б 81.

2Англ

нглииски
ДЛЯ СПЕЦИАЛЬНОСТЕЙ
«ЗООТЕХНИЯ»
И «ВЕТЕРИНАРИЯ»

ENGLISH FOR STUDENTS

OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
AND VETERINARY
MEDICINE

2-е издание

Сельское
хозяйство
 Ғ 81, M\

ВЫСШЕЕ ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОЕ ОБРАЗОВАНИЕ

E. H. КОМАРОВА

ЧшМ JK Cl

АНГЛИИСКИИ я з ы к
ДЛЯ СПЕЦИАЛЬНОСТЕЙ
« ЗООТЕХНИЯ » И «ВЕТЕРИНАРИЯ»

ENGLISH
FOR STUDENTS
OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
AND VETERINARY MEDICINE

Учебник
Для студентов высших
учебных заведений

2-е изданиег-мслравленное

| АТЫМЦДГЫ гыпымм КТ*

or v адлі

Ш іҒ ч Ш ІШ Д 0 С

ACADEMA
Москва
Издательский центр «Академия»
2010
УДК802.0:621.313(075.8)
ББК81.2Англ:40.715я73
К63

Рецензенты:
доктор филологических наук,
профессор кафедры иностранных языков № 3
Российского университета дружбы народов
А. Л. Семенов;
доцент кафедры иностранных языков
Российского государственного аграрного заочного университета
И. А. Цветков
С.Торайғыров
атындағы ПМУ-дің
академик С.Бейсемб
и ^ j ^ | агындағы ғылы
Щі

КІТАПХАНА
Комарова Е .Н .
К63 Английский язык для специальностей «Зоотехния» и «Ве­
теринария» = English for students of animal husbandry and
veterinary medicine : учебник для студ. зоотех. и ветерин. фак.
высш. учеб. заведений / Е. Н. Комарова. — 2-е изд., испр.
М .: Издательский центр «Академия», 2010. — 384 с . : ил.
ISBN 978-5-7695-7520-4
Основная цель учебника — развить навыки чтения, перевода и обще­
ния по различным темам специальностей «Зоотехния» и «Ветеринария».
Книга состоит из вводного и основного курсов, содержит упражнения,
способствующие усвоению грамматического и лексического материала.
В учебник включены оригинальные тексты научного и научно-популяр-
ного характера по основным разделам указанных специальностей, а так­
же ссылки на соответствующие сайты в Интернете.
Для студентов высших учебных заведений сельскохозяйственного
профиля по специальностям «Зоотехния» и «Ветеринария».

УДК 802.0:621.313(075.8)
ББК 81.2Англ:40.715я73

Оригинал-макет данного издания является собственностью

Издательского центра «Академия», и его воспроизведение любым способом
без согласия правообладателя запрещается

© Комарова E.H., 2008

© Образовательно-издательский центр «Академия», 2008
ISBN 978-5-7695-7520-4 © Оформление. Издательский центр «Академия», 2008
 CONTENS

Предисловие............................................................................................ 4

INTRODUCTORY COURSE

UNIT 1. Animal Husbandry.......................................................................6

UNIT 2. Animal Physiology.....................................................................24
UNIT 3. Animal Nutrition.......................................................................42
UNIT 4. Animal Feeds............................................................................ 62
UNIT 5. Animal Breeding........................................................................85
UNIT 6. Animal Ecology....................................................................... 106
UNIT 7. Veterinary Science...................|................................................124
Revision Test 1 ...................................................................................... 148

BASIC COURSE

UNIT 8. Cattle Breeding.........................................................................150

UNIT 9. Pig Breeding.............................................................................171
UNIT 10. Sheep Breeding....................................... ...............................189
UNIT 11. Poultry Breeding....................................................................206
UNIT 12. Horse Breeding............................................... ....................... 227
Revision Test 2 ......................................................................................249
UNIT 13. Aquaculture............................................................................252
UNIT 14. Beekeeping.... ;...................... ................................................. 273
UNIT 15. Milk Processing..................................................................... 294
UNIT 16. Meat Processing......................................................................315
UNIT 17. Farm Management................................................................. 335
Revision test 3 ....................................................................................... 355
Vocabulary..............................................................................................359
List of Grammar Material ...................................................................... 382
List of References...................................................................................383
 ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ

Учебник «Английский язык для специальностей Зоотехния

и “Ветеринария”» предназначен для студентов, обучающихся по
этим специальностям в сельскохозяйственных или ветеринарных
институтах, и рассчитан на 100—130 аудиторных часов в зависи­
мости от уровня подготовки студентов (примерно 6 —8 аудитор­
ных часов на один урок). „ ЩШЙ
Учебник имеет четкую структуру, обусловленную учебным пла­
ном для студентов со специализациями «Зоотехния» и «Ветерина­
рия» и состоит из 17 уроков (Units), которые разделены на две груп­
пы: вводный (уроки 1—7) и основной курс (уроки 8—17). Соглас­
но учебному плану подготовка зоотехников включает изучение ос­
новных дисциплин, таких как физиология животных, кормление,
генетика и разведение, ветеринария, этология животных, поэтому
первые уроки учебника в вводном курсе содержат тексты на эти
темы, при одновременном повторении основных грамматических
конструкций английского языка, таких как конструкция there is/are,
степени сравнения прилагательных и наречий, временных форм
английского глагола в страдательном и действительном залогах.
Каждый урок основного курса учебника содержит узкоспеци­
ализированный текст, связанный с конкретной областью живот­
новодства, такой как скотоводство, коневодство, птицеводство,
свиноводство и т. д. Объем и степень сложности текстов нараста­
ют по мере изучения материала, однако соответствующие коммен­
тарии включают перевод новых и непонятных для студентов слов,
что должно облегчить работу с текстом и снять языковые трудно­
сти. Кроме того, каждый урок начинается с лексическою мини­
мума, причем перевод всех слов имеется в англо-русском словаре
в конце учебника.
Разнообразные тексты для дополнительного чтения затрагива­
ют наиболее интересные и актуальные вопросы в данной области
животноводства, например, птичий грипп, проблема «бешенства
коров», возможные негативные последствия клонирования и т.д.,
и вместе с тем позволяют учащимся усвоить основную термино­
логию по этой тематике. Необходимо отметить, что тексты, вклю­
ченные в учебник, носят учебный характер и не охватывают рас­
сматриваемые вопросы в полном объеме.
Грамматический материал уроков 8—17 охватывает такие темы,
как причастие и герундий, их сложные формы, конструкции

4
 «сложное подлежащее», «сложное дополнение» и другие грамма­
тические обороты, необходимые для чтения и понимания научно-
технической литературы. Изучение грамматического материала в
начале каждого урока рекомендуется проводить во время аудитор­
ных занятий, а также можно предложить студентам проработать
материал в качестве домашнего задания.
В раздел «Additional Exercises» включены лексические и грам­
матические упражнения разного типа, а также некоторые аспек­
ты грамматики, которые могут встретиться в биологических или
сельскохозяйственных текстах, например, имена существитель­
ные, для которых множественное число образуется не по прави­
лам, сложные составные существительные, правила чтения чис­
лительных и система мер, используемых в англоязычных странах,
и т.п. По усмотрению преподавателя, часть упражнений может
выполняться во время занятия, а часть — в качестве домашнего
задания для студентов.
Учебник способствует формированию у студентов разнообраз­
ных практических умений и навыков, таких как чтение и говоре­
ние в сфере профессионального общения, на основе соответству­
ющей лексики и правильного употребления основных граммати­
ческих конструкций. В каждом уроке есть раздел «Exercises for Pair
(or G roup) Work», которому рекомендуется уделить особое
внимание и обязательно выполнять упражнения во время занятий
под руководством и контролем преподавателя. Первые уроки со­
держат несложные задания для парной работы, в последующих уро­
ках дается основной материал (тексты или данные со ссылкой на
Интернет-источники), который требует работы студентов в груп­
пах или используется в ходе ролевых игр. В заключительном уроке
17 студентам предлагается обобщить весь изученный материал, как
лексический, так и грамматический, и организовать воображаемую
ферму/хозяйство для разведения определенного типа животных,
учитывая возможные экономические, экологические и другие про­
блемы.
В связи с быстрым прогрессом во многих областях научных
знаний, автор счел целесообразным включить в учебник ссылки
на Интернет-сайты, которые периодически обновляются и позво­
лят студентам находить дополнительную информацию по интере­
сующему вопросу.
После 7, 12 и 17-го уроков содержатся тесты для закрепления
и повторения пройденного материала. Англо-русский словарь
включает перевод всех слов, содержащихся в лексических мини­
мумах к урокам. Необходимо отметить, что в некоторых текстах
и ссылках сохранена орфография аутентичных источников.
Автор выраж ает глубокую признательность проф ессору
Н. Н. Смирнову и господину Уле Юхан Хага, которые вниматель­
но прочли предлагаемые материалы, за ценные замечания и ис­
правления.
 INTRODUCTORY COURSE

Unit 1
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Vocabulary and Grammar:

1. Употребление глаголов to breed, to develop, to grow, to raise,
to rear. W !.*»:• ит.зҒ s
2. Конструкция there is/are.
3. Местоимения some и any.
4. Основные формы английского глагола.
5 Видо-временные формы глагола в действительном залоге (Present
Simple, Past Simple, Future Simple, Present Progressive, Present
Perfect).
6. Числительные: даты и годы.

VO CABULARY Т О T H E TEXT
“A N IM A L H U S B A N D R Y ”

Nouns: agriculture, animal husbandry, animal farming, animal

scientist, breeder, cattle* (beef cattle, dairy cattle, draft cattle), crop,
crop farming, domestication, farming, feed, fertilizer, food, grazing,
labour, livestock* (syn stock), mammal, manure, poultry*, quantity,
requirement, source, variety (a variety of), yield.
Adjectives and adverbs: additional, agricultural, already, domestic,
domesticated, draft, herbivorous, main, mainly, nowadays, raw (raw
materials), ruminant, suitable, useful, valuable, various.
Verbs: breed, cultivate, develop, dom esticate, grow, improve,
include, increase, influence smb/smth, produce, provide (smb with
smth), raise, rear, rely on smb/smth, use.
Other parts o f speech: any, as, as well as, both ... and, either ... or,
however, neither ... nor, some, such as.1

* Собирательные существительные: cattle всегда употребляется с глаголом

во множественном числе, livestock/poultry могут употребляться с глаголом как
в единственном, так и во множественном числе, но чаще во множественном
числе. В данном учебнике эти существительные согласуются с глаголом во мно­
жественном числе.

6
Without a dictionary try to give the Russian equivalents for the words
from the text “Animal Husbandry”:
commerce ['kom3:s], to control [kan'traul], to convert [kan'v3:t],
energy ['enacfci], exotic [ig'zotik], kefir [‘kefa], koumiss ['kuimisj,
mechanical [mi'ksenikl], modern ['modn], nitrogen ['naitrad 3 (a)nj,
private ['praivit], product ['prodAkt], protein ['prauti:n], type [taipj,
yoghurt ['jtjgat]

Употребление глаголов
to breed, to develop, to grow , to ra ise, to rea r
to breed (bred, bred) — 1) размножаться, плодиться (о расте­
ниях и животных); 2) выводить, разводить, т.е. стремиться по­
лучить определенный тип животных или растений путем скрещи­
вания видов или сортов с целью улучшения желаемых характе­
ристик, главным образом, на научной основе с использованием
достижений в селекции и генетики
to develop — 1) выводить, разводить (сорт растений, породу
животных)', 2) расти, развивать(ся) (о растениях и животных),
т. е. становиться больше, сильнее и стремиться к зрелому состоянию
to grow (grew, grown) 1) расти, вырастать (о растениях и
животных в естественных условиях) ', syn to develop; 2) произра­
стать (о растениях)', 3) Br Е выращивать, культивировать (о р а ­
стениях)’, syn to cultivate
to raise — Am E выращивать {растения) или разводить (пти­
цу , скот) на ферме; syn to rear
to rear — Br E 1) выращивать, разводить {скот, птииу)', 2) уха­
живать за молодыми животными пока они не достигнут состоя­
ния зрелости; syn to raise
Examples:
The farmer has decided to raise Фермер решил выращивать кро-
rabbits as these animals breed ликов, так как эти животные
very rapidly. размножаются очень быстро
Farmers have bred/developed Фермеры вывели новую выносли-
а new hardy breed of cattle. вую породу скота.
Rice grows in water. Рис растет в воде.
Young pigs grew and developed Поросята росли и развивались хо­
well because the farmer рошо, потому что фермер обес­
provided them with good feed. печил их хорошим кормом.
In southern regions farmers В южных областях фермеры обыч­
usually grow/raise cotton, but но выращивают хлопок, а в се­
in northern regions they верных областях они выращи­
raise/rear cattle and hogs. вают/разводят скот и свиней.

7
British farmers raise/rear sheep Британские фермеры разводят
in mountainous regions of овец в горных районах страны.
the country.
It is important to provide special Необходимо обеспечить особый
care for chicken to rear/ уход за цыплятами, чтобы вы­
to raise them healthy. растить их здоровыми.

G R A M M A R R E V IS IO N
A N D PR ET EX T E X E R C IS E S

Конструкция there is/a re

(The construction there is/a re )

В сочетаниях there с глаголом to be в разных временных фор­

мах (there is, there are, there was, there were, there will be,
there has been и т. п.) слово there самостоятельного значения
не имеет, и сочетания переводятся словами: есть, существу­
ет, имеется, был, имелся, будет и т.п.

1. Fill the gaps with the correct form of the verb to be. Translate the
sentences into Russian.
1. There ... more varieties of wild plants in this region a century ago.
2. There ... a poultry farm not far from the city which provides fresh
eggs for it. 3. There ... two horses and a cow on a farm now. 4. As the
territory of Russia is large, there ... different requirements for growing
crops in northern and southern regions. 5. There ... one main source of
energy in Britain in the past. It was coal (уголь). 6. Scientists are
working at new types of fertilisers, so there ... more effective fertilizers
in the future. 7. There ... great changes in machinery for farming in
recent decades. 8. There ... only few domesticated animals in ancient
times. 9. There ... many changes in the system of crop production since
scientists began to study this problem carefully. 10. Farmers believe that
there ... an increase in yields of crops next year.

М естоимения so m e, a n y
(Pronouns so m e, a n y)

Местоимения some/any употребляются с исчисляемыми суще­

ствительными во множественном числе или неисчисляемыми
существительными.

8
 Examples: some crops — некоторые культуры, some nutrients —
несколько питательных веществ, any work — какая-нибудь рабо­
та, any feed — любой корм.

Употребление и перевод some, any

в разных типах предложений

____________ УТВЕРДИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ____________

SOME [sAin] несколько, какие-нибудь, сколько-нибудь, немного,
какое-то количество
____________ ВОПРОСИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ___________
ANY ['em] несколько, какие-нибудь, сколько-нибудь, немного,
____________________ какое-то количество
_____________ ОТРИЦАТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ____________
___________________ANY никакой, нисколько
Некоторые особенности перевода some, any:
some, any в значении «несколько, какие-то, какие-нибудь, немного,
какое-то количество; никакой, нисколько» иногда при переводе
на русский язык опускаются;
В утвердительных и вопросительных предложениях any + исчисляе­
мые существительные в единственном числе или неисчисляемые
существительные употребляется со значением «любой, всякий».

Examples:
They raise some cows on their
farm.
Farmers need some feed for
their animals.
There are some buildings on
any farm.
There is some work at any
time on a farm.
— Are there any draft animals
on this farm?
— Yes, there are some.
— Do they have any work now?
— No, they don’t have any.
We don’t have any horses there.
There isn’t any manure on this
field.
Они выращивают несколько ко­
ров на ферме.
Фермерам нужен корм для жи­
вотных. (some не переводится)
На любой ферме есть несколько
построек.
На ферме в любое время есть
(какая-нибудь) работа.
— В этом хозяйстве есть какие-
либо тягловые животные?
— Да, есть {какие-то/несколько).
— У них есть сейчас работа ?
— Нет, никакой.
У нас здесь нет (никаких ) лош а­
дей.
На этом поле нет навоза, (any не
переводится)

9
2. Put in some or any. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. There are ... new varieties of potato in which farmers are especially
interested. 2. Has the farmer spread ... manure on his fields? 3. The
farmer does not use ... additional workers on his farm. 4. It is important
for ... farmer to provide his animals with valuable feeds. 5. Are there ...
ruminant animals suitable for this region? 6. There are n o t... fertilizers
on this field. 7. ... herbivorous animals such as cows and goats can
convert grasses into milk. 8. Do they breed ... beef or dairy cattle?
9. These crops need ... nitrogen. 10. The farmer raises ... breeds of dairy
cattle but there are n o t... beef cattle on his farm.

Основные формы английского глагола

Форма Причастие I Причастие II

Инфинитив прошедшего или причастие или причастие
(Infinitive) времени настоящего времени прошедшего времени
(Past Form) (Participle I) (Participle II)

to study studied studying

to write wrote writing

Write the main forms

to be, to begin, to breed, to buy, can, to choose, to do, to fall, to feed,
—— — — ---------- 7 ------‘mgr ? vj*T:
know
ш М Б ;' і Н т УҒг' ~' ’ ’ —

to lay, to leave, to let, to make, to mean, to ride, to rise, to say, to sell,

to spend, to spread

В идо- временные формы глагола

в действительном залоге
Английский глагол в действительном залоге показывает, что под­
лежащее является лицом (или предметом), совершающим действие.
і $

Наречия Перевод на
Время Форма глагола Пример времени русский язык
Present Инфинитив 1 I/You/We/They always, изучаю/
Simple без частицы to study/grow. usually, выращиваю
(Настоящее (в 3-м лице He/She/It regularly, (-ешь, -ет,
простое ед.ч. добавля­ studies/grows. often, -ем, -ете,
время) ется оконча­ sometimes, -ют)
ние -s) seldom,
every day/
week/
month/year

10
 Наречия Перевод
Л на
Время Форма глагола Пример времени русский язык
Past Simple Форма I/You/He/She/ yesterday, изучал (а),
(Прошед­ прошедшего It/We/They last week/ изучали!
шее времени studied/grew. year, вы рас -
простое (Past form) six years т ил(а),
время) ago, вы раст или
in 2003
Future shall/will + I/We shall/will tomorrow, изучу /
Simple инфинитив study/grow. !next week/ вы ращ у
(Будущее без частицы to You/He/She/It/ year, (-иш ь , -ит ,
простое We/They will in two days, -им , -am ,
время) study/grow. in the future -ят )
in 2010
Present am/is/are + I am studying/ now, изучаю /
Progressive* Participle I growing. at the mo­ вы ращ иваю
(Настоя­ He/She/It is ment, (-еш ь , -ет ,
щее про- studying/ at present, -ем , -ет е,
долженное growing. nowadays -ю т )
время) You/We/They
are studying/
growing.
Present have/has + I/Үou/We/They ever, never, изучал(а),
Perfect Participle II have studied/ just, already, изучалиу
Настоящее grown. yet; today, и зуч и л(а )/
совершен- He/She/It has this week/ вы рас -
ттДа время
нос DHPilG studied/ month/year, ТПІЛЛІ(Т\
grown. lately, вы раст или
recently,
since, for

4. Use the correct form of the verb in brackets in the active voice. Find
the adverbs of time and identify the tense in English. Translate the
sentences into Russian.
1. In early times people (to begin) to domesticate wild animals. 2. This
farmer (to buy) new dairy cattle this year. 3 .1 think the farm (to increase)
the yields of crops next year. 4. The scientists from our laboratory (to
present) interesting reports at the conference recently. 5. Last year the
farmers (not/to rely) on feeds from pastures and (to grow) additional
crops for their livestock. 6. Such a ruminant animal as the cow (to convert)
large quantities of different grasses into milk which (to be) a valuable

* Настоящее продолженное время может обозначать запланированные на

будущее действия и употребляется с наречиями tomorrow, next week, in a month,
in the future.

11
product. 7. As our farm agronomist (to recommend), we (to spread)
manure on this field now. 8. The company (to replace) its old machines
for dairy production in two months, I believe. 9. People (to keep)
domesticated animals either in special houses or on pastures. 10. The
production of dairy products constantly (to increase) in Russia at
present.

Числительные: даты и годы

(Num erals: dates and years)
Даты по-английски пишутся и читаются двумя способами:
5 October/5th October — the fifth of October or October the
fifth; 21 July/21st July — the twenty-first of July or July the twenty-
first.
Годы по-английски читаются так:
1985 — nineteen eighty-five; 1900 — nineteen hundred; 2000 —
twenty hundred or two thousand; 2006 — twenty hundred oh [эи]
six or two thousand and six (in A m E they commonly say zero).
Example'. ' -1
К. А. Тимирязев родился К. A. Timiryazev was bom on the
3 июня 1843. third of June (or on June
the third) in eighteen forty-three.
0 6 одном десятилетии в течение говорят так:
90-е годы XIX века — the nineties of the nineteenth century или
the 1990s — the nineteen-nineties.
BC = Before Christ — до нашей эры.
AD (лат. сокр. от Anno Domini in the year of the Lord — нашей
эры; от Рождества Христова).
Examples: f .*
1500 ВС — one thousand five hundred BC or fifteen hundred BC;
AD 55 — AD fifty-five.
5. Say it in English:
1978, 1905, 2010, 1908, 1999, 1953, в 1980-е годы, в начале девя­
ностых, в 50-е годы XX века, в течение 60-х годов, в конце 1970-х,
в 30-е годы XVIII века, в начале XXI века, в конце XX века.
6. Read and translate the text into Russian. Find in the text the sentences:
—in the Present Simple, the Past Simple, the Future Simple;
—with the Present Progressive, the Present Perfect;
—with the construction there is/are;
—with: both ... and, either ... or, neither ... nor.

12
 ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Agriculture provides people with food, feed and other useful
products. All over the world farmers cultivate valuable plants and raise
productive domesticated animals. There are two main branches in
modern agriculture: crop production (or crop farming) and animal
husbandry (or animal farming).
Nowadays, in many countries people are still relying on meat, milk
and eggs as main sources of food. Both breeders and farmers have
already bred and are still breeding highly productive agricultural animals.
Animal farming is a process in which a farmer breeds, raises and cares
for livestock either for commerce or private use.
The word “livestock” refers to domesticated animals such as beef and
dairy cattle, sheep, goats, swine (hogs), horses, donkeys and mules,
buffalo, oxen, rabbits or “exotic” animals, for example, camels, emus,
ostriches, or any animal which a farmer keeps and uses either for food or
pleasure. Sometimes animal scientists include in this term also poultry,
such as chickens, ducks, geese and turkeys, but they include neither honey
bees nor fish within the term “livestock”. However, poultry farming and
beekeeping are important branches of agriculture as well as aquaculture1.
There are over a hundred large land mammals in the world but man has
domesticated only few types into livestock. There are two main requirements
for domestication of mammals: 1) the availability2of feed which a farmer can
easily control and provide; 2) a rapid rate of reproduction3. As cattle, sheep
and horses are heibivorous mammals, farmers try to keep these domestic
animals on pastures. However, farmers often grow either cereals or other
agricultural crops as additional feed for their animals. Such ruminant animals
as cattle, sheep and goats are important for people because they convert large
quantities of grasses or other types of feeds, as well as non-protein nitrogen
into meat, milk and wool. Poultry also convert feed efficiently into protein.
Historically, livestock and poultry have provided the following benefits
to humanity4: meat, eggs, dairy products, raw materials, fertiliser,
labour, management5 o f land.
1) Meat and eggs. In many countries livestock replaced wild game6
as the main source of animal protein because only livestock convert
various food sources into human food. Poultry provide people with white
meat as well as with eggs.
2) Dairy products. People process milk of cows, sheep, goats into
a variety of valuable dairy products such as yoghurt, cheese, butter, ice
cream, kefir, and koumiss.
3) Raw materials. Livestock produce useful raw materials, for
example, horses and cows provide leather, poultry produce feather and
down7, sheep and goats provide wool for textile industry.
4) Fertiliser. Livestock leave behind manure which farmers spread
on fields and this increases yields of crops many times. Historically, plant
and animal farming have been closely linked.
13
 5) Labour. In modem agriculture neither cattle nor horses are the
main source of mechanical energy. However, in some poor countries
people are still using livestock as draft cattle.
6) Management o f land. Sometimes farmers use the grazing of
livestock as a way to control weeds8.
When a farmer is planning to rear livestock, he usually chooses the
most suitable type for the local conditions. Both climate and type of
land, as well as local traditions influence a farmer’s choice.

COMMENTS
1. aquaculture f'aekwiMtfa] — аквакультура
2. availability [ә,уеі1әЪііт] — наличие (доступность)
3. a rate of reproduction — зд. скорость воспроизводства
4. the following benefits to humanity — следующие выгоды для челове­
чества
5. management fmaen^mant] — зд. возделывание
6. wild game — дикие животные
7. feather [Тедэ], down [daun] — перо, пух
8. a way to control weeds — способ борьбы с сорняками

E X E R C IS E S ТО T H E TEXT

7. Answer the questions.

1. What are the two main branches of agriculture?
2. Why is animal husbandry so important now?
3. What does the term “animal husbandry” include?
4. What are the requirements for domestication of animals?
5. Why are ruminant animals valuable for animal husbandry?
6. Why is poultry farming an important branch of agriculture?
7. What herbivorous animals do you know?
8. What benefits do livestock and poultry provide for man?
9. How does a farmer choose the type of livestock for his farm?

Think and answer:

1. In what countries does the agricultural sector play the most
important role in the economy: in developed countries (the USA,
Canada, the UK) or in developing African/Asian countries?
2. What industries does animal husbandry provide with raw materials?
3. What branches of agriculture are important in Russia?
8. Translate into Russian.
to include a variety of requirements; beef cattle; to convert feeds
into useful food; to spread fertilisers; to breed both swine and poultry;

14
to provide leather for industry; such dairy products as...; to replace old
varieties; a ruminant animal; to influence yields

A D D IT IO N A L E X E R C IS E S

9. FID the gaps with the words or word-combinations in the correct form:
to raise; to rely, to provide; to include', grazing', herbivorous', such
as; as; to cultivate; ruminant; variety; raw materials; requirement;
agriculture; source; yield; branch
1. Milk ... man with numerous valuable substances.......proteins,
vitamins etc. 2. Nowadays animal husbandry ... a large variety of
specialised ... such as poultry farming, cattle farming. 3. Farmers often
... some crops to feed their animals and use animal manure to increase
the ... of these crops. 4. Both cows and sheep are ... animals. 5. Farmers
try ... such ... of crops which are the most suitable for the climate of the
region. 6. For centuries both meat and milk have been the main ... of
protein for people. 7. Last year when a farmer began his business, he ...
on the experience of his neighbours. 8. Since early times in any country
... has been an important branch of economy ... it provides people with
food and animals with feed as well as other industries w ith .........9. In
northern regions farmers use ... of cattle only in summer. 10. We know
that elephants are the biggest ... mammals. 11. During the winter and
the summer there are different... in labour on a farm.
10. a) Divide the nouns into countable and uncountable ones. Write the
countable nouns in the plural.
goat, butter, skin, leather, horse, crop, fat, hog, wool, duck, feed,
chicken, cheese, turkey, cereal, branch, food, variety, manure, feather,
grass, yield, labour, ostrich, source, country, energy
Countable nouns Uncountable nouns
goat — goats butter

b) Write the plural form for the following nouns. Use a dictionary if
necessary.
fish, goose, mouse, ox, sheep, swine
11. Fill the gaps with the correct form of the verb. There may be more
than one variant.
to breed, to develop, to grow, to raise, to rear
1. People ... farm animals for different purposes. 2. Some farmers ...
cattle to sell as beef, and others ... cattle to produce milk. 3. Farmers
usually choose breeds of hogs th a t... rapidly. 4. Animals always ... well
when they are on pasture. 5. In the regions where farmers ... different
15
grains they usually ... cattle. 6. The children helped the farmer to ...
young pigs. 7. In 1850 American farmers ... four breeds of beef cattle.
8. A little c a lf... better if it gets cow’s milk. 9. At present scientists ...
a new variety of this crop for the northern regions of the country. 10. On
large poultry farms it is possible to ... thousands of chickens at once.
12. Use the correct form of the verb in brackets in the active voice.
Translate the sentences into Russian.
I The rate of reproduction and efficiency of all domestic animals
I to increase) since scientists (to begin) systematic studies in the 1930s.
2. At present farmers often (to replace) manure by commercial fertilisers.
3. Poultry also (to convert) feed efficiently into protein and (to provide)
people with white meat and eggs. 4. When Columbus (to discover)
America, he (to bring) some new varieties of plants and animals to
Europe. 5. What animals ... people (to use) as draft animals in the 18th
century? 6. The farmer (to provide) his livestock with all nutrients and
(to raise) very healthy animals last season. 7. Last week the farmers (to
keep) swine on pastures which (to be) not suitable for crop production.
8. Why ... people still (to breed) livestock? 9. Modem agriculture (to
rely) on engineering and technology as well as on a large variety of
natural sciences. 10. In recent years computers (to become) important
for management of a farm. 11. W hat... the term “livestock” (to include)?
12. Farmers (not/to know) much about nutrients in the 17th century.
13. What crops ... a farmer (to grow) for his animals? 14. For many
centuries people in Africa (to breed) camels, but even now a white camel
(to be) an exotic animal. 15. Nowadays the weather greatly (to influence)
agricultural production. /; ,
13. Put in some or any.
1. There are ... cows on the farm but there are no ... sheep. 2. Are
there ... new departments at the animal husbandry faculty? 3. These
animals do not need... additional feeds in their rations. 4. It is necessary
for ... farmer to have ... knowledge in farm management. 5. Did the
farmers ask scientists for ... recommendations about the reproduction
of the animals? 6. There have been developed ... new sources of energy
recently. 7. There are no ... special requirements for the use of these
fertilizers. 8. Do you know ... exotic animals which farmers have
domesticated lately? 9.... crops grow well both in warm and cool regions
of the country. 10. ... type of manure increases the yields of crops.
14. Put in both ... and', either ... or', neither ... nor.
1. ... some wild ... some domestic animals are mammals. 2. Agri­
culture is a risky branch of economy because farmers can influence ...
temperature... rainfall (осадки). 3.... feather... down are known as raw
materials. 4. Nowadays we u se... manure ... fertilizers to increase yields.
16
5. Textile industry uses ... cotton ... wool. 6. In many poor African
countries farmers are still using ... horses ... cows as draft animals.
7. Some vegetarians e a t... m eat... milk. 8.... sheep ... goats are suitable
for mountain regions. 9. We do not have enough money, so we can ...
repair the old dairy machines ... replace them by modem models. 10. It
is possible ... to buy feeds for cattle ... to grow some crops on the farm.
15. Translate into English.
a) полагаться на различные источники; увеличивать продук­
тивность; травоядное млекопитающее; производить или мясо,
или яйца; содержать прирученных животных; выпас домашних
животных; ценные корма; выращивать овец; разнообразные
удобрения; основная отрасль сельского хозяйства; рабочая сила
на ферме
b) 1. Как животноводство, так и растениеводство являются важ­
ными отраслями экономики во многих странах мира. 2. Ферме­
ры выводят и выращивают разных домашних животных, таких как
крупный рогатый скот, овцы, свиньи, лошади и т.п. 3. Существу­
ет несколько специализированных отраслей животноводства, на­
пример, пчеловодство и птицеводство. 4. Домашний скот обеспе­
чивает людей мясными и молочными продуктами, а также постав­
ляет сырье для промышленности. 5. Животноводство обеспечи­
вает растениеводство ценным удобрением, таким как навоз, а ра­
стениеводство снабжает животных зерновыми и другими корма­
ми. 6. Выпас скота — это хороший способ обработки земли. 7. До­
ступность кормов и быстрая воспроизводимость — это основные
требования к домашним животным.

E X E R C IS E S F O R PA IR W ORK

16. Student A looks at the picture on page 18 (Fig. 1), Student В looks
at the picture on page 23 (Fig. 2). Ask each other questions and find
the differences in the pictures. Use the Present Progressive Tense
to describe the pictures. Use the nouns below:
cowshed (коровник), stable (конюшня), sheep-pen (овчарня),
pigsty (свинарник), poultry house (птичник), silo tower (силосная
башня)
M odel: Are there any sheep in the picture?
How many sheep are there in the picture?
two icture?
Are the sheep in the field ofirreaf Ж йШ п
Is the sheep-pen behind or In
farmer
атындағьі ғылыми
17
КІТАПХАНАСҺ
 Fig. 1. The picture of the farm for Student A

17. Describe the life of a farmer and his family. Use the verbs below:
to milk (доить), to water (поить), to pasture (выпасать), to feed
(кормить), to ride (ехать верхом), to harvest (собирать урожай),
to cultivate (возделывать), to fertilize (удобрять)
Student A describes: 1) what a farmer does every day (use the Present
Simple Tense); 2) what a farmer did yesterday (use the Past Simple Tense).
Student В describes: 1) what a farmer has already done (use the
Present Perfect Tense); 2) what a farmer will do tomorrow (use the
Future Simple Tense or the Present Progressive Tense).

USEFUL LANGUA GE
I think...; I don’t think...; In my opinion...; To my mind...;
I am (not) sure...; I believe...; I suppose...; Maybe...; Probably.

Model: I think the farmer gets up at 6 o ’clock in the morning every

day as he has a lot of work to do on his farm. I suppose
that first of all he feeds the animals and provides them with
water. Probably after that he milks the cows and goats. I am
sure, he does it twice a day: in the morning and in the
evening. ... . ,,

18
 SU PPLEM EN TA R Y TEXTS

18. a) Read and translate the text into Russian.

T ext 1
A N IM AL S C IE N T IS T S

Animal scientists help farmers to develop and improve agricultural

industry. Different animal sciences are important for specialists who
work in the field of animal farming such as: anim al physiology,
nutrition, breeding and genetics, ecology and ethology, livestock and
poultry management.
Students of animal science are interested in processes how agricultural
animals convert feeds into food and other useful things which people
need. They conduct research in different fields of animal husbandry and
try to improve production, yield and growth of various animals. Thus,
they mainly specialise in such disciplines as nutrition, genetics and
breeding, or reproductive physiology. There are special courses to train
veterinary scientists who study diseases of farm animals, methods of
vaccination and animal treatment.
Graduates of the faculty of animal husbandry work in veterinary and
human pharmaceutical industries, in industries which provide farms with
livestock and feeds as well as in educational institutes. They can work both
for private research firms and federal or state experimental stations.
An animal breeder is one of the oldest world professions. Historically,
there are certain sub-professions within the field of animal husbandry.
They have specific names according to the animal for which a person cares,
for example, a cattle breeder (or a cattleman)*, a pig breeder (a hogman),
a sheep breeder (a sheepman), a horse breeder (a horseman), a poultry
breeder (a poultryman), a beekeeper or an apiarist, a dog breeder or a
cynologist.
Today, managers of commercial farms organize the work of many
different specialists who raise thousands of various animals. Farms and
ranches employ breeders, veterinary surgeons (or vets), feeders and
milkmen who help to care for the animals. Nowadays farmers use modem
techniques and achievements of different natural sciences because this
helps to improve the ability of animals to convert feed into meat, milk,
or fibre more efficiently and improve the quality of the final products.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_husbandry)

* Слова, указанные в скобках, употребляются в американском варианте ан­

глийского языка.

19
 b) Answer the questions on the text.
1 What are the main professions in the field of animal science?
2 What animal sciences are of special interest for animal scientists?
|3 What problems of animal husbandry do these subjects study?
4 Which problems are animal scientists especially interested in?
5. Where can animal scientists work?
c) Find in the text the words which mean professions and divide them
into three groups according to their suffixes. Add your own words
to each group. •'<?
1) farmer, breeder, ... пЗДдог
2) cattlem an,... •*: Ьиіг
3) scientist,... I I .•■Ул 'Щ
d) Find in the text the English equivalents of the Russian word-combi-
nations. J,v
быть заинтересованным в чем-л.; проводить исследование; раз­
личные области животноводства; специализироваться в таких
дисциплинах, к а к ...; готовить ученых по ветеринарии; выпускни­
ки зоотехнического факультета; учебные институты; частные ис­
следовательские фирмы; государственные экспериментальные
(опытные) станции; нанимать на работу селекционеров; улучшать
качество И ■ гт г а Ншимдй
19. a) Read and translate the text into Russian.

T ext 2 S ... I I H I
TH E RUSSIAN STATE AGRARIAN U N IV ER SITY
(TH E M OSCOW AGRICULTURAL ACADEM Y NAM ED
AFTER K .A.TIM IRY A ZEV )

The Russian State Agrarian University, the former Moscow Timiryazev

Agricultural Academy (the RSAU - MTAA), is the oldest and most well-
known agrarian university in Russia. This educational institution was
founded December 3, 1865 as Petrovskaya Academy of Agriculture and
Forestry. ii f:;nii 4l&4)5JRJKt!l$:
At first there were only two departments—agricultural and forestry —
which enrolled about 400 students. At the beginning of 1872 according
to new rules it was necessary to finish gymnasium and do entrance
examinations to become a student of the Academy. Later in 1894 the
Academy was renamed into Moscow Agricultural Institute with agricultural
and engineering departments. Graduates were awarded the ranks of
agronomist and agronomist-technician of the first or the second grade.
Since 1905 the Institute has started to award the rank of the learned
agronomist and an engineer-agronomist. : - -ШІШІІВІІ
20
 A new stage of history of the Academy began after 1917 when it restored
its former name—Petrovskaya Agricultural Academy. Regulations and
structure of the Academy were changed and a new curricula and new
teaching programmes were developed.
On December 10, 1923 the Academy was named after the outstanding
Russian scientist—Kliment Arkadyevich Timiryazev.
The first professors of the Academy, and their followers, who in their
time became outstanding scientists, have played a great role in organisation
and development of the agricultural educational system and science in
Russia. Among them were professors N. I. Zheleznov, K. A. Timiryazev,
V.A.Mikhelson, V.R.Williams, N.I.Vavilov, A.V.Chayanov etc.
Before World War II the scientific and educational potential of the
Timiryazev Academy was so great that more than 15 educational and
scientific-research institutes were founded on its basis in Moscow and
other cities of Russia. In 1940 the Soviet Government declared the
territory of the Academy to be of historical value and protected it by law.
During the first days of the Great Patriotic War more than 500
professors, researchers, students and workers of the Academy joined the
front as members of emergency volunteer corps, extermination corps and
other military forms. The names of 170 lost Academic staff are engraved
on a m onum ent which was set up in the park of the Academy to
memorise the lost soldiers.
The main educational activity of the Academy never stopped during
the war period, and scientists of the Academy bred ten new varieties of
farm crops during this time. For some time the Academy was temporarily
located in Samarkand, however, studies began in Moscow again in 1943.
In the post-war years, scientists of the Academy took an active part
in the development of virgin and long-fallow lands (целинные и за ­
лежные земли). They inspected over 9 million hectares of land and
drew 232 soil maps and cartograms.
Currently, the RSAU-MTAA consists of eight faculties such as
Agronomy, Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry and Ecology,
Animal Science, Fruit and Vegetable Growing, Food Technology,
Economics, Accounting and Finance, Teacher Training. Since 1946
the Academy has been training specialists for foreign countries and
citizens from foreign countries are studying at different faculties now.
At present the scientists of the Academy are engaged in fundamental
and applied research.
(http://www.timacad.ru/)
b) Answer the questions about your university/academy.
1. When and where was your university/academy founded?
2. What do you know about its history?
3. What do you know about famous professors or scientists who
worked there?

2
 4. How many faculties, departments and research laboratories are
there in your university/academy?
5. Which specialities are the students trained in?
c) Find the information about one o f the foreign agricultural
universities/colleges and prepare an oral report about it. Search
the following websites:
1. Department of Agriculture, Western Illinois University, USA:
http: / / www.wiu.edu/ag/
2. Agriculture Department, University of Minnesota Crookston:
http://www.umcrookston.edu/academics/agri/
3. Olds College, Canada: http://oldcollege.ab.ca/
4. Scottish Agricultural College: http://www.sac.ac.uk/
20. a) Read and translate the text into Russian.

T ext 3 r\
T H E FACULTY O F ANIM AL HUSBANDRY
IN TH E M OSCOW TIMIRYAZEV AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY

The Faculty of Animal Husbandry (or Zootechnical Faculty) was

organised in the Moscow Timiryazev Academy in 1934 and it is one
of the oldest educational centres in the field of animal husbandry in
Russia.
The Faculty includes 16 departments, for example Morphology,
Zoology, Physiology and Biochemistry of Animals, Genetics and
Breeding of Farm Animals, Animal Hygiene, Obstetrics and Veterinary
Science, Feeding of Farm Animals, Sheep Breeding, Pig Breeding etc.
There are three research laboratories of animal husbandry as well as the
Museum of Horse Breeding, the Animal Husbandry Museum named
after E. F. Liskun, the Zoological Museum named after N. I. Kulagin,
the Anatomy Museum and the Beekeeping Museum.
The Faculty has its own practice grounds on the territory of the
Academy, such as a vivarium, a poultry house, an apiary, an aquarium
room and a horse riding hall. Students also have the opportunity to have
practice at some state and private farms, pedigree stock breeding farms,
fish farms, apiaries and poultry farms.
The Faculty is one of the methodical and research centres that solves
problems of increasing animal productivity. The main investigations are
carried out in the following directions: the improvement of farm animal
reproduction and breeding on the basis of achievements in biotechnology
and information technology; the development of pedigree and productive
qualities of cattle; the development of balanced rations for farm animals,
poultry and fish. } f/ * '
At present, the Faculty enrolls about 700 students and trains them
in speciality of animal scientists (or zootechnics) with the following
22
specialisations: general animal husbandry, poultry breeding, horse
breeding, aquaculture, beekeeping, biotechnology of animal reproducing,
genetics and breeding of farm animals, feeding of farm animals. Recently
the Faculty has offered programmes for training students in cynology,
felinology, zoo culture, and wild life management.
In 2004 a new Technological Faculty began to train specialists in milk
and meat production and processing on the basis of the Department
of Meat and Milk Processing which was earlier one of the leading and
oldest departments at the Faculty of Animal Husbandry.
(http://www.timacad.ru/)
b) Answer the questions and make up a dialogue with your friend about
your studies.
1. Which faculty do you study at and why did you choose it?
2. Which specialities are students trained in at your faculty?
3. What facilities does the faculty (your university) have for training
students in different specialities?
4. In which field of animal science would you like to work after
graduating from the university?
5. Which scientific problems are you interested in?

Fig. 2. The picture of the farm for Student В

 Unit 2
ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Vocabulary and Grammar’.

1. Употребление существительных breed, species, strain, type, variety.
2. Видо-временные формы глагола в страдательном залоге (Present
Simple, Past Simple, Future Simple, Present Progressive, Present
Perfect). лиЫ - - “« Щ
3. Существительное в функции определения.
4. Конструкция «to be + инфинитив».
5. Конструкция «to be + of + существительное».

VOCABULARY ТО T H E TEX T
“A N IM A L P H Y S IO L O G Y ”

Nouns: analysis (analyses), application, approach, basis (bases),

breed, cell, datum (data), difference, feature, feeding, feeding ration,
research, importance, level, offspring, origin, significance, similarity,
species, tissue, use, value.
Adjectives and adverbs', chemical, important, necessary, particularly).
Verbs', analyse, apply, concentrate (on), consider, consist (of), deal
(with), depend (on), devote (to), divide (in/into), investigate, maintain,
originate (from), relate (to).
Other parts o f speech and word-combinations’, for instance; in
general; in order to; to take into account; throughout.

Without a dictionary give the Russian equivalents of the international

words and scientific terms from the text “Animal Physiology”:
antibiotic [.aentibai'otik], biochemical [,baiau'kemikl], biochemistry
[.barau'kermstri], biomechanics Lbaiaumi'kaeniks], biophysics [,bai3iyfiziks],
characteristic [.kaenkta'ristik], cytology [sai'tDlacfci], to design [di'zain],
enzyme ['enzaim], evolution [,i:va'lu:Jn], function [Тлцк/п], hormone
['ho:maun], mechanism ['mekamzm], m etabolism [ma'taebalizm],
microelement [.maikrau'elimant], organ [’organ], organism ['o:gamzm],
parameter [pa'raemita], pharmacology [.foima'kolacfei], physical ['fiziklj,
physiologist [.fizi'olacfeist], physiology [,fizi'r>lacfei], principle [’pnnsapl],
reaction [riaekfn], standard [‘staendad], sterility [sta'riliti], vitamin
[V(a)itamm]

24
 Употребление существительных
breed , species, stra in , typ e , variety

В русско-английских словарях эти существительные даются как

синонимы и переводятся следующими терминами «род, вид, раз­
новидность, сорт, порода», однако в англоязычных словарях да­
ются конкретные определения значений этих существительных
и правила их употребления.
breed — порода (скота, птицы), сорт (растения); syn stock,
strain. Термин обозначает группу организмов определенного вида
(растительного или животного происхождения), которая была вы­
ведена с целью усиления требуемых характеристик в результате се­
лекции.
species (мн.ч. species) — 1) вид (о диких растениях и ж и­
вотных), т.е. подразделение в систематике, входящее в состав
высшего раздела — рода; 2) вид, сорт, разновидность; род, по­
рода. Термин используется для описания группы животных или
растений, которые подобны и могут скрещиваться между собой,
давая потомство, но не могут скрещиваться с особями из дру­
гой группы.
strain — род; вид; разновидность; линия, сорт; порода; штамм
(для микроорганизмов). Термин обычно относится к отдельной
или особой разновидности в пределах вида для самых разнооб­
разных живых организмов (животных, насекомых, растений,
и т.п.), но наиболее часто употребляется в отношении культур­
ных растений.
type — 1) тип, т. е. слово обозначает совокупность характерис­
тик общих для большого числа особей и служащих основой для
классификации; 2) типичный представитель какого-либо рода или
вида; syn sort, kind.
variety — 1) вид, разновидность (о растениях и животных)',
2) сорт (культурного растения). Термин используется для харак­
теристики растений или животных, которые отличаются от пред­
ставителей в пределах одной и той же общей группы или вида.
Наиболее часто слово употребляют для описания сортов культур­
ных растений.

Examples:
beef breed/strain — мясная порода крупного рогатого скота;
endangered species — вид, находящийся под угрозой вымирания;
broiler strain — мясная (или бройлерная) линия/порода птиц;
early-season variety — раннеспелый сорт (растения );
various kinds of animals — разные виды животных;
comb type — тип гребня (птицы);
commercial species — промысловый вид.

25
 G R A M M A R R E V IS IO N
A N D PR E T E X T E X E R C IS E S

Видо-временны е формы глагола

в страдательном залоге
(T he passive voice)
Английский глагол в страдательном залоге показывает, что дей­
ствие совершается над лицом или предметом, выраженным под­
лежащим, причем правила употребления наречий времени такие
же, как и в действительном залоге.
Страдательный залог в английском языке образуется при по­
мощи глагола to be в соответствующей форме + причастие II,
которое называется причастием прошедшего времени (Partici­
ple II или Past Participle).

