B MHPE HAYRH SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN W3ganue Ha PyCCKOM s3biKe Dekabpp 1 2 1987Pisdametcmbo MVP rpedraraem: Opeanun 9. OPrAHMZAMA CMCTEMbI MHTEN 432 Mlepevonc anrntiexoro Paccmarpueaercn Hosen esi4nc- ‘nuvensnascucremaVten 432, no- cipoeHHan Ha Case 32-paspARWo- ro Muxponpoueccopa m npescTas- moan co60# sbinajoweecn n0- CTwMeHINe MKpOSTEKTPOHUKH Ssuiuucnurrenanon vexnine, HMER Manbie ra6apurel, ona OOnanaet SuICOKOM NPoNsBOAHTENLHOCTHO W wnpoKmen cbyrcunonansiin SosMOMHOCTAWH, KaKiWM COnaga- ‘pT cospemenibie Gonkwne SBM. Ha Wren 432 ocywecranena anna: wx 8 oGnactH BeIMACHATensHOR 1987, 26.2, Mena 2 p20 5, GB MHPE HAYRH craten © 16 36 46 88 66 76 96 PYBPUKH 3 5 45, 56, 74,85, Vos, 195, 122 100 Scientific American . U3qanHue Ha pycCKOM A3bIKe MaLWOCTPHPOBAHHBIT &S PHALI NEPIMOA © AMFANACKOFO - BBINOAIT 12 PASH FOA- HAAETEH € 1999 104 MLIATEARCTHO «MMPs MOCKBA N° 12~- MEKABPb 1987 B nomepe: (Scientific American, October 1987, Vol. 257, No. 4) Crepyiouan KoMnbiTepHar pesonouNA —IOparan Mud Morice ent xa 50 net KOMMMOTEDMI CTA HEOTREMTENRIM ATDHIBYTOM COAPENEHHOTO MAASCTDHATHHOKS ‘oGmiectaa. Ha cneayrouiem Jrane Hx Now HOspacTeT No KpaliMei MEDE Ha MOPRIOK, CHK CTAHYT oBce- [MECTHO PACTPOCTPAREHHGIM ¢PEACTBOM PRUIEHIR HTEAINEKTYAMbABIX Aa ApxHTeKTypa KOMMBIOTePOB —_Lxedifipu Kone, Mow K. Meceuna OGuivite KOMMIOTEpEI PEMaIOT JaNsHy NocmeNOBETENDHO, iar 3a WaroM. BelcoKonpoHssoANTemsHA KOMmbAOTepAL MOryT PAGOTAT OIHOBPEMEHHO HAs HECKONBAHINH HaCTAMH SAAN NOZIOGHO Opuraste paGo- ‘w0,, » xoTopofl paazenenne Tpyia NosBonKeT 6uLcTpee stanton PAbOTY Muxpocxembi Ana KOMNBIOTePOB —_Lxeiawe HL. Meiiuda B 1959 r. na o¥om spucranze pasMeutann oan TpaHsNCTOp, cefiwac — Gonee wunnnnowt. Tlo Mepe toro ar NorynpoBONANKOBAA TeXKOOCHR MpHEMWAMETCR K NPeNEAY CRONK BOIMOAHOCTEN, TEND POCTR Yontx wHTerpaunn ramennsiores, om4aKo x 2000 F. V2ke MOABRTCR KDNCTANNH. coneD-xallNe MiENAWADA xonmovestron Coppementoe nporpamNMpoBaHne — {To6ud Feneprmep Flapannesionbie roMmBIOTepEt CraBNT nepeA Hab cepeEmy¥o MpoGnewy: OnM-rPeSyIO1 HporPaNtm, KOTO [bie OnHOBPeMeHHO BEINOMAAIOT NHOXeCTIO nelicTanit, Kak opraniTonaTs «tNtermnbt! Polly THX neficT- ‘il, NTOGbI CBECTH HX B EMMMHOE LeTOE? TexHonorna xpaHeHna AaHHbIX —Mapr X.Kpaiidep Yepes nsirk ner micronnie MarnuTHbie YeTpoiicrRa GyayT 2anKeHRATe H CUTHINAT: AHH RAROE BAICT- ee H XPAHNTE B ATS pad Goble HHCOPNALINN TIO CPABHEHNIO C ceromHAMIHNMMN YCTPORCTEAMN. MarHt- ‘TOOmTHNECKAR TEXHIKA CMOXKET OBCCMEMITD ete GONEE BEICOKYHO TIOTHOCTE 2aMCH Yenowexo-maunnnbie niTeptbencel — Mixeane bom Tlovemy oGuaren co caoxKHLIMH KOMBIOTEpAM ZOTAHO GuITs HenpeMeHHO TPyaH0? CyrepKoMmuIoTe: Pt cneayroutero noxoness Gyslyr chocoGwl 8 AeTANAX COMANAT «HEKYCCTBEHHE PEAMBHOCTHY, KOTO- hie o6nervaT manmoneticroue Yeropexa c MaMsHHeft KomnbiorepHisie corn Pobepm E. Kan Kowmbiorepes, o6seanHEHHDIE B CeTb, MOTYT «OBULATHCR H COBNECTHO NOMBIOBATECK MpOTPANMANGH, “Ravin # noporocTosuHM annepatsiM OBecrIeveNHeM. LNs CO3mLaHHR TaKOH cETH OaHIN usH¥EcKiEX asa.ton cmmut HeOCTaTOUNO — KONMAIOTEPA! NOMNKI HONIMATE PIT PYF BeIUMCAUTENbHbIe CHCTEMBI ANA Hay4HbIX MCCNeAOBAHWA — Tum Xam, Mxepased [Tei Cacemen Bunicintenbame 9xcrlepaMenTbi Ha KOMMSIOTepAX OOOrAMIOT MeTOMMKY HAyYMBEX MCcTEDOBAHM. B ‘Tofi OGnaCTH On HEUHNAIOT HTPETD CToMb KE BARHYIO POMb, KEK TEOpHS, HAGMONEHKA M 1AGOPATOPHEIE oxenepAMEHTEE BeiuncnnTenbHble CHCTeMbI ANA MERMUMHbI Maen J. Penneac, Sdeapd F Wopmaup B Gyayuien xonmbtovepta Crauiyt CTont 2ke MPHDLIVILIN B MEsLILIINEKOM NpaKTHRe, KaK cefivac eTeTO: ‘ckon, Oni cory xpanr® wbiaazate No 3anpocy HeOGxomHMyIo HxbOpMALINO, a TAKKE OKAILIBATH NO MOU NEMUMHEKOMY MREPCOHAATY B BONPOCAX AAFHOCTHKH HM NEYEHHR BuidvcniTenbHble CHCTEMbI ANA ABTOMATHSaLNM NPOMSBOACTBA —Anddepm M. Ipucwan, Kexnem B. Heauc (Cynepromnsiorepst Moryr crab sa@>kHAIM 2eNEHTOM NpOMILTeRKOTO mpoexTuponanR. Yoxe ceva (Om ORAIBIRAIOT CYMICCTHEHHOE B/MURHHE Ha RONCTPYRUMID CAMOHIETOB M ABTOMOGHAETI, NOMOTAR Y/I¥5- MINTS wx aDpommannectHe xapaRTEpACTHKH 06 astopax 108 Hayka soxpyr Hac 50 1 100 net Hasaq 118. Kaira 128 BuOnvorpacdun Hayka n o6wect8o 127 Mepevekb craten 3a 1987 F. SanumarenbHsin KOMMBIOTEDCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Harry Myers: PUBLISHER Jonathan Piel BOARD OF EDITORS Philip Morrison ‘Armand Schwab, sr Timethy Appenzeller Timothy Beardsiey John M.Benditt, Laurie Burnham David L.Cooke, ur. ‘Ari W.Epstein Gregory R. Greenwell ohn Horgan Robert Kunzig, James T.Rogers Rick’ L, Rusting, Karen Wright ‘Samuel L Howard Richard Saeco ‘Georg-Dieter von Holtzbrinck Gerard Piet 1987 by Scientific American, Ine. ‘Towapnaf sax Scientific American, cro Terr niupabrosoe oGopstetie OER HERAMONITEASHOA CCOCTBENHOETO Sctereifie American, tne. B MHPE HAYRKH THARNIN PEANRTOP en Kanmue vB lienenese 3.€. Komanoea 01K KyApRB08 T.APyuseuesa &.M.Cwotpon. ‘A.W0. Kpacnonesues meena ores N.B.Cypososa CACrynO8 JAMEAY UN PEAAKUNER ‘TA Sparn-Kawencvnan TEXHIMECKHM PEaAKTOP TN. ypaina HABasmnove ovornaenne onnciney ny ceKOrONIIAKR B.BEeboe Ta Prox TENE@OW PEDAK! "288.2568 © nepenon Fa pysexnt ee wodopynenne,«Mtupr, 1987 Ha o6noxKe CNEAYIOUWAA KOMMbIOTEPHAA PEBOMOLNA Ha oGn0xKe ns0Opaxkena «ONeKTPOHHAR NepYATKA, KOTOPAR AaeT NOABIORATEANL KoMnbloTepa BOSMOKHOCTE ¢ HlOMOUIBIO COGCTBEHHBIX pyK MaKHNYANDOBaTL 130- Spaxeniemrat Ha rpadiecrom aucnace (eM. cTavsio Hxelinca LH. oa wMleaonexo-Maumiute unrrepdeicit na c. $8). Yepes mrrepdeiie-nepwarey KOMMMOTep ONOSHACT MBHDKEHHR NambuleB H reHepApyeT COOTRETETAYIOUME TAK- “Tunaae OuyUeHHA, OTaenbabiii Anect HeBANMENH) AaTUNKONPeREAReT nOAOKE- ‘une u opwenTauuo pyei. Koumiorep waroTomten upMO Symbolics Inc. Ynnwctpayun OBNOXKA: Jon Brenneis CTP. ABTOFIMCTOUHVK CTP. ABTOP/MCTOUHMK