Biology Work Book

Table Of Contents
NOTE-TAKING TIPS �� v MODULE 8

Cellular Energy�� 97
MODULE 1
The Study of Life �� 1 1 How Organisms Obtain Energy�� 98
2 Photosynthesis��102
1 The Science of Life ��2
3 Cellular Respiration�� 107
2 The Nature of Science��6
MODULE 9
MODULE 2
Cellular Reproduction and
Principles of Ecology�� 11
Sexual Reproduction ��111
1 Organisms and Their Relationships �� 12
1 Cellular Reproduction ��112
2 Flow of Energy in an Ecosystem�� 16
2 Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction��119
3 Cycling of Matter �� 20
MODULE 10
MODULE 3
Introduction to Genetics and
Communities, Biomes, and Ecosystems�� 25
Patterns of Inheritance �� 125
1 Community Ecology�� 26
1 Mendelian Genetics��126
2 Terrestrial Biomes�� 29
2 Genetic Recombination and
3 Aquatic Ecosystems��33 Gene Linkage��130
MODULE 4 3 Applied Genetics �� 134
Population Ecology�� 37 4 Basic Patterns of Human
1 Population Dynamics�� 38 Inheritance��139
2 Human Population�� 42 5 Complex Patterns of Inheritance�� 143
MODULE 5 MODULE 11
Biodiversity and Conservation �� 47 Molecular Genetics �� 147
1 Biodiversity�� 48 1 DNA: The Genetic Material��148
2 Threats to Biodiversity �� 52 2 Replication of DNA��153
3 Conserving Biodiversity �� 56 3 DNA, RNA, and Protein��158
4 Gene Regulation and Mutation ��162
MODULE 6
Chemistry in Biology�� 61 MODULE 12
Biotechnology �� 167
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education
1 Matter�� 62
2 Chemical Reactions��67 1 DNA Technology��168
3 Water and Its Solutions�� 71 2 The Human Genome�� 173
4 The Building Blocks of Life��75 MODULE 13
MODULE 7 The History of Life�� 179
Cellular Structure and Function �� 79 1 Fossil Evidence of Change��180
1 Cell Discovery and Theory�� 80 2 The Origin of Life��186
2 The Plasma Membrane�� 84 MODULE 14
3 Cellular Transport�� 88 Evolution�� 191
4 Structures and Organelles �� 92 1 Darwin’s Theory of Evolution by
Natural Selection��192
2 Evidence of Evolution ��196
3 Shaping Evolutionary Theory��200
iii
MODULE 15 MODULE 22
Primate Evolution�� 205 Integumentary, Skeletal,
1 Primates��206 and Muscular Systems �� 329
2 Hominoids to Hominins��210 1 The Integumentary System�� 330
3 Human Ancestry��214 2 The Skeletal System �� 335
3 The Muscular System �� 339
MODULE 16
Organizing Life’s Diversity �� 219 MODULE 23
1 The History of Classification��220 Nervous System�� 343
2 Modern Classification �� 225 1 Structure of the Nervous System�� 344
3 Domains and Kingdoms �� 229 2 Organization of the
Nervous System�� 348
MODULE 17
3 The Senses�� 352
Bacteria and Viruses�� 233
4 Effects of Drugs �� 356
1 Bacteria�� 234
2 Viruses and Prions�� 238 MODULE 24
Circulatory, Respiratory,
MODULE 18 and Excretory Systems��361
Protists and Fungi�� 243
1 Circulatory System�� 362
1 Introduction to Protists�� 244 2 Respiratory System �� 367
2 Protist Diversity �� 248 3 Excretory System�� 372
3 Introduction to Fungi�� 257
4 Fungus Diversity and Ecology��261 MODULE 25
Digestive and Endocrine Systems ��377
MODULE 19 1 The Digestive System�� 378
Introduction to Plants ��267
2 Nutrition�� 383
1 Plant Evolution and Diversity�� 268 3 The Endocrine System�� 387
2 Plant Structure and Function�� 276
3 Plant Reproduction �� 284 MODULE 26
Human Reproduction and Development��391
MODULE 20 1 Reproductive Systems�� 392
Introduction to Animals �� 289
2 Human Development Before Birth �� 396
1 Animal Characteristics��290 3 Birth, Growth, and Aging ��400
2 Animal Body Plans��295
MODULE 27
MODULE 21 The Immune System��405

Animal Diversity and Behavior�� 301
1 Infectious Diseases �� 406
1 Invertebrates�� 302 2 The Immune System ��411
2 Vertebrates�� 313 3 Noninfectious Disorders��416
3 Animal Behavior�� 322
iv
Note-Taking Tips
Your notes are a reminder of what you learned in class. Taking good
notes can help you succeed in science. The following tips will help you
take better classroom notes.
• Before class, ask what your teacher will be discussing in class. Review
mentally what you already know about the concept.
• Be an active listener. Focus on what your teacher is saying. Listen
for important concepts. Pay attention to words, examples, and/or
diagrams your teacher emphasizes.
• Write your notes as clearly and concisely as possible. The following
symbols and abbreviations may be helpful in your note-taking.
Word or Symbol or Word or Symbol or

Phrase Abbreviation Phrase Abbreviation
for example e.g. and +
such as i.e. approximately ≈
with w/ therefore ∴
without w/o versus vs
se a symbol such as a star ( ) or an asterisk (*) to emphasize impor-

• U
tant concepts. Place a question mark (?) next to anything that you do
not understand.
• Ask questions and participate in class discussion.
• Draw and label pictures or diagrams to help clarify a concept.
• When working out an example, write what you are doing to solve the
problem next to each step. Be sure to use your own words.
• Review your notes as soon as possible after class. During this time,
organize and summarize new concepts and clarify misunderstandings.
Note-Taking Don’ts
• Don’t write every word. Concentrate on the main ideas and concepts.
• Don’t use someone else’s notes. They may not make sense.
• Don’t doodle. It distracts you from listening actively.
• Don’t lose focus or you will become lost in your note-taking.
v
1 The Study of Life
ENCOUNTER THE PHENOMENON
Write the Encounter the Phenomenon question for this module.
Use the “What I Know” column to list the things you know about the Encounter the Phenomenon
question. Then list the questions you have about the Encounter the Phenomenon question in the
“What I Want to Find Out” column. As you read the module, fill in the “What I Learned” column.
K W L
What I Know What I Want to Find Out What I Learned
Science Notebook • The Study of Life

1
The Study of Life
1 The Science of Life
REVIEW Recall the definition of the Review Vocabulary term.
VOCABULARY
environment
environment
NEW VOCABULARY Use your book to help you write the correct vocabulary term in each
blank.
adaptation
is the science of life. A(n) is
biology
anything that has all the characteristics of life. All living things are
development arranged in an orderly way. In other words, living things have
. Most living things begin as one cell. The addition of
growth
mass is called . Over an organism’s life, natural changes,
homeostasis called , take place. The production of offspring, or
organism , must occur to enable the group of breeding
organisms, or , to continue to exist. A living thing also
organization
has the ability to react to a(n) from its internal or external
reproduction environment. The reaction is called a . An organism must
response be able to maintain its internal conditions. If anything upsets its
normal state, processes to restore begin. Any inherited
species characteristic, or , developed in a species over time can
stimulus enhance the species’ ability to survive and produce offspring in its
environment.

2
1 The Science of Life (continued)
The Science of Life Identify four kinds of information you will learn about living things
• biology is the study of when you study biology.
life
The Study of Biology
What do biologists do?

• biologists study the Develop one specific question that a biologist might seek to answer for
diversity of life, research each of the following areas of study.
disease, develop
Area of Study Question
technologies, improve
agriculture, preserve the Diversity of life
environment
Diseases
New technologies
Agriculture
Environment
Analyze the specific type of work in biology that you might like to do,
and explain why.
Type of work:
Reason:

3
The Characteristics of Identify the eight characteristics that something must have to
Life be alive.
• organisms are made of
one or more cells
• display organization
(arranged in an orderly
way)
• grow and develop,
reproduce Characteristics
• respond to stimuli of Living Things
(reaction to stimulus is a
response)
• require energy and
maintain homeostasis
• adapt/evolve over time
Sequence the levels of organization listed below in the correct order

from least complex to most complex.
• organ • atoms and molecules

• cell • organ system
• tissue
more

complex
less
complex
CONNECT
A friend argues that a car is alive because its parts form organized systems and it requires
energy (gasoline and battery power). How would you respond to your friend?

4
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Describe the hierarchical structural organization found in multicellular organisms.
2. Explain how specialized cells are organized to carry out essential functions in
multicellular organisms.
3. Identify a global challenge and explain how science and technology can address
this challenge.
4. Conduct a survey. Have participants choose characteristics of life from a list of

various characteristics and rank their choices from most important to least important.
Record, tabulate, average, and graph your results.

5
The Study of Life
2 The Nature of Science
VOCABULARY
investigation
investigation
NEW VOCABULARY Write the correct term in the left column for each definition below.
use of evidence to construct testable explanations and predictions of

natural phenomena, as well as the body of knowledge generated
through this process
testable explanation of a situation
logical conclusion based on gathering information
process by which the procedures and results of an experiment are

evaluated by other scientists who are in the same field or who are
conducting similar research
a set of moral principles or values
explanation of a natural phenomenon supported by many

observations and experiments over time
describes relationships under certain conditions

6
2 The Nature of Science (continued)
What is science? Classify each statement as a characteristic of a science, a
• science is the use of pseudoscience, or both.
evidence to construct
testable explanations • m
akes unbiased • involves constant reevaluation of what
observations is known
and predictions of
natural phenomena • o
ften driven by cultural • r esearch designed to justify existing
• a hypothesis is a testable or commercial goals knowledge
explanation of a situation akes claims about the • discards observations that are not
• m
or phenomena natural world consistent with beliefs
• scientific inquiry is a • physics • bases claims on a large amount of data
process rooted in
• astrology • uses peer review
unbiased observations
and investigation Science Both Pseudoscience
• pseudoscience imitates
• makes unbiased • •
science (does not provide
observations
science-based evidence)
• scientists challenge
accepted theories, • •
question results, test • •
claims, and peer review
other scientists’
research • •
•
Get It? Explain why some people think all athletes are healthy.
Get It? Describe how observations that are not consistent with
current scientific understanding should be treated.
Get It? Infer why scientists utilize peer reviews.

7
Analyze what is required for a proposed explanation to become
accepted as a theory.
Analyze the relationship between a hypothesis and a theory.
Identify how conclusions that you read about in scientific

investigations are reached.
• Empirical evidence—
• Logical reasoning—
• Experimental testing—
• Observational testing—

• Examining all sides of scientific evidence that are used to support
scientific explanations looking for unsupported conclusions or bias

8
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Define science.
2. Contrast scientific theories and scientific laws.
3. Compare and contrast science and pseudoscience.
4. Defend the importance of scientific literacy to a classmate who doesn’t want to

learn about science.
5. Arrange the characteristics of science in a concept map.

6. Write a blog that explains the nature of science. Use examples from Dr. Buell’s
research.

9
2 Principles of Ecology
K W L
Science Notebook • Principles of Ecology

11
Principles of Ecology
1 Organisms and Their Relationships
NEW VOCABULARY Use the vocabulary words in the left margin to complete the graphic
organizer below. List the biological levels from largest to smallest.
abiotic factor
biological community Levels of Organization
biome
biosphere
biotic factor
commensalism
ecology
ecosystem
Compare the terms in the tables by defining them side by side.
habitat
habitat niche
limiting factor
mutualism
niche
parasitism abiotic factor biotic factor
population
predation
symbiosis
tolerance
symbiosis
commensalism mutualism parasitism
predation
Get It? Describe some of the interactions that occur between living
and non-living things in your community.

12
1 Organisms and Their Relationships (continued)
Get It? Explain how physical and computer models can help design
a solution for an ecological problem.
Get It? Define the term biosphere.
Get It? Compare and contrast abiotic and biotic factors for a plant
or animal in your community.
Identify each level of organization that is described.

a group of organisms of the same species in

the same geographic location
interacting populations
an individual living thing made of cells
a community and abiotic factors that affect it
a group of ecosystems with the same climate

and similar communities
Get It? Infer what other types of biomes might be found in the
biosphere if the one shown in Figure 7 is called a marine biome.

13
Create a tolerance graph similar to the Tolerance of Steelhead Trout
figure in your book. Title your graph Tolerance of Plant A. Label the
zones. Then label the limits of each zone according to the facts about
Plant A listed below.
• can live at an elevation • cannot live above 6,000 m
between 1,000 and 2,000 m • grows best between 2,000
• can live at an elevation and 5,000 m
between 5,000 and 6,000 m • cannot live below 1,000 m
Get It? Compare and contrast a habitat and a niche.

Community Interactions Describe mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism by providing an
example of each term.
1.
2.
3.

14
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Predict how unfavorable abiotic and biotic factors affect a species.
2. Identify how temperature is a limiting factor for polar bears.
3. Describe how ranges of tolerance affect the distribution of a species.
4. Differentiate between the habitat and niche of an organism that is found in your
community.
5. Interpret Figure 6 and predict the general growth trend for steelhead trout in a
stream that is 22˚C.
6. Graph the following data to determine the range of tolerance for catfish. The first
number in each pair of data is temperature in degrees Celsius; the second number is
the number of catfish found in the stream: (0, 0); (5, 0); (10, 2); (15, 15); (20, 13); (25, 3);
(30, 0); (35, 0). Choose an appropriate scale and units for your graph.

15
2 Flow of Energy in an Ecosystem
NEW VOCABULARY se your book to fill in vocabulary terms in this paragraph about
U
food chains.
autotroph
biomass In a , matter and energy move from to
carnivore . A food chain is made of several steps; each organism

detritivore
in the food chain represents a step called a .
food chain
A(n) is a heterotroph that eats only plants, whereas a
food web
herbivore preys on other heterotrophs. A(n) eats both
heterotroph plants and animals. Nutrients are returned to the soil, air, and water by
omnivore
. A model that shows all the possible feeding
trophic level
relationships at each trophic level is called a . If you were a
scientist and you wanted to determine the weight of living matter at a
certain trophic level, you would measure the .

16
2 Flow of Energy in an Ecosystem (continued)
Energy in an Ecosystem Summarize three ways that organisms get energy by completing
the table.
Type of
Autotrophs
Organism
Other consumers, herbivores, no other
name(s) for carnivores, scavengers, name
this type omnivores
1.
2.
Food 3.
comes
from
The organisms that are The organisms

eaten release energy that are
and molecules for the decomposed
Chemical consumer’s body. release
reactions energy and
that occur molecules for
the
decomposer’s
body.
Examples
Classify each of the following organisms as an autotroph or a

heterotroph. Put an A in front of those that are autotrophs and an
H in front of those that are heterotrophs.
1. Alligator 5. Moss 9. Dandelion

2. Squirrel 6. Siberian tiger 10. Rabbit
3. Maple tree 7. Daffodil 11. Tomato

4. Whale 8. Rhinoceros 12. Cockroach

17
Models of Energy Flow Contrast a food chain with a food web.
State three things that an ecological pyramid shows that food webs
and food chains do not show.
Create a food web and name the organisms you include. Indicate
each organism’s trophic level.
SUMMARIZE
Analyze your place in the food chain in which you participate. Use the vocabulary terms from
this section that apply to you.

18
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Distinguish producers, consumers, and decomposers from one another.
2. Illustrate the flow of energy through a simple food chain that ends with a lion as the final consumer.
3. Classify a pet dog as an autotroph or heterotroph and as an herbivore, carnivore, or

omnivore. Explain.
4. Create and use a simple food web to identify producers, consumers, and
decomposers in your community.
5. Draw an energy pyramid for a food chain made up of grass, a caterpillar, tiger
beetle, lizard, snake, and a roadrunner. Assume that 100 percent of the energy is
available for the grass. At each stage, calculate and show how much energy is lost
and how much is available to the next trophic level.
6. Write a paragraph that explains the pathway of energy transfer through the pyramid
of energy shown in Figure 16.

19
3 Cycling of Matter
VOCABULARY
cycle
cycle
NEW VOCABULARY Use your book to define each vocabulary term.

matter
matter
nutrient
biogeochemical cycle
nitrogen fixation nutrient
denitrification
biogeochemical cycle
nitrogen fixation
denitrification

20
3 Cycling of Matter (continued)
Cycles in the Biosphere Create mini-models for each cycle of matter in nature. Use words or
pictures to sketch a simple example for each type of cycle to show
the movement of matter.
A. The Water Cycle B. The Carbon Cycle
C. The Nitrogen Cycle D. The Phosphorus Cycle

(short-term and long-term)

21
Describe each of the cycles in nature. Identify where each cycle is
found, how organisms use them, and what key words relate to them.
Carbon/
Water Nitrogen Phosphorus
oxygen
Where
found
How
used
Key
words
in the
cycle

Get It? Identify three processes in the water cycle.

22
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Name four important biogeochemical processes that cycle matter.
2. Analyze the movement of carbon through the abiotic and biotic parts of the carbon cycle.
3. Identify the living and non-living parts of the nitrogen cycle.
4. Compare and contrast the role of plants in the carbon and nitrogen cycles.
5. Describe how phosphorus moves through the biotic and abiotic parts of an ecosystem.
6. Describe the role of sunlight and other forms of energy in the water and carbon
cycles.

23
3 Communities, Biomes, and Ecosystems
K W L
Science Notebook • Communities, Biomes, and Ecosystems

25
Communities, Biomes, and Ecosystems
1 Community Ecology
VOCABULARY
abiotic factor
abiotic factor
NEW VOCABULARY Use the new vocabulary terms to complete the following sentences
climax community Your includes the people, other animals, plants,
bacteria, and fungi in your area. Changing abiotic or biotic factors can
community
trigger —the replacement of one
ecological succession community with another. occurs when
primary succession a community becomes established in an area of exposed rock without
topsoil. Eventually, a stable, mature can
secondary succession develop from bare rock. If a disturbance, such as fire, removes the
community but not the soil, an orderly and predictable change called
restores the community over time.

26
1 Community Ecology (continued)
Predict how an unusually prolonged drought might affect a
biological community.
Get It? Describe how the community where you live may have
changed over time because of succession.
Contrast primary succession and secondary succession. Give an

example of each.
Sequence the following steps in the primary succession of a forest by

writing each step in the flowchart.
• perennial herbs and grasses • bare rock
• lichens • shrubs and shade-intolerant trees
• shade-tolerant trees • small annual plants

27
1 Community Ecology (continued)
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Predict how unfavorable abiotic and biotic factors affect a species.
2. Classify the stage of succession of a field that is becoming overgrown with shrubs
after a few years of disuse.
3. Contrast primary and secondary succession.
4. Describe how the stages of succession can change a rocky field into a mature
forest.
5. List at least five organisms that are present in your biological community. Then write

a paragraph that provides evidence of how an abiotic factor supports each
organism.
6. Predict what might happen to your backyard if it was left unattended for several
years. Use information from this lesson to explain your prediction.

28
2 Terrestrial Biomes
VOCABULARY
biome
biome
NEW VOCABULARY Use your book to define the following term.

latitude
latitude
weather
climate
boreal forest Compare the terms in the tables by defining them side by side.
desert weather: climate:
grassland
temperate forest
tropical rain forest Describe the vegetation and growing conditions for each biome.
tropical savanna tundra: boreal forest: temperate forest:
tropical seasonal forest

tundra
woodland
woodlands: grassland: desert:
tropical savanna: tropical seasonal tropical rain forest:

forest:

29
2 Terrestrial Biomes (continued)
Model the latitude lines, poles, equator, Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of
Capricorn, and the Sun below.
North Pole Each square meter of area at the equator

receives more energy from the Sun than
each square meter at the poles.
Sun rays
Equator
Sun rays
Sun rays
South Pole Near the poles, the Sun’s energy strikes Earth
at an angle, spreading out the energy received
over a larger area than near the equator.
Analyze how latitude affects climate and why.
Get It? Explain the difference between weather and climate.

Sequence the boreal forest, temperate forest, and tundra in the
diagram below.
north pole
North
West East
South

30 C03-001A-896207
Classify the land biome described by each characteristic below.
Characteristic Biome
most trees drop their leaves during the dry
season
annual rate of evaporation exceeds rate of
precipitation
open areas of trees and mixed shrubs along
the west coasts of North and South America
most diverse of all biomes, with a canopy and
understory of vegetation
grasses and scattered trees; receives less
precipitation than other tropical areas
thick cover of grasses with underground stems
and buds that can survive fires
dense evergreen forest; also called northern
coniferous forest or taiga
composed of broad-leaved deciduous trees;
has four well-defined seasons
treeless; has a layer of permanently frozen soil
below the surface called permafrost
Get It? Compare and contrast tropical savannas and tropical

seasonal forests.
Analyze why the two land areas below are not true biomes.
Mountains:
Polar regions:

31
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Describe the nine major terrestrial biomes.
2. Describe the changes in a temperate forest ecosystem that result from changing
seasons.
3. Summarize variations in climate among three major zones as you travel south from
the equator toward the South Pole.
4. Indicate the differences between temperate grasslands and tropical savannas.

5. Compare and contrast the climate and biotic factors of tropical seasonal forests
and temperate forests.
6. Hypothesize why the tropical rain forests have the greatest diversity of living things.
7. Tropical forests are being felled at a rate of 17 million hectares per year, which
represents almost two percent of the forest area. Use this information to write a
pamphlet describing how much rain forest area exists and when it might be gone.

32
3 Aquatic Ecosystems
VOCABULARY
salinity
salinity
deepest areas of a large lake
narrow band where the ocean meets land
area of the open ocean that is too deep for sunlight to penetrate
area of the open ocean to a depth of about 200 m that is shallow

enough for sunlight to penetrate
deepest region of the ocean
areas of land such as marshes, swamps, and bogs that are saturated
with water and that support aquatic plants
area of a lake or pond that is closest to shore
ecosystem that is formed where a freshwater river or stream

merges with the ocean
open water area of a lake or pond that is well lit and dominated by
plankton
area of sand, silt, and dead organisms along the ocean floor
material that is deposited by water, wind, or glaciers

free floating autotrophs and heterotrophs that live in freshwater or

marine ecosystems
all the water in the open ocean that is not in the intertidal zone or very
near the bottom

33
3 Aquatic Ecosystems (continued)
Complete this paragraph about the distribution of water on Earth.
By far, is the most common type of water on
Earth. Of the 2.5 percent of on Earth, most is
locked in the ice of . Most freshwater species
live in , , , , and
that make up only percent of all
freshwater. The remaining freshwater is found in .
Get It? Infer how climate change will likely change the graph in
Figure 18.
Analyze how the speed of water flow affects life in a river by

writing more or less in the appropriate boxes in the figure.
Accumulation of Species that
sediment and can live in these
organic material waters
Fast-moving
water
Slow-moving
water

Compare the zones of lakes and ponds by completing the table below.
Zone Location Example Species

well-lit open water
area
limited due to cold and reduced

light and oxygen
littoral

34
Identify the marine ecosystems. Write the name of the zone in each
box in the figure below.
shore
200 m
ocean floor
extreme depth
Get It? Describe environmental variation in intertidal zones.
Compare transitional aquatic ecosystems. Identify two types in the

organizer below and describe the environments each type combines.
Transitional Aquatic
Ecosystems
combine: combine:

35
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. List the abiotic factors that are used to classify aquatic ecosystems.
2. Describe how water quality changes from the source of a river to the mouth.
3. Explain how the salinity (salt concentration) of an estuary affects the kinds of
organisms that live there.
4. Infer how autotrophs in the abyssal zone of the ocean are different from those of
the photic zone.
5. Explain how light, depth, and temperature affect the number and type of organisms
that live in each ocean zone.
6. Describe, based on the information in this lesson and your acquired knowledge,
some ways that human activities are affecting aquatic ecosystems. Propose
strategies that individuals can use and governments can implement that would
prevent or reduce these human impacts.

