НАЦИОНАЛЬНАЯ АКАДЕМИЯ НАУК БЕЛАРУСИ

ИНСТИТУТ ТЕПЛО- И МАССООБМЕНА им. А. В. ЛЫКОВА

Журнал основан в январе 1958 г.

Отдельный оттиск
Offprint

Том 95, № 2
Vol. 95, No. 2

МАРТ–АПРЕЛЬ
MARCH–APRIL

2022
 ИНЖЕНЕРНО-ФИЗИЧЕСКИЙ ЖУРНАЛ
Основан в январе 1958 г.

2022. ТОМ 95, № 2 (МАРТ–АПРЕЛЬ)

СОДЕРЖАНИЕ
ОБЩИЕ ВОПРОСЫ ТЕОРИИ ПЕРЕНОСА

Цирлин А. М., Гагарина Л. Г. Расчет теплообмена для потоков с переменной теплоемкостью................289

Смульский И. И. Палеотемпературы поверхности Земли.
1. Определение среднегодовой температуры Земли и полушарий.........................................................................298
Cмульский И. И. Палеотемпературы поверхности Земли.
2. Определение среднеширотной приповерхностной теплоемкости Земли..........................................................306
Ушаков А. А., Орлов А. А., Совач В. П. Накопление компонентов изотопной смеси
в разделительном каскаде............................................................................................................................................316

ТЕПЛОПРОВОДНОСТЬ И ТЕПЛООБМЕН В ТЕХНОЛОГИЧЕСКИХ ПРОЦЕССАХ

Фираго В. А. Коррекция сигналов микроболометрической матрицы, обеспечивающая

повышение достоверности изменения температуры объектов. Часть 2.................................................................323
Ефимов К. Н., Овчинников В. А., Якимов А. С. Численное моделирование термоэлектронной
тепловой защиты при высокоэнтальпийном обтекании многослойной оболочки................................................335
Соловьев С. В. Моделирование конвективного теплопереноса в сферическом слое
электропроводной жидкости при подводе и отводе тепла.......................................................................................350.
Рудобашта С. П., Карташов Э. М., Зуева Г. А. ИК-сушка пластины в непрерывно
действующем электромагнитном поле......................................................................................................................364
Формалев В. Ф., Карташов Э. М., Колесник С. А. Волновой теплоперенос в анизотропном
полупространстве под действием точечного источника теплоты экспоненциального характера
на основе волнового уравнения параболического типа...........................................................................................373
Мацевитый Ю. М., Стрельникова Е. А., Повгородний В. О., Сафонов Н. А., Ганчин В. В.
К решению обратных задач теплопроводности и термоупругости.........................................................................381
Redko A., Redko O., Kulikova N., Pavlovskyi S., and DiPippo R. Rational Thermodynamic
Parameters of Multistage Power Cycles Appropriate for Low-to-Moderate Geothermal Resources............................387
Babitha and Madhura K. R. Analysis of Thermal Performance, Efficiency,
and Effectiveness of a Straight Porous Fin with Variable Thermal Conductivity.........................................................399

ГИДРОГАЗОДИНАМИКА В ТЕХНОЛОГИЧЕСКИХ ПРОЦЕССАХ

Сергеев Д. А., Кандауров А. А., Стуленков А. В., Суворов А. С.

Лабораторное моделирование процессов возбуждения звука автоколебательными режимами
в течениях в трубопроводах систем теплообмена....................................................................................................408
Волков К. Н., Емельянов В. Н., Чернышов П. С. Газодинамические и акустические
характеристики струи, истекающей из конического сопла в затопленное пространство.....................................416.
Дмитриев А. В., Фарахов М. М., Хафизова А. И., Дмитриева О. С., Мадышев И. Н.,
Гилязов А. Д., Ахмитшин А. А. Исследование процесса взаимодействия жидкости
и газа в струйно-пленочном контактном устройстве...............................................................................................428
Матвиенко О. В., Мартынов П. С. Математическое моделирование теплопереноса
и химического реагирования в закрученном потоке равновесно-диссоциирующего газа...................................435
Богданов В. И., Ханталин Д. С. Выходные устройства с резонаторами-усилителями
тяги для реактивных двигателей................................................................................................................................448
Албагачиев А. Ю., Холин Н. Н. Высокоскоростное проникание вязкоупругого стержня
в металлическую преграду..........................................................................................................................................459
 Танашева Н. К., Бахтыбекова А. Р., Шаймерденова Г. М., Сакипова С. Е., Шуюшбаева Н.
Моделирование аэродинамических характеристик ветроэнергетической установки
с вращающимися цилиндрическими лопастями на основе пакета ANSYS ..........................................................465
Суров В. С. К расчету течений гетерогенных сред многомерным узловым
методом характеристик...............................................................................................................................................471