CTP. ABTOP/MCTONHKK © Armando Garde, “6159 lan Worpole 61 Kit Peak Naional IBM Corporation, 54 18M Corporation Observatory Tees Scere ee mo cee is Rees © sabes aaa 60 Scott S. Fisher, 82 Gerald Jay © Ocean Dei tor: con ome fates AMVE WU 65 Gabor is feoeh come oes Tobit, 87 Lary Fagan « aga iames Billed NASA/Ames Mark Friss 46 Jon Brennds cele PS 1822 Jerome Kuhl 81 Seven GaRenck, 69 Dos Wa is nee Papanck Zr Jon Bond ieee Banana 28 Steve Allen, Cities (esepxy), Andrew courtesy of The ee Christie (anusy) Fairchild 82 Carol Donner 90 Cliff Wulfman Semiconductor 83 James Kilkelly 91 Randy Miller, 64 SunilK.Mukerje "Unies of Corporation =e Platburdh School 2095 Hank then Gee et Nedline % Animals, Waring 62 Edward Be faimas/non 58 Andrew Chrisie Stun id Ce Communication: 96 Bocing Computer 38-43 Joan Starwood Corporation Services Co. 4 Contiol Data ‘6872 George V.Kelin, 98,100 Gabor Kiss Spor Selene ier pores consllse 18,4 tan Worpole 76 James Kikelly eater ow stay, 787 KHL Foak Nationa! 12 Boing Ganmes Cosa EL. du Pont de oon Goss firiane Co. me cece’ Kiss (enpeed)” 406 Michael Goodman coin 60 Piet Hut oepey nets A. Corradi, cneea), Gabor Kiss eed cele Sani. {fee CaP oc) Mica! Goats (enpasa) enusy) 110-112 Andrew ChristieO06 abmopax Abraham Peled QIBPAXAM 11H JIEJ «Cneayiouian xontnsrorepHas pe- Pomouna») — wute-npemueHT m0 Bo- npocam paspaGore i axenzyaTawun cHETEM i ANDeKTOP oTeReHHR KHep- Nernst MnbopsaTiN a HayuHo-He cnezowarencKon orate Research Division upsust IBM. Crentenn Gaxa- rasp w Marvcrpa Hayx nonywa w Tex- Homoruseckow unctuTyTe 8 Mapause, a renew MarueTpa iexyceTe st noKTOpa ‘usocopun — 8 TIpuncroncKom yan- peparrere. BBM paGoraer ¢ 1974 1 ora ow noctyn 8 Hceaenopareab- xn uexp Tostaca Yorcoua aol xop- hopaiuin, Tloene paGorkt m apyrsx sc- ‘cnenowatenbeknx eHTpax TOIL Ke Oup- sabi Fries. 8 1983 F. wepHysicw & weHTTp ‘Yorcona s keNecTee sipeKTopa No TeX- itieckoMy MliannHpoRanitio ¥ pykoson- erny paGoraun, npononinainne nocne- aosaTemicKHM ornenesiest xOpnopa- uw. Hacrosuiyio aomxnocrs Tune aanunaer ¢ 1985 r., nosrnasnaa oTaene- ne xuGepHeTins iW unpopwaTuKit ENT pa Vorcowa, a Tanke xypupys ucene0- aremerite eHTper H aaGopaTopmit ‘Qupster IBM ws pyrex crpanan. Geoitrey C. Fox, Paul C. Messina ODKE@OPHL K.” OKC, TON K MECCHHA «Apurrerrypa ronniore- on») ywacroowasnt @ conan wusKie= Auremansx aun, ocHopanunx na na- pastneabaol eOpadorse, axx Kannibop- tuutcxaro Temonoruaccxore wcTHTy- 7a (KTV). @oxe, npoeccop dirs anette aenana ganytetera abt MicaMTeabiOd TEXMMRH, BORrAARNRA OGxemuneHtyo rpynny sceaenooarenel 1 KTH w SlaGoparopan peaxrinnoro BOKeHWR, ADySABUIEX MepeTEKTHREL UpweMe nen NapanneswnBin asian Tesmaax cuetent 8 ayunaix eenenoDa- wx. Mecca pyxosommr 8 KTH janorusnoll TEMOR, —_NawnachoR Concurrent Supercomputing Initiative (CSIC); ce ucsoto nmtneteR corsaine apasineneabiy BrHeANTEMDHBIR. Mae yeTynarouNr No NpowsBaA- Tenmwcrs obuibiM evnepKONOTE- pan. oxe sahnautes MatestariKOH 8 KewSpuamcrost smnpepenrere ® Beni xoGpurraunn, a aoxTopexyo sNccepTa tio w 1967 f aausern w 9TOM yHUDED- currere yike no TeopeTtseckoH GIDHKE. TlopaGoraa nexoropoe spews pans wax yaoGnern nt Hayane-necreaoBaTem cna ypesknenine Aviat w CIDA, ® 1970. npmuen 8 KTH, rae B 1979 fnonyuiin apare npodeccopa. Meccana 8 1965 r, saxonvin Bycrepexait xon- ‘eam, ney erent, Gaxananpe, 8 1967 F, eran naruerpow, a 1972 r.33- LuvEFHA aoKTopesyIO ccepTaLLHO w Vauepenrere w Ubiuunnar ri, rte on ‘Taxke pykowoniia ymmepenreTcnns BHINMICANTenbHbIM WeHTPOM. Faxon o6ytene, nocTymiit 8 ApromcKy10 Ha- uWoHamuAyIo saGoparopmio, rae B 1982 r, nosrnasia oTaea Maresaraxa "nporpasesnporansis. 70H wecnton Mec- cua Guin wasnaven pyxosonuTenen inpoexra CSIC. James D. Meindl (DKEHMC 1. MEPHIL «Muxpoceestan ans Kou niworepom>) — Bnue-npesment no wa Yyerbint Bompocam # pepeKtop Pencce- JIePORCKOTD NOMETEXHINECKOFO HHT ‘tyra. Oxouwit Yaunepenter Kapre- ra—Mennowa x 2 1ORS r. noayuun cre- Hen» aoxtopa durocogun » oGnacrH aaexrporeamn. PaGoran » dupme Westinghouse Electric Corporation 1 8 aaGoparopui sneKrpouuKn cyxoryT- tux noficx CUA. B 1967 r. erat acc CTeHTOM radeapel sacKTpOTEXMIKH 8 Crangopacxon —ynuacpewrere, 8 1970 r, noxyaun aankHocT» npodecco- pa. C1972 10 1986 r. Gwin anpextopost aGopa Topi anexsponnKse Crangopa- cxoro ynmeepenrera. B 1986 r. nepewien 8 Peneceneponcenf uncritryr. Heppas {ef0 CTaTb# © NHKpOeNeMAX B aKYpHATE «Scienlific American Guna onyOnHKo- nana w 1977 1 David Gelernter (IOBHAL TEAEPH- TEP «Cospemensioe nporpaimupona- sae») — aoueur xabeapot unpopscam- xu p flenicxom yuunercurere. 3anep- ‘uma oGywenne 890M yHuBepcwTeTe, OH eUNETHA DORTOPCKYIG :mecepTaLIHO HO auopsiatuxe 8 Yinuepewrere ur. Huio-Hops 8 Croysi-Bpyxe. To ero enonan., wnfrepec & eabiKaM npOrPANNI- oRaW H HapaaienbHAiM BEIMHEEH- yn, NepwonavaHO sapoamiten y NETO B ‘casa © NONeKoM epencTa sANR connaHNR HOBLIX HporpANMHLAX CTPYKTYP, 8 acT- NocTH ins 4AM ueKVeCTBENNOTO M0 Tenenta, HO rave sanUTepecoRancn una munomyre. Penepurepa ceftwac AponOTAAOT saHUNATE mpOSsIENB! He- kyceTacinioro miTeaneKra, wocobentio- cTiero npunowenut s Meamune,a Tax- xe B Moenuposanint nawsTH. B ¥acTo- ‘muice npesia 8 spaarennerse W.W. Nor ton & Co roronitreax abixony w ceer ero sara qhiirencTusa nporpasupon: Hn» (Programming Linguistics). Mark H. Kryder (MAPK X. KPASLIEP «Texnonoraa xpanenna ambi») — poercop Kageape! IneKTPOHNKH Ht ssuiuncawrensHoil TexmuKn Vantpepewre- a Kapneru—Mentoma. Yausen 8 Cranopaexont yumpepewrere, rae 9 1965 r. emy Guia npeyxkaena cTenenis axananpa, a sere 8 aciupantype Ki ainbopmulicxore TextosiorusecKoro wt- 3 eniTyta, re 8 1966 F. nonysiur aeaHKe Maruictpa, a 8 1970 r. —20xTopa wayk. Tpopadoran asa roa no oGweny cne- unamucrasn 8 antaanorepwancKost ynumepewrere a PerenicBypre, on nocty- nna