36
4 Population Ecology
K W L
Science Notebook • Population Ecology

37
Population Ecology
1 Population Dynamics
VOCABULARY
population
population
NEW VOCABULARY Compare the terms in the tables by defining them side by side.
population density population density dispersion
dispersion
density-independent factor density-dependent factor
density-independent factor
density-dependent
factor
population growth rate
emigration
population growth rate
immigration
emigration immigration
carrying capacity
carrying capacity

38
1 Population Dynamics (continued)
Identify each pattern of dispersion represented below.
Uniform dispersion Clumped dispersion Random dispersion
Analyze why populations are limited in their spatial distribution.
Classify each limiting factor below as either density-independent or

density-dependent by placing an X in the appropriate column.
Density- Density-
Factor Independent Dependent
Lava flow
Number of predators
Spread of disease
Especially cold winter
Toxic chemical spill into a
stream
Another species competing
for the same resources

Diverting a river for irrigation
Fungus that attacks elm trees
Get It? Describe two reasons why a species might not be able to
expand its range.

39
Identify four main factors in a population’s growth rate.
Factors in a Population’s Growth Rate

• •
• •
Compare the general shapes of the curves of population growth

graphs. Draw the appropriate graph. Label the lag phase, exponential
growth phase, and carrying capacity. Below each graph, describe
what the graph shows.
Exponential Population Logistic Population

Growth Growth
SUMMARIZE
Analyze whether humans are r-strategists or k-strategists. Explain why. Support your reasoning.

40
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Compare and contrast spatial distribution, population density, and population
growth rate.
2. Summarize the concepts of carrying capacity and limiting factors and their effects
on reproductive patterns.
3. Sketch diagrams showing population dispersion patterns.
4. Analyze the impact a nonnative species might have on a native species in terms of
population dynamics.
5. Design an experiment that you could perform to determine which population growth
model applies to fruit fly populations.
6. Write a newspaper article describing how a weather event, such as drought, has
affected a population of animals in your community.

41
Population Ecology
2 Human Population
VOCABULARY
carrying capacity
carrying capacity
NEW VOCABULARY Use your book to define each term.

demography
demography
demographic transition
zero population
growth (ZPG)
age structure demographic transition
zero population growth (ZPG)
age structure

42
2 Human Population (continued)
Get It? Explain the factors that have contributed to an increase in
the survival rate of the human population. Have these factors
contributed to the homeostasis of the population within its
environment? Explain.
Examine the graph below. Then complete the table that follows.
Percent Increase in Human Population

2.2
2.0
1.8
Percent increase
1.6
1.4
1.2
2016
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1950 1975 2000 2025 2050
Year
Approximate Growth Rate

1950 1975 2000 2025 (estimated)
hat are the main reasons for the expected trend in human
W
population between now and 2050?

43
Get It? Compare the population growth rates in the United States
and the United Kingdom, which has a birth rate of 12 (per 1000), death
rate 8.8 (per 1000), and migration rate 2.5 (per 1000).
Calculate the population growth rate for each fictitious country listed
in the table below.
Births per Deaths per Migration Growth rate

Country
1000 1000 per 1000 (percent)
X 25 9 1.6
Y 14 4 2.2
Z 12 15 -0.8
Compare trends in industrialized nations and developing countries in

terms of the following factors.
Population growth rate:
Resource use by individuals:
Identify three factors that could keep the human population from

reaching its carrying capacity.
1.
2.
3.
Get It? Compare and contrast the age structures of the countries
shown in Figure 14.

44
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Describe the change in human population growth over time.
2. Describe the differences between the age structure graphs of nongrowing, slowly
growing, and rapidly growing countries.
3. Assess the consequences of exponential population growth of any population.
4. Summarize why the human population began to grow exponentially in the

Modern Age.
5. Analyze how a newly emerging disease might affect the population size in an
industrially developing and in an already developed country.
6. Construct an age-structure diagram using the following percentages: 0–19 years:

44.7; 20–44 years: 52.9; 45 years and over: 2.4. Which type of growth is this country
experiencing?

45
5 Biodiversity and Conservation
K W L
Science Notebook • Biodiversity and Conservation

47
Biodiversity and Conservation
1 Biodiversity
VOCABULARY
gene
gene

extinction
extinction
biodiversity
genetic diversity
species diversity
biodiversity
ecosystem diversity
genetic diversity
species diversity
ecosystem diversity

48
1 Biodiversity (continued)
Compare and contrast the species biodiversity of different areas.
Rain Forest Corn Field Vegetable Tundra

Garden
Plants
Animals
Get It? Compare and contrast genetic and species diversity.
Get It? Explain why the health of a species is closely tied to the
health of the habitat.
Analyze how genetic diversity in a population of fishes in a stream

can help the fishes resist disease.

49
Summarize why species should be preserved as a possible source of
useful genes.
Agriculture Medicine
Organisms that might
have value include
These organisms
someday might be
useful as
Identify resources and services that a healthy biosphere provides to

people.
Resources Services
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
Organize how humans are dependent on plants and animals by

describing two ways that you use products of each.
Products of Animals Products of Plants

50
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Explain why sustaining biodiversity is essential to supporting and enhancing life on Earth.
2. Explain how extinction affects biodiversity.
3. Generalize why maintaining biodiversity has a direct economic value to humans.
4. Differentiate between the direct and indirect economic value of biodiversity.
5. Evaluate and discuss the importance of maintaining biodiversity for future medical
needs.
6. Design a course of action for the development of a building project in your

community, such as a housing development, city park, or highway, that provides for
the maintenance of biodiversity in the plan.
7. Write an argument that describes the importance of maintaining genetic diversity in

domesticated animals, such as dogs, cats, pigs, cattle, and chickens. Include the
advantages and disadvantages in your report.

51
2 Threats to Biodiversity
VOCABULARY
food web
food web
NEW VOCABULARY Use your book to define the following terms.

background extinction
background extinction
mass extinction
natural resource
mass extinction
overexploitation
habitat fragmentation
edge effect natural resource
biological magnification overexploitation
eutrophication
habitat fragmentation
introduced species
edge effect
biological magnification

eutrophication
introduced species

52
2 Threats to Biodiversity (continued)
Summarize extinction rates by completing the sentences below.
is slow and gradual. It is caused

as change by natural processes.
A is an event in which extinctions
increase dramatically. Some scientists believe we are in a period of
today.
Get It? Explain the term overexploitation as it relates to species

extinction.

53
Describe the effects of each change in habitat on species of animals.
Edge effects
Introduced species
Pollution
Habitat
fragmentation
Habitat loss
Get It? Explain how an increase in global temperatures threatens

biodiversity.

CONNECT
Imagine a habitat near you. Hypothesize what would happen to the ecosystem if one species died
out. Support your reasoning with information from this lesson.

54
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Describe what happens when species cannot adapt to ecosystem changes that are
too fast.
2. Explain three ways that anthropogenic changes threaten biodiversity.
3. Choose one of the factors that threatens biodiversity and suggest one way in which
biodiversity can be preserved in a real-life scenario.
4. Summarize how the overharvesting of a single species, such as fish eaten by sea
lions, can affect an entire ecosystem.
5. Design a planned community that preserves biodiversity and accommodates the

human population. Work in small groups to accomplish this task.
6. Survey your community to identify at least five threats to biodiversity and suggest
ways in which biodiversity can be preserved.

55
3 Conserving Biodiversity
VOCABULARY
natural resources
natural resources

renewable resource
renewable resource
nonrenewable resource
sustainable use
nonrenewable resource
endemic
bioremediation
sustainable use
endemic
bioremediation
Get It? Compare the per capita use of resources of people in

North America to Africa by using Figure 16.

56
3 Conserving Biodiversity (continued)
Compare and contrast renewable and nonrenewable resources by
writing characteristics of each in the Venn diagram.
Nonrenewable Renewable
Both
Get It? Explain how protected areas preserve biodiversity.
Choose the diagram that best represents a habitat corridor.

Explain your choice.
A. B.
C.

57
Rephrase a law or treaty designed to protect biodiversity.
Who or what:
When:
How:
Organize the factors that impact how long it takes for an ecosystem
to recover after a disaster.
Explain the methods ecologists use to restore ecosystems.
Method:
How it works:
Example:
Method:
How it works:

Example:
SUMMARIZE
Analyze how sustainable use could preserve biodiversity in hot spots.

58
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Describe three approaches used to slow down the rate of extinction or to preserve
biodiversity.
2. Define the two classes of natural resources.
3. Choose a human-caused disaster from Figure 21. Discuss the methods that could
be used to restore biodiversity.
4. Create a script of dialogue that could occur between a conservationist and a person
who lives in a biodiversity hot spot. The local person wants to use the natural
resources to provide a living for his or her family. The dialogue should include a
compromise in which both sides are satisfied with the use of resources. Consider the
social, cultural, and environmental impacts of the compromise.
5. If Earth has 150,100,000 km2 of land area, how much land area is included in the
biodiversity hot spots?

59
6 Chemistry in Biology
K W L
Science Notebook • Chemistry in Biology

61
Chemistry in Biology
1 Matter
VOCABULARY
substance
substance
NEW VOCABULARY Compare the terms in the table by defining them.

atom
Atom
electron
Nucleus Electron
neutron
nucleus Proton Neutron
proton
compound
covalent bond
element Complete the paragraph below using the terms listed to the left.
ion A substance that cannot be broken down into other

substances is a(n) . Carbon-14 is a(n)
ionic bond . It has a different number of neutrons than other
isotope carbon atoms. A(n) forms when two or more
elements combine. The chemical bond that holds the elements
molecule
together is a(n) when electrons are shared.
A substance with this kind of bond is called a(n) .
An atom that has lost or gained one or more electrons becomes a(n)
, which carries an electric charge. Two of these
oppositely charged atoms can form an electrical attraction called a(n)

.

62
1 Matter (continued)
Model an oxygen atom and label the parts. Note the type of electric
charge for each part. Then complete the sentence that follows.
The overall charge of the oxygen atom is , because
the atom
Get It? Identify three pieces of information about an element you

can find in its individual block in the periodic table.
Compare and contrast the characteristics of carbon-14 by completing

the following sentences.
Structurally, carbon-14 differs from other carbon atoms because
Carbon-14 is radioactive because
Knowing the half-life of carbon-14 enables scientists to

63
Identify four unique characteristics of compounds.
Compounds
Compare positively and negatively charged ions.
ly
s i tive hen it
po d w
rge
Atom cha
becomes neg
cha ativel
rge y
dw
hen
it
Get It? Compare ionic solids and liquids.

64
Label the following parts of the water molecule illustrated below.
• hydrogen atom(s) • first energy level
• oxygen atom(s) • second energy level
8 p+
0
8n
p+ p+
Covalent
Water bond
molecule
CONNECT
A chemical compound in your toothpaste helps protect your teeth from decay. The formula for
this compound is Na2PO3F. Use the periodic table in your book to identify each element in this
compound.

65
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Diagram Sodium has 11 protons and 11 neutrons in its nucleus. Draw a sodium atom.
Be sure to label the particles.
2. Explain why carbon monoxide (CO) is or is not an atom.
3. Explain Are all compounds molecules? Why or why not?
4. Compare ionic bonds and covalent bonds.
5. Explain how the number of electrons in an energy level affects bond formation.
6. Beryllium has four protons in its nucleus. How many neutrons are in beryllium-9?
Explain how you calculated your answer.

66
2 Chemical Reactions
VOCABULARY
process
process

chemical reaction
chemical reaction
reactant
product
reactant
activation energy
catalyst product
enzyme activation energy
substrate
active site
catalyst
enzyme
substrate
active site
ACADEMIC Define coefficient to show its scientific meaning.

VOCABULARY
coefficient coefficient

67
2 Chemical Reactions (continued)
Label the sides of the following equation as either products or
reactants.
{
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
Calculate the number of atoms of each element in the chemical

equation above. Record the information in the table below.
Element Element Number of Atoms Number of Atoms

Symbol Name (reactant side) (product side)
Analyze the equation to check to see if it is balanced. Support your

reasons.
Get It?

Explain why chemical equations must be balanced.
Get It? Summarize the meaning of the term activation energy.

68
Compare what happens to energy in exothermic and endothermic
reactions by completing the diagram below.
Exothermic Endothermic
Reaction Reaction
During the reaction, energy is During the reaction, energy is

. .
As a result, the energy of the As a result, the energy of the
product is than the product is than the

energy of the reactants. energy of the reactants.
Summarize key characteristics of an enzyme by completing the

organizer below.
Composed of: Purpose:
Reusable?
Enzymes
Participates in how many Activity level affected by:

different types of reactions?
Get It? Describe how enzymes affect biochemical reactions.

69
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Identify the parts of this chemical reaction: A + B → AB.
2. Diagram the energy changes that can take place in a chemical reaction.
3. Explain why the number of atoms of reactants must equal the number of atoms of
products formed.
4. Explain the role of enzymes to living organisms.
5. For the following chemical reaction, label the reactants and products, and then balance
the chemical equation. H2O2 → H2O + O2
6. Draw a diagram of a roller coaster and write a paragraph relating the ride to Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education
activation energy and a chemical reaction.

70
3 Water and Its Solutions
VOCABULARY
physical property
physical property
NEW VOCABULARY Write the correct vocabulary term in the left column for each
definition below.
substance that releases hydroxide ions when dissolved in water
substance that releases hydrogen ions when dissolved in water
substance in which another substance is dissolved
mixture that can react with an acid or a base to keep the pH within a
particular range
measure of concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution
substance that is dissolved in a solvent
weak interaction involving a hydrogen atom and a fluorine, oxygen, or

nitrogen atom
molecule that has oppositely charged regions
mixture that has a uniform composition throughout
combination of two or more substances in which each substance

retains its individual characteristics and properties
weak electrostatic attractions between molecules
ACADEMIC Define suspend to show its scientific meaning.

VOCABULARY
suspend suspend

71
3 Water and Its Solutions (continued)
Identify the positive and negative regions of these two molecules to
show van der Waals forces.
van der Waals
Analyze reasons for water’s polarity and the effect of polarity.
Polarity of Water
Reasons for polarity: Effects of polarity:
Model the hydrogen bonds that form between water molecules.

Choose a way to represent the hydrogen bonds, then label at least
one hydrogen bond.
Get It? Explain why understanding the chemistry of water is

considered essential to the foundations of biology.

72
Identify each of the following mixtures as either homogeneous or
heterogeneous.
Sand and sugar Salt and water Blood
For any homogeneous mixture above, identify the solvent and the
solute.
Solvent: Solute:
Construct a model of acidic solutions and basic solutions by placing

each of the items below in the correct sequence on the scale.
• releases some hydrogen ions • releases some hydroxide ions
• releases many hydrogen ions • releases many hydroxide ions
• water
Acidic Strong Weak Weak Strong Basic

solutions solutions
Get It? Distinguish between solutions and suspensions.

73
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Describe one way in which water helps maintain homeostasis in an organism.
2. Relate the structure of water to its ability to act as a solvent.
3. Draw a pH scale and label water (H2O), hydrochloric acid (HCl), and sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) in their general areas on the scale.
4. Compare and contrast solutions and suspensions. Give examples of each.

5. Explain how baking soda (NaHCO3) is basic. Describe the effect of baking soda on
the H+ ion concentration of stomach contents with pH 4.
6. Predict If you add hydrochloric acid (HCl) to water, what effect would this have on
the H+ ion concentration? On the pH?

74
4 The Building Blocks of Life
VOCABULARY
organic compound
organic compound

macromolecule
macromolecule
polymer
carbohydrate
polymer
lipid
protein
amino acid
nucleic acid carbohydrate
nucleotide
lipid
protein
amino acid
nucleic acid
nucleotide

75
4 The Building Blocks of Life (continued)
Contrast an organic compound to an inorganic compound.
Model a carbon atom, and label its parts. Then use a label to point
out and briefly explain why carbon can form a variety of organic
compounds.
Compare the composition and functions of the four major groups of

biological macromolecules by completing the table below.
Group Composition Functions

amino acids made of
carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, and
sometimes sulfur
Nucleic acids

store energy; provide
structural support
store energy; provide

steroids; waterproof
coatings

76
Get It? Use an analogy to describe macromolecules.
Evaluate the number of atoms of each element in the

carbohydrate described by the formula below.
(CH2O)6
Carbon: Hydrogen: Oxygen:
Ratio of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen:
Type of carbohydrate:
Model the two general shapes of proteins named below.
Pleat Helix
Get It? Describe What are the primary functions of proteins?

Describe nucleic acids by filling in the following chart.
Units that Make Up Nucleotides

77
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Explain If an unknown substance found on a meteorite contains no trace of carbon,
can scientists conclude that there is life at the meteorite’s origin?
2. Compare the types of biological macromolecules and their functions.
3. Identify the components of carbohydrates.
4. Discuss the importance of amino acid order to a protein’s function.
5. Summarize Given the large number of proteins in the body, explain why the shape
of an enzyme is important to its function.

6. Connect Explain the relationship between the carbon in a molecule of glucose and
the cellulose found in a plant cell wall.

78
7 Cellular Structure and Function
K W L
Science Notebook • Cellular Structure and Function

79
Cellular Structure and Function
1 Cell Discovery and Theory
VOCABULARY
organization
organization

cell
cell
cell theory
plasma membrane
organelle
cell theory
eukaryotic cell
nucleus plasma membrane
prokaryotic cell
organelle
eukaryotic cell
nucleus

prokaryotic cell
Get It? Compare and contrast a TEM and a SEM.

80
1 Cell Discovery and Theory (continued)
Identify the three main ideas of the cell theory. Then write a short
sentence for each one describing each idea.
Get It? Explain Can cells appear spontaneously without genetic

material from previous cells?
Summarize information about electron microscopes using five or six

bullet points.

81
Compare and contrast eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells by putting
the phrases in the Venn diagram.
• bacteria • have membrane-bound
• have a plasma membrane organelles
• have a nucleus • multicellular organisms
• unicellular organisms
• do not have membrane-bound
organelles
Eukaryotic Prokaryotic
cells Both cells
Relate the basic cell types by filling in the missing terms.
The cell is larger and more complex than
the cell. Eukaryotic cells contain a structure
called the which is a distinct central organelle that

contains the cell’s material. are
specialized structures that carry out specific cell functions.
The cell, nucleus, and all of the organelles are surrounded by
a . Prokaryotes do not have .
Their cell functions occur the cell or on the plasma membrane.
Get It? Compare and contrast eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.

82
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Explain how the development and improvement of microscopes changed the study
of living organisms.
2. Compare and contrast the structure and function of various types of microscopes.
3. Describe the cell theory.
4. Differentiate the plasma membrane and the organelles.
5. Describe how you would determine whether the cells of a newly discovered
organism were prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
6. If the overall magnification of a series of two lenses is 30×, and one lens magnifies
5×, what is the magnification of the other lens? Calculate the total magnification if the
5× lens is replaced by a 7× lens.

83
2 The Plasma Membrane
VOCABULARY
ion
ion

phospholipid bilayer
phospholipid bilayer
transport protein
fluid mosaic model
selective permeability
transport protein
fluid mosaic model
selective permeability

84
2 The Plasma Membrane (continued)
Model a phospholipid, and label its parts. Describe how the
phospholipid functions to make up the fluid membrane.
Model the plasma membrane. Label each part, and describe the
function of that part in detail.

85
Discuss how the terms fluid and mosaic describe the plasma
membrane.
Fluid:
Mosaic:
Get It?Describe the benefit of the bilayer structure of the plasma

membrane.
Analyze what would happen if the cell membrane were not

selectively permeable. Support your response.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Identify the molecules in the plasma membrane that provide basic membrane
structure, cell identity, and membrane fluidity.
2. Explain how the inside of a cell remains separate from its environment.

86
3. Diagram the plasma membrane and label each component.
4. Describe how the plasma membrane helps maintain homeostasis in a cell.
5. Explain what effect more cholesterol in the plasma membrane will have on the
membrane.
6. Using what you know about the term mosaic, write a paragraph describing another
biological mosaic.

87
3 Cellular Transport
VOCABULARY
homeostasis
homeostasis
NEW VOCABULARY Write the correct New Vocabulary term in the left column for each
definition below.
net movement of particles from an area where there are many

particles of the substance to an area where there are fewer
condition in which there is continuous movement but no overall

change in concentration
form of transport that uses transport proteins to move other ions and
small molecules across the plasma membrane
diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane
solution in which the inside of the cell and the solution it is in have the
same concentration of water and solutes
solution that has a lower concentration of solutes than in the cell
solution that has a higher concentration of solutes than in the cell
using energy to move substances from a region of lower

concentration to a region of higher concentration
process by which the plasma membrane surrounds a substance

outside the cell and moves it inside the cell

process by which the plasma membrane surrounds a substance
inside the cell and moves it outside the cell
Rephrase the process of diffusion in your own words, and give an

example.

88
3 Cellular Transport (continued)
Summarize the relationship between water and the plasma
membrane by completing the concept map below.
water flows Water and

the Plasma
Membrane flow through helps
and
homeostasis
osmosis is
homeostasis is
Get It? Compare and contrast diffusion and osmosis.

Get It? Compare and contrast the three types of solutions.

89
Classify and summarize the five ways particles move through the
membrane. Make notes and sketches in the rectangle for each one.
simple diffusion facilitated diffusion
active transport
exocytosis endocytosis

Get It? Compare and contrast active and passive transport across
the plasma membrane.

90
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. List and describe the types of cellular transport.
2. Explain the role of the cell membrane during passive transport and active transport.
3. Sketch a before and an after diagram of an animal cell placed in a hypotonic

solution.
4. Contrast how facilitated diffusion is different from active transport.