Видо-временные формы английского глагола

в страдательном залоге

Подлежащее + сказуемое Перевод на

Время в страдательном залоге
и наречия времени русский язык

Present Simple спрашивают/

(Настоящее He/She/It is } a?ked/
простое время) You/We/They are J 8*vei1, дают
(iusually, every time)
Past Simple I/He/She/It was 1 asked/ спросили/
(Прошедшее You/We/They were J given. дали
простое время) (yesterday, last week)
Future Simple I/We shall be
(Будущее asked/ спросят/
He/She/It 1 be given. дадут
простое время) You/We/They ]
(tomorrow, next mon th)
Present I am being спрашивают/
Progressive He/She/It is being >asked/ дают
(Настоящее You/We/They are being , given. спросят/
продолженное (now, tomorrow) дадут
время)
Present Perfect I/You/ 1. . asked/ спросили/
(Настоящее We/They j have been given. дали
совершенное He/She/It has been
время) (<already, recently )

26
Examples:
The students will be asked five Студентам зададут пять вопро-
questions at the exam. сов на экзамене.
The animals have already been Животным уже дали витамины,
given some vitamins.
Для указания на того, кто производит действие, используется
предлог by.
Example:
Farmers are given some recom- Фермерам дает некоторые реко-
mendations by the regional мендации местный консулъ-
consulting centre. тационный центр.
1. Use the correct form of the verb in brackets in the passive voice.
Identify the tense in English and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Scientific conferences on the problems of animal physiology
regularly (to hold) by physiologists.
2. Experimental physiology ( to develop) by anatomist William
Harvey in the 17th century.
3. Animal scientists hope that the results of their research (to use)
by farmers in practice.
4. The problems of domestication of ostriches (to discuss) in some
scientific journals now.
5. The new textbook on animal husbandry (to write) by the professors
of our University last year.
6. Such courses as organic chemistry and physics (to study) by all
first-year students at the Animal Husbandry Faculty.
7. Some characteristics of this cow breed (to study) carefully by the
scientists at the moment.
8. Different experim ents on the processes of metabolism (to
conduct) by the scientists.
9. A plan for reproduction of the beef cattle on the farm (to suggest)
next week.
10. Some manure (to spread) on this field recently.

Сущ ествительное в функции определения

(сущ ествительное + сущ ествительное)
(The noun as attribute)
Если подряд стоят два или более существительных без предло­
гов, образуя так называемую «цепочку существительных», то все
они являются определениями к последнему существительному в
этой «цепочке». Существительному в функции определения мо­
гут соответствовать разные части речи в русском языке, поэтому
существует несколько способов перевода «цепочки».
27
 Существительные в функции определения переводятся:
существительным существительным
прилагательным в родительном падеже с предлогом
farm animals — farm animals — farm animals —
фермерские животные животные фермы животные на ферме
milk productivity — animal physiology — animal diseases —
молочная физиология живот­ заболевания у жи­
продуктивность ных вотных

2. Translate into Russian.

farm animals; horse growth; agriculture study; sheep breed; egg
production; crop yield; poultry manure; farm management; food
sources; animal species; reproduction rate; milk cow breeds; feed hog
requirements; poultry house ventilation; beef cattle breeds

Конструкция «to be + инфинитив»

(The construction “to be + infinitive”)
Глагол to be в личной форме перед инфинитивом употребля­
ется в значении «состоит/заключается в том, чтобы» после таких
слов, как: aim/purpose цель , task/target задача, problem пробле­
ма, intention намерение, plan план и др.
Examples:
One of the aims of animal Одна из задач физиологии живот­
physiology is to increase ных состоит в том, чтобы
milk or meat productivity of повысить молочную или мяс­
farm animals. ную продуктивность сельско­
хозяйственных животных.
The main trend in physiology is Основная тенденция в физиоло-
to concentrate on functional гии состоит в том, чтобы
studies rather than structural сосредоточиться на функ­
studies of organ systems, such циональных, а не структурных
as nutrition, transport, исследованиях систем орга­
metabolism. низма, таких как питание,
перенос, метаболизм.
3. Translate into Russian.
1. The farm er’s plan is to increase milk yields by cows grazing
throughout the summer period. 2. The problem was to replace draft
animals by modern farm machines. 3. The scientists’ aim is to inform
farmers about the recent achievements in raising farm animals. 4. The
purpose of general physiology is to study the principles which are
universal for all living organisms. 5. The scientific approach was to
28
calculate a feeding ration on the basis of physiological data for a parti­
cular animal.

Конструкция «to be + o f + существительное»

(The construction “to be + o f + noun”)
В этом обороте глагол to be употребляется в значении «иметь,
представлять».
Example:
The achievements in the field Достижения в области физиоло-
of animal physiology are o f гии животных имеют большое
great importance for animal значение для животноводства,
husbandry as well as for а также для ветеринарии,
veterinary science.
4. Translate into Russian.
1. High-quality feeds are of great importance to animal health. 2. Both
dairy cattle and beef cattle are of high practical value. 3. The knowledge
of physiological characteristics of animals during the different periods
of their life is of special interest to age animal physiology. 4. The
development of new efficient milking machines is of great practical use.
5. The study of general animal physiology is of great importance for
animal scientists as well as farmers.
5. Read and translate the text into Russian. Find in the text:
— the sentences in the passive voice;
the construction “to be + infinitive”;
the construction “to be + o f + noun’

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY
The word “physiology” originated from the Greek language and it
consists of two parts: physis which means “nature” and logos which is
“word”. In general, physiology is the study of mechanical, physical, and
biochemical functions of living organisms1. Physiology has traditionally
been divided into plant physiology, animal physiology and human
physiology but the physiology principles are universal, even if a particular
organism is being studied.
Animal physiology is the study of animal functions, that is, the study
of “how animals work”. The rapid development of animal physiology
as a distinct discipline began in the 19th century and was stimulated by
the requirements of animal husbandry and veterinary science. Animal
physiology is subdivided into the four main parts, such as general
physiology, special physiology, comparative physiology2 and age
physiology3. General physiology deals with the analysis of such universal

29
and important processes as blood circulation4, metabolism, respiration
etc. Special physiology applies general physiological principles in order
to investigate characteristics of a particular animal species. Comparative
physiology concentrates on similarities and differences of physiological
functions of various living organisms. The problems of how physiological
functions change with animal age are of special interest to age physiology.
The main approach in animal physiology is to study the evolutionary
origins of the physiological mechanisms in order to understand the
significance of these mechanisms for modern-day animals6. Modern
physiology which is based on chemical, physical and anatomrcal methods
investigates biological organisation of the animal body at different levels,
that is, cells, tissues, organs.
One of the parts of special physiology is devoted to farm animal
physiology. The aim of this science is not only to study physiological
functions of the farm animal body, but to control them in order to increase
the production of eggs, offspring, milk, meat and wool. The problem of
how to maintain good health of farm animals throughout a long lifetime
of high production is of great importance to farm specialists as well.
Farm animal physiology is closely related to veterinary science as it
is necessary to know physiological standards and the physiological
reactions which take place in the body of a healthy animal in order to
cure sick animals7 and prevent different animal diseases. The problems
of sterility and nutritional disorders8 are studied by physiologists as well
as by veterinary surgeons.
Animal requirements in nutrients and energy depend on their
physiological features, so feeding rations are calculated on the basis
of physiological data. The feeding systems for rearing young animals are
being developed on physiological parameters as well. Physiological
characteristics such as age and weight are considered by the scientists when
animals are fed with vitamins, antibiotics, microelements or hormones.
Farmers should take into account some im portant physiological
features of animals in different situations, for instance, when a farmer
is going to use artificial insemination9 or train sport horses or dogs.
Physiological parameters of farm animals are of special value to engineers
who design different farm mechanisms, such as milking or feeding
machines. . v
Other major branches of scientific study that have grown out of
physiology research include biochemistry, biophysics, biomechanics,
pharmacology, cytology as well as genetics which are known as the
biological bases for rational animal husbandry.

COMMENTS
1. living organism ['lrvxr) 'aganizm] — живой организм
2. comparative physiology [kam'paeratrv .fra'otacfci] — сравнительная
физиология
30
3. age physiology ['еісіз /штоәс&і] — возрастная физиология
4. blood circulation [bLvd ,s3:kju'leijn] — кровообращение
5. respiration [.respi'rei/n] — дыхание
6. modern-day animals — современные животные
7. to cure sick animals — лечить больных животных
8. nutritional disorder [nju:'tnjhal dis'ado] —проблема, вызванная недос­
таточным питанием
9. artificial insemination [.ati'ftfl in,semi‘neijh] —искусственное осеменение

E X E R C IS E S TO T H E TEXT

6. Answer the questions.

1. What does physiology study?
2. What are the main parts of physiology?
3. What stimulated the development of animal physiology?
4. What problems are of special interest to animal physiologists?
5. What are the main principles of physiological study?
6. Why is farm animal physiology of great practical value?
7. How can the knowledge of physiological reactions help to main­
tain healthy farm animals?
8. What influences animal requirements in nutrients?
9. When do farm specialists take into account physiological charac­
teristics of animals?
10. What sciences are based on physiology research?
Think and say.
1. What problems are animal physiologists investigating now?
2. Give examples when a farmer takes into account physiological
features of a particular animal.
7. Translate the words into Russian and identify the part of speech
in English.
1. analyse, analysis, analytical, analyst; 2. special, specialist, to specialise;
3. science, scientific, scientist; 4. physics, physical, physicist, biophysics;
5. chemistry, biochemistry, chemical, biochemical, chemist; 6. origin,
original, to originate; 7. application, to apply; 8. milk, milking, to milk,
milkman; 10. different, differences, to differ; 11. to investigate, investigator,
investigation
8. a) Translate the word-combinations into English using the noun
physiology.
физиологические характеристики; физиологические функции;
физиологические стандарты; физиологические реакции; физио­
логические данные

31
 b) Translate the word-combinations into English using “noun +
noun". ' ^ Я>
физиология растений; физиология человека, физиологические
принципы; функции животных; виды животных, тело животно­
го; синтез фермента; физиология сельскохозяйственных живот­
ных; специалисты по сельскому хозяйству; здоровье животных,
болезни животных; ветеринарная наука; потребности животных;
спортивные лошади; сельскохозяйственные механизмы, исследо­
вания по физиологии
9. Find the pairs of synonyms. f
to consider, major, to take place, particular, to study, features, during
the whole time, facts, to happen, to originate, requirements, to be
connected with, significance, separate, throughout, main, to relate to,
data, to take into account, importance, to apply, special (individual),
to concentrate (on smth), needs, to have the opinion, characteristics,
to investigate, to make practical use, distinct, to consider the importance,
to focus, to grow out

A D D IT IO N A L E X E R C IS E S

10. Match the Russian word-combinations with their English equivalents.

шерстная порода овец; морозоустойчивая порода животных;
местная порода; сорт риса; биологический вид; клеточный штамм;
гибридная линия; яйценоская линия/порода птиц; тип породы;
порода сального типа (свиней); свиньи беконного типа; яйцено­
ский тип (птицы); смушковый тип овец; тип шерсти; морозоус­
тойчивый сорт; яровой сорт; местные виды (разновидности) свиней
spring variety; hardy animal breed; egg type; local pig varieties; lard-
type breed of pigs; biological species; local/native breed; hybrid strain;
ftir type of sheep; rice variety; cell strain; wool breed; bacon-type pigs;
laying strain; frost resistant variety; breed type; wool type
11. Give the English equivalents of the Russian words in brackets.
1. The chemical (подход) to physiological problems was developed
by Lavoisier in France. 2. Separate (виды) produce hybrid (потом­
ство), for instance, the horse and the donkey may produce the mule,
but the (потомство) are almost always sterile, so this method of
breeding (не считается) to be useful. 3. Morphological or external
(сходство) are used as the basis for grouping organisms into (виды).
4. The word “biochemistry” (состоит из) two parts, that is “bio” and
“chemistry”. 5. The animal health greatly (зависит от рационов пи­
тания), which should include all the necessary (питательные ee-

32
щества). 6. When a farmer chooses animals for his farm, he often
(принимает во внимание происхождение породы крупного ро­
гатого скота). 7. There may be great (различия) in milk yield which
are obtained from а (отдельного) animal (в течение) a year. 8. In
physiology, (ткань) is а (уровень) of organisation in multicellular
organisms; it (состоит из) a group of structurally and functionally
similar (клеток) and their intercellular material. 9. Molecular biology
(занимается) the study of large molecules such as proteins, nucleic
acids, and carbohydrates which are of great (значение) to life processes.
This rather modem science (взаимосвязана с) biochemistry. 10. Justus
von Liebig and Louis Pasteur are known as outstanding scientists of the
19th century who were responsible for the (применение) of chemistry
to the study of biology. 11. The Poland China (произошла от) different
(пород свиней) which are common to southern Ohio area.
12. Remember the singular and plural forms of the following nouns'":
Существительное в единственном числе Суше ствител ьно е
и его перевод на русский язык во множественном числе
analysis [s'naelisis] анализ analyses [a'naelisi:z]
bacterium [baek'tiariam] бактерия bacteria [baek'tiana]
basis Fbeisis] базис, основа bases [beisfcz]
criterion [krai'tianan] критерий, признак criteria [krai'tiana]
datum ['deitam] данная величина data ['delta] or ['data]
formula [fo:mjula] формула formulae ['farmjuli:]
fungus ['fXrjgas] гриб, плесень fungi [Тладі:]
genus fcfci:nas] род] вид, сорт genera [’cfcenara]
medium ['miidiam] среда media ['mi:dia]
phenomenon [fi'nmrunan] явление phenomena [fi'nomina]
series [’siaiiz] ряд, серия series ['siari:z]
stimulus [’stimjulas] раздражитель, стимул stimuli ['stimjulai]

Fill the gaps with a suitable noun, singular or plural, from the table.
1. There are some particularly interesting ... in animal physiology,
for instance so-called self-amputation is found among certain lizards,
worms, salamanders, and spiders. 2. Different plants are susceptible
(чувствительны) to ... infection which may be caused by such species
of organisms as yeasts (дрожжи), molds (плесени), mushrooms etc.
3. Chemical... of milk has shown that it contains valuable proteins. 4. Both
chemistry and biology have provided the ... for the development of
biochemistry. 5. Blood tests provide vets with reliable ... about the
animal’s health. 6. Microscopic organisms which consist of one cell and

’ Некоторые существительные в английском языке заимствованы из грече­

ского или латинского языков и сохранили форму множественного числа, кото­
рую они имеют в этих языках. В таблице приведены некоторые примеры таких
существительных, которые могут встретиться в научных текстах по биологии.

2 Комарова 33
 (палочковидный)

S S S S u B y coulc
9С ?т еш Т Ю1 3 2 Ш £ Ш u™ thfconcentration of ozone as the
of ak pollution (загрязнение ). 11. Any ehange m the envmmment
whichis intense enough to cause a «action or change m an orgarusm
or in any of its parts is known as ... . 12. The general ... C,<H2O Kis
commonly used to represent many caibohydrates, which means watered
carbon.”
13. Translate into Russian, paying attention to the different meanings
of the word throughout. Use a dictionary if necessary.
1 Research in animal physiology tends to concentrate on understan­
ding how physiological features changed throughout the evolutionary
history of anim als. 2. In 1869 at Leipzig Ludwig founded the
Physiological Institute, which served as a model for research institutes
in medical schools throughout the world. 3. Autumn calvmg (осен­
ний отёл) is less common and occurs generally in regions where
winters are moderate and pasture grasses are available throughout the
year 4 The domesticated Indian buffalo is found throughout the
warmer parts of the Old World from China to Egypt, as well as m
Hungary, France, and Italy. 5. There are more than 300 known breeds
or local varieties of pigs throughout the world. 6. H orm ones are
liberated into blood and other body fluids by endocrine glands and
transported throughout the body. 7. The B actrian cam el occurs
throughout the highlands of Central Asia from Turkestan to Mongoha
and is an important beast of burden (вьючное животное) throughout
that region. 8. The pampas territories of Argentina provide excellent
conditions for grazing of cattle throughout the year without need for
shelter. 9. The physiology of circulation is concerned with the origin
of blood pressure in the force of the heartbeat and the regulation of
heart rate, blood pressure, and the flow of blood. 10. Throughout his
career D arw in wrote many papers but the m ost fam ous of his
manuscripts is The Origin o f Species by Means o f Natural Selection,
or The Preservation o f Favoured Races in the Struggle fo r Life
which was published on November 24, 1859.
14. a) Use the correct form of the verb in brackets in the passive voice,
b) Rewrite sentences 4, 7, 8, 9 and 12 in the active voice.
1. At present, research in physiology (to concentrate) on the integra­
tion of the different activities of cells, tissues, and organs at the level
of the intact organism. 2. Some problems of mammalian physiology
already (to investigate) from a classical-organ and oigan-system point
of view, but comparative studies in physiology (to continue) in future.

34
3. High milk yields (to maintain) if feeding rations (to calculate) on
the basis of physiological parameters of animals. 4. In the 19th century,
methods of the physical sciences (to apply) to physiology by Carl
Ludwig, a famous German physiologist. 5. The project for scientific
cooperation between the research institutes (to consider) at the
conference next week. 6. In an early scientific classification, tissues (to
divide) on the basis of the organ system of which they formed a part,
for instance, nervous tissues. 7. The principles of experimentation in the
life sciences (to suggest) by a French physiologist Claude Bernard in the
19th century. 8. Careful and rather expensive research (to carry out) by
the biochemists at the cell level now. 9. The basis for the physiology of
microorganisms (to provide) by the concept of comparative biochemistry.
10. Common or general features usually (to fin d ) at the cellular and
molecular levels of organisation for animals and plants. 11. Even now
physiology is still of great importance among the functional sciences that
(to relate) closely to the field of medicine. 12. The first journal which
(to devote) mainly to the publication of research results in physiology
(to publish) by Sir Michael Foster, a professor of practical physiology
at University College in London, in 1878.
15. Translate into English.
a) сходства и различия между видами; рассматривать на кле­
точном уровне; сосредоточиться на особых свойствах (призна­
ках) породы; анализировать ткани у животных; зависеть от про­
исхождения; поддерживать необходимый рацион кормления;
(под)разделять животных на группы; посвятить (уделить) время
анализу; происходить из (возникать в) России; принимать во
внимание значение (чего-л.); вообще; относиться к потомству;
исследовать в течение года; новый подход; для того, чтобы при­
менить в кормлении животных; состоять из нескольких частей;
на основе химических анализов; важное применение; иметь дело
с данными, проводить научное исследование в области физио­
логии животных
b) 1. Физиология имеет огромное значение среди функцио­
нальных наук, которые тесно связаны с медициной. 2. В настоя­
щее время основной подход к изучению физиологии животных
состоит в том, чтобы исследовать разнообразные функции орга­
низма на клеточном и молекулярном уровнях. 3. Практическое
использование новых открытий в области физиологии представ­
ляет большой интерес для врачей, фармацевтов и работников
сельского хозяйства. 4. Физиологические характеристики отдель­
ного животного учитываются во многих случаях, например, ког­
да фермер выбирает быков для разведения. 5. Сравнительная фи­
зиология изучает процессы размножения и лактации у различных
видов сельскохозяйственных животных.

35
 E X E R C IS E S FO R PA IR W ORK

16. a) Student A reads the text about Carl Ludwig on page 36, and
Student В reads the text on page 41. Students make up questions
using the question word in brackets in the Past Simple Tense, Active
6 4 - - --------------- information »"•*
texts

Task for Student A

CARL F.W. LUDW IG

Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig, a founder of the physicochemical

school of physiology in Germany, was bom in ... (Where?) m 1816.
He was a professor of physiology at the universities of Marburg ...
(When?), Z (1849-1855), Vienna (1855-1865), and Leipzig from
u r i c h

1865 till his death in 1895. Ludwig is best known for his study of the
cardiovascular system1. . .
He was an inventor of some devices for physiological e^eriraents.
In 1847 he invented a kymograph3, a cylindrical drum, that is still used
t o ... (How?). A simple flowmeter was used by Ludwig in 1867 to measure
the rate of blood flow through arteries and veins.
Ludwig was the first to keep ... (What?) alive in vitro, that is, outside
the animal’s body in 1856. He also measured blood pressure in the
capillaries.... (What?) were discovered by Ludwig as well. In 1871 Ludwig
together with the American physiologist Henry Bowditch formulated
the “all-or-none law” 4of cardiac muscle5action which stated... ( What?).
Modem theories of urine and lymph formation are based on Ludwig’s
paper on urine secretion which was written in 1844. He also introduced...
(What?) as an indication of the approximate rate of protein metabolism
in the entire animal and was first to show the influence of secretory
nerves on human digestive glands6. Ludwig is considered one of the great
physiology teachers; nearly ... (How many?) of his students became
prominent7 scientists.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_F._W._Ludwig)

COMMENTS
1. cardiovascular system [JkcudiauVaeskjula] —сердечно-сосудистая система
2. device [diVais] — устройство
3. kymograph ['kaimagraf] — кимограф
4. “all-or-none law” — закон «все или ничего»
5. cardiac muscle ['ka:diaek 'nusl] — сердечная мышца, миокард
6. digestive gland [dai'd3estiv 'glaend] — пищеварительная железа
7. prominent [’prominent] — выдающийся

36
 b) Find in the text international scientific terms and write their Russian
equivalents.
c) Find in the text the English equivalents for the Russian word-
combinations.
сформулировали закон; примерная скорость метаболизма бел­
ка; стали выдающимися учеными; изобретатель нескольких уст­
ройств; современные теории основываются на...; регистрировать
изменения; внедрил измерение азота в моче; был первым, кто по­
казал влияние ...; измерил давление крови; основатель физико­
химического направления в физиологии; известен своим учени­
ем о ...; хранить органы животного живыми в искусственных ус­
ловиях; считается одним из основоположников физиологии

S U P P L E M E N T A R Y TEX TS

17. a) Answer the question: What do you know about the contribution o f
I. P. Pavlov to the development o f physiology? Read and translate
the text about Pavlov’s biography into Russian.

Text 1

IVAN PETROVICH PAVLOV

Pavlov, the first son of a priest, was bom in Ryazan in central Russia
in 1849. He attended a church school and a theological seminary. In
1870 he entered the University of St. Petersburg, where he studied
chemistry and physiology. He completed his dissertation in 1883 and
received the Medical Degree at the Imperial Medical Academy in
St. Petersburg.
Then, from 1884 till 1886, Pavlov studied in Germany under the
direction of the cardiovascular physiologist Carl Ludwig (in Leipzig) and
the gastrointestinal physiologist Rudolf Heidenhain (in Breslau). When
Pavlov worked with Ludwig, he carried out his first independent research
on the physiology of the circulatory system. From 1888 to 1890, in the
laboratory of Botkin in St. Petersburg, he investigated cardiac physiology
and the regulation of blood pressure.
He became so skilful a surgeon that he was able to introduce a catheter
into the femoral artery of a dog almost painlessly without anesthesia and
to record the influence on blood pressure of various pharmacological
and emotional stimuli. He is famous for his development of the concept
of the conditioned reflex. In a now-classic experiment, he trained a hungry
dog to salivate at the sound of a bell, which was previously associated
with the sight of food. He developed a similar approach in his first studies
relating human behaviour to the nervous system.

37
 Pavlov’s method of studying the normal, healthy animal in natural
condWom made a significant contribution to science. He was able to for-
ти ІаГ Г е idea of the conditioned reflex because he reduced a complex
situation to the simple terms of an experiment.
In 1890 he became professor of physiology in the Imperial Medical
Academy where he worked until 1924. At the newly founded Institute
of Experimental Medicine, he initiated precise surgical procedures for
_a fw ппр.гяііппя and orovided
animals
facilities for the maintenance of their health. . . .
During the years 1890-1900 Pavlov studied the secretory activity of
digestion. The results of his work were published in his book Lectures
__ * .« _1QQ7
on tne Work o f the ТИРЯШВ m .
He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine in
1904 for his work on digestive secretions. Pavlov was the first Director
of the Institute of Physiology in St. P e t e r s b u r g winch was founded on
the base of the Physiology Laboratory m 1925. In 1936, after the death
of Pavlov, the institute was named after him.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov)

b) Answer the questions.

1. Where and when was Pavlov bom?
2. What university did Pavlov graduate from?
3. What subjects was he interested in at the universit
4. Who were Pavlov’s scientific guides?
5. What was his first independent research devoted t
6. Where did Pavlov carry out his research from 188!
7. What is he famous for?
8. What contribution did Pavlov make in the developi
physiology?
9. Where were the results of Pavlov’s research publis
10. Why and when was Pavlov awarded the Nobel Prize
and Medicine?
11. What problems did Pavlov investigate during 189( 1900?
12. When was the Institute of Physiology founded in !
c) Find in the text the English equivalents of the Russian word-
combinations.
интересоваться чем-л.; независимое (самостоятельное) иссле-
вание; опытный хирург; быть известным (чем-л.); специализи-
вклаі
рировать) влияние (на что-л.); быть награжденным; проводить
эксперименты; разрабатывать концепцию; публиковать результа­
ты; работать под руководством (кого-л.); цель его исследования
состояла в том, чтобы изучить ...; посещать школу; поступить
в университет; написать диссертацию

38
18. Use the following plan to make a presentation about the biography
of a famous physiologist (or a Russian or foreign animal scientist).
Use the word-combinations from exercise 17c.
1. The place and the date of birth.
2. The educational background.
3. The scientific guides and the first independent research.
4. The development of any concepts (or theories); the invention of
any devices (machines) for scientific experiments (or practical
application).
5. The contribution to the development of this particular scientific
direction (field of knowledge).
6. The recognition from the scientific community/colleagues. Any
rewards or prizes.
7. The importance of the research to the modern science.
8. Any followers of scientific schools.
19. Read the text and write 10—12 questions on it. Use the questions as
the plan to retell the text.

T ext 2
T H E PAVLOV IN ST IT U TE O F PHYSIOLOGY
O F T H E RU SSIA N ACADEMY O F SC IE N C E S
The Pavlov Institute of Physiology was founded in 1925 on the base
of the Physiological Laboratory. The first Director of the Institute of
Physiology was an outstanding Russian scientist, the first Nobel Prize
winner in physiology and medicine, Academician Ivan Petrovich Pavlov.
The main goal o f the Institute was to study physiology o f brain
hemispheres by the method of conditional reflexes. Initially, the main
problems investigated at the Institute were regularities of the activity of
brain hemispheres, interactions of the excitation and inhibition processes,
types of the nervous system, experimental neuroses as well as the higher
nervous activity of primates. In 1934 new Departments were founded:
Anatomy, Biochemistry, Biophysics, Experimental Psychology. This
provided ground for detailed studies on the structural and physicochemical
basis of physiology and psychology of the animal and human brain.
Initiated by Pavlov, neurogenetical investigations began.
In 1936, after Pavlov’s death, his name was given to the Institute. The
Institute was headed by his follower, Academician Leon Orbeli. Under
Orbeli’s guidance, in 1936- 1950 the higher nervous activity physiology
was added by evolutionary, comparative and age physiology as well as
by physiology of the autonomous nervous system and that of sense
organs. Studies on cell biochemistry and cell biophysics developed.
In the 1950s, the Institute became the largest physiological centre for
investigations on physiology and pathology o f the higher nervous
activity, general physiology of the nervous system, physiology of sense
39
organs, evolutionary and ecological physiology. One of the principal j
research directions became physiology and pathology of the corticovis- i
ceral interrelations. These studies contributed signif cantly to the current |
concept of genesis of human psychosomatic diseases. Academician j
Alexander M. Ugolev discovered a new important type of digestion, that
is, membrane digestion, which is a universal m echanism o f food
digestion. Complex studies were carried out on participation of different
physiological systems in adaptation to external and internal medium
factors and their role in maintaining the organism homeostasis.
Since 1995 the Director of the Institute has been Professor Djan P.
Dvoretsky. At present the Pavlov Institute of Physiology is one of the larg­
est multiprofile physiological institutions of the country. In its 40 labo­
ratories and sectors, about 300 researchers are working, including more
than 200 Doctors and Candidates of Sciences.
The Institute is located both in St. Petersburg and in the research
campus Koltushi founded by Ivan Pavlov and located in the vicinity of
St. Petersburg. The campus includes the Pavlov Memorial Complex, the
science library, the animal and anthropoid houses, the park as well as
modem laboratory buildings and residence buildings.
The Institute has one of the la te st libraries, which was founded in the
1890s at the Physiological Laboratory of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
It contains an enormous amount of books and journals on physiology,
biochemistry, anatomy, and medicine which have been collected for
dozens of years and up to now. It also contains Pavlov’s private library as
well as books written by outstanding Russian and foreign scientists.
The Institute continues fundamental and applied investigations on
mechanisms of the higher nervous activity, functions of the sensory and
visceral systems, understanding of processes of their regulation and
adaptation. Studies are carried out in the frame of the Institute long­
term programmes: M echanism s o f Regulation o f Physiological
Systems o f the Human and A nim al Organism in the Process of
Adaptation to Environmental Conditions. Scientists of the Institute
carry out joint researches with 38 organisations in foreign countries.
(http://www.infran.ru/index_eng.htm)
20. Try to find more information about some other scientific research
institutes (Russian or foreign), about their history, main achievements
and current research programmes.
Search the following websites:
1. http://www.agrobiotech.ru/ — about the research programmes in
the All-Russian Scientific Research Institute o f Agricultural
Biotechnology.
2. http://www.rashn.ru/ — The site of the Russian Academy of
Agricultural Sciences with the list of the agricultural scientific
research institutes.

40
 USEFUL LANGUAGE
The institute was founded...; It was named after...; The main goal/aim of
the institute is to...; The research is aimed at...; It has made a great
contribution to...; The following problems are being investigated now...;
Articles on...; To carry out the research work on...; On the basis of...;
Current experiments are devoted to... .

Task for Student В

CARL F. W. LUDWIG
Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig, a founder of the physicochemical
school of physiology in Germany, was bom in Germany i n ... ( When ?).
He was a professor of physiology at the universities of Marburg
(1846-1849), Zurich (1849-1855), Vienna (1855-1865), and ...
(Where?) from 1865 till his death in 1895. Ludwig is best known for
his study of the cardiovascular system1.
He was an inventor of some devices2 for physiological experiments. In
1847 he invented ... (What?) and used it to record changes in arterial
blood pressure. A simple flowmeter was used by Ludwig in 1867... (How?).
Ludwig was the first to keep animal organs (a frog heart) alive in vitro,
that is, outside the animal’s body in 1856. He also measured... (What?).
The depressor3 and accelerator4 nerves of the heart were discovered by
Ludwig as well. In 1871... ( Who?) formulated the “all-or-none law” 5 of
cardiac muscle6 action which states that the heart muscle, under any
stimulus, will contract to the fullest extent or not at all.
Modem theories o f ... ( What?) are based on Ludwig’s paper on urine
secretion which was written in ... (W hen?). He also introduced the
m easurem ent o f nitrogen in the urine as an indication o f the
approximate rate of protein metabolism in the entire animal and was
first to show the influence of secretory nerves7 on human digestive
glands8. Ludwig is considered one of the great physiology teachers;
nearly 200 of his students became prominent9 scientists.

COMMENTS
1. cardiovascular system [.kcudiauVaeskjula] —сердечно-сосудистая система
2. device [diVais] — устройство
3. depressor nerve [di'presa 'novj — депрессорный нерв (сердца)
4. accelerator nerve [ak'sala,rerta 'narvj — «ускоряющий нерв сердца»
5. “all-or-none law” — закон «всё или ничего*
6. cardiac muscle ['kadiask ’nusl] — сердечная мышца, миокард
7. secretory nerv [si'krltan 'narv] — секреторный нерв
8. digestive gland [dai'cftestiv 'glaend] — пищеварительная железа
9. prominent ['prpmmant] — выдающийся
 Unit 3
ANIMAL NUTRITION

Vocabulary and Grammar’.

1. Употребление глаголов to compose, to comprise, to consist,
to contain, to include, to involve.
2. Значение слова as и сочетаний с ним.
3. Особые случаи употребления страдательного залога.
4. И нфинитив в функции обстоятельства цели.
5. Предложения типа «It is + прилагательное + инфинитив».

VO CABULARY ТО T H E TEXT
“A N IM A L N U T R IT IO N ”

Nouns : acid (amino acid, fatty acid), carbohydrate, compound,

development, diet, excess, fat, growth, nutrient, nutrition, protein,
quality, repair, substance, structure, supplement(s), supply, usefulness.
Adjectives and adverbs', available, essential, (the) former, high-
quality (ant poor-quality), (the) latter, non-essential, nutritional (syn
nutritive), proper, (the) same, vital.
Verbs', affect, compose, comprise, consum e, contain, ensure,
involve, manufacture, require, supply, support.
Other parts o f speech', consequently, moreover (syn furthermore),
on the one hand, on the other hand, thus. fi '

Give the Russian equivalents of the international words and scientific

terms from the text “Animal Nutrition”:
adequate [’aedikwit], balance [’baelans], basic [’beisik], calcium
[’kaelsiam], immune protection [I'mjim pra'tekfn], lipid ['lipid], mineral
['тіпәгәі], muscle ['mvsl], phosphorus ['fbsfaras], stimulant ['stimjubnt]

Употребление глаголов to compose to comprise, ,

, ,
to consist to contain to include, to involve
Все глаголы, кроме to involve, не употребляются в группе вре­
мен Progressive. «Ь- •<*« V»» £
to com pose (sm th) [кэт'рэиг] — составлять, формировать
(что-л. целое); обычно употребляется в страдательном залоге —
to be composed o f smth — состоять из чего-л.; syn to consist of
42
 to comprise (smth) [ksm'praiz] — включать, заключать в <
держать (что-л.); syn to compose; составлять, состоять (из
composed
of smth
to consist (of smth) [kan'sist] — состоять (из чего-л.); содержать
(что-л.); глагол используется для обозначения из каких материа­
лов или веществ сделан предмет или каковы его составные части;
syn to comprise, to be composed o f (smth)
to contain [kan'tern] включать
внутри п
содержится или являе
to include
to include [in'klu:d) включать; заключать, с
ется, чтобы упомянуть
ко некоторые части, которые входят в состав предмета; syn to
включать
ся во что-л., являться
to involve (smb in smth) [in'vnlv] включать
включать
наиболее важную или необходимую составную часть»; syn to
include, to contain; to include (smb in doing smth) вовлекать (кого-л.,
во что-л.); привлекать к участию; syn to take part in smth
Examples:
Carbohydrates consist/are com - Углеводы состоят, главным обра-
posed mainly o f molecules ЗОМ, из молекул, которые со­
which contain atoms of держат атомы углерода, водо­
carbon (C), hydrogen (H), рода и кислорода и имеют
and oxygen (O), and have общую формулу С6Н 120 6.
the general formula C6H 120 6.
A protein molecule is very large Молекула белка очень большая
and consists of/com poses и состоит из многих амино­
many amino acids which are кислот, которые соединены
joined together in long chains вместе в длинные цепи.
e term “species” means bio­ эмин «вид» означает биологи­
logical classification which ческую классификацию, ко­
com prises/includes related торая включает родственные
organisms with common организмы с общими характе
characteristics and which are ристиками и способными
capable of interbreeding. к интербридингу (т. е. к скре­
щиванию между разновидно­
стями внутри вида).
Freshwater-fish oils, for example, жир
contain both vitamin A and витамин
vitamin A2. так и А2.
43
Most of the common proteins Большинство обычных белков
contain more than 100 amino содержит более 100 амино­
acids. кислот.
In classification of animal tissue При классификации тканей жи-
the first group includes the вотных в первую группу вклю­
most important tissues that чают самые важные ткани,
are important for an animal’ которые важны для роста, вос­
growth, repair and energy. становления и силы животного.
The analysis of an organ struc- Анализ строения органа обычно
ture typically involves st включает изучение на кле­
at the levels of cells and точном и молекулярном
molecules. уровнях. «.•
Proteins are of great nutritional Белки представляют большую
value and are directly involved питательную ценность и не
in the chemical processes посредственно вовлечены /
essential for life. включены в химические г
цессы важные для жизни.
Water is directly involved in all Вода непосредственно участву-
the chemical reactions of life. em во всех жизненных хими­
ческих реакциях.
Part of the structure of nucleic Часть структуры нуклеиновых
acids, which contains genetic кислот, которая содержит
information, consists of генетическую информацию,
carbohydrate. состоит из углеводородов.

Значение слова as и сочетаний с ним

(A s and com binations with it)
as — так как; по мере того как; в качестве; как
as well — тоже, также
as well as — так же, как и
such as — такой (-ая; -ое; -ие), как ...
as ... as — такой ( ж е ) к а к
as ... as possible — как можно ...
not so ... as — не такой как; не так как
as to — что касается • • •

the same as — такой же, как ... І , Ei i ,,...

Examples :
Vitamins are defined as essential
organic substances that play
a catalytic role within the cell.
usually as components of
Витамины определяются как важ-
ные органические вещества,
катал итиче
скую роль в клетке

44
 coenzymes or other groups
associated with enzymes.
As the requirements for farm
products increased, animal
physiology began to develop
as a distinct discipline in order
to improve milk and meat
yields as well as egg
production.
Small quantities of minerals are
essential in animal rations,
but small additions of vitamins
are important as well.
Nutrients such as manganese
and the vitamins are necessary
in small amounts and they are
sometimes referred to as
micronutrients.
Proper animal nutrition is as
important for animal health
as exercise, hygiene, and
environmental conditions.
Farm animals are supplied with
feeds which have as high
concentration of nutrients
as possible.
Proteins are not so/as important
for energy supply as fats.
As to vitamins, they were first
studied by Sir Frederick
Gowland Hopkins in 1912,
who received the Nobel Prize
in 1929 for his achievements.
This dairy farm is trying to
maintain the milk production
at the same level as one year
ago.
в качестве коэнзимов или
других групп, связанных
с ферментами.
По мере того как потребности
в сельскохозяйственных про­
дуктах выросли, физиология
животных начала развиваться
как отдельная дисциплина для
того, чтобы улучшить удои
и выходы мяса, а также
производство яиц.
Небольшие количества мине­
ральных веществ являются
важными в рационах живот­
ных, но небольшие добавки
витаминов также важны.
Питательные вещества, такие
как марганец и витамины,
необходимы в небольших ко­
личествах, и иногда называ­
ются микроэлементами.
Правильное питание животных
так же важно для здоровья
животных, как моцион, гиги­
ена и условия окружающей
среды.
Сельскохозяйственные живот­
ные обеспечиваются кормами,
которые имеют как можно
более высокое содержание
питательных веществ.
Белки не так важны в обеспече­
нии энергией, как жиры.
Что касается витаминов, они
были впервые изучены сэром
Ф. Г. Хопкинсом в 1912 году,
который получил Нобелев­
скую премию в 1929 году за
свои достижения.
Молочная ферма пытается под­
держать производство молока
на таком же уровне, как
и год назад.
45
 G R A M M A R R E V IS IO N
A N D PR E T E X T E X E R C IS E S

случаи употребления страдательного залога

( Soecial cases o f the passive voice)
В английском языке страдательный залог выражается сочета­
нием глагола to be + Participle II (past participle) и употребляется
значительно чаще, чем в русском языке. Рассмотрим наиболее
трудные случаи перевода на русский язык некоторых англииских
глаголов в страдательном залоге.
I. Глаголы, после которых следует косвенное дополнение без
предлога.

to allow позволять кому-л.

to ask спрашивать кого-л.
to give давать кому-л.
to offer smb smth предлагать кому-л.
to recommend or рекомендовать кому-л.
to send smb to do smth посылать кого-л.
to show показывать кому-л.
to teach учить кого-л.
to tell сообщать кому-л.

предложению с этими глаголами в страда

залоге
о
залоге подлежащему
предложения в русском предложении будет соответствоват
п о л н е н и е . у . іЫІҒіИі Швгі (ІэШ&Шя
Examples'. J;
The professor (H e) was asked Профессора (Его) спросили
about the problems of animal о проблемах питания живот­
nutrition. ных.
The students (They) are Студентам (Им) обычно пока­
usually shown the photos of зывают фотографии разных
different sheep breeds. пород овец.
предлог

to account for объяснять (служить объяснением)', отвечать

(нести ответственность) за (что-л.)
to agree on/upon договариваться о (чем-л.)
to deal with иметь дело с; рассматривать (что-л.)
to insist on настаивать на (чем-л.) —►!

46
to listen to слушать; прислушиваться к (нему-л.)
to look after ухаживать за , заботиться о (чем-л.)
to object to возражать, протестовать против (чего-л.)
to refer to ссыпаться на, упоминать (что-л.)
to refer to as называться) (именоваться) как
to rely on/upon полагаться на (что-л./кого-л.)
to speak of/about говорить о (чем-л.)
to substitute for Ц заменять на (что-л.), использовать вместо
to think of думать о (чем-л.)

После этих глаголов в английском языке в страдательном зало

ге предлог сохраняется, уточняя его лексическое значение. На рус
ский язык такие предложения переводятся неопределенно-личны
ми предложениями, и перевод следует начинать с предлога. Еслі
после сказуемого в страдательном залоге стоят два предлога под
ряд, то перевод начинают с первого из них, так как второй пред
лог относится к обстоятельству, стоящему после сказуемого.
Examples:
The results of Pavlov’s research На результаты исследований
are often referred to. Павлова часто ссылаются.
Particular physiological charac- На индивидуальные физиологи-
teristics of a particular horse ческие характеристики лоша­
are usually relied on while ди обычно полагаются при
choosing the animal for racing выборе животного для скачек
The problem of proper animal проблеме правильного обеспе­
nutrition is much spoken чения животных питательны­
of/about by both animal ми веществами много говоряп
scientists and farmers. как ученые, так и фермеры.
3. Некоторые глаголы, за которыми следует прямое дополне-
предлог

to explain объяснить
to translate перевести что-л. кому-л.
smth to smb описать
to describe
to suggest предложить

страдательном залоге
подлежащего
русский
предложение переводится двумя
Example-.
was Новый метод возделывания был
farmers объяснен фермерам, (страда-

47
 тельный залог). ИЛИ: Ферме­
рам объяснили новый метод
возделывания, (неопределен­
но-личная форма).
4. Глаголы, после которых следует косвенное дополнен
предлога, но при переводе на русский язык они всегда уп<
ляются с предлогом. Перевод на русский язык английских
ложений с этими глаголами в страдательном залоге всегда
нают с соответствующего предлога.

to affect smb/smth влиять на кого-л./что-л.

to answer smth отвечать на что-л.
to approach smb/smth приближаться к кому-л./чему-л.
to consult smb консультироваться у кого-л./с кем -л
to follow smb/smth следовать за кем-л./чем-л.
to influence smb/smth влиять на кого-л./что-л.
to join smb/smth присоединяться к кому-л./чему-л.
to need smb/smth нуждаться в ком-л./чем-л.
to watch smb/smth наблюдать за кем-л./чем-л.

Examples’.
The quality of cow’s milk is На качество коровьего молока
influenced by the composition влияет состав корма,
of the diet. *
The achievements in the field За достижениями в области пи-
of animal nutrition are тания животных следует уве-
followed by the increase личение продуктивности жи-
in animal productivity. вотных.
1. Use the correct form of the verb in brackets in the passive voice.
Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. The new edition of a textbook on animal husbandry (to ask ) for
by the students now. 2. The question how to influence the animal
productivity at the genetic level (not/to answer) yet. 3. The plan for the
reconstruction of the cowshed (to insist) on at the meeting tomorrow.
4. The professor’s lecture (to listen) to with great attention by the
students yesterday. 5. Calves (to look) after properly, so they grew
rapidly. 6. The programme for the future scientific conference (not/to
object) to by the members of the organisation committee. 7. Sometimes
water (to refer) to as the most essential substance for normal growth and
metabolism. 8. The data (to rely) on at the moment as the analyses (to
make) carefully recently. 9. The latest discoveries in the field of physiology
(to speak) much of by the scientists at the conference. 10. ... the
veterinarian (to send) for yet? 11. The feeding ration for the sick horse
(to agree) on with a veterinarian last week. 12. Many foreign guests
48
already (to invite) to take part in the agricultural exhibition. 13. The
central role of ATP in energy metabolism (to explain) by Fritz Albert
Lipmann and Herman Kalckar in 1941. 14. Human health greatly (to
affect) by the quality of food which (to consum e). 15. Animal
physiological characteristics (to influence) by nutrition in many ways.
16. Calcium (to need) in feeding rations for poultry as it plays an
important role in the formation of eggshells. 17. The introduction of
mechanisation in agriculture (to fo llo w ) by the increase in food
production.

Инфинитив в функции обстоятельства цели

(The infinitive o f purpose)
Инфинитив (или инфинитивная группа, т. е. инфинитив с
уточняющими его словами), в начале предложения может выпол­
нять функцию обстоятельства цели. Такой инфинитив часто вво­
дится союзом in order чтобы, для того чтобы.
Example :
In order to increase the milk Чтобы (Для того чтобы) повы-
yields the farmer provided сить удои молока, фермер
cows with highly nutritious обеспечил коров высокопита-
feeds. тельными кормами.
Союз in order часто опускается, и предложение начинается
сразу с инфинитива, причем при переводе на русский язык перед
инфинитивом добавляется союз чтобы.
Example :
То understand animal require- Чтобы понять потребности жи-
ments in nutrients, scientists вотных в питательных веще-
began to study the problems ствах, ученые начали изучать
of animal nutrition. проблемы питания животных.
Инфинитив в функции обстоятельства цели может находить­
ся не только в начале предложения, но и после дополнения или
обстоятельства, причем союз in order и в этом случае часто опус­
кается.
Example :
Farmers follow an optimal bal- Фермеры следуют оптимальному
ance of nutrients in animals’ соотношению питательных ве-
rations to provide them with ществ в рационе животных для
all the necessary substances. того, чтобы обеспечить их
всеми необходимыми веще­
ствами.

49
2. Change the sentences as in the model.
M odel' Scientists study metabolism processes as they want to
’ improve animal feeding. -> 1) Scientists study metabolism
processes to improve animal feeding. 2) Scientists study
metabolism processes in order to improve animal feeding.
1 Students study farm animal physiology as they want to become vets
and cure farm animals. 2. Scientists are interested in breeding because
they want to improve some animal characteristics. 3. Farmers provide
animals with highly nutritious feeds as they want to increase milk and
meat quality. 4. The most important vitamins are added to the animals’
rations as they are necessary to ensure proper growth and development.
5. In some cases farmers do not increase their production as they want
to maintain high prices in the food market. 6. It is essential to develop
the agricultural sector as it supplies raw materials for other sectors of
the economy. 7. This farmer does not want to sell fresh milk as he wants
to process it into cheese and other milk products. 8. Scientists have made
the chemical analyses of different animal feeds because they want to
estimate their nutritional value. о^

П редложения типа
« It is + прилагательное + инфинитив»
( “I t is + adjective + infinitive”)
Безличные предложения типа It is necessary to improve явля­
ются разновидностью именных безличных предложений и пока­
зывают отношение, мнение говорящего о действии, выраженном
инфинитивом, следующим за прилагательным. * V

Example: . )STj
It is necessary to improve Необходимо улучшить питание
animal nutrition. животных.

Когда говорящий указывает лицо, которое выполняет действие,

выраженное инфинитивом, то употребляется оборот с предлогом
for. 14
Example: | | ^ tшшШк-
It is important for farmers Для фермеров важно обеспечи-
to provide animals with high- вать животных высококаче-
quality feeds. ственными кормами.

В таких предложениях наиболее часто употребляются прила­

гательные: difficult, easy, possible, impossible, necessary, essential,
desirable и др. » v •••<;-

50
3. Make up sentences as in the model.
Model: It is difficult to study life processes in farm animals.

A В С
difficult to maintain balance between nutrients.
possible to develop animal nutrition research.
It is (not) important to know optimal feeding rations.
necessary to improve animal feeding.
essential to study life processes in farm animals.
interesting to classify nutrients into groups.
4. Read and translate the text. Find in the text the sentences:
— in the passive voice;
— with the infinitive of purpose;
— with the word as and its combinations;
— with the construction “It is + adjective + infinitive”.