a Hecneaonaremsckan uenrp TOMa- ca Yorcona dupmt IBM. B 1978 r. on nnepewen 8 Yewmepewter Kapnern— Meastowa, rte w 1980 r. euy npercnonme seanite mpodeccopa. C 1982 r. Kpaitaep paGoracr 8 AO,TWOCTH ANpeKTOpA YH epewrerexoro —_uecieaosarentcKoro eHTpA NO MarmTHOM TexIMNKe. James D. Foley (IDKEMIMC 1. @os1it «HeaoweKo-Mausnnise ——wtrepben- ch») — mposbeccop wubopwarixn Yinn- nepewrera Jxopawa Bauuurrona, inywaer npuwienense MeToson 2etI¢p 7. IX CHCTEM & MenOBeKO-NAUINIHISA HH repeticast, Cretien Gaxasiaupa noay- sr B 1964 r. » Vameepewrere JTwxas, a cerenenn warverpa (1965 r.) n aoxropa punocedpun (1969 1.) — wMuwurancxout yimpepenrere. Yeper roa ctan aoueH- row mibopsa Taxi Cesepo-Kaponin- exo yuuecperrere, rae bpeaepux 11, Bpyxe-stiaaunfl nosnaxomma ero epenexTumanit coananina «itcxyccrRer- ux peatbnocrelin, B 1976 r. epee 18 Biope nepenmen CJA, 40681 poek- Tuponart cucTeMt 318 rpagusecKoro npeacrannenus cratuctuxn. Heper ron repnysies n Vuneepenrer Ibeopinxa Bs- uuwmrrowa, oan — coastop xHunt «OcHonb! MTTEpARTHBHOR waULNAHOT pain nw sten Mactirryra mxene- pos NO onekrporexHuKe 1 panuorsier- ‘Tponune Robert FE. Kahn (POBEPT E. KAN «Konmiorepisie ceri») — npesnest eoniwepyeexon Kopriopaunit 218 He- uNaTHB, KOTOPYIO OH OCHOBE B NpC- hu0M roay € ueabio conHeTENN HEE aonanNAM 8 oGnacm oBpaGorKn i ‘opwauut, Crenen Garanaapa ntons- ua a 1960. xoaaenke mpH Hite- Mlopxcrom ynmepewrere, a crenens Maruerpa (1962) 4 aoxropa dunocodut (1964) no aaexrporentinke w FipunetoH exoM yrmeperrtere. ecne anyx ner paGorei 8 KaveerTse aouerTa 8 Maccany- CeTEKOM TexHOPOTURECKOM WCTETYTE epewsen » dupwiy Bolt, Beranck and Newman, Inc., rie yeacraowa w co3ta- win cent ARPANET. B 1972 r. Kanne pewien 8 Yapasnenie nepenerrusaei ecremoBanuft sumucrepeTsa OGOPOHEE CWA (DARPA), rac enocneacrann (Tan pykosoanTenen oTaena Texnozo- Faw O6padorast uHGOPMaLH. Pict Hut, Gerald Jay Sussman (HT XAT, IDKEPAMIBD. IDKEF CACC. MEH «Brincanrensibie cictemi 108 aywtntx uceneaonanitt). Xar — npo- ‘Seccop acrpodunnxn 8 Mucraryrerlunes siccnesiowannil, Cacemen — apo- ‘eccop svexrporexwiKn Maccayycer- KOTO. TeXHOsIOrWeCKOTO | MHCTHTTYTA (MTH). Oustacayr commecruyto pabory No conaaniuo cpeacTs asimtemTensHol ‘renwins, opmenraposiumx Ha rIpove- ere actpogusacexax uecnezovannih Xar nonywn crenens maructpa 8 Yr- PexTeKom yiugepeiTeTe, a creneHt aoxTopa unocogut — » Antcrepaant- ‘exon ynmnepenrere, C1980 r. om eran corpysnnkon HivctuTyra btcuix He- enenopann. B 1989 r. Xar sya ac- Tpogwsuxy 8 Keambopmniickons yrn- pepeurere 8 Bepenit. Mposwnss wire- Pec € anioneKony ashiKy H KyMETYpE, Om corpymwiaer ¢ snoHKNNN crewnanH- Cran wo smorix oGsacraK — oF GK kv aentenrapntx wacrun, reodusHi, aneowronorun 20 wiiopwaruxs. Cacesten nonvanin aumon w 1968 r. 1 Tenent 10K Opa hustocodn BOGACTIE Mavemannn a I973 1 8 MTH, rae 0 Toro yx paGoran’ co- Tpyanuxost JlaGoparopun mexyceracn~ oro wirtennexra, Cacemen — onu 113 awTopon y'eGHHIKa Ho OCHOBAM BbINNIC- aurrenbitoit Texte Glenn D. Rennels, Edward H. Shortifte (CIEHH 1. PEHHEJIC, 90BAPA Tr. WOPTIING «Burincawrenbsne evere- MBI Ans Menus») neayT consect- ylo paGory B rpynne NenuuNNcKHN KoMmbioTepHx cueTent a Messe exon wixone Crabopackoro yeupepen- Tera, Peiiene nenyai cTenenb Gana nappa a 1977, e ZlaprMyreKoM Kon reame, crenieHb JOKTOpA MeAMUNE B 1980 re Zlaprawyrexolt veanuunexoit uiwoae, erenen, 20Ktopa guz0copun no Meamumexol smgopsaruKe 1986 r. 8 CranopacKos yanpepewrere (Uopranp Oma ero wayunbint pykono- utrenes), B Hactomuiee BpeMn On co- npyanink Meaiunmiexott uisonn Cran boprckoro yuunopewrera, npacraeyer ax anectesmonor. Moria) noayan erencme Gaxazampa 8 1970 1. 8 Papspa~ &KOM KONTEMKE, 3ATEM NPOUIEA KYPC AOAroTOsKH f HayyHe-neceAoBaTeM. exo paGore 8 OsacTH senmunit B Cranopnexom yuusepewrere, re Mo- ayn erenenn aoxKtopa seams (1975 1.) aoKropa —dunocodun (1976 1.) no weamusEKOR wnbopsaTH- xe. Ero noxropexaa avccepTauus Outta ocexusena paspaGorke KomIoTepuoT nporpanouss, aenontayioelt mpanuna notvona, 214 roncyaeTHpoanHA NO BO npocant never Caxrepriaapnnsr 3260 acnawutit, B Meamumicsofl uikone Cran- opacKoro yHuBepcwTeTa oH c 1979 r. rawian aonxWOCTS aceHeTEHTa, ¢ 1985 r. — aoueHTa; HOMMMO Kayo paGoris 1aiactes apaueBuoll pa ‘Tuoi, Albert M, Erisman, Kenneth W. Neves B MMPE HAYKMA:1987/N? 12 (AJIBBEPT M. 9PHCMAH, KEHHET B, HEBHC «Bsiwncanrensusie cucre Nit 208 awroMaTixaiuun npowtsBoxcT- na») — corpyannuat xexenainut Boeing Computer Services, re pwcstaw 3a Nae noct anpexropa oraesew Engi- neering Technology Applications, a He- ‘te pykovoan naywno-icenenovaTel- xi nporpantwani a8 oTMeeHIN Engineering Scientific Services. pue- an nonywia crenenb 2oKrOPA Ho MP xraavon warewaruxe & Yiuinepcitrere tur. Aflona 8 1969 r. 1 rocrymin na pa- Gory # dupmy Boeing. Cnemaeanpy- rex a parpaborke aaropwrTNion JUi8 aywnix ncenenonaustl u anropuT Mon sts ananisa xpynnonactrraGtax exe, TaRIX KaK clicTeMbi sneerpocwadyxe- vis. Heaitc, xoropun uveet cranes aoxropa dunocesit © oBnacrit sare MaTHKH, mpncyaaennyto ey Apiniow: ‘CRIME yiUBEPCHTETON, PAGOTAN # KOP- nopauw IBM i» oracsenun Nuclear Power Generation xovaiun Babcock & Wilcox, rie vaniwaa aonanocts. crap- lujero Marenatuxa. B1975 r, octyana mpm Bocing. Cpeait cro paspaGoron MeeTes BoiMucnifrenuax nporpaysia, xoTopas adextusno paGoraet no wxaHt- Moueiiersiu ¢ cowpemenmini paGour- MW cTaRUHmM H naparutenbLaNt pO- nueesopass ViSdamewenbo MVP ripedraraem: P. Toxxetia OCHOBb! YWOPOBON SMEKTPOHUKN Tepepoac wiReKOrO om 1001 7 9 oo10 «Ono PTowmeim OCHOBBL udp INK POHUKU VanarenscrB0-Mups 2 6 06OuU Tlocnenowarensnoe w oKaToe Wi nomeNMe NDMIUIANOG ReMCTSMA A BosMoMHOcTeR NpaKTHVeCKH BCX Bnnoe wabposne aneweHTos yerponcrs, — Paccmarpysaoren CnoCOOb! ABOUMIO-AecRTHAHOTO koniponanin, nprmuuns RoAcr- ‘BAR MW MOCTPOeHHA nOrAMECKAK “apndbweTmueckx MOAyTeR, apa ‘rexrypa u 3Y uukpoxouneicrepos, a Taoxe MeTORE! CONPAKEHUR UM @pomsix w amanoroonix ycT- poners, Ana moxenepos, -xenaoune wcnonesoaTe yncbposyo annapa- Sypy, W eryReHToD, WayuaIouK aMieKrponHyio TexkiMy. 