TRANSACTIONS OF THE STATE HERMITAGE Museum труды государственного эрмитажа

LXVII LXVII

Mikhail Lomonosov М. В. Ломоносов

and the Time of Elizabeth I и елизаветинское время

Proceedings of the conference held Материалы конференции,

on 23–25 November 2011 состоявшейся 23–25 ноября 2011 г.
in the State Hermitage Museum в Государственном Эрмитаже

St. Petersburg Санкт-Петербург

The State Hermitage Publishers Издательство Государственного Эрмитажа
2013 2013

Сп и с о к с о к р а щ е н и й
АГЭ Архив Государственного Эрмитажа
АН БССР Академия наук Белорусской Советской Социалистической Республики
АН СССР Академия наук Союза Советских Социалистических Республик
ВИМАИВиВС Военно-исторический музей артиллерии, инженерных войск и войск связи
ГАСО Государственный Архив Свердловской области
ГАФКЭ Государственный архив феодально-крепостнической эпохи (ныне РГАДА)
ГИМ Государственный исторический музей
ГМЗ «Петергоф» Государственный музей-заповедник «Петергоф»
ГМЗ «Царское Село» Государственный музей-заповедник «Царское Село»
ГМЭ Государственный музей этнографии народов СССР
ГРМ Государственный Русский музей
ГЭ Государственный Эрмитаж
ИАК Императорская археологическая комиссия
ИБО ГРМ Историко-бытовой отдел Государственного Русского музея
ИРЛИ РАН Институт русской литературы РАН
ЛО ААН  Ленинградское отделение Архива Академии наук СССР
МАЭ РАН Музей антропологии и этнографии им. Петра Великого
(Кунсткамера) РАН
НА ИИМК Научный архив Института истории материальной культуры
ОЗЕИИ Отдел западноевропейского изобразительного искусства
Государственного Эрмитажа
ОЗЕПИ Отдел западноевропейского прикладного искусства Государственного
Эрмитажа
ОИРК Отдел истории русской культуры Государственного Эрмитажа
ОР ИРЛИ Отдел рукописей Института русской литературы
РАН Российская академия наук
РАХ Российская академия художеств
РГАДА Российский государственный архив древних актов
РГАЛИ Российский государственный архив литературы и искусства 
РГИА Российский государственный исторический архив 
РФФИ Российский фонд фундаментальных исследований 
СГЭ Сообщения Государственного Эрмитажа
СПФ АРАН Санкт-Петербургский филиал Архива Российской академии наук
AFSP Archivio Storico della Fabbrica di San Pietro in Vaticano
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Summaries
E. M. Lupanova
Scientific instruments constructed by Mikhail Lomonosov.
Innovations and uncompleted projects
The development of new equipment for physical and astronomical observations was an im-
portant facet of Mikhail Lomonosov’s work. The achievements of this polymathic scientist
in mechanical engineering have always intrigued historians. Lomonosov designed a number
of  optical instruments (a catoptric-dioptric incendiary device, refractometers, a bathyscaphe,
mirror telescopes and spyglasses) as well as mechanical tools (barometers, a centroscopic pen-
dulum and clocks). The amazing variety of apparatus constructed by Lomonosov is yet an-
other evidence of his versatile interests, his gift of finding practical applications for his vast
knowledge of physics and offering original solutions for research problems. Unfortunately,
the vast majority of his devices never gained wide use; they were forgotten after Lomonosov’s
death and had to be re-invented decades later. Some of the machinery (that approved
by the Academy of Sciences) was produced by the Instrumental Chambers; the rest was built
by Lomonosov himself. In 1762 Lomonosov set up an instrument workshop at home, where
he continued to improve the existing tools and construct new appliances. Lomonosov’s pio-
neering works in  mechanical engineering became the first “university” for Russian natural
scientists and shaped the core principles of Russian experimental science – its inseparable
connection with practice and a focus on innovation.
S. A. Chernous
Lomonosov’s breakthroughs in auroral research
The article explores Mikhail Lomonosov’s research on polar lights from the modern
perspective, focusing on his discoveries, hypotheses and misconceptions. In our opinion,
Lomonosov’s principal achievement was his conclusion that auroras are a type of atmospheric
emission rather than reflected, refracted or dispersed light – a fact largely ignored by many
previous studies. This  concept is based on Lomonosov’s own observations of auroras and
his deep understanding of light propagation. Experimental evidence for this fact is offered
by his drawings and engravings which show the stars shining through polar lights. Lomonosov
advanced our knowledge of   auroral phenomena further than many other illustrious scien-
tists including Galileo, Descartes and Euler. Over one hundred years later, a hypothesis simi-
lar to  Lomonosov’s was made by the Swedish physicist Anders Ångström who confirmed
the emission-based mechanism of polar lights by analysing auroral spectrum. Importantly,
Lomonosov also provided calculations and experimental data proving that polar lights oc-
cur in  the upper atmosphere. He also put forward the hypothesis that auroras are caused
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by electricity, a little-studied phenomenon at that time. Lomonosov correctly suggested that
the colours of auroras may be related to certain substances. Our article compares Lomonosov’s
findings with those of his outstanding Russian, European and American predecessors and
contemporaries. The article quotes his experimental and research works examining the physi-
cal characteristics of auroras.
I. A. Garmanov
“In doing his professional duty”.