AN IM A L N U TR ITIO N
Since animal nutrition research began to develop rapidly during the
1930s, many discoveries about anim al m etabolism and nutrient
requirements have been made. Nutrition is interpreted as the study of
the organic process by which an organism assimilates1and uses food and
liquids2 for normal functioning. Adequate nutrition for any living
organism is necessary for the following reasons: 1) in order to provide
adequate energy levels; 2) to maintain proper body structures and
processes, for instance, muscle function, immune protection, bone
density3 and strength; 3) to ensure the repair and development of all
the organism’s systems, thus to maintain balance between health and
disease. In the case of farm animals, proper nutrition is affected by
various factors, such as animal species and breed, animal age, body
shape and size and other physiological characteristics. The lack of or
deficiency in any nutrient may cause animal weakness and even illness.
A nutrient is any element or compound which is necessary for an
organism’s metabolism, growth, development or other functions. It is
essential to provide farm animals with adequate amounts of nutrients
which they get from various feeds. In general, animals require the same
nutrients as humans. There are six basic nutrients which are important
for animals’ health and they are classified into the two main groups:
1) substances that provide eneigy; 2) substances that support metabolism.
The former group includes carbohydrates, proteins and fats, the latter
comprises minerals (for instance, phosphorus, calcium), vitamins and
water.
It has been found that any particular substance can play more than
one role in the body. For example, most animals get energy from

51
carbohydrates and fats, which are oxidised in the body. However, protein
supplies energy if other sources are inadequate or if it is supplied in great
excess above the requirements of the body. MorsoVcr, proteins provide
the building blocks (amino acids) for enzymes and other proteins
within the body. Thus, for most living organisms nutrients provide not
only the energy necessary for certain vital processes but also the various
materials from which all structural and functional components can be
made up. " * *
On the one hand, there are so-called non-essential nutrients which
are synthesised by the cell if they are unavailable to the living organism
with the food or feed. On the other hand, there are essential nutrients
which cannot be manufactured within the cell in the body. Consequently,
it is important to supply farm animals with feeds which contain certain
essential amino acids as well as essential fatty acids.
The problem of proper feed supply is of great importance to animal
husbandry. Thus, various animal feeds are grown or developed for
livestock and poultry, selected and prepared in order to provide highly
nutritional diets that both maintain the health o f the animals and
increase the quality of such farm products as meat, milk, or eggs.
Scientists have studied the usefulness of different feeds as sources
of essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals, as well as lipids and
carbohydrates. They also have suggested the proper balance of available
nutrients in the animal diet and as a result different nutrient supplements
and feed-processing technologies4 have been developed. Since the
1950s, antibiotics and other growth stimulants have been added to
feeding rations in order to increase the rate of growth and reduce death
loss of farm animals. Antibiotics help to overcom e5 the growth-
depressing effects of an inadequate and poor-quality diet or of imperfect
management practices6, but their effectiveness differs among animal
species. -Л'
The achievements of animal physiology and special studies of life
processes in farm animals have ensured the development of the optimal
diet for each animal. Many of the feeds have appeared as the result of
research, experimentation, and chemical analyses which were conducted
by animal scientists. However, the problem of adequate animal nutrition
is still the subject of current studies for farm scientists. Human nutrition
has been improved as a result of animal nutrition investigations.

COMMENTS
1. to assimilate [a'simileit] — зд. поглощать, усваивать
2. liquid [’likwid] — жидкость
3. bone density [Ъәоп 'densrti] — плотность кости
4. feed-processing technologies — технологии по переработке корма
5. to overcome — преодолеть
6. management practices — способы содержания животных
52
 E X E R C IS E S TO T H E TEXT

5. Answer the questions.

1. Which problems does animal nutrition deal with?
2. What stimulated the development of animal nutrition research?
3. What characteristics influence proper nutrition?
4. What is the definition of the term “nutrient”?
5. What is the most general classification of nutrients?
6. What is the use of nutrients for animals’ health?
7. What is the difference between essential and non-essential nutrients?
8. What scientific discoveries are of practical value to farmers?
Think and say.
1. Are there any similarities or differences in human and animal nutrition?
2. How can human nutrition benefit from the knowledge that has
come from the animal nutrition research?
6. Use the information from the text to complete the sentences.
1. On the one hand, proteins are important as.... On the other hand,
they are... . 2. Carbohydrates as well as fats are substances that provide
organisms... . 3. Non-essential amino acids are as important for living
organisms a s.... 4. It is essential to know.... 5. For some animal species
antibiotics are not so... as... . 6. As to the achievements in animal
physiology scientists have already... . 7. In order to increase animal
productivity it is necessary to provide their animals with as... as possible.
8. Inadequate nutrition affects such animal physiological characteristics
as.... 9. Water is often referred to as.... 10. The improvements in animal
nutrition have been followed by... . 11. Thus, the problem of proper
animal nutrition is... . 12. It is vital to provide animals with... .
7. a) Use the data from the text to complete the scheme (Fig. 3) that
shows the possible classification of nutrients. Add the names of
chemical substances and compounds, if you know.

Nutrients
........................ I .........................

I
Group I Group II

Water
‘—[ Amino Acids ]
Essential
—{Non-essential

Fig. 3. Classification of nutrients

53
 b) Use the scheme to make a report on the topic “The Classification
of Nutrients”.

USEFUL LANGUAGE
The scheme shows; to be classified into; to be divided (in/into); to be
subdivided (in/into); to be further subdivided (in/into); to be separated
(into); to be grouped into; to include; to be included

8. Find in the text “Animal Nutrition’ : • M;f ”

a) nouns with the suffixes -tion, -ment, -ness. Put them into the table
and add some more examples.

-tion -ment -ness

function 9
•
9
•

b) the negative form of the following adjectives:

adequate, available, essential, perfect.
Write the negative form of the adjectives with the prefixes im-, in-,
un-, non-. Use a dictionary if necessary.
important, current, usual, organic, proper, necessary, certain,
possible, nutritional, suitable, ruminant. u j

im- ІП- un- non-

9
•
9
•
9
•
9
•

A D D IT IO N A L E X E R C IS E S

9. Fill the gaps with the correct form of the verb. (There may be more than
one variant.) Translate the sentences into Russian.
to affect, to compose, to comprise, to consist, to consume, to
contain, to ensure, to involve, to manufacture, to supply, to support.
1. Very small amounts of the unsaturated fatty acid linoleic (лино-
левая кислот а)... in some fats, but they are necessary for growth and
health. 2. A particular ration greatly ... by the feed cost (стоимость)
and its supply. 3. Together with oils, fats... one of the three main classes
of foodstuffs. 4. The biologically active fatty acids are referred to as the
prostaglandins and they... in very small quantities in animal tissues, but
they ... in many vital functions, such as enzyme activity in lipid
metabolism, function of the central nervous system, regulation of blood
pressure etc. 5. As a substance, water ... of such chemical elements as
hydrogen and oxygen and it exists in gaseous, liquid, and solid states.
54
6. N onrum inant animals as well as man ... proteins mainly from
animals and their products, that is, meat, milk, and eggs. 7. Enzymes
are substances that act as catalysts in living organisms and ... the rate of
biological processes within all living organisms. 8. Plants use the carbon
dioxide in the air during the process of photosynthesis in order ...
organic compounds such as carbohydrates. 9. Water is vital to life as it
... every process in living organisms. 10. It has been calculated that 6 mg
of carotene ... adults (взрослых) with the necessary amount of vita­
min A.
10. Translate into English.
1. На удои молока повлияло изменение в условиях содержания
коров. 2. На здоровье животных сильно влияет питательная цен­
ность кормов. 3. На таблицу по питательной ценности различных
кормов часто ссылаются. 4. Из-за недостатка микроэлементов и
витаминов в рационах кормления у животных появляются серь­
езные заболевания (букв, «за недостатком... следуют...»). 5. На пи­
тательных добавках настаивает сейчас ветеринар. 6. На все воп­
росы фермера ответили. 7. За ветеринаром уже послали. 8. На до­
ступность пастбищных трав в течение всего года не полагаются
в северных регионах.
11. Give the English equivalents of the Russian verbs in brackets.
1. Energy value, mineral elements, and vitamins (включены) in the
(содержит)
growth
(включает)
structural analyses of the organic compounds that (составляют) the
basic components of cells such as proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids as
hormones)
chemical
oxygen
water molecule (состоит из) two hydrogen atoms, each is linked by
oxygen
with
a s... as; so ... as; both ... and; either ...or, neither..: nor, such ...as
I . ... repair... development of most animal organs is possible without
proper protein supply. 2. Protein is n o t... important in energy supply ...
carbohydrates and fats. 3. Specialists take into account ... quality ...
Farmers
much water growth
activity in animal bodies. 5. ... amino acids ... arginine and methionine
are referred to essential amino acids. 6. The vitamins are required in
small amounts because they may play one of the two main functions:
... a catalytic ... a regulatory role in metabolism.
55
 b) ҒШ the gaps with the suitable word(s):
than', as', as well', as well as (2)', such as, as to (2 ).
1. ... our knowledge in animal nutrition increases, more nutritive
feeding rations are provided for animals. 2. Fats ... carbohydrates are
the substances which provide animals with energy. 3. When animal
requirements in energy are satisfied, the excess is stored ... body fat.
4. Various salts or io n s c o p p e r and iron are referred to minerals. 5. When
a farmer plans feeding rations for his animals, he considers the amount
of feed ... its chemical composition. 6. Essential amino acids are not
synthesised in the body, but there are some essential fatty acids.... 7. The
contribution of the German scientists to animal physiology in the 19th
century was much greater ... of the Russian researchers. 8. ... energy, it
can be supplied by different substances, however, protein is the least
important source of energy. i; ^
13. Use the correct form of the verb in brackets in the passive voice.
Translate the sentences into Russian. , | ' r?
1. Small amounts of iodine ( to need) by animals for proper growth.
2. The farmer just (to offer) to invite the veterinarian in order to examine
his animals. 3. Any changes in animal feeding (to agree) on with the
vet tomorrow. 4. Yesterday the specialist in animal nutrition (to ask) to
give some recommendations and he (to listen) to with great attention.
5. The young farmer already (to give) some advice how to look after the
animals during the winter period. 6. The farmer (to explain) the reasons
of possible animal digestive troubles. 7. The symptoms of the vitamin A
deficiency in calves’ rations (to describe) in books on animal nutrition.
8. The results of the chemical analysis of feeds (not/to show) to the
specialists yet. 9. At the moment the plan for farm reconstruction (not/
object) to. ,“r>. ' _
14. Complete the sentences using the infinitive of purpose.
Model. Many animals require some fat which contains one or more
of the essential fatty acids ... (to prevent). —» Many animals
require some fat which contains one or more of the essential
fatty acids (in order) to prevent such physical symptoms
of essential fatty-acid deficiency as poor hair growth,
low growth rates etc.
І. Farmers spread manure in the fields ... (to increase). 2. Animals
which work hard in a cold environment require high fat levels in their
diets... (to maintain). 3. Different crops such as corn or wheat are grown
on this cattle farm ... (to supply). 4. People began to domesticate some
animals ... (toproduce). 5. Scientists are interested in better understan­
ding of such physiological processes as lactation... (to influence). 6. Some
calcium is added to animals’ rations... (to ensure). 7. Mineral supplements
are essential in animal d ie t... (to support). 8. Scientists devoted great
56
efforts... (to investigate). 9. Pavlov concentrated on studying the normal,
healthy animal in natural conditions ... (to develop). 10. Much time and
money are spent on breeding programmes ... (to improve).
15. Translate into English.
a) обеспечивать незаменимыми аминокислотами; переварива­
емые углеводы; требовать (нуждаться в) заменимых жиров(-ах);
доступные (имеющиеся в наличии) питательные добавки; поддер­
живать правильное развитие; тот же самый корм (такая же пища);
избыток липидов; жизненно важные белки; содержать питатель­
ные вещества; способствовать росту; потреблять корма; улучшать
структуру; полезность кормовых добавок; первые из упомянутых
ранее соединений; восстанавливать ткани; влиять на качество;
производить высококачественные корма; состоять из аминокис­
лот; включать в питание минеральные вещества; содержать (вклю­
чать) различные витамины
b) 1. Различные исследования по питательной ценности кор­
мов проводятся во многих лабораториях во всем мире для того,
чтобы улучшить кормление сельскохозяйственных животных. 2. На
рост, развитие и восстановление всех органов животного влияет
качество корма, которое животное потребляет. 3. На экзамене
студентов спрашивали о значении и структуре таких сложных
органических соединений, как белки, углеводы и жиры. 4. Хотя
минеральные вещества и витамины требуются в рационе для жи­
вотных в меньших количествах, чем основные питательные веще­
ства, однако, они так же важны для процессов метаболизма. 5. За
достижениями в области органической химии последовало широ­
кое применение питательных добавок в животноводстве.

EX ER C ISES FOR PAIR WORK

16. Make up a dialogue between a farmer and a specialist in animal

nutrition.
Student A is a farmer, who bought some dairy cattle in June and kept
them on pasture during the summer season. In autumn, animals were
moved into a cowshed and now they are fed some concentrates. The milk
yields have fallen and some animals have become sick. The farmer asks
a specialist in animal nutrition for some recommendations.
Student В is a specialist in animal nutrition. He is going to give the
farmer some recommendations. He explains that the changes in cow
management have influenced their health and milk yields. Furthermore,
the nutritional value of pasture grasses and concentrates is different. He
refers to special tables on the nutritional value of feeds and recommends
to add some vitamins and minerals to the diet as well as to invite a vet
to examine the sick animals.

57
 USEFUL LANGUA GE
Asking for advice:
I would (I’d) like to ask you about...; I would like to know some details
about...; What I would (I’d) like to know is..,; What I really need to know
is...; Can/Could you tell me something about...; Could you explain how/
when/what...; Can you give me some information about... .
Giving advice:
You should...; Maybe you should...; I would recommend you to...; I would
advise you to...; I think you should...; It is worth doing smth; You
mustn’t.../needn’t...; It is not necessary to... . Ш

SUPPLEM ENTARY TEXTS

17. Read and translate the text. Use a dictionary if necessary.

T ext 1
THE ROLE OF PROTEINS IN ANIMAL NUTRITION
All animals require small amounts of protein for the daily repair of
muscles, internal organs, and other body tissues. For young animals,
protein is required for growth of the muscles and other parts of the body.
As milk, eggs, and wool contain much protein, additional amounts are
necessary in the food of such animals as cattle, sheep and poultry.
Proteins are composed of more than twenty different amino acids,
which are liberated during digestion. Farm animals with simple stomachs,
for instance, swine, poultry, rabbits, and mink, require adequate amounts
of the following ten essential amino acids daily: arginine, histidine,
isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine,
trytophan, and valine. In addition to these amino acids, poultry require
glycine and glutamic acid for growth. и#~,щ*!"'-.
High-quality protein contains correct amounts of the essential amino
acids and it is supplied by eggs, milk, fish meal, meat by-products, and
soybean meal. Poor-quality protein is found in com grain and it contains
too little of one or more essential amino acids. Animal feeds which
contain poor-quality proteins are usually mixed with other feeds or
nutrient supplements that supply the lacking amino acids.
The quality of the protein in the food is of little importance to
ruminants, including cattle, sheep, goats, and the other animals that
have four stomachs, because the bacteria that aid in the digestion of food
in the rumen (first stomach) use simple nitrogen compounds to build
proteins in their cells. Further on in the digestive tract the animals digest
the bacteria. Thus, ruminants produce high-quality protein from a food
that may originally contain poor protein, or from urea (a nitrogen
compound). However, very young ruminants, such as calves, lambs,
require good-quality protein until the rumen develops sufficiently for
this bacterial process.
b) Use the information from the text to complete the sentences:
1. Small amounts of protein are required by all living organisms in
their diet every day in order to .... 2. Young animals such as calves, lambs
and pigs need protein in order to .... 3. Chicken, geese and ducks require
protein supplements in their rations in order to .... 4. Farmers add certain
amino acids to poultry feeds in order to .... 5. Com grain which is used
as feed for animals is mixed with other feeds in order to... . 6. Special
bacteria in a ruminant stomach use some simple nitrogen compounds
in order to ....
18. a) Read and translate the text. Use a dictionary if necessary. Before
reading the text try to find the Russian equivalents of the names
of the following chemical elements, substances and compounds:
calcium carbonate, cobalt, copper, defluorinated phosphates,
dicalcium phosphate, haem oglobin, iodine, iron, m agnesium ,
manganese, molybdenum, oxygen, pigment, potassium, selenium,
sodium chloride, sulphur, thyroxine, zinc, zinc carbonate

T ext 2
MINERALS

Minerals essential for animal life include common salt (sodium

chloride), calcium, phosphorus, sulphur, potassium, magnesium,
manganese, iron, copper, cobalt, iodine, zinc, molybdenum, and
selenium. The last six of these are poisonous to animals if excessive
amounts are eaten.
All farm animals generally need more common salt than is contained
in their feeds, so they are supplied with it regularly and should have free
access to it at any time.
Of the other essential minerals, phosphorus and calcium are the most
important, because they are required to produce bones, milk, and egg
shells. Moreover, the latter are nearly pure calcium carbonate. Good
phosphorus supplements are bone meal, dicalcium phosphate, and
defluorinated phosphates. Calcium may readily be supplied by ground
limestone, ground shells1, or marl2 that is high in calcium. To provide
livestock with both calcium and phosphorus a farmer may allow animals
to have free access to such a mixture as 60 per cent dicalcium phosphate
and 40 per cent common salt.
Small amounts of iodine are needed by animals for the formation of
thyroxine, a compound containing iodine. The latter is usually secreted
59
by the thyroid gland3 in the organism. A serious deficiency of iodine may
cause goitre4, a disease in which the thyroid gland enlarges greatly. In
certain regions goitre has caused heavy losses of newborn pigs, lambs,
kids, calves, and foals. Goitre can be prevented by supplying small
amounts of iodised salt to the mother before the young are bom.
In some areas, soil and forage are deficient in copper and cobalt,
which are needed along with iron for the formation of haemoglobin. In
these areas, farm animals may suffer from anaemia5 if the deficiency is
not corrected. н; i« i i |
Iron, used in haemoglobin formation, is abundantly supplied in most
animal feeds, except milk. The only practical problem with iron
deficiency occurs in young suckling pigs before they start to consume
other feeds in addition to milk.
Manganese is essential for animals, but the usual rations for all farm
animals, except poultry, supply sufficient quantities of this element. A lack
of manganese may cause the nutritional disease of chicks and young
turkeys called slipped tendon6 and also may cause failure of eggs to
hatch. Normal rations for swine are often deficient in zinc, especially
in the presence of excess calcium. Adding 100 parts per million of zinc
carbonate cures zinc-deficiency symptoms, which include slower growth
rate and severe scaliness and cracking7 of the skin. A trace of selenium
is necessary for normal health of animals; excessive amounts found in
forages in some regions poison animals and may cause death. Very small
amounts of mineralised salt are used when copper or cobalt may be
required by animals.

COMMENTS
1. ground limestone/shells известняк/скорлупа
2. marl [mcd] — известняк
3. thyroid gland ['0airaid 'glaend] идная
4. goitre Foarta] зоб
5. anaemia ta'ni гшэ] анемия, малокровие
6. slipped tendon — смещение сухожилия
7. scaliness and cracking — чешуйчатость

b) Complete the table and use it to make an oral presentation about

the role of minerals in animal nutrition.

Mineral The significance of the mineral The source of the mineral

Calcium for animal bones; egg shell; ground limestone, ground
milk production... shells, marl...

19. Use the following table to make a report on the role of vitamins
in animal nutrition: "'т' ^ '

60
 The importance of vitamin
Vitamin for animal’s health The source of vitamin
Vitamin A growth, reproduction, milk animals may convert carotene
production, resistance to into vitamin A;
respiratory infections green-growing grasses are rich
in carotene
Vitamin D enables animals to use calcium the ultraviolet rays of sunlight
and phosphorus; a deficiency produce vitamin D from the
causes rachitis (рахит) in provitamin in the skin; feeding
young growing animals hay crops; certain fish oils
Vitamin E for normal hatching of eggs; in certain plant oils and the
in preventing muscle stiffness leaves of green vegetables
and dystrophy (дистрофия)
in lambs, calves, and chicks
Vitamins B: less important for ruminant the bacteria in the rumen
thiamine, animals; but very young synthesise these vitamins
riboflavin, calves, poultry, swine, and
niacin, bio­ other simple-stomached
tin, panto­ animals require the В vita­
thenic acid, mins in their diets
choline,
folic acid,
И ®12
Vitamin С unimportant for animals, but can be synthesized in the
prevents scurvy (цинга) in bodies of other animals
humans and guinea pigs
Vitamin К usually unimportant is synthesized by bacteria in
the intestinal tract (кишеч­
ный тракт)
Search the following website for additional information:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin

USEFUL LANGUA GE
The theme of my report is...; I’m going to present you some data on...; In
the first place I would like to say...; It is important...; The same problems
arise when...; Now let’s take the facts...; In that case...; It is a well-known
fact...; Another reason why...; To sum up... . 7 r 1: -

20. Search the websites for more information on the role of carbohydrates
and fats in animal nutrition and prepare an oral report about it.
1. http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/carbohydrates.dtl
2. http://www.all -science - fair- proj ects. com/
3. http://www.agrsci.org/ — Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences.
 Unit 4
ANIMAL FEEDS

Vocabulary and Grammar:

1. Употребление существительных amount, number, quantity.
2. Вопросительные предложения в различных временах в действи­
тельном и страдательном залогах.
3. Степени сравнения прилагательных и наречий.
4. Употребление слов most, much.
5. Придаточные предложения сравнения.
6. Числительные: правила чтения чисел.

VOCABULARY ТО THE TEXT “ANIM AL FEEDS”

Nouns: amount, barley, beet (sugar beet), by-product, cake, cereal,

composition, concentrate, content, fibre, fodder, forage (crops), grain,
hay, improvement, legume, m atter (dry m atter), meal, measure,
moisture, number, oats, processing, root crop (roots), roughage, rye,
sorghum, soybean, storage, straw, succulent, wheat.
Adjectives and adverbs: bulky, cereal, comparative, complete
(ration), digestible, palatable, relative(ly), reliable, total.
Verbs: determine, evaluate, obtain, process, purchase, remain,
satisfy, vary (in/with/from ... to). ? J
Other parts o f speech and word-combinations: according to,
to be rich/high in smth; to be low in smth.

Give the Russian equivalents of the international words and scientific

terms from the text “Animal Feeds”: . ..-n
clover ['klauva], commercial [кэ'тз:/1], economic [,i:ka'nnmik], to
economise [I'konamaiz], ingredient [irigiidiant], maize [meiz], to operate
['npareit], to optimise ['Dptimaiz], producer [pra'dju:sa], programming
['prau.graemig], ration ['raef(a)n], season ['si:zn], to select [si'lekt], silage
['sailicfc], specific [spi'sifik) , , a rj>a

Употребление существительных
amount, number, quantity
amount — сумма, количество чего-л.; употребляется, в основ­
ном, с неисчисляемыми существительными. С исчисляемыми су­
62
ществительными оно употребляется, только когда речь идет о
большой общей сумме предметов, образующих целое.
number — 1) номер (для различения и подсчета предметов);
2) количество, число; употребляется с исчисляемыми существи­
тельными
a number of — ряд, несколько, причем после такого словосо­
четания глагол стоит во множественном числе; A number of
elements are known as microelements; syn a variety of
quantity — количество; употребляется с исчисляемыми и не­
исчисляемыми существительными, но в отличие от number, суще­
ствительное quantity употребляется с существительными, количе­
ство которых может быть выражено в весе или объеме
Examples:
amount of energy/protein/iodine/milk/feed — количество энергии/
белка/йода/молока/корма (и др. неисчисл. сущ.); the cow registration
number — регистрационный номер коровы; small quantities of feed
supplements — небольшие количества добавок к кормам

GRAM M AR R EV ISIO N
AND PRETEXT EXERCISES

Вопросительные предложения в различных временах

в действительном и страдательном залогах
(Interrogative sentences in different tenses
in the active and passive voices)
В английском языке вопросительные предложения отличают­
ся от повествовательных не только вопросительной интонацией,
но и порядком слов. Обычно вспомогательный или модальный
глагол, входящий в состав сказуемого, ставится в начале предло­
жения перед подлежащим. Если в состав сказуемого входят два
или три вспомогательных глагола, то только первый из них ста­
вится перед подлежащим.
Выделяют следующие основные типы вопросов:
1. Общие вопросы (general questions) — требуют краткого утвер­
дительного или отрицательного ответа.
2. Специальные вопросы (special questions) — начинаются с
вопросительного слова (who, what, whose, how, when, where,
why), далее порядок слов такой же как в общих вопросах.
3. Вопросы к подлежащему (questions to the subject) — начина­
ются с вопросительных местоимений who (для одушевленных су­
ществительных); what (для неодушевленных).

63
 4. Альтернативные вопросы (alternative questions) — являются
по форме общими вопросами, но содержат союз или (ог), и по­
этому требуют полного ответа, как специальные вопросы.
5. Разделительные (расчлененные) вопросы (disjunctive or tag
questions) — утвердительное или отрицательное повествователь­
ное предложение с присоединенным кратким общим вопросом.

Общие и специальные вопросы в действительном залоге

(General and special questions in the active voice)

Вопроси­ Вспомога­ Подлежащее

тельное слово тельный глагол (выражено
What/When/ do/does/did/ обычно Время
существи­ Смысловой
Where/Why/ is/are/have/ в англий­
глагол
How (для has/will/shall тельным ском языке
специальных (зависит или место­
вопросов) от времени) имением)
Why do/does/did they/a farmer grow com? Present
a scientist/ Simple
Where is/are he/they conducting the Present
experiments? Progressive
Who (Whom) has/have the vet/you examined/seen Present
today? Perfect
When will the cattle/ get some Future
the calf minerals? Simple

цие и специальные вопросы в страдательном залоге

(General and special questions in the passive voice)

Вопроси­ Причастие II
тельное слово Подлежащее или второй
What/ WhenI Вспомога­ (выражено обычно вспомогатель­ Время
Where/ Why/ тельный существительным ный глагол в англий­
How (для глагол или местоиме­ + ском языке
специальных нием) Причастие II
вопросов)
When is/are the cow/ fed/m ilked? Present
the animals Simple
Where was/were the com/crops grow n/ Past
cultivated? Simple
Why is/are calcium/vitamins being added Present
to the diet? Progressive
How has/have nutritional values been Present
calculated? Perfect
Why will the vet/they be sent for? Future
Simple

64
 Вопросы к подлежащему в действительном
и страдательном залогах
(Questions to the subject in the active and passive voices)

Who studies biology? (Present Simple)

(для grew wheat last season? (Past Simple)
одушевленных is studying metabolism now? (Present Progressive)
существительных) has bred this crop variety? (Present Perfect)
will make a report next week? (Future Simple)
What is grown on this farm?
(для was produced last year?
неодушевленных is being built now?
существительных) has been improved since 2004?
will be discussed next time?

Альтернативные вопросы
в действительном и страдательном залогах
(Alternative questions In the active and passive voices)
Examples'.
Do the farmers grow wheat or com?
Does the farmer or the scientist develop new breeds?
Did they cultivate the field last week or yesterday?
Are the milk yields increasing or falling on the farm now?
Has the professor finished his lecture or not?
Will they apply fertilisers on this field next week or tomorrow?
Are fertilizers spread in spring or in autumn?
Was the theory developed by Russian or foreign animal scientists?
Are the cows or sheep being milked now?
Has this breed been improved by farmers or scientists?
Will the conference be held next year or in a year?

Разделительные вопросы в действительном

и страдательном залогах
(Disjunctive questions in the active and passive voices)

Farmers don’t they?*

These ai aren’t they?
farmer didn’t he?
A new sheep-pen was built a month ago, wasn’t it?
examination aren’t they?
examination isn’t it?

* На русский язык краткий общий вопрос переводится словами: не правда

ли? не так ли ?
3 Комарова 65
The researcher has finished the necessary tests, hasn't he?
The tests have been finished by the researcher, haven’t they?
The vet will examine a sick animal tomorrow, won’t he?
A sick animal will be examined by the vet tomorrow, won’t it?
Farmers
. 4 _
___
___
___
_W M t l f p r
do they?
A new sheep-pen wasn’t built a month ago, was it?
The students aren’t having practice on a farm now, are they?
The tests haven’t been finished by the researcher, have they?
The vet won’t examine a sick animal tomorrow, will he?

Косвенные вопросы
(Indirect questions)
Такие вопросы считаются более вежливой формой обращения
нужно начать беседу или задать
человеку
дующих выражении
Do you think ]ы думаете
Do you know 'ы знаете
Do you have any idea 'ы знаете
Do you happen to know — Вы случайно
Could you tell me — He могли бы вы мі
Could you possibly tell me Может
затъ
know — Я хотел(а ) бы знать
ronder if you could tell me/help Интересно
вы сказать мне (помочь мне)
What время
(считаете)
Do you mind telling me — He
Would you mind showing me He
Далее порядок слов в косвенных вопросах такой же, как в утвер­
дительных предложениях, при этом вопросительное слово (what/
where/when) употребляется как союз, а в случае общих вопросов
требуется частица ли, которой в английском языке соответству­
ют слова if или whether.
Examples:
Where is the conference hall? I’d like to know where the
conference hall is.
Why has the vet been sent fori Do you happen to know why
the vet has been sent fori
Could you help me with the I wonder if/whether you could
translation of this article? help me with the translation of
this article.
66
Do you know any new nutritive I’d like to know if/whether you
supplements to animal feeds? know any new nutritive
supplements to animal feeds.
1. Make up questions, then change them into indirect questions using
different polite phrases.
Model: These farmers raise only beef cattle, (general question) -»
Do they raise only beef cattle? —| Do you know if they raise
only beef cattle?
1. The students study inoiganic chemistry at the first course, (who)
2. High milk yields were obtained last year, (general question) 3. The
farmers are working in the field now. (where) 4. My friend is planning to
make a report at the conference, (what report) 5. The article on animal
rations is being written for a monthly scientific journal at the moment.
(what article) 6. New crops will be grown on the farm next year, (when)
7 .1. P. Pavlov founded the Physiology Research Institute in St. Petersbuig.
(general question) 8. The structure of proteins has been studied better than
the structure of carbohydrates, (alternative question) 9. Scientists are going
to continue their research in the field of animal nutrition, (why)

Степени сравнения прилагательных и наречий

(The degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs)
Положительная степень Сравнительная степень Превосходная степень
прилагательного/ прилагательного/ прилагательного/
наречия наречия наречия
Прилагательные
из одного и двух слогов:
hot hotter the hottest
Наречия (обычно одно­
сложные):
hard harder hardest
early earlier earliest
Прилагательные и наре­
чия из двух и более слогов: the most/least
efficient more/less efficient efficient
quickly more/less quickly most/least quickly
Некоторые исключения
good better the best
bad worse the worst
far farther/further the farthest/furthest
many/much more the most
little less the least
well better the best
badly worse the worst

67
2. a) Give comparative and superlative forms of the following adjectives
and adverbs:
few high low, fast, different, easy, cheap, slowly, necessary, proper,
big, easily, important, reliable, essential, old, expensive, small, available,
heavily, valuable ’ * * - ?;г- *ЛНЬ ?
b) Use the correct form of the adjective or adverb in brackets.
I Mother’s milk is (good) feed for calves and lambs. Various milk
substitutes are (little desirable) for new-born animals. 2. The northern
regions of Russia are (little) suitable for crop farming than the central
regions. Thus, the farmers are interested in crop varieties that grow (fast)
and develop (good) under cold climatic conditions. 3. The mechaniza­
tion of agriculture in some African countries is (bad) than in Asian
countries. 4. It was (difficult) to cultivate this new field than the farmer
had thought, so he did his work very (slow). 5. Carbohydrates are
(essential) nutrients in the feeding rations of ruminants and some
herbivorous animals. 6. Nowadays farmers use (m odem ) machines than
five years ago and they can do many farm operations (easy). 7. Some
cattle breeds require (hot) climate for growth than others. 8. Farmers
were interested in (cheap) fertilisers of (high) quality. 9. In southern
parts of France, weather conditions are (favourable ) for grazing
throughout the year than in Scandinavian countries. 10. Food, shelter
and proper care are (necessary) requirements for growing farm animals.

Употребление слов m ost, much

most + прилагательное имеет значение «самый»
most + существительное имеет значение «большинство, большая
часть» '<• ,
most + of + артикль/указательное или притяжательное местоиме­
ние + существительное имеет значение «большинство»,
much + неисчисляемое существительное имеет значение «много»
much + сравнительная степень прилагательного имеет значение
«гораздо, значительно, намного»
3. Translate into Russian paying attention to the words most and much.
i. These are the most interesting experiments on metabolism which
have been carried out in our laboratory. 2. Comparative studies have
shown that neurosecretory cells are im portant in development and
regulatory functions of most animals. 3. Proteins usually contain about
20 different amino acids, but there are organisms that require none,
several, or most of them for growth. 4. Most of the time was spent on
the analysis of the physiological data. 5. Scientists spent much time on
these experiments. 6. The new cow breed is much more productive.
7. Calves grow much faster if they are provided with proper nutrition.
68
 Способы выражения сравнения
(Comparative constructions)
1. Сравнительная степень прилагательного + than переводится
как союз чем.
Example :
The quality of the protein in Качество белка в пище менее
the food is less important важно для жвачных живот-
to ruminants than scientists ных, чем ученые предполагали
thought before. ранее.
2. a) as + положительная степень прилагательного/наречия +
as — такой (так) же ... как.
Example'.
The problem of animal nutrition Проблема кормления животных
is as difficult as the problem такая же трудная, как про-
of human diet. блема питания человека.
b) twice/two times as + положительная степень прилагатель­
ного/наречия + as — в два раза по сравнению с ... .
Example:
Egg production rose twice Производство яиц выросло в два
as much as in 2005. раза no сравнению с 2005 годом.
цифрой) — всего лишь, только', as much
as/as т а лфрой) — целых, до.
Example:
Potatoes contain as little as Картофель содержит всего лишь
0.1 % of fat, but as much as 0,1% жира, но до (целых)
2.2 % of protein. 2,2 % белка.
3. (not) so + положительная степень прилагательного/наречия
+ as — (не) такой (т а к )... как.
Example:
The result текущих
riments in our laboratory тов в нашей лаборатории не
are not so interesting такие интересные, как
as the previous results. предыдущие результаты.

4. the + сравнительная степень прилагательного/наречия ... the

+ сравнительная степень прилагательного/наречия — чем ... тем.

69
Example :
The better farm animals are Чем животные лучше содержатся,
kept, the longer is their life тем продолжительнее период
productivity. их продуктивности.

4. Fill the gaps with as ... as, so ... as, the ... the, than. Choose the
correct form of adjective or adverb.
1. The contribution of the German scientists to animal physiology
at the beginning of the 19th century was much (great) ... of the Russian
researchers. 2. ... (good) animal physiological functions are studied, ...
(soon) scientists can control them for practical purposes. 3. The
nutritional value of this feed is n o t ... (high) ... farmers have expected.
4. Minerals are ... (important) to normal growth and development of
animals ... proteins.

Числительные: правила чтения чисел

(Numerals: reading different numbers)
В научной литературе часто приводятся какие-либо значения,
показатели, величины, поэтому обратите внимание на написание
и чтение числительных в английском языке,
figures — цифры (1, 2, 9)
numbers — числа (25, 137, 890)
even numbers — четные числа (8, 10, 36)
odd num bers — нечетные числа (31, 47)
positive/negative num bers — положительные/отрицательные
числа
whole numbers — целые числа *
cardinal numbers — количественные числительные
ordinal num bers — порядковые числительные (first, second,
third, fourth)
fractional num bers — десятичные числа
fractions — дроби
1. В английском языке в сложных числительных слова hundred
сотня, thousand тысяча и million миллион употребляются все­
гда в форме единственного числа, причем в числительных после
миллионов и тысяч ставится запятая. В британском варианте
английского языка после сотен необходимо произнести and, в аме­
риканском варианте союз опускается. > -
Examples: ,, _...
1,000 — one thousand (hens); 1,085 — a/o n e thousand and eighty-
five; 6,493 — six thousand four hundred a n d n in ety -th ree;
470,000 — four hundred and seventy thousand.
70
billion —1,000,000,000 (a thousand million) —миллиард (in the USA
system);
billion —1,000,000,000,000 (a million million) —биллион (in the old
British system);
BUT: hundreds of farms; thousands of hens.
2. В десятичных дробях после целых чисел ставится не запя­
тая, а точка, которая читается point [point].
Examples:
2.1А — two point seventy-four; 0.3 nought point three/oh point
three/zero point three/point three; 5.04 — five point oh four.
3. У простых дробей в числительном указывается количествен­
ное числительное, а в знаменателе — порядковое числительное.
Если числитель больше 1, то называют знаменатель во множе­
ственном числе.
Examples:
1/8 — an/one eighth (a is more usual than one);
1/4 — a/one quarter; 1/3 — a third; 1/2 — a half; 1/10 — a tenth;
3/4 — three quarters;
l3/» — a/one and three quarters; l l/ 2°ne and a half.
4. Проценты произносят с ударением на второй слог. Встреча­
ется как слитное написание percent, так и раздельное per cent
[ps'sent].
Examples:
50% or 50pc — fifty per cent; 27% — twenty-seven per cent; 0.5% —
a half of one per cent; 0.25% — a quarter of a percentage point;
10% pa — ten per cent per annum/by the year.
51 Соотношения/пропорции (ratios).
Example:
1:3 — one in three/a ratio of one to three.
5. Read the numerals in English:
69; 135; 421; 64,232; 50,010; 8,101,050; 90,600,000; 4.17; 98.11; 13.4;
49.5; 14.53; 2/5; 1/8; 3/7; 1/5; 9.33 %; 0.025%; 14.02%; 1:5; 1:20.
6. Read and translate the text. Find in the text:
— the sentences with the comparative constructions;
— the sentences with the construction “It is + adjective + infinitive”.

71
 ANIMAL FEEDS
Animal feeds include any feedstuff1 which is grown or developed for
livestock and poultry. The main aim of a farmer is to provide animals
with as highly nutritional diets as possible in order to maintain them
healthy and ensure the quality of such final animal products as meat,
milk, or eggs. Even today the problem of feeds is still a subject of study
for agricultural scientists.
Proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals and vitamins are known as the
basic nutrients that animals require for growth, reproduction, and good
health, but the amount of these substances varies greatly with the type
of feed. The first effort to evaluate feeds for animals on a comparative
basis was made by Albrecht Thaer (1752—1828), in Germany, who
developed “hay values”2 as measures of nutritive value of feeds. Tables
of the value of feeds and of the requirements of animals were first drawn
up3 in Germany; later they were used in other countries as well.
Present-day knowledge represents an expansion and further improve­
ment of these early efforts. The usual chemical analyses of feeds provide
information on the total amount of dry matter, protein, fat, fibre, and
ash4 contained in the feed. Energy value, mineral elements, and vitamins
are also determined; these values are included in complete tables of feed
composition. The better methods for chemical analyses of feeds are
developed, the more reliable data are obtained for calculating feeding
rations for animals.
Animal feeds are classified according to: 1) the origin, that is, plant
or animal origin of feeds; 2) the chemical composition, such as high-
protein, high-fibre, high-moisture etc; 3) the nutritional value, as
concentrates and bulky feeds.
Generally, animal feeds may be classified into two large groups:
concentrates and roughages. The former are higher in energy value than
the latter and are subdivided into the following types: 1) cereal grains
such as wheat, com (maize), oats, rye, barley and their by-products
which remain after grain has been processed for human use, 2) high-
protein oil meals or cakes from soybeans, sorghum, 3) by-products from
processing of sugar beets, 4) animal and fish by-products. Roughages
include such feeds as: 1) green roughages (clover, timothy, other pasture
grasses and legumes), 2) dry roughages or fodder (hays, straws); 3) silage,
4) root crops. Green forage grasses, silage and roots comprise a group
of succulent feeds which are high in moisture.
Concentrates are valuable in feeding all classes of animals as they have
a high food value relative to volume, that is, they are rich in both protein
and carbohydrates as well, they contain a number of microelements,
minerals and vitamins. Roughages are bulky feeds with high-fibre
content which is poorly digestible. Thus, they are fed in large quantities
to cattle and sheep but they are not suitable for feeding pigs. Succulents
are known as palatable feeds but contain a lot of water and have a laxative
72
 effect3. The younger the grass is, the higher it is in vitamins and minerals,
so farmers start grazing cattle and sheep as early in spring as possible.
The quality of silage and its nutritive value is greatly affected by a number
of factors such as the type of a forage crop, the plant age and storage
conditions. Roots are low in protein but high in carbohydrates and
moisture, so they are often used as supplements to hay and straw in order
to provide complete rations for cattle and sheep.
Feeds vary not only in the amount of nutrients but in costs6 from
season to season. Thus, it is important for a farmer to select feed
ingredients for complete rations as economically as possible. Nowadays
large-scale7 commercial livestock companies as well as small-scale7
producers widely use special computer programmes for selecting feed
mixtures that will satisfy the nutrient requirements of a specific type of
animal at a particular stage of development. The more palatable and
nutritious rations are provided for animals on the basis of the lower-cost
feeds, the higher profits8 a farmer can get.

.,lt COMMENTS
1. feedstuff — корм; кормовой продукт (syn: feed, fodder)
2. hay value — кормовая ценность сена
3. to draw up (a table) — составлять (таблицу)
4. ash [aefl — зола
5. laxative effect ['laeksativ iYekt] — слабительное действие
6. costs (pi) — издержки, затраты (на производство)
7. small-scale (large-scale) — небольшой (крупный)
8. profit ['profit] — прибыль

EXERCISES TO THE TEXT

7. a) Answer the questions:
1. What does the term “feed” include?
2. Have all the problems of animal feeds been solved?
3. What was used as the measure of the nutritive value of feeds at
the beginning of the 19th century?
4. How are feeds evaluated now?
5. How are feeds classified?
6. What are different feeds valuable for?
7. Are different types of feeds suitable for all kinds of animals?
8. What problems should any farmer consider in order to provide a
complete ration for his animals?
9. What are the advantages of large-scale feed companies?
10. How has the process of selecting complete rations for animals
been improved in recent decades?

73
I
 b) Change questions in (a) into indirect questions using polite phrases.
Model: I wonder what the term “feed” includes.
Think and say:
1. Which classification of feeds is used in Russia?
2. What forage crops are most widely grown in the central regions
of Russia? ' ' .....’
8. a) Use the text to complete the following sentences:
M odel: It is much more efficient to apply... —» It is much more
efficient to apply computers for calculating feeding
rations now.
1. It is essential to evaluate.... 2. It is important to improve.... 3. It i
possible to analyse... . 4. It is difficult to determine... . 5. It is easy to
process.... 6. It is impossible to satisfy.... 7. It is cheaper to purchase....
8. It is necessary to obtain... . 9. It is expensive to u se....
9. Use the text to fill the gaps with the suitable comparative constructions:
as ... as; not so ... as; the... the.
1. Chemical analyses were... developed in the 18th century... in the 19th
century. 2. Small-scale producers are often... efficient... large commercial
companies. 3.... richer animal rations are in succulents,... greater is the
problem of digestive troubles. 4. Root crops are ... palatable ... green
forage crops. 5. Concentrates are ... high in protein ... in carbohydrates.
6. Roughages are ... easily digestible ... concentrates. 7.... better is the
quality of feeds, ... higher is the animal productivity. 8. The cost of by­
products is ... high ... the cost of commercial feeds. 9. For ruminants
fibre i s ... im portant... protein in daily rations. 10.... more natural feeds
are consumed by animals, ... better they develop.
10. a) Find in the text six compound adjectives and translate them into
Russian.
M odel: high-yield — высокоудойный
b) Use the table to translate the following Russian word-combinations
into English:
низкокачественные продукты питания; низкотемпературная
зона; растение длинного дня; высокопроизводительная рабочая
сила; корма по низкой стоимости; высокоценные корма; ферма
больших размеров; краткосрочные планы; растение с мелкими
семенами; высокоурожайные культурные растения; поле с боль­
шой площадью; низкое содержание белка
Model: high + fat + feeds —| high-fat feeds — корма с высоким
содержанием жира
74
 Adjective Noun Noun Word-combination
high, low, fat, quality, seed, feeds, zone, plans, high-fat feeds
short, long, temperature, cost, crops, farm, + mm

small, large value, labour, day, plant, field, food,

term, protein, content,
size/scale, yield, area productivity

с) U se the table to make up as many word-combinations “compound

adjective + noun” as possible. Translate them into Russian.

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
11. Fill the gaps with the suitable adjective or the correct form of the
verb, active or passive:
to remain, complete, to evaluate, palatable, reliable, to obtain, to
purchase, digestible, to determine, relatively, to satisfy, comparative
1. Nowadays farmers are trying to ... the people’s requirements in
highly nutritive products. 2. The ... analysis of the chemical composition
of these two types of feeds has shown that both of them have ... the same
nutritive value. 3. O nly... results are published in scientific journals such
as Plant and Animal Physiology. 4. When feeds are chosen for animals,
they must be not only ... but easily ... as well. 5. In order to ... the ...
ration for a particular animal, a farmer can use special tables of nutritive
value. 6. The development of new technologies may help t o ... the quality
of various feed supplements at each stage of the production process.
7. On large-scale commercial farms it is possible for a producer to ...
milk yields throughout the year if high-quality feeds ... in necessary
quantities. 8. In the Moscow region cattle may ... on pasture in winter
season.
12. a) Translate into Russian.
the total amount of amino acids; a small quantity of grass; a minimum
amount of fatty acids; a large amount of carbohydrates; the number of
offspring; the correct amounts of the feed ingredients; the building
number; the number of cows on a farm; a large quantity of meat/feeds;
the number of organic compounds; a number of species/nutrients/
characteristics
b)Give the English equivalents of the Russian words in brackets.
Put the articles (a/the) if necessary.
1. (Ряд) of bacteria cause disease in humans, animals, or plants.
2. (Количество) of free amino acids and peptides in animals is much
smaller than (количество) of protein. 3. It is impossible to estimate
(число) of bacteria as they can be found in all natural environments,
75
often in extremely large (количествах ). 4. Under winter conditions in
cold regions, cattle, sheep, and horses usually obtain small (количе­
ства ) of vitamin D from the hay. 5. Do you know the exact (число) of
the essential amino acids? 6. It is cheaper to buy fertilisers in large (ко­
личествах). 7. Buffalo’s milk is produced in commercial (количе­
ствах) in some countries, particularly in India. 8. (Число) of cows on
commercial farms vary from 100 to 120. 9. The farmer calculated the
total (количество) which he needs to pay for a new farm machine.
10. New technologies and improvements in animal husbandry, especially
the achievements in genetics may help to breed animals in large (коли­
чествах). 11. Any farmer should know the phone (номер) of the
nearest veterinary clinic.
13. Match the crop with its definition:
sorghum, com (maize), wheat, rye, barley, roots, soybeans, oats
L ... is the most important of the cereals in the temperate regions
(регионы с умеренным климатом). It is used as food for people and
feed for livestock. There are two main varieties: spring and winter crops.
2. ... is a common cereal crop in temperate areas, the grain is mainly
used for livestock feeding or for making beer by fermentation process.
3.... is hardy (зимостойкая) cereal crop which is grown in most types
of soil in cool wet northern temperate regions, best quality crop can be
used for making biscuits, porridge. 4. ... is known as hardy annual grass
(морозостойкое однолетнее злаковое растение). It is grown in
temperate areas such as Russia, Poland, Germany and used for making
brown bread and whisky. 5.... is the only grain crop which was brought
from the New World and it is still the principal crop in the USA where
it is used as feed for cattle and pigs. 6.... are plants which produce edible
beans (съедобные бобы) which are high in protein and fat content and
are very low in starch (крахмал). Beans are used for direct human
consumption as well as livestock feed and for processing into oil. 7. ... is
a drought-resistant (засухоустойчивый) cereal plant which is grown
in the semi-arid tropical regions, it is one of the important crops in the
USA. 8.... are such plants as carrots, beets, turnips which contain food
materials in a root; they are used as food vegetables or fodder.
14. Fill the gaps with:
to vary (in, with, from ... to), various, variety
1. The number of organic compounds which are necessary for animal
growth ... the type of organism ... one ... thirty or more. 2. The quality
o f ... pasture grasses which are used as fodder for animals ... the season
... the highest in spring and early summer ... the lowest when seeds are
formed. 3. The nutritive value of hay ... its method of drying. 4. The
cost of animal feeds ... as the supply of feeds is different in ... parts of
Russia. 5. The dry matter content in concentrates ... the cereal crop ....
76
6. Different types of silage... fibre content. 7. The percentage (процент­
ное содержание) of ash ... 1-2% in green roughages ...7-8% in hay
and straw. 8. M eals... the amount of fa t... less than 1% in soybean meal
... about 4% in cottonseed meal. 9. The protein content in green rough­
ages is influenced by a ... of factors, such as type of crop, weather condi­
tions etc. 10. In different countries the figures in the tables of feed
composition may ... because methods of chemical analyses ... as well.
15. Find the sentences where much is translated as гораздо. Make up
questions to the underlined words.
1. In the past, farmers had much difficulty in feeding cattle during
the winter season.
2. Students can understand biochemistry much better if they have
studied the main chemical and biological principles.
3. If livestock are kept on pastures in the sunlight much of the time,
they have a plentiful supply of vitamin D.
4. Most dry roughages are much higher in drv matter than green
roughages.
5. Two centuries ago farmers did not know much about the main
nutrients and used their own practical experience to satisfy я п іт я к
with feeds.
16. Translate into English.
a) большие количества сахарной свёклы; зерно хлебных злаков;
ячмень на фураж; жмыховая мука; побочные продукты от пере­
работки молока; объемистые корма; химический состав бобовых
культур; перевариваемая клетчатка; покупать концентраты; соч­
ные корма богаты влагой; солома из пшеницы; согласно класси­
фикации; получать грубые корма; оставаться надежным источни­
ком; сено из овса; полный рацион; различаться по содержанию
сухого вещества; хранилище для сорго; вкусные корнеплоды; пе­
рерабатывать сою; определять меры; определить питательную цен­
ность ржи; на сравнительной основе; удовлетворять потребности;
иметь относительно низкое содержание белка; улучшения в ме­
тодах кормления сельскохозяйственных животных
b) 1. В настоящее время гораздо легче определить питательную
ценность различных кормов, так как разработаны современные на­
дежные методы анализа состава кормов. 2. Чем больше разнооб­
разных кормовых добавок производится крупными промышленны­
ми компаниями, тем более питательными будут рационы для жи­
вотных. 3. Фермеры обычно не получают таких высоких удоев мо­
лока зимой, как летом, так как на продуктивность животных вли­
яют изменения в системе содержания животных. 4. Большинство
фермеров используют специальные таблицы, чтобы определить пи­
тательную ценность кормов и составить полные рационы кормле­

77
ния как можно более экономно. 5. Необходимо кормить животных
как вкусными, так и легкоусвояемыми кормами.
17. Use the table to make up the sentences with comparative constructions.
Model: 1. Alfalfa hay is about four times richer in protein content
than alfalfa grass.
2. Alfalfa grass is not so high in fibre as alfalfa hay.

