б 81.

2Англ

нглииски
ДЛЯ СПЕЦИАЛЬНОСТЕЙ
«ЗООТЕХНИЯ»
И «ВЕТЕРИНАРИЯ»

ENGLISH FOR STUDENTS

OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
AND VETERINARY
MEDICINE

2-е издание

Сельское
хозяйство
 Ғ 81, M\

ВЫСШЕЕ ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОЕ ОБРАЗОВАНИЕ

E. H. КОМАРОВА

ЧшМ JK Cl

АНГЛИИСКИИ я з ы к
ДЛЯ СПЕЦИАЛЬНОСТЕЙ
« ЗООТЕХНИЯ » И «ВЕТЕРИНАРИЯ»

ENGLISH
FOR STUDENTS
OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
AND VETERINARY MEDICINE

Учебник
Для студентов высших
учебных заведений

2-е изданиег-мслравленное

| АТЫМЦДГЫ гыпымм КТ*

or v адлі

Ш іҒ ч Ш ІШ Д 0 С

ACADEMA
Москва
Издательский центр «Академия»
2010
УДК802.0:621.313(075.8)
ББК81.2Англ:40.715я73
К63

Рецензенты:
доктор филологических наук,
профессор кафедры иностранных языков № 3
Российского университета дружбы народов
А. Л. Семенов;
доцент кафедры иностранных языков
Российского государственного аграрного заочного университета
И. А. Цветков
С.Торайғыров
атындағы ПМУ-дің
академик С.Бейсемб
и ^ j ^ | агындағы ғылы
Щі

КІТАПХАНА
Комарова Е .Н .
К63 Английский язык для специальностей «Зоотехния» и «Ве­
теринария» = English for students of animal husbandry and
veterinary medicine : учебник для студ. зоотех. и ветерин. фак.
высш. учеб. заведений / Е. Н. Комарова. — 2-е изд., испр.
М .: Издательский центр «Академия», 2010. — 384 с . : ил.
ISBN 978-5-7695-7520-4
Основная цель учебника — развить навыки чтения, перевода и обще­
ния по различным темам специальностей «Зоотехния» и «Ветеринария».
Книга состоит из вводного и основного курсов, содержит упражнения,
способствующие усвоению грамматического и лексического материала.
В учебник включены оригинальные тексты научного и научно-популяр-
ного характера по основным разделам указанных специальностей, а так­
же ссылки на соответствующие сайты в Интернете.
Для студентов высших учебных заведений сельскохозяйственного
профиля по специальностям «Зоотехния» и «Ветеринария».

УДК 802.0:621.313(075.8)
ББК 81.2Англ:40.715я73

Оригинал-макет данного издания является собственностью

Издательского центра «Академия», и его воспроизведение любым способом
без согласия правообладателя запрещается

© Комарова E.H., 2008

© Образовательно-издательский центр «Академия», 2008
ISBN 978-5-7695-7520-4 © Оформление. Издательский центр «Академия», 2008
 CONTENS

Предисловие............................................................................................ 4

INTRODUCTORY COURSE

UNIT 1. Animal Husbandry.......................................................................6

UNIT 2. Animal Physiology.....................................................................24
UNIT 3. Animal Nutrition.......................................................................42
UNIT 4. Animal Feeds............................................................................ 62
UNIT 5. Animal Breeding........................................................................85
UNIT 6. Animal Ecology....................................................................... 106
UNIT 7. Veterinary Science...................|................................................124
Revision Test 1 ...................................................................................... 148

BASIC COURSE

UNIT 8. Cattle Breeding.........................................................................150

UNIT 9. Pig Breeding.............................................................................171
UNIT 10. Sheep Breeding....................................... ...............................189
UNIT 11. Poultry Breeding....................................................................206
UNIT 12. Horse Breeding............................................... ....................... 227
Revision Test 2 ......................................................................................249
UNIT 13. Aquaculture............................................................................252
UNIT 14. Beekeeping.... ;...................... ................................................. 273
UNIT 15. Milk Processing..................................................................... 294
UNIT 16. Meat Processing......................................................................315
UNIT 17. Farm Management................................................................. 335
Revision test 3 ....................................................................................... 355
Vocabulary..............................................................................................359
List of Grammar Material ...................................................................... 382
List of References...................................................................................383
 ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ

Учебник «Английский язык для специальностей Зоотехния

и “Ветеринария”» предназначен для студентов, обучающихся по
этим специальностям в сельскохозяйственных или ветеринарных
институтах, и рассчитан на 100—130 аудиторных часов в зависи­
мости от уровня подготовки студентов (примерно 6 —8 аудитор­
ных часов на один урок). „ ЩШЙ
Учебник имеет четкую структуру, обусловленную учебным пла­
ном для студентов со специализациями «Зоотехния» и «Ветерина­
рия» и состоит из 17 уроков (Units), которые разделены на две груп­
пы: вводный (уроки 1—7) и основной курс (уроки 8—17). Соглас­
но учебному плану подготовка зоотехников включает изучение ос­
новных дисциплин, таких как физиология животных, кормление,
генетика и разведение, ветеринария, этология животных, поэтому
первые уроки учебника в вводном курсе содержат тексты на эти
темы, при одновременном повторении основных грамматических
конструкций английского языка, таких как конструкция there is/are,
степени сравнения прилагательных и наречий, временных форм
английского глагола в страдательном и действительном залогах.
Каждый урок основного курса учебника содержит узкоспеци­
ализированный текст, связанный с конкретной областью живот­
новодства, такой как скотоводство, коневодство, птицеводство,
свиноводство и т. д. Объем и степень сложности текстов нараста­
ют по мере изучения материала, однако соответствующие коммен­
тарии включают перевод новых и непонятных для студентов слов,
что должно облегчить работу с текстом и снять языковые трудно­
сти. Кроме того, каждый урок начинается с лексическою мини­
мума, причем перевод всех слов имеется в англо-русском словаре
в конце учебника.
Разнообразные тексты для дополнительного чтения затрагива­
ют наиболее интересные и актуальные вопросы в данной области
животноводства, например, птичий грипп, проблема «бешенства
коров», возможные негативные последствия клонирования и т.д.,
и вместе с тем позволяют учащимся усвоить основную термино­
логию по этой тематике. Необходимо отметить, что тексты, вклю­
ченные в учебник, носят учебный характер и не охватывают рас­
сматриваемые вопросы в полном объеме.
Грамматический материал уроков 8—17 охватывает такие темы,
как причастие и герундий, их сложные формы, конструкции

4
 «сложное подлежащее», «сложное дополнение» и другие грамма­
тические обороты, необходимые для чтения и понимания научно-
технической литературы. Изучение грамматического материала в
начале каждого урока рекомендуется проводить во время аудитор­
ных занятий, а также можно предложить студентам проработать
материал в качестве домашнего задания.
В раздел «Additional Exercises» включены лексические и грам­
матические упражнения разного типа, а также некоторые аспек­
ты грамматики, которые могут встретиться в биологических или
сельскохозяйственных текстах, например, имена существитель­
ные, для которых множественное число образуется не по прави­
лам, сложные составные существительные, правила чтения чис­
лительных и система мер, используемых в англоязычных странах,
и т.п. По усмотрению преподавателя, часть упражнений может
выполняться во время занятия, а часть — в качестве домашнего
задания для студентов.
Учебник способствует формированию у студентов разнообраз­
ных практических умений и навыков, таких как чтение и говоре­
ние в сфере профессионального общения, на основе соответству­
ющей лексики и правильного употребления основных граммати­
ческих конструкций. В каждом уроке есть раздел «Exercises for Pair
(or G roup) Work», которому рекомендуется уделить особое
внимание и обязательно выполнять упражнения во время занятий
под руководством и контролем преподавателя. Первые уроки со­
держат несложные задания для парной работы, в последующих уро­
ках дается основной материал (тексты или данные со ссылкой на
Интернет-источники), который требует работы студентов в груп­
пах или используется в ходе ролевых игр. В заключительном уроке
17 студентам предлагается обобщить весь изученный материал, как
лексический, так и грамматический, и организовать воображаемую
ферму/хозяйство для разведения определенного типа животных,
учитывая возможные экономические, экологические и другие про­
блемы.
В связи с быстрым прогрессом во многих областях научных
знаний, автор счел целесообразным включить в учебник ссылки
на Интернет-сайты, которые периодически обновляются и позво­
лят студентам находить дополнительную информацию по интере­
сующему вопросу.
После 7, 12 и 17-го уроков содержатся тесты для закрепления
и повторения пройденного материала. Англо-русский словарь
включает перевод всех слов, содержащихся в лексических мини­
мумах к урокам. Необходимо отметить, что в некоторых текстах
и ссылках сохранена орфография аутентичных источников.
Автор выраж ает глубокую признательность проф ессору
Н. Н. Смирнову и господину Уле Юхан Хага, которые вниматель­
но прочли предлагаемые материалы, за ценные замечания и ис­
правления.
 INTRODUCTORY COURSE

Unit 1
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Vocabulary and Grammar:

1. Употребление глаголов to breed, to develop, to grow, to raise,
to rear. W !.*»:• ит.зҒ s
2. Конструкция there is/are.
3. Местоимения some и any.
4. Основные формы английского глагола.
5 Видо-временные формы глагола в действительном залоге (Present
Simple, Past Simple, Future Simple, Present Progressive, Present
Perfect).
6. Числительные: даты и годы.

VO CABULARY Т О T H E TEXT
“A N IM A L H U S B A N D R Y ”

Nouns: agriculture, animal husbandry, animal farming, animal

scientist, breeder, cattle* (beef cattle, dairy cattle, draft cattle), crop,
crop farming, domestication, farming, feed, fertilizer, food, grazing,
labour, livestock* (syn stock), mammal, manure, poultry*, quantity,
requirement, source, variety (a variety of), yield.
Adjectives and adverbs: additional, agricultural, already, domestic,
domesticated, draft, herbivorous, main, mainly, nowadays, raw (raw
materials), ruminant, suitable, useful, valuable, various.
Verbs: breed, cultivate, develop, dom esticate, grow, improve,
include, increase, influence smb/smth, produce, provide (smb with
smth), raise, rear, rely on smb/smth, use.
Other parts o f speech: any, as, as well as, both ... and, either ... or,
however, neither ... nor, some, such as.1

* Собирательные существительные: cattle всегда употребляется с глаголом

во множественном числе, livestock/poultry могут употребляться с глаголом как
в единственном, так и во множественном числе, но чаще во множественном
числе. В данном учебнике эти существительные согласуются с глаголом во мно­
жественном числе.

6
Without a dictionary try to give the Russian equivalents for the words
from the text “Animal Husbandry”:
commerce ['kom3:s], to control [kan'traul], to convert [kan'v3:t],
energy ['enacfci], exotic [ig'zotik], kefir [‘kefa], koumiss ['kuimisj,
mechanical [mi'ksenikl], modern ['modn], nitrogen ['naitrad 3 (a)nj,
private ['praivit], product ['prodAkt], protein ['prauti:n], type [taipj,
yoghurt ['jtjgat]

Употребление глаголов
to breed, to develop, to grow , to ra ise, to rea r
to breed (bred, bred) — 1) размножаться, плодиться (о расте­
ниях и животных); 2) выводить, разводить, т.е. стремиться по­
лучить определенный тип животных или растений путем скрещи­
вания видов или сортов с целью улучшения желаемых характе­
ристик, главным образом, на научной основе с использованием
достижений в селекции и генетики
to develop — 1) выводить, разводить (сорт растений, породу
животных)', 2) расти, развивать(ся) (о растениях и животных),
т. е. становиться больше, сильнее и стремиться к зрелому состоянию
to grow (grew, grown) 1) расти, вырастать (о растениях и
животных в естественных условиях) ', syn to develop; 2) произра­
стать (о растениях)', 3) Br Е выращивать, культивировать (о р а ­
стениях)’, syn to cultivate
to raise — Am E выращивать {растения) или разводить (пти­
цу , скот) на ферме; syn to rear
to rear — Br E 1) выращивать, разводить {скот, птииу)', 2) уха­
живать за молодыми животными пока они не достигнут состоя­
ния зрелости; syn to raise
Examples:
The farmer has decided to raise Фермер решил выращивать кро-
rabbits as these animals breed ликов, так как эти животные
very rapidly. размножаются очень быстро
Farmers have bred/developed Фермеры вывели новую выносли-
а new hardy breed of cattle. вую породу скота.
Rice grows in water. Рис растет в воде.
Young pigs grew and developed Поросята росли и развивались хо­
well because the farmer рошо, потому что фермер обес­
provided them with good feed. печил их хорошим кормом.
In southern regions farmers В южных областях фермеры обыч­
usually grow/raise cotton, but но выращивают хлопок, а в се­
in northern regions they верных областях они выращи­
raise/rear cattle and hogs. вают/разводят скот и свиней.

7
British farmers raise/rear sheep Британские фермеры разводят
in mountainous regions of овец в горных районах страны.
the country.
It is important to provide special Необходимо обеспечить особый
care for chicken to rear/ уход за цыплятами, чтобы вы­
to raise them healthy. растить их здоровыми.

G R A M M A R R E V IS IO N
A N D PR ET EX T E X E R C IS E S

Конструкция there is/a re

(The construction there is/a re )

В сочетаниях there с глаголом to be в разных временных фор­

мах (there is, there are, there was, there were, there will be,
there has been и т. п.) слово there самостоятельного значения
не имеет, и сочетания переводятся словами: есть, существу­
ет, имеется, был, имелся, будет и т.п.

1. Fill the gaps with the correct form of the verb to be. Translate the
sentences into Russian.
1. There ... more varieties of wild plants in this region a century ago.
2. There ... a poultry farm not far from the city which provides fresh
eggs for it. 3. There ... two horses and a cow on a farm now. 4. As the
territory of Russia is large, there ... different requirements for growing
crops in northern and southern regions. 5. There ... one main source of
energy in Britain in the past. It was coal (уголь). 6. Scientists are
working at new types of fertilisers, so there ... more effective fertilizers
in the future. 7. There ... great changes in machinery for farming in
recent decades. 8. There ... only few domesticated animals in ancient
times. 9. There ... many changes in the system of crop production since
scientists began to study this problem carefully. 10. Farmers believe that
there ... an increase in yields of crops next year.

М естоимения so m e, a n y
(Pronouns so m e, a n y)

Местоимения some/any употребляются с исчисляемыми суще­

ствительными во множественном числе или неисчисляемыми
существительными.

8
 Examples: some crops — некоторые культуры, some nutrients —
несколько питательных веществ, any work — какая-нибудь рабо­
та, any feed — любой корм.

Употребление и перевод some, any

в разных типах предложений

____________ УТВЕРДИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ____________

SOME [sAin] несколько, какие-нибудь, сколько-нибудь, немного,
какое-то количество
____________ ВОПРОСИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ___________
ANY ['em] несколько, какие-нибудь, сколько-нибудь, немного,
____________________ какое-то количество
_____________ ОТРИЦАТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ____________
___________________ANY никакой, нисколько
Некоторые особенности перевода some, any:
some, any в значении «несколько, какие-то, какие-нибудь, немного,
какое-то количество; никакой, нисколько» иногда при переводе
на русский язык опускаются;
В утвердительных и вопросительных предложениях any + исчисляе­
мые существительные в единственном числе или неисчисляемые
существительные употребляется со значением «любой, всякий».

Examples:
They raise some cows on their
farm.
Farmers need some feed for
their animals.
There are some buildings on
any farm.
There is some work at any
time on a farm.
— Are there any draft animals
on this farm?
— Yes, there are some.
— Do they have any work now?
— No, they don’t have any.
We don’t have any horses there.
There isn’t any manure on this
field.
Они выращивают несколько ко­
ров на ферме.
Фермерам нужен корм для жи­
вотных. (some не переводится)
На любой ферме есть несколько
построек.
На ферме в любое время есть
(какая-нибудь) работа.
— В этом хозяйстве есть какие-
либо тягловые животные?
— Да, есть {какие-то/несколько).
— У них есть сейчас работа ?
— Нет, никакой.
У нас здесь нет (никаких ) лош а­
дей.
На этом поле нет навоза, (any не
переводится)

9
2. Put in some or any. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. There are ... new varieties of potato in which farmers are especially
interested. 2. Has the farmer spread ... manure on his fields? 3. The
farmer does not use ... additional workers on his farm. 4. It is important
for ... farmer to provide his animals with valuable feeds. 5. Are there ...
ruminant animals suitable for this region? 6. There are n o t... fertilizers
on this field. 7. ... herbivorous animals such as cows and goats can
convert grasses into milk. 8. Do they breed ... beef or dairy cattle?
9. These crops need ... nitrogen. 10. The farmer raises ... breeds of dairy
cattle but there are n o t... beef cattle on his farm.

Основные формы английского глагола

Форма Причастие I Причастие II

Инфинитив прошедшего или причастие или причастие
(Infinitive) времени настоящего времени прошедшего времени
(Past Form) (Participle I) (Participle II)

to study studied studying

to write wrote writing

Write the main forms

to be, to begin, to breed, to buy, can, to choose, to do, to fall, to feed,
—— — — ---------- 7 ------‘mgr ? vj*T:
know
ш М Б ;' і Н т УҒг' ~' ’ ’ —

to lay, to leave, to let, to make, to mean, to ride, to rise, to say, to sell,

to spend, to spread

В идо- временные формы глагола

в действительном залоге
Английский глагол в действительном залоге показывает, что под­
лежащее является лицом (или предметом), совершающим действие.
і $

Наречия Перевод на
Время Форма глагола Пример времени русский язык
Present Инфинитив 1 I/You/We/They always, изучаю/
Simple без частицы to study/grow. usually, выращиваю
(Настоящее (в 3-м лице He/She/It regularly, (-ешь, -ет,
простое ед.ч. добавля­ studies/grows. often, -ем, -ете,
время) ется оконча­ sometimes, -ют)
ние -s) seldom,
every day/
week/
month/year

10
 Наречия Перевод
Л на
Время Форма глагола Пример времени русский язык
Past Simple Форма I/You/He/She/ yesterday, изучал (а),
(Прошед­ прошедшего It/We/They last week/ изучали!
шее времени studied/grew. year, вы рас -
простое (Past form) six years т ил(а),
время) ago, вы раст или
in 2003
Future shall/will + I/We shall/will tomorrow, изучу /
Simple инфинитив study/grow. !next week/ вы ращ у
(Будущее без частицы to You/He/She/It/ year, (-иш ь , -ит ,
простое We/They will in two days, -им , -am ,
время) study/grow. in the future -ят )
in 2010
Present am/is/are + I am studying/ now, изучаю /
Progressive* Participle I growing. at the mo­ вы ращ иваю
(Настоя­ He/She/It is ment, (-еш ь , -ет ,
щее про- studying/ at present, -ем , -ет е,
долженное growing. nowadays -ю т )
время) You/We/They
are studying/
growing.
Present have/has + I/Үou/We/They ever, never, изучал(а),
Perfect Participle II have studied/ just, already, изучалиу
Настоящее grown. yet; today, и зуч и л(а )/
совершен- He/She/It has this week/ вы рас -
ттДа время
нос DHPilG studied/ month/year, ТПІЛЛІ(Т\
grown. lately, вы раст или
recently,
since, for

4. Use the correct form of the verb in brackets in the active voice. Find
the adverbs of time and identify the tense in English. Translate the
sentences into Russian.
1. In early times people (to begin) to domesticate wild animals. 2. This
farmer (to buy) new dairy cattle this year. 3 .1 think the farm (to increase)
the yields of crops next year. 4. The scientists from our laboratory (to
present) interesting reports at the conference recently. 5. Last year the
farmers (not/to rely) on feeds from pastures and (to grow) additional
crops for their livestock. 6. Such a ruminant animal as the cow (to convert)
large quantities of different grasses into milk which (to be) a valuable

* Настоящее продолженное время может обозначать запланированные на

будущее действия и употребляется с наречиями tomorrow, next week, in a month,
in the future.

11
product. 7. As our farm agronomist (to recommend), we (to spread)
manure on this field now. 8. The company (to replace) its old machines
for dairy production in two months, I believe. 9. People (to keep)
domesticated animals either in special houses or on pastures. 10. The
production of dairy products constantly (to increase) in Russia at
present.

Числительные: даты и годы

(Num erals: dates and years)
Даты по-английски пишутся и читаются двумя способами:
5 October/5th October — the fifth of October or October the
fifth; 21 July/21st July — the twenty-first of July or July the twenty-
first.
Годы по-английски читаются так:
1985 — nineteen eighty-five; 1900 — nineteen hundred; 2000 —
twenty hundred or two thousand; 2006 — twenty hundred oh [эи]
six or two thousand and six (in A m E they commonly say zero).
Example'. ' -1
К. А. Тимирязев родился К. A. Timiryazev was bom on the
3 июня 1843. third of June (or on June
the third) in eighteen forty-three.
0 6 одном десятилетии в течение говорят так:
90-е годы XIX века — the nineties of the nineteenth century или
the 1990s — the nineteen-nineties.
BC = Before Christ — до нашей эры.
AD (лат. сокр. от Anno Domini in the year of the Lord — нашей
эры; от Рождества Христова).
Examples: f .*
1500 ВС — one thousand five hundred BC or fifteen hundred BC;
AD 55 — AD fifty-five.
5. Say it in English:
1978, 1905, 2010, 1908, 1999, 1953, в 1980-е годы, в начале девя­
ностых, в 50-е годы XX века, в течение 60-х годов, в конце 1970-х,
в 30-е годы XVIII века, в начале XXI века, в конце XX века.
6. Read and translate the text into Russian. Find in the text the sentences:
—in the Present Simple, the Past Simple, the Future Simple;
—with the Present Progressive, the Present Perfect;
—with the construction there is/are;
—with: both ... and, either ... or, neither ... nor.

