Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
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Calciner modification at Holcim Lägerdorf plant with Refratechnik JETCAST® material�������������������������� 139
Morten Holpert, Plant Manager Holcim (Deutschland) AG, Lägerdorf, Germany
Experiences in the application of metallic anchoring and fixing elements in refractory linings�������������� 181
Klaus Kassau
Drying out and heating-up of refractory linings in the cement industry��������������������������������������������������� 219
Dirk Basten
Ladies and gentlemen, valued delegates of the global cement industry, worthy guests
from economics, politics and the specialised media, dear colleagues and employees of
the Refratechnik Group, a warm welcome to the 12 th International REFRA-Kolloquium
2008 in Berlin!!
It is a great pleasure for me to welcome the impressive number of 670 guests from 77
countries to this event for a few days together. It makes us proud that so many decision
makers, managers, engineers and process experts from all over the world have accepted
our invitation.
We will inform you of product improvements, completely new products and their
enhanced applications, even for special requirements. Reports from the market will
complement these aspects.
As in the past, we have once again invited guest speakers and are pleased that we were
able to obtain these proven experts for our event. They will contribute to illustrating the
global political/economic situation with their presentations on the cement industry.
I am certain that the talks held during the REFRA-Kolloquium 2008 and the information,
which you will obtain in this connection on the results of our work for the cement industry,
will stimulate interesting discussions with ourselves, but of course also amongst your
panel of experts. We will be pleased to hear any contribution on your part.
I now hereby declare open the 12 th International REFRA-Kolloquium and look forward
to a successful conference over the next two days.
At the last REFRA-Kolloquium four years ago we complained about some topical
disruptive global factors and these are still relevant now:
However, the powers dictating the global economic situation have changed drastically
in a relatively short period of time. China and the USA were still the driving forces 2 to
3 years ago. But today we are hearing talk of a recession in the USA, of the Chinese
economy overheating and of the powerful future development potential in India, Brazil,
Russia and the African countries rich in raw materials (Fig. 1).
2000
3�5 855
1�8
1500
1100 11�2 1354
1000 1034
512
For the detailed observations there have been chosen two identical 15 year periods in
each case, in particular 1990 to 2005 and 2005 to 2020 to give a forecast.
It is also differentiated between mature markets (i.e. Western Europe, USA, Canada,
Japan and Australia) and other developing countries; China will be listed separately,
because in the last decade China has undergone extraordinary development and now
with a quarter of the world's population consumes half of global cement production.
In relation to the same periods, the statements are put into perspective with a
comparison of the per capita cement consumption of the selected groups (Fig. 2).
1200 1990
2005
1000 956 2020F
800 787
pcc in kg cement
600
461 469 489
400
281
183 200
200 153
0
mature China other emerging
pcc = per capita cement consumption Source: OneStone Research
In the industrial nations we can see constant rates like with total consumption, as here
the population level remains virtually unchanged.
China, which even now already has a high per capita consumption, will continue to
grow to almost 1000 kg.
We see a completely different picture in the developing countries. For the period 2005
to 2020, +75% consumption (in absolute terms) has been forecast. However, because
of high population growth, this represents "only" +40% per capita consumption with a
relatively low value of about 280 kg.
In this case, there are two significant factors governing strong growth in the cement
industry; increasing per capita consumption and population growth at a ratio of about
50:50. Dr. Harder will broach the issue of the demand for new plants resulting from
this.
12
11�2
10 Western Europe
Eastern Europe
8 7�4 Middle East
6�5
Africa/Oceania
6
CAGR in %
5�2 5�1
China
3�9
4
3�2
India
2�6 2�9 2�8 3�0
1�9
Far East
2 1�8 1�7
1�2 North America
0�6 0�4
0 South America
-1�1
-2
1990-2005 2005-2020F
To date, cement consumption growth within these groups has been restricted to a few
countries, such as the Mediterranean abutting nations (Africa) and to oil/gas exporting
countries (Middle East), but will relate in both regions to a broader country mix.
Very strong growth is also forecast for India, and as a result of the strong growth in
population, even in 2020 we can expect to see consumption of about 280 kg per capita,
which represents continued above-average growth.
Alongside the giants of China and India, the Far East country mix is very different in
terms of development. In addition to some countries, which have a very high per capita
consumption, there are also countries in this region where politico-economic systems
unfortunately slow down development.
In North America, Mexico will certainly grow more than the USA and Canada.
In contrast, there is substantial pent-up demand in many countries in Central and South
America. Like Africa mentioned earlier, production and consumption of cement will
grow significantly in more countries than before, and this will be aided by the growth
in population and financed by exports of industrial and agricultural raw materials.
In recent months, the business papers and journals have been reporting on the
increasing problem of financing, securities, rating etc. Also, the area of conflict
between globalisation and the opening of new markets on the one hand and resulting
protectionism on the other is becoming even more critical.
The corporate cement groups will play an increasingly more active roll in this. Figure 4
shows the TOP 10 corporate groups and their significance in the individual regions.
In fact, only the TOP 5 are active in global terms. In contrast, 2 other large corporate
groups in the TOP 10 are represented in only one country.
The TOP 2 – Lafarge and Holcim – stand out from the other corporate groups in the
TOP 10 in terms of capacity, number of factories and country presence etc.
The Orascom integration by Lafarge created for the first time a large corporate group
share in countries, such as Pakistan, Algeria, Iraq or even North Korea; proof of the
active roll in the developing countries.
The regions demonstrating the smallest presence of the TOP 10 are the Middle East
with 10%, followed by China with 13% and India with 27%, and in these two countries
the local corporate bodies are more dominant. As expected, the developed markets,
such as Western Europe (62%) and North America (69%), show the highest level of
presence closely followed by Eastern Europe (57%).
0
1990 2005 2020F
CAGR = Compound Annual Growth Rate Source: OneStone Research
The installed (rotary kiln) capacity grew in the first 15 year cycle by approximately 85%
from about 1290 million tons to about 2375 million tons. In 1990, the TOP 10 at the time
only had approximately 20% share of this. In 2005, this was actually about 35%, and the
TOP 2 enjoyed much greater expansion than the other corporate groups in the TOP 10,
who in turn expanded to a greater extent than the other cement producers.
The forecast to 2020 confirms this trend; the world-wide installed capacity will grow
approximately by a further 75% to about 4.1 billion tons, and the TOP 10 already control
about 47%, and in terms of capacity the TOP 2 could become almost as big as the other
corporate groups in the TOP 10.
Figure 6 shows these facts from a different view. The installed capacity of the TOP 2
and that of the other corporate groups in the TOP 10 correspond to one another. While
the rest of the global cement industry actually continues to grow, its share decreased
in 1990 from 79% to a forecast figure of about 53% for 2020, or the entire capacity
controlled by the TOP 10 will be almost identical to the remaining globally installed
capacity.
market share in %
65
60
53
40
23 24
20
20 14 14
7
0
TOP 2 other TOP 10 other
Source: OneStone Research
Similar trends can be seen in both industries, i.e. the cement industry and the refractory
industry.
All refractory-consuming industries are currently booming, i.e. the supplier industries
are also benefiting in the same way as the refractory industry (Fig. 7). Of course, the
refractory producer is also hampered by the greatly increased energy costs.
These facts, disproportionately increasing costs, but at the same time limited scope
to pass these on to the market, and substantial investment into new products and
technology underpin restructuring and provide further consolidation in the refractory
industry. The very recent past has brought a new and previously unknown development.
Where in the past there were only strategic investors from the sector itself, we are now
witnessing a lot of activity from financial investors, who have a bearing on the way
in which refractory producers operate their business. Some analysts are even talking
today of fierce competition between strategic and financial investors in terms of take-
over, integration or partial asset stripping.
The drive to achieve the "best" price will result in even more changes in the supplier/
customer relationship, not only on the part of the supplier, but also on the part of the
refractory user with increasing disregard of technical competence, consultation and
service as a money-equivalent advantage, and in the end no one will benefit from this.
Refractory products are not "commodities", but remain essential technical products for
meeting the demands of a complicated technical process.
China will play a crucial role in the development of the refractory industry, particularly
with regard to raw materials. In a similar manner to the scenario just outlined, 5 to
10 years ago we found ourselves in the "best price" phase and were therefore in a
comfortable position. The elimination of some raw materials suppliers caused by this
has brought about a situation where refractory producers are heavily dependent upon
one supplier. China's dominance with regard to relevant raw materials is frightening for
all refractory producers. China is therefore becoming a strategic base for competition.
YRR
Beijing
Dalian
YRR: Yingkou Refratechnik Refractories Co�, Ltd�
Jinan ZRR
~ 75,000 tons/annum of basic bricks
(to be extended)
Refratechnik’s activities in China go back to 1986 with large orders for the first three
modern rotary kilns. A positive reaction resulting from excellent lifetimes led to the
establishment of the Refratechnik Representative Office in Shanghai to provide service
in situ. In 2002, the Yingkou Refratechnik Refractories Co., Ltd. was established
in Liaoning Province, which was the first refractory production site in China and
manufactured basic bricks exclusively for the cement industry in line with international
standards. Refratechnik was once again in the difficult role of protagonist attempting
to gain acceptance for "Refratechnik quality made in China", both in China and also for
export purposes.
At the same time, the China sales division was strengthened and coordinated close to
the market by Refratechnik Trading Co. in Dalian.
After two expansions in capacity, Yingkou Refratechnik Refractories Co., Ltd. has
succeeded to date in producing more than 200,000 tons of basic bricks for the
global cement, lime and pulp & paper industries. For sure the majority of Yingkou
Refratechnik’s customers are able to confirm the extremely high quality of these
products through their own positive experiences.
To justify Refratechnik's claim as being a complete refractory supplier for the entire
clinker burning process, this concept was expanded by a second production facility,
the Zibo Refratechnik Refractories Co., Ltd. in Shandong Province with an annual
production capacity of approx. 45,000 tons. Since the autumn of 2007, they have been
producing shaped and unshaped Al203-products at this facility. The range of products
and shapes will enable Refratechnik to produce and deliver 4 to 5 sets of refractories
for complete new plants in China by the end of 2008.
The Zibo Refratechnik Refractories Co., Ltd. is designed for future expansions in
capacity.
Competent customer care relating to the selection and usage of the ideal quality
product in each case remains an integral part of Refratechnik's philosophy.
As a result, in 2007 Refratechnik Asia Ltd. was established with its registered office
in Hong Kong under the leadership of Dr. Heinrich Liever, who is known to the cement
industry as Sales Director at Refratechnik Cement for many years.
Hong Kong is within the same time zone right in the centre of the booming Asia-Pacific
economic area. Cement production in this region in 2007 was about 1650 million tons
and has huge potential for growth, as pointed out in the introduction.
Dr. Liever himself will introduce Refratechnik Asia Ltd. in a separate lecture.
Even in past years, the world-wide cement industry, has confirmed Refratechnik as the
global No. 1 refractory experts.
Of course, Refratechnik are very grateful for this endorsement, giving them a great deal
of pleasure and pride as well, but most importantly it places an important obligation
upon Refratechnik to maintain this esteemed position and always to continue to focus
on their customers and the diverse refractory requirements their customers do have.
It has been reported on the new and expanded manufacturing capacities in Europe,
the USA (production of concretes) and specifically in Asia, and Refratechnik declared
their aim to improve established products and to create new standard and special
products. The lectures presented bear testimony to the fact that Refratechnik's R & D
Department has been working very creatively and efficiently to meet their customers’
requirements.
Of course, it is still possible to get Refratechnik's complete refractory product range for
the entire clinker burning process from one supplier, but with even more finely tuned
properties and more variable applications, or to benefit from completely new products
of great interest depending upon the specific process requirement.
Refratechnik's highly motivated Sales Team has been reorganised and strengthened in
terms of human resources. Customer focus, from analysis of requirements to after-sales
service provides the foundation to be a permanent and competent point of contact in
all refractory matters. Regular direct contact with customers by the Refratechnik Sales
Team has been greatly intensified, amongst other things by positioning the team in
close geographic proximity to the respective marketplace.
The useful Refratechnik accessories + tools which are used the world over have been
optimised and will be exhibited with staff on hand to provide technical support.
Refratechnik hope that the combination of services they offer is a sound reason for their
customers to keep on choosing Refratechnik as the preferred and reliable refractory
partner in the global cement industry.
To-date, the banks have written off around USD 330 bn. One stabilising factor is that
the banks in question are apparently not finding it difficult to raise new capital.
180
158,4
160
140
120 111,5
102,5
100
80 73,7
60
45,3 43,7
?
40
20
3,5 4 6,2
0
H 1/07 Q 3/07 Q 4/07 Q 1/08 Q 2/08
Losses
Capital Raised Source: see last page
In its latest study, the OECD estimates that the financial crisis could actually lead to a
loss of USD 350-400 bn in the next few years. In its own analysis, the IMF even puts the
risks to US business at USD 945 bn; the IMF is especially worried about potential losses
in the area of commercial property and consumer credits. Standard & Poors is even
concerned about the USA’s top rating in the light of a sharp rise in mortgage volume for
the two quasi government mortgage lenders, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. On the one
hand, both these companies have been coming under huge pressure themselves; and
on the other, they are expected to “save” the mortgage and property market. In view of
the crisis affecting private mortgage banks, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac account for
almost 80% of this year’s new business. Ultimately, only an explicit state guarantee is
likely to help in this case.
Structure
This lecture is divided into three parts: Firstly, we will discuss the phenomenon of
excess liquidity and the direct and indirect consequences of this for the financial
markets and the financial system.
This has been the breeding ground for the sub-prime crisis and the repercussions of
the crisis for the financial sector as a whole and will be the subject of the second part
of the lecture.
Although it is still too early to draw a final conclusion about the financial crisis, some
elementary conclusions can easily be drawn at the present time. I will bring this lecture
to a close with my own subjective findings.
The current crisis, which many observers quite rightly describe as the most serious for
the banks and financial markets since the 1930s, has a background without which it
would be impossible to understand this present situation. I want to set my argument in
this context. Although the large central banks have been pumping additional liquidity
into the banking system for months at previously inconceivable levels, the crux of the
problem is not the threat of illiquidity, but rather the risk of insolvency. The fear of
insolvency of banking partners, which can be expressed more elegantly as the so-called
crisis of confidence, restricts the opportunities available in the banking system for
generating liquidity.
If I may, I would also like to offer an observation just as an aside: it was obvious that
the German Central Bank also saw things the same way, otherwise two years ago it
would certainly not have deleted the chapter on the liquidity situation from its annual
financial stability report without replacing it.
This transfer of money takes place initially as a result of foreign exchange market
interventions. For example, if the People's Bank of China purchases US Dollars to
stabilise its own exchange rate, additional Renminbi come onto the market as a result.
Money is also transferred as a result of so-called carry trades. Cheap money in low
interest-bearing currencies, such as the Japanese Yen or the Swiss Frank, is raised
and the equivalent value invested in higher interest-bearing currencies, such as the
US Dollar or the Euro. To show you that this mechanism is still in place, I will use the
example of the EUR/YEN exchange rate, which fluctuates exactly with the differences
in interest between the two currencies. The greater the Euro interest rate advantage,
the stronger the Euro and vice-versa. This finding also applies in the same way to
USD/YEN, EUR/USD, EUR/CHF and many other exchange rates.
2.90 170
2.80
165
2.70
2.60
160
2.50
2.40 155
2.30
150
2.20
2.10
145
2.00
1.90 140
M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A
Even in this context, the securitisation of debts, which will play an important role in
this lecture, is already highly significant. The securitisation of debts allows the global
credit creation potential to be expanded considerably. This is down to the ability
associated with this of keeping such assets off the balance sheet in conduits and
special investment vehicles (SIVs) and refinancing them practically without any tie-up
of capital resources. In this case, the Basle II body of rules and regulations, which has
been in force since the beginning this year, unfortunately came too late.
13 13
12 12
11 11
10 10
9 9
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
M3 Y/Y
Credit growth
Official ECB-target for money supply Source: see last page
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07
OECD Monetary aggregate M1
OECD Nominal GDP Source: see last page
Remember! At that time it was obvious that the volatile dot.com bubble was about to
burst. The newspapers outdid each other in reporting horror scenarios of an impending
world economic crisis. In addition to this was the unimaginable terrorist attack of
September 11th, 2001 on the Twin-Towers in New York. The US Federal Reserve, led
by its charismatic Chairman Alan Greenspan, kept lowering the nominal money market
rates in this climate until they reached the historic lowest level of 1%; it was not until
the middle of 2004 that the bank began successively to normalise the interest rate
level. The real money market rates were even negative from autumn 2002 to early 2005.
[We know this now to be the case again]. The Euro money market rates were lowered
to 2% – a level never before seen at the time of the Deutschmark. And finally, Japan
has been well used to zero rates of interest now for some years.
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Real Yield
Average real yield Source: see last page
If I may, I would like to quote from two of my own articles published in the "Handels
blatt" in February 2004 and October 2005 respectively. "As long as Japan is suffering
the effects of deflation, and inflation is not an issue, the extremely expansive monetary
policy associated with intervention policy (on the currency market to support the
US Dollar) will meet the interests of the country. At least from a superficial point of
view, this policy also suits the Americans, as the government and consumers are reliant
on the cheapest money possible. No other country could hope to encounter a similarly
fortunate set of circumstances, where those in deficit are actually rewarded. Into the
mix then come clever freeloaders, who feel attracted by the sweet poison of the still
steep yield curves and thus by promising term transformation transactions", the result
is a yield curve which is (too) flat.
On average about 2/3 of the operating income of a standard commercial bank depends
upon the net income. In turn, almost two thirds of this comes from term transformation
by the banks transforming shorter-term deposits into longer-term loans. However, if
the yield curve is almost flat, nothing more can be earned. Then, if the risk spreads
also come under pressure, this applies all the more to the net income of the banks. In
this situation, many banks were obviously incurring greater risks without obtaining an
adequate premium for the risk.
It could surely not also have been a historical coincidence that precisely during this
monetary policy phase hedge funds, private equity funds, but also conduits and SIVs,
which are operated by the banks themselves, were popping up everywhere. Ultimately,
they all operate overwhelmingly with outside capital and things were better than
ever before. In general, the leverage factor, i.e. the ratio between invested outside
capital and capital resources, increased dramatically in many businesses. Due to the
low outside capital interest rates, it was obviously not a problem to adopt a leverage
factor of 10 and in some cases of almost 50. If everything runs smoothly, it is of
course possible to achieve fantastic returns on equity as a result of this. But this is
an extremely slippery slope, where a fall to death can occur at any time. In order to
achieve high returns in spite of low market rates of interest, some banks and hedge
funds clearly took on far more than they could handle.
A party atmosphere
The fact that the origins of the financial crisis can be found in the US real estate market,
may have been a coincidence according to Alan Greenspan. However, this would be
open to some debate. The situation does not seem quite so coincidental to me. After
2001, the residential real estate market plainly became America's economical driving
force and the brains behind monetary policy intended it to be just that. Alan Greenspan
even encouraged borrowers to replace conventional mortgage loans, which run for 30
years at a fixed rate of interest, by loans with variable rates of interest, which at that
time were much more favourable. When these forms of finance were no longer feasible
due to money market rates, which had again become higher in the interim and due to
house prices which had increased by 30 to 50%, in 2005 and 2006 interest-only loans
and mortgages with at first negative amortisation were offered to customers.
100% 100%
90% 90%
80% 80%
70% 70%
60% 60%
50% 50%
40% 40%
30% 30%
20% 20%
10% 10%
0% 0%
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 1st half
2007
Fixed Rate Mortgages Interest Only Fixed Rate Mortgages
Adjusted Rate Mortgages Interest Only Adjusted Rate Mortgages
Mortgages with
negative amortization
Source: LBBW
Financing homes up to 125% of their value was obviously not a problem. In order to
drive consumption on, second mortgages were often also taken out on existing homes
based on the rise in property value; as already mentioned at the beginning, according
to estimations by the Fed, these home equity loans created an additional influx of more
than 2000 billion Dollars into consumption between 2003 and 2006. The sometimes
extremely relaxed standards for credit granting can only be understood – if at all –
against the backdrop of real estate prices rising continually. The banks granting credit
felt they were well covered, because at worst the financed real estate could still be
sold at a good price by forced sale. In relation to debt passed on to third parties, which
had been coveted for many years, the standards for credit granting were not a major
issue.
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
01/07 03/07 05/07 07/07 09/07 11/07 01/08 03/08
5.00 1.00
4.50 0.80
4.00 0.60
3.50
0.40
3.00
0.20
2.50
0
2.00 -0.10
2005 2006 2007
3-Month-Euribor in % (lhs)
3-Month-Eonia-Swap in % (rhs)
Difference Euribor / Eonia Source: see last page
The risk of a continuous downward spiral, which consumes itself like a blazing fire,
was certainly in the thoughts of Josef Ackermann, CEO of Deutsche Bank, when he
allegedly called on the state for assistance in mid-March. This should not be confused
with the unacceptable saying: privatisation of profits and nationalisation of losses.
According to our calculations and assumptions, "at the end of the day" the actual losses
from the subprime loans could be about 300 billion to 400 billion US Dollars; banks
would account for two thirds of this. Of course, the returns on previous investments
will, for the future, be channelled away from corresponding new deals. Depending upon
the specific situation, the profit situation of the banks can also be adversely affected by
increased refinancing costs. Last but not least, burdens exist on the capital resources
side: on the one hand write-downs and net losses reduce capital resources terms;
on the other hand, the transfer of off-balance sheet commercial papers from special
purpose entities to the bank balance sheet for reasons relating to supervision laws
also requires additional capital resources. On the whole, the crisis could well lead to
consumption of capital resources in the region of 150 billion to 220 billion US Dollars.
This would equate to about 5% to 7% of the capital resources in the banking system. In
spite of the horrendous sums involved, it would generally be possible to absorb these
losses. But the problem is that almost all of the burdens appear to be borne by relatively
few banks. 15 banks account for about two thirds of the burdens. A high systemic risk
is associated with this.
Losses
Risk
from
reduction/
subprime
further Leveraged
RMBS
asset investments
Banks sales with heavy
hoard losses
liquidity
4. Consequently, 2. Ratings
?
further Good and still of bonds
Banks put liquid ABS are
writedowns conduits and being sold to
guaranteed
for investors/ SIVs on their raise liquidity by them are
banks balance sheets reduced
The entire
Commercial ABS market
paper market is under
collapses Losses at
SIVs and pressure
conduits
increase
180,0
160,0
140,0
120,0
100,0
80,0
60,0
40,0
20,0
06/07 07/07 08/07 09/07 10/07 11/07 12/07 01/08 02/08 03/08 04/08
We are still right in the middle of this financial crisis, and nobody can say with any
degree of certainty when it will be over and how the final damage assessment will look.
In my view, it is possible to draw a few obvious elementary conclusions.
• On the wider front, we could well see deleveraging in deals. A return on equity at a
high double-digit percentage level should more likely be a reason for critical analysis
of the figures than for blind admiration of managers.
• Many bank balance sheets are more likely to shrink than – as previously – increase
considerably more than a country's nominal GDP. Certain risk deals will no longer be
accepted, at least not by the internal and external supervisory bodies. Also, capital
resources could become an increasingly more restrictive factor.
• The shadow bank system, which has arisen in recent years, will tend to dry up.
• Specific complexly packaged products, which without any higher objective purpose
are all about the packaging of the packaging of the packaging, will not survive. The
market will see to that.
• Bank supervision may also consider matters not only from a formally legal point of
view, but also in a material sense. An elementary principle must be that materially
equal circumstances are also to be treated as materially equal. This goes for the
stringent application of large credit guidelines and capital resources-regulations.