5. Describe Some organisms that normally live in pond water contain water pumps.
These pumps continually pump water out of the cell. Describe a scenario that might
reverse the action of the pump.
6. Summarize the role of the phospholipid bilayer in cellular transport in living cells.

91
4 Structures and Organelles
VOCABULARY
enzyme
enzyme
NEW VOCABULARY Write each term in the table under the heading that best
cytoplasm describes it.
cytoskeleton Cell Related to

Food, Storage, Energy (2)
Structure (5) Genetic
centriole and Waste (5)
Material (2)
cilium
flagellum
cell wall
nucleolus
mitochondrion
chloroplast
ribosome
Compare and contrast each pair of terms by defining them and
endoplasmic reticulum
noting their differences.
Golgi apparatus
Chloroplast Mitochondrion
vacuole
lysosome
Vacuole Centriole

Cilium Flagellum
Get It? Summarize the structure and function of the cytoskeleton.

92
4 Structures and Organelles (continued)
Compare the cytoplasm and cytoskeleton by defining each in the
boxes.
Cytoplasm Cytoskeleton
Identify the part of the cell that corresponds to each function

described.
directs cell processes; contains the cell’s

DNA; stores information for cell growth,
function, and reproduction
double membrane that surrounds the
nucleus
helps manufacture proteins
produces ribosomes inside the nucleus
site of ribosome attachment; can be

smooth or rough
modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for
transport outside the cell
membrane-bound storage area within the
cell
vesicle that contains substances that

digest excess or worn-out organelles
structure near the nucleus that functions
during cell division
converts fuel particles (sugars) into
useable energy
captures light energy and converts it to
chemical energy through photosynthesis
gives support to plant cells
projections that allow the cell to move or

to move substances along the surface of
the cell

93
Compare and contrast the cell parts found in the following
categories.
Plant Cells Animal

Only Both Cells Only
Plants
and Animals
Model a eukaryotic cell. Label the plasma membrane, nucleus, and

five other organelles.
Get It? Infer Justify the statement, “Cells are the most important
units in all living organisms.”

94
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Identify the role of the nucleus in a eukaryotic cell.
2. Summarize the role of the endoplasmic reticulum.
3. Create a flowchart comparing the parts of a cell to an automobile production line.
4. Compare and contrast the structures found in plant and animal cells. Relate these
structures to the function of each cell.
5. Hypothesize how lysosomes would be involved in changing a caterpillar into a

butterfly.
6. Categorize the structures and organelles in Table 1 into lists based on cell type and
then draw a concept map illustrating your organization.

95
8 Cellular Energy
K W L
Science Notebook • Cellular Energy

97
Cellular Energy
1 How Organisms Obtain Energy
VOCABULARY
trophic level
trophic level

energy
energy
thermodynamics
thermodynamics
metabolism
photosynthesis
cellular respiration metabolism
adenosine triphosphate photosynthesis
cellular respiration
adenosine triphosphate

98
1 How Organisms Obtain Energy (continued)
List at least seven of your body’s cell processes that require energy.
Briefly define each.
Energy in
Cell Processes
Compare the laws about how energy flows. Give an example of each.
First Law of Second Law of

Thermodynamics Thermodynamics
Defined
Example
Sequence how energy is changed in form as it flows between organisms.

99
Compare and contrast catabolic and anabolic pathways by
writing characteristics of each in the chart below.
Anabolic:
Metabolism
Catabolic:
Describe ATP and ADP.
ATP ADP
Explain how your body uses Explain how ADP is made
ATP, and list the three parts from ATP.
of the molecule.

SUMMARIZE
Design a concept map to show the three most important ideas from this lesson.

100
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Identify the major source of energy for living organisms and the main process by
which that energy is captured and stored on Earth.
2. Describe an example of the first law of thermodynamics.
3. Compare and contrast anabolic and catabolic pathways.
4. Connect the role of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to energy transfers within a cell.
5. Write an essay describing the laws of thermodynamics. Use examples related to

biology to support your ideas.
6. Cite evidence to support the argument that photosynthesis and cellular respiration
provide most of the energy for life processes.

101
Cellular Energy
2 Photosynthesis
VOCABULARY
carbohydrate
carbohydrate

thylakoid
thylakoid
granum
stroma
granum
pigments
NADP+ stroma
Calvin cycle
rubisco pigments
NADP+
Calvin cycle
rubisco

ACADEMIC
Define transport to show its meaning.
VOCABULARY
transport transport

102
2 Photosynthesis (continued)
Summarize the functions of the light-dependent and light-
independent reactions by completing the sentences.
Plants and other green organisms absorb from
. The light-dependent reactions change
into the molecules and . The
light-independent reactions use and to make
The light-independent reactions produce ,
which are then made into complex carbohydrates such as
, which stores in plants.
Get It? Apply Look back at the photo at the beginning of the
module. What cellular structures in the plants absorb the light passing
into the greenhouse?
Get It? Explain why many plant parts appear green in color.
Get It? Summarize the function of water during chemiosmosis.
Analyze how leaves change color in the fall.

103
Model light-dependent reactions in a flow chart.
Compare light-dependent and light-independent reactions by putting

each phrase into the correct part of the Venn diagram.
• forms stored energy • occurs in the chloroplast
• makes NADPH • occurs in the dark
• makes sugar • uses Calvin cycle
• needs sunlight • uses electron transport chain
Light-Dependent Both Light-Independent
Compare two alternative photosynthesis pathways. Identify plants

that use each pathway.
Pathway: Pathway:

Description: Description:
Plants that use this pathway: Plants that use this pathway:
SUMMARIZE
Explain the results of light-dependent and light-independent reactions.

104
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Summarize how light energy is converted to stored chemical energy during
photosynthesis.
2. Identify two other molecules that can be assembled in living things by recombining
the chemical elements in glucose.
3. Explain why water is essential for the light reactions.
4. Summarize the steps in the Calvin cycle.
5. Diagram and explain electron transport.


105
6. Predict how environmental factors such as light intensity and carbon dioxide levels
can affect rates of photosynthesis.
7. Research the effects of global warming on photosynthesis. Write an article

summarizing your findings.

106
Cellular Energy
3 Cellular Respiration
VOCABULARY
cyanobacterium
cyanobacterium
NEW VOCABULARY Read the definitions below and write the correct vocabulary term in
the blank.
metabolic process that does not require oxygen
in cellular respiration, a series of anaerobic chemical reactions in the

cytoplasm that break down glucose into pyruvate; forms a net profit
of two ATP molecules
metabolic process that requires oxygen
in cellular respiration, the chemical reactions that break down glucose

and produce ATP; energizes electron carriers that pass the energized
electrons on to the electron transport chain
anaerobic reactions in the cytoplasm that regenerate NAD+ for

glycolysis and produce ATP; supplies energy for aerobic organisms
when oxygen is low
in cellular respiration, the processes that take place in the

mitochondrion and require oxygen; includes the Krebs cycle and
electron transport

107
3 Cellular Respiration (continued)
Rephrase the function of cellular respiration in your own words. Write
the equation that describes it.
Function: Equation:
Compare and summarize the three stages of cellular respiration.
Glycolysis Krebs Cycle Electron Transport
a series of chemical
reactions that break
down pyruvate from
glycolysis
takes place in takes place in takes place in
produces two ATP produces provides energy for

molecules for every ATP production final

glucose molecule electron acceptor is
that is broken down

108
Sequence events that lead to fermentation in aerobic organisms.
Cause: Fermentation It replaces Fermentation

follows the Krebs is needed to
cycle and
Summarize a process of fermentation that is useful to humans.
Compare photosynthesis and cellular respiration in a Venn diagram.
Photosynthesis Respiration
Both

109
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Summarize the stages of cellular respiration and explain its relationship to body
temperature.
2. Identify how many carbons from one glucose molecule enter one round of the
Krebs cycle.
3. Explain how high-energy electrons are used in electron transport.
4. Explain how energy drives the cycling of matter in photosynthesis and cellular
respiration.

5. How many ATP, NADH, and FADH2 are produced in each step of cellular respiration?
How is the number of ATP produced different from the net ATP available?
6. Compare and contrast the two types of fermentation.

110
9 C
ellular Reproduction and Sexual
Reproduction
K W L
Science Notebook • Cellular Reproduction and Sexual Reproduction

111
Cellular Reproduction and Sexual Reproduction
1 Cellular Reproduction
NEW VOCABULARY Use the terms in the left column to complete the paragraph below.
anaphase is the relaxed form of DNA. are
apoptosis condensed structures that contain the DNA that are visible during
cancer mitosis. A is a repeating unit of chromatin fibers,
carcinogen consisting of DNA coiled around histones. Cells reproduce by a cycle
cell cycle of growing and dividing called the . During
centromere a cell grows, matures, and replicates its DNA. is the stage
chromatin of the cell cycle where the cell’s nucleus and nuclear material
chromosome divide. In , the cell’s chromatin condenses to form
cyclin chromosomes. are structures that contain
cyclin-dependent kinase identical copies of DNA. The structure at the center of the chromosome
cytokinesis where the sister chromatids are attached is called the .
interphase Prophase continues, and the nucleolus starts to disappear. The
metaphase is the structure made of spindle fibers, centrioles,
mitosis and aster fibers that is involved in moving and organizing chromosomes
nucleosome before the cell divides. The second stage of mitosis in which
prophase chromosomes attach to the spindle apparatus and align along the cell’s
sister chromatid equator is called . During , microtubules
spindle apparatus shorten, moving the chromosomes to opposite poles of the cell.
telophase is the last stage of mitosis where the nucleoli reappear.

Two new nuclear membranes begin to form, but the cell is not
completely divided. The cell begins , in which the cell’s
cytoplasm divides. This results in two cells with identical nuclei.
Cells have instructions to carry out the cell cycle. Proteins called
bind to enzymes called in the
stages of interphase and mitosis to initiate various activities at different
stages in the cell cycle. Not all cells survive. Some go through a process
called , or programmed cell death. is the uncontrolled
growth and division of cells, which is a failure in the regulation of the
cell cycle. A is a substance that is known to cause cancer.

112
1 Cellular Reproduction (continued)
Analyze movement of nutrients and wastes as cell size increases.
If a transport of Therefore, cells
by before
, slows down . .
Get It? Explain why a high ratio of surface area to volume benefits
a cell.
Organize information about chromosomes in the concept web.
Chromosomes

113
Get It? Explain the role of mitosis in the processes of growth and
repair.
Complete the diagram of the cell cycle. Describe the main events in
each stage.
The Cell Cycle
Identify four events that occur in a cell during interphase. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education
1. 3.
2. 4.
Identify two functions of mitosis in animals.
Function of
mitosis in
animals
114
Model the stages of mitosis and the process of cytokinesis. Draw and
label a cell in each stage, name each stage, and describe what
is happening.
Name of Phase Sketch of Cell Description
cytokinesis
Get It?
Summarize the role of the spindle apparatus during cell

division.
Summarize the function of each structure in mitosis.
centromeres:
microtubules:
motor proteins:

115
Compare and contrast cytokinesis in plant and animal cells.
Cytokinesis in Cytokinesis in
Plant Cells Both Animal Cells
Summarize how cells regulate the cell cycle. Choose from the list of
words to complete the paragraph.
• checkpoints • cyclin-dependent kinases • G2 stage
• cyclin/CDK • cytokinesis • mitosis
• cyclins • G1 stage • S stage
Cells use and to control

the cell cycle. Different combinations of start the cell
cycle at different and monitor the cycle for quality control.
In the , the cell is growing and preparing to replicate DNA.
DNA replication occurs in the . In the , the cell takes

inventory to ensure it is ready to proceed to . If the spindle
apparatus malfunctions, the cycle won’t proceed to .
Summarize information about apoptosis.
Apoptosis is Organisms use Two processes that

apoptosis to use apoptosis:
1.
2.

116
Get It? Summarize the role of cyclins.
Sequence the causes and effects of cancer by completing the flow

chart below.
Cancer is
Cancer is the result of
Cells lose control when
Cancer cells cause damage by

CONNECT
A classmate thinks that cancer and apoptosis are both harmful to organisms. Do you agree or
disagree? Explain your reasoning.

117
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Relate cell size to cell functions, and explain why cell size is limited.
2. Summarize the primary stages of the cell cycle.
3. Explain why mitosis alone does not produce daughter cells.
4. Describe the events of each stage of mitosis.
5. Describe how cyclins control the cell cycle.

6. Explain how the cancer cell cycle is different from a normal cell cycle.
7. Hypothesize what might happen if a drug that stopped microtubule movement but
did not affect cytokinesis was applied to a cell.
8. If a plant cell completes the cell cycle in 24 hours, how many cells will be produced
in a week?

118
Cellular Reproduction and Sexual Reproduction
2 Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction
autosome A segment of DNA on a chromosome that controls the production of
cell differentiation a protein is called a .A cell contains two
crossing over copies of each chromosome. A sex cell, or , is
diploid , meaning it contains one copy of each chromosome.
fertilization Gametes form during , the process by which one haploid
gamete gamete combines with another is called .
gene
are pairs of chromosomes, one from
haploid
each parent. One of these pairs include the
homologous chromosome
that determines the individual’s sex. Segments of homologous
karyotype
chromosomes exchange during Prophase I in a process known as
meiosis
. Homologous chromosomes consist of sister
nondisjunction
chromatids, which sometimes fail to separate properly; this is known
sex chromosome
as . The other 22 pairs of chromosomes
stem cell
are called . Chromosomes have protective caps
telomere
called . Homologous chromosomes can be
arranged in a micrograph called a , according
to size.
The process by which an unspecialized cell develops into a

specialized cell with a defined structure and function is called

, which produces and maintains a complex
organism. are a type of cell that can be directed to
become a specialized cell.
Get It? Compare and contrast sexual and asexual reproduction.

119
2 Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction (continued)
Identify three characteristics that are the same in each member of a
pair of homologous chromosomes. Name one thing that is different.
Same Different
1. 1.
2.
3.
Compare and contrast the phases of Meiosis I and Meiosis II. Sketch
each phase.
Meiosis I Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I

Description
Sketch
Meiosis II Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase Telophase

II II
Description
Sketch
Analyze the chart above to determine the phase of meiosis when

crossing over can occur. Mark a star on the correct phase.

120
Get It? Distinguish between homologous chromosomes and sister
chromatids.
Compare meiosis and mitosis by filling in the chart below.
Mitosis Meiosis
Number of DNA replications
Number of cell divisions
Number of daughter cells
Chromosome number of daughter cells
Organize information on how meiosis produces genetic variation.
Meiosis produces
Compare sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction by

completing the paragraph with the terms below.
• sexual reproduction • protists • animals • genes
• asexual reproduction • mammals • plants • genetic diversity
In an organism inherits its genetic material

from a single parent. The new organism has the same
as its parent. In , an organism inherits genetic
material from two different parents. Sexual reproduction increases
, whereas asexual reproduction does not.
, simple , and most can
reproduce sexually or asexually. only reproduce
sexually.

121
Describe telomeres by completing the paragraph.
Telomeres are made of and . They are

located at . Their function is
.
Model a picture showing the ways that nondisjunction during meiosis

can produce a sex cell with an extra copy of a chromosome.
Model a karyotype of a girl with Down syndrome.

122
Compare and contrast adult and embryonic stem cells by writing
characteristics in the Venn diagram.
Adult Both Embryonic
Get It? Describe some ways that adult stem cells can be used to
treat conditions that result from injury or illness.
SUMMARIZE
Analyze how nondisjunction during meiosis could lead to Klinefelter’s syndrome.

123
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Explain how the structure of DNA determines the structure of proteins which carry
out most of the work of cells.
2. Assess how meiosis contributes to genetic variation, while mitosis does not.
3. Illustrate how nondisjunction occurs during meiosis.
4. Summarize the role differentiation plays in the production and maintenance of a

complex organism.
5. Describe a possible application for stem cells.

6. Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis by creating a Venn diagram.
7. Conduct research on the consequences of nondisjunction other than trisomy 21.

Write a paragraph about your findings.

124
10 I ntroduction to Genetics and Patterns
of Inheritance
K W L
Science Notebook • Introduction to Genetics and Patterns of Inheritance

125
Introduction to Genetics and Patterns
of Inheritance
1 Mendelian Genetics
VOCABULARY
segregation
segregation
NEW VOCABULARY Use terms in the left margin to complete the paragraph below.
allele is the branch of biology that studies how traits are
genetics inherited. offspring result from parents that have
hybrid different forms of for certain traits. Mendel’s
law of independent states that every individual has two alleles of
assortment each gene and when gametes are produced, each gamete receives
law of segregation one of these alleles. Mendel’s
dominant states that genes for different traits are inherited independently of
genotype each other.
heterozygous Compare and contrast each pair of terms by defining them and/or
homozygous noting their differences.
phenotype dominant trait recessive trait

recessive
genotype phenotype

homozygous heterozygous
Describe how a plant self-pollinates.

126
1 Mendelian Genetics (continued)
Get It? Infer why it is important that Mendel’s experiments used a
true-breeding plant.
Analyze Mendel’s experiment with green-seed and yellow-seed pea

plants by completing this summary paragraph.
Mendel used only lines, which consistently

produced the same trait in the offspring. To see how these traits are
inherited, Mendel . When he crossed a
green-seed plant with a yellow-seed plant, the F1 offspring were
percent yellow and percent green. He allowed the F1
plants to to produce plants. The F2 plants
were percent yellow and percent green. Mendel
concluded that each trait has two forms, called . Mendel
called yellow seed color the form and green seed color
the form of the trait.
Compare genotypes and phenotypes for pea plants.
Homozygous or
Genotype Phenotype
Heterozygous
homozygous
heterozygous
yy
Get It? Infer whether an individual with a recessive phenotype for a

trait is heterozygous or homozygous for that trait.

127
Get It? Restate Mendel’s law of segregation in your own words.
Demonstrate the law of independent assortment by listing the

4 alleles that are produced when a pea plant with the genotype
YyRr produces gametes.
1. 2. 3. 4.
Get It? Evaluate How can the random distribution of alleles result
in a predictable ratio?
Complete the Punnett squares for seed texture in the F1 and F2

generations. Round seeds (R) are dominant over wrinkled seeds (r).
Write the expected genotypes and the probability for each.
F1 F2
R R R r
r R

r r

Identify the genotypes within the Punnett square showing the
dihybrid cross of seed color and seed texture. The first row has been
done for you. Write the expected phenotypic ratio.
YR yR Yr yr
YR YYRR YyRR YYRr YyRr
yR
Yr
yr
Phenotypic ratio:

128
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Diagram Use a Punnett square to explain how a dominant allele masks the
presence of a recessive allele.
2. Apply the law of segregation and the law of independent assortment by giving an
example of each.
3. Use a Punnett Square In fruit flies, red eyes (R) are dominant to pink eyes (r). What
is the phenotypic ratio of a cross between a heterozygous male and a pink-eyed
female?
4. Evaluate the significance of Mendel’s work to the field of genetics.
5. What is the probability of rolling a 2 on a six-sided die? What is the probability of

rolling two 2s on two six-sided die? How is probability used in the study of genetics?

129
of Inheritance
2 Genetic Recombination and Gene Linkage
VOCABULARY
protein
protein

genetic recombination
genetic recombination
polyploidy
polyploidy

130
2 Genetic Recombination and Gene Linkage (continued)
Calculate the number of chromosome combinations due to
independent assortment by filling in the chart. Use the formula 2n.
The first one has been done for you.
Chromosome Possible
Species
Number (n) Combinations
Pea 7 27 = 128
Housefly 6
Cabbage 9
Fruit fly 4
Frog 13
Complete the paragraph about gene linkage.

• chromosomes • farther • inherited • sequence
• crossing over • individual genes • linked
Genes close together on the same chromosome are .
Linked genes are usually together. ,
not , follow Mendel’s law of independent assortment.
Linked genes might become separated, as a result of .
Crossing over is more likely to happen if genes are
apart on a chromosome.

131
Get It? Analyze the effect of crossing over on linked genes.
Identify four species that show polyploidy.
1. 3.
2. 4.
Get It? Explain why plant growers often select for polyploid plants.
SUMMARIZE
Compare and contrast gene linkage to polyploidy and how they do not follow all of Mendel’s laws
of inheritance.
Gene Linkage Polyploidy

132
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Analyze how crossing over is related to variation.
2. Draw Suppose genes C and D are linked on one chromosome and genes c and d
are linked on another chromosome. Assuming that crossing over does not take
place, sketch the daughter cells resulting from meiosis, showing the chromosomes
and position of the genes.
3. Describe how polyploidy is used in the field of agriculture.
4. Construct a chromosome map for genes A, B, C and D using the following crossing
over data: A to D = 25 percent; A to B = 30 percent; C to D = 15 percent; B to D =
5 percent; B to C = 20 percent.
5. Evaluate what advantage polyploidy would give to a plant breeder.
6. Write a short story describing a society with no genetic variation in humans.

133
of Inheritance
3 Applied Genetics
VOCABULARY
hybrid
hybrid
NEW VOCABULARY Use your book to define each term. Then look through the section to
selective breeding find a sentence with each term and write the sentence.
inbreeding selective breeding

test cross
inbreeding
test cross

134
3 Applied Genetics (continued)
Analyze inbreeding and hybridization by identifying the effect, an
advantage, and a disadvantage of each.
Inbreeding
advantage: effect:
disadvantage:
Hybridization
advantage: effect:
disadvantage:
Get It? Describe the disadvantages associated with hybridization

and inbreeding.

135
Create a Punnett Square that shows the result of each test cross.
Heterozygous: Homozygous:
Summarize how test crosses work by using the words genotype and
phenotype to complete the sentence.
In a test cross, the of the offspring can reveal the
of the parents.
Analyze the use of a test cross to determine the genotype of a

yellow flower by completing the prompts.
The genotype of the white flower:
Possible genotypes of the yellow flower:
Possible Possible
Phenotypes Genotypes
offspring if the
yellow flower is
heterozygous

offspring if the
yellow flower is
homozygous
CONNECT
Selective breeding practices have been used since ancient times. Provide specific examples where
selective breeding has resulted in plants or animals that are familiar to us today.

136
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Assess the effect of selective breeding on food crops.
2. Describe three traits that might be desired in sheep. How can these traits be passed
on to the next generation? Explain.
3. Compare and contrast inbreeding and hybridization.
4. Predict the phenotype of offspring from a test cross between a seedless orange (ss)
and an orange with seeds (Ss).

137
5. Evaluate Should a cow and a bull that both carry recessive alleles for a mutation
that causes decreased milk production be bred? Explain your answer using
probability.
6. A breeder performs a test cross to determine the genotype of a black cat. He

crosses the black cat (BB or Bb) with a white cat (bb). If 50 percent of the offspring
are black, what is the genotype of the black cat?