12
 ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Agriculture provides people with food, feed and other useful
products. All over the world farmers cultivate valuable plants and raise
productive domesticated animals. There are two main branches in
modern agriculture: crop production (or crop farming) and animal
husbandry (or animal farming).
Nowadays, in many countries people are still relying on meat, milk
and eggs as main sources of food. Both breeders and farmers have
already bred and are still breeding highly productive agricultural animals.
Animal farming is a process in which a farmer breeds, raises and cares
for livestock either for commerce or private use.
The word “livestock” refers to domesticated animals such as beef and
dairy cattle, sheep, goats, swine (hogs), horses, donkeys and mules,
buffalo, oxen, rabbits or “exotic” animals, for example, camels, emus,
ostriches, or any animal which a farmer keeps and uses either for food or
pleasure. Sometimes animal scientists include in this term also poultry,
such as chickens, ducks, geese and turkeys, but they include neither honey
bees nor fish within the term “livestock”. However, poultry farming and
beekeeping are important branches of agriculture as well as aquaculture1.
There are over a hundred large land mammals in the world but man has
domesticated only few types into livestock. There are two main requirements
for domestication of mammals: 1) the availability2of feed which a farmer can
easily control and provide; 2) a rapid rate of reproduction3. As cattle, sheep
and horses are heibivorous mammals, farmers try to keep these domestic
animals on pastures. However, farmers often grow either cereals or other
agricultural crops as additional feed for their animals. Such ruminant animals
as cattle, sheep and goats are important for people because they convert large
quantities of grasses or other types of feeds, as well as non-protein nitrogen
into meat, milk and wool. Poultry also convert feed efficiently into protein.
Historically, livestock and poultry have provided the following benefits
to humanity4: meat, eggs, dairy products, raw materials, fertiliser,
labour, management5 o f land.
1) Meat and eggs. In many countries livestock replaced wild game6
as the main source of animal protein because only livestock convert
various food sources into human food. Poultry provide people with white
meat as well as with eggs.
2) Dairy products. People process milk of cows, sheep, goats into
a variety of valuable dairy products such as yoghurt, cheese, butter, ice
cream, kefir, and koumiss.
3) Raw materials. Livestock produce useful raw materials, for
example, horses and cows provide leather, poultry produce feather and
down7, sheep and goats provide wool for textile industry.
4) Fertiliser. Livestock leave behind manure which farmers spread
on fields and this increases yields of crops many times. Historically, plant
and animal farming have been closely linked.
13
 5) Labour. In modem agriculture neither cattle nor horses are the
main source of mechanical energy. However, in some poor countries
people are still using livestock as draft cattle.
6) Management o f land. Sometimes farmers use the grazing of
livestock as a way to control weeds8.
When a farmer is planning to rear livestock, he usually chooses the
most suitable type for the local conditions. Both climate and type of
land, as well as local traditions influence a farmer’s choice.

COMMENTS
1. aquaculture f'aekwiMtfa] — аквакультура
2. availability [ә,уеі1әЪііт] — наличие (доступность)
3. a rate of reproduction — зд. скорость воспроизводства
4. the following benefits to humanity — следующие выгоды для челове­
чества
5. management fmaen^mant] — зд. возделывание
6. wild game — дикие животные
7. feather [Тедэ], down [daun] — перо, пух
8. a way to control weeds — способ борьбы с сорняками

E X E R C IS E S ТО T H E TEXT

7. Answer the questions.

1. What are the two main branches of agriculture?
2. Why is animal husbandry so important now?
3. What does the term “animal husbandry” include?
4. What are the requirements for domestication of animals?
5. Why are ruminant animals valuable for animal husbandry?
6. Why is poultry farming an important branch of agriculture?
7. What herbivorous animals do you know?
8. What benefits do livestock and poultry provide for man?
9. How does a farmer choose the type of livestock for his farm?

Think and answer:

1. In what countries does the agricultural sector play the most
important role in the economy: in developed countries (the USA,
Canada, the UK) or in developing African/Asian countries?
2. What industries does animal husbandry provide with raw materials?
3. What branches of agriculture are important in Russia?
8. Translate into Russian.
to include a variety of requirements; beef cattle; to convert feeds
into useful food; to spread fertilisers; to breed both swine and poultry;

14
to provide leather for industry; such dairy products as...; to replace old
varieties; a ruminant animal; to influence yields

A D D IT IO N A L E X E R C IS E S

9. FID the gaps with the words or word-combinations in the correct form:
to raise; to rely, to provide; to include', grazing', herbivorous', such
as; as; to cultivate; ruminant; variety; raw materials; requirement;
agriculture; source; yield; branch
1. Milk ... man with numerous valuable substances.......proteins,
vitamins etc. 2. Nowadays animal husbandry ... a large variety of
specialised ... such as poultry farming, cattle farming. 3. Farmers often
... some crops to feed their animals and use animal manure to increase
the ... of these crops. 4. Both cows and sheep are ... animals. 5. Farmers
try ... such ... of crops which are the most suitable for the climate of the
region. 6. For centuries both meat and milk have been the main ... of
protein for people. 7. Last year when a farmer began his business, he ...
on the experience of his neighbours. 8. Since early times in any country
... has been an important branch of economy ... it provides people with
food and animals with feed as well as other industries w ith .........9. In
northern regions farmers use ... of cattle only in summer. 10. We know
that elephants are the biggest ... mammals. 11. During the winter and
the summer there are different... in labour on a farm.
10. a) Divide the nouns into countable and uncountable ones. Write the
countable nouns in the plural.
goat, butter, skin, leather, horse, crop, fat, hog, wool, duck, feed,
chicken, cheese, turkey, cereal, branch, food, variety, manure, feather,
grass, yield, labour, ostrich, source, country, energy
Countable nouns Uncountable nouns
goat — goats butter

b) Write the plural form for the following nouns. Use a dictionary if
necessary.
fish, goose, mouse, ox, sheep, swine
11. Fill the gaps with the correct form of the verb. There may be more
than one variant.
to breed, to develop, to grow, to raise, to rear
1. People ... farm animals for different purposes. 2. Some farmers ...
cattle to sell as beef, and others ... cattle to produce milk. 3. Farmers
usually choose breeds of hogs th a t... rapidly. 4. Animals always ... well
when they are on pasture. 5. In the regions where farmers ... different
15
grains they usually ... cattle. 6. The children helped the farmer to ...
young pigs. 7. In 1850 American farmers ... four breeds of beef cattle.
8. A little c a lf... better if it gets cow’s milk. 9. At present scientists ...
a new variety of this crop for the northern regions of the country. 10. On
large poultry farms it is possible to ... thousands of chickens at once.
12. Use the correct form of the verb in brackets in the active voice.
Translate the sentences into Russian.
I The rate of reproduction and efficiency of all domestic animals
I to increase) since scientists (to begin) systematic studies in the 1930s.
2. At present farmers often (to replace) manure by commercial fertilisers.
3. Poultry also (to convert) feed efficiently into protein and (to provide)
people with white meat and eggs. 4. When Columbus (to discover)
America, he (to bring) some new varieties of plants and animals to
Europe. 5. What animals ... people (to use) as draft animals in the 18th
century? 6. The farmer (to provide) his livestock with all nutrients and
(to raise) very healthy animals last season. 7. Last week the farmers (to
keep) swine on pastures which (to be) not suitable for crop production.
8. Why ... people still (to breed) livestock? 9. Modem agriculture (to
rely) on engineering and technology as well as on a large variety of
natural sciences. 10. In recent years computers (to become) important
for management of a farm. 11. W hat... the term “livestock” (to include)?
12. Farmers (not/to know) much about nutrients in the 17th century.
13. What crops ... a farmer (to grow) for his animals? 14. For many
centuries people in Africa (to breed) camels, but even now a white camel
(to be) an exotic animal. 15. Nowadays the weather greatly (to influence)
agricultural production. /; ,
13. Put in some or any.
1. There are ... cows on the farm but there are no ... sheep. 2. Are
there ... new departments at the animal husbandry faculty? 3. These
animals do not need... additional feeds in their rations. 4. It is necessary
for ... farmer to have ... knowledge in farm management. 5. Did the
farmers ask scientists for ... recommendations about the reproduction
of the animals? 6. There have been developed ... new sources of energy
recently. 7. There are no ... special requirements for the use of these
fertilizers. 8. Do you know ... exotic animals which farmers have
domesticated lately? 9.... crops grow well both in warm and cool regions
of the country. 10. ... type of manure increases the yields of crops.
14. Put in both ... and', either ... or', neither ... nor.
1. ... some wild ... some domestic animals are mammals. 2. Agri­
culture is a risky branch of economy because farmers can influence ...
temperature... rainfall (осадки). 3.... feather... down are known as raw
materials. 4. Nowadays we u se... manure ... fertilizers to increase yields.
16
5. Textile industry uses ... cotton ... wool. 6. In many poor African
countries farmers are still using ... horses ... cows as draft animals.
7. Some vegetarians e a t... m eat... milk. 8.... sheep ... goats are suitable
for mountain regions. 9. We do not have enough money, so we can ...
repair the old dairy machines ... replace them by modem models. 10. It
is possible ... to buy feeds for cattle ... to grow some crops on the farm.
15. Translate into English.
a) полагаться на различные источники; увеличивать продук­
тивность; травоядное млекопитающее; производить или мясо,
или яйца; содержать прирученных животных; выпас домашних
животных; ценные корма; выращивать овец; разнообразные
удобрения; основная отрасль сельского хозяйства; рабочая сила
на ферме
b) 1. Как животноводство, так и растениеводство являются важ­
ными отраслями экономики во многих странах мира. 2. Ферме­
ры выводят и выращивают разных домашних животных, таких как
крупный рогатый скот, овцы, свиньи, лошади и т.п. 3. Существу­
ет несколько специализированных отраслей животноводства, на­
пример, пчеловодство и птицеводство. 4. Домашний скот обеспе­
чивает людей мясными и молочными продуктами, а также постав­
ляет сырье для промышленности. 5. Животноводство обеспечи­
вает растениеводство ценным удобрением, таким как навоз, а ра­
стениеводство снабжает животных зерновыми и другими корма­
ми. 6. Выпас скота — это хороший способ обработки земли. 7. До­
ступность кормов и быстрая воспроизводимость — это основные
требования к домашним животным.

E X E R C IS E S F O R PA IR W ORK

16. Student A looks at the picture on page 18 (Fig. 1), Student В looks
at the picture on page 23 (Fig. 2). Ask each other questions and find
the differences in the pictures. Use the Present Progressive Tense
to describe the pictures. Use the nouns below:
cowshed (коровник), stable (конюшня), sheep-pen (овчарня),
pigsty (свинарник), poultry house (птичник), silo tower (силосная
башня)
M odel: Are there any sheep in the picture?
How many sheep are there in the picture?
two icture?
Are the sheep in the field ofirreaf Ж йШ п
Is the sheep-pen behind or In
farmer
атындағьі ғылыми
17
КІТАПХАНАСҺ
 Fig. 1. The picture of the farm for Student A

17. Describe the life of a farmer and his family. Use the verbs below:
to milk (доить), to water (поить), to pasture (выпасать), to feed
(кормить), to ride (ехать верхом), to harvest (собирать урожай),
to cultivate (возделывать), to fertilize (удобрять)
Student A describes: 1) what a farmer does every day (use the Present
Simple Tense); 2) what a farmer did yesterday (use the Past Simple Tense).
Student В describes: 1) what a farmer has already done (use the
Present Perfect Tense); 2) what a farmer will do tomorrow (use the
Future Simple Tense or the Present Progressive Tense).

USEFUL LANGUA GE
I think...; I don’t think...; In my opinion...; To my mind...;
I am (not) sure...; I believe...; I suppose...; Maybe...; Probably.

Model: I think the farmer gets up at 6 o ’clock in the morning every

day as he has a lot of work to do on his farm. I suppose
that first of all he feeds the animals and provides them with
water. Probably after that he milks the cows and goats. I am
sure, he does it twice a day: in the morning and in the
evening. ... . ,,

18
 SU PPLEM EN TA R Y TEXTS

18. a) Read and translate the text into Russian.

T ext 1
A N IM AL S C IE N T IS T S

Animal scientists help farmers to develop and improve agricultural

industry. Different animal sciences are important for specialists who
work in the field of animal farming such as: anim al physiology,
nutrition, breeding and genetics, ecology and ethology, livestock and
poultry management.
Students of animal science are interested in processes how agricultural
animals convert feeds into food and other useful things which people
need. They conduct research in different fields of animal husbandry and
try to improve production, yield and growth of various animals. Thus,
they mainly specialise in such disciplines as nutrition, genetics and
breeding, or reproductive physiology. There are special courses to train
veterinary scientists who study diseases of farm animals, methods of
vaccination and animal treatment.
Graduates of the faculty of animal husbandry work in veterinary and
human pharmaceutical industries, in industries which provide farms with
livestock and feeds as well as in educational institutes. They can work both
for private research firms and federal or state experimental stations.
An animal breeder is one of the oldest world professions. Historically,
there are certain sub-professions within the field of animal husbandry.
They have specific names according to the animal for which a person cares,
for example, a cattle breeder (or a cattleman)*, a pig breeder (a hogman),
a sheep breeder (a sheepman), a horse breeder (a horseman), a poultry
breeder (a poultryman), a beekeeper or an apiarist, a dog breeder or a
cynologist.
Today, managers of commercial farms organize the work of many
different specialists who raise thousands of various animals. Farms and
ranches employ breeders, veterinary surgeons (or vets), feeders and
milkmen who help to care for the animals. Nowadays farmers use modem
techniques and achievements of different natural sciences because this
helps to improve the ability of animals to convert feed into meat, milk,
or fibre more efficiently and improve the quality of the final products.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_husbandry)

* Слова, указанные в скобках, употребляются в американском варианте ан­

глийского языка.

19
 b) Answer the questions on the text.
1 What are the main professions in the field of animal science?
2 What animal sciences are of special interest for animal scientists?
|3 What problems of animal husbandry do these subjects study?
4 Which problems are animal scientists especially interested in?
5. Where can animal scientists work?
c) Find in the text the words which mean professions and divide them
into three groups according to their suffixes. Add your own words
to each group. •'<?
1) farmer, breeder, ... пЗДдог
2) cattlem an,... •*: Ьиіг
3) scientist,... I I .•■Ул 'Щ
d) Find in the text the English equivalents of the Russian word-combi-
nations. J,v
быть заинтересованным в чем-л.; проводить исследование; раз­
личные области животноводства; специализироваться в таких
дисциплинах, к а к ...; готовить ученых по ветеринарии; выпускни­
ки зоотехнического факультета; учебные институты; частные ис­
следовательские фирмы; государственные экспериментальные
(опытные) станции; нанимать на работу селекционеров; улучшать
качество И ■ гт г а Ншимдй
19. a) Read and translate the text into Russian.

T ext 2 S ... I I H I
TH E RUSSIAN STATE AGRARIAN U N IV ER SITY
(TH E M OSCOW AGRICULTURAL ACADEM Y NAM ED
AFTER K .A.TIM IRY A ZEV )

The Russian State Agrarian University, the former Moscow Timiryazev

Agricultural Academy (the RSAU - MTAA), is the oldest and most well-
known agrarian university in Russia. This educational institution was
founded December 3, 1865 as Petrovskaya Academy of Agriculture and
Forestry. ii f:;nii 4l&4)5JRJKt!l$:
At first there were only two departments—agricultural and forestry —
which enrolled about 400 students. At the beginning of 1872 according
to new rules it was necessary to finish gymnasium and do entrance
examinations to become a student of the Academy. Later in 1894 the
Academy was renamed into Moscow Agricultural Institute with agricultural
and engineering departments. Graduates were awarded the ranks of
agronomist and agronomist-technician of the first or the second grade.
Since 1905 the Institute has started to award the rank of the learned
agronomist and an engineer-agronomist. : - -ШІШІІВІІ
20
 A new stage of history of the Academy began after 1917 when it restored
its former name—Petrovskaya Agricultural Academy. Regulations and
structure of the Academy were changed and a new curricula and new
teaching programmes were developed.
On December 10, 1923 the Academy was named after the outstanding
Russian scientist—Kliment Arkadyevich Timiryazev.
The first professors of the Academy, and their followers, who in their
time became outstanding scientists, have played a great role in organisation
and development of the agricultural educational system and science in
Russia. Among them were professors N. I. Zheleznov, K. A. Timiryazev,
V.A.Mikhelson, V.R.Williams, N.I.Vavilov, A.V.Chayanov etc.
Before World War II the scientific and educational potential of the
Timiryazev Academy was so great that more than 15 educational and
scientific-research institutes were founded on its basis in Moscow and
other cities of Russia. In 1940 the Soviet Government declared the
territory of the Academy to be of historical value and protected it by law.
During the first days of the Great Patriotic War more than 500
professors, researchers, students and workers of the Academy joined the
front as members of emergency volunteer corps, extermination corps and
other military forms. The names of 170 lost Academic staff are engraved
on a m onum ent which was set up in the park of the Academy to
memorise the lost soldiers.
The main educational activity of the Academy never stopped during
the war period, and scientists of the Academy bred ten new varieties of
farm crops during this time. For some time the Academy was temporarily
located in Samarkand, however, studies began in Moscow again in 1943.
In the post-war years, scientists of the Academy took an active part
in the development of virgin and long-fallow lands (целинные и за ­
лежные земли). They inspected over 9 million hectares of land and
drew 232 soil maps and cartograms.
Currently, the RSAU-MTAA consists of eight faculties such as
Agronomy, Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry and Ecology,
Animal Science, Fruit and Vegetable Growing, Food Technology,
Economics, Accounting and Finance, Teacher Training. Since 1946
the Academy has been training specialists for foreign countries and
citizens from foreign countries are studying at different faculties now.
At present the scientists of the Academy are engaged in fundamental
and applied research.
(http://www.timacad.ru/)
b) Answer the questions about your university/academy.
1. When and where was your university/academy founded?
2. What do you know about its history?
3. What do you know about famous professors or scientists who
worked there?

2
 4. How many faculties, departments and research laboratories are
there in your university/academy?
5. Which specialities are the students trained in?
c) Find the information about one o f the foreign agricultural
universities/colleges and prepare an oral report about it. Search
the following websites:
1. Department of Agriculture, Western Illinois University, USA:
http: / / www.wiu.edu/ag/
2. Agriculture Department, University of Minnesota Crookston:
http://www.umcrookston.edu/academics/agri/
3. Olds College, Canada: http://oldcollege.ab.ca/
4. Scottish Agricultural College: http://www.sac.ac.uk/
20. a) Read and translate the text into Russian.

T ext 3 r\
T H E FACULTY O F ANIM AL HUSBANDRY
IN TH E M OSCOW TIMIRYAZEV AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY

The Faculty of Animal Husbandry (or Zootechnical Faculty) was

organised in the Moscow Timiryazev Academy in 1934 and it is one
of the oldest educational centres in the field of animal husbandry in
Russia.
The Faculty includes 16 departments, for example Morphology,
Zoology, Physiology and Biochemistry of Animals, Genetics and
Breeding of Farm Animals, Animal Hygiene, Obstetrics and Veterinary
Science, Feeding of Farm Animals, Sheep Breeding, Pig Breeding etc.
There are three research laboratories of animal husbandry as well as the
Museum of Horse Breeding, the Animal Husbandry Museum named
after E. F. Liskun, the Zoological Museum named after N. I. Kulagin,
the Anatomy Museum and the Beekeeping Museum.
The Faculty has its own practice grounds on the territory of the
Academy, such as a vivarium, a poultry house, an apiary, an aquarium
room and a horse riding hall. Students also have the opportunity to have
practice at some state and private farms, pedigree stock breeding farms,
fish farms, apiaries and poultry farms.
The Faculty is one of the methodical and research centres that solves
problems of increasing animal productivity. The main investigations are
carried out in the following directions: the improvement of farm animal
reproduction and breeding on the basis of achievements in biotechnology
and information technology; the development of pedigree and productive
qualities of cattle; the development of balanced rations for farm animals,
poultry and fish. } f/ * '
At present, the Faculty enrolls about 700 students and trains them
in speciality of animal scientists (or zootechnics) with the following
22
specialisations: general animal husbandry, poultry breeding, horse
breeding, aquaculture, beekeeping, biotechnology of animal reproducing,
genetics and breeding of farm animals, feeding of farm animals. Recently
the Faculty has offered programmes for training students in cynology,
felinology, zoo culture, and wild life management.
In 2004 a new Technological Faculty began to train specialists in milk
and meat production and processing on the basis of the Department
of Meat and Milk Processing which was earlier one of the leading and
oldest departments at the Faculty of Animal Husbandry.
(http://www.timacad.ru/)
b) Answer the questions and make up a dialogue with your friend about
your studies.
1. Which faculty do you study at and why did you choose it?
2. Which specialities are students trained in at your faculty?
3. What facilities does the faculty (your university) have for training
students in different specialities?
4. In which field of animal science would you like to work after
graduating from the university?
5. Which scientific problems are you interested in?

Fig. 2. The picture of the farm for Student В

 Unit 2
ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Vocabulary and Grammar’.

1. Употребление существительных breed, species, strain, type, variety.
2. Видо-временные формы глагола в страдательном залоге (Present
Simple, Past Simple, Future Simple, Present Progressive, Present
Perfect). лиЫ - - “« Щ
3. Существительное в функции определения.
4. Конструкция «to be + инфинитив».
5. Конструкция «to be + of + существительное».

VOCABULARY ТО T H E TEX T
“A N IM A L P H Y S IO L O G Y ”

Nouns: analysis (analyses), application, approach, basis (bases),

breed, cell, datum (data), difference, feature, feeding, feeding ration,
research, importance, level, offspring, origin, significance, similarity,
species, tissue, use, value.
Adjectives and adverbs', chemical, important, necessary, particularly).
Verbs', analyse, apply, concentrate (on), consider, consist (of), deal
(with), depend (on), devote (to), divide (in/into), investigate, maintain,
originate (from), relate (to).
Other parts o f speech and word-combinations’, for instance; in
general; in order to; to take into account; throughout.