ТЕПЛОПЕРЕНОС ПРИ ФАЗОВЫХ ПРЕВРАЩЕНИЯX

Федорович Е. Д., Коваленко А. Н., Макухин С. С. Моделирование капиллярного

подсоса жидкости к сухим пятнам под паровыми пузырями как фактора повышения
критической плотности теплового потока при кипении на пористой поверхности..............................................481

ТЕПЛО- И МАССОПЕРЕНОС В ДИСПЕРСНЫХ И ПОРИСТЫХ СРЕДАХ

Долгунин В. Н., Куди А. Н., Тараканов А. Г. Структурная неоднородность и эффекты

сепарации по размеру и плотности при гравитационном течении зернистых материалов..................................492
Крючков Ю. Н. Оценка параметров пористой структуры порошковых материалов...................................504
Келбалиев Г. И., Расулов С. Р., Тагиев Д. Б. Моделирование процессов
гидравлической диффузии и фильтрации нефти в пористом пласте......................................................................508

КИНЕТИЧЕСКАЯ ТЕОРИЯ ПРОЦЕССОВ ПЕРЕНОСА

Ни А. Э. Гибридная LBGK-FD модель для исследования турбулентной естественной конвекции.............518

НАНОСТРУКТУРЫ

Гузей Д. В., Минаков А. В., Рудяк В. Я. Численное моделирование

вынужденной конвекции наножидкости при ее ламинарном течении с учетом термодиффузии.......................526
Махманов У. К. Рефрактивные и электрофизические свойства
дисперсных растворов фуллерена С60 в двухкомпонентных растворителях.........................................................537
Okafor Anthony Amaechi and Mgbemena Chinedum Ogonna
Preparation of Hybrid Nanofluids, Their Thermophysical Properties, and Stability Parameters..................................543

ТЕПЛОФИЗИЧЕСКИЕ СВОЙСТВА

Щемелёв А. П., Самуйлов В. С., Голубева Н. В., Поддубский О. Г.

Термодинамические свойства жидкой смеси циклогексан + декалин при температурах
298.15–433.15 K и давлениях до 100 МПа.................................................................................................................549

РАЗНОЕ

Дубинов А. Е., Тараканов В. П. Влияние проводимости стенок резонатора

на характеристики СВЧ-генератора с виртуальным катодом: численные эксперименты....................................562

Ответственный за выпуск: Л. Н. Шемет

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© Институт тепло- и массообмена им. А. В. Лыкова Национальной академии наук Беларуси

 ИНЖЕНЕРНО-ФИЗИЧЕСКИЙ ЖУРНАЛ
2022 г. МАРТ–АПРЕЛЬ ТОМ 95, № 2

UDC 621.373

Okafor Anthony Amaechi1 and Mgbemena Chinedum Ogonna2

PREPARATION OF HYBRID NANOFLUIDS, THEIR THERMOPHYSICAL

PROPERTIES, AND STABILITY PARAMETERS

A review of methods of preparation of hybrid nanofluids produced with the use of particles of metals, nonmetals
and their oxides as well as results of recent investigations on the thermophysical properties of these nanofluids and
their stability are presented.

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Keywords: hybrid nanofluid, preparation, characterization, properties, stability.

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Introduction. Hybrid nanofluids belong to the advanced category of nanofluids representing a combination
of nanoparticles of different types suspended in a base fluid. As base fluids, water, ethylene glycol or a water-
ethylene glycol mixture, an engine oil, kerosene, a vegetable oil, and a paraffin oil are used. The following