Georg Richman’s last experiment
(Newly discovered stories from The Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti)
The news about the invention of the lightning rod by Benjamin Franklin reached Europe
at the beginning of 1752, inspiring numerous experiments with atmospheric electricity and
lightnings. In Russia, similar studies were conducted by Мikhail Lomonosov and Georg
Richman, professors of chemistry and physics at the Academy of Sciences. The courageous
researchers used every opportunity to observe thunderstorm phenomena. Reports on their
discoveries were immediately published in The Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti (The St. Petersburg
Gazette) attracting the avid interest of the readers. In their homes in Vasilyevsky Island,
St. Petersburg, both scientists built “thunder machines” – ungrounded lightning rods which
caused a tragic outcome. In summer 1753 Richman was killed by a lightning bolt during
a thunderstorm. The Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti gave a detailed account of the tragedy and
its circumstances. A subsequent scientific inquiry provided the theoretical model for the acci-
dent, enabling researchers to make the right conclusions. The dangerous experiments in both
the Old and New World stopped.
E. V. Karpova
Mikhail Lomonosov’s portrait by Fyodot Shubin:
The original and variations
The art works submitted by the State Russian Museum for the exhibition “Mikhail
Lomonosov and the Time of Elizabeth I” included Fyodot Shubin’s sculptural portrait
of  Lomonosov originating from the Hermitage. An identical bronze bust signed and dated
by the sculptor (“F. Shu. 1793”) had been made for the Cameron Gallery in Tsarskoye
Selo. Another sculptural image of Lomonosov traditionally attributed to Shubin is the
marble bust currently displayed in the old building of the Presidium of the Academy
of   Sciences in Moscow. However, an in-depth stylistic analysis has identified significant
differences from the authentic works by Shubin. Our study of archival documents and
literary sources shows that this marble bust was created in 1824 for the Russian Academy,
possibly by Triscorni’s Italian marble workshop in St. Petersburg. The article also describes
the marble bust of Mikhail Lomonosov in the Literary Museum at the Institute of Russian
Literature (Pushkinsky Dom), it is iconographically related to Shubin’s work. According
to published archival data, the bust was created by Vasily Demut-Malinovsky for the
Kunstkamera in 1821.
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Summaries
G. A. Mirolyubova
Mikhail Lomonosov and The Firework Theatrum
in the mid-18th century
The article follows Mikhail Lomonosov’s accomplishments as a designer of firework and il-
lumination displays for court pageants on the New Year’s Eve as well as Empress Elizabeth I’s
coronation anniversaries, name- and birthdays in the 1840s – 1850s. The colourful perfor-
mances were held on a specially constructed platform on the Neva called The Firework Theatrum,
with the illuminated river bank serving as a backdrop. On request of the Academy of Sciences,
Lomonosov developed the art programme for firework displays, wrote inscriptions and poetic
dedications. Accounts of the vibrant street festivities that attracted many city residents, both
rich and poor, were published and illustrated with prints. Although not all of  Lomonosov’s
ideas for fireworks were implemented, he saw them as an important aspect of  his vast sci-
entific work. One of his last academic reports states that he “has made many inventions for
illumination and firework displays and composed numerous inscriptions for them”.
G. A. Printseva
Sketches for allegorical paintings
on St.  Petersburg triumphal gates (1742)
The sketches for allegorical paintings which appeared on the triumphal gates construct-
ed in St. Petersburg in 1742 were donated to the Hermitage by the Library of the Academy
of  Sciences in 1941. Intended for Empress Elizabeth I’s ceremonial arrival in St. Petersburg after
her coronation, the gates were built “by the Green Bridge” in the “Anichkov Suburb” (Nevsky
Prospect) at  the entrance to the city on the side of Moscow. The Anichkov Gate celebrated
Elizabeth I and was decorated with paintings of court scenes. The Green Gate commemorated
Russia’s victories in the recent Russo-Swedish war. All the sketches bear the signature of Johann
Stenglin, who may be identified as the author of the unsigned drawings of the same gates in the
beautiful albums presented to Empress Elizabeth in 1742 and currently held by the Hermitage’s
Department of Western European Fine Arts. Stenglin’s authorship is confirmed by the records
of the St. Petersburg Archive of the Academy of Sciences. The Hermitage collection includes
24 sketches of the Anichkov Gate and 28 sketches of the Green Gate. Johann Stenglin was in-
vited to St. Petersburg as a master engraver and teacher of mezzotint and went down into art his-
tory by creating numerous portraits of Russian tsars and other important historical personalities.
L. S. Gerasimova
The attribution of the Apostle Peter mosaic
from Mikhail Vorontsov’s collection
Mikhail Lomonosov’s name is associated with the revival of Russian mosaic art which had
remained in neglect since the 12th century. Many researchers believe that the great scientist’s
inspiration by the art began when he saw a mosaic representing the crying Apostle Peter
(currently in the State Russian Museum). “This mosaic image of the Holy Apostle Peter was
presented by Pope Benedict XIV to Count Mikhail Vorontsov during his travel to Naples
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via Rome on 28 December 1745”, said the engraved inscription on the copper plate (now
lost). Until recently, the author and origin of the Apostle Peter mosaic remained unknown.
Nevertheless, the newly discovered in Vatican archival documents have revealed that the mo-
saic was created by Alessandro Cocchi at the end of 1745. We have also succeeded in tracing
the story of the mosaic’s journey from Vatican to Russia after the audience given by Benedict
XIV to Count Vorontsov. According to Russian archival documents, it was handed over from
the Imperial Hermitage to the Russian Museum in January 1913. This object of  art is espe-
cially noteworthy because it was one of the first mosaics ever commissioned by Vatican (“per
Servitio della reverenda Fabrica”) as a papal gift rather than part of the décor for St. Peter’s
Basilica, which accentuates its importance.