• The ratings agencies must disclose both their valuation models and also their
undeniable conflicts of interest.
• The financial accounting-regulations and the banks' internal risk models, and not
least the structure of personal incentives for all parties involved, are to be modified
such that the prominent herd instinct and lemming effect in the finance industry are
no longer encouraged, but tempered as much as possible.
• The central banks must also do everything they can to bring the crisis under
control and to prevent a core melt down of the financial system, which would have
incalculable consequences. However, it is likewise their duty to ensure that their
rescue measures are not the starting point for the next and possibly even less
manageable bubble in the financial markets.
Finally, of all the financial crises of the last few years, the current crisis stands out by a
long way. However, as Edgar says in Shakespeare’s King Lear: „The worst is not so long
as we can say, ‘This is the worst’“.
Sources:
Thomson Financial Datasystem,
Bloomberg, Reuters,
LBBW Research,
as at May 15, 2008
The continual increase in the world's population and current economic development
will lead to a further increase in cement consumption in the coming years. While the
average increase in cement consumption in the last few years was between 3% and
3.5% per year, an average annual growth in cement production of >4% in the coming
years is anticipated, which is necessary to meet the increasing requirement for cement
per capita.
Before dealing with the final point and therefore with the current demands placed
on refractory material with the aid of some examples, one should briefly address the
existing plant technology and its potential to make savings in terms of energy demands
and emissions.
While the introduction of precalcination technology three decades ago was a large
developmental step in terms of increasing capacity, technologies are currently
available with which one can achieve a high level of efficiency in terms of capacity and
effectiveness and can reduce energy consumption and emissions [2].
This is demonstrated mainly in the static part of the cement plant. Modern plants with
capacities of up to 6,000 t/d have single-strand preheaters with five or six cyclone
stages and, in case of higher capacity plants, two-strand and in some cases four-
strand preheaters. The use of calciners of different designs and the addition of further
combustion chambers, such as the "hot disk", have achieved almost total calcination of
the raw meal in the static part of the plant. Furthermore, various modules and staged
combustion in the area of the calciner and in the riser duct permit the legally prescribed
low NOx requirements to be met.
At present the clinker cooling is done by means of grate coolers, which – in addition
to the secondary air removal for the kiln combustion air – also permit tertiary air to
be removed for the calciner via the TAD. Modern grate coolers are characterised in
particular by being easily available, by using minimal quantities of cooling air and near
optimal recovery of the heat introduced by the hot clinker.
Further potential savings in terms of specific energy requirements and emissions are
achieved by the use of alternative fuels, alternative raw materials and additives. Due
to the rapid – almost explosive – increase in prices for primary energy, the use of
alternative fuels in the production of cement will continue to increase further on a
world-wide scale, and they already play a major role in the European cement industry
and in the USA. Looking ahead to the long term, alternative energy sources and
especially alternative raw materials will be used more and more to meet the need for
sustainability in the cement industry and with respect to the environment.
The temperature distribution and the associated thermal loads of a technically highly
efficient plant is considered in the following (Fig. 3).
200 °C = 392 °F
300 °C = 572 °F
400 °C = 752 °F
500 °C = 932 °F
600 °C = 1112 °F
700 °C = 1292 °F
800 °C = 1472 °F
900 °C = 1652 °F
1000 °C = 1832 °F
1100 °C = 2012 °F
1200 °C = 2192 °F
1300 °C = 2372 °F
1400 °C = 2552 °F
basic lining in the lower burning zone high alumina lining in the calciner
of rotary kilns
Further chemical and/or thermochemical wears of the refractory lining are traceable
to the incorporation of volatile components, such as alkali, sulphur and chloride
compounds, as well as to further trace elements into the system. There is known to be
a significant increase in these components, and especially heavy metals, in the system
due to the increasing use of alternative fuels and raw material, and the associated
processing difficulties.
However, now it is known that these components have been proved not only to dwell
in the rotary kiln, but also in increasing concentrations in the units preceding and
following the kiln and do hence cause more and more operating problems (Fig. 5).
Depending on the quantity and the atmospheric conditions, the volatile compounds
and heavy metals introduced into the system have an affinity to form various salt
compounds, such as alkali chlorides, alkali sulphates and sulphides. Due to internal
gas circulation processes these compounds become concentrated in the system. While
previously mainly individual salts, such as sylvine, arcanite and anhydrite, could be
found in the structure of the lining, the condensation of mixed salts in the structure is
now being found to a greater degree. Calcium langbeinite, syngenite, aphthitalite and
langbeinite are the main mixed salts, which have been found in the refractory lining,
in addition to alkali chlorides. These salt mixtures are liquid up to about 600 °C (Fig. 6)
regardless of their composition [3]. They can deeply penetrate into the structure of the
lining and finally condense.
eutectics
While in basic and chrome ore-free brick grades the open pores are generally filled
by infiltration and condensation of the salts leading to the structural densifications in
various horizons (Fig. 8), there do take place thermochemical reactions additionally in
dolomite bricks and non-basic linings.
mainly alkali sulphate salts mainly alkali chloride salts, mainly alkali chloride
alkali sulphate salts salts
Fig. 8: Salt infiltrations in different horizons of basic and non-basic brick grades
In the preheater, calciner and kiln hood areas a growing of the non-basic lining on the
hot side usually occurs before the alkali spalling effect takes place. Over time, this
expansion exerts high pressure and traction forces on the entire refractory construction
including anchoring, flanges and kiln shell construction. If, in addition, the given
expansion joints are filled with dust and/or salts and the compensators lose their ability
to function due to the expansion of the lining underneath, then deformation or even
tearing of the steel shell occurs. The lifting of partial areas of the calciner (Fig. 10) has
been observed in the past, too.
refractory expansion
Fig. 10: Expansion of a refractory lining, calciner conical part lifted off
Fig. 11: Damaged side wall due to anchor overstressing, kiln hood area
The refractory linings are further affected by an excessive presence of SO2 /SO3
observed in the system in recent years. The use of sulphurous fuels, such as petcoke,
favours this and leads to an alkali sulphate modulus of <1, that means free SO2 /SO3,
which cannot be bonded by alkalis, is widely available to react thermochemically with
the refractory lining.
In case of basic bricks, a corrosion of the magnesia and calcium silicates, which are
present in traces in the magnesia, may take place. This mechanism has already been
presented in earlier publications. For a long time it was only detectable mineralogically
by means of X-ray analysis [4].
Recent case studies on used bricks show that this type of wear can even be detected
macroscopically due to the high sulphur concentrations in the system (Fig. 12). A
texture with wavy pores is the typical sign of this wear.
Fig. 12: Silicate and magnesia corrosion, surplus of SO2 /SO3 in kiln atmosphere
(alkali sulphate modulus [ASM] < 1)
High sulphur compound contents in the atmosphere of the plant also favour the
formation of coating rings and cloggings, which are not only found in the rotary kiln,
but also increasingly occur in the preceding units and may lead to premature kiln stops
(Fig. 13).
This is primarily caused by the formation of spurrite minerals and anhydrite. The
presence of salt melts based on alkali chloride and alkali sulphate compounds can
increase this effect still further.
Air blasters, which are usually integrated into suitable areas of modern cement plants,
provide one way of removing solid cloggings in the affected areas. The intense pressure
waves, however, impose a risk of the adjoining installed refractory material being
subjected to extreme mechanical compressive tensions. The formation of cracks and
spallings of damaged areas, and therefore premature wear of the refractory lining, may
occur as a consequence.
Cement clinker is normally burned under oxidising atmosphere. The alternating use of
different alternative fuels and the observance of legal requirements for reducing NOx
emissions produce operating conditions, which lead to local reducing atmospheres in
the system. Unfortunately, these do also influence the wear of the refractory material,
which can be detected macroscopically on the hot side by strongly bleached horizons
in the lining (Fig. 14).
In the presence of salts these conditions and/or redox burning conditions do not only
lead to the crystallization of alkali sulphates in the structure, the condensation of
alkali sulphite and alkali sulphides is again observed in the lining. A typical H2S smell
is perceived during kiln stops, where the brickwork has been loaded in this way. The
reason for this is the strong hygroscopy of the alkali sulphides. These draw moisture
from the air and release H2S gas, which is toxic in higher concentrations.
Reducing burning conditions also favour the Boudouard reaction (Fig. 15). Due to the
reducing atmosphere on the hot side, elemental carbon may deposit in lower horizons
of the lining in a temperature range between ~400 °C and ~600 °C. Carbon deposits in
the form of soot on the kiln shell are also found. This effect is augmented catalytically
by refractory products with higher contents of iron oxides with trivalent iron, such as
magnesia chromite bricks. Serious consequential damage to the brickwork by extensive
spallings is associated with this so-called carbon disintegration.
carbon horizon
Fig. 15: Reducing and redox burning conditions
The increasing use of secondary raw materials from other industry branches, such as
waste materials from the iron and non-iron industries, as an additive to the raw meal
causes concentrations of heavy metals in the system. Most of all, sulphide compounds
based on lead, cadmium and bismuth could be found, especially in the lining of the
upper transition zone (Fig. 16). The formation of a solid lead sulphide coating with a
thickness of ~50 mm has even been observed in the upper transition zone of the kiln.
Reducing burning conditions are also most essential for such condensations in the
structure in this case and – in the same manner as alkali salt condensations – lead to
embrittlements of the texture and spallings of horizons concerned.
Heat-resistant steel anchors consist of steel alloys, which contain nickel and chromium.
If alkali salts reach as far as the anchoring of refractory concrete, they can react with
the chromium from the steel anchor and form alkali chromates. The corroded steel
anchor itself thereby loses its stability. In dependence upon the prevailing temperature
profile the alkali chromates either settle directly in the vicinity or evaporate and
condense in other parts of the refractory lining.
In one case of wear, yellow alkali chromate efflorescences were found in the magnesia
spinel lining in the outlet zone of the kiln (Fig. 18). This lining was also loaded by the
condensation of blue arcanite, which discoloured to green in contact with yellow alkali
chromate.
alkali chromate
From the examples of wear phenomena that have been given it is clear that, in spite of
the optimisation of the process technology of cement plants, the demands placed on
the refractory lining have intensified. The main causes of this trend are the increased
capacities of the plants, additional combustion chamber modules and the increasing
use of secondary fuels and raw materials.
Reducing or even preventing such wear phenomena are essential requirements for
the refractory industry with the aim of being able to offer innovative solutions to the
cement producers. Under the existing conditions therefore the following essential
demands are placed upon the refractory material and its installation (Fig. 19):
innovative insulation and protection options for the anchoring system and steel shell
to reduce or even prevent different corrosion mechanisms of shell and anchors
Refractory concretes
high grades LCC and LCC-AR product range
high grades and
fast applications JC and MCG technology
On the non-basic side, the development of high alumina, silicon carbide containing
brick grades and low cement refractory concretes with silicon carbide or zircon
additives has also shown positive results with respect to increased infiltration
resistance and thermochemical corrosion resistance over a number of years. In this
respect the KRONAL® series from Refratechnik Cement including KRONAL® 50 AR,
KRONAL® 63 AR and KRONAL® 60 AR should be mentioned, which do not only achieve
good performances in the rotary kiln, but also in the units preceding and following,
such as calciner, riser duct, tertiary air duct, kiln hood and bullnose [8].
The continuous further development and improvement of LCC, JC and MCG technology
is an essential component of Refratechnik Cement's refractory concrete product range
which, from an economical point of view, amongst others permits flexible and fast
installation of high quality products [9].
Although recent years have seen the development of a particular market for alternative
fuels of uniform quality in terms of fraction and calorific value to meet the requirements
of the cement industry, the process control of a cement plant will continue to remain
rather undefined in the future due to changing fuel usage.
[1] W
ord Business Council for Sustainable Development (www.wbcsdcement.org):
The Cement Sustainability Initiative
Progress Report, March 2007
[2] H
arder, J.:
Trends in kiln systems for cement industry
ZKG International, no. 7, 2007, pp. 38 - 49
[5] G
roger, P.:
Practical applications of innovative basic refractory lining concepts
in sections of cement rotary kilns exposed to high chemical load
REFRA-Kolloquium 2004, pp. 57 - 69
[7] W
irsing, H., Södje, J.:
Structurally reinforced basic refractory bricks for use in alkali loaded cement
rotary kilns
REFRA-Kolloquium 2004, pp. 49 - 56
As pointed out by the gentlemen Tabbert and Harder, the cement industry is in a major
transition period. Global players are increasingly spreading their world-wide network
and influence. Technical innovations are applied with increasing speed throughout the
industry. Opportunities, such as global trading and obstacles, like increases in energy
costs and environmental regulations, are shared more commonly than ever before.
As this kind of transparency in related issues is a key factor to prepare the cement as
well as the refractory industry for the challenges of the years to come, it is a great
pleasure to present hereinafter Refratechnik’s contribution in the field of innovative
products and solutions via its wide range of AF and AR brick grades (Fig. 1).
6000
other OECD India and China
5000
4000
Mio. tons
3000
2000
1000
0
1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 2010 2014 2018 2022 2026 2030 2034 2038 2042 2046 2050
Source: USGS and IEA
The 30 countries registered under the OECD lost their dominating position in global
cement demand by the end of the last millennium to the booming markets of India
and China. The disproportionately high growth rate is forecasted to last another
10 years until the remaining countries will start to generate further exceptional
demand. The stimulating factors, such as global population growth, increase of per
capita consumption, politically motivated infrastructural projects and a booming
world economy are fuelling this scenario. To reach this ambitious prediction, plenty
of obstacles have to be dealt with. Some of them are simply linked to the nature of
product and the manufacturing process of cement. It is well known that high amounts
of CO2 are emitted due to decarbonisation of the limestone and utilization of fossil and
electrical energy for the production process [3], (Fig. 3).
In 1999 ten of the biggest cement producers established the Cement Sustainability
Initiative (CSI) under the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (Fig. 4).
It aims at improving the global cement industry’s environmental and social performance
and at reducing its ecological footprint.
established in 1999
In the meantime the CSI consists of 18 major cement producers [5], [6]. Amongst
them there are the TOP 5 global players: Lafarge, Holcim, Cemex, HeidelbergCement
and Italcementi. The CSI members are representing more than 40% of the world-
wide cement production. This is a clear commitment of the cement industry to its
global responsibility. Amongst others, the following three environmental optimization
approaches have been monitored:
Focusing on the aim of improving the equipment efficiency, it can be monitored that
globalization and the increasing task for a higher competitiveness have forced the
cement industry and its equipment suppliers to massive optimizations. Starting from
the dawn of the 19 th century, the specific energy consumption for the production of
one kg of clinker dropped gradually by over 50% from more than 6000 kJ to less than
3000 kJ [7], [8] (Fig. 5).
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000 theoretical heat requirement = 1758 kJ/kg clinker
500
0
long wet long dry semi-dry 2-stage 4-stage 4-stage modern
preheater preheater precalciner 6-stage
precalciner
Source: F.L. Smith & Co. A/S
3800
3700
3600
3500
3400
kJ/kg clinker
3300
3200
3100
3000
2900
2800 modern 6-stage precalciner kiln = 2900 kJ/kg clinker
2700
1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2005
Source: JCA
This slowdown shall be visualized by the specific fuel consumption of the Japanese
cement industry during the last 25 years. The consumption went clearly down in the
Eighties, bottomed out in the late Nineties and stagnates on low level in the new
millennium.
fuel 25%
energy > 40%
Source: ICPA
In this survey fossil energy with 25% and electrical energy with 17% account to over
40% of the production costs. Labour with around 26% comes in second place, raw
materials with 10% in third place, followed by various factors, which are all in the
range of single digits only. These values identify energy as the key cost factor in the
cement production process. Taking into account that the specific energy consumption
stagnates, the substitution of conventional energy is inevitable to reduce cost. Already
in the Eighties, German cement plants started to use alternative fuels [10]. In 2003 over
38% of secondary fuels and 6.4 million tons of alternative raw materials were utilized
(Fig. 8).
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Source: VDZ
In 2005 Germany achieved a substitution rate of nearly 50% of alternative fuels [11].
This substitution caused substantially lower fuel costs, partially to an even negative
level. Labour force in the cement industry has been globally downscaled over the years.
Technical development and increasing cost pressure account for this global trend. A
good indicator is the factor of produced ton of cement per worker and year. It can be
seen that the Japanese cement industry (Fig. 9), known for high efficiency, has tripled
its production per worker within the last 25 years [12]. Further it is obvious that even
with all the automation achieved there are certain limits. The downscale potential is
already widely reached in plenty of countries.
90000
80000 20000
70000
workers and tons/worker
60000 15000
1000 tons
50000
40000 10000
30000
20000 5000
10000
0 0
1980 1985 1990 1995 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
It is worthwhile to mention that the refractory costs - including material, demolition and
installation – account for less than 2% of the total production costs (Fig. 10).
electrical
energy 17%
installation
raw materials 10% and
refractories 2% materials 63% demolition
37%
Source: ICPA
The refractory materials themselves are accounting for 1 to 1.5% only. Considering that
a failure of a single brick in the rotary kiln may bring a multi-million dollar factory to
a standstill, it should be scrutinized whether operational cost saving shall start at
this end. This is even more critical, if the refractory operation conditions are already
deteriorating subject to other larger-scale saving efforts. At this stage one should look
at the refractory aspect. As part of its permanent quality control, Refratechnik has
been serving the cement industry with individual post mortem product analyses since
decades. Over the years, hundreds of individual samples have been categorized. As a
matter of fact, three parameters are responsible for the refractory performance. These
three parameters are thermal, chemical and mechanical impacts (Fig. 11).
others
7%
thermal
13%
mechanical
10%
With the development of the AF grades ALMAG® AF, TOPMAG® AF and REFRAMAG® AF
a new product group has been established. This group enables the application of
chemically enhanced products in all parts of the basic zone of the rotary kiln. The
utilization of reinforced raw materials, reduced permeability and customized refractory
engineering do assure the required properties. For the remaining kiln sections,
from outlet, safety, calcining towards inlet zone, the AR grades consisting
of KRONAL® 63 AR, KRONAL® 60 AR and KRONAL® 50 AR completed the aim of a
better chemical resistance. As a side effect of the outstanding positive feedback for
the AR concept in the rotary kiln, the grades migrated already into the stationary parts
of the cement factory, such as coolers, kiln hoods, as well as inlet chambers, risers,
cyclones and calciners. The tailor-made properties of the AF & AR grades allow to fully
cover all requirements of the chemically and thermochemically challenged areas of the
cement clinker production line. After nearly one decade from the first trials until today,
it is worthwhile to analyse the market acceptance of the AF and AR grades in detail
(Fig. 12).
The market introduction started in the year 2001 with the launch of KRONAL® 50 AR
and KRONAL® 63 AR. Already in the first year of their existence, the products spread
from Germany over Western and Eastern European countries to the Americas and
Asia.
300.000
250.000
200.000
tons
150.000
100.000
50.000
0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
AF / AR standard
Figure 14 shows the correlation of alternative fuels as well as raw materials utilization
and Refratechnik’s AF & AR product share in the TOP 5 global cement groups. As per
their annual public shareholder report, Italcementi have applied 4.4% [13], Cemex 7.4%
[14], Lafarge 10.7% [15], Holcim 11.0% and HeidelbergCement 17.0% [16] of their global
fuel consumption as alternative fuels.
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
Italcementi Cemex Lafarge Holcim HeidelbergCement
alternative fuels alternative raw materials Refratechnik’s AF & AR products
Source: Sustainability reports 2006
Fig. 14: AFR substition rates and Refratechnik’s AF and AR products used
in the TOP 5 global cement groups
Lafarge as an example define 18 fuels for their global operations. Only 6 are specified
as standard or regular fuels, 9 as solid alternative and 3 as liquid alternative fuels. It
seems logical, but is not mandatory, that companies with a higher AFR substitution
rate will apply more chemically enhanced refractory materials. This correlation and
trend was confirmed in the analysed cases. This strong and lasting trend is driven by
the wider awareness within the cement community that refractory countermeasures,
via premium grade refractory materials, are needed, available and profitable for them.
Within the last 8 years the AF & AR concept established itself as a new standard, which
will be demonstrated by the following case analysis (Fig. 15). A rotary kiln with 4.55 m
diameter and 76 m in length was put into operation by the end of 1998 with a designed
capacity of 4,000 tons/day.
AR
33000 AL® 60 10000
6000 KRON
F 13000
AG® A
TOPM 220
G® AF 19000
REFRAMA
G® AF 10000
ALMA
13000
63000 76000
Ø4550
33000
6000 additional refractory material related
production costs of about 0.1%
During the last decade the plant capacity has been upgraded several times to reach
5,000 tons/day meanwhile, which resulted in an increased heat load on the refractory
lining. For cost saving reasons different coals with large fluctuations have to be used.
A high chemical load has been identified caused by newly applied correction materials.
These negative impacts were measurable in the kiln atmosphere, the clinker as well as
finally in the post mortem brick analyses. Over the years the layout has changed from
a high grade conventional to a chemically enhanced one on basis of AF & AR products.
With the customized refractory layout it was possible to work under the more severe
process conditions, without additional downtime of the kiln. Potential collateral costs,
such as production losses, removal costs for coating and lining, installation or patching
of sections, could be avoided. Compared to the huge savings on the energy and raw
material side and the gaining on production, the share of refractory material-related
production costs increased by 0.1% only. The fundamental conclusion in this case is
pretty clear. Cost savings combined with maintaining operational availability can be
supported by minor investment on the refractory side. As refractory innovations shall
never fall behind the latest process developments, several further requirements have
been pinpointed:
Refratechnik shall be glad to present its answers to those challenges through the new
product developments TOPMAG® A1, FERROMAG® F1 and FORMAG® 88 (Fig. 16).
The application of AF & AR brick grades in the cement factories of 732 customers in
more than 100 countries on 6 continents truly confirms that Refratechnik’s AF & AR
concept turned global (Fig. 17).
REFRAMAG® AF KRONAL® 63 AR
ALMAG® AF KRONAL® 50 AR
TOPMAG® AF KRONAL® 60 AR
Hereinafter I should like to briefly report about refractory materials used in the cement
industry. May I at this point first define what is meant by refractory materials (Fig. 1).
Taking into consideration what refractory materials are, will help to understand the
problems, which currently arise in the cement industry.
Refractory materials, which we install and use in our plants, certainly fulfil the
demands just mentioned. Nevertheless, we need to see that we can demand a little
more from the refractory materials in relation to the requirements they are to fulfil
when in use. We expect longer and more consistent lifetimes, which permit to carry
out longer production cycles in our kilns.
In other cases we require refractory bricks – in this case alumina or SiC containing
bricks – which, depending on the kiln zone, should prevent ring formations by the
raw meal or the beginning of clinkerisation (Fig. 2). This applies in particular to the
sintering, safety and upper transition zones. These phenomena mean that basic bricks
are sometimes used without coating in the sintering or burning zones.
2m 1.5
m
Fig. 2: Ring formation in the Dopol kiln at San Vicente, kiln diam. 4.600 mm
As a result of this it is possible – and has in fact happened in some cases – that melts
are formed by eutectic reactions, or so-called “spallings” between 30 and 50 mm of the
upper part of the brick do occur that will weaken the entire refractory lining (Fig. 3).
We understand that this phenomenon occurs in these kiln zones due to overheating
of the basic bricks, which are not protected by a stable coating. This is caused due to
the fact that the mentioned coating rings retain the raw meal, and as a consequence
the affected refractory bricks do prematurely wear in certain areas. With this problem
in mind it is absolutely necessary to use more high-quality materials with appropriate
refractory properties, which ensure satisfactory lifetimes.