Without a dictionary give the Russian equivalents of the international

words and scientific terms from the text “Animal Physiology”:
antibiotic [.aentibai'otik], biochemical [,baiau'kemikl], biochemistry
[.barau'kermstri], biomechanics Lbaiaumi'kaeniks], biophysics [,bai3iyfiziks],
characteristic [.kaenkta'ristik], cytology [sai'tDlacfci], to design [di'zain],
enzyme ['enzaim], evolution [,i:va'lu:Jn], function [Тлцк/п], hormone
['ho:maun], mechanism ['mekamzm], m etabolism [ma'taebalizm],
microelement [.maikrau'elimant], organ [’organ], organism ['o:gamzm],
parameter [pa'raemita], pharmacology [.foima'kolacfei], physical ['fiziklj,
physiologist [.fizi'olacfeist], physiology [,fizi'r>lacfei], principle [’pnnsapl],
reaction [riaekfn], standard [‘staendad], sterility [sta'riliti], vitamin
[V(a)itamm]

24
 Употребление существительных
breed , species, stra in , typ e , variety

В русско-английских словарях эти существительные даются как

синонимы и переводятся следующими терминами «род, вид, раз­
новидность, сорт, порода», однако в англоязычных словарях да­
ются конкретные определения значений этих существительных
и правила их употребления.
breed — порода (скота, птицы), сорт (растения); syn stock,
strain. Термин обозначает группу организмов определенного вида
(растительного или животного происхождения), которая была вы­
ведена с целью усиления требуемых характеристик в результате се­
лекции.
species (мн.ч. species) — 1) вид (о диких растениях и ж и­
вотных), т.е. подразделение в систематике, входящее в состав
высшего раздела — рода; 2) вид, сорт, разновидность; род, по­
рода. Термин используется для описания группы животных или
растений, которые подобны и могут скрещиваться между собой,
давая потомство, но не могут скрещиваться с особями из дру­
гой группы.
strain — род; вид; разновидность; линия, сорт; порода; штамм
(для микроорганизмов). Термин обычно относится к отдельной
или особой разновидности в пределах вида для самых разнооб­
разных живых организмов (животных, насекомых, растений,
и т.п.), но наиболее часто употребляется в отношении культур­
ных растений.
type — 1) тип, т. е. слово обозначает совокупность характерис­
тик общих для большого числа особей и служащих основой для
классификации; 2) типичный представитель какого-либо рода или
вида; syn sort, kind.
variety — 1) вид, разновидность (о растениях и животных)',
2) сорт (культурного растения). Термин используется для харак­
теристики растений или животных, которые отличаются от пред­
ставителей в пределах одной и той же общей группы или вида.
Наиболее часто слово употребляют для описания сортов культур­
ных растений.

Examples:
beef breed/strain — мясная порода крупного рогатого скота;
endangered species — вид, находящийся под угрозой вымирания;
broiler strain — мясная (или бройлерная) линия/порода птиц;
early-season variety — раннеспелый сорт (растения );
various kinds of animals — разные виды животных;
comb type — тип гребня (птицы);
commercial species — промысловый вид.

25
 G R A M M A R R E V IS IO N
A N D PR E T E X T E X E R C IS E S

Видо-временны е формы глагола

в страдательном залоге
(T he passive voice)
Английский глагол в страдательном залоге показывает, что дей­
ствие совершается над лицом или предметом, выраженным под­
лежащим, причем правила употребления наречий времени такие
же, как и в действительном залоге.
Страдательный залог в английском языке образуется при по­
мощи глагола to be в соответствующей форме + причастие II,
которое называется причастием прошедшего времени (Partici­
ple II или Past Participle).

Видо-временные формы английского глагола

в страдательном залоге

Подлежащее + сказуемое Перевод на

Время в страдательном залоге
и наречия времени русский язык

Present Simple спрашивают/

(Настоящее He/She/It is } a?ked/
простое время) You/We/They are J 8*vei1, дают
(iusually, every time)
Past Simple I/He/She/It was 1 asked/ спросили/
(Прошедшее You/We/They were J given. дали
простое время) (yesterday, last week)
Future Simple I/We shall be
(Будущее asked/ спросят/
He/She/It 1 be given. дадут
простое время) You/We/They ]
(tomorrow, next mon th)
Present I am being спрашивают/
Progressive He/She/It is being >asked/ дают
(Настоящее You/We/They are being , given. спросят/
продолженное (now, tomorrow) дадут
время)
Present Perfect I/You/ 1. . asked/ спросили/
(Настоящее We/They j have been given. дали
совершенное He/She/It has been
время) (<already, recently )

26
Examples:
The students will be asked five Студентам зададут пять вопро-
questions at the exam. сов на экзамене.
The animals have already been Животным уже дали витамины,
given some vitamins.
Для указания на того, кто производит действие, используется
предлог by.
Example:
Farmers are given some recom- Фермерам дает некоторые реко-
mendations by the regional мендации местный консулъ-
consulting centre. тационный центр.
1. Use the correct form of the verb in brackets in the passive voice.
Identify the tense in English and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Scientific conferences on the problems of animal physiology
regularly (to hold) by physiologists.
2. Experimental physiology ( to develop) by anatomist William
Harvey in the 17th century.
3. Animal scientists hope that the results of their research (to use)
by farmers in practice.
4. The problems of domestication of ostriches (to discuss) in some
scientific journals now.
5. The new textbook on animal husbandry (to write) by the professors
of our University last year.
6. Such courses as organic chemistry and physics (to study) by all
first-year students at the Animal Husbandry Faculty.
7. Some characteristics of this cow breed (to study) carefully by the
scientists at the moment.
8. Different experim ents on the processes of metabolism (to
conduct) by the scientists.
9. A plan for reproduction of the beef cattle on the farm (to suggest)
next week.
10. Some manure (to spread) on this field recently.

Сущ ествительное в функции определения

(сущ ествительное + сущ ествительное)
(The noun as attribute)
Если подряд стоят два или более существительных без предло­
гов, образуя так называемую «цепочку существительных», то все
они являются определениями к последнему существительному в
этой «цепочке». Существительному в функции определения мо­
гут соответствовать разные части речи в русском языке, поэтому
существует несколько способов перевода «цепочки».
27
 Существительные в функции определения переводятся:
существительным существительным
прилагательным в родительном падеже с предлогом
farm animals — farm animals — farm animals —
фермерские животные животные фермы животные на ферме
milk productivity — animal physiology — animal diseases —
молочная физиология живот­ заболевания у жи­
продуктивность ных вотных

2. Translate into Russian.

farm animals; horse growth; agriculture study; sheep breed; egg
production; crop yield; poultry manure; farm management; food
sources; animal species; reproduction rate; milk cow breeds; feed hog
requirements; poultry house ventilation; beef cattle breeds

Конструкция «to be + инфинитив»

(The construction “to be + infinitive”)
Глагол to be в личной форме перед инфинитивом употребля­
ется в значении «состоит/заключается в том, чтобы» после таких
слов, как: aim/purpose цель , task/target задача, problem пробле­
ма, intention намерение, plan план и др.
Examples:
One of the aims of animal Одна из задач физиологии живот­
physiology is to increase ных состоит в том, чтобы
milk or meat productivity of повысить молочную или мяс­
farm animals. ную продуктивность сельско­
хозяйственных животных.
The main trend in physiology is Основная тенденция в физиоло-
to concentrate on functional гии состоит в том, чтобы
studies rather than structural сосредоточиться на функ­
studies of organ systems, such циональных, а не структурных
as nutrition, transport, исследованиях систем орга­
metabolism. низма, таких как питание,
перенос, метаболизм.
3. Translate into Russian.
1. The farm er’s plan is to increase milk yields by cows grazing
throughout the summer period. 2. The problem was to replace draft
animals by modern farm machines. 3. The scientists’ aim is to inform
farmers about the recent achievements in raising farm animals. 4. The
purpose of general physiology is to study the principles which are
universal for all living organisms. 5. The scientific approach was to
28
calculate a feeding ration on the basis of physiological data for a parti­
cular animal.

Конструкция «to be + o f + существительное»

(The construction “to be + o f + noun”)
В этом обороте глагол to be употребляется в значении «иметь,
представлять».
Example:
The achievements in the field Достижения в области физиоло-
of animal physiology are o f гии животных имеют большое
great importance for animal значение для животноводства,
husbandry as well as for а также для ветеринарии,
veterinary science.
4. Translate into Russian.
1. High-quality feeds are of great importance to animal health. 2. Both
dairy cattle and beef cattle are of high practical value. 3. The knowledge
of physiological characteristics of animals during the different periods
of their life is of special interest to age animal physiology. 4. The
development of new efficient milking machines is of great practical use.
5. The study of general animal physiology is of great importance for
animal scientists as well as farmers.
5. Read and translate the text into Russian. Find in the text:
— the sentences in the passive voice;
the construction “to be + infinitive”;
the construction “to be + o f + noun’

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY
The word “physiology” originated from the Greek language and it
consists of two parts: physis which means “nature” and logos which is
“word”. In general, physiology is the study of mechanical, physical, and
biochemical functions of living organisms1. Physiology has traditionally
been divided into plant physiology, animal physiology and human
physiology but the physiology principles are universal, even if a particular
organism is being studied.
Animal physiology is the study of animal functions, that is, the study
of “how animals work”. The rapid development of animal physiology
as a distinct discipline began in the 19th century and was stimulated by
the requirements of animal husbandry and veterinary science. Animal
physiology is subdivided into the four main parts, such as general
physiology, special physiology, comparative physiology2 and age
physiology3. General physiology deals with the analysis of such universal

29
and important processes as blood circulation4, metabolism, respiration
etc. Special physiology applies general physiological principles in order
to investigate characteristics of a particular animal species. Comparative
physiology concentrates on similarities and differences of physiological
functions of various living organisms. The problems of how physiological
functions change with animal age are of special interest to age physiology.
The main approach in animal physiology is to study the evolutionary
origins of the physiological mechanisms in order to understand the
significance of these mechanisms for modern-day animals6. Modern
physiology which is based on chemical, physical and anatomrcal methods
investigates biological organisation of the animal body at different levels,
that is, cells, tissues, organs.
One of the parts of special physiology is devoted to farm animal
physiology. The aim of this science is not only to study physiological
functions of the farm animal body, but to control them in order to increase
the production of eggs, offspring, milk, meat and wool. The problem of
how to maintain good health of farm animals throughout a long lifetime
of high production is of great importance to farm specialists as well.
Farm animal physiology is closely related to veterinary science as it
is necessary to know physiological standards and the physiological
reactions which take place in the body of a healthy animal in order to
cure sick animals7 and prevent different animal diseases. The problems
of sterility and nutritional disorders8 are studied by physiologists as well
as by veterinary surgeons.
Animal requirements in nutrients and energy depend on their
physiological features, so feeding rations are calculated on the basis
of physiological data. The feeding systems for rearing young animals are
being developed on physiological parameters as well. Physiological
characteristics such as age and weight are considered by the scientists when
animals are fed with vitamins, antibiotics, microelements or hormones.
Farmers should take into account some im portant physiological
features of animals in different situations, for instance, when a farmer
is going to use artificial insemination9 or train sport horses or dogs.
Physiological parameters of farm animals are of special value to engineers
who design different farm mechanisms, such as milking or feeding
machines. . v
Other major branches of scientific study that have grown out of
physiology research include biochemistry, biophysics, biomechanics,
pharmacology, cytology as well as genetics which are known as the
biological bases for rational animal husbandry.

COMMENTS
1. living organism ['lrvxr) 'aganizm] — живой организм
2. comparative physiology [kam'paeratrv .fra'otacfci] — сравнительная
физиология
30
3. age physiology ['еісіз /штоәс&і] — возрастная физиология
4. blood circulation [bLvd ,s3:kju'leijn] — кровообращение
5. respiration [.respi'rei/n] — дыхание
6. modern-day animals — современные животные
7. to cure sick animals — лечить больных животных
8. nutritional disorder [nju:'tnjhal dis'ado] —проблема, вызванная недос­
таточным питанием
9. artificial insemination [.ati'ftfl in,semi‘neijh] —искусственное осеменение

E X E R C IS E S TO T H E TEXT

6. Answer the questions.

1. What does physiology study?
2. What are the main parts of physiology?
3. What stimulated the development of animal physiology?
4. What problems are of special interest to animal physiologists?
5. What are the main principles of physiological study?
6. Why is farm animal physiology of great practical value?
7. How can the knowledge of physiological reactions help to main­
tain healthy farm animals?
8. What influences animal requirements in nutrients?
9. When do farm specialists take into account physiological charac­
teristics of animals?
10. What sciences are based on physiology research?
Think and say.
1. What problems are animal physiologists investigating now?
2. Give examples when a farmer takes into account physiological
features of a particular animal.
7. Translate the words into Russian and identify the part of speech
in English.
1. analyse, analysis, analytical, analyst; 2. special, specialist, to specialise;
3. science, scientific, scientist; 4. physics, physical, physicist, biophysics;
5. chemistry, biochemistry, chemical, biochemical, chemist; 6. origin,
original, to originate; 7. application, to apply; 8. milk, milking, to milk,
milkman; 10. different, differences, to differ; 11. to investigate, investigator,
investigation
8. a) Translate the word-combinations into English using the noun
physiology.
физиологические характеристики; физиологические функции;
физиологические стандарты; физиологические реакции; физио­
логические данные

31
 b) Translate the word-combinations into English using “noun +
noun". ' ^ Я>
физиология растений; физиология человека, физиологические
принципы; функции животных; виды животных, тело животно­
го; синтез фермента; физиология сельскохозяйственных живот­
ных; специалисты по сельскому хозяйству; здоровье животных,
болезни животных; ветеринарная наука; потребности животных;
спортивные лошади; сельскохозяйственные механизмы, исследо­
вания по физиологии
9. Find the pairs of synonyms. f
to consider, major, to take place, particular, to study, features, during
the whole time, facts, to happen, to originate, requirements, to be
connected with, significance, separate, throughout, main, to relate to,
data, to take into account, importance, to apply, special (individual),
to concentrate (on smth), needs, to have the opinion, characteristics,
to investigate, to make practical use, distinct, to consider the importance,
to focus, to grow out

A D D IT IO N A L E X E R C IS E S

10. Match the Russian word-combinations with their English equivalents.

шерстная порода овец; морозоустойчивая порода животных;
местная порода; сорт риса; биологический вид; клеточный штамм;
гибридная линия; яйценоская линия/порода птиц; тип породы;
порода сального типа (свиней); свиньи беконного типа; яйцено­
ский тип (птицы); смушковый тип овец; тип шерсти; морозоус­
тойчивый сорт; яровой сорт; местные виды (разновидности) свиней
spring variety; hardy animal breed; egg type; local pig varieties; lard-
type breed of pigs; biological species; local/native breed; hybrid strain;
ftir type of sheep; rice variety; cell strain; wool breed; bacon-type pigs;
laying strain; frost resistant variety; breed type; wool type
11. Give the English equivalents of the Russian words in brackets.
1. The chemical (подход) to physiological problems was developed
by Lavoisier in France. 2. Separate (виды) produce hybrid (потом­
ство), for instance, the horse and the donkey may produce the mule,
but the (потомство) are almost always sterile, so this method of
breeding (не считается) to be useful. 3. Morphological or external
(сходство) are used as the basis for grouping organisms into (виды).
4. The word “biochemistry” (состоит из) two parts, that is “bio” and
“chemistry”. 5. The animal health greatly (зависит от рационов пи­
тания), which should include all the necessary (питательные ee-

32
щества). 6. When a farmer chooses animals for his farm, he often
(принимает во внимание происхождение породы крупного ро­
гатого скота). 7. There may be great (различия) in milk yield which
are obtained from а (отдельного) animal (в течение) a year. 8. In
physiology, (ткань) is а (уровень) of organisation in multicellular
organisms; it (состоит из) a group of structurally and functionally
similar (клеток) and their intercellular material. 9. Molecular biology
(занимается) the study of large molecules such as proteins, nucleic
acids, and carbohydrates which are of great (значение) to life processes.
This rather modem science (взаимосвязана с) biochemistry. 10. Justus
von Liebig and Louis Pasteur are known as outstanding scientists of the
19th century who were responsible for the (применение) of chemistry
to the study of biology. 11. The Poland China (произошла от) different
(пород свиней) which are common to southern Ohio area.
12. Remember the singular and plural forms of the following nouns'":
Существительное в единственном числе Суше ствител ьно е
и его перевод на русский язык во множественном числе
analysis [s'naelisis] анализ analyses [a'naelisi:z]
bacterium [baek'tiariam] бактерия bacteria [baek'tiana]
basis Fbeisis] базис, основа bases [beisfcz]
criterion [krai'tianan] критерий, признак criteria [krai'tiana]
datum ['deitam] данная величина data ['delta] or ['data]
formula [fo:mjula] формула formulae ['farmjuli:]
fungus ['fXrjgas] гриб, плесень fungi [Тладі:]
genus fcfci:nas] род] вид, сорт genera [’cfcenara]
medium ['miidiam] среда media ['mi:dia]
phenomenon [fi'nmrunan] явление phenomena [fi'nomina]
series [’siaiiz] ряд, серия series ['siari:z]
stimulus [’stimjulas] раздражитель, стимул stimuli ['stimjulai]

Fill the gaps with a suitable noun, singular or plural, from the table.
1. There are some particularly interesting ... in animal physiology,
for instance so-called self-amputation is found among certain lizards,
worms, salamanders, and spiders. 2. Different plants are susceptible
(чувствительны) to ... infection which may be caused by such species
of organisms as yeasts (дрожжи), molds (плесени), mushrooms etc.
3. Chemical... of milk has shown that it contains valuable proteins. 4. Both
chemistry and biology have provided the ... for the development of
biochemistry. 5. Blood tests provide vets with reliable ... about the
animal’s health. 6. Microscopic organisms which consist of one cell and

’ Некоторые существительные в английском языке заимствованы из грече­

ского или латинского языков и сохранили форму множественного числа, кото­
рую они имеют в этих языках. В таблице приведены некоторые примеры таких
существительных, которые могут встретиться в научных текстах по биологии.

2 Комарова 33
 (палочковидный)

S S S S u B y coulc
9С ?т еш Т Ю1 3 2 Ш £ Ш u™ thfconcentration of ozone as the
of ak pollution (загрязнение ). 11. Any ehange m the envmmment
whichis intense enough to cause a «action or change m an orgarusm
or in any of its parts is known as ... . 12. The general ... C,<H2O Kis
commonly used to represent many caibohydrates, which means watered
carbon.”
13. Translate into Russian, paying attention to the different meanings
of the word throughout. Use a dictionary if necessary.
1 Research in animal physiology tends to concentrate on understan­
ding how physiological features changed throughout the evolutionary
history of anim als. 2. In 1869 at Leipzig Ludwig founded the
Physiological Institute, which served as a model for research institutes
in medical schools throughout the world. 3. Autumn calvmg (осен­
ний отёл) is less common and occurs generally in regions where
winters are moderate and pasture grasses are available throughout the
year 4 The domesticated Indian buffalo is found throughout the
warmer parts of the Old World from China to Egypt, as well as m
Hungary, France, and Italy. 5. There are more than 300 known breeds
or local varieties of pigs throughout the world. 6. H orm ones are
liberated into blood and other body fluids by endocrine glands and
transported throughout the body. 7. The B actrian cam el occurs
throughout the highlands of Central Asia from Turkestan to Mongoha
and is an important beast of burden (вьючное животное) throughout
that region. 8. The pampas territories of Argentina provide excellent
conditions for grazing of cattle throughout the year without need for
shelter. 9. The physiology of circulation is concerned with the origin
of blood pressure in the force of the heartbeat and the regulation of
heart rate, blood pressure, and the flow of blood. 10. Throughout his
career D arw in wrote many papers but the m ost fam ous of his
manuscripts is The Origin o f Species by Means o f Natural Selection,
or The Preservation o f Favoured Races in the Struggle fo r Life
which was published on November 24, 1859.
14. a) Use the correct form of the verb in brackets in the passive voice,
b) Rewrite sentences 4, 7, 8, 9 and 12 in the active voice.
1. At present, research in physiology (to concentrate) on the integra­
tion of the different activities of cells, tissues, and organs at the level
of the intact organism. 2. Some problems of mammalian physiology
already (to investigate) from a classical-organ and oigan-system point
of view, but comparative studies in physiology (to continue) in future.

34
3. High milk yields (to maintain) if feeding rations (to calculate) on
the basis of physiological parameters of animals. 4. In the 19th century,
methods of the physical sciences (to apply) to physiology by Carl
Ludwig, a famous German physiologist. 5. The project for scientific
cooperation between the research institutes (to consider) at the
conference next week. 6. In an early scientific classification, tissues (to
divide) on the basis of the organ system of which they formed a part,
for instance, nervous tissues. 7. The principles of experimentation in the
life sciences (to suggest) by a French physiologist Claude Bernard in the
19th century. 8. Careful and rather expensive research (to carry out) by
the biochemists at the cell level now. 9. The basis for the physiology of
microorganisms (to provide) by the concept of comparative biochemistry.
10. Common or general features usually (to fin d ) at the cellular and
molecular levels of organisation for animals and plants. 11. Even now
physiology is still of great importance among the functional sciences that
(to relate) closely to the field of medicine. 12. The first journal which
(to devote) mainly to the publication of research results in physiology
(to publish) by Sir Michael Foster, a professor of practical physiology
at University College in London, in 1878.
15. Translate into English.
a) сходства и различия между видами; рассматривать на кле­
точном уровне; сосредоточиться на особых свойствах (призна­
ках) породы; анализировать ткани у животных; зависеть от про­
исхождения; поддерживать необходимый рацион кормления;
(под)разделять животных на группы; посвятить (уделить) время
анализу; происходить из (возникать в) России; принимать во
внимание значение (чего-л.); вообще; относиться к потомству;
исследовать в течение года; новый подход; для того, чтобы при­
менить в кормлении животных; состоять из нескольких частей;
на основе химических анализов; важное применение; иметь дело
с данными, проводить научное исследование в области физио­
логии животных
b) 1. Физиология имеет огромное значение среди функцио­
нальных наук, которые тесно связаны с медициной. 2. В настоя­
щее время основной подход к изучению физиологии животных
состоит в том, чтобы исследовать разнообразные функции орга­
низма на клеточном и молекулярном уровнях. 3. Практическое
использование новых открытий в области физиологии представ­
ляет большой интерес для врачей, фармацевтов и работников
сельского хозяйства. 4. Физиологические характеристики отдель­
ного животного учитываются во многих случаях, например, ког­
да фермер выбирает быков для разведения. 5. Сравнительная фи­
зиология изучает процессы размножения и лактации у различных
видов сельскохозяйственных животных.