I. V. Tunkina  Glass Factory, the mosaic tables displayed in the Glass Bead Salon of the Chinese Palace,
The Donative Diploma to Мikhail Lomonosov
on the spot of land in  Koporye Uyezd of St. Petersburg province
The article considers a unique historical source – the property patent on the spot of land in
Koporye Uyezd granted by Empress Elizabeth to Mikhail Lomonosov for the construction
of a glass factory (1756). The donative diploma was decorated by drawings from the Heraldry
Office of the Senate according to Lomonosov’s recommendations. The author has under-
taken an effort to attribute and decode the allegorical images of the miniatures, the majority
of which represent the process of manufacture of coloured smalts at the Ust-Ruditsa Glass
Factory. The pictures fall into nine thematic groups. The first group shows the views of the
Ust-Ruditsa Factory and the workers’ settlement; the second one represents equipment of the
Factory and ways of tools manufacturing; the third group features the preparation of  initial
components for glass melting and preparatory process; the fourth one displays different modes
of work with melted glass; the fifth one describes the ways of processing the solid glass; the
sixth group depicts the composing process of mosaic pictures; the seventh one displays the
products of  the Ust-Ruditsa Factory; the eighth group portrays the fundamental physical ex-
periment of spectral dispersion of the white light; the ninth one represents some scenes from
the scholar’s biography, i.e. financial difficulties he met after the construction of the Glass
Factory. Being an outstanding product of Russian miniature artists, the diploma deserves the
facsimile publication in colour. It is of great interest as a valuable source of  information about
life and work of Mikhail Lomonosov, history of the Russian science and technology, heraldry
and emblem art of the mid-18th century.
Translated by the author
D. V. Osipov
The attribution study of five glass bead panels
from the Department of the History of Russian Culture,
State Hermitage
The article summarises the attribution analysis of bead panels from the State Hermitage and
the Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography, or Kunstkamera (one pan-
el was embroidered with seed beads, five with bugle beads). The project was undertaken
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Summaries
to commemorate Mikhail Lomonosov’s 300th anniversary. Three of the bugle bead pictures
with views of the Ust-Ruditsa Glass Factory were found to have been executed in Lomonosov’s
workshop. The other two may represent Peter I’s seaside residence in Revel. The larger seed
beadwork piece shows a monastery with its surrounding lands. The coloured beads were manu-
factured at the Ust-Ruditsa factory.
O. S. Kislitsyna
On the attribution of the mosaic tables in the Glass Bead Salon
of the Chinese Palace, Oranienbaum
Decorated with colourful smalt manufactured at Mikhail Lomonosov’s Ust-Ruditsa
Oranienbaum, are a true masterpiece of Russian applied art. Apart from their unique artistic
value, the mosaics referring to the Russo-Turkish war (1768–1774) are special due to the fact
that they convey an important message expressing the Russian Imperial ideology of the late
1760s – early 1770s. The article suggests an interpretation of the allegorical imagery and analy-
ses the shapes and décor of the furniture items. The author suggests a new chronology for the
manufacturing of the tables as well as traces the connections between their artistic language
and Antonio Rinaldi’s style in architecture.
I. K. Bott
The “smalt façade” of the Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Selo:
Mikhail Lomonosov’s experiment?
Issues of restoration and conservation of the Catherine Palace that became so acute after
the Second World War were first addressed in the pre-war years. In 1938–1940 a large-scale
investigation was conducted on the palace façade in order to form decisions on restoring part
of the palace’s original décor. The analyses showed that the architect Bartolomeo Rastrelli had
painted the façade a bright turquoise colour using smalt paint. The idea of using this new and
inexpensive home-produced material had to come from Mikhail Lomonosov, a great proponent
of the industrial production of coloured glass. In view of the convincing field and archival find-
ings, it was decided to use smalt paint based on the recipe developed by the Leningrad Institute
of Chemistry and Technology. The azurite-based smalt was manufactured at the Leningrad
Porcelain Factory in 1940. However, due to some technical difficulties the restoration of the
Catherine Palace was delayed until the summer of 1941. The Second World War put a stop
to any restoration efforts, and Lomonosov’s glass paints as well as smalt recipes were lost forever.
E. P. Renne
Vigilius Eriksen’s studies for the portrait of Empress Elizabeth
Little is known of the early period in the career of the Danish artist Vigilius Eriksen (1722–
1782) in Russia. His work is usually associated with the reign of Catherine II. Indeed, after Louis
Tocqué’s departure in 1758 and the death of Pietro Rotari in 1762, Eriksen became Catherine II’s
main portrait painter who created several iconic images of the Empress: Catherine II in mourning,
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in a coronation dress, in front of the mirror and on horseback during the coup-d’état. All of
these portraits were painted after 1761; however, the artist had arrived in St. Petersburg sev-
eral years before. Jacob von Staehlin wrote in “Notes on the Fine Arts in Russia”: “In 1758
(1757 on page 43 of the manuscript. – Е.R.) Vigilus Eriksen, of Denmark, paints large portraits
in oil and miniatures, both equally powerful and pleasant <…> Once at a public dinner given
by Her Imperial Majesty to the Cavaliers of the Order of St. Andrew the First-Called, he stood
in front of her and looked at her for a long time; at home, he sketched her portrait achieving
a great likeness…” Among the miniatures kept in  the Hermitage’s Department of Western
European Fine Arts there are two oil sketches representing Empress Elizabeth. Their man-
ner bespeaks quick execution and direct observation of the subject. Following N.N. Wrangel,
А. Doria and I.S. Nemilova attributed the miniatures to Tocqué, although Wrangel himself ex-
pressed some doubts about the authorship. The stylistic similarity of the miniatures to Eriksen’s
Portrait of Elizabeth, drawings and oil sketches suggests that they were painted by the same artist.