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combinations of solid nanoparticles produced from metals, nonmetals, and their oxides are introduced into a
base fluid to improve its thermophysical properties: CuO–Al2O3, Ag–ZnO, CNTs–Al2O3, SiO2–graphite,
Al2O3–TiO2, Al2O3–SiO2, graphene oxide–Co3O4, Al2O3–Cu, MWCNTs–SiC, Fe3O4–SiO2, Cu–SBA-15,
TiO2–Ag. The hybrid nanofluids obtained in this way are used in car radiators [1], heat pipes [2], refrigerators,
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and air-conditioning systems. Such nanofluids have shown the higher thermal conductivity [3] and specific heat
capacity [4, 5] compared to those of conventional fluids.
The present work represents a review of methods or preparation and stabilization of hybrid nanofluids as well
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as of their thermophysical properties and other characteristics.
Preparation of Hybrid Nanofluids. A one-component nanofluid does not possesses all the favorable
properties required for a particular application: it can have good thermal properties or good rheological properties.
A hybrid nanofluid is expected to yield better thermophysical properties and other characnetistics, as compared
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to those of a one-component nanofluid, due to the synergistic effect. Hybrid nanofluids are obtained as a result
of the introduction of solid nanoparticles, produced from metals, nonmetals, and their oxides, into a base fluid.
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The uniformity of dispersion of such particles in a hybrid nanofluid, influencing its characteristics and physical
and chemical stability, depends substantially on the method of preparation of the nanofluid.
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Hybrid nanofluids are mainly obtained by the one-step and two-step methods [6]. The one-step method
combines the production of nanoparticles and their dispersion in a base fluid. Nanoparticles are produced as a rule
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by way of their evaporation from the fluid, in which they are found originally in the gas phase, and subsequent
solidification. In the two-step method, nanoparticles are initially produced in the form of a dry powder, and then
they are dispersed in the base fluid with the use of a magnetic stirrer, an ultrasonic bath, a homogenizer, a high-
shear mixer, or a bead mill. Unlike the one-step approach, the two-step approach is more commonly used to
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produce nanofluids due to its lower processing cost.

In [7], the two-step method was used to prepare hybrid nanofluids by mixing of Al2O3 and TiO2 nanoparticles
in a distilled water. Hybrid nanofluids of different concentrations were investigated in this work, and the quality
of these nanofluids was estimated by the stability of a solid–liquid suspension, its resistance, the absence of
suspended nanoparticles and chemical changes in the suspension, and its other characteristics.
In [8], a stable nanofluid was prepared by the two-step method. The base fluid was the water–ethylene glycol
mixture with a volume ratio of 50/50. Carbon nanotubes and silicon carbide hybrid nanoparticles were introduced
into this fluid in volume ratio 50/50.
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria;
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Petroleum Resources, Effurun, Delta State, Nigeria;
email: aa.okafor@unizik.edu.ng. Original article submitted June 21, 2020.

Том 95, № 2, 2022 543

 OKAFOR ANTHONY AMAECHI AND MGBEMENA CHINEDUM OGONNA

In [9], hybrid nanoparticles containing metallic-carbidic iron and elemental silicon phases were prepared by
the laser pyrolysis technique. The composite nanostructures were obtained by combining two independent laser
pyrolysis processes with the use of two reaction zones, close to each other, and one and the same nanoparticle
collector.
In [10], hybrid nanofluids were prepared by dispersion of a synthesized nanocomposite material, based on the
mesoporous silica modified by copper nanoparticles (Cu/SBA-15), in a distilled water. The desired concentrations
of hybrid nanofluids (0.019, 0.037, 0.056, and 0.075 wt.%) were obtained by dilution of a specific amount of
the nanocomposite. In order to provide a uniform dispersion of the nanocomposite in the distilled water it was
subjected to the mechanical stirring (IKA RW20) for 5 min, the homogenization (MICCRA D-9 homogenizer–
disperser) for 5 min, and the sonication (UP400S, Hielscher GmbH) for 2 min.
In [11], the two-step method was used to prepare hybrid nanofluids. First, ZnO and Ag/ZnO nanoparticles

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were prepared by the chemical wet method. The synthesized nanoparticles were mixed with ethylene glycol, used
as a base fluid, by stirring at 500 rpm, and then the solution obtained was ultra-sonicated for 2 h.