138
of Inheritance
4 Basic Patterns of Human Inheritance
VOCABULARY
genes
genes

carrier
carrier
pedigree
pedigree
Explain why pedigrees are needed to identify the carriers of a

recessive trait in a family.
Get It? Explain how symbols are used to represent individuals in a

pedigree.

139
4 Basic Patterns of Human Inheritance (continued)
Summarize pedigree symbols by naming them and then
drawing them in the right-hand column of the table. Sketches should
resemble those in the book.
Description of Sketch of
Symbol symbol
male square
Evaluate the inheritance of achondroplasia, a dominant disorder,

which is shown in the pedigree.
Parent with achondroplasia:

Number of children with achondroplasia:
Genotype of the younger son:
Get It? Analyze What can be determined about the genotypes of

the parents of an individual who expresses a recessive trait?

140
Write three facts about recessive heredity in the concept map.
Simple Recessive Heredity
Who: What:
How:
Identify two examples of dominant genetic disorders in humans.
dominant genetic disorders

Get It? Compare the chances of inheriting a dominant disorder to

the chances of inheriting a recessive disorder if you have one parent
with the disease.
CONNECT
Create a pedigree diagram for an imaginary family. Pick a trait and designate it as dominant,
then shade the boxes to show who has recessive genes, who has dominant genes, and who is
likely heterozygous.
141
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Construct a family pedigree of two unaffected parents with a child who suffers from
cystic fibrosis.
2. Explain the type of inheritance associated with Huntington’s disease and

achondroplasia.
3. Interpret Can two parents with albinism have an unaffected child? Explain.
4. Diagram Suppose one parent is heterozygous for a dominant disorder and the
other parent is homozygous normal. Draw a pedigree showing these parents and
three possible offspring.

5. Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a recessive genetic disorder. If both parents are carriers,
what is the probability of this couple having a child with PKU? What is the chance of
this couple having two children with PKU?
6. Determine What questions might a doctor ask a couple that requests tests for the
cystic fibrosis gene?

142
of Inheritance
5 Complex Patterns of Inheritance
VOCABULARY
gamete
gamete

incomplete dominance
incomplete dominance
codominance
multiple alleles
epistasis
sex-linked traits
polygenic trait codominance
multiple alleles
epistasis
sex-linked traits
polygenic trait

143
5 Complex Patterns of Inheritance (continued)
Analyze the ratios of offspring of the following snapdragon pairs. Hint:
To write the genotypes, designate the dominant red allele as CRCR
and the recessive white allele as CWCW.
Parent Genotypes of Ratio of

Punnett Square
Flowers Parent Flowers Offspring
red and CRCR × CWCW CR CR 4 pink
white CW CRCW CRCW
CW CRCW CRCW
pink and
white
red and pink
pink and
pink
Predict the results if two people who are heterozygous for sickle-cell
disease but lead normal lives have a child.
Identify the blood group that results from each combination of

genotypes. The first one has been done for you.

Possible Genotype Combinations Phenotypes
A and A A
A and B
A and O
B and B
B and O
O and O

144
Get It? Explain how the genetic traits carried on multiple alleles can
lead to a wide range of characteristics in humans.
Analyze the role of each item in inheritance. Give an example of a

trait governed by each process.
Role in Inheritance Example

Epistasis
Polygenic traits
X-chromosome
inactivation
X-linked traits
Identify environmental influences that can affect phenotype.
External factors Behaviors

1. 1.
2. 2.
Describe the use of twin studies in the study of genetics by

completing the paragraph.
Scientists use twin studies to determine whether influences on a trait
are or . If a high percentage of
but not express a trait, there is a
strong chance that the trait is .

145
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Describe two patterns of complex inheritance and explain how they are different
from Mendelian patterns.
2. Explain How is epistasis different from dominance?
3. Determine the genotypes of the parents if the father is blood type A, the mother is
blood type B, the daughter is blood type O, one son is blood type AB, and the other
son is blood type B.
4. Analyze how twin studies help to differentiate the effects of genetic and
environmental influences.

5. Evaluate t he influence of environmental factors on why the trait for sickle-cell
disease might be an advantage in central Africa.
6. What is the chance of producing a son with normal vision if the father is color blind
and the mother is homozygous normal? Explain.

146
11 Molecular Genetics
K W L
Science Notebook • Molecular Genetics

147
Molecular Genetics
1 DNA: The Genetic Material
VOCABULARY
nucleic acid
nucleic acid
NEW VOCABULARY Use your book to define the term. In the box to the right, make a
sketch to help you remember its definition.
double helix
double helix
ACADEMIC
Define transform to show its scientific meaning.
VOCABULARY

transform transform

148
1 DNA: The Genetic Material (continued)
Complete the table below about geneticists and their discoveries.
Scientist Discovery Year

Frederick Griffith
Oswald Avery
Alfred Hershey and

Martha Chase
James Watson and

Francis Crick
Get It? Explain how Avery discovered the transforming factor.
Get It? Explain why it is important that new viruses were produced
in the bacteria in the Hershey-Chase experiment.

149
Get It? Explain the contributions of Franklin, Wilkins, Watson, and
Crick in the discovery of DNA’s structure.
Organize the characteristics of nucleotides by filling in the

graphic organizer below.
Characteristics of Nucleotides
All nucleotides have
a one of four
a five-carbon
In DNA it is In DNA they are
and in RNA it is and in RNA they are

Create a memory device to help you remember how the nitrogenous
bases in DNA are always paired.
Get It? Explain why Chargaff’s data was an important clue for
putting together the structure of DNA.

150
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Summarize the experiments of Griffith and Avery that indicated that DNA is the
genetic material.
2. Describe the conclusions drawn by Hershey and Chase about the substance
responsible for the transfer of genetic information.
3. Describe the data used by Watson and Crick to determine the structure of DNA.
4. Describe two characteristics that DNA needs to fulfill its role as a genetic material.
5. Explain what the story of determining the structure of DNA tells us about the nature of science.

151
6. Evaluate Hershey and Chase’s decision to use radioactive phosphorus and sulfur
for their experiments. Could they have used carbon or oxygen instead? Why or
why not?

152
Molecular Genetics
2 Replication of DNA
VOCABULARY
template
template
NEW VOCABULARY Use your book to define the following terms. Then look through
semiconservative the section to find a sentence with each term. Write
replication the sentence.
DNA polymerase semiconservative replication

Okazaki fragment
DNA polymerase
Okazaki fragment

153
2 Replication of DNA (continued)
Describe semiconservative DNA replication.
The new DNA

Model During replication,
molecule is
the parental strands
composed of
Semiconservative
replication
Sequence and model each step in the replication of a DNA

molecule. Write about what happens, and draw a DNA molecule
going through each step. In the last box, describe and draw the
products of replication.
A. B.
C. D.

154
Complete the table below on the role of each protein in DNA
replication. The first one has been done for you.
Stage of DNA
Protein Activity
Replication
DNA unwinding unwinds and unzips the
helicase DNA
DNA
ligase
DNA
polymerase
RNA
primase
Single-
stranded
binding
protein
Contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic DNA replication.
Eukaryotes Prokaryotes
Number of origins for DNA
replication
Where replication takes

place in the cell
SUMMARIZE
Analyze how the activity of DNA polymerase is consistent with Watson and Crick’s model of
semiconservative replication.

155
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Indicate the sequence of the template strand if a nontemplate strand has the
sequence 5′ ATGGGGCGC 3′.
2. Describethe role of DNA helicase, DNA polymerase, and DNA ligase.
3. Diagramthe way leading and lagging strands are synthesized.

156
4. Explainwhy DNA replication is more complex in eukaryotes than in bacteria.
5. If E. coli bacteria synthesize DNA at a rate of 100,000 nucleotides per min and it takes
30 min to replicate the DNA, how many base pairs are in an E. coli chromosome?

157
Molecular Genetics
3 DNA, RNA, and Protein
VOCABULARY
synthesis
synthesis
process in which RNA is synthesized from DNA
a group of three nitrogenous bases in DNA or mRNA that code for

one amino acid
nucleic acid made of ribose, phosphate, and one of four

nitrogenous bases—adenine, cytosine, guanine, or uracil
intervening DNA sequences that are transcribed and then removed

from the final mRNA
process by which mRNA directs the synthesis of a protein
long strands of RNA that are complementary to one strand of DNA
protein coding sequences in DNA that are transcribed into mRNA

and translated into protein
small RNA molecules that transport amino acids to the ribosome
an enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of mRNA using a specific

section of DNA as a template
RNA molecules that make up part of the ribosome
three-base coding sequence that is complementary to a codon on

the mRNA
Compare and contrast RNA and DNA in the Venn diagram.
RNA Both DNA

158
3 DNA, RNA, and Protein (continued)
State the central dogma of biology.
codes for directs the

synthesis of
Compare the function of each type of RNA molecule by
completing the table.
Type of RNA Function

mRNA
rRNA
tRNA
Sequence the steps in transcription of RNA.

Identify four examples of codons and state the instructions they

encode.
1.
2.
3.
4.

159
Get It? Explain the direction in which the mRNA transcript is
manufactured.
Get It? Summarize how pre-mRNA is changed during RNA

processing.
Model the movement of tRNA molecules showing the translation

process.
State the updated version of Beadle and Tatum’s hypothesis.

codes for
Get It? Explain how the processes of transcription and translation

are essential for life.

160
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Summarize the process by which the DNA code is made into a protein.
2. Describethe function of each of the following in protein synthesis: rRNA, mRNA,

and tRNA.
3. Explainwhy scientists concluded that the instructions for species characteristics

were carried in DNA.
4. Explainthe role of RNA polymerase in mRNA synthesis.
5. Concludewhy Beadle and Tatum’s “one gene, one enzyme” hypothesis has been
modified since they presented it in the 1940s.
6. If the genetic code used four bases as a code instead of three, how many code units
could be encoded?

161
Molecular Genetics
4 Gene Regulation and Mutation
VOCABULARY
prokaryote
prokaryote

gene regulation
gene regulation
operon
mutation
mutagen
operon
mutation
mutagen
ACADEMIC Define substitution and write a sentence to show its

VOCABULARY scientific meaning.
substitution substitution

162
4 Gene Regulation and Mutation (continued)
Describe gene regulation in prokaryotes by using the terms below to
complete the paragraph.
• E. coli • metabolic pathway • proteins

• environment • operator • repressor
• genes • promoter • RNA polymerase
An operon is a cluster of genes in . These genes make

that work together in one . An
operon is able to respond to changes in the . The
is a segment of DNA that acts as a switch for
transcription, turning the operon on or off. When the operon is on,
binds to the and transcribes the
DNA. When the operon is off, a blocks transcription.
Compare and contrast the trp operon and the lac operon.
Trp Operon Lac Operon

Responds to the
presence of
Transcription is
turned on when
The repressor is
active when
When the operon is
turned on, the cell can

163
Analyze the ways eukaryotes control gene expression.
Molecule Effect on Gene Expression

Hox genes
Nucleosomes
RNAi
Transcription
factors
Get It? Explain how RNA interference can regulate eukaryotic gene
expression.
Analyze each type of DNA mutation and its result. Sketch what each
change might look like.
Mutation Result Sketch

Missense mutation
Nonsense mutation

Chromosome
rearrangement
Chromosome
deletion
Get It? Explain how a change in a single base pair can result in a
change in the shape of a protein.

164
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Relate gene regulation and mutations.
2. Identify the two main types of mutagens.
3. Diagram how adding lactose to a culture affects the lac operon of E. coli.
4. Analyze how a point mutation can affect the overall protein shape and function,
using hemoglobin as an example.
5. Compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic gene regulation.
6. Explain why most mutations in eukaryotes are recessive.

165
7. Hypothesize why DNA replication has such accuracy.
8. Write an article describing how Hox genes regulate development in animals.

166
12 Biotechnology
K W L
Science Notebook • Biotechnology

167
Biotechnology
1 DNA Technology
VOCABULARY
DNA
DNA
method of manipulating DNA from one organism and inserting the

DNA fragment into a host organism of the same or different species
the total DNA present in the nucleus of each cell
bacterial enzyme that can cut foreign DNA at a specific nucleotide

sequence
a method of separating DNA fragments by size with the use of an

electric current
DNA made by recombining fragments of DNA from different sources
small, circular, double-stranded DNA found in bacterial cells and used

as a vector
an enzyme that is used to join DNA fragments; used by the cell for
DNA repair and replication
a method for getting plasmid DNA into bacterial cells
the process of creating a genetically identical copy of an organism or

gene

a technique for making millions of copies of a specific region of DNA
organism that contains functional recombinant DNA from a

different organism

168
1 DNA Technology (continued)
Identify one transgenic organism from this module. Describe how it
was created. Then use your imagination to think of another possible
transgenic organism that could be made and identify the original
organisms that could be used to make it.
Complete the paragraph about DNA tools by using the words below.
• blunt ends • EcoRI • gel electrophoresis
• restriction enzymes • sticky ends
Scientists use to cut DNA at specific sequences,
and to separate fragments based on size. Some
create DNA with single-stranded, .
is an example of this type of enzyme. The resulting
DNA fragments can be joined with other DNA fragments that have
complementary . Other create
, which can be joined to another DNA fragment that
has .
Get It? Generalize how restriction enzymes are used.
Get It? Differentiate blunt ends and sticky ends and how each can
be used.

169
Identify the DNA tools and techniques used in genetic engineering.
Genetic Engineering Application Tool or Technique Used

Make millions of copies of a region of
DNA
Determine the order of nucleotides
Chemically join together two

fragments of DNA
Carry recombinant DNA into
bacteria
Produce large amounts of
recombinant DNA
Get It? Relate restriction enzymes to recombinant DNA.
Describe the functions of the components of PCR.
thermocycler:
primers:
nucleotides:

DNA polymerase:
Describe the polymerase chain reaction using an analogy.

170
Organize advances that have been made in transgenic organisms.
Area Examples
transgenic animals
transgenic plants
transgenic bacteria
SUMMARIZE
Summarize the uses of genetic technology.

171
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Sequence how recombinant DNA is made and manipulated.
2. Explain why some plasmids contain a gene for resistance to an antibiotic.
3. Describe how genetic engineering and biotechnology can improve human health.
4. Describe three examples of transgenic organisms and explain how each is useful to
humans.
5. Evaluate Several popular movies and books involve organisms produced by

genetic engineering. Are these transgenic organisms a possibility? Why or why not?
6. Why would a business synthesize and sell DNA? Who would their customers be?
Write a list of possible uses for DNA that is synthesized in a laboratory.

172
Biotechnology
2 The Human Genome
genomics genomics
DNA typing
DNA microarray
DNA typing
bioinformatics
single nucleotide
polymorphism DNA microarray
haplotype
pharmacogenomics
bioinformatics
gene therapy
proteomics
single nucleotide polymorphism
haplotype
pharmacogenomics
gene therapy
proteomics

173
2 The Human Genome (continued)
Sequence the steps in gene sequencing by writing the steps in order.
Get It? Explain why identifying genes in bacterial genomes is less

complex than identifying genes in the human genome.
Identify different ways to find genes in DNA sequences. Name the

organisms for which each method is used.

Method for identifying genes Organism

174
Organize the information about the following techniques. Give one
benefit or application for each technique. The first one has been done
for you.
Description Technique Application or

Benefit
inserting recombinant gene therapy might someday be
DNA into human cells used to cure
to treat diseases genetic
diseases
slides or chips used to
analyze complex
changes in gene
expression
an international effort
to describe regions of
linked variations in the
human genome
the study of how to
manage large amounts
of biological
information
the study and

cataloging of an
organism’s proteins
the study of how to

match a person’s
genetics to the drugs
they are prescribed
Get It? Summarize the type of information that can be learned by

analysis of a DNA microarray.

175
Get It? Summarize how the HapMap project could impact human
health.
Get It? Compare and contrast pharmacogenomics to gene therapy.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Relate the human genome to blueprints for a house.
2. Analyze the role of DNA typing in criminal and civil investigations.
3. Indicate why the HapMap project is useful in diagnosing human disease.

176
4. Explain the process of gene therapy. What is the ultimate goal of gene therapy?
5. Hypothesize Most of the human genome consists of noncoding DNA. Where did all
of this noncoding DNA originate?
6. If 1.5 percent of the human genome consists of protein-coding sequences, and the
entire genome has 3.2 × 109 nucleotides, how many codons are in the human
genome? Remember that a codon is three nucleotides in length.

177
13 The History of Life
K W L
Science Notebook • The History of Life

179
The History of Life
1 Fossil Evidence of Change
VOCABULARY
extinction
extinction
Cambrian explosion Scientists measure Earth’s geological and biological events
eon using the , which is divided into

epoch , , , and .
era The was a period of rapid change during
fossil
which the ancestors of most animal groups emerged. A layer of
geologic time scale
material found between rock layers worldwide, known as the
half-life
, might indicate that a large meteorite
K-T boundary
collided with Earth.
law of superposition
The theory of describes Earth’s surface as
paleontologist
period large plates that move over Earth’s thick, liquid interior. These plates
plate tectonics are made up of rocks. are scientists who
radiometric dating study . They determine the relative age of rocks
relative dating using , which compares the sequence of rock
layers. The states that younger rock
layers are deposited on top of older rock layers. Another method of

determining the age of rocks is , which
measures the decay of radioactive isotopes. The rate of decay is
measured using , the amount of time required for
half of a radioactive isotope to decay.

180
1 Fossil Evidence of Change (continued)
Sequence the organizer below by listing the order of events that led
to the formation of Earth’s early atmosphere. The last step has been
done for you.
Volcanoes erupted, giving off gases and forming the early

atmosphere.
Identify three types of materials in which fossils are found.
1.
2.
3.
Get It? Describe how the fossil record provides evidence for
common decent through evolution.
Get It? Explain why carbon dating would not be helpful to

determine the age of the earliest dinosaur fossils.

181
Get It? Identify which is smaller, an era or an epoch?
Summarize the four time periods of the geologic time scale using the
table below.
Major
Geologic Organisms that
Biological Other Facts
Time Appeared
Events
unicellular life, includes Earth’s
eukaryotic cells, formation,
small marine almost 90% of
animals Earth’s entire
history
Cambrian
explosion at
beginning of
Paleozoic, mass
extinction at
end
dinosaurs, small
mammals,
flowering plants,
birds
following
extinction of

dinosaurs,
mammals
diversify

182
Rephrase the current theory on the cause of the mass extinction at
the end of the Mesozoic era.
Get It? Infer the process by which early autotrophic prokaryotes

produced oxygen.
Get It? Recall the dominant land animals in the Triassic and Jurassic
Periods.
SUMMARIZE
Discuss how paleontologists use relative and radiometric dating to support the geologic
time scale.

183
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Discuss how fossils provide evidence of change from the earliest life-forms to those
alive today.
2. Diagram a typical sequence of events in fossilization.
3. Discuss two ways that radiometric dating can be used to establish the age of a
fossil.

4. Compare Earth’s early land environment with today’s land environment.

184
5. Infer what changes you might observe in the fossil record that would indicate the
occurrence of a mass extinction.
6. Out of the total of Earth’s history (approximately 4.6 billion years), modern humans
have existed for only 200,000 years. To put this in perspective, calculate the
percentage of Earth’s history that modern humans have existed.

185
The History of Life
2 The Origin of Life
VOCABULARY
amino acid
amino acid

spontaneous generation
spontaneous generation
theory of biogenesis
endosymbiont theory
theory of biogenesis
endosymbiont theory

186
2 The Origin of Life (continued)
Create a cartoon that illustrates how Redi’s experiment was used to
disprove spontaneous generation.
Compare spontaneous generation and biogenesis.
Spontaneous Both Biogenesis
Model Oparin’s and Haldane’s primordial soup hypothesis for the

formation of simple organic molecules by filling in the graphic
organizer below.
started chemical
reactions of gases
in the early
atmosphere
Identify four requirements for life using the concept map below.
Requirements for Life

187
Sequence how oxygen accumulated in the atmosphere and the effect
it had on life by completing the flowchart below.
little ozone
oxygen layer
in atmo forms
sphere;
all living
things are
anaerobic
Identify three properties that mitochondria and chloroplasts share

with prokaryotes.
1.
2.
3.
Get It? Explain how biochemical evidence, including DNA, helps

scientists to learn about early life on Earth.

Analyze the endosymbiont theory of the evolution of plant cells by
completing the sequence chart.
bacteria
evolved into
mitochondria

188
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Infer why scientists hypothesize that chemical events preceded the origin of life on
Earth.
2. Compare and contrast spontaneous generation and biogenesis.
3. Discuss why prokaryotic cells probably appeared before eukaryotic cells.
4. Explain how genetic information and the formation of amino acids supports
evidence of common ancestry and diversity.
5. Describe the scientific explanations for the origin of life on Earth.

189
6. Write a persuasive paragraph that explains why many scientists accept the
endosymbiont theory.

190
14 Evolution
K W L
Science Notebook • Evolution

191
Evolution
1 Darwin’s Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
VOCABULARY
selective breeding
selective breeding

artificial selection
artificial selection
natural selection
evolution
natural selection
evolution
Write a short paragraph that uses at least two of the terms above.
Summarize three observations Darwin made in his research on the

South American mainland.
1.
2.
3.

192
1 Darwin’s Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection (continued)
Get It? Summarize some of the experiences or observations that
influenced Darwin during his voyage on the Beagle.
Identify three organisms from the Galápagos Islands and their

distinguishing characteristics.
Organism Variation
Analyze Darwin’s hypothesis on the origin of Galápagos finches by

filling in the flow chart. The first step has been done for you.
Finches migrate
from South
America to the
Galápagos
Islands.
Summarize the role that artificial selection played in helping Darwin

generate his theory of natural selection.

193
Summarize natural selection by completing the sentences below.
Organisms with traits are able

to and pass their traits on to their
Natural , who then reproduce.

Selection
Those without such favorable traits are more
likely to before reproducing.
List the four basic principles of natural selection.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Get It? Explain how Darwin’s ideas about natural selection support
the theory of evolution.

194
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Describe the evidence Charles Darwin gathered that led to his theory of evolution.
2. Explain how the idea of artificial selection contributed to Darwin’s ideas on natural
selection.
3. Describe the four conditions required for natural selection to occur and provide an
example not used in this lesson.
4. Discuss why natural selection could not occur if organisms didn’t have to compete
for the resources they need to survive and reproduce.
5. Infer the consequences for evolution if species did not vary.
6. Write a short story about what it might have been like to visit the Galápagos Islands
with Darwin.