V. V. Nikolayeva
Lucas Conrad Pfandzelt: Secrets and discoveries
The article reveals some new facts about the life and work of Lucas Conrad Pfandzelt
(1716–1786), a professional restorer and painter, the first curator of the Hermitage picture
gallery. Documentary evidence of Pfandzelt’s work before his arrival in Russia as well as a 1749
chart recording the payment of wages to Pfandzelt for five years of work in St. Petersburg and
documents confirming the existence of silhouette portraits of Pfandzelt and his second wife
are presented. We have been able to add two items to the list of the artist’s known works: an
engraving made after his drawing (1738) and a copy of his painting The Court of Eberhard III.
We have also identified the dates of his arrival in Revel (1739) and his first visit to St. Petersburg
(1740). An inscription on the reverse side of the portrait of Andreas Zoege von Manteuffel has
been deciphered and the exact date of the portrait identified (1742). Explanations are provided
why Pfandzelt was refused government accommodation in Munich’s house in 1753. The initial
attribution (by Hermitage experts) of the male portrait by Pfandzelt dated to 8 February 1759
is confirmed, and the exact date and place of Pfandzelt’s death are determined.
A. S. Zakharov, V. V. Nikolayeva
Towards the iconography of Baron Nikolay Korff (1710–1766)
The article attempts to identify the subject of the male portrait by Lucas Conrad Pfandzelt
dated to 8 February 1759 (Hermitage). Convincing arguments are offered to prove that the
painting depicts Baron Nikolay (Nikolaus Frederick) Korff (1710–1766). Information about
seven portraits of Baron Nikolay Korff has been collected and systematised laying the foun-
dations of Baron Korff ’s iconography. A previously unknown portrait of Korff by Heinrich
Buchholtz has been identified, explored and found to be a copy of the portrait by Lucas Conrad
Pfandzelt. It is suggested that Nikolay Korff ’s portrait currently held at the Novgorod State
Museum-Reserve served as an iconographic model for the image presented in A.M. Lushev’s
album and the publication of Grand Duke Nikolay Mikhaylovich. The authors have been able
to determine all state decorations awarded to Nikolay Korff and Count Karl Sivers.
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Summaries
O. G. Kostiuk
Delicate keepsakes of the mid-18th century
The Hermitage’s extensive jewellery collection includes two eighteenth-century bracelets
made up of six links. The links are medallions composed of oval miniature portraits (­covered
with thin slices of rock crystal) which represent some relatives of a princely couple, Grand
Duke Peter Feodorovich (future Peter III) and Grand Duchess Catherine Alexeyevna (­future
Catherine II). The miniatures were identified by comparison with contemporary painted and
engraved portraits. Two of the medallions depict Peter Feodorovich and Catherine Alexeyevna;
medallions 3 and 4 represent Catherine’s parents (her mother, Johanna Elisabeth, and her
father, Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst); medallions 5 and 6 show Peter’s parents, Anna
Petrovna and Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp; the 7th medallion is a portrait of
Catherine’s grandfather, Christian August of Holstein-Gottorp; medallion 8 shows Catherine’s
maternal uncle, Adolf Frederick; the 9th medallion depicts his wife, Louisa Ulrike; medal-
lion 10 is another portrait of Catherine (identical to medallion 1); the 11th and 12th medal-
lions represent Catherine’s younger brother, Frederick August of Anhalt-Zerbst, and his wife,
Princess Carolina Wilhelmine Sophia of Hesse-Kassel.
M. N. Lopato
Precious items commissioned by Empress Elizabeth
Ever since the foundation of St. Petersburg, Imperial residences were filled with precious
objects serving as decorations and status symbols. Many silver and gold items were acquired
during the time of Catherine I and Anna Ioannovna; the silver dinner services, dressing table
sets and massive coolers can still be seen on display in the Hermitage rooms. Empress Elizabeth
kept up with her female predecessors, ordering dinner services for the court, presentation items
and gold jewellery from St. Petersburg jewellers. Unfortunately, few of these opulent royal pur-
chases recorded in the archives have survived until today. However, the Hermitage collection
has retained some of the precious objects acquired in Elizabeth’s time. These include items
from the chinoiserie Oranienbaum Service produced by major London silversmiths and parts
of the Pleshcheyev Service, also originating from England. According to the surviving docu-
ments, the Empress also commissioned numerous jewellery items. The English Consul and
merchant Jacob Wolfe lavishly supplied Elizabeth with diamonds, orders, snuffboxes, cavalier
crosses, swords and ladies’ jewellery, all of which are catalogued in “Lists of Diamond Items
Belonging to the Empress”.
T. N. Lekhovich
“No one shall wear rich garments…”:
What stands behind Elizabeth I’s sumptuary laws?
Empress Elizabeth I went down in Russian historiography as an extravagant Tsarina
who loved opulent clothes and jewels; according to Jacob von Staehlin, Elizabeth I’s ward-
robe after her death filled 32 rooms of the Winter Palace and included 15,000 dresses, two
chests of silk stockings and several thousand pairs of shoes. However, Elizabeth I’s sense
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of fashion did not impair her political sensibility. In December 1742, shortly after corona-
tion, the Empress signed a decree restraining luxury in clothing for her subjects which had
important consequences for the Russian industry. Rather than being a whim of a female
despot struggling to outshine her courtiers in splendour, the decree was a serious political
initiative to support national textile businesses. Imported fabrics, though expensive, offered
competition for the nascent Russian textile mills, most of which had emerged just a short
while before, in the time of Peter I. Elizabeth I’s laws had a beneficial impact on the Russian
textile production. During her reign, the number of textile mills in Russia grew by almost
three times, from just 71 factories in 1745 to 205 in 1763. Her thoughtful policy aimed
at promoting the national industry remained consistent throughout Elizabeth I’s years in
power. Elizabeth I’s coronation dress was made of Russian silver brocade – a truly patriotic
and protectionist gesture logically followed by the sumptuary laws. Elizabeth I encouraged
Russian craftsmen to be sent to Europe to learn manufacturing techniques and rewarded
their achievements with ranks and titles. French and Italian experts were invited to Russian
textile mills to train the workers and boost the production standards. The indulgence of the
Empress and her court, which spread down the social ladder, helped to promote European
lifestyles and fashions in Russia and gave an important stimulus for Russian international
trade and domestic production.