1987, 22.0. Wena 1 p. 90 x50 "100 vem HAS00 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN OKTABPh 1937 r. Heenorps wa rpau AMOWRBIE MpOCKTH No CHOMEOBANHIO aueprait nammouletl son ana pupa Gorkw azexTpuverrsa, OcHOBHBIM «!10- ‘cTapustyon» snexTposneprnn ocracTeR Boaswof nap. B mpouvios roay wa n0- 20 Napowbix TypOuK npuuuTOce orO0 70% wa rex 109 sanpa. Kimtowarr-tac, xoropute Gti nporaseaeats B CUA. Mouse, cunueit sun Gone tunnicres opramonos, enyakirT nuuieft exoropuin muxpo6amt. JIpyrie uepO- 6u1 mrraiores szioguTuins cenewom. 370 vue aa HpHMepa, Kore xMNHMEEKNT onewenT HeoONoaNM ans cyuieeTPORA- ‘uxoaHux oprani3MoB, HO EMEPTENHO onacen ans apyrix. Onna ws wemnuxuex 3ArA1OK HaYAat 0 KHBOM COCTOUT B TOM, nOWeMY OPraHinN HcnOALayeT TOAbKS HeKOTOpbIE XHMUHECKHE ITEMEHTEI, 8TO ‘pens Kak ocrambunie 13 Guero sei ‘oxo10 90 arevenToD, HaBCETHBIN XN ‘kaw, anx nero Gecnosieaiby, & TO H BoBce anomeru? Bosnucaer m TaKofi vonpoe: ‘eMieTaMITeRbHO MM NeTOREK «OGXOANT- ‘o> MpuutepHo 1S aneneTasat wi 218 ro cyWecTHOMANNS nyAKHM Ht APyTHE? Benosmast 06 orxpusTii mirrananio: Me noBToplrTsA ni 3nect TAKAM KE HeTO. ax? Virxenepes wt Manmoiteexoro yamt- nepentera 9 SpCane oGuapy ust, 470 fo six euaare aaTparst wa oxTaEeHNE [CeMIKONNATHOFO AON B ACTHHIL NepIt- (0d NOAHO cHIAHTH 10:50 eH TOB 8 eH. ‘Srror nweon Gti Noakpennen axenepHt- MeHTAMLHO, MpHVEM £0 BpeMA HeMLITa- ‘ll TeNmepatypa Hapy>KKOTO BOMYXA xomeGanact or 30 n0 40 °C. Heaasno sbiscinnock, 4ro nonpeKn GorTyouemy MHeHi MOTTO Bpeit ‘an, wapecTMWsA dororpad. ywactoonan- uni 8 Tpaxnavexol noite, Goin ne epabint, RTO aacwinn Garanputae cucttat. ‘Qrawecte npanannexurr newsuceTHOMY Fepolo, caczaBwenty arepporHnet B 1847 r. po ppemi Mexeinrauckol Bofiuts B Hiso-Flopre yrsepxacu nontie ‘npasiuracrpowrrenscrea, Cpe Mep, Ha IPAwICHLAN Ha FO, #TOGE AOBEETH ‘Toanl cTporrienbeTHa 10 conpeMentiore yposta, suawrrcs Mt pappeuiente we nom.s0maT». mpus coopyaccuma crarTstnIX KONCTPYKINH CBEPKY BNIECTO KALKI. Dro peuicyne yerpanncr necneance HpewsTCTHMe Ha AYTH K WHPOKOMY He- onbopaKno cpapKH “Temberne sant OKTABPh 1887 r, B wrrepniio, nan- tom rasere «Evening Post», Tose anicon raansin, ¥To.B NacTOAUICE APES 0 uceueno normowen siaeeA KOMsIepE- croro ucomsoranitn — ouorpada. Tipusenenies ycoxepuenctposannoro Gouiorpada nacrosuxo weoGemums, we ny6nuxa, rax onaczeTex wso6peTaten ‘euy npocto ne nowepstT. OawaKo Honk annapar, no ero ca0Basl, Crome NPOCT 8 OGpauucsinn wt croMs ys0GeH, WTO co. Guctpoe sneapenue He pAIKIRIET cO- Maen, QawcoH ceva cnesyoute aKonstepeanrr nan citypaninit, wena” uA nocnaTs nnckMo, aonaeH ANU BkMOMTE annapar mM nporosopur®. TeRet miicwMta R TpyGKy. Tlocae yroro iaenunKa, sum, KK x HasBiNaLO ce, ‘bouorpanntar, rorooa sins oTmpapxst np noste. Aapecar acramsaer een cBott annapar wensiuiT cooGuiere, mpuyent Fopaaio acnee 1 OT¥eTNHEE, HEN HO cae omy conepuicntionty Tenedony. Moro oaMoxectel! cynurr gonorpad st My: ‘guKaWTam, ecam uNeT® B BHLLY HesHaMit- ‘Tembuyio croMMocTe osy¥enna KONA ovorpannent w BuicoKoe KavECTHO BOC Npowmenents MyauKH wa annapaten, ‘px crpou- Mauimwonuce _pesomounonssupyer MeToaDt OBMeHa cooOULEHIAMI HCO eT HORbIe paGOME MecTa, sanOHHEMME eprint KBATHMUNPOBANHINI Monoauistn oco6ani. Mexyeer#o ai xTOBKH 20 cuX rlop GLiz0 sianowanecT uo, Moceltvac menowete skoaM HasinarOT ocOianars, Kak NHOTO BpEMCHT ONL norparian ua pyruniyto paSory nica- nun acnomuin GyMar or pst Loaroe wpems cusranoce, sro Goro: padi sept enVAIET GambusNHOMo: eTunKaM. Teneps, o1HaKo, oTHOMEHNE weft aomaio anstenserscn: M, Fo6en na @pamuysexoro Ganka wauuen crocos 3ACTABHTE ITO HEKYCETBO BELCTYHTD # pont aetexriea, TIpeanoxenbil! ux MeToA cOcTONT B NOAY¥eHHH yBEmHEH wax 20 Gormtioro passepa bororpa: ‘uh Monee sum ueRHOR Gysarm, wet Tipit 2rostser avoGoe nowpexae- me Ma OTAONEHHME OT HOPM Uro xacaeres mpnwenenus azexrpH wecrna ait roponekoro TPanenopTa, TO aulecb TaRTCs OFPOMIE HOSMOAKHOCTH Bausko epenis, xoraa ¢ yaMu He¥eSHyT owt, H ancKTPHNECTRO NOYBOANT HAN nepeapuraricn no ropoay Gbicrpee i 38 Memanyte naary. Hanepeow stane copesnonantt 4a Ky: Gox Axepuist 910r0 cesona, 27 cents Spa, noGeniaa avepinancxas srs «Voluntecr», Ona a 20 sans onepeanns axty ip BewxoGprranut «Thistle Bropon aan rouok, 30 ceHTaSpA, TaK xe Guin BEUTpAR HTOH «Volunteer», MetoUeit npenNyulie=THO xOMA NO BET py. Hrax, x9Gox ocraneron y sae. Hu oalia v9 npennaranuuunes Kon TPR muptaTIOpHEIX dororpAbH- eckiIX arinapatoo ne MOxET cpaBHHT- com € Toll, FTO H20GpasKena Ha pacysiKe ‘hiay. Mbt He BumiNt npitunt, nO KOTO- Doin Heavss Guuto G1 OGLeamaLTD c HO- Mouibio cneuwaztsuBtx mpucocoG neu acovoh MexawaM mt goTorpaguue- cxyio kamepy. pu 2rom osmune Hace “THeMs KHONKH, OcranasaMraFoel Wace, Moan Gio Gul, nanpiep, saci ‘oxonwavie 2a6era na cKaNKaN. Somoxamepa-wocesCyrenyromasa KOMIbIOTepHad PCBOJIFOWNA Menee vem 3a 50 net Komnbiorepbi CTafin HEOTbeMeMbIM aTpUOyTOM COBPeMeHHOrO UHAYCTpManbHOro OOWeCTBa. 