and definitions for which there is no alternative;
• requirements and analytical models for which no alternative is permitted.
Application rules, usually called recommendations in the codes, are recognised
rules that follow the principles and satisfy their requirements. It is allowed to use
alternative rules, different from the recommendations (application rules) given in the
codes, provided that it is proved that the alternative rules comply with the principles
and provide at least the same reliability.
1.4. STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
Structural members are prefabricated in fabrication shops using a large range

of products for steel construction produced in steel works:
• standard profiles (shapes)
angle I shape (W shape) channel steel pipe etc.
16
1. STEEL STRUCTURES
• rolled plates.
Some built-up elements like plate girders or box sections are fabricated in
fabrication shops, usually by welding.
The main structural members can be classified with respect to the dominant efforts N
(axial force), M (bending moment), Q (shear force), as follows:
1. Beam is a structural member whose primary function is to carry loads transverse
to its longitudinal axis (Fig. 1.8). The dominant effort is M (bending moment).
p
Fig. 1.8. Beam
Equilibrium relations
z
C
MSd 0 QSd 0
x y y z
NSd=0
T
z
z
Fig. 1.9. Typical stress distribution for a beam
NSd = 0 T–C=0 T=C ( 1.3 )

MSd ≠ 0 MSd = T ⋅ z MRd ( 1.4 )
where:
MSd – action (bending moment produced by external forces);
MRd – capacity (resistant bending moment);
C – resultant of compression normal stresses on the cross-section;
T – resultant of tension normal stresses on the cross-section.
17
1. STEEL STRUCTURES
Remark: The cross-section must be developed (Fig. 1.10) in the plane of the acting
bending moment M in order to increase the resistant bending moment MRd, i.e. in the
plane of the acting forces (greater h → greater z → greater MRd = T ⋅ z).
Fig. 1.10. Typical development of the cross-section
Typical problem: The risk of lateral instability (lateral buckling) (Fig. 1.11a) or local
instability (local buckling) (Fig. 1.11b) is typical for metal (steel or aluminium alloy)
members subjected to bending moment.
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.11. Typical instability problems for metal members in bending
Depending on the practical solution adopted for a beam, the following ones are the
most commonly used cross-sections:
1.a. Rolled beam is a structural beam produced by rolling (hot rolling). The most
commonly used shapes (Fig. 1.12) for beams are the following ones:
IPE, HE, HL, HD, HP, W, UB, UC IPN UAP UPN
Fig. 1.12. The most commonly used hot rolled shapes for beams
18
1. STEEL STRUCTURES
1.b. Plate girder (Fig. 1.13) is a built-up structural beam, usually made of welded
rolled plates (sometimes they may be bolted or riveted, especially in the case of
aluminium alloy).
Fig. 1.13. Typical plate girder cross-section
1.c. Lattice girder (Fig. 1.14) is a built-up structural beam made of a triangulated
system of bars subjected to axial forces. It is able to resist forces acting in it’s plane.
Top chord
h
Web members
L
M Bottom chord
C
D
h
T
Fig. 1.14. Example of lattice girder
MSd ≠ 0 MSd = MRd = C ⋅ h (or MRd = T ⋅ h) ( 1.5 )

C−T
NSd = 0 T + D ⋅cosα – C = 0 D= ( 1.6 )
cos α
19
1. STEEL STRUCTURES
Truss (Fig. 1.15) is a lattice girder used in the roof framing.
Fig. 1.15. Example of truss
1.d. Cold-formed shape (Fig. 1.16) is a cross-section obtained from plates by

bending or by rolling at normal temperature. They are especially used for purlins
(secondary beams of the roof structure).
Fig. 1.16. Examples of cold-formed cross-sections used for beams
2. Column (Fig. 1.17) is a structural member whose primary function is to carry

loads acting in its longitudinal axis. The dominant effort is N.
P P
he buckling buckling
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.17. Examples of columns
Remark: The fact that practically all the compressed structural members are sized by
the buckling resistance of the member is typical for steel structures. In the concrete
structures the loss of stability is an uncommon phenomenon.
For the column in fig 1.17a the strength requirement (1.1) turns into:
π2 ⋅ EI
PSd ≤ PRd = ( 1.7 )
(2 ⋅ he )2
External force Critical force
20
1. STEEL STRUCTURES
As a result, in order to avoid buckling in any vertical plane, the cross-section

must be developed in its plane, like shown in figure 1.18.
Fig. 1.18. Examples of cross-sections for columns
3. Beam-column (Fig. 1.19) is a structural member whose primary function is to

carry both transverse to longitudinal axis and acting in its longitudinal axis forces.
The dominant efforts are M and N.
P
H N M
P
h
M=H×h
Fig. 1.19. Example of beam-column
Remark: The following are typical for the cross-sections used in metal structures:
• the cross-section is preferentially developed in the plane of the acting bending
moment with regard to the strong axis y-y (Fig. 1.20a);
• in the situations when it is necessary, the moment of inertia (second moment of
the area) with regard to the weak axis z-z is improved (Fig. 1.20c).
Beam Column Beam-column
z z z
lip
y y y y y y
z z z
Iy >> Iz Iy Iz Iz is improved by lips
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 1.20. Examples of cross-sections for beams, columns and beam-columns
21
1. STEEL STRUCTURES
4. Structural wall (Fig. 1.21) is a structural member whose primary function is to

carry both vertical and horizontal forces acting in the plane of the wall.
P
H
Fig. 1.21. Example of structural wall
4.a. Vertical bracing (Fig. 1.22) is a structural wall made of a triangulated system of
bars subjected to axial forces.
P P P P P P
H H H
Fig. 1.22. Example of vertical bracing
1.5. STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
1.5.1. Structural philosophy
The concept of steel structural system is largely influenced by some

particularities of structural steel as a material and of the behaviour of the structural
members. As a result, steel design is based on its own structural philosophy, which
presents some particularities in comparison with the concept of structural systems in
reinforced concrete, brick or timber.
22
1. STEEL STRUCTURES
1.5.2. Structures with a single column
1.5.2.1. Structural philosophy
Problem 1 (Fig. 1.23)

Lead to ground (Fig. 1.23a) a vertical force P (gravitational) acting at the level
h from the ground in the plane xOy.
x P P
point A
N=P
h h
O y B
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.23. Leading a vertical force to the ground
Solution
Use a vertical bar on the acting line of the force P to connect the point A to the
point B on the ground (Fig. 1.23b).
Remarks
1. This solution is the most economical, thanks to the following:
• the path AB is the shortest one to carry the force P to the ground;
• only the force P is to carry on the load path AB (according to a principle of
structural mechanics, a force translates on its acting line by its value).
2. This solution, corresponding to the case of a vertical force, can also be applied in
the case of an inclined force P.

Lead to the ground a horizontal force H (wind, seismic action, etc.) parallel to
the ground, acting at the level h.
23
1. STEEL STRUCTURES
x H
point A
O y
Fig. 1.24. Leading a horizontal force to the ground
General remark
In accordance with a principle of structural mechanics, a force H displaces
parallel to itself by its value H and a bending moment M. As a result, it is much more
expensive to carry a horizontal force to the ground than to carry a vertical one.
Solution a (Fig. 1.25)

Use a bar transverse to the acting line of the force H to connect the point A to
the point B on the ground.
H
A
Q=H
h
M=H×h
Fig. 1.25. Solution a for leading a horizontal force to the ground
Remark a
Using this solution, the required area of material to carry a horizontal force H
could be 5 to 10 times (in some cases even more) greater than the required area to
carry the same force acting vertically P = H.
24
1. STEEL STRUCTURES
Solution b (Fig. 1.26)

Use a vertical bracing; the simplest one is a triangulated system.
H
T C
C=T
C ⋅ cos α + T ⋅ cos α = H
h H
C=T=
2 ⋅ cos α
Fig. 1.26. Solution b for leading a horizontal force to the ground
Remark b
This solution is more economical, because the force H is carried to the ground
by axial forces. For instance, if the force H = P the steel consumption is 2 to 3 times
greater than for the same force P acting vertically, depending on the distance a
between the supports. The greater the distance a is, the arm lever increases and, as
a result, the forces diminish.

Lead to the ground a vertical force P and a horizontal force H parallel to the
ground, acting at the level h from the ground, in the plane xOy.
x P
H
point A
O y
Fig. 1.27. Leading a horizontal force and a vertical force to the ground
25
1. STEEL STRUCTURES
Solutions (Fig. 1.28)

Four possible solutions are presented, based on the previously discussed ones:
• (a) cantilever;
• (b) structural wall (solved as a vertical bracing);
• (c) a triangulated system;
• (d) guyed tower.
The solution (d) represents a combination between (a) and (c). The cables must be
in tension in any loading case so they need to be pretensioned. As a result, the initial
tension in the cables Tinit must be greater than the highest compression CH produced
by the force H. This solution is generally required by high rise TV towers.
P P P P
H H H H
Compressed bar
T C
Pretensioned
cables
Tinit > CH
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 1.28. Solutions for leading a horizontal force and a vertical force to the ground
1.5.2.2. Structural systems
Some structural systems based on the solutions presented in figure 1.28 are
shown in figure 1.29. These solutions are developed in order to realise spatial
structures, required both by stability requirements and by the effects of horizontal
forces H acting on any direction.
2–2
2 2
4–4
3 3 4 4
1 1 1–1 3–3
Fig. 1.29. Structural systems with a single column
26
1. STEEL STRUCTURES
1.5.3. Structures with a number of columns in a line
Figure 1.30 shows a steel structure designed to support a pipe-line.

P
A B
H
ΣL
B
VB
C C
A
A–A
Fig. 1.30. Steel structure for sustaining a pipe-line
This solution is typical for steel structures and is characterized by:

• cantilever columns (C) (Fig. 1.30), sized to resist the vertical forces P and the
horizontal forces H transverse to the line of columns; they also provide the
required stiffness in the transverse plane (each column resists its own P and H
forces); for this reason, their cross-sections are developed in the plane of the
acting bending moment produced by the transverse forces H;
• a vertical bracing (VB) (Fig. 1.30), sized to resist all the horizontal forces ΣL
acting in the longitudinal direction and to provide the required strength and
stiffness in the longitudinal direction;
• two continuous beams (B) (Fig. 1.30), sized to resist the vertical loads P acting
between columns and to transmit them to the columns; at the same time, the
beams connect the columns in the longitudinal direction.
Remarks
The vertical bracing is typical for a steel structure. It is located in the middle of the
structure, to allow a good behaviour of the structure to the effects of temperature
variations. Built-up cross-sections able to resist bending moments in two planes like
those ones in figure 1.31 are to be avoided due to their high cost of fabrication.
Fig. 1.31. Cross-sections that are not very common for steel columns
27
1. STEEL STRUCTURES
1.5.4. Structures with a number of orthogonal column lines
1.5.4.1. Structural philosophy
Problem 4
Lead to the ground vertical (P), horizontal (H) and inclined (I) forces acting on
the roof or on the floor of a building (Fig. 1.32).
H I P
Fig. 1.32. Leading to the ground forces acting on the roof
Solutions
Figure 1.33 shows three possible solutions, which are compared in table 1.1
from the point of view of their strength, stiffness and ductility properties.
Strength is the resistance to the forces S (N, Q, M, Mt) produced by the loads.
Stiffness is the resistance to the deformations ∆, γ, θ produced by the loads.
Ductility is the capacity to dissipate energy by large plastic deformations.
Solution 1: M.R.F. = Moment Resisting Frame
1
plastic hinge
Solution 2: C.B.F. = Concentrically Braced Frame
buckling
Solution 3: E.B.F. = Eccentrically Braced Frame
1
plastic zone
Fig. 1.33. Possible solutions for leading forces acting on the roof
28
1. STEEL STRUCTURES
Table 1.1. Comparison among possible solutions
Strength Stiffness Ductility
M.R.F. good poor very good

C.B.F. good very good poor
E.B.F. good good good
1.5.4.2. Single storey buildings
Figure 1.34 shows a typical structure of a single storey industrial building,

based on the structural philosophy discussed above.
P Pr HTB VB CRG
H
PH L
L
crane CRG
TRANSVERSE SECTION SIDE VIEW

PLAN VIEW
HLB VB Pr
RHB
MRF
HTB
Fig. 1.34. A typical steel structure for a single storey industrial building
The structure is composed of:

• transverse MRF, sized to resist vertical (P) and horizontal (H) forces and to
provide the required strength and stiffness in the transverse plane; each MRF
resists its own P and H forces and their cross-sections are developed in the plane
of the acting bending moment M produced by the transverse forces H;
• vertical bracing VB, sized to resist all longitudinal forces ΣL acting in the
longitudinal direction and to provide the required strength and stiffness in the
longitudinal direction;
29
1. STEEL STRUCTURES
• roof framing, consisting of roof horizontal bracing RHB, composed of horizontal

transverse bracing HTB and horizontal longitudinal bracing HLB, in order to
provide torsional rigidity of the structure and purlins Pr to resist vertical forces
acting on the roof and to transmit them to the MRF;
• crane runway girders CRG, to resist the forces produced by cranes and to
transmit their P and H forces to the MRF and L forces to the VB.
Remark:
Trusses are often used instead of girders for long span buildings. In this case
MRF is composed of columns and trusses, usually pin connected, like in figure 1.35.
Truss (T) Purlin (Pr)
Column (C)
Crane runway
girder (CRG)
Fig. 1.35. A steel structure for a single storey industrial building using trusses
1.5.4.3. Multi-storey buildings
Figure 1.36 shows a modern concept of a multi-storey steel structure

composed of two systems:
• a frame system (F), resisting both vertical (P) and horizontal (H and L) forces; this
could be a moment resisting frame (MRF), a concentrically braced frame (CBF)
or an eccentrically braced frame (EBF);
• a gravitational system, resisting only vertical forces (P).
Rigid diaphragm floors and side frame systems provide the torsional rigidity of the
whole building, which is fundamental for the good behaviour of the structure when
subjected to horizontal loads.
Figure 1.37 shows three very well known present-day performances in high-
rise skyscrapers construction.
30
1. STEEL STRUCTURES
PLAN
1 1
Frame system (F)

Gravitational system (G)
SECTION 1 – 1
MRF CBF EBF
Fig. 1.36. A modern concept of a multi-storey steel structure
Petronas Towers Sears Tower Empire State

452m – 88 floors – 1998 442m – 108 floors – 1974 381m – 1931
Fig. 1.37. Present-day performances in skyscrapers
31
1. STEEL STRUCTURES
Figure 1.38 shows the tallest building in the world, Taipei 101, situated in
Taipei, Taiwan.
Taipei 101
509m – 101 floors – 2004
Fig. 1.38. Present-day tallest building in the world
32
2. RELIABILITY OF STEEL STRUCTURES
Chapter 2
RELIABILITY OF STEEL STRUCTURES
2.1. GENERAL ASPECTS
In order to check the safety of a structure it is necessary to assess whether a

dangerous situation, able to make the structure unusable, might be reached due to
some extreme events. There are three types of methods to make the analysis of
steel structure reliability:
• deterministic methods, which consider all parameters with their deterministic
values;
• probabilistic methods, which consider all parameters and the relations among
them as random variables; they are difficult to carry on and they need a very
sophisticated mathematical procedure; they also need a great amount of data
about loads, material properties etc.;
• semi-probabilistic methods, which use probabilistic models to establish the
values for actions and capacities but they compare them using deterministic
models; most of present day design codes for steel structures use such methods.
Generally, when checking the safety of a structural element or of a whole
structure, the following requirements are to be satisfied:
• strength requirement;
• stiffness requirement.
In some cases, like seismic design, ductility requirements need also to be fulfilled.
2.2. ALLOWABLE STRESS METHOD (DETERMINISTIC METHOD)
In this method the strength requirement is expressed by the following relation:

σ ≤ σall ( 2.1 )
In this equation (2.1) the allowable stress σall is given by:
33
σc
σall = ( 2.2 )
c
where c is a global safety coefficient taking into account the following possibilities:
• actual nominal loads considered in calculating the effective stress σ in equation
(2.1) could be greater than assumed;
• actual nominal yielding stress σc in equation (2.2) could be lower than presumed;
• fabrication and/or erection may produce unfavourable effects.
The stiffness requirement is expressed by the following equation (same as
(1.2)):
∆ ≤ ∆a ( 2.3 )
where ∆ and ∆a are the calculated and the allowable deformation respectively.
Critical remark
The method considers only a simultaneous increase of the loads that can
unfavourably affect a correct analysis of the reliability, especially when permanent
loads (dead loads) are significantly smaller than the imposed ones (live loads).
The following two examples point out the facts that:
• a snowfall is always more dangerous for the structural members of a roof when
the cover is in steel sheeting than for a concrete slab (example 2.1);
• on the same roof structure, the effect of wind suction is always more dangerous
when the cover is very light, like in steel sheeting construction (example 2.2).
Example 2.1.
For the structure shown in figure 2.1 the following are given:
• snow load: s = 1.2 kN/m2
σc
• steel OL37: c = 240N/m2; c = 1,5; σall = = 160 N mm2
c
the following are required:
• size the bottom chord of the truss considering two possible solutions:
1. concrete slab cover: 3 kN/m2
2. steel sheeting cover: 0.1 kN/m2
• for the chosen bottom chord shapes, examine the behaviour under the action of a
snow-load increased from 1,2kN/m2 (a) to 2,0kN/m2 (b).
34
roof q (kN/m)
cover
3m
side L = 24m
wall Lt = 10m
q ⋅ L2
M=
8
Fig. 2.1. Example 2.1
a. Bottom chord sizing → snow = 1,2kN/m2

Concrete slab cover Steel sheeting cover
Dead load (D): Dead load (D):
• concrete slab cover: 3,0kN/m2 • steel sheeting cover: 0,1kN/m2
• steel structure weight: 0,4kN/m2 • steel structure weight: 0,3kN/m2
D = 3,4kN/m2 D = 0,4kN/m2
Live load (L): Live load (L):
• snow load: 1,2kN/m2 • snow load: 1,2kN/m2
Total load Total load
p = D + L = 3,4 + 1,2 = 4,6 kN/m2 p = D + L = 0,4 + 1,2 = 1,6 kN/m2
Total load on truss Total load on truss
q = p ⋅ Lt = 4,6 × 10 = 46 kN/m q = p ⋅ Lt = 1,6 × 10 = 16 kN/m
Bending moments (M)
q ⋅ L2 46 × 24 2 q ⋅ L2 16 × 242
M= = = 3312kNm M= = = 1152kNm
8 8 8 8
Axial efforts (N)
M 3312 M 1152
N= = = 1104kN N= = = 384kN
h 3 h 3
Cross-section shapes
150 × 150 × 12 A = 69,6cm2 80 × 80 × 8 A = 24,6cm2
Strength check
N 1104 × 103 N 384 × 103
σ= = = 159 N mm 2 < σa σ= = = 156 N mm 2 < σa
A 69,6 × 10 2 A 24,6 × 10 2
35
Security level
σc 240 σc 240
c= = = 1,51 c= = = 1,54
σ 159 σ 156
b. Bottom chord check → snow = 2,0kN/m2
p = D + L = 3,4 + 20 = 5,4 kN/m2 p = D + L = 0,4 + 20 = 2,4 kN/m2
q = p ⋅ Lt = 5,4 × 10 = 54 kN/m q = p ⋅ Lt = 2,4 × 10 = 24 kN/m
q ⋅ L2 54 × 24 2 q ⋅ L2 24 × 242
M= = = 3888kNm M= = = 1728kNm
8 8 8 8
M 3888 M 1728
N= = = 1296kN N= = = 576kN
h 3 h 3
N 1296 × 103 N 576 × 103
σ= = = 186,2 N mm 2 σ= = = 234,1N mm 2
A 69,6 × 10 2
A 24,6 × 10 2
σc 240 σc 240
c= = = 1,29 c= = = 1,025 ≅ 1,0
σ 186,2 σ 234,1
Remark
Under the action of a snow load increased from 1,2kN/m2 to 2,0kN/m2, which
is to be expected to occur in the intended life of the building:
• in the case of a concrete slab cover the safety coefficient decreases from c=1,51,
but a value of 1,29 still remains;
• in the case of steel sheeting cover, practically there is no more load carrying
capacity, as the safety factor decreases from c=1,54 to c=1,0.
This remark underlines a weakness of the method, that the cross-section of the steel
solution was not well sized. A possible increase of the snow load from the value
considered in design to an accidental one has a more unfavourable effect on a light
roof than on a heavy one. This cannot be outlined by the allowable stress method.
Example 2.2.
Check the bottom chord of the truss sized in example 2.1 for the same
structure without side walls (Fig. 2.2) under the action of a wind suction
gw=0,6kN/m2. The check is to be made considering summer time, i.e. without the
effect of snow load.
36
roof cover qg
3m
6m
qw
Lt = 10m

2
Dead load (D): D = 3,4kN.m Dead load (D): D = 0,4kN.m2
• wind suction: gw = –0,6kN/m2 • wind suction: gw = –0,6kN/m2
2
p = D + L = 3,4 – 0,6 = 2,8 kN/m p = D + L = 0,4 – 0,6 = –0,2 kN/m2
q = p ⋅ Lt = 2,8 × 10 = 28 kN/m q = p ⋅ Lt = –0,2 × 10 = –2,0 kN/m
q ⋅ L2 28 × 242 q ⋅ L2 − 2,0 × 242
M= = = 2016kNm M= = = −144kNm
8 8 8 8
M 2016 M − 144
N= = = 672kN N= = = −48kN
h 3 h 3
150 × 150 × 12 A = 69,6cm2 80 × 80 × 8 A = 24,6cm2
N 672 × 103 Iy = 144,4cm4
σ= = = 96,6 N mm2 < σa
A 69,6 × 102 Iz = 318cm4
π2 ⋅ E ⋅ Iy π2 × 2,1× 105 × 144,4 × 10 4
Ncr,y = =
(L )
y 2
f
(6000 )2
π2 ⋅ E ⋅ Iy π2 × 2,1× 105 × 318 × 10 4
Ncr,z = =
(L )
y 2
f
(24000 )2
Ncr,y = 83kN; Ncr,z = 11,4kN
Ncr = min. (Ncr,y; Ncr,z)= 11,4kN
R c 240 Ncr 11,4
c= = = 2,48 c= = = 0,24
σ 96,6 N 48
37
Remarks
1. When the wind suction reaches gw = – 0,4kN/m2, the total load for steel sheeting
cover becomes:
p = D + L = 0,4 – 0,4 = 0 kN/m2 N = 0 kN σ = 0 N/mm2;
2. When the wind suction reaches gw = – 0,6kN/m2:
• in the case of concrete slab cover the safety factor increases from 1,51 to 2,48;
• in the case of steel sheeting cover the safety coefficient decreases to 0,24 (<
1,0); a collapse is to be expected.
Conclusions
1. In the allowable stress method any progress in information is difficult to be
considered because all parameters affecting the reliability of the structure are
included in the unique safety coefficient c.
2. Taking into account the above remarks, at present most of the codes replaced
the allowable stress method by the limit state method, which is a semi-
probabilistic method.
2.3. PROBABILISTIC ANALYSIS OF RELIABILITY
2.3.1. Probabilistic bases
A more rational approach to analyse the problem of structural safety is a

probabilistic one. In such a model of analysis, all the parameters whose uncertainty
can influence the reliability of structures, especially those ones concerning
resistance and loads, are considered as random variables.
2.3.2. Resistance randomness
The strength capacity R(s) of a structural member with respect to a certain

internal force S (N, M, Q) may be expressed in a general form by:
R(s ) = f (Ω, Rc ) ( 2.4 )
38
where Ω is the cross-sectional characteristic corresponding to the internal force S,

i.e.:
n=40S
fi=1,0xm
=294.35s=(D D
=
77
)0,5
=
24.6
.1
304
72
5
Ω=A for members in tension;
Ω=W for members in bending.
For industrially fabricated steel structural members, the cross sectional
characteristic Ω may be considered as a deterministic value. The yield stress c
must be considered as a random variable.