L. V. Liackhova
The St. Andrew Service of Empress Elizabeth
and Saxony’s “fragile diplomacy” in 1744–1748
An embodiment of the elegant tastes of its time, eighteenth-century porcelain also served
as a mirror of European diplomacy. The luxurious porcelain services sent to foreign courts
performed an important mission emphasizing the might of the monarchs and the achieve-
ments of their subjects, their military victories and dynastic marriages. Eighteenth-century
Saxony, the homeland of European porcelain, quite clearly preferred “fragile diplomacy”
as a means of exerting its influence on the international stage. Work commenced on the fa-
mous St. Andrew Service (intended as a gift for Empress Elizabeth I) in June 1744 within a dif-
ficult political climate: on the eve of the Second Silesian War, Saxony hoped to use the sump-
tuous diplomatic present to solicit Russia’s support. The ostensible purpose of this extensive
porcelain service was to mark the wedding of the Russian heir to the throne on 21 August
(2 September New Style) 1745, but in reality it perfectly suited its purpose as a meaningful
diplomatic gift. The models first created for the St. Andrew Service were to be used on later
occasions as part of Saxony’s “porcelain diplomacy’, notably for the services presented to Jean
Paris de Monmartel (1746) and to the Marquis d’Argenson (1747). The Hermitage collection
contains a number of previously unpublished items, formerly associated with the St. Andrew
Service, which should clearly be seen within the context of the d’Argenson Service. The stabil-
ity of the output of the Meissen Porcelain Manufactory was largely determined by its tendency
to vary and repeat the most successful and interesting models. Thanks to this it has proved
possible to identify the surviving stand for a vase of a porcelain centrepiece in the Hermitage
collection as a replica of the now lost centrepiece from the St. Andrew Service, further adding
to our understanding of this important eighteenth-century porcelain ensemble.
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Summaries
E. A. Anisimova
On the typology of early to mid-eighteenth-century
Russian glass art
In the 18th century glass tableware became an indispensable feature of formal dining in Russia.
The existing attributions of items believed to have been manufactured in Russia are often based
on indirect data such as the presence of portraiture or elements of Russian heraldry in the deco-
ration. It is quite likely that some glassware traditionally believed to have been produced in Russia
may be of European origin. According to international publications, glass tableware was widely
imported in Russia in the early 18th century. Foreign-produced items and the tastes of the for-
eign craftsmen invited to boost Russian glass production determined the look of glasses used
on formal occasions at the time of Anna Ioannovna and Elizabeth I. A number of examples
demonstrate that the Saxon school was a major influence on the development of  Russian glass
art in that period. At the same time, the engraved ornamentation and the choice of shapes bear
the features of the Bohemian and Silesian styles. While drawing on the talents of guest experts
and the experience of major European manufacturers, Russian glassmakers also developed some
unique technologies of glassware production and decoration. However, only the products of the
Potemkin Glass Factory have a truly original Russian design.
M. N. Kosareva
Eighteenth-century Ural copperware
Ural copperware is an unparalleled phenomenon in eighteenth-century Russian applied
arts. In a brief period between the 1730s and 1770s, production capacities were set up in the
Urals to manufacture copper and brass tableware which became an outstanding monument
of its time. Mikhail Lomonosov made an invaluable contribution to the theory of mining,
mineral exploration and survey in Russia. His book “The Fundamentals of Metallurgy, or Ore
Mining” and the treatise “On the Earth’s Layers” provide the first systematised description
of  prospecting guides for ores and associated minerals. The discovery of ore deposits and ac-
tive involvement of mining experts and manufacturers fostered rapid industrial growth. In the
remote Ural Mountains, the traditions of ancient Russian art flourished in a new industrialised
environment. The artistic merits of copperware depended as much on the processing tech-
nology and decoration methods as on the material, authenticated by the brand. The decline
in copper ore mining in the late 18th century caused the overall downturn in copperware pro-
duction in the Urals. In addition, Ural copperware could no longer compete with glass and ce-
ramic (porcelain and faience) services which came to be preferred in the formal dining settings.
I. N. Ukhanova
A masterpiece of eighteenth-century bone carving
The Hermitage is home to a printed image of a carved bone icon (a Kiy Cross), with a multi-
figure composition and inscriptions surrounded with lavish floral décor. This fine late eighteenth-
century icon created by North Russian bone carvers was displayed in the Dormition Church
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 Summaries
on Sennaya Square, St. Petersburg, until 1923. The bone carving is clearly related to an icon
created by outstanding seventeenth-century Russian painters and depicting the future Patriarch
Nikon’s miraculous rescue on Kiy Island during a tempest on the White Sea in 1635. It is wor-
thy of note that Osip Dudin, a supremely talented bone carver from Kholmogory, lived in the
area near the Dormition Church in 1760–1770. The carved icon shares many stylistic features
with Dudin’s other works suggesting identity of authorship.
A. V. Shibanov
The ceremonial artillery carriage of Count Pyotr Shuvalov.
Aspects of the Restoration
Carriage making is a form of Russian eighteenth-century applied art which is impossible
to overlook. Carriages were often manufactured under the instruction of foreign craftsmen
or imported from abroad. Gilded wooden carvings were widely used to reflect the exuberance
of the Baroque style. Carriage carving echoes the traditions in the decoration of naval vessels.