35
 E X E R C IS E S FO R PA IR W ORK

16. a) Student A reads the text about Carl Ludwig on page 36, and
Student В reads the text on page 41. Students make up questions
using the question word in brackets in the Past Simple Tense, Active
6 4 - - --------------- information »"•*
texts

Task for Student A

CARL F.W. LUDW IG

Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig, a founder of the physicochemical

school of physiology in Germany, was bom in ... (Where?) m 1816.
He was a professor of physiology at the universities of Marburg ...
(When?), Z (1849-1855), Vienna (1855-1865), and Leipzig from
u r i c h

1865 till his death in 1895. Ludwig is best known for his study of the
cardiovascular system1. . .
He was an inventor of some devices for physiological e^eriraents.
In 1847 he invented a kymograph3, a cylindrical drum, that is still used
t o ... (How?). A simple flowmeter was used by Ludwig in 1867 to measure
the rate of blood flow through arteries and veins.
Ludwig was the first to keep ... (What?) alive in vitro, that is, outside
the animal’s body in 1856. He also measured blood pressure in the
capillaries.... (What?) were discovered by Ludwig as well. In 1871 Ludwig
together with the American physiologist Henry Bowditch formulated
the “all-or-none law” 4of cardiac muscle5action which stated... ( What?).
Modem theories of urine and lymph formation are based on Ludwig’s
paper on urine secretion which was written in 1844. He also introduced...
(What?) as an indication of the approximate rate of protein metabolism
in the entire animal and was first to show the influence of secretory
nerves on human digestive glands6. Ludwig is considered one of the great
physiology teachers; nearly ... (How many?) of his students became
prominent7 scientists.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_F._W._Ludwig)

COMMENTS
1. cardiovascular system [JkcudiauVaeskjula] —сердечно-сосудистая система
2. device [diVais] — устройство
3. kymograph ['kaimagraf] — кимограф
4. “all-or-none law” — закон «все или ничего»
5. cardiac muscle ['ka:diaek 'nusl] — сердечная мышца, миокард
6. digestive gland [dai'd3estiv 'glaend] — пищеварительная железа
7. prominent [’prominent] — выдающийся

36
 b) Find in the text international scientific terms and write their Russian
equivalents.
c) Find in the text the English equivalents for the Russian word-
combinations.
сформулировали закон; примерная скорость метаболизма бел­
ка; стали выдающимися учеными; изобретатель нескольких уст­
ройств; современные теории основываются на...; регистрировать
изменения; внедрил измерение азота в моче; был первым, кто по­
казал влияние ...; измерил давление крови; основатель физико­
химического направления в физиологии; известен своим учени­
ем о ...; хранить органы животного живыми в искусственных ус­
ловиях; считается одним из основоположников физиологии

S U P P L E M E N T A R Y TEX TS

17. a) Answer the question: What do you know about the contribution o f
I. P. Pavlov to the development o f physiology? Read and translate
the text about Pavlov’s biography into Russian.

Text 1

IVAN PETROVICH PAVLOV

Pavlov, the first son of a priest, was bom in Ryazan in central Russia
in 1849. He attended a church school and a theological seminary. In
1870 he entered the University of St. Petersburg, where he studied
chemistry and physiology. He completed his dissertation in 1883 and
received the Medical Degree at the Imperial Medical Academy in
St. Petersburg.
Then, from 1884 till 1886, Pavlov studied in Germany under the
direction of the cardiovascular physiologist Carl Ludwig (in Leipzig) and
the gastrointestinal physiologist Rudolf Heidenhain (in Breslau). When
Pavlov worked with Ludwig, he carried out his first independent research
on the physiology of the circulatory system. From 1888 to 1890, in the
laboratory of Botkin in St. Petersburg, he investigated cardiac physiology
and the regulation of blood pressure.
He became so skilful a surgeon that he was able to introduce a catheter
into the femoral artery of a dog almost painlessly without anesthesia and
to record the influence on blood pressure of various pharmacological
and emotional stimuli. He is famous for his development of the concept
of the conditioned reflex. In a now-classic experiment, he trained a hungry
dog to salivate at the sound of a bell, which was previously associated
with the sight of food. He developed a similar approach in his first studies
relating human behaviour to the nervous system.

37
 Pavlov’s method of studying the normal, healthy animal in natural
condWom made a significant contribution to science. He was able to for-
ти ІаГ Г е idea of the conditioned reflex because he reduced a complex
situation to the simple terms of an experiment.
In 1890 he became professor of physiology in the Imperial Medical
Academy where he worked until 1924. At the newly founded Institute
of Experimental Medicine, he initiated precise surgical procedures for
_a fw ппр.гяііппя and orovided
animals
facilities for the maintenance of their health. . . .
During the years 1890-1900 Pavlov studied the secretory activity of
digestion. The results of his work were published in his book Lectures
__ * .« _1QQ7
on tne Work o f the ТИРЯШВ m .
He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine in
1904 for his work on digestive secretions. Pavlov was the first Director
of the Institute of Physiology in St. P e t e r s b u r g winch was founded on
the base of the Physiology Laboratory m 1925. In 1936, after the death
of Pavlov, the institute was named after him.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov)

b) Answer the questions.

1. Where and when was Pavlov bom?
2. What university did Pavlov graduate from?
3. What subjects was he interested in at the universit
4. Who were Pavlov’s scientific guides?
5. What was his first independent research devoted t
6. Where did Pavlov carry out his research from 188!
7. What is he famous for?
8. What contribution did Pavlov make in the developi
physiology?
9. Where were the results of Pavlov’s research publis
10. Why and when was Pavlov awarded the Nobel Prize
and Medicine?
11. What problems did Pavlov investigate during 189( 1900?
12. When was the Institute of Physiology founded in !
c) Find in the text the English equivalents of the Russian word-
combinations.
интересоваться чем-л.; независимое (самостоятельное) иссле-
вание; опытный хирург; быть известным (чем-л.); специализи-
вклаі
рировать) влияние (на что-л.); быть награжденным; проводить
эксперименты; разрабатывать концепцию; публиковать результа­
ты; работать под руководством (кого-л.); цель его исследования
состояла в том, чтобы изучить ...; посещать школу; поступить
в университет; написать диссертацию

38
18. Use the following plan to make a presentation about the biography
of a famous physiologist (or a Russian or foreign animal scientist).
Use the word-combinations from exercise 17c.
1. The place and the date of birth.
2. The educational background.
3. The scientific guides and the first independent research.
4. The development of any concepts (or theories); the invention of
any devices (machines) for scientific experiments (or practical
application).
5. The contribution to the development of this particular scientific
direction (field of knowledge).
6. The recognition from the scientific community/colleagues. Any
rewards or prizes.
7. The importance of the research to the modern science.
8. Any followers of scientific schools.
19. Read the text and write 10—12 questions on it. Use the questions as
the plan to retell the text.

T ext 2
T H E PAVLOV IN ST IT U TE O F PHYSIOLOGY
O F T H E RU SSIA N ACADEMY O F SC IE N C E S
The Pavlov Institute of Physiology was founded in 1925 on the base
of the Physiological Laboratory. The first Director of the Institute of
Physiology was an outstanding Russian scientist, the first Nobel Prize
winner in physiology and medicine, Academician Ivan Petrovich Pavlov.
The main goal o f the Institute was to study physiology o f brain
hemispheres by the method of conditional reflexes. Initially, the main
problems investigated at the Institute were regularities of the activity of
brain hemispheres, interactions of the excitation and inhibition processes,
types of the nervous system, experimental neuroses as well as the higher
nervous activity of primates. In 1934 new Departments were founded:
Anatomy, Biochemistry, Biophysics, Experimental Psychology. This
provided ground for detailed studies on the structural and physicochemical
basis of physiology and psychology of the animal and human brain.
Initiated by Pavlov, neurogenetical investigations began.
In 1936, after Pavlov’s death, his name was given to the Institute. The
Institute was headed by his follower, Academician Leon Orbeli. Under
Orbeli’s guidance, in 1936- 1950 the higher nervous activity physiology
was added by evolutionary, comparative and age physiology as well as
by physiology of the autonomous nervous system and that of sense
organs. Studies on cell biochemistry and cell biophysics developed.
In the 1950s, the Institute became the largest physiological centre for
investigations on physiology and pathology o f the higher nervous
activity, general physiology of the nervous system, physiology of sense
39
organs, evolutionary and ecological physiology. One of the principal j
research directions became physiology and pathology of the corticovis- i
ceral interrelations. These studies contributed signif cantly to the current |
concept of genesis of human psychosomatic diseases. Academician j
Alexander M. Ugolev discovered a new important type of digestion, that
is, membrane digestion, which is a universal m echanism o f food
digestion. Complex studies were carried out on participation of different
physiological systems in adaptation to external and internal medium
factors and their role in maintaining the organism homeostasis.
Since 1995 the Director of the Institute has been Professor Djan P.
Dvoretsky. At present the Pavlov Institute of Physiology is one of the larg­
est multiprofile physiological institutions of the country. In its 40 labo­
ratories and sectors, about 300 researchers are working, including more
than 200 Doctors and Candidates of Sciences.
The Institute is located both in St. Petersburg and in the research
campus Koltushi founded by Ivan Pavlov and located in the vicinity of
St. Petersburg. The campus includes the Pavlov Memorial Complex, the
science library, the animal and anthropoid houses, the park as well as
modem laboratory buildings and residence buildings.
The Institute has one of the la te st libraries, which was founded in the
1890s at the Physiological Laboratory of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
It contains an enormous amount of books and journals on physiology,
biochemistry, anatomy, and medicine which have been collected for
dozens of years and up to now. It also contains Pavlov’s private library as
well as books written by outstanding Russian and foreign scientists.
The Institute continues fundamental and applied investigations on
mechanisms of the higher nervous activity, functions of the sensory and
visceral systems, understanding of processes of their regulation and
adaptation. Studies are carried out in the frame of the Institute long­
term programmes: M echanism s o f Regulation o f Physiological
Systems o f the Human and A nim al Organism in the Process of
Adaptation to Environmental Conditions. Scientists of the Institute
carry out joint researches with 38 organisations in foreign countries.
(http://www.infran.ru/index_eng.htm)
20. Try to find more information about some other scientific research
institutes (Russian or foreign), about their history, main achievements
and current research programmes.
Search the following websites:
1. http://www.agrobiotech.ru/ — about the research programmes in
the All-Russian Scientific Research Institute o f Agricultural
Biotechnology.
2. http://www.rashn.ru/ — The site of the Russian Academy of
Agricultural Sciences with the list of the agricultural scientific
research institutes.

40
 USEFUL LANGUAGE
The institute was founded...; It was named after...; The main goal/aim of
the institute is to...; The research is aimed at...; It has made a great
contribution to...; The following problems are being investigated now...;
Articles on...; To carry out the research work on...; On the basis of...;
Current experiments are devoted to... .

Task for Student В

CARL F. W. LUDWIG
Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig, a founder of the physicochemical
school of physiology in Germany, was bom in Germany i n ... ( When ?).
He was a professor of physiology at the universities of Marburg
(1846-1849), Zurich (1849-1855), Vienna (1855-1865), and ...
(Where?) from 1865 till his death in 1895. Ludwig is best known for
his study of the cardiovascular system1.
He was an inventor of some devices2 for physiological experiments. In
1847 he invented ... (What?) and used it to record changes in arterial
blood pressure. A simple flowmeter was used by Ludwig in 1867... (How?).
Ludwig was the first to keep animal organs (a frog heart) alive in vitro,
that is, outside the animal’s body in 1856. He also measured... (What?).
The depressor3 and accelerator4 nerves of the heart were discovered by
Ludwig as well. In 1871... ( Who?) formulated the “all-or-none law” 5 of
cardiac muscle6 action which states that the heart muscle, under any
stimulus, will contract to the fullest extent or not at all.
Modem theories o f ... ( What?) are based on Ludwig’s paper on urine
secretion which was written in ... (W hen?). He also introduced the
m easurem ent o f nitrogen in the urine as an indication o f the
approximate rate of protein metabolism in the entire animal and was
first to show the influence of secretory nerves7 on human digestive
glands8. Ludwig is considered one of the great physiology teachers;
nearly 200 of his students became prominent9 scientists.

COMMENTS
1. cardiovascular system [.kcudiauVaeskjula] —сердечно-сосудистая система
2. device [diVais] — устройство
3. depressor nerve [di'presa 'novj — депрессорный нерв (сердца)
4. accelerator nerve [ak'sala,rerta 'narvj — «ускоряющий нерв сердца»
5. “all-or-none law” — закон «всё или ничего*
6. cardiac muscle ['kadiask ’nusl] — сердечная мышца, миокард
7. secretory nerv [si'krltan 'narv] — секреторный нерв
8. digestive gland [dai'cftestiv 'glaend] — пищеварительная железа
9. prominent ['prpmmant] — выдающийся
 Unit 3
ANIMAL NUTRITION

Vocabulary and Grammar’.

1. Употребление глаголов to compose, to comprise, to consist,
to contain, to include, to involve.
2. Значение слова as и сочетаний с ним.
3. Особые случаи употребления страдательного залога.
4. И нфинитив в функции обстоятельства цели.
5. Предложения типа «It is + прилагательное + инфинитив».

VO CABULARY ТО T H E TEXT
“A N IM A L N U T R IT IO N ”

Nouns : acid (amino acid, fatty acid), carbohydrate, compound,

development, diet, excess, fat, growth, nutrient, nutrition, protein,
quality, repair, substance, structure, supplement(s), supply, usefulness.
Adjectives and adverbs', available, essential, (the) former, high-
quality (ant poor-quality), (the) latter, non-essential, nutritional (syn
nutritive), proper, (the) same, vital.
Verbs', affect, compose, comprise, consum e, contain, ensure,
involve, manufacture, require, supply, support.
Other parts o f speech', consequently, moreover (syn furthermore),
on the one hand, on the other hand, thus. fi '

Give the Russian equivalents of the international words and scientific

terms from the text “Animal Nutrition”:
adequate [’aedikwit], balance [’baelans], basic [’beisik], calcium
[’kaelsiam], immune protection [I'mjim pra'tekfn], lipid ['lipid], mineral
['тіпәгәі], muscle ['mvsl], phosphorus ['fbsfaras], stimulant ['stimjubnt]

Употребление глаголов to compose to comprise, ,

, ,
to consist to contain to include, to involve
Все глаголы, кроме to involve, не употребляются в группе вре­
мен Progressive. «Ь- •<*« V»» £
to com pose (sm th) [кэт'рэиг] — составлять, формировать
(что-л. целое); обычно употребляется в страдательном залоге —
to be composed o f smth — состоять из чего-л.; syn to consist of
42
 to comprise (smth) [ksm'praiz] — включать, заключать в <
держать (что-л.); syn to compose; составлять, состоять (из
composed
of smth
to consist (of smth) [kan'sist] — состоять (из чего-л.); содержать
(что-л.); глагол используется для обозначения из каких материа­
лов или веществ сделан предмет или каковы его составные части;
syn to comprise, to be composed o f (smth)
to contain [kan'tern] включать
внутри п
содержится или являе
to include
to include [in'klu:d) включать; заключать, с
ется, чтобы упомянуть
ко некоторые части, которые входят в состав предмета; syn to
включать
ся во что-л., являться
to involve (smb in smth) [in'vnlv] включать
включать
наиболее важную или необходимую составную часть»; syn to
include, to contain; to include (smb in doing smth) вовлекать (кого-л.,
во что-л.); привлекать к участию; syn to take part in smth
Examples:
Carbohydrates consist/are com - Углеводы состоят, главным обра-
posed mainly o f molecules ЗОМ, из молекул, которые со­
which contain atoms of держат атомы углерода, водо­
carbon (C), hydrogen (H), рода и кислорода и имеют
and oxygen (O), and have общую формулу С6Н 120 6.
the general formula C6H 120 6.
A protein molecule is very large Молекула белка очень большая
and consists of/com poses и состоит из многих амино­
many amino acids which are кислот, которые соединены
joined together in long chains вместе в длинные цепи.
e term “species” means bio­ эмин «вид» означает биологи­
logical classification which ческую классификацию, ко­
com prises/includes related торая включает родственные
organisms with common организмы с общими характе
characteristics and which are ристиками и способными
capable of interbreeding. к интербридингу (т. е. к скре­
щиванию между разновидно­
стями внутри вида).
Freshwater-fish oils, for example, жир
contain both vitamin A and витамин
vitamin A2. так и А2.
43
Most of the common proteins Большинство обычных белков
contain more than 100 amino содержит более 100 амино­
acids. кислот.
In classification of animal tissue При классификации тканей жи-
the first group includes the вотных в первую группу вклю­
most important tissues that чают самые важные ткани,
are important for an animal’ которые важны для роста, вос­
growth, repair and energy. становления и силы животного.
The analysis of an organ struc- Анализ строения органа обычно
ture typically involves st включает изучение на кле­
at the levels of cells and точном и молекулярном
molecules. уровнях. «.•
Proteins are of great nutritional Белки представляют большую
value and are directly involved питательную ценность и не
in the chemical processes посредственно вовлечены /
essential for life. включены в химические г
цессы важные для жизни.
Water is directly involved in all Вода непосредственно участву-
the chemical reactions of life. em во всех жизненных хими­
ческих реакциях.
Part of the structure of nucleic Часть структуры нуклеиновых
acids, which contains genetic кислот, которая содержит
information, consists of генетическую информацию,
carbohydrate. состоит из углеводородов.

Значение слова as и сочетаний с ним

(A s and com binations with it)
as — так как; по мере того как; в качестве; как
as well — тоже, также
as well as — так же, как и
such as — такой (-ая; -ое; -ие), как ...
as ... as — такой ( ж е ) к а к
as ... as possible — как можно ...
not so ... as — не такой как; не так как
as to — что касается • • •

the same as — такой же, как ... І , Ei i ,,...

Examples :
Vitamins are defined as essential
organic substances that play
a catalytic role within the cell.
usually as components of
Витамины определяются как важ-
ные органические вещества,
катал итиче
скую роль в клетке

44
 coenzymes or other groups
associated with enzymes.
As the requirements for farm
products increased, animal
physiology began to develop
as a distinct discipline in order
to improve milk and meat
yields as well as egg
production.
Small quantities of minerals are
essential in animal rations,
but small additions of vitamins
are important as well.
Nutrients such as manganese
and the vitamins are necessary
in small amounts and they are
sometimes referred to as
micronutrients.
Proper animal nutrition is as
important for animal health
as exercise, hygiene, and
environmental conditions.
Farm animals are supplied with
feeds which have as high
concentration of nutrients
as possible.
Proteins are not so/as important
for energy supply as fats.
As to vitamins, they were first
studied by Sir Frederick
Gowland Hopkins in 1912,
who received the Nobel Prize
in 1929 for his achievements.
This dairy farm is trying to
maintain the milk production
at the same level as one year
ago.
в качестве коэнзимов или
других групп, связанных
с ферментами.
По мере того как потребности
в сельскохозяйственных про­
дуктах выросли, физиология
животных начала развиваться
как отдельная дисциплина для
того, чтобы улучшить удои
и выходы мяса, а также
производство яиц.
Небольшие количества мине­
ральных веществ являются
важными в рационах живот­
ных, но небольшие добавки
витаминов также важны.
Питательные вещества, такие
как марганец и витамины,
необходимы в небольших ко­
личествах, и иногда называ­
ются микроэлементами.
Правильное питание животных
так же важно для здоровья
животных, как моцион, гиги­
ена и условия окружающей
среды.
Сельскохозяйственные живот­
ные обеспечиваются кормами,
которые имеют как можно
более высокое содержание
питательных веществ.
Белки не так важны в обеспече­
нии энергией, как жиры.
Что касается витаминов, они
были впервые изучены сэром
Ф. Г. Хопкинсом в 1912 году,
который получил Нобелев­
скую премию в 1929 году за
свои достижения.
Молочная ферма пытается под­
держать производство молока
на таком же уровне, как
и год назад.
45
 G R A M M A R R E V IS IO N
A N D PR E T E X T E X E R C IS E S

случаи употребления страдательного залога

( Soecial cases o f the passive voice)
В английском языке страдательный залог выражается сочета­
нием глагола to be + Participle II (past participle) и употребляется
значительно чаще, чем в русском языке. Рассмотрим наиболее
трудные случаи перевода на русский язык некоторых англииских
глаголов в страдательном залоге.
I. Глаголы, после которых следует косвенное дополнение без
предлога.

to allow позволять кому-л.

to ask спрашивать кого-л.
to give давать кому-л.
to offer smb smth предлагать кому-л.
to recommend or рекомендовать кому-л.
to send smb to do smth посылать кого-л.
to show показывать кому-л.
to teach учить кого-л.
to tell сообщать кому-л.

предложению с этими глаголами в страда

залоге
о
залоге подлежащему
предложения в русском предложении будет соответствоват
п о л н е н и е . у . іЫІҒіИі Швгі (ІэШ&Шя
Examples'. J;
The professor (H e) was asked Профессора (Его) спросили
about the problems of animal о проблемах питания живот­
nutrition. ных.
The students (They) are Студентам (Им) обычно пока­
usually shown the photos of зывают фотографии разных
different sheep breeds. пород овец.
предлог

to account for объяснять (служить объяснением)', отвечать

(нести ответственность) за (что-л.)
to agree on/upon договариваться о (чем-л.)
to deal with иметь дело с; рассматривать (что-л.)
to insist on настаивать на (чем-л.) —►!

46
to listen to слушать; прислушиваться к (нему-л.)
to look after ухаживать за , заботиться о (чем-л.)
to object to возражать, протестовать против (чего-л.)
to refer to ссыпаться на, упоминать (что-л.)
to refer to as называться) (именоваться) как
to rely on/upon полагаться на (что-л./кого-л.)
to speak of/about говорить о (чем-л.)
to substitute for Ц заменять на (что-л.), использовать вместо
to think of думать о (чем-л.)