The following steps are to be followed to define the random variable x = c:
• consider the results on a sample of n = Σni tensile specimen tests (i.e. n values of
yield stress c);
• according to the values given in table 2.1, draw the histogram in figure 2.3,
noticing that the normalized area of any rectangle on the histogram represents
the ratio:
ni n
fi = = i ( 2.5 )
n ni
where ni is the number of samples satisfying the condition:

c,i <x≤ c,i +∆ c ( 2.6 )
where ∆ c = 20 N/mm2 as shown in figure 2.3.
Table 2.1. Example of values of the yielding limit c
Calculation
Results association Frequency of • mean value xm (N/mm2)
results • dispersion D (N2/mm4)
Interval Absolute Relative
Interval of
central ni fi fi xi (xi – xm)2 fi (xi – xm)2
association
values xi
220 ÷ 240 230 20 0.05 11.5 4140.923 207.0461
240 ÷ 260 250 19 0.0475 11.875 1966.923 93.42882
260 ÷ 280 270 59 0.1475 39.825 592.9225 87.45607
280 ÷ 300 290 140 0.35 101.5 18.9225 6.622875
300 ÷ 320 310 101 0.2525 78.275 244.9225 61.84293
320 ÷ 340 330 40 0.1 33 1270.923 127.0923
340 ÷ 360 350 21 0.0525 18.375 3096.923 162.5884
39
0.4 35%
25%
0.3
0.2 15%
10%
5% 5% 5%
0.1 0
0
220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360
Fig. 2.3. Histograms corresponding to the values in table 2.1
It is to observe that any rectangle fi represents the relative frequency of the

results (simple probability) and in this case the normalized area of the whole
histogram is:
fi = 1 ( 2.7 )
• calculate the mean value:

n
xm = fi ⋅ x i ( 2.8 )
i =1
(for the case in table 2.1, xm = 294N/mm2)

• calculate the dispersion:
n
fi ⋅ (x i − x m )
2
D = s2 = ( 2.9 )
i =1
(for the case in table 2.1, D = 746N2/mm4)

• calculate the standard deviation:
n
fi ⋅ (xi − xm )
2
s= ( 2.10 )
i =1
(for the case in table 2.1, s = 27,3N/mm2)

The values xm and s define the random variable.
The histogram in figure 2.3 may be represented by the normal (Gaussian)
function of probability density described by (Fig. 2.4):
2
1 x −xm
1 − ⋅
f (x ) = ⋅e 2 s
( 2.11 )
s ⋅ 2π
The characteristic value of the yield stress c may be defined in a probabilistic
manner by the following relation:
σk = σm − k ⋅ s ( 2.12 )
40
Codes usually accept k = 2, which represents a probability of 2,28% (inferior

fractil p) that the yield stress will not be inferior to k. It means:
σk = σm − 2s ( 2.13 )
The fractil p is defined as that value of the yield stress for which there is a probability
p for the yield stress to be inferior to that value.
By noting:
s
v= ( 2.14 )
xm
where v is the coefficient of variation, equation (2.13) becomes:
σk = σm (1 − 2v ) ( 2.15 )
f(x)
0.016
0.014
0.012
0.01
0.008
0.006 inferior fractil
0.004 ( p = 2.28% )
0.002
x= c
0
k ks
m
Fig. 2.4. Gaussian function of probability density for the yielding limit randomness
2.3.3. Force randomness
The internal force S(Fk) in a certain cross-section of a structural member, with

regard to the type of load and the structural model of calculation, may be written as:
S(Fk) = Ψ(L) ( 2.16 )
where:
L represents the acting loads;
Ψ are formulas derived from accepted principles of structural model of calculation.
Example:
For a simply supported beam, the maximum bending moment is:
41
q ⋅ D2
F = Mmax =
8
In this case, the load L = q is considered to be the random variable:
x=L=q
D2
Ψ (x ) = ⋅x
8
A histogram may be drawn in the same way as described for steel randomness,
determining the mean value Fm and the standard deviation s for loads (Fig. 2.5).
f(F)
0.02
0.015
0.01
superior fractil
0.005
F
0
Fm ks
Fk
Fig. 2.5. Gaussian function of probability density for force randomness
Accepting the formula Ψ as deterministic, equation (2.16) becomes:

S(Fk) = S(L) ( 2.17 )
The characteristic value Fk, depending on the loads, may be written as:
Fk = Fm + k ⋅ s ( 2.18 )
Codes usually accept k = 1,645, corresponding to a 5% probability for the value Fk to
be exceeded (superior fractil p).
2.3.4. Safety analysis
Basically, to assess the safety of a structure in the probabilistic concept

means to check that the probability p of exceeding a given limit state is not greater
than an a priori chosen probability pu, depending on the consequences of reaching
that limit state (Fig. 2.6).
p ≤ pu ( 2.19 )
42
f(S)
0.02 f(R) f(S) f(R)
0.015
0.01
0.005
S, R
0
Fig. 2.6. Example of safety analysis P
2.3.5. Probabilistic methods
Basically, three methods are to be considered:

• the semi-probabilistic method (level 1);
• the reliability index β method (level 2);
• the exact probabilistic method (level 3).
2.3.6. The semi-probabilistic limit states method (level 1)
2.3.6.1. Limit states
A limit state can be defined as the situation when one of the criteria
governing the design performance of the structure is no more fulfilled.
There are two categories of limit states:
1. ultimate limit states, which are related to the maximum carrying capacity of the
structure (or part of the structure). It is to consider here:
• strength capacity;
• loss of equilibrium;
• formation of plastic mechanism;
• general and/or local stability.
43
2. serviceability limit states, which refer to the normal use of the structure. The
following are to be considered:
• deformations affecting the use, appearance or efficiency of the structure;
• local damage (local buckling in some cases, cracks in weld seams, etc.);
• vibrations able to lead to resonance phenomena.
2.3.6.2. Actions
An action (F) is any cause producing internal efforts S (meaning N, M or Q)

and deformations ∆ (f, θ or γ). Actions (F) can be classified:
1. by their origin:
• direct actions – forces (loads) applied on the structure;
• indirect actions – imposed deformations (temperature effects, support
settlements, etc.)
2. by their time variation (according to the Romanian code of actions):
• permanent (Pi) – they act continuously, practically with the same intensity, during
the entire lifetime of the structure (e.g. self-weight of the structure (dead loads));
• quasi-permanent (Ci) – they act at high intensity for long periods, or they act very
frequently (e.g. some quasi-fixed fittings or equipment);
• variable (Vi) – their intensity varies with time or they can miss for long periods
(e.g. imposed (live) loads, wind action, snow action, etc.);
• exceptional (Ei) – they act very rarely during the lifetime of the structure (e.g.
seismic action, explosions, etc.).
3. by their spatial variation:
• fixed actions – position and direction never change (e.g. self-weight);
• free actions – changes may occur in value, position or direction (e.g.
imposed loads, wind load, snow load, seismic action, etc.).
4. by their nature and/or the structural response:
• static actions – action that does not cause significant acceleration of
the structure or structural members;
• dynamic actions – action that causes significant acceleration of the
structure or structural members.
44
2.3.6.3. Design values of actions
The design value Fd of an action is expressed by:

Fdi = ni ⋅ Fi ( 2.20 )
where:
Fi is the characteristic value of that action (2.18);
ni is the partial safety factor for the action Fi, being Fi = (Pi, Ci, Vi, Ei).
2.3.6.4. Load combinations (combinations of actions)
1. According to the Romanian code STAS 10101/0A-77, two design situations are
considered:
• Fundamental combination
ni ⋅ Pi + ni ⋅ Ci + ng ⋅ ni ⋅ Vi ( 2.21 )
• Special combination
Pi + Ci + nid ⋅ Vi + E1 ( 2.22 )
In equations (2.21) and (2.22):

ng is a factor taking into account the probability of simultaneous action of a
number of variable actions (Vi) at their highest intensity:
• ng = 1 for one Vi;
• ng = 0,9 for two or three Vi;
• ng = 0,8 for four or more Vi.
ni is a factor representing the long lasting part of a variable action; nid < 1.
d
The ultimate limit states are usually examined considering the effects of the
design values of actions, while for serviceability limit states the characteristic
values of actions are generally used.
2. Structural EUROCODES is a programme for establishing a set of harmonised
technical rules for the design of construction works in Europe. In a first stage,
they are intended to be an alternative to the national design codes and in the
end, they will replace the national rules. The Structural Eurocode programme
comprises the following standards, each one consisting of a number of Parts:
45
EN 1990 Eurocode 0: Basis of structural design

EN 1991 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures
EN 1992 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures
EN 1993 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures
EN 1994 Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures
EN 1995 Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures
EN 1996 Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures
EN 1997 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design
EN 1998 Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance
EN 1999 Eurocode 9: Design of aluminium structures
The design situations to be considered according to EN 1990 [10] are:
• persistent situations, related to the normal use of the structure;
• transient situations, which can appear during construction or repair;
• accidental situations, like storm, fire action etc.;
• seismic situations (earthquakes).
According to the European code [10], three types of combinations of actions are
to be considered when designing steel members:
• For persistent and transient design situations, the most unfavourable of:
G, j ⋅ Gk, j ⊕ P ⋅P ⊕ Q,1 ⋅ 0,1 ⋅ Qk,1 ⊕ Q,i ⋅ 0,i ⋅ Qk,i ( 2.23a )

j ≥1 i >1
j ⋅ G, j ⋅ Gk, j ⊕ P ⋅P ⊕ Q,1 ⋅ Qk,1 ⊕ Q,i ⋅ 0,i ⋅ Qk,i ( 2.23b )

j ≥1 i >1
• for accidental design situations

Gk, j ⊕ P ⊕ A d ⊕ ( 1,1 or 2,1 )⋅ Q k ,1 ⊕ 2,i ⋅ Qk,i ( 2.24 )
j ≥1 i >1
• for seismic design situations

Gk, j ⊕ P ⊕ A Ed ⊕ 2,i ⋅ Qk,i ( 2.25 )
j ≥1 i >1
In relations (2.23), (2.24), (2.25) the meanings are as follows:

= “the combined effect of”;
⊕ = “combined with”;
Gk,j = characteristic value of permanent action j;
P = relevant representative value of a prestressing action;
Qk,1 = characteristic value of the leading variable action 1;
46
Qk,i = characteristic value of the accompanying variable action i;

Ad = design value of an accidental action;
AEd = design value of seismic action A Ed = I ⋅ A Ek ;
AEk = characteristic value of seismic action;

I = importance factor, given in EUROCODE 8 [11];
G,j = partial factor for permanent action j;
P = partial factor for prestressing actions;
Q,i = partial factor for the variable action i;
0 = factor for combination value of a variable action;
1 = factor for frequent value of a variable action;
2 = factor for quasi-permanent value of a variable action;
= a reduction factor for unfavourable permanent actions G.
The value for and factors may be set by the National annex. Some examples
of recommended values of factors for buildings are given in table 2.2.
Table 2.2. Examples of recommended values of factors for buildings [10]
Action 0 1 2
Imposed loads in buildings:
Category A: domestic, residential areas 0,7 0,5 0,3
Category B: office areas 0,7 0,5 0,3
Category D: shopping areas 0,7 0,7 0,6
Category E: storage areas 1,0 0,9 0,8
Category H: roofs 0,0 0,0 0,0
Snow loads on buildings (Finland, Iceland, Norway, 0,7 0,5 0,2

Sweden)
Wind loads on buildings 0,6 0,2 0,0
Temperature (non-fire) in buildings 0,6 0,5 0,0
3. According to the American codes ASCE 7–98 [3] (the latest version is from 2002)
and LRFD [4], the following combinations shall be investigated:
47
1,4 ⋅ (D + F )
1,2 ⋅ (D + F + T ) + 1,6 ⋅ (L + H) + 0,5 ⋅ (L r or S or R )
1,2 ⋅ D + 1,6 ⋅ (L r or S or R ) + (0,5 ⋅ L or 0,8 ⋅ W )
1,2 ⋅ D + 1,6 ⋅ W + 0,5 ⋅ L + 0,5 ⋅ (L r or S or R ) ( 2.26 )
1,2 ⋅ D + 1,0 ⋅ E + 0,5 ⋅ L + 0,2 ⋅ S
0,9 ⋅ D + 1,6 ⋅ W + 1,6 ⋅ H
0,9 ⋅ D + 1,0 ⋅ E + 1,6 ⋅ H
being:
D = dead load (Pi + Ci)
F = load due to fluids with well-defined pressures and maximum heights
Fa = flood load
H = load due to lateral earth pressure, ground water pressure or pressure
of bulk materials
L = live load (Vi imposed loads)
Lr = roof live load
W = wind load
S = snow load
T = self-straining force
E = earthquake load
R = rain water or ice
2.3.6.5. Material design properties
The design value d of a material property is generally defined as:
d = k
( 2.27 )
M
where:
k = characteristic value of the considered material property;
γM = partial safety factor for the considered material property.
For the design strength R of a structural steel, equation (2.27) becomes:
σk
R= ( 2.28 )
γM
being σk = σm ⋅ (1 − 2 ⋅ v ) (see equation (2.15)).
48
2.3.6.6. Ultimate limit state
In the limit state method (also called the method of extreme values), the
probabilistic condition in equation (2.19) p < pu is replaced by:
Sd ≤ Rd ( 2.29 )
which means that the maximum probable internal design effort Sd does not exceed
the minimum probable design resistance capacity Rd. In equation (2.29):
Sd = S(niFi) is the internal design effort, calculated using design values of actions
and taking into account respectively the load combinations in eqs.
(2.21) and (2.22) or (2.23), (2.24) and (2.25) or (2.26), depending on
the code;
d = (Rk/γM) is the corresponding design resistance, calculated using the

design strength of steel.
Example 2.3.
Size the bottom chord of the truss in example 2.1 according to the Romanian
codes, using OL37 with R = 220 N/mm2 (Fig. 2.7).
q
Lt = 10m
h = 3m N
L = 24m

Dead load (D): Dead load (D):
• cover concrete slab: 3,0kN/m2 • steel sheeting cover: 0,1kN/m2
• steel structure weight: 0,4kN/m2 • steel structure weight: 0,3kN/m2
D = 3,4kN/m2 D = 0,4kN/m2
• snow load: 1,2kN/m2 • snow load: 1,2kN/m2
D 3,4 D 0,4
ns = 2,2 − 0,4 ⋅ = 2,2 − 0,4 × = 1,07 ns = 2,2 − 0,4 ⋅ = 2,2 − 0,4 × = 2,07
S 1,2 S 1,2
49

p = ndD + nsS = p = D + L = 0,4 + 1,2 =
= 1,1 × 3,4 + 1,07 × 1,2 = 5,02 kN/m2 = 1,1 × 0,4 + 2,07 × 1,2 = 2,92 kN/m2
q = p ⋅ Lt = 5,02 × 10 = 50,2 kN/m q = p ⋅ Lt = 2,92 × 10 = 29,2 kN/m
Bending moments (M)
q ⋅ L2 50,2 × 242 q ⋅ L2 29,2 × 242
M= = = 3614,4kNm M= = = 2102,4kNm
8 8 8 8
Axial efforts (N)
M 3614,4 M 2102,4
N= = = 1204,8kN N= = = 700,8kN
h 3 h 3
Cross-section shapes
120 × 120 × 12 A = 55 cm2 100 × 100 × 10 A = 38,4 cm2
Strength check
N 1204,8 × 103 N 700,8 × 103
σ= = = 219 N mm2 < R σ= = = 182,5 N mm2 < R
A 55 × 10 2 A 38,4 × 102
Remarks
1. The 150×150×12 shape sized by the allowable stress method could be
reduced to 120×120×12.
2. The 80×80×8 shape sized by the allowable stress method must be increased to
100×100×10.
2.3.6.7. Serviceability limit state
The most common serviceability limit state to be checked is the deformation

check. It will be verified that:
∆d ≤ ∆a ( 2.30 )
where:
∆d = ∆(Fi) is the design deformation, calculated using the characteristic (nominal)
values of actions;
∆a is an allowable deformation given in codes or requested by the owner.
50
2.3.6.8. Conclusive remarks
1. At present, the limit state method is the design method provided in most of the
important codes.
2. It represents a more accurate model compared to the allowable stress method
because it separates the material randomness from the load randomness and it
accepts different approaches for different types of loads.
2.3.7. The reliability index β method (level 2)
In a general form, equation (2.29) becomes at limit:

Sd = Rd ( 2.31 )
Equation (2.31) may be written:
• in the subtract model Rjanitin – Cornell as:
E = Sd – Rd = 0 ( 2.32 )
• in the logarithmic model Freudenthal – Rosenblueth as:
Sd
E = ln =0 ( 2.33 )
Rd
In equations (2.32) and (2.32) E = 0 is the reliability function, expressing (Fig. 2.8):
• E < 0 : safety range;
• E > 0 : unsafe range;
• E = 0 : the border between safety and unsafe range.
Xj
fE
Unsafe range
E>0
Safety space E
range E×sE
E<0 Xi
mE
limit hypersurface E = 0
Xn
Fig. 2.8. The reliability index β method (level 2)
51
In the case of a simple internal effort S (= N, M or Q), the reliability index βE is

defined as the reverse of the coefficient of variation vE of the function E:
1 m
βE = − =− E ( 2.34 )
vE sE
Equation (2.34) may be written as:
mE + βE ⋅ sE = 0 ( 2.35 )
In equations (2.34) and (2.35) mE and sE are the mean value and, respectively, the
standard deviation of the function E.
Figure 2.8 shows the physical significance of the reliability index βE which
represents in hyper-space E the distance calculated in standard deviations sE
between the point with the abscissa mE and the point with the abscissa E = 0,
located on the random hyper-surface which defines the border between safe and
unsafe behaviour, corresponding to a certain probability pu = p(βE).
The properties of the main statistic characteristics for two variables, X1 and
X2, are given in table 2.3.
Table 2.3. Main statistic characteristics
Y mY DY vY
X1 mX1 DX1 vX1
C C 0 0
C⋅X1 C⋅mX1 C2⋅ DX1 vX1
m X1 ⋅ v X!
X1 ± C mX1 ± C DX1
m X1 ± C
m2X1 ⋅ v 2X1 + m2X 2 ⋅ v 2X 2

X1 + X2 mX1 + mX2 DX1 + DX2
m X1 + m X 2
X1 – X2 mX1 – mX2 DX1 + DX2 m2X1 ⋅ v 2X1 + m2X 2 ⋅ v 2X 2

m X1 − m X 2
X1 ⋅ X2 mX1 ⋅ mX2 m2X1 ⋅ D X1 + m2X 2 ⋅ D X 2 v 2X1 + v 2X 2
1
X1 / X2 mX1 / mX2 ⋅ m2X 2 ⋅ D X1 + m2X1 ⋅ D X 2 v 2X1 + v 2X 2
m2X 2
52
For the two models presented above, the reliability index β , taking into
account the relations in table 2.3, becomes:
mR − mS
βS − R = ( 2.36 )
DR + DS
mR
ln
mS
β S = ( 2.37 )
ln
R v R2 + v S2
Table 2.4 shows a correspondence between the index β and the probability pu of
losing the safety for βS–R (S and R – normal distributions) and βlnS/R respectively (S
and R – lognormal distributions).
The American code provides the βlnS/R index (2.37) and the following targets
were selected:
β=3 for members under dead + live and/or snow loading
β = 4,5 for connections under dead + live and/or snow loading
( 2.38 )
β = 2,5 under dead + live + wind loading
β = 1,75 under dead + live + earthquake loading
Table 2.4. Correspondence between the index β and the probability pu
pu βS–R; βlnS/R βS–R; βlnS/R pu
10-1 1,29 1,0 1,59 × 10-1
10-2 2,33 1,5 6,68 × 10-2
10-3 3,09 2,0 2,27 × 10-2
10-4 3,72 2,5 6,21 × 10-3
10-5 4,27 3,0 1,35 × 10-3
10-6 4,75 3,5 2,33 × 10-4
10-7 5,20 4,0 3,17 × 10-5
10-8 5,61 4,5 3,40 × 10-6
10-9 6,00 5,0 2,90 × 10-7
10-10 6,35 5,5 1,90 × 10-8
53
Example 2.4.
Calculate the index βS–R and βlnS/R for the beam in figure 2.9:
q
I24; W y = 354cm3
L = 6m
q ⋅ L2
M=
12
Given:
• for the loading:
• mean value: mq = qm = 20kN/m
• variation factor: vq = 0,1
• for the steel in use:
• mean value: mRc = Rm = 294N/mm2
• dispersion: DRc = 744N2/mm4
Calculate for the loading q (S):
mM mq ⋅ L
2
20 × 60002
mσ = = = = 169,5 N mm2
W 12 ⋅ W 12 × 354 × 10 3
Dq = m2q ⋅ v 2q = 20 2 × 0,12 = 4 N2 mm 4
2
L2 L2 6000 4
Dσ = D ⋅q = ⋅ Dq = × 4 = 287,3 N2 mm 4
12 ⋅ W 12 ⋅ W 12 × 354 × 10
2 2 6
Dσ 287,3
vσ = = = 0,1
mσ 169,5
Calculations for the material (R):
mRc = 294N/mm2
DRc = 744N2/mm4
DRc 744
vσ = = = 0,093
mRc 294
Calculate the index βS–R (2.36):
54
mR − mS m − mσ 294 − 169,5
βS − R = = Rc = = 3,877 > 3,0
DR + DS DRc + Dσ 744 + 287,3
Calculate the index βlnS/R (2.37):
mR mRc 294
ln ln ln
mS mσ 169,5
β S = = = = 4,033 > 3,0
ln
R v R2 + v 2S 2
v Rc + vσ
2
0,093 2 + 0,12
Remarks
1. In this method, the general condition p ≤ pu (2.19) is replaced by:
β ≥ βu ( 2.39 )
which expresses the condition E > 0 (S > R); βu is a risk a priori accepted.
2. At present, this method is used especially to calibrate the partial safety factors in
the limit state method and the coefficients ni in the load combinations; in the
future it is to be expected that the index β method will replace the limit state
method.
3. In order to improve the index β method two tendencies are to be observed in
scientific works:
• a more adequate location of points on the hyper-surface E = 0;
• an extension of the method to various non-normal distributions.
2.3.8. The probabilistic method (level 3)
In this method the reliability analysis is based on the general condition p ≤ pu

(2.19), where p is the probability of E > 0, being:
E(S1, S2 , , Sn; R1, R2 , , Rn ) = 0 ( 2.40 )
a function of random variables Si and Ri and pu an accepted risk, depending on the
consequences.
At present this method is used only in scientific works.
55
56
3. STRUCTURAL STEEL
Chapter 3
STRUCTURAL STEEL
3.1. MATERIALS
Figure 3.1 shows, in term of diagram σ–ε (stress–strain), the behaviour of

various materials in the process of loading and unloading.
A A A
B
O (a) O (b) O (c)
A A A’
A A’
– B’ B
O
B B
O O
(d) (e) A’’’ A’’
–
(f)
Fig. 3.1. Models of behaviour diagrams
Figure 3.1a shows a typical linear elastic behaviour. Loading and unloading follow
the same straight line O – A – O. The elastic deformation disappears just after
unloading. The diagram in figure 3.1b is a non-linear elastic behaviour. The elastic
deformation disappears just after unloading, but the loading and unloading line is no
longer straight, even it remains the same for both processes. Figure 3.1c shows a
viscous behaviour. Loading follows a curve (O – A), while unloading goes on a
different path (A – B – O). The plastic deformation disappears in time (B – O). The
57
3. STRUCTURAL STEEL
diagram in figure 3.1d is a typical elasto-plastic behaviour. Loading follows a path

(O – A) which is different from the unloading one (A – B). Unloading goes on a
straight line, the elastic deformation is removed, but the plastic deformation is kept.
Figure 3.1e shows a bilinear elasto-plastic behaviour. Loading (O – A – A’) and
unloading (A’ – B) follow different straight lines. The elastic deformation is removed,
but the plastic deformation is kept. Structural steel is generally modelled as bilinear
elasto-plastic symmetrical material, having a large yielding plateau (Fig. 3.1f).
3.2. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE
More than 70 elements in the Mendeleyev Periodic System are metals. Metals
form, together with their alloys, a large multitude of substances, having very diverse
properties. In spite of this diversity, the energy spectrum of electrons in metals
represents the common characteristic that allows all metals to be described from a
single standpoint. Metals and their alloys possess a crystalline structure formed by a
crystalline lattice (Fig. 3.2), where the atoms are placed in the knots of the lattice.
Fig. 3.2. Types of crystalline lattice of steel
The crystal structure of a metal is not strictly periodical in each given instant of time,
because of oscillating motion of some quasi-free valence electrons (Paulus model) in
the lattice. The polarization of the surrounding atoms occurs in the electric field of
these electrons. Atoms become dipoles (i.e. a system with two electric charges +q,
–q) and the interaction of dipoles creates the metallic bond, expressed by attraction
forces between sufficiently distant atoms in the lattice. The greater the number of
valence electrons is, the greater the strength of the metallic bond is.
When molten metal solidifies, the crystallization process begins around some
centres of crystallization (Fig. 3.3). Every centre grows up and so, when the
solidifying process comes to the end, a lot of crystallites called grains appear.
58
3. STRUCTURAL STEEL
beginning advanced close to final