It is obvious that the changes in process conditions over the course of recent years
and the significant fact that more and more alternative fuels are being used must be
taken into consideration. This leads to the situation where we, the users of refractory
materials, are placing ever greater demands on the manufacturers of refractory
materials in order to control aggressive attacks, such as those caused by alternative
fuels.
In the period from 2000 until today we have been able to see that all what we were told
about alternative fuels at that time is actually happening and becoming fact. From this
knowledge has grown the concern, which has become a reality for us as consumers
of refractory materials to deal with from day to day in our plants, and has led to the
necessity of a partial change to new refractory linings. It is not the case that refractory
materials used to date were not good enough, but they can no longer be used so well
or beneficially under these circumstances.
During the last REFRA-Kolloquium 2004, in addition to many other subjects, basic brick
grades of the most recent generation were presented. These had grown out of the
experiences of recent decades. This then resulted in presenting and talking of basic
bricks with a reinforced structure for use in cement rotary kilns with increased alkali
load. So, in addition to other brick grades, the REFRAMAG® AF type was presented.
Honour where honour is due. I believe that a new generation of bricks has been created,
which is highly suitable for use in cement rotary kilns firing alternative fuels. It has
thereby become possible to extend the lifetimes of the refractory linings and so also the
production cycles without kiln stoppages. In addition, it was thereby possible to reduce
the specific refractory consumption per ton of clinker produced as well, something
which is currently very important.
Please allow me at this point to share with you some of my experience of using one
of these most recent generation types, which was presented during the last REFRA-
Kolloquium 2004. I am in fact speaking about the REFRAMAG® AF brick grade.
We were able to observe that owing to the continuously increasing use of alternative
fuels in our kilns, during the course of time lifetimes were becoming shorter in
comparison with those in a period in which we did not use any alternative fuels. This led
to the necessity of adapting or changing the brick grades in the kiln zones affected.
In the last 3 years this quality was installed in the upper transition zones
and partly in the sintering zones of the following plants:
After one year of operation, the kilns underwent their annual stoppage for maintenance
work. It was then possible to observe that there was no wear on these bricks in any of
the linings installed the previous year using REFRAMAG® AF.
As is known, the bricks from Refratechnik Cement have a groove on the hot side which,
in conjunction with the attached sticker, assists in assembly and thus ensures that no
brick is wrongly installed. Based on the explanations given before, I can assure you that
after a long period of operation of one year, only the attached sticker on the hot side
had disappeared (Fig. 6). This meant that the bricks had retained their original brick
thickness, and this was the case in all kilns, in which the REFRAMAG® AF brick grade
had been used.
New bricks with groove and sticker Without any wear after 10 months,
installed between 37 and 40 metres
On the basis of these positive results, last year we therefore began to extend the zones
lined with the REFRAMAG® AF brick grade (Fig. 7). We lined all kilns with a diameter
less than 4200 mm with this brick grade from kiln point 22 m up to the region of the
upper transition and safety zone, which had been lined until then with alumina bricks.
In kilns with a diameter greater than 4200 mm the lining was done with this brick grade
from kiln point 25 m up to the previously mentioned transition and safety zones.
After 11 months without any wear, After 24 months with 1-2 cm wear,
installed between 47 and 51 metres installed between 41 and 47 metres
Furthermore, I would like to point out that lower brick heights could be observed with
all bricks installed at the same time as REFRAMAG® AF in the adjoining areas. These
areas had in part to be relined. However, in order to present a true picture, it should
also be stated that these bricks were installed in the areas of the central burning zone
up to the kiln outlet, in which certain more aggressive conditions prevailed than in the
areas, which were lined with REFRAMAG® AF.
On this basis, I would like to congratulate Refratechnik Cement GmbH for creating this
type of brick through continuous research and development which, as you all know,
is taken as read with all their products. It would be a good thing, if we could have
basic bricks obtaining similar results to those achieved with REFRAMAG® AF (Fig. 8),
including for the area from kiln point 0 to 22 m or 25 m. In this way we would then
have a sophisticated brick concept, which could be used to withstand the aggressive
conditions caused by the use of alternative fuels that are going to be used more and
more in our kilns.
2.5
2
years
1.5
0.5
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
With this in mind, I would like to request Refratechnik Cement GmbH to continue to
pursue research and development of new products and types (Fig. 9) in order to achieve
a further improvement in the lifetimes of refractory materials in the cement industry.
Due to the increasing use of secondary fuels and raw materials in the production
of cement, the requirements on the refractory lining of cement rotary kilns are also
constantly rising. While it was thought in the beginning that a saturation point in
thermal, chemical and mechanical load was reached, it became clear quite soon that
this was still not reached by far. By introducing Refratechnik Cement‘s AF and AR
concept it has become possible to reduce the physical wear caused by infiltration.
Nevertheless, thermochemical corrosion, for example by sulphur compounds, is
increasingly observed [1].
The brick grades of the ALMAG®, FERROMAG® and REFRAMAG® series, which were
previously developed to withstand the occurring loads, could offer higher resistance
to the increased stresses and thus led to improved lifetimes by introducing new and
patented elastifiers and adapting the structural parameters (Fig. 1). However, the
growing primarily chemical and mechanical loads demand intensive development of
new generations of bricks.
structure of a structure of a
magnesia chromite brick magnesia spinel brick
structure of a structure of a
magnesia zirconia brick magnesia hercynite brick
General basic brick design means that bricks consist of the resistor MgO and an
elastifier, typically minerals of the spinel group, e.g. MA spinel, chrome ore, hercynite
or other refractory oxides like zirconia.
A similarly important factor in the behaviour during use of basic bricks for the cement
industry is the so-called elastifier, which makes these products elastic and thus permits
their use in dynamically active vessels, such as rotary kilns. The bricks are exposed not
only to alternating thermal shock stresses, but also to constantly arising tensile and
compressive stresses. In physical terms this stress-minimising effect is described by
the modulus of elasticity E, the shear modulus G or even by the values of the fracture
mechanical variables.
When developing new brick grades it must basically be considered that all previously
achieved advantages of the respective elastifiers (freedom from chrome ore, resistance
to cement clinker attack, resistance to alkalis) are not only to be retained, but are
possibly to be improved, so that the whole „refractory brick“ system becomes more
resistant to the numerous attacks within the cement rotary kiln.
This was considered in the development of the new brick grades TOPMAG® A1 and
FERROMAG® F1, where new ways were adopted to achieve even better behaviour when
installed in cement rotary kilns. This is based on improving the mechanical stability
of the magnesia spinel brick grade TOPMAG® A1 and increasing the thermochemical
resistance of the elastifier in the FERROMAG® F1 brick grade as a patented development
of magnesia pleonaste bricks.
Although high quality magnesia spinel bricks for the cement industry, which were
developed for use in around 1982, are state of the art today, their development potential
is still far from being exhausted. ALMAG® 85 is the all-rounder for the cement industry,
but modifications in terms of the spinel formation by in-situ reaction, as a fused spinel
or with doped spinel to improve the thermochemical properties, led to wide-ranging
optimisation for special and generally more severe operating conditions in cement
kilns.
The evaluation of cases of recent post-mortem analysis reports shows increased attack
by sulphur compounds, i.e. sulphur oxides and alkali sulphates, on refractory bricks. The
reason for this is the increasing use of secondary fuels or fuels with increased sulphur
content like petcoke. While in the past in particular the elastifier (spinel, chrome
ore, hercynite) was affected by corrosion, now, in the event of an attack by sulphur
compounds, even the resistor may take part in this reaction, although according to
general opinion to date the MgO is compatible with the conditions inside the cement
kiln. Thermodynamic calculations of the reaction enthalpy of sulphur reactions (Fig. 2),
both with the resistor and also with the elastifier, now surprisingly show that the MA
spinel is more stable than MgO under these conditions [3], [4].
MgO+SO3 MgSO4
K2SO4+2MgO+2SO3 K2Mg2(SO4)3
MgAI2O4+SO3 MgSO4+AI2O3
100
-100
G in kJ/mol
-200
-300
-400
-500
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
temperature in K
clearly show that the sulphur reactions with MgO are more likely to take place thermo
dynamically than corresponding reactions with MA spinel. The spinel is therefore more
stable.
Corresponding X-ray examinations of the structure of corroded bricks show that the
kinetics also reflect this result: CaO-containing langbeinite as a corrosion product can
certainly be detected in used bricks, which have been subjected to increased attack by
sulphur reactions (Fig. 3).
10000
2500
20 30 40
position ['2 Theta]
reflex list
periclase
spinel
anhydrite
K2CaMg(SO4)3
langbeinite K2Mg2(SO4)3
forsterite
Moreover, the high sulphur load on the lining also results in a corrosion of the silicate-
containing secondary phases being characterised by the presence of newly formed
anhydrite (CaSO4), langbeinite, monticellite and even forsterite phases.
Of course, MgO is the most stable matrix mineral under the conditions found in a
cement kiln (as well as in the kilns of the steel industry), as it is naturally compatible
with the cement clinker and similar compositions.
Considering these results, the periclase content and the spinel content have been
appropriately adapted for the development of a new brick grade. Naturally this wear
mechanism involving corrosion by sulphates is not the only problem; it must be seen
alongside the other stress mechanisms to which refractory bricks are subjected in the
cement kiln. Brick elasticity is therefore of decisive importance in thermomechanical
behaviour within non-static vessels use. A characteristic variable has in this case been
the thermal shock resistance as a ratio from the cold crushing strength and shear
modulus G [5]. This variable denotes the occurring tensions caused by thermal shocks,
kiln shell ovality and thermal expansion.
12
tance
anica l resis
10 omech
se in therm
increa
8
RTSR = CCS / G
6
cement kiln
operating limit
4
0
magnesia chromite brick typical magnesia AF-products TOPMAG® A1
spinel brick
RTSR = thermal shock resistance parameter CCS = cold crushing strength G = shear modulus
Fig. 5: Thermal shock resistance of various cement rotary kiln bricks and
TOPMAG® A1
Even in initial trials TOPMAG® A1 has already shown its superiority over previously used
bricks (Fig. 7). The application of the AF technology with a reduction of porosity and
permeability already produces much better results in infiltration-affected kilns. This
is due to increased resistance to alkali infiltration and a scientifically tuned sulphate-
resistant spinel content.
characteristics:
fields of application:
Despite the development of highly resistant basic bricks, just as shown for TOPMAG® A1,
one of the best protective mechanisms for the refractory lining of cement rotary kilns
in the sintering zone is its coating, which reduces the corrosive influences of alkalis,
the kiln atmosphere and thermal shocks. Magnesia hercynite bricks have proved their
worth over the last 15 years in the development of refractory bricks to improve the
coating formation [6], [7]. As shown by practice and from laboratory measurements,
the disadvantage in the use of hercynite is its comparatively low resistance to cement
clinker under higher thermal load. While on the one hand some formation of dicalcium
ferrite and tetracalcium aluminate ferrite is desirable in order to form the coating,
on the other hand observations in the field have shown that in the event of definite
overheating, as is increasingly encountered in the use of alternative fuels, the stable
coating is dissolved and increased corrosion of the hercynite-containing bricks occurs.
In this case there is a considerable formation of liquid phases from cement clinker
and brick components so that the brick wears prematurely. Bricks naturally need to
be developed, which not only have a good thermal shock resistance and stability with
respect to coating formation in use, but which also have a clear advantage over the
state of the art in terms of corrosion resistance.
This solution could be found in a brick where no hercynite is added any more, since
this can be attacked too strongly by cement clinker, but the more corrosion-resistant
mineral pleonaste ((Mg,Fe)(Al,Fe)2O4) is used (Fig. 8).
MgO
80 20
increase in refractoriness
and corrosion resistance
pleonastic region
60 40
S2+M
40 60
SI+M SI+S2+M
1/3 MgFe2O4 1/3 MgAl2O4
SI+S2
S
20 80
E
S+H S+H+C S+C
FeO1�5 AIO1�5
80 F 60 40 20 G
Owing to the MgO fraction in the elastifier a significant improvement in the corrosion
resistance is achieved for a brick containing MgO already as main component. The
elastifying effect of the pleonaste itself in MgO-based bricks is comparable with that
of spinel and hercynite.
hercynite pleonaste
Ordinary Portland
1408 °C 1410 °C Cement (OPC)
Sulphate Resistant
1386 °C 1400 °C Cement (SRC)
For this purpose substrates were produced from hercynite and pleonaste. A sample
cylinder made from ordinary Portland cement clinker (OPC) and from clinker of a
sulphate-resistant cement (SRC) was placed onto these substrates and introduced into
the heating stage microscope. The samples were heated until corrosion of the substrate
by the cement clinker occurred.
The tests show that up to a temperature of 1400 °C hercynite is corroded almost completely
by both cement clinkers, with a melting phase being formed. Contrarily, pleonaste
remains stable well above 1400 °C under the same conditions. The corresponding
corrosion temperatures for pleonaste are about 50 to 80 °C higher. This drastically
improved corrosion resistance is attributable to the presence of MgO in the pleonaste
so that its diffusion potential and therefore the corrosion potential is lower than in case
of MgO-free hercynite (FeAl2O4), (Fig. 10).
Fig. 10: Brick structure showing pleonaste with stabilizing MgO precipitations
The thermomechanical behaviour is naturally decisive not only for the TOPMAG® A1
brick grade, but also for FERROMAG® F1 (Fig. 11).
12
e
sistanc
echa nical re
hermom
10
e in t
increas
8
RTSR = CCS / G
6
cement kiln
operating limit
4
0
magnesia typical magnesia AF-products FERROMAG® F1 TOPMAG® A1
chromite brick spinel brick
RTSR = thermal shock resistance parameter CCS = cold crushing strength G = shear modulus
Fig. 11: Thermal shock resistance of various cement rotary kiln bricks and
FERROMAG® F1, TOPMAG® A1
A magnesia hercynite brick was installed in a cement kiln and had to be replaced
after just one month lifetime owing to overheating accompanied by corrosion of the
elastifier. The corrosion of the hercynite can clearly be seen in the structure, the liquid
corrosion products penetrating into the surrounding structure by capillary action,
a pore being left in place of the elastifier. After one year of operation in a similarly
overheated kiln the magnesia pleonaste brick FERROMAG® F1 (Fig. 12) clearly exhibits
higher residual brick thickness, the elastifier has suffered less attack in spite of the
infiltration of clinker phases. Even though cracks have formed in the hot zone, no
spalling has occurred. The brick clearly shows a better performance under comparable
conditions.
Thanks to the application of the AF technology FERROMAG® F1 (Figs. 13, 14) also
exhibits reduced porosity with increased resistance to alkali infiltrations.
characteristics:
good coatability
fields of application:
The content of bivalent iron stably bound in the pleonaste also does not cause any
reduction in redox stability.
The new brick grades TOPMAG® A1 and FERROMAG® F1 (Fig. 15) have already become
established in cement rotary kilns world-wide and achieved remarkably good results,
which have led to a clear improvement in the cost/performance ratio of the refractory
lining.
Fig. 15: Examples of Refratechnik Cement lining designs for various requirements
TOPMAG® A1 can be used in kiln zones with increased mechanical load, for example in
the tyre areas and in zones with increased sulphur oxide and alkali oxide loads. Owing
to its composition with raw materials, which are low in iron oxide, TOPMAG® A1 has a
high resistance to redox load.
FERROMAG® F1 was developed using a Refratechnik patent [8], such that the positive
coating behaviour of magnesia hercynite bricks is retained and at the same time
significantly improved corrosion resistance is achieved. The structural flexibility also
corresponds to that of established magnesia spinel bricks. They can therefore be
used not only in the sintering zones, but also in the upper transition zones of cement
kilns in case of increased thermal load. Thanks to its low porosity, FERROMAG® F1 is
characterised by an increased resistance to alkali attack, too.
Although magnesia spinel and magnesia hercynite bricks currently form part of the
standard products for lining cement and lime kilns, their application-oriented properties
can be refined so that they also behave excellently even under increasingly severe
conditions. The new grades TOPMAG® A1 and FERROMAG® F1 constitute two new high
quality products for use in sulphur oxide-containing kiln atmospheres and for forcing
the formation of coating, and of course they can also easily be disposed of after use.
These newly developed brick grades with their specific properties along with the
previously used brick range allows the installation of a refractory lining that can be
adapted to different processes and conditions during use. Particular consideration
has been given to the mechanical and thermomechanical conditions. The bricks show
extremely good results in terms of their elastic properties and strength, as proven by
laboratory values and substantive installation results.
6. References
[1] B
artha, P.; Södje, J.:
Degradation of refractories in cement rotary kilns fired with waste fuels
CN Refractories 5 (2001), pp. 62-71
[2] B
arthel, H.; Buchebner, G.; Klischat, H.-J.:
Taschenbuch feuerfeste Werkstoffe (Pocket Manual Refractory Materials)
Chapter 4.2.1 Magnesiasteine (magnesia bricks)
4th edition, Vulkan-Verlag, Essen 2007, pp. 171-185
[8] D
E-PS 101 17 029:
Material für feuerfeste Formkörper oder Massen, feuerfestes Produkt hieraus,
sowie Verfahren zur Herstellung eines feuerfesten Produkts, 13.04.2006
In addition to zirconia and chrome ore, aluminatic spinels in today's state of technology
are the minerals most frequently used for elastifying cement rotary kiln bricks.
Even when ALMAG® 85 was introduced on the market in 1982, magnesia spinel
bricks containing well-balanced characteristics, which are very reliable in use, were
available. As a result, the magnesia spinel bricks helped to increase the cement
kiln capacities. Concentrating on the changes in technology in the cement industry,
intensive development work was undertaken in the group of magnesia spinel bricks so
that ultimately a broad spectrum of operating conditions could be covered by a variety
of products. The increasing use of alternative fuels and raw materials increased the
chemical loads in the kilns. The risk of spalling caused by salt infiltration increased in
the area of the magnesia spinel bricks. The development of the AF-products enabled
Refratechnik Cement GmbH to make magnesia spinel bricks suitable for this extreme
type of load (Fig. 1).
The wear caused by clinker melt infiltration occurs in two steps (Fig. 3). If the melting
phase portion in the kiln feed of the cement kiln increases, as a result of the clinker
composition or increased thermal load, the melts can infiltrate the hot side of the
refractory bricks. When in contact with the mineral phases of the brick, chemical
reactions take place and mainly the elastifier is subjected to attack. As a result thereof,
the original melt becomes enriched with the oxides of the elastifier, and a secondary
melt is formed showing modified characteristics:
These changes cause a risk that infiltration is accelerated and that melts penetrate
deeper into the brick. Spalling may occur as a result of the loss of elastifier, also losses
of mechanical strength and brittleness in the crystallization region of the melts, which
is dependent upon the temperature gradient.
coating coating
infiltration by reaction of
clinker melt clinker melt +
chrome ore
lowers fusing temperature
infiltration by and viscosity
secondary melt
unaffected unaffected
brick structure brick structure
Taking a closer look at the secondary melts allows to understand the acceleration of
infiltration (Fig. 4). Although the reaction between attacking clinker melt and chrome
ore is retarded by low wettability, dicalcium ferrite, which has a low melting point of
1449 ºC, can be formed. Also, the clinker melt becomes enriched with alumina and
the portions of mineral phases, such as melilite and mayenite increase. The melting
temperature of the melilite is 1390 ºC and of mayenite 1455 ºC, and the viscosity of
melilite and mayenite containing melts is low.
increase in content of
This provoked thinking, which led to tests being carried out on forsterite. The aim had
to be to find an elastifier, which was as resistant to clinker melt as the magnesia itself,
or else a material, which produces reaction products being unproblematical in terms of
corrosion. In order to facilitate the formation of silicates with higher melting points and
melts showing a higher viscosity, the effect of the iron oxide and alumina enrichment
had to be prevented or even reversed. Forsterite makes this possible. If the forsterite
corrodes, the portion of aluminatic and ferritic phases is reduced (Fig. 5).
This aids the formation of silica-rich minerals like monticellite, merwinite and belite.
The viscosity and the melting temperature of the secondary melt are increased.
2. Development of forsterite
elastified magnesia bricks
The recognition of the above mentioned limits for the use of magnesia chromite
products inevitably leads to the question: what are the consequences of this? In this
case, the omission of magnesia chromite bricks with their typical characteristics
signifies the loss of an important tool for lining sintering zones of cement rotary kilns.
As a result, it was necessary to come up with and test development systems, which
made it possible – even in plants subjected to a complex combination of loads – to
provide linings for the sintering zones, which easily tend to form coating and are able
to withstand thermochemical load. Basic tests using forsterite, a highly refractory
magnesium silicate, which has a melting temperature of 1890 ºC, produced positive
results. Like magnesia, forsterite is chemically resistant. Its thermal expansion is
less than that of magnesia and therefore it satisfies important criteria applicable to
magnesia brick elastifiers. The introduction of FORMAG® 88 onto the market extends
the "family" of minerals used by Refratechnik Cement GmbH for elastifying basic bricks
(Fig. 6). In the following the excellent characteristics of this new product group of
magnesia forsterite bricks are shown.
zirconia
new:
forsterite
spinel 2MgO·SiO2
Tf =1890 °C
pleonaste
melilite forsterite
spinel
periclase
periclase
The effect of the thus reduced alumina content is shown by the transition to the
quaternary system with 10% alumina content as shown on the right-hand side. In
addition to periclase and now forsterite, monticellite and merwinite are stable phases
in this situation, as shown by the green areas in the diagram on the right-hand side.
The theoretical considerations relating to clinker melt corrosion lead Refratechnik
Cement GmbH to conclude that positive potentials can be achieved by using forsterite
for elastifying purposes.
Initial practical tests to confirm the advantages of forsterite, which have been derived
from theory, were conducted as corrosion tests in the hot stage microscope (Fig. 8).
As already demonstrated, a tablet of clinker material was heated up on a disc of the
elastifier material. The projection of the geometric changes provides information on the
beginning of the reaction and the course of the reaction. The upper series of images
shows the reaction of chrome ore with sulphate resistant cement, the lower series of
images shows the reaction of forsterite with sulphate resistant cement at comparable
temperatures. In case of the chrome ore, the beginning of the reaction can be observed
at approximately 1380 ºC. The rounding-off of the contact angles, which occurs as
the reaction progresses, indicates the production of melt phases. At 160 ºC above the
temperature of the beginning of the reaction, the tablet is for the most part melted
on. The lower series of images reveals that forsterite does not begin to react with the
clinker material until it reaches approximately 1420 ºC. Another important difference
demonstrated is that other reactions take place. The projection shown here up to a
temperature of 1540 ºC does not indicate any extensive formation of melts, there is no
evidence of any rounding-off of the contact angles. The portion of secondary melts is
considerably reduced.
FOR MAG
forsterite magnesia
as elastifying component as main component
development aiming at: creating a chrome ore and alumina free brick system
with medium purity as an insensible product
for sintering zones and upper transition zones
As already demonstrated, new brick types having lower sensitivity to clinker melts
for use in cement kilns must also have a good alkali resistance to cope with the
atmospheric conditions in cement plants today. In this case, the image of a magnesia
chromite brick spalling in a kiln with high alkali load is shown as representative of
the problem of chrome ore disintegration (Fig. 11). The yellow crystal layers show
the decomposition product, which is formed from corrosion of the chrome ore by the
alkalis. The results of K 2CO3 crucible tests at an elevated test temperature prove that
FORMAG® 88 has a considerably higher resistance to alkalis. As in the case of all basic
bricks, the structure of FORMAG® 88 is infiltrated, but there is no evidence of extensive
cracking. With normal values for apparent porosity, the crucible test achieves a level of
alkali resistance, which is almost equal to that of the highly successful AF-products.