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Bo BcskoM cnywae, TO eco: MHeHHO a8 TeX, KTO HenocpeacTeeHHO ‘cumaH ¢ BHIMHEAITTENHON TEXHAKO. Tloxoxe, ro colivae Kontuiorepitaa ua pctynaet B osyio any. Ha Tox Tare Gnaronaps a0crwKcHHAN B OO: rH annaparHoro x nporpamsmoro ‘oGecnevenix, KoMmbOTEpAL B TexEHME nenylouiero neesrinerus cranyt MoUs Hee, «ynateen u yMHBepCAsBHEe Ha NOR: ox. B10 we Bpedta MN HOAysAT NOBCE- -MecrHoe pacnpocrpaneHtie w OGpaxyior wrenexryanbayto caya6y, 8 KOHeY- ostedere cram Ke 0eTYMHyID, Kex Te edox. Fomsosanne epencrsani nt- sncnutrenbuot rexniinn Gyzer OGner4e: FEPCNEKTVSHBIA KOMNIBIOTEPHBIM ANCNNEN wacopaxaer Ccopmio epauaiowuxca xy60B (spalienue npocnexusaercn Ha 6 Kal: nepenexrit SMBPAXAM NWNED Ho HaLIHWHEN! MINPOKGH HOMEHKTATYPHL mureppeticos, oFecHeMMEMIOUNX SHY: anbubtit w sipyrue criocoGet ecrecrBeH- Horo OGwieHiA YenOBeKA ¢ MANNION, & FuGawe cern ¢ Gonutiof nponycKno® cnocoGiocTHO cMoryT cBRamT, mo6yI0 Epynmy miowe, nymnarouuuxce 8 aBro> alTAsMposaRHoil OGpaGorKe wabopya- uu, Gyn» To paul, neITaIOMHECK NO- cramer cnoxuntt suarno2, Gamwepss Noarorassinsatouine puHaNCoByI0 one: Paiumo, moKCHEDEr axpoxocaNMEEKOR, ‘Texto, cOmaIOuLe HOBLIN peTaTeNi- pif anrapar, acrpopisixit, moze pytoume snottoutio Beeneniort, wm eTyNeHTH, roTOMRUMECH E 9KGAMENY. OTA nowancie Taxol mrreaex: “TyanbHoll cayxkGst OTpaPKaer rity Goxue inMeHeHiA B OTKOMIENKH 06: lulecTea xk BuIMHcAMTeNbHOM TeXMKe, ONO manseres NpaNAM cneAETaHEN Ter yerotiunsbix TenzeHunit, KoTOpEIe co: ‘xuMcb ocKe BTOPO! MuPORGH BOM Ha KOTODMX ocHOSBIBATCR Hay¥HO: ‘Texmecxitt nporpece B »TOT Nepuoa. 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Momo oxnaare, ¢ro MinMaTIOpH sau GyaeT mpoaosxarTees M aazice Te MW ke TeMmanin No Kpafiuell Mepe Bene~ ayioutne [Onan [Ser aa cier nocrinke- uit 8 OGnactH TexHOAoTWK WaroTOBNE- nn murxpocren (en, crariio ApKeinica JL, Mefinana «Muxpocxensi 18 xoM- mutoTepos» Ha c. 26). PetrTreHoncKan awrorpadwi © venomaosanHeM cM: XpOTPOHHOTO Haay¥eKUA, HOBBIE MATE wants s Yayuuersisicerpy¥TypEs amex ‘TPonibix Yerpoliers, sepoxTHo, yac:t- aT N/OTHOCTE KOMNOHENTOS'B KPH crane m 20—40 pas. Buicrposeicraue ‘awe mpoueccopon, o-BiaMMoMy, woapacrer w 612 par. ‘ru ycouepuenicrBosantin GyayT co- MpOBOXxaATECH MOCTORHHBIM POCTOM sacurraGos rapariensiol oGpaGorKH AANHDAX 8 BLICANTETBHLAX cHCTeMAN. Fiparriccxit nce xonatiorepis nuinon sIOT BUNHCAeHN NocHenORATENHO, 7. €. ony onepawnio sa apyrof Tapa nenbaaa oOpadorea anasrTemito Gonee poposTenHa, Tax Kax OMA M10380- Aner KoMMLIoTepy paGoTarL BO MOTO as Gsictpee 3a cveT onHoBpeMeNNorO [BIMIONMEAHA. BCEX HUI NECKODRHX Usa ros sanaw (ot. crarsio bx. oxca m TL, Meceuuiut «ApxnteRrypa soNtnbto- ‘repoo» ua c. 16). Ecam samwatiopssauues onpenerser TeMlibt TEAHHIECKOFO NpOTECCA BbIAN -arenbAuix cxcTeM, TO CKOPOCTE, € KO- ‘TOPOM On MpOMNAIOT B MpoNEAIEN- socTs, cdepy yenyr H nayumbte weeneno- ans M npeodpanyior sx, B KOHEMHOM GeieTpO MOET pasBHATECR M pactpo- CTpaNATHCH —aporpanntHoe OdecreHe- ae. Tipsunna TOM, sro nporrasinnoe ‘oGecnewenne npespauiact KONMIbioTep Ws MNCTPyMeKTa, KOTOPHIN MOET Pe ere aainyio Janay & mpionuune & uncTpyMeHT, KOTOPEIR MOKeT peur ‘ee npaxrieci, He cymecTayer envio ha aavke xaxoil-tnGyab rocnoaeTEyIO- leit Texrosiorn nporpanmore obec8 B MMPE HAYKIN-1987/N 12 Munnvonon OnEPAKUA 8 ceKyHay oot Nitro fare 1950 1975 ‘SBOMIOUMABBIYICRMTENbHBIX MALIMH oOwero Haste hun aa 40 ner, Paccwarpysawren 4 Tana Maue: YenTpane- ble (cH Yaer), MMRU-KOMMOTePE! (p9s0BHiH), nepcOManD- Hole (Gerenbi#) WBCTPOEHHBIE KONNIOTepE! (xenTouH). A kamgoro THN NoKaIaM POCT FPaHHy AWENAIOMa OeICTpO- fencrova (@ MARNMONaX OnepAyWA 8 COMyHAY). TyMKTA- nie nani coorsercrayeT nporHosy. Bo sce BDeMeHa sbI- GhonirenbHan MoWHOCT® YeHTPAREMbix KOMNIOTEDOS Conk: te, WOM BWERUTeNKHAR NOUWOCTS MuMA-MaulMie NoCReAMME 1985 ‘MowWee nepconantieix KoMNbIOTepOR, KOTOPLIE B C2010 O4e- eae npesocxog#T No 3ToMy —noKssaTeNO BcTDOEMHBIE Kounbiovepst. KpoMe Toro, eAMHMUa BOIMMENMTENBHOM MO Hoctn oOxoAWToR Reweane a MeHee MOUNbIX MaLIAMax, T2K B 1987 r. oTHOCHTeNbHaR CrOMMOCTE BbINONHEHAK OAMOO MA ‘nwowa OnepauHA B CeKYHAY Ma WeHTDANeHOM KOMNLIOTEDE ‘npaMepio cocrasnner 100 enMHMu, Ha MAH-MaWHHe — 40, Ha ‘lepconanbroM KoMNsiOTepe — 3, aNa BCT pCeHHOM KOMMbOTE- pe cnt Ob! on Gwin AoCTATONHO MOWWSIM) — 0.15 esunMtsnevenus. Pasutue ero Oyner warTH 0 LYN YAYMIHNS eTpYETYDHL, NOBBILIC- HN MOWIOCTH F3bIKOR 1, YRerUMEHA SbdexTuBHOcTH CAN NpOrpAMNMIEIX epercts (cx crareio 11. Penepnrepa ‘«Cospenenioe nporpannmposannien wac. 36), B xonrexcre nporpamaworo oecn ‘enn TepyN «cTPyKTYPAM OTHOCHTER KodibexrisHocT a WNL sIaAE BSUIHOCTHE en9c06a, ¢ MOMOUIEIO KOTOPOFO HOA- porpaNMM, cocTARAMIONINe TOMAyIO nporpanmy, OGveamisioter sMecre, robin wauima Morne stAnoanirTe ‘cnovo tana. SI3HK ABET HOBMOAKHOCT, THon20RATeMIO COOCLLNTH MALLMINC, KaK Peaaurs08atb niporpanMy HH HeKOTO- Bylo ce wacTs, wTOGe peumeTs Ty HI nyo samiayy.” Mouser, waumnvoro, sobika uaMepseTeR TpeOyeMoil cTe- nemio acraamauim, HaxGonce soul posto vaasare Maren THUECKyIO HAIL aormvectyio GOPMYIMpOBKY saw B pacieTe Ha TO, 470 MalLNNHa casa eMo- eer cnpanienien ce acraswaauet Mporpasissaa cpesa, T. e. pan diss MECKIX HOTHYEKKHN EPEACTS, © O- ‘MouIbIO KOTOpEIX MporpauMuleT mepe- ‘act Maunme KONaHZE, rpoUAa Tye (OF oGninitnix TyMGAepOR 10 KranKATY- bt MabnnyaRTOPA THNA «MBH», OT Gnok-cnem 14 BnawKoD ats rOANDODALI [MpOrpaNM 110 MHTEpaXTHEHBIX TEKCTO- LIX rpagueckHX. 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B oc Hone 3roft Teemu AeKNT Hempepet Hoe conepucicreonariie npouecca sm ‘Torpadint (nocpeacrsoM KOTOpOTO 8 xpucranne BuITpasmisaioveR 10 a6 snowy TDeGyeNste TENTH) M TeXHOO- KOMNBIOTEPHAA PEBONIOUAA un mpoweoncrsa. Ceromus mutorpa- nin rennioaocn waroToRaetHia no: MposonKoBDIX crEM OsBORAIOT 10 chia, paspemsmouien crocooHocrH oT 10 20 1,5 nim. Omrruveckan nurorpa- us, seponTHo, nosBomT comanaTt Srewerst nesNMON Acero nM 04 sinst. PewtrenoncKas mTorpacbust nore OGecrieaitT» Hoslytente-33e MEH ‘Top pasMepom 1 nex (a1a8 cparnenus YEDKeM, HTO MENOBEMECKHT BONIOS HME er romuiaiy 100 nxn) lo mepe ywenbuuenx pasmepon 97 menrow nowmatercs HoBAl paz npod- eM, “HapbacwtbiX napaanTiaeckINt SodeRTann, Koraa paccrosin Hse ROTOR MuKPOHANH, DeKTPHYECKHE H MACHNTHBIe MON, MHOpOxABEMBIE Ie- NeHFAME MUKPOCKEM! 