После этих глаголов в английском языке в страдательном зало

ге предлог сохраняется, уточняя его лексическое значение. На рус
ский язык такие предложения переводятся неопределенно-личны
ми предложениями, и перевод следует начинать с предлога. Еслі
после сказуемого в страдательном залоге стоят два предлога под
ряд, то перевод начинают с первого из них, так как второй пред
лог относится к обстоятельству, стоящему после сказуемого.
Examples:
The results of Pavlov’s research На результаты исследований
are often referred to. Павлова часто ссылаются.
Particular physiological charac- На индивидуальные физиологи-
teristics of a particular horse ческие характеристики лоша­
are usually relied on while ди обычно полагаются при
choosing the animal for racing выборе животного для скачек
The problem of proper animal проблеме правильного обеспе­
nutrition is much spoken чения животных питательны­
of/about by both animal ми веществами много говоряп
scientists and farmers. как ученые, так и фермеры.
3. Некоторые глаголы, за которыми следует прямое дополне-
предлог

to explain объяснить
to translate перевести что-л. кому-л.
smth to smb описать
to describe
to suggest предложить

страдательном залоге
подлежащего
русский
предложение переводится двумя
Example-.
was Новый метод возделывания был
farmers объяснен фермерам, (страда-

47
 тельный залог). ИЛИ: Ферме­
рам объяснили новый метод
возделывания, (неопределен­
но-личная форма).
4. Глаголы, после которых следует косвенное дополнен
предлога, но при переводе на русский язык они всегда уп<
ляются с предлогом. Перевод на русский язык английских
ложений с этими глаголами в страдательном залоге всегда
нают с соответствующего предлога.

to affect smb/smth влиять на кого-л./что-л.

to answer smth отвечать на что-л.
to approach smb/smth приближаться к кому-л./чему-л.
to consult smb консультироваться у кого-л./с кем -л
to follow smb/smth следовать за кем-л./чем-л.
to influence smb/smth влиять на кого-л./что-л.
to join smb/smth присоединяться к кому-л./чему-л.
to need smb/smth нуждаться в ком-л./чем-л.
to watch smb/smth наблюдать за кем-л./чем-л.

Examples’.
The quality of cow’s milk is На качество коровьего молока
influenced by the composition влияет состав корма,
of the diet. *
The achievements in the field За достижениями в области пи-
of animal nutrition are тания животных следует уве-
followed by the increase личение продуктивности жи-
in animal productivity. вотных.
1. Use the correct form of the verb in brackets in the passive voice.
Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. The new edition of a textbook on animal husbandry (to ask ) for
by the students now. 2. The question how to influence the animal
productivity at the genetic level (not/to answer) yet. 3. The plan for the
reconstruction of the cowshed (to insist) on at the meeting tomorrow.
4. The professor’s lecture (to listen) to with great attention by the
students yesterday. 5. Calves (to look) after properly, so they grew
rapidly. 6. The programme for the future scientific conference (not/to
object) to by the members of the organisation committee. 7. Sometimes
water (to refer) to as the most essential substance for normal growth and
metabolism. 8. The data (to rely) on at the moment as the analyses (to
make) carefully recently. 9. The latest discoveries in the field of physiology
(to speak) much of by the scientists at the conference. 10. ... the
veterinarian (to send) for yet? 11. The feeding ration for the sick horse
(to agree) on with a veterinarian last week. 12. Many foreign guests
48
already (to invite) to take part in the agricultural exhibition. 13. The
central role of ATP in energy metabolism (to explain) by Fritz Albert
Lipmann and Herman Kalckar in 1941. 14. Human health greatly (to
affect) by the quality of food which (to consum e). 15. Animal
physiological characteristics (to influence) by nutrition in many ways.
16. Calcium (to need) in feeding rations for poultry as it plays an
important role in the formation of eggshells. 17. The introduction of
mechanisation in agriculture (to fo llo w ) by the increase in food
production.

Инфинитив в функции обстоятельства цели

(The infinitive o f purpose)
Инфинитив (или инфинитивная группа, т. е. инфинитив с
уточняющими его словами), в начале предложения может выпол­
нять функцию обстоятельства цели. Такой инфинитив часто вво­
дится союзом in order чтобы, для того чтобы.
Example :
In order to increase the milk Чтобы (Для того чтобы) повы-
yields the farmer provided сить удои молока, фермер
cows with highly nutritious обеспечил коров высокопита-
feeds. тельными кормами.
Союз in order часто опускается, и предложение начинается
сразу с инфинитива, причем при переводе на русский язык перед
инфинитивом добавляется союз чтобы.
Example :
То understand animal require- Чтобы понять потребности жи-
ments in nutrients, scientists вотных в питательных веще-
began to study the problems ствах, ученые начали изучать
of animal nutrition. проблемы питания животных.
Инфинитив в функции обстоятельства цели может находить­
ся не только в начале предложения, но и после дополнения или
обстоятельства, причем союз in order и в этом случае часто опус­
кается.
Example :
Farmers follow an optimal bal- Фермеры следуют оптимальному
ance of nutrients in animals’ соотношению питательных ве-
rations to provide them with ществ в рационе животных для
all the necessary substances. того, чтобы обеспечить их
всеми необходимыми веще­
ствами.

49
2. Change the sentences as in the model.
M odel' Scientists study metabolism processes as they want to
’ improve animal feeding. -> 1) Scientists study metabolism
processes to improve animal feeding. 2) Scientists study
metabolism processes in order to improve animal feeding.
1 Students study farm animal physiology as they want to become vets
and cure farm animals. 2. Scientists are interested in breeding because
they want to improve some animal characteristics. 3. Farmers provide
animals with highly nutritious feeds as they want to increase milk and
meat quality. 4. The most important vitamins are added to the animals’
rations as they are necessary to ensure proper growth and development.
5. In some cases farmers do not increase their production as they want
to maintain high prices in the food market. 6. It is essential to develop
the agricultural sector as it supplies raw materials for other sectors of
the economy. 7. This farmer does not want to sell fresh milk as he wants
to process it into cheese and other milk products. 8. Scientists have made
the chemical analyses of different animal feeds because they want to
estimate their nutritional value. о^

П редложения типа
« It is + прилагательное + инфинитив»
( “I t is + adjective + infinitive”)
Безличные предложения типа It is necessary to improve явля­
ются разновидностью именных безличных предложений и пока­
зывают отношение, мнение говорящего о действии, выраженном
инфинитивом, следующим за прилагательным. * V

Example: . )STj
It is necessary to improve Необходимо улучшить питание
animal nutrition. животных.

Когда говорящий указывает лицо, которое выполняет действие,

выраженное инфинитивом, то употребляется оборот с предлогом
for. 14
Example: | | ^ tшшШк-
It is important for farmers Для фермеров важно обеспечи-
to provide animals with high- вать животных высококаче-
quality feeds. ственными кормами.

В таких предложениях наиболее часто употребляются прила­

гательные: difficult, easy, possible, impossible, necessary, essential,
desirable и др. » v •••<;-

50
3. Make up sentences as in the model.
Model: It is difficult to study life processes in farm animals.

A В С
difficult to maintain balance between nutrients.
possible to develop animal nutrition research.
It is (not) important to know optimal feeding rations.
necessary to improve animal feeding.
essential to study life processes in farm animals.
interesting to classify nutrients into groups.
4. Read and translate the text. Find in the text the sentences:
— in the passive voice;
— with the infinitive of purpose;
— with the word as and its combinations;
— with the construction “It is + adjective + infinitive”.

AN IM A L N U TR ITIO N
Since animal nutrition research began to develop rapidly during the
1930s, many discoveries about anim al m etabolism and nutrient
requirements have been made. Nutrition is interpreted as the study of
the organic process by which an organism assimilates1and uses food and
liquids2 for normal functioning. Adequate nutrition for any living
organism is necessary for the following reasons: 1) in order to provide
adequate energy levels; 2) to maintain proper body structures and
processes, for instance, muscle function, immune protection, bone
density3 and strength; 3) to ensure the repair and development of all
the organism’s systems, thus to maintain balance between health and
disease. In the case of farm animals, proper nutrition is affected by
various factors, such as animal species and breed, animal age, body
shape and size and other physiological characteristics. The lack of or
deficiency in any nutrient may cause animal weakness and even illness.
A nutrient is any element or compound which is necessary for an
organism’s metabolism, growth, development or other functions. It is
essential to provide farm animals with adequate amounts of nutrients
which they get from various feeds. In general, animals require the same
nutrients as humans. There are six basic nutrients which are important
for animals’ health and they are classified into the two main groups:
1) substances that provide eneigy; 2) substances that support metabolism.
The former group includes carbohydrates, proteins and fats, the latter
comprises minerals (for instance, phosphorus, calcium), vitamins and
water.
It has been found that any particular substance can play more than
one role in the body. For example, most animals get energy from

51
carbohydrates and fats, which are oxidised in the body. However, protein
supplies energy if other sources are inadequate or if it is supplied in great
excess above the requirements of the body. MorsoVcr, proteins provide
the building blocks (amino acids) for enzymes and other proteins
within the body. Thus, for most living organisms nutrients provide not
only the energy necessary for certain vital processes but also the various
materials from which all structural and functional components can be
made up. " * *
On the one hand, there are so-called non-essential nutrients which
are synthesised by the cell if they are unavailable to the living organism
with the food or feed. On the other hand, there are essential nutrients
which cannot be manufactured within the cell in the body. Consequently,
it is important to supply farm animals with feeds which contain certain
essential amino acids as well as essential fatty acids.
The problem of proper feed supply is of great importance to animal
husbandry. Thus, various animal feeds are grown or developed for
livestock and poultry, selected and prepared in order to provide highly
nutritional diets that both maintain the health o f the animals and
increase the quality of such farm products as meat, milk, or eggs.
Scientists have studied the usefulness of different feeds as sources
of essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals, as well as lipids and
carbohydrates. They also have suggested the proper balance of available
nutrients in the animal diet and as a result different nutrient supplements
and feed-processing technologies4 have been developed. Since the
1950s, antibiotics and other growth stimulants have been added to
feeding rations in order to increase the rate of growth and reduce death
loss of farm animals. Antibiotics help to overcom e5 the growth-
depressing effects of an inadequate and poor-quality diet or of imperfect
management practices6, but their effectiveness differs among animal
species. -Л'
The achievements of animal physiology and special studies of life
processes in farm animals have ensured the development of the optimal
diet for each animal. Many of the feeds have appeared as the result of
research, experimentation, and chemical analyses which were conducted
by animal scientists. However, the problem of adequate animal nutrition
is still the subject of current studies for farm scientists. Human nutrition
has been improved as a result of animal nutrition investigations.

COMMENTS
1. to assimilate [a'simileit] — зд. поглощать, усваивать
2. liquid [’likwid] — жидкость
3. bone density [Ъәоп 'densrti] — плотность кости
4. feed-processing technologies — технологии по переработке корма
5. to overcome — преодолеть
6. management practices — способы содержания животных
52
 E X E R C IS E S TO T H E TEXT

5. Answer the questions.

1. Which problems does animal nutrition deal with?
2. What stimulated the development of animal nutrition research?
3. What characteristics influence proper nutrition?
4. What is the definition of the term “nutrient”?
5. What is the most general classification of nutrients?
6. What is the use of nutrients for animals’ health?
7. What is the difference between essential and non-essential nutrients?
8. What scientific discoveries are of practical value to farmers?
Think and say.
1. Are there any similarities or differences in human and animal nutrition?
2. How can human nutrition benefit from the knowledge that has
come from the animal nutrition research?
6. Use the information from the text to complete the sentences.
1. On the one hand, proteins are important as.... On the other hand,
they are... . 2. Carbohydrates as well as fats are substances that provide
organisms... . 3. Non-essential amino acids are as important for living
organisms a s.... 4. It is essential to know.... 5. For some animal species
antibiotics are not so... as... . 6. As to the achievements in animal
physiology scientists have already... . 7. In order to increase animal
productivity it is necessary to provide their animals with as... as possible.
8. Inadequate nutrition affects such animal physiological characteristics
as.... 9. Water is often referred to as.... 10. The improvements in animal
nutrition have been followed by... . 11. Thus, the problem of proper
animal nutrition is... . 12. It is vital to provide animals with... .
7. a) Use the data from the text to complete the scheme (Fig. 3) that
shows the possible classification of nutrients. Add the names of
chemical substances and compounds, if you know.

Nutrients
........................ I .........................

I
Group I Group II

Water
‘—[ Amino Acids ]
Essential
—{Non-essential

Fig. 3. Classification of nutrients

53
 b) Use the scheme to make a report on the topic “The Classification
of Nutrients”.

USEFUL LANGUAGE
The scheme shows; to be classified into; to be divided (in/into); to be
subdivided (in/into); to be further subdivided (in/into); to be separated
(into); to be grouped into; to include; to be included

8. Find in the text “Animal Nutrition’ : • M;f ”

a) nouns with the suffixes -tion, -ment, -ness. Put them into the table
and add some more examples.

-tion -ment -ness

function 9
•
9
•

b) the negative form of the following adjectives:

adequate, available, essential, perfect.
Write the negative form of the adjectives with the prefixes im-, in-,
un-, non-. Use a dictionary if necessary.
important, current, usual, organic, proper, necessary, certain,
possible, nutritional, suitable, ruminant. u j

im- ІП- un- non-

9
•
9
•
9
•
9
•

A D D IT IO N A L E X E R C IS E S

9. Fill the gaps with the correct form of the verb. (There may be more than
one variant.) Translate the sentences into Russian.
to affect, to compose, to comprise, to consist, to consume, to
contain, to ensure, to involve, to manufacture, to supply, to support.
1. Very small amounts of the unsaturated fatty acid linoleic (лино-
левая кислот а)... in some fats, but they are necessary for growth and
health. 2. A particular ration greatly ... by the feed cost (стоимость)
and its supply. 3. Together with oils, fats... one of the three main classes
of foodstuffs. 4. The biologically active fatty acids are referred to as the
prostaglandins and they... in very small quantities in animal tissues, but
they ... in many vital functions, such as enzyme activity in lipid
metabolism, function of the central nervous system, regulation of blood
pressure etc. 5. As a substance, water ... of such chemical elements as
hydrogen and oxygen and it exists in gaseous, liquid, and solid states.
54
6. N onrum inant animals as well as man ... proteins mainly from
animals and their products, that is, meat, milk, and eggs. 7. Enzymes
are substances that act as catalysts in living organisms and ... the rate of
biological processes within all living organisms. 8. Plants use the carbon
dioxide in the air during the process of photosynthesis in order ...
organic compounds such as carbohydrates. 9. Water is vital to life as it
... every process in living organisms. 10. It has been calculated that 6 mg
of carotene ... adults (взрослых) with the necessary amount of vita­
min A.
10. Translate into English.
1. На удои молока повлияло изменение в условиях содержания
коров. 2. На здоровье животных сильно влияет питательная цен­
ность кормов. 3. На таблицу по питательной ценности различных
кормов часто ссылаются. 4. Из-за недостатка микроэлементов и
витаминов в рационах кормления у животных появляются серь­
езные заболевания (букв, «за недостатком... следуют...»). 5. На пи­
тательных добавках настаивает сейчас ветеринар. 6. На все воп­
росы фермера ответили. 7. За ветеринаром уже послали. 8. На до­
ступность пастбищных трав в течение всего года не полагаются
в северных регионах.
11. Give the English equivalents of the Russian verbs in brackets.
1. Energy value, mineral elements, and vitamins (включены) in the
(содержит)
growth
(включает)
structural analyses of the organic compounds that (составляют) the
basic components of cells such as proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids as
hormones)
chemical
oxygen
water molecule (состоит из) two hydrogen atoms, each is linked by
oxygen
with
a s... as; so ... as; both ... and; either ...or, neither..: nor, such ...as
I . ... repair... development of most animal organs is possible without
proper protein supply. 2. Protein is n o t... important in energy supply ...
carbohydrates and fats. 3. Specialists take into account ... quality ...
Farmers
much water growth
activity in animal bodies. 5. ... amino acids ... arginine and methionine
are referred to essential amino acids. 6. The vitamins are required in
small amounts because they may play one of the two main functions:
... a catalytic ... a regulatory role in metabolism.
55
 b) ҒШ the gaps with the suitable word(s):
than', as', as well', as well as (2)', such as, as to (2 ).
1. ... our knowledge in animal nutrition increases, more nutritive
feeding rations are provided for animals. 2. Fats ... carbohydrates are
the substances which provide animals with energy. 3. When animal
requirements in energy are satisfied, the excess is stored ... body fat.
4. Various salts or io n s c o p p e r and iron are referred to minerals. 5. When
a farmer plans feeding rations for his animals, he considers the amount
of feed ... its chemical composition. 6. Essential amino acids are not
synthesised in the body, but there are some essential fatty acids.... 7. The
contribution of the German scientists to animal physiology in the 19th
century was much greater ... of the Russian researchers. 8. ... energy, it
can be supplied by different substances, however, protein is the least
important source of energy. i; ^
13. Use the correct form of the verb in brackets in the passive voice.
Translate the sentences into Russian. , | ' r?
1. Small amounts of iodine ( to need) by animals for proper growth.
2. The farmer just (to offer) to invite the veterinarian in order to examine
his animals. 3. Any changes in animal feeding (to agree) on with the
vet tomorrow. 4. Yesterday the specialist in animal nutrition (to ask) to
give some recommendations and he (to listen) to with great attention.
5. The young farmer already (to give) some advice how to look after the
animals during the winter period. 6. The farmer (to explain) the reasons
of possible animal digestive troubles. 7. The symptoms of the vitamin A
deficiency in calves’ rations (to describe) in books on animal nutrition.
8. The results of the chemical analysis of feeds (not/to show) to the
specialists yet. 9. At the moment the plan for farm reconstruction (not/
object) to. ,“r>. ' _
14. Complete the sentences using the infinitive of purpose.
Model. Many animals require some fat which contains one or more
of the essential fatty acids ... (to prevent). —» Many animals
require some fat which contains one or more of the essential
fatty acids (in order) to prevent such physical symptoms
of essential fatty-acid deficiency as poor hair growth,
low growth rates etc.
І. Farmers spread manure in the fields ... (to increase). 2. Animals
which work hard in a cold environment require high fat levels in their
diets... (to maintain). 3. Different crops such as corn or wheat are grown
on this cattle farm ... (to supply). 4. People began to domesticate some
animals ... (toproduce). 5. Scientists are interested in better understan­
ding of such physiological processes as lactation... (to influence). 6. Some
calcium is added to animals’ rations... (to ensure). 7. Mineral supplements
are essential in animal d ie t... (to support). 8. Scientists devoted great
56
efforts... (to investigate). 9. Pavlov concentrated on studying the normal,
healthy animal in natural conditions ... (to develop). 10. Much time and
money are spent on breeding programmes ... (to improve).
15. Translate into English.
a) обеспечивать незаменимыми аминокислотами; переварива­
емые углеводы; требовать (нуждаться в) заменимых жиров(-ах);
доступные (имеющиеся в наличии) питательные добавки; поддер­
живать правильное развитие; тот же самый корм (такая же пища);
избыток липидов; жизненно важные белки; содержать питатель­
ные вещества; способствовать росту; потреблять корма; улучшать
структуру; полезность кормовых добавок; первые из упомянутых
ранее соединений; восстанавливать ткани; влиять на качество;
производить высококачественные корма; состоять из аминокис­
лот; включать в питание минеральные вещества; содержать (вклю­
чать) различные витамины
b) 1. Различные исследования по питательной ценности кор­
мов проводятся во многих лабораториях во всем мире для того,
чтобы улучшить кормление сельскохозяйственных животных. 2. На
рост, развитие и восстановление всех органов животного влияет
качество корма, которое животное потребляет. 3. На экзамене
студентов спрашивали о значении и структуре таких сложных
органических соединений, как белки, углеводы и жиры. 4. Хотя
минеральные вещества и витамины требуются в рационе для жи­
вотных в меньших количествах, чем основные питательные веще­
ства, однако, они так же важны для процессов метаболизма. 5. За
достижениями в области органической химии последовало широ­
кое применение питательных добавок в животноводстве.

EX ER C ISES FOR PAIR WORK

16. Make up a dialogue between a farmer and a specialist in animal

nutrition.
Student A is a farmer, who bought some dairy cattle in June and kept
them on pasture during the summer season. In autumn, animals were
moved into a cowshed and now they are fed some concentrates. The milk
yields have fallen and some animals have become sick. The farmer asks
a specialist in animal nutrition for some recommendations.
Student В is a specialist in animal nutrition. He is going to give the
farmer some recommendations. He explains that the changes in cow
management have influenced their health and milk yields. Furthermore,
the nutritional value of pasture grasses and concentrates is different. He
refers to special tables on the nutritional value of feeds and recommends
to add some vitamins and minerals to the diet as well as to invite a vet
to examine the sick animals.