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In [12], after the suspension of TiO2, Al2O3, Ag, TiO2–Ag, and Al2O3–Ag nanoparticles in a base fluid
at different volume fractions, the mixtures obtained were dispersed by stirring and ultrasonication for 3 h.
The volume fractions of nanoparticles in a fluid was calculated by the equation

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m /r
j = ,
( m /r) + v
where j is the volume fraction of the nanoparticles in the fluid, m and r are the mass and density of the nanoparticles,
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and v is the volume of the base fluid. All the samples were prepared at room temperature and, due to the possibility
of agglomeration and sedimentation of nanoparticles, the viscosity of the samples was measured immediately
after the ultrasonication at 20oC.
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In [8], a mixture of silicon dioxide (SiO2) and graphite was obtained as a result of the dispersion of nanoparticles
at four different volume concentrations (0.1, 0.5, 1, and 2%) in a distilled water. For each concentration, merely
100 g of the distilled water was used in a beaker, and four different weight ratios of graphite–SiO2 were prepared.
In [13], two types of suspensions of oxide nanoparticles were used: Al2O3 nanoparticles (43 nm) in the
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50.70 wt.% mass aqueous solution and TiO2 (30 nm) in the 34.03 wt.% mass aqueous solution, and the base
fluid was a distilled water. First the dilution of the suspensions was calculated based on the conversion of the
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mass concentration to the volume concentration, and different final suspensions were aimed to be attained. For
preparation of nanofluids, suspensions were diluted in the distilled water and the solution obtained were subjected
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to the ultrasonic vibration for 60 min in order to obtain the best dispersion.
In [14], ZnO and Ag–ZnO nanoparticles in the initial phase were synthesized by the wet chemical method.
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Then they were dispersed in a base fluid (DI water) to obtain nanofluids of different volume concentrations
ranging from 0.02 to 0.1%.
In [15], Al2O3–Cu–water hybrid nanofluids with volume fractions from 0.1 to 2% were prepared by the
two-step method. A nanofluid with a required volume concentration was obtained as a result of the dispersion of
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a special amount of Al2O3–Cu nanoparticles in a deionized water with sodium lauryl sulphate (SLS), serving as
a dispersant, with the use of an ultrasonic vibrator (Lark, India) generating ultrasonic pulses of 180 W at 40 kHz.
To provide a uniform dispersion of a suspension and its stability, determining the final properties of the nanofluid
obtained, the nanofluid was subjected to the ultrasonic vibration continuously for 6 h.
In [16], alumina–cupric oxide hybrid nanofluids of various concentrations (0.05, 0.1, and 0.2%) were obtained
as a result of the dispersion of nanoparticles in the base fluids (water, water–ethylene glycol). The amount of the
nanoparticles (in wt.%) required was calculated by the equation
wnp /r np
M = ,
wnp /r np + Vb

where wnp is the weight of the nanoparticles, ρnp is their density, and Vb is the volume of the base fluid.

544 Том 95, № 2, 2022

 PREPARATION OF HYBRID NANOFLUIDS, THEIR THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES, AND STABILITY PARAMETERS

In [17], first a solution containing EG, SiO2, and MWCNT was stirred for 2–3 h by a mechanical stirrer. Then, an
ultrasonic processor was used to stir the solution for 7 h. The frequency and power of the ultrasonic device were 20 kHz
and 1200 W, respectively. The purpose of using the ultrasonic device was to eliminate the agglomeration of the solution.
In [18], the Cu–Zn hybrid nanoparticles of combinations 0:100, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75, and 100:0 were used to
prepare nanofluids by dispersion of them in the vegetable oils. The hybrid nanoparticles and a surfactant (SDS)
were added in required proportions to the base fluid and were ultrasonicated for 2 h. The nanofluids prepared were
brought to room temperature.
In [19], hybrid nanofluids were prepared with the use of a definite amount of nanoparticles, calculated so that
the dispersant comprised one tenth of the weight of the powder in the mixture. The powder and dispersant selected
were added to a vegetable oil and were mixed using an ultrasonicator. The ultrasonication of a hybrid nanofluid
sample was performed for 3 h.