1 TOHMAIUHINI CoesmMTeRiMIMM — MpoBOAKEKAM, moaunoneiicraylor APyF € ApyroM H ne: AMIOT HeBOAMORHBIM BLINOMHEHNE TPE ‘Gyemont onepanm. Test ne Meee TexHo- OMNR NONEBLAX THAHSNCTOPOB (KOTO paw ace Gostee uinpoxo sHeapaeTcH ‘npoWaROACTRO REX RHION FONETIIOTE- ow, 2 ucKmovenvent naHGonee BBICo- oupowswoaurenaeixy —Gyner, 10 uauwomy, coneiictaoBETt naribKefiuse- My MosbiuienMo NAOTHOETH H eKOPO- ci. BpeMm steakiy npweniost curwaaa a Bxome WAOMeNeNMeNt cum Ha B None, HaabipacNoe pexrruabotl 3enepx- oli, x 1997 r. Gyaer cocrasnaT» npi- -Mepio 200 nc (J rwsKocexyHa panna O1- Hoi tpHaawoHHOR sone cexyHay). Taomiocr aocrurney 16—20 asm. ‘remenTon a MuKpocxewy. EcTecr en Mun cneacranen Taxore nporpecca 20- ixnits erark KpMETIAIANA NaNETH € oot xoeTbio 16 MN. 64 901H. MaKe 256 Man. OH, Murponpoueccopes, nocrpoenmete 1a ofl texnonori, sors Gs pagorarb 0 cxopocriio 07 30 0 60 MK fonep./c. Ha ato Texwonorim NoxHO Gusto Gut -nocrport» oasoxpucran- Mail XoxmmbsoTep, BKMONAIOULN na Aim, ananTepsr BEORA-BEIBORA HM CnO~ co6unit paGorare co ckopocTite I wit 2aann. onep./c. To cuownt woaMoxHo- eran out 611 6ut axoupartenreH coupe [MeNHOMY epcoHambHoMy KOMMbIOT By, AcHo, WTO MOXHO PeANBOKAT 106081 npomexy Tous papwaHT. Brinonapyan rexnonnorus (ismasa Maz TpaacTopHaR TeAHOrOrHA). Ka Koropoit Gasupyioren Boe OCHOBHNC Yass wutcoRONPOMBOAITENLABNE Ma LMI, Tarcke MOmeT paseBATECR B3TOM anpaaienim, He TpyaHo npeacKasaT», NTO B EKOPOM BpENEHH BEAN Be TunbHOll aanepaxcKi 8 40-nc as Guo ‘aapnisx rpainucropon crane 061 oit. Tax Kak Gunonspuute onesenrot orpeSnsor orMocHTeABHO CosmeE Kosiwecruo aneprint, TO ZOcTHXEHHO Gonuwen naotHocTH npenerereyer ipoGnesta paccesnn tena, Pewiiers 9 aTynpoBneny moxkuo Gye amb ¢ no- AABACHMEM NOBLIX MaTEPHaTOD, BOSNO: {MO aabke BLICOKOTEMNEpATYDHUX CeEPX- "MpowonnsKoa. ‘Tax ax cKopocr» muinommeHus KO- ‘Maw sospacraer, KountioTepot cTaHO- fatex ciocoSmasit 1a aamtaf nepion Bpewenw nepepaGarbinaTs wt siaasaTe ce Gonbuice RonHuceT HO HHbOPSAUIH. ‘Dro cnpaneannso 4 Kora Kounbiorep MoOne”upyeT cHTyALIM B 2KOHOMUKE Ht Korma of GiTeMpyeT w0Gpaxcuns xomGmoumxes Nonexya Genxa. Cneno- YeTOHIeTR, #9 KOTOpHIX Maui Nepria- {EF vauopstauiio nt & KOTOpENE Ona NO- ‘euiaer wnibopnauuti, 200>%Ha BOsPac- ‘Tate (em. cTaTbt0 Mapxa X. Kpaiizepa «Texnosoria xpanens naNMRIXy Ha 46). eficrastensio, 24 nocneane 20 ner yerpoiterva ¢ MarvirHof! 2a- ‘nwewto, Taki KaK AMER, Obizat HANH ‘TeMMHO YAYMEHD H HIX eMKOCTE 8O3- pocta. B 1967 r. ona cocrasnaza npu- Mepuo 31 000 Gur/en?. B 1987 r. ona yaxe mpenuicana 3 saw. Gur/exe. Tipu ‘coxpanenmmt 3ToR Tennent 3a 10.neT MORN Giu10 Ga AOETHM nAOTHOETH paver wuopwauior cabiuse 15 S408 Galtr/en: (410 aKoUBALIEH THO KosIUBECT- sy suaxos 1 300 poMtauiax). Ontusecxne sallonmmatoume YerpoicTsa, TaKHe KaK Konmaxrinize avicxn, mors? Beene MTs AAOTHOCTE 1aMICH nHbOpNALNU 57 par Gomme Tot, Koropan A0cTH- >auaa na ManiueTHHIx YerpoiicT#aX. OCTOAHHOE ynenenne o6xeMa NHbopNauun NopoxIaeT NoTpEO- JOcT» 8 pacumpermn MacuITaGOH ewM>H (em. cratwo PoSepta_E, Kana «Konnbiorepiete cen Fa ¢. 66). FTO ‘TpeSuocTe 2a supaxaetes, w wacTHo- CTH, B HeOGxomMMOcTH yeTavianaMnaTh come MoKay suimNeANTeTHNE sa luna Hx Hom a0BaTeMANN, HaXOR- LLuOMHEH & pasHbn MecraR, Yarra eHOXHBLIYIOCA TeHLNERINNIO H OpHENTH- Dye na Gyayuiee, nworue eTpan YAkE cefivac mtpoxo meayT Hecnesonanus 8 OBMACTH TeXHONOTHN BOAOKOMOA on- ‘Tux. BCUIA, nampuMep, yace npono- 22H) Gotee 400 000 kM BOsIOKOHHO- Ontuecxoro xaGens. Hx nponycanan enocoBHocTe B vacTomuce BpeMR HC Ronssyerex Tonto na 25%, a To W Mevisuie W r7aniniM O6pax0M nw Mee gant peat. B npoaxe umevorcs yer- olicroa am npnema n nepenan ‘opwaumn tte BosoKOMHO-onrTaNeCKOMY aemio co eKopocrbio 1,7 mapa. Our/e; oxchepuenTanasme sapyauTH paGo- ‘alot co cKopocrsio 10 mpa. uT/c. Topics Ghicrponeticrane cit ‘oer teny Wa wbtscmiTembayIO TexHIKy Mor.aN Got MitrerpuPoRanHbie OnTORAEK- ‘Tpoumtie exe Ha apcentute raaus, oayMpoBOMHNKOBON MaTepHanIC, KO- ‘TOpHIH Moxer abbexTusHo npeoGpaso-0 uIEATL cHeT B TOK H TOR # cBeT. Bene- ayroutee necsTuneTite umporo aoctyn UMbINDE CTAHYT BBICOKCCKOPOCTHBIE CeTH KOMMIOTePOB C mIponycrHON cnocoO- ocrbio 45 a. Gwrt/c. Pesyasraron LROCTYMHOCTH! TAKUX cHCTeM, Ha TPH NO pana Gonee copepLIEMHAIX, HEM HX Inpeauecraeunuxn 70-x Tonos, GyaetT Hevro Fopaaa0 Gombuuce, 4eM NPOCTO HX komivecraenuii poct. Peatbabinan cranyT mpuxnaamate cHerest ¢ OstcT- poll emesoil karanaibix o6par08. Hos BATE HOBBIC KOKQHTYPAUN BHM remain ccTeM, 8 KOTOPLIX aNeTaH uN yaanemule KonnbioTepe GyayT SbicrpooKaswars yenyrH, KaK ecAIN Obt OW HaxOAHANCE 8 omOM 3ntana, IKe- ‘ayaTaumis Taxux ceTet noTpeGyer 3ha- suTensHOro npoaBIPKcHHA 8 OGAacTH ‘nporpaamoro oGecriwens c89H, HO- DEIN H Gonee ibeRiNMUIX npOTOKO- sno, a TaxAe cnemMariHsHPOBAKHBIX BeI~ MuCAHTERDHEIX a7eMEHTOB, KOTOpBIC oGecnewnmator annaparHylo peazmsa- unto TanHx NpOTOKO.IOS, Beneacrae yeoueptsenicraonanus, HonynposonuNxosoit TexHonOrMK YAYIEHHA paspemsavousel cHOcOBHO- ‘CTH oxpala 8 pachopexenie nomes08a~ Temell TAKHX CHCTEM If pyr Maui OAHOKPHCTANBHBIA KOMTIDIOTEP pasMepom 10 x 10 mae MomeT padorare ¢ OsicTponeAcTeNeM 350000 onep./c. 3To yerponerso — ono. ‘87, suirpasnentenx ha nnare. KoMTaK: ‘Tul # TecToBble CKeMEI NOIBORAOT CheuManNcTaM us OTAENE- B MAPE HAYKMN-1987/N? 12 ‘Mix cpencTs nocTyMaT BbicoKOKa¥ecT- potnntie Giuctponeherasioubie avenzer, crounocte xoTopbx GyneT anomie yMepannon. Hopbie aitciutes eMoryT ne NoHcTpuposat® Guictpo MeHmounecs, B brcuiet CTeneHH AeTanHsHpOSAMHALE wmoGpaxxewis, wnmoctpmpyioume pe ymbTaTbI CnOXHOFO. NoaeMHpORAKHS, © ancnacem Monio Gyaer mano” nelicTaOBaTs, 4TOGH! Hecnez0BaT® BAM ‘ule WeKoTOPOTO HOMeHEHNE, HanpH- NeD, ADM sveneHiM HOROTO IeNeHTa 8 ‘MomIeRYapHyto CTPYETYPY WK MpIE 3a- [Netle npoguins xpuita cawonera, Buico- xx0¢ paspeusenve naeT u apyroe