57
 USEFUL LANGUA GE
Asking for advice:
I would (I’d) like to ask you about...; I would like to know some details
about...; What I would (I’d) like to know is..,; What I really need to know
is...; Can/Could you tell me something about...; Could you explain how/
when/what...; Can you give me some information about... .
Giving advice:
You should...; Maybe you should...; I would recommend you to...; I would
advise you to...; I think you should...; It is worth doing smth; You
mustn’t.../needn’t...; It is not necessary to... . Ш

SUPPLEM ENTARY TEXTS

17. Read and translate the text. Use a dictionary if necessary.

T ext 1
THE ROLE OF PROTEINS IN ANIMAL NUTRITION
All animals require small amounts of protein for the daily repair of
muscles, internal organs, and other body tissues. For young animals,
protein is required for growth of the muscles and other parts of the body.
As milk, eggs, and wool contain much protein, additional amounts are
necessary in the food of such animals as cattle, sheep and poultry.
Proteins are composed of more than twenty different amino acids,
which are liberated during digestion. Farm animals with simple stomachs,
for instance, swine, poultry, rabbits, and mink, require adequate amounts
of the following ten essential amino acids daily: arginine, histidine,
isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine,
trytophan, and valine. In addition to these amino acids, poultry require
glycine and glutamic acid for growth. и#~,щ*!"'-.
High-quality protein contains correct amounts of the essential amino
acids and it is supplied by eggs, milk, fish meal, meat by-products, and
soybean meal. Poor-quality protein is found in com grain and it contains
too little of one or more essential amino acids. Animal feeds which
contain poor-quality proteins are usually mixed with other feeds or
nutrient supplements that supply the lacking amino acids.
The quality of the protein in the food is of little importance to
ruminants, including cattle, sheep, goats, and the other animals that
have four stomachs, because the bacteria that aid in the digestion of food
in the rumen (first stomach) use simple nitrogen compounds to build
proteins in their cells. Further on in the digestive tract the animals digest
the bacteria. Thus, ruminants produce high-quality protein from a food
that may originally contain poor protein, or from urea (a nitrogen
compound). However, very young ruminants, such as calves, lambs,
require good-quality protein until the rumen develops sufficiently for
this bacterial process.
b) Use the information from the text to complete the sentences:
1. Small amounts of protein are required by all living organisms in
their diet every day in order to .... 2. Young animals such as calves, lambs
and pigs need protein in order to .... 3. Chicken, geese and ducks require
protein supplements in their rations in order to .... 4. Farmers add certain
amino acids to poultry feeds in order to .... 5. Com grain which is used
as feed for animals is mixed with other feeds in order to... . 6. Special
bacteria in a ruminant stomach use some simple nitrogen compounds
in order to ....
18. a) Read and translate the text. Use a dictionary if necessary. Before
reading the text try to find the Russian equivalents of the names
of the following chemical elements, substances and compounds:
calcium carbonate, cobalt, copper, defluorinated phosphates,
dicalcium phosphate, haem oglobin, iodine, iron, m agnesium ,
manganese, molybdenum, oxygen, pigment, potassium, selenium,
sodium chloride, sulphur, thyroxine, zinc, zinc carbonate

T ext 2
MINERALS

Minerals essential for animal life include common salt (sodium

chloride), calcium, phosphorus, sulphur, potassium, magnesium,
manganese, iron, copper, cobalt, iodine, zinc, molybdenum, and
selenium. The last six of these are poisonous to animals if excessive
amounts are eaten.
All farm animals generally need more common salt than is contained
in their feeds, so they are supplied with it regularly and should have free
access to it at any time.
Of the other essential minerals, phosphorus and calcium are the most
important, because they are required to produce bones, milk, and egg
shells. Moreover, the latter are nearly pure calcium carbonate. Good
phosphorus supplements are bone meal, dicalcium phosphate, and
defluorinated phosphates. Calcium may readily be supplied by ground
limestone, ground shells1, or marl2 that is high in calcium. To provide
livestock with both calcium and phosphorus a farmer may allow animals
to have free access to such a mixture as 60 per cent dicalcium phosphate
and 40 per cent common salt.
Small amounts of iodine are needed by animals for the formation of
thyroxine, a compound containing iodine. The latter is usually secreted
59
by the thyroid gland3 in the organism. A serious deficiency of iodine may
cause goitre4, a disease in which the thyroid gland enlarges greatly. In
certain regions goitre has caused heavy losses of newborn pigs, lambs,
kids, calves, and foals. Goitre can be prevented by supplying small
amounts of iodised salt to the mother before the young are bom.
In some areas, soil and forage are deficient in copper and cobalt,
which are needed along with iron for the formation of haemoglobin. In
these areas, farm animals may suffer from anaemia5 if the deficiency is
not corrected. н; i« i i |
Iron, used in haemoglobin formation, is abundantly supplied in most
animal feeds, except milk. The only practical problem with iron
deficiency occurs in young suckling pigs before they start to consume
other feeds in addition to milk.
Manganese is essential for animals, but the usual rations for all farm
animals, except poultry, supply sufficient quantities of this element. A lack
of manganese may cause the nutritional disease of chicks and young
turkeys called slipped tendon6 and also may cause failure of eggs to
hatch. Normal rations for swine are often deficient in zinc, especially
in the presence of excess calcium. Adding 100 parts per million of zinc
carbonate cures zinc-deficiency symptoms, which include slower growth
rate and severe scaliness and cracking7 of the skin. A trace of selenium
is necessary for normal health of animals; excessive amounts found in
forages in some regions poison animals and may cause death. Very small
amounts of mineralised salt are used when copper or cobalt may be
required by animals.

COMMENTS
1. ground limestone/shells известняк/скорлупа
2. marl [mcd] — известняк
3. thyroid gland ['0airaid 'glaend] идная
4. goitre Foarta] зоб
5. anaemia ta'ni гшэ] анемия, малокровие
6. slipped tendon — смещение сухожилия
7. scaliness and cracking — чешуйчатость

b) Complete the table and use it to make an oral presentation about

the role of minerals in animal nutrition.

Mineral The significance of the mineral The source of the mineral

Calcium for animal bones; egg shell; ground limestone, ground
milk production... shells, marl...

19. Use the following table to make a report on the role of vitamins
in animal nutrition: "'т' ^ '

60
 The importance of vitamin
Vitamin for animal’s health The source of vitamin
Vitamin A growth, reproduction, milk animals may convert carotene
production, resistance to into vitamin A;
respiratory infections green-growing grasses are rich
in carotene
Vitamin D enables animals to use calcium the ultraviolet rays of sunlight
and phosphorus; a deficiency produce vitamin D from the
causes rachitis (рахит) in provitamin in the skin; feeding
young growing animals hay crops; certain fish oils
Vitamin E for normal hatching of eggs; in certain plant oils and the
in preventing muscle stiffness leaves of green vegetables
and dystrophy (дистрофия)
in lambs, calves, and chicks
Vitamins B: less important for ruminant the bacteria in the rumen
thiamine, animals; but very young synthesise these vitamins
riboflavin, calves, poultry, swine, and
niacin, bio­ other simple-stomached
tin, panto­ animals require the В vita­
thenic acid, mins in their diets
choline,
folic acid,
И ®12
Vitamin С unimportant for animals, but can be synthesized in the
prevents scurvy (цинга) in bodies of other animals
humans and guinea pigs
Vitamin К usually unimportant is synthesized by bacteria in
the intestinal tract (кишеч­
ный тракт)
Search the following website for additional information:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin

USEFUL LANGUA GE
The theme of my report is...; I’m going to present you some data on...; In
the first place I would like to say...; It is important...; The same problems
arise when...; Now let’s take the facts...; In that case...; It is a well-known
fact...; Another reason why...; To sum up... . 7 r 1: -

20. Search the websites for more information on the role of carbohydrates
and fats in animal nutrition and prepare an oral report about it.
1. http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/carbohydrates.dtl
2. http://www.all -science - fair- proj ects. com/
3. http://www.agrsci.org/ — Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences.
 Unit 4
ANIMAL FEEDS

Vocabulary and Grammar:

1. Употребление существительных amount, number, quantity.
2. Вопросительные предложения в различных временах в действи­
тельном и страдательном залогах.
3. Степени сравнения прилагательных и наречий.
4. Употребление слов most, much.
5. Придаточные предложения сравнения.
6. Числительные: правила чтения чисел.

VOCABULARY ТО THE TEXT “ANIM AL FEEDS”

Nouns: amount, barley, beet (sugar beet), by-product, cake, cereal,

composition, concentrate, content, fibre, fodder, forage (crops), grain,
hay, improvement, legume, m atter (dry m atter), meal, measure,
moisture, number, oats, processing, root crop (roots), roughage, rye,
sorghum, soybean, storage, straw, succulent, wheat.
Adjectives and adverbs: bulky, cereal, comparative, complete
(ration), digestible, palatable, relative(ly), reliable, total.
Verbs: determine, evaluate, obtain, process, purchase, remain,
satisfy, vary (in/with/from ... to). ? J
Other parts o f speech and word-combinations: according to,
to be rich/high in smth; to be low in smth.

Give the Russian equivalents of the international words and scientific

terms from the text “Animal Feeds”: . ..-n
clover ['klauva], commercial [кэ'тз:/1], economic [,i:ka'nnmik], to
economise [I'konamaiz], ingredient [irigiidiant], maize [meiz], to operate
['npareit], to optimise ['Dptimaiz], producer [pra'dju:sa], programming
['prau.graemig], ration ['raef(a)n], season ['si:zn], to select [si'lekt], silage
['sailicfc], specific [spi'sifik) , , a rj>a

Употребление существительных
amount, number, quantity
amount — сумма, количество чего-л.; употребляется, в основ­
ном, с неисчисляемыми существительными. С исчисляемыми су­
62
ществительными оно употребляется, только когда речь идет о
большой общей сумме предметов, образующих целое.
number — 1) номер (для различения и подсчета предметов);
2) количество, число; употребляется с исчисляемыми существи­
тельными
a number of — ряд, несколько, причем после такого словосо­
четания глагол стоит во множественном числе; A number of
elements are known as microelements; syn a variety of
quantity — количество; употребляется с исчисляемыми и не­
исчисляемыми существительными, но в отличие от number, суще­
ствительное quantity употребляется с существительными, количе­
ство которых может быть выражено в весе или объеме
Examples:
amount of energy/protein/iodine/milk/feed — количество энергии/
белка/йода/молока/корма (и др. неисчисл. сущ.); the cow registration
number — регистрационный номер коровы; small quantities of feed
supplements — небольшие количества добавок к кормам

GRAM M AR R EV ISIO N
AND PRETEXT EXERCISES

Вопросительные предложения в различных временах

в действительном и страдательном залогах
(Interrogative sentences in different tenses
in the active and passive voices)
В английском языке вопросительные предложения отличают­
ся от повествовательных не только вопросительной интонацией,
но и порядком слов. Обычно вспомогательный или модальный
глагол, входящий в состав сказуемого, ставится в начале предло­
жения перед подлежащим. Если в состав сказуемого входят два
или три вспомогательных глагола, то только первый из них ста­
вится перед подлежащим.
Выделяют следующие основные типы вопросов:
1. Общие вопросы (general questions) — требуют краткого утвер­
дительного или отрицательного ответа.
2. Специальные вопросы (special questions) — начинаются с
вопросительного слова (who, what, whose, how, when, where,
why), далее порядок слов такой же как в общих вопросах.
3. Вопросы к подлежащему (questions to the subject) — начина­
ются с вопросительных местоимений who (для одушевленных су­
ществительных); what (для неодушевленных).

63
 4. Альтернативные вопросы (alternative questions) — являются
по форме общими вопросами, но содержат союз или (ог), и по­
этому требуют полного ответа, как специальные вопросы.
5. Разделительные (расчлененные) вопросы (disjunctive or tag
questions) — утвердительное или отрицательное повествователь­
ное предложение с присоединенным кратким общим вопросом.

Общие и специальные вопросы в действительном залоге

(General and special questions in the active voice)

Вопроси­ Вспомога­ Подлежащее

тельное слово тельный глагол (выражено
What/When/ do/does/did/ обычно Время
существи­ Смысловой
Where/Why/ is/are/have/ в англий­
глагол
How (для has/will/shall тельным ском языке
специальных (зависит или место­
вопросов) от времени) имением)
Why do/does/did they/a farmer grow com? Present
a scientist/ Simple
Where is/are he/they conducting the Present
experiments? Progressive
Who (Whom) has/have the vet/you examined/seen Present
today? Perfect
When will the cattle/ get some Future
the calf minerals? Simple

цие и специальные вопросы в страдательном залоге

(General and special questions in the passive voice)

Вопроси­ Причастие II
тельное слово Подлежащее или второй
What/ WhenI Вспомога­ (выражено обычно вспомогатель­ Время
Where/ Why/ тельный существительным ный глагол в англий­
How (для глагол или местоиме­ + ском языке
специальных нием) Причастие II
вопросов)
When is/are the cow/ fed/m ilked? Present
the animals Simple
Where was/were the com/crops grow n/ Past
cultivated? Simple
Why is/are calcium/vitamins being added Present
to the diet? Progressive
How has/have nutritional values been Present
calculated? Perfect
Why will the vet/they be sent for? Future
Simple

64
 Вопросы к подлежащему в действительном
и страдательном залогах
(Questions to the subject in the active and passive voices)

Who studies biology? (Present Simple)

(для grew wheat last season? (Past Simple)
одушевленных is studying metabolism now? (Present Progressive)
существительных) has bred this crop variety? (Present Perfect)
will make a report next week? (Future Simple)
What is grown on this farm?
(для was produced last year?
неодушевленных is being built now?
существительных) has been improved since 2004?
will be discussed next time?

Альтернативные вопросы
в действительном и страдательном залогах
(Alternative questions In the active and passive voices)
Examples'.
Do the farmers grow wheat or com?
Does the farmer or the scientist develop new breeds?
Did they cultivate the field last week or yesterday?
Are the milk yields increasing or falling on the farm now?
Has the professor finished his lecture or not?
Will they apply fertilisers on this field next week or tomorrow?
Are fertilizers spread in spring or in autumn?
Was the theory developed by Russian or foreign animal scientists?
Are the cows or sheep being milked now?
Has this breed been improved by farmers or scientists?
Will the conference be held next year or in a year?

Разделительные вопросы в действительном

и страдательном залогах
(Disjunctive questions in the active and passive voices)

Farmers don’t they?*

These ai aren’t they?
farmer didn’t he?
A new sheep-pen was built a month ago, wasn’t it?
examination aren’t they?
examination isn’t it?

* На русский язык краткий общий вопрос переводится словами: не правда

ли? не так ли ?
3 Комарова 65
The researcher has finished the necessary tests, hasn't he?
The tests have been finished by the researcher, haven’t they?
The vet will examine a sick animal tomorrow, won’t he?
A sick animal will be examined by the vet tomorrow, won’t it?
Farmers
. 4 _
___
___
___
_W M t l f p r
do they?
A new sheep-pen wasn’t built a month ago, was it?
The students aren’t having practice on a farm now, are they?
The tests haven’t been finished by the researcher, have they?
The vet won’t examine a sick animal tomorrow, will he?

Косвенные вопросы
(Indirect questions)
Такие вопросы считаются более вежливой формой обращения
нужно начать беседу или задать
человеку
дующих выражении
Do you think ]ы думаете
Do you know 'ы знаете
Do you have any idea 'ы знаете
Do you happen to know — Вы случайно
Could you tell me — He могли бы вы мі
Could you possibly tell me Может
затъ
know — Я хотел(а ) бы знать
ronder if you could tell me/help Интересно
вы сказать мне (помочь мне)
What время
(считаете)
Do you mind telling me — He
Would you mind showing me He
Далее порядок слов в косвенных вопросах такой же, как в утвер­
дительных предложениях, при этом вопросительное слово (what/
where/when) употребляется как союз, а в случае общих вопросов
требуется частица ли, которой в английском языке соответству­
ют слова if или whether.
Examples:
Where is the conference hall? I’d like to know where the
conference hall is.
Why has the vet been sent fori Do you happen to know why
the vet has been sent fori
Could you help me with the I wonder if/whether you could
translation of this article? help me with the translation of
this article.
66
Do you know any new nutritive I’d like to know if/whether you
supplements to animal feeds? know any new nutritive
supplements to animal feeds.
1. Make up questions, then change them into indirect questions using
different polite phrases.
Model: These farmers raise only beef cattle, (general question) -»
Do they raise only beef cattle? —| Do you know if they raise
only beef cattle?
1. The students study inoiganic chemistry at the first course, (who)
2. High milk yields were obtained last year, (general question) 3. The
farmers are working in the field now. (where) 4. My friend is planning to
make a report at the conference, (what report) 5. The article on animal
rations is being written for a monthly scientific journal at the moment.
(what article) 6. New crops will be grown on the farm next year, (when)
7 .1. P. Pavlov founded the Physiology Research Institute in St. Petersbuig.
(general question) 8. The structure of proteins has been studied better than
the structure of carbohydrates, (alternative question) 9. Scientists are going
to continue their research in the field of animal nutrition, (why)

Степени сравнения прилагательных и наречий

(The degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs)
Положительная степень Сравнительная степень Превосходная степень
прилагательного/ прилагательного/ прилагательного/
наречия наречия наречия
Прилагательные
из одного и двух слогов:
hot hotter the hottest
Наречия (обычно одно­
сложные):
hard harder hardest
early earlier earliest
Прилагательные и наре­
чия из двух и более слогов: the most/least
efficient more/less efficient efficient
quickly more/less quickly most/least quickly
Некоторые исключения
good better the best
bad worse the worst
far farther/further the farthest/furthest
many/much more the most
little less the least
well better the best
badly worse the worst

67
2. a) Give comparative and superlative forms of the following adjectives
and adverbs:
few high low, fast, different, easy, cheap, slowly, necessary, proper,
big, easily, important, reliable, essential, old, expensive, small, available,
heavily, valuable ’ * * - ?;г- *ЛНЬ ?
b) Use the correct form of the adjective or adverb in brackets.
I Mother’s milk is (good) feed for calves and lambs. Various milk
substitutes are (little desirable) for new-born animals. 2. The northern
regions of Russia are (little) suitable for crop farming than the central
regions. Thus, the farmers are interested in crop varieties that grow (fast)
and develop (good) under cold climatic conditions. 3. The mechaniza­
tion of agriculture in some African countries is (bad) than in Asian
countries. 4. It was (difficult) to cultivate this new field than the farmer
had thought, so he did his work very (slow). 5. Carbohydrates are
(essential) nutrients in the feeding rations of ruminants and some
herbivorous animals. 6. Nowadays farmers use (m odem ) machines than
five years ago and they can do many farm operations (easy). 7. Some
cattle breeds require (hot) climate for growth than others. 8. Farmers
were interested in (cheap) fertilisers of (high) quality. 9. In southern
parts of France, weather conditions are (favourable ) for grazing
throughout the year than in Scandinavian countries. 10. Food, shelter
and proper care are (necessary) requirements for growing farm animals.

Употребление слов m ost, much

most + прилагательное имеет значение «самый»
most + существительное имеет значение «большинство, большая
часть» '<• ,
most + of + артикль/указательное или притяжательное местоиме­
ние + существительное имеет значение «большинство»,
much + неисчисляемое существительное имеет значение «много»
much + сравнительная степень прилагательного имеет значение
«гораздо, значительно, намного»
3. Translate into Russian paying attention to the words most and much.
i. These are the most interesting experiments on metabolism which
have been carried out in our laboratory. 2. Comparative studies have
shown that neurosecretory cells are im portant in development and
regulatory functions of most animals. 3. Proteins usually contain about
20 different amino acids, but there are organisms that require none,
several, or most of them for growth. 4. Most of the time was spent on
the analysis of the physiological data. 5. Scientists spent much time on
these experiments. 6. The new cow breed is much more productive.
7. Calves grow much faster if they are provided with proper nutrition.
68
 Способы выражения сравнения
(Comparative constructions)
1. Сравнительная степень прилагательного + than переводится
как союз чем.
Example :
The quality of the protein in Качество белка в пище менее
the food is less important важно для жвачных живот-
to ruminants than scientists ных, чем ученые предполагали
thought before. ранее.
2. a) as + положительная степень прилагательного/наречия +
as — такой (так) же ... как.
Example'.
The problem of animal nutrition Проблема кормления животных
is as difficult as the problem такая же трудная, как про-
of human diet. блема питания человека.
b) twice/two times as + положительная степень прилагатель­
ного/наречия + as — в два раза по сравнению с ... .
Example:
Egg production rose twice Производство яиц выросло в два
as much as in 2005. раза no сравнению с 2005 годом.
цифрой) — всего лишь, только', as much
as/as т а лфрой) — целых, до.
Example:
Potatoes contain as little as Картофель содержит всего лишь
0.1 % of fat, but as much as 0,1% жира, но до (целых)
2.2 % of protein. 2,2 % белка.
3. (not) so + положительная степень прилагательного/наречия
+ as — (не) такой (т а к )... как.
Example:
The result текущих
riments in our laboratory тов в нашей лаборатории не
are not so interesting такие интересные, как
as the previous results. предыдущие результаты.

4. the + сравнительная степень прилагательного/наречия ... the

+ сравнительная степень прилагательного/наречия — чем ... тем.

69
Example :
The better farm animals are Чем животные лучше содержатся,
kept, the longer is their life тем продолжительнее период
productivity. их продуктивности.

4. Fill the gaps with as ... as, so ... as, the ... the, than. Choose the
correct form of adjective or adverb.
1. The contribution of the German scientists to animal physiology
at the beginning of the 19th century was much (great) ... of the Russian
researchers. 2. ... (good) animal physiological functions are studied, ...
(soon) scientists can control them for practical purposes. 3. The
nutritional value of this feed is n o t ... (high) ... farmers have expected.
4. Minerals are ... (important) to normal growth and development of
animals ... proteins.

Числительные: правила чтения чисел

(Numerals: reading different numbers)
В научной литературе часто приводятся какие-либо значения,
показатели, величины, поэтому обратите внимание на написание
и чтение числительных в английском языке,
figures — цифры (1, 2, 9)
numbers — числа (25, 137, 890)
even numbers — четные числа (8, 10, 36)
odd num bers — нечетные числа (31, 47)
positive/negative num bers — положительные/отрицательные
числа
whole numbers — целые числа *
cardinal numbers — количественные числительные
ordinal num bers — порядковые числительные (first, second,
third, fourth)
fractional num bers — десятичные числа
fractions — дроби
1. В английском языке в сложных числительных слова hundred
сотня, thousand тысяча и million миллион употребляются все­
гда в форме единственного числа, причем в числительных после
миллионов и тысяч ставится запятая. В британском варианте
английского языка после сотен необходимо произнести and, в аме­
риканском варианте союз опускается. > -
Examples: ,, _...
1,000 — one thousand (hens); 1,085 — a/o n e thousand and eighty-
five; 6,493 — six thousand four hundred a n d n in ety -th ree;
470,000 — four hundred and seventy thousand.
70
billion —1,000,000,000 (a thousand million) —миллиард (in the USA
system);
billion —1,000,000,000,000 (a million million) —биллион (in the old
British system);
BUT: hundreds of farms; thousands of hens.
2. В десятичных дробях после целых чисел ставится не запя­
тая, а точка, которая читается point [point].
Examples:
2.1А — two point seventy-four; 0.3 nought point three/oh point
three/zero point three/point three; 5.04 — five point oh four.
3. У простых дробей в числительном указывается количествен­
ное числительное, а в знаменателе — порядковое числительное.
Если числитель больше 1, то называют знаменатель во множе­
ственном числе.
Examples:
1/8 — an/one eighth (a is more usual than one);
1/4 — a/one quarter; 1/3 — a third; 1/2 — a half; 1/10 — a tenth;
3/4 — three quarters;
l3/» — a/one and three quarters; l l/ 2°ne and a half.
4. Проценты произносят с ударением на второй слог. Встреча­
ется как слитное написание percent, так и раздельное per cent
[ps'sent].
Examples:
50% or 50pc — fifty per cent; 27% — twenty-seven per cent; 0.5% —
a half of one per cent; 0.25% — a quarter of a percentage point;
10% pa — ten per cent per annum/by the year.
51 Соотношения/пропорции (ratios).
Example:
1:3 — one in three/a ratio of one to three.
5. Read the numerals in English:
69; 135; 421; 64,232; 50,010; 8,101,050; 90,600,000; 4.17; 98.11; 13.4;
49.5; 14.53; 2/5; 1/8; 3/7; 1/5; 9.33 %; 0.025%; 14.02%; 1:5; 1:20.
6. Read and translate the text. Find in the text:
— the sentences with the comparative constructions;
— the sentences with the construction “It is + adjective + infinitive”.