195
Evolution
2 Evidence of Evolution
VOCABULARY
fossil
fossil

derived trait
derived trait
ancestral trait
ancestral trait
homologous structure
homologous structure
vestigial structure
analogous structure
embryo vestigial structure
biogeography
fitness
analogous structure
camouflage
mimicry
embryo
biogeography
fitness
camouflage

mimicry

196
2 Evidence of Evolution (continued)
Summarize the role that anatomy plays in teaching us about evolution
by completing the table below.
Structure What is it? Example

Homologous
structure
Analogous
structure
Vestigial
structure
Embryo
Get It? Explain why vestigial structures are considered examples of

homologous structures.

197
Compare similarities and differences between adaptations and non-
adaptations by writing yes or no in the table. Then give an example of
an adaptation and a non-adaptation
Characteristics Adaptations Non-Adaptations

inherited traits
increase survival or
reproduction
by-product arising from
other evolutionary
changes
Example:
Get It? Compare mimicry and camouflage.
Analyze how antibiotics can lose their effectiveness over time.
SUMMARIZE
Explain why fossils are important tools in understanding evolution.

198
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Explain how the scientific theory of evolution is supported by patterns in the fossil
record.
2. Explain what natural selection predicts about mimicry, camouflage, homologous

structures, and vestigial structures.
3. Explain how the scientific theory of evolution is supported by molecular biology.
4. Compare the morphological evidence and the biochemical evidence supporting

evolution.
5. Hypothesize Evidence suggests that the bones in bird wings share a number of
features with the bones of dinosaur arms. Based on this evidence, what hypothesis
could you make about the evolutionary relationship between birds and dinosaurs?
6. Apply Research has shown that if a prescribed dose of an antibiotic is not taken
completely, some bacteria might not be killed and the disease might return. How
does natural selection explain this phenomenon?

199
Evolution
3 Shaping Evolutionary Theory
VOCABULARY
allele
allele
definition below.
allele frequencies remain the same unless acted upon by a factor
random evolution that occurs in a small, separate subpopulation
process of a large population declining in number then rebounding

to a large number again
mechanism that operates before fertilization occurs
change in the allele frequencies in a population by chance
selection which removes organisms with extreme

expressions of a trait
mechanism that operates after fertilization occurs to ensure that

resulting hybrid remains infertile
selection which shifts a population toward an extreme trait
selection which removes individuals with average traits

change in a trait based on competition for mates
speciation in the presence of a barrier
speciation without any barriers

200
3 Shaping Evolutionary Theory (continued)
Sequence the steps associated with genetic equilibrium by
completing the graphic organizer below.
make at a which,
up a certain over time,
results in
Get It? Determine when a population is in equilibrium.
Get It? Summarize how mutation violates the Hardy-Weinberg

principle.
Compare natural selection and sexual selection by completing the

table.
Species Changes
Increases Fitness?
Based on
Natural selection
Sexual selection

201
Contrast geographic isolation and reproductive isolation.
Compare allopatric speciation and sympatric speciation by writing

one fact in each segment of the Venn diagram below.
Allopatric Sympatric
Both Speciation
Speciation
Label each model as representing divergent evolution or convergent

evolution.

Species A Species X Species Y
Species B Species C share similar traits
Summarize the current thoughts about the rate of speciation by

completing the table below.
Gradualism Punctuated Equilibrium

202
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Discuss genetic drift and gene flow as mechanisms of evolutionary change.
2. Identify the conditions of the Hardy-Weinberg principle.
3. Discuss factors that can lead to speciation.
4. Explain how the pattern of evolution is shown by the many species of finches on the
Galápagos Islands is evidence that the distribution of traits in a population can
change when conditions change.
5. Design an Experiment Two populations of frogs live separated by the Amazon

River. What experiment could be designed to test whether the two populations are
one species or two?
6. What type of mathematical results would you expect from the experiment you
designed above if the two populations diverged only recently?

203
15 Primate Evolution
K W L
Science Notebook • Primate Evolution

205
Primate Evolution
1 Primates
VOCABULARY
extinction
extinction

opposable first digit
opposable first digit
binocular vision
diurnal
nocturnal
arboreal binocular vision
anthropoid diurnal
prehensile tail nocturnal
hominin
arboreal
anthropoid
prehensile tail
hominin
ACADEMIC

VOCABULARY Define diverge to show its scientific meaning.
diverge
diverge

206
1 Primates (continued)
Identify the benefits of the following primate characteristics.
Primate Characteristic Benefits

Opposable first digit
Binocular vision
Flexible shoulders
and hips
Large, complex brain
Low reproductive rate
Identify the primate groups in the diagram below.
Primate Groups
“Wet-nosed”: “Dry-nosed”:

207
Summarize a theory on why lemurs are found only on Madagascar
and nearby islands.
Classify the subgroups of anthropoids by completing the diagram.
Anthropoids
Example: tamarins Example: baboons
Example: humans
Summarize primate evolution by completing the time line below.
85 mya: 50 mya:

60 mya: 35–25 mya:

208
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. List four characteristics that are representative of most primates that led
paleoanthropologists to conclude that primates share a common ancestry.
2. Describe how the characteristics of primates make them well-adapted for an

arboreal lifestyle.
3. Diagram the evolutionary relationships of primates
4. Compare and contrast major primate groups.

5. Hypothesize how the breakup of Pangaea might have contributed to the

evolutionary history of primates.
6. Assume that life on Earth began 3.5 billion years ago. To the nearest percent, how
much of this time have anthropoids been living?

209
Primate Evolution
2 Hominoids to Hominins
VOCABULARY
savanna
savanna

hominoid
hominoid
bipedal
australopithecine
bipedal
australopithecine
Place the first australopithecines and first hominoids in the general

time line below.

about 25 mya about 4.2 mya

210
2 Hominoids to Hominins (continued)
Sequence hominoid divergence by placing the primates listed below in
the proper location on the flowchart
• gorillas • gibbons • chimpanzees and bonobos

• humans • orangutans
ancestral
anthropoid
Describe why the Proconsul species was an important find for

scientists.
Label five adaptations for bipedalism on the skeleton.


211
C16-05A-869510-BW
Get It? Summarize the differences between hominins and earlier
hominoids.
Get It? Summarize the advantages and disadvantages of

bipedalism.
Identify a key discovery by each of the following scientists. Then

analyze how the discovery contributed to the debate about which
adaptation evolved first: larger brain or bipedalism.

Raymond Dart Donald Johanson Mary Leakey
Discovery: Discovery: Discovery:
Analysis: Analysis: Analysis:

212
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Summarize how the climate of the Miocene epoch impacted the evolution of
hominins.
2. Describe characteristics unique to hominoids.
3. Describe characteristics unique to hominins.
4. Outline hominoid evolution from Proconsul to Homo.
5. Compare australopithecine species.

6. Discuss Do you think hominins would have evolved if the climate had not changed
during the Miocene epoch? Why?
7. Classify If you found a primate skeleton with arms shorter than legs, in what
general category would you place it?

213
Primate Evolution
3 Human Ancestry
VOCABULARY
mitochondrion
mitochondrion

Homo
Homo
Neanderthal
Cro-Magnon
Neanderthal
Cro-Magnon

214
3 Human Ancestry (continued)
Identify the correct species from the list below for each of the
following characteristics.
• H. habilis • H. erectus • H. heidelbergensis
• H. ergaster • H. floresiensis • H. neanderthalensis
Characteristic Homo Species

Evidence suggests they cared for their sick
and buried their dead
More versatile than predecessors; adapted
successfully to a variety of environments
First undisputed member of the Homo genus
Nicknamed “The Hobbit” because of its
small size
Larger and more heavily muscled than
modern humans
Thought to have had the first humanlike
nose (nostrils facing downward)
Classification for various transitional
fossils that display a mosaic of H. ergaster
and H. sapiens traits
Name means “handy man” because of
association with primitive stone tools
Probably evolved from H. erectus or a Homo
intermediary
First African Homo species to migrate in
large numbers to Asia and Europe
Serves as evidence that H. erectus or some

other ancient hominin species remained on
Earth until 12,000 years ago
Get It? Describe the evolutionary relationships among H. habilis,

H. ergaster, and H. erectus.

215
Get It? Relate H. heidelbergensis to H. sapiens.
Get It? Compare the Neanderthals and modern humans. Why might
they be considered our ancestors?
Rephrase two hypotheses proposed to explain the global dominance

of modern humans.
Multiregional evolution model:
“Out of Africa” hypothesis:
Get It? Describe evidence in support of the Out-of-Africa hypothesis.

216
SUMMARIZE
Contrast Homo sapiens to all other Homo species.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Hypothesize why only one genus and species remains in the hominin group.
2. Describe how H. habilis might have lived.
3. Apply what you have learned about the Out-of-Africa hypothesis to what you know
about the arrival of H. sapiens in North America.
4. Compare and contrast H. neanderthalensis and H. sapiens.

217
5. Classify a fossil that was found in France and dated at about 150,000 years old. The
skull had a thick browridge, but in most other ways appeared human. Explain your
classification.
6. Hypothesize the importance of language to the early modern humans and how it
might have contributed to their success.

218
16 Organizing Life’s Diversity
K W L
Science Notebook • Organizing Life’s Diversity

219
Organizing Life’s Diversity
1 The History of Classification
VOCABULARY
morphology
morphology
NEW VOCABULARY Classify each of the first group of terms on the left as being part of
Linnaeus’ two-word naming system, a taxonomic group, or both.
binominal nomenclature
class
division Linnaeus’ System Taxonomic Group
domain
family
genus
kingdom
order
phylum
Use your book to define each term.
classification classification
taxon
taxonomy
taxon

taxonomy
Get It? Explain why classification is a useful tool.

220
1 The History of Classification (continued)
Identify the parts of Linnaeus’ two-word naming system by
completing the graphic organizer below.
first word which
identifies a is a
Binomial
Nomenclature:
second word
which
is called the
identifies
Organize the following taxa from most specific to least specific: family,
genus, order, species. The first one has been done for you.
species
Analyze the figure of the taxonomic groups in your book. Then

identify the domain, kingdom, phylum, and class for humans.
Domain: C17-p.172 illustration-A
Kingdom:
Phylum:
Class:
Compare data in the table below to determine which two

animals are most closely related. Support your reasoning.
Summarize how a dichotomous key works.

221
Classification of Selected Mammals

Kingdom Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia
Phylum Chordata Chordata Chordata Chordata
Class Mammalia Mammalia Mammalia Mammalia
Order Cetacea Carnivora Carnivora Carnivora
Family Mysticeti Felidae Canidae Canidae

Genius Balenopora Felis Canis Canis
Species* B. physalis F. catus C. latrans C. lupus
Common name Blue whale Domestic cat Coyote Wolf

* The species name is indicated as binominal nomenclature.
Analyze at which level the blue whale diverges from the

other animals on the table.
Get It? Explain why Latin is the basis for many scientific names.
SUMMARIZE

Explain why a name such as catfish is not a good scientific name. Analyze why scientific
names are better.

222
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Describe how and why organisms are hierarchically classified.
2. Summarizethe rules for using binomial nomenclature.
3. Compare and contrast how modern classification systems differ from those used by
Aristotle and Linnaeus.
4. Classifya giant panda, Ailuropoda melanoleuca, completely from domain to

species level by referring to Figure 4.
5. Writea short story describing an application of biological classification.

223
6. Considerwhere you would expect to see more biodiversity: among members of a
phyla or among members of a class. Why?
7. Differentiatebetween taxonomy and systematics.

224
2 Modern Classification
VOCABULARY
evolution
evolution

phylogeny
phylogeny
character
character
molecular clock
cladistics
cladogram molecular clock
cladistics
cladogram

225
2 Modern Classification (continued)
Compare the four concepts that biologists have used or are using to
classify organisms.
Basis of
Concept Classification Limitations
Typological
species concept
group of
organisms that
can interbreed
and produce
fertile offspring in
a natural setting

unknown
evolutionary
histories for some
species

226
Get It? Explain what the molecular clock model uses to compare
DNA.
Describe cladograms by completing the paragraph.

A is a branching diagram that represents the proposed
or evolution of a or group. The groups used
in cladograms are called . To a cladogram,
characters are identified. Then the of various
species is identified based on the or of the
derived characters in the . In making a cladogram,
assume that groups that more derived
characters have a more common ancestor.
SUMMARIZE
Describe a process scientists use to construct a cladogram that includes a new species of vascular
plant that was recently discovered in the rainforest.

227
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Describe how the changing species concept has affected classification
systems.
2. Summarize the different concepts of a species.
3. Describe some methods used to determine phylogeny.
4. Organize the following derived characters on a cladogram in order of ascending

complexity: multicellular, hair, backbone, unicellular, and four appendages.

5. Describe the mathematical challenges of counting the “ticks” of a molecular clock.
6. Indicate the hypothetical evolutionary relationship between two species if their DNA
sequences share a 98 percent similarity.

228
3 Domains and Kingdoms
VOCABULARY
eukaryote
eukaryote

Archaea
Archaea
protists
fungus
protists
fungus

229
3 Domains and Kingdoms (continued)
Rephrase why the members formerly in the Kingdom Monera were
separated into the domains Bacteria and Archaea.
Get It? Describe what heterotrophic aerobic bacteria need to

survive.
Model the cell walls of bacteria. Label the features of bacteria.
Analyze why archaea are sometimes called extremophiles.

230
Get It? Describe the basic structure characteristics of a fungus.
Organize the kingdoms in the Domain Eukarya and describe their cell
structure. List each kingdom’s sources of energy and other important
characteristics.
Kingdom Cell Energy Other
Structure Sources Characteristics
Protista
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia
Get It? Describe three characteristics of plants.
SUMMARIZE
Model a diagram of the relationship between domains and kingdoms.

231
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. State the three domains and the kingdoms in each.
2. Compare and contrast characteristics of the three domains.
3. Explain the difference between Kingdom Protista and Kingdom Fungi.
4. Classify to the kingdom level an organism that has organ systems, lacks cell walls,
and ingests food.
5. Summarize the reasons why systematists separated Domain Bacteria from Domain
Archaea.

6. Write an essay for or against including viruses in the biological classification system.

232
17 Bacteria and Viruses
K W L
Science Notebook • Bacteria and Viruses

233
Bacteria and Viruses
1 Bacteria
VOCABULARY
prokaryotic cell
prokaryotic cell

bacteria
bacteria
nucleoid
nucleoid
capsule
capsule
pilus
binary fission pilus
conjugation
endospore binary fission
conjugation
endospore
Summarize three general environments where archaea live, and give

one example of each environment.

1.
2.
3.
Model a prokaryotic cell and label its structures.

234
1 Bacteria (continued)
Get It? Explain the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic
flagella.
Identify each prokaryote shape below with its scientific name.
Compare prokaryote reproduction by completing the table below.
Reproduction
Method
Process
Result
Compare prokaryotes by describing how each group below obtains

energy for cellular respiration.
Saprotrophs:
Photoautotrophs:
Chemoautotrophs:

235
Get It? Summarize the importance of photosynthesis and cellular
metabolism in bacterial metabolism.
Identify two bacterial survival mechanisms and describe the

advantages of each mechanism.
Mechanism Survival Advantages
Get It? Explain how mutations can help a population of bacteria

develop new adaptations in response to a change in the environment.

List five ways that bacteria are helpful to humans.
Bacteria
are
helpful

236
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Diagram a bacterium.
2. Discuss possible rationales that taxonomists might have used when deciding to
group prokaryotes into two distinct domains instead of in one group.
3. Explain survival mechanisms of bacteria at both the individual and population levels.
4. List three ways bacteria are beneficial to humans.

5. Analyze why it is more difficult for biologists to understand the diversity in

prokaryotes as compared to plants or animals.
6. Imagine that today at 1 P.M., a single Salmonella bacterial cell landed on potato
salad sitting on your kitchen counter. Assuming optimal conditions for bacterial
growth, how many bacterial cells will be present at 3 P.M. today?

237
Bacteria and Viruses
2 Viruses and Prions
VOCABULARY
protein
protein
NEW VOCABULARY Use the new vocabulary terms in the left column to complete the
following paragraph.
virus
A is genetic material within a protein coat, but
capsid
it has no organelles or other characteristics of life. The genetic
lytic cycle
material lies inside its , or outer layer of protein. In
lysogenic cycle
the viral genes instruct the host cell to make
retrovirus
many copies of the viral RNA or DNA. Some viruses replicate in a
prion
, in which the viral DNA integrates into a host
chromosome and lies dormant for some time. A ,
such as the HIV virus, contains RNA instead of DNA. Mutation in
the genes of a normal protein called a is responsible
for diseases such as “mad cow.”
ACADEMIC
VOCABULARY Define widespread to show its scientific meaning.
widespread

238
2 Viruses and Prions (continued)
Sketch t he general structure of a virus.
Synthesize why many viruses cannot pass from one species to

another.
Label steps A, B, C, D, and E of a lytic cycle in the figure below. Use

the following terms.
• Assembly • Attachment • Entry
• Lysis and Release • Replication
Bacteriophage
Bacterial DNA
Nucleic
acid
Bacterial
host cell
A B
The bacteriophage
injects its nucleic acid
into the bacterial cell.
E
The host cell breaks open and
releases new virus particles.
C
D The host’s
metabolic
New virus machinery makes
particles are viral nucleic acid
assembled. and proteins.

239
C18-05C-873043-BO-A
Sequence the steps of a lysogenic cycle.
Viral DNA integrates into a chromosome of a host cell.
Evaluate and discuss the role of reverse transcriptase in the

replication cycle of HIV.
Summarize information about prions by completing the table.
What is a prion? What causes a prion to become

harmful?

How might humans contract a What is the result of prion
prion-caused disease? infection?
SUMMARIZE
Conclude whether viruses that replicate by the lytic cycle or the lysogenic cycle are more
dangerous. Explain your reasoning.

240
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Describe how viruses and prions can alter cell functions.
2. Compare and contrast similarities and differences in the replication of a herpes

simplex virus with a human immunodeficiency virus.
3. Draw a diagram of a virus and label the parts.
4. Sequence the steps in the process of how prions might be transmitted from cattle
to humans.
5. Propose ideas for the development of drugs that could stop viral replication cycles.
6. Write a paragraph explaining why it is difficult to make drugs or vaccines that

effectively fight against HIV, given the fact that each time reverse transcriptase
works, it makes a slight miscopy.

241
18 Protists and Fungi
K W L
Science Notebook • Protists and Fungi

243
Protists and Fungi
1 Introduction to Protists
VOCABULARY
heterotroph
heterotroph
NEW VOCABULARY Use your book or dictionary to define each vocabulary term. Then
protozoan use each term in a sentence.
microsporidium protozoan
microsporidium

244
1 Introduction to Protists (continued)
Organize information about how protists are classified.
All protists are
Protists can be
classified as:
Analyze the characteristics that are used to classify protists.
Type of Protist Characteristic Example

Animal-like
Plantlike
Funguslike
List two characteristics that distinguish funguslike protists from fungi.
distinguishing characteristics
of funguslike protists

245
Summarize the common habitats of protists by completing the
graphic organizer.
Common
Protist
Habitats
Identify two examples of symbiotic relationships between

protists and other organisms.
1.
2.
Get It? Compare and contrast the three groups of protists.
Explain how a protist might benefit from living in a

sloth’s fur.
SUMMARIZE
Analyze why protists are difficult to classify and why the classification system is likely to change.

246
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Explain why some scientists use nutrition to classify organisms in Kingdom Protista.
2. Sketch a diagram that illustrates how the first protists might have formed from
prokaryotes.
3. Explain why scientists have classified protists in one kingdom when they are such a
diverse group.
4. Apply Concepts If you discovered a new protist, what characteristics would help
you decide the group in which it belongs?
5. Compare and contrast how scientists use nutrition methods and evolutionary
relationships to classify protists.

247
Protists and Fungi
2 Protist Diversity
VOCABULARY
hypotonic
hypotonic

contractile vacuole
contractile vacuole
pseudopod
bioluminescent
pseudopod
colony
alternation of generations
bioluminescent
colony
alternation of generations

248
2 Protist Diversity (continued)
Get It? Explain why the contractile vacuoles are necessary in
hypotonic environments to maintain homeostasis.
Organize facts about amoebas in the table below.
Phylum: Excretion method:
Habitats: Feeding method:
Body structures: Reproduction method:


249
Organize information about the members of the phylum Apicomplexa.
Members of phylum
Apicomplexa
also called are
because they produce obtaining nutrients from
Explain how zooflagellates that cause sleeping sickness are similar to

sporozoans that cause malaria.

250
Organize information about algae by completing the chart.
Algae
Like plants: Unlike plants:
Function of secondary pigments: Found in many colors because:
Analyze the asexual and sexual reproductive cycles of sea lettuce

and other algae by writing the letter for each step in the correct
column.
a. fertilization d. gametes released

b. spores germinate e. sporophyte
c. gametophyte f. zygote forms
Diploid (2n) Generation Haploid (n) Generation


251
Summarize the alternation of generations.
The haploid form of the The diploid form is called a

algae, , .
produces .
Certain cells in the sporophyte

The gametes join to form undergo .
a .
These spores are that

From the zygote, the develop into new
form of the algae will develop. .
Get It? Compare and contrast fungi and slime molds.

252
Compare and contrast acellular and cellular slime molds by using the
following phrases to complete the Venn diagram.
• found in damp, shady places • form colonies that function as

• m
ost of life cycle spent as a single organism
single, amoeba-like cells • mobile mass of cytoplasm with
no separate cells
Acellular Cellular
Slime Molds Both Slime Molds

253
Organize information about water molds and downy mildews by
Water Molds and Downy Mildews

Habitat
Source of nutrition
Similarities to fungi
Differences from fungi

254
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Identify ways in which some protozoa are able to maintain homeostasis.
2. Explain why algae are considered the primary producers for aquatic and marine
ecosystems.
3. Classify an organism that has cell walls made of cellulose and absorbs its nutrients
from dead organisms.
4. Summarize the role of secondary photosynthetic pigments in algae.

5. Recommend a procedure that a garden-shop owner should follow to prevent slime

molds from growing on his or her wooden benches.

255
6. There are approximately 50,000 species of protozoa, of which about 7000 are
ciliates. What percentage of protozoans are ciliates?
7. An elementary school teacher asks for help in teaching his third-grade students
about the different types of protists. Write a paragraph summarizing the important
characteristics of each in a way that is easy to understand.