npenNy- lulecTu0: na 9xpaHle MONO NOKAdHIBATE ‘TeXCT, cPaBHMMEBtH| NO KavecTBY ¢ nyY- inn oGpasuam newaTHoH mponyx- mu. Pa6orut, nposeneninse m oTnere- HM HaywHEIX HecoenoBaNN Oupres IBM, noxena.nn, 40 cenit xa¥ecTH0 10- Gpaxenwa wa oxpane yaysunrs Ha 20—30%, To cKopocTh Ten H BoC ower muopsaunn GyayT cpap [Moin co exopocTsio wTemeRH BOENpI- ‘rim newaTioro Marepuana, Cosnannte Texwx yetpoficrs norpesy- er paspaGoTeH cnemMaLiHEIN rpaduse- ‘KHX sanepocxeM. BoTneneHH HaysnIax ccneaosannti upmet IBM, Hanpustep, aspaGoran npororum cucTeM Taxoro ‘rma. Coxpauucrno ou nassinacren SAGE (Systolic Array Grapics Engine). Cucte- Ma SAGE oGpaGarwmaer muoxecT#0 3 HecKOBKHX TeIcs4 xmioroyronbuH- Kos, Mponstous wsMenexua GOpMEL 1 eMoncrpupys ux Rae 8 NyaLTgMTEN. Wcionsyx napantensusie siruncne: Hits, ona lo Mepe HeoGxommMOCTH rene- ipyer nosoe inoGparerite w peansiiom MacurraGe mpement, SAGE coctowr 13 Gosce went 16 nuunnnonon TpaNrcro- pos. B Gyayuien ix Moan Gyaer noMe- Cru» 8 Onno xpucraste "Adil, 470 nporpeec # cos.maK CAIN nobporioro noorpannsora ‘oGecnievenis mer He Tak BEICTPO, KaK E KoNCTPy#tpovaiiat Govtee coepuseniian xoNmbIOTepoH. B OTBET Ha 770 BHC SpEAHHE MOKHO CRAGEETD, 470 8 YMEHUK cosanar nporpanamoe oGecnevenne fice we JOCTUFHYT CylecTBEHMIT pO Tpece: NPOCTO er9 TpyNHO IAMETHT HA owe GeenpeuencHTHeix Tesnos npo- pecca ® annaparnos oBecneverm ‘osastexit HecousMepHN40 Gosce 3Ha- Tembithik HOBbIX BOIMOAKOCTEM, OBYC- mowienbix stm nporpexcom. CocTak ewe Mporpasin — leno He sterKoe, Hus Hay'Muix HccnegoBaAMH cpvipub! IBM onHOEpeMeHHONpO BepuTs sce Yer yerpovcTea. Mpn oOwapymenan necbexra & KaKOMnHO0 YCTPOHCTBE OHO MONET ObiT 320paKOBAHO MUS ‘RTO pu paapesaHAn nnarbi Ha OTAENEHEIe KONMEIOTEPELTak KaK ONO TlompasywemaeT noxe- we nyt pewenite npoGnems ¢ 10- craTouND cTeneHbio oApoHOCTH. NTOOHI Mauna cMorna peanusosaTs, {eF0. BuiGop 13 neckO:URHX BOIMOATLIN Dewennl c yxeTom TaKHX orpaKuYeMHA, aK Bi HOY YAMIN DAHA, — npwmuine sazava enoxwas. 91a cnoxk- Nocth, yeyryOnsemas Tes, 4TO MpO- pauntioe oGecredeHte HOCTOHHO 13 MeHeTCR mpoUecce MOnEpHESANUN H ‘aganraiwin, epepacraer 8 cepeesnyro npodneny. Connaie u paasirrue ss41Ko8 BHIcO- oro ypopin — vac pemewws razasit ‘no oGecneyenmto yenosult, ¥O6u1 npo- pannanioe oGecrevete wore peanin- (Th NOTERWNAN, JaToweuNAA w anna patype, Ha ssuike micoxoro ypostn KONaNIIM DbIpaDKaIOTEH KPATKO, c OTHO- cutembHo HeGomLuNM KomIIeCTBOM nonpoGxocrelt. Hansen, nvecto T0- 0 wroGu ertewwaabsibint OGpaz0M HHCT- PYETHPooaTE Many aa Mpoemorpa ‘BCEX MeDCOMAABHDIX sartHCell, MOKHO pucazarb ef wa wawKe, HastsnaeWoM SETL, ninoarute MarenaTnyecroe yo ‘AOBKE Ha TpyANOA yanwcell: «Berwuc- WETE wennUEly Hanora B MpoueHTaAX ‘BANOBONY AGXOMY ANE BEEK HaOTOS Ha, puGur, cooGuM saviOs0R Oxo 1000 000 sion. 1 poise». Taxne sami uumpoxo nenanbayiorea np paxpaGorKe 1H nomaevano OMBITHLIX OGpARLIOB cH- res, Hombrranse omituiix oGpastion nosoracr oGuapyxsaTt aHorHe npn Lunmuazuante rpyaviocta m HaxoaitTb ny “TH ax pemsena. Iror necema oOrALe- xxuwaiounh cnos06 comatinampo- rpauninoro oGecnevenua nyreat nocTe- Nesoro Hapauinmnanu or Git cyuiecT- ‘Beno ORBICITTE NpONsBOAHTTENLKOCTH, ‘tpyna nporpaninstcros, Alonoamurrensseaf uporpece » pasei- “THN nporpannsnoro oGecreyenns GyneT OByenOMTIEN skiMIONeNHEM 338IKOB, HMe- roux enti OGnersHTL PeaasiauMNO Gonvuins npockrow w oBnacri apo rpauauposains. CnaGeos wero 8 “TAKIN HpOEKTAX HRANETER TO, #TO H-3a BpewestHbIX IH 2KOHOMIRIECKHX COG axetil MHOFHe MacTH cHCTeMt a0. jet psapataramaricn napantemHio, ‘Dro oGcrostenverso sacTasaKet boKy~ onponaTs emenanme na TuueTeMHo paspaGorxe urepdeficos. Tlockoabry €POK ACIS 3THX NPOrpaNtN, wenINK, ‘abiK NONKEH NONYCKETE HX OMAK lunto coneputeucraonanne. Ocobeii ynop w aro o6nacru aenaeres na npea- (crannene B esuixe Mexannania maKanicy= SNL LAKME H NpOUELYp, HOSBO-IAIO- Lun uenomBsOBATe MANNIE TONDKO 9a- ‘pane onpeneneniibin OOpasoxs. Sunt acto npHxOMTeR kepTHOBATS B yrONY ‘TeRjUUNM HYAKMAM, AMKTYEMMIN cOOO- paosenanan xbobexrnmiocTH. Panbule mpoexrnbte pewenus » oc- omioM Obit Hanpannent Ha noBBANIE- KOMNBIOTEPHAA PEBONIOUMA ne oberruaioctn. Tockommxy wena BHAHETeNNT nponosTKAeT yMeHBUATE- cc, peuienns paypaBorunkon 6yayt Ha LUeneNG! Ha CoRCpUICHCTHOBAHHe CTPYK- ‘Typtt i oBcenovenine Moayammoctt Hl xonien, GyayT paspaGoTanti W nawnyT MCTIOMAOBATECH MeTORB!, )MEHSILAIO- Me spews, eoGrosMMoe ass npo- " rpaMmuponanin. Mpuntepom amaseres 3bik PROLOG, KoTopsin ocsoGoxaa- eT mporpamwucra OT cocramenns npo- FpaMMal B site nocmenoBaTeNBHOCTH aeficronii, Gnaroaapa weny ov comet cocpenorounrrs esoe BHUNAHHE Ha MIpO- CTBIX AOTHUECKHK CERBRX MEKIY 321e- ‘Menranmt mporpantnts. QKOHOMMUYECKOE OBOCHOBAHME BbIBOPA BbINMCNUTENbHOU CUCTEMbI UTo6e1 KynUT® BEINHCHHTeNSHYO cUCTeMy, cnocoBKy.O BEINON- huts sanjay 3a murnwanbryio YeHy, ynoMAryTBIA B TeKcTe ynpae ‘ASIOWNA WacbopMayMOHHbiM OaHKKOM MoT Goi McrionbsoBaTé Crepy- roune ypashenin. (1) Pp = Mx CM, rae ; — Grommocrs seinonnenin sana ne Gnvom npoueccope N= Excrpovemcranet muuverrax crmpauid s eoynay, Toate: toe na suinonsetun janvon sas = Yasnvan wena sunweomh Now MarCvnanctoM Selctpo- ‘eseraw (a fonnapax wa un. onep./e) ™ @ P= toxmrc(ex) me 3, — Cromuocre ssinoanennn sapave va Heckonbwx wenee OucT- ponenerayouuy epousecopax N — RonmecT8o wenee OsterponeneTEyOWNK npo\eccopee © = Kostcbounenr pacumpenen yarreearoann yeonmsere Ot fa pa6oven,ebieavinoe pasgenenwow aazann MORAY Mo koran npouecsopann Hecronxo rpoueccopos npennowicTemuvee, ecm (My a see : Cle x MIN) TaN = 10 e= 2nectonsto npoueccopos nyu, cca 4 = > 2 ciMs) once rounam o4ena c1oMocTH Bironmehin SaRasn: ° P= x Mam alge (SEMEN Ne) maa, rae k — Kostner pecwpemn, yumaiencaues tosxonince Yyoerscnne cxopoctwaxiatcnern Pe ee era omic poueccops! |p, — OoteM