Fig. 3.3. Scheme of the crystallization process
The crystal structure of iron, as a theoretic pure metal, consists of ferrite

grains (αFe). Iron is a mild and very plastic material ( c = 120 N/mm2; u = 250 ÷ 330
N/mm2, εu = 50%), with a non-linear diagram σ–ε (Fig. 3.4).
high alloy steel
low alloy steel
perlite
ferrite
U
Y F (failure)
E carbon steel
P
u
fy iron
e
p
Fe
arctg E
~18% ~30% ~50%

y 0,2%
Fig. 3.4. Behaviour diagrams
Carbon steel is an iron-carbon alloy, with a carbon percentage limited at 0,15

÷ 0,25%.
Remarks concerning the chemical composition:
1. Each percentage of 0,1% increases the ultimate stress ( u) by 80 ÷ 90 N/mm2
and the yield stress (fy) by 40 ÷ 50 N/mm2.
2. The carbon percentage must be limited at 0,25%, since a percentage superior to
that dramatically diminishes the strain at rupture εu (= εr) and unfavourably affects
weldability.
59
3. STRUCTURAL STEEL
3. The carbon steel grade (0,15% < %C < 0,25%) called mild steel, which is a very
largely used structural steel, is characterised by the following:
• the crystalline structure is composed of ferrite-perlite grains;
• the ferrite grains give a very good plasticity εu (= εr) ≅ 25%;
• the perlite grains (perlite = a mechanical mixture of six parts of ferrite and
one part of cementite – Fe3C), containing an average percentage of
0,90%C, give a good resistance;
• the behaviour is perfectly linear elastic up to the limit of proportionality σp
(point P on σ–ε diagrams) and it is defined by the linear law of Hooke
σ = E⋅ε ( 3.1 )
perlite grains restrain the tendency of ferrite grains to deform plastically;
• the behaviour is still elastic in the range P – E on σ–ε diagrams up to the
elastic limit (point P), but it is no longer linear;
• in the elastic range, the form of the lattice is modified under loading but the
distances between atoms remain in the limit of the full active metallic bond
and thus, after unloading, the lattice regains its initial form (Fig. 3.5);
a a+ 1a
a a – 2a
P P
Fig. 3.5. Elastic deformation of the crystalline structure
• at point Y mild steel undergoes yielding i.e. a large elongation horizontal

plateau, without any increase of the stress;
• plastic deformation is a shear irreversible one (Fig. 3.6); a complete tensile
test puts in evidence these phenomena (Fig. 3.7);
Fig. 3.6. Shear deformation of the crystalline structure
60
3. STRUCTURAL STEEL
A0
d0
L0
Au
F F
Lu = L0 + L
Fig. 3.7. Tensile test of a standard specimen
A0 = initial cross-section area of the specimen;

d0 = initial diameter of the cross-section of the specimen;
L0 = initial distance between gauge points;
Au = minimum (ultimate) cross-section area of the specimen after failure;
Lu = final distance between gauge points;
Lu − L 0 ∆L
εr = εu = × 100 = × 100% ( 3.2 )
L0 L0
• after yielding, a new internal equilibrium is to be made up in a typical strain

hardening (line Y – U) i.e. for a deformation ∆2 > ∆1 a force F2 > F1 is
necessary;
• at point U, the σ–ε diagram falls away and stops at the elongation value εu
(= εr), called the ultimate elongation at rupture, which corresponds to the
specimen breaking;
4. The σ–ε diagram outlines the typical qualities of a structural steel:
• Plasticity = property to keep a total or partial plastic deformation;
εultimate
• Ductility = plastic quality appreciated by the ratio ;
εplastic
• Tenacity = property to keep large deformation before failure, under great

forces;
61
3. STRUCTURAL STEEL
5. The Prandtl model is usually accepted for the stress–strain diagram (σ–ε) in order
to simplify calculation (Fig. 3.8).
real
Prandtl
fy
Fig. 3.8. The Prandtl model for steel behaviour
Low alloy structural steel is steel alloyed with manganese, which has the
quality to increase the ultimate stress and the yield stress, without an important
diminution of plasticity. The percentage of Mn is limited for structural steel to
1,7÷1,8%, because it favours fragility.
Remarks
1. A percentage of 0,22÷0,25%C increases the yield stress from fy = 120 N/mm2 (of
iron) to fy =240 N/mm2 and it diminishes the strain at rupture εu from 50% to 25%.
2. A percentage of 0,20÷0,22%C together with a percentage of 1,3÷1,5Mn increase
the yield stress of a high strength low alloy steel to fy = 360÷400 N/mm2 and they
diminish the strain at rupture εu to the limit allowed for structural steel, i.e.
15÷20%.
3. Generally, an increase of steel strength is associated with decrease of ductility.
4. Quite recently, the Luxemburg steel manufacturer ARBED succeeded in
producing a structural steel that increases the values of the yielding limit fy. It is a
new technology, called QST (Quenching and Self Tempering):
• after the last rolling pass, an intense water cooling is applied to the whole
surface of the shape, so that the skin is quenched (Fig. 3.9);
62
3. STRUCTURAL STEEL
water
Entry QST Bank Quenching Self Tempering

1600°F ≅ 871°C 1100°F ≅ 593°C
Fig. 3.9. The idea of the QST process
• cooling is interrupted before the core is affected by quenching and the outer
layers are tempered by the flow of heat from the core to the surface, during
the temperature homogenization phase.
Due to its metallurgical principle, without increasing the percentage of alloying
elements, it results:
• a high yield strength (fy ≅ 500 N/mm2) without a decrease of εu strain;
• an excellent weldability.
For some necessities, as well as for high strength bolts, high alloy steels are
produced with great ultimate (tensile) strength (fu = 800÷1000 N/mm2) and high yield
stress ( 0,2 = 640÷900 N/mm2) but with a poor ductility.
3.3. STEEL MAKING
Steel making is a hearth-process, based on the refining principle. The molten

blast-furnace iron is saturated with carbon, about 4% by weight. By heating, this
molten metal (the melt temperature of steel is superior to that of iron) and, by
introducing oxygen (Fig. 3.10), carbon in excess is reduced in the refining process
and furnace iron is transformed in steel. In most of the steel-making procedures, the
primary reaction is the combination of carbon and oxygen to form a gas. If oxygen in
excess is not removed (by adding ferrosilicon, aluminium, etc.) the gaseous product
63
3. STRUCTURAL STEEL
FeO continues to evolve during solidification. This oxide (FeO) is very dangerous,
because it makes steel fragile. In the Romanian codes there are three qualities:
• not killed steel – poorly deoxidized (n);
• killed steel – deoxidized (k);
• strongly killed steel – strongly deoxidized (with aluminium or silicon) (kf).
Killed steels are characterised by a relatively high degree of uniformity in
composition and properties. Low alloy steels are always killed.
Oxygen lance
Burned gases Burner Gas or liquid fuel
Molten furnace iron

Fig. 3.10. Simplified scheme of the steel making process
Silicon increases the strength of steel and favours the formation of a fine grain
structure. Aluminium is a good deoxidiser.
Sulphur and phosphorus, impurities that result in the steelmaking process,
must be limited in structural steel at about 0,05% each, since they unfavourably
affect steel fragility.
3.4. ROLLING PROCESS INFLUENCE
Most of the products for steel construction are obtained by hot rolling process.
Basically, the hot rolling process consists of passing, in several steps, of a steel bar
through a certain space determined by two shaped rolling cylinders which rotate in
contrary directions (Fig. 3.11) realizing both the advance of the bar and the changing
of its shape from one step to another (Fig. 3.12).
t1 t2 < t1
Fig. 3.11. Simplified scheme of the hot-rolling process
64
3. STRUCTURAL STEEL
1st step 2nd step 3rd step final step

Fig. 3.12. Simplified scheme of the steps to realise a hot-rolled product
The temperature and the timing of the process are controlled. Every passing
between rolling cylinders produces the self-strain hardening (H) of steel (grains are
broken and pressed) and every period between two passings allows the tendency
(R) of recrystallization (grains tend to return to their initial form). Finally, a much more
compact structure with fine grains is obtained and, as a result, both the yield stress
and the ultimate strength increase (Fig. 3.13).
T H1 (hardening)
1000÷1200°C
R1 (recristallization) 1st step
Hi
Ri ith step hardening
Hfinal
Rfinal
600÷800°C
Gfinal Ginitial G (magnitude of grains)
Fig. 3.13. Simplified scheme of grains evolution during hot-rolling
It is important to note that the increase in strength depends on the thickness

of the material, i.e. the less the thickness is the greater the yield stress and the
ultimate strength are.
The rolling process is very important in increasing both the ultimate and the
yield strengths. Two steels with the same chemical composition have different
strengths, depending on the metallurgical process.
65
3. STRUCTURAL STEEL
3.5. RESISTANCE AGAINST BRITTLE FRACTURE
Under some circumstances, plastic qualities of a structural steel can be

unfavourably affected. That is especially the case of:
• dynamic loading;
• low temperature.
Under such circumstances, plastic deformations do not develop and brittle fractures
occur. A brittle fracture is characterised by a sharp unexpected fracture, without
previous plastic deformation. The tendency to brittle fracture, called toughness, is
appreciated by a pendulum test (Fig. 3.14). A special hammer breaks a typical
specimen under a mechanical work L equal to:
L = G⋅(h1 – h2) ( 3.3 )
where G is the weight of the hammer which drops from the height h1 and, after
producing the rupture of the specimen, rises to the height h2. The mechanical work L
(3.3), measured in Joules, characterizes the resistance to brittle fracture. Codes
require a minimum value of 27J in order to provide a good behaviour.
55 10
10
2 h1
45°
Charpy specimen
(V notch) h2
Fig. 3.14. Simplified scheme of the toughness test
Toughness is strongly unfavourably influenced by low temperatures (Fig. 3.15).

Mechanical work (J)
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
27J
Transition temperature
Temperature (°C)
0
1
3
5
7
9
-9
-7
-5
-3
-1
5
3
1
9
7
5
3
1
11
13
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
-2
-2
-2
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
Fig. 3.15. Variation of the mechanical work L with temperature
66
3. STRUCTURAL STEEL
Codes define the transition temperature (T) (Fig. 3.15) as the temperature
below which toughness decays to an unacceptable value.
3.6. INFLUENCES OF TEMPERATURE ON THE PROPERTIES OF STEEL
Mechanical properties (E, c (fy), u (fu), δu) vary with temperature (Fig.3.16).
It is to notice that:
• up to T = 100°C there are no significant changes;
• for T > 200°C u (fu) and c (fy) decrease dramatically while δu increases;
Young’s modulus (E) also decreases; as a result, the resistance of steel
structures to fire is an important problem and special measures are necessary;
• for T < 0°C u (fu) and c (fy) increase but, as it was showed before, the fragility
of steel increases.
1.000
0.800
fy,θ
k fy,θ =
fy
0.600
Eθ
k E, θ =
E
0.400
σp,θ
k σp,θ =
σp
0.200
0.000 (ºC)
20 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Fig. 3.16. Variation of some mechanical properties of steel with temperature
3.7. FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR
Fatigue tests show the lowering of mechanical strength after a cycle of stress
having an oscillating intensity in time (Fig. 3.17).
67
3. STRUCTURAL STEEL
constant alternate
max
max
max
max
min min time

min
min
Fig. 3.17. Types of loading cycles
In the elastic range, the variation of fatigue stress σ0 depends on (Fig. 3.18):
• the type of loading cycle (Fig. 3.17);
• the designed details.
O
n (number of cycles)
106 3 × 106 6 × 106
Fig. 3.18. Wöhler diagram
In modern codes, the fatigue stress is defined with regard to (Fig.3.19):

• the range of stresses: ∆σ = σmax – σmin, where compression is (–);
• the designed details.
parent metal
(log( ))
butt weld
n (log(n))
4 5 6 7 8
10 10 10 10 10
Fig. 3.19. ∆σ–n diagrams depending on the designed details
68
3. STRUCTURAL STEEL
∆σR
∆σ ≤ ( 3.4 )
γMf
where:
∆σR = fatigue strength;
γMf = 1,25,..., 1,35 partial safety factor.
In the plastic range the fatigue stress largely depends on the magnitude of the
plastic deformations. The phenomenon is called low cycle fatigue.
The number n of critical cycles may be determined according to:
log(n) + 2,4 ⋅ log( ) = −1,83 ( 3.5 )
It results:
ε = ±5% n = 20
ε = ±1% n = 933
ε = ±0,5% n = 4926
ε = ±0,3% n = 16785
The following experimental values were obtained:
• fracture at 650 cycles for ε = 1%;
• fracture at 16 cycles for ε = 2,5%.
The fatigue behaviour in the plastic range is a very important phenomenon for
buildings in seismic zones.
3.8. CORROSION
In contact with atmosphere, structural steel corrodes. Rust FeO (iron-oxide) is

formed, whose volume is twice grater than the corroded pattern material, and so the
material deteriorates.
Protection against corrosion is typical for steel structural members and may
be realised:
1. by painting, containing:
• one or more primer coatings;
• two or more coloured paint coatings.
Painting is the most common rust-preventing method.
2. by galvanizing and electro-zinkage (zinc plating), typical for corrugated sheets;
69
3. STRUCTURAL STEEL
3. using non-corrosive steel;

4. using stainless steel.
3.9. SHAPES
3.9.1. General
Steel structures design is based on the use of:

1. standard profiles, obtained by hot rolling process (Fig. 3.20):
IPE, W, UB HEA, HEB, HEM, UC IPN UPN UAP
L, LNP L, LNP IPET, HEAT, HEBT
hollow sections
ROR RHS, MSH, TPS, RAUTA, VHP

Fig. 3.20. Standard profiles
2. built-up sections, obtained by welding hot rolled plates (Fig. 3.21):
Fig. 3.21. Built-up cross-sections
70
3. STRUCTURAL STEEL
3. thin-walled cold-formed shapes, obtained by bending cold rolled thin plates or

sheets (Fig. 3.22):
Fig. 3.22. Cold-formed shapes
The most recent works tend to consider in calculation the actual structural
elements, with their structural and geometrical imperfections, that is a tendency to
abandon the ideal perfect bars.
The following aspects are to be considered:
• structural imperfections of the material;
• geometrical imperfections of the structure.
3.9.2. Structural imperfections
The most important structural imperfections of steel structural members are:

• the presence of residual stresses;
• the non-homogeneity of mechanical properties over the cross-section.
3.9.2.1. Residual stresses
At the end of the rolling process the temperature is equal to approximately

600°C. The exposed parts (the flange edges and mid web) tend to cool faster than
the area around the flange to web joints. As a result, the complete cooling of the
most exposed parts precedes the cooling of the flange to web joint areas, which
remain hot for a longer period. This produces self-balanced residual stresses, whose
distribution on the cross-section depends on the shape of the section (Fig. 3.23).
Tests showed that residual stresses can be great enough, especially in jumbo
sections ( res = 0,5 c ... c).
71
3. STRUCTURAL STEEL
(+)
(–) (–)
(+)
(–)
(+)
Fig. 3.23. Example of distribution of residual stresses
Remarks
1. Great residual stresses also appear in welded built-up sections.
2. Residual stresses are less important in cold-formed sections.
3.9.2.2. Non-homogeneity of mechanical properties
Non-homogeneity of mechanical properties is a result of many factors but the

most important one is the difference in thickness between web and flange, in hot
rolled shapes as well as in welded ones.
In cold-formed sections an important increase of the yielding limit (fy) and of
the ultimate strength (fu) occurs in the corner areas as a result of the hardening due
to the bending (or rolling) process (Fig. 3.24).
strength rolling bending initial plate
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
fu increase
4 5 due to
3 6 cut down
2 7 fy
1 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 fibre
Fig. 3.24. Increase of mechanical properties in the corner areas
72
3. STRUCTURAL STEEL
3.9.3. Geometrical imperfections
The most important problems to be considered are:

• variation of cross-section properties (A, I, W) along the member;
• mid-span initial deflection (f0);
• load eccentricity (e0).
Tests on different shapes proved that the variation of cross-section properties
along the member is very poor, so they may practically be considered as
deterministic variables.
Generally, the mid-span deflection f0 is described by the ratio f0/L (L being the
span). The statistical distribution of f0/L looks like the one in figure 3.25.
n
actual
L
f0
f0/L ×10 -3
0,2 0,7 1,0
Fig. 3.25. Statistical distribution of the mid-span deflection f0
Codes usually accept a value f0 equal to:

L
f0 = ( 3.6 )
1000
The load eccentricity e0 can be designed or accidental and, depending on the
values, it may be neglected or not in calculation.
3.10. STRUCTURAL STEEL REQUIREMENTS
In order to provide good elasto-plastic behaviour and for technological

reasons, structural steels shall comply with the following requirements (Fig. 3.26):
73
3. STRUCTURAL STEEL
• a high strength, appreciated by a yield stress fy ≥ 235 N/mm2 and fu/fy > 1,2;
• a quite large yielding plateau;
• an adequate tenacity ( = property to keep large plastic deformation before failure
under great forces), appreciated by εu ≥ 15% and εu ≥ 20εy;
• a good resistance against brittle fracture, appreciated by the fracture energy
KV(+20°C) ≥ 27J;
• a good weldability, i.e. the property of steel to be welded in normal conditions.
fu
fy
y u
Fig. 3.26. Typical behaviour diagram of structural steel
Remarks
1. The high strength is the major advantage of steel, relative to the strength of other
common structural materials: wood, masonry, concrete, etc. Unlike masonry and
concrete, which are weak in tension, steel is strong both in tension and
compression.
An image of the strength of steel is given by the ratio:
R
cL = ( 3.7 )
γ
A physical meaning of this factor is the greatest length of a bar whose cross-
section is able to support its self-weight.
N ⋅V R
= =R =R ⋅L = R L=
A A
In these relations:
R – design strength of steel;
74
3. STRUCTURAL STEEL
– weight per unit volume of steel;

N – axial force generated by the self-weight of the bar;
A – area of the cross-section of the bar;
V – the volume of the bar;
– normal stress on the most loaded cross-section of the bar.
Here are some values of this factor (cL) for different materials:
• ordinary structural steel: 2800 ÷ 4000 m;
• aluminium alloys: 2500 ÷ 10000 m;
• reinforced concrete in compression: 100 ÷ 1300 m;
• glass fibre: 96000 ÷ 184000 m;
• carbon fibre: 150000 ÷ 210000 m.
2. The capacity of steel to yield is a fundamental requirement for structural steel:
a) Residual stresses result from the fabrication process both in rolled profiles
and in welded built-up structural members (Fig. 3.27). The tendency to
shorten of the warmer flange to web joint is braked by the other fibres of the
cross-section. Consequently, once cooling completed, the flange to web joint
remains in tension, while the other parts are in compression. Residual
stresses, in tension and in compression, are self-balanced on the cross-
section.
Fig. 3.27. Example of residual stress distribution
b) Figures 3.28 and 3.29 show the effects of residual stresses on a loaded
structural member in tension and in bending, respectively.
75
3. STRUCTURAL STEEL
= res + N
Fig. 3.28. Influence of residual stresses on a tensioned member
= res + M
Fig. 3.29. Influence of residual stresses on a member in bending
It is to note that the stress distribution according to the theory is strongly

affected by the existing residual stresses.
c) For the members in figures 3.28 and 3.29 the evolution of the total stress
σ = σres + σN (or σM) ( 3.8 )
in the bottom flange is examined in figure 3.30 (the phenomena in the bottom
flange are the same for the member in tension or in bending).
It is to observe (σF = σN or σM):
• when σF ≤ fy – σres all fibres behave in the elastic range (Fig. 3.30a, b);
• when fy – σres < σF ≤ fy some fibres behave elastically and some plastically
(Fig. 3.30c);
• when σF = fy all fibres behave plastically (Fig. 3.30d).
76
3. STRUCTURAL STEEL
σ
σ = σres + σF
σF
a)
σres b)
c)
d)
Fig. 3.30. Evolution of the total stress in the bottom flange
As a result:
• the uniform stress distribution in the bottom flange, usually accepted in
current design, is a conventional one (it is correct only in the final state,
when σF = fy);
• the elastic behaviour in the meaning no plastic deformation after unloading
is real only for the entire section as a whole, or when σF is insignificant;
• in order to allow all fibres to reach the yield stress, steel used for structural
members must possess a large plastic yielding plateau. When this
fundamental requirement is not satisfied, the material has a fragile
behaviour and a fragile rupture is to be expected in the moment when in a
single fibre, the most stressed one, the stress reaches its ultimate strength
value (like cast iron, glass, etc.).
d) The good plastic behaviour is also fundamental in the situations of a structural
member in tension with an important hole (Fig.3.31) or in the case of a
structural member in tension with a non-homogeneous cross-section.
77
3. STRUCTURAL STEEL
σ σ
σmax
σmin σaverage
σ σ
Fig. 3.31. Stress distribution around a hole in a member in tension
3. An adequate tenacity and the avoidance of brittle fracture are fundamental

requirements for a structural steel in order to create the possibility to transform
the structure into a plastic mechanism (Fig.3.32), able to dissipate energy. The
capacity to dissipate energy is a very important requirement for a structure
situated in seismic regions when it is subjected to severe earthquake motions.
Fig. 3.32. Example of plastic mechanism for a structure during earthquake
4. A good weldability in normal conditions is an important requirement in order to

avoid an uneconomical cost of fabrication.
The above qualities of a structural steel result from:
• chemical composition and crystalline structure;
• the process of steel making;
• the rolling process influence.
78
3. STRUCTURAL STEEL
3.11. STRUCTURAL STEEL GRADES
Table 3.1 shows the main characteristics for the most common Romanian
structural steel grades, according to STAS 500/2–80.
Table 3.1. Main characteristics for some Romanian steel grades
Steel type Nominal Ultimate Ultimate Yield strength σc Material

steel tensile elongation factor
grade strength Design strength R
δ% γm = σc/R
σr (N/mm2)
(N/mm2) thickness t (mm)
t ≤ 16 16 < t≤ 40
Carbon OL37 360 ÷ 440 25...26 240 230 1,09
steel
220 210
High OL44 430 ÷ 540 22...25 280 270 1,08
strength
260 250
low
alloyed OL52 510 ÷ 630 21...22 350 340 1,11
315 300
Remarks
1. Steel grades with fine grains (OCS) are fabricated for special welded structures.
2. Corrosion resistant structural steels (RCA, RCB) and stainless steels (ORC) are
fabricated for special use.
The unified European pre-standard EUROCODE 3 [2] uses the steel grades
defined in the European standard EN 10025:1990+A1:1993 [5]. This standard was
adopted in Romania as SR EN 10025:1990+A1:1994 [6]. Although there is a good
correspondence between the steel grades defined by STAS 500/2–80 and the ones
described in [5] and [6], an exact equivalence is not possible.
Steels used in [2] are designated as follows (EN 10027–1).
Table 3.2. Example of steel grade designation according to EN 10027–1
Letter Figure Symbol 1 Symbol 2
example S 355 J2
Letter S for structural steel
Figure Minimum value of the yielding limit in N/mm2 for the lowest range of
thickness
Symbol 1 Fracture energy in Joules for a given temperature, defined as follows:
79
3. STRUCTURAL STEEL
Table 3.3. Definition of the fracture energies
°C 20 0 –20 –30 –40 –50 –60
27 J JR J0 J2 J3 J4 J5 J6
40 J KR K0 K2 K3 K4 K5 K6
60 J LR L0 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6
Symbol 2 Obtaining mean of steel:

M: thermo mechanical
N: normalised or by normalising rolling
Q: quenched and tempered
G: other characteristics followed by 1 or 2 digits if necessary.
Table 3.4. shows examples of values of some mechanical characteristics for the
most common structural steel grades contained in [5].
Table 3.4. Mechanical characteristics for some steel grades contained in [5]
Steel grade Thickness (mm)

t ≤ 40mm 40mm < t ≤ 80mm
Ultimate Yielding Ultimate Yielding
strength fu strength fy strength fu strength fy
(N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2)
S235 360 235 340 215
S275 430 275 410 255
S355 510 355 490 335
The partial factors γM are applied to the various characteristic values of resistance as
follows:
• resistance of cross-sections to excessive yielding, including local buckling γM0;
• resistance of members to instability assessed by member checks γM1;
• resistance of cross-sections in tension to fracture γM2;
• resistance of joints special provisions.
The values of the partial factors γM may be defined in the National Annex. The
following numerical values are recommended for buildings:
γM1 = 1,0
γM2 = 1,25
80
4. CONNECTING DEVICES
Chapter 4
CONNECTING DEVICES
4.1. GENERAL
Connecting devices for steel structures are:

• Welds – are largely used in fabrication of structural members in shops;
• Bolts – are largely used in assembling structural members on the field;
• Rivets – at present they are practically abandoned due to their complicate
technology and high cost.
4.2. WELDING
4.2.1. General
Welding is a technological process that realizes the junction of the members

of a structure into a monolithic elastic network.
To execute a weld, one needs:
• a heat source;
• some adequate additional material.
The weld seam results after local melting in the area of welding (Fig. 4.1). A
number of welding passes, called weld layers, are necessary.
heat source additional material
parent metal weld layer (seam)
solidified weld molten pool

Fig. 4.1. Scheme of a welding process
81
The integrity of the welded structure depends on its ability to deform

plastically during fabrication, erection and service. The ability of the welded structure
to deform plastically, avoiding brittle failure primary depends upon:
1. weldability of steel;
2. welding procedure selection;
3. avoidance of notches both in design and fabrication;
4. adequate quality control and inspection.
4.2.2. Weldability
Weldability is defined as “the capacity of a metal to be welded under

fabrication conditions imposed into a specific suitably designed structure and to
perform satisfactorily in the intended service life”.
Weldability is largely depending on the reaction of steel to the drastic heating
and cooling cycle of arc welding. Three of the most important steel properties that
influence weldability are:
• the chemical composition;
• the structural grain size;
• the thickness of the material.
Chemical composition. The brittleness that steel may reach after rapid cooling from
high temperature is directly proportional to the carbon content. In order to avoid
brittle failure of the welded structure it is necessary:
• to limit the content in carbon to 0,20 ÷ 0,22%;
• to limit the content in carbon of the additional material to 0,08,..., 0,12%.
Structural grain size. There is a linear relationship between the ferrite grain size and
the Charpy transition temperature between ductile and brittle behaviour; the greater
the grain size is the greater the transition temperature is. Weldability also varies with
grain size meaning it is favoured by a reduced grain size.
High heat input welds show a larger grain size than the same process at a
lower heat input, because they provide a slower cooling rate. That is why
recommendations usually limit the thickness of a weld layer at about 6mm. A
subsequent pass will refine the grains of a previous pass.
82
Thickness. Because of their greater mass, thick plates extract heat from the weld
area and cool the weld more rapidly than the same weld on thin plates. As a result,
weldability is affected. There are two possibilities to avoid a tendency to brittle
fracture:
• to limit the thickness of plates;
• to pre-heat the pieces and to hold them at a temperature of a few hundred
degrees before the welding operation.
Conclusions:
Weldability is increased by:
• low carbon content;
• fine grain size;
• restricted low thickness;
and, conversely, is reduced by:
• high carbon content;
• coarse grain;
• big thickness.
4.2.3. Structural welding process and materials
Fusion welding processes vary largely, according to the applied heat source
and to how the molten pool is protected against atmosphere. The most common
welding processes used in commercial structural steel fabrication are:
1. Manual shielded metal arc process (Fig.4.2)
The heat source is the electric arc formed between the electrode and the
parent metal. The developed heat produces a quick melting of the external
coatings of electrodes containing aluminium, silicon and other deoxidizers, which
protect the area surrounding the arc and the weld pool. This process is widely
applicable to any kind of welds.
2. Submerged arc process (Fig.4.3)
The heat source is the electric arc formed between the electrode and the
parent metal. The protection of the weld pool, better as in the shielded arc
process, is provided by a granulated deoxidizer flux automatically thrown in
83
advance and at the same speed of the welding process. This procedure is highly
productive for long weld seams.
electrode additional material
protective gas coating
protecting slag direction of travel

solidified weld
metal arc
(weld deposit)
parent metal weld pool (molten pool)

Fig. 4.2. Scheme of the manual shielded metal arc process
recovered flux
bar electrode
(continuous wire)
metal arc
direction
of travel molten pool
flux feed line

granular flux
parent metal
slag solidified weld (weld deposit)

Fig. 4.3. Scheme of the submerged arc process
3. Gas shielded metal arc process (GMAW - Gas Metal Arc Welding) with
consumable electrode (MIG and MAG). The arc protection is provided by an
inert gas (MIG) or by a chemically active gas (MAG). This procedure is used in
welding mild steel and low alloy steel.
4. Gas shielded metal arc process with non-consumable electrode. The arc is
produced between a tungsten element and the parent metal. The protection is
provided by argon. This procedure is used especially for welding stainless steel
or aluminium alloys.
84
5. Electro-slag welding is a special procedure to weld very thick steel parts with
only one pass in a vertical position.
4.2.4. Metallurgic phenomena in the welding process
Essentially, there are three metallurgic phenomena:

1. A hard zone appears in the parent metal near the weld seam, which can lead to
so-called cold cracking (Fig. 4.4). The origin of this phenomenon is assigned to
the hydrogen absorbed by the weld material in the molten state. The tendency to
brittle cracks may be moderated by pre-heating the part to be welded and by
using electrodes with basic coating.
hardness
cracks
2 … 6mm
Fig. 4.4. Scheme of the material structure near a weld seam
2. Lamellar tearing is a separation or a crack in the base metal, caused by

through-thickness weld shrinkage stairs (Fig. 4.5). It is a result of the reducing of
ductility in the through-thickness direction, which can be lower than in the
conventional longitudinal tests.
lamellar tearing
Fig. 4.5. Lamellar tearing
85
3. Hot cracking can occur in the molten area. These cracks form during the
solidification process and they are explained by the presence of some impurities
solidifying at a lower temperature than steel (Fig. 4.6).
Fig. 4.6. Hot cracks
4.2.5. Thermal phenomena in welding process
The heating-cooling cycles during welding produce (Fig. 4.7):

• internal stresses (residual stresses);
• deformations (Fig. 4.8).
The greater deformations are the lower stresses are.
res = (0,5 … 1,0) × fy steel plate
longitudinal shrinkage weld seam
Fig. 4.7. Residual stresses and residual deformations
Fig. 4.8. Example of residual deformations after welding
86
4.2.6. Welding positions
The most common welding positions are shown in figure 4.9.

1. Flat position
butt welds fillet welds

2. Horizontal position
3. Vertical position
4. Overhead position
Fig. 4.9. Welding positions
Flat position requires the simplest technology. The overhead position is the
most complicated one.
87
4.2.7. Weld details
In order to avoid unfavourable weld details, the following are recommended:

1. Avoid overwelding (Fig. 4.10). This requires the use of an appropriate weld
size, not larger than the one given by calculation.
OK NO
oversized weld
(too much heating)
Fig. 4.10. Example of oversized weld seam
2. Avoid asymmetry (Fig. 4.11).
desirable
notch effect
Fig. 4.11. Example of asymmetric weld seams
3. Avoid lamellar tearing (Fig. 4.12). Lamellar tearing means failure of a hot rolled
plate or of a hot rolled shape because of cracks formed along the rolling direction.
These cracks create separation plans among longitudinal fibres.
lamellar desirable
tearing
Fig. 4.12. Example of details that may favour lamellar tearing
88
4. Avoid susceptible details (Fig. 4.13). Some details might favour lamellar tearing
or brittle fractures.
susceptible details improved details
Fig. 4.13. Examples of susceptible details and improved ones
5. Avoid weld fatigue (Fig. 4.14). Any change in section should be “stream-lined”.
“stream line”
NO YES “stream line”
Fig. 4.14. Example of “stream-lined” details to avoid fatigue and brittle fractures
4.2.8. Welding defects
Welding defects are:

• cracks – the worse defect;
• blow holes – metallurgic defect;
• lack of penetration;
• porosity;
• slag inclusions.
89
4.2.9. Weld inspection methods
1. Visual Test (VT)

It is the most economical test. The magnifying glass detects surface
imperfections, porosity, slag, cracks, irregularities, etc.
2. Dye (Liquid) Penetrant Test (DPT) (Fig. 4.15)
This test uses a red dye penetrant applied to the work from a pressure spray can.
subvisible red penetrant excess visible

crack applied in excess removed indication
white developer
applied
Fig. 4.15. Dye penetrant test
3. Magnetic Particle Test (MPT) (Fig. 4.16)

A magnetizing current is introduced over a dry red magnetic powder. This
induces a magnetic field in the work that will be distorted by any cracks or
inclusions, located on or near the surface.
current
red dry
powder
Fig. 4.16. Magnetic particle test
This method will indicate surface defects, like fine cracks not to be observed by
liquid penetration (cracks filled with slag, difficult for liquid to penetrate).
4. Radiographic Test (RT.)
Radiographic testing is basically an X-ray film process. Internal defects may be
put in evidence (porosity, blow holes, slag inclusions, cracks appear as darker
stains (spots) on the film).
90
5. Ultrasonic Test (UT)

The ultrasonic inspection process is analogous to radar. The method is based on
the variations in reflections due to differences in acoustic properties (pulse echo)
caused by defects (at the boundary).
4.2.10. Strength of welded joints
In the Romanian code STAS 10108/0–78 [7] there are two important types of
weld seams, with respect to their behaviour and to their design models:
• butt welds;
• fillet welds.
end lap weld seams corner weld seams overlapping

weld seams
butt weld seams fillet weld seams
Fig. 4.17. Classification of weld seams according to STAS 10108/0–78 [7]
The main difference is that in this model butt welds behave like parent material, while
fillet welds resist always by shear stresses τ.
Checking a welded connection generally consists of the following steps:
1. Establishing the design cross-section and its geometrical characteristics;
2. Reducing loads in the centre of gravity of the cross-section;
3. Establishing the stress distribution on the cross-section;
4. Checking the seam in the most loaded points.
The beginning and the end of a weld seam are generally weak zones. That is
why they are neglected when establishing the strength of the joint. In order to avoid
91
“losing” a part of the seam, it is possible to use some additional pieces from where to
start and to end welding. These pieces are made of copper (Fig. 4.18). In the end
they are cut down and the entire seam is reliable. The use of additional pieces is
compulsory for butt welds.
cutting line additional plates
Fig. 4.18. Example of using additional plates
Weld seams are noted on drawings according to SR EN 22553 (ISO 2553).
4.2.10.1. Butt welds
The design cross-section of the weld seam must be established before any
design procedure.
a a
a a
Fig. 4.19. Dimensions of a butt weld seam
A s = a ⋅ Ld ( 4.1 )
L d = L − (2 ⋅ a) ( 4.2 )
a – the throat (effective thickness); it is equal to the thickness of the thinner

joined member (Fig. 4.19);
Ld – the design length of the seam; it is obtained by deducing the bad parts of the
seam from the actual length L (4.2); if additional plates are used it is equal to
the actual length of the seam (Fig. 4.19).
92
1. Butt weld subjected to axial force (N) (Fig. 4.20)

z
N N
Ld y y
z
a
Fig. 4.20. Butt weld seam subjected to axial force
The stress distribution is constant on the cross-section:

N
σ= ( 4.3 )
As
2. Butt weld subjected to shear force (T) (Fig. 4.21)
T T
t z
z
y y hw y y
Ld
tw
z a
t bz
T
T
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.21. Butt weld seam subjected to shear force
Generally, the stress distribution is a parabola described by Juravski’s relation:

T ⋅S
τ= ( 4.4 )
w ⋅ Iy
where:
S – static moment of the area of the part of the cross-section that tends to
slide in the point where is calculated;
w – width of the cross-section in the point where is calculated;
Iy – moment of inertia (second moment of the area) of the cross-section about
y-axis (axis normal to the shear force).
The maximum shear stress is obtained in the neutral axis (Fig. 4.21a), where the
static moment S has the maximum value:
93
T ⋅ Smax
τmax = ( 4.5 )
w ⋅ Iy
In cases where there is an important variation in the value of the width w of the
cross-section, Juravski’s relation describes a leap in the diagram and the
parabola is flattened. In these cases, a simplified distribution is accepted (Fig.
4.21b), considering that the entire shear force is resisted only by the web.
T
τ= ( 4.6 )
A sw
A sw = a w ⋅ h w ( 4.7 )
3. Butt weld subjected to bending moment (M) (Fig. 4.22)

z
M M
y y
Ld
z
a
Fig. 4.22. Butt weld seam subjected to bending moment
Generally, the linear stress distribution is described by Navier’s relation:

M
σ= ⋅z ( 4.8 )
Iy
where:
Iy – moment of inertia (second moment of the area) of the cross-section about
y-axis (axis normal to the plane of the bending moment).
z – the distance from the considered point to the neutral axis (in the plane of
the bending moment).
The maximum stress is obtained when z takes the greatest value:
M M
σmax = ⋅ zmax = ( 4.9 )
Iy Wy
where:
Wy – cross-section modulus about y-axis (axis normal to the plane of the
bending moment).
94
4. Butt weld connection subjected to axial force, shear force and bending moment
(N, T, M) (Fig. 4.23)
t
z N
N T
M M
T z*
N hw y y
M tw
t bz
Fig. 4.23. Butt weld seam subjected to axial force, shear force and bending moment
Solving the general problem given in figure 4.23 means using linear superposition
of relations (4.3) – (4.9) and checking the stress state in the most loaded points by
means of relations (4.10) – (4.12).
N M
σmax = σN ± σM = ± ⋅ z ≤ Rs ( 4.10 )
A s Iy
τT ≤ R sf ( 4.11 )
eq = ( N ± M )
2
+3⋅ 2
T ≤ Rs ; N = N ; M =
M
⋅z ( 4.12 )
Iy
When using relation (4.12), and must be calculated in the same point (z*) and in
the same loading situation.
The values of the normal design strength Rs and of the shear design strength Rsf
according to the Romanian code STAS 10108/0–78 [7] may be found in table 4.1.
4.2.10.2. Fillet welds
The profile of a fillet weld can have different shapes:
flat convex concave concave with

Fig. 4.24. Possible profiles of a fillet weld unequal legs
95
In the model used in the Romanian code STAS 10108/0–78 [7] the design thickness
of the cross-section of the seam is defined by the height of the greatest isosceles
triangle that can be inscribed in the cross-section of the weld seam (Fig. 4.25):
a a a a
Fig. 4.25. Design cross-section of a fillet weld seam
Once the thickness of the design cross-section (throat) established, the design
section of the weld seam is obtained by bringing the rectangles defined by relations
(4.13) and (4.14) in the plane of the connection.
A s = a ⋅ Ld ( 4.13 )
L d = L − (2 ⋅ a) ( 4.14 )
a – the effective throat thickness (Fig. 4.25) (design thickness of the cross-
section of the seam);
Ld – the design length of the seam; it is obtained by deducing the bad parts of the
seam from the actual length L (4.14); these parts are situated at each end.
The effective throat thickness a can be 25, 3, 35, 4, 5, 6, 7 ... mm and it generally
shall satisfy the following requirements (Fig. 4.25), (Fig.4.26a):
0,3 ⋅ t max ≤ a ≤ 0,7 ⋅ t min ( 4.15 )
For shapes like angles (Fig.4.26b) or channels (Fig.4.26c):

0,3 ⋅ t max ≤ a 2 ≤ 0,7 ⋅ t min ( 4.16 )
0,3 ⋅ t max ≤ a1 ≤ min(0,7 ⋅ t g; 0,85 ⋅ t p ) ( 4.17 )
a1
a a1 a2 a2
t1 tp tp
tg tg
t2
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 4.26. Geometric requirements for the effective throat thickness of fillet welds
96
where:
tg – thickness of the gusset;
tp – thickness of the shape (profile);
tmin – the minimum thickness of the connected elements (min ti).
There are also limitations for the length Ld of the weld seam (Fig. 4.27):
6 ⋅ a for plates
15 ⋅ a for hot − rolled shapes ( L , U )
≤ L d ≤ 60 ⋅ a (STAS 10108/0–78) ( 4.18 )
b
40mm
model stress distribution

real stress distribution
N b N
L a L
Fig. 4.27. Geometric requirements for the length of fillet weld seams
Depending on their position with respect to the main force, fillet weld seams
can be classified as:
• side (longitudinal) weld (Fig.4.28a);
• end (transverse) weld (Fig.4.28b);
• combined weld (Fig.4.28c).
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 4.28. Types of fillet weld seams
Combined welds are not recommended because of the different stiffness of side and
end welds, which generates a non-uniform behaviour of the connection. Tests
showed that fillet welds generally fail due to tangential stresses that are developed in
inclined planes at 45°. Following this, the design relations are as follows.
97
1. Fillet weld subjected to axial force

• when the force acts in the centroid line of the connection (Fig. 4.29)
N N
L a L Ld
Fig. 4.29. Axial force acting in the centroid line of a fillet weld connection
L d = L − (2 ⋅ a) ( 4.19 )
A s = 2 ⋅ a ⋅ Ld ( 4.20 )
N
τN = ( 4.21 )
As
• when the force acts with an eccentricity from the centroid line of the
connection (e.g. angles, channels, etc.) (Fig. 4.30)
a1 L Ld1
a1
e
N1
N N
b
N2
L a2 L a2 Ld2
Fig. 4.30. Axial force acting with an eccentricity by the centroid line of a fillet weld
L d1 = L − (2 ⋅ a1 ) ( 4.21 )
L d 2 = L − (2 ⋅ a 2 ) ( 4.22 )
A s1 = a1 ⋅ L d1 ( 4.23 )
A s 2 = a 2 ⋅ L d2 ( 4.24 )
b−e
N1 = N ⋅ ( 4.25 )
b
e
N2 = N ⋅ ( 4.26 )
b
98
N1
τN1 = ( 4.27 )
A s1
N2
τN2 = ( 4.28 )
A s2
2. Fillet weld subjected to shear force

• when the shear force acts together with a bending moment, Juravski’s relation
is used
T⋅S
τT = ( 4.29 )
w ⋅ Iy
or in cases where there is an important variation in the value of the width w of

the cross-section, the simplified relation (4.30) may be used, where Asw is the
area of the cross-section that resists the shear force (area of the web for I and
H shapes)
T
τT = ( 4.30 )
A sw
• when the shear force does not act together with a bending moment (a
“scissors-like” force or a force acting in the plane of the connection, in the
centre of gravity of the connection, on any direction), relation (4.31) is used,
where As is the total area of connection
T
τT = ( 4.31 )
As
3. Fillet weld subjected to axial force, shear force and bending moment acting
normally to the plane of the connection (Fig. 4.31)
element
cross-section 1 z N T M
T N 2
y y
M
connection design
cross-section
Fig. 4.31. Fillet weld connection subjected to moment acting normally on the plane
99
Solving the general problem given in figure 4.31 means using linear superposition
of the previously presented relations and checking the stress state in the most
loaded points, always keeping in mind that all stresses that are developed in a
fillet weld connection are shear ones.
N
τN = ( 4.32 )
As
T
τT = ( 4.33 )
A sw
or, by using the general relation (not a common situation)
T⋅S
τT = ( 4.33’ )
w ⋅ Iy
M
τM = ⋅z ( 4.34 )
Iy
M
max,M = ⋅ zmax ( 4.34’ )
Iy
The checks to be done are:

• in the farthest points away from the centre of gravity welded connection (point
1 in figure 4.31)
τN ± τM ≤ Rsf ( 4.35 )
• theoretically, in any point on the cross-section and especially at the edge of
the web for I cross-section, the geometric sum of stresses (point 2 in figure
4.31)
(τN ± τM )2 + (τT )2 ≤ Rsf ( 4.36 )
The values of the shear design strength Rsf for fillet weld seams according to the
Romanian code STAS 10108/0–78 [7] may be found in table 4.1.
4. Fillet weld subjected to axial force, shear force and bending moment acting in the
plane of the connection (Fig. 4.32)
According to the previously presented relations,
N
τN = ( 4.37 )
As
T
τT = ( 4.38 )
As
100
M
τ xM = ⋅z ( 4.39 )
Ix + Iz
M
τ zM = ⋅x ( 4.40 )
Ix + Iz
3
z z N xM
M
x N x x
a z
design
T cross-section
zM
Fig. 4.32. Fillet weld connection subjected to in-plane moment
Considering Rsf given in table 4.1 for fillet weld seams, the check to be made in
the farthest point away from the centre of gravity (point 3 in figure 4.32) is:
(τN ± τxM )2 + (τT ± τzM )2 ≤ R sf ( 4.41 )
In all the previously presented fillet weld connections whenever the seams are
doubled (they are situated on both sides of a plate), the areas and the moments of
inertia are doubled on the same geometric configuration.
Table 4.1. Strength of weld seams according to STAS 10108/0–78 [7]
Weld type Compression Tension Shear

Butt weld Rcs = R Ris = R for automatic welding, R sf = 0,6 ⋅ R
followed by non-destructive tests
Ris = 0,8 ⋅ R for manual welding
Fillet weld – – Rsf = 0,7 ⋅ R
R = design strength of the parent material
Whenever a connection contains in the same cross-section butt welds
and fillet welds, it is treated as a whole and only the checks differ, depending
on whether the checked point is situated on butt weld or on fillet weld.
101
4.3. BOLTS
4.3.1. General
The more general term “fasteners” includes bolts and rivets. The behaviour of
rivets is very much alike the behaviour of bolts and they are very rarely used today.
Bolts are connecting elements largely used on field at the erection stage when
structural members are to be assembled in order to realise a steel structure. Figure
4.33 shows a steel frame built on field using bolted connections.
Fig. 4.33. Example of steel frame built on field using bolted connections
Bolts used for structures generally consist of the following components:

• a metal cylindrical shank, partially threaded and having a head, usually
hexagonal (Fig. 4.34a);
• a nut, usually hexagonal (Fig. 4.34b);
• one or two washers, usually round (Fig. 4.34c).
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 4.34. Components of a bolt
A bolted connection results by twisting the nut until a firm contact is obtained
between the plates to be assembled (Fig. 4.35a). In bolted connections subjected to
102
vibration, spring washers (Grower) (Fig. 4.35b) or lock nuts (Fig. 4.35c) should be
used in order to avoid any loosening of the nuts.
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 4.35. Possible components of a bolted connection
4.3.2. Classification of bolts
Bolts can be classified as:

• normal bolts;
• high strength bolts.
Table 4.2 shows the mechanical properties of the most common bolts used in steel
structures.
Table 4.2. Main mechanical properties of the most common bolts [2]
Type Grade fub (N/mm2) fyb (N/mm2) εu (%) fkb (N/mm2)

4.6 400 240 22 240
Normal bolts 5.6 500 300 20 300
6.8 600 480 8 420
High strength 8.8 800 640 12 560
bolts 10.9 1000 900 9 700
fub is the minimum tensile strength determined on the entire bolt
fyb is the minimum yield stress determined on the entire bolt
εu is the ultimate strain
fkb is the characteristic strength value, equal to the lower between fyb and 0,7fub
The diameters in mm of the bolts usually used in steel structures are: 10, 12, 14, 16,
18, 20, 22, 24, 27, 30, 33, 36.
103
4.3.3. Behaviour and design resistance of bolts
4.3.3.1. Loading and tightening
The behaviour and the design resistance of bolts substantially depend on:
• loading type;
• tightening type.
Loading type. From the loading type point of view, bolts can be classified as:
• bolts loaded perpendicular to their axis (shear connections) (Fig.4.36a);
• bolts axially loaded (tension connections) (Fig.4.36b).
F/2 F/2 F/2

F
F/2
F/2 F/2
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.36. Loading types of bolts
Tightening type. Tightening can be:

• normal tight;
• controlled tight.
In both types of tightening, the bolt is introduced in a 2...3mm larger diameter hole.
Normal tight is defined as the tightness that exists when members to be connected
are in firm contact. This may usually be realised by the full effort of a man using an
ordinary wrench. The tightening produces a self-stress loading consisting of:
• tension in the bolt, balanced by compression in the plates (a certain friction also
results between plates in contact);
• a twisting moment in the bolt balanced by friction between the plate and the
washer and between this one and the nut.
Controlled tight is defined as the tightness corresponding to a fully pre-tensioned
bolt. The control of tightening refers to the preload force Nt to be induced in the
shank of the bolt by a twisting moment Mt applied to the nut (by using a calibrated
impact wrench or by using “turn-off the nut” method).
104
4.3.3.2. Behaviour of normal bolts in shear connections
Figure 4.37 shows the behaviour of a normal bolt in a shear connection.

shear force bearing pressure
F/2
F/2
model used for the

real stress distribution
stress distribution
Fig. 4.37. Stress distribution in a “bearing type” connection
The following states can be noticed when loading a bolted connection normally on
the axis of the bolt (Fig. 4.38):
• Phase 1 The bolt is generally introduced in a 2...3 mm larger hole and it is
normally tightened. A friction force Ff results between plates in contact. In this
phase, when loading, no relative displacement is noticed until the load F reaches
the friction limit Ff (Fig. 4.38).
F
Fu
Phase 4
Phase 3
Phase 2
Ff
Phase 1
L = L – L0
Fig. 4.38. Typical load – deformation curve for a usual “bearing type” connection
105
• Phase 2 When F = Ff, slipping of the joint begins under a force F practically
constant. Slipping stops when the contact shank – plates is realised.
• Phase 3 is characterized by an elastic behaviour, meaning that the
displacement ∆L is proportional to force F.
• Phase 4 is characterized by a plastic behaviour, i.e. large deformations occur for
a slight load increase and the joint fails at an ultimate value Fu.
Failure at the ultimate load can be one of the following:

1. collapse due to hole failure in bearing (Fig.4.39a);
2. collapse due to bolt failure in shear (Fig.4.39b);
3. collapse by shear failure of the connected plates (Fig.4.39c);
4. collapse by failure of plates in tension (Fig.4.39d).
F F F Longitudinal F
Bearing shear
failure of Shear failure of Plate
plate failure plate failure in
of bolt tension
e1 d
b
F/2 F/2 F/2 F/2
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 4.39. Typical failure modes for a usual “bearing type” connection
1. Bearing failure of plate (Fig.4.39a). Plate failure is a result of the bearing force
produced at the contact between the bolt and the plates in connection. The
bearing resistance of a bolt is:
Np,g = d ⋅ t ⋅ Rbp,g
( 4.42 )
Np,g = d ⋅ t ⋅ Rpb,g
min
where:
d is the nominal diameter of the bolt;
t is the smallest thickness of plates in contact;
t is the minimum value of the sum of the thickness of the plates which tend to
min
displace in the same direction;
106
Rk
Rbp,g = β ⋅ is the design strength calculated with:
γm
• Rk – the characteristic strength of plates (= fy);

• γm = 1,25 – partial safety factor of the material;
• β = 2,0 usually.
2. Shear failure of bolt (Fig.4.39b). The bolt fails in shear under a force per shear
plane (Nf,p) equal to:
π ⋅ d2 b
Nf ,p = A b ⋅ Rbf = ⋅ Rf ( 4.43 )
4
where:
Rbf is the shear design resistance of the bolt
0,6 ⋅ Rk
Rbf =
γm
• Rk – the characteristic resistance of the bolt;

• γm = 1,25 – partial safety factor of the material;
Ab is the cross-section area of the bolt equal to:
π ⋅ d2
• Ab = when the shear plane passes through the unthreaded part of
4
the bolt (d is the nominal diameter of the bolt);
⋅ d02
• Ab = when the shear plane passes through the threaded part of the
4
bolt.
dn + dm
dres = d0 = ≅ 0,89 ⋅ d (Fig. 4.40)
2
dn = diameter of the core of the shank;
dm = average diameter;
d = nominal diameter;
dres= resistant diameter.
dn dres dm d
Fig. 4.40. Cross-section of the bolt and the resistant area [12]
107
The design resistance in shear of a bolt is:

Nf = nf ⋅ Nf ,p = nf ⋅ A b ⋅ Rbf ( 4.44 )
where:
nf is the number of shear planes.
3. Longitudinal shear failure of plate (Fig.4.39c). In order to avoid shear failure of

plates, the following requirement should be satisfied:
d
e1 − ⋅ t ⋅ R f ≥ Nf ( 4.45 )
2
The minimum required edge distance e1 (Fig.4.39c) results from relation (4.45),
where Rf is the shear design strength of the material of the plate. The minimum
required edge distance e1 is generally given in codes (if eactual > e1 there is no
need to check the condition (4.45)). Usually, it is greater than two times the
diameter of the hole.
4. Plate failure in tension (Fig.4.39d). Generally, the elastic stress distribution

around a hole is the one given in figure 4.41a.
F F F
real
distribution
model
distribution
2c 1 1
2a d
t b
F/2 F/2
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.41. Stress distribution around a hole

If the hole is assumed to be an ellipse it can be proved that the maximum stress
is given by the following relation:
2a
σmax = σav ⋅ 1 + ( 4.46 )
c
where:
108
av – average stress in the plate;

a – half of the axis normal to the stress (Fig. 4.41a);
c – half of the axis along the stress (Fig. 4.41a).
In the special case of a circular hole, it results:
max = 3⋅ av ≤ fy (for structural steel) ( 4.47 )
Based on the good plastic properties of structural steel, which is a fundamental

requirement in this case, the simplified distribution given in figure 4.41b is
accepted. This leads to the following condition, according to the Romanian code
STAS 10108/0–78 [7]:
(b − d) ⋅ t ⋅ R ≥ F ( 4.48 )
where:
b – width of the plate that is being checked (Fig. 4.41b);
d – diameter of the hole (Fig. 4.41b);
t – thickness of the plate that is being checked (Fig. 4.41b);
R – design strength of the material of the plate;
F – axial force in the checked cross-section (1-1).
Remark The uniform stresses distribution which is assumed in calculus when
checking an element is unfavourably affected by the presence of the hole.
4.3.3.3. Behaviour of high strength bolts in slip connections
Tightening control refers to the pre-load force Nt to be induced in the shank of

the bolt by the twisting moment Mt applied to the nut. Codes generally accept an
empirical relation like the following one:
Mt = 0,2 ⋅ Nt ⋅ d ( 4.49 )
between the pre-load force Nt and the applied twisting moment Mt, where d is the
diameter of the bolt.
Based on the fact that the greater pressure is the greater the friction force is,
in order to obtain a maximum capacity of the connection, a maximum pre-load force
Nt needs to be applied. According to the Romanian code C133–82 [8], the pre-load
force should be:
Nt = k ⋅ A b ⋅ Rc ( 4.50 )
109
where:
k – behaviour factor;
k = 0,8 for 8.8 bolt grade;
k = 0,7 for 10.9 bolt grade;
Ab – area of the cross-section of the bolt in the threaded zone; it may be taken
from tables or it may be calculated using the approximate formulae:
π ⋅ d2s
Ab = ( 4.51 )
4
ds ≅ 0,89 ⋅ d ( 4.52 )
d – nominal diameter of the bolt;

Rc – yield strength of the bolt (fyb in table 4.2);
The pre-load force Nt may be practically obtained by:
• using a dynamometric wrench calibrating the required Mt;
• turning-off the nut tightening (after the first snug tight, an additional turning is
applied, representing an amount of a complete turn i.e. 0,25 to 0,75 turn).
An important friction appears between plates (Fig. 4.42) as a result of the tightening.
Under these circumstances, the slip resistance of a pre-loaded bolt is [8]:
Nf = m ⋅ nf ⋅ f ⋅ Nt ( 4.53 )
where:
m – working condition factor (it has the meaning of a partial safety factor);
m = 0,95 for static loading;
m = 0,85 for dynamic loading;
nf – number of friction (slip) interfaces;
f – slip factor; according to [8] it generally may be considered as:
f = 0,25 for cleaned surfaces without any brushing;
f = 0,35 for brushed surfaces using wire brushes or for burnt surfaces;
f = 0,50 for blasted surfaces;
Nt – the pre-load force.
The equation (4.53) shows that the slip resistance of a bolt increases when the pre-
load force Nt increases. Following this, a higher strength bolt allows a higher slip
resistance. It may be also noticed that the greater the slip factor f is the greater the
slip resistance is. A treatment of the surfaces in contact improves friction.
110
Nt friction forces
Nf/2 Nf/2
Nf Nf
Nf/2 Nf/2
Nt
Fig. 4.42. The basic principles of a slip connection
Figure 4.43 shows the general behaviour of a shear connection. It can be

noticed that the ultimate load Fu is the same for a given bolt and it corresponds to the
failure of a bearing type connection (which is produced by the lowest value between
the force that causes failure of the plates and the force that causes shear failure of
the bolt). The presence of the pre-load force Nt only increases the range of elastic
behaviour and it delays slipping but it has no practical influence on the ultimate
capacity of the connection.
F
Fu
Nf2
Nf1 pre-loaded slip connection
partially pre-loaded slip connection
normally tightened connection

L
Fig. 4.43. General behaviour of a shear connection
4.3.3.4. Behaviour of bolts in tension
Tension is applied on the bolt (Fig. 4.44) at the contact between one plate and
the head of the bolt (or the washer which is under the head) at one end and at the
111
contact between the other plate and the washer which is under the nut at the other
end. A bolt in tension fails in the most reduced cross-section, in the threaded zone of
the shank. The area of the cross-section of the bolt in this zone can be taken from
tables or it may be calculated using relations (4.51) and (4.52).
Fig. 4.44. Bolt in tension
4.3.3.5. Design resistance of bolts according to STAS 10108/0–78 [7], C133–82 [8]
1. Bolts in tension connections

Ncap,i = A b ⋅ Rbi ( 4.54 )
where:
Ab – area of the cross-section of the bolt (from table or using rel. (4.51));
Rbi – tension design strength of the bolt, as given in table 4.3.
2. Ordinary bolts in shear connections

Ncap,f = min(Np,g; Nf ,p ) ( 4.55 )
Np,g = d ⋅ t ⋅ Rpb,g ( 4.56 )

min
Nf ,p = A b ⋅ Rbf ( 4.57 )
where the terms are explained at relations (4.42) and (4.43) and values of the
design strength are given in table 4.3.
3. High-strength bolts in slip connections

Nf = m ⋅ nf ⋅ f ⋅ Nt ( 4.58 )
where the terms are explained at relation (4.53).
112
4. Bolts used in tension and shear connections

• Shear connections
Apart from checks using relations (4.54) and (4.55) for the capable forces, an
interaction check is needed. This check is based on the von Mises criterion.
NL
σ= ( 4.59 )
A
NT
τ= ( 4.60 )
A
σ2 + 3 ⋅ τ2 ≤ R ( 4.61 )
where:
NL – the force acting along the axis of the bolt;
NT – the force acting normal to the axis of the bolt;
A – area of the cross-section of the bolt; if shear occurs in the threaded zone of
the shank the reduced area given by relation (4.51) shall be used.
R – design strength of the steel grade of the bolt;
• Slip connections
The force NL reduces the pre-load Nt and it unfavourably affects the capacity of
the connection. The capable force is in this case:
(
Nf = m ⋅ nf ⋅ f ⋅ Nt − NL ) ( 4.62 )
Table 4.3. Design strength for bolts according to STAS 10108/0–78 [7]
Design Bolt grade Steel grade of plates

strength m
[N/mm2] 4.6 5.6 6.6*) OL37 OL44 OL52
Shear Rbf 0,6 130 160 180 – – –
Bearing Rbp,g 1,6 – – – 350 415 500
Tension Rbi 0,8 170 210 240 – – –

*) They are no longer in fabrication
4.3.4. Spacing of holes
In order to avoid failure of plates between neighbour holes and to prevent

corrosion between connected elements, codes usually give some limitations
113
concerning the spacing of holes for bolts and rivets. In the Romanian code STAS
10108/0–78 [7], they are as follows (Fig. 4.45):
3d0 ≤ e ≤ min(8d0 ;12t ) ( 4.63 )
2d0 ≤ e1 ≤ min(4d0 ;8t ) ( 4.64 )
1,5d0 ≤ e2 ≤ min(4d0 ;8t ) ( 4.65 )
t = min(t1; t 2 ) ( 4.66 )
where:
d0 – diameter of the hole;
e – spacing between centres of fasteners on any direction;
e1 – end distance from the centre of a hole to the adjacent end of any part,
measured parallel to the loading direction;
e2 – edge distance from the centre of a fastener hole to the adjacent edge of any
part, measured normally to the loading direction;
t – minimum thickness of exterior plates.
e1 e e e e1
e2
e2
t1
t2
Fig. 4.45. Spacing of holes
4.3.5. Categories of bolted connections according to EUROCODE 3
Table 4.4 presents a classification of bolted connections given in EC3 [2]:
114
Table 4.4. Categories of bolted connections according to EUROCODE 3 [2]
Shear connections
Category Criteria Remarks
A N ≤ Nf • No pre-loading required
bearing type N ≤ Np,g • No special provisions for surfaces treatment
• All grades 4.6 to 10.9
B Nserv ≤ Nf, serv • Pre-loaded high strength bolts
slip resistant at N ≤ Nf • No slip at serviceability limit state
serviceability state N ≤ Np,g • Surfaces treatment
C N ≤ Nf • Pre-loaded high strength bolts
slip resistant at N ≤ Np,g • No slip at ultimate limit state
ultimate state • Surfaces treatment
Tension connections
D • No pre-loading required
non-preloaded N ≤ Ni • No special provisions for surfaces treatment
• All grades 4.6 to 10.9
E N ≤ Ni • Pre-loaded high strength bolts
preloaded • No slip at ultimate limit state
• Surfaces treatment
4.3.6. Examples of calculation
4.3.6.1. General aspects
Checking a fastened connection generally consists of the following steps:

1. Establishing the design cross-section of the connection, that consists of points;
2. Reducing loads in the centre of gravity of the cross-section;
3. Establishing the load distribution on the cross-section;
4. Checking the most loaded fastener.
A force acting on any direction in the centre of gravity of the connection
uniformly distributes its effects on all fasteners in the connection. A moment acting in
the centre of gravity of the connection distributes its effects on each fastener
proportionally to the distance from that fastener to the centre of rotation. The first
three steps of the checking procedure are the same for all types of fastened
115
connections (rivets, bolted connections, slip connections). The influence of the type
of fastener appears only in the final step, when establishing the capable force.
4.3.6.2. Connection loaded only in its plane (Fig. 4.46)
z
Ni,M Nix,N Nix,M
ri
x N x x
T M
z
Niz,T
design cross-section
Niz,M
Fig. 4.46. Fastener connection loaded only in its plane
The force produced in a fastener i by the moment M (Fig. 4.46) is proportional

to the displacement i. This displacement is normal to the radius of the point, ri, and
it is proportional to that radius, considering a rotation .
i = ⋅ ri ( 4.67 )
As all fasteners are identical, they have the same stiffness K. The force Ni produced
by the moment in a fastener can be expressed as:
Ni = K ⋅ i = K ⋅ ⋅ ri ( 4.68 )
The moment is resisted by all the fasteners in the connection:
n
M= Nj ⋅ rj ( 4.69 )
j =1
where n is the number of fasteners in the connection.

Using relation (4.68) in relation (4.69), the following relations can be written:
n
M= K ⋅ ⋅ rj2 ( 4.70 )
j =1
116
M
K⋅ = n
( 4.71 )
2
rj
j =1
Following this, the force Ni produced by the moment in the fastener i is:
M
Ni = n
⋅ ri ( 4.72 )
2
r j
j =1
Based on the following notations:

ri2 = x i2 + zi2 ( 4.73 )
zi
Nix,M = Ni ⋅ ( 4.74 )
ri
xi
Niz,M = Ni ⋅ ( 4.75 )
ri
it can easily be proved that:
zi
Nix,M = M ⋅ ( 4.76 )
(x )
n
2
j +z 2
j
j =1
xi
Niz,M = M ⋅ ( 4.77 )
(x )
n
2
j +z 2
j
j =1
Ni = (N ) + (N )
x 2
i,M
z 2
i,M ( 4.78 )
It is obvious that the most loaded fastener is the one situated at the greatest distance
from the centre of gravity of the connection.
For the problem in figure 4.46:
N
Nix,N = ( 4.79 )
n
T
Niz,T = ( 4.80 )
n
Based on relations (4.76), (4.77), (4.79) and (4.80), the resultant force in the most
loaded fastener is obtained for the maximum value of ri:
Ni,max = (N x
i,N ) ( 2
+ Nix,M + Niz,T + Niz,M )
2
( 4.81 )
This force must be less than the capable force of the fastener:
Ni,max ≤ Ncap ( 4.82 )
117
Depending on the type of fastener, Ncap may be calculated using relation (4.55) for
rivets and bolts in ordinary shear connections or relation (4.58) for high-strength
bolts in slip connections.
4.3.6.3. Connection loaded normally on its plane (Fig. 4.47)
The model accepted by the Romanian code STAS 10108/0–78 [7] assumes
the end-plate as infinitely rigid. A force acting on any direction in the centre of gravity
of the connection uniformly distributes its effects to all fasteners in the connection.
The model used for calculating the efforts produced by a bending moment M
resembles to the one used for a reinforced concrete cross-section. A moment
equation should be written by the centre of compressions (Fig. 4.47b):
n
M= Nj ⋅ rj ( 4.83 )
j =1
Based on the infinite rigidity of the end plate assumption, efforts in each fastener are
proportional to the distance ei from that fastener to the neutral axis (Fig. 4.47b).
Ni = K ⋅ ei ( 4.84 )
where K is a constant.
Nix,N Niz,T Nix,M
x N
ei hi
M ri
T
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Fig. 4.47. Fastener connection loaded normally on its plane
118
These equations are hard to be handled, so a simplified approach is used: the

compression centre is on the same line with the rotation axis, which is situated on
the last line of fasteners (Fig. 4.47e). In this case:
ri = ei = hi ( 4.85 )
where hi is the distance from fastener i to the line of least tensioned fasteners (Fig.
4.47e). Under these circumstances, the force produced in a fastener i by the
moment M (Fig. 4.47e) is proportional to the fastener elongation li. This elongation
is proportional to the distance hi, considering a rigid body rotation .
∆li = ⋅ hi ( 4.86 )
As all fasteners are identical, they have the same stiffness K. The tension force Ni
produced by the moment in a fastener can be expressed as:
Ni = K ⋅ ∆li = K ⋅ ⋅ hi ( 4.87 )
The moment is resisted by all the fasteners in the connection:
n
M= Nj ⋅ h j ( 4.88 )
j =1
where n is the number of fasteners in the connection. Replacing (4.87) in (4.88), it

can easily be proved that:
n
M= K ⋅ ⋅ h2j ( 4.89 )
j =1
M
K⋅ = n
( 4.90 )
2
h j
j =1
Following this, the force Ni,M produced by the moment in the fastener i is (Fig. 4.47e):
M
Nxi,M = n
⋅ hi ( 4.91 )
2
h j
j =1
and it has the maximum value for the maximum distance hi. The forces produced by
the axial force N (Fig. 4.47c) and by the shear force T (Fig. 4.47d) are:
N
Nix,N = ( 4.92 )
n
T
Niz,T = ( 4.93 )
n
When solving the problem in figure 4.47a, there are basically three groups of
checks that need to be done:
119
A. Check in the longitudinal direction of the fastener (Fig. 4.47c), (Fig. 4.47e):
Ni,max = Nix,N + Nix,M max ( 4.94 )
Ni,max ≤ Ncap ( 4.95 )
where Ncap is calculated using relation (4.54).
B. Check in the plane of the connection (Fig. 4.47d):

Niz,T ≤ Ncap ( 4.96 )
where the transverse capable force Ncap is calculated using relation (4.55) for
rivets and bolts in ordinary shear connections. For high-strength bolts in slip
connections the following interaction checks apply.
C. Interaction check, depending on the type of fastener:

• Shear connections
A check based on the von Mises criterion is used. The normal stress and
the tangential stress are calculated in the shared cross-section of the
fastener. Relations (4.59), (4.60) and (4.61) are used.
• Slip connections
The longitudinal force in the bolt reduces the pre-load Nt and it unfavourably
affects the capable force. The capable force is in this case:
[ (
Nf = m ⋅ nf ⋅ f ⋅ Nt − Nix,N + Nix,M )] ( 4.97 )
If the end-plate stands on a support that is welded on the column, it is

considered that the shear force is directly transferred to this support and in-plane
checks are no longer necessary, as the fasteners do not carry this force.
120
5. DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
Chapter 5
DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
5.1. BASIS OF DESIGN
5.1.1. Design method
Generally, in most of the present day codes the design of structural steel
members is based on the limit states design method, as shown at title 2.3.6.1, taking
into account:
• ultimate limit states;
• serviceability limit states.
The application of this design method to steel structures presents some
particularities due to the particular behaviour of steel structures.
5.1.2. Stability of steel structures
Due to the high strength of structural steels, structural steel members are
slender ones. As a result, typically for steel structures, the ultimate limit state of
resistance, expressed by relation (2.29):
Sd ≤ Rd ( 5.1 )
must be checked as:
1. resistance of cross-sections:
Sd ≤ Rd ( 5.1a )
where:
Sd is the design value of an internal effort, calculated with factored loads;
Rd is the corresponding design resistance, calculated with the design strength.
2. buckling resistance of members:
Sd ≤ Rd,cr ( 5.1b )
121
where:
Sd is the design value of an internal effort, calculated with factored loads;
Rd,cr is the corresponding design buckling resistance.
5.1.3. Cross-section particularities
The most common cross-sections of steel structural members are developed

in the plane of the acting bending moment (Fig. 5.1). This is typical for metal
structural members and they are generally characterized by:
z z
Iy >> Iz
y y y y Wy >> W z
iy >> iz
z z
Fig. 5.1. Typical metal cross-section
As a result:
• all the strength, stiffness and stability requirements are to be satisfied by the
cross-section itself with regard to the strong axis y–y;
• some special means are to be considered with regard to the weak axis z–z;
• torsion rigidity is very poor, Ir ≅ 0; generally, metal structures are designed to
avoid torsion in such structural members;
• the slenderness of the web and the stresses in the compressed flange can lead
to local buckling (typical for metal members) affecting the load carrying capacity
of structural members; generally, local buckling can be:
• local buckling of flanges of members in compression (Fig. 5.2a);
• local buckling of the web of members in compression (Fig. 5.2b);
• local buckling of the compressed flange of members in bending (Fig. 5.2c);
• local buckling of the web of members in bending (Fig. 5.2d).
122
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 5.2. Local buckling
5.1.4. Classification of cross-sections
Depending on the stress state that causes local buckling, cross-sections of

structural members are classified as [2] (Fig. 5.3):
Class 1 – cross-sections that can form a plastic hinge with sufficient rotation
capacity to allow redistribution of bending moments. Only class 1 cross-
sections may be used for plastic design.
Class 2 – cross-sections that can reach their plastic moment resistance but local
buckling may prevent development of a plastic hinge with sufficient
rotation capacity to permit plastic design (redistribution of bending
moments).
Class 3 – cross-sections in which the calculated stress in the extreme
compression fibre can reach the yield strength but local buckling may
prevent development of the full plastic bending moment.
Class 4 – cross-sections in which it is necessary to take into account the effects of
local buckling when determining their bending moment resistance or
compression resistance.
z
max < fy max = fy max = fy max = fy
(–)
y y
(+)
z class 4 class 3 class 2
class 1
Fig. 5.3. Possible stress distribution, depending on the cross-section class
123
The class of a cross-section is the maximum among its components. Tables 5.1, 5.2,
5.3 show the requirements for different cross-sectional classes.
Table 5.1. Limitations for the slenderness of internal walls [2]
c c c c
Bending axis
t t t t
t t t
t
c c c
c
Bending axis
Class Wall in Wall in Wall in bending and compression

bending compression
fy fy fy
Stress distribution c c
c
c fy fy
fy
c 396
when > 0,5: ≤
1 c c t 13 − 1
≤ 72 ≤ 33
t t c 36
when 0,5: ≤
t
c 456
when > 0,5: ≤
2 c c t 13 − 1
≤ 83 ≤ 38
t t c 41,5
when 0,5: ≤
t
fy fy
Stress distribution fy
c c c
fy c/2
fy
c 42
when > –1: ≤
3 c c t 0,67 + 0,33
≤ 124 ≤ 42
t t c
when –1: ≤ 62 (1 − ) (− )
t
235 fy (N/mm2) 235 275 355 420 460

=
fy 1,00 0,92 0,81 0,75 0,71
Note: (+) means compression
124
Table 5.2. Limitations for the slenderness of flanges [2]
t t t t
c c c
c
Compressed Tension and compressed flange

Class flange
Compressed edge Tension edge
Stress distribution c c
c c c
1 c c 9 c 9
≤9 ≤ ≤
t t t
2 c c 10 c 10
≤ 10 ≤ ≤
t t t
Stress distribution
c c c
3 c c
≤ 14 ≤ 21 k
t t
235 fy (N/mm2) 235 275 355 420 460

=
fy 1,00 0,92 0,81 0,75 0,71
Note: (+) means compression
Table 5.3. Limitations for the slenderness of the walls of round tubes [2]
Class Cross-section in bending and/or compression