Alkali resistance
The conclusion to be drawn from the results of the tests shown previously is that
thermochemical insensitivity, good coating behaviour and high alkali resistance
combine to give FORMAG® 88 the characteristics, which in the light of today's
operational demands ensure reliable performance in the sintering zones and upper
transition zones of cement rotary kilns (Fig. 13).
characteristics:
thermochemically insensible
good coatability
fields of application:
thermal load
operating temperature
thermal cycling, temperature gradients
exception alkalis
fuels, raw materials schematic comparison
FORMAG® 88
measure value
Is the difference
YES between measured NO
and desired value
acceptable?
Targets are set in terms of desired values for the process parameters, which include
but are not limited to physical, chemical or mineralogical properties and magnitudes,
such as temperature, pressure, mass flow, velocity, fineness, particle size distribution,
chemical composition etc. Actual values are measured periodically and compared to
desired values. If the difference is not acceptable, corresponding control actions are
taken to get the parameter to the desired value. Otherwise no control action is required.
Desired values and acceptable fluctuation ranges for the parameters are defined by
the process administrator. The fact that not all of the parameters are independent
of each other complicates the task at hand. Any parameter having the potential to
influence kiln operating conditions might be used in connection with process control
and problem investigations. The reader is referred to the various publications, which
cover this subject in detail.
Not so long ago, cement plant engineers had to work with relatively scarce information
about important process parameters. Complete chemical analyses were performed
by time consuming “wet chemistry” procedures, two or three times a day. Analog
measuring devices displayed information on gauges or registered measured values on
paper charts. Plant personnel filled huge paper sheets with process information, which
was kept in paper archives and thus was quite difficult to analyse. Figure 2 shows some
typical analog instruments, which are still used in some factories today.
All that has changed dramatically. Today modern process control systems monitor
continuously hundreds of parameters and store them in large digital archives, the
size of them being measured in terabytes. While problems were faced due to lack of
relevant information in the past, today we do risk being unable to keep track of all the
vast amounts of data captured and stored every single hour in the control rooms of the
modern cement plant.
In order to manage these huge amounts of data, we are compelled to use statistical
methods, a task being facilitated by the overall availability of personal computers
and the computing power offered by standard software. However, the statistical or
mathematical complexity of some of the available tools [1] either exceed the normal
competencies of cement plant personnel or require some specialized software
(multivariate control procedures, for example), [2]. As a result, these tools are still only
seldom used in cement plants.
This paper does not deal with the use of these relatively sophisticated statistical
methods. Instead, it focuses on the use of the very basic statistical tools and graphical
representation, which are widely used in the cement plants, helping to visualize some of
the complex interactions between the parameters being relevant to refractory material
performance. It aims at making the huge amounts of data gathered by modern process
control systems much easier to understand. That may help to improve the refractory
material performance in the cement plants. In doing so, it is not intended to discuss
the underlying statistical or process-technical considerations applicable. Instead, some
practical examples are given showing how the data available is turned into some useful
information, which help to identify and to propose solutions to some practical problems
being faced in current cement plant practice. Unless raw data is somehow turned into
information helping to take sensible decisions, it is useless.
The reader is referred to a comprehensive handbook that is available on the web for free:
Engineering Statistics Handbook, link: www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/dtoc.htm.
Coating conditions are related to a number of parameters, but are particularly strongly
dependent on the amount and the viscosity of the clinker melt. Figure 3 shows
the percentage of clinker melt and of the alumina ratio (AR) vs. time, each colour
corresponds to a different type of clinker being produced in the kiln over a one year
period. The AR gives an idea of the viscosity of the clinker melt.
34
32
clinker liquid phase
30
28
at 1450 °C
26
24
22
20
12�02�2006 13�04�2006 12�06�2006 11�08�2006 10�10�2006 09�12�2006
date
3,6
3,4
clinker AR
3,2
3
2,8
2,6
2,4
2,2
2
1,8
12�02�2006 13�04�2006 12�06�2006 11�08�2006 10�10�2006 09�12�2006
date
Coating is the best protection for the refractory lining in the burning zone [3], [5].
However, conditions causing instable coating may lead to accelerated refractory wear
due to coating falling down and building up of cycles. If this coating drops down, it
tears off the layer of the brick it is attached to. So, if these cycles repeat during a
longer period of time, (instable) coating may be the source of accelerated wear of the
refractory lining.
The coating conditions can be represented in a two dimensional graph with liquid phase
(LP) on the horizontal axis and the alumina ratio (AR) on the vertical axis (Fig. 4).
3
2�9 thin coating thick coating
2�8 dusty clinker nodular clinker
2�7 low melt quantity
2�6
high melt quantity
2�5 high melt viscosity high melt viscosity
2�4
2�3
2�2
2�1
2
1�9 good
1�8 coating
1�7
1�6
1�5
1�4 thin coating thin coating
1�3 dusty clinker high melt quantity
1�2
1�1 low melt quantity low melt viscosity
1 low melt viscosity high infiltration of
0�9 high infiltration of refractories refractories
0�8
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
% melt 1450 °C
Now one can literally see the actual operating conditions in comparison to the optimal
conditions!
Figure 5 shows the time behaviour of the lime saturation factor (LSF) and the silica
ratio (SR) over a period of 14 weeks. Each point corresponds to the clinker analysis of
samples taken every two hours at the kiln outlet. The highlighted area (red shadow)
corresponds to the theoretically allowable limits for the LSF.
LSF
SR
115
2�4 110
2�2 105
100
2 95
1�8 90
85
13�01�2006 28�01�2006 12�02�2006 27�02�2006 14�03�2006 29�03�2006 13�04�2006
date
SR (silica ratio) LSF (lime saturation factor)
Fig. 5: Insufficient raw meal preparation
The clinker burnability chart offers the possibility of closer watching the behaviour of
the raw meal over time (Fig. 6).
0�99
0�97
0�95
more difficult to burn
lime saturation factor
0�89
easier to burn
0�87
0�85
1�75 1�95 2�15 2�35 2�55 2�75 2�95 3�15 3�35
silica ratio
1�3
1�25
1�2
1�15
lime saturation factor
1�1
hard to burn
1�05
0�95
easy
0�9 to burn
0�85
0�8
1�7 1�8 1�9 2 2�1 2�2 2�3 2�4 2�5 2�6 2�7 2�8 2�9 3 3�1 3�2 3�3 3�4 3�5 3�6 3�7 3�8
silica ratio
Fig. 7: Burnability graph
The yellow rectangular area at the centre is the region of normal burnability.
One can see that the burnability of the raw mix moves over a wide range mostly within
the hard to burn region, shown as a light brown ellipse in the burnability plot (Fig. 7).
This causes huge difficulties to the kiln operation team: huge changes in the burnability
of the raw mix require continuous, big adjustments of the operating parameters,
especially with regard to raw meal, air and fuel flows, making it impossible to attain
steady kiln operating conditions. As a result, not only the quality of the clinker shows
some extreme fluctuations. Parameters, which strongly influence the refractory
material performance, are also subjected to huge changes: temperature and thermal
load in the burning zone, thermal shock loads to the bricks as well as liquid phase
quantity and viscosity. All these parameters do also change continuously under the
given circumstances. Under these conditions it is not a surprise that refractory bricks
in the burning zone wear down prematurely.
The ultimate reason for these big fluctuations in chemical composition is an insufficient
preparation of the raw mix. Quarrying, mixing, grinding and blending procedures have
to be improved in order to control the situation. Choosing a better brick quality, with
improved properties, such as refractoriness, thermal shock resistance and the like,
must be seen as a palliative temporary measure, which can help to improve the lifetime
marginally for a while. A long term solution answering the problem of accelerated brick
wear however is achieved by controlling the relevant chemical parameters of the raw
meal [11].
% CO in flue gases*
0�10
0�09
0�08
0�07
0�06
0�05
0�04
0�03
0�02
0�01
0
01�07�2006 08�07�2006 15�07�2006 22�07�2006 29�07�2006
date
* sampled in riser duct
The reasons for an incomplete combustion can be manifold and related to important
operating parameters of the system. However, by monitoring the carbon monoxide
(CO) it is not only possible to detect any incomplete combustion, but it may also
assist in identifying possible reasons when plotted in a time chart with other related
parameters.
In the aforementioned case, the investigation of the reasons for the observed
CO fluctuations pointed to an injection of filter dust through the kiln discharge end. The
injection was made via pneumatic transport. The dust was conveyed to the air stream
with a rotary valve. The dust feed rate was very irregular, causing changes in the
density of the kiln gases. As a result, the amount of combustion air drawn by the ID fan
reflected the fluctuations in gas density created by the irregular dust input: the bigger
the dust feed, the bigger the gas density and the lower the amount of fresh air uptake
by the ID fan. The result was a cyclically recurring reducing atmosphere signalled by
CO fluctuations.
These reactions are associated with volume changes and premature refractory wear
(Fig. 10), [8], [11].
Figure 11 illustrates the time behaviour of lime saturation factor, silica ratio, alumina
ratio and free lime over a short period of time. Each point corresponds to the clinker
analysis of samples taken every two hours at the kiln outlet.
90
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
FCaO AR SR LSF
The highlighted period corresponds to about 3 days of kiln operation and shows the
simultaneous occurrence of the following changes:
• the lime saturation factor increases: that means increased difficulty in burning
• the silica ratio decreases: that means higher amount of liquid phase
• the alumina ratio decreases: that means lower viscosity of the liquid phase
• the free lime increases: that confirms the difficulties in burning the kiln feed
This constellation of phenomena creates extreme conditions for the refractory bricks;
clinker being harder to burn requires additional energy, that means higher temperature
in the burning zone. But this happens at a moment, in which we also have higher
amount of liquid phase of lower viscosity, which translates into higher infiltration rates.
Thermochemical load is severely increased.
Each one of these conditions represents a burden on the refractories, which in and by
itself should not lead to a catastrophic failure of the lining. However, their simultaneous
action can be very damaging, even during short periods of time.
The introduction of alternative fuels or raw materials (AFR) may have an impact on the
chemical composition of the clinker being produced by the kiln [4], [6], [7], [10].
Figure 12 shows the behaviour of the lime saturation factor of raw meal leaving the
mill (upper graph), raw meal fed to the kiln (middle graph) and clinker (at the bottom).
One can see in figure 12 that the plant does a very good job regarding raw meal mixing
and blending up to the point where it is fed to the kiln. It is easily appreciated that
fluctuations in chemical composition are significantly reduced from the raw mill to the
kiln feed, a prerequisite to steady kiln operation. However, the clinker shows again
increased variability of the lime saturation factor (LSF), caused by the introduction of
alternative fuels and raw materials (AFR).
The alumina ratio (AR) of clinker also shows greater fluctuations than those observed
at the kiln feed point (Fig. 13).
3
2�8 AR raw mill
2�6
2�4
2�2
2
1�8
1�6
1�4
1�2
1
2�6
2�4
2�2 AR kiln feed
2
1�8
1�6
1�4
1�2
1
2�8
2�6 AR clinker
2�4
2�2
2
1�8
1�6
1�4
1�2
1
13�04�2006 12�06�2006 11�08�2006 10�10�2006 09�12�2006 07�02�2007
sample time
The greatest impact however is appreciated in the silica ratio (Fig. 14). In view of the
significance of the silica ratio with regard to the amount of clinker melt, it is easy to
imagine the huge changes in burnability, coating behaviour, thermal load and thermal
shock acting on the refractory lining under these circumstances.
Figure 15 shows the behaviour of the alkali sulphur ratio (ASR), [8], [10], [11] in the hot
meal of a 4-stage preheater kiln fired with heavy oil as main fuel and different types
ASR hot meal
of AFR.
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
18�04�2005 18�05�2005 17�06�2005 17�07�2005 16�08�2005 15�09�2005 15�10�2005 14�11�2005 14�12�2005
date
Na2O K2O Cl
+ −
ASR = 62 94 71
SO3
80
Fig. 16: ASR definition
AFR are fed to the kiln directly in the riser duct, through a volumetric conveyor. Hot
meal samples (meal entering the rotary kiln after leaving the preheater) are taken and
analysed every 4 hours. The blue line in figure 15 shows the trend over the period.
Due to the nature of the internal circulation phenomena within the system [9], changes
in the chemical composition of the kiln atmosphere – particularly those affecting the
circulating elements – are more likely to be reflected in changes in the value of the ASR
in the hot meal. In this case, the wide sudden fluctuations of the values for the ASR are
related to the changes on the type of AFR being fed to the system.
As one can see, this system is chronically unbalanced with a relative excess of alkalis
(ASR >1) and shows cycles of bigger/smaller alkali overload in connection with the type
of AFR being used. The bricks located in the upper transition zone of the kiln shown
are subjected to huge thermochemical stresses, alkali salt infiltration and are prone to
spalling (see Figs. 17 to 19).
Fig. 17: Alkali spalling in upper transition zone: from above nothing is evident.
Fig. 18: Alkali spalling in the upper transition zone: solidified salts
The mechanism is the following: alkali salts penetrate as gases or liquids through
the porosity of the bricks and condense, as they reach colder temperatures in their
way towards the cold face. This causes filling up of the pore microstructure and
densification of the affected volumes, with the corresponding reduction of elasticity.
As the physical properties of the infiltrated horizons are also different, temperature
changes cause varying volume changes in the infiltration horizons. This normally leads
to spalling along the contact lines between the layers: the thermal shock resistance
of the bricks is severely reduced by infiltration. In this case, essentially pure sylvine
(potassium chloride) was found. Due to its melting temperature (772 °C) sylvine is a
usual guest in the upper transition zone of alkali loaded kilns.
Figure 19 gives a lateral view of the refractory lining where the broken, infiltrated
horizon is visible.
Fig. 19: Alkali spalling in the upper transition zone: broken, infiltrated horizon
The installation of ALMAG® AF, a dense, low porosity brick, improved the lifetime
significantly.
[1] N
IST/SEMATECH e-Handbook of statistical methods
www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/
[2] M
ason, R.; Young, J.:
Multivariate statistical process control with industrial applications
American Statistical Association und Society for Industrial and Applied
Mathematics
Philadelphia, 2002
[10] Ordóñez, H:
The Clinker Burning Process
REFRA Training, Göttingen, September 2002
Today there is perhaps the most favorable business climate we have ever seen in the
cement industry since its beginning. In the following five different aspects will be dealt
with:
• first, there will be given a picture on the investment boom in the cement industry,
• which is backed by the projected cement consumption.
• Then, the investment trends by the top producers will be strived and
• how the investment costs and speed of construction developed.
• Finally, some technical trends having a major impact on the refractory consumption
will be outlined.
The beginning of the new millennium noticed an increase in the investment for new
cement plants [1]. At first only China showed a significant increase in clinker production
capacity, but since 2003/2004 there has also been a substantial order increase in the
rest of the world (Fig. 1). About 1500 million tons per year (Mta) will be awarded from
2001 to 2010, which is 150 Mta per year as an average. Probably the peak years seem to
be 2006 and 2007, with more than 200 Mta per year and 140 Mta alone in the countries
other than China. Up to 2010 these figures will decrease to about 70 Mta, but this is
still 3 times the average amount contracted in the preceding 10 years. In China, the
planned shutdown of shaft kilns will result in an ongoing installation of new capacity,
but also with a declining trend. Nevertheless, the contract boom situation has provided
the established cement equipment suppliers and newcomers from China and elsewhere
full order books, and most of the suppliers are practically working at full capacity.
Mta
China
160
Rest of the world
141 137
140
120 120
105
100 95
85
80 80 77
75 75 72 70
65 65
60 59 55
54
40
26
20 13 14
0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007F 2008F 2009F 2010F
Source: OneStone Research
Mta
40
35 34�5
31
30 Holcim
27�0% 22�6% ACL/ACC
25
21 Jaypee
20
Grasim/
15
12 UT
11�5 17�9%
10 Lafarge
19�0%
5 Other
Midsize
0 6�5% 17�0%
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Others
Figure 3 shows the contracted kiln capacity by world areas in the last year. From China
with a projected 72 Mta, about 34% of the new capacity has been ordered. While the
Middle East is still leading the countries other than China, the largest growth has been
in India and Eastern Europe, which is dominated by Russia and Kazakhstan. In Russia
alone, about 70 Mta of new capacity is projected until 2010. Furthermore also Africa
sees large new investments, compared to North and South America, Western Europe
and the Other Far East, each having not more than a 2-3% share. The contracted
capacity clearly indicates the demand and supply gap of the installed capacity. While
in India the demand is fuelled by the tight supply and the large increase in the projected
cement consumption, in Eastern Europe and especially Russia it is also a matter of the
obsolete capacity and the modernization of the technology base.
In figure 4 a projection of the regional cement consumption until 2020 is shown. While
in the period from 1990 to 2005 the compound annual growth rate on a global base
has been 5.1%, from 2005 to 2020 the growth rate is projected “only” with 2.5%. This
mainly has to do with two basic facts. Population growth will slow down, and the
increase in the cement consumption in China will significantly slow down. Until 2005,
the CAGR in China has been a more than two digit growth with 11.2%. The projection
for China shows that 2020 will nearly be at the 2007/2008 consumption level. Main
growth is projected to be in the Indian continent, with 7.4%, after 6.5% until 2005.
Eastern Europe will be the other region with the largest growth of 3.9%, after a decline
until 2005. Interestingly, the growth in the Middle East, Africa, and North America will
also decline. Western Europe, South America and the other Far East will more or less
have a stable growth or a stagnation in growth respectively.
3.9
2.6
1.2 0.60.4
-1.1
Western Europe Eastern
North America 5.2 1.8
5.1 Europe
3.2 7.4
2.8 6.5 China
1.9 1.7
2.9 3.0
Africa/ Middle Other Far East
Oceania East
South America
India
Mta
3500 Other Emerging 3315
China CAGR CAGR
3000 Mature 90-05 05-20
2000
855
1500
1100 1354 11�2% 1�8%
1000 1034
512
500 210
378 415 453 0�6% 0�6%
0
1990 2005 2020F Source: OneStone Research
Figure 6 illustrates the projection of the per capita cement consumption. While in
2005 the global per capita consumption has been around 360 kg, for 2020 the figure
is projected to increase to about 430 kg. It becomes clear that the figure does not
rise up to the sky. In the mature countries there is almost no further potential. In
China, probably with a per capita consumption of 975 kg in 2007, a higher per capita
consumption will have been reached than in 2020, which is projected with about
955 kg. The most significant increase will be in the other emerging countries, which will
increase their per capita consumption from about 200 kg to 281 kg.
pcc in kg cement
600
461 469 489
400
281
183 200
200 153
0
Mature China Other Emerging
pcc: per capita consumption Source: OneStone Research
The investment focus of the TOP cement producers, such as Holcim, is essentially driven
by market maturity considerations (Fig. 7). The emerging markets, such as India with a
large population growth and a large growth in the GDP, are typically cement focused,
with some 80-90% of cement sold in bags mainly to the final customer. The cement
majors invest heavily in the cement industry of emerging markets, mainly through
acquisitions. The strategic alliance of Holcim with Gujarat Ambuja and the decision to
buy 50% in ACC is such an example. If it comes to the mature markets, where about
80% of the cement is sold as bulk cement and where there is an established ready-mix
and precast concrete industry as well as an established aggregates industry, also this
kind of vertical integration is important to the cement producers. Holcim strengthened
its aggregates and ready-mix concrete business with the acquisitions of Aggregates
Industries in the United Kingdom and Meyer Materials in the United States. Other such
examples from the industry are the takeover of Rinker by Cemex or the takeover of
Hanson by HeidelbergCement.
France, Spain
Eastern Europe Value Added Businesses
Aggregates
Mexico
India Ready-Mix Concrete
Cement
Source: Holcim
10% Cement
Latin America Asia Pacific excl� demand
41�9 m t India and China growth
Cumulated population growth 06-10E
8%
48�7 m t
6% India1
Africa 38�3 m t
North
4% Middle East2
America
22�1 m t
22�1 m t China
2% 28�5 m t
Western Europe
0% 29�5 m t
Eastern
Europe
-2% 19�3 m t
-4%
3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 10% 11% 12%
GDP per capita (at PPP) CAGR 06-10E
1
Ambuja Cements Limited and ACC capacity
2
Incl� South Africa (capacity of 4�1 m t) Source: Holcim
What has been outlined for Holcim is also more or less true for Lafarge and other
cement majors. Lafarge for example (Fig. 9), with the acquisition of Egyptian Orascom
and the planned new capacity projects, will increase its consolidated cement capacity
from about 170 Mta in 2006 to about 260 Mta in 2010. Orascom Cement has had a
rapid development in cement since 1999 and has become the largest cement producer
in the Middle East and Mediterranean Basin. The acquisition will give Lafarge access to
the fast growing markets in Egypt, UAE, Iraq, Turkey, Pakistan, Algeria, Nigeria, South
Africa and even North Korea. With Orascom it is expected that Lafarge will increase
its 47% share of operating income from emerging markets in 2005 to a share of 65%
in 2010.
Orascom
200 Lafarge
21
Capacity in Mta
150
100
170
24
50
45
0
Capacity 2006 Add� capacity 2010
Source: Lafarge
In figure 10 a projection is made on the market shares of the TOP producers in the
cement industry until 2020. The base for the projection is the cement capacity from
rotary kilns, which is projected to increase to about 4.1 billion tons from the 2.3 billion
tons base in 2005. Compared with the cement consumption, which will have a CAGR of
2.5%, the capacity is expected to increase by 3.7%, because of the replacement of shaft
kilns, mainly in China. The TOP 2 producers Holcim and Lafarge increased their capacity
from 95 Mta to about 340 Mta and are expected to further grow to about 930 Mta in
2020. This will lead to a CAGR of 7% after 8.9% before. Accordingly the other TOP 10,
which actually include Cemex, HeidelbergCement, Italcementi, Anhui Conch, Taiheiyo,
Buzzi Unicem, Eurocement and Grasim, will increase to about 1000 Mta with a CAGR
of about 5%. For the other producers, there will remain only a growth of about 2.3%,
so that the TOP 2 grow faster than the TOP 10, and the TOP 10 grow much faster than
the other producers.
Mta
4500 TOP 2
Other TOP 10 4125 CAGR CAGR
4000 90-05 05-20
Other
930
3500 8�9% 7�0%
3000
1000 7�0% 5�0%
2500 2375
339
2000
481
1500 1290
95 2195 2�9% 2�3%
1000 175
1555
500 1020
0
1990 2005 2020F Source: OneStone Research
One could expect that the prices for cement plants as well as the lead times would have
increased as a consequence of the order boom and the increase in material costs. In
some cases this might have been true, but, in a global comparison with the penetration
of Chinese suppliers into international markets, the direct opposite is the case.
Figure 11 illustrates the development of prices for standard cement plants from
Chinese vendors, partly based on information given by Lafarge. It shows that prices
in China have meanwhile fallen to below 40 US$/ton clinker, and that a drop in the
prices is also taking place in other emerging markets. Lafarge’s Dujianyang 2 projects
in China with a capacity of 1.2 million tons, which were started up in 2006, demanded
an investment of 40 million Euros or 33 Euros/ton clinker respectively, Bouskoura 2
with 0.9 million tons in Morocco, also operational in 2006, was built for 75 million
Euros or 85 Euros/ton clinker respectively. Nevertheless with the 2 projects Chilanga
in Zambia and Otavalo in Ecuador, being operational in 2008, Lafarge also experienced
prices of 135 Euros/ton and 121 Euros/ton, because of a lower proportion of Chinese
equipment and non-standard. On the other hand, the expansion of manufacturing and
engineering capability in China, India and other “low-cost” countries as well as a larger
standardisation did also give cost advantages to the established suppliers, such as FLS,
Polysius and KHD.