Ornamental carving on ships served to appeal to the seafarers’ patriotic spirit and celebrate the
young Russian Empire. The ceremonial artillery carriage for transporting the artillery banner
(commissioned by Pyotr Shuvalov) performed essentially the same functions. Built in just two
months under the supervision of Major Pyotr Melissino, the carriage remains a unique work
of decorative art unprecedented in world collections. This ambitious project was probably ini-
tiated by the artist and decorator Fyodor Zadubsky. The carriage was seriously damaged during
the Second World War and the siege of Leningrad. In 2003 a joint team of LLC Restavratsia
Mebeli and the Military-Historical Museum of Artillery, Engineer and Signal Corps started
a large-scale restoration project preceded by a thorough chemical and technological examina-
tion of the wood, paint and gilding. It took five years to restore and assemble the elements
of  the carriage. The restoration team produced numerous sketches, created models of lost
parts and conducted extensive studies of similar vehicles before the world’s only surviving
ceremonial artillery carriage could be presented to museum visitors in its original splendour.
N. Yu. Guseva
A rare Elizabethan mirror
The article describes a rare mid-eighteenth-century mirror in a carved frame with rocailles
at the corners. The mirror carries intricately-shaped cartouches at the top and bottom and is
crowned with a carved haute-relief which represents a basket overflowing with flowers and
fruit in the manner of a cornucopia. The flowers and fruit are painted in vibrant colours which
look even more dramatic against the white enamel background imitating porcelain. The carv-
ing methods resemble those used by Russian carpenters and furniture-makers, which suggests
that the mirror was made in Russia. However, the delicate painting (intended to be lacquered
over) may have been made by foreign artists that had travelled to St. Petersburg in search of
livelihood. A label on the reverse side of the frame shows that the mirror belonged to Ivan
Balashov, a well-known art collector and Vice-President of the Society for the Encouragement
of Fine Arts. The label was attached for the exhibition “Mikhail Lomonosov and the Time
of  Elizabeth I” (1912) where the mirror was displayed among the most valuable objects.
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Summaries
E. Yu. Basargina
Lomonosov’s anniversary in 1865 
and proposals for academic reform
The article studies the role of anniversaries in the history of Russian science as exemplified
by special events organised by the Imperial Academy of Sciences in 1865 and 1911 to celebrate
the memory of Mikhail Lomonosov. Lomonosov’s anniversaries helped to promote the pres-
tige of national science and provided a stimulus for looking back at the rich experience of the
Academy as a national centre of learning and culture. They also sparked public debates about
the Academy’s mission and its role in the development of education in Russia. Anniversaries
were also celebrated with large-scale studies on the history of the top research institution
in the country. The Academy wisely used anniversaries as occasions to solve its internal prob-
lems and implement ground-breaking projects. Thus, in 1865 a state award was established
to celebrate Mikhail Lomonosov’s contribution to national education; the award was to be
bestowed by the Academy of Sciences, the supreme authority in evaluating research achieve-
ments. In 1911 the government supported a daring plan for the expansion of academic institu-
tions whereby several laboratories had to be incorporated into the state-of-the-art Lomonosov
Institute.
I. M. Zakharova
Celebration of Mikhail Lomonosov’s anniversaries
in the Arkhangelsk Province in the 19th and 20th centuries
The Arkhangelsk Province sensitively responded to the national initiatives to celebrate
the  memory of Mikhail Lomonosov. To mark the 100th anniversary of Lomonosov’s
death, the Arkhangelsk Province Statistical Committee decided to build a monument
to Lomonosov in his home village Denisovka (Kholmogory Uyezd, Arkhangelsk Province),
start a school named after Lomonosov and establish a Lomonosov scholarship for peasant
children at  the  Arkhangelsk Grammar School. The proposals were accepted and acted on.
In 1885, at the initiative of the Arkhangelsk Governor Konstantin Pashchenko, the Statistical
Committee attempted to revive the traditional bone  carving art in the Kholmogory Uyezd
by opening a bone carving class at the Lomonosov School; the class functioned until 1900.
In 1896, the Committee opened a free public library for adult readers in the Kurostrov Volost
local school. In commemoration of Lomonosov’s 200th anniversary in 1911, the Statistical
Committee published “The Lomonosov Collection” and took part in the exhibition “Mikhail
Lomonosov and the Time of Elizabeth I”. Alexander Shidlovsky, Vice-Governor of the
Arkhangelsk Province, ordered the Arkhangelsk Province Governmental Archive records re-
lated to Lomonosov’s personality, descriptions of items belonging to Duke Anthony Ulrich of
Brunswick as well as manuscripts from the Arkhangelsk City Public Museum to be sent to the
Russian Academy of Sciences. Overall, the Arkhangelsk Province, its people and governmen-
tal institutions played a major role in preserving Mikhail Lomonosov’s memory in the 19th –
early 20th centuries. The exhibits submitted by the region included a writing desk with a figure
of Lomonosov on top. In 1963 the Hermitage acquired the desk which is now a jewel of the
permanent exhibition “Nineteenth – Early Twentieth-Century Russian Interior Design”.
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 Summaries
O. Yu. Petrova
Sergey Kaznakov and the exhibition “Mikhail Lomonosov
and the Time of Elizabeth I”
The article examines some less-known facts in the biography of the famous collec-
tor Sergey Kaznakov (late 19th – early 20th centuries), an organiser of the 1912 exhibition
“Mikhail Lomonosov and the Time of Elizabeth I” commemorating Lomonosov’s bicente-
nary; Kaznakov also loaned part of the exhibits from his private collection. Particular atten-
tion is paid to the attribution of one of the few surviving exhibits – a porcelain snuffbox for-
merly belonging to Kaznakov (Department of the History of the Kunstkamera and Russian
Eighteenth-Century Science, Lomonosov Museum, Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology
and Ethnography, Russian Academy of Sciences).