2
1 d/t 50
2 d/t 70 2 t
d
2
3 d/t 90
fy (N/mm2) 235 275 355 420 460
235
= 1,00 0,92 0,81 0,75 0,71
fy 2
1,00 0,85 0,66 0,56 0,51
125
5.1.5. Elastic and plastic design
Depending on the general stability of the structural member and on the cross-
section class, different types of analysis can be used. This is illustrated on simple
example of a fixed beam subjected to a uniformly distributed load. It is presumed that
the cross-section of the beam is the same on its entire length. In relation (5.1) Sd is
the bending moment produced by exterior forces in the most loaded cross-section,
while Rd is the resisting bending moment of the cross-section.
1. Elastic–critical design: class 4 cross-sections
Efforts in structural members are calculated using an elastic model and the cross-
section is checked using a critical stress distribution (local buckling occurs before
reaching the yielding limit in the most compressed fibre).
q
max < fy/2
q ⋅ L2
M2 = L
24
q ⋅ L2
M1 =
12
max = cr < fy
Fig. 5.4. Elastic–critical design
q ⋅ L2
Sd = Mmax = ( 5.2 )
12
R d = R d,cr = Mcap = Wel ⋅ cr ( 5.3 )
cr < fy ( 5.4 )
max < y ( 5.5 )
where cr and max are respectively the stress and the elongation in the most
compressed fibre, while y is the yielding elongation. The safety check (5.1) is:
q ⋅ L2
Sd = Mmax = ≤ Wel ⋅ cr = Mcap = R d ( 5.6 )
12
2. Elastic–elastic design: class 3 cross-sections

Efforts are calculated using an elastic model and the cross-section is checked
using the elastic stress distribution.
126
q ⋅ L2
Sd = Mmax = ( 5.7 )
12
R d = R d,el = Mcap = Wel ⋅ fy ( 5.8 )
cr ≥ fy ( 5.9 )
max ≥ y ( 5.10 )
where fy is the stress in the most compressed fibre. Local buckling occurs after
reaching the yielding limit in the most compressed fibre. The safety check (5.1) is:
q ⋅ L2
Sd = Mmax = ≤ Wel ⋅ fy = Mcap = R d ( 5.11 )
12
q
max fy/2
q ⋅ L2
M2 = L
24
q ⋅ L2
M1 =
12
max = fy
Fig. 5.5. Elastic–elastic design
3. Elastic–plastic design: class 2 cross-sections

Efforts are calculated using an elastic model and the cross-section is checked
using the plastic stress distribution.
q ⋅ L2
Sd = Mmax = ( 5.12 )
12
R d = R d,pl = Mcap = Wpl ⋅ fy ( 5.13 )
q
max < fy
q ⋅ L2
M2 = L
24
q ⋅ L2
M1 =
12
max = fy
Fig. 5.6. Elastic–plastic design
127
cr > fy ( 5.14 )
max > y ( 5.15 )
Plastic hinges appear at the two ends of the beam, but local buckling that occurs
after the formation of the plastic hinges does not allow plastic redistribution of
efforts and the development of a third plastic hinge in the middle of the span. The
safety check (5.1) is:
q ⋅ L2
Sd = Mmax = ≤ Wpl ⋅ fy = Mcap = R d ( 5.16 )
12
4. Plastic–plastic design: class 1 cross-sections

Efforts are calculated using a plastic model and the cross-section is checked
using the plastic stress distribution. As the load increases, plastic hinges appear
at the two ends of the beam. After that, these cross-sections rotate freely in the
plastic range under constant bending moment and the bending moment in the
middle of the span increases till the formation of a third plastic hinge. No local
buckling occurs until the development of this plastic mechanism.
q
max = fy
q ⋅ L2
M1 = L
16
q ⋅ L2
M2 =
16
max = fy
Fig. 5.7. Plastic–plastic design
q ⋅ L2
Sd = Mmax = M1 = M2 = ( 5.17 )
16
R d = R d,pl = Mcap = Wpl ⋅ fy ( 5.18 )
cr > fy ( 5.19 )
max >> y ( 5.20 )
q ⋅ L2
Sd = Mmax = ≤ Wpl ⋅ fy = Mcap = R d ( 5.21 )
16
128
5.2. TENSION MEMBERS
5.2.1. General
Tension members are largely used in truss construction, braced frames and
different other structural elements. They are also part of cable structures.
5.2.2. Types of single and built-up members
Figure 5.8 shows different types of cross-sections used for tension members:
(a)
(b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 5.8. Examples of types of cross-sections used for tension members
In built-up members, consisting of two or more main components (Fig. 5.8b, c,

d), the parts are connected in order to behave like a single shape (Fig. 5.8a).
Built-up members can be realised using:
• components in contact (Fig. 5.8b);
• slightly distanced components (Fig. 5.8c);
• largely distanced components (Fig. 5.8d).
129
Components in contact are usually connected by intermittent or continuous

weld seams as shown in figure 5.9. The continuous ones are preferred.
30t t1 t2
t = min(t1; t2)
24t
Fig. 5.9. Recommendations for connecting components of tension members
Slightly distanced components are connected by welded or bolted plates like

shown in figure 5.10. See also 5.3.3.3.
z L1 80iz1
z1 z1
y y
z1 z z1
L1 80iz1
Largely distanced components are connected either with laces (Fig. 5.11a) or
battens (Fig.5.11b). See also 5.3.3.3.
y L1 80iz1
z1 z1
z z (a)
z1 z1
y
y L1 80iz1
z1 z1
z z (b)
z1 z1
y
130
5.2.3. Calculation
According to STAS 10108/0–78 [7], the following relation shall be satisfied:

N
= ≤R ( 5.22 )
A net
In (5.22) N is the design tensile force, calculated with factored loads, R is the design
strength of the steel grade and Anet is the minimum net area in a cross-section
perpendicular to the axis of the tension member, or any diagonal or zigzag section.
For the case in figure 5.12 it is to be considered the minimum of:
A net ,1−1 = (b − d0 ) ⋅ t
A net ,2 − 2 = (2 ⋅ a + L1 − 2 ⋅ d0 ) ⋅ t ( 5.23 )
A net = min(A net,1−1; A net ,2 − 2 )
t
2 1
a
d0
L1
p b
a
2 1
Fig. 5.12. Possible sections for establishing the net area Anet
According to EUROCODE 3 [2], the main check for members in tension is:
NEd
≤ 1,0 ( 5.24 )
Nt,Rd
In (5.24) NEd is the design tensile force, calculated with factored loads, while the
design tension resistance of the cross-section Nt,Rd is the smallest of:
• the design plastic resistance of the gross cross-section:
A ⋅ fy
Npl,Rd = ( 5.25 )
M0
where fy is the specified minimum yield strength and the value of the safety factor
M0 is given in the National Annex of the code [2]; the recommended value is:
M0 = 1,0 ( 5.26 )
• the design ultimate resistance of the net cross-section at holes for fasteners:
131
0,9 ⋅ A net ⋅ fu
Nu,Rd = ( 5.27 )
M2
where:
Anet– the net area of the cross-section, as shown in figure 5.12;
fu – the ultimate strength of the steel grade;
M2 – safety factor given in the National Annex; the recommended value is:
M2 = 1,25 ( 5.28 )
Where ductile behaviour is required (in case of capacity design, requested for
a good seismic behaviour), the design plastic resistance Npl,Rd should be less than
the design ultimate resistance of the net cross-section at holes for fasteners Nu,Rd, so
the following condition shall be satisfied:
Nu,Rd > Npl,Rd ( 5.29 )
which leads to:

A net fy
0,9 ⋅ > ⋅ M2
( 5.30 )
A fu M0
In category C connections (see table 4.4) the design tension resistance Nt,Rd
of the net section at holes for fasteners should not be taken as more than:
A net ⋅ fy
Nnet ,Rd = ( 5.31 )
M0
5.3. COMPRESSION MEMBERS
5.3.1. General
Compression members may be found in structures as columns, components

of truss constructions, elements of braced frames and as different other structural
elements. Purely axially loaded members (either in tension or in compression) are
not frequent among structural elements but, for some members, the other loads like
the torsion moment, the bending moment and the shear force may be neglected.
Compression in a structural member is frequently associated with bending moment
and shear force but in order to be able to analyze such an element, axially
compressed members need to be studied first.
132
5.3.2. Buckling
5.3.2.1. Buckling and local buckling
The buckling load is the critical force Fcr at which a perfectly straight member
in compression assumes a deflected position (Fig. 5.13a). Buckling is a limit state, in
the meaning that once the force Fcr is reached the deflection increases until the
collapse of the bar is reached. The member should be subjected only to loads
inferior to the critical force (F < Fcr).
Local buckling is the loss of local stability of a part of a member, produced
by in-plane stresses. Stresses that lead to local buckling can be either normal
compression stresses ( ), or shear stresses ( ). In case of compression members,
this means that a certain value of the force Fcr,v leads to the local buckling of the web
(Fig. 5.13b), of the flanges (Fig. 5.13c) or of both of them (Fig. 5.13d).
Fcr
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Fig. 5.13. Buckling
Remarks:
1. Local buckling is not necessarily a limit state of a compression member. The
member is often able to resist compression loads superior to Fcr,v, the force that
produced local buckling.
2. Local buckling reduces the critical force Fcr that the member is able to resist.
133
5.3.2.2. Forms of buckling
When subjected to an axial compression force, a straight member may lose

its stability in one of the following forms (Fig. 5.14):
• flexural buckling (v ≠ 0; ϕ = 0) (Fig. 5.14a);
• torsion buckling (v = 0; ϕ ≠ 0) (Fig. 5.14b);
• flexural-torsion buckling (v ≠ 0; ϕ ≠ 0) (Fig. 5.14c);
where v means the lateral displacement in the plane of the cross-section and ϕ is the
rotation of the cross-section in it’s plane.
Fcr Fcr Fcr
ϕ ϕ
v v
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 5.14. Forms of buckling
5.3.2.3. Approach methods
Beginning with Euler, during the XVIIIth century, different researchers tried to
express the equilibrium and the failure mode of a perfectly straight member
subjected to axial compression. The most common approach methods used for
studying buckling of elements in compression are the following ones:
• the static method;
• the design methods of Statics;
• the energetic method.
134
1. The static method

A static criterion is established to express equilibrium. It is based on the analogy
with the balance of a ball on a surface (Fig. 5.15). Based on this, three different
situations can be illustrated:
• stable;
• limit;
• unstable.
0 1 0 1 0 1
stable limit unstable

Fig. 5.15. A static criterion for expressing equilibrium
In figure 5.15 the initial state is (0) and the final one is (1). In the limit case there
are more positions that allow equilibrium. The use of this method is illustrated
with the following example of pin connected bar in axial compression (Fig. 5.16).
L
F x
v
Fig. 5.16. The balance of a pin connected bar in compression
Two positions of equilibrium are possible:

• the straight line;
• the slightly curved line.
The following relations can be written:
d2 v
dx 2 M 1
=− = ( 5.32 )
2 32 EI
dv
1+
dx
where:
M =F⋅v ( 5.33 )
If v < L/400...L/300, then
135
dv
≅0 ( 5.34 )
dx
32
2
dv
1+ ≅1 ( 5.35 )
dx
It results:
d2v F⋅v 1
2
=− = ( 5.36 )
dx EI
v′′ + k 2 ⋅ v = 0 ( 5.37 )
where
F
k2 = ( 5.38 )
EI
v = C1 ⋅ sin kx + C2 ⋅ cos kx ( 5.39 )
Considering the limit conditions,
x=0 v=0 C2 = 0
x=L v=0 0 = C1 ⋅ sin kL sin kL = 0 kL = π
the solution is the one obtained by Euler (1744):
2
⋅ EI
Fcr = 2
( 5.40 )
L
2. The design methods of Statics

This means the use of the two known methods:
• the method of efforts;
• the method of displacements.
They are used mainly in computer programs. It generally means solving a
problem of eigenvalues.
3. The energetic method

It is based on the laws of energy conservation:
L ext = Lint ( 5.41 )
where:
Lext – work produced by exterior actions;
Lint – work produced by internal efforts.
136
Remarks
1. The energetic method generally leads to values of the critical forces which are
superior to the real ones. This is because the chosen deflected shape is not the
real one. This method can be used in complicated cases.
2. Classic problems and those ones that are found in codes are usually solved
using the static method.
3. The design methods of Statics are generally used for structures.
5.3.2.4. Bifurcation and divergence of equilibrium
The bifurcation of equilibrium is the approach based on the theoretical

member; the axis is perfectly straight and the load acts rigorously in the centre of
gravity of the cross-section of the element. The behaviour in this model is as follows:
• For F < Fcr the straight form of the bar is stable. If a force acts transversely to its
axis the bar is bent. After removing the transverse load the member returns to the
straight line.
• For F > Fcr the straight shape is no longer stable. After removing the transverse
load the member does not return to the straight line.
• For F = Fcr two positions of equilibrium are possible:
• the straight line;
• the slightly bent form.
F
Fcr bifurcation
divergence
v
Fig. 5.17. Bifurcation and divergence of equilibrium
The divergence of equilibrium is the approach based on the actual member,

with its imperfections, consisting of:
137
• physical imperfections, such as;

• variation of the mechanical properties of steel from one point to another;
• variation of residual stresses;
• variation of Young’s modulus (E);
• geometrical imperfections, like:
• initial deformation of the bar;
• eccentricity of the load with respect to the centroid line.
5.3.2.5. The general equation of stability
We consider the general case of a member in compression. The cross-section

has no axis of symmetry (Fig. 5.18). The bar is pin connected at both ends.
z v
z'
C’
yc
w
G’
C
zc y'
G y
Fig. 5.18. Virtual displacement of the cross-section of the bar
In figure 5.18 letters have the following meanings:

G – centre of gravity of the cross-section;
C – torsion centre of the cross-section;
v – displacement along y axis;
w – displacement along z axis;
– rotation of the cross-section in the plane yOz;
A virtual displacement is considered.
The energetic equation has the form:
138
d = d(L ext − Lint ) = 0 ( 5.42 )
Both external and internal virtual works depend on the three virtual displacements (v,
w, ϕ). This leads to a system of differential equations [9]:
EIz ⋅ vIV + F ⋅ v′′ − F ⋅ zc ⋅ ′′ = 0

EIy ⋅ w IV + F ⋅ w′′ + F ⋅ y c ⋅ ′′ = 0 ( 5.43 )
EI ⋅ IV
( )
− GIr − F ⋅ ic2 ⋅ ′′ − F ⋅ zc ⋅ v′′ + F ⋅ y c ⋅ w ′′ = 0
where the following notations were used:

ic2 = y 2c + zc2 + ip2
ip2 = i2y + i2z
⋅ zdA
yc =
Iy
⋅ ydA
zc =
Iz
G – shear modulus of elasticity;
Ir – torsion constant of the cross-section;
Iω – warping constant of the cross-section;
I = 2
dA
A
d = r ⋅ ds (Fig. 5.19).
C r
ds
Fig. 5.19. Diagram for coordinates
The constraints at limits are:

x=0 v = w = ϕ = 0 ; v” = w” = ϕ“ = 0
x=L v = w = ϕ = 0 ; v” = w” = ϕ“ = 0
This leads to:
139
x
w = A1 ⋅ sin
L
x
v = A 2 ⋅ sin ( 5.44 )
L
x
= A 3 ⋅ sin
L
Replacing these expressions, the following system is obtained:
(F − P ) ⋅ A
y 1 + F ⋅ yc ⋅ A 3 = 0
(F − Pz ) ⋅ A 2 − F ⋅ zc ⋅ A 3 = 0 ( 5.45 )
F ⋅ y c ⋅ A1 − F ⋅ zc ⋅ A 2 − (F − P ) ⋅ ic2 ⋅ A 3 = 0
where:
2
⋅ EIy
Py = ( 5.46 )
L2
2
⋅ EIz
Pz = ( 5.47 )
L2
2
1
P = 2 GIr + EI ⋅ 2 ( 5.48 )
ic L
Buckling means at least one of A1, A2, or A3 must be different of 0. This leads to:
F − Py 0 F ⋅ yc
0 F − Pz − F ⋅ zc = 0 ( 5.49 )
F ⋅ yc − F ⋅ zc (F − P ) ⋅ ic2
which is the general equation of stability:
(F − P )⋅ (F − P ) ⋅ (F − P ) ⋅ i
y z
2
c − F2 ⋅ y c2 ⋅ (F − Pz ) − F2 ⋅ zc2 ⋅ (F − Py ) = 0 ( 5.50 )
Remarks:
1. This equation has three solutions.
2. For non-symmetric cross-sections (yc ≠ 0; zc ≠ 0), the three forces F1 < F2 < F3
correspond to flexural-torsion buckling.
3. For single symmetric cross-sections (yc ≠ 0; zc = 0), the equation becomes:
(F − Pz ) ⋅ [(F − Py )⋅ (F − P ) ⋅ ic2 − F2 ⋅ yc2 ] = 0
2
⋅ EIz
F1 = Pz = corresponds to flexural buckling;
L2
F2, F3 correspond to flexural-torsion buckling.
4. For double symmetric cross-sections (yc = 0; zc = 0), the equation becomes:
(F − P )⋅ (F − P ) ⋅ (F − P ) ⋅ i
y z
2
c =0
140
2
⋅ EIz
F1 = Pz = corresponds to flexural buckling;
L2
2
⋅ EIy
F2 = Py = corresponds to flexural buckling;
L2
2
1
F3 = P = GIr + EI ⋅ corresponds to flexural-torsion buckling.
ic2 L2
5.3.2.6. Flexural buckling
The theoretical study of buckling began with the pin connected bar (Fig. 5.16),
under the following circumstances:
• the axis of the member is rigorously straight;
• the compression load acts strictly in the centre of gravity of the cross-section;
• the cross-section is bi-symmetrical;
• the material is homogenous and has a perfectly elastic behaviour (E=constant).
Considering this, Euler proved in the XVIIIth century that:
2
⋅ EI
Fcr = 2
( 5.51 )
L
This is rigorously exact if:
• the deflected shape is a sinusoid;
• the elastic modulus E is constant;
• the moment of inertia of the cross-section is constant all along the bar.
This relation was then extended to other types of restraints at the ends:
2
⋅ EI
Fcr = 2
( 5.52 )
L f
where Lf = µL is the effective length (buckling length) (Fig. 5.20).

The following relations can be written:
Fcr 2
⋅ EI 2
⋅ E ⋅ i2 2
⋅E 2
⋅E 2
⋅E
= 2 = = = = ( 5.53 )
A Lf ⋅ A Lf2
( )
Lf i
2 2 cr 2
where λ=Lf/i is the slenderness of the bar.
141
µ = 1,0 µ = 0,7 µ = 2,0 µ = 0,5 µ = 1,0

Fig. 5.20. Different values of the buckling length factor µ
Remarks
1. The force Fcr has a physical meaning, being the force that produces buckling of
the bar.
2. σcr is not a real stress, it is a conventional one; during buckling of the bar, the
stress distribution on the cross-section is no longer constant.
3. The relation (5.53) stands only in the range where Young’s modulus E is
constant. This happens when σ < σp (σ
σp being the proportionality limit of the steel
grade), which means:
2
⋅E E
cr = 2
≤ p p ≥ ⋅
p
Knowing that σp is about 80% of the yielding limit, it means Euler’s relation stands
only in the following ranges:
• for OL37 → λp ≥ 104;
• for OL44 → λp ≥ 95;
• for OL52 → λp ≥ 85;
4. For values of the slenderness superior to those ones above, the use of superior
quality steels is not rational, as the critical load is the same for all kinds of steel,
depending only on Young’s modulus which is the same.
5. As shown above, Euler’s relation is no longer valid for stresses outside the
proportionality range, leading to critical forces superior to the real ones. These
forces increase as the slenderness λ decreases. For low values of λ it can lead to
values of the critical stress σcr superior to the yielding limit, which is senseless.
142
Different researchers tried to find a more proper approach for the range where
Euler’s relation no longer stands (σ σp λ < λp). The following ones are among
those who provided the most accurate approaches:
1. In 1889 Engesser and Considère (Fig. 5.23) proposed to use Euler’s relation by
replacing Young’s modulus with the tangent modulus (Fig. 5.21):
2
⋅ Et
cr = 2
( 5.54 )
where
d
Et = ( 5.55 )
d
Et
fy
cr
Fig. 5.21. The tangent modulus used by Engesser and Considère (1889)
2. In 1890 Tetmayer proposed a linear approach (Fig. 5.23):
cr = fy ⋅ (1 − ⋅ ) ( 5.56 )
when = 0 → σcr = fy and when = p → σcr = σp.

3. In 1910 von Kàrmàn and Iassinski, at the same time with Engesser, proposed a
new approach. They presumed that bending associated to buckling elastically
unloads the tensioned part of the cross-section, while in the rest of the cross-
section compression increases in the elasto-plastic range (Fig. 5.22). This
happens when the average stress on the cross section is greater than σp. The
elastic modulus in the unloaded part is E, while in the compressed part it is Et,
the tangent one (Fig. 5.21). Considering this, they propose to use Euler’s relation
with a transformed elastic modulus (Fig. 5.23):
143
2
⋅T
cr = 2
( 5.57 )
where
E ⋅ It + E t ⋅ Ic
T= ( 5.58 )
I
It and Ic being the moments of inertia of the “tensioned” and of the compressed
part of the cross-section, respectively (Fig. 5.22). I is the moment of inertia of the
entire cross-section.
F = cr Et
Et
E
< cr
< cr
E
Fig. 5.22. The model proposed by von Kàrmàn and Iassinski (1910)
4. In 1946 Shanley showed that none of the previous theories was rigorously
correct. He proved that the values of critical average stresses are between the
values given by Engesser and those ones given by von Kàrmàn. He accepted
that bending associated to buckling does not change the direction of strains, so it
does not unload a part of the cross-section. The behaviour of the entire cross-
section is in the elasto-plastic range (Fig. 5.23).
cr
Euler
fy fy
p p
von Kàrmàn
Shanley
Engesser
Tetmayer
Fig. 5.23. Comparison among the presented models
144
5.3.2.7. Buckling curves
All the above theories were developed for the ideal straight bar made of a
perfect elastic and isotropic material, loaded in the centre of gravity of the cross-
section along the axis of the member. In everyday practice, we have to deal with the
actual industrial bar, which has a lot of imperfections:
• structural (physical) imperfections:
• steel is not homogenous and isotropic (the ideal material does not exist);
• the yielding limit varies:
• from one point to another on the cross-section;
• from one cross-section to another along the bar;
• from one bar to another;
• Young’s modulus E is not a constant;
• residual stresses of different origins:
• thermal (rolling procedure, welding procedure, cutting procedure,
etc.)
• mechanical (cold forming, straightening, etc.);
• geometrical imperfections:
• initial deflections of the bar;
• allowed variations of the cross-section along the bar;
• eccentricity of the load with respect to the axis of the bar.
Tests showed that a bar in compression has deflections starting from the
beginning of loading. These deflections increase step-by-step as the load increases.
These were among the main reasons that led to the idea of studying buckling
on the actual bar. Such a work was done by ECCS (European Convention for Steel
Structures) which conducted an experimental analysis. More than 1000 (1067)
specimens of real bars were tested in seven countries (Belgium, France, Germany,
Great Britain, Italy, Netherlands and Yugoslavia) in about ten years during the
decade 1960 – 1970.
Tested bars were either rolled or built-up by welding and their slenderness
was between 40 and 170. The critical force Fcr was measured. The purpose of these
tests was to find a connection between the critical force and the slenderness of the
bar.
145
The following were considered as random variables:

f0 = initial eccentricity of the load;
e0 = initial deflection of the bar;
A = initial area of the cross-section of the bar;
t = thickness of the flanges and of the web of the cross-section;
fy = yield stress;
σres = residual stress.
Tests showed that the values of critical forces for series of 8 to 20 identical bars
have a distribution close to a Gauss normal type one. Following this, the analysis
consisted basically of the following steps:
1. For a series of identical bars the critical forces were measured and a critical
stress was calculated by dividing the force to the initial area of the cross-section.
Fcr
cr = ( 5.59 )
A
The results were represented as histograms (Fig. 5.24).
fi
(ni)
2,28%
cr
m
cr
ks
Fig. 5.24. Typical distribution of tests results
2. Statistic values were calculated:

• the relative frequency of results:
ni n
fi = = i ( 5.60 )
n ni
• the mean value:
146
n
m i
cr = fi ⋅ cr ( 5.61 )
i =1
• the dispersion:
( )
n
m 2
s2 = fi ⋅ i
cr − cr ( 5.62 )
i =1
• the standard deviation:
( )
n
m 2
s= fi ⋅ i
cr − cr ( 5.63 )
i =1
Remark
Gauss’s function
2
1 x − xm
1 − ⋅
f (x ) = ⋅e 2 s
( 5.64 )
s⋅ 2
is rigorously correct. The critical stress distribution was presumed as a normal
one by introducing the computed values in Gauss’s function.
3. A characteristic value of the critical stress was computed:
k m
cr = cr −k⋅s ( 5.65 )
Codes usually accept k = 2 (Fig. 5.24), which corresponds to a probability of