Other Emerging
China
160
spec� CapEx in US$ / ton clinker
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Signing of contract
Decision/Purchasing 4-5
Opportunity study 2
0 12 24 36
months
Source: Lafarge, OneStone Research
6. Technical trends
82%
80
80% 39%
60 67%
78%
76% 40
74% 53%
20
72% 27%
70% 0
95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 1995 2006
Source: Holcim
8
units
0
2500 3500 5000
tpd Source: Lafarge
Now, what has this to do with the refractory market? Figure 15 will give an answer. It
shows, how the demand for refractory material drops due to the trend towards larger
kiln capacities. A 5,000 tpd kiln has only 80-85% of the specific refractory consumption
of a 3,000 tpd kiln, because the specific kiln output rises in line with increasing kiln
size. Nevertheless there are also other important parameters on the refractory demand.
One of them are the advanced process control systems, which according to suppliers,
lead to a reduction of 10-30% in refractory material demand due to the improvement in
kiln operation stability. And then there is the growing use of alternative fuels and raw
materials. These materials increase the accumulation of chorine, sulphur and alkalis
compounds in the kiln system and the attack of salt compounds on the refractory
material, because the microstructures of refractory bricks can be destroyed by salt
crystallization and “alkali spalling”. Some strategies and solutions to overcome this will
be presented by Refratechnik in this volume.
1000
specific refractory in g/tpd
800
600
400
200
0
1500 3000 3700 5000 7500
tpd
Source: OneStone Research
• T he cement industry today has the most favorable business climate since
its beginning, with an investment and order boom.
• T hen with the order boom, equipment costs and lead time were expected to
increase, but due to growing competition from Chinese suppliers the opposite
is the case.
China (CN)
China, Hong Kong, Macao, Mongolia
India (IN)
Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, Nepal
Mature:
Western Europe, USA, Canada, Japan, Australia, New Zealand
References
[1] Harder, J.: Impact of the cement boom on the equipment supply,
ZKG International 2-2008, pp. 50-60
[3] Harder, J.: Trends in kiln systems for the cement industry,
ZKG International 7-2007, pp. 38-49
In 2007, a new commercial enterprise in Asia was incorporated into the Refratechnik
Group. With the emphasis on responsible customer focus and the constant need to
improve customer satisfaction, Refratechnik Asia Ltd. with its registered office in
Hong Kong commenced business operations. At the present time, there is virtually
no alternative to the Hong Kong site in the Asia/Pacific, Southeast Asia geographical
region. The locality is directly in the centre of the world's largest economic area. China,
which is the largest producer of cement in the world, is literally on the doorstep and
offers extraordinary growth potential for a specialist refractory manufacturer. At the
same time, Hong Kong is the "commercial nerve centre" for all countries in North and
Southeast Asia. Outside of China, the five largest cement markets – Japan, South
Korea, Thailand, Indonesia and Vietnam – can all be quickly reached in approximately
2 to 4 hours by air (Fig. 1). Australia and New Zealand are also within close proximity.
1h 2h 3h 4h
The production potential of the region concerned is about 1.65 billion tons of cement,
and China with about 1.34 billion tons represents the major part of this (Fig. 2). Growth
rates with increases of up to 10% per year can be observed particularly in Vietnam,
China, Indonesia and Malaysia. While some countries are merely attempting to meet
their own enormous requirements, other countries such as South Korea, Malaysia or
even Indonesia are striving to achieve greater export quotas than in the past. Increased
clinker production in the coming years will also result in greater consumption of
refractory products, in spite of very modern kiln technology. Refratechnik Asia Ltd.
will face this challenge and future requirements as a competent, reliable partner to
the Asiatic cement producers. Flexibility, personal commitment and expertise in the
refractory business are required to meet this challenge.
Director Sales
Sales Manager Sales Manager Sales Manager Sales Manager Sales Manager
Cement China Cement China Cement China Cement China Cement China
Asian customers
customer
demand
fulfilment
29%
30 2005-10
2010-15
25 24% 2015-20
19% 19%
20
16%16% 16%17%
15
11%
10
0
East Asia South East Asia Oceania
China, Japan, South Korea, Thailand, Vietnam, Australia, New Zealand,
North Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong Malaysia, Philippines New Caledonia Source: O�S�C�
Using a special procedure in the Dashiqiao factory to manufacture spinel and magnesia
chromite bricks, Refratechnik Asia Ltd. provides highly elastic products with good
refractoriness, which will guarantee satisfactory refractory lifetimes. In addition,
specifically designed alumina bricks and concretes being tailored for the cement
industry are produced in the Zibo factory (Fig. 6).
Bricks Castables
REFRACORUND line
95 LCC S
REFRACLAY 25 S / KRONEX® 35 S
REFRACLAY 40 LCC S / KRONEX® 35 S
REFRA-SiC 50 AR S
REFRABAUXITE 85 LCC S / KRONEX® 70 S
TOPMAG® AF
REFRAMAG® AF
Both, shaped and unshaped products are covered by this system. If the different
temperature zones and chemical load stages govern the selection of refractory
materials for a cement rotary kiln plant, then the selection focuses in each case on a
shaped fireclay product, a high alumina product and two spinel grades. The monolithic
part is constructed from two acid fireclay concretes, a bauxite concrete and a SiC
castable. This is combined with either an insulation concrete or the use of calcium
silicate plates to protect the steel vessels. Although only eight materials are utilised as
previously stated, there is still a great deal of variability. Fireclay and bauxite concretes
can be individually mixed with SiC castables by the customer for use in kiln zones,
which are subjected to higher thermochemical load. For all cement producers this is an
important advantage as even rapid decisions can be implemented, both during plant
construction and also normal repair operations.
All solution concepts are possible - ranging from the AR lining, via the use of dense dry
gunning concretes to shotcreting. Refratechnik Asia Ltd. is supported in this respect by
tried and trusted, innovative Refratechnik engineering. Precise demand calculations,
technical refractory drawings, assembly details and site instructions are also standard
at Refratechnik Asia Ltd. (Fig. 8).
Requirements of
Asian customers
Many commercial structures in the Far East are influenced by the network of
international shipping lanes. Hong Kong itself has one of the largest ports in Asia and
in addition to the other Chinese ports offers many possible ways of finding suitable
shipping routes and above all shipping times. Optimum usage of transport routes,
which can be achieved by cooperation with international and regional forwarding
agents, offers each customer of Refratechnik Asia Ltd. a way of shipping and delivering
refractory materials in a satisfactory manner and on time.
A trained and experienced administrative team in the Hong Kong office, made up
of business administration graduates, banking traders, controllers, logisticians and
industrial traders, is on hand to deal with all Asiatic customers' requirements, and
guarantees reliability (Fig. 9).
Manager
Internal Sales, Logistics
& Production Planning
Sales
Team
Philippines 42%
Japan Thailand 74%
South Korea South Korea 12%
China
Vietnam 62%
Indonesia 24%
Vietnam 22%
Thailand Philippines Japan
Malaysia 76%
Europe 100%
Malaysia
In summary, it should also be stressed that Refratechnik Asia Ltd. in Hong Kong is the
perfect technical and logistical Refratechnik partner for the Asiatic cement industry.
The quality standard is equivalent to the world-renowned quality level delivered by
the Refratechnik Group. In addition to the cement industry, Refratechnik Asia Ltd. also
deals with other sectors of industry. This provides additional opportunities in some
branches of the cement industry. Positive properties of refractory materials can be
transferred from other industries. Overall, simplified models of linings have a beneficial
effect on the efficiency of many cement plants. A new partner has emerged in the
Far East by the name of Refratechnik Asia Ltd. whose established practices ensure
that it is able to operate efficiently and effectively to meet the demands of the largest
cement markets.
Al-carrier
solvents
total output
waste oil
sand
1.4 Mio t/a clinker
chalk coal
+52m
Extension of
length: + 26 m
+ 76 m Increase of
volume: + 525 m3
Increase of
residence
time: + 1.5 sec
Proportional
+ 52 m extension: + 39%
extension
Calciner modification
old new
(with double deflection chamber) (with extended length)
4.1
4.2
JETCAST® installation
JETCAST® installation
The development of the cement production process has always been characterised by
the need to find efficient ways of calcining the raw meal either inside or outside the
actual rotary kiln. Whereas in the period between 1950 and 1970 the main objective of
these efforts was to increase the kiln output, development from the mid 1970s focussed
on different precalcining processes.
Based upon long wet and dry process kilns with and without internal fittings, plants
with different preheating systems were built successfully at first (Figs. 1, 2). This
created Lepol plants, kilns with shaft preheaters and one-stage and multiple-stage
cyclone preheaters.
The beginning of the calciner technology can be seen in a system, which was installed
in 1965 by the kiln constructor KHD at the Dotternhausen cement plant, which is now
part of the Holcim group. It was here that additional firing was used for the first time
in the area of the preheater.
For Refratechnik Cement GmbH as a refractory supplier this means that in terms of
refractory design each plant must be considered separately, and therefore an ordinary
or a refractory engineering of the shelf simply does not apply in practice.
The boom in orders experienced by plant suppliers in recent years was brought about
by the globally planned increase in cement production capacities. Therefore, in the last
five years the large plant constructors have constructed new plants with a total clinker
capacity in excess of 400 million tons per year. Market studies on world-wide cement
production indicate that a similar increase is expected up to 2010.
New plants and large retrofitting projects are or have been realised almost exclusively
as precalciner plants. In this case, plant sizes of 5,000-10,000 tons/day clinker capacity
are to be viewed as standard now. The desire on the part of the plant operators to
increase the use of secondary fuels whilst at the same time achieving more stringent
environmental compliance, now means that precalciner technology can also be
implemented usefully in economical and ecological terms for plants producing less
than 1,500 tons/day.
All of the large cement plant constructors, such as for example FLS, KHD, Polysius,
IHI and Kawasaki, currently provide several different versions of their precalciner
systems. There are now available the “in line calciner“ and “separate line calciner“,
vertical and inclined calciners with round or square-cut cross-sections with or without
constrictions. Special designs, which have separate combustion chambers, have also
been built with a “hot disc“ or as a “fluidised bed calciner“.
In principle, the calciner is located in all different kiln systems between the rotary
kiln and the multiple-stage cyclone preheater and is used as a type of static reactor
and combustion chamber (Fig. 4). Here the raw meal is completely calcined before
it goes into the rotary kiln. Today, the calciner can make up as much as 65% of the
total thermal energy requirement of the burning process, i.e. about 2/3 of the thermal
energy is input on the secondary side and only 1/3 on the primary side into the clinker
production system.
In the meantime, all of the types and constructions mentioned here have been
successfully lined with refractory materials by Refratechnik Cement in many different
projects. However, before the refractory material is delivered and installed, thorough
and detailed engineering work is undertaken including the preparation of meaningful
drawings. Since it would be too complex to consider all possible construction variations
and types of calciners, it is only referred to some examples hereinafter.
Cement production involves very complex processes in the precalciners, where the gas
streams as a turbulent flow and mixture in a medium with a high dust loading. Inside
the calciner, heat from the gas stream is transferred to the raw meal and to the calciner
walls. Chemical reactions occur, such as calcination of the raw meal, fuel burn-out and
consequently the formation of toxic substances. The interactions of these processes
will become clear, if regular fuels are to be replaced completely or in part by secondary
fuels [2].
Today‘s modern calciner plants use increasing quantities of secondary fuels. The
type and quantities of secondary fuels, which are used in the calciner depend upon
economical and operational criteria (Fig. 5).
Economical criteria include fuel costs, the availability of secondary fuels, investment
and operating costs and the current situation in the CO2-debate.
The operational criteria include the physical and chemical properties of the fuels, such
as calorific value, moisture, particle sizes, content of circulation-forming compounds
(in particular chlorine and sulphur), ignition and burn-out behaviour and the content
of volatiles.
In turn, this increased usage of secondary fuels causes an increase in the thermo-
chemical load of the refractory lining in the cement plant.
Economical criteria
fuel costs (regular and secondary fuels)
availability of fuels
investment and operating costs
CO2 certificates
Operational criteria
physical and chemical properties
content of circulating chemical compounds (chlorine, sulphur)
ignition and burn-out behaviour
content of volatile components
Fig. 6: Behaviour and transfer of volatile elements through the kiln system
In addition to these chemical influences, the thermal and mechanical loads place ever
increasing demands upon the refractory brick lining in a calciner. Also, in practice this
means that one often has to deal with a combination of these loads.
The following examples will demonstrate the load profile of the refractory brick lining
in a calciner. This purely quantitative analysis of the types of load then allows it in
a second step to come up with a possible refractory design for the various types of
calciners.
In the load profiles and in the subsequent analysis of the refractory lining of the
calciners, it is only referred in each case to the working lining, that is the refractory
material, which is in direct contact with the gas or material stream.
Other associated aspects of this subject, such as the back-up lining, insulation,
anchoring, details on the refractory castables and drying and heating-up on completion
of assembly will be dealt with in separate lectures.
Both in figures 7 and 8, the types of load are divided into thermal, chemical and
mechanical loads. The level of these loads is characterized in each case by one to three
stars. One star signifies a low load and three stars represents a high load.
The first example is a FLS-ILC (in line calciner), (Fig. 7). Whereas in this case the
greatest thermal loads occur in the region of the riser duct and the calciner burners,
the greatest mechanical load is observed in the region of the inlet of the tertiary air
duct and the raw meal feed.
chemical
**( )
chemical
**( )
thermal
**
thermal
**
mechanical
**
mechanical
**
chemical
** chemical
**( )
thermal ( )
** thermal
**
mechanical ( )
* mechanical
**
chemical
**(*)
thermal
**( )
mechanical
** * chemical
**(*)
thermal
***
mechanical
*(*)
Fig. 7: Refractory load profile – FLS calciner
The lowest mechanical load can be observed in the large-volume round vessel adjoining
at the top. In contrast, the thermal load decreases as the height increases. The uniform
calciner combustion chamber is interrupted only by a constricted region, which is
located half way up and allows the mechanical load on the refractory lining then to
rise in this defined region. The adjoining gas duct at the top with the direction change
and the connection to the cyclone located downstream is then subjected to a relatively
high mechanical load.
Looking at the thermal load in the entire calciner, it can be seen that it decreases slightly
starting from the riser duct in the direction of the gas stream, i.e. as the distance from
the calciner burners increases. In contrast, the chemical load is approximately the same
due to the previously described influences of the salts which form.
When quantifying the loads on the refractory lining in a KHD calciner, in this case
using the example of a pyroclone with a pyrotop, then load profiles similar to the
previously discussed FLS calciner are observed in the area of the riser duct (Fig. 8). The
thermal and mechanical load is at its greatest in the lower region with the rectangular
cross-section and at the inlet of tertiary air and raw meal. Chemical influences also
predominate in this example of a round “calciner shaft“. In this case, the mechanical
loads can be classified as low. The change in direction of the gas stream in the pyrotop
again makes the mechanical influence on the refractory lining the determining factor.
chemical
**
thermal
*
mechanical
**(*)
chemical
**
( )
thermal
* chemical
** *
( )
mechanical ( )
* thermal
**
( )
mechanical ( )
*
chemical
*(*)
thermal
*
mechanical
** chemical
**(*)
thermal
**
chemical
**((*)) mechanical
***
thermal
**(*)
mechanical
** *
Fig. 8: Refractory load profile - KHD calciner
In the descending part of the calciner, the gas stream only has a small portion of the
mechanical load, whereas this load then increases as the gas stream enters the area
where it is deflected to the cyclone. In this part of the calciner, the chemical or thermo-
chemical influence on the refractory lining can be classified rather low to medium.
In case of comparing this version of a POLYSIUS calciner with the KHD type just
described, a similar load situation is observed (Fig. 9). The highest loads, that means
thermal, mechanical and chemical, occur in the lower region at the inlet of raw meal
and tertiary air and where the calciner burners are located. The rising shaft of the
calciner with the large diameter is only subjected to relatively low mechanical load.
The deflection of the gas together with the division of the gas stream into two separate
gas ducts at the same time produces an increasing mechanical load upon the refractory
lining in the calciner top. The thermal, chemical and mechanical conditions in the
descending calciner parts as far as the inlet into the cyclones are the same as those
described in the previous example.
The type of calciner shown in the last example is equipped with a separately connected
combustion chamber (Fig. 10). It shows a fundamentally higher load level than the three
previous examples. The mechanical load in this case can be classified in all parts of the
calciner as high due to the design, which incorporates many changes in direction and
transitions. The relatively low construction height also makes the thermal and chemical
load higher than in calciners, which have large-volume shafts.
chemical
**((*))
thermal
** *
chemical
**((*))
mechanical
***
thermal
** *
mechanical
*** chemical
**((*))
chemical
**((*))
thermal
** *
thermal
** *
mechanical
***
mechanical
***
chemical
**((*))
thermal
** *
mechanical
***
Fig. 10: Refractory load profile - calciner with combustion chamber
Now that a picture of the various types of load and their intensities in different calciner
designs has been built up, there will be shown, which of the Refratechnik Cement
refractories can be used for refractory lining taking the calciners already demonstrated
as examples.
Because of the large number of plant constructors, who produce a great number of
different types of calciners, it is of course not possible to offer a detailed, but at the
same time generally applicable recommendation for their refractory brick linings.
However, if the calciner regions are structured into various load zones, as was done
here, it is possible to come up with a refractory design, which to a certain extent
can be applied to calciners in general. This structuring is made even more difficult
when incorporating the fields of application of castables and bricks into this system
(Fig. 11).
cylindrical/
radial parts
arches
ceilings
straight walls
bottom parts
In a first step therefore the possible fields of application of castables and bricks have
to be defined:
Castables can be used in particular for straight walls, transitions, bends and roofs.
Due to the short installation times available, the modern JETCAST® concretes continue
to expand the fields of application in cement plants in general and in particular in
calciners.
Figure 12 shows two possible brick lining variations in one type of FLS calciner. In this
respect it has to be considered that only the refractory types of the working lining are
illustrated in this case and in the following examples.
KRONAL® 50 AR KRONAL® 50 AR
KRONAL® 60 AR KRONAL® 60 AR
On the left-hand side of figure 12, a “brick“ solution is shown. In this case, the
cylindrical parts are lined with KRONAL® 50 AR or KRONAL® 60 AR SiC-brick types.
High-grade low cement castables with an SiC- and zirconium oxide additive are shown
for the transitions, constricted region and straight walls. The use of these refractory
types ensures a high level of infiltration resistance and refractoriness.
The right-hand side of figure 12 shows the fields of application of the SiC-containing
JETCAST® wet gunning concretes REFRAMULLITE 63 JC AR and REFRACLAY 40 JC AR
and the dry gunning concrete REFRACLAY 40 MCG ZAR. The two KRONAL® types
– KRONAL® 50 AR and KRONAL® 60 AR – are designated for the round cross-section in
the rising part of the calciner.
In the example of this double string POLYSIUS calciner (Fig. 13) there is also listed in
the “brick“ solution on the left-hand side the possibility of using a medium cement
dry gunning concrete. In this case, it is possible to use either REFRACLAY 40 MCG AR
or REFRAMULLITE 60 MCG AR for higher loads. Both are zircon-containing gunning
concretes. The expanded regions with a round cross-section are provided for the use of
KRONAL® 50 AR or KRONAL® 60 AR SiC brick types. For the lower part of the calciner,
which is subjected to extensive thermo-chemical and chemical load, Refratechnik also
recommends its vibration castable REFRA-SiC 50 AR, which has a high quantity of SiC
of approximately 50%.
KRONAL® 50 AR KRONAL® 50 AR
KRONAL® 60 AR KRONAL® 60 AR
The final example is a KHD calciner with a pyrotop (Fig. 14). In this case, bricks are
provided for the round regions and concretes for all other calciner parts. The left-
hand side of the figure again shows dry gunning concretes and the right-hand side
Refratechnik's “JETCAST®“ wet gunning concretes. The “brick“ solution only differs
from the “JETCAST®“ version by the refractory concrete used.
KRONAL® 50 AR KRONAL® 50 AR
KRONAL® 60 AR KRONAL® 60 AR
Even with these few examples it becomes obvious how many different refractory
designs are possible in a calciner.
The refractory designs in the examples also relate to high-grade SiC- and zircon-
containing materials. Depending upon process conditions, it is also possible to
use combinations with standard concretes, such as REFRACLAY 40 JC instead of
REFRACLAY 40 JC AR. This means that new linings have to be discussed individually
with the plant operators in order to come up with an optimized solution, both in
technical and economical terms.
An overview of the possible refractory linings in calciners has been given. In this
respect, however, there could only be reported briefly on the large number of calciner
types being available.
Just as in plant construction, where there are always advanced and new developments
in the construction of calciners (Fig. 15), the development of refractory materials also
does not stand still. This development, in turn, is closely associated with the constantly
changing parameters in cement production. However, it is difficult to predict how the
future process conditions will differ from conditions today. It is certain, however, that
the conditions for the refractory linings are more likely to become more difficult. In
particular, the use of alternative fuels will increase and at the same time environmental
compliance will become more stringent.
In the current situation, where in many parts of the world production is carried out at
maximum kiln capacity, the plant operators are required to reduce shutdown periods
and repair time to a minimum. As a consequence, in refractory engineering terms the
various parts of the plant must be lined with high-grade materials to ensure optimum
availability. In Mr. Holpert’s lecture there has already been given an example of how
this could be achieved amongst other things by the use of Refratechnik’s JETCAST®
concretes.
In case of planning any repair, retrofitting or new building work, Refratechnik Cement
will of course always give its customers a hand to find an individual solution for any
refractory brick lining they may require.
References
”High grade“, ”flexible“, ”economical“ and ”fast“ are key words, which also pinpoint
the current trend in refractory requirements towards achieving an efficient cement
industry.
Increasing plant capacities, standardised modular plant concepts, which are being
operated ever more efficiently, and changing process conditions mean that the refractory
lining of cement kilns operated with alternative fuels is being subjected to complex load
conditions and requires an increased share of high grade refractory concepts in almost
all areas of the plant.
Moreover, the economic viability of a cement plant in a globalised world with expanding
markets demands constantly increasing plant efficiency and shorter downtimes.
Continually rising operating costs and wage costs impose economic pressures on the
lining costs and today, more than ever, demand that installation times be reduced.
Rapid repairs require flexible linings consisting of products that can be employed in the
most universal manner possible.
2. Trends in development
Individual and tailor-made kiln system solutions formerly applied in cement plants with
partly considerably varying loads to the refractory lining resulted, as a consequence, in
a large variety of specific developments of standard cement and low cement refractory
concretes. Usually the material specific aspect was exclusively given prominence
when selecting the products and led to a continuing adaptation in the respective cases
to the various thermal, mechanical and thermochemical types of load prevailing. To
achieve an improved behaviour in use of the monolithic products, the most important
trends in development pointed towards steadily reduced cement contents, optimised
binding phase systems for lower water contents, a selective choice of high grade oxidic
and non-oxidic raw materials as well as infiltration impeding mechanisms. Product
developments in the past mainly concentrated – from the material specific point of
view – on suitable installation methods with highest compaction factor, i.e. on the
vibration and self-cast processes.
Present-day and particularly future trends in development show that, apart from the
right selection of refractory products, especially in the case of unshaped monolithics,
the installation technology and therefore increasingly the economic factor come to the
fore and in many cases are just as important as the technical aspect. Figure 1 shows, in
percentage terms, the quantities installed of Refratechnik Cement refractory concretes
grouped together and demonstrates that the ”high grade“ aspect increasingly goes
hand in hand with the ”fast“ aspect.
70
installation [%]
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Percentage of Refratechnik’s refractory concretes installed (2001-2007)
The ”high grade and fast“ group is represented by the new generations of JETCAST®
concretes (JC) and the medium cement dry gunning concretes (MCG). The two
technologies combine the advantages of the medium/low cement technology with the
time-saving gunning technology so that for the cement industry the best consideration
can be given to technical and economic viewpoints, and this has led to constantly
increasing demand.