N. S. Onegin
The Elizabethan Room in Yury Ozarowsky’s Museum
In 2011 Russia marked the 270th anniversary of Elizabeth I’s coronation. While preparing
a series of exhibitions commemorating her reign, researchers addressed some of the earlier in-
stances when Elizabethan objects were displayed to the general public. One venue particularly
worth of mention was a private museum named The Little Old House which operated in the
1910s and presented a wealth of fine mid-eighteenth-century artefacts. The unique museum was
founded by Yury Ozarowsky (1869–1924), Director of the Alexandrinsky Theatre and a “col-
lector of Russian antiquities”. Opened in the winter of 1914 in Solyanoy Lane, St. Petersburg,
the museum displayed a vast variety of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century furniture, prints,
paintings, textiles and bronze items from Ozarowsky’s private collection. The collection was
presented in the order of reigns: the period before Peter I, the reigns of  Peter I, Elizabeth I,
Catherine II and Alexander I. The museum attempted to recreate historical interiors, with each
of the rooms representing a certain period; this way, individual objects were placed in appro-
priate historical environments. The Elizabethan Room imitated a mid-eighteenth-­century bou-
doir. Most of its furniture came from Peterhof and Oranienbaum; some of the items originat-
ed from the collection of E.R. Sutgof in Pskov. In Yury Ozarowsky’s words, the Elizabethan
Room was “cheerful, light, festive to the point of theatricality, amusing and genteel”. In 1916
the museum was sold and then closed, but the methods used in The Little Old House provide
a valuable source of information for contemporary museum workers specialising in domestic
culture.
M. F. Khartanovich
The model of Mikhail Lomonosov’s chemical laboratory:
Past, present and future
Located in the Kunstkamera since the second half of the 20th century, the Lomonosov
Museum became a living centre of research on the biography and achievements of the out-
standing Russian scientist and the history of national science in the 18th century. The real
316
Summaries
centrepiece of the museum is the model of the Academy of Sciences’ Chemical Laboratory
in the mid-18th century. The model was designed by Robert Kaplan-Ingel, the museum’s
first director. He used the surviving drawings and plans to identify the size and layout of the
laboratory and the location of doorways and windows and positioned the equipment, glass-
ware and furnaces in accordance with architectural descriptions. The building of the model
required some complex research. Following a meticulous analysis of archival materials, a full
reconstruction project was developed; numerous sketches, working designs and watercolours
were made. The model (1/10 of the laboratory’s original size) with approximately 480 items
of  equipment is mostly made of wood and painted to achieve the illusion of maximum au-
thenticity. The most difficult part in creating glassware models was selecting the appropriate
type of glass. All glassware items carry labels in the coding used by Lomonosov and other
eighteenth-century chemists. The Chemical Laboratory model looked so authentic that two
replicas of it were specially made for the Polytechnic Museum in Moscow and the Lomonosov
Museum in the scientist’s home town.
N. P. Kopaneva
The State Hermitage and the beginnings
of the Mikhail Lomonosov Museum
On 8 May 1947 the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences passed a resolution to es-
tablish a Lomonosov Museum on the premises of the Kunstkamera. Created as a subdivision
of the Ethnography Institute shortly after the Second World War, the museum had a mission
to collect and study materials related to Lomonosov’s life and achievements as well as the evo-
lution of Russian science in the 18th century. The museum founders (under the leadership
of Sergey Vavilov, President of the Academy of Sciences) were faced with a  task of build-
ing the museum collection. To achieve this goal, several museums including the Hermitage
had to contribute some of their exhibits to the Lomonosov Museum. The relations between
the Hermitage and the Academy of Sciences concerning museum stocks had a long and con-
troversial history. Just before the Second World War, for instance, the Academy of Sciences had
transferred some exhibits from the Peter the Great Gallery to the Hermitage to fill the newly
opened Department of the History of Russian Culture. Another handover to the Hermitage by
the Academy of Sciences, associated with the Museum of History of Science and Technology,
included scientific instruments, which was considered to be an especially painful loss for the
Lomonosov Museum. The Lomonosov Museum founders requested three groups of objects
from the Hermitage: scientific equipment, commemorative medals and engraved or lithograph-
ic portraits of Lomonosov and his contemporaries. At the end of December 1947, a marble
bust of Leonhard Euler by Jean-Dominique Rachette and “porcelain made by Lomonosov
and Vinogradov” were further added to this list. On  21  February 1948 the list was supple-
mented by  a collection of “samples of coloured glass from Lomonosov’s laboratory held
by the Russian Department”. The exhibits were transferred to the Lomonosov Museum under
the Decree of  the USSR Council of Ministers of 14 May 1948. Academician Sergey Vavilov
and the Hermitage Director Iosif Orbeli kept extensive correspondence on handover issues.
The official opening of the museum took place on 5 January 1949; on 29 December 1949, the
Hermitage fulfilled its commitments regarding the exhibit transfer to the Lomonosov Museum.
 Содержание C ontents

Е. М. Лупанова E. M. Lupanova

Научные приборы конструкции М. В. Ломоносова. Инновации и нереализованные Scientific instruments constructed by Mikhail Lomonosov.