71
 ANIMAL FEEDS
Animal feeds include any feedstuff1 which is grown or developed for
livestock and poultry. The main aim of a farmer is to provide animals
with as highly nutritional diets as possible in order to maintain them
healthy and ensure the quality of such final animal products as meat,
milk, or eggs. Even today the problem of feeds is still a subject of study
for agricultural scientists.
Proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals and vitamins are known as the
basic nutrients that animals require for growth, reproduction, and good
health, but the amount of these substances varies greatly with the type
of feed. The first effort to evaluate feeds for animals on a comparative
basis was made by Albrecht Thaer (1752—1828), in Germany, who
developed “hay values”2 as measures of nutritive value of feeds. Tables
of the value of feeds and of the requirements of animals were first drawn
up3 in Germany; later they were used in other countries as well.
Present-day knowledge represents an expansion and further improve­
ment of these early efforts. The usual chemical analyses of feeds provide
information on the total amount of dry matter, protein, fat, fibre, and
ash4 contained in the feed. Energy value, mineral elements, and vitamins
are also determined; these values are included in complete tables of feed
composition. The better methods for chemical analyses of feeds are
developed, the more reliable data are obtained for calculating feeding
rations for animals.
Animal feeds are classified according to: 1) the origin, that is, plant
or animal origin of feeds; 2) the chemical composition, such as high-
protein, high-fibre, high-moisture etc; 3) the nutritional value, as
concentrates and bulky feeds.
Generally, animal feeds may be classified into two large groups:
concentrates and roughages. The former are higher in energy value than
the latter and are subdivided into the following types: 1) cereal grains
such as wheat, com (maize), oats, rye, barley and their by-products
which remain after grain has been processed for human use, 2) high-
protein oil meals or cakes from soybeans, sorghum, 3) by-products from
processing of sugar beets, 4) animal and fish by-products. Roughages
include such feeds as: 1) green roughages (clover, timothy, other pasture
grasses and legumes), 2) dry roughages or fodder (hays, straws); 3) silage,
4) root crops. Green forage grasses, silage and roots comprise a group
of succulent feeds which are high in moisture.
Concentrates are valuable in feeding all classes of animals as they have
a high food value relative to volume, that is, they are rich in both protein
and carbohydrates as well, they contain a number of microelements,
minerals and vitamins. Roughages are bulky feeds with high-fibre
content which is poorly digestible. Thus, they are fed in large quantities
to cattle and sheep but they are not suitable for feeding pigs. Succulents
are known as palatable feeds but contain a lot of water and have a laxative
72
 effect3. The younger the grass is, the higher it is in vitamins and minerals,
so farmers start grazing cattle and sheep as early in spring as possible.
The quality of silage and its nutritive value is greatly affected by a number
of factors such as the type of a forage crop, the plant age and storage
conditions. Roots are low in protein but high in carbohydrates and
moisture, so they are often used as supplements to hay and straw in order
to provide complete rations for cattle and sheep.
Feeds vary not only in the amount of nutrients but in costs6 from
season to season. Thus, it is important for a farmer to select feed
ingredients for complete rations as economically as possible. Nowadays
large-scale7 commercial livestock companies as well as small-scale7
producers widely use special computer programmes for selecting feed
mixtures that will satisfy the nutrient requirements of a specific type of
animal at a particular stage of development. The more palatable and
nutritious rations are provided for animals on the basis of the lower-cost
feeds, the higher profits8 a farmer can get.

.,lt COMMENTS
1. feedstuff — корм; кормовой продукт (syn: feed, fodder)
2. hay value — кормовая ценность сена
3. to draw up (a table) — составлять (таблицу)
4. ash [aefl — зола
5. laxative effect ['laeksativ iYekt] — слабительное действие
6. costs (pi) — издержки, затраты (на производство)
7. small-scale (large-scale) — небольшой (крупный)
8. profit ['profit] — прибыль

EXERCISES TO THE TEXT

7. a) Answer the questions:
1. What does the term “feed” include?
2. Have all the problems of animal feeds been solved?
3. What was used as the measure of the nutritive value of feeds at
the beginning of the 19th century?
4. How are feeds evaluated now?
5. How are feeds classified?
6. What are different feeds valuable for?
7. Are different types of feeds suitable for all kinds of animals?
8. What problems should any farmer consider in order to provide a
complete ration for his animals?
9. What are the advantages of large-scale feed companies?
10. How has the process of selecting complete rations for animals
been improved in recent decades?

73
I
 b) Change questions in (a) into indirect questions using polite phrases.
Model: I wonder what the term “feed” includes.
Think and say:
1. Which classification of feeds is used in Russia?
2. What forage crops are most widely grown in the central regions
of Russia? ' ' .....’
8. a) Use the text to complete the following sentences:
M odel: It is much more efficient to apply... —» It is much more
efficient to apply computers for calculating feeding
rations now.
1. It is essential to evaluate.... 2. It is important to improve.... 3. It i
possible to analyse... . 4. It is difficult to determine... . 5. It is easy to
process.... 6. It is impossible to satisfy.... 7. It is cheaper to purchase....
8. It is necessary to obtain... . 9. It is expensive to u se....
9. Use the text to fill the gaps with the suitable comparative constructions:
as ... as; not so ... as; the... the.
1. Chemical analyses were... developed in the 18th century... in the 19th
century. 2. Small-scale producers are often... efficient... large commercial
companies. 3.... richer animal rations are in succulents,... greater is the
problem of digestive troubles. 4. Root crops are ... palatable ... green
forage crops. 5. Concentrates are ... high in protein ... in carbohydrates.
6. Roughages are ... easily digestible ... concentrates. 7.... better is the
quality of feeds, ... higher is the animal productivity. 8. The cost of by­
products is ... high ... the cost of commercial feeds. 9. For ruminants
fibre i s ... im portant... protein in daily rations. 10.... more natural feeds
are consumed by animals, ... better they develop.
10. a) Find in the text six compound adjectives and translate them into
Russian.
M odel: high-yield — высокоудойный
b) Use the table to translate the following Russian word-combinations
into English:
низкокачественные продукты питания; низкотемпературная
зона; растение длинного дня; высокопроизводительная рабочая
сила; корма по низкой стоимости; высокоценные корма; ферма
больших размеров; краткосрочные планы; растение с мелкими
семенами; высокоурожайные культурные растения; поле с боль­
шой площадью; низкое содержание белка
Model: high + fat + feeds —| high-fat feeds — корма с высоким
содержанием жира
74
 Adjective Noun Noun Word-combination
high, low, fat, quality, seed, feeds, zone, plans, high-fat feeds
short, long, temperature, cost, crops, farm, + mm

small, large value, labour, day, plant, field, food,

term, protein, content,
size/scale, yield, area productivity

с) U se the table to make up as many word-combinations “compound

adjective + noun” as possible. Translate them into Russian.

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
11. Fill the gaps with the suitable adjective or the correct form of the
verb, active or passive:
to remain, complete, to evaluate, palatable, reliable, to obtain, to
purchase, digestible, to determine, relatively, to satisfy, comparative
1. Nowadays farmers are trying to ... the people’s requirements in
highly nutritive products. 2. The ... analysis of the chemical composition
of these two types of feeds has shown that both of them have ... the same
nutritive value. 3. O nly... results are published in scientific journals such
as Plant and Animal Physiology. 4. When feeds are chosen for animals,
they must be not only ... but easily ... as well. 5. In order to ... the ...
ration for a particular animal, a farmer can use special tables of nutritive
value. 6. The development of new technologies may help t o ... the quality
of various feed supplements at each stage of the production process.
7. On large-scale commercial farms it is possible for a producer to ...
milk yields throughout the year if high-quality feeds ... in necessary
quantities. 8. In the Moscow region cattle may ... on pasture in winter
season.
12. a) Translate into Russian.
the total amount of amino acids; a small quantity of grass; a minimum
amount of fatty acids; a large amount of carbohydrates; the number of
offspring; the correct amounts of the feed ingredients; the building
number; the number of cows on a farm; a large quantity of meat/feeds;
the number of organic compounds; a number of species/nutrients/
characteristics
b)Give the English equivalents of the Russian words in brackets.
Put the articles (a/the) if necessary.
1. (Ряд) of bacteria cause disease in humans, animals, or plants.
2. (Количество) of free amino acids and peptides in animals is much
smaller than (количество) of protein. 3. It is impossible to estimate
(число) of bacteria as they can be found in all natural environments,
75
often in extremely large (количествах ). 4. Under winter conditions in
cold regions, cattle, sheep, and horses usually obtain small (количе­
ства ) of vitamin D from the hay. 5. Do you know the exact (число) of
the essential amino acids? 6. It is cheaper to buy fertilisers in large (ко­
личествах). 7. Buffalo’s milk is produced in commercial (количе­
ствах) in some countries, particularly in India. 8. (Число) of cows on
commercial farms vary from 100 to 120. 9. The farmer calculated the
total (количество) which he needs to pay for a new farm machine.
10. New technologies and improvements in animal husbandry, especially
the achievements in genetics may help to breed animals in large (коли­
чествах). 11. Any farmer should know the phone (номер) of the
nearest veterinary clinic.
13. Match the crop with its definition:
sorghum, com (maize), wheat, rye, barley, roots, soybeans, oats
L ... is the most important of the cereals in the temperate regions
(регионы с умеренным климатом). It is used as food for people and
feed for livestock. There are two main varieties: spring and winter crops.
2. ... is a common cereal crop in temperate areas, the grain is mainly
used for livestock feeding or for making beer by fermentation process.
3.... is hardy (зимостойкая) cereal crop which is grown in most types
of soil in cool wet northern temperate regions, best quality crop can be
used for making biscuits, porridge. 4. ... is known as hardy annual grass
(морозостойкое однолетнее злаковое растение). It is grown in
temperate areas such as Russia, Poland, Germany and used for making
brown bread and whisky. 5.... is the only grain crop which was brought
from the New World and it is still the principal crop in the USA where
it is used as feed for cattle and pigs. 6.... are plants which produce edible
beans (съедобные бобы) which are high in protein and fat content and
are very low in starch (крахмал). Beans are used for direct human
consumption as well as livestock feed and for processing into oil. 7. ... is
a drought-resistant (засухоустойчивый) cereal plant which is grown
in the semi-arid tropical regions, it is one of the important crops in the
USA. 8.... are such plants as carrots, beets, turnips which contain food
materials in a root; they are used as food vegetables or fodder.
14. Fill the gaps with:
to vary (in, with, from ... to), various, variety
1. The number of organic compounds which are necessary for animal
growth ... the type of organism ... one ... thirty or more. 2. The quality
o f ... pasture grasses which are used as fodder for animals ... the season
... the highest in spring and early summer ... the lowest when seeds are
formed. 3. The nutritive value of hay ... its method of drying. 4. The
cost of animal feeds ... as the supply of feeds is different in ... parts of
Russia. 5. The dry matter content in concentrates ... the cereal crop ....
76
6. Different types of silage... fibre content. 7. The percentage (процент­
ное содержание) of ash ... 1-2% in green roughages ...7-8% in hay
and straw. 8. M eals... the amount of fa t... less than 1% in soybean meal
... about 4% in cottonseed meal. 9. The protein content in green rough­
ages is influenced by a ... of factors, such as type of crop, weather condi­
tions etc. 10. In different countries the figures in the tables of feed
composition may ... because methods of chemical analyses ... as well.
15. Find the sentences where much is translated as гораздо. Make up
questions to the underlined words.
1. In the past, farmers had much difficulty in feeding cattle during
the winter season.
2. Students can understand biochemistry much better if they have
studied the main chemical and biological principles.
3. If livestock are kept on pastures in the sunlight much of the time,
they have a plentiful supply of vitamin D.
4. Most dry roughages are much higher in drv matter than green
roughages.
5. Two centuries ago farmers did not know much about the main
nutrients and used their own practical experience to satisfy я п іт я к
with feeds.
16. Translate into English.
a) большие количества сахарной свёклы; зерно хлебных злаков;
ячмень на фураж; жмыховая мука; побочные продукты от пере­
работки молока; объемистые корма; химический состав бобовых
культур; перевариваемая клетчатка; покупать концентраты; соч­
ные корма богаты влагой; солома из пшеницы; согласно класси­
фикации; получать грубые корма; оставаться надежным источни­
ком; сено из овса; полный рацион; различаться по содержанию
сухого вещества; хранилище для сорго; вкусные корнеплоды; пе­
рерабатывать сою; определять меры; определить питательную цен­
ность ржи; на сравнительной основе; удовлетворять потребности;
иметь относительно низкое содержание белка; улучшения в ме­
тодах кормления сельскохозяйственных животных
b) 1. В настоящее время гораздо легче определить питательную
ценность различных кормов, так как разработаны современные на­
дежные методы анализа состава кормов. 2. Чем больше разнооб­
разных кормовых добавок производится крупными промышленны­
ми компаниями, тем более питательными будут рационы для жи­
вотных. 3. Фермеры обычно не получают таких высоких удоев мо­
лока зимой, как летом, так как на продуктивность животных вли­
яют изменения в системе содержания животных. 4. Большинство
фермеров используют специальные таблицы, чтобы определить пи­
тательную ценность кормов и составить полные рационы кормле­

77
ния как можно более экономно. 5. Необходимо кормить животных
как вкусными, так и легкоусвояемыми кормами.
17. Use the table to make up the sentences with comparative constructions.
Model: 1. Alfalfa hay is about four times richer in protein content
than alfalfa grass.
2. Alfalfa grass is not so high in fibre as alfalfa hay.

Feed Composition
Data are selected from US National Academy of Sciences, National
Research Council, United States-Canadian Tables of Feed Composition

Dry Nitrogen
Type of feed Protein
matter Fat, % Fibre, % Ash, % free
(total), % extract, %
Dry roughages:
Alfalfa hay
Timothy hay
Corn fodder
Oat straw
Wheat straw
Sorghum
Green
roughages:
Alfalfa
Barley pasture
Clover
Rye grass
Sudan grass
Silages:
Alfalfa
Clover
Sorghum
Soybean
Timothy
Root crops:
Beets
Potatoes
Concentrates:
Barley
Com
Oats
Rye
Wheat
 -------------------- --
Dry Nitrogen
Type of feed matter Protein, Fat, % Fibre. % Ash, % free
(total), % % extract, %
Meals:
Cottonseed meal 94.0 41.0 4.3 12.0 6.2 30.5
Soybean meal 89.8 50.9 0*8 2.8 5.6 29.7
Fish meal 92.0 63.2 4.4 ---------- ' 21.7 27.0
Meat and bone 94.0 50.6 0.5 ---------- .J 29.1 48.0
meal
By-products:
Brewers’ grains1 92.0 25.9 6.2 15.0 3.6 41.3
Milk, dried 94.0 33.5 0.9 ---------- 7.6 26.3
Sugar-beet pulp2 91.0 9.1 0.6 19.0 3.6 58.7
Wheat bran3 89.0 16.0 4.1 10.0 6.1 52.8

COMMENTS
1. brewers’ grains — зерно для пивоваренной отрасли
2 . sugar-beet pulp — свекловичный жом
3. bran — огруби
18. a) There are several ways o f presenting information visually. M atch
the following words with their definitions:
1. A table ['teibl] — таблица
2. A flow chart ['flau ’tfait], chart (or diagram [’daragraem]) — блок-
схема; схема производственного процесса; схема информа­
ционных потоков (в учреждении и т. п.)
3. A pie chart ['pai “trait] — секторная диаграмма
4. A bar chart [Ъа: 'tfart] (Br E) or a bar graph ['bcu 'gra:f| (Am E)
histogram — гистограмма
5. A graph (graph chart, line graph) [gra:fj [graef] — график, диа­
грамма, схема; кривая
a) ...is a drawing that uses shapes and lines to show how different
stages in a process or parts of a system are connected with each
other;
b) ...is a picture on which narrow bands (or boxes) of equal width
but varying in height represent different quantities; information
can be shown either vertically or horizontally; such a picture
is very useful for making comparisons;
c) ...is a drawing that uses lines to show how two or more sets of
measurements are related to each other;
d) ...is a list of numbers, facts, or information arranged in rows
across and down a page;
e) ...is a circle divided into several sections and each represents
a specific proportion of the whole

79
 Which
1) farm
eggs/wheat/com etc) on a particular farm/in the local market/
countrv/in
2 ) commercial
institute/international
3) show last year’s milk or meat yields/egg production figures or
possible yields for the next year?
4) farms/companies
5) process/how
c) Use the figures from the table above and draw pie charts and bar
charts to present the composition of different feeds and describe
them as in the model (see Fig. 4). Give some more examples of
graphs or flow charts, find them in scientific journals.
M odel: The description of a chart or a graph (e.g. composition o f
alfalfa hay)
Total dry matter content from alfalfa hay accounts for 90% from
which nitrogen-free extract comes first with 36.1%. Fibre is in the
second position with 26.8%, protein content accounts for 16.6%, ash
amounts to as much as 8.5%; and as little as 2% come from fat.

(a)

(b)
Fig. 4. Total dry matter to per cent of alfalfa hay: (a) a pie chart; (b) a bar chart
80
 USEFUL LANGUAGE
a diagram/a table/a chart/a graph + demonstrates/indicates/represents/
shows/suggests
to amount to smth — равняться (чему-л.); составлять (какую-л. сум­
му)', доходить до (какого-л. количества)', syn to account for smth

SUPPLEM ENTARY TEXT

19. Read and translate the text into Russian. Complete the table using
the information from the text.

C lassification o f Animals Feeds

Concentrates Roughages
cereal grains: ? their by-products: ? green roughages (pasture grasses): ?
oil meals (cakes): ? dry roughages:
a) hays: ? b) straws and hulls: ?
by-products of sugar-beet industry: ? silages: ?
by-products from other industries: ? root crops: ?

B A SIC TYPES O F F E E D S

Animal feeds are classified into two main groups: concentrates and
roughages. The former are high in energy value and are subdivided into
the following four groups: (a) cereal grains and their by-products (barley,
com (or maize), oats, rye, wheat), (b) high-protein oil meals or cakes
(soybean, cottonseed), (c) by-products from processing of sugar beets,
and (d) by-products from other industries. Roughages include such feeds
as: (a) pasture grasses, (b) hays, (c) silage, (d) root crops, and (e) straw.
Concentrate feeds, a) Cereal grains and their by-products. In the
agricultural practices of North America and northern Europe, barley,
com, oats, rye, and sorghum are grown mainly as animal feed, however
small quantities are processed for human consumption as well. These
grains are fed, whole or ground, either singly or mixed with high-protein
oil meals or other by-products, minerals, and vitamins, to form a
complete feed for pigs and poultry or an adequate dietary supplement
for ruminants and horses. By-products from commercial processing of
the cereal grains, for instance wheat bran, com gluten meal1, rice bran
or hulls2, are used as animal feeds in large quantities.
b) H igh-protein m eals. Vegetable seeds such as soybeans, flax­
seeds3, cottonseeds, sunflower seeds4 are produced mainly as a source

81
 of oil for human food and industrial uses. After these seeds are processed
to remove the oil, the residues5, which may contain from 5 per cent to
less than 1 per cent of fat and 20 to 50 per cent of protein, are used as
animal feeds. The latter are valuable supplements to roughages or cereal
grains and other low-protein feeds because they provide the protein
needed for efficient growth of production.
c) By-products o f sugar beets. From the sugar-beet industry come
beet tops, which are used on the farm either fresh or ensiled6, and dried
beet pulp and beet molasses7, which are produced in the sugar factory.
These are all palatable, high-quality sources of carbohydrates. In some
European countries, fodder beets and some other roots are grown as
animal feed. ’
d) Other by-product feeds. By-products of brewing industry (yeast)8,
dairy industry (dried skim milk or whey or buttermilk)9 and fish industry
(fish meal) contain 50 per cent or more of high-quality protein and such
mineral elements as calcium and phosphorus so they are well-known
as useful animal feeds. '* 1 J
Roughages, a) P asture. Various pasture grasses (timothy, Sudan
grass) and legumes (clovers, soybeans, sorghum), both native and
cultivated, are the most important single source of feed for cattle, horses,
sheep, and goats. During the growing season they supply most of the
feed for these animals at a cost lower than other feeds that must be
harvested, processed, and transported. Hundreds of different grasses,
legumes, bushes, and trees are acceptable as feeds for grazing animals.
The nutritive value of the cultivated varieties has been studied, but
information is incomplete for many naturally growing plants.
b) Hay. It is produced by drying different mature10 grasses (such as
timothy and Sudan grass) or legumes (alfalfa, clover) when they contain
the maximum quantity of digestible protein and carbohydrates but before
the seeds develop. The moisture content must be reduced to 22 per cent
or less to prevent moulding11, heating, and spoilage during storage.
Legume hays are high in protein, while the grasses are lower in protein
but vary greatly with the stage of maturity and level of nitrogen fertiliza­
tion which have been applied to the crop. Hay is usually fed to animals
when sufficient fresh pasture grass is unavailable.
c) S ilage. Silage is usually made from immature plants of com,
sorghums, grasses, legumes in a storage container to exclude the air and
allow fermentation to develop acetic and other acids, which preserve the
moist feed. Storage may be in upright tower silos or in trenches in the
ground. Best quality silage results when the forage is ensiled with a
moisture content of 50 to 65 per cent. Ensiled forage can be stored for
a longer period of time with lower loss of nutrients than dry hay. The
nutritive value of silage depends upon the type of forage ensiled and how
properly it has been made.
d) R oot crops. Nowadays such root crops as mangels, rutabagas,
cassava12and sometimes potatoes are used less extensively as animal feed
82
than in the past, for economic reasons. Roots are lower in dry-matter
content than are most of the other feeds listed. They are relatively low
in protein also and provide mostly energy.
e) Straw and hulls. Quantities of straws that remain after wheat, oats,
barley, and rice crops are harvested and used as feed for cattle and other
ruminants. The straws are low in protein and very high in fibre. Moreover,
digestibility13 of straws is low. Straw is useful in maintaining mature
animals during periods of shortage of other feeds, but it is too low in
quality in order to be satisfactory for long periods without adding
supplements. Com stalks, cottonseed hulls, and rice hulls can also be used
as sources of fibre in ruminant rations. Rice hulls are lower in value, while
the others are similar to straw.