256
Protists and Fungi
3 Introduction to Fungi
VOCABULARY
decomposer
decomposer

chitin
chitin
hypha
mycelium
hypha
fruiting body
septum
spore mycelium
sporangium
fruiting body
septum
spore
sporangium

257
3 Introduction to Fungi (continued)
Describe the kingdom Fungi.
Most are
Kingdom Fungi
Unicellular fungi are known as
List three features of fungi that distinguish them from plants.
Features that
distinguish fungi
from plants
Get It? Describe the structural unit of a mushroom.
Organize information about the structure of multicellular fungi by

completing the graphic organizer.
Hyphae

branch to form a network of form a reproductive
filaments called a structure called the
have walls called

that divide hyphae into cells

258
Describe how fungi digest their food outside the body.
Classify types of fungi by writing how each obtains food.
Saprophytes
Mutualists
Parasites
Identify the 3 forms of asexual reproduction in fungi on the

lines below.
Forms of asexual
reproduction
Analyze three ways that reproduction by spores gives fungi an

adaptive advantage.
Adaptive
advantage of
reproduction by
spores

259
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Name three major characteristics of Kingdom Fungi.
2. Describe how the parts of a fungus work together to help it get the nutrients it
needs to survive.
3. Contrast the methods that parasitic, saprophytic, and mutualistic fungi use to
obtain food.
4. Explain three methods of asexual reproduction in fungi.

5. Explain how a slice of bread that is left out on a table can become covered with
bread mold.
6. Research and write an article for a gardening magazine about how fungi can be
used to control insect pests in gardens.

260
Protists and Fungi
4 Fungus Diversity and Ecology
VOCABULARY
flagellated
flagellated
definition below.
in molds, hypha that spreads across the surface of food
in molds, hypha that penetrates food and absorbs nutrients
a mold reproductive structure that contains a haploid nucleus
in sac fungi, hypha that produces spores on its tip for asexual
reproduction
in sac fungi, a reproductive structure where a zygote forms

during sexual reproduction
in sac fungi, a saclike structure where spores develop during

sexual reproduction
spores produced by the ascus in sac fungi
fruiting body of club fungi
club-shaped hypha that produces spores in club fungi
spore produced in basidia during sexual reproduction of club fungi
symbiotic relationship between a specialized fungus and plant roots

the process of fungi decomposing organic materials in the pollutants

into harmless substances

261
4 Fungus Diversity and Ecology (continued)
Model a phylogenetic tree for fungi and label the major phyla.
Summarize the evidence supporting the initial classification of

chytrids as protists and later reclassification as fungi.
Chytrids are like protists. Chytrids are like fungi.
Sequence how zygomycetes reproduce sexually, by completing the

graphic organizer.
Each hyphae
produces a
gametangium,
which contains a

haploid nucleus.

262
Organize information about where the spores of sac fungi form during
reproduction.
Where
Spores Form
Asexual Sexual
Reproduction Reproduction
Model a club fungi. Label the basidiocarp and the basidia.
Predict what might happen to the phylum Deuteromycota as

scientists continue to study its species. Explain your reasoning.

263
Identify the symbiotic relationships formed by the partners in the
graphic organizer.
specialized plant
fungus roots
green alga or
fungus
cyanobacterium
Complete the paragraph below to describe mycorrhizal relationships.

The fungal partner of a Eucalyptus tree absorbs for
the tree. The tree can absorb more water because the of
the fungus increase the of the tree’s roots. In return, the
fungus receives from the tree.
Analyze the benefits of lichens as . . .
bioindicators
Get It? Infer how an ecosystem might change if its fungi suddenly
disappeared.

264
Organize the beneficial effects of fungi in the table below.
Role of Fungi Benefits to Humans

as decomposers
in medicine
in foods
in bioremediation
Describe the harmful effects of fungi on each of the following.
Plants Humans

265
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Identify two characteristics of each of the four major phyla of fungi.
2. Describe What are imperfect fungi?
3. Identify the characteristics of the mutualistic relationship between fungi and algae.
4. Explain why lichens are important for the environment.
5. Infer the effect on world food production if a fungicide was discovered that destroys
all of the fungi in agricultural settings.

6. Lichens grow an average of one centimeter per year. How long would it take for a
lichen to grow the width of your hand?
7. Write a news story detailing how a scientist reclassified a species of imperfect fungi
once sexual reproduction was identified.

266
19 Introduction to Plants
K W L
Science Notebook • Introduction to Plants

267
Introduction to Plants
1 Plant Evolution and Diversity
stomata stomata
vascular tissue
vascular plant
vascular tissue
nonvascular plant
seed
strobilus
cotyledon vascular plant
nonvascular plant
seed
strobilus
cotyledon

268
1 Plant Evolution and Diversity (continued)
Identify two types of evidence that support the idea that multicellular
plants and green algae share a common ancestor.
Identify the 6 characteristics of the present-day members of the

algae and plant groups.
• •
• •
• •
Explain how each of the following structures help plants live on land.
Cuticle:
Stomata:
Vascular tissues:

269
Get It? Explain why vascular tissue is advantageous for plants.
Get It? Explain why water is a limiting factor for some plants.
Get It? Describe the characteristics that enable seeds to survive

harsh environmental conditions.
Classify the following plant categories by writing an NV in front of

nonvascular plants, an NS in front of seedless vascular plants, and a
VS in front of vascular plants with seeds.
cycadophytes anthocerophytes
anthophytes bryophytes

coniferophytes ginkgophytes
pterophytes gnetophytes
hepaticophytes lycophytes
SUMMARIZE
Contrast how the sperm reaches the egg differently in seed plants than in non-seed plants.

270
Analyze why nonvascular plants need to be near water.
Compare characteristics of bryophytes, anthocerophytes, and

hepaticophytes by completing the table below.
Description Environment Example

Bryophyta
Anthocerophyta
Hepaticophyta

271
Describe two characteristics of ferns and horsetails.
Compare the 2 divisions of non-seed vascular plants by completing

the table below.
Lycophyta Pterophyta

272
Summarize the information about the divisions of seed plants
by writing one or two sentences about each division.
Division Cycadophyta:
Division Gnetophyta:
Division Ginkgophyta:
Division Coniferophyta:
Division Anthophyta:

273
Contrast monocots with eudicots and dicots.
Explain why pollen is a structural adaptation that enables seed plants

to live in diverse land habitats.

274
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Identify adaptations that make it possible for plants to survive on land.
2. Differentiate between a gametophyte and a sporophyte.
3. Compare the sporophyte and gametophyte generation of vascular and nonvascular

plants.
4. Compare and contrast a gymnosperm and an angiosperm.
5. Assess the importance of a plant’s vascular tissue to its ability to live on land.
6. Apply what you know about osmosis and diffusion to suggest why nonvascular
plants usually are small.

275
2 Plant Structure and Function
NEW VOCABULARY Classify each vocabulary word in the list to the left as being a plant
cell or a plant tissue. Then give a short description.
companion cell
epidermis Cells (5 terms) Tissues (4 terms)
ground tissue
guard cell
phloem
sieve-tube member
tracheid
vessel element
xylem

276
2 Plant Structure and Function (continued)
(continued) definition below.
layer of parenchyma cells that covers the root tip and helps protect
root tissues during growth
stalk that connects a plant’s blade to the stem
reversible, responsive movement of a plant that occurs independent

of the direction of the stimulus
leaf-tissue layer that contains many chloroplasts and is the site where
most photosynthesis takes place
layer composed of ground tissues between the epidermis and

vascular tissue of a root
cell layer at the inner boundary of the cortex; regulates the material
that enters the plant’s vascular tissues
plant tissue that produces lateral roots
process in which water evaporates from the inside of leaves to the

outside through stomata
loosely packed, irregularly shaped cells with spaces around them

located below the palisade mesophyll

277
Point out three ways that plant cells differ from animal cells.
Compare the three types of plant cells by completing the table below.
Describe one function for each type of cell.
Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma

Function
Summarize the function of each of the following.
epidermis:
stomata:

guard cells:
trichomes:

278
Model a sketch of phloem tissue. Label the following parts.
• companion cell • sieve plate • sieve tube member
Analyze ground tissue by completing the organizer below.

Made up of: Functions include:
cells
Ground
cells
Tissue
cells support

279
Compare the two main types of root systems. Describe taproots and
fibrous roots, then make a sketch of each type.
Taproots Fibrous Roots

Definition: Definition:
Sketch: Sketch:
Identify four types of stems that store food.
Summarize the information on stems in the blanks in the paragraph

below.
The main function of a plant’s stem is of
the and structures. They
also water and dissolved substances throughout

the plant. The annual growth of bundles of
and in the stem can lead to the formation
of that reveal the of the plant.
Some stems, such as , bulbs, rhizomes, and
, store .

280
Compare the shapes of leaves. Give a brief description of a simple
and a compound leaf.
simple leaf:
compound leaf:
Summarize the role of mesophyll by completing the organizer below.
Mesophyll two types of

cells
SUMMARIZE
Use an analogy to explain how plant structures are adapted to their functions.

281
Summarize the two types of tropisms in the organizer below.
Tropism is a change in a plant’s

due to an .
The tropism is if the

plant grows toward the stimulus.
The tropism is if the plant

grows from the stimulus.
Plants respond to as
they grow toward the .
Stems respond to as they grow against

away from the .
Compare tropism and nastic movement. Place each characteristic in

the correct location in the Venn diagram below.
• does not involve growth • involves plant response
• involves growth • response can be positive or negative
Nastic

Tropism Both
Movement

282
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Compare and contrast the types of plant cells.
2. Explain how a plant tissue’s structure is related to its function.
3. Summarize the primary functions of each plant organ.
4. Describe three plant tropisms.
5. Create a table that summarizes the structures and functions of the different plant
tissues.
6. Evaluate why the role of stomata in a plant is important.

283
3 Plant Reproduction
vegetative reproduction vegetative reproduction
sepal
petal
stamen sepal
pistil
petal
endosperm
seed coat
germination stamen
radicle
hypocotyl
dormancy pistil
endosperm
seed coat
germination

radicle
hypocotyl
dormancy

284
3 Plant Reproduction (continued)
List three advantages of vegetative reproduction.
1.
2.
3.
Summarize the alternation of generations in the flowchart below. Use

the words eggs, diploid zygote, and haploid gametophyte.
sporophyte embryo
sporophyte
sperm
Identify two ways that the dominant generation in a species of plant

can be determined.

285
Compare the organs of a flower in the table below. Give the
location and function for each organ.
Organ Location Function

Petal
Stamen
Sepal
Pistil
Model a complete flower and label the petals, sepals, stamen, and pistil.
Get It? Explain How do petals help flowers to reproduce?

286
Compare the characteristics of seeds and fruits in the table below.
Structure Formation Benefit to Plant

Seed
Fruit
List the main ways seed dispersal can occur.
a.
b.
c.
Get It? Compare and contrast the formation of a seed and a fruit.
Get It? Explain how seeds help plants to reproduce successfully on

land.

287
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Describe the stages of alternation of generations.
2. Identify advantages of vegetative reproduction.
3. Explain how each of the four organs of a typical flower work together to help a plant
reproduce.
4. Describe traits of a typical monocot flower and a typical eudicot flower.
5. Compare and contrast the germination of monocot and eudicot seeds.

6. Assess the importance of pollinators for imperfect flowers.
7. As many as three million seeds can form inside an orchid pod. What is the
percentage of germination, if all three million seeds are planted and 1,860,000
germinate?

288
20 Introduction to Animals
K W L
Science Notebook • Introduction to Animals

289
Introduction to Animals
1 Animal Characteristics
VOCABULARY
protist
protist
NEW VOCABULARY Compare the terms in the table by defining them side by side.
blastula
vertebrate invertebrate
ectoderm
endoderm endoskeleton exoskeleton
endoskeleton
exoskeleton
internal fertilization external fertilization
external fertilization
gastrula
hermaphrodite blastula gastrula
internal fertilization
invertebrate
mesoderm
tissue
Use your book to define each vocabulary term.
vertebrate
hermaphrodite
zygote

tissue
zygote

290
1 Animal Characteristics (continued)
Identify the following facts about animals.
earliest true animals from which all others likely evolved
features that mark the branching points of the evolutionary tree
different ways that animals digest food
Get It? Distinguish between vertebrates and invertebrates.
Analyze each habitat below. Give an example of an adaptation that

enables an animal to live in that habitat.
Habitat Adaptation
Polar region
Ocean
Rain forest
Identify an important difference between plants and animals.
Get It? Infer why movement is important to an animal’s survival.

291
Sequence the development of an animal from fertilization to birth by
completing the following paragraph.
During reproduction, fertilization occurs

when an is penetrated by a ,
forming a . After and cell division
begin, the egg is called an embryo. The cells form a fluid-filled ball
called a . Some cells migrate inside, forming a
cup-shaped structure called the , which has two cell
layers. The layer on the outside is the and will form the
. The inner layer is called the ,
which will form .
All animals retain the two embryonic cell layers throughout their lives,
but others develop a third cell layer, the , between the
other layers. This layer forms
.
Get It? Infer the advantages and disadvantages of asexual

reproduction in animals.
Get It? Explain the differences between the blastula and the Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education
gastrula.

292
List the cell layers from the most interior to the most exterior.
Identify the tissues that develop from each layer.
Layers of Cells in the Gastrula
Get It? Explain the effect of having three tissue layers during early
development.
Get It? Describe the possible effects of mutation on a Hox gene.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Infer why colonial organisms that lived grouped together might have been one of
the first steps toward multicellular organisms in the course of evolution.
2. Discuss three distinguishing characteristics that organisms in the animal kingdom

share.
3. Describe how the evolution of nerve and muscle tissue is related to one of the main
characteristics of animals.

293
4. Diagram how an animal zygote becomes a gastrula.
5. Model the stages of cell differentiation in embryonic development by comparing

them to pushing in the end of a balloon. Draw a diagram of this process and label it
with the stages of cell differentiation.
6. Biologists have observed that it is common for an animal that doubles its mass to
increase its length 1.26 times. Suppose an animal has a mass of 2.5 kg and is 30 cm
long. If this animal grows to a mass of 5 kg, how long will it be?

294
Introduction to Animals
2 Animal Body Plans
VOCABULARY
phylogeny
phylogeny
NEW VOCABULARY Compare the terms within each table by writing their definitions.
acoelomate
anterior posterior dorsal ventral
anterior
bilateral symmetry
cephalization
chordate
cephalization
coelom
deuterostome symmetry
dorsal bilateral radial
dorsal tubular nerve chord
neural crest
notochord protostome deuterostome
pharyngeal pouches
postanal tail
posterior coelom acoelomate pseudocoelom
protostome
pseudocoelom
radial symmetry
symmetry Match the term on the left with its definition on the right.
ventral paired structures connecting the muscular
chordate tube linking the mouth cavity and the
esophagus
dorsal tubular
group of cells that develops from the nerve
nerve chord
cord in vertebrates
neural crest deuterostomes that have a dorsal tubular nerve
cord, notochord, pharyngeal pouches, and
postanal tail
postanal tail at some point in its development
pharyngeal tube-shaped chordate nerve cord located
pouches above the digestive organs
used primarily for locomotion
295
2 Animal Body Plans (continued)
Model an evolutionary tree, and show what the trunk, branches, and
branching points represent.
Get It? Summarize the structure of an evolutionary tree. Explain the

change in body plans as you move up the evolutionary tree.
Analyze the evolutionary sequence by completing the sentences.
The earliest animals had body plans, as do their

modern descendants, such as .

Later, sea stars, hydras, and other animals appeared with
. They were able to detect and capture
coming from any direction.
The last body plan to develop was with a head

at the end of the body and a tail at the
end of the body.

296
Model each type of body cavity labeled below.
Acoelomate Pseudocoelomate Coelomate
Compare mouth development in the two major lines of coelomates.
Coelomates
Protostomes Deuterostomes
Get It? Determine whether you are classified as a protostome or a

deuterostome. Explain.
Analyze two advantages of segmentation.

1.
2.
Get It? Analyze how a notochord is important to chordates.

297
Get It? Explain the advantages of the segmented structure of the
vertebral column.
Summarize information about two major characteristics of

vertebrates.
Vertebral Column Neural Crest

Formation
Functions

298
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Explain how body symmetry is related to the phylogeny of animals.
2. Name the features marking the main branching points on the evolutionary tree of
animals.
3. Describe how an animal’s body cavity is related to its place on the evolutionary tree.
4. Compare and contrast deuterostome and protostome development.
5. Identify the embryonic evidence which illustrates that vertebrates are a subgroup of
the chordates.
6. Explain the significance of the neural crest in vertebrate development.

299
7. Explain the reasons why scientists are reconsidering evolutionary relationships
between animals such as arthropods and nematodes.
8. Write a paragraph summarizing the differences among coelomates, pseudocoelomates, and

acoelomates.

300
21 Animal Diversity and Behavior
K W L
Science Notebook • Animal Diversity and Behavior

301
Animal Diversity and Behavior
1 Invertebrates
organism permanently attached to one place
nematocyst-containing stinging cell on a cnidarian’s tentacle
capsule whose threadlike tube contains poison and barbs and is

discharged when prey touches a cnidarian
fluid within a closed space that provides rigid support for muscles to
work against
membrane that surrounds a mollusk’s internal organs
rasping tonguelike organ with rows of teeth that many mollusks use in
feeding
tiny bristle that digs into soil and anchors an earthworm as it moves
forward
middle body region of an arthropod consisting of three fused main

segments that may bear legs and wings
in invertebrates, posterior body region that contains fused segments,

digestive structures, reproductive organs, and bears additional legs;
in vertebrates, part of body that is between the diaphragm and pelvis
a structure such as a leg or an antenna that grows and extends from

the body or body covering
system or fluid-filled, closed tubes that allow echinoderms to control

movement and get food

animal of the phylum Chordata having a dorsal tubular nerve cord, a
notochord, pharyngeal pouches, and a postanal tail at some point in
its development.
chordate without a backbone
flexible, rodlike structure extending the length of the chordate body,

enabling the body to bend and make side-to-side movements
tube-shaped chordate nerve cord located above the digestive organs
in chordate embryos, one of the paired structures connecting the

muscular tube lining the mouth cavity and the esophagus.
chordate structure used primarily for locomotion

302
1 Invertebrates (continued)
SUMMARIZE
Compare cnidarians and sponges.
Summarize facts about flatworms in the table.
Coelom Present? Number of Body Openings
Preferred environments Adaptations for movement of

free-living flatworm
Diet of a free-living flatworm Symmetry
What happens when Adaptations for parasitic

free-living flatworms lifestyle
are damaged
Identify the correct flatworm class for each characteristic below and
write it in the appropriate box. Some characteristics may belong in
more than one class.
• parasitic • free-living • eyespots
Classes of Flatworms
Trematodes Cestodes Turbellarians

303
Organize information about roundworms by filling in the chart below.
Phylum: Symmetry:
Number of species:
Body shape:
Coelom Present?

CONNECT
Compare the digestive tracts of roundworms with those in free-living flatworms. What does the
comparison suggest about the probable evolutionary history of roundworms?

304
Model a snail and a squid. Explain the differences in movement.
Get It? Explain why the evolution of a coelom is important to

mollusks.

305
Analyze the three classes of mollusks and the meaning of each class
name. Provide at least three examples of each class.
Mollusks
Gastropods Bivalves Cephalopods
Examples: Examples: Examples:
Classify each mollusk in the left column of the table. Place it in the
proper class.
Class Mollusk Characteristics

one or no shells; moves by waves of foot
contractions over a film of mucus
has no radula; has two shells connected with a

ligament, and a large, muscular foot for digging in
the sand
has a radula and tentacles; has no shell; swims by
jet propulsion

306
Get It? Summarize how segmentation is related to the structure
and function of segmented worms.
Organize information about annelids. Identify two characteristics of

each annelid. Then write the class to which they belong.
fanworms leeches earthworms and

bristleworms their relatives
Class: Class: Class:


307
Compare arthropods to annelids by listing characteristics below.
Arthropods
Like annelids: Unlike annelids:
Identify the structures attached to or contained in the main body

regions of arthropods.
Anterior: Middle: Posterior:
List the functions of an exoskeleton.
Get It? Relate segmentation, exoskeletons, and jointed Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education
appendages to the success of arthropods.

308
Compare the common characteristics of the major arthropod groups.
Arthropod
Groups
Example: crab Example: fly
Group: Group:
Antennae: Antennae:
Eyes: Eyes:
Body sections: two—abdomen Body sections:

and cephalothorax
Appendages:
Appendages:
Example: wolf spider

Group:
Antennae:
Body sections:
Appendages:

309
Echinoderm Class Distinctive Features

Members
Asteroidea
Ophiuroidea
Echinoidea
Crinoidea
Holothuroidea
Concentricycloidea

310
Identify key developments in the evolution of echinoderms and
invertebrate chordates by completing the following paragraph.
Probably echinoderms evolved from ancestors with
symmetry because echinoderms have this kind of symmetry in
the stage. Echinoderms develop symmetry
in the adult stage. development links echinoderms
and chordates. The key features of shared by lancelets
and tunicates show their close relationship, though have
these features only as larvae. A key development in the evolution of
chordates was the , a long, semirigid, rodlike structure
along the animals’ dorsal side.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. List one characteristic that is unique to sponges and one characteristic that is
unique to cnidarians.
2. Compare and contrastthe features of flatworms and roundworms.

3. Summarizehow segmentation was an important evolutionary milestone.
4. Explainwhy jointed appendages are important to an animal with an exoskeleton.

311
5. Differentiate movement in two-shelled mollusks, snails, and squids.
6. Model Make a set of line drawings to model each of the six classes of echinoderms.
7. Write a paragraph describing how sponges and tunicates are alike. Write another
paragraph describing how they are different from each other.

312
2 Vertebrates
VOCABULARY
notochord
notochord
fluid-filled membrane that surrounds and protects a developing

embryo
mammalian gland that produces and secretes milk to nourish

developing young
a paddle-shaped structure used for balance, steering, and propulsion
organism that generates its body heat internally by its own

metabolism
in most mammals, the specialized organ that provides food and

oxygen to the developing young and removes its wastes
the breastbone in vertebrates; in birds, bone to which flight muscles

are attached
small, flat, platelike structure on the skin surface of most fishes
specialized outgrowth of the skin of birds used for flight and

insulation
egg that provides a complete environment for the developing embryo

with a yolk sac for nutrition, protective internal membranes and fluid,
and a protective outer shell

313
2 Vertebrates (continued)
Classify fishes and provide an example in the organizer below.
Fishes
Characteristic:
Examples:
Characteristic: Examples:
cartilaginous
Characteristic: Examples:
trout, salmon
Compare and contrast how each pair of fishes are alike and how
they differ.
Hagfish and shark
Alike:
Different:

Trout and rays
Alike:
Different:

314
Analyze the effects of human activities on fishes.
Damming rivers in Pacific Northwest:
Polluting waterways:
Get It? Explain how fishes are good bioindicators.
Identify two adaptations that helped amphibians leave water for

life on land.
1.
2.
CONNECT
Describe ways in which humans can use water resources with less impact on aquatic ecosystems.
Identify how an individual could support this effort.