Feed Composition
Data are selected from US National Academy of Sciences, National
Research Council, United States-Canadian Tables of Feed Composition

Dry Nitrogen
Type of feed Protein
matter Fat, % Fibre, % Ash, % free
(total), % extract, %
Dry roughages:
Alfalfa hay
Timothy hay
Corn fodder
Oat straw
Wheat straw
Sorghum
Green
roughages:
Alfalfa
Barley pasture
Clover
Rye grass
Sudan grass
Silages:
Alfalfa
Clover
Sorghum
Soybean
Timothy
Root crops:
Beets
Potatoes
Concentrates:
Barley
Com
Oats
Rye
Wheat
 -------------------- --
Dry Nitrogen
Type of feed matter Protein, Fat, % Fibre. % Ash, % free
(total), % % extract, %
Meals:
Cottonseed meal 94.0 41.0 4.3 12.0 6.2 30.5
Soybean meal 89.8 50.9 0*8 2.8 5.6 29.7
Fish meal 92.0 63.2 4.4 ---------- ' 21.7 27.0
Meat and bone 94.0 50.6 0.5 ---------- .J 29.1 48.0
meal
By-products:
Brewers’ grains1 92.0 25.9 6.2 15.0 3.6 41.3
Milk, dried 94.0 33.5 0.9 ---------- 7.6 26.3
Sugar-beet pulp2 91.0 9.1 0.6 19.0 3.6 58.7
Wheat bran3 89.0 16.0 4.1 10.0 6.1 52.8

COMMENTS
1. brewers’ grains — зерно для пивоваренной отрасли
2 . sugar-beet pulp — свекловичный жом
3. bran — огруби
18. a) There are several ways o f presenting information visually. M atch
the following words with their definitions:
1. A table ['teibl] — таблица
2. A flow chart ['flau ’tfait], chart (or diagram [’daragraem]) — блок-
схема; схема производственного процесса; схема информа­
ционных потоков (в учреждении и т. п.)
3. A pie chart ['pai “trait] — секторная диаграмма
4. A bar chart [Ъа: 'tfart] (Br E) or a bar graph ['bcu 'gra:f| (Am E)
histogram — гистограмма
5. A graph (graph chart, line graph) [gra:fj [graef] — график, диа­
грамма, схема; кривая
a) ...is a drawing that uses shapes and lines to show how different
stages in a process or parts of a system are connected with each
other;
b) ...is a picture on which narrow bands (or boxes) of equal width
but varying in height represent different quantities; information
can be shown either vertically or horizontally; such a picture
is very useful for making comparisons;
c) ...is a drawing that uses lines to show how two or more sets of
measurements are related to each other;
d) ...is a list of numbers, facts, or information arranged in rows
across and down a page;
e) ...is a circle divided into several sections and each represents
a specific proportion of the whole

79
 Which
1) farm
eggs/wheat/com etc) on a particular farm/in the local market/
countrv/in
2 ) commercial
institute/international
3) show last year’s milk or meat yields/egg production figures or
possible yields for the next year?
4) farms/companies
5) process/how
c) Use the figures from the table above and draw pie charts and bar
charts to present the composition of different feeds and describe
them as in the model (see Fig. 4). Give some more examples of
graphs or flow charts, find them in scientific journals.
M odel: The description of a chart or a graph (e.g. composition o f
alfalfa hay)
Total dry matter content from alfalfa hay accounts for 90% from
which nitrogen-free extract comes first with 36.1%. Fibre is in the
second position with 26.8%, protein content accounts for 16.6%, ash
amounts to as much as 8.5%; and as little as 2% come from fat.

(a)

(b)
Fig. 4. Total dry matter to per cent of alfalfa hay: (a) a pie chart; (b) a bar chart
80
 USEFUL LANGUAGE
a diagram/a table/a chart/a graph + demonstrates/indicates/represents/
shows/suggests
to amount to smth — равняться (чему-л.); составлять (какую-л. сум­
му)', доходить до (какого-л. количества)', syn to account for smth

SUPPLEM ENTARY TEXT

19. Read and translate the text into Russian. Complete the table using
the information from the text.

C lassification o f Animals Feeds

Concentrates Roughages
cereal grains: ? their by-products: ? green roughages (pasture grasses): ?
oil meals (cakes): ? dry roughages:
a) hays: ? b) straws and hulls: ?
by-products of sugar-beet industry: ? silages: ?
by-products from other industries: ? root crops: ?

B A SIC TYPES O F F E E D S

Animal feeds are classified into two main groups: concentrates and
roughages. The former are high in energy value and are subdivided into
the following four groups: (a) cereal grains and their by-products (barley,
com (or maize), oats, rye, wheat), (b) high-protein oil meals or cakes
(soybean, cottonseed), (c) by-products from processing of sugar beets,
and (d) by-products from other industries. Roughages include such feeds
as: (a) pasture grasses, (b) hays, (c) silage, (d) root crops, and (e) straw.
Concentrate feeds, a) Cereal grains and their by-products. In the
agricultural practices of North America and northern Europe, barley,
com, oats, rye, and sorghum are grown mainly as animal feed, however
small quantities are processed for human consumption as well. These
grains are fed, whole or ground, either singly or mixed with high-protein
oil meals or other by-products, minerals, and vitamins, to form a
complete feed for pigs and poultry or an adequate dietary supplement
for ruminants and horses. By-products from commercial processing of
the cereal grains, for instance wheat bran, com gluten meal1, rice bran
or hulls2, are used as animal feeds in large quantities.
b) H igh-protein m eals. Vegetable seeds such as soybeans, flax­
seeds3, cottonseeds, sunflower seeds4 are produced mainly as a source

81
 of oil for human food and industrial uses. After these seeds are processed
to remove the oil, the residues5, which may contain from 5 per cent to
less than 1 per cent of fat and 20 to 50 per cent of protein, are used as
animal feeds. The latter are valuable supplements to roughages or cereal
grains and other low-protein feeds because they provide the protein
needed for efficient growth of production.
c) By-products o f sugar beets. From the sugar-beet industry come
beet tops, which are used on the farm either fresh or ensiled6, and dried
beet pulp and beet molasses7, which are produced in the sugar factory.
These are all palatable, high-quality sources of carbohydrates. In some
European countries, fodder beets and some other roots are grown as
animal feed. ’
d) Other by-product feeds. By-products of brewing industry (yeast)8,
dairy industry (dried skim milk or whey or buttermilk)9 and fish industry
(fish meal) contain 50 per cent or more of high-quality protein and such
mineral elements as calcium and phosphorus so they are well-known
as useful animal feeds. '* 1 J
Roughages, a) P asture. Various pasture grasses (timothy, Sudan
grass) and legumes (clovers, soybeans, sorghum), both native and
cultivated, are the most important single source of feed for cattle, horses,
sheep, and goats. During the growing season they supply most of the
feed for these animals at a cost lower than other feeds that must be
harvested, processed, and transported. Hundreds of different grasses,
legumes, bushes, and trees are acceptable as feeds for grazing animals.
The nutritive value of the cultivated varieties has been studied, but
information is incomplete for many naturally growing plants.
b) Hay. It is produced by drying different mature10 grasses (such as
timothy and Sudan grass) or legumes (alfalfa, clover) when they contain
the maximum quantity of digestible protein and carbohydrates but before
the seeds develop. The moisture content must be reduced to 22 per cent
or less to prevent moulding11, heating, and spoilage during storage.
Legume hays are high in protein, while the grasses are lower in protein
but vary greatly with the stage of maturity and level of nitrogen fertiliza­
tion which have been applied to the crop. Hay is usually fed to animals
when sufficient fresh pasture grass is unavailable.
c) S ilage. Silage is usually made from immature plants of com,
sorghums, grasses, legumes in a storage container to exclude the air and
allow fermentation to develop acetic and other acids, which preserve the
moist feed. Storage may be in upright tower silos or in trenches in the
ground. Best quality silage results when the forage is ensiled with a
moisture content of 50 to 65 per cent. Ensiled forage can be stored for
a longer period of time with lower loss of nutrients than dry hay. The
nutritive value of silage depends upon the type of forage ensiled and how
properly it has been made.
d) R oot crops. Nowadays such root crops as mangels, rutabagas,
cassava12and sometimes potatoes are used less extensively as animal feed
82
than in the past, for economic reasons. Roots are lower in dry-matter
content than are most of the other feeds listed. They are relatively low
in protein also and provide mostly energy.
e) Straw and hulls. Quantities of straws that remain after wheat, oats,
barley, and rice crops are harvested and used as feed for cattle and other
ruminants. The straws are low in protein and very high in fibre. Moreover,
digestibility13 of straws is low. Straw is useful in maintaining mature
animals during periods of shortage of other feeds, but it is too low in
quality in order to be satisfactory for long periods without adding
supplements. Com stalks, cottonseed hulls, and rice hulls can also be used
as sources of fibre in ruminant rations. Rice hulls are lower in value, while
the others are similar to straw.

COMMENTS
1. corn gluten meal — кукурузная глютеновая мука
2. hull — пленка (зерна), лузга
3. flaxseed — льняное семя
4. sunflower seed — семя подсолнечника
5. residue — остаток
6. ensiled — засилованный
7. beet molasses — свеклосахарная меласса
8. brewing industry (yeast) — пивоваренная промышленность (дрожжи)
9. dried skim milk/whey/buttermilk — обезжиренное сухое молоко/
сухая сыворотка/сухая пахта
10. mature — зрелый, созревший
11. to mould — плесневеть
12. mangels/rutabagas/cassava — кормовая свёкла/брюква/маниока
13. digestibility — усвояемость
20. Translate the following questions into English as in the model and
answer them.
M odel: Какие побочные продукты от переработки зерновых
используются как корм для животных? (Doyou know ...)
—>What by-products from processing grains are used as
animal feed? -» D o you know what by-products from
processing grains are used as animal feed?
1. В каком виде зерновые скармливаются животным? (I'd like
to know...)
2. Какие другие отрасли промышленности поставляют корма
для животных? (Do you have any idea...)
3. Какими питательными веществами богата жмыховая мука
и побочные продукты свекловичной отрасли? (It's interesting
to know...)
4. Пастбищные травы все еще являются важным источником
корма для сельскохозяйственных животных? (Do you think...)

83
 5. От чего зависит питательная ценность силоса? (Do you mind
telling me...)
6. Каковы питательные характеристики корнеплодов? ( Could
you explain...)
7. Каковы основные требования к качеству сена? (Have you
got an idea...)
8. Питательная ценность всех трав известна? (Do you happen
to know...)
9. Почему солому не скармливают животным в течение всего
года? (W hy do you suppose...)
21. Use exercises 17—20 to prepare a report on the topics: “Concentrate
Feeds”, “Roughages”. *
Prepare some pie charts or bar charts or any other visual material
to present the data and compare the nutritive value of different feeds.
Try to suggest the feeding ration for cattle/hogs for different seasons.

USEFUL LANGUA GE
To begin with I’d like to say...; I think it would be best to...; There are many
advantages and disadvantages here...; Accepting the fact that...; As can be
seen from the graph/pie chart...; Look at the following bar chart...; The
table gives the information about...; The share of... varies from... to...; The
same percentage of...; From the look of it...; On the one hand, ... on the
other hand; Moreover...; In conclusion I’d like to say that...

EXERCISES FOR PAIR WORK

22. Make up a dialogue between farmers.
Student A is a Russian farmer who has a cattle farm in the Central
region of Russia.
Student В is an American farmer who has come from a cattle farm
situated in one of the southern American states. They discuss the
problem of feeding their cattle in different seasons. Ask each other
questions about availability of different feeds during the year, about
their nutritive value, about nutritive supplements. U se indirect
questions and the information from exercises 17 and 19.
Model'. Student A (a Russian farmer): My name is.... I have a cattle
beef/dairy farm not far from... .
Student В (an American farmer): Nice to meet you. My
name is.... I am a cattleman from the State of.... I wonder
which feeds you use to feed your cattle in summer and which
are available in other seasons... .
 Unit 5
ANIMAL BREEDING

Vocabulary and Grammar:

1. Употребление глаголов to apply, to introduce, to use, to utilize.
Употребление существительных application, introduction, use,
utility, utilization.
2. Употребление глаголов to increase, to decrease и их синонимов
to grow, to raise, to rise, to fall, to reduce.
3. Конверсия.
4. Видовременные формы английского глагола в действительном
и страдательном залогах (повторение).
5. Числительные: единицы меры.

VOCABULARY ТО THE TEXT

“ANIM AL BR EED IN G ”

Nouns: advantage, ancestor, appearance, breeding, breeding value,

characteristic (syn feature, trait), cross, disadvantage, female, fertility,
flock, herd, herdbook, heredity, insemination, introduction, male,
mating, measurement, merit, pedigree, performance, productivity,
progeny, propagation, purpose, record, recording, sire, studbook,
technique, trait, utility.
Adjectives and adverbs: actual, artificial, average, decisive, desirable,
individual, objective(ly), pedigree, purebred, superior, thorough(ly).
Verbs: decrease, enable, establish, inherit, introduce, judge, specialize
(in smth), subject.
Other parts of speech and word-combinations: in accordance
with, along with, for the purpose of, with regard to, to some/certain extent,
though (syn however).

Give the Russian equivalents of the international words and scientific

terms from the text “Animal Breeding”:
association [3,s3usi'eijh], combination [.kmnbi'neijh], donor f'dauna),
embryo ['embnauj, genetic [cfci'netik], innovation [.inaVei/n], to modify
['mndifai], official [a'fi/lj, practice fpraektis], procedure [pra'sfccfca],
programme ['praugraem], selection [si'lekfn], selective [si'lektiv], statistics
[sta'tistiks], systematic [,sista'ma2tik], transplantation [,traensplo:n'tei/n]

85
I
 Употребление глаголов to apply , to introduce, to use,
to utilize и соответствующих существительных
to apply (smth to smth) [a'plai] — применять, использовать, внед­
рять (метод, систему, правило, закон и т .п .)’, syn to use, to
introduce; найти практическое применение; применять, вносить
(удобрения, ядохимикаты, навоз, органические вещества в почву)
to introduce (smth into/to smth) [,intra'dju:s] — внедрять, вво­
дить, впервые начать использовать (новые методы, технологии,
препараты, новый сорт, вид, породу)', привозить впервые куда-л.
(растение, животное, болезнь)', вносить (удобрения в почву)
to use [ju:z] — использовать, пользоваться, применять, употреб­
лять; syn to utilize; использовать, (из)расходовать; syn to consume,
to utilize
to utilize fjuitilaiz] — утилизировать, использовать, расходо­
вать, употреблять; syn to use
application [.aepli'keifn] — применение, использование, упо­
требление; приложение; применимость; внесение (удобрений и т.п.);
syn to use
introduction [.intra'dAkfn] — введение, внедрение (новых мето­
дов, сортов и т.д.), включение (в структуру, в состав чего-л.);
введение (внутрь чего-л.), внесение (удобрений)
use [ju:s] — употребление, применение, использование
utility [jur'tiJrti] — полезность; выгодность; общепользовательно-
го направления, общепользовательной категории (о животном)
utilization [jurtilai'zeijn] — использование, употребление, ути­
лизация; syn use
Examples: J •
New scientific methods have Новые научные методы были
been applied in agricultural использованы / применены
production. в сельскохозяйственном про­
изводстве.
The measurement of blood Измерение кровяного давления
pressure was introduced было внедрено в практику
in practice late in the 19th (впервые начали использовать
century and has become an на практике) в конце 19 века
important part of medical и стало важной частью врачеб­
diagnosis. ной диагностики.
When artificial insemination is Когда используется искусствен­
used, a small number of sires ное осеменение, то небольшое
may be used to serve a large число производителей может
number of females. быть использовано для опло­
дотворения большого числа
самок.

86
Beef cattle can utilize roughages Мясной скот может употреб­
of both low and high quality. лять грубые корма как низ­
кого, так и высокого качества.
Proper application of commercial Правильное внесение/примене­
fertilizers has greatly increased ние промышленных удобрений
soil fertility. значительно повысило плодо­
родие почвы.
The introduction of nutritive Внедрение/Введение пищевых
supplements to animal rations добавок в рацион животных
had a number of advantages. имело ряд преимуществ.
By-products of the dairy industry Побочные продукты молочного
are of great use as high-protein производства имеют большое
feed supplements. применение / использование
в качестве высокобелковых
кормовых добавок.
In breeding farm animals for При выведении сельскохозяй­
utility, selection must be based ственных животных для прак­
on objective measurements тического использования се­
of animal traits. лекция должна быть основана
на объективных оценках ха­
рактеристик животных.
The utilization of protein is Использование/ Употребление
increased when the organism белка возрастает, когда орга­
is subjected to any kind низм подвержен какой-либо
of infection. инфекции.

Употребление глаголов to increase, to decrease

и их синонимов
Для описания изменений (увеличения или уменьшения) каких-
либо показателей используют следующие глаголы:
1. to increase (increased) [in'kiis] — возрастать, увеличивать(ся);
расти; усиливать(ся) (о количестве, степени, размере и т .п.).
Synonyms: to grow (grew, grown) — расти, увеличиваться; to raise
(raised) — повышать, увеличивать (количество, степень, уро­
вень чего-л.у, to rise (rose, risen) — возрастать, увеличиваться)
(в объеме).
2. to decrease (decreased) [di:‘kri:s] — уменыпать(ся), убывать,
сокращаться) (о количестве, степени, размере и т.п.). Synonyms:
to fall (fell, fallen) — снижаться, уменьшаться, падать (о ценах
и т.п.)-, to reduce (reduced) — ослаблять, понижать, сокращать(ся),
уменьшать(ся), убывать (о размере, весе, количестве ; стоимос­
ти, цене и т.д.).
87
И
 В зависимости от того, употребляются ли эти глаголы с пря-
или оез него, они являются
непереходными.
educe (+ прямое дополнение)
fall, to grow (без дополнения)
можно употреблять как с поя-
мым дополнением, так и без него.

Examples:
Farmers will raise/increase/ :рмеры повысят/увеличат/
reduce/decrease the prices снизят/уменьшат цены на
for their products next year. продукты
году.
е prices for farm product Цены на сельскохозяйственные
will increase/rise/grow продукты увеличатся/ возрас­
fall/decrease. тут/снизятся/уменьшатся .
Соответствующие существительные от этих глагол
increase [ inkiis], growth, rise (Br E), raise (Am E) увеличе
ние, рост, повышение
body-weight increase увеличение массы тела
production growth — рост производства
decrease ['dirkrirs], fall, reduction уменьшение
снижение, спал
Следует обратить внимание на употребление предлогов
существительными
to increase/decrease in number/size/volume увеличиваться/
уменьшаться в числе/размере/объеме
to increase/decrease by (25% or l/ 4) p e r year увеличиться/
уменьшиться на (25% или lA ) за год
to increase/decrease to (1,000 tons; увеличиться/уменьшить
ся до (1 ООО тонн)
to increase/decrease fro m ... to ... увеличиться/уменьшить
ся с ... до ...
to increase/decrease tw ice or two tim es увеличиваться/
уменьшаться в два раза
an increase/a raise/a ris '■/
smth — рост/падение чего-л.
an increase in milk yield — увеличение удоя молока
a reduction in productivity снижение продуктивности
an increase/a decrease o f. уве
размере
there was a milk yield increase/rise/raise o f 10% over the past
year = milk yield increased by 10% over the past year послед
ний год удой молока вырос на 10%

88
 GRAM M AR REVISION
AND PRETEXT EXERCISES

Конверсия
(Conversion)
Конверсией называется образование одной части речи от дру­
гой с сохранением основной формы слова. В некоторых случаях
изменяется произношение слова или ударение.
1. Примеры конверсии без изменений в произношении: a farm —
to farm; a breed — to breed; a plant — to plant; milk — to milk;
water — to water; effect — to effect; influence — to influence
2. Примеры конверсии с изменением в произношении и уда­
рении в словах:

Глагол Существительное
to decrease [di:'kri:s] уменьшать decrease ['di:kri:s] уменьшение
to export [iks'port] экспортировать export ['eksport] экспорт
to import [im'port] импортировать import ['impDt] импорт
to increase [in'kri:s] повышать increase ['inkrirs] повышение
to present [pri'zent] представлять present ['prezant] текущий момент
to produce [prs'djurs] производить produce ['pn)dju:s] продукция
to progress [pra'gres] развиваться, progress [’praugres] прогресс,
совершенствоваться развитие
to record [ri'koid] записывать record ['reko.d] запись
to subject [ssb'cfcekt] подвергать subject ['sAbcfciktJ предмет
{чему-л.)
to use Цю] использовать use [ju:s] использование
1. Translate into Russian. Are the italicized words nouns or verbs?
1. At present farmers in developed countries usually export the excess
of their farm produce abroad. 2. Nowadays scientists at international
conference present the results using different computer programmes in
order to support the reports with visual materials. 3. Farmers often
produce high-quality butter and cream from their own milk. 4. It is
important for any country to maintain a balance between import and
export of foodstuff in order to maintain domestic producers. 5. Different
species of animals have already been subjected to genetic modifications,
though usefulness of these experiments is still the subject of discussion
within the scientific society as well as for the public. 6. A breeder records
the main characteristics of the best sires as any record may be essential

89
for breeding in future. 7. Since the 19th century scientists have made
great progress in genetic experiments. 8. There is a great use of utilizing
various food by-products by feeding them to farm animals. 9. With the
introduction of new computer systems scientists can progress in their
research of gene structure. 10. Farmers use records about several
generations of animals in order to predict productivity characteristics of
the offspring. 11. The increase in food production may lead to decrease
in prices. 12. In order to decrease losses and to increase the supply of
high-quality food, farmers introduce advanced technologies.

Видовременные формы английского глагола

в действительном и страдательном залогах
(,повт орение)
правильногоasked—asked, у ко-
совпадают
правильного showed—shown
ма прошедшего времени — showed, причастие II — shown)
PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE (Настоящее простое время)
Указатели времени: always (всегда), usually (обычно), often (часто),
seldom (редко), sometimes (иногда), never (никогда), every day/week/
(каждый
Действительный залог Страдательный залог
УТВЕРДИТЕЛЬНЫЕ
I/You/We/They ask/sh asked/shown
He/She/It asks/shows. asked/shown
You/We/They are asked/shown
ОТРИЦАТЕЛЬНЫЕ
I/You/We/They do not ask/sh< asked/shown
He/She/It does not ask/show. asked/shown
You/We/They are not asked/shown
ВОПРОСИТЕЛЬНЫЕ
Do I/you/we/they ask/show...? Am I asked/shown...?
Does he/she/it ask/show...? Is he/she/it asked/shown...?
Are you/we/they asked/shown...?
IE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
(Настоящее продолженное вое
Указатели времени: now (сейчас), nowadays (в наше время), at the
moment (
* .1 Л v S « V. M d

Для
ражения будущего действия с указателями времени: tomorrow (завтра^
next week/year (на следующей неделе/в следующем году); in a week/
ближайшем будущем)

90
 Действительный залог Страдательный залог
УТВЕРДИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
I am asking/showing. I am being asked/shown.
He/She/It is asking/showing. He/She/It is being asked/shown
You/We/They are asking/showing. You/We/They are being asked/
shown.
ОТРИЦАТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
1 am not asking/showing. asked/shown
He/She/It is not asking/showing. asked/shown
You/We/They are not asking/ You/We/They
showing. shown.
ВОПРОСИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
Am I asking/showing...? Am I being asked/shown
Is he/she/it asking/showing...? asked/shown •*

Are you/we/they asking/showing? Are you

shown
3. THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
(Настоящее совершенное время)
Указатели
(уже), yet (уже )), recently, lately (недавно, в по­
следнее время), since (с; с тех пор, как), for (в течение).
Действительный залог Страдательный залог
УТВЕРДИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
I/You/We/They have asked/shown. I/You/We/They have
asked/shown
asked/shown asked/shown
ОТРИЦАТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
I/You/We/They have not asked/ I/You/We/They have not been
shown. asked/shown,
jot asked/shown. He/She/It has not been asked/
shown.
ВОПРОСИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
Have I/you/we/they asked/ Have I/you/we/they been asked/
shown ’ shown...?
Has he/she/it asked/shown...? Has he/she/it been asked/shown..
4. THE PAST SIMPLE TENSE (Прошедшее простое
Указатели времени: yesterday (вчера), last week/year (на прошлой
неделе/в прошлом году), two years ago (дв;

91
 Действительный залог Страдательный залог
УТВЕРДИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
I/You/He/She/I t/We/They I/H e/She/It was asked/shown.
asked/showed. You/We/They were asked/shown.
ОТРИЦАТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
I/You/He/She/It/W e/They did I/H e/She/It was not asked/shown.
not ask/show. You/We/They were not asked/shown
ВОПРОСИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
Did I/you/he/she/it/w e/they Was I/he/she/it asked/shown...?
ask/show...? Were you/we/they asked/shown...?
FUTURE SIMPLE TENSE (Будущее
следующей
yearItwo
in the future (в будущем).
Действительный залог Страдательный залог
УТВЕРДИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
I/We will (shall) ask/show. I/We will (shall) be asked/shown.
He/She/It/You/They will He/She/It/You/They will be asked/
ask/show. shown.
ОТРИЦАТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
I/We will (shall) not ask/show I/We will (shall) not be asked/
shown. '
He/She/It You/They will not He/She/It/You/They will not be
ask/show. asked/shown.
ВОПРОСИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
Will (Shs Will (Shall) I/we be asked/shown
Will he/s Will he/she/it/you/they be asked
show...? shown...?

видовременных форм английского

русский
Время
в английском Действительный залог Страдательный залог
языке
The Present ask(s)/show(s) am/is/are asked/shown
Simple Tense спрашиваю/показываю спрашивают/показывают
(-ешь; -ет; -ем;
-ете; -ют)

92
 Время
в английском Действительный залог Страдательный залог
языке
The Present am/is/are asking/showing am/is/are being asked/shown
Progressive спрашиваю/показываю спрашивают/показывают
Tense (-ешь; -em; -ем;
-eme; -ют)
The Present have/has asked/shown have/has been asked/shown
Perfect Tense спросили/ показали спросили/показали
The Past asked/showed was/were asked/shown
Simple Tense спросил(а)/спросили спросили/показал и
показал (а)/показали
The Future shall/will ask/show shall/will be asked/shown
Simple Tense спрошу/ покажу спросят/покажут
(-ишь; -ешь; -ит; -ет;
-им; -ем; -ят; -ут)

2. Use the correct form of the verb in brackets in the active or passive
voice.
11 Scientists (to consider) different effects of genetic modification on
nature? 2. Machines, fertilizers and feeds (to purchase) by farmers from
large commercial companies, and a large variety of agricultural products
(to sell) in the food market. 3. The interest to proper animal feeding
(not/to fa ll) in recent years. 4. Modem genetics (to provide) both new
theoretical approaches and practical methods for animal husbandry?
5. Many discoveries (to make) in the field of genetics last year? 6. How
many new workers (to involve) in harvesting crops every year? 7. In
Russia the agricultural sector (not/to supply) the population with all the
necessary products, so most of them (to import) from other countries.
8. These new feeding supplements (to ensure) a complete ration for
cows, thus neither silage nor concentrates (to require) to feed animals
next year. 9. Highly productive breeds of cattle (to raise) in northern
regions a century ago? 10. In order to satisfy the needs of people in the
most essential nutrients, scientists still (to improve) breeds of farm
animals.

Числительные: единицы меры

(Numerals: units of measure)
В англоязычных странах используются следующие единицы
меры.
а) Единицы веса:
ounce (oz) [auns] — унция
pound (lb) [paund] — фунт
 16 ounces = 1 pound
1 ounce = -2 8 grammes (g) 1
1 pound = -0 .4 5 kg (kilogram m e (B r E)\ kilogram (Am E)
['kitagraem]) A
b) Единицы длины и площади:
inch [intf] — дюйм , j
foot [fut] — фут ]
mile [mail] — миля
acre [еікә] — акр
12 inches (in) = 1 foot (ft)
1 inch = 2.54 centim etres (cm) ['senti,mi:t3] (centim eter Am E)
1 foot = - 30 cm
1 mile = -1.6 kilometres (km) ['кі1ә,тііә, ki'tomita] (kilometer Am E)
1 acre = - 0.4 hectare ['hektea]
c) Единицы объема ж и д к о с т и : . , I '1 . -.-vI
gallon (gal) ['gaebn] — галлон — мера ж и д к и х и сыпучих тел;
английский галлон = 4,55 л; американский = 3,79 л
1 gallon = 4.55 litres or 3.79 litres [‘М.ІӘ} (liter Am E)
3. a) Say it in English:
2/3 унции зерна, 6 миль в час, от 2 до 3 галлонов молока, 5,25
фунтов сена, около 7,5 акров земли, на глубине 2—3 дюймов, на
расстоянии 9 1/4 футов
b) Say the figures from (a) using them as units o f measure —
grammes, litres, centimetres etc.
4. Read and translate the text. Find in the text the sentences:
— with the construction “I t is + adjective + infinitive”.
where in Russian translation you need the words «состоит в том,
чтобы». " .

ANIMAL BREEDING
The aim of farm animals breeding is to improve qualities which are
considered desirable by humans. Long before the scientific principles
to the selection of superior animals were developed and the planning of
mating combinations was introduced in practice, all species of farm
animals were subjected to selective breeding to some extent. At present,
in order to modify livestock and poultry and control propagation of
domestic animals, breeding procedures involve the application of several
basic sciences, mainly reproductive physiology1, genetics and statistics.
Animals are bred for utility, sport, pleasure, and research. The purposes
of animal breeding vary with regard to species, local conditions, and
time. For instance, early in history horses were bred mainly for riding
and as draft animals; and nowadays, to a large extent, horses are being
94
I
bred for sport (racing and hunting). As to poultry, in the past chickens
were bred for the combined production of eggs and meat, but nowadays
in most European countries farmers mainly specialise in such breeds and
crosses which produce either eggs or meat,
a At present, farmers are using special breeding programmes in order
I to maintain herds and flocks of higher genetic merit. These programmes
It include such steps as: 1) the estimation of the breeding value of animals;
2) thorough selection of animals for breeding; 3) the application of one
of the mating systems.
I . The problem how to estimate the breeding value of animals has been
researched thoroughly by scientists for different kinds of animals. On
the one hand, it is necessary to select animals for breeding on the basis
of objective measurements of traits that are decisive for the production.
On the other hand, it is often impossible to judge animals’ productivity
only on the basis of their appearance, so farmers started systematic
recordings of such individual animal characteristics as milk yields,
growth rate and muscle development for bulls etc. Progeny testing and
performance testing have been introduced to judge young males (bulls,
rams, and boars) that will be used for breeding. Actual measurement of
an individual animal’s performance is a rather recent innovation in
animal breeding and it has established the foundation of breeding
I programmes.
Special studbooks and herdbooks are maintained by government or
private associations or breeding organisations in many countries for the
purpose of recording animal pedigree. Studbooks are official records of
the pedigree of purebred animals, particularly horses and dogs.
Herdbooks are official records of individuals and pedigrees of a well-
known breeds of livestock, especially cattle or swine. In modem livestock
trade, farmers will rely on the record of an individual animal’s ancestors
as a decisive factor of its market value.
I Nowadays it is known that the breeding value of an animal depends
on the genes which it passes on to its offspring, so genetics has become
II the basis of animal selection and breeding. It has been found that some
traits (coat colour, blood type etc) are inherited in accordance with the
laws of heredity, while other traits (wool yield, egg production etc) are
Iс subjected to variations and are greatly influenced by the environmental

I
factors.
Selection is based on the breeding value of animals and can be carried
out in different ways such as mass selection2, pedigree selection3, family
selection4, and progeny selection. There are certain advantages and
disadvantages of these systems, thus selection is usually made in a number
of steps. With regard to dairy, bulls selection on the basis of pedigree is
made soon after birth; a second selection is made later and based on
growth rate during the first year of life and fertility in the first series of
inseminations; and, finally, a third selection depends on the results of
progeny tests, when offspring are old enough and may be judged.
95
 Animal breeders apply different mating systems such as inbreeding5,
outbreeding6, linebreeding7, crossbreeding8 as well. The purpose of any
method of breeding is to exclude undesirable traits and combine the
most essential characteristics in a new animal breed. Along with various
breeding methods, the introduction of such techniques as artificial
insemination, transplantation of embryo from donor females of high
merit has become of great use in breeding all species of farm animals.
In most Western countries, there was a significant improvement in
many economically important traits of farm animals after World War II.
The most considerable progress in animal breeding has been done with
dairy cattle, for instance, today’s dairy cattle have no horns9, and
produce two or three times as much milk as their ancestors in the 19th
century. In the United States, for example, the average yield of milk from
cows increased from 9,425 pounds (4,275 kg) in 1955 to 12,209 pounds
(5,538 kg) in 1967, an increase of 29.5%, or 2.27% per year, by 1980
an official test reported an average yield of 14,960 pounds (6,786 kg).
The use of superior sires together with artificial insemination has enabled
farmers to improve their herds to a great extent.
As to the pig-breeding in Danish pig-testing stations, the average
daily gain in live weight increased from 23.9 to 24.6 ounces (678 to
697 g) from 1955 to 1962, the length of carcasses10 increased from 36.9
to 37.8 inches (93.8 to 95.9 cm), and the backfat thickness11 decreased
from 1.28 to 1.10 inches (3.26 to 2.80 cm). The modem broiler chick is
an example of the success obtained by crosses between breeds that have
been specialized for different lines of production without close inbree­
ding.
To sum up, scientists apply the same basic principles of breeding to
any animal species, though the practical approach to the problem may
differ to a certain extent and it depends on the rate of animal reproduc­
tion, selection method, mating system, as well as on some genetic and
environmental factors.

COMMENTS

1. reproductive physiology — репродуктивная физиология

2. mass selection — массовый отбор
3. pedigree selection — отбор по родословной
4. family selection — семейственный отбор
5. inbreeding — межродственное скрещивание
6. outbreeding аутбридинг (неродственное спаривание)
7. linebreeding — разведение в пределах одной линии
8. crossbreeding кроссбридинг, метизация (скрещивание особей раз­
ных пород или разновидностей)
9. horn [ho:n] — рог
10. carcass [’ka:kas] — туша
11. backfat thickness — толщина хребтового шпига
96
 EXERCISES TO THE TEX1
5. Answer the questions.
1. What are the aims of animal breeding?
2. What knowledge is necessary for an animal breeder?
3. What procedures are included in the breeding programme?
4. Why is it difficult to estimate the breeding value of an animal
objectively?
5. Why are studbooks and herdbooks of great value?
6. What is the modern approach to the problem ofbreeding animals?
7. Does a breeder always use only one system of selection?
8. What types of mating system are applied in practice?
9. How have the breeding methods changed recentlv?
10. What factors influence the animal breeding?
Think and say.
Do you know about any animal breeding associations in Russia or
other countries?
Do you know any examples how animal breeding and selection have
improved performance of sheep, pigs, poultry and other animal species?
Search the websites for more information on these topics:
1. http://www.cnshb.ru/aw/ — The Central Scientific Agricultural
Library; кЩЩ W

2. http://www.agroweb.unesco.kz/levell/agrl l.htm?page=agr
The AgroWeb Russian Federation;
3. http://w w w .lm ic.info/ — Livestock Marketing Information
Center. The United States Department of Agriculture provides
product and price summaries, market reports, and other infor-1
mation about the livestock industry in the United States.
4. http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/ — Breeds of Livestock. The
Department of Animal Science at Oklahoma State University
offers information on breeds of livestock throughout the world,
including photographs.
6. a) Find in the text the nouns which are formed from the following verbs:
to select, to govern, to perform, to breed, to improve, to cross,
to combine, to measure, to practice, to estimate, to appear, to found,
to research, to reproduce, to value, to vary, to approach, to introduce,
to develop, to produce, to trade, to apply, to test, to control
Put
formed by convc
W

1) selection, ...
2) government, ...
4 Комарова 97
 3) performance, ... • ■
4) a breed,...
с) Add to (b) the nouns which are formed from the verbs. Use a
dictionary if necessary. • 1
to modify, to require, to maintain, to establish, to judge, to mate
7. a) Rewrite the sentences in the active voice, where it is necessary, use
the words: a scientist, a researcher, a breeder, a farmer.
1. The planning of mating combinations was introduced in practice.
2. Animals are bred for utility, sport, pleasure, and research. 3. Horses
are being bred for sport. 4. The breeding value of animals has been
researched thoroughly by scientists for different kinds of animals. 5. In
the past, chickens were bred for the combined production of eggs and
meat. 6. It is necessary to judge young males that will be used for
breeding. 7. Special studbooks are maintained by government record
associations. 8. The most significant progress in animal breeding has
been done with dairy cattle.
b) Rewrite the sentences in the passive voice. ■
1. Breeding procedures involve the application of several basic
sciences. 2. At present, farmers are using different breeding programmes
to improve their herds. 3. Farmers started systematic recordings of
individual animal characteristics. 4. Farmers will rely on the record of
an individual animal’s ancestors. 5. Animal breeders apply different
mating systems. 6. Actual measurement of an individual anim al’s
performance has established the foundation of breeding programmes.

A D D IT IO N A L E X E R C IS E S

8. Choose the correct word in brackets to complete the sentence.

1. Such traits as growth rate, live weight, body measurements at
mature age, milk yield etc (are subjected/ are supported) to environmental
influence. 2. Animal (appearance/productivity) is of great value in
breeding some species, for example in mink breeding (разведение но­
рок) when it is necessary (to judge/to inherit) the animals with regard
to fur quality and shade of colour. 3. Along with (perform ance/
propagation) testing, special efforts have been made to predict at a
young age for an individual animal if it will be an efficient meat, milk,
or egg producer. 4. Only horses listed in the British (studbook/
herdbook) were allowed to compete on licenced race courses in
England. 5. Sheep mainly graze in (flocks/ herds) in order to protect
themselves from predators (хищник). 6. It has been found that genetic
material (affects/is subjected) physiological (reactions/techniques)
within the cell. 7. The merit of (ancestors/progeny) is usually the first
98
available information on the breeding value of an individual, and such
(purebred/pedigree) information is of great value for animal breeders.
8. The breeds of dairy cattle (have been established/introduced) by
years of careful selection and (mating/measurement) of animals to
achieve (desirable/ different) productivity. 9. Artificial insemination
(enables/ensures) farmers to use superior (males/females) which have
been developed (thorough/ through) a number of crosses of animals of
the highest (trait/merit). 10. (Heredity/ Fertility) testing of (sires/
offspring) which are used for artificial insemination of some purebred
and commercial (flocks/herds) is of special importance in cattle
breeding. 11. The animal breeding (value/purpose) depends on the genes
it passes on to its (sire/ offspring). 12. In breeding dairy cattle selection
is based on (individual/objective) measurements of milk yields that are
(desirable/decisive) for milk production. 13. In Indonesia, duck
(flocks/herds) are taken to the mountainous regions of the country
during the warmer seasons. 14. In Britain, records of new (crosses/ breeds)
were at first maintained by individual farmers, but later (breeding/
recording) associations were formed to control and maintain registration
of cattle in special (herdbooks/ studbooks). 15. Genetics studies in which
way genes are transm itted from (parents/offspring) to (parents/
offspring).
9. Translate into English.
a) вырос на 3%; производство растет на 1.5% за год; уменьше­
ние удоя молока на 14%; снизился на 1/3; возрос на 20%; количе­
ство уменьшается на 0.25%; удой вырос до 6000 кг; увеличился во
много раз; уменьшился в четыре раза; уменьшился с 70% в 2003 г.
до 68% в 2005 г.; увеличился с 30 тысяч тонн в 1999 до 45 тысяч
тонн в 2000 г.
b) В результате селекции у коров шведской красно-пестрой
породы крупного рогатого скота (the Swedish Red and White Breed)
средний удой молока вырос с 9473 фунтов (4297 килограммов)
в 1960 до 11,094 фунтов (5032 килограмма) в 1969, т.е. на 17,1% или
1,71 % за год.
10. Give the English equivalents of the Russian words in brackets, put
the words in the correct form.
1. Agriculture and animal husbandry (применяют) genetic techniques
to improve plants and animals. The same principles (применяются)
to other traits and other species of animals. 2. It is essential to develop
procedures for more efficient (ут илизации/использования) of
available raw materials. 3. Genetic techniques (используются) in
animal husbandry to diagnose inherited animal diseases. 4. The concept
of sudden changes in heredity, that is, mutations, (была введена) in
the beginning of the 20th century. 5. As many theoretical sciences,

99
genetics has many actual and potential practical (применений ). 6. Such
by-products as rice bran and rice hulls (утилизируются ) as feed for
farm animals. 7. (Использование) of recombinant DNA technology to
manipulate and change genes is sometimes called gene cloning. 8. (Вве­
дение/Внедрение) of new genes from another population (использу­
ется) to increase the genetic variations. 9. It is essential (вносить)
manure to the right kind of crop at the proper time. 10. (Полезность)
of horses as drafting animals has been recognised since ancient times.
11. The practical (применение) of artificial insemination in horses,
cattle, sheep, and pigs was developed in Russia during the first decades
of the 20th century. 12. The problem of manure (утилизации) is of
great importance on any farm.
11. Use the correct form of the verb in brackets using the active or passive
voice. ",3
1. When the development of purebred livestock for use in breeding
(to begin) in Britain in the 18th century, it (to become) necessary to
maintain a pedigree of each animal. 2. When there is a considerable
amount of hereditary variation, a breed considerably (to change) in
about five to ten generations of intense selection. 3. Many species of small
mammals, especially rats, mice, rabbits, and guinea pigs (to breed) for
research, mainly in genetics, physiology, and medicine. 4. What
organisations (to establish) to promote animal science and production
yet? 5. How the mating of purebred animals (to call)! 6. Scientific
principles to the selection of superior animals and the planning of mating
combinations widely (to use) by animal breeders at present. 7. For
centuries the selection of Thoroughbred horses (чистокровная лошадь)
(to rely) on speed at standard racing distances. 8. Scientists (to predict)
that the first generation of crossbred animals (to be) intermediate wiih
regard to traits of both parents’ breeds. 9. Where the practical application
of artificial insemination in horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs (to develop)?
10. Knowledge of heredity dates to prehistoric times and (to apply) to
the breeding of plants and animals for centuries. 11. Collections of
pedigrees which (to publish) in studbooks for horses and in herdbooks
for some breeds of cattle (to consider) by commercial breeders as
important in the choice of most prized animals. 12. Crossbreeding (to
practice) for a long time, and it also (to subject) to experimental
research in the United States and Europe. 13. How the productivity of
sows (to measure) next month? 14. First farmers (to start) systematic
records of milk production in dairy cows in Denmark in 1895, then the
system of records (to spread) rapidly in northwestern Europe and North
America. 15. The breeding value of an animal (to depend) on the genes
which it (to pass) on to its offspring. 16. When farmers (to begin) to
keep records in pig breeding? The first data of growth rate, feed
consumption, and carcass (туша) quality of pigs (to record) in 1907.
17. These young beef and dairy bulls (not/to test) for rate of growth and
00
muscle development yet. 18. A certain amount of natural selection always
(to take) place? 19. The term “crossbreeding” (not/to mean) mating
of closely related male and female, but it (to mean) mating of animals
of different purebred breeds in order to combine the best traits of the
two breeds, however, this term usually (to apply) to crosses between breeds
within the same species. 20. Animal breeders (to carry) out many
experiments on the crossing of inbred lines of the same breed or of
different breeds? 21. Nowadays farmers (to apply) artificial insemination on
beef cattle, horses, sheep, pigs, and poultry, though on a small scale
compared to its use with dairy cattle. 22. In most Western countries
scientists (to enable) to improve many economically important traits of
farm animals after World War II. 23. Most of the eggs that (to sell) in
North America and Western Europe (to produce) by hybrid chicks.
24. Cynologists (to breed) dogs to serve as watchdogs, police dogs,
hunters, sheep dogs, and pets.
12. Translate into English.
a) предки животного; оценивать внешний вид животного; спе­
циализироваться на разведении/племенной работе; методы раз­
ведения с.-х. животных; племенная ценность; скрещивание пород;
оплодотворение самок; тесты на плодовитость; стадо крупного
рогатого скота; позволить фермеру улучшить стадо овец; насле­
довать желаемые качества; регистрация/запись родословной
отдельного животного; как достоинства, так и недостатки; чисто­
кровный производитель (самец); системы спаривания; лучшие/
превосходные характерные черты/особенности; средняя продук­
тивность; фактическая/реальная и объективная оценка продук­
тивности; в соответствии с родословными и племенными книга­
ми; цель воспроизведения/размножение; записи о потомстве;
генетические качества самца; наряду с тщательной селекцией; что
касается (в отношении) наследственности; решающий фактор;
подвергать воздействию; создавать основу; искусственное осеме­
нение; в небольшой степени; снижать продуктивность
b) 1. Разведение животных согласно специальным программам
позволяет контролировать размножение домашних животных и
улучшать характеристики, которые считаются желаемыми для
данного вида животных. 2. Официальные записи о родословной
чистокровных животных, в частности для лошадей и собак, обыч­
но публикуются национальными ассоциациями по разведению
животных. 3. Несколько методов используется для селекции жи­
вотных с целью разведения, но обычно селекционеры выбирают
животных с высокой плодовитостью и исключают животных с
нежелательными качествами. 4. Когда используется искусствен­
ное осеменение, небольшое число производителей требуется для
оплодотворения (to fertilize) большого числа самок. 5. Генетиче-
101
I
 I
I
ское улучшение как стада, так и отары требует тщательного пла­
нирования относительно выбора животных для разведения и ва­
риантов спаривания. 6. Только когда потомство достаточно взрос­
лое, селекционер может оценить результаты селекции и разведе­
ния и использовать тесты на продуктивность. >I
j

13. Tiranslate the following questions and sentences into English, then
put them in the correct order to make up a dialogue about cloning. ■
The first and the last sentences in the dialogue are numbered. I
1 — а) Я интересуюсь, какие-либо крупные млекопитающие
уже клонированы (to clone)? JX l
b) Я хотел(а) бы знать, какой метод был использован для кло­
нирования Долли? Д |
c) Долли была клонирована из клетки шестилетней овцемат­
ки (ewe). Клонированная клетка была клеткой грудной железы
(mammary cell). ' Jfe I
d) Интересно, какие-либо другие млекопитающие были кло­
нированы после Долли? ]
e) Вы знаете, где и когда овца Долли была клонирована? 1
f) К сожалению, она умерла в 2003 году из-за осложнений по- j
еле легочной инфекции (complications from lung infection). В ап­
реле 2003 года ее чучело (stuffed remains) было помещено в Коро- <
левский музей в Эдинбурге в Шотландии. В j
g) Вы представляете, какой тип клетки использовали для кло­
нирования Долли? ./pi!
Һ) Долли была создана (to create) в институте Рослин в Шот-
ландии в 1996 году. I
i) Вы не знаете, Долли сейчас жива (to be alive)? I
j) Данный метод включал перенос ядра соматической клетки
(nuclear transfer of a somatic cell). ЦК
k) Овца, названная Долли, была первым млекопитающим, [
которое было успешно клонировано из взрослой клетки (adult
cell). '‘2 л*. %
12 — (1) После того как клонирование было продемонстриро­
вано создателями (creator) Долли, многие другие крупные млеко-1
питающие, такие как лошади и быки, были клонированы. Напри­
мер, был генетически клонирован бык Герман с 55 потомками.