COMMENTS
1. corn gluten meal — кукурузная глютеновая мука
2. hull — пленка (зерна), лузга
3. flaxseed — льняное семя
4. sunflower seed — семя подсолнечника
5. residue — остаток
6. ensiled — засилованный
7. beet molasses — свеклосахарная меласса
8. brewing industry (yeast) — пивоваренная промышленность (дрожжи)
9. dried skim milk/whey/buttermilk — обезжиренное сухое молоко/
сухая сыворотка/сухая пахта
10. mature — зрелый, созревший
11. to mould — плесневеть
12. mangels/rutabagas/cassava — кормовая свёкла/брюква/маниока
13. digestibility — усвояемость
20. Translate the following questions into English as in the model and
answer them.
M odel: Какие побочные продукты от переработки зерновых
используются как корм для животных? (Doyou know ...)
—>What by-products from processing grains are used as
animal feed? -» D o you know what by-products from
processing grains are used as animal feed?
1. В каком виде зерновые скармливаются животным? (I'd like
to know...)
2. Какие другие отрасли промышленности поставляют корма
для животных? (Do you have any idea...)
3. Какими питательными веществами богата жмыховая мука
и побочные продукты свекловичной отрасли? (It's interesting
to know...)
4. Пастбищные травы все еще являются важным источником
корма для сельскохозяйственных животных? (Do you think...)

83
 5. От чего зависит питательная ценность силоса? (Do you mind
telling me...)
6. Каковы питательные характеристики корнеплодов? ( Could
you explain...)
7. Каковы основные требования к качеству сена? (Have you
got an idea...)
8. Питательная ценность всех трав известна? (Do you happen
to know...)
9. Почему солому не скармливают животным в течение всего
года? (W hy do you suppose...)
21. Use exercises 17—20 to prepare a report on the topics: “Concentrate
Feeds”, “Roughages”. *
Prepare some pie charts or bar charts or any other visual material
to present the data and compare the nutritive value of different feeds.
Try to suggest the feeding ration for cattle/hogs for different seasons.

USEFUL LANGUA GE
To begin with I’d like to say...; I think it would be best to...; There are many
advantages and disadvantages here...; Accepting the fact that...; As can be
seen from the graph/pie chart...; Look at the following bar chart...; The
table gives the information about...; The share of... varies from... to...; The
same percentage of...; From the look of it...; On the one hand, ... on the
other hand; Moreover...; In conclusion I’d like to say that...

EXERCISES FOR PAIR WORK

22. Make up a dialogue between farmers.
Student A is a Russian farmer who has a cattle farm in the Central
region of Russia.
Student В is an American farmer who has come from a cattle farm
situated in one of the southern American states. They discuss the
problem of feeding their cattle in different seasons. Ask each other
questions about availability of different feeds during the year, about
their nutritive value, about nutritive supplements. U se indirect
questions and the information from exercises 17 and 19.
Model'. Student A (a Russian farmer): My name is.... I have a cattle
beef/dairy farm not far from... .
Student В (an American farmer): Nice to meet you. My
name is.... I am a cattleman from the State of.... I wonder
which feeds you use to feed your cattle in summer and which
are available in other seasons... .
 Unit 5
ANIMAL BREEDING

Vocabulary and Grammar:

1. Употребление глаголов to apply, to introduce, to use, to utilize.
Употребление существительных application, introduction, use,
utility, utilization.
2. Употребление глаголов to increase, to decrease и их синонимов
to grow, to raise, to rise, to fall, to reduce.
3. Конверсия.
4. Видовременные формы английского глагола в действительном
и страдательном залогах (повторение).
5. Числительные: единицы меры.

VOCABULARY ТО THE TEXT

“ANIM AL BR EED IN G ”

Nouns: advantage, ancestor, appearance, breeding, breeding value,

characteristic (syn feature, trait), cross, disadvantage, female, fertility,
flock, herd, herdbook, heredity, insemination, introduction, male,
mating, measurement, merit, pedigree, performance, productivity,
progeny, propagation, purpose, record, recording, sire, studbook,
technique, trait, utility.
Adjectives and adverbs: actual, artificial, average, decisive, desirable,
individual, objective(ly), pedigree, purebred, superior, thorough(ly).
Verbs: decrease, enable, establish, inherit, introduce, judge, specialize
(in smth), subject.
Other parts of speech and word-combinations: in accordance
with, along with, for the purpose of, with regard to, to some/certain extent,
though (syn however).

Give the Russian equivalents of the international words and scientific

terms from the text “Animal Breeding”:
association [3,s3usi'eijh], combination [.kmnbi'neijh], donor f'dauna),
embryo ['embnauj, genetic [cfci'netik], innovation [.inaVei/n], to modify
['mndifai], official [a'fi/lj, practice fpraektis], procedure [pra'sfccfca],
programme ['praugraem], selection [si'lekfn], selective [si'lektiv], statistics
[sta'tistiks], systematic [,sista'ma2tik], transplantation [,traensplo:n'tei/n]

85
I
 Употребление глаголов to apply , to introduce, to use,
to utilize и соответствующих существительных
to apply (smth to smth) [a'plai] — применять, использовать, внед­
рять (метод, систему, правило, закон и т .п .)’, syn to use, to
introduce; найти практическое применение; применять, вносить
(удобрения, ядохимикаты, навоз, органические вещества в почву)
to introduce (smth into/to smth) [,intra'dju:s] — внедрять, вво­
дить, впервые начать использовать (новые методы, технологии,
препараты, новый сорт, вид, породу)', привозить впервые куда-л.
(растение, животное, болезнь)', вносить (удобрения в почву)
to use [ju:z] — использовать, пользоваться, применять, употреб­
лять; syn to utilize; использовать, (из)расходовать; syn to consume,
to utilize
to utilize fjuitilaiz] — утилизировать, использовать, расходо­
вать, употреблять; syn to use
application [.aepli'keifn] — применение, использование, упо­
требление; приложение; применимость; внесение (удобрений и т.п.);
syn to use
introduction [.intra'dAkfn] — введение, внедрение (новых мето­
дов, сортов и т.д.), включение (в структуру, в состав чего-л.);
введение (внутрь чего-л.), внесение (удобрений)
use [ju:s] — употребление, применение, использование
utility [jur'tiJrti] — полезность; выгодность; общепользовательно-
го направления, общепользовательной категории (о животном)
utilization [jurtilai'zeijn] — использование, употребление, ути­
лизация; syn use
Examples: J •
New scientific methods have Новые научные методы были
been applied in agricultural использованы / применены
production. в сельскохозяйственном про­
изводстве.
The measurement of blood Измерение кровяного давления
pressure was introduced было внедрено в практику
in practice late in the 19th (впервые начали использовать
century and has become an на практике) в конце 19 века
important part of medical и стало важной частью врачеб­
diagnosis. ной диагностики.
When artificial insemination is Когда используется искусствен­
used, a small number of sires ное осеменение, то небольшое
may be used to serve a large число производителей может
number of females. быть использовано для опло­
дотворения большого числа
самок.

86
Beef cattle can utilize roughages Мясной скот может употреб­
of both low and high quality. лять грубые корма как низ­
кого, так и высокого качества.
Proper application of commercial Правильное внесение/примене­
fertilizers has greatly increased ние промышленных удобрений
soil fertility. значительно повысило плодо­
родие почвы.
The introduction of nutritive Внедрение/Введение пищевых
supplements to animal rations добавок в рацион животных
had a number of advantages. имело ряд преимуществ.
By-products of the dairy industry Побочные продукты молочного
are of great use as high-protein производства имеют большое
feed supplements. применение / использование
в качестве высокобелковых
кормовых добавок.
In breeding farm animals for При выведении сельскохозяй­
utility, selection must be based ственных животных для прак­
on objective measurements тического использования се­
of animal traits. лекция должна быть основана
на объективных оценках ха­
рактеристик животных.
The utilization of protein is Использование/ Употребление
increased when the organism белка возрастает, когда орга­
is subjected to any kind низм подвержен какой-либо
of infection. инфекции.

Употребление глаголов to increase, to decrease

и их синонимов
Для описания изменений (увеличения или уменьшения) каких-
либо показателей используют следующие глаголы:
1. to increase (increased) [in'kiis] — возрастать, увеличивать(ся);
расти; усиливать(ся) (о количестве, степени, размере и т .п.).
Synonyms: to grow (grew, grown) — расти, увеличиваться; to raise
(raised) — повышать, увеличивать (количество, степень, уро­
вень чего-л.у, to rise (rose, risen) — возрастать, увеличиваться)
(в объеме).
2. to decrease (decreased) [di:‘kri:s] — уменыпать(ся), убывать,
сокращаться) (о количестве, степени, размере и т.п.). Synonyms:
to fall (fell, fallen) — снижаться, уменьшаться, падать (о ценах
и т.п.)-, to reduce (reduced) — ослаблять, понижать, сокращать(ся),
уменьшать(ся), убывать (о размере, весе, количестве ; стоимос­
ти, цене и т.д.).
87
И
 В зависимости от того, употребляются ли эти глаголы с пря-
или оез него, они являются
непереходными.
educe (+ прямое дополнение)
fall, to grow (без дополнения)
можно употреблять как с поя-
мым дополнением, так и без него.

Examples:
Farmers will raise/increase/ :рмеры повысят/увеличат/
reduce/decrease the prices снизят/уменьшат цены на
for their products next year. продукты
году.
е prices for farm product Цены на сельскохозяйственные
will increase/rise/grow продукты увеличатся/ возрас­
fall/decrease. тут/снизятся/уменьшатся .
Соответствующие существительные от этих глагол
increase [ inkiis], growth, rise (Br E), raise (Am E) увеличе
ние, рост, повышение
body-weight increase увеличение массы тела
production growth — рост производства
decrease ['dirkrirs], fall, reduction уменьшение
снижение, спал
Следует обратить внимание на употребление предлогов
существительными
to increase/decrease in number/size/volume увеличиваться/
уменьшаться в числе/размере/объеме
to increase/decrease by (25% or l/ 4) p e r year увеличиться/
уменьшиться на (25% или lA ) за год
to increase/decrease to (1,000 tons; увеличиться/уменьшить
ся до (1 ООО тонн)
to increase/decrease fro m ... to ... увеличиться/уменьшить
ся с ... до ...
to increase/decrease tw ice or two tim es увеличиваться/
уменьшаться в два раза
an increase/a raise/a ris '■/
smth — рост/падение чего-л.
an increase in milk yield — увеличение удоя молока
a reduction in productivity снижение продуктивности
an increase/a decrease o f. уве
размере
there was a milk yield increase/rise/raise o f 10% over the past
year = milk yield increased by 10% over the past year послед
ний год удой молока вырос на 10%

88
 GRAM M AR REVISION
AND PRETEXT EXERCISES

Конверсия
(Conversion)
Конверсией называется образование одной части речи от дру­
гой с сохранением основной формы слова. В некоторых случаях
изменяется произношение слова или ударение.
1. Примеры конверсии без изменений в произношении: a farm —
to farm; a breed — to breed; a plant — to plant; milk — to milk;
water — to water; effect — to effect; influence — to influence
2. Примеры конверсии с изменением в произношении и уда­
рении в словах:

Глагол Существительное
to decrease [di:'kri:s] уменьшать decrease ['di:kri:s] уменьшение
to export [iks'port] экспортировать export ['eksport] экспорт
to import [im'port] импортировать import ['impDt] импорт
to increase [in'kri:s] повышать increase ['inkrirs] повышение
to present [pri'zent] представлять present ['prezant] текущий момент
to produce [prs'djurs] производить produce ['pn)dju:s] продукция
to progress [pra'gres] развиваться, progress [’praugres] прогресс,
совершенствоваться развитие
to record [ri'koid] записывать record ['reko.d] запись
to subject [ssb'cfcekt] подвергать subject ['sAbcfciktJ предмет
{чему-л.)
to use Цю] использовать use [ju:s] использование
1. Translate into Russian. Are the italicized words nouns or verbs?
1. At present farmers in developed countries usually export the excess
of their farm produce abroad. 2. Nowadays scientists at international
conference present the results using different computer programmes in
order to support the reports with visual materials. 3. Farmers often
produce high-quality butter and cream from their own milk. 4. It is
important for any country to maintain a balance between import and
export of foodstuff in order to maintain domestic producers. 5. Different
species of animals have already been subjected to genetic modifications,
though usefulness of these experiments is still the subject of discussion
within the scientific society as well as for the public. 6. A breeder records
the main characteristics of the best sires as any record may be essential

89
for breeding in future. 7. Since the 19th century scientists have made
great progress in genetic experiments. 8. There is a great use of utilizing
various food by-products by feeding them to farm animals. 9. With the
introduction of new computer systems scientists can progress in their
research of gene structure. 10. Farmers use records about several
generations of animals in order to predict productivity characteristics of
the offspring. 11. The increase in food production may lead to decrease
in prices. 12. In order to decrease losses and to increase the supply of
high-quality food, farmers introduce advanced technologies.

Видовременные формы английского глагола

в действительном и страдательном залогах
(,повт орение)
правильногоasked—asked, у ко-
совпадают
правильного showed—shown
ма прошедшего времени — showed, причастие II — shown)
PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE (Настоящее простое время)
Указатели времени: always (всегда), usually (обычно), often (часто),
seldom (редко), sometimes (иногда), never (никогда), every day/week/
(каждый
Действительный залог Страдательный залог
УТВЕРДИТЕЛЬНЫЕ
I/You/We/They ask/sh asked/shown
He/She/It asks/shows. asked/shown
You/We/They are asked/shown
ОТРИЦАТЕЛЬНЫЕ
I/You/We/They do not ask/sh< asked/shown
He/She/It does not ask/show. asked/shown
You/We/They are not asked/shown
ВОПРОСИТЕЛЬНЫЕ
Do I/you/we/they ask/show...? Am I asked/shown...?
Does he/she/it ask/show...? Is he/she/it asked/shown...?
Are you/we/they asked/shown...?
IE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
(Настоящее продолженное вое
Указатели времени: now (сейчас), nowadays (в наше время), at the
moment (
* .1 Л v S « V. M d

Для
ражения будущего действия с указателями времени: tomorrow (завтра^
next week/year (на следующей неделе/в следующем году); in a week/
ближайшем будущем)

90
 Действительный залог Страдательный залог
УТВЕРДИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
I am asking/showing. I am being asked/shown.
He/She/It is asking/showing. He/She/It is being asked/shown
You/We/They are asking/showing. You/We/They are being asked/
shown.
ОТРИЦАТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
1 am not asking/showing. asked/shown
He/She/It is not asking/showing. asked/shown
You/We/They are not asking/ You/We/They
showing. shown.
ВОПРОСИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
Am I asking/showing...? Am I being asked/shown
Is he/she/it asking/showing...? asked/shown •*

Are you/we/they asking/showing? Are you

shown
3. THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
(Настоящее совершенное время)
Указатели
(уже), yet (уже )), recently, lately (недавно, в по­
следнее время), since (с; с тех пор, как), for (в течение).
Действительный залог Страдательный залог
УТВЕРДИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
I/You/We/They have asked/shown. I/You/We/They have
asked/shown
asked/shown asked/shown
ОТРИЦАТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
I/You/We/They have not asked/ I/You/We/They have not been
shown. asked/shown,
jot asked/shown. He/She/It has not been asked/
shown.
ВОПРОСИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
Have I/you/we/they asked/ Have I/you/we/they been asked/
shown ’ shown...?
Has he/she/it asked/shown...? Has he/she/it been asked/shown..
4. THE PAST SIMPLE TENSE (Прошедшее простое
Указатели времени: yesterday (вчера), last week/year (на прошлой
неделе/в прошлом году), two years ago (дв;

91
 Действительный залог Страдательный залог
УТВЕРДИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
I/You/He/She/I t/We/They I/H e/She/It was asked/shown.
asked/showed. You/We/They were asked/shown.
ОТРИЦАТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
I/You/He/She/It/W e/They did I/H e/She/It was not asked/shown.
not ask/show. You/We/They were not asked/shown
ВОПРОСИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
Did I/you/he/she/it/w e/they Was I/he/she/it asked/shown...?
ask/show...? Were you/we/they asked/shown...?
FUTURE SIMPLE TENSE (Будущее
следующей
yearItwo
in the future (в будущем).
Действительный залог Страдательный залог
УТВЕРДИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
I/We will (shall) ask/show. I/We will (shall) be asked/shown.
He/She/It/You/They will He/She/It/You/They will be asked/
ask/show. shown.
ОТРИЦАТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
I/We will (shall) not ask/show I/We will (shall) not be asked/
shown. '
He/She/It You/They will not He/She/It/You/They will not be
ask/show. asked/shown.
ВОПРОСИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
Will (Shs Will (Shall) I/we be asked/shown
Will he/s Will he/she/it/you/they be asked
show...? shown...?

видовременных форм английского

русский
Время
в английском Действительный залог Страдательный залог
языке
The Present ask(s)/show(s) am/is/are asked/shown
Simple Tense спрашиваю/показываю спрашивают/показывают
(-ешь; -ет; -ем;
-ете; -ют)

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 Время
в английском Действительный залог Страдательный залог
языке
The Present am/is/are asking/showing am/is/are being asked/shown
Progressive спрашиваю/показываю спрашивают/показывают
Tense (-ешь; -em; -ем;
-eme; -ют)
The Present have/has asked/shown have/has been asked/shown
Perfect Tense спросили/ показали спросили/показали
The Past asked/showed was/were asked/shown
Simple Tense спросил(а)/спросили спросили/показал и
показал (а)/показали
The Future shall/will ask/show shall/will be asked/shown
Simple Tense спрошу/ покажу спросят/покажут
(-ишь; -ешь; -ит; -ет;
-им; -ем; -ят; -ут)

2. Use the correct form of the verb in brackets in the active or passive
voice.
11 Scientists (to consider) different effects of genetic modification on
nature? 2. Machines, fertilizers and feeds (to purchase) by farmers from
large commercial companies, and a large variety of agricultural products
(to sell) in the food market. 3. The interest to proper animal feeding
(not/to fa ll) in recent years. 4. Modem genetics (to provide) both new
theoretical approaches and practical methods for animal husbandry?
5. Many discoveries (to make) in the field of genetics last year? 6. How
many new workers (to involve) in harvesting crops every year? 7. In
Russia the agricultural sector (not/to supply) the population with all the
necessary products, so most of them (to import) from other countries.
8. These new feeding supplements (to ensure) a complete ration for
cows, thus neither silage nor concentrates (to require) to feed animals
next year. 9. Highly productive breeds of cattle (to raise) in northern
regions a century ago? 10. In order to satisfy the needs of people in the
most essential nutrients, scientists still (to improve) breeds of farm
animals.

Числительные: единицы меры

(Numerals: units of measure)
В англоязычных странах используются следующие единицы
меры.
а) Единицы веса:
ounce (oz) [auns] — унция
pound (lb) [paund] — фунт
 16 ounces = 1 pound
1 ounce = -2 8 grammes (g) 1
1 pound = -0 .4 5 kg (kilogram m e (B r E)\ kilogram (Am E)
['kitagraem]) A
b) Единицы длины и площади:
inch [intf] — дюйм , j
foot [fut] — фут ]
mile [mail] — миля
acre [еікә] — акр
12 inches (in) = 1 foot (ft)
1 inch = 2.54 centim etres (cm) ['senti,mi:t3] (centim eter Am E)
1 foot = - 30 cm
1 mile = -1.6 kilometres (km) ['кі1ә,тііә, ki'tomita] (kilometer Am E)
1 acre = - 0.4 hectare ['hektea]
c) Единицы объема ж и д к о с т и : . , I '1 . -.-vI
gallon (gal) ['gaebn] — галлон — мера ж и д к и х и сыпучих тел;
английский галлон = 4,55 л; американский = 3,79 л
1 gallon = 4.55 litres or 3.79 litres [‘М.ІӘ} (liter Am E)
3. a) Say it in English:
2/3 унции зерна, 6 миль в час, от 2 до 3 галлонов молока, 5,25
фунтов сена, около 7,5 акров земли, на глубине 2—3 дюймов, на
расстоянии 9 1/4 футов
b) Say the figures from (a) using them as units o f measure —
grammes, litres, centimetres etc.
4. Read and translate the text. Find in the text the sentences:
— with the construction “I t is + adjective + infinitive”.
where in Russian translation you need the words «состоит в том,
чтобы». " .

ANIMAL BREEDING
The aim of farm animals breeding is to improve qualities which are
considered desirable by humans. Long before the scientific principles
to the selection of superior animals were developed and the planning of
mating combinations was introduced in practice, all species of farm
animals were subjected to selective breeding to some extent. At present,
in order to modify livestock and poultry and control propagation of
domestic animals, breeding procedures involve the application of several
basic sciences, mainly reproductive physiology1, genetics and statistics.
Animals are bred for utility, sport, pleasure, and research. The purposes
of animal breeding vary with regard to species, local conditions, and
time. For instance, early in history horses were bred mainly for riding
and as draft animals; and nowadays, to a large extent, horses are being
94
I
bred for sport (racing and hunting). As to poultry, in the past chickens
were bred for the combined production of eggs and meat, but nowadays
in most European countries farmers mainly specialise in such breeds and
crosses which produce either eggs or meat,
a At present, farmers are using special breeding programmes in order
I to maintain herds and flocks of higher genetic merit. These programmes
It include such steps as: 1) the estimation of the breeding value of animals;
2) thorough selection of animals for breeding; 3) the application of one
of the mating systems.
I . The problem how to estimate the breeding value of animals has been
researched thoroughly by scientists for different kinds of animals. On
the one hand, it is necessary to select animals for breeding on the basis
of objective measurements of traits that are decisive for the production.
On the other hand, it is often impossible to judge animals’ productivity
only on the basis of their appearance, so farmers started systematic
recordings of such individual animal characteristics as milk yields,
growth rate and muscle de