315
Create a concept map to show characteristics and examples of each
order of amphibians.
Describe factors in the worldwide decline of amphibians and explain

how each factor affects the ability of amphibians to survive.
Local factors:
Effects:
Global factors: Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education
Effects:

316
Identify the adaptations reptiles made to survive on land.
Needed for Life on Land Adaptation

protect embryo from drying out
prevent excessive loss of water

and minerals from the body
ability to move quickly
crocodile’s need for more

oxygen delivered to cells to help
move its large body
tough outer covering that doesn’t
grow as the animal grows
Identify each animal’s ancestors as diapsids, anapsids, or synapsids.
birds lizards
mammals turtles
Analyze how loss of a reptile species could upset the balance of an

ecosystem.

317
Sequence the respiratory organs of a bird. Place the organs from the
list below in the proper sequence. One organ appears more than once.
• lungs • anterior air sacs
• posterior air sacs • trachea
Air enters
and exits
Get It? Summarize the adaptations of birds’ bones and muscles

that are related to flight.
Identify the order and one member of the order for each
distinguishing characteristic listed below.
Characteristic Order/Member

builds nests in cavities Piciformes/woodpecker
flipper-like wings; solid bones
flightless; includes largest living birds
sing; feet adapted for perching
marine; tube-shaped nostrils
long legs for wading
nocturnal; large eyes; talons
aquatic; round beak

318
Compare features of dinosaurs found in fossil records that are similar
to features of present-day birds.
Analyze how birds are key to the survival of many plants.
SUMMARIZE
Create a graphic organizer showing characteristics of mammals. The organizer should distinguish
characteristics common to all mammals from characteristics common to only certain species.

319
List six of the main functions of hair in mammals.
Analyze characteristics of monotremes by identifying their

mammal-like and reptilelike features.
Mammalian features:
Monotremes
Reptilian features:
Compare and contrast monotremes, marsupials, and placental

mammals by giving an example and description of each.
Monotremes Marsupials Placental Mammals

320
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Identify the characteristics that most fishes have in common.
2. Summarize the characteristics of each order of amphibians.
3. Describe the parts of an amniotic egg. How did this structure allow reptiles to
survive on land?
4. Identify the characteristics of birds that make them adapted for flight.
5. Construct an argument using evidence that hair plays an important role in the
survival of mammals.
6. The biting force of alligators is directly proportional to their lengths. An alligator that
is 1 m long has a biting force of 2653 N. What is the biting force of a larger alligator
that is 3.6 m long?

321
3 Animal Behavior
VOCABULARY
natural selection
natural selection
NEW VOCABULARY Use the new vocabulary words to complete the paragraph below.
behavior Any way that an animal responds to a stimulus is .
classical conditioning Some behaviors, such as , are genetically based.
cognitive behavior An animal that carries out a specific set of actions, in the same order,
fixed action pattern in response to a stimulus is exhibiting a .
habituation Behavior that results from an interaction between genetically based
imprinting behaviors and past experiences is . An example is
innate behavior , in which the response decreases after repeated
learned behavior exposure to a stimulus that has no positive or negative effects.
operant conditioning An animal can learn to associate two different kinds of stimuli through
. Learning through
involves rewards and punishments. One type of permanent learning,
called , occurs only within a specific time period.
When an animal solves a problem, it is exhibiting .

322
3 Animal Behavior (continued)
NEW VOCABULARY Write the correct term in the left column for each
(continued) definition below.
threatening or combative behavior between two members of the

same species
ranking system in which the top-ranked animal gets access to

resources without conflict from others in the group
competitive behavior in which an animal tries to adopt and defend a

physical area
ecological behavior that involves finding and eating food
seasonal movement of a group of animals to a new location for

feeding and breeding
cycle that occurs daily, such as sleeping and waking
auditory communication in which animals use their vocal organs to

produce sounds with shared meanings
species-specific series of movements or sounds used to attract a

mate
caretaking behavior that a parent provides to its offspring during early

stages of development
self-sacrificing behavior that benefits another individual
Contrast learned behavior to innate behavior. Give an example of

a behavior in response to a particular stimulus.

323
Organize information about the different kinds of learned behaviors
in the chart.
Learned
Description Example
Behavior
a horse ignoring noisy

cars that pass by its
pasture
a cat rushing to its food

bowl at the sound of a
can opener because
its food is opened with
a can opener
learning to associate
a response to a
stimulus with a
reward or punishment
Imprinting
Cognitive
behavior
Get It? Explain how imprinting affects the survival and reproductive
success of some animals.

324
Get It? Explain how territorial behaviors can affect the survival of
individual organisms.
Contrast language with communication. Give an example of

communication and an example of language.
Get It? Evaluate the role of altruistic behaviors on survival and

reproduction of individuals and species.

325
Analyze why an animal might engage in altruistic behavior, even
though the behavior does not promote its own reproductive success.
Organize the costs and benefits for survival and reproductive success
of the behaviors listed below.
Behavior Benefit Cost

Geese fly south
before winter in
North America
Male lions fight to

establish a
territory.
Hawk parents fly

many kilometers
daily to find food
for their young.
CONNECT
You have dominance hierarchies in your life similar to some animals. Although they function
differently, some of the benefits are the same. Describe one of these hierarchies and its advantages.

326
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Compare and contrast innate and learned behavior.
2. Illustrate specific examples of two types of learned behavior.
3. Explain how the behavior of an animal relates to its survival and reproductive
success.
4. Analyze the advantages and disadvantages of nurturing behaviors.
5. Explain why migration is advantageous for some animals.

6. Infer A toad eats a bumblebee and receives a painful sting on its tongue. From then
on, the toad avoids feeding on bumblebees or any other yellow and black insects.
What kind of behavior is the toad exhibiting?
7. The data in Figure 30 show that the squirrel kept in continual darkness shifted the time
of its activity slightly each day. After 23 days, the squirrel’s activity cycle had shifted
by 8 hours. On average, how much, in minutes, did the activity cycle change each
day?

327
22 I ntegumentary, Skeletal, and Muscular
Systems
K W L
Science Notebook • Integumentary, Skeletal, and Muscular Systems

329
Integumentary, Skeletal, and Muscular Systems
1 The Integumentary System
VOCABULARY
integument
integument
definition below.
a pigment manufactured by cells in the inner layer of epidermis that

protects from ultraviolet radiation and affects skin color
structure that produces oil that lubricates skin and hair
protein found in the outer layers of epidermal cells that waterproofs

and protects the cells and tissues underneath
narrow cavity in the dermis from which hair cells grow
the outer superficial layer of skin
the inner, thicker layer of skin
ACADEMIC Define function, then write a sentence to show its scientific meaning.
VOCABULARY
function
function

330
1 The Integumentary System (continued)
Analyze the four types of body tissues in the integumentary system,
and give the function of each one.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Classify each phrase as describing the dermis or epidermis. Write

each phrase under the correct skin layer.
• consists of connective tissue • contains muscle fibers, nerve

• has inner and outer portions cells, sweat glands, and oil
• contains dead cells that shed glands
• contains keratin • outer layer of skin
• contains melanin • inner, thicker portion of skin
Main Layers of Skin

Dermis Epidermis
Get It? Describe the hierarchical structure and organization of the

skin.

331
Get It? Identify the functions of the skin and which layer of skin is
associated with each function.
Sequence the steps that occur during skin healing.
A scab forms on the skin to

close the wound.
The skin receives a cut that

bleeds.
White blood cells move in

to fight infection.
Cells beneath the scab

multiply and fill the wound.
Blood flows out of the

wound and a clot forms.

Get It? Contrast the three types of burns.

332
CONNECT
Your skin changes as you age. Describe some things you can do to protect your skin so that it
can better protect your body.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Relate the components of cells in skin to their function.
2. Summarize the types of tissues in the integumentary system and their functions.
3. Generalize different ways the integumentary system helps a human survive.
4. Sequence the steps of skin repair in response to a cut.

333
5. Compare effects of first-degree, second-degree, and third-degree burns.
6. Evaluate the labels of two skin creams to compare how they claim to benefit the
skin.
7. To determine how long an SPF will protect a person from burning in the Sun,
multiply the amount of time the person can spend in the Sun before starting to burn
by the SPF rating. If an individual who usually burns in 10 min uses a product with an
SPF of 15, how long will the protection last?

334
2 The Skeletal System
VOCABULARY cartilage
cartilage

axial skeleton
axial skeleton
appendicular skeleton
compact bone
appendicular skeleton
osteocyte
spongy bone
red bone marrow compact bone
yellow bone marrow osteocyte
osteoblast
spongy bone
ossification
red bone marrow
osteoclast
ligament
yellow bone marrow
osteoblast
ossification
osteoclast
ligament

335
2 The Skeletal System (continued)
Identify the two main divisions of the human skeleton and the bones
each includes.
includes
includes
Create a sketch of a bone. Show and label compact bone, spongy

bone, and the location of osteons. Use the figure in your book to help
you.
Get It? Describe the feedback mechanisms involved in healing a

broken bone.

Sequence the steps in the repair of fractured bone. The first step has
been completed for you.
1. Endorphins 2. 3.
flood the area of
injury.
4. 5. 6.

336
Classify each bone joint listed below as one or more of the following
types:
• gliding • hinge • ball-and-socket
• suture • pivot
knee joint skull joint
elbow joint shoulder joint
hip joint wrist joint
ankle joint vertebral joint
Complete the concept map about the skeletal system functions.
Skeletal System
Functions
SUMMARIZE
Compare yellow bone marrow and red bone marrow.

337
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Identify and describe the functions of the axial skeleton and the appendicular
skeleton.
2. Compare the compositions of red bone marrow and yellow bone marrow.
3. Compare the body’s mechanism for repairing a fractured bone with the original
development of bone.
4. Construct a classification scheme for all of the bones shown in Figure 6.
5. Consider what the result might be if osteoblast and osteoclast cells did not function

properly both in a developing fetus and in an adult.
6. Distinguish between compact and spongy bone based on appearance, location,

and function.

338
3 The Muscular System
VOCABULARY
anaerobic
anaerobic

smooth muscle
smooth muscle
involuntary muscle
cardiac muscle
involuntary muscle
skeletal muscle
voluntary muscle cardiac muscle
tendon
myofibril skeletal muscle
myosin
actin
voluntary muscle
sarcomere
tendon
myofibril
myosin
actin
sarcomere

339
3 The Muscular System (continued)
Identify each type of muscle as voluntary or involuntary.
1.
2.
3.
Distinguish between voluntary muscles and involuntary muscles.
Get It? Describe how the three types of muscle cells support
essential functions of life.
Model the structure and appearance of each type of muscle. Label

the nucleus and striation if the muscle is striated. Next to each muscle,

describe its function.
Muscle Model Muscle Function

Smooth Muscle
Cardiac Muscle
Skeletal Muscle

340
Analyze muscle tissue by completing the graphic organizer.
is containing
Skeletal arranged made protein
muscle in up of filaments
arranged in
sections called
Summarize the sliding filament theory.
Contrast the abilities of slow-twitch and fast-twitch muscles.
Slow-twitch Fast-twitch
CONNECT
Contract your biceps muscle. Describe what you did to contract the muscle and which muscle is
relaxed. Try the opposite and contract the muscle that was relaxed and describe what happens.

341
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Construct a chart that lists similarities and differences among the three types of
muscles.
2. Explain why aerobic respiration occurs before lactic acid fermentation in most
muscles.
3. Compare the role of mitochondria in slow-twitch and fast-twitch muscle fibers.
4. Infer Wild turkeys have a higher ratio of dark meat (muscle) to white meat than
farm-raised turkeys. Why does this allow wild turkeys to fly longer distances than

domesticated turkeys?
5. Write an essay about how structure and function are related in the context of
muscles.

342
23 Nervous System
K W L
Science Notebook • Nervous System

343
Nervous System
1 Structure of the Nervous System
VOCABULARY
diffusion
diffusion
definition below.
specialized cell that helps you gather, interpret, and react to

information about your environment
region of a neuron that receives impulses from other neurons and

conducts them to the cell body
contains the nucleus of a neuron and many of the cell organelles
region of a neuron that carries the nerve impulse from the cell body
to other neurons and muscles
nerve pathway that consists of a sensory neuron, an interneuron, and

a motor neuron
nerve impulse
minimum stimulus to cause an action potential to be produced
gap in the myelin sheath along the length of an axon
small gap between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of

another neuron
chemical that diffuses across a synapse and binds to receptors on the

dendrite of a neighboring cell

344
1 Structure of the Nervous System (continued)
Label the neuron. Include the axon, axon endings, cell body,
dendrites, nucleus, and myelin sheath. Draw arrows to show the
direction that impulses move through the neuron.
Get It? Relate dendrites, axons, and cell bodies.

Analyze how the myelin sheath increases the speed at which

impulses move.

345
Sequence the steps in how a nerve impulse moves from one neuron
to another neuron by writing the numbers 1 to 5 in the squares to the
left of the steps.
The neurotransmitter moves across the synapse

and binds to receptors on the dendrite of a
neighboring neuron.
An electrical impulse is sent along an axon,

jumping from node to node in axons covered
with myelin.
The neuron is at rest, with more sodium ions

outside the cell and more potassium ions inside
the cell.
The impulse reaches the synapse, where

channels again open. Vesicles fuse with the
plasma membrane and release a neurotransmitter
by exocytosis.

The threshold for an action potential is reached
at a dendrite, opening channels in the plasma
membrane and causing a reversal in electrical
charge.
Get It? Explain the relationship of a threshold to an action potential.

346
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Relatethe structure of a neuron to its function.
2. Describe how the structures of the nervous system are organized in a hierarchy.
3. Inferwhy energy is necessary to counteract the diffusion of Na+ and K+ ions across
the plasma membrane of a neuron.
4. Plan an experiment that neurobiologists could use to show that an action potential
travels faster along a myelinated axon than along a nonmyelinated axon.
5. The sciatic nerve extends from the lower spinal cord to the foot. If a person’s sciatic
nerve is 0.914 m in length and the speed of an action potential is 107 m/s, how long
will it take for a nerve impulse to travel the full distance of this nerve?

347
Nervous System
2 Organization of the Nervous System
VOCABULARY
sensory
sensory
NEW VOCABULARY Classify each term in the left column as being part of the nervous
system or part of the brain. Write a brief definition of each term.
autonomic nervous system
cerebrum Peripheral Nervous System Central Nervous System
(4 terms) (4 terms)
hypothalamus
medulla oblongata
parasympathetic nervous
system
pons
somatic nervous system
sympathetic nervous
system

348
2 Organization of the Nervous System (continued)
Identify two body parts that make up the central nervous system.
1. 2.
Get It? Describe the function of the central nervous system.
Get It? Explain the importance of folds and grooves on the surface
of the cerebrum.
Get It? Explain the importance of the central nervous system in the
human body.
Organize the information about three main sections of the brain in the
table below.
Medulla
Cerebrum Cerebellum
Oblongata
Description
Function

349
Organize and summarize each division of the nervous system and its
function.
• autonomic • central • parasympathetic
• peripheral • somatic • sympathetic
Nervous System

Get It? Summarize the importance of the peripheral nervous
system in the human body.

350
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Compare the structures of the central nervous system with the structures of the
peripheral nervous system and explain their relationships.
2. Assessthe similarities and differences between the somatic nervous system and the
autonomic nervous system.
3. Explain Which part of the nervous system is involved in a fight-or-flight response?

Why is such a response important?
4. Hypothesizewhat types of tests a researcher could perform to check whether

different sections of the brain were functioning.
5. Createa model that demonstrates how information flows between the peripheral
and central nervous systems.
6. W
rite a short story that describes a situation involving the heart when the sympathetic
and parasympathetic nervous systems work together to maintain homeostasis.

351
Nervous System
3 The Senses
VOCABULARY
stimulus
stimulus

taste bud
taste bud
lens
retina
lens
rod
cone
cochlea retina
semicircular canal
rod
cone
cochlea

semicircular canal

352
3 The Senses (continued)
Identify the sensory receptors in the mouth and nasal cavity.
Sensory
receptors
Compare the steps in smelling and tasting. Write the steps for
smelling on the left. Write the steps for tasting on the right. Some
steps have been completed for you.
Chemical molecules
touch receptors in your
nose.
Receptors respond to
chemicals.
Receptors send
information to the
olfactory bulb in the brain.
Compare how rods and cones in your eyes help you to sense light.
Rods Cones
Both

353
Sequence the steps in how your sense of hearing works, by writing
the numbers 1 to 5 in the squares to the left of the steps.
The hairs produce electric impulses that travel to

the cerebrum, where they are interpreted as
sound.
The stapes causes the membrane of the oval

window to move back and forth.
Sound waves enter your ear and travel down to

the end of the ear canal.
Sound waves strike the eardrum and cause it to

vibrate. The vibrations pass to the bones in the
middle ear.
Fluid in the cochlea moves, causing the hair cells

to bend.

Get It? Summarize how each sense organ detects changes in the
environment.

354
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Diagram the route of a sound wave from the auditory canal until it causes a nerve
impulse to be generated.
2. Predictwhat might be the result if the cornea was damaged.
3. Analyzethe importance of the kind of receptors found in the fingers.
4. Explainwhy it might be difficult to taste when you have a cold and your nasal
passages are clogged.
5. Constructan experiment to test the idea that certain areas of the tongue are
taste-specific.
6. Developa hypothesis as to why people who have lost their sense of sight still
experience sight occasionally. People who once could hear occasionally experience
sound. Why might these phenomena occur?

355
Nervous System
4 Effects of Drugs
VOCABULARY
threshold
threshold

drug
drug
dopamine
stimulant
dopamine
depressant
tolerance
addiction stimulant
depressant
tolerance
addiction

356
4 Effects of Drugs (continued)
Summarize four ways drugs can act on the body.
Ways Drugs Act on the Body
Compare the three main classes of commonly abused drugs. Identify

each class, how it works in the body, and common examples.
CLASSES OF COMMONLY
ABUSED DRUGS
HOW HOW HOW

THEY THEY THEY
WORK: WORK: WORK:
EXAMPLES: EXAMPLES: EXAMPLES:

357
Analyze the short-term and long-term risks of smoking marijuana.
Short-term risks:
Long-term risks:
Get It? Explain the function of a neurotransmitter.
Identify the following scenarios as tolerance, physiological

dependence, or psychological dependence.
“ I just can’t go to that party

without having some alcohol. I need it
to feel like I fit in.”
“ I used to take two painkillers a day,

but lately I have to take three or four
pills to get the same effect as before.”
“ When I try to go for a day without

my caffeine, I get a terrible headache

and nausea.”
Get It? Explain the best way to avoid addiction.
CONNECT
Analyze why some stimulants are illegal and others are not.

358
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Describe four ways that drugs can influence the nervous system.
2. Comparethe actions of cocaine, amphetamines, and nicotine on the nervous system.
3. Explainwhy the effects of stimulants and depressants do not necessarily

counteract each other.
4. Inferwhy students who abuse amphetamines are likely to experience failing grades.
5. Discusshow, on a cellular level, a person can become addicted to a drug.

359
6. Design an experiment Drugs affect people in different ways and at different rates.
How would you design an experiment to determine the rate at which a drug reaches
different body tissues?

360
24 C
irculatory, Respiratory, and Excretory
Systems
K W L
Science Notebook • Circulatory, Respiratory, and Excretory Systems

361
Circulatory, Respiratory, and Excretory Systems
1 Circulatory System
VOCABULARY
muscle contraction
muscle contraction
NEW VOCABULARY Use the new vocabulary terms to complete the paragraph below.
arteries Large blood vessels called carry oxygenated blood
atherosclerosis away from the heart. The blood flows into microscopic ,
capillaries where the blood exchanges oxygen and wastes with body cells. Then
heart carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart. In
pacemaker these large vessels, flaps of tissue called prevent
plasma blood from flowing backward. The hollow, muscular
platelets pumps blood throughout the body. A in the right
red blood cells atrium sends out signals that tell the heart muscle to contract. Over half
valves of blood is made up of a clear, yellowish fluid called .

The function of is to carry oxygen to all body cells.
veins
The are the body’s disease fighters. Cell fragments
white blood cells
called help to form blood clots at a wound site.
Blood clots, fat deposits, or other materials can block the flow of blood
through the arteries, resulting in a condition called .

362
1 Circulatory System (continued)
Get It? Describe the differences in structure among arteries,
capillaries, and veins.
Analyze how the circulatory system functions as the body’s

transport system.
Get It?
Compare and contrast the SA node and the AV node.

363
Identify the components of blood, and list the characteristics of each.
Blood Component Characteristics
Get It? Explain the functions of plasma.
Distinguish between blood type, by putting checks in the boxes to

show which marker molecules and antibodies it contains.
Blood Marker Marker Anti-A Anti-B

Type A B Antibody Antibody
A
B

AB
O
Compare heart attacks to strokes.
Heart Attack Stroke
Causes
Effects

364
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Diagramthe path of blood through the heart and body.
2. Compare and contrastthe structure of arteries and the structure of veins.
3. Calculatethe average number of red blood cells for every 100 white blood cells in
the human body.
4. Summarize the main functions of the circulatory system.

5. Explain the essential functions of life performed by the specialized cells that make
up blood.

365
6. Cause and Effect If a pacemaker received faulty signals from the brain, what would
happen?
7. Hypothesizewhy exercise helps to maintain a healthy heart.
8. C
ount the number of times your heart beats during 15 seconds. What is your heart
rate per minute?

366
2 Respiratory System
VOCABULARY
ATP
ATP

breathing
breathing
external respiration
external respiration
internal respiration
trachea
bronchus internal respiration
lung
alveolus trachea
bronchus
lung
alveolus

367
2 Respiratory System (continued)
Get It? Compare and contrast external respiration and internal
respiration.
Identify three structures that filter air as it enters through the nose on
its way to the lungs.
1.
2.
3.
Sequence the process of gas exchange by completing the sentences

in the flow chart below.
enters the lungs

from the atmosphere through
the process of .
The blood transports the
waste to
the to be
returned to the .

diffuses into
capillaries through the
and then into
blood cells.
Meanwhile,
moves in the opposite
direction, crossing
The blood carries the walls and
for diffusing into the
release to the body’s .
.

368
Get It? Identify the role of cilia in the respiratory system.
Model the lungs during inhalation and exhalation. Label and describe
the position of the diaphragm during each process.
Inhalation Exhalation
Summarize each of the following common respiratory disorders.
Respiratory
Description
Disorder
Pneumonia
Emphysema
Lung cancer
Asthma
Bronchitis
SUMMARIZE
Discuss the importance of respiration to the body.

369
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Identify the main function of the respiratory system.
2. Distinguishbetween internal and external respiration.
3. Sequencethe path of air from the nasal passages to the bloodstream.
4. Describethe mechanics of inhalation and exhalation.
5. Inferhow the respiratory system would compensate for a circulatory disorder.