The ”high grade“ product group contains the medium cement and low cement vibration
castables (MCC, LCC, LCC AR, AR) and makes up the greatest share as a result of the
balanced and also higher thermal, mechanical and chemical loading capability. The
importance of low cement refractory castables has continually increased with the
varying and increasing process demands of the cement industry. One aspect to be
noted however is that these high grade products are processed by means of the more
time-consuming casting method.
The ”fast“ group combines the regular cement dry gunning concretes (G) – being
characterised by the rapid and simple installation process – and will therefore also
represent the standard lining technology in the future. Based on the installation
technology and the lower thermal and thermomechanical stability associated with it,
their application is often limited to areas of the plant subjected to normal load.
The ”standard“ product group contains the regular cement vibration castables (RCC)
which, owing to higher cement contents, are also used in areas subjected to normal
loads. This way and owing to the more time-consuming vibration technology this
product group is increasingly losing significance.
Examples of the increase in high grade refractory concretes are amongst others the
ever more highly efficient, but more severely stressed preheaters and calciners with
constantly changing fuel compositions, atmospheric influences and thermal loads,
which offer a high reaction and wear potential and consequently demand adapted high
grade monolithic refractory concepts.
In relation to this, the critical expansion problem during use of refractory linings is
constantly found to be a cause of thermochemical wear in need of consideration (Fig. 2).
Already at temperatures from 600 °C onwards alkali-containing salt compounds can
lead to infiltration and to crystallising-out or at temperatures above 800 °C to the
so-called alkali bursting along with the formation of feldspathoids, and may result in a
volume expansion of up to 24%. In conjunction with this, over a longer period of time,
in the middle and lower preheater and in the calciner very dense refractory products
with an increasing Al2O3 content can contribute to severe and irreversible growth.
This expansion not only weakens the refractory lining, but can also damage the steel
construction in the area of brackets or connections in the transition to the roof.
Under certain conditions and in a special quantity range of SiC, the oxidation of SiC can
cause a further expansion problem in the calciner and riser duct in case of high strength
products with approximately 30 to 40% silicon carbide and reaction temperatures in
excess of 1250 °C. However, in case of frequent kiln stoppages and where the silicate
phase can crystallise out, a volume expansion of up to 113% may occur. If there is too
little expansion compensation, cross-region pressure and tensile stresses are generated
and anchors may tear off from anchoring, which is subjected to tension and bending.
formation of
feldspathoids
(volume:
up to 24%)
SiC oxidation
(volume:
up to 113%)
Fig. 2: Critical expansion problem during use due to mineral phase conversion
Al2O3 [%] 26 - 30 25 - 29
SiO2 59 - 63 59 - 63
Furthermore, the high SiO2 presence on the product side also leads, in interaction
with the alkali containing salt compounds occurring in process, to a reduced reaction
potential for alkali bursting (Fig. 4). Theoretically the chemical composition only allows
the formation of SiO2-rich feldspar compounds, such as sanidine or albite. This mineral
phase conversion takes place with virtually no change in volume. The alkali crucible
test at 1100 °C, in contact with the aggressive reaction medium potassium carbonate,
confirms that neither a destruction of the crucible nor of the structure, nor any
significant volume expansion takes place.
In contrast, increasing Al2O3 contents lead to a stronger interaction with the alkali
compounds. The lower amount of SiO2 promotes the formation of the SiO2-undersaturated
feldspathoids leucite, kaliophilite, kalsilite, jadeite, nepheline, or carnegieite. The regen
eration of the mineral phase in the alkali crucible test causes a characteristic volume
expansion and destroys the microstructure.
Due to the product characteristics the typical fields of application for the also
economically geared fireclay products REFRACLAY 25 and REFRACLAY 25 MCG are
found in the upper cyclone stages and extend into the middle to lower cyclone stages,
which are under constant thermochemical load, but are not thermally overloaded.
The SiC expansion problems occurring under particular conditions in highly thermally
loaded lower preheater plants can be limited by appropriate combination of raw materials
and by reducing the SiC content, while not losing the consistently high thermochemical
stability.
Al2O3 [%] 38 - 42 25 35
SiO2 37 - 41 25 35
SiC 7 - 11 30 40
ZrO2 5-9
ZrSiO4
SiC
In ideal mixing batches of 75 to 100 kg a useful bag-based mixing ratio of 3:1 to 1:3 can
be employed. In case of an unplanned kiln stoppage this permits the use of standard
products, which can be combined in a flexible way to achieve properties tailored to
the respective kiln zone. The fireclay castable REFRACLAY 40 LCC can be mixed with
the SiC-rich castable REFRA-SiC 50 AR to obtain a SiC-staggered mixed product in
thermochemically loaded preheaters and calciner; the mullite-rich refractory castable
REFRAMULLlTE 60 LCC can be comined with REFRA-SiC 50 AR for use in the calciner
or kiln hood. The bauxite castable REFRABAUXITE 85 LCC can likeweise be mixed
with REFRA-SiC 50 AR for application in thermomechanically/thermochemically higher
loaded areas of the plant, such as kiln hood, cooler inlet throat and cooler.
From an economical point of view the mixing of high grade low cement vibration
castables permits a reduction in the number of products or standardisation of the
product range and creates a flexible as well as a modular installation concept leading to
simplified storage, lower warehousing costs and a shorter average storage time for the
refractory concretes, which are sensitive to fluctuations in temperature and moisture.
AR-Mixcrete
REFRABAUXITE ratio 2:1 REFRA-SiC
properties [1200 °C] 85 LCC (S) 50 AR (S)
bulk density [g/cm3] 2�80 2�70 2�45
apparent porosity [%] 18 17 16
cold crushing strength [MPa] 150 145 100
modulus of rupture [MPa] 18 14 11
permanent linear change [%] -0�15 -0�10 0�20
thermal shock resistance >50 >50 >50
Al2O3 / SiO2 / SiC [%] 76 / 12 / <5 57 / 17 / ~20 22 / 27 / ~50
characteristics: high strength high strength, highly alkali
alkali resistant, resistant
protective layer coating repellent
alkali resistance
1100 °C / K2CO3
Furthermore, the JETCAST® products offer a high degree of product flexibility, since
they are applicable, controlled via the water content, for the vibration, self-cast,
pumping and wet gunning methods.
In addition, to achieve a high production continuity in the cement plant through the
lifetimes of high grade refractory concretes and through the use of flexible products
to reduce the stockkeeping costs, there is also a greater pressure in terms of costs and
turnover even during the installation phase, in which planning is critical to save time,
because - depending on the size of the plant - each day of production achieves a turnover
in the region of 100 000 Euros.
Therefore in addition to the technical aspect ”high grade“ involved in repairs and major
rebuildings, the ”fast“ installation process or achievable progress in installation with
the aim of reducing downtime is also becoming ever more important from an economical
point of view.
installation dry gunning (G) wet gunning (JC) pump-cast (PC) vibration (LCC)
technology MCG LCC LCC LCC
characteristics
manpower ++ ++++ ++ ++
set-up (factor) ~0�6 ~0�5 ~0�8 1�0
output [t/h] ≤3 ≤8 ≤1 ~1
setting process +++ ++++ + ++
sensitivity drying +++ ++++ +++++ ++++
physical properties +++ ++++ ++++ +++++
thermal properties +++ ++++ +++++ +++++
mechanical properties +++ ++++ ++++ +++++
chemical properties +++ ++++ ++++ +++++
performance ++++ +++++ ++++ +++++
(highly loaded)
+ lower / +++++ higher or faster
For best possible implementation of these parallel economically and technically linked
requirements one should emphasize the dry gunning process using MCG products
and in particular the JETCAST® process with the soft-gunned, low cement refractory
concretes. Depending on the manpower required, both installation processes involve
the shortest erection times, times required to place the formwork and to provide the
expansion joints as well as dismantling times. In addition, both installation processes
permit higher delivery rates which, in case of dry gunning for the „dense gunning“ of
MCG products, can be up to 3 t/hr and for wet gunning can be up to 8 t/hr. Cases where
this has been carried out confirm that in comparison to the usual combination of brick/
concrete lining, the combined dry/wet gunning process for providing an insulating and
a wear layer for a kiln hood can offer a time saving by a factor of 1.5 to 2.0. Also today
the less loaded upper cyclone stages are lined with high grade JETCAST® concretes,
such as REFRACLAY 40 JC, since in these zones the economical aspect of faster repairs
come to the fore, too.
The comparison of the thermal, mechanical and chemical product properties, on which
the installation process concerned imposes a close relationship, shows that with the
casting processes, such as pumping, self-cast or vibration, it is still possible to achieve
the maximum compacting factor and therefore the lowest porosities, the highest
strength levels or the best thermochemical stability. In relation to this, however,
the further development of the product- and process-related technical aspects of
MCG dry gunning concretes, and in particular the JETCAST® process, also leads to a
higher compacting factor and to product properties with comparable tendencies to
those of low cement castables. On this basis the JETCAST® refractory concretes and
the MCG dry gunning concretes are increasingly gaining in importance from a technical
and economic point of view and - like low cement vibration castables – they can also be
used in highly loaded plant areas with comparable or even improved lifetimes.
One example shows the installation of 110 tons of the low cement wet gunning
concrete REFRAMULLITE 63 JC in a kiln hood/cooler shaft (Fig. 10). The lining of the
wear layer (including anchor installation and the placement of the insulation layer by
dry gunning) was carried out within a week. The total lifetime in the thermally and
thermomechanically loaded narrow kiln hood arch was almost 5 years. In spite of
using a higher share of alternative fuels, no premature wear was detected after 33
months. The refractory lining at that time neither pointed to thermal overload nor stress
crackings nor any so-called alkali bursting; there was no significant expansion owing
to thermochemical attack.
JC installation
product: REFRAMULLITE 63 JC
wet gunning installation: 110 tons
installation time: 1 week (incl� anchoring, insulation-/wear layer)
cement kiln
cooler type: grate cooler
process: dry with PYROCLON®
capacity: up to 1000 tons/day
firing: ~40% coal and lignite / ~60% alternative fuels
MCG installation
product: REFRAMULLITE 63 MCG AR
dry gunning installation: 3 tons
installation time: 1 day
cement kiln
cooler type: grate cooler
process: dry with preheater
capacity: up to 2,300 tons/day
firing: lignite / alternative fuels: paper and carpet waste
In addition to being based on the selection of raw materials, the excellent performance
during use of the JETCAST® and MCG refractory concretes is based on balanced
product properties, which in turn are associated with the installation process.
Similarly, the JETCAST® concretes have virtually optimum porosity with respect to
the thermochemical stability. In comparison to regular cement refractory concretes,
the lower apparent porosity leads to a lower tendency towards infiltration of alkali-
containing salt compounds. In contrast to very dense, low cement vibration castables,
the higher apparent porosity contributes to a lower risk of alkali bursting and deeply
penetrating spallings. In fact, the crystallisation of alkali containing salt compounds in
very dense structures and the occurring volume increase reduces porosity, structural
elasticity and thermal shock resistance.
LC-vibration RC-vibration
JETCAST® MC-gunning RC-gunning
higher thermal higher alkali
shock resistance
relative comparison of product properties
alkali spalling
lower
10 15 20 25 30
porosity [%]
CCS = cold crushing strength
The economic requirements and technical loads of the cement industry mean that varied
and sometimes complex demands are placed on monolithic refractories. In this context
the coordinated further development of refractory concrete grades, the possibilities of
application and the installation technologies for a maximum production continuity are
more in the foreground. As a result of the constantly increasing demands placed on the
refractory lining, castables which are flexible to use and JETCAST® concretes and also
the MCG dry gunning technology may develop into a leading technology owing to the
possibility of combining technical and economical advantages.
thermomechanical load
RME
63 JC
RME 63
RCD 95 MCG AR
mechanical load LCC (S) thermal load
RBE 85
RME S) RM RME
JC AR
70 LCC C( RME 60
63 LCC
E6
LC
MCG
0 LCC (S)
RB E 85
combinable Z AR
AR-Mixcrete
RBE 75 with vib
rat
LCC (S) ion RME 63
R-S vib
iC 50 AR (S) rat
ion JC AR
RCY 40 gun
LCC (S) RCY 40 nin
Z AR g
mechanicochemical load RCY 40
RCY RCY 40 thermochemical load
JC AR
25 (S) MCG
AR
RCY 25
MCG (S)
chemical load
Fig. 13: Adapted monolithic refractory solutions for the cement industry
product group 3:
insulation
product group 4:
metallic elements
product group 1:
refractory bricks
product group 2:
concretes
Fig. 1: Product structure of a refractory lining
• The first product group includes the refractory bricks of the working lining.
• The second group contains the refractory concretes of the working lining.
• The numerous materials for insulation and expansion joints form the third group.
• The fourth group includes all types of metallic anchorings and fixing elements.
Details of the first three groups are given in separate presentations in this volume.
The following chapters refer to the experiences gained with the fourth group – the
metallic anchorings and fixing materials - as to their behaviour during use.
Metallic components must inevitably be used in the stationary parts of cement burning
systems. Whether it is a matter of roof beams, support brackets, wall fixings for brick
linings or anchorings for monolithically lined areas - without these auxiliary materials
no refractory lining can be carried out.
In the following there is deliberately not made any judgement or comparison of the
different types of anchorings available on the market – it is also not intended to look
into the supposed advantages and disadvantages of metal alloys.
The focus of consideration should rather be the different types of operational load so
that – with the aid of load indicators – it is much easier to understand the lifetime
behaviour of metallic anchorings and fixing elements.
It is of critical importance that the selection of heat resistant steels in industrial kiln
systems should be made under consideration of the prevailing process conditions and
the respective properties of the steels concerned.
A definition of the types of load, which can act upon the metallic elements of a
refractory lining, can be most clearly presented by dividing them into three parts, which
describe the thermal, chemical and mechanical factors (Fig. 2).
From a chemical point of view, corrosion processes are the main consideration,
being divided essentially for the cement burning process into
• carbonisation and
• hot gas corrosion.
For the area of mechanically induced loads the following may be mentioned:
• creep rupture strength,
• influences from the manufacturing process,
• time yield limit.
5
2
4 3
chemical 6 thermal
load load
It is at first dealt with the thermally induced load factors, starting with oxidation or
scaling (Fig. 4).
O2 O2+T°
Fe
(metallic iron) Fe
(metallic iron)
FeO Fe2O3
(iron oxide)
(hematite)
FeO Fe2O3
(iron oxide) (hematite)
Fe3O4 Fe3O4
(magnetite) (magnetite)
Fig. 4: Oxidation
Figure 5 shows an example of a brick fixing element having undergone further oxidation
at high temperatures. The progress of the oxidation over time is substantially dependent
on the temperature and oxygen partial pressure. Further thermally induced loads are
caused by temperature changes and the conversions within the material structure,
which are often associated with them.
Temperature changes represent serious load not only for the ceramic lining of refractory
bricks and concretes, but also for the metallic anchorings and fixing materials, which
are made of heat resistant steel or cast steel. According to the frequency and intensity
of the temperature changes and depending on the types of steel used, material failure
can occur even within a short period of time.
grain boundaries
with FeCr precipitation
(sigma phase)
In case of iron-based chromium nickel alloys a precipitation process takes place within
the temperature range of 600-900 °C, in which chrome and iron come together to form
a new phase. This phase formation is called the sigma phase. The sigma phase is a
very hard and solid composition and is deposited at the grain boundaries of the heat
resistant material. However, this leads to embrittlement of the steel and therefore
increases susceptibility to fracturing.
At the same time the formation of iron chromate causes a depletion of the alloy element
chrome, which in addition leads to a reduction in corrosion resistance. Where sigma
phase embrittlement takes place, one must think of this as a twofold problem.
Above 900 °C these steels undergo a conversion from a body centred cubic lattice to a
face centred cubic lattice (Fig. 7). The iron and carbon atoms move vigorously during
this conversion and – depending on the progress of the temperature changes over time
and upon their frequency – can come to be positioned at other parts of the atomic
lattice, causing distortion of the lattice. Although the stresses resulting from this
increase the hardness of the steel, they also lead to a higher degree of embrittlement.
However, even in case of frequent temperature changes with slow cooling processes
– as may occur under actual operating conditions – the atoms involved in this process
can settle at free or unoccupied parts of the lattice and therefore also change the
material properties in an undesirable way.
In case of high-alloy heat resistant steels, which additionally contain chromium, nickel,
molybdenum, titanium, niobium, tungsten and other elements, diffusions of these alloy
elements and of carbon can also occur. This so-called aging process can in turn cause
carbides and nitrides to be produced, which settle at the grain boundaries in a similar
manner to the sigma phase. These precipitations also lead to additional changes in the
heat resistant steel, which admittedly increase hardness and solidity, but at the same
time reduce toughness.
For refractory conditions both, low temperature corrosion and also high temperature
corrosion, are significant. However, since we are currently committed to the use
of metallic anchors and fixing elements, the so-called hot gas corrosion is a prime
concern. In contrast to low temperature corrosion, in which an electrochemical reaction
takes place, hot gas corrosion is defined as a purely chemical process above the dew
point.
Among the numerous known types of hot gas corrosion, CO-corrosion (Fig. 9) and
corrosion by salt melts deserve particular attention, since these two processes are
frequently responsible for the failure of the metallic elements in refractory linings.
Fig. 9: CO-corrosion
As shown by the reaction equations, during CO-corrosion the protective hematite layer
is converted to magnetite by the influence of carbon monoxide and thereby loses its
protective effect. CO-corrosion is therefore doubly significant, since it also promotes
attacks by other sources of corrosion.
Salt melt corrosion primarily involves low-melting metal chloride or metal sulphate
compounds. Depending on their introduction into the burning system, different
salt melts can form, some of which have very low melting points (Fig. 10). Oxygen,
sulphur, alkalis and chlorine are mainly responsible for this form of hot gas corrosion.
The relevant salts form during the combustion processes by a complex interaction of
impurities from fuels and raw materials. Even when the proportions of these named
substances are occasionally only in the PPM range in terms of the balance of fuels
and raw materials, the high rates of gas throughput and the intense circulation of
material mean that cumulatively sufficient quantities of salts are produced to trigger
the associated corrosion processes.
K2S 840 °C
alkali / alkaline
earth sulphides
K2S3 252 °C
Two methods are generally used to produce metallic fixing and holding elements:
on the one hand so-called primary casting is used, in which the desired geometry
is imparted to the corresponding metal alloy by the casting process; on the other
hand metal anchors can be produced by so-called re-shaping. With this method a
preproduced semi-finished article is completed by additional subsequent processing,
such as bending, welding or machining.
During production using the casting process, inhomogeneities can cause undesired
imperfections in the structure, which, under operating conditions, can then lead
to premature fracturing of the material. These material defects can be initiated by
segregation processes, cavity formation and the formation of coarse grains, amongst
other things.
manufacturing
operation
temperature temperature
load load
yielding rupture
The same applies for welding, since this thermal process induces unfavourable welding
stresses, which can also lead to premature failure of a component owing to insufficient
ductility.
Creep rupture strength values should always be considered when selecting heat-
resistant types of steel, since there are some very clear differences between the
various materials.
The ratio between time yield limit and creep rupture strength can also be of interest in
some refractory constructions. If this ratio is high, unnecessary consequential damage
may occur in some circumstances, since a material with a low flow characteristic
tends to have unpredictable fracture behaviour. A material with higher flow values can
show signs of material fracture earlier and possibly therefore allows less expensive
preventative measures to be taken promptly during inspection.
This presentation aims at showing more clearly the diversity and complexity of the
interrelationships, which are relevant to the selection of metallic anchorings and fixing
elements in refractory linings. Nevertheless, it has only been possible to cover some of
the issues relating to refractory construction.
Other factors also have an important role to play in achieving an individually satis
factory result in relation to the lifetime of a refractory lining. If one thinks of the
components of a refractory lining as a chain of individual functions, a successful lining
will always depend on the potential strength of an individual link. If there is just one
weak spot, the whole system is in jeopardy.
sales service
engineering
monolithic refractory
refractory refractory bricks
responsibility product
insulation reliability
metallic elements
installation
process condition non
refractory
operation parameter responsibility
Effective and especially long-lasting insulating systems in the stationary areas are
becoming increasingly important in achieving smooth, uninterrupted production
processing in a modern cement plant. The immense importance of matters concerning
insulation is also highlighted by the fact that since 2006 a themed international
conference has been held on precisely this subject. Last year it took place in Berlin.
Stationary areas make up the major part of a cement plant and require a multi-layer
refractory design. The necessity of installing insulating systems in these areas has
resulted from the increasing development of cement plants, from modern processing
conditions and the associated use of alternative fuels and higher processing
temperatures (Fig. 1). To put this in perspective, more stationary areas have been
created in cement plants owing to the constant shortening of the rotary tubes
during conversion of the original long wet and dry process kilns, through plants with
preheaters, up to large precalcining plants. In order to comply with modern processing
conditions, an innovative refractory design containing a working lining and insulation
systems is necessary to respond to increased thermochemical requirements.
200 °C
300 °C
400 °C
500 °C
600 °C
700 °C
800 °C
900 °C
1000 °C
1100 °C
1200 °C
1300 °C
1400 °C
Insulations serve, on the one hand, to achieve energy efficiency and, on the other hand,
to obtain necessary stability in the steel construction, that means optimal temperature
protection of the steel shell during operation. By using the most effective possible
insulation, considerable fuel saving potentials can be realised, and not only in the
stationary areas. Very good results could also be achieved in the past in cement rotary
kilns by using specially developed insulating bricks, such as REFRATHERM® 150 in the
preheating and calcining zones of the kilns. This brick also proved valuable in particular
as an insulating layer in a two-layer lining system for rotary lime kilns.
0�6 insulating
brick / concrete
fibre
0�5
calcium silicate
thermal conductivity W/m·K
air
0�4 microporous
material
0�3
0�2
0�1
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
temperature °C
Fig. 2: Thermal conductivity of different insulation materials
The classification of insulating materials is dependent upon the material type (plates,
lightweight refractory bricks, heat-insulating bricks, lightweight refractory concretes),
the raw material basis, the application temperature and the thermal conductivity.
In relation to the application temperature five material groups are differentiated
according to Schulle [1], (Fig. 3).
REFRALITE® 30 G
This leads to embrittlement and shrinkage of the calcium silicate plates, which favours
the formation of cavities in this area, whereby in turn aggressive hot gases circulate
and can have a destructive effect (Fig. 5). The high thermal or themochemical load of
modern plants has led to the development of corresponding high-grade products, such
as the insulating gunning concretes REFRALITE® 30 G or REFRALITE® 40 G, which do
not only show a low thermal conductivity and low heat storage capacity, but also have
gap formation
Figure 6 explains the variation in the temperature gradients when using different
insulation materials. As a working lining all four examples use the silicon carbide-
containing castable REFRA-SiC 50 AR at a thickness of 115 mm, the insulating system
is arranged with a lining thickness of 135 mm. The two-layer insulating lining concept
made from different layers of calcium silicate products (red line) and lightweight
refractory bricks, combined with calcium silicate material (blue line) has a higher
contact temperature at the working lining/insulation boundary owing to the lower
thermal conductivity with respect to the lightweight refractory concretes. In contrast,
the steel shell temperatures are 60-80 °C lower than in the example with lightweight
concretes. On the one hand, the two-layer insulating system favours energy balance
by reducing the heat losses and through lower shell temperatures. On the other hand,
in the case of the monolithic single-layer lining, the dew point of aggressive salt
compounds is exceeded, which leads to higher shell temperatures, but offers more
effective protection against anchor corrosion and therefore a longer service life, which
is greatly desirable.