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Methods of Characterization of Hybrid Nanofluids. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM), field
emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), XRD, FTIR Raman

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Spectroscopy, energy disperse X ray spectroscopy (EDXS), and UV spectroscopy techniques are most commonly
used for characterization of nanofluids. The SEM method is used to determine the external morphology (texture),
chemical composition, and crystalline structure of nanomaterials. The FESEM method provides topographical and

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elemental information on nanocomposites. The TEM method is mainly used to determine the size of nanoparticles.
It offers a very high resolution and provides a large magnification. XRD images are used to identify and study the
crystal structure of nanocomposites. The Raman spectroscopy gives information about the structure composition
and homogeneity of hybrid nanofluids. The FTIR spectroscopy is used to examine the group surface of solid
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particles or solid and liquid particles, the EDXS analysis shows the composition of a nanocomposite particle,
the UV visible spectroscopy is used to monitor the dynamics of the dispersion process and to quantitatively
characterize the colloidal stability of dispersions. Characteristic investigations of hybrid nanofluid performed with
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the use of the indicated techniques are described in [7–11, 14–18].
Thermophysical Properties of Hybrid Nanofluids. Hybrid nanofluids surpass their base fluids in
thermophysical properties (specific heat capacity, thermal conductivity, convective heat transfer, thermal
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diffusivity) and in effective density and viscosity [20]. The word "effective" is commonly used to describe the
thermophysical properties of nanofluids, in particular, their effective viscosity and density. This is done to differ
the thermophysical properties of a base fluid from those of the nanofluid prepared with it. The rate of the heat
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transfer in a nanofluid is substantially dependent on its properties, such as the thermal conductivity, density,
specific heat, viscosity, and chemical stability.
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The addition of nanoparticles to a conventional fluid improves its thermal conductivity if the nanoparticles
added have a higher thermal conductivity compared to that of the base fluid. Experimental and theoretical
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investigations on the thermal conductivity of nanofluids were performed in [7–11, 14–17, 19].
The viscosity of a nanofluid is a measure of its capability to resist to flow. The viscosity of a nanofluid can
also be defined by the ratio of the shear stress of the nanofluid to the rate of its shear flow. The benefit of nanofluids
associated with their increased heat conductivity is due to their increased effective viscosity. An increase in the
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viscosity of a nanofluid is attained by the addition of nanoparticles into its base fluid, and it leads to an increase
in the pressure losses, which increases the pumping power demands. The parameters that influence the effective
viscosity of a nanofluid are the viscosity of the base fluid, the concentration of nanoparticles in it, the shape,
diameter, and type of these particle, the temperature of the nanofluid, the pressure in it, its pH value, and the rate
of the shear flow of the nanofluid [20]. Investigations of the viscosity of nanofluids [8, 12, 15, 19] have shown that
this property of a nanofluid determines its flow and heat transfer characteristics.
Stability of Hybrid Nanofluids. One of the challenges that faces the commercialization of nanofluids is
their poor stability. The stability of a nanofluid is deteriorated by the interaction of the particles in it with each
other and with the surrounding medium [21] due to the action of the two opposing forces on them: the well-known
Van der Waals attractive forces on the surface of the particles, which causes the particles to attract to each other
with the formation of clusters and agglomerate and with the further separation from the base fluid and settlement

Том 95, № 2, 2022 545

 OKAFOR ANTHONY AMAECHI AND MGBEMENA CHINEDUM OGONNA

at the bottom of the vessel in which it is found due to the gravitational force, and the electrical double layer
repulsive force which separates particles from each other via the steric and electrostatic repulsion mechanisms [23].
The stability of a nanofluid is of great importance in its commercialization because it increases the service life of
the nanofluid with the retantion of its thermophysical properties. To obtain a stable nanofluid, the electrical double
layer repulsive force should overcome the Van der Waals attractive force.
Surfactants or dispersants are used for increasing the stability of nanofluids. Normally, surfactants are required
in order to stabilize nanofluid suspensions produced by the two-step method. Surfactants decrease the surface
tension of nanofluids and, hence, increase their stability through the prevention of agglomeration of the particles
in them. Surfactants aid in increasing the wettability of materials, which increases the contact surface between
them. Water-soluble surfactants are selected when a base fluid is a polar solvent; otherwise, oil-soluble solvents
are used. On the other hand, there are several issues associated with surfactants: dispersants may contaminate a

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heat transfer medium by producing foams in the process of its heating. Moreover, the addition of surfactants to
a nanofluid can lead to an enlargement of the particles in it, which decreases its effective thermal conductivity.