2,28%. The same value was used in this case.
4. The same procedure was used for different values of the slenderness of the bar.
The results were put on a diagram.
5. A curve was drawn to connect all these points using the MONTE CARLO
procedure.
cr
fy test results
drawn curve
Fig. 5.25. Example of drawing a buckling curve
147
The results of tests led to the following conclusions:

1. The variation of the area of the cross-section, and of the thickness does not have
an important influence on the critical stress.
σcr) is influenced by the initial deflection of the bar (e0) and by
2. The critical stress (σ
the eccentricity of the load (f0).
σres) have a very important influence
3. The yield limit (fy) and the residual stresses (σ
on the critical stress.
4. Residual stresses have different influences on the resisting capacity of the cross-
section with respect to one of the two main axes; this means that critical stresses
depend on the buckling axis; the same cross-section has different values of the
critical stress, depending on the plane of buckling.
All these prove that a single curve is not enough. Following this, every
important code of practice uses three, four, five or six buckling curves, depending on:
• the shape of the cross-section;
• the axis of the cross-section (the plane of buckling);
• the yield limit of the steel grade.
Remarks
σcr) is expressed by means
1. In every day practice, the value of the critical stress (σ
of the buckling factor .
Ncr = A ⋅ cr = A ⋅ fy ⋅ cr
= A ⋅ fy ⋅ = cr
( 5.66 )
fy fy
2. The buckling curves are expressed [2] as function of the reduced slenderness:
= ( 5.67 )
1
where 1 is the slenderness corresponding to the yielding limit in Euler’s relation:

2
⋅E
cr = 2
( 5.68 )
E
cr = fy 1 = ⋅ ( 5.69 )
fy
The Romanian code of practice, STAS 10108/0–78 [7], uses three buckling
curves A, B and C. The relations defining the three curves are as follows:
1
= ( 5.70 )
(0,5 + ⋅ 2
) + (0,5 + ⋅ )
2 2
− ⋅ 2
148
where:
= ( 5.71 )
E
Lf
= ( 5.72 )
i
E
E = ⋅ ( 5.73 )
c
c – yielding limit of the steel grade that is used;

E – longitudinal elasticity modulus (Young’s modulus) of steel;
i – radius of gyration of the cross-section about the axis of buckling (normal to
the plane of buckling);
Lf – buckling length in the plane of buckling;
The values of factors and are given in table 5.4.
Table 5.4. Values of factors and [7]
Buckling curve
Factor
A B C
0,514 0,554 0,532
0,795 0,738 0,377
Fig. 5.26. Buckling curves according to STAS 10108/0–78 [7]
149
EUROCODE 3 [2] uses 5 buckling curves A0, A, B, C, D. They are obtained

by means of the following relations:
1
= ≤1 ( 5.74 )
Φ + Φ2 − 2
[
Φ = 0,5 ⋅ 1 + ⋅ ( − 0,2) + 2
] ( 5.75 )
where is an imperfection factor whose values are given in table 5.5.
Table 5.5. Values for factor [2]
A0 A B C D
0,13 0,21 0,34 0,49 0,76
EUROCODE 3 [2] contains a table (table 6.2 [2]) that recommends the use of
the proper buckling curve, depending on the shape of the cross-section, on the
buckling axis, on the steel grade and on the thickness of the parts of the cross-
section. Curve A0 is recommended for some cross-sections made of S460, which
has a high yielding limit (fy ≥ 430N/mm2). Curve D is generally used for some cross-
sections made of thick plates (tf ≥ 40mm for welded cross-sections or tf ≥ 100mm for
hot-rolled ones).
A0
0.8 A
B
0.6 C
D
=0,2
0.4
0.2
0
0
3
3
9
0.
0.
0.
1.
1.
1.
2.
2.
2.
3.
3.
3.
Fig. 5.27. Buckling curves according to EUROCODE 3 [2]
150
5.3.3. Practical design of compressed members
5.3.3.1. Cross-section philosophy
The cross-section of a compressed bar depends on the following:

• the value of the compression force;
• the type of structural member;
• the buckling length of the member;
• the presence of other loads (bending moments, shear forces, etc.);
• the type of connecting detail at the ends of the member.
The capable load of a tensioned member depends on the area of the cross-
section and does not depend on the shape of the cross-section. On the contrary, for
a member in compression, the capable load fundamentally depends on the shape of
the cross-section. It is very important to have the material away from the centroid line
of the member (Fig. 5.28) in order to get a greater radius of gyration. Two cross-
sections having the same area but different shapes will have different critical forces.
NO YES NO YES
Fig. 5.28. Cross-section philosophy for members in compression
Same as for tensioned members, members in compression can be made of:

• a single hot rolled or a single cold formed shape (Fig. 5.29a);
• built-up cross-sections:
• components in contact (Fig. 5.29b);
• slightly distanced components (Fig. 5.29c);
• largely distanced components (Fig. 5.29d).
151
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 5.29. Examples of types of cross-sections used for compression members
5.3.3.2. Types of members in compression
The most common types of members in compression are:

• members of braced systems (Fig. 5.30);
Fig. 5.30. Examples of types of cross-sections used for members of braced systems
152
• columns (Fig. 5.31);
Fig. 5.31. Examples of types of cross-sections used for columns
5.3.3.3. Connecting elements of a compressed member
In order to act like a whole, a built up cross-section must comply with the
following rules and recommendations:
1. For components in contact
• The weld seams should be continuous.
• If welds are not continuous, the gap among seams should be less than 15t
along the force and 24t transverse to the force (Fig. 5.32), where t is the
minimum thickness of the connected elements.
• If they are connected with fasteners they shall comply with the rules for
fastened connections.
15t t1 t2
t = min(t1; t2)
24t
Fig. 5.32. Recommendations for connecting components of compression members
2. For slightly distanced components

• Connecting plates are usually square (Fig. 5.33). Their length and width bp
shall be greater than 0,8b, where b is the width of the connected (back to
back) components (flanges or web).
153
• The width bp (Fig. 5.33) of the plates should be 15–30mm less, or greater,
than b to allow welding.
• The thickness tp of connecting plates (Fig. 5.33) should be greater than
b/10 to allow protection against corrosion. In strong aggressive
environments it should be greater than b/6.
• The distance (Fig. 5.33) between two consecutive connecting plates shall
comply with:
L1 ≤ 40 ⋅ iz1 ( 5.76 )
where iz1 is the radius of gyration of a single component about its axis
which is parallel to b (parallel to the plane which does not meet the cross-
section material (z–z plane)).
• There will be at least two connecting plates along a member, even if its
length would not demand it. For tension members there should be at least
one connecting plate along a member.
z1 z z1 L1 ≤ 40 ⋅ iz1
y y bp b
tp
L1 ≤ 40 ⋅ iz1
y y b bp
z1 z z1
Fig. 5.33. Recommendations for connecting elements of compression members
3. For largely distanced components

• Components are connected with battens, laces and shells (Fig. 5.34).
• Battened solutions are simpler to realise and therefore they are more often
used. They should not be used when the member is subjected to bending
moment associated to compression.
• Laced compressed members have a greater stiffness but they are more
difficult to realise. They are recommended especially when the member is
subjected to bending moment associated to compression.
• Shells (Fig. 5.34) increase the torsion stiffness of the member.
• Laces should be inclined at 45°–60° about the normal to the axis of the
member and they are generally made of angles not less than L40×40×4.
154
• The height hp of battens should be between 0,5–0,8c, where c is the

distance between centres of gravity of the two components (Fig. 5.34).
L1 y
z1 z1
45°–60° az z c
z1 z1
y
L1 ≤ 40 ⋅ iz1 lace shell y shell
z1 z1
z z z z
z1 z1
hp y tp y
batten
Fig. 5.34. Recommendations for connecting components of compression members
• The thickness of battens tp should be greater than c/50 and than 8mm.
• Battens should have greater stiffness than the components of the cross-
section. It is desirable to satisfy the following recommendation:
Ip c
≥5 ( 5.77 )
Iz1 L1
If this is not possible, for the accuracy of the calculation model it is

necessary that:
Ip c
≥3 ( 5.78 )
Iz1 L1
where:
Iz1 is the moment of inertia of a single component about the z1–z1 axis,
while Ip is the moment of inertia of the cross-section of the batten:
t p ⋅ hp3
Ip = ( 5.79 )
12
• The distance between the two components of the cross-section of the
member must allow protection against corrosion: a ≥ 120mm (Fig. 5.34).
• The distance between two consecutive battens (Fig. 5.34):
L1 ≤ 40 ⋅ iz1 ( 5.80 )
155
where iz1 is the radius of gyration of a single component about to its axis
which is parallel to the z–z axis.
• There will be at least two pairs of connecting plates (battens) along a
battened member, even if its length would not demand it. For tension
members, at least a pair of battens is necessary.
• The slenderness of one component of the member between two
consecutive joints should be so that:
member
1 ≥ 1,1⋅ max ( 5.81 )
where:
L1
1 = → 1 ( 5.82 )
iz1
and
member
max = max ( y ; z ) ( 5.83 )
is the maximum of the buckling factors y and z of the element about its
two main axes.
• For laced members, as well as for battened ones, components shall be
connected with strong battens at both ends of the bar. The height of these
end battens should be at least equal to c (Fig. 5.34).
• It is allowed to have the intersections between the axes of the laces at the
exterior edges (Fig. 5.34) of the element components.
5.3.3.4. Checking procedure for members in compression
Practical check of compressed members consists of the following:

• check for slenderness;
• check for buckling (main check);
• check for local buckling;
• check of connecting elements in case of built-up members.
This checking procedure is established for flexural buckling of bars having the cross-
section made of a single shape or of in contact components. Any other type of
buckling, like torsion buckling or flexural buckling of members made of distanced
156
components is reduced to an equivalent flexural buckling and the same type of

procedure is used.
The check for slenderness tends to become less important in modern
codes. In STAS 10108/0–78 [7], it consists of the following check:
max ≤ a ( 5.84 )
where:
max is the maximum slenderness of the member about the two main axes;
max = max ( y ; z ) ( 5.85 )
a is the allowable slenderness for that type of structural member; the values are
given in codes; in STAS 10108/0–78 [7] they are as follows:
a = 120 for important members, such as main columns, compressed chord of lattice
girders, or web members (of lattice girders) near supports;
a = 150 for secondary columns, web members of lattice girders, members of
vertical bracing between columns etc.;
a = 250 for members of the horizontal bracing of roofs.
The buckling length of a compressed member depends on the following:
• the supporting systems at the ends – it depends whether the member is pin-
connected or it is fixed;
• the distance among any connections along the member – these connections
might oppose to deflections on their direction;
• the variation of the load along the member – behaviour is different for a member
loaded with the same compression force in any cross-section and for one with a
variable load.
According to the Romanian code of practice STAS 10108/0–78 [7], the
buckling check means:
N
≤R ( 5.86 )
min ⋅ A
where:
N – the axial compression load produced by factored loads;
A – the area of the cross-section (it is the gross area, not the net one, as the
check is on the member and not on a cross-section);
R – design strength of the steel grade;
min – minimum of the buckling factors.
157
The check generally consists of the following steps:

1. calculate each slenderness about the main axes, corresponding to each
buckling mode;
2. extract the buckling factors depending on the steel grade, on the cross-section
shape, on the buckling axis and on the slenderness of the member;
3. buckling check, using relation (5.86).
Depending basically on the type of cross-section, some particular aspects of the
checking procedure need to be pointed out:
1. Bi-symmetrical cross-sections (Fig. 5.35) made of a single shape or built-up of
components in contact or slightly distanced, if the recommendations from 5.3.3.3
are fulfilled. Under these circumstances flexural buckling will occur about one of
the main axes.
Lyf
y = → y
iy
min = min( y ; z ) ( 5.87 )
Lzf
z = → z
iz
where Lyf and Lzf are respectively the buckling lengths about the main axes. The
buckling factors y and z are selected from the appropriate buckling curves.
Fig. 5.35. Flexural buckling of bi-symmetrical cross-sections
2. Mono-symmetrical cross-sections (Fig. 5.36) made of a single shape or built-

up of components in contact or slightly distanced, if the recommendations from
5.3.3.3 are fulfilled.
158
z
y y
Fig. 5.36. Buckling of mono-symmetrical cross-sections
Under these circumstances flexural buckling may occur in the plane of

symmetry and flexural-torsion buckling may occur about the axis of symmetry.
Lyf
y = → y
iy
z =
Lzf
iz
→ z min = min ( y ; z ; tr
z ) ( 5.88 )
tr
z = ⋅ z → tr
z
where Lyf and Lzf are respectively the buckling lengths about the main axes. The
tr
buckling factors y, z and z are selected from the appropriate buckling curves.
γ ≥ 1 is a factor that takes into account the sensitivity of the cross-section to
torsion:
c 2 + i2 4 ⋅ c 2 ⋅ ip2
= ⋅ 1 + 1 − ≥1 ( 5.89 )
2 ⋅ c2 c 2 + i2
2
( )
c =
2 I + 0,039 ⋅ Lzf ⋅ Ir ( ) 2
( 5.90 )
Iz
Ir =
3
⋅ (b ⋅ t )
i
3
i ( 5.91 )
where:
α = 1,0 for angles or for built-up double T cross-sections;
α = 1,1 for channels;
α = 1,2 for rolled double T cross-sections;
α = 1,5 for built-up double T cross-sections with stiffeners;
ip2 = i2y + i2z ( 5.92 )
i2 = ip2 + zc2 ( 5.93 )
zc defines the position of the shear centre of the cross-section.
159
Remark
For cross-sections made of two angles, which are commonly used for members
of lattice girders, when λz ≥ 60 ÷ 70 γ = 1, which leads to flexural buckling.
3. Cross-section made of largely distanced components (Fig. 5.37). The
components may be connected either by battens or by laces and the
recommendations from 5.3.3.3 must be fulfilled.
Lyf
= →
y
iy
y
min = min ( y ; tr
z ) ( 5.94 )
tr
z = 2
z + 2
1 → tr
z
y y
z
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Fig. 5.37. Buckling of cross-section made of largely distanced components
1 depends on the type of connectors (Fig. 5.34):

• for battens:
Ip c
• if ≥ 5 , then
Iz1 L1
L1
1 = ( 5.95 )
iz1
Ip c
• if 5 > ≥ 3 , then
Iz1 L1
2
L1 I L
1 = ⋅ ⋅ 1 + z1 1 ( 5.96 )
iz1 12 Ip c
• for laces:
2
A
1 = ⋅ ( 5.97 )
A D sin ⋅ cos2
where:
A – area of the cross-section of the element;
AD – area of the cross-section of diagonals (both laces);
160
– angle of diagonals with the normal to the member axis (45°–60°);

For cross-sections built-up of four angles (Fig. 5.37d):
tr = 2
max + 2
1 + 2
2 ( 5.98 )
where: 1 and 2 are computed for each couple of faces

max = max ( y; z)
In all these cases of largely distanced components, the following restriction must
be fulfilled:
1 > max ( y ; tr
z ) ( 5.99 )
where 1 is the buckling factor for a single component of the member, on the
length between two consecutive battens or two consecutive joints of laces. This
requirement is generally fulfilled if relation (5.81) is fulfilled.
Remarks
A. In both cases, either laced or battened compressed members, the connecting
system must be checked at a shear force Tc which appears at the ends of the
member when buckling occurs:
Tc = 0,012 ⋅ A ⋅ R ( 5.100 )
c c
c c
Tc/2 Tc/2
Tc
D L1/2
M1
L1 L1 L1 L1
Mb
L1/2
hp
Tc/2 Tc/2
Fig. 5.38. Behaviour of the connecting elements
• For laced system (Fig. 5.38)
161
Tc
D= ( 5.101 )
2 ⋅ cos
D
≤ m ⋅R ( 5.102 )
v ⋅ Ad
Lvf C
v = → v ( 5.103 )
iv
where:
D – force in one diagonal (consisting of an angle);
v – buckling factor about the minor axis, v–v, of the lace (angle);
Lvf – buckling length of the lace (its theoretical length);
Ad – area of the cross-section of a lace;
iv – radius of gyration of the cross-section of a lace about the minor axis;
m – behaviour factor depending on the type of lace;
m = 0,9 angle with uneven legs, when the greater one is welded;
m = 0,75 angle with even legs;
• For battened system (Fig. 5.38)
Based on the assumption that the static scheme is a frame with rigid
beams, it may be considered that the inflexion point on the vertical
elements is situated at the middle of the distance between two “beams”.
As a result, the following relations may be written:
Tc L1
M1 = ⋅ ( 5.104 )
2 2
Tc ⋅ L1
Mb = 2 ⋅ M1 = (see Fig. 5.38) ( 5.105 )
2
The moment on the end of a single batten (Mp) is:
Mb Tc ⋅ L1
Mp = = ( 5.106 )
2 4
The shear force along a single batten (Tp) is:
2 ⋅ Mp Tc ⋅ L1
Tp = = ( 5.107 )
c 2⋅c
The main checks for a batten are the following ones:
Mp
max = ≤R ( 5.108 )
Wp
162
Tp
max = 1,5 ⋅ ≤ Rf ( 5.109 )
Ap
where:
Wp – strength modulus of the cross-section of the batten;
Ap – area of the cross-section of the batten;
t p ⋅ hp2
Wp = ( 5.110 )
6
A p = t p ⋅ hp ( 5.111 )
B. In both cases the welded connection between laces or battens and

components must be checked. They are fillet welds.
Checking for local buckling of a compressed member means to prove that

local buckling does not occur before buckling of the member (the critical stress that
causes local buckling is greater than the one that causes buckling of the member) or,
if this happens, to prove that its influence on the resistance of the member has been
taken into account. This problem generally appears when using thin-walled cold-
formed shapes.
Local buckling may be induced either by normal compression stresses ( ) or
by tangential ones (ττ). For purely compressed members tangential stresses have
small values and do not cause troubles from this point of view.
The general form of the local buckling critical stress in the elastic range is:
2
⋅E2
t
=k ⋅ ⋅ ( 5.112 )
cr
12 ⋅ 1 −( 2
) b
where:
– Poisson’s factor ( = 0,3 for steel);
t – thickness of the plate;
b – width of the plate;
E – Young’s modulus;
kσ is a local buckling factor that depends on:
• the aspect ratio α = a/b, a, b, being the dimensions of the plate;
• the supports on the borders of the plate (pinned, fixed);
• the loading type.
This relation can be found as:
163
2
t
cr = 189,8 ⋅ k ⋅ ⋅ 103 N/mm2 ( 5.113 )
b
Remark
The slenderness of the parts of hot-rolled shapes generally respects restrictions to
avoid local buckling in the elastic range. These limits can be found in codes.
5.4. FLEXURAL MEMBERS
5.4.1. General
Flexural members may be classified as:

• beams and plate girders;
• lattice girders.
Beams and plate girders are flexural members with a solid cross-section:
• beams are hot-rolled shapes;
• girders are built-up elements, usually by welding.
Lattice girders are structural systems able to carry a bending moment. They are
composed of axially loaded members.
The most common flexural members are:
• purlins (secondary beams of the roof structure);
• main beams and secondary beams of floors;
• travelling crane runway girders etc;
• trusses (lattice girders used as main flexural members of roofs structures).
5.4.2. Beams and plate girders
5.4.2.1. Cross-section philosophy
Generally, when designing a member subjected to bending moment, there are

five types of limit states to be checked:
• ultimate limit states (U.L.S.):
164
1. strength limit state Wy,nec;

2. lateral-torsional buckling limit state W z,nec;
3. local buckling limit state;
4. fatigue limit state;
• serviceability limit state (S.L.S.):
5. deflection limit state Iy,nec.
The cross-section of a flexural member may be found between two extreme
virtual solutions (Fig. 5.39a and b), which outline the importance of each
component part of a typical beam:
a. Rectangular cross-section (Fig. 5.39a):
A = b ⋅h ( 5.114 )
b ⋅ h3 A ⋅ h 2
Iy = = ( 5.115 )
12 12
Iy b ⋅ h2 A ⋅ h
Wy = = = ( 5.116 )
zmax 6 6
A ⋅h⋅R
Mcap
y = Wy ⋅ R = ( 5.117 )
6
b. A fictitious cross-section made only of flanges, where the whole area is
concentrated (Fig. 5.39b):
A
A = 2⋅ = b ⋅h ( 5.118 )
2
2
A h A ⋅ h2
Iy = 2 ⋅ ⋅ = ( 5.119 )
2 2 4
Iy A ⋅ h2 2 A ⋅ h
Wy = = ⋅ = ( 5.120 )
zmax 4 h 2
A ⋅h⋅R
Mcap
y = Wy ⋅ R = ( 5.121 )
2
It is to notice that both cross-sections have the same area (A) (Fig. 5.39).
However, the fictitious one has a much superior resisting bending moment (three
times greater) than the first one. This cross-section cannot be realised.
Metal cross-sections tend to have as much material as possible in the flanges
(50%–60% of the total area of the cross-section). The main reasons for the material
on the web are to make the connection between the two flanges (one in tension and
one in compression), to restraint their relative slipping and to resist shear forces. For
165
a properly designed metal cross-section, about 75–85% of the bending moment is

resisted by the flanges and about 15–25% by the web.
z z
A/2
A
y y y y
h h
b z z
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.39. Extreme solutions for the cross-section of a metal beam
The most common cross-section solutions are:

• beams, channels (Fig. 5.40):
IPN IPE HE UPN UAP

Fig. 5.40. Beams and channels
• cellular beams (Fig. 5.41):
Fig. 5.41. Cellular beams
166
• thin-walled cold-formed cross-sections (Fig. 5.42):
Fig. 5.42. Cold-formed shapes
• built-up cross-sections (Fig. 5.43):
Fig. 5.43. Built-up cross-sections
• plate girders, box cross-sections (Fig. 5.44):
Fig. 5.44. Plate girders, box cross-sections
Choosing the cross-section type involves taking into account the ratio
between the material cost and the labour cost. Rolled cross-sections mean low
amount of labour cost and a higher amount of material, while built-up cross-section
involve less material and more labour cost.
Generally, the height of the beam depends on the following:
167
• the type of loading (static, dynamic etc.);

• the amount of loading (great forces, large deformations etc.);
• the function of the beam (main beam, secondary beam etc.);
• the static scheme of the beam.
It generally results between the following limits:
• D/15 and D/8 for simply supported beams;
• D/30 and D/10 for continuous beams;
where D is the span of the beam.
5.4.2.2. Behaviour of beams
Assumptions
1. The behaviour of steel follows Prandtl diagram (Fig. 5.45):
real
Prandtl
fy
Fig. 5.45. Prandtl diagram
Remarks
• The assumption of elastic behaviour up to reaching the yielding limit is a
simplifying one.
• All codes demand a certain elongation at failure. Some codes demand an
important yielding plateau. Special provisions are given for structures in
seismic areas.
2. Bernoulli’s assumption of plane cross-sections is accepted in the elastic range as
well as in the plastic range.
168
3. The value of the equivalent stress according to the von Mises criterion:
eq = 2
+3⋅ 2
( 5.122 )
established for the elastic range is accepted for the plastic range too.
Elastic and plastic behaviour of the cross-section

The normal stresses that are developed in a fibre on the cross-section are a
result of the elongation of that fibre. As Bernoulli’s assumption is accepted both in
the elastic and in the plastic range, the elongation distribution on the cross-section is
linear until failure. Presuming a monotonically increasing static loading, failure of the
cross-section may occur either by local buckling or by yielding (lateral buckling is
neglected here, as it deals with the entire beam and not with the cross-section).
Several stages may be noticed on the cross-section when the load increases:
A. Elongations are less than y on the entire cross-section ( max < y). The entire
cross-section behaves elastically, according to Hooke’s law (Fig. 5.46(A)):
= E⋅ ( 5.123 )
B. Elongations reach y in the extreme fibres ( max = y). In the case of a class 4
cross-section, failure has already occurred by local buckling before reaching this
stage. In the case of a class 3 cross-section, failure may occur by local buckling
at any time after reaching this stage. The entire cross-section is still in the elastic
range and it follows Hooke’s law (Fig. 5.46(B)).
C. Elongations reach y in a certain fibre (at a certain level zy) (Fig. 5.46(C)). In the
fibres that are closer to the neutral axis (z < zy) the stress is less than the
yielding limit fy and the behaviour is still elastic, according to Hooke’s law (5.123).
In the other fibres (z zy) the material has plastified ( = fy) and it is no longer
able to resist any increase of the stress. The increase of the bending moment is
resisted by the neighbour fibres that have not yet reached the yielding limit. This
stage can be reached only by class 2 and class 1 cross-sections. Class 3 cross-
sections may fail at any time during this stage.
D. Elongations are much greater than y on most of the cross-section ( max >> y).
Practically, the entire cross-section behaves plastically and the plastic hinge
appears. The central part of the cross-section, where the material is still in the
elastic range ( < y), is very reduced and its influence on the resisting bending
moment of the cross-section may be neglected, so the entire cross-section is
169
considered to be plastified ( = fy) (Fig. 5.46(D)). This concept is obviously a

model; in reality, one cannot have yielding in tension and yielding in compression
in neighbour fibres. Both class 2 and class 1 cross-sections can reach this stage
but after that class 2 cross-sections may fail at any time, while class 1 cross-
sections are able to continue deforming by large rotations. Considering the
Prandtl behaviour diagram, this is the maximum capable bending moment that a
cross-section may have:
hw t h h
Mpl = 2 ⋅ b ⋅ t ⋅ fy ⋅ + + t w ⋅ w ⋅ fy ⋅ w ( 5.124 )
2 2 2 4
hw t h2
Mpl = 2 ⋅ b ⋅ t ⋅ + + t w ⋅ w ⋅ fy ( 5.125 )
2 2 8
Mpl = 2 ⋅ S y ⋅ fy ( 5.126 )
where Sy is the static moment of half of the cross-section about the y–y axis.
Mpl = Wpl ⋅ fy ( 5.127 )
E. Elongations are much greater than y on most of the cross-section ( max < y) and
they still increase. The cross-section is no longer able to resist any increase of
the bending moment and it rotates freely, in the same way as an articulation, but
keeping the bending moment that generated the plastic hinge. Deformations
increase until the structure becomes a plastic mechanism and it fails. It is the
structure that fails and not the cross-section; only class 1 cross-sections can
reach this stage.
Remarks
1. The plastic hinge resembles to an articulation, as any increase of the bending
moment produces free rotation of the cross-section.
2. However, it is different, because the plastic hinge has a bending moment which is
kept. Free rotations appear from that moment on.
3. Both class 2 and class 1 cross-sections are able to develop plastic hinges but
only class 1 cross-sections are able to assure enough rotation of the cross-
section to allow plastic redistribution of bending moments.
4. The difference between bi-rectangular stress distribution on the cross-section and
the one involved by a fully correct geometric assumption may be neglected.
5. Wel has a physical meaning; Wpl (5.127) does not have a physical meaning.
170
z max < y max < fy = ⋅z

max = ⋅ zmax < y
My
y y (A) = ⋅z
Iy
My
max = ⋅ zmax < fy
Iy
z
max = y max = fy = ⋅z
max = ⋅ zmax = y
My
(B) = ⋅z
Iy
My
max = ⋅ zmax = fy
Iy
max > y max = fy = ⋅z

y fy
max = ⋅ zmax > y
My
(C) = ⋅ z < fy if < y
Iy
= fy if ≥ y
max >> = fy
y max = ⋅z
max = ⋅ zmax >> y
= = fy
(D) max
Fig. 5.46. Elastic and plastic behaviour of the cross-section of a beam
5.4.2.3. Main checks for a member in bending
Generally, there are five groups of checks that need to be taken into account
when designing a beam. The limit states that are checked may be ultimate limit state
(ULS) or serviceability limit state. They are as follows:
1. Strength checks (ULS);
2. Lateral buckling checks (ULS);
3. Local buckling checks (ULS);
171
4. Fatigue checks (ULS);

5. Deflection checks (SLS);
1. Strength checks
Considering the stress distribution in figure 5.47, according to the Romanian code
STAS 10108/0–78 [7], the most important strength checks are the following ones:
• in the cross-section where the bending moment has the greatest value:
My My
max = ⋅ zmax = ≤R ( 5.128 )
Iy Wy
where R is the design strength of the steel grade.