REFRA-SiC 50 AR 115 mm
1200 °C REFRATHERM® 1000 SP 70 mm
REFRATHERM® 800 SP 65 mm
1100 °C
1000 °C REFRA-SiC 50 AR 115 mm
FL 75/24* 75 mm
900 °C REFRATHERM® 1000 SP 60 mm
800 °C
REFRA-SiC 50 AR 115 mm
700 °C REFRALITE® 40 G 135 mm
600 °C
REFRA-SiC 50 AR 115 mm
500 °C REFRALITE® 30 G 135 mm
400 °C
* lightweight refractory brick
300 °C
200 °C
100 °C
20 °C ambient temperature
0 °C
working lining insulation
The high-quality lining concept of a stationary hot area, e.g. an inlet chamber, is shown
in figure 7: a 150 mm thick layer of the silicon carbide-containing castable REFRA-SiC
50 AR on an insulation of 100 mm REFRALITE® 40 G serves as the working lining. The
silicon carbide in the working lining is a starting material for the formation of a silicate
layer, which seals the surface and provides effective protection against penetrating
aggressive salt compounds. Starting from an assumed process temperature of 1200 °C,
the temperature gradient inside this lining system is still about 1071 °C at the working
lining/insulation boundary layer and then falls within the insulating layer to 193 °C for
the steel shell temperature.
REFRALITE® 40 G REFRA-SiC 50 AR
1200 °C
1071 °C
steel shell protective
layer
193 °C
100 150
For this refractory concept the dew point of aggressive salt compounds was deliberately
exceeded in order to prevent shell corrosion. As to this lining, attention is to be drawn
to the particularly high thermochemical resistance of both, the working lining and the
insulation, this resistance being associated with effectively protecting the anchors and
the steel shell against corrosion. In this case special heat-resistant anchor steels based
on inconel materials offer additional corrosion protection. The higher shell temperature
does incur additional costs due to energy losses, but results in a positive balance in
the economic viability of the plant operator owing to the running period of the plant. In
many modern cement plants a standard has already been set by this refractory design
in association with the Refratechnik alkali resistant or AR lining concept, which has
proved itself over many years.
These criteria form the basis of the various refractory linings in figure 8 illustrating
three alternative insulation concepts for stationary areas. The whole refractory lining
is laid at a thickness of 250 mm. As a thermochemically optimised working lining the
silicon carbide-containing castable REFRA-SiC 50 AR already described in figure 7 is
used. The left-hand part of figure 8 shows a multi-layer insulating lining made from two
layers of calcium silicate material, the middle part being a design made from a layer of
lightweight refractory bricks and a layer of calcium silicate material.
With these two variations a considerable weight saving is achieved owing to the
lower specific weight of these materials. Furthermore, depending on the prevailing
environmental conditions, a relatively low shell temperature of about 100 °C is obtained.
If a short installation time is required for a plant to be newly lined, the arrangement with
a monolithic insulating layer as can be seen in the right-hand part of figure 8 represents
an effective variation. Higher shell temperatures, which at first glance appear disadvan
tageous, are compensated for by high thermochemical resistance in the lining as a whole
and by improved protection against shell and/or anchor corrosion.
As in the past, cement plants will be subject to process-driven changes in the future,
such changes demanding constant adaptation or new innovations in refractory linings.
A supreme example of this is the constantly increasing use of alternative fuels in
cement plants over the last 20 years, which has been reflected in the development of
new, application-oriented refractory products for plants being consequently subjected
to severe chemical load.
How current trends will continue in the future is too wide open to predict and will
depend on future economic, energy-efficiency and environmental developments on
both a regional and international level. Considerations will certainly have to be made in
relation to saving energy, possible higher costs caused by using alternative fuels and
administrative measures ensuring compliance with industrial emission regulations.
These matters will consequently have an influence on the future refractory linings of
cement plants and therefore also on the selection of innovative insulation systems. Now
and in the future, Refratechnik's goal is and will be to make constructive contributions
to the sustainable economic viability of cement plants in the form of successful
refractory concepts. An example of this is a research project that lasted a number of
years, on which a university team and Refratechnik did successfully collaborate in order
to develop a thermochemically resistant and alkali resistant heat insulating material. A
promising insulation material with a thermal conductivity coefficient of 0.3-0.4 W/m·K
for an application temperature of up to 1350 °C could be developed, which is able
to meet the future demands of efficient insulating systems. This development is
constantly advancing, Refratechnik's reputation guarantees it.
References
To shorten the downtime for refractory installation, by maintaining the proven high-
quality standard for refractory linings, the installation by modules is providing an appro
priate contribution to reduce the specific costs of operation.
This method has proven to be a most efficient method. A number of successful installations
has been completed so far in new modern cement plants throughout the world.
From the manufacturing point of view the module installation is more expensive, however
the aforementioned disadvantages will be overcompensated by the advantages.
Prefabricated blocks made of REFRABAUXITE 85 LCC high alumina low cement castable,
with a dimension e.g. of 200 x 200 x 200 mm, are separately casted by strictly following
the drying out procedure.
Holes have to be drilled through the steel wall to prepare the fixing of the holding
anchors.
The accurately sized modules are set up to complete the refractory clinker bed.
There are different sizes of modules in order to increase the mechanical stability by a
staggered lining.
Figure 1 shows the preparation of the fixing holes through the steel shell by applying
the flame cut method.
The modules are fixed through the steel shell by bolt and nut. The fixing nut is located on
the outside of the shell (Fig. 2). Both, nut and bolt, are made of heat resistant steel.
Later on, the gap between the module and the steel shell will be filled with appropriate
insulating material, either insulating wool, calcium silicate plates or even REFRALITE®
insulating castable.
Figure 3 shows the continuing setup of the precast modules. The dimensions of
each module may vary in different sizes. The dimensions of the shown modules are
250 x 500 x 200 mm together with 250 x 250 x 200 mm.
Inbetween the individual modules there are expansion joints of ceramic papers.
The dimensions are adjusted to the brick shapes.
The cooler side walls in the hot areas, especially the cooler front wall, are known to be
subjected to high thermomechanical and thermochemical wear. A solid construction
of the respective cooler side walls is required as well as an accelerated replacement,
if necessary.
Figure 4 shows a cooler design being completely equipped with prefabricated modules
made of wear resistant castable. The sizes of each module may vary from 200 x 200 mm
up to 400 x 400 mm.
Figure 4 gives an example of a cooler side wall assembly. The straight walls of the cooler
inlet area for instance are equipped with the precast modules in a mosaic set up.
The area inbetween each module set up, e.g. in the corners or the transition between
wall and ceiling, will be filled with castable. It is recommended to apply the gunning or
casting method.
According to its operational design, the tertiary air duct damper gate is subjected to
extremely high mechanical abrasion. The refractory material has to be well selected, and
the steel construction has to show an appropriate design in order to prove the expected
high abrasion resistance.
Figure 6 gives an example of a damper gate housing. The elements are fixed in row. The
mechanical stability between each element is ensured by applying tongue and groove
shapes to the elements.
The complete setup is fixed by a supporting beam, which is fixed to a winding winch to
be moved to the desired position within the gate housing system (Fig. 7).
As to the damper shapes, however, one should not fail to mention that there is a number
of creative designs from rectangular up to the so-called butterfly shapes in single or
double-shaped versions.
It is recommended to manufacture the fixing bolts from heat resistant steel, too.
For installation of the shown precast damper gate modules it is essential to have
appropriate lifting gears or hoisting equipment available due to the heavy weight of the
modules.
Fig. 8: Prefabricated modules after manufacture with tongue and groove shape
In figure 9 there is shown the completed installation of a damper gate module in the
tertiary air duct system, in the closing position and ready to go. The complete installation
was done in less than six hours.
Similarly to the tertiary air duct damper gate, the cooler bullnose is also subjected to
high mechanical abrasion due to extreme air flow, which is highly loaded by aggressive
dust. Therefore it is advisable to have well selected refractory materials available, which
can also be replaced on short notice, if necessary.
The shown module made of the dense silicon carbide containing REFRA-SiC castable is
fixed by appropriate anchoring systems to the steel construction of the clinker cooler
bullnose. There are bullnose segments that are ready for installation just after having
been unloaded from the transport pallets (Fig. 10).
It is recommended to have the bullnose segments made of high alumina castable, containing
silicon carbide, preferably using REFRA-SiC 50 AR or REFRABAUXITE 85 LCC AR.
The fixing bolts are made of heat resistant steel (Fig. 11). They are executed with the
appropriate thread for the fixing nut.
Fig. 11: Bullnose element including fixing bolt made of heat resistant steel
Figure 13 shows the almost completed bullnose. The bullnose was implemented
within a cooler repair job. The complete installation time for the shown bullnose took
approximately 36 hours.
The burner lance is an important part of the kiln system, which is recommended to be
lined by modules, too (Fig. 14).
50 660 Ø
The customised modules out of high refractory material are lined up on the steel burner
lance from the back end. Of course, the mounting may also be executed from the burner
tip.
At the burner tip there is a heat resistant retainer ring to fix the configuration out of the
individual segments.
In the case illustrated in figure 14 the shape of the burner tip has been designed
to prevent or to reduce at least the snow man formation on top. The lower part
configuration is to reduce the wear due to high mechanical abrasion caused by the
aggressive dust loaded gases coming from the cooler gas stream.
Fig. 16: Single element for burner lance including appropriate anchoring
The connection from kiln hood to tertiary air duct is particularly at risk to high abrasion
wear due to the clinker dust coming from the cooler.
Instead of using any expensive special-shaped bricks, the prefabricated modules made
of REFRABAUXITE 85 LCC high alumina castable are more favourable.
The connection from kiln hood to tertiary air duct is designed by a special shape in
order to prevent penetration of aggressive clinker dust between tertiary air duct and
kiln hood.
Due to the thermal expansion during operation, the tertiary air duct will be close to
the monolithic module. This way, a sealing effect between these two kiln segments is
achieved.
Due to its specific weight and location, it is important to have an appropriate hoisting
equipment available.
Fig. 19: Steel element for cooler side wall for preparation without refractory
Due to the specific high load of each segment, it is advisable to have an appropriate
hoisting equipment available, too.
The steel elements are completely supplied and assembled by the kiln construction
company (Fig. 20). Marking and fixing of anchoring may be executed by the refractory
installation company.
Fig. 20: Start casting the refractory on the individual steel elements
The advantage of this proceeding is that the castable will be installed on the ground on
horizontal basis (Fig. 21). No special additional shuttering is required.
• It is possible to prepare the most critical sections of selected refractory linings
separately to the firing unit, while the kiln is still in operation.
• Specific high mould costs for manufacture of special-shaped bricks can be avoided.
• The erection time will be optimised due to separate preparation of specific units.
• Disadvantages due to higher handling load or longer preparation time will be more
than compensated by the optimised erection time, and last but not least by a much
longer running performance.
Whereas typically the quality features of fired bricks, which lie within a very narrow
spectrum, usually do not change, monolithic products may – due to the "human factor" –
be subject to fluctuations in quality once installed.
In recent years, the installation of refractory concretes has gained significance due
to the great progress made in the development of top quality products and effective
installation methods. The most recent plants lined with Refratechnik Cement refractories
used generally a ratio of about 55% bricks to 45% castables (Fig. 1). However, it is now
observed that some plant operators return to the use of bricks. Since castables react
different in sensitivity depending upon the bonding system and their water content,
setting, drying out and heating-up processes have become a major consideration. This
also applies, if only small quantities of castables have been installed.
bricks
castables
typical appearance
of a poorly predried
concrete
Figure 3 shows a general drying out and heating-up curve recommended by Refratechnik
Cement for different hydraulically bonded castables. It applies both to regular cement
and low cement castables, thus explaining the relatively long time interval during the
drying out phase.
In the general product-related recommendation, only two stop points are prescribed, one
at 100 °C and another at 500 °C. In a new plant, different refractory products are used in
different units and with different layer thicknesses. It is not really meaningful to provide
an illustration of the drying out and heating-up curves in relation to individual products
and zones to be lined. Areas which have identical lining requirements, generally cannot
be dried out and heated-up optimally on their own (exceptions include burners, ducts,
small components such as dampers). In the best case scenario, units such as cooler, kiln
hood, kiln and preheater are heated-up separately by auxiliary burners to achieve a more
uniform propagation of the temperature front in the refractory lining.
Based upon practical experience, the general drying out and heating-up curve with a
temperature interval for all castable types has brought about the development of the
drying out and heating-up recommendation Refratechnik Cement currently uses for
complete plants or parts of plants, which will be dealt with later on.
700 temperature
600
10 h/500 °C heating-up
500
drying out
400
25 K/h
300
200 20 h/110 - 150 °C
15 K/h
100 min. 24 hrs setting time
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
time from installation [h]
Water plays a crucial role in the drying out phase, since the water has to be converted
into the vapour phase, and the resulting vapour has to be discharged by vapour diffusion
or vapour flow via the air flow. The water is in two different forms in the refractory
lining – as physically bonded and chemically bonded water.
The physically bonded water is found as uniformly distributed, free water in the pores and
capillaries of the refractory body and already begins to evaporate at ambient temperature
during the setting process (Fig. 4). In the monolithic parts of the lining most of the
water passes as chemically bonded water at room temperature into the hydraulic bond
(hydration). This chemically bonded water is also called water of crystallisation.
The quantities of water being introduced during installation of the refractory lining and,
as a consequence, having to be discharged subsequently when starting-up a new plant,
are considerable. Depending on the type of castable, the quantities of water required
vary between 4 and 25%. A poorly set castable, which in addition is hardly dried and then
is heated up too quickly, will spall.
For an average new plant with about 3,000 tons of refractory material, depending on
the brick:castable ratio, about 100-150 tons of water contained in the lining are to
be anticipated. It is easy to imagine that converting this amount of water into vapour
requires a great deal of time and energy.
So, addition of yet more water is to be stringently avoided, and measures to ensure
suitable weather-proofing of the site and dry cutting of bricks are advisable in any case.
Rainwater can penetrate for instance into the insulation layer and expansion joints and
will remain there until, during the course of heating-up, temperatures have risen enough
to carry off the moisture found there. For allowing the resulting vapour to escape easily,
additional holes are sometimes drilled in suitable places, normally however the vapour
escapes via inspection holes or manholes.
Refratechnik's drying out recommendation for new plants does not include the time
required to ensure an adequate setting phase, this must be taken additionally into
account! The drying process is divided up further by three stop phases (Fig. 5).
Drying begins at ambient temperature and is accelerated in steps of 100 °C, 300 °C and
500 °C. Only at a temperature above 500 °C the actual heating-up begins, until the
operating temperature is reached and the raw meal is fed. Drying out and heating-up
should merge into one another during commissioning of a new plant. Also it is not
advisable to initiate cooling down merely to verify the condition of the lining. The stop
points in the drying phase are geared towards the critical temperature ranges during
the phase transition of the water from the liquid to vaporous state and towards the
temperatures of the mineral phase conversion with the release of the chemically bonded
water.
When drying out the castables a series of physical mechanisms in combination with one
another is envolved, which would be too time-consuming to consider in this lecture.
As long as there is sufficient water/moisture in the refractory body, which can be drawn
continuously to the evaporation or vaporisation front via the capillaries, the drying rate
of the material at this early drying stage is constant and the drying effect is highest. For
this reason, a stop time of at least 24 hours should definitely be observed in the approx.
100 °C temperature range and effective air extraction should be ensured.
It is only possible to discharge the water vapour through the pore space from the cold
side in the direction of the hot side, in the face of the pressure conditions prevailing in the
capillaries, as the air draught causes considerable low-pressure built up on the hot side.
Synthetic fibres incorporated into the castables (in all LCC castables) also vaporise during
this phase and open up additional pathways enabling the vaporising water to escape from
the refractory body. The vapour vent holes, which should be pierced primarily in thicker-
layered components and in areas without any back-up insulation, assist this process.
Most of the chemically bonded water is released from the crystal lattice of the hydrate
phases at temperatures around the 200-330 °C mark. The second stop point during drying
out is therefore at about 300 °C and should also be maintained for at least 24 hours. The
drying rate decreases during this phase, in spite of the increasing temperature. The free
water still present in the insulation begins to run off on the cold side and can ideally
escape through prepared openings and boreholes.
1300
drying out heating-up
1200
1100 850 - 1000 °C
start comissioning
1000
900
800
3*
700
T [°C]
600
2*
500
approx. 30 K/h
400
approx. 10 K/h 1*
300
200
approx. 13 K/h approx. 10 K/h
100 remove bulkheads /
start main burner
0
0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144 156 168
time from installation [h]
Remarks : In general – before starting drying out / heating-up process,
consider hardening process of all concretes will take at least 24 hours!
1* > turn kiln by 180° every 45 minutes – reference shell temperature burning zone approx. 100 - 150 °C
2* > turn kiln by 90° every 30 minutes – reference shell temperature burning zone approx. 200 - 235 °C
3* > turn kiln continuously – reference shell temperature burning zone approx. 260 - 310 °C
* : theoretically calculated shell temperature – depends on environmental conditions
When temperatures are raised or stop points passed too quickly in case of materials
with dense structures, the considerable pressure difference in the capillaries of the dry
hot side and the moist cold side can also unfortunately cause explosion-like spalling of
entire castable-lined areas (Fig. 6). Experience has shown that the range of 30 to 50 mm
of material depth is particularly affected by such vapour pressure explosions. Often, only
micro-cracks form in the structure and only become noticeable as weak points later in
the operating phase.
Upon reaching a shell temperature of 100 °C, the kiln has to be rotated. In the 300-600 °C
temperature range, the kiln should perform 1/3 of a rotation every 30 minutes, whereas
in the 600-900 °C temperature range it should perform 1/3 of a rotation every 15 minutes.
From 900 °C, rotation should be continuous and increased to normal operation at
operating temperature.
Tyres are limiting factors as far as the kiln shell is concerned, which may squeeze the
kiln sheel in case of too fast heating-up rates and thus may also damage the brickwork
(Fig. 8). Heating-up the rotary kiln generally involves two cylinders, which consist of
different materials and are nestled one inside the other: the inner cylinder, which is
subjected directly to the effect of flames and consists of basic bricks and alumina bricks,
and the outer kiln shell made of steel. Due to the relatively high temperatures, the inner
cylinder is pressed into the outer steel cylinder. It is in the kiln operator's own interests to
ensure that the kiln tube is in peak mechanical condition. Just as in the case of incorrect
installation in a kiln, too large ovality, kiln shell deformations or distortions of the kiln axis
can very quickly have undesirable consequences during heating-up.
Fig. 8: Tyres
The thermal expansion behaviour in the region of the alumina containing materials is
approximately the same as that of the kiln shell. Bricks with a high alumina content and
fireclay bricks are therefore installed without cardboards.
The expansion of basic bricks is much higher at elevated temperatures than that of
alumina products and steel at operating temperature. For this reason, basic bricks are
provided essentially with 2 mm thick cardboards, which serve as spacer to allow for
expansion until the cardboards burns off. As soon as the cardboards are burnt off on
the brick surface upon reaching a temperature of about 300 °C, the bricks can expand
further and ideally the lining becomes optimally braced in the kiln shell before the first
raw material is fed in. As the temperature rises, the hot side of the bricks is subjected to
pressure, which increases as a result of the expansion, whereas the cold region hardly
reacts at all (Fig. 9). Therefore, heating-up, which is performed too quickly, can cause
the forces produced in the top centimetres of the hot side, specifically the basic lining,
to be greater than the strength of the brick material leading in turn to typical spallings
of the hot side of the bricks.
700
hot brick side
600
brick centre
temperature / °C
500
200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 35
time in hours
500
specified value
400 TC 1 measuring point 1
temperature in °C
TC 2 measuring point 2
300 TC 3 measuring point 3
TC 4 measuring point 4
200
TC 5 measuring point 5
100
0
:48
:39
:03
:03
:28
:00
:39
:54
:18
:18
:07
:21
:07
:53
:31
:36
:21
:33
:15
:15
17
22
07
03
22
12
12
03
08
18
03
03
03
03
03
03
03
03
03
03
.20
.20
.20
.20
.20
.20
.20
.20
.20
.20
.05
.05
.05
.06
.06
.06
.05
.06
.06
.06
29
30
30
04
02
03
31
01
02
01
In principle, there is a whole host of possible ways to dry out refractory installations.
All of the methods have their advantages and disadvantages, but in practice it has been
shown, not only from the refractory supplier's point of view, that using auxiliary burners
for heating-up yields the best and most reliable results. Gas is the preferred fuel. It is not
possible to give a recommendation, which will be suitable for all of the conditions being
encountered. On the one hand, the specified reference temperatures of the various kiln
manufacturers can be different from factory to factory, and on the other hand reference
temperatures are measured at different points as standard. For example, when the gas
temperature is reached in the inlet chamber or the lowest cyclone, the raw meal feed is
performed between 850 °C and 920 °C in case of different plant manufacturers.
1 TC
1B
1 TC
1 TC 1B
thermocouple (TC)
1 TC
burner (B) 1B
1B
1B
1 TC
1B
1 TC
1 TC
1B
2 TC
2B
4 TC
4B
Drying is performed generally by natural air draught, which is produced solely by the heat
differences in the plant. Corresponding openings must be prepared for the purpose of
discharging the hot, moist air in a straightforward manner. In order to monitor the drying
out progress, up to 3 vapor vent caps should be provided on each cyclone roof depending
upon size (Fig. 13).
Fig. 13: Vapour vent holes in various units, closing cap for controlled vapour venting
The required number of burners is to be agreed with the operator during inspection of the
plant. Typically, the auxiliary burners, e.g. 4 in the cooler, 2 in the kiln hood, 2 in the inlet
and 6 others in the preheater, are inserted in manholes or other suitable openings. The
burners have to be positioned in such a way that flames cannot come into direct contact
with the brickwork (Fig. 14).
Ideally, the brick lining of the kiln should not be influenced by the drying out procedure,
moist exhaust gases (hydration) or excessively high temperatures (premature burning
off of the cardboards). Appropriate partitions between the kiln tube and the secondary
air extraction facility in the cooler must be agreed and carried out with the specialist
company. Ideally, the bulkheads are constructed in such a way as to permit the plant to go
on line without any further downtime as a result of the drying out by heating (Fig. 15).
The heating-up phase is completed, once the first clinker is produced in the cooler and
production can be started without disruption (Fig. 16).
Algeria
EL AZZAOUI, Abbès E.R.C.O. Zahana
HOSNY, Amr E.R.C.O. Zahana
KHARCHI, Noureddine Cimenterie de Beni Saf (Groupe ERCO) Beni Saf
LALIMI, Kada E.R.C.O. Zahana
LARADJI, Nadim Cimenterie de Beni Saf (Groupe ERCO) Beni Saf
SERSOUB, Abdelkader Representative Peruwelz/Belgium
Argentina
CHACOF, Ricardo Loma Negra C.I.A.S.A. Buenos Aires
DIZ, Juan Carlos Representative Buenos Aires
PRADO, Dante Oscar Loma Negra C.I.A.S.A. Zapala
SIMKIN, Ricardo Loma Negra C.I.A.S.A. Olavarría
Australia
SCHÄFER, Tom Ammermann Partners Pty Ltd Somersby, N.S.W.