murvcnenAn, Tpeoyenuin » cpeaneN Ans nepecbinKA ‘onworo coder 8 — GpejunncronuocTs nepecunka oporo cocoon no nani conan Apu = 10.mn = 100, k= 2, I/M = 0.008 um x BICIM) = 0.1 wore Ipoueccomnan encrena nye, crm cw >28 6 cima) onn B soapacrer 0 5 pas, ro xpHTepHn OygeT uMere aon cM ows @ ‘c(Miay, on, yhenewircn s 10 p33, ro wowrenwen 6yaer NepasencrEo cM) > cman Ecaum « BIC(M) > 1, ro pasmensrs sanauy wemay HecKonuKuMl npo- eccopamn HeBbironHo. a2 [O MEPE TOFO KaK nporpasnunict Gyuer ockanbaTe 9TH Honbie epeacrea, ero paGory Gynet oGnervare HHosmierie NepconarmHbNx KoMMBOTE. MH, comepxxauuun NOPsALIHO © porpanisian, StH aureparrumttute cH creMbt oGecnear GueTpetth aoctyn x PANINWNHIM RANMOCHAANHBIM acneN: Taw nporpatn. FpunepoM peau Lunn Takoro WHTepaxTHRHOFO PExUMa Work Moxer cnystitre parpaborant nuts Kopuennexos yunsepenrerechit: TeMTOp ApOrpaNs, NEpebifl uber IKE: nyaransin soToporo fokasan >ddhex THBHOCTS Pala BETPOCHHBIX B x3bIK epeACTE Ans HsyNCHIIA TeXHINKHE MO: FpamMupopani. A concent HenaBHo ® surrere Bpayua Guira paapa6o: ana ecncrea Garden, p koTopolt 118 ipexocrauitenin slosbsoKarenNo | MnO: 2xecTua aaHnLx o mporpanme Gust MO: Gumnoranet rpabwnecne BOIMOKHO: corm paGounns crantnt Henmos He ckavath 1 06 axcneprHbix NOTOPMIE BAMOTEA OAH: Yann APS — ACNBITATENSHBIA CTEHA cbupmel IBN npeanasia: ‘wen ans MofeniAponaNHA pasnintsx NadannentHetx apxnTeK Typ Mw» conocTannenun np peweninu eneunddvecnix ac: B MMPE HAYKIN-1987/N? 12 [EPEMEHHO I HNCTPYMEHTOM, H POUYK- Tom TexHoniorMH porpantnnor oOce- nevenua, Toxkanyi, unento 8 o6nacrit aapaGorkn Nporpamn 9TH cHCTENE nenomayiores HauGonee umpoKo. TH ruwnan oxcheprnas cucteMa achcTsyeT ha ostione nowmrait sn oGaacr pi waavofi aorixn, @opvamnowannin B a0ope mpapun (Eom At B, To caenare ©), waxmovaer 8 ce6x nporpannty 06- ero HankaveRH, TaK HaRBIBAEMyIO NA hiumy yaoraxmodenntl, oTopas Hier pawiina, donxoaMUNE ana ZOCTIDKCHIR yrasannO® ucan, # 3aTeM meAKOMHRCT nx. Taxol noaxoa 8 nporpannspoxa- ocnoboxeiaeT mporpamMuicTa OT DeTasH3AUII CTEYKTYD AKHBIX. HL ynpannenua noToKOM (T. €. NospOGHO- fo yranainin nopanxa, » KoTopoN sen ‘xvist nbinonmeTice onepauun). Cucre- Na paspeuraer TaRXe 8 ROGOE BDENHL ioGom nopsuike noGaBnsTs Homme Tpa- fuura. v0 slenaet TaKne cHeTeNt OCO- Genwi yno6unsneH ans 6sieTPON paana- Gorku onsiTH41x oGpasuos u npx Heo6- Hien Kownbierepos ‘con 27a. C ero nowouHo MoxHO ONpenenuTe sdbibeKTMB Pamussus. OGnacrsto, 8 KoTOpOR Gnaroagpx wtencHsnoll paGore sat has TexHozorus Gmunke ncero nonowine K MpAKTHYEcKOMY HACTOMAOREHINO, ageToa Mennutia (eM. cratito Faewis 2. Pesmenca 1 Savapaa F. Woprmbe “Burutentrrenbnie cnerewes 2% wea Lunn» Hac. 86). _XOTs Kametos, Oyo nporpanntioe ‘oGecniesenne orctaet oT annapatHoro, PerpocnexTaBHHH RITA Ha panBitTHe srTo w OGeHx 3TH OBAaCTAX NpOrpECe & nocseanme rok Gul weCbNA anu TembHIM HOKE NeT OcHOBAKA FoBO- ure o cian nOCTHTHYTHIX TENOR (em. pucywox Ha c. 8). B vactHocts, sen MeCTO YCTORMURBIT PocT RWC wrrenunotl Mousiocti, # nce Boman amanazon Moumocrel Gian noctyneH 3a pasyatnyto nary. Textiveckne nocTH eH Cena BOIMOZKILINY MONO, C100 IHANHTEMBHO NEHBILIY, HO «no- ewsX» KoMNBIOTepOR € cyUiEe TAH Gonee witkoll crouMocTbio 3a wnaHOH onepauunn coxynay, a Taxme © Goce HocTe 10m UNH WHOA apxATeKTypHI ANA KOHKpeTHOA saqaNns acxogs! Hacossanie onsiTHbsx OGpaauoR cneywanvsmposaH Np 9TOM HCKAOYATCRGF11 — napannensiein nooueccop gna Hays abiwacne- HMA, CnoCOOKSIA sbinonHRT 11 MIpA, OnepayA ¢ Nnawar- eA TOMKOM BCeKyHAY. a HacTORWee BpeMs cosmaeToRE oTAe- KOMNBIOTEPHAA PEBONIOUMA evn Mayuneix wecneosannncbypmel BM. Tlepeeim ero np waKofi Buse CTONMOCTEIO CAME CH erey., Kax eaeacraie onan Hoakie eToumocruete KaTeropmi: 3a ynunep- canuakim KONNBIOTEPOM nocTEAORAI Muum-xosmsioTepst, —_nepcowatbabie KOMIBIOTepHI H BCTPoeMHIE KONTIO- rep. 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He WKAWHeHO TawKe, WTO cToH- MocTs CRAIN MexUY OTHENBHIN Konnblorepanin yer cto. xe BLICO- or, a MOET OAHOFO KOMMDIS- Tepa, MO MOUINOCTH aKBHBANeHTHOTO4 1B MAPE HAYKM-1987/N 12 ‘cyMMapHOR NoUIMOCTH OTemtEIX Mae ‘un, Huai npewsovtaer ec. Heno 8 TOM, ‘¥To Ho Mepe pacumpenis HOMeNKaaTY~ hE AOSTYMMLIK AKIUNCMITTENBIBIX. ME ums, BiGop GyneT saBuceTl 8 OcHOB~ MoM oF chocoGoe AocTyna x HanHDAM Ht PAILENeNNA AANHAX, A He NpoCTO OT CTONMOCTHE cAMIEX INHCTENU ‘Ot pacevanenna uMeIOT clay ApH paspaGorKe caMuix pesnooGpastibin cit- eres — oF Tex, roTOpLie oxnaTHNaIOT onepauiat Gosiswof Kopnopaiui, 10 ‘Tex, KOTOPBIE NPEAMEINANEND! U1 OO- cayxnpaniig oTmenbHoro paGormuka. B Gosmmiol xopnopauim Gonee [00 TEIC. ‘TepaaunanksMX yIN0R MOryT nopOK- tart s10 1000 onwoupestexmetx sanpo- cop. H Tor apyroft noxasareny 903- acraioT Ha NOPSAOK, ecmHt pew NET (06 cOpaborKe Tpawsaniunn Mexkay npen- npaoerisaa LIEOP cuereuki mn maunrenssott Jerenens Gyner raBHiceTt OF creUs- un oGiacn ce nenomsonanns. 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PacnosHasanite HenpeptiBxoft pews norpedyer » 30 pas Gnuuyio wararonrenbugio Mom NocTs; Nonomurrensiax nabs 1 But- ‘iicaitrenitan wounocts HoTpetyIorex 1usina ynysulewa npanuesiocTu pacno- Snanaiin H Ywenbuientan NyocTeNTEN- crit ystonon (bon. ‘Tepmumanss, enocoOuste o6pa6ars- are! pyxentcnyro mubopsauiie, = agcnoM 2xpane (suinoMEHHOS 1a >ewuakex xpuicTasinay); wosmvorep pac- noswaeT eNMBONB! NpEOOpADyEr HX w somaniani, TexcrA! w picywan. Omr- ‘tt OGpavet TaxoM eHeTeMe OGsasaer Gucrponetcrasest or 220 4 Mit onep./e; HeoBxomunabie 8 970M cnyNae Gonee covepUIENe anrOpHTME: no ‘TpATAT TONKO Manyio momo BEINN ‘TeabHoHt MoulMocTH Gyayumx nepco- aabitx KoMMi0TepoB. OMHMO pacnosmasaniin peut CEMA, BHIWeNHTTENIBHAR MOU MocTs NepcowaTbHoTO KoMMbIOTepA BOE 8 Gonbuwell crenewn Gyzer nenon30- areca Ha TO, NTOBH! 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