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Hence, the system of a nanofluid with surfactants should be optimized.
Another method of increasing the stability of nanofluids is the utilization of the functionalized nanoparticles
in them. Some researchers experimented on the combination of functionalized silica (SiO2) nanoparticles by

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joining silanes to the surface of silica nanoparticles in unique nanoparticle solutions, which resulted in the
appearance of peculiar qualities of nanofluids in which there was no deposition layer on their warmed surface
after bubbling procedure in a pool. Some other researchers formed hydrophilic functional groups on the surface
of nanoparticles through a mechanical-chemical reaction and thus produced nanofluids with no contamination, a
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high smoothness, a low viscosity, a high thermal conductivity, and a high stability. These nanofluids can be used
as coolants in advanced thermal systems.
The particles in a dispersion medium can agglomerate with the formation of large-size particles which can
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settle down in the solution due to the gravity. A nanofluid is steady if its particles do not aggregate and do not settle
down at a noteworthy rate. The rate of aggregation of particles in a nanofluid is determined by the recurrence of
their collisions and the probability of combination of particles in the process of their collisions. It is thought that
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the stability of the particles in a solution is determined by the force that is resultant of the van der Waals attractive
force and the electrical double layer repulsive force acting on the particles as they approach each other due to the
Brownian motion. If the attraction force in a colloidal suspension is higher than the repulsion force, the particles
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in the suspension collide, and it is not stable; otherwise, the colloidal suspension is stable.
The stability of a nanofluid can be increased by its sonication [22]. There are ultrasonicators of the probe
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type and the bath type. Many researchers used ultrasonication in preparing and stabilizing nanofluids. It was also
reported that a probe-type sonicator provides a better improvement of a nanofluid than a bath-type sonicator [21].
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Even though the sonication technique is widely used, in particular, in the two-step method of preparation of
nanofluids, the optimum sonication time, wave, and pulse mode are still unknown.
The stability of a nanofluid can be substantially improved by changing its pH value because the stability
of a nanofluid is directly related to its electrokinetic properties. The pH value of a nanofluid can be increased or
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decreased by adding an appropriate nonreactive alkaline or acidic solution to it [23].

To maintain the stability of a nanofluid, a surfactant can be added to it for modification of the surface of
the particles suspended in the nanofluid. Almost all the researchers measured the stability of a hybrid nanofluid
before its testing, but they did not measure the stability of the nanofluid after the experiments on it. The viscosity
of a hybrid nanofluid can be increased by selecting nanoparticles different in shape and size, which, however, can
cause an increase in the pressure drop in the nanofluid and in the pumping power compared to those of a nanofluid
with particles of single type. Because of this, hybrid nanofluids should be engineered properly by selecting
suitable nanomaterials to attain a good aspect ratio and to obtain a relation between the pair and synergistic effects
providing a better heat transfer. The process of production of hybrid nanofluids is more complex compared to that
of single-element nanofluids, and its cost is also higher, which is among the reasons hindering the application of
hybrid nanofluids in industry sectors.

546 Том 95, № 2, 2022

 PREPARATION OF HYBRID NANOFLUIDS, THEIR THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES, AND STABILITY PARAMETERS

Conclusion. Hybrid nanofluid represent nanofluids of a new kind which are obtained as a result of the
addition of nano-sized particles of two or more metals, nonmetals, or their oxides to a base fluid. Hybrid
nanofluids have better thermophysical properties, especially as for the thermal conductivity, compared to those
of single-element nanofluids. The thermal conductivity of hybrid nanofluids is substantially dependent on the
method of their preparation. For preparation of nanofluids, a one-step and two-step methods are usually used, and
the two-step method is of more frequent use. The major problem of the preparation of hybrid nanofluids is the
selection of a suitable combination of two nanomaterials, the time of the stabilization and production processes,
and the cost effectiveness of the nanocomposite particles. Most of the research studies on hybrid nanofluids were
focused on their thermal conductivity and viscosity, and the number of studies on the other properties of these
nanofluids, such as their density and specific heat, is very limited. A few experimental and numerical studies were
devoted to the comparison of single-element and hybrid nanofluids. Single-element and hybrid nanofluids are not

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always attractive as a cooling or energy transfer fluid for high energy-density devices such as heat sinks and heat
pipes. Some researchers reported that the thermal conductivity of hybrid nanofluids is lower compared to that

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of respective single-element nanofluids probably because of the lack of interaction between the nanoparticles of
two kinds in a composite nanofluid. For increasing the thermal conductivity of a nanofluid, nanoparticles with
a larger exposure surface area and a stable network between them are required. The experimental investigations

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mentioned in the present work have shown that hybrid nanofluids are workable fluids which can substantially
improve the heat transfer characteristics of heat exchangers.
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