Austria
KRANABITL, Johann Zementwerk Leube GmbH St. Leonhard
SCHAMSCHULA, Peter ATEC Production & Services Krems
SCHNELL, Ansgar Lafarge Centre Technique Europe Centrale Vienna
SECKLEHNER, Anton Kirchdorfer Zementwerk Hofmann Ges. mbH Kirchdorf
STUMPF, Wilhelm Gmundener Zementwerke Gmunden
ZWICKL, Martin Wopfinger Baustoffindustrie GmbH Waldegg
Azerbaijan
ORUJOV, Nijat Garadagh Sement JSC Baku
Belgium
FERMEUSE, Jean Paul ALC Tournai s.a. Tournai
Bolivia
HERRERA, Fernando Sociedad Boliviana de Cemento S.A. - Soboce Viacha
Bosnia-Herzegovina
BJELOPOLJAK, EDIN Kakanj Cement Kakanj
´ ´ Sead
CATIC, AG Fabrika Cementa Lukavac Lukavac
MARKOVIC, STJEPAN Kakanj Cement Kakanj
´ Djevad
OMERDIC, AG Fabrika Cementa Lukavac Lukavac
Brazil
DOS SANTOS, André Guillardi Cimento Planalto S.A.- Ciplan Sobradinho
FIGUEIREDO, Marcelo Borelli Camargo Correa Cimentos S.A. Sao Paulo
OAIVA, Welney de Souza Camargo Correa Cimentos S.A. Bodoquena
VILELA, Adilson Fabiano Cimento Planalto S.A.- Ciplan Sobradinho
Bulgaria
HALIM, Halim VULKAN Dimitrovgrad
HRISTOV, Pavlin Holcim Plevenski Cement Plant Pleven
KOTSIAS, Konstantinos Zlatna Panega Cement Zlatna Panega
PETROV, Iossife REMEKO Ltd. Sofia
STANOEV, Milen Zlatna Panega Cement Zlatna Panega
VESELINOV, Dimitar REMEKO Ltd. Sofia
Chile
SOBARZO, Pedro Paredes Macer Ltda. Santiago
China
CHEN, Yuan Sheng Fujian Province Yongding Minfu Bldg. Materials Co. Ltd. Longyan
CHEN, Yongbo Anhui Conch Cement Co., Ltd. Wuhu
CUI, Xianjun Xinxiang Pingyuan Tongli Cement Co. Xinxiang
FENG, Shiguo Hebi Yuhe Tongli Cement Co. Hebi
FU, Zhencai Yingkou Jinlong Group Dashiqiao
GUO, Hui Zhumadian Yulong Tongli Cement Co. Zhumadian
HUA, Yuzhou Anhui Conch Cement Co., Ltd. Wuhu
JIA, Chunli Beijing Cement Co., Ltd. Beijing
LI, Haifeng Jidong Cement Group Tangshan
PAN, Yilin CBMEC Beijing
PARK, Byeng Gi Daewoo Cement (Shandong) Co. Ltd. Jining
SHU, Luhua Anhui Conch Cement Co., Ltd. Wuhu
SI, Jun Zhejiang Jianfeng Dengcheng Cement Co., Ltd. Fuyang
WANG, Jun Mei Sinoma Tianshan (Yunfu) Tianshan Cement Co. Ltd. Yunfu
WANG, Pengfei Anhui Conch Cement Co., Ltd. Wuhu
WANG, Xuemei CBMEC Beijing
WANG, Min Daewoo Cement (Shandong) Co. Ltd. Jining
XU, Jinhua Shandong Shenfeng Cement Group Co., Ltd. Zaozhuang
YANG, Zhongde Anhui Conch Cement Co., Ltd. Wuhu
YANG, Junliang Jidong Cement Group Tangshan
ZHANG, Jian Zhejiang Jianfeng Dengcheng Cement Co., Ltd. Fuyang
ZHANG, Chengli Dalian Cement (Group) Co. Ltd. Dalian
ZHANG, LI Anhui Conch Cement Co., Ltd. Wuhu
ZHOU, Zhengyou Anhui Conch Cement Co., Ltd. Wuhu
ZHOU, Jun Daewoo Cement (Shandong) Co., Ltd. Jining
Colombia
BUENO, Hernando Industrial Juval Ltda. Bogota
ESTRADA MEJIA, Samuel José Industrial Juval Ltda. Bogota
Croatia
VUCICIC, Damir Dalmacijacement, Sveti Juraj Plant Kastel Sucurac
ZORIC, Ivan Dalmacijacement, Sveti Kajo Plant Kastel Sucurac
Cuba
BARROSO HERNÀNDEZ, Rafael Empresa Comercial Cemento-Vidrio Havana
JOFFRE GÒMEZ, Mercedes Florentina Empresa Comercial Cemento-Vidrio Havana
Cyprus
PETROU, Savvas The Cyprus Cement Co., Ltd. Limassol
Czech Republic
MAGRLA, KAREL Cement Hranice A.S. Hranice
MATURA, Pavel Ceskomoravski Cement A.S. Mokrá
MUNCINSKY, JAN Lafarge Cement A.S. Cizkovice
NOVOTNY, Stanislav Representative Mestec
TICHÝ, Milan Holcim (Cesko) A.S. Prachovice
Egypt
ABDEL-RAHAMAN, Yehya Arabian Cement Co., Ramliyah Plant Ain Soukhna
EL-HAKIM, Fernas Arabian Cement Co., Ramliyah Plant Ain Soukhna
FOUAD, Maher Egyptian Cement Co. Cairo
MOUSSA, Tamer MICON Cairo
OSMAN, Assem RHI-Reliance Heavy Industries Cairo
Ethiopia
BERHE, Hatsey Messebo Building Materials Co. Mekele
Finland
EK, Ralf Finnsementti Oy Parainen
LAMPINEN, Vesa Termorak Oy Lempäälä
NAAPILA, Jukka Termorak Oy Lempäälä
ÖSTDAHL, Bertel Finnsementti Oy Parainen
France
PLAZA, Pierre Vicat Isle d‘Abeau
VACCARO, Max EGCI Pillard Marseilles
WIEDER, Eric EGCI Pillard Marseilles
Germany
ALLENDORF, Gerhard Dyckerhoff AG Wiesbaden
BARTON, Franz-Josef Dyckerhoff AG Wiesbaden
BILLHARDT, W., Dr. Spenner Zement GmbH & Co. KG Erwitte
BLACHA, Horst Deuna Zement GmbH Deuna
BRETZ, Achim Schwab Feuerfesttechnik GmbH Dannenfels
BURGER, Walter Wincanton GmbH Karlsruhe
BUSCHKÜHLE, Peter Seibel und Söhne OHG Erwitte
FEIGE, Fritz, Dr. Bauverlag GmbH Dessau-Rosslau
GABRIEL, Matthias Landesbank Baden-Württemberg Karlsruhe
GEIGER, Ralph-Jochen Schwenk Zement KG Karlstadt
GRABIETZ, Bernhard CEMEX Ostzement GmbH Rüdersdorf
GRUDNO, Hans-Dieter CEMEX Ostzement GmbH Rüdersdorf
GUSE, Bodo Pillard Feuerungen GmbH Taunusstein
HARDER, Joachim, Dr.-Ing. OneStone Consulting Group Buxtehude
HEIN, Martin CEMEX Deutschland AG Ratingen
HOLPERT, Morten Holcim (Deutschland) AG Lägerdorf
JUNG, Adalbert Deuna Zement GmbH Deuna
KARPINSKI, Johann IKN GmbH Neustadt
KÄSTINGSCHÄFER, G. Polysius AG Beckum
KELLER, Thomas Lafarge Zement Wössingen GmbH Walzbachtal
KUEHNE, Olaf HeidelbergCement AG, Technology Center Leimen
LACHMANN, Karsten Spedition Lachmann Hilden
LANGE, Andreas Teutonia Zementwerk Aktiengesellschaft Hanover
Great Britain
BILHAM, Mark Representative Worksop
BURGESS, Rachel International Cement Review Dorking, Surrey
COWELL, Paul Castle Cement Ltd., Ribblesdale Works Clitheroe
DRAYTON, John Cemex UK, Barrington Works Barrington
HARGREAVES, David William International Cement Review Dorking, Surrey
LEYVA, Jacinto Cemex UK, Barrington Works Barrington
MARKHAM, Katherine World Cement Farnham, Surrey
McCAFFREY, Robert, Dr. Pro Publications International Ltd. Epsom, Surrey
MCGONEGAL, Eoin Cemex UK, Barrington Works Barrington
Greece
PAPAGEORGIOU, Polycarpos S. Grecian Magnesite Ltd. Gerakini-Polygiros
TSAKONITIS, Dimitris Grecian Magnesite Ltd. Athens
Guatemala
GRAMAJO, Adolfo Cementos Progreso, S.A. Guatemala City
Iceland
SIRGUDSSON, Gunnar H. Sementsverksmidjan HF Akranes
India
RAJENDRAN, K. The India Cements Ltd. Chennai
RATHEE, J.S. Grasim Industries Ltd. Mumbai
VAISHNAVI, Kumar Ramesh Maihar Cement Co. Maihar
Indonesia
HARTONO, Ir. PT Semen Gresik Tuban
SANTOSO, Budi PT Unideby Kencana Jakarta
SOMOREDJO, Suparni PT Semen Gresik Gresik
TARUNA KUSDARMADI, Rudi PT Unideby Kencana Jakarta
Iran
AFSHAR, M. Rashid Shemal Cement Co. Tehran
ALAEIFARD, Bahaeddin Shemal Cement Co. Tehran
CHELOYAN, Ahmad Saveh Grey Cement Co. Tehran
DELZENDE, Babak Tehran Cement Co. Ghaniabad
EBRAHIMI SADRABADI, Hossein Kordestan Cement Co. Tehran
EBRAHIMZADE, Davood Tehran Cement Co. Ghaniabad
FARHANI SHANDIZ, Amir Iran Industrial Design Co. Tehran
GHADAMI, Mansour Ilam Cement Co. Tehran
GHAELI, Mahmoud Cement Co. Dehloran Tehran
HAGHIGHI MOOD, Hossein Mozoun Eng. Co. Tehran
HAGHIRI, Masood Tehran Cement Co. Ghaniabad
IRAVANI, Mahmoud Teif Sepahan Engg. Co. Isfahan
JALALI, Abdolhamid Estahban Cement Co. Tehran
KAKOUEI NEZHAD, Amir Kerman Cement Co. Kerman
KARIMI, Hassan Mozoun Eng. Co. Tehran
KHADEMI, Abdolreza Iran Industrial Design Co. Tehran
KHAJEH MOHAMMADI, Nima Kerman Momtazan Cement Kerman
LOTFI, Hossein Naien Cement Co. Tehran
MANAI SICHANI, Bijan Teif Sepahan Engg. Co. Isfahan
MIZANI, Darush Tehran Cement Co. Ghaniabad
MOSTOFI, Mohsen Ardestan Cement Co. Isfahan
NASR, Seyed Reza Saveh Cement Co. Tehran
NIKABADI, Rooz Ali Doroud Cement Co. Doroud
NIKKHAH, Farhad Saveh White Cement Co. Tehran
OMRANI FARD, A. R. Ardestan Cement Co. Isfahan
RAD, Hejazi Peyvand Golestan Cement Co. Tehran
RAEISZADEH, Mohammad Mahdi Kerman Cement Co. Kerman
SADEGHNEJAD, Mohammad Ali Bagheran Cement Co. Birjand
TABATABAI, Ali, Dr. Iran Cement Engineering & Parts Co. Tehran
TADAYONI, Hossein Iran Cement Engineering & Parts Co. Tehran
TEHRANI SOLTANI, Hadi CES Co. Tehran
VAZIRI, Alireza CES Co. Tehran
ZANDIYEH, Mahdi Teif Sepahan Engg. Co. Isfahan
ZARKESH, Mohammad Mazandaran Co. Tehran
Ireland
ROBINSON, Pat Irish Cement Ltd. Limerick
VATTERODT, Rolf Lagan Cement Ltd. Killaskillen, Kinnegad
Japan
NARA, Kiyohiko Nara Techno Co., Ltd. Tokyo
Jordania
AL SHOBAKI, Mohammad North Jordan Cement Co. Amman
GHANEM, Samir Alghanem Trading & Contracting Co. Ltd. Amman
IRSHOUD, Jamal Jordan Cement Factories Co. Ltd. Amman-Tafila
JALODI, Ahmad Jordan Cement Factories Co. Ltd. Amman
MADI, Ayman Al Rajhi Cement Co. Amman
MAQATEF, Ashraf Alghanem Trading & Contracting Co. Ltd. Amman
TARAWNEH, Khalid Arab Company for White Cement Co. Amman
ZAIDANIN, Mohammad M. Al Rajhi Cement Co. Amman
ZWEIRI, Samer Jordan Cement Factories Co. Ltd. Amman
Kenya
KAGIO, Ndegwa K. East African Portland Cement Co. Ltd. Nairobi
Korea
AHN, Sung Soo D-Young Trading Co. Seoul
IN-DEOK, Jeng Tongyang Cement Co. Samcheok
KWAN-HOE, Kim Asia Cement Co. Jecheon
Kosovo
CURRI, Enver Sharr Beteiligungs GmbH Hani i Elezit
Kuwait
AL HAMDAN, Humoud S. Seif International Co. Bayan
Libya
EL JAZWI, Mohamad A. M. The Libyan Cement Co. Benghazi
Luxembourg
KRIER, Ralph Ciments Luxembourgeois S.A. Rumelange
Macedonia
ANGELOVA, Valentina NIKEX Skopje
GUSKOV, Risto Titan Cementarnica Usje AD Skopje
NIKOLOV, Nikolajco NIKEX Skopje
STAMBOLISKA, Zaklina Titan Cementarnica Usje AD Skopje
Mexico
ARELLANO CANTÚ, Ricardo Cemex Mexico, S.A. de C.V. Monterrey
HIDALGO VALDÉS, José Angel Cementos y Concretos Nacionales, S.A. de C.V. Arroyo Hondo
HILDALGO, Mónica Cementos y Concretos Nacionales, S.A. de C.V. Arroyo Hondo
ZAVALA, Gerardo Lafarge Cementos, S.A. de C.V. Mexico City
Morocco
CHOUAR, Abdelileh Lafarge Ciments Meknès
EL OUATTASSI, Bouchaib Tassico Casablanca
EL OUATTASSI, Makram Tassico Casablanca
KHARRAKI, Mohamed Holcim (Maroc) S.A. Oujda
Netherlands
DIJKSTRA, Tom E. N. C. I. Maastricht
MOMMERS, Franciois E. N. C. I. Maastricht
New Zealand
BEDFORD, Ian J. Golden Bay Cement Ltd. Whangarei
Nigeria
BINYI, Yusuf Cement Company of Northern Nigeria Ltd. Sokoto
GORKI, Yahaya Ashaka Cement Co. Ltd. Ashaka
SCHWERE, Wolfgang Representative Lagos
Pakistan
SIDDIQI, Masarrat East-West Commercial Enterprise Karachi
AHMAD, Shabbir Mustehkam Cement Ltd. Taxila
ALI, Sakhawat Bestway Cement Ltd. Chakwal
BASHIR, Arif D. G. Khan Cement Co. Ltd. Khairpur
FEROZE, Amir Maple Leaf Cement Factory Ltd. Iskanderabad
ISLAM, Syed Fakhrul Bestway Cement Ltd. Hattar
SHEIKH, Muhammad Aslam Thatta Cement Co. Ltd. Thatta
ZAKA U DIN, M. D. G. Khan Cement Co. Ltd. Lahore
Paraguay
LUGO CABALLERO, Primo Atilio Industria Nacional del Cemento Puerto Vallemi
VILLAGRA GARCIA, Carlos Iván Industria Nacional del Cemento Puerto Vallemi
Peru
ASMAT SIQUERO, Juan Enrique Cementos Lima, S.A. Lima
CARDICH, Lucio, Dr. Representative Lima
MORGAN, Max Cementos Lima, S.A. Lima
Poland
BEDNARSKI, Stanislaw Lafarge Cement Polska S.A. Kujawy Piechcin
CZOP, Tomasz Polska Grupa Materialów Budowlanych Sp. z.o.o. Warsaw
DUDA, Jerzy IMMB Katowice
GAWLAK, Dariusz Cementowia Warta S.A. Dzialoszyn
JUCHKIEWICZ, Jan Gorazdze Cement S.A. Opole
SCHONACK, Hans-Peter Berlin
SCHUCHARDT, Aloys Cementownia "Odra" S.A. Opole Opole
Romania
PUSCASU, Doru-Vladimir Ceprocim S.A. Bucharest
BELLEI, Eugen SC Carpatcement SA Chiscadaga
ROTARU, Gabriel SC Carpatcement SA Tasca
Saudi Arabia
AL-FADLEY, Fahad A. Yamama Saudi Cement Co. Riyadh
AL-RASHEED, Jehad A. Yamama Saudi Cement Co. Riyadh
AL-SUWAILAM, Abdullah Ibrahim Yamama Saudi Cement Co. Riyadh
DAOUDIEH, Mohammad Northern Region Cement Co. Riyadh
KADASAH, Aqeel F. Southern Province Cement Co. Riyadh
NAYFEH, Sami Saudi White Cement Co. Riyadh
SIDDIQUI, Naseer Uddin Riyadh Cement Co. Riyadh
Serbia
MAJCHROWICZ, Miroslaw Lafarge Beocinska Fabrika Cementa a.d. Beocin
Slovakia
KOLBENHAYER, Marko Holcim (Slovensko) A.S. Rohoznik Rohoznik
Slovenia
ˇ ˇ Zdenko
IVANCIC, Salonit Anhovo Anhovo
KOHLMAYR, Günter Lafarge Cement d.d. Trbovlje
KREK, Irena Sempco D.O.O. Medvode
KUK, Radoš Salonit Anhovo Anhovo
PETELIN, Roman Lafarge Cement d.d. Trbovlje
South Africa
BOTHA, Fred Insimbi Alloy Supplies (Pty) Ltd. Wadeville
SANDENBERGH, Marda Pretoria Portland Cement Co. Ltd. Sandton
SCHUTTE, Pieter Insimbi Alloy Supplies (Pty) Ltd. Wadeville
Spain
BIBILONI ISERM, Bartolome Cemex España, S.A. Lloseta
CABALLERO CHACÓN, Ángel Cementos Portland, S.A. Olazagutia
CARMONA VORCY, José Luís Cementos Portland, S.A. Alcalá de Guadaira
CHARQUERO GARCÍA, Juan Cemex España S.A. Buñol
DÍAZ DE LOS RÍOS, María Cemex España, S.A. Madrid
DURANDEGUI MOLAS, Jon Lafarge Cementos, S.A. Madrid
ESPESO MARTINEZ, Pablo Cementos Portland, S.A. Madrid
GARCÍA MATEOS, Lucas Holcim (España) S.A. Jeréz de la Frontera
GETINO BAYÓN, Fernando Cementos Portland, S.A. Olazagutia
GONZALES, David Uniland Cementera, S.A. Sta. Margarida i els Monjos
GONZÁLEZ GONZÁLEZ, José María F.L. Smidth Las Rozas
HERRERO SERRANO, Luís Julian Cementos Rezola Añorga
INIESTA BLANCO, Francisco Cemex España, S.A. Alcanar
LOPÉZ, Beatriz Cemex España, S.A. Madrid
MARTÍNEZ MENDIZABAL, Jesús Cemex España, S.A. Morata de Jalón
MATEOS GÓMEZ, Francisco Holcim (España), S.A. Torredonjimeno
MIRALLES MIRALLES, Alvaro Cemex España, S.A. Alcanar
PEÑA PULIDO, Andres Eloy Cementos Portland, S.A. Alcalá de Guadaira
Sudan
AHMED HAMAD, Ahmed Mohamed Berber Cement Co. Ltd. Khartoum
EL HUSSEIN, Ahmed M. Wad El Hussein Commercial Agencies Khartoum South
EL HUSSEIN, Rasha Ahmed Mohamed Wad El Hussein Commercial Agencies Khartoum South
Switzerland
GROSS, Stefan Holcim Group Support Ltd. Holderbank
HEPBERGER, Markus Holcim (Schweiz) AG Untervaz
SCHMIEMAN, Yan Ciments Vigier S.A. Péry
ZANOLARI, Loris Holcim (Schweiz) AG Untervaz
ZIMMERMANN, Yves C. Holcim Group Support Ltd. Holderbank
Syria
ABOU RICH, Mamdouh Adra Co. for Manufacturing Cement and Building Materials Adra
Tanzania
KASSIM, Hashim Machines Consultancy Ltd. Dar Es Salaam
LEMA, Benedict Tanga Cement Co. Ltd. Dar Es Salaam
Thailand
YATHIKUL, Sompoch Siam City Cement Public Co. Ltd. Saraburi
AMORNSAK, Torot Siam City Cement Public Co., Ltd. Saraburi
AR-NONT, Mahatanaprateep TPI Polene Public Co. Saraburi
CHAANCHAI, K. Multibusiness Alliance Co., Ltd. Nonthaburi
WANCHAI, T. Multibusiness Alliance Co., Ltd. Nonthaburi
Trinidad
CHADEE, Rajeev Trinidad Cement Ltd. Claxton Bay
Tunisia
BOUANANE, Noureddine Société des Ciments de Gabès, S.A. Tunis
FAYCEL, Rabhi Société Tuniso-Andalouse de Ciments Blanc Tunis
GADER, Imed Société des Ciments d‘Enfidha Enfidha
SAADAOUI, Ammar Les Ciments d‘Oum El Kelil Tajerouine
SAFRAOUI, Rachid SOTULEC Tunis
SAFRAOUI, Aymen SOTULEC Tunis
ZAAG, Mohamed Société des Ciments d‘Enfidha Enfidha
ZAAG, Dhikra Société des Ciments d‘Enfidha Enfidha
Turkey
AKTAS, Ertugrul Oyak Bolu Cimento Caydurt-Bolu
BEKIROGLU, Yusuf Ziya Denizli Cimento Sanayii TAS Denizli
BORCBAKAN, Cüneyt H. Ceta Makina Istanbul
BORCBAKAN, Zeynep Ceta Makina Istanbul
BULUT, Ismail Lafarge Aslan Cimento AS. Gebze-Kocaeli
DINCER, Basri Cimsa Cimento Sanayi ve Tic. A.S. Mersin
ENGIZ, Süleyman Cimentas Trakya Cimento Fabrikasi Lalapasa
KAHYA, Murat Denizli Cimento Sanayii TAS Denizli
KIHTIR, Eray Limak Sanliurfa Cimento Sanliurfa
MUTLUAY, Halil Adiyaman Cimento Sanayi T.A.S. Adiyaman
ÖKTEM, Hüseyin Partner Teknik Istanbul
OLGUN, Ergun Cimentas Trakya Cimento Fabrikasi Lalapasa
Uruguay
ISOLA, Leonardo Cementos Artigas S.A. Minas
MARTIGANI, Gustavo Vimar S.R.L. Montevideo
VIEYTES, Mariano Omar Vimar S.R.L. Montevideo
USA
ANAGNOSTOU, John Titan Florida Cement Medley
CARR, John D. Coastal Consulting and Products Co., Inc. Birmingham
HILL, Park H. Refractories West Pueblo
Venezuela
VALENTE A., Manuel R. Cemex Venezuela Caracas
Vietnam
NGUYEN, Nhu Khue Bimson Cement J.S. Co. Bimson
PHAM, Minh Khanh Bimson Cement J.S. Co. Bimson
SINH, Nguyen Truong Truongan Technical Service Equipment and Materials Co., Ltd. Hanoi
TRAN, Duy Son Hatien 2 Cement J.S. Co. Hatien
Yemen
AL-BON, Ahmed Mohammed Amran Cement Plant Sanaa
AL-MALASSI, Hussein Sae‘ed, Dr. AL-Barh Cement Plant Taiz
AL-SANABANI, Abdur-Rahim Abdur Rahim Trading Sanaa
HORAB, Abdulkarim Yemen Cement Industry Co. Hodeidah
Ce 1-179-12/2008