E X E R C IS E S F O R PA IR W O RK
14. Make up a dialogue about animal cloning, its advantages and disad­
vantages. 1
Student A supports the idea of cloning animals and Student В is
against this technique. Student A may use the ideas given below.
Some useful prompts for Student В are on page 105. You may use
exercise 13 and search for additional information in the Internet:
102 I
 1. htip://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheep_dolly
2. http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/antenna/dolly/index.asp —
The Science Museum, London.
3. http://www.roslin.ac.uk/imagelibrary/ — Roslin Institute, Edinburg.
4. http://www.newscientist.com/nsplus/insight/clone/clone.html —
Cloning Special Report. The magazine New Scientist presents a
report on recent developments in cloning; it includes news, scientific
background, a bioethics forum etc.
5. http://www.bioethics.net/cloning/cloning.php — about bioethics
and cloning. The University of Pennsylvania’s Center for Bioethics
offers information about cloning law and policy in the countries
around the world.
Advantages o f animal cloning:
1) makes agricultural production (meat, milk, egg production) more
efficient;
2) is of great importance/value for medical progress, for example
may decrease the risks of hereditary (наследственный) diseases;
3) may help to preserve extinct animals;
4) may be used for making clones of favourite pets such as cats, dogs;
5) is a realistic technique to develop reproductive strategy;
6) may help to improve the genetic code as well as the immune
system, consequently may prolong life span (продолжитель­
ность жизни).

USEFUL LANGUA GE
Expressing agreement: I (quite) agree to the statement; I agree on all
points; I support this idea; I am of the same opinion; Beyond all doubt.
Expressing disagreement: I don’t agree; I disagree on this point; I think,
I can’t agree because...; It is wrong as...; I’m afraid, I don’t agree at all;
I object to this statement; I am against it. It is not clear to me why... .
Remember:
to agree with smb — соглашаться с кем-л.
to agree to smth — соглашаться с чем-л.
to agree about/on smth — соглашаться на что-л.

S U P P L E M E N T A R Y TEXT

15. a) Read the text and divide it into paragraphs.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF GENETICS

Genetics is a study of heredity, in general, and of genes, in particular.
Since prehistoric times, man has recognised the influence of heredity
and has applied its principles to the improvement of farm crops and
103
 domestic animals. However, most of the mechanisms o f heredity
remained a mystery until the 20th century, when reliable scientific
information became available. In general, genetics studies the way in
which genes operate and the way in which they are transmitted from
parents to offspring. M odern genetics involves the study o f the
mechanism of gene action, that is, the way in which the genetic
m aterial (deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA) affects physiological
reactions within the cell. It is known that genes determine the features
which an individual may develop, though the features that actually
develop depend upon the complex interaction between genes and their
environment. Genetics has greatly influenced many different branches
o f biology and many other sciences such as chemistry, physics,
mathematics, sociology, psychology, and medicine. Thus, such new
sciences as microbial genetics, cytogenetics, molecular genetics began
rapidly to develop. Many important discoveries in genetics were made
during the 19th and 20th centuries. Around 1865, Gregor Mendel
reported his discoveries on inheritance in garden peas. Two French
Nobel Prize winners, Francois Jacob and Jacques Monod, discovered
the mechanism by which hereditary information is transferred from
genes to the site of protein (enzyme) synthesis. The result of their work
was the discovery of the genetic code, by which DNA is translated into
protein. Barbara McClintock received the Nobel Prize in 1983 for her
discovery of mobile genetic elements—some of the mechanisms that
account for mutation. At present, along with classical genetics there are
several applied areas of study in genetics, such as human, plant and
animal genetics. Classical genetics, which remains a basis for all other
topics in genetics, deals mainly with the method by which genetic traits
classified as dom inant, recessive, interm ediate, or polygenic are
transm itted in plants and animals. Classical genetics began with
M endel’s study of inheritance in garden peas and continues with
studies of inheritance in many different plants and animals. Medicine
and agriculture are rapidly developing applied fields of genetics. Genetic
techniques are widely used in medicine to diagnose and treat inherited
human disorders. About 100 different types of human diseases can be
detected in embryos now. Agriculture and animal husbandry apply
genetic techniques to improve plants and animals. Plant geneticists
produce new species by special treatment, for instance, a hybrid grain
has been produced from wheat and rye, and plants resistant to insect
pests have been developed. In plant breeding, the use of the chemical
compound colchicine, which causes chromosomes to double in number,
has enabled to obtain many new varieties of fruits, vegetables, and
flowers. Animal breeders use artificial insemination to propagate the
genes of prize bulls. Prize cows can transmit their genes to hundreds
of offspring by hormone treatment, which stimulates the release of
many eggs that are collected, fertilised, and transplanted to foster
mothers.
104
 b) Complete the following sentences in order to summarise the main
idea of each paragraph.
1. The first paragraph is devoted to... . 2. The second section deals
with the same problems... . 3. The third passage relates to... . 4. The
next/following passage is concerned with the use of.... 5. The main idea
of this paragraph is to describe... . 6. Finally, the last part mainly
concentrates o n ....
16. Agree or disagree with the statements.
1. Since ancient times people have been applying the principles of
genetics to breeding animals.
2. Modem genetics enables easily to predict animal productivity and
modify the genetic code.
3. It has been found that genes are transmitted from ancestors to the
progeny.
4. Animal features are not subject to any environmental influence
but they are determined only by the inherited genes.
5. Genetic studies have established the basis for two new biological
sciences.
6. The laws of heredity were first investigated for animals.
7. Only a few females were fertilised using artificial insemination.
Find more information about the achievements in genetics. Search
the websites suggested below.
1. http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/genomics/ — The American
Museum of Natural History.
2. http://www.dnaftb.org/dnaftb/ — DNA from the Beginning.
The DNA Learning Center at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory.

E X E R C IS E S F O R PA IR W ORK

Task for Student В

Useful prompts for Student В about disadvantages of animal cloning:
1. Animals are subjected to premature ageing (преждевременное
старение). Dolly was genetically six years old at birth.
2. This technique requires improvements; it is not reliable and cannot
be used for cloning humans yet.
3. At present it is impossible for scientists to predict all the effects
of cloning on the clone.
4. It is difficult to control the action of many genes at the same time.
5. Experiments are unethical (неэтичный ), it is necessary to ban
(запретить ) them.
 Unit 6
ANIMAL ECOLOGY

Vocabulary and Grammar: S Jl

1. Употребление существительных environment, habitat, surroundings.
2. Предложения времени и условия. 1 . J
3. Разные значения слов before, after.

V O C A BU LA R Y Т О T H E TEX T
“A N IM A L E C O L O G Y ”
N ouns: behaviour, community, condition (under conditions),
confinement, conservation, crisis (pi crises), cultivation (cultivation
practices), emphasis (pi emphases), environment, fertilisation, food
chain, habitat, interference, interrelation (syn interrelationship, relation,
relationship), maintenance, pollutant, pollution, recycling, resource,
scarcity, shelter, soil, soil fertility, surroundings, susceptibility, thesis (pi
theses). feyg gran у: r x l h ечОт ія
Adjectives and adverbs: applied (area), behavioural, environmental,
local. i
Verbs: cause, concern, connect, inhabit, result (in smth), share, solve.
O ther p a rts o f speech: besides (syn moreover, furthermore), on
condition, nevertheless (syn however), therefore, till/until.

Give the Russian equivalents of the international words and scientific

terms from the text “Animal Ecology”:
abiotic [.eibai'otik], accum ulation fokjum u'leifn], adaptation
[,aedaep'tei/n], aspect ['aespekt], biotic [bai'otik], concept fkDnsept],
disbalance [dis'baebns] (syn imbalance), dynamics [dai'naemiks], ecosystem
['i:keu,sist9m], electronics [^lek'tmmks], geology [фЛэІәс^р], immune status
[I'mjun 'steitas], intensive [in'tensiv], meteorology [mirtia'rolacjji], multi­
disciplinary [.тлМівәрІіпәп], niche [mJornLJ], optimal ['optiml], pesticide
[■pestisaid], political [pa'iitikal], sociology [.sausiWacfci], stress [stres]

Употребление существительных
environment, habitat, surroundings
habitat [’haeb^taet] — место обитания, ареал, место распростра­
нения, произрастания; естественная среда
106
 environment [inVararanmant] — окружающая среда, окружение,
внешние условия; микроклимат
surroundings {pi) [sa'raundirjz] — окружающая среда, окруже­
ние, естественные условия
Translate the English definitions of these words into Russian:
Habitat is a place where an organism (an animal or a plant) or a com­
munity of organisms lives; it includes all biotic (living) and abiotic
(nonliving) factors or conditions of the natural environment.
Environment is the complex of physical, chemical, and biotic factors
that influence an organism or an ecological community and finally
determine its form and survival (выживание).
Surroundings are the objects, buildings, natural things, etc that are
around an organism in a particular time.
Examples:
The word environment includes Понятие окружающая среда
both other organisms and включает как другие организ­
physical surroundings. мы, так и их физическое окру­
жение.
If the unique habitat is destroyed, Если уникальная среда обитания
the species that inhabit it will будет уничтожена, то виды, ко­
gradually disappear and may торые живут там, будут посте­
become extinct. пенно исчезать и могут выме­
реть.
An animal will achieve its optimal Животное достигнет своего оп-
body size if its surroundings тимального размера тела, если
provide a constant and его окружающая среда будет
adequate supply of good обеспечивать постоянное и до­
quality fodder. статочное количество корма
хорошего качества.

G RAM M AR R E V ISIO N
A N D PRETEXT EX ER C ISES
Предложения времени и условия
(Adverbial clauses of time and condition)

В придаточных предложениях времени и условия после союзов

if, when, after, before, till/until, as soon as будущее время не
употребляется: Future Simple заменяется Present Simple.
if — если
on condition (that) — при условии что

107
V
 when когда
after после того как
before — до того как
till (until) — пока; до т ех пор пока ... (не)
as soon as как только
Examples'.
I f any species in the food chain Если какой-либо вид в пищевой
disappears, there will be цепи исчезнет, то будет дис­
a disbalance in the whole баланс во всей экосистеме.
ecosystem.
On condition that such dangerous При условии если такие опасные
pollutants as DDT, dioxins, загрязняющие агенты, как ДДТ,
radioactive materials reach диоксины, радиоактивные ма­
dangerous levels of accumu­ териалы достигнут опасного
lation, they will pass up the уровня накопления, они по­
food chain into the bodies ступят по пищевой цепи
of larger animals. в организмы более крупных
животных.
When a new pesticide is Когда новый пестицид будет
synthesised, the rate of its синтезирован, скорость его
decomposition in the soil will разложения в почве будет
be studied thoroughly. тщательно изучена.
A fter all the necessary analyses После того как все необходимые
of the soil and ground water анализы почвы и грунтовых
are conducted, the degree of вод будут сделаны, степень
pollution in this region will загрязнения в этом районе
be estimated. будет оценена.
Before a large commercial farm Д о того как большое коммерче­
is built, its possible future ское сельскохозяйственное
effects on the environment предприятие будет постро­
will be considered by ено, его возможные будущие
ecologists. воздействия на окружающую
среду будут рассмотрены
экологами.
Until weather conditions become Д о тех пор пока погодные усло­
extremely hot or cold, tempe­ вия не станут крайне жарки­
rature variations will not ми или холодными, темпера­
affect body temperature of турные колебания не будут
ducks, as the duck has the влиять на температуру тела
ability to regulate its body уток, так как птицы обладают
temperature by changes in its способностью регулировать
behaviour. температуру тела путем изме­
нений своего поведения.
108
As soon as the new recycling Как только новая оборотная си-
water supply system is стема водоснабжения будет
introduced on a farm, the внедрена в хозяйстве, эколо-
ecological situation in the гическая ситуация в регионе
area will become better. улучшится.
1. Use the correct form of the verb in brackets in the active or passive
voice. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. When new efficient machines for processing different food by­
products into animal feeds (to apply), the supply of feed supplements
greatly (to increase). 2. On condition that a dairy farm (to use) intensive
methods of animal production, more energy (to require) in order to
maintain the necessary surroundings for animals, that is, the tempera­
ture, the humidity as well as the lightning in the cowshed. 3. Before a
farmer (to choose) the sire for breeding, he (to study) its pedigree. 4. If
ecologists (not/to make) soil and water analyses, they (not/to be able)
to estimate the environmental pollution. 5. After animals (to graze) on
the same field for a long time, the ecosystem in this particular place
(to be) in disbalance. 6. Scientists have shown that animals (not/to
hormone
environment
(to develop) in an unfavourable way, it (to cause) an ecological crisis.

Разные значения слов before, after

(Different meanings o f the words before, after)
Некоторые союзы совпадают по форме с предлогами и с наре­
чиями, поэтому перевод слова зависит от его функции в предло­
жении.
before
1. до того как — союз; соединяет придаточное предложение
с главным;
2. до — предлог; показывает отношение существительного к гла­
голу;
3. раньше — наречие, указывает время совершения действия.
after
1. после того как — союз;
2. после — предлог;
3. потом — наречие.
2. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. As a result of the research work by Lorenz and Tinbergen, ethology
developed strongly in continental Europe in the years before World
War II. 2. Modem ecology began with Charles Darwin, however the
109
*
 term ecology” was introduced before. 3. Plants absorb and accumulate
energy from the sun through photosynthesis before they are eaten by
herbivorous animals which are known as primary consumers in the food
chain. 4. Ethologists have thoroughly analyzed the egg-rolling response
(реакция на катящееся яйцо) of geese which lasts from about a week
before egg laying (кладка яиц) until a week after the young have
hatched (выведены). 5. After a change of abiotic ecological factors, for
example, an increase in temperature or less rainfalls, the environment
may become unfavourable for the survival (выживание) of a species
°f a population. 6. Animal ecology was established as a new and distinct
discipline after Charles Sutherland Elton wrote Animal Ecology (1927)
and Animal Ecology and Evolution (1930). 7. Sulphur dioxide and
oxides of nitrogen from industrial areas are converted into weak
sulphuric and nitric acids which may destroy different ecosystems after.
3. Read and translate the text. Find in the text the sentences:
— with the adverbial clauses of time and condition;
— in the passive voice;
— with the construction “to be + o f + noun”.

ANIMAL ECOLOGY
The word ecology originates from the Greek language and means
“the study of the place to live”. In general, ecology as a branch of
biology deals with the relationships between living organisms and their
environment. Animal ecology began to develop rapidly as an applied
area of ecology only in the middle of the 20th century. Animal ecology
concerns the study of population dynamics1, distribution, behaviour
and the interrelations of animals and their environment. In the
beginning, animal ecology developed separately from plant physiology.
However, animals depend upon plants for food and shelter, so it is
impossible to understand animal ecology without plant ecology. This
is particularly true in such applied areas of ecology as farm animal
ecology as well as ecology of wildlife2. Modern ecology considers
interrelationship of both plant and animal communities as a whole
biotic unit3. щН , . 1
Ecology is mainly based on the ecosystem concept which is applied
to units of various sizes such as a pond, a field, a pasture, a forest or a
large ecoregion. When an ecologist is going to analyse any ecosystem,
he will study the living organisms which inhabit this specific area, the
physical environment, and all interrelations in this particular unit of
space. The term environment” includes both physical surroundings and
biotic communities. The former means a large variety of local abiotic
(nonliving) factors like temperature, sunlight, minerals, soil, and water.
Different plants and other organisms that share the organism habitat are
known as biotic communities. In farm animal ecology, the emphasis is
110
put on farm animal relationships to human society and the whole
economy within a particular ecosystem. For example, before a large
commercial hog breeding farm is built, ecologists will study such
problems as the pollution of the soil and water resources by the animal
wastes4, the influence of grazing on the ecology of the nearest pastures
etc. Thus, a farm will not be built until the problems of water recycling
and utilisation of animal wastes are considered and solved.
Within the ecosystem, species are connected and they depend upon
one another in the food chain, and exchange energy and matter between
themselves and with their environment. The concepts of the food chain
and ecological niche were described in the theses by Charles Sutherland
Elton (1900—1991), a British biologist and naturalist. The following food
chain “the grass (or other plants) - » the herbivore (cattle, sheep) - » the
man ” is of great interest to farm animal ecology.
Human interference in the development of ecosystems is widely
spread. Farming is the deliberate maintenance of such an ecosystem
which is highly productive but relatively unstable. Consequently, the
proper management of ecosystems for optimal food production as well
as thorough study and analysis of various natural cycles (such as a water
cycle or a nitrogen cycle) are of great importance to ecologists.
Farmers have widely adopted intensive systems of crop and animal
production which provide bases for reliable food production. However,
there are some advantages and disadvantages of intensive farming. On
the one hand, if farmers apply modern cultivation practices and
fertilisation in order to increase the soil fertility, yields of forage crops
will be higher and farm animals will be provided with enough amounts
of feed. Farmers widely use intensive methods for producing animal
products which include confinement of poultry in small cages5, swine
in small pens5, and sheep and cattle in small lots5. Thus, the study of
the relationships between farm animals and their surroundings such as
temperature, air and light conditions is of special importance to
ecologists. It has been found that proper lighting management may
increase both poultry and livestock production, so lightening is
controlled on any type of farm now. Furthermore, it has been shown
that confinement leads to savings in labour, feed, and other production
costs6. Besides, when animals are kept in individual pens, it will be easier
to ensure proper disease control. So, the introduction of new methods
of intensive farming has enabled farmers to satisfy the needs of popula­
tion in animal food product.
On the other hand, in the long run7, such intensive systems of farming
may cause serious ecological problems and even ecological crises. It has
been shown that cultivation and fertilisation result in a disbalance of
nutrients, an increase in pollutants, in pesticides accumulation in the
soil, or an increase in susceptibility to plant diseases. Moreover,
confinement of farm animals has come under attack8 as cruel9 to the
animals, and protective legislation10of animal right has been advocated11.
Ill
 Nevertheless, livestock and poultry farmers claim that if the animals are
under any stressful conditions, they will show sharp decreases in
productivity, but milk yields and egg production are maintained at high
levels on commercial farms. Since the 1970s, the behavioural adaptation
of animals to their surroundings and the effects of environmental stress
on the immune status of livestock and poultry have been studied
thoroughly by ecologists. ~~j|
At present, ecology is a multi-disciplinary science which involves
plant and animal biology, physiology, genetics, behaviour, meteorology,
geology, sociology etc. It is often difficult to draw a sharp line between
ecology and any of these sciences. The knowledge of ecology provides
the necessary basis for proper management and conservation of natural
resources as well as for maintenance of essential ecological processes and
ecosystems.
Ecology is widely studied as one of the most important aspects of
biology as it has become clear that such problems as the increase in
population, food scarcity, environm ental pollution, and some
sociological and political problems are to a great degree ecological.

COMMENTS
1. population dynamics — математическая генетика
2. wildlife — живая природа
3. biotic unit — зд. биотическая единица
4. animal wastes — отходы животноводства
5. cage; pen; lot — клетка; бокс (секция); участок
6. production costs — производственные издержки
7. in the long run — в конце концов
8. to come under attack — зд. подвергать критике
9. cruel ['кшәі] — жестокий
10. protective legislation — зд. закон о защите
11. to advocate f'aedva.keit] — поддерживать, пропагандировать

EXERCISES ТО THE TEXT

4. Answer the questions.
1. What is studied by ecology? By animal ecology?
2. What does the term “ecosystem” mean?
3. What are the examples of ecosystems?
4. What interrelations does animal ecology include in the ecosystem
concept?
5. Why is it important to study food chains?
6. Who was the founder of the main ecological concepts?
7. How is farming considered by ecologists?
8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of intensive farming?
112
 9. What factors of animal surroundings are of special interest to
animal ecologists?
10. What is the role of ecology in modem science?
5. Think and complete the following sentences:
1. If the world’s population continues to grow so fast and puts even
more pressure on the natural animal habitats, some species... . 2. On
condition that poultry houses are artificially lighted at night during the
winter months, egg production.... 3. After animals are moved suddenly
from the northern to the southern hemisphere, the breeding behaviour
of animals.... 4. The conditions will be optimal for grazing throughout
the year when the climate is.... 5. If the same animal breed is raised or
the same crop variety is grown for a long period of time, their susceptibility
to .... 6. On condition that the weather is hot, grazing time... .

A D D ITIO N A L EX E R C ISE S

6. Give the English equivalents of the Russian words in brackets.

1. When animals are moved from one climatic zone to the other, it is
necessary to consider their adaptation to new (местным условиям
окружающей среды). 2. Many animals who (обитают или живут
вместе) the same area learn to use signals from other species as warnings
for approaching danger. 3. (Исследование поведения) of both dome­
sticated animals and wild animals in their natural (среде обитания)
is of great importance. 4. One of the ethology principles (касается/ за­
трагивает) animal abilities such as migration, feeding the young
etc. These abilities are known as (поведенческие) units that cause
essential changes in (поведении животных) at a particular period of
time. 5. Two main types of (укрытий для животных) are known:
the multi-purpose type, that is, a building useful for feed storage and
machinery, as well as for livestock; and the specific type, that is, for
a particular type of animal. 6. (Загрязнение окружающей среды) is
mainly caused by (вмешательством человека) in natural processes.
7. It has been found that there is a(an) (взаимосвязь) between (окру­
жающей) temperature and body size. 8. ( Содержание в помещении)
of farm animals, for instance housing cows in cowsheds throughout the
year, has both advantages and disadvantages. On the one hand, it helps
(решить проблему) of reliable animal food production on a large scale.
On the other hand, animals are kept (в стрессовых условиях). 9. It has
been shown that different species of farm animals have the same (чув­
ствительность) to certain diseases. 10. Some (загрязняющие аген­
ты) from agriculture have negative effects on agriculture itself, such as
large amounts of plant nutrients and salts from irrigation. 11. One of the
reasons of seasonal migration of animals, for example camels in deserts,
113
('связана с) periods of serious (нехватки f недостатка пищи) when
animal migrate for long distances in search of food. 12. The introduction
of (систем повторного использования/рециркуляции воды) on а
farm will help to decrease the pollution of underground waters. 13. The
main aim of (программ no сохранению) for some domestic breeds of
cattle, sheep, horses, and swine is to ensure the (сохранение) of valuable
genetic resources for breeds which are popular now. 14. The elimination
of any unit from the (пищевой цепи) will cause imbalance of the whole
chain. 15. In an ecological niche every species has a unique position
within its (экологического сообщества).
7. Remember the singular and plural forms of the following nouns:
(see also Unit 2)
Существительное в единственном числе Существительное
и его перевод на русский язык во множественном числе
analysis [a'naebsis] анализ, изучение analyses [a'naebsiiz]
basis ['beisis] базис, основа bases [beisiz]
crisis ['kraisis] кризис crises ['kraisLz]
diagnosis [.darag'nausis] диагноз diagnoses [,daiag'ndusi:z]
emphasis ['emfasis] акцент, ударение emphases ['emfdsi:z]
oasis [su'eisis] оазис oases [эо‘екі:г]
synthesis ['sinGisis] синтез syntheses ['sinOisfcz]
thesis [Gisis] тезис\ положение', диссертация theses ['0Lsi;z]

a) Find in the text “Animal Ecology” sentences with the words:

analysis, basis, crisis, emphasis, and thesis. Are they used in a singular
or a plural form?
b) Translate the following English expressions into Russian. Use
a dictionary if necessary.
to challenge a thesis; in the last (final) analysis; to write a thesis on
smth; to find an oasis in the desert; to make a detailed analysis of smth;
the crisis of energy in the economy; to provide a basis for smth; to test
a thesis; to put/place emphasis on smth; to make diagnosis; to do analyses
of the samples; in times of crisis; on the basis of further analysis; to have
a basis; master’s thesis; crisis management; PhD thesis; to form the basis
of a new book; to be at a crisis point; farm crisis; to confirm a diagnosis;
a particular (special) emphasis; underground water sources account for
most oases; to make a synthesis of smth; to advance (to propose) a thesis
8. Fill the gaps with one of the following suitable words: environment,
habitat(s), surrounding(s).
1. In the wild state, goats are nomadic (кочующие) animals and they
are generally found in mountainous ... . 2. The structural adaptation of

114
domesticated animals has modified the ... of livestock. 3. When animals
are capable of intensive domestication, their local climatic ... may be
entirely changed, for example, by housing animals throughout the year.
4. Environmental ecology studies the relationships between the ... and
a species. 5. Some species greatly depend on their... so any modification
of a ... as a result of excessive hunting, application of pesticides,
increased human exploitation of natural resources may destroy the
natural ... and species will gradually disappear. 6. The adaptation of
animals from northern regions to a h o t... may require not only a shelter
from the sun but such modifications of the ... as the construction of air-
conditioned buildings. 7. N utrient is a substance in food that an
organism must obtain from its ... to help the body grow, repair and
maintain itself.
9. Fill the gaps with one of the following words: if, on condition, when,
before, after, until, as soon as. Use the correct form of the verb in
brackets. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. ... scientists study thoroughly natural behaviour of animals (such
as their migration, home size, interrelations with other groups, feed
requirements etc), it (to be) difficult to develop effective protection
measures for the conservation of endangered species. 2.... that a scientist
(to apply) the knowledge of honeybee behaviour to mechanisms of plant
pollination, it will help to improve plant breeding and propagation to a
great extent. 3. Birds (not/to start) their preparation for spring migration
... the length of daylight is increased. 4. The young of birds such as geese
and chickens spontaneously (to follow) their mothers from almost the
first day... they are hatched. 5.... animals (to inhabit) warm and humid
regions, they will show greater melanin (or darker) pigmentation than
the same species in cooler and drier regions. 6. In the desert areas ...
camels or sheep with fat tails are subjected to periods of serious food
scarcity, the fat reserves (to decrease). 1. ... a young foal (to be bom),
it will try to stand on its feet. 8. Ecologists have warned that some species
in the world’s richest ecosystems, such as tropical forests and coral reefs,
will become extinct... scientists (to be able) to learn about them. 9. Ewes
(to increase) efficiency of food utilisation ... they (to offer) their daily
rations in eight small feeds than ... they (to give) the same quantity of
food in one large feed.
10. Translate into English.
а) как биотические, так и абиотические сообщества; поведение
животных; при условии, что; поддержание высокопродуктивной
экосистемы; взаимосвязи между видами и окружающей средой;
в местных условиях; содержание домашней птицы без выгула; со­
хранение природных ресурсов; образовывать пищевую цепь; вме­
шательство человека; проживать вместе в ареале/в среде обита­
ния; в пределах экосистемы; чувствительность к болезням; изме-

I
115
нять окружение; предоставлять укрытие; недостаток пищи; по- |
вторное использование воды; загрязнение окружающей среды;
в отдельно взятом районе; решать проблему; населять регион (оби­
тать в регионе); уменьшать количество загрязнителей; внесение -
удобрений; связывать разные части/единицы; относиться/затра­
гивать поведенческую адаптацию животных; вызывать дисбаланс I
b) 1. Экосистема — это концепция, которая объединяет эколо-
гию растений и животных, знания об их поведении и эволюции, 1
а также математическую генетику. 2. В экосистеме все виды вза- I
имосвязаны и зависят друг от друга в пищевой цепи, так как они I
обмениваются энергией и веществом между собой и окружающей 1
средой. 3. Программы по защите окружающей среды затрагива- j
ют проблему исчезновения среды обитания (habitat loss) как ре­
зультат увеличения населения в мире и интенсивного использо- <
вания природных ресурсов. 4. Изучение влияния таких окружа- ]
ющих факторов, как свет, температура, влажность, на поведение
домашних животных представляет большой интерес при исполь- j
зовании интенсивных методов в животноводстве. 5. До тех пор
пока не будут введены/внедрены системы по переработке про­
мышленных и сельскохозяйственных отходов, будет существовать
опасность загрязнения воды, почвы и воздуха. jg

EXERCISES FOR GROUP WORK

11. Discuss in groups the following sequences of events and say what will
happen if.... Make up sentences of condition and time (use conjunctions
if, when, after etc), develop the situations, add your own ideas.
Model: If the soil on a farm is fertile, pasture grasses will be of high
quality. If (When) pasture grasses are of high quality,...
Task for group 1.
Fertile soil —> high quality pasture grasses —» source of nutrients —»
high fodder yields —»better animal grazing —»optimal animal body size
—» better animal reproduction and development —» constant supply of
animal food —» to meet people’s needs —> to solve the problem of food
scarcity ' *
Task for group 2.
poor soil - » to use cattle grazing —>to leave waste products —>to use
as organic fertilizer —» to increase soil fertility -» no need in commercial
fertilizers —> (1) and (2)
(1) less animal waste —»less environmental pollution —» more stable
ecosystem;

116
 (2) more money —» high-quality seeds —>higher crop yields —>better
feeds for cattle —»more animal food products —>people’s needs in food
Task for group 3*.
to specialize in one breed —> genetically similar generations —»
a decrease in the gene pool -> (1) or (2)
(1) animals inherit susceptibility to a disease —» the livestock
production crisis
(2) endangered breed —» the extinction of the breed
Some new words: generation — поколение; gene pool — гено­
фонд; endangered — находящийся под угрозой исчезновения;
extinction — вымирание вида животных, племени и т. п.
Task for group 4*.
to collect poultry waste —» to use recycling process to produce
dried poultry waste (DPW) —» (1) and (2)
(1) to utilize animal waste —» less environmental pollution
(2) to obtain additional sources of nutrients —» to increase indirect
production of feed —> to decrease traditional feeds (com) for cattle —»
to use more com, wheat, soybeans as food for people

SU PPLEM EN TA R Y TEXTS

12. a) Read and translate the text into Russian.

T ext 1
THE PROBLEM OF BIODIVERSITY IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Scientists have recently claimed that the focus on producing spe­

cialised and fewer breeds has resulted in less biodiversity among
livestock, as well as threatened the extinction of remaining breeds.
However, the breeds, which are currently unpopular, may have traits that
will be essential in the future. For example, high-yield Holstein milk
cows now account for 91 per cent of the United States’ dairy stock. But
with a decreased gene pool1, each generation2of Holsteins becomes more
genetically similar. If any unknown disease develops and on condition
that these cows have an inherited susceptibility for this disease, there will
be a nationwide crisis in milk production. Moreover, if certain economic
conditions make dairy farmers look for a different breed than Holsteins,
they will have fewer breeds to choose from.
According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation
(FAO), at least 1,500 of the approximately 5,000 domesticated livestock
* You may check your ideas and find additional information on these topics in
supplementary texts 1—2.

117
^ : ■ ' и
breeds are now rare and approaching extinction3. Recently, several
organisations have established conservation programmes for endangered4
domestic breeds of cattle, sheep, horses, and swine. These programmes
will not only ensure survival of these breeds, but also provide valuable
genetic resources for currently popular breeds.

COMMENTS
1. gene pool — генофонд
2. generation [.cfcena'reifn] — поколение
3. extinction [ik'stirjkjn] — вымирание (вида животных, племени и т.п.)
4. endangered — находящийся под угрозой исчезновения (о виде рас­
тения или животного)
b) Complete the following questions:
1. What are the reasons for the decrease in...? 2. Why do you think it
is important to maintain...? 3. Why isn’t it a good idea to specialise only
in...? 4. Do you know any statistic data on...? 5. What has been done to
ensure...? !
c) Answer the questions:
1. Do you know in which part of the world (or on which continent,
country) there is the largest number of farm animal and poultry
breeds? r J
2. How can you explain such an uneven (неравномерное) distribu­
tion of farm animal/poultry breeds in the world? Can you give any
reasons (for example, the level of scientific research, geographical
position of the country/continent, national traditions etc)?
The following information and scientific data may help you to answer
these questions:
According to the Global Databank of Farm Animal Genetic Resources
the world’s livestock and poultry breeds as percentage by region is the
following:
Africa—12%; Asia and Pacific—20%; Europe—48%; Near East—9%;
North America—5%; Latin America and Caribbean—6%.
Present these data in the form of a piechart or a barchart and describe it.
Search the websites for more information:
1. http://www.amnh.org/leam/biodiversity_counts/ — The American
Museum of Natural History presents a program for middle-school
students about studying biodiversity in the field.
2. http://www.defenders.org/bio-cont.html — The Biodiversity
Center maintained by defenders of wildlife. This site provides
a collection of articles on biodiversity, covering topics such as
endangered species and government policies and programs.

118
 3. http://www.conservation.org/ — Conservation International
provides information about biodiversity conservation in the
world’s endangered ecosystems.
4. http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/endangered/ — The American
Museum of Natural History presents an exhibit on endangered
species and habitats.
5. S. Weigend, M. N. Romanov. “The World Watch List for Domestic
Animal Diversity in the Context of Conservation and Utilisation
of Poultry Biodiversity.” World’s Poultry Scientific Journal, 2002,
Vol. 58, No. 4, P. 411.
d) Make up a dialogue with your partner on the problem of farm
animal biodiversity. Use (b) and (c).
13. a) Read and translate the text into Russian. Make up a summary of
the text.

T ext 2
ORGANIC FARMING
Organic farming is a system of agriculture that uses biological
methods and various farm techniques for raising crops and livestock
without application of synthetic pesticides, chemical fertilisers, growth
hormones, and antibiotics. Organic farmers typically rely on pesticides
and fertilisers obtained from plants, animal wastes, and minerals. Such
an approach helps to increase soil fertility as well as to reduce air, soil,
and water pollution.
Organic farming1had its origin in the 1930s, when Sir Albert Howard,
a British agricultural scientist, introduced a system of hoUstic and natural
animal and plant husbandry in which town wastes were returned to the
soil for utilisation as nutrient material. Nowadays, organic farming is a
small but rapidly growing sector of agriculture in the US, Japan and
European countries. For instance, sales of organic foods increased from
$1 billion in 1990 to more than $7 billion in 2001 in the US.
Much effort is being made to study the possibilities of utilising
agricultural, animal and industrial waste2 in the nutrition of farm
animals and poultry. This can result in a reduction in the use in animal
feeds of traditional feed ingredients such as corn, wheat and soybeans
that will be consumed by humans. If animal manure is utilised for feed
nutrients, some pollution problems will be solved as well as feed costs
will be decreased and at the same time the supplies of available nitrogen
and essential mineral sources will be increased. The use of livestock
waste products as feedstuff's is another possibility for recycling which is
an important component of sustainable livestock production3.
When poultry and swine are kept in confinement, their manure will
be collected, recovered and used for refeeding to beef cattle, dairy cattle

W bs &s j i -•аНИ*-’ ^ -к
119
fffl •№ ТШВ5ЩЩ
and sheep. It has been shown that this practice is an effective system of
recovering, processing and refeeding such wastes as sources of energy,
protein, and mineral nutrients in ruminant animal production. In the
UK, for example, when poultry waste is properly processed and dried,
there are no serious danger to ruminants and poultry and there are no
effects on meat, egg or milk quality. Scientists have proved that dried
poultry waste (DPW) is valuable for indirect production of feed. DPW
has already been used as an ingredient in sheep, lamb, beef and dairy
cattle, broiler and layer chicken feeds.

COMMENTS
1. organic farming — органическое земледелие
2. industrial waste — промышленные отходы
3. sustainable livestock production — экологически рациональное жи­
вотноводство («устойчивое» животноводство)

b) Make up a dialogue about the advantages and possible disadvantages

of organic farming.
Student A supports (he idea of organic farming and Student В doubts
if organic farming can meet the growing demands of the world
population in food and supports the intensive farming systems when
farm animals are kept in confinement, commercial fertilizers and
pesticides are applied to increase crop yields etc.

USEFUL LANGUAGE
Expressing certainty: It is obvious (that)...; I am certain (that)...; I am
sure (that)...; It’s everybody’s opinion...; It is my belief that...; I really
think...; Expressing doubt: I doubt that...; It is hardly likely that...; It is
most unlikely that...; It is questionable that...; It seems to me that... .

Find more information on organic farming:

1. http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_farming.
2. Y. Henuk, J. Dingle. “Poultry Manure: Source of Fertilizer, Fuel and
Feed.” World’s Poultry Science Journal. 2003, Vol. 59, P. 350.
3. http://fadr.m su.ru/rodale/ — Rodale Institute is a nonprofit
organisation that promotes organic farming, presents global
programs.
4. http://www.ams.usda.gov/nop/ — The United States Depart­
ment of Agriculture presents information about its national stan­
dards for organic food and about the National Organic Standards
Board.
14. a) Read and translate the text into Russian. Use a dictionary if
necessary. Write one or two questions to each paragraph.
120
 Text 3

ANIMAL ETHOLOGY

Ethology is the scientific study of the behaviour of animals in their

natural habitat. It is mainly a 20th-century phenomenon and is a branch
of zoology as only animals have nervous systems and they have abilities
for perception, coordination, orientation, learning, and memory.
Many naturalists have studied aspects of animal behaviour through
the centuries, among the early ethologists were Herbert Spencer and
Charles Darwin. However, the modern ethology as a discrete discipline
was established by biologists Konrad Lorenz (Austria) and Nikolaas
Tinbergen (the Netherlands) in the 1920s. In 1973 they and zoologist
Karl von Frisch (Austria) were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine for their work in developing ethology. Their
emphasis was on field observations of animals under natural conditions.
Tinbergen concentrated on the importance of both instinctive and
learned behaviour to animal survival. He is especially well known for
his long-term observations of sea gulls1, which led to important
generalisations on courtship2 and mating behaviour. Among his more
important works are Social Behaviour in Animals (1953), and Animal
Behaviour (1965), The Study of Instinct (1951).
About 1910 Frisch proved that fish could distinguish colour and
brightness differences and he later discovered that auditory acuity3 and
sound-distinguishing ability in fish is superior to that in humans.
However, Frisch is best known for his studies of bees. His research was
devoted to communication among bees, so-called “dance language”,
and added greatly to the knowledge of the chemical and visual sensors
of insects. In 1919 he demonstrated that they can be trained to
distinguish between various tastes and odours. Also, he found that bees
communicate the distance and direction of a food supply to other
members of the colony by rhythmic movements or dances. In 1949
Frisch established that bees, through their perception of polarized light,
use the sun as a compass. Study of the honey bee’s navigational system
has revealed much about the mechanisms used by higher animals.
The most important discovery of Lorenz concerned the early learning
of young nidifugous birds4, a process which he described in 1935 and called
imprinting5. Lorenz observed that at a certain critical stage soon after
hatching6, the young chickens, ducklings and goslings learn to follow real
or foster mothers. Lorenz discovered that this following response could be
transferred to an arbitrary stimulus7 if the eggs were incubated artificially
and the stimulus was presented for the few days after hatching. The concept
of imprinting has been widely adopted in developmental psychology.
The study of animal behaviour now includes many different topics,
ranging from animal behaviour during the reproductive period to
communication between animals. Many different hypotheses have been

121
proposed in order to explain the variety of behavioural patterns which
are found in animals. Modem ethology concentrates on the systematic
observation, recording, and analysis of how animals function, with
special attention to physiological, ecological, and evolutionary aspects.
Nowadays, the ethologist is more interested in the behavioural process
than in a particular animal group and often studies one type of behaviour,
for instance, aggression, in a number of animal species.
It has been found that an organism’s actions may be classified as
either instinctive or learned behaviour. The former include the actions
that are not influenced by the animal’s previous experience, such as
common reflexes. The latter comprise the actions that are depended on
earlier experiences, for example, problem solving. Ethologists put
emphasis on the complex interaction of environment and genetically
determined responses, especially during early development.
Thus, evolution based on the general mechanisms, which are
described by ethology, has generated a nearly endless list of behavioural
wonders by which animals have almost perfectly adapted to their world.

COMMENTS
L sea gull — чайка
2. courtship — ухаживание
3. auditory acuity — острота слуха
4. nidifugous bird — выводковая птица
5. imprinting — запечатление, импринтинг (термин в этологии)
6. to hatch (out) — вылупляться (из яйца)
7. arbitrary stimulus — зд. произвольный раздражитель
Search the following websites for more information on ethology.
1. http://en.wikipedia.prg/wiki/Ethology
2. http://eas.bellarm ine.edu/tietjen/Ethology/introduction_to_
ethology.htm — Introduction to Ethology. ■
3. http://www.indiana.edu/~animal/ — Indiana University Center
for the Integrative Study of Animal Behavior.
b) Use the text to complete the following sentences. Pay attention to
the use of the linking words.
1. Ethology is a 20th-century phenomenon, however, many natur­
alists... . Besides, such scientists as Herbert Spencer and Charles
Darwin... . However, the main principles of ethology were established
by..., consequently it became a discrete discipline only.... 2. Tinbergen
studied mainly.... Moreover, he observed..., so later he made important
generalisations.... Thus, his research provided the basis for writing ....
3. Frisch discovered.... Nevertheless, he is more known for.... Further­
more, Frisch found that... . Besides, he discovered... . g § | Frisch’s
studies of bees communication revealed.... 4. At first, imprinting process
was described by Lorenz for chicken, however, it concerns such nidifugous
122
birds as.,. . Besides, the concept of imprinting is used by.... 5. Modem
ethologists widely use both laboratory... . Moreover, ethology is based
on the knowledge in such fields of sciences as... . Consequently, the
study of animal behaviour is....
15. The following sentences describe behaviour of different farm animals
and poultry. Think and match the beginnings of the sentences with
their endings below.
1. As soon as a bee discovers a new food source,...
2. When ewes are moved from the British Isles to South Africa,...
3. Goats are known as affectionate playful animals so after they are
separated from herd mates, ...
4. Before the dog attacks a potential enemy, ...
5. If mares are kept either in wild herds or in farm groups, ...
6. Such birds as geese, ducks use a wide variety of calls for commu­
nication with each other, for instance, when geese are about to
take flight, ...
7. On condition that an egg or almost any round object is outside
the n e st,...
8. When the weather is rainy, ...
9. Until the storm is over and if there is no close shelter,...
10. If the weather is cold, windy or rainy, ...
11. The relation between a cow and her calf is especially powerful.
Thus, if a cow is separated from its calf, ...
12. If one of the geese in the gaggle (group) gets sick or wounded
(ранен), the other birds try to stay with the disabled goose until...
a) a goose will roll (катить) it gently back into the nest.
b) it will show signs of hostility (враждебность) using body
language, for instance, bared teeth, flattened ears, erect tail etc.
c) they sometimes will have an opportunity for two pregnancies
within a year.
d) it will return to the colony and communicate the distance and the
direction to other members of the colony by rhythmic movements.
e) cattle will stand with heads down wind.
f) hill sheep will move to higher ground.
g) they will always pair off with particular other animals and they
will stand side by side and head to tail while each one scratches
(чесаться) the other’s neck and back with her teeth.
h) they will feel lonely and often decrease milk production.
i) it dies or is able to fly again.
j) cattle will decrease the grazing time and drink little or no water,
k) the animal will stay by the fence (у забора) through wind and
storm, hunger, and thirst, until it is reunited (воссоединяться)
with her baby.
1) they will use a special call which will communicate distinct
message to other members of the flock.

I
\
 Unit 7
VETERINARY SCIENCE

Vocabulary and Grammar:

1. Употребление существительных ailment, disease, disorder, illness,
sickness, trouble.
2. Модальные глаголы в действительном залоге.
3. Модальные глаголы, выражающие долженствование.
4. Два варианта перевода «to be + инфинитив».
5. Модальные глаголы в страдательном залоге.

VOCABULARY Т О T H E TEX T
“ V E T E R IN A R Y S C I E N C E ”

Nouns: banian hospital, carrier, disease, disorder, eradication,

infection, loss, medicine, outbreak, prevention, sanitation, segregation,
spread, surgery, treatment, veterinary surgeon (Br E) (syn veterinarian
(Am E), vet). ,t ' \4 •
A djectives and adverbs: clinical (clinical practice), harmful,
infectious, internal (internal medicine), major, notifiable, preventive
(preventive medicine), sanitary (sanitary measure), severe, sick, surgical,
susceptible, veterinarian (syn veterinary), wholesome. v
Verbs: advance, contract, cure, eliminate (syn eradicate), examine,
notice, prevent, slaughter, spread (spread), suffer, transmit, treat.