• in the cross-section where the shear force has the greatest value:
T ⋅ S y max
max = ≤ R f ≅ 0,6 ⋅ R ( 5.129 )
d ⋅ Iy
where:
Symax – the maximum static moment of the part of the cross-section that tends to
slip in the point where is calculated (in the neutral axis);
d – the width of the cross-section in the point where is calculated.
For cross-sections with an important change of the width of the cross-section,
that are very common for metal members (ex. for I and H cross-sections,
channels, box cross-sections), like the one in figure 5.47, a simplified shear
stress distribution is accepted:
T
= ≤ R f ≅ 0,6 ⋅ R ( 5.130 )
t w ⋅ hw
• in the cross-sections where both the bending moment and the shear force have
important values, the von Mises criterion needs to be checked:
eq = ( ) * 2
+3⋅ 2
≤ 1,1⋅ R ( 5.131 )
*
where and are stresses in the same point of the same cross-section.
• in the case where an important local force F acts transversely to the beam in the
plane of the web, a check for the local stress may be needed; the problem
generally appears at the contact between the web and the flange; it generally has
the following form:
F
L = ≤R ( 5.132 )
tw ⋅L
172
where L is the stiff bearing length of the local load (F). It is obtained accepting a
45º slope distribution of stresses (stream line) in the web under the transverse
force (F).
• in the case of bi-axial bending, the next relation is accepted:
My Mz
max = + ≤ 1,1⋅ R ( 5.133 )
Wy Wz
t z max
y y
hw
tw
t z
b
Fig. 5.47. Stress distribution in the cross-section of a beam
2. Lateral buckling checks

In the same way as for any member in compression, the buckling problem appears
for the compressed flange. Generally, buckling (Fig. 5.48) may not occur in the plane
of the web, as the compressed flange is continuously connected through the web
material to the tensioned part of the cross-section, the tension flange. The stabilizing
effect of the tension zone transforms free transverse buckling into lateral-torsional
buckling, causing lateral bending and twisting of the beam. Lateral buckling
of the flange
Torsion
(twisting
of the
beam)
span
Fig. 5.48. Lateral-torsional buckling of a beam
173
According to the Romanian code STAS 10108/0–78 [7], the check for lateral
buckling uses the following relation:
My
≤R ( 5.134 )
g ⋅ Wy
where:
My – the maximum value of the bending moment along the beam;
g – lateral buckling factor (instability factor) that is function of a transformed
slenderness coefficient tr;
For checking the beam between two consecutive lateral supports of the compressed
flange:
L fz
tr = ( 5.135 )
izfl ⋅
For checking a beam with a bi-symmetrical cross-section without any lateral support
of the compressed flange:
L fz
tr = ⋅ ( 5.136 )
iz ⋅
For checking a beam with a mono-symmetrical cross-section without any lateral
support of the compressed flange:
L fz
tr = 1 ⋅ ( 5.137 )
iz ⋅
In relations (5.135), (5.136) and (5.137) the terms have the following meanings:
Lfz – the buckling length of the compressed flange of the beam;
izfl – radius of gyration of the compressed flange about the z–z axis (Fig. 5.47);
Izfl t ⋅ b3 12 b
izfl = = = ( 5.138 )
A zfl t ⋅b 2⋅ 3
iz – radius of gyration of the entire cross-section about the z–z axis;
, 1 – factors that take into account the torsion stiffness of the cross-section;
– factor that takes into account the bending moment diagram along the beam;
2
M M
= 1,75 − 1,05 ⋅ 2 + 0,30 ⋅ 2 ≤ 2,3 ( 5.139 )
M1 M1
where M1 and M2 are the values of the bending moment (taken with their algebraic
signs from the diagram) at the two ends of the checked part of the beam, M1 ≥ M2 .
174
3. Local buckling checks

Local buckling may occur as a result of the action of normal compression stresses
( ), of tangential ones (ττ), or of their combination. The problem appears in the case
of the compressed flange and in the case of the web. Generally, local buckling of the
compressed flange (in the elastic range) is prevented from the beginning, when
sizing the cross-section. If in figure 5.47 we make the notation:
b′ = (b − t w ) 2 ( 5.140 )
then, according to the Romanian code STAS 10108/0–78 [7], if
15 for OL37
b′
≤ 14 for OL 44 ( 5.141 )
t
13 for OL52
there is no need to check for the local buckling of the compressed flange, as it will
occur in the plastic range.
Generally, checking for the local buckling of the web involves using an interaction
relation containing actual values of stresses and critical values of stresses:
F( , L , , cr , Lcr , cr ) ( 5.142 )
For example, such a relation, given in the Romanian code STAS 10108/0–78 [7], is:
2 2
*
+ L
+ ≤m ( 5.143 )
cr Lcr cr
The check refers to a web panel which is limited by two consecutive stiffeners and by
the two flanges (Fig. 5.49):
z
y ye
hw
a a a z *
M2 d M1
T2 a/2 T T1
Fig. 5.49. Local buckling check of the web of a beam
175
The terms contained in relation (5.143) have the following meanings:

m – is 1,0 for static loading or 0,9 for dynamic loading;
cr – the critical shear stress (Fig. 5.49):
2
95 100
cr = 125 + 2
⋅ N mm2 ( 5.144 )
d tw
d = min(a; hw ) ( 5.145 )
max (a; h w )
= ( 5.146 )
d
Lcr – the critical value for the local compression stress, in the case were a local
force acts transversely to the beam in the plane of the web, in the panel that
is being checked:
cr – the critical value for compression stress; for example, for static loading:
2
100
cr = 700 ⋅ N mm 2 ( 5.147 )
2e t w
e – the height of the compression zone on the web (Fig. 5.49):

hw
e≤ ( 5.148 )
2
*
– compression stress at the web to flange contact; it is calculated with the
average bending moment M for a panel zone having the length d (Fig. 5.49);
This zone will be considered adjacent to a stiffener, in the most unfavourably
loaded zone of the panel:
M
*
= ⋅e ( 5.149 )
Iy
M1 + M2
M= ( 5.150 )
2
L – the local compression stress, in the case were a concentrated force F acts on
the beam in the plane of the web:
F
L = ( 5.151 )
tw ⋅L
L – stiff bearing length for the local force F at the web to flange contact (see
explanations at relation (5.132);
– shear stress; it is calculated with the average shear force T on the checked
panel zone (Fig. 5.49):
176
T
= ( 5.152 )
t w ⋅ hw
T1 + T2
T= ( 5.153 )
2
4. Fatigue checks
Generally, fatigue checks refer to the fatigue phenomenon in the elastic range,
meaning when the element is subjected to a great number (500.000÷2.000.000) of
cycles of loading and unloading. Check for fatigue in the plastic range is not very
common. The relation recommended by the Romanian code STAS 10108/0–78 [7]
for fatigue check is:
≤ ⋅R ( 5.154 )
where:
c
= ( 5.155 )
a−b⋅
when the maximum stress is tension and:
c
= ( 5.156 )
b−a⋅
when the maximum stress is compression,
where a, b and c are factors that depend on the type of load concentrator and on the
number of loading cycles during the intended lifetime of the element.
= min
( min ≤ max ) ( 5.157 )
max
where min and max are considered with their signs (( – ) compression, ( + ) tension).
5. Deflection checks
Generally, deflection requirements are generated either by technological or by
architectural reasons. Deflections of beams should be calculated using static
nominal loads, without considering possible dynamic effects. In order to provide a
normal serviceability, the ratio between the beam deflection (f) and the span (L) is
limited, or sometimes even the deflection value (f) is limited. The limit values of the
ratio between the beam deflection (f) and the span (L) are usually between 1/200 …
1/800, depending on the beam type and on its importance (role) in the structure. The
values of the allowed deflection (fa) are given in codes. From the general Maxwell-
Mohr relation, the term in bending moment has the greatest influence, while the
other ones are generally neglected:
177
L
M⋅m
f= dx ≤ fa ( 5.158 )
0
E ⋅ Iy
where:
L – span of the beam;
f – calculated deflection;
fa – allowable deflection;
M – bending moment diagram along the beam;
m – bending moment diagram along the beam generated by a dimensionless unity
force acting in the point and on the direction where the deflection is calculated
E – Young’s modulus;
Depending on the type of beam and on the loading conditions, some of these
checks may not be necessary and other ones may need special attention.
5.4.2.4. Procedure for sizing of the cross-section
Generally, sizing relations are aimed to help the designer to propose a good
cross-section, so that the most important checks are satisfied close to the limit. As
the strength check is the most important one for a member in bending, most of the
sizing procedures take it as the major requirement. Following this, a required
strength modulus for the proposed cross-section can be calculated:
Mmax
Wynec = ( 5.159 )
R
where R is the design strength of the chosen steel grade. Based on the value of
Wynec a shape may be selected from tables. It is obvious that this shape must have a
strength modulus superior to the required one.
If a plate girder is desired then, using the notations from figure 5.47, there are
four unknown dimensions to be established: tw, hw, t, b. The procedure starts with
establishing the web dimensions, by proposing a thickness of the web among the
available plates: tw = 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, (12, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 25, 28, 30 …)
mm. The height of the web, hw, should be around the following value:
Wynec
h w ≅ 1,15 ⋅ ( 5.160 )
tw
178
After that, based on economic or cross-section class requirements, the slenderness

of the proposed web is checked:
hw
smin ≤ ≤ smax ( 5.161 )
tw
Sometimes it is required for the height of the web, hw, to be a round value:
• for hw 500mm rounding off 10mm;
• for 500mm < hw 1000mm rounding off 50mm;
• for hw > 1000mm rounding off 100mm;
Once the web established, the area of a single flange, Af, is estimated:
Wynec t w ⋅ hw
Af = − ( 5.162 )
hw 6
The shape of the flange is proposed, based on the following recommendations:
Af = t ⋅ b ( 5.163 )
t = (1,2 2,5 )t w ( 5.164 )
15 for OL37
b′
≤ 14 for OL 44 ( 5.165 )
t
13 for OL52
The following recommendation is also desirable to be fulfilled whenever possible:

hw
3≤ ≤5 ( 5.166 )
b
This procedure aims to fulfil the strength check, once the steel grade checked.
It is possible to choose the steel grade, taking into account the deflection
requirement:
L
M⋅m
f= dx ≤ fa ( 5.167 )
0
E ⋅ Iy
From this, a required moment of inertia can be extracted:

f = fa Iynec ( 5.168 )
The idea is that Iynec does not depend on the steel grade, while Wynec does. So:
Mmax
OL 37
Wynec = ( 5.169 )
ROL 37
Mmax
OL 44
Wynec = ( 5.170 )
ROL 44
179
Mmax
OL 52
Wynec = ( 5.171 )
ROL 52
Based on relation (5.160), the height of the web may be estimated:
OL 37
Wynec hOL
w
37
( 5.172 )
OL 44
Wynec hOL
w
44
( 5.173 )
OL 52
Wynec hOL
w
52
( 5.174 )
It is known that, by definition:

Iy Iy
Wy = = ( 5.175 )
zmax hw 2 + t
hw
Iy = Wy ⋅ +t ( 5.176 )
2
Only for sizing purposes, relation (5.176) may be approximated with:
hw
Iy ≅ Wy ⋅ ( 5.177 )
2
Relation (5.177) allows to estimate a probable moment of inertia Iy, presuming that
the cross-section was sized properly, using the previously described procedure.
hOL 37
OL 37
I
y ≅W OL 37
y ⋅ w
( 5.178 )
2
hOL 44
OL 44
I
y ≅W OL 44
y ⋅ w
( 5.179 )
2
hOL 52
OL 52
I
y ≅W OL 52
y ⋅ w
( 5.180 )
2
The chosen steel grade will be the one corresponding to the smallest value of Iy that
is superior to the required moment of inertia Iynec resulted from the deflection
requirement. Once the steel grade established, the sizing procedure is identical.
5.4.3. Lattice girders
5.4.3.1. General
Lattice girders are a step forward following the philosophy which is illustrated
in figure 5.39b, that is sending as much of the material away from the neutral axis.
180
top chord
h
web members
D
bottom chord
M
C
D
h
T
Fig. 5.50. General philosophy of lattice girders
Following this idea, the bending moment that must be carried out by the whole
structural element is transformed in a couple of axial forces that are concentrated in
the top and in the bottom chord (Fig. 5.50). The web elements (diagonals and struts)
are designed to resist the shear force that is associated to the bending moment. This
happens under two circumstances:
1. loads act only at the joints of the lattice girder;
2. bars are pin-connected at the joints.
If anyone of these two requirements is not fulfilled, bending moments and shear
forces also appear on each bar, and the whole element must be calculated like any
frame structure. In many cases the connection between bars is realised by welding
and it does not allow free rotations. However, if the slenderness of the bars is not too
small, it is accepted to consider them as pin-connected, as the values of the bending
moment on the bar may be neglected, given their reduced flexural stiffness.
Otherwise, if the bar is short and it has a big cross-section, the flexural stiffness of
the bar needs to be taken into account, as it may cause troubles when checking
strength at its ends. The two simplifying assumptions allow a manual calculus of the
loading state in the bars. However, it is recommended to use a suitable computer
program to determine the loading state. The model that is used should be as close
as possible to the real element.
181
5.4.3.2. Geometric schemes
Lattice girders are generally efficient solutions for spans starting from 15–20m
up to 60–100m. Their efficiency comes from the reduced material cost, although the
labour cost increases compared to beams or to plate girders. They can be either
plane systems (Fig. 5.51a) or spatial systems (Fig. 5.51b). When the spatial system
is developed on two directions, a reticulated structure is obtained (Fig. 5.51c).
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 5.51. Typical geometric schemes
The geometry of the lattice girder may be established as needed. The most
important requirement when establishing the geometric scheme is that the system
must be statically determinated or statically indeterminated. Mechanisms are not
accepted for structures. This requirement can be easily fulfilled if the base module is
an indeformable shape or body, like the triangle or the tetrahedron. Critical forms
(Fig. 5.52) (systems that have the required number of constraints but they are not
properly distributed) or systems that are close to critical forms must be avoided.
Fig. 5.52. Example of bad constraint distribution
Remark
In the case of deployable structures, the system is a mechanism, as it
needs to pass quickly from the packed situation to the deployed one. However, in the
deployed state it has some blocking devices that make it act like a structure.
182
5.4.3.3. Cross-sections of bars
Generally, the cross-sections of bars are chosen among the ones available for
tension bars or for compression bars, depending on the connecting details used at
the joints. The most commonly used cross-sections are presented in figure 5.53.
Top
chord
Web
bars
Bottom
chord
Fig. 5.53. Cross-sections of bars
5.4.3.4. Joint details
Many solutions are available for joint details, depending basically on the types
of cross-sections of bars. Most of the currently used details are welded ones. The
bolted solutions are generally used for field connections. Some of the most important
requirements that need to be taken into account when choosing a joint detail are the
following ones:
• the chosen detail should be able to assure a good stream line of efforts;
• failure of an element by its connections is not a rational one;
• the chosen detail should be as close as possible to the model that was used in
calculation;
• the chosen detail should be able to transfer all efforts that arise, accidentally or
not, in the joint;
• the chosen detail should be easy to realise and safe.
183
5.4.3.5. Calculation of efforts in bars
The most correct method to determine efforts in the bars of a lattice girder is
to use a certified and specialised computer program. In the absence of such a
program, a “manual” calculation could be accepted. In this case, bars need to be
taken into account as pin-connected at the joints. Some times, if the bars are short
and the cross-sections are big, this could place you on the unsafe side. Two
methods are available for “manual” calculation:
• the method of equilibrium of joints;
• the method of cross-sections;
The method of equilibrium of joints could be easier to handle but it is more exposed
to errors. An error affects all results obtained after the calculus that was wrong. If the
equilibrium equations are intelligently written, the method of cross-sections is simple
enough and an error once made does not affect the other results.
5.4.3.6. Main checks
The most common situation is when, based on the two assumptions:

• loads act only at the joints of the lattice girder;
• bars are pin-connected at the joints,
the bars are subjected only to axial loads. In this case, they are checked like any
member in tension or in compression, with some remarks:
1. Given the triangulated system, when establishing the in-plane buckling length of
the bar, the joints may be considered as fixed.
2. When establishing the out-of-plane buckling length of the bar, only the joints that
are blocked by a horizontal bracing may be considered as fixed.
3. When the structure is subjected to dynamic loads, the tension bars need to be
checked against vibrations. The vibration length is considered between two
consecutive fixed points.
4. The deflection check takes into account basically the axial force component from
Maxwell-Mohr’s relation.
5. Special attention is needed when checking connections.
184
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bibliography
1. EUROCODE 1 – Actions on Structures, Final Draft 2002

2. EUROCODE 3 – Design of Steel Structures, 2002
3. ASCE 7–98 – American Society of Civil Engineers – Minimum Design Loads for
Buildings and Other Structures, 1998
4. LRFD – Load and Resistance Factor Design Specification for Structural Steel
Building, 1999
5. EN 10025:1990+A1:1993 – Hot rolled products of non-alloy structural steels.
Technical delivery conditions
6. SR EN 10025:1990+A1:1994 – Produse laminate la cald din oteluri de constructie
nealiate. Conditii tehnice de livrare
7. STAS 10108/0–78 – Constructii civile, industriale si agricole. Calculul elementelor
din otel
8. C133–82 – Instructiuni tehnice privind imbinarea elementelor de constructii
metalice cu suruburi pretensionate de inalta rezistenta
9. Dalban C., Dima S., Chesaru E., Serbescu C. – Constructii cu structura metalica,
Ed. Didactica si Pedagogica, 1997
10. EN 1990:2002 – Eurocode – Basis of structural design
11. prEN 1998:2003 – Eurocode 8 – Design of structures for earthquake resistance
12. Balio G., Mazzolani F. M. – Theory and Design of Steel Structures, Chapman and
Hall, London, 1983
185

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Chapter 1 : STEEL STRUCTURES ……………………………....…. 11

1.1. TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION WORKS WITH STEEL STRUCTURES ..… 11

Chapter 2 : RELIABILITY OF STEEL STRUCTURES ………....…. 33

2.1. GENERAL ASPECTS ..………………………………………………………… 33

2.3.5. Probabilistic methods …………………….………….…………....……….. 43

Chapter 3 : STRUCTURAL STEEL ………....……………………….. 57

3.1. MATERIALS ..…………………………………………………………………… 57

Chapter 4 : CONNECTING DEVICES ………....……………...…….. 81

4.1. GENERAL ..……………………………………………………………………… 81

Chapter 5 : DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS ……….....….. 121

5.1. BASIS OF DESIGN ..…………………………………………………………… 121

5.4.2.4. Procedure for sizing of the cross-section ………………....…………...… 178

BIBLIOGRAPHY ……….....…………………………………………..... 185

1.1. TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION WORKS WITH STEEL STRUCTURES

Construction works is the general term including both buildings (apartment

Fig. 1.1. Type S.C. construction work

2. Type S. (Construction work = Structure only)

3. Type C. (Construction work = Structural cladding)

(a) (b) (c)

1.2. DESIGN. FABRICATION. ERECTION

A steel structure results by assembling on site a number of various structural

The main steps to realise a steel structure are:

1.3. BASIS OF DESIGN

The strength requirement is expressed by

In eq. (1.1) and in figure 1.6:

1.4. STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

Structural members are prefabricated in fabrication shops using a large range

Fig. 1.8. Beam

NSd = 0 T–C=0 T=C ( 1.3 )

Fig. 1.10. Typical development of the cross-section

Fig. 1.13. Typical plate girder cross-section

Fig. 1.14. Example of lattice girder

MSd ≠ 0 MSd = MRd = C ⋅ h (or MRd = T ⋅ h) ( 1.5 )

Truss (Fig. 1.15) is a lattice girder used in the roof framing.

Fig. 1.15. Example of truss

1.d. Cold-formed shape (Fig. 1.16) is a cross-section obtained from plates by

Fig. 1.16. Examples of cold-formed cross-sections used for beams

2. Column (Fig. 1.17) is a structural member whose primary function is to carry

As a result, in order to avoid buckling in any vertical plane, the cross-section

Fig. 1.18. Examples of cross-sections for columns

3. Beam-column (Fig. 1.19) is a structural member whose primary function is to

Fig. 1.19. Example of beam-column

4. Structural wall (Fig. 1.21) is a structural member whose primary function is to

Fig. 1.21. Example of structural wall

Fig. 1.22. Example of vertical bracing

1.5. STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

1.5.1. Structural philosophy

The concept of steel structural system is largely influenced by some

1.5.2. Structures with a single column

1.5.2.1. Structural philosophy

Problem 1 (Fig. 1.23)

Problem 2 (Fig. 1.24)

Fig. 1.24. Leading a horizontal force to the ground

Solution a (Fig. 1.25)

Fig. 1.25. Solution a for leading a horizontal force to the ground

Solution b (Fig. 1.26)

Fig. 1.26. Solution b for leading a horizontal force to the ground

Problem 3 (Fig. 1.27)

Solutions (Fig. 1.28)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

1.5.2.2. Structural systems

Fig. 1.29. Structural systems with a single column