проекты. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Innovations and uncompleted projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
С. А. Черноус S. A. Chernous
Приоритеты Ломоносова в исследованиях полярных сияний. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Lomonosov’s breakthroughs in auroral research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
И. А. Гарманов I. A. Garmanov
«Исполняя по своей профессии должность». Последний опыт Георга Рихмана “In doing his professional duty”. Georg Richman’s last experiment
(по материалам газеты «Санкт-Петербургские ведомости»). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 (Newly discovered stories from The Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Е. В. Карпова E. V. Karpova
Портрет М. В. Ломоносова работы Ф. И. Шубина: оригинал и вариации. . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Mikhail Lomonosov’s portrait by Fyodot Shubin: The original and variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Г. А. Миролюбова G. A. Mirolyubova
М. В. Ломоносов и «Театрум фейерверка» в середине XVIII в. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Mikhail Lomonosov and The Firework Theatrum in the mid-18th century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Г. А. Принцева
G. A. Printseva
Эскизы аллегорических композиций для триумфальных ворот
Sketches for allegorical paintings on St. Petersburg triumphal gates (1742). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
в Санкт-Петербурге 1742 г.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
L. S. Gerasimova
Л. С. Герасимова
The attribution of the Apostle Peter mosaic from Mikhail Vorontsov’s collection . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Атрибуция мозаики с изображением апостола Петра из собрания М. И. Воронцова . . . 62
И. В. Тункина I. V. Tunkina
Дарственная М. В. Ломоносову на земли в Копорском уезде The Donative Diploma to Мikhail Lomonosov on the spot of land in Koporye Uyezd
Петербургской губернии . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 of St. Petersburg province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Д. В. Осипов D. V. Osipov
Атрибуционное исследование пяти стеклярусных (бисерных) панно из фондов The attribution study of five glass bead panels from the Department of the History
Отдела истории русской культуры Государственного Эрмитажа . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 of Russian Culture, State Hermitage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
О. С. Кислицына O. S. Kislitsyna
К вопросу атрибуции мозаичных столов из Стеклярусного кабинета On the attribution of the mosaic tables in the Glass Bead Salon of the Chinese Palace,
Китайского дворца в Ораниенбауме . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Oranienbaum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
И. К. Ботт I. K. Bott
«Смальтовый» фасад Большого Царскосельского дворца – эксперимент The “smalt façade” of the Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Selo: Mikhail Lomonosov’s
М. В. Ломоносова?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 experiment? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Е. П. Ренне E. P. Renne
Эскизы Вигилиуса Эриксена к портрету императрицы Елизаветы Петровны . . . . . . . . . 130 Vigilius Eriksen’s studies for the portrait of Empress Elizabeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
В. В. Николаева V. V. Nikolayeva
Л. К. Пфандцельт: загадки и открытия. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Lucas Conrad Pfandzelt: Secrets and discoveries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
318 319
 Содержание Contents

А. С. Захаров, В. В. Николаева A. S. Zakharov, V. V. Nikolayeva

К иконографии барона Н. А. Корфа (1710–1766) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
О. Г. Костюк
Изящные напоминания середины столетия . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
М. Н. Лопато
Заказы драгоценных вещей императрицей Елизаветой Петровной. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Т. Н. Лехович
«О неношении никому богатых платьев…»: что стоит за указами
Елизаветы Петровны против роскоши?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Л. В. Ляхова
Андреевский сервиз императрицы Елизаветы Петровны и саксонская
«фарфоровая дипломатия» 1744–1748 гг.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Е. А. Анисимова
К вопросу о типологии русского стекла первой половины – середины XVIII в. . . . . . . . 194
М. Н. Косарева
Уральское меднопосудное дело XVIII в.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
И. Н. Уханова
Об одном шедевре косторезного искусства XVIII в.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
А. В. Шибанов
Парадная литавренная колесница графа П. И. Шувалова. Проблемы реставрации. . . . . 222
Н. Ю. Гусева
Редкое зеркало елизаветинского времени . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Е. Ю. Басаргина
Ломоносовский юбилей 1865 г. и проект академической реформы. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
И. М. Захарова
Празднование юбилейных дат М. В. Ломоносова в Архангельской
губернии в XIX–XX вв.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
О. Ю. Петрова
С. Н. Казнаков и выставка «Ломоносов и елизаветинское время» . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Н. С. Онегин
Елизаветинская комната в музее Ю. Э. Озаровского. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
М. Ф. Хартанович
Макет Химической лаборатории М. В. Ломоносова: вчера, сегодня, завтра . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Н. П. Копанева
Создание Музея М. В. Ломоносова и Государственный Эрмитаж. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Список сокращений . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Резюме статей на английском языке. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Towards the iconography of Baron Nikolay Korff (1710–1766). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
O. G. Kostiuk
Delicate keepsakes of the mid-18th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
M. N. Lopato
Precious items commissioned by Empress Elizabeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
T. N. Lekhovich
“No one shall wear rich garments…”: What stands behind Elizabeth I’s
sumptuary laws?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
L. V. Liackhova
The St. Andrew Service of Empress Elizabeth I and Saxony’s “fragile diplomacy”
in 1744–1748 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
E. A. Anisimova
On the typology of early to mid-eighteenth-century Russian glass art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
M. N. Kosareva
Eighteenth-century Ural copperware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
I. N. Ukhanova
A masterpiece of eighteenth-century bone carving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
A. V. Shibanov
The ceremonial artillery carriage of Count Pyotr Shuvalov. Aspects of the Restoration . . . . . 222
N. Yu. Guseva
A rare Elizabethan mirror. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
E. Yu. Basargina
Lomonosov’s anniversary in 1865 and proposals for academic reform. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
I. M. Zakharova
Celebration of Mikhail Lomonosov’s anniversaries in the Arkhangelsk Province
in the 19th and 20th centuries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
O. Yu. Petrova
Sergey Kaznakov and the exhibition “Mikhail Lomonosov and the Time of Elizabeth I”. . . . 256
N. S. Onegin
The Elizabethan Room in Yury Ozarowsky’s Museum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
M. F. Khartanovich
The model of Mikhail Lomonosov’s chemical laboratory: Past, present and future. . . . . . . . . 270
N. P. Kopaneva
The State Hermitage and the beginnings of the Mikhail Lomonosov Museum . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305