Give the Russian equivalents of the international words and scientific

terms from the text “Veterinary Science”:
anatomy [a'naetami], bacteriology [ЬаеҚПэпЪІэф], chronic ['kronik],
diagnosis [,daiag'nausis], histology [hi'stolacfci], im m unisation
[.imjunai'zeijh], licence ['laisns], microbiology [.таікгәиЬаіЪІәфі],
parasitical [.paera'sitikl], parasitology [.paerasai'tDlacfci], pathology
[рэӨоІэфі], pharmacology [,fcuma'kDlacfci], quarantine fkwDran.tiin],
symptom ['simptam], vaccination [.vaeksi'nei/n], vaccine ['vaeksi:n],
virology [.vaia'rolatfei]

The Nam es o f Animal Diseases

anthrax ['aen0raeks] — сибирская язва
bovine tuberculosis ['bauvam tju'bakju'busis] — бычий туберкулез
124
 brucellosis [,bru:si‘lausis] — бруцеллез
distemper fdis'tempa] — чума, canine ['keinain] distemper — со­
бачья чума
erysipelas [.erisipalas] — рожистое воспаление
leptospirosis [,lept3uspai9'rausis] — лептоспироз
M arek’s disease — болезнь Марека (нейролимфоматоз птиц)
mastitis [maes'taitis] — воспаление молочных желез, мастит
rabies ['reibus] — бешенство
swine fever [swam Тгуэ] — чума свиней

Употребление существительных
ailm ent , disease , disorder, illness , sickness, trouble
ailment [’eilmant] — болезнь, заболевание (очень распростра­
ненное заболевание, обычно несерьезное)', нездоровье, недомогание
disease [di*zi:z] — заболевание, болезнь (имеется медицинское
название; обычно болезнь у людей, животных или растений,
вызванная инфекцией или внутренними нарушениями в орга­
низме или заболевание определенного органа тела)
disorder [dis'o:da] — заболевание, недомогание, syn illn ess,
sickness; нарушение, расстройство (какой-л. функции организ­
ма), syn disturbance [distarbans]
illness [’ilnis] — болезнь, заболевание; нездоровье (наиболее
общий термин для обозначения периода плохого состояния,
вызванного обычно какой-л. болезнью)
sickness ['siknis] — болезнь, заболевание; нездоровье, утомле­
ние, истощение; определенный тип болезни (встречается в на­
звании определенных болезней)
trouble [ЧглЫ] — болезнь, заболевание; расстройство (обычно
в разговорной речи)\ syn illness, disorder
Examples:
minor ailment —легкое недомогание; heritable disease — наслед­
ственная болезнь; Newcastle disease — ньюкаслская болезнь (псев­
дочума); incurable illness, untreatable illness — неизлечимая болезнь;
African horse sickness — африканская чума лошадей; duck sickness —
ботулизм уток; digestive disorder/disturbance/troubles — расстрой­
ство пищеварения; udder trouble — заболевание вымени
1. a) Identify the terms according to the following definitions:
1. ...is a medical condition which involves a disturbance to the usual
functioning of the mind or body.
2. ...is an illness or physical condition involving a particular body
part that is not functioning as it should.
3. ...is a specific illness with a name and it can also be used with
certain organs of the body.
125
I
 4. ...is the state of being ill or bad health.
5. ...is a very common illness that is not usually serious.
6. ...is a general word for a period of not being in good health.
b) Match the Russian word-combinations with their English equivalents.
хроническое заболевание; общее недомогание; заразная бо­
лезнь; болезнь сердца; кожная болезнь; продолжительная болезнь;
серьезное заболевание/тяжелая болезнь; смертельная болезнь;
«горная болезнь»; майская болезнь пчел (пыльцевой токсикоз);
расстройство сердечной деятельности; нарушение питания; нару­
шение обмена веществ; нарушение дыхательных функций; нару­
шение роста; болезнь копыт
a respiratory disorder; May bee sickness; skin disease; growth
disturbance; common ailment; long illness; infectious disease; foot
trouble; mountain sickness; heart disease; serious/painful illness;
metabolic disorder; cardiac disorder/disturbance; fatal illness; chronic
ailment; nutritional disorders. j

GRAMMAR REVISION
AND PRETEXT EXERCISES

Модальные глаголы в действительном залоге

(Modal verbs in the active voice)
Глаголы со значением «может» и «должен» называются модаль­
ными глаголами.

Модальный глагол CAN [кэп; каеп) — может, умеет

Употребление: обозначает возможность сделать что-то в силу физи
ческих возможностей; наличия соответствующих знаний, умений,
навыков; обстоятельств.
Утвердительная форма: I/You/He/She/It/We/They + сап + глагол
без частицы to.
Отрицательная форма: cannot = can’t [kcunt].
Вопросительные предложения: Сап + подлежащее + смысловой
глагол?
Временные формы:
Scientists can solve the problem. — Ученые могут решить проблему
(настоящее время).
Scientists could solve these problems earlier. — Ученые могли решать
эти проблемы раньше (прошедшее время).
Scientists will be able to solve the problem in the future. — Ученые
смогут решить проблему в будущем (эквивалент to be able + to +
глагол употребляется для выражения будущего времени). ЕЕ

126
Эквивалент глагола can — «to be able + to + глагол» имеет значение
«быть в состоянии сделать что-либо в отдельно взятом случае» и мо­
жет также употребляться в настоящем и прошедшем времени.
Scientists were able to solve the problem last week. — Ученые смогли
решить проблему на прошлой неделе.
They are able to solve the problem using the new equipment. — Они мо­
гут решить проблему, используя новое оборудование.

Examples:
Beef cattle can utilize both Мясной скот может использо­
low- and high-quality вать как низкокачественные,
roughages. так и высококачественные
грубые корма.
Proper nutrition supplies animals Правильное питание обеспечи­
with sufficient sources of вает животных достаточными
energy and specific substances источниками энергии и специ­
that animals cannot фическими веществами, кото­
synthesize themselves. рые животные не могут син­
тезировать сами.
Livestock often eat forage and Домашний скот часто ест корм
other food sources that и другие пищевые продукты,
humans are not able to eat, которые люди не могут есть,
and convert them to types и превращает их в такие виды
of food that humans can пищи, которые люди могут
consume. потреблять.
Farmers were able to control Фермеры смогли сдержать
the epidemic in the region. распространение эпидемии
в районе.

Модальный глагол MAY [mei] —может быть, возможно, может',

можно
Употребление: для предположения о совершении действия в настоя­
щем или будущем; для разрешения выполнить действие в настоящем
или будущем.
Утвердительная форма: I/You/He/She/It/We/They + may + глагол
без частицы to.
Отрицательная форма: may not.
Вопросительные предложения: May + подлежащее + смысловой
глагол?
Временные формы:
Farmers may use a new feed supplementary. — Фермеры могут исполь­
зовать (возможно используют) новую кормовую добавку.

127
\
А
Examples: £ ;
A breeder may use either pro- Селекционер может использо-
geny testing or performance вать или тестирование по­
testing in order to estimate томства по качеству, или тести-
the breeding value of young продуктивности
bulls or rams. для
для селекции
1 или баоанов.
The appearance of an animal ешнии вид животного может
may be of diagnostic signi­ иметь большое значение для
ficance, for instance, диагностики, например, ви­
hog-cholera virus may cause рус холеры у свиней может
retardation of growth and вызывать задержку развитая
small size in a pig. и маленький размер поросенка.
Модальный глагол MUST [nust] — должен
силу
правилам
инструкциям
I/You/He/She/It/We/They + must + глагол
без частицы to.
Отрицательная форма: must not f'nusnt]
предложения: Must + подлежащее
глагол?
Временные формы:
употребляется в настоящем времени,
будущем временах он заменяется глаголами-экви
или be to.

Examples:
In breeding farm animals for При выведении сельскохозяйст­
utility, a breeder must use венных животных для их прак­
objective measurements of тического использования, се­
traits that are decisive for лекционер должен использо­
the production. вать объективные оценки
характеристик, которые явля-
для
водства.
In order to maintain animals in Для того, чтобы поддерживать
farmer животных в здоровом состоя­
certain нии, каждый фермер должен
requirements. соблюдать определенные са­
нитарные требования.
128
2. Write the English equivalents of the Russian words in brackets.
1, Livestock leave behind manure which (может увеличить) crop
yields many times. 2. Farmers (могут использовать) cottonseed hulls
or rice hulls as sources of fibre in ruminant rations. 3. Any farmer (мо­
жет предотвратить) certain animal diseases by using proper methods
of environmental control which (должны включать) the maintenance
of safe water supplies, air sanitation etc. 4. I. P. Pavlov was known as
a skilful surgeon and he (мог проводить/ выполнять) very difficult
surgical operations on animals. 5. Farmers (должны обеспечить)
animals with proper surroundings, especially if animals are kept in
confinement on large-scale commercial farms. 6. Wild and domestic
animals (способны воспроизводить) their populations only until
environmental conditions remain favourable. 7. Scientists (смогли раз­
работать) the main principles of animal physiology only when they
had collected enough experimental data. 8. Animal breeders (могут
применять) artificial insemination to propagate the genes of prize bulls.
9. Veterinary surgeons (должны сделать) blood tests of a sick animal
in order to find out what type of parasite is presented. 10. The introduction
of intensive farming systems (может удовлетворить) the needs of
population in high-quality food products.

Модальные глаголы, выражающие долженствование

(Modals of obligation)
Модальные глаголы must/have to/had to/will have to* — должен,
вынужден (употребляются в настоящем, прошедшем и будущем
временах).
Значение: необходимость совершить действие в силу внешних об-
стоятельств._______________________________________________
Модальный глагол be to — должен, обязан (употребляется в настоя­
щем и прошедшем временах).
Значение: необходимость совершить действие в связи с предвари­
тельной договоренностью или имеющимися планами.
Модальные глаголы should [jud], ought to [at] — следует, должен
(употребляются в настоящем времени).
I Значение: совет, рекомендация.______________________________

Examples:
Even now in some poor Даже сейчас в некоторых бедных
developing countries farmers развивающихся странах фер-

* Отрицательные и вопросительные предложения с модальным глаголом have

to требуют употребления вспомогательных глаголов do/does/did, однако, такие
предложения не рассматриваются в данном учебнике.

5 Комарова
I
129
 have to use cattle and horses
as draft animals.
During the Ice Age in order to
survive, animals had to adapt
to colder environmental
conditions.
If the weather is windy and rainy,
hill sheep and cattle will have
to stop grazing to look for
higher grounds and a shelter.
According to the agreement with
а farmer, a veterinary surgeon
is to examine farm animals
regularly.
A farmer ought not to/should
not feed any sorts of silages
to horses and mules since
animals are extremely
susceptible to digestive
troubles.
меры вынуждены использо­
вать крупный рогатый скот
и лошадей как тягловых жи­
вотных.
Во время ледникового периода,
для того чтобы выжить, жи­
вотные вынуждены были при­
способиться к более прохлад­
ным условиям окружающей
среды. е
Если погода будет ветреной
и дождливой, горные овцы
и скот будут вынуждены пре­
кратить выпас, чтобы найти
более возвышенные места
и укрытие.
Согласно договоренности с фер-
мером ветеринар должен об­
следовать животных на ферме
регулярно.
Фермеру не следует скармли-
вать какие-либо виды силоса
лошадям и мулам, так как жи­
вотные крайне восприимчивы
к пищеварительным расстрой­
ствам.

3. Fill the gaps with the suitable modal verbs: must, should/ought to,
have to, had to, is to. (There may be more than one variant.)
1. A farmer... separate a sick animal immediately from the other animals
in the herd. 2. A national breeding association... publish the official record
of the pedigree of purebred horses and dogs every year. 3. A breeder ...
eliminate any animal from a breeding programme if it is a carrier of
a gene for a serious metabolic or morphological defect. 4. During the
recent decades some species of animals ... move to new places and adapt
to new environmental conditions as people have destroyed their natural
habitats. 5. At the next meeting the United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organisation (FAO) ... establish some conservation programmes for
domesticated livestock breeds which are unpopular now and have
become rare. 6. When breeding of purebred livestock began to develop
rapidly in Britain in the 18th century, farmers ... maintain a pedigree of
each animal and later farmers ... form breeding associations in order to
control and maintain registration. 7. All animals and birds which are
imported from foreign countries ... be under severe quarantine for some
130
period of time to prevent the introduction of any infections. 8. Ethologists
...use various methods and techniques to observe the animals’ behaviour
for longer hours. 9. A farmer... slaughter the animal if the analyses prove
the infection. 10. Scientists ... carry out many experiments before the
of farm
animals.

Два варианта перевода «to be + инфинитив»

предложения
следующих
риантов:
1) должен;
2) состоит/ заключается в том, чтобы (см. Unit 2).
Examples:
A farmer is to milk his cows Фермер должен доить коров
twice a day. дважды в день.
The farmer’s plan is to increase План фермера состоит в том,
milk yields this year. чтобы увеличить удои молока
г ' в этом году.
4. Identify the sentences where to be means «должен».
1. New recycling water system is to be installed on the farm next
week.
2. The purpose of the new recycling water system is to reduce the
water pollution in the region.
3. The feeding ration was to ensure the balance of all the necessary
nutrients.
4. The problem was to choose the optimum feeding ration for the
winter season using the available farm feeds.
5. A large commercial company is to start producing nutritive
supplements for poultry by the end of the year.

Модальные глаголы в страдательном залоге

(Modal verbs in the passive voice)
Модальный глагол + be + причастие II
The cow has to/had to
is to/was to
The animals can/could/may be examined
must/should/ought to by the veterinary surgeon.
have to/had to
are to/were to
Examples:
Some amino acids are known Некоторые аминокислоты из­
as essential because they вестны как незаменимые, по­
cannot be synthesised in тому что они не могут быть
the animal body and must синтезированы в теле живот­
be consumed with feeds. ного и должны потребляться
с кормами.
If an animal has come down with Если животное заболело, неко-
а disease, some symptoms торые симптомы, такие как
such as high temperature or высокая температура или ли­
fever may be noticed even by хорадка, могут быть замече­
a non-specialist. ны даже неспециалистом.
Puppies should be examined Щенки должны осматриваться
about every three months, примерно каждые три месяца,
and adults ought to be а взрослых собак следует об­
examined annually. следовать ежегодно.
A clinical practice is to be Клиническая практика должна
provided for the veterinary быть предоставлена студен-
students in banian hospitals. там-ветеринарам в ветеринар­
ных лечебницах.
Severe measures had to be Строгие меры вынуждены были
taken by most governments принять многие правительства
in order to prevent foot-and- для того, чтобы предотвратить
mouth disease in their заболевание ящуром в своих
countries. странах.
5. Give the English equivalents of the Russian words in brackets.
1. Mammalian livestock (может использоваться) as a source o
milk, which (может быть переработано) into other dairy products
such as yoghurt, cheese, butter etc. 2. Theoretically, more than 100,000
(может
form
wrong and any research in this field (следует остановить). 4. Sometimes
special laboratory tests (должны быть сделаны) in order to find out
the cause of a disease. 5. The Internet has given people the chance to
import exotic meats from around the world, so strict sanitary measures
(должны быть обеспечены) on the borders. 6. The information about
any outbreak of such dangerous diseases as bovine tuberculosis or
brucellosis (должна сообщаться) to the national agricultural department.
7. Longer hours (должны быть затрачены) by animals on grazing
if the pasture quality and quantity are not optimal. 8. Animals (должны
наблюдаться) both during the hours of darkness and daylight if
ethologists want to study their behaviour better. 9. Tables of energy and
nutritious value of different kinds of feeds (могут быть использова­
132
ны) by fanners to supply animals with the complete ration. 10. A very
young ruminant, such as calves and lambs, (должны быть обеспе­
чены) with good-quality protein feeds until their rumen develops sufficiently
well.
6. Read and translate the text. Find in the text the sentences with:
— the modal verbs can, may, must in the active voice;
— the modal verbs can, may, must in the passive voice;
— the modal verbs of obligation;
— the construction “to be + infinitive”.

VETERINARY SCIENCE
Veterinary Science is also called veterinary medicine and includes the
prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of the diseases of domestic animals
and the management of other animal disorders. The field also deals with
those diseases that are intercommunicable1 between animals and
humans.
Persons who serve as doctors to animals have existed since early
times, and veterinary practice was already established as a specialty as
early as 2000 BC in Babylonia and Egypt and the ancient Greeks had
“horse-doctors”. The first veterinary schools in Europe were established
in the mid-18th century and since that time veterinary science has
rapidly developed alongside with2 modem medicine.
Animal health is to ensure the efficient production of wholesome
animal products. Farm animals are susceptible to various infectious
diseases and may suffer from vimses and harmful bacteria, so animals
should be examined by veterinary surgeons regularly in order to notice
disease symptoms in time and take the necessary preventive and control
measures. Such common animal diseases as mastitis, brucellosis, swine
fever, erysipelas, anthrax, and leptospirosis can quickly spread and cause
major losses among stock animals, so they must be controlled or
prevented by veterinary surgeons.
Vaccination and immunisation, sanitary measures, and the severe
segregation, or quarantine, of sick animals should be used by farmers
and veterinary surgeons to prevent the spread of infectious diseases such
as anthrax, bovine tuberculosis, brucellosis, canine distemper, and
rabies. Sanitary control of animal housing and proper pasture management
are to eliminate any carriers of animal infectious diseases which can be
easily transmitted by water and soil.
The government officials must be informed about the outbreak of a
notifiable disease in order to prevent the disease spread. If an animal
has contract the infectious disease and cannot be cured, it will have to
be slaughtered.
Veterinary surgeons also treat parasitical infections, unsanitary
conditions which may cause lower fertility in livestock, and nutritional
133
 disorders, and they often have to set broken limbs3 and neuter4 domestic
pets. Besides, veterinary scientists investigate the chronic infectious
diseases associated with high morbidity rates5 and various metabolic
disorders. The development of vaccine to control Marek’s disease in
chickens is an example of the economic effect of animal-disease research
that was conducted by veterinary scientists. J1
A veterinary surgeon’s training must include the study of the basic
preclinical disciplines of anatomy, histology, physiology, pharmacology,
microbiology as well as bacteriology, virology, parasitology, and pathology.
The clinical subjects of study may be divided into internal medicine,
preventive medicine, surgery and clinical practice. 1
Internal medicine includes the diagnosis and treatment of diseases
as they affect animals. Preventive medicine should consider the aspects
of disease prevention and control, especially such diseases that can be
transmitted between animals and humans or diseases that may influence
human health. Generally, several preventive techniques are available for
the use in the prevention of disease in an animal population such as
quarantine, immunisation, environmental control, various methods of
disease control and eradication, early diagnosis of a disease. It has been
proved that animal diseases may be prevented to a great extent by
ensuring proper hygienic and sanitary conditions on a farm, which
include the maintenance of safe water supplies, air sanitation, pest
control, the improvement of animal housing etc. Surgery includes
wound treatment6, fracture repair7, the excision8 of body parts, and the
use of such techniques as radiology, anesthesiology, obstetrics9, treatment
of lameness10 etc. In most veterinary schools, clinical practice enables
students, especially future veterinary surgeons, to observe and assist with
actual cases of disease or other conditions which require attention. In
both medical and surgical treatment, the same techniques are to be used
as in medical practice on humans. I
In most countries of the world, professional veterinary surgeons
must complete a special educational programme. According to this
programme students are to study for four or six years at the university
and only after such a course of study the degree of doctor of veterinary
medicine is to be awarded. Moreover, in many countries veterinary
surgeons must obtain a licence to start their practice from some duly
constituted authority11. Veterinary surgeons may specialize either in the
care of small animals such as pets and work in banian hospitals, while
others may treat mainly livestock. A few veterinary surgeons may be
employed by zoos or circuses to examine and take care of wild animals.
There exist different international organisations such as the World
Veterinary Association (WVA), the World Veterinary Association for Small
Domestic Animals (WSAVA), the European Veterinary Association for
Small Domestic Animals (FECAVA), as well as national organisations,
for example, the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA), The
Russian Association of General Veterinary Practitioners, the British
134
Small Animal Veterinary Association (BSAVA) etc. Their purpose is to
advance Veterinary Science and Veterinary Medical Profession, to hold
conferences or seminars on veterinary problems.

ф COMMENTS
1. intercommunicable — зд. передаваемый
2. alongside with — наряду с
3. to set broken limbs —зд. лечить сломанные конечности
4. to neuter ['nju.ta] — кастрировать
5. morbidity rate — показатель заболеваемости
6. wound treatment — обработка ран
7. fracture repair — лечение переломов
8. excision [ек'язп ] —удаление
9. obstetrics [ab'stetnks] — акушерство
10. lameness [lemmas] — хромота
11. duly constituted authority —должным образом уполномоченные за­
коном власти

EXERCISES ТО THE TEXT

7. Answer the questions.
1. What does Veterinary Science study?
2. When and where did people begin to treat sick animals?
3. Why is Veterinary Science important to modem animal husbandry?
4. What measures should be taken to prevent infectious diseases?
5. What problems does a veterinary surgeon deal with?
6. How must a veterinary surgeon be trained?
7. What does preventive medicine concern?
8. What is the difference between internal medicine and surgery?
9. Why is clinical practice the essential part of training veterinary
students?
10. When can a veterinary surgeon start his own practice?
11. in which fields can a veterinary surgeon specialise in?
12. What is the main aim of various veterinary associations?
Think and say:
1. Do you know any serious farm animal diseases that are spread in
the world now?
2. How do you think students should be trained to become skilful
(квалифицированный) veterinary surgeons? Should they have
more clinical practice or use different models and computer
educational programmes9
3. Why have different national and international veterinary associa­
tions been established?

I
135
8. Find in the text the equivalents for the following words and word-
combinations. Translate them into Russian. s?
animal troubles; to pass on an infection; healthy animal products;
to avoid the distribution of disease; to be subjected to different infectious
diseases; bad bacteria for health; to see signs of disease; to distribute;
to result in great losses; the strict separation/isolation; to spread by
water; to remove/prevent any carriers; medicine of organs inside the
body; together with; very serious infectious disease which must be
registered; to catch the infectious disease; to be killed; health problems
as a result of improper nutrition; the constant/permanent infectious
diseases; education of veterinary surgeons; to watch and help; to finish
an educational programme; hospitals for animals; to cure mostly
livestock; to look after wild animals; to advance Veterinary Science f
9. a) Rewrite the sentences in the active voice. V \
1. Animals should be examined by veterinary surgeons regularly in
order to notice disease symptoms in time. 2. Carriers of animal infectious
diseases can be easily transmitted by water and soil. 3. The government
officials must be informed by a farmer about the outbreak of a notifiable
disease. 4. Vaccination and immunisation, sanitary measures, and the
severe segregation, or quarantine, of sick animals should be used by
farmers and veterinary surgeons. 5. If a sick animal cannot be cured by
a veterinary surgeon, it will have to be slaughtered by a farmer. /§
b) Rewrite the sentences in the passive voice.
1. Such common animal diseases as mastitis, brucellosis can cause
major losses among stock animals. 2. Animal health is to ensure the
efficient production of wholesome animal products. 3. Certain animal
diseases may influence human health. 4. In many countries veterinary
surgeons must obtain a licence to start their practice. 5. Severe sanitary
control of animal housing and proper pasture management are to
eliminate any carriers of animal infectious diseases. 6. Preventive
medicine should consider the aspects of disease prevention and control.

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
10. Give the English equivalents of the Russian words in brackets.
I. Before (бальное/нездоровое животное) receives (лечение)
a veterinary surgeon should make proper diagnosis. 2. It is difficult (ле­
чить/излечивать) some infectious diseases but vaccination may
provide immunity to a disease. 3. People (могут заразиться) rabies
as it (передается) through the bite of infected animals, either wild or
domestic. 4. Foot-and-mouth disease had caused a major (вспышку)
in the US in 1929. 5. Bovine tuberculosis is known as (болезнь, под-
лежащая регистрации ) because it can infect both warm-blooded
animals and humans, but it has been mainly {ликвидирована/иско­
ренена) in most countries by (строгих профилактических мер).
6. It is necessary that farm animals (должны быть обследованы) by
a veterinary surgeon because only a specialist (может заметить/
распознать) certain clinical symptoms of a disease. 7. The purpose of
the American Veterinary Medical Association (состоит в том, что­
бы продвигать) the science and art of veterinary medicine. 8. Infected
animals may be placed under (строгий карантин) or finally slaughtered
to prevent (распространение) of such serious livestock diseases as
brucellosis and tuberculosis. 9. Farm animals (могут страдать от)
diseases which may be caused either by certain viruses or (губитель­
ными/вредными бактериями). 10. Wild birds may be (переносчи­
ками разных инфекций) which they may easily spread from one
country to another. Moreover, domestic poultry may be very (чувстви­
тельными к этим инфекциям).
11. Find the sentences where “to be + infinitive” has the m eaning; 1) «дол­
жен»; 2) «состоит в том, чтобы».
1. In modem livestock production, wholesome animal products are
to be obtained only from healthy animals that are fed with high-quality
feeds. 2. One of the main purposes of severe long-term quarantine for
animals which may be imported from other foreign countries is to
prevent the spread of any infectious diseases in the other country.
3. Farm animals are to be provided with fresh and clean water in order
to eliminate the spread of mastitis on the farm. 4. In the late 4th century
BC, Alexander the Great designed programmes which were to involve
the study of animals. 5. The aim of epidemiology is to study diseases in
animal populations as well as the conditions under which disease may
occur, their carriers and ways of disease transmission. 6. The essential
feature of training of veterinary surgeons is to allow students to observe
and assist actual cases of disease in animal clinics or banian hospitals.
7. The problems of the bird flu were to attract many scientists and
veterinary surgeons to take part in the conference.
12. Write the English equivalents of the Russian words in brackets.
1. Herds of livestock, rather than individual animals, are vaccinated
against specific (болезней). 2. Improper housing of animals, imbalanced
nutrition, or incorrect breeding practices may be the causes of (забо­
левания) in the herd. 3. Early diagnosis of (заболевания) among
members of an animal population is important so that (болезнь) does
not become too severe and so that infected animals can be more easily
managed and treated. 4. Such (недомогание) as chronic asthma, or
“broken wind”, may be incurable for most horses. 5. Improper use of
milking machines may be the reason of some udder (заболеваний) for
milking cows. 6. Internal parasites are a common cause of (недомога­

137
ния/ заболевания), especially in puppies. 7. Cancer, (нарушение ды­
хательных функций), allergies, arthritis, and certain forms of heart
disease are all found in dogs. 8. The grazing of cattle high in the
mountains may cause animals’ mountain (недомогание/ нездоровье).
9. (Пищеварительные расстройства) may happen when cows are
moved from pasture to the cowshed for the winter period. 10. The (на­
рушение роста) may be caused by the lack of certain vitamins and
minerals in the animal ration. «Я
13. a) Translate into English. 1
Лечить — лечение; вакцинировать — вакцинация — вакцина;
предупреждать/предотвращать — профилактика/предупреждение —
профилактический/предупредительный; заражать — инфекция —
инфекционный; хирург — хирургия — хирургический; медицина —
медицинский; клиника (лечебница) — клинический; санитарный/
гигиенический — антисанитарный/негигиенический
b) Translate the words into Russian. Identify the part of speech in
English. t t ,-i •.,к gfl
diagnose, diagnosis, diagnostic; cure, curable, incurable; susceptible,
susceptibility; eradication, eradicate; severe, severely; segregate,
segregation; suffer, suffering; eliminate, elimination; carry, carrier;
examine, examination; internal, internally; transmission, transmit;
notice, notification, noticeable/notifiable ;
14. Use the correct form of the verb in brackets in the active or passive
voice. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Insects (may/become) carriers of bacterial and virus diseases,
for instance, encephalitis (can/ transmit) by mosquitoes that breed in
stagnant water ( стоячая вода). 2. In both medical and surgical
treatment, the same techniques (to be/use) by veterinary surgeons as
in medical practice on humans. 3. In most countries of the world,
professional veterinary surgeons (must/ complete) a special educational
programme that (must/include) the basic preclinical disciplines.
4. Transport, for example trains or planes, (may/cause) problems
relating to livestock-disease quarantine since many disease carriers, such
as insects and viruses (may/bring) accidentally by them into a country.
5. Veterinary surgeons (can/ not/ treat) some diseases by immunisation,
however, the latter (to be/provide) short-term and partial protection.
6. During the 20th century many countries (have to/take) very severe
measures to prevent bovine tuberculosis because it (can/infect) other
warm-blooded animals as well as humans. 7. Farm animals (should/
supply) with green-growing crops as they are rich in carotene which
animals (can/ convert) into vitamin A. 8. Such common animal diseases
as mastitis, brucellosis (must/prevent) by veterinary surgeons. 9. Moldy
or dusty (заплесневелые или пыльные) feeds (should/eradicate) from

138
a horse ration because the animal (can(contract) easily various respiratory
infections through forage poisons. 10. The earlier the disease (can/
notice), the easier it (may/cure). 11. Veterinary students (must/train)
to diagnose a disease on the basis of a variety of examinations and tests.
12. In order to advance a new diagnostic method, scientists (to be/
organise) seminars for veterinary surgeons in different regions of the
country. 13. The most interesting information on veterinary science
(may/spread) quickly through the Internet resources. 14. Sometimes the
animals that have been in contact with the infected animals (have to/
slaughter). 15. Scientists (to be/produce) enough amounts of vaccine
by the beginning of spring in order to be ready to prevent the spread of
the bird flu by migrating wild birds. 16. A sick animal (must,/ segregate)
from the other animals as quickly as possible.
15. Translate Into English.
a) переносчик болезни; вызывать огромные потери животных;
медицина внутренних органов; профилактическая медицина;
вспышка болезни, подлежащая регистрации; предотвращение
инфекционного заболевания; тщательная изоляция больного
животного; предотвратить распространение заболевания; ветери­
нар-хирург; изучать хирургию; здоровая пища; большие потери
среди скота; лечение животных; практика в клинике/ветеринар­
ной лечебнице; страдать/мучиться от вредных бактерий; осматри­
вать/обследовать животное; забивать скот; профилактические
меры; хирургическая практика; восприимчивый к инфекциям;
исключить/предотвратить распространение; передавать/перено­
сить инфекционные заболевания; излечивать/исцелять болезнь;
заболеть; санитария воздуха; распространять болезнь; продвигать
ветеринарную науку; замечать клинические симптомы; лечить
домашних питомцев; санитарно-профилактические мероприятия
b) 1. Все студенты-ветеринары должны изучать основные ме­
дицинские науки, такие как медицина внутренних органов и про­
филактическая медицина, однако в будущем они могут специали­
зироваться в лечении или сельскохозяйственных животных, или
домашних питомцев. 2. На больших коммерческих фермах огром­
ные потери животных могут быть предотвращены, если иммуни­
зация и вакцинация животных проводится регулярно под строгим
контролем ветеринара. 3. Как национальные, так и международ­
ные ветеринарные ассоциации должны быть информированы
о вспышке опасного инфекционного заболевания, чтобы сдержать
его распространение и принять необходимые профилактические
меры вовремя. 4. Когда студенты собираются стать хирургами,
то они часто вынуждены использовать для медицинских экспери­
ментов некоторых мелких животных (мышей, кроликов), чтобы
получить необходимые навыки (skills) в хирургии. 5. Цель раз­
139
личных ветеринарных ассоциаций состоит в том, чтобы продви­
гать ветеринарную науку, а также помогать ветеринарам обмени­
ваться опытом и обсуждать разные проблемы современной вете­
ринарии. * <3

EXERCISES FOR PAIR AND GROUP WORK

16. Make up a dialogue about the advantages and disadvantages of using

animals in experiments. I
Student A reads the passage and finds the arguments for using anim al;
in experiments. Student В (page 146) reads the other passage and
finds some arguments against using animals in experiments.

USEFUL LANGUA GE
Saying you partly agree:
I see your point, but...; Well, I agree with you on the whole, but...; That’s
one way of considering it, but...; There is something in what you say,
however...; I agree in principle, but...; I appreciate your point of view,
but...; Up to a point I agree with you, however...; To a certain extent I agree
with you, but... .

Text for Student A

ANIMALS AS USEFUL BIOMEDICAL M ODELS IN RESEARCH

Although in modem times the practice of veterinary medicine has been

separated from that of human medicine, the observations of the physician
and the veterinarian continue to add to the medical knowledge. Veterinary
medicine plays a great role in the health of man through the use of
animals as biomedical models because animals may suffer from similar
diseases as man and research on many genetic and chronic diseases of
man cannot be carried out using humans. However, only a few species
of more than 1,200,000 species of animals can be utilised in research,
though practically for every known human disease, an identical or
similar disease exists in at least one animal species.
Animal research has played an important role in every major medical
advance of the last century for both human and animal health. Seven
of the last ten Nobel Prizes for medicine have depended on animal
research, for example, the development of penicillin (mice), organ
transplant (dogs), and work on poliomyelitis that led to a vaccine (mice,
monkeys). The most important uses of animals in science have included
the use of the monkeys (rhesus macaque) for the identification of blood
types, dogs (beagles) were subjected to cigarette smoke for research on
140
lung cancer, and the use of dogs by I. P. Pavlov to investigate behaviourism.
The development of genetics has allowed to increase the research on
genetically modified organisms and the cloning of Dolly the sheep has
made her one of the best known experimental animals.
Thus, animal studies are of great importance to the development of
new surgical techniques, the testing of new cures, the prediction of
human reaction to drugs, and nutritional research. Animals are
especially valuable in research on chronic degenerative diseases1because
they can easily be caused experimentally in them. Nowadays more and
more people are suffering from chronic degenerative diseases, such as
cancer and cardiovascular diseases2, so experiments on animals may be
of great value. It is obvious that new research discoveries that involve
the study of animal diseases will result in other important contributions
to human health.

COMMENTS
1. degenerative disease — дегенеративное заболевание
2. cardiovascular disease — сердечно-сосудистое заболевание
Search the following websites:
1. http://en.wikipedia.0 rg/wiki/Animal_m0del#c0lumn-0ne — The
use of animal models for various purposes.
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing — The use of animals
in experiments.
17. Divide into two groups: a group of Russian and American veterinarians.
They are representatives of their national veterinary associations.
Read the brief information about these associations and hold a dis­
cussion about these organisations, compare their history, goals and
activities.

Some Information for group A

The Association o f General Veterinary Practitioners
(the Russian Federation)
1. Date of foundation', in 1994, officially registered in January, 1997.
2. Type o f organisation: a public organisation.
3. The number of members at present over 3,000, among them 210
PhDs and 20 Doctors of Science.
4. Main goals: increasing the prestige and significance of the
veterinary profession, promoting the development of veterinary in
Russia and the best use of the available potential, promoting the
solution of essential issues in the work of veterinary institutions,
veterinary practitioners and the state veterinary service in the
country.
141
 5. Main activities', a member of the World Veterinary Association
for Small Domestic Animals (WSAVA) since 1999, a member of
the European Veterinary Association for Small Domestic Animals
(FECAVA) since 1998; participates in the WSAVA programme of
post-graduate education for veterinarians from Eastern Europe;
annually holds an international congress in Moscow and from 10
to 15 regional conferences; supports the publication of articles in
leading Russian and foreign journals on veterinary science;
participates in developing documents for the Moscow State
Duma; grants scholarships to the best students of veterinary higher
education institutions. i
Search the following website for more information:
1. http://www.equiros.ru/2005/eng/participants/direct/165096.stm
2. http://www.cnshb.ru/aw/show.asp?page=vetmed

Some information for group В

The American Veterinary Medical Association (A VMA)
1. Date o f foundation: in 1863 (New York).
2. Type o f organisation: a not-for-profit association.
3. The number ofmembers at present: more than 73,000 veterinarians
who work in private and corporate practice, government, industry,
academia, and uniformed services. ! i
4. Main goals: acts as a collective voice for its membership and for
the profession; advances the science and art of veterinary medicine,
including its relationship to public health, biological science, and
agriculture.
5. Main activities: since 1900 publishes the Journal o f the American
Veterinary Medical Association (JAVMA); provides to its members
information resources, continuing education opportunities, quality
publications, and discounts on personal and professional products,
programmes and services, opportunities to address issues and
influence policy that affect the profession and the practice of
veterinary medicine, professional fellowship and contacts that
increase growth and experience; provides a forum for the discussion
of issues of importance to the veterinary profession, and for the
development of official positions; presents inform ation on
veterinary problems to government, academia, agriculture, pet
owners, the media.
Search the following websites for more information:
1. http://www.avma.org/default.asp
2. http://www.avma.org/about_avma/default.asp

142
 f USEFUL LANGUAGE
Holding a discussion:
What can you tell me about...; It would be interesting to know...; Let me
ask a question concerning...; Would you mind explaining how...; In relation
to your question, I’d like to point out that...; I would answer your question
as follows...; I would like to clarify some points concerning... .

SUPPLEM ENTARY TEXTS

18. a) Read and translate the text into Russian. Use a dictionary if ne­
cessary.

‘ . T ext 1
BIRD FLU

Avian influenza is also known as bird flu, avian flu, influenzavirus A

flu, type A flu, or genus A flu. It is a flu due to a type of influenzavirus
that is hosted by birds, but may infect several species of mammals. It
was first identified in Serbia Montenegro in the early 1900s and is now
known to exist worldwide. The avian influenza subtypes that have been
confirmed in humans, ordered by the number of known human deaths,
are: H1N1 caused Spanish Flu, H2N2 caused Asian Flu, H3N2 caused
Hong Kong Flu, H5N1, H7N7, H9N2, H7N2, H7N3.
Strains of avian influenzavirus may infect various type of animals,
including birds, pigs, horses, seals, whales and humans. However, wild
fowl act as natural asymptomatic carriers, spreading it to more susceptible
domestic stocks. Avian influenzavirus spreads in the air and in manure.
It can also be transmitted by contaminated feed, water, equipment and
clothing; however, there is no evidence that the virus can survive in well-
cooked meat. The incubation period is 3 to 5 days. Symptoms in animals
vary, but virulent strains can cause death within a few days. This was
first found in the 1900s.
Influenza A viruses normally seen in one species sometimes can cross
over and cause illness in another species. For example, until 1998, only
H1N1 viruses circulated widely in the US pig population. However, in
1998, H3N2 viruses from humans were introduced into the pig popu­
lation and caused widespread disease among pigs. Most recently, H3N8
viruses from horses have crossed over and caused outbreaks in dogs
In humans, avian flu viruses cause similar symptoms to other types
of flu such as fever, cough, sore throat, muscle aches, conjunctivitis and,
in severe cases, breathing problems and pneumonia that may be fatal.
The severity of the infection will depend to a large part on the state of
 the infected person’s immune system and if the victim has been exposed
to the strain before, and is therefore partially immune.
A strain of the H5Nl-type of avian influenza virus that emerged in
1997 has been identified as the most likely source of a future influenza
pandemic and is known to have infected 133 people in Asia since late
2003, killing 68. . ■ . .« I
H5N1 is a highly pathogenic form of avian influenzavirus. Since
1997, outbreaks of H5N1 flu have caused the death or culling of tens of
millions of birds. Over 100 people have been infected by H5N1, with a
mortality rate of over 50%. H5N1 has been the focus of much concern
among warnings that the H 5N 1 strain may develop into a form that
causes a global human pandemic with a very high mortality rate. As of
November 1, 2005, 122 cases of infections in humans, resulting in 62
deaths, have been confirmed outside of China.
Although avian influenzavirus in humans can be detected with
standard influenza virus tests, these tests have not always proved reliable.
Antiviral drugs such as oseltamivir, zanamivir and amantadine are
sometimes effective in both preventing and treating the infection.
Countries have been trying to make stocks of olestamivir or zanamivir
in case of epidimic. Vaccines, however, take at least four months to
produce and must be prepared for each subtype.
As a result, the widespread use of the antiviral drug amantadine as a
preventive or treatment for chickens started in China in the late 1990s.
However, some strains of the avian flu virus in Asia have developed drug
resistance against amantadine.
The World Health Organisation (WHO) has warned of a great risk
of an influenza epidemic in the near future, most probably from the
H5N1 type of avian influenzavirus. One of the primary concerns is that
the virus could quickly spread across countries as various birds follow
their migration routes. In response, countries have begun planning
preventive measures in anticipation of an outbreak. While short-term
strategies dealing with an outbreak focus on limiting travel and culling
and vaccinating poultry, long-term strategies require great changes in
the lifestyles of the most at-risk populations.
The WHO divides a pandemic into sue phases, ranging from minimal
risk of an outbreak to full-scale pandemic. Most health authorities
characterise the situation as of 2005 at Phase 3, though by the beginning
of 2006 there had not been any evidence of any human-to-human
transmission.
Search the following websites:
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_flu
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avian_flu
b) Write questions on the text and use them to make up a dialogue.
Work in pairs.

144
 For example, a dialogue between a scientist and a reporter of
a popular TV programme. Your task is to explain the public (TV viewers)
the origin of the disease, the ways of its spreading, its main carriers, the
methods of detection and prevention.
Model: An Interviewer. Dear Professor..., thanks for coming to our
programme. Recently there has been an outbreak of the bird
flu in several Asian and even European countries so our TV
viewers would like to know more about this disease. First,
w»" I they wonder.... fI ЦЩ
19. a) Read and translate the text into Russian.

Text 2

THE MOSCOW STATE ACADEMY OF VETERINARY M EDICINE

AND BIOTECHNOLOGY NAMED AFTER К. I. SKRYABIN

The Moscow State Academy of Veterinary Medicine and Bio­

technology named after К. I. Skryabin was founded in Moscow in 1919.
The Academy is an educational, research and commercial complex. It
trains high-skilled specialists, scientific and teaching staff.
The Academy is involved in fundamental and basic research,
experimental and production developments in veterinary medicine and
zootechny, biotechnology and ecology in veterinary medicine, commodity
expertise, marketing and technology of foodstuffs and goods of animal
origin.
In 1973 the Government of Russia took a decision to name the
Academy after Konstantin Ivanovich Skryabin, a prominent scientist,
who has contributed a lot to the science of our country and the world
and played an important part in the formation and development of the
Academy.
In May 2000 in Prague the Academy was incorporated into the
European Association of Agricultural Higher Educational Establishments
at the International Congress.
The Academy has all necessary teaching, production and experimental
facilities. There are some clinics, a vivarium, a garage and other premises
in the campus. The chairs and clinics are provided with modern
equipment (up-to-date video, computers, electron microscopes, devices
for radio-biological and molecular-biological investigations).
The Faculty of Veterinary Medicine was open on the basis of the
Moscow Veterinary Institute in 1919 on the basis of which the Academy
subsequently was created.
The 80th anniversary of the Faculty in 1999 was marked with many
thousands of its graduates. Many of them are awarded with honourary
titles of Veterinary Medicine of Republic, honoured workers of science,
elected academicians of the Russian, international and foreign academies
145
of sciences, in structure of directing members of the world and international
associations, became honourable doctors of foreign universities. ш
The Veterinary Medicine Faculty trains a universal specialist, that
is, a veterinary surgeon for the State veterinary service, farms of the agri­
industrial complex, diagnostic laboratories, research institutes and it also
trains a veterinary surgeon being specialised in hygiene sanitation and
veterinary and sanitary inspection of foodstuffs and goods of animal
origin. 11
(http://www.mgavm.ru/eng/index.jsp — The Moscow State Academy
of Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology named after К. I. Skryabin)
b) Here are the answers to some questions. Write the appropriate
questions. 1
1. 1919. i
2. Fundamental and basic research in veterinary medicine and
zootechny. vjу J
3. 1973.
4. The European Association of Agricultural Higher Educational
Establishments.
5. All necessary facilities. iJ
6. The Faculty of Veterinary Medicine.
7. The 80th anniversary.
8. The State veterinary service, farms of the agri-industrial complex,
diagnostic laboratories, research institutes.
c) Make up a dialogue between a first-year student and a fifth-year
student of the Academy.
A first-year student is interested in the history of the Academy, its
facilities, in which specialties the students are trained at the Academy.
A fifth-year student tells about the role of the Academy in training highly
qualified specialists in veterinary, about different facilities and
departments. I

EXERCISES FOR PAIR WORK

Task for Student В

Student В reads the passage and finds the arguments against using
animals in experiments.

ALTERNATIVES TO ANIMAL TESTING

Animal testing refers to the use of non-human animals in experiments.

It is estimated that 50—100 million animals worldwide are used annually
and then killed in scientific procedures, mostly inside universities,
146
11 medical schools, pharmaceutical companies, defense-research institutes,
' and public-health organisations.
I Testing is carried out on a variety of species from fruit flies and mice
to non-human primates. Scientists mainly choose mammals for testing
and experiments such as chimpanzees, monkeys, rabbits, guinea pigs,
dogs, rats and mice because of their closeness to human physiology.
Opponents of animal testing believe that animals may suffer during
experiments because all mammals have similar pain receptors and
I central nervous system pathways and may feel physical pain in the same
I way as humans.
All animal experiments may be divided into the following three
groups: 1) for pure research in order to advance knowledge, for example,
research in biology and genetics; 2) for applied research, such as
treatment of human and non-human diseases; 3) for toxicology testing,
mainly for pharmaceutics and cosmetics. Nevertheless, scientists should
avoid the use of live animals in the experiments if it is possible or use
them to a minimum and cause the least possible sufferings to the smallest
number of animals. When animals have to be used in research, proper
housing, feeding and care must be provided for them. Any surgical or
other painful procedures should be performed only on animals under
anesthesia. As a result of public protests the use of animals in many
unnecessary experiments, especially in cosmetic testing, has greatly
I decreased in recent years.
Moreover, more money should be spent on developing alternative
testing methods such as mathematical models, computer simulation, and
in vitro biological systems. Besides, some universities have already
changed their education programmes and introduced special computer
programmes and various high-quality models to train their students, for
instance, veterinary surgeons. In order to develop the necessary skills,
veterinary students are to assist with real operations on animals. Experi­
menting on animals just for the purposes of teaching or demonstration
must be avoided.
I There is a number of organisations that work on a wide range of
animal-rights issues, for example, People for the Ethical Treatment of
; Animals (PETA) in the USA and Royal Society for the Prevention of
Cruelty to Animals in the UK.
11, Search the following websites for more information:
> w

1. http://www.aldf.org/ — Animal Legal Defense Fund established

I in 1979 to protect the lives and advance the interests of animals
through the legal system; it offers information about its projects,
cases, and campaigns.
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_experimentation
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_rights
 REVISION TEST 1

1. Укажите предложения, содержащие «цепочки существитель­

ных», в которых одно существительное выполняет функцию оп­
ределения другого. 1
a) Modern agriculture requires large amounts of chemicals and
energy to produce high yields of farm crops or animal products.
b) Generally, several preventive techniques such as vaccination and
immunisation are available to protect domesticated animals from
infectious diseases. ii
c) Management of pasture lands for livestock production has become
the main aim of the land use in some regions. ь
d) Outbreeding means breeding of animals that are less closely
related than the average of the population from which they come.
e) Pasture grasses are lower in protein but vary greatly with the stage
o f maturity and level of nitrogen fertilisers which have been
applied to the crop. |М Щ |я М |р Н Н В
2. Укажите, в каких предложениях при переводе следует употре­
бить слова представлять/ иметь значение.
a) Fat in feeds has a high nutritive value because it is highly
digestible. •Ц
b) By-products from sugarcane are fibrous, hard to digest, and of
very low nutritive value. ! >;• *гйчЙН
c) The interest to comparative physiology has resulted from the
economic or medical importance of parasites, insects, and fish
in man’s life. ]
d) The quality of the protein in the food is of little importance to
ruminants. ’ ••
e) The proper balance of nutrients and whole food is of great value
for the optimal performance of the human or animal body.
3. Укажите, какие предложения содержат обороты долженствования.
a) The science of animal physiology has formed the basis of highly
productive animal husbandry.
b) The results of observations and experiments on animal behaviour
are to be analysed on the basis of scientific knowledge.
c) It is necessary to spend much time until new scientific theories
and hypotheses are supported by experimentation data.
 d) If the quality of pasture grasses is low, cows have to spend more
time on grazing.
e) Since 1890 all farm animals imported in the United States had to
be under severe quarantine, for example cattle had to be held
under quarantine for 90 days.
4. Укажите предложения, при переводе которых следует употребить
слова состоит в том, чтобы.
a) The importance of studying long pedigrees of cattle has decreased
in recent years.
b) The early detection of a disease in a herd of cattle is to be particularly
useful in controlling some chronic infectious diseases.
c) The purpose of progeny and performance testing is to help farmers
to judge young males that will be used for breeding.
d) The differences in farm animal behaviour during the daytime and
at night are to be studied by ethologists.
e) The value of studbooks is to provide horse breeders with the
information about the pedigree of purebred animals.
5. Укажите, в каких предложениях при переводе следует употре­
бить слова для того, чтобы.
a) Methods such as mathematical models, computer simulation, and
in vitro biological systems should be considered in order to
minimise the use of animals in experiments.
b) To ensure partial protection of farm animals from some infectious
diseases, mass immunisation of the animals in widely used now.
c) The main aim of different breeding associations is to support cattle
breeders and animal scientists in their further improving cattle
herds.
d) Organic farming combines a variety of methods to maintain soil
fertility, prevent soil erosion, and control pests, but with minimal
or no use of commercial fertilisers or synthetic pesticides.
e) To apply the knowledge of genetics in practice is of great importance
for modem animal husbandry.
 BASIC COURSE

Unit 8
CATTLE BREEDING

Vocabulary and Grammar:

1. Значение глаголов to differ, to result с разными предлогами (to differ
in/from, to result in/from).
2. One, that, those как заменители существительного.
3. Простая форма причастия I и причастия II и их функции в анг­
лийском языке.
4. Причастие II в постпозиции. ,

VOCABULARY ТО TH E TEXT
“CATTLE B R E E D IN G ”

Nouns : abundance, age, availability, beef, birth (rate/weight),

breeding season, breeding condition, bull (bull calf), calf (pi calves),
calver (syn pregnant cow), calving, cattle breeder (syn cattleman),
colostrum, cowshed, dam, distribution, enterprise, exercise, fattening,
gain, heifer (heifer calf), horn (hollow/paired/unbranched horn),
livestock (syn stock); management, (a) means, milk (skim/whole milk).
ox (pi oxen), paddock, period (dry/gestation period), rate, sex, steer,
udder, veal, weight.
Adjectives and adverbs: annual(ly), (on) average, common, daily
(syn per day, a day), dual-purpose, (in) flesh, hoofed (even-toed hoofed/
cloven-hoofed mammals), indigestible, liberal(ly), mature, permanent,
pregnant (cow), rotational (grazing), scarce, temporary, thrifty, triple­
purpose, vigorous.
Verbs: allow, calve, differ (in/from), distinguish, fatten, gain, reach,
result (in/from), suckle, wean, weigh. 1

Give the Russian equivalents of the following international words and

scientific terms:
activity [aek'trviti], agrichemicals [.aegrikemiklz], gelatin [.cfeeb'tLn],
to identify [ai'dentifai], lactation [lakteifnj, metabolic [.meto'bolik],
rotational [rauteifanl], technology [tek'nDbcfei], zebu f'zLbu:]

150
 The Nam es o f Cattle Breeds
Angus ['aerjgas] — ангусская порода
Ayrshire feajia] — эрширская порода
Brahman [Ъгаттіп] — брамане кая порода
Brown Swiss [.brauriswis] — бурая швицкая порода
Galloways ['gaelaweiz] — галловейская порода
Guernsey ['ganzi] — гернзейская порода
Hereford ['henfad] — герефорд
Holstein (Friesian) [‘holstem ('friizian)] — голштинская (фриз­
ская) порода
Jersey ['(fcaizi] — джерсейская порода
Red Polled [,red ’pauld] — английская красная комолая
Shorthorn ['Jacthcm] — шортгорнская порода

З н ач ен и е глаголов to differ , to result

с р азн ы м и предлогам и
to differ — колебаться, варьироваться (о качестве, количестве
чего-л.); разниться, различаться; syn to vary
to differ in smth — различаться, отличаться чем-л.; syn to vary
in smth
to differ from smb/smth in smth — различаться, отличаться от
кого-л./чего-л. чем-л. ( внешностью, возрастом, мнениями,
взглядами и т.д.)
to differ smth from smth — отличать, различать (одну вещь от
другой); syn to distinguish smth from smth
to differ from/with smb about/on/over smth — не соглашаться с
кем-л. о чем-л.; иметь другую точку зрения на что-л.; syn to disagree
to result — следовать, происходить в результате
to result from smth — проистекать, обуславливаться чем-л.; syn
to be caused by smth
to result in smth — приводить к чему-л., иметь результатом; syn
to lead to smth

Examples'.
The number of cows in a herd Число коров в стаде может ме­
may differ. няться.
Animals of different breeds may Животные разных пород могут
greatly differ/vary in size. сильно отличаться по раз­
меру.
The dairy breeds differ from Молочные породы скота отли­
beef breeds in management чаются от мясных пород по
and feeding. содержанию и кормлению.