6. Describethree disorders of the respiratory system.

370
7. Hypothesizean advantage of heating and moisturizing air before it reaches the
alveoli.
8. The total surface area of the alveoli tissue in your lungs is approximately 70 m2. This
is more than 40 times the surface area of the skin. What is the surface area of your
skin?

371
3 Excretory System
VOCABULARY
pH
pH

kidney
kidney
urea
urea
Describe three functions of the excretory system that help maintain

homeostasis of the body.
1.
2.
3.

372
3 Excretory System (continued)
Identify the main waste products secreted by the following
components of the excretory system.
lungs:
skin:
Get It? Identify the components of the excretory system.
Model the structure of a kidney, including a diagram of a nephron.

Label each major component.
Get It? Describe the process of reabsorption.

373
Summarize information about kidney disorders in the table below.
Disorder Symptoms Common Causes Treatments

Kidney
infection
Nephritis
Kidney
stones
Describe the two types of treatments for reduced kidney function or

complete kidney failure.
Dialysis:
kidney transplant:
SUMMARIZE
Analyze the path wastes take from the kidney out of the body by making a list of the order of the
structures through which wastes flow.
1. kidneys 5.
2. 6.
3. 7.
4. 8.

374
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Explain how the kidneys help maintain homeostasis.
2. Diagramthe excretion of waste from the Bowman’s capsule to the urethra.
3. Compare and contrastfiltration and reabsorption in a nephron.
4. Explainhow kidney disorders may result from genetic or environmental factors and
how the disorder can affect an individual.
5. Hypothesizewhy kidney failure without dialysis can result in death.
6. Calculate the average amount of urine that the body produces in a week.

375
25 Digestive and Endocrine Systems
K W L
Science Notebook • Digestive and Endocrine Systems

377
Digestive and Endocrine Systems
1 The Digestive System
VOCABULARY
nutrients
nutrients
definition below.
process that breaks food into smaller pieces by chewing and by the
churning action of smooth muscles in the stomach and small intestine
action of digestive enzymes in breaking down large molecules of

food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed by cells
enzyme found in saliva that begins chemical digestion by breaking

down starches into sugars
muscular tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach
rhythmic contraction of smooth muscles that moves food through the

digestive tract
enzyme in the stomach that helps digest proteins
longest part of the digestive tract, which connects the stomach and
the large intestine and where digestion is completed
largest internal organ of the body; produces bile, which helps to

break down fats
fingerlike structures in the small intestine through which chemical

digestion is completed and most nutrients from food are absorbed
end portion of the digestive tract, which includes the colon, rectum,
and appendix

378
1 The Digestive System (continued)
Label the parts of the digestive system in the figure below.
Summarize how each organ below mechanically and chemically

digests food.
C35-04C-829900-A
Organ Mechanical Digestion Chemical Digestion
Mouth
Stomach churning of the smooth

muscles breaks food into
smaller pieces
Small
intestine
Pancreas does not apply produces enzymes that

digest carbohydrates,
proteins, and fats;
secretes alkaline fluid that
aids enzyme action
Liver does not apply

379
Get It? Explain the importance of peristalsis to digestion.
Get It? Explain how both mechanical and chemical digestion occur
in the stomach.
Sequence the path of food through the digestive tract by placing the
terms from the following list in the proper order on the flowchart.
• rectum • small intestine

mouth
• anus • large intestine
• stomach • esophagus
Analyze why a sandwich would progress through your digestive tract,

even if you ate it while standing on your head.
Contrast the digestive functions of the small intestine with those of Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education
the large intestine.
Small Intestine Large Intestine

380
Get It? Compare digestion in the mouth with digestion in the
stomach.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Describe the process that breaks down food so that nutrients can be absorbed by
the body.
2. Analyze the difference between mechanical digestion and chemical digestion.

Explain why chemical digestion is necessary for the body.
3. Summarize the main functions of the digestive system.
4. Analyze what the consequence might be if the lining of the small intestine were
completely smooth instead of having villi.

381
5. Explain why the pH in the digestive system changes. Design an experiment to
gather data about the effect of pH on the digestion of different types of food.
6. A can of carbonated beverage typically holds about 354 mL of fluid. Compare this
amount with the volume of an empty stomach. Give a ratio.

382
2 Nutrition
VOCABULARY
amino acids
amino acids

nutrition
nutrition
Calorie
vitamin
mineral
Calorie
vitamin
mineral

383
2 Nutrition (continued)
Evaluate A ssume that playing soccer requires 540 Calories per hour.
On a particular day, you ate 2,000 Calories in food. You played soccer
for 2.5 hours. Your body used 800 Calories in other activities. Did you
use more energy than you consumed on this day? Show your work.
Summarize information about carbohydrates, fats, and proteins by

Break Down Into Importance to the Body
Carbohydrates
Fats provide energy; building

blocks for body; protect
some internal organs; store
and transport some vitamins
Proteins
Get It? Compare simple and complex carbohydrates
Classify all the foods you ate yesterday in the appropriate food
groups.
Grains Fruits Milk
Vegetables Oils Meat and Beans

384
Get It? Compare and contrast vitamins and minerals.
Examine the food label below, and complete the table below
assuming you ate the contents of the entire container.
NUTRITION FACTS
Serving Size: 1 cup (237 g)
Servings Per Container: 2
Amount Per Serving

Calories 100 Calories from Fat 20
% Daily Value
Total Fat 2 g 3%
Saturated Fat 0.5 g 3%
Cholesterol 20 mg 7%
Sodium 960 mg 40%
Total Carbohydrate 13 g 4%
Dietary Fiber 1 g 5%
Sugars 1 g
Protein 9 g
Vitamin A 30% Vitamin C 0%

Calcium 2% Iron 4%
Calories Grams of Grams of Daily Value

Consumed Saturated Fat Protein of Calcium
(%)

385
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Explain the roles of vitamins and minerals in the process of maintaining
homeostasis.
2. Describe what proteins, carbohydrates, and fats are used for in the body.
3. Recommend what nutrients a vegetarian should add to his or her diet.
4. Explain why keeping a count of Calories consumed and Calories used is important
in maintaining proper functioning of the body.
5. Summarize how many Calories you consume during one day by recording

everything you eat or drink. Compare this to how many Calories you burn in an
average day.
6. Write a short article for your school newspaper describing what is needed for a
well-balanced diet.

386
3 The Endocrine System
VOCABULARY
homeostasis
homeostasis
any gland that produces hormones, which are released into the
bloodstream and distributed to body cells
acts on target cells and tissues to produce a specific response
secretes hormones that regulate many body functions as well as

other endocrine glands
hormone that causes cells to have a higher rate of metabolism
thyroid hormone that is partly responsible for the regulation of

calcium, blood clotting, nerve function, and muscle contraction
increases blood calcium by stimulating the bones to release

calcium
pancreatic hormone that signals liver and muscle cells to accelerate

the conversion of glucose to glycogen, which is stored in the liver
pancreatic hormone that signals liver cells to convert glycogen to

glucose and release the glucose into the blood
steroid hormone secreted by the adrenal glands that primarily affects

the kidneys and is important for reabsorbing sodium
steroid hormone secreted by the adrenal glands that raises blood

glucose levels and also reduces inflammation
hormone produced by the hypothalamus, regulates water balance
Get It? Explain how feedback can stabilize a system.

387
3 The Endocrine System (continued)
Contrast the action of steroid hormones and amino acid hormones.
Steroid Hormones Amino Acid Hormones
Sequence the steps in a portion of the negative feedback system.

Steps in the regulation of calcium are written in scrambled order at
right. Write the steps in the correct order in the boxes
Kidneys excrete less

calcium.
Parathyroid glands detect
calcium deficiency.
Bones release more
calcium.
Blood calcium drops too
low.
Parathyroid glands release

more parathyroid hormone.
Explain how the endocrine system functions as a communication

system.
Serves as messengers
Produces messengers
Receives the messages

388
Get It? Explain how negative feedback is important in maintaining
homeostasis.
Compare the hormone functions of the glands listed below.
Gland/ Hormones Body Functions

Location Produced Regulated
Pituitary
Location:
Thyroid
Location:
Parathyroid
Location:
Pancreas
Location:
Adrenal
Location:

389
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Explain the reasons why hormone feedback systems are referred to as “negative
feedback.”
2. Predict when high levels of insulin would be found in a person’s blood and when
high levels of glucagon would be found in a person’s blood.
3. Explain how the endocrine and nervous systems work together to maintain
homeostasis.
4. Identify and describe the functions of pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, pancreas, and
adrenal glands.
5. Research Iodine is essential for thyroid gland function. Fetal and childhood iodine
deficiency is a major cause of mental retardation in the world, yet the deficiency is
preventable. Predict how iodine deficiency might lead to mental retardation or other
health issues. Research what has been and what is being done to alleviate this concern.
Include information about sources of iodine in your response.

390
26 Human Reproduction and Development
K W L
Science Notebook • Human Reproduction and Development

391
Human Reproduction and Development
1 Reproductive Systems
VOCABULARY
hypothalamus
hypothalamus
NEW VOCABULARY Classify each vocabulary term. Give a brief description of each.
One term fits in both categories
epididymis
menstrual cycle Male Reproductive System Female Reproductive System
oocyte
oviduct
polar body
puberty
semen
seminiferous tubule
urethra
vas deferens

392
1 Reproductive Systems (continued)
List the structures of the male reproductive system below. Describe
the function of each.
Create a diagram to show how the negative feedback system works

to control FSH and LH in the male body.
Identify the three main functions of the female reproductive system.

List the structures of the human female reproductive system below.

Describe the function of each.

393
Summarize the results of each meiotic division in the production of eggs.
First Meiotic Division Second Meiotic Division
Sequence the steps in the menstrual cycle. Describe the changes in

hormones, the uterus, and the ovary at each stage.
1.
Hormone Changes Uterine Changes Ovary Changes
2.

3.

394
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Describe how hormones regulate sperm and egg cells.
2. Describe the structures of the reproductive systems and their functions.
3. Summarize the origin and importance of substances found in semen.
4. Explain the major events that take place in the endometrium and in the ovary during
the menstrual cycle.
5. Infer On about day 12, estrogen levels cause a sharp increase in the amount of LH
that is released. According to a negative feedback model, what would you expect to
happen?
6. Suppose a female began menstruating at age 12 and stopped menstruating at age 55.
If she never became pregnant and her menstrual cycles averaged 28 days, how many
eggs did she ovulate during her reproductive years?

395
2 Human Development Before Birth
VOCABULARY
lysosome
lysosome
NEW VOCABULARY Use your book to define each term. Then make a sketch of each to
help you remember.
morula
blastocyst morula
amniotic fluid
blastocyst
amniotic fluid
ACADEMIC Define enable to show its meaning. Write a sentence using the term
VOCABULARY
enable
enable

396
2 Human Development Before Birth (continued)
Sequence the steps of fertilization of an egg and implantation of a
blastocyst. The steps are written in scrambled order on the right.
Write the steps in the correct order in the boxes.
The sperm that survive the The zygote moves into the
acidic vagina swim through the uterus and becomes a
vagina into the uterus. blastocyst.
300 million to 500 million

sperm are released in the
female’s vagina.
One sperm penetrates the egg,

The nucleus of the sperm and
which changes the egg’s
the nucleus of the egg unite,
membrane so other sperm
forming a zygote.
cannot enter.
A few hundred sperm make it

into the two oviducts.
The zygote moves down the

oviduct and begins to divide
by mitosis.
The blastocyst attaches to the

uterine lining.

397
Get It? Explain why hundreds of sperm are necessary for fertilization
to take place, and how only one sperm cell can fertilize the egg.
Compare the processes that take place during human development

during each trimester. Describe the changes that occur.
First Trimester Second Trimester Third Trimester
Analyze one of the methods of diagnosis in the fetus and describe its
benefits and risks.

Get It? Explain the difference between ultrasound and amniocentesis.

398
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Describe the changes that the zygote undergoes during the first week following
fertilization.
2. Describe how defective acrosomes would affect the process of fertilization.
3. Describe, using a concept map, the development that occurs during each trimester.
4. Compare and contrast hormonal regulation during pregnancy with hormonal

regulation during the menstrual cycle.
5. Write a paragraph explaining the functions of the extraembryonic membrane in

humans, and contrast those functions with the functions in other animals.
6. Determine the due date (predicted birth date) of a baby if the egg was fertilized on
January 1.

399
3 Birth, Growth, and Aging
VOCABULARY
growth
growth

labor
labor
dilation
dilation
expulsion stage
expulsion stage
placental stage
adolescence
infancy placental stage
adulthood
adolescence
infancy
adulthood

400
3 Birth, Growth, and Aging (continued)
Identify and describe the three stages of birth in the graphic
organizer below.
Birth
Get It? Describe major events that occur during each stage of labor
the birthing process.
Analyze the primary way the following hormones affect human growth.
Hormone Effect on Growth

Human growth
hormone
Thyroxine
Steroids

401
Describe the changes that occur at each stage of growth
and development.
1. Infancy
2. Childhood
3. Adolescence
4. Adulthood
Get It? Summarize the roles of human growth hormone and

thyroxine.

402
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Construct a chart that illustrates major changes that occur during the stages of
human growth and aging.
2. Identify two signs that tell a pregnant woman she is almost ready to give birth.
3. Name the events that occur during the three stages of birth.
4. Describe how the human growth hormone causes a person to grow.

5. Hypothesize Robert Wadlow, the tallest human being on record, was 272 cm tall
and weighed 220 kg when he died at age 22. He was an average-sized newborn
but developed a tumor in his anterior pituitary gland. Develop a hypothesis to
explain how this tumor led to his great height.

403
6. Research more about the role of oxytocin during labour and explain how it is an
example of positive feedback within the body.

404
27 The Immune System
K W L
Science Notebook • The Immune System

405
The Immune System
1 Infectious Diseases
VOCABULARY
protozoan
protozoan

infectious disease
infectious disease
pathogen
Koch’s postulates
reservoir
endemic disease pathogen
epidemic Koch’s postulates
pandemic
antibiotic
reservoir
endemic disease
epidemic
pandemic

antibiotic

406
1 Infectious Diseases (continued)
Identify facts about harmful and helpful microorganisms.
Five types of pathogens: Four places where helpful

microorganisms live in your body:
1.
1.
2.
2.
3.
3.
4.
4.
5.
Get It? Explain how Koch proved the germ theory correct.
Analyze how diseases spread.
Three disease reservoirs:

1.
2.
3.
Get It? Describe how diseases are spread to humans.

Contrast how viruses and bacteria cause symptoms of disease.
Viruses: Bacteria:
Get It? Describe what happens when a person consumes food that
contains botulism bacteria.

407
Compare endemic, epidemic, and pandemic disease by using
different colors or patterns to represent each disease pattern. Add a
key to explain your map.
Get It? Compare and contrast an epidemic and a pandemic.
Analyze the relationship between natural selection and the increase

in antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
Get It? Explain the history and use of penicillin as an antibiotic.

408
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Compare the mode of transmission of the common cold with that of malaria.
2. Summarize some symptoms of bacterial infectious disease.
3. Define infectious disease and give three examples of infectious diseases.
4. Illustrate Koch’s postulates for a bacterial infectious disease in a rabbit by drawing

a graphic organizer or a concept map.
5. Analyze why the CDC calls hand-washing a “do-it-yourself” vaccine.

409
6. Evaluate the following scenario: Two days after visiting a pet shop and observing
green parrots in a display cage and fish in an aquarium, a student developed a
fever, became ill, and was diagnosed with parrot fever. What might be the disease
reservoir and possible transmission method?
7. Analyze how the widespread use of antibiotics to treat infectious diseases has
played a role in the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. How are scientists
dealing with this issue?

410
The Immune System
2 The Immune System
VOCABULARY
white blood cells
white blood cells
definition below.
protein that enhances phagocytosis by helping the phagocytic cells

bind better to pathogens, activating the phagocytes, and enhancing
the destruction of the pathogen’s membrane
protein secreted by virus-infected cells that binds to neighboring cells

and stimulates these cells to produce antiviral proteins
type of white blood cell that is produced in red bone marrow and
plays a role in specific immunity
protein produced by B lymphocytes that specifically reacts to a

foreign pathogen
antibody-producing cell that is present in all lymphatic tissues
lymphocyte that activates antibody secretion in B cells and another

type of T cell that aids in killing microorganisms
lymphocyte that destroys pathogens and releases cytokines
long-living cell that is exposed to an antigen during the primary

immune response and will respond rapidly if the body encounters the
same pathogen later
deliberate exposure of the body to an antigen so that a primary

response and immune memory will develop

411
2 The Immune System (continued)
Summarize nonspecific immune defenses by completing the table.
Defense How it Works

Skin
Saliva, tears,
and nasal
secretions
Stomach acid
Phagocytosis
Interferon
Get It? Compare and contrast the different types of barriers of the
immune system.
Compare the functions of these organs of the lymphatic system.

Lymph Thymus
Tonsils Spleen
Nodes Gland

412
Sequence B cell and T cell responses. Write the numbers 1–5 next to
the activities below to show the order in which they occur.
A processed antigen is displayed on the membrane of the
macrophage.
The activated helper T cell reproduces and attaches to a
B cell or cytotoxic T cell.
A macrophage digests a pathogen.
The B cell begins to make antibodies, and the cytotoxic T cell
releases cytokines.
The macrophage binds with a helper T cell.
Get It? Summarize the role that lymphocytes play in immunity.
Contrast passive immunity and active immunity.
Passive Immunity Active Immunity

Both

413
Get It? Analyze how immunizations help prevent disease.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Compare specific and nonspecific immune responses.
2. Describe the steps involved in activating an antibody response to an antigen.

3. Identify ways passive and active immunity can be acquired.

414
4. Describe the structure and function of the immune system.
5. Infer why the destruction of helper T cells in HIV infection is so devastating to

specific immunity.
6. Hypothesize what happens when an HIV strain mutates such that viral-replication
drugs are no longer effective.
7. Evaluate the effects of severe combined immune deficiency on a child born without
T cell immunity.
8. Antibodies are made of two light protein chains and two heavy protein chains. If the
molecular weight of a light chain is 25,000 and the molecular weight of a heavy
chain is 50,000, what is the molecular weight of an antibody?

415
The Immune System
3 Noninfectious Disorders
VOCABULARY
cancer
cancer
definition below.
diseases that result when a part of the body wears out
disease that results from an error in a biochemical pathway
a response to environmental antigens
severe allergic reaction to particular allergens which causes a

massive release of histamine; smooth muscles in the bronchioles
contract, restricting air flow into and out of the lungs

416
3 Noninfectious Disorders (continued)
Classify each noninfectious disorder according to whether it is
caused strictly by a person’s genes, or by genes combined with
environmental factors.
• arteriosclerosis • sickle cell anemia
• Down syndrome • Type 1 diabetes
• coronary artery disease • leukemia
• hemophilia • albinism
Causes of Noninfectious Disorders
Genes Only Genes and

Environmental Factors
Get It? Summarize the factors that cause coronary artery disease.
Identify the causes of noninfectious disorders.

Noninfectious
Cause
Disorders
generic disorders
degenerative
diseases
metabolic diseases
cancer

417
Compare and contrast the pairs of disorders in the table below.
Inflammatory response to infectious disease and inflammatory disease:
Simple allergic reaction and anaphylactic shock:
Degenerative arthritis and rheumatoid arthritis:
Identify the parts of the body attacked by antibodies in each of the

following autoimmune disorders.
Rheumatic fever Lupus Rheumatic arthritis

Get It? Explain how allergies are related to the immune system.

418
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Identify the type of noninfectious disease shown in Figure 15.
2. Explainthe role of allergens in allergies.
3. Createa diagram demonstrating the process of anaphylactic shock.
4. Categorizethe following diseases into the categories used in this section: sickle cell
disease, diabetes, vertebral degeneration, autoimmunity, and leukemia.
5. Hypothesizeseveral causes of chronic bronchitis (inflammation of the bronchioles)

found in coal miners.
6. Createa plan that limits a child’s exposure to cat dander when the child is found to
be allergic to that allergen.

419
7. Create a pamphlet listing common allergens and explaining the symptoms of
allergies.

420

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Table Of Contents

NOTE-TAKING TIPS �������������������������������������������� v MODULE 8

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

Word or Symbol or Word or Symbol or

 se a symbol such as a star ( ) or an asterisk (*) to emphasize impor-

organize and summarize new concepts and clarify misunderstandings.

Science Notebook • The Study of Life

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

Science Notebook • The Study of Life

The Study of Biology

What do biologists do?

Science Notebook • The Study of Life

Sequence the levels of organization listed below in the correct order

• organ • atoms and molecules

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

Science Notebook • The Study of Life

4. Conduct a survey. Have participants choose characteristics of life from a list of

Science Notebook • The Study of Life

use of evidence to construct testable explanations and predictions of

testable explanation of a situation

logical conclusion based on gathering information

process by which the procedures and results of an experiment are

a set of moral principles or values

explanation of a natural phenomenon supported by many

describes relationships under certain conditions

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

Science Notebook • The Study of Life

Get It? Infer why scientists utilize peer reviews.

Science Notebook • The Study of Life

Analyze the relationship between a hypothesis and a theory.

Identify how conclusions that you read about in scientific

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

Science Notebook • The Study of Life

2. Contrast scientific theories and scientific laws.

3. Compare and contrast science and pseudoscience.

4. Defend the importance of scientific literacy to a classmate who doesn’t want to

5. Arrange the characteristics of science in a concept map.

Science Notebook • The Study of Life

Science Notebook • Principles of Ecology

commensalism mutualism parasitism

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

Science Notebook • Principles of Ecology

Get It? Define the term biosphere.

Identify each level of organization that is described.

a group of organisms of the same species in

an individual living thing made of cells

a community and abiotic factors that affect it

a group of ecosystems with the same climate

Science Notebook • Principles of Ecology

Get It? Compare and contrast a habitat and a niche.

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

Science Notebook • Principles of Ecology

2. Identify how temperature is a limiting factor for polar bears.

3. Describe how ranges of tolerance affect the distribution of a species.

Science Notebook • Principles of Ecology

carnivore . A food chain is made of several steps; each organism

scientist and you wanted to determine the weight of living matter at a

certain trophic level, you would measure the .

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

Science Notebook • Principles of Ecology

The organisms that are The organisms

Classify each of the following organisms as an autotroph or a

H in front of those that are heterotrophs.

1. Alligator 5. Moss 9. Dandelion

NOTE-TAKING TIPS �� v MODULE 8

se a symbol such as a star ( ) or an asterisk (*) to emphasize impor-

C. The Nitrogen Cycle D. The Phosphorus Cycle