151
Animal science students should Студенты-животноводы должны
learn how to differ one cattle научиться отличать одну по­
breed from another. роду крупного рогатого скота
от другой. ' ,
A farmer’s opinion may differ Мнение фермера о методах со­
from/with an animal scient­ держания, кормления и разве-
ist’s opinion on the methods деления скота может отли­
of cattle breeding, management чаться от мнения ученого.
and feeding.
When there was the outbreak of Когда была вспышка ящура
foot-and-mouth disease in в Британии, свыше четырех
Britain, over four million миллионов животных было за­
animals were slaughtered and бито и последовали большие
large economic losses resulted. экономические убытки.
Poor preventive measures have Слабые профилактические меры
resulted in a rapid spread привели к быстрому распро­
of infection among farm странению инфекции среди
animals. фермерских животных.
The soil and water pollution in Загрязнение почвы и воды мо­
the region may result from жет происходить из-за не­
improper management of правильного содержания
cattle on a farm. (может быть обусловлено
неправильным содержанием)
крупного рогатого скота на
ферме.

GRAM M AR REVISIO N
AND PRETEXT EXERCISES

One у that, those как заменители существительного

Слова one, that, those употребляются в английском языке как
заменители ранее названного существительного, причем при пе­
реводе на русский язык эти слова можно опускать или переводить
тем существительным, которое они заменяют.
One, that употребляются для замены существительного в един­
ственном числе, ones, those — во множественном.
Коша that, those заменяют существительные, то после них в ка­
честве правого определения могут стоять:
1) существительное (обычно с предлогом of);
2) прилагательное;
3) причастие II.

152
Examples:
The study of farm animals’ Изучение поведения сельскохо-
behaviour is of greater зяйственных животных пред-
importance for practical uses ставляет больший интерес для
than that of the wild species. практического использования,
чем изучение диких видов.
Of all available feeds a farmer Из всех имеющихся кормов фер­
will use that cheaper in мер будет использовать корм,
a particular region. который является более деше­
вым в данной области.
Natural protein supplements are Природные белковые добавки яв-
more useful in feeding cattle ляются более полезными для
than those produced from скота, чем добавки получае­
chemical substances. мые из химических веществ.
One, ones заменяют существительное, которое имеет в каче
стве определения:
1) прилагательное (обычно стоит перед one, ones);
2) причастие II (обычно находится после one, ones).
Examples:
New vaccines obtained by івые вакцины, полученные уче­
scientists are the more ными, являются более эффек­
effective ones for disease тивными вакцинами для
prevention. предотвращения болезни.
Different dairy breeds are raised Различные породы молочного
in our region, but the one скота выращиваются в нашем
bred on our farm is the most районе, но порода, выращи-
high-yielding. ваемая в нашем хозяйстве,
самая высокоудойная.

Простая форма причастия I и причастия II

(Simple form of Participle I and Participle II)
Причастие I (причастие настоящего времени действительного
залога) образуется от формы инфинитива прибавлением суффик­
са -ing. При переводе на русский язык причастию I соответству­
ет причастие с окончанием -щий или деепричастие с окончани­
ем -я.
Причастие II (причастие прошедшего времени страдательно­
го залога) стандартных глаголов образуется от формы инфинитива
прибавлением суффикса -ed, а причастие II нестандартных гла­
голов приводится в соответствующих таблицах. Причастие II пе­
реводится на русский язык причастиями с окончаниями -яъш,
-мый, - тый.
153
 Examples:

Причастие настоящего Причастие прошедшего

Инфинитив времени действительного времени страдательного
залога (причастие I) залога (причастие II)
to increase increasing увеличи­ increased увеличенный,
увеличивать вающий, увеличивая увеличиваемый
to grow growing выращи­ grown выращенный,
выращивать вающий, выращивая выращиваемый
to breed breeding выводящий, bred выведенный,
выводить выводя выводимый

Функции причастия I в английском предложении

В предложении причастие I может быть:
1) определением к существительному и употребляться как пе­
ред определяемым словом (слева от определяемого существитель­
ного), так и после него (справа от определяемого существитель­
ного). В последнем случае причастие вместе с относящимися к
нему словами образует определительный причастный оборот;
2) обстоятельством и тогда вместе с относящимися к нему
словами оно употребляется в начале или в конце предложения.
В этом случае причастие I переводится на русский язык деепри­
частным оборотом; ?
3) частью сказуемого, употребляемого во временной форме
Continuous, и в этом случае при переводе на русский язык прича­
стию I соответствует личная форма глагола.
Функция причастия I Примеры
1. левое определение Growing young animals require high-protein
к существительному rations. — Растущие молодые животные
.
2 правое определение
нуждаются в высокобелковых рационах.
Animals growing on high-protein rations
к существительному develop rapidly. — Животные, растущие
на высокобелковых рационах, развива­
ются быстро.
3. обстоятельство Growing corn, the farmer provides his
animals with fodder. — Выращивая куку­
рузу, фермер обеспечивает своих живот­
ных фуражом.
4. часть сказуемого (группа The farmer is growing com for fodder this
времен Continuous) year. — Фермер выращивает кукурузу на
фураж в этом году.

1. a) Use the words to make up the word-combinations with Participle I

and translate them into Russian.

154
 Model", to follow — data —» following data — следующие данные
to giow — young animals; to produce — companies; to increase —
needs; to spread — bird flu; to develop — countries; to change — habitat;
to suffer — animal
b) Translate the following word-combinations into Russian:
industries processing animal by-products; farmers raising pedigree
cattle; the veterinarian curing pets; technologies decreasing pollution;
viruses and bacteria causing diseases; breeds inhabiting warm regions;
clinical practice enabling students; conditions varying from farm to farm

Функции причастия II в английском предложении

В предложении причастие II может быть:

1) определением, и может стоять как слева, так и справа от
определяемого существительного. Если причастие II стоит спра­
ва от существительного, то вместе с уточняющими словами оно
образует причастный оборот;
2) частью сказуемого в страдательном залоге;
3) частью сказуемого времен группы Perfect.

Функция причастия II Примеры 1

L левое определение The bred bulls will be used as sires. — Вы­
к существительному веденные быки будут использованы как
производители.
2. правое определение The bulls bred by this farmer will be used as
к существительному sires. — Быки, выведенные этим ферме­
ром, будут использованы как производи­
тели.
3. часть сказуемого Purebred sires are bred by this farmer. —
в страдательном залоге Чистокровные производители выводятся
этим фермером.
4. часть сказуемого Purebred sires have been bred on this
(группа времен Perfect) farm. — Чистокровные производители бы­
ли выведены в этом хозяйстве. (Present
Perfect, passive form)___________________ |

2. a) Use the words to make up word-combinations with Participle II

and translate them into Russian.
M odel, to grow — beef cattle -> grown beef cattle — выращенный
мясной скот
to develop — traits; to use — feeds; to prevent — infection; to exa­
mine — cows; to improve — environment; to record yields; to obtain
results
155
 b) Translate the following word-combinations into Russian:
feed supplements provided by the commercial company; animal
models made by scientists; relationships studied by ecologists; selection
methods developed by cattle breeders; the cattle breed grown in the
region; infection transmitted bv insects

Причастие II в постпозиции
(Participle II in postposition)
Причастие II может стоять справа от существительного без
уточняющих
Таким
причастия II в функции правого определения к существитель-
му на русский язык, и это зависит от наличия или отсутствия
пояснительных слов.
Examples:
1. The breeding methods аррін Применяемые методы селек ц и и
are of great practical value. представляют большую прак­
тическую ценность.
The breeding methods applied Методы селекции, применяемые
by the scientists are of great учеными, представляют боль­
practical value. шую практическую ценность.
3. Translate into Russian paying attention to Participle II.
1. The farmers discussed preventive methods recommended by
veterinarians. 2. The preventive methods recommended should help to
control the spread of the disease. 3. The amount of nutrients consumed
was calculated according to the tables of nutritive value of different feeds.
4. The amount of nutrients consumed by the cow was enough to provide a
complete ration. 5. The problem of organ transplantation investigated on
animals may help to carry out the same operations on man. 6. Some animal
physiological processes investigated are similar to human processes.
4. a) Read and translate the text. Match each heading with the appropriate
part of the text.
( ) The most popular cattle breeds.
( ) Cattle diseases and infections.
( ) Main breeds and their characteristics.
( ) General requirements for cattle management and feeding.
( ) Feed requirements for various types of cattle.
b) Find in the text the sentences with:
1) Participle I; 2) Participle II; 3) Participle II in postposition;
4) modals of obligation; 5) conditional sentences.
156
I с) What do the following words stand for?
I 1) “that” (part 3, paragraph 1)
I 2) “those” (part 4, paragraph 2)
* 3) “one” (part 3, paragraph 2; part 4, paragraph 1, 2, 3)
4) “ones” (part 2, paragraph 1)

CATTLE BREEDING
! (1) “Cattle” is a common term used for the domesticated herbivorous
mammals that compose the genus Bos1and that are raised for the meat
(beef or veal), milk, hides2, tallow3, gelatin, or for draft purposes.
I According to the sex and age, animals are classified as: a bull calf, a bull,
a steer, an ox, a heifer calf, a heifer, a cow. In order to ensure proper
management and feeding of animals according to their age they are
usually kept in age groups.
Modem cattle are divided into two species: Bos taurus and Bos
indicus. The former originated in Europe and most modem breeds of
dairy and beef cattle belong to this species including Shorthorn and
Jersey. Bos indicus species characterised by a hump4 originated in India,
though now such zebu breeds are widely spread in Africa and Asia, for
I example Brahman.
Cattle are known as even-toed hoofed mammals with four-compart-
mented stomachs5, a decreased number of teeth. As other animals of the
Bovidae family, they have paired, hollow, unbranched horns that do not
shed6.
(2) Many present-day breeds are of recent origin. From 277 cattle
breeds identified in the world cattle breeders classify 33 as beef breeds,
18 as draft breeds, 51 as dairy breeds. However, dual- and triple-purpose
breeds are of greater importance and they are generally divided into the
following ones: 39 meat-draft, 54 meat-dairy, 21 dairy-draft, and 61
meat-dairy-draft.
Herefords, Angus, beef Shorthorns, and Galloways known as the
principle beef breeds are raised in different countries. Cattle breeders
raising dairy cows distinguish five major breeds such as Ayrshire, Brown
Swiss, Guernsey, Holstein (Friesian), and Jersey. Among dual-purpose
breeds used the Milking Shorthorn and the Red Polled are bred to
produce milk and meat. The distribution and importance of cattle breeds
varying from country to country greatly depends on the climatic
conditions and local traditions, for instance, there are four times as many
beef cattle as dairy cattle in the US now.
(3) Feeding and management of cattle greatly depend on a number
of factors such as local climatic conditions, the purpose of cattle
breeding, farming system used, availability and quality of permanent or
temporary pastures as well as on the age and sex of animals, and some
cattle breed characteristics. In general, the management of a dairy herd
157
 differs significantly from that of beef cattle, as milk production is a daily
process. Dairy cows are to be milked twice a day, and high-yielding cows
have to be milked three times a day. И
Intensive farming systems based on the use of modern means of
production and improved technologies, agrochemicals, and veterinary
drugs, have been introduced on most large-scale commercial livestock
enterprises in developed countries in order to produce large amounts of
food within a limited area. However, keeping cattle on a good pasture
rather than in confinement, farmers can make their milk and meat
production more economical. Moreover, pasture is the natural feed for
any cattle, and an abundance of good pasture provides most of the
requirements of a good animal ration. Both natural and cultivated
pastures are of great value as calves, cows and bulls provided with proper
feeding and exercise will be healthy and vigorous. Thus, raising cattle,
farmers should turn animals out on pastures as early as possible in
spring. Rotational grazing system is the most advisable one when cattle
are kept on a pasture divided into paddocks which are grazed in turn.
Sometimes additional feeds and supplements should be fed to animals,
especially when pasture grasses become scarce and indigestible in late
summer or during the winter period. Growing such crops as com and
legumes, farmers may prepare enough silage and hay to supply their
animals with complete rations. All cattle require salt and a palatable
source of both calcium and phosphorus, such as limestone7 and bone
meal. Clean, fresh water must be available for animals at all times.
(4) Cattle feeding rations are greatly affected by the age and weight
of animals as well as by the purpose of raising. For example, a new-born
calf should be allowed to suckle the first milk known as colostrum and
secreted by its dam for four to five days after calving. When a calf is
weaned, it is to be fed with whole milk at the same temperature as milk
obtained from the udder of the cow. The total amount of milk required
by the calf depends on its birth weight and the rate varies from 1 to 1.5
gallons of milk a day. When calves are three weeks old, other feeds
containing fibre should be given. Whole milk is to be given until calves
reach 8 to 10 weeks of age and then it is gradually replaced by skim milk
or a milk substitute and the quantity of dry feeds increases. Calves raised
for veal production are usually weaned at the age of six or eight weeks.
When they weigh about 200 to 300 pounds, they will be ready for selling
at the market. The best quality veal is the one obtained by liberal feeding
of calves with whole milk. About 10 pounds of milk is required for one
pound of gain. j
The period of maturity of a dairy cow lasts from about 2.5 years
onward and the gestation period in cows is about nine months. The type
and amount of feeds for the calver (pregnant cow) differ from those for
the cow during the dry period. For instance, during the dry period the
cow requires plenty of roughages and some grain in order to be in good
flesh. A week before the calving date easily digestible wheat bran is
158
included in the ration of the claver. As to the mature dairy cow, the better
the one is fed with nutritious feeds, the better is the milk quality and
the longer is the lactation period. Liberal supply of water is essential to
a dairy cow because from 3 to 4 gallons of water are needed for each
gallon of milk produced by the cow. The amount of feed consumed by
the cow per day depends on the amount of milk produced by the cow
and her live weight.
Feed requirements for bulls vary with age, condition, and activity,
from 2.0 to 2.4 pounds of crude protein8 per day. The bull is to be fed
enough but not too liberally, so the one is always in vigorous condition
but not fat. The sire should be provided with high-quality roughages
such as legumes or mixed hay, small amounts of silage, and some grain
mixture. Increased rates of feeding are to be provided for the bull for
a month before the breeding season begins and during it in order to keep
him in good breeding condition.
Cattle for fattening are usually fed from 2.2 to 3.0 per cent of their
live weight per day, depending on the amount of concentrates in the
ration and the rate of liveweight gain. Such cattle may gain from 2.2 to
3.0 pounds (1.0 to 1.4 kg) per day and require daily from 1.3 to 3.0
pounds (0.6 to 1.4 kg) of crude protein, according to their weight and
stage of fattening.
(5) Dairy cattle are susceptible to all the diseases and infections
affecting beef cattle, thus, the treatment and control measures are the
same. Many diseases and pests are a constant threat to the cattle industries
all over the world and may result in great losses among animals. It has
been shown that on average 22 per cent of cows were removed annually
from a typical dairy herd and about a third of these were lost.
The most common cattle diseases such as brucellosis, Bovine
tuberculosis, and foot-and-mouth disease, have been eradicated in many
countries. In the developed countries, brucellosis has been controlled
through vaccination and testing. Bovine tuberculosis has been largely
eliminated by using effective test and slaughter programmes. Severe
measures have been introduced by most governments to control foot-
and-mouth disease attacking all cloven-hoofed animals.
However, as dairy cattle are kept much of the time indoors and in
groups, some diseases such as brucellosis may spread more rapidly.
Moreover, brucellosis is especially dangerous for dairy cows as the
disease results in undulant fever9 in humans through milk from infected
cows. Thus, to control the disease all animals over six months of age
are blood-tested regularly.
Both mastitis and milk fever are serious diseases of dairy cattle
requiring special treatment. Mastitis, an inflammation10 of the udder,
may be caused by rough handling11 or by infection while milk fever
results from metabolic disturbances.
Antibiotics and other specific drugs are effective means used to keep
cattle herds healthy. Nevertheless, good herd management including
159
cleanliness in cowsheds, segregation of sick animals, protection against
harmful plants etc is of great importance.

COMMENTS I
1. Bos, Bos taurus, Bos indicus, Bovidae — латинские названия
2. hide [haid] — кожа, шкура 'щ
3. tallow [Чавіэо] — жир, сало I
4. hump [һлтр] — горб Ж
5. four-compartmented stomach — ['fo: ,kam'pa:tmantid ‘sUmakJ — четы­
рехкамерный желудок
6. to shed (shed, shed) — зд. сбрасывать {рога) ^
7. limestone ['laimstaun] — известняк *
8. crude protein — зд. общий белок 3
9. undulant fever — бруцеллёз, мальтийская лихорадка t:
10. inflammation [.mfla'meijn] — воспаление ^
11. rough handling — зд. грубое обращение

EXERCISES TO THE TEXT

5. Do the following tasks on the text: ^
Part 1. Write five special questions to the passage.
Part 2. Think and say:
1. Why are dual- and triple-purpose breeds of greater value?
2. What cattle breeds are typical of Russia?
3. How can climatic conditions and traditions influence the type of
breed raised?
Part 3. Answer the questions.
1. How do dairy cattle breeding differ from the beef one? *■
2. What factors influence cattle management?
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the two systems of
cattle breeding? , hi
4. What are the common requirements to feeding all animals?
Part 4. Answer the questions.
1. How should a calf be fed?
2. What are the differences in feeding cows of different age?
3. What is essential in feeding bulls?
4. How is the ration calculated for fattening cattle?
Part 5. Complete the following sentences:
1. Both dairy and beef cattle may suffer... .
2. Great losses in cattle breeding industry result from... .
3. There is a large number of cattle diseases and infections but... .

160
I 4. Most countries control such diseases as ... by... .
I 5. The most serious disease of dairy cattle is ... which results from....
6. To prevent cattle diseases veterinary surgeons should use such
f means as....

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
I * !
I 6. Write the English equivalents of the Russian words in brackets.
1. The relationship between (маткой) and her calf is especially
I powerful, so when the latter (отнимают), the former may remain
j hungry and thirsty waiting for her baby. 2. Before calving (стельная
! корова) also called a calver requires special (ухода) and feeding,
j 3. Production of milk (на молочную/ дойную корову) on large-scale
commercial livestock enterprises in the US increased twice after 1930
and (достигло) about 5,500 kg (в год). 4. There are more than 200
j cattle breeds in the world including (двойного и тройного назначе-
j ния), but most of the breeds are quite limited in (распространении)
j and importance. 5. Only the (зрелые самки) in the herd who have given
I birth to a calf are called cows, but females who (не телились) yet are
I known as (телки). 6. In the terminology used to describe the (пола и
I возраста) of cattle, the male is first called а (теленок мясной no-
i роды). When the latter has grown, it becomes а (быком) ; if the calf has
been castrated, it is called the (молодой вол) and in about two or three
years the one grows to the (вол). 7. In New Zealand (постоянные па­
стбища) provide cattle with nutritious and palatable grasses in (изо­
билии) throughout the year, so milk production costs are at a minimum.
8. Farmers (позволяют) bulls (пастись) with cows only during the
(случного периода). 9. Farm bulls should be provided with enough
(моционом) in a separate (загон) or on pasture in order to be (силь­
ным) and in (упитанном состоянии) for mating. 10. Cattle breeds
(различаются) not only in such physical characteristics as the size and
1 the colour of coat, but they (могут отличаться) in (формой выме­
ни) and (размером рогов).
7. ҒШ the gaps with the correct form of the verb with or without a pre­
position: to result (in/from); to differ (from/ in/ on/ about), to vary
(from ... to/in/with).
1. Animals of different breeds m ay... not only... appearance but also
... character. 2. Sometimes a low percentage of the calving rate may
...... either some ailments of cows or a bull. 3. The average weight of
a co w ....... 450 kg ... 650 kg. 4. The two veterinarians....... how to
treat a sick cow. 5. The use of the synthetic hormone diethylstilbestrol
as a supplement in animal feed.......a 10 to 20 per cent increase in gain
per day. 6. Market prices for cattle.......one enterprise ... another one.
6 Комарова 161
7. The amount of feed for the an im al.......its weight and system of
management. 8. The slow process of selective breeding...... the improved
Hereford breed by the middle of the 18th century. 9. The quality of
pasture grasses.......the season. 10. People........ their opinions ... the
problem of cloning farm animals. 11. Best quality silage ... when the forage
is ensiled with a moisture content of 50 to 65 per cent. 12. The various
breeds of beef cattle a lso .......each other ... mature size, growth rate,
gestation length, and birth weight. 13. Changes in beef cattle, particularly
the development of new breeds, ....... selective linebreeding and ...
crossbreeding.
8. Translate into Russian. Which noun(s) does one, that, those stand for?
1. Many of the animals classified as either dairy or beef breed,
particularly those of continental Europe, could alternatively be classified
as dual-purpose breeds. 2. A farmer using milking machines is able to
produce much cleaner milk than that using hand-milking. 3. Climate
of the British Isles is the most favourable one for grazing cattle on
permanent pastures throughout the year. 4. Performance records of dairy
cows differ from those for beef ones. 5. Choosing a breed, a farmer should
study which one is the most productive in environmental conditions
similar to those in which his herd will be kept. 6. To maintain a high
calving percentage in the herd, a farmer should choose cows producing
calves regularly and the ones whose milking qualities are good. 7. If the
milk production of the daughters is significantly lower than that of their
dams, the sire should be no longer used in the herd. 8. The preventive
measures used in Russia are similar to the US ones, for instance, the
severe quarantine of all imported animals. 9. Neither an over-fat bull
nor a too weak one may be a satisfactory sire. л
9. Translate into English. 'J
а) сильный бык в упитанном состоянии; молодой вол; коли­
чество отелов за год; отнимать бычка от матки; позволять совер­
шать моцион в загоне; сухостойный период; парнокопытные мле­
копитающие; достигать стадии зрелости; заводская кондиция; по­
казатель рождаемости; содержание телок/нетелей; случной пери­
од; распространение пород; период беременности у стельной ко­
ровы; давать обильное питье ежедневно; породы мясного скота
двойного назначения; поочередное стравливание пастбища (паст-
бищеоборот); неразветвлённые рога; доступность/наличие вре­
менных/сезонных пастбищ; телиться ежегодно весной; в среднем;
норма привеса за день; скудные и трудноперевариваемые корма;
изобилие трав на постоянном пастбище; общепринятое средство
(способ, метод); обезжиренное молоко; откармливать на теляти­
ну; прибавлять в весе ежедневно; сосать молозиво; взвешивать
цельное молоко; разные средства (способы) откорма скота; под­
держивать корову в упитанном состоянии; различать породы ско­

162
та; ежедневная дойка коров; крупные промышленные животно­
водческие предприятия
b) 1. Выбирая породу крупного рогатого скота для своего хо­
зяйства, животновод уделяет особое внимание породам, исполь­
зуемым для двух или трех целей. 2. Из всех пород молочного ско­
та, известных в мире, селекционеры особенно выделяют высоко­
удойную и широко/повсеместно выращиваемую голштинскую
породу. 3. Рассматривая проблемы кормления скота, важно знать,
как на состав и количество скармливаемого корма влияет возраст,
пол, вес животного и другие факторы. 4. Потребляя не только сба­
лансированные по питательным веществам корма, но и вкусные
корма, молочная корова будет давать молоко, содержащее ценные
вещества в требуемых количествах. 5. Новые синтезированные
антибиотики могут быть использованы для лечения молочных
коров, страдающих от мастита и других инфекций.
10. Translate into English paying attention to Participle I and Partici­
ple II.
a) сосущий (подсосный) теленок; телящаяся телка; меняющи­
еся условия; выдающиеся характеристики;
b) телята, прибавляющие по 400 г в день; теленок, сосущий
свою матку; фермер, откармливающий скот на сухих кормах; те­
ленок, потребляющий молозиво; фермер, взвешивающий телят
ежедневно; животновод, позволяющий животным пастись; фер­
мер, изменяющий рацион кормления; селекционер, оцениваю­
щий характеристики производителя;
c) прибавляя по 400 г в день, теленок...; потребляя молозиво,
теленок...; откармливая скот на сухих кормах, фермер...; взвеши­
вая теленка ежедневно, скотовод...; позволяя животным пастись,
селекционер...; изменяя рацион кормления, фермер...; выделяя
определенные характеристики производителя, селекционер...;
d) отнятый теленок; увеличенный (добавленный) вес; потреб­
ленное молозиво; откормленный скот; выделенные (отмеченные)
характеристики производителя; достигнутый привес; отеливша­
яся телка;
e) теленок, отнятый в возрасте пяти дней; вес, прибавленный
в течение недели; производитель, отмеченный (выделенный) по
определенным характеристикам.
11. Choose the correct form of the participle and translate the sentences
into Russian.
1. The percentage of purebred but (unregistrating/unregistered) bulls
(selling/sold) to commercial producers varies among breeds. 2. Brown
Swiss cows (adapting/adapted) to many countries of the world are
usually brown in colour (varying/varied) from light to dark. 3. (Knowing/

163
Known) the nutritive value of feed supplements (producing/produced),
a farmer can provide his animals with rations accurately (calculatingj
calculated). 4. The number of cattle raised and the market price for the
beef vary widely from year to year (depending/depended) on a number
of factors (including/included) the am ount of beef (supplying /
supplied), the cost of feed and fertilisers etc. 5. Three new breeds
(originating/originated) in the United States, such as the Santa
Gertrudis, the Brangus breed, the Beefmaster were developed especially
for parts of the South where the standard breeds (suffering/ suffered)
from heat and insects cannot grow and develop well. 6. The Hereford
breed (developing/developed) in England and (importing/imported) by
Henry Clay of Kentucky to the US in 1817 became the most popular
beef breed (raising/raised) in the country and easily (distinguishing/
distinguished) by its white face. 7. (Investigating/Investigated) the
carriers of animal diseases, scientists can develop special means of
biological control (allowing/allowed) to kill harmful insects, parasites
etc. 8. Modem (improving/improved) cattle breeds are known for their
longer lifetime production as well as for higher yields (maintaining/
maintained) at the same level throughout the lactation period.
12. Match the English words with their Russian equivalents. Look up the
words in the vocabulary at the end of the book if necessary. Label
the parts of the cow’s body on the picture (Fig. 5).
1 back, 2 — withers, 3 tail, 4 thigh, 5 — hoof, 6 teat,
7 dewlap, 8 — horn, 9 — switch, 10 — dewclaw, 11 milk wells,
12 knee, 13 — brisket, 14 — udder, 15 — jaw, 16 nose/muzzle,
17 forehead, 18 — rump, 19 — shoulder blade

Fig. 5. Label the parts of the cow’s body

164
 а —лоб, b — вымя, с — спина, d — крестец, е — хвост, f — ко­
ленный сустав, g — молочные колодцы, Һ — рог, i — челюсть,
j — нос/морда, к — загривок/холка, 1 — сосок, m — грудинка,
п — бедро, о — копыто, р — подгрудок, q — копытце, г — кисть
хвоста, s — лопатка
Example: 1 — с (back — спина); 2 — 1

EXERCISES FOR GROUP WORK

13. Students divide into five groups and read the descriptions of five
different dairy cow breeds. Each group prepares an oral presentation
about the history, appearance, main characteristics of the cow breed.
Students compare the breeds and answer the following questions.
(There may be more than one answer to each question).
Which breed of cattle:
1) is the oldest one?
2) is the most widely spread now?
3) is adapted to mountainous regions?
4) is named differently in Europe and America?
5) was developed on an island (or islands)?
6) is known as vigorous and hardy?
7) is being raised on different continents now?
8) is famous for its longest lifetime production?
Animals of which breed:
9) have the most distinctive skin pigmentation?
10) are famous for the perfect size of the cow’s udder?
11) are known for the most unusual horns?
12) produce milk of yellow colour?
13) are described as the smallest?
14) mature more/less quickly?
15) have the largest variety in colours?
16) produce milk with the highest percentage of fat?
17) often take part in different competitions?
18) are known for the unusual colour of the animal tongue?
19) are restricted in exercise to a great extent?
20) produce milk mainly for butter and cheese production?
Search the following websites for more information:
1. http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/cattle/ — Breeds of Livestock.
The Department of Animal Science at Oklahoma State University
offers information on cattle, with pages for individual breeds.
2. http://www.cowtown.org/ — CowTown America. The National
Cattlemen’s Beef Association presents information on the cattle
industry in the United States.
165
 A Y R SH IR E

The aristocratic Ayrshire breed was developed in southwestern

Scotland, county1 of Ayr, during the second part of the 18th century.
The breed was imported to the US in 1822, but nowadays Ayrshires are
found in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa as well as in
Central and South America. j|ЦШ
Animals are hardy2, vigorous, and good foragers. Ayrshire cows are
noted for their strong, evenly balanced, well-shaped udders extending
well forward and back. A mature milking cow should weigh at best 1,200
lbs and Ayrshire milk usually contains about 4.1 per cent butterfat. Meat
of Ayrshire cattle is characterized by white fat. The breed was the main
rival3 to the Friesian as a milk producer. I
The colour of Ayrshires varies from almost pure white to nearly all
cherry or brown with combinations of these colours. However, earlier
Ayrshires were black-and-white. Then, about 1780, red-and-white
colour became fashionable. Since the gene for red-and-white colour is
recessive and the mating of red-and-white cattle results in red-and-white
progeny, it was possible for Ayrshire breeders to eliminate black-and-
white colour and to select for red-and-white one. j
The tail is usually white. The large horns commonly turn gracefully
outward4, then forward and back, giving a distinctive appearance to the
head. However, some Ayrshires may be polled5.

COMMENTS A
1. county ['kaunti] — графство
2. hardy fhtudi] — выносливый, крепкий
3. rival ['rarvl] — соперник, конкурент
4. outward fautwad] — наружу; в сторону
5. polled — комолый, безрогий I
Search the following website:
http://www.ayrshire-canada.com/index_an.php — The Ayrshire
Breeders’ Association of Canada. ; j

BROWN SWISS
Brown Swiss is the oldest of dairy breeds which was probably
developed at least by 500 BC. Frequently called the Big Brown Cow,
the breed was developed in the Alpine country of Switzerland where they
are kept in cowsheds in the valleys' during the winter months, but are
moved up the mountains as grass becomes available in early summer.
Much of the milk obtained in summer is made into butter and cheese
in the mountains.

166
 Brown Swiss are known as strong and vigorous animals that are
hardy, ragged2and may easily adapt themselves to different environmental
conditions. Although Brown Swiss mature less rapidly but are noted for
longevity3, that is, long lifetime production. Moreover, the level of milk
production of Brown Swiss cows is maintained at the same level throughout
their lactation. The average fat test of the milk is 4.1 per cent.
This breed has become valuable for developing dual-purpose breeds
producing more milk and larger calves at weaning. Now medium-sized
Swiss dual-purpose breed of grey-brown cattle is found in many parts
of the world including Canada, Mexico and Angola.
Brown Swiss cows are light to dark brown in colour, and some are
nearly grey (silver). The nose, switch, tongue, and horn tips are black
and markings are considered undesirable. There is often a light stripe
of grey along the back. Horns of medium length are unbranched and
inclined4 slightly up with tapering toward tips5.

if* V COMMENTS
1. valley [Vaeli] — долина
2. rugged ['iAgid] — массивный, крепкий, сильный
3. longevity [hm'cfcevati] —долгожительство
4. to incline [inTdain] — наклоняться
5. to tape toward tips —сужаться к концам

GUERNSEY
The Guernsey breed is noted for the deep golden colour of its milk
because the latter is rich in carotene. It is also famous for the high butter
content and the good milk yields obtained. The breed was developed on
the Isle of Guernsey which situated to the south of England and near
the north coast of France. This breed developed by crossing the large
red-and-brindle1cattle of Normandy with the small red cattle of Brittany
initially appeared in France during the 10th century and was more widely
bred during the 17th century. Today, Guernseys are American’s second
leading breed.
The Guernsey is similar to the Jersey, but larger. Cattle are usually
fawn2-and-white with distinct white markings, but a light cherry red is
also found. Skin should show golden yellow pigmentation as well as body
fat is yellow. The switch is usually white and the tongue light in colour.
A bright golden yellow pigmentation on the nose, around the eyes, in the
ears, around the udder and at the point of tail is favoured. When other
points are equal, a clear muzzle will be favoured over a black muzzle.
Skin pigmentation is still an important reason for placing Guernseys
in show competition on the island of Guernsey. Most milk produced
on the island of Guernsey is sold as fluid milk mainly to tourists at
a rather high price.
167
 COMMENTS

1.brindle — животное пегой масти К

2.fawn [fo:n] — желтовато-коричневый !

HOLSTEIN 1
Descendants ([di'sendants] потомки) of the popular Holstein-
Friesian breed were developed in the northern Netherlands, especially
in the province of Friesland, and in the neighbouring provinces of
northern Germany. The climate of the Netherlands favours the rapid
growth of grass during summer months, thus, ensuring high-quality
forage for winter feeding.
It is believed that the breed has been selected for their dairy qualities
since about the time of Christ. It is probably the second oldest breed
and the largest dairy breed in number and in size in the world. Although
the official breed name is Holstein-Friesian, the single name Holstein
is more commonly used in the US, while Friesian is used in Europe.
Holstein are rugged and vigour. Most Holsteins are black-and-white,
with the colours clearly defined. Registered colour markings are solid
black, solid white, black in switch, black belly, black leg touching hoof,
black from hoof to knee etc. -i
Search the following website:
http://www.holsteinusa.com/ — The Holstein Association, USA.

JERSEY
The stylish Jersey breed was developed on the island of Jersey, which
is the largest of the Channel island group, by selective mating of the
large, brindle cattle of Normandy and the small black cattle of Brittany.
Farms are small and most cattle are tethered1 on chains with swivels*.
Jersey cattle mature quickly and are often in milk before 24 months
of age. Jersey milk is rich in milk solids3, the highest in milk fat of all
dairy breeds. i
Jersey cows are smaller than most other breeds. The coat colour of
cattle is variously coloured from light fawn to red, although different
shades of gray and brown are common; some individuals may be black.
They may be solid4 in colour or with white markings. Their muzzles and
tongues are usually black or lead-colour. Unbranched horns are usually
of medium length tapering toward tips.

COMMENTS
L to tether ['teda] — привязать (пасущееся животное)
2. swivel f'swrvl] — вертлюг, шарнирное соединение

168
 3. solids — зд. сухой остаток, сухие вещества
4. solid ['solid] — зд. цельный, сплошной
Search the website for more information:
http://www.usjersey.com/ — The American Jersey Cattle Association

USEFUL LANGUAGE
Expressing comparison:
As ... as; not so ... as; more ... than; less ... than; ... is considerably/much/
rather/a little bigger/smaller than...;... is almost/nearly/more or less, the same
as...;... is not quite the same as...;... is quite/entirely different from....

SUPPLEM ENTARY TEXT

14. a) Read and translate the text into Russian.

BOVINE SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHY

Bovine spongiform encephalopathy1 (BSE) called mad cow disease

is a fatal neurodegenerative2 disease of cattle.
BSE is caused by an infectious agent that has a long incubation
period varying from two to five years. Symptoms of the disease include
behavioural changes, such as agitation and nervousness, and a progressive
loss of muscular coordination and moving function. In advanced stages
the animal frequently loses weight, walks in an abnormal manner, and
may isolate itself from the herd. Death usually follows within a year of
the onset of symptoms. No treatment is known.
First BSE was recognised in cattle in the United Kingdom in 1986,
and it became epidemic there. Cases also were reported in other parts
of Europe and in Canada. The disease is similar to the neurodegenerative
disease of sheep called scrapie3.
The disease resulted from feeding cattle with high-protein supplements
made from ruminant carcasses and offal4, although such supplements to
animal rations had been used for several decades without any problems.
The main reasons of the disease were connected with the introduced
modifications in the technology of animal by-product processing, for
example, the reduction in the temperatures used. It resulted in the outbreak
of BSE in the early 1980s. In 1988 the British government banned the use
of protein supplements obtained from animals.
Such diseases as BSE, scrapie, and similar human diseases, for instance,
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease5 and kuru6, are characterised as transmissible
spongiform encephalopathies. They are so named because the brain
tissue of organisms with the disease becomes like a sponge7. The cause

169
of these diseases is connected with an unusual infectious agent called
a prion8. The latter is a modified form of a normally harmless protein
found in the brain of mammals and birds. However, in its anomalous
form the prion protein builds up in nerve cells as it multiplies. This
accumulation damages the cells.
After the outbreak of BSE, scientists began to study a possible
relationship between the animal disease and Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease
in people. Beginning in the mid- 1990s a new variant form of Creutzfeldt-
Jacob disease (nvCJD) caused the death of dozens of people in Europe.
In experiments with mice, researchers found that prions from human
cases of nvCJD caused disease symptoms similar to that caused by prions
from cows with BSE. The result suggested that the human infection is
linked to BSE. 3

COMMENTS v
1. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) —коровья губчатая энцефа­
лопатия (КГЭ), или прионовая болезнь коров; «коровье бешенство»
2. neurodegenerative — нейродегенеративный
3. scrapie — скрепи, почесуха (возбудитель — вирус)
4. carcasse/offal — зд. туша/требуха
5. C reutzfeldt-Jacob disease (CJD ) — болезнь Крейтцфельда-Якоба
(БКЯ), губчатая энцефалопатия человека
6. kuru — куру (болезнь нервной системы)
7. sponge [spAncfe] — губка
8. prion — прион (вирусоподобный агент)
Search for more information on the following websites:
1. http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/Bse.htm
2 . http ://www. factoryfarming.org/bse_sheep.htm
b) M ake up a dialogue between a scientist and a student discussing
the danger of BSE to cattle. 4
Model: — Many people have heard about such a dangerous cow
disease as “ mad cow disease ” but what is the scientific name
for this disease?
— Of course, cow mad disease is one of the most dangerous
animal diseases as it often results in animal death because__

USEFUL LANGUA GE
M aking things clear:
I mean...; Actually...; To make it clear...; In other words...; To put it more
simply..,; It would be better to say...; To clarify the point we must...; It should
be added that...; To define the function o f... it is necessary...; It requires
some explanation... . ^
 Unit 9
PIG BREEDING

Vocabulary and G ram m ar:

1. Значение слова due и его сочетаний.
2. Отглагольное существительное.
3. Герундий.
4. Сравнение V-ing форм.

VOCABULARY ТО THE TEXT

t “ PIG BR EED IN G ”
Nouns: bacon, baconer, bedding, boar, carcass, (in) comparison
(with), consideration (to take into consideration), demand (for smth),
equipment, farrowing, farrowing pen, gilt, hog, lard, litter, pig breeder
(syn pigman, hogman), pig breeding (syn swine breeding, hog breeding),
piglet, piggery (syn pigsty), pork, porker, prolificacy, range, snout, sow,
swine.
Adjectives and adverbs: comparatively, due, edible, lean, omnivorous,
pregnant (sow), prolific, sensitive, uniformly.
Verbs: belong (to), compare (with), contribute (to), distribute, (to)
be due to, estimate, farrow, mention, range (from ... to), refer (to),
resemble.
Prepositions: due to, regardless of.
Give the Russian equivalents of the following international words and
scientific terms:
cholera [’kDbra], conversion [kanVsJh], to extract [ik'straekt], fatal
f'feitl], hybrid ['haibnd], insulin [’insjalin], intelligent [in'telicfrmt],
intermediate [jinta'mi'diat], mobile ['maubail], parasitic [,paera'sitik],
tendency [Чешіәіш]
T he N am es o f P ig B reeds
B erkshire [Ъаік/э] — беркшир (английская порода свиней мяс­
ного направления)
C h ester W hite ['tfestэ ‘wart] — белый честер (американская по­
рода свиней мясо-сального направления)
D uroc [djir’iDk] — дюрок (американская порода свиней саль­
ного направления)
17
 Hampshire ['haemp/э] — гемпшир (американская порода сви­
ней беконного направления)
Landrace ['laendreis] — ландрас (датская порода свиней мяс­
ного направления) \
Yorkshire ['jo:kJa] (also called Large White) — йоркшир (англий­
ская порода свиней белой масти беконного направления)

Значение слова due и его сочетаний

due — должный, надлежащий, соответствующий, подходящий
syn proper, appropriate, adequate
due to (iблагоприятным обстоятельствам
ловиям); syn owing to; 2) из-за (неблагоприятных условий
стоятельств); syn because of; 3) вследствие, в результате; syn
a result of
to be due to — объясняться, обуславливаться; быть обусловлен
м; являться результатом, происходить благодаря (из-за, вслед
ше); syn to be caused by smb/smth
Examples'.
A calf should obtain the due Теленок должен получать соот­
amount of feed to grow and ветствующее количество
develop properly. корма, чтобы расти и разви­
ваться правильно.
Due to managing on natural Благодаря содержанию на есте­
pastures all the animals were ственном пастбище, все жи­
vigorous and healthy. вотные были сильными и здо­
ровыми.
High milk yields of modem dairy Высокие удои современных пород
cattle breeds are due to молочного скота обусловлены/
a long breeding process which объясняются длительным про ­
began in Britain two centuries цессом селекции, который на­
ago. чался в Британии два столетия
тому назад.

GRAM M AR R EV ISIO N
A N D PRETEXT EX ER C ISES

В английском языке есть три формы с суффиксом -ing, (кото­

рые могут быть образованы как от правильных, так и от непра­
вильных глаголов), и которые важно различать, чтобы правиль­
но их переводить на русский язык: причастие I, отглагольное су­
ществительное и герундий.

172
 Отглагольное существительное
(The verbal noun)
Отглагольному существительному на русский язык всегда соот­
ветствует существительное. В английском языке отглагольное суще­
ствительное может употребляться с артиклем, иметь определение
выраженное прилагательным, иметь форму множественного числа
однако, наиболее часто встречается следующая форма отглагольно­
го существительного: определенный артикль (the) + V-ing + of.
Examples:
Hie grazing of the on Выпас скота на одном и том же
the same pasture may cause пастбище может вызвать за­
soil and underground water грязнение почвы и подземных
pollution. вод.
The intensive fattening of calves Интенсивный откорм телят на
for veal is used on commercial мясо применяется на про­
farms. мышленных фермах.
The growing of com on cattle Выращивание кукурузы на жи­
breeding farms is widely used вотноводческих фермах широ­
now. ко используется в настоящее
время.

Герундий
(The gerund)
Герундий обозначает действие в процессе и, так как в русском
языке отсутствуют формы аналогичные герундию, то переводится
он по-разному в зависимости от контекста: существительным, не­
определенной формой глагола, деепричастием, глаголом в личной
форме, прилагательным, придаточным предложением. В пред­
ложении герундий может выполнять следующие функции: подле­
жащего, дополнения, обстоятельства и определения, а также может
быть частью сложного сказуемого. В отличие от отглагольного суще­
ствительного за герундием часто следует прямое дополнение (на­
пример, словосочетание purebred animals в следующих примерах).
Examples:
Breeding purebred animals is of Разведениеf Разводить чисто-
great importance for animal кровных животных очень важ-
husbandry. но для животноводства, (ге­
рундий в функции подлежа­
щего переводится существи­
тельным или неопределенной
формой глагола)
173
 D

Farmer’s aim is breeding Цель фермеров — вывести/вы­

purebred animals. ведение чистокровных живот­
ных. (герундий как часть ска­
зуемого, переводится глаго­
лом или существительным)
Farmers are interested in Фермеры заинтересованы в вы­
breeding purebred animals ведении чистокровных жи- в
вотных. (герундий в функции
дополнения, переводится су­
ществительным)
By breeding purebred animals Выводя/Путем выведения чисто-
farmers are able to improve породных животных, фермеры
the herd. могут улучшать стадо, (герун­
дий в функции обстоятель­
ства, переводится дееприча­
стием/существительным)
Breeding value was estimated Племенная ценность была оце-
by specialists. специалистами
в функции определения, пере
водится прилагательным)
ttle breeders know Животноводы знают, что этот
farmer’s (his) bre< фермер (он) выводит чисто­
purebred animals. кровных животных, (герунди
в функции предложного до­
полнения
предложением)
Запомните глаголы, после которых употребляется герундий:
avoid избегать
consider — рассматривать, обдумывать
finish заканчивать
involve включать
practise — практиковаться
prevent — предотвращать
save сохранять
stop останавливать
suggest предполагать
Сіаголы с предлогом, после которых употребляется герундий:
to agree to — соглашаться на
to be due to — объясняться (чем-л.)
to be interested in — интересоваться (чем-л.)
to concentrate on — сосредоточиваться) на
to depend on — зависеть от
to insist on — настаивать на
174
 to involve m — вовлекать в
to object to — возражать против
to participate in — участвовать в
to prevent from — предотвращать
to protect against/from — защищать от
to specialise in — специализироваться в
to succeed in — преуспевать в
to rely on — полагаться на
to result in — приводить к
to result from — происходить в результате (чего-л.)

Сравнение V-ing форм

(The comparison of v-ing forms)

Причастие I
В английском предложении причастие I обычно стоит до или
после существительного или в начале предложения.
Переводится причастием (суффиксы -ущ, -ющ, -ащ, -ящ) или
деепричастием.
Отглагольное существительное
Артикль (the)/прилагательное + отглагольное существитель­
ное (V-ing) + of.
Переводится существительным.
Герундий
После герундия обычно стоит прямое дополнение без предлога
(V-ing + noun).
В английском предложении герундий может стоять:
— в начале предложения (как подлежащее);
— после разных предлогов (in/on/after/w ithout/instead of);
— после некоторых глаголов (verb + V-ing);
— после некоторых глаголов/прилагательных/существитель-
ных с предлогом (verb/adjective/noun + preposition + V-ing);
— после притяжательных местоимений или существительных
в притяжательном падеже (his/our/their/farmer’s + V-ing).
Переводится существительным, инфинитивом, глаголом
в личной форме, деепричастием, прилагательным.

Examples'.
Growing corn, a farmer сап Выращивая кукурузу, фермер
provide his cattle with feed. может обеспечить скот кор­
мом. (причастие Г)

175
Growing com is important for Выращивание кукурузы/Выра -
some cattle farms. щивать кукурузу очень важно
для некоторых животноводче­
ских ферм. (герундий в функ­
ции подлежащего)
The growing of com is important Выращивание кукурузы очень
for some cattle farms. важно для некоторых живот­
новодческих ферм. (отгла­
гольное существительное)
предложения различаются только с точки
грамматики
The growing calf requires liberal Растущему теленку требуется
feeding. обильное кормление. (прича­
стие Г)
Growing conditions for com Условия выращивания для куку­
should be favourable. рузы должны быть благопри­
ятными. (герундий)
The calf growing on a pasture Теленок, растущий на пастбище,
will be healthier than that будет более здоровым, чем те­
kept in confinement. ленок, содержащийся в закры­
том помещении, (причастие Г)
growing Система выращивания телят на
economical пастбище очень экономичная.
(герундий)
е farmer keeping calves on Фермер, содержащий телят на
pasture provides them with пастбище, обеспечивает их ес­
natural feed. тественным кормом, (причас­
тие 7)
The keeping of calves on pasture Содержание телят на пастбище
is very economical. экономично
гольное существительное)
The way of keeping calves on особ содержания телят на
pasture is very economical. пастбище очень экономичный
(герундий)
1. Translate the sentences into Russian paying attention to V-ing forms.
1. Scientists are going to continue improving cattle management
systems. 2. Reaching the weight of about 90-110 kg, calves may be ready
for marketing. 3. Before choosing cows for mating, breeders should
estimate the performance of their progeny. 4. Raising and feeding cattle
on pasture throughout the year is the most economical method for any
farmer. 5. Only animal products satisfying all the necessary veterinarian
standards must be sold in the market. 6. Keeping the records about the
176
dates of artificial insemination of cows, a farmer will know the date of
calving for each animal. 7. This article deals with the planning of mating
combinations. 8. The recording of individual performance in breeding
populations of farm animals developed rapidly in the 1950s. 9. The under­
standing and control of hereditary disorders and the breeding of
improved crops and livestock are just two practical applications of
genetics. 10. Mathematical programming is becoming increasingly
important in applied ecology, especially in solving agricultural problems
having an ecological basis.
2. a) Read and translate the text. Give the heading to each part of the text.
b) Find in the text the sentences with:
— the verbal noun;
— the gerund as subject and object;
— the preposition + the gerund;
— Participle II in postposition;
— Participle I;
— the verb + the preposition + the gerund.

PIG BREEDING
(1) Considering the problem of pig breeding (or swine breeding, or
hog breeding), it is necessary to understand the difference between the terms
“hog”, “pig”, and “swine”, though they are often used interchangeably
for these animals.
In Britain, the term “pig” refers to all domestic swine and means an
animal of the Suidae family kept only for meat production, while “swine”
is the collective term for pigs including both the domestic pig and its
wild relatives. In the United States, the term “pig” refers to younger
swine not yet ready for market and weighing usually less than 50/82 kg,
while others are called hogs, thus this branch of animal husbandry is
often called hog breeding.
According to the British classification the young are called piglets,
the young female pigs are known as gilts, the males are boars, the
castrated male pigs are hogs, and the mature female pigs after they have
had and weaned their first litter are sows. V --
Swine belong to the order1 of even-toed hoofed animals which are
further classified into the suborder1of animals with 44 teeth, including
two tusks2 for some species. Pigs have heavy, rounded bodies, short legs
with cloven hooves, and small tails. All animals have a comparatively
long and flexible (or mobile) snouts ending in a rounded disk used to
dig for food. The thick but sensitive skin is partly covered with coarse
bristles and shows a wide range of colour patterns. All swine including
domestic pigs (or hogs) are quick-footed, intelligent animals.
(2) Pigs are well-adapted to temperate and semitropical climates and
pig breeding is an important branch of animal husbandry in many

177
 different countries. Estimating the worldwide population of domestic
pigs at more than 940 million, pig breeders distinguish about 300 breeds
or local varieties of pigs raised throughout the world. 1 j
The animals, regardless of breed, are classified for marketing purposes
as large lard types with a comparatively thick layer of fat and carcasses
usually weighing at least 100 kg (220 pounds); smaller bacon types with
carcasses of about 70 kg (150 pounds), and pork types with carcasses
averaging around 45 kg (100 pounds). Thus, pigs reared for pork are
called porkers, and those reared for bacon are baconers. The lard-type
breeds have a greater tendency to put on fat than those of the bacon type, j
Besides the fat from which lard is made, considerable meat for bacon
and other purposes is obtained from the lard-type animals when they '
are slaughtered. On the other hand, portions of the carcasses of the
bacon-type pigs are useful for meat purposes and other portions are used
for lard which is also in high demand. Breeding pigs of the so-called
“medium” type is more desirable than either the small type or large type
as the medium type gains more rapidly and economically. Moreover,
compared with the large type, medium type produces a better quality
of carcass and can be finished for market at a younger age. *
It is necessary to mention eight major pig breeds differing in growth
rate, the number of young produced, mature body size, and ability to
graze. The Berkshire (black with white points) and the Yorkshire (also
called Large White) originated in England. Found in most countries,
the latter is of bacon type and probably the most widely distributed in
the world. Such breeds as the Chester White, Duroc (red), Hampshire
(black with a white belt) originated in the United States, while the
Landrace, a large, long, white pig, was imported from Denmark.
Nowadays most commercial pig production is based on crossbred
animals, because crossbreeding results in hybrid vigour. The raising of
market pigs by mating crossbred sows with a boar of a third breed is
widely practiced. 1 ' " 'ЩШк
For centuries pigs have been used for obtaining edible fat and meat.
For example, in the USA until the mid-1920s pigs were bred for the
production of large amounts of lard and now hogs provide about one
quarter of the meat eaten in this country. However, in other countries
such as England, bacon-type pigs were mainly bred for producing lean
meat. Modem swine are intermediate between these two types and are
known as meat-type pigs. As the demand for fats has decreased, the
developing of meat-type pigs resembling the bacon-type has become of
greater importance. ж
However, among other useful products supplied by pig production
it is necessary to mention leather (pigskin) for luggage and gloves,
bristles for brushes, soap, glue, edible fat, and hormones such as insulin
that can be extracted from pigs’ glands. J
(3) In comparison with cattle and sheep, rearing pig production is more
intensive for a number of reasons. Well-adapted for the production of meat
178
 because they grow and mature rapidly, pigs have a short gestation period
and produce large litters each time. Thus, pig breeders are interested in
I selectii.g a female with a high degree of prolificacy producing uniformly
fast-growing piglets. The number in the litter is important because the
tendency to produce large litters is transmitted, the boar as well as the sow
has an influence on the prolificacy of his offspring. In selecting the gilt
for breeding, a breeder should take into consideration the information
about the sire and the dam as well as about the ancestors for two or more
generations. Moreover, the data about the number of pigs farrowed in the
previous litters and the number of pigs of each sex raised may be of great
use. In choosing the boar for mating, most of the considerations
mentioned for selecting gilt are important as well. In general, each of the
resulting litters will consist of about seven-ten piglets, each with a birth
weight of 1.1 kg (2.5 pounds). Due to proper breeding and mating
programmes more prolific strains of swine have been developed, so litters
of 12 piglets are considered normal rather than exceptional among some
breeds of swine. The number of pigs at farrowing time is also influenced
by the condition of the sow before breeding.
A boar can mate with 15 to as many as 45 sows per year and sows
are mature enough to breed at about six months of age. The sow may
produce 1.5 litters or more per year and over her lifetime the sow will
mother six to eight litters. After a gestation period of 115 days a litter is
bom and is usually allowed to suckle for 21—28 days. Four to seven days
after weaning piglets the sow can be mated with a boar again.
Domestic pigs are so widely raised in almost every part of the world
due to their quite efficient converting feed to food under intensive
conditions. In contrast to most domestic animals, pigs are omnivorous
so they can utilise a wide range of foods such as cereal grains and
legumes into meat. Com is usually the basic feed for pigs, although
wheat, sorghum, oats, and barley are often included in their diet. If
soybean meal or other oil meals are available in abundance and at
reasonable price, they can be used for feeding pigs due to high protein
content. Antibiotics to control disease have become a standard ingredient
in most pig rations. The use of antibiotics after World War II, especially
in regions of less favourable sanitation, increased gain by as much as 20 per
cent. In general, improvements in pig management, feed rations and
disease control have all contributed to faster gains and lower feed
requirements per pound of weight gain.
The systems of pig housing range from the traditional piggery to
rearing in yards provided with a shelter. It is relatively easy to raise pigs
in confinem ent if the pigsty is provided with the due means of
environmental control. Well-equipped modem pigsties make it possible
to m aintain proper sanitary conditions and keep pigs confined from birth
to market. The pigsty is usually built with removable partitions so that
farrowing pens can be provided when desired. As the sow produces
several small piglets that are small and easily injured during the first few
179
 days of their lives, an individual farrowing pen is needed for each
pregnant sow when she has farrowed and for at least 3 to 5 days following
farrowing. It is necessary to provide the sow with the due bedding that
neither irritate the sow’s udder nor restrict the pigs’ movement. I
It has been found that pigs can be slaughtered with a minimum of
equipment because of their size and there are many ways in which their
carcasses can be processed into food and fat.
(4) It is essential for pig breeders to protect their animals from
contracting various infectious and parasitic diseases as pigs are very
susceptible to them. The most common infectious disease which is often
fatal to young pigs results from catching transmissible gastroenteritis3.
As to cholera, formerly veterinarians tried to control it by using vaccination,
but now they insist on slaughtering the infected animals. Leptospirosis4
is a common disease of pigs as well as humans and most warm-blooded
animals, however, veterinarians have succeeded in controlling it by vacci­
nation as well. The controlling of necrotic enteritis5and other infections
of the intestinal tract largely depends on treating animals with antibiotics.
In order to control parasitic diseases pig breeders mainly rely on
introducing effective sanitation programmes on their farms. Moreover,
farmers specialising in raising pigs on the pasture have fewer problems
with parasitic diseases than those raising pigs in confinement. Nowadays
scientists’ efforts are concentrated on further developing effective
vermifuges, that is, drugs which kill or expel parasitic worms from pigs.
The high level of pig production in such countries as the US, the
Scandinavian countries and Western Europe is mainly due to applying
effective preventive measures to control infectious and parasitic diseases
in pig herds. :f

COMMENTS I i
1. order [b:d3]/suborder fsAb'xda] — отряд/подотряд 1 I
2. tusk (Usk] — клык, бивень ЩI
3. transmissible gastroenteritis [traenz’misabl .gsestrau.enta'raitis] — пере­
дающийся гастроэнтерит Щ
4. leptospirosis —лептоспироз (острая инфекционная болезнь, вызы­
ваемая лептоспирами) ж j
5. necrotic enteritis — некротический энтерит |
6. to expel parasitic worms — изгонять паразитических червей

EXERCISES ТО THE TEXT

3. Exercises to parts 1 — 4 of the text.
Part 1. Write five special questions ( Why? How? W hat? How m any?
How m uch?) Щ
How many adjectives describing the swine can you find in the text?
180
 Part 2. Agree or disagree with the following statements:
1. Pigs are easily adapted to different climatic conditions.
2. Wild pigs and domesticated pigs differ in certain characteristics.
3. The terms “swine” and “pig” are the same.
4. The population of domestic pigs is the same as the population of
cattle in the world.
5. In order not to injure little piglets, the sow should be placed in
a separate farrowing pen.
6. The same terminology is used in Europe and in the USA by pig
breeders.
7. There are two main types of pigs according to their weight.
8. Pigs may suffer from the same diseases as cattle.
9. Vegetables, grain and forage are the best feeds for fattening pigs.
10. Lard can be obtained from bacon-type pigs.
11. Crossbreeding is a popular method for increasing pig production.
12. Due to using the rotation system, pig breeders may control
parasitic and infectious diseases in their pig herds raised on
pastures.
13. The pedigree of a gilt as well as a boar should be taken into account
in pig breeding.
14. There are fewer famous pig breeds than cattle breeds.
15. Keeping pigs on pasture is the most popular and efficient system
of management.

USEFUL LANGUAGE
Expressing agreement and disagreement:
That goes without saying...; I support the idea that...; I totally agree; I quite
agree with that point of view; I’m exactly of the same opinion;
I’m afraid I don’t agree; Quite on the contrary; I can’t agree with that point
of view; Nothing of the kind; It is just the other way.

P art 3. Give the summary of this p art. Use the words: F irst...,
Second..., M oreover..., B esides..., On the w hole... .
Part 4. Complete the following sentences:
1. By using vaccination, farmers can prevent... .
2. By introducing sanitation programmes, farmers can... .
3. By using antibiotics....
4. By slaughtering infected animals... .
5. By developing new drugs....
4. a) Identify the part of speech in English and translate the words into
Russian.
1. compare, comparison, comparable, comparatively, incomparable,
compared, comparative, comparing; 2. susceptible, susceptibility,
181
susceptive; 3. change, changed, changeable, unchangeable, changing,
interchangeable, interchangeably, interchange, interchangeability; j
4. resemble, resembling, resemblance, resembled; 5. sensitive, sensitive­
ness, sensitivity; 6. pregnant, pregnancy; 7. refer, reference, referring,
referred; 8. prolific, prolificacy * Щ1
b) Translate the words into English. f I
1. распределять/распространять, распределение, распределя- I
ющий, распределенный, распределитель/распространитель '
2. оценивать, оценка, оценивая/оценивающий, оцененный,
оцензцик Я I
3. вкладчик, вкладывать, вклад/взнос, вложенный, вкладывая/
вкладывающий ЦI
4. передавать/переносить, передача, передающий, передан- |
ный, отправитель/передатчик. |
5. a) Find in the text compound nouns and compound adjectives and
divide them into the four groups in the table. Translate them into
Russian. 9 1

adverb/adjective + adverb/adjective +
noun + noun adjective + blooded*
Participle II Participle I
bacon-type well-... ...- growing warm-...
(беконный тип) early-...
...-type slow-...
late-...

b) Translate the Russian word-combinations into English using the words

in brackets and add them to the corresponding column in the table.
Model', хорошо откормленный (to feed) — well-fed
Широко известный (well-)', медленно растущий (to grow)', хо­
рошо уравновешенный/сбалансированный (to balance)’, холод­
нокровный (-blooded)’, хорошо развитый (to develop)’, просчитан­
ный/обдуманный (to consider)’, медленно созревающий (to mature)’,
хорошо содержащийся/содержащийся в порядке (to keep)’, хоро­
шо выраженный (о признаке) или хорошо очерченный (об эксте­
рьере) (to define)’, скороспелый/раннеспелый (early-)’, быстро на­
бирающий вес, или скороспелый (to gain)’, высоко квалифици­
рованный (to qualify)’, вспыльчивый/несдержанный (-blooded),
обеспеченный (to provide)’, хорошо стравливаемый/поедаемый
(to graze)’, хорошо выдрессированный (to train)’, позднеспелый (late-)’,
чистокровный/чистопородный (to breed)

* blooded — используется как компонент сложных слов, связанных со зна-

чением «кровь». * ; В д ім І Ш

182
 A D D ITIO N A L EX ER C ISES

6. Write the English equivalents of the words in brackets.

1. ( Спрос на) both bacon and pork is high in the US, thus (свино­
водство) is known as one of the well-developed branches in the country
that involves many producers and processors, for example Hormel
Foods Corporation, food processing company (может быть упо­
мянута) as one of (ведущий переработчик свинины) in the US.
2. Different factors (должны приниматься во внимание) while
choosing (молодой свиньи/ подсвинка) for breeding, but its weight
should be at least 225 pounds. 3. The classification of pig types is mainly
based on the thickness of (съедобного жира) and the weight of (туши
животного). 4. Wild boars (напоминают/ похожи) domesticated
pig varieties to some extent and they are described as quick, (всеядные
животные) that are mainly active at night and can be good swimmers.
5. Narrow head and long straight (рыло/морда) help pigs to search for
feeds under the ground. 6. Low (плодовитость) in swine is most
commonly referred to hereditary and environmental factors. 7. There are
eight common breeds of hogs in the United States which include six
breeds of the ( беконного типа) and two of the (сального типа).
8. ( Супоросные свиноматки) as well as (их помет/приплод) after
(опороса) need careful housing with (соответствующими) controlled
environments, ventilation, feeding and watering through special
channels. 9. A week after separating (свиноматки) from her (поро­
сят), she may allow the (хряку) to mate. 10. According to the statistics
data the most widely (распространенная) pig breed is the Yorkshire
pig known as а (беконного типа) (or baconer). 11. (Благодаря)
selection (более плодовитые) strains of swine have been developed.
12. Fattening pigs can be housed either in yards usually covered with
(соломенной подстилкой) and provided with a shelter or in а (сви­
нарнике) .
7. Translate the following phrases into English as in the model and make
up sentences with them.
Model: откорм скота - » the fattening of cattle or fattening cattle
The fattening of cattle (or Fattening cattle) is a common
practice on farms raising beef cattle and growing com.
разработка новых подходов; применение эффективных ле­
карств; внедрение питательных добавок; поддержка ассоциаций
ветеринаров; уменьшение загрязнения окружающей среды, оцен­
ка продуктивности животных; распространение опасных инфек­
ций; передача родительских характеристик (признаков), поддер­
жание высоких удоев; использование передовых технологий, от­
деление поросят от свиноматки
183
8. M atch the two parts of the sentences.
I Scientists suggested... УН
2. Severe control measures should prevent... |
3. Veterinary students must practise...
4. The plan suggested by animal geneticists involved... 1
5. Ethologists have considered... f ^
6. Conservation programmes are to save... 14
7. Special laws adopted by some European governments have stopped...
8. Veterinarians are going to finish... '
9. Researchers should avoid... *" Я
a) ...treating sick animals. У:
b) ...destroying natural habitats of disappearing animal and bird
species. ^
c) ...carrying out the experiments on animals. j
d) ...using special equipment for studying the animals’ behaviour for
24 hours. ^
e) ...using a new method for preventing the spread of BSE.
f) ...vaccinating the herd animals before the spring.
g) ...spreading infection among animals.
h) ...cloning several species of mammals.
i) .. .feeding antibiotics to farm animals in their countries.
9. Fill the gaps with the correct form of the following verbs with the ne­
cessary prepositions (There may be more than one variant.):
to agree; to be due\ to be interested; to concentrate; to depend;
to insist; to involve; to object, to participate', to rely, to succeed
1. Recently many veterinarians....... discussing the preventive
measures on hog farms.
2. Both biologists and chem ists....... developing new drugs for
treating farm animals.
3. Large Utters greatly.......proper selecting of a sow.
4. Ecologists....... improving the surroundings for hogs kept in
confinement.
5. This pig farm .......producing high-quality carcasses this year.
6. Last year the improvements in the pigsty sanitary...... introducing
the self-feeders and automatic waterers (поилки).
7. Breeders of purebred h o g s ....... transm itting certain breed
characteristics from sows to their offspring in recent decades.
8. Pig breeders.......increasing the litter sizes and growth rates of
the litter. V , .<
9. Finally, the farm er.......slaughtering the infected animals.
10. More and more people.......testing new cosmetics on animals.
11. Choosing a sow for breeding, a farmer...... studying its appearance,
pedigree and actual performance.

184
10. a) Read the following paragraph and change, where it is possible,
the sentences using the words due , due to, to be due to.
The Landrace is a white, lop-eared (вислоухий) pig and it has been
found that most countries in Central and Eastern Europe can provide
proper environmental conditions for its raising, though some local
varieties have been developed in Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands,
and Sweden. World attention was first drawn to the Landrace by
Denmark because of the progeny testing started by the Danish pig
breeders in 1890. The production of a superior pig by the Danish
breeders was caused by the selection of boars for breeding on the basis
of the scientific assessment of their progeny for many years. Because of
its high-quality bacon the Landrace is raised mainly for Denmark’s
export trade and Denmark no longer permits the export of Landrace pigs
for breeding.
b) Make up five questions on the text and retell it.
11. Translate into English.
a) беконные свиньи по сравнению со свиньями сального типа;
принимать во внимание; принадлежать к отряду; клеть для опо­
роса; широкий диапазон окраски; чувствительный к холоду; не
обращая внимания на; одинаково быстро растущие поросята;
вносить вклад во что-л.; относительно подвижное рыло; оцени­
вать подсвинок/молодых свиней; плодовитая свиноматка; объяс­
няется высокой плодовитостью; сравнивать породы; туша боро­
ва; давать большие пометы/потомства; съедобный жир; всеядные
животные; распространяться по всему миру; постное мясо пользу­
ется большим спросом; супоросная свинья; соответствующие
условия содержания; новое оборудование; благодаря высокой
плодовитости; иметь сходство с диким видом; ссылаться на что-
л.; колебаться от ... до; упоминать ранее; спрос на жир снизился,
пороситься весной
b) 1. Как развитые, так и развивающиеся страны специализи­
руются в выведении свиней благодаря их высокой плодовитости,
хорошей скорости роста поросят, короткому промежутку между
поколениями и экономной переработке любых кормов в сало и
мясо. 2. Необходимо избегать содержать большое число животных
в одном свинарнике для того, чтобы предотвратить распростра­
нение инфекций и болезней среди всего стада. 3. Свиньи выра­
щиваются в разных типах свинарников, однако, помещения сле­
дует обеспечить соответствующей вентиляцией, отоплением, си­
стемами подачи воды и корма. 4. Скрещиванием европейской
породы и местной азиатской породы была выведена польско-
китайская (Poland-China) порода свиней двойного направления.
5. Качество свинины обуславливается возрастом свиньи, пород-
185
 ными особенностями животных, а также типом скармливаемых
кормов. 1

E X E R C ISE S FO R PAIR WORK

12. Students make up two dialogues using the given information. Each
student is given a different task. First, Student A asks his questions
and Student В (see p. 187) chooses the correct answer from his list
of answers, then students exchange the roles. j

Task for Student A i

Dialogue 1: Student A modifies the following questions using the words
in brackets. Student В should find the correct answer from his list of
answers. 1
1. What species are pigs originated from? (Do you know...?) I
2. When and where were pigs first domesticated? (I wonder...?)
3. Are pigs considered native animals to North America? (Do you
think...?)
4. When were pigs brought to North America? (Couldyou tell me...?)
5. What are the leading countries in the number of pigs? (Do you
happen to know...?) ~
Dialogue 2: Student A translates the following sentences into English
and decides which sentence should be used as the answer to Student B ’s
questions. '
a) Производство трюфелей (truffles) — это важное производ­
ство во Франции, и около одной трети собираемого урожая экс­
портируется. Французские фермеры используют обученных сви­
ней для поиска колоний трюфелей. Многие лучшие трюфельные
районы во Франции увеличивают производство трюфелей благо­
даря посадке дубов (oaks). ■■<} і
b) Охота на трюфели обычно проводится с помощью обучен­
ных собак или свиней.
c) С давних времен голова хряка считалась особым деликате­
сом (delicacy). з
d) Свинина является традиционной пищей в Китае, и эта стра­
на лидирует в мире по численности животных.
e) Трюфели — это грибы (fungus), растущие под землей на глу­
бине до 30 сантиметров, поэтому их трудно найти. Свиньи очень
чувствительны к запаху трюфелей и могут почувствовать их даже
под землей. Утром и вечером над растущими под землей трюфе­
лями вы можете увидеть летающую колонию маленьких желтых
мушек.
186
 SU PPLEM EN TA R Y TEXT
13. Read the text and find the advantages o f intensive pig production.

INTENSIVE PIG PRODUCTION

Swine are reared under more intensive conditions than cattle and
sheep. Such enterprises fall into three broad groups: production of
purebred breeding stock, production of feeder pigs, and growing and
finishing of feeder pigs for sale and slaughter. Some producers carry out
all three activities, and recently many of them have formed cooperatives
and built large farrowing units, where up to 1,000 sows can give birth.
When the young feeder pigs are weaned at these large units, the individual
members of these cooperatives buy them back for feeding and finishing.
Intensive production requires expert management and the cooperation
of several different specialists, such as veterinarians and nutritionists.
Feed costs account for about 75 per cent of the total production costs,
so careful selection of feeds for their nutritional adequacy and economy
is important. Many other important elements must also be controlled
when swine are raised under confined conditions. Newborn pigs are
highly sensitive to cold. In addition, pigs have no sweat glands, so larger
pigs must have facilities for keeping cool in warm environments. Proper
ventilation also removes toxic gases, primarily hydrogen and ammonia
from waste products. In addition, because the animals are confined in
intensive production units, they must each be allotted a given amount
of space. This ranges from about 0.3 sq m for each young pig to approxi­
mately 1.4 sq m for pregnant sows.
Under confinement, diseases are controlled by vaccination, by control
of wildlife carriers of diseases, by use of antibiotics, and, in some cases,
by eradication of the disease-producing organisms. Compounds that can
control the reproductive cycle, the length of the gestation period, and
the timing of births have made it possible to control the breeding and
farrowing so that a minimum of labour is required during weekends,
when such labour is more expensive.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intensive_pig_farming)

EX E R C ISE S FOR PAIR WORK

Task for Student В

Dialogue 1: Student В translates the following sentences into English and
decides which sentence should be used as the answer to Student A s
questions.
а) Дикие свиньи не являются исконными обитателями (truly
native) Северной Америки.
187
 b) Ведущими странами по численности животных в начале
21 века были Китай (почти 457 миллионов свиней), США
(более чем 59 миллионов), Бразилия (30 миллионов), Гер­
мания (26 миллионов). Свиноводство также развито в таких
странах, как Испания, Вьетнам, Польша, Индия, Мексика,
Россия, Франция и Канада. Однако, в основном США и
страны Европы специализируются в разведении свиней на
научной основе. / “• •
c) Вероятно, свиньи произошли от двух видов дикой свиньи,
один вид из Европы, а другой вид из Юго-Восточной Азии.
d) Может быть, свиньи были привезены Христофором Колум­
бом во время его второго путешествия в Америку в 1493 году
и другими испанскими исследователями.
e) Возможно, они были приручены в Китае около 9 ООО лет
тому назад, а позднее в Европе. • * ' •g
Dialogue 2: Student В modifies the following questions using the words
in brackets Student A should find the correct answer from his list of answers.
1. In which countries is pork a traditional food? (Could you tell me...?)
2. Which part of pig is known as the most delicious one? (Do you
have any idea...?) Jm
3. In what kind of hunting are specially trained pigs used? (Do you
happen to know...?) 1
4. What is the truffle? (Wouldyou mind telling me...?)
5. Which country is the most famous for truffle gatherings? (I won­
der...?) .Щ
 U n i t 10
SHEEP BREEDING

Vocabulary and Grammar'.

1. Сложные предлоги (as a result of, by means of in favour of, in spite
of, in view of etc).
2. Значения слова which.
3. Бессоюзные определительные придаточные предложения.

VOCABULARY ТО TH E TEXT
“ S H E E P B R E E D IN G ”

Nouns: ability, ewe, feedlot, fibre, fineness, fleece, flock (syn band),
forager, hardiness, lamb, lambing, lameness, mutton, pelt, ram, range
(open range), sheep breeder (syn sheepman), sheep pen, shepherd, twin,
wool.
Adjectives and adverbs: abundant, coarse, curved, fine, hardy,
imperishable (ant perishable), medium, pregnant ewe, reasonable,
similar to.
Verbs: account for, bear (bore, borne), deliver (syn produce),
descend, finish, lamb, noted (to be noted for), prohibit, restrict, shear
(sheared, shorn), subsist.
Phrase prepositionsi in addition to, in ease of, in favour of, with the
exception of, at the expense of, by means of, as regards, in regard to, in
relation to, as a result of, in spite of, in view of.
Give the Russian equivalents of the following international words:
diameter [dai'amita], extensively [ik'stensrvli], massive ['maesiv],
merino [ma'rfcnau], micrometer [mai'krDmita], moufflon [ mufhm],
organophosphorous [prganacf'fbsfaras], parasite [ paerasart], spectrum
['spektram], spirally ['spaiarali], tropical ['tropikl]

T he N am es o f S heep B reeds
C o rried ale ['ktmderi] корридель (новозеландская порода полу­
тонкорунных овец мясо-шёрстного направления)
C otsw old I'ktrtswauld] — котсуолд, котсуолдская овца (англий­
ская порода длинношёрстных овец мясо-шёрстного направле­
ния)
189
 Dorset f'dorsit] — дорсет (английская порода мясо-шёрстных
овец с короткой шерстью)-, Dorset Down — дорсетская низин­
ная; Dorset Horn — дорсетская рогатая
Hampshire [Ъаешр/э] — гемпшир ( английская порода полу­
тонкорунных короткошёрстых овец мясо-шёрстного направ­
ления) ( 'J/m
Leicester [lesta] —лейстер (английская порода полутонкорун­
ных длинношёрстных овец мясо-шёрстного направления) ~
Lincoln ['Ііпкэп] — линкольн (английская порода длинношёр­
стных овец) \ "Я
Merino [тэ'п-пэи] — меринос (порода тонкорунных овец шёр­
стного направления) 1
Oxford ['oksfad] — оксфорд (английская короткошёрстная по­
рода овец мясо-шёрстного направления) |
Panama [.раепэ'та;] — панама (американская порода длинно­
шёрстных овец мясо-шёрстного направления)
Rambouillet — рамбулье (французская порода тонкорунных
овец шёрстно-мясного направления)
Romney ['штга] — ромни (английская порода полутонкорун­
ных овец мясного направления) ,
Suffolk ['sAfak] — суффолк (английская порода короткошёрст­
ных овец мясо-шёрстного направления)
Targhee — тарги (американская порода полутонкорунных
овец мясного направления) ' j

Сложные предлоги
(Phrase prepositions)
Некоторые наиболее часто употребляемые сложные предлоги:
in accordance with — в соответствии с (см. Unit 5)
according to — согласно (см. Unit 4)
in addition to — в дополнение к Ч
in case of — в случае
in comparison with (syn as compared with) — no сравнению с
(см. Unit 9)
due to (syn because of) — из-за, благодаря (см. Unit 9)
owing to — благодаря, вследствие, no причине
with the exception of — за исключением
at the expense of — за счет
in favour of — в пользу
by means of — посредством', при помощи
for/with the purpose of — с целью (см. Unit 5)
in/with regard to — относительно', в отношении
regardless of — не обращая внимания ', не считаясь с
(см. Unit 9)
190
 as regards — в отношении; что касается
in relation to — относительно; что касается
as a result of — в результате
in spite of — несмотря на
in view of — ввиду (чего-л.)

Значения слова which

предложения
придаточным предложением в качестве союзного слова может
употребляться местоимение which, которое переводится двумя
способами:
1) как союз который, если определительное придаточное пред­
ложение непосредственно следует за неодушевленным существи­
тельным (или названием животного) в главном предложении.
ском языке определительное придаточное предложение
отделяется запятой от главного, если является описательным, т. е.
содержит дополнительные сведения, которые могут быть опуще­
ны, не влияя на смысл главного предложения. Определительные
предложения не отделяются запятой, если относятся или служат
для обозначения какого-либо индивидуального или особого при­
знака предмета.
даточные предло-
отдельному сему предыдуще-
му предложению ого предложения
запятой.
Examples:
In the past it was common to В прошлые
have herds which were made странено иметь стада, кото­
up of sheep and goats. рые состояли из овец и коз.
Many important advances in Многие значительные достиже­
surgery and medicine have ния в хирургии и медицине
been based on the physiology были основаны на физиоло­
of circulation, which was first гии кровообращения, которая
studied in 1628. впервые была изучена
в 1628 году.
of farm Эффективность животноводства
production has considerably значительно возросла в послед­
increased during the recent ние десятилетия, что было
decades, which was due to обусловлено механизацией
mechanisation and automation и автоматизацией многих
of many farm labour­ трудоемких сельскі
consuming processes. венных процессов.

191
 GRAM M AR REVISIO N
AND PRETEXT EXERCISES

Бессоюзные определительные придаточные

предложения
(Attributive clauses with zero relative pronoun)
В отличие от русского языка, в английском языке в определи­
тельных придаточных предложениях могут быть опущены союз­
ные слова who, which, that который, when когда. При этом в анг­
лийском предложении в месте, где опущен союз, будут стоять
рядом два существительных или существительное и личное мес­
тоимение в объектном падеже.
Example'. Щ
Cows are of great importance to Коровы имеют большое значение
people due to the meat, milk для людей благодаря мясу, мо-
and other useful items they локу и другим полезным «co-
produce. дуктам
водят.
Между словами items и they опущено союзное слово which или
th at, и местоимение they является подлежащим придаточного
предложения. При переводе на русский язык необходимо восста­
новить союзное слово которые.
Если в конце такого придаточного предложения есть предлог,
то при переводе на русский язык он ставится перед союзным сло­
вом который.
Example:
The pig breed the farm er Порода свиней, в которой фер-
wants to specialise in should мер хочет специализироваться,
be well-adapted to the local должна быть хорошо адапти-
conditions of the region. условиям
региона.
1. Translate into Russian.
1. The pasture the farmer
paddocks grazed in turn. 2. There are different systems of keeping cattle
farmers may introduce on their farms
purpose of animal raising. 3. The rations the pigs are usually fed contain
large amounts of protein in order to obtain rapid gains. 4. Leptospirosis
common
vaccination. 5. The main characteristic the breeder relies on selecting
the sow for mating is the high degree of its prolificacy.
192
2. a) Read and translate the text into Russian. Give the headings to parts
(a), (b), (c) etc and suggest their order to make up the whole text
logical.
J— ( ), 2 - ( ), 3 - ( ), 4 - ( ), 5 - ( ), 6— ( )
b) Find in the text:
— the sentences with the word which ;
— the attributive clauses with zero relative pronoun;
— the sentences with phrase prepositions;
— the sentences where that/those/one stand for the noun(s).

SHEEP BREEDING
(a) Various systems have been developed in sheep production. In some
regions large flocks are grazed on the open range under the control of
shepherds. The flocks may be moved from place to place to take
advantage of cheap feeds and natural forage. Range sheep are normally
white-faced crosses carrying both long-wool and Rambouillet breeding,
thus they are very hardy and thrifty. In winter period they are kept in
flocks, of from 1,000 to 4,000 head at lower altitudes, and are moved in
bands ranging from 1,000 to 1,500 head to summer range at much higher
altitude, sometimes 480 kilometres from their winter shelter. The female
bears up to three young after a gestation period of about 150 days. The
breeding ewes are mated to rams and produce lambs during the late
winter or early spring so that the lambs will be old enough to move to
summer grazing without difficulty. The average number of lambs raised
per hundred ewes is 91, though some breeds are noted for producing
a high percentage of twins, and others, such as the Dorset, for both high
frequency of twins and heavy milk production.
Lambs are usually delivered in the spring and are sold at ages of from
three to eight months and weights of around 18 kg for Easter lambs, and
45 kg for the usual market lambs. If abundant forage is available, the
lambs may be marketed directly after weaning. In case the lambs have
not reached marketable condition, they may be moved to feedlots and
given additional food before they are sold.
Commercial sheep farming is usually conducted on large areas of
land, divided into operational units containing 1,000 or more animals
per unit. Large flocks are maintained partly for wool and partly for
market lambs. Sheep are sheared in the spring after the worst winter
weather has passed and the average fleece weight per shearing is 3.78 kg.
(b) Perhaps the first sheep people domesticated descended primarily
from the mouflon in southwestern Asia about 11,000 years ago. At present
some wild species can be found in different areas of the world such
as the Dali’s sheep in Alaska, the mouflon in Mediterranean countries,
the urial1in Afghanistan, the argali1 in eastern Asia etc.

7 Комарова 193
 The environments the sheep breeds have been adapted to range from
desert to tropical conditions. As a result, they can be raised both in
semiarid regions and in areas that are unsuitable for the crop cultivation.
In addition, due to their hardiness sheep are able to subsist on scarce
forage and limited water supply. H
Nowadays, the domesticated varieties are widely distributed throughout
the world. In 2003 the world sheep population was estimated at 1.03 billion
head. Based on numbers, the leading sheep countries, in descending order,
were China (more than 157,000,000), Australia (94,500,000), India
(62,500,000), Iran (54,000,000), New Zealand (40,065,000), the United
Kingdom (35,500,000), South Africa (29,100,000), Turkey (25,000,000).
The US had 6,090,000 sheep, which is less than 1 % of the world total.
(c) Such internal parasites as the tapeworm2 and several species of
roundworms3that infest the gastrointestinal tract4 are perhaps the greatest
danger for sheep, but modem vermifuges5are quite effective against them.
On the other hand, to protect animals from such external parasites as ticks6
and lice7, special chemicals dissolved in water, so-called dips8, are widely
used. Dips veterinarians usually treat sheep, contain organophosphorous
chemicals. Foot rot9, resulted from an infection of the soft tissue between
the toes, may cause the pain and the restricted movement of infected
sheep, which leads to lameness and even loss of the hoof. Pulpy kidney10
affects lambs at two to six weeks of age, especially those starting to
consume unusually succulent or rich feeds. By means of vaccination,
veterinary surgeons can prevent this ailment quite effectively. 1
(d) Sheep are mainly raised for the purpose of obtaining pelts and
wool clothing and carpets. The quality and the market value of wool vary
greatly with the fineness, curliness and lightness as well as the length of
the fibre it consists of. Moreover, the wool is light11in relation to its value
and is relatively imperishable, both of which qualities have made it
a valuable item of trade and export. In addition to providing wool, sheep
produce meat in the form of lamb and mutton, and milk for drinking
and cheese-making. Sheep can be used to a small extent as pack-
animals12, and the wild species are hunted as game. During the 20th
century, sheep-raising in some areas, particularly the western part of the
US, has decreased in favour of more profitable cattle. 1
In view of different aims, several distinct types and more than 800
breeds of domesticated sheep have been developed, but most breeds are
of limited interest with the exception of the regions they are raised as
local breeds. The classification of sheep types mainly depends on the
purpose of sheep breeding, either for wool or mutton. %
In regard to the most famous sheep breeds, they were first developed
mainly in England and Scotland. Sheep breeds are generally divided into
three types according to the quality of the wool, such as medium wool,
long (or coarse) wool, and fine wool. Such medium wool breeds as the
Hampshire, Suffolk, Oxford, and Dorset originated in England, the
Cheviot and Black-Faced Highland originated in Scotland, the Panama,
194
Columbia, and Targhee were developed in the United States, and the
Corriedale in New Zealand. After World War II such larger breeds as
the Suffolk and Hampshire increased in popularity at the expense of the
smaller breeds.
The long wool breeds, including the Cotswold, Lincoln, Leicester,
and Romney, were all developed in England and, in addition to mutton,
produce wool of unusually long fibre length that is suitable for rugs and
coarse fabrics.
Sheep bred for their fine wool account for nearly half the world sheep
population. They are adapted to semiarid conditions and are characterised
as medium in size, with the ability to produce large amounts of wool fibres
20 micrometers or less in diameter. Most sheep of this type belong to the
Merino breed, which originated in the Mediterranean area and was
concentrated in Spain. In spite of all efforts of the Spanish to prohibit the
export of Merino sheep, this breed was spread in many countries and now
it is being raised in Australia, New Zealand, Russia, France, Germany,
Argentina, and the western United States. The breed, however, has been
modified and adapted to the conditions of a particular country, as a result,
the different subtypes usually called Merinos have appeared, for example,
the Australian merino. The other major breed of fine-wool sheep is
Rambouillet, which is similar to the Merino. In the improvement of the
fine-wool breeds, sheepmen are interested in developing open-faced ewes
and rams that are free from skin folds or wrinkles13 on their bodies, as
they produce longer and more uniform wool, thus they are easier to shear.
Mutton-type sheep, which consist of medium- and long-wool breeds,
have been bred primarily for their meat and some of these breeds have
been mentioned above. They account for about 15 per cent of the world
sheep population. In the United States, long-wool breeds are used
extensively as sires with fine-wool and crossbred females for the
production of market lambs.
Commercial sheep today represent two-breed or three-breed crosses,
with white-faced crossbred ewes preferred in the range areas and a black­
faced sire, such as the Suffolk or Hampshire, preferred for market lambs,
which are either finished for slaughter or sold as breeding ewes.
(e) In accordance with the scientific classification sheep belong to
the suborder Ruminantia of the order Artiodactyla and they make up
the genus Ovis in the family Bovidae.
Sheep is a common name for a collection of grazing mammals that
may be either wild or domesticated. Sheep are even-toed, hoofed
animals which belong to ruminant animals without the upper incisor
teeths14 and with a four-compartmented stomach. Young sheep under
six months of age are called lambs. Animals have paired hollow,
unbranched homs that are not shed. The horns of the adult male, or
ram, are massive and spirally curved, as compared with the ones of the
adult female, or ewe. Most ewes are hornless but short homs the ewes
of some breeds may have are only slightly curved.
195
 Sheep typically have a long, rather narrow muzzle and pointed
As regards the sheep size, the length of the head and body averages about
kg
especially in the wild, are good runners and climbers
as long as 20 years. 1
(f) Sheep are excellent foragers and, being ruminants, can utilise both
pasture forage and harvested roughage. Selective in their grazing habits,
they prefer short grass when available. Pregnant ewes can run on late
pasture as long as it is available and abundant but in winter they may
subsist on legume hay or mixed hay carrying a high percentage of
legume. Com silage is relatively inexpensive and palatable feed for sheep.
However, lactating ewes and lambs raised for market usually require
some concentrate, with com favoured because of its high energy content
and reasonable cost. Broad spectrum antibiotics at the rate of five to 10
milligrams per 500 grams of feed are normally used in all lamb rations
to prevent digestive disturbances and infections. |
In many parts of the world small flocks are kept partly as scavengers16
to clean up fence rows, weeds, and other undesirable forage or to utilise
the by-products of other producing units. 1

COMMENTS
1- urial, argali ['сидәіт] — уриал (степной баран), аргали, архар (дикий
горный баран)
2. tapeworm [‘teiftwsrm] — ленточный червь, солитер
3. roundworm — круглый глист, нематода
4. gastrointestinal tract — желудочно-кишечный тракт
5. vermifuge [Vaimifjuxfc] — глистогонное средство
6. tick — клещ
7. louse (pi lice) — вошь
8. dip — дезинфицирующий раствор для обработки скота
9. foot rot — копытная гниль
10. pulpy kidney — инфекционная энтеротоксемия овец
11. light — зд. малой грузоподъемности 1
12. pack-animal ['раек ,гвшш1] — вьючное животное
13. skin fold [fauld] or wrinkle frrgkl] — складка или морщина на коже
14. upper incisor teeth [rn'sarza] — верхние резцы
15. pointed ears — заостренные уши
16. scavenger ['Skaevmcfop] — зд. животное, питающиеся отбросами

EXERCISES ТО THE TEXT

3. Answer the questions and do the following tasks.
1. What are the purposes for raising sheep?
2. Which things can be produced from wool?

196
 3. Which systems o f sheep farming are mentioned in the text? What
are their advantages and disadvantages?
4. What are the most dangerous diseases for sheep? What are the
means of treating sheep from them?
5. Find the adjectives with negative prefixes.
6. Find the nouns ending with the suffix -ness. Could you give some
more examples?
7. Find derivatives o f the word market and translate them into
Russian.
8. Find in the text the words describing physical appearance and other
main characteristics o f sheep and prepare a short presentation.
9. Use the figures given in the text to draw a pie chart and a bar chart
and describe them (see Unit 4).
10. Use the text to complete the following table:

Type of sheep Main characteristics Main breeds Countries raising

breed of wool/meat the breed
1. Wool-type
a ) ...
b )...
c)
2. Mutton-type

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
4. Choose the correct word in brackets to complete the sentence. (There
may be more than one variant.)
i. It is (reasonable/impossible) to raise sheep on various (open/
closed/free) ranges even if there is no abundant supply of pasture grasses
because animals are known as excellent (foragersjfeedlots/fodders).
2. Both sexes o f the Bighorn Sheep also called M ountain Sheep have
massive hom s that, in the male, may be spirally (branched/curved/
straight) and more than 1 m long on the outer curvature (внешний
изгиб). 3. (Shepherds/ Sheepmen/ Breeders) have to spend many weeks
with their (flocks/ herds) high in the mountains especially in spring and
summer periods. 4. The Corriedale breed, adapted to both sheep (cages/
feedlots/pens) on farms and open (fields/ ranges/pastures), is especially
valued in New Zealand and Australia. 5. Wool is known as an (imperi­
shable/imperfect/improper) product and it is also (account/famous/
noted) for such desirable for clothing characteristics as lightness,
strength, elasticity and (ability/possibility) to absorb moisture. 6. The Ca­
nadian scientists found th at BST makes cows m ore susceptible to
infection of the udder and (lameness/ hardiness), the latter may (restrict/
prohibit/limit) anim al m ovem ent to a great extent. 7, W ool from
197
different parts of the same {fibre/fleece/pelt) varies greatly in length of
{fibre/fleece), its diameter, and structure. 8. The (fibre/pelt/fleece) of
sheep raised for wool is generally (sheared/shom/shone) once yearly,
in the spring or early summer. 9. The northern short-tailed sheep
inhabiting Scandinavia are (similar/the same/differ) to the (fine- wool/
medium-wool) type such as the Hampshire or Suffolk. In winter time
sheep may be fed using special (feedlots/pens). 10. As compared with
Merino wool, the one of fat-tailed sheep is (fine/coarse) and long and
is used primarily for making carpets. The (wool/fleece/pelts) of the
newborn Karakul lambs are used for the manufacture of the so-called
Persian fur coats. 11. (Abundant/ Scarce/ Fertile) and succulent pastures
are ideal for stimulating milk production in ewes. 12. In view of
increasing the lambing percentage, the sheep breeder should prefer the
(lamb/ mutton/ ram) of a pair of (twice/twins/double), as it may
transmit the tendency of twinning in later generations. 13. Usually in
one or two days following (lambing/calving/producing), both ewe and
her lamb are ready to go back into the (band/stock/flock).
5. Translate the sentences into Russian paying attention to the different
meanings of the word m ean(s). *9
1. Most pigs are raised in confinem ent with various means of
environmental control. 2. The Poland China and Duroc Jersey breeds
of swine were developed in the United States in the 19th century by
means of selection and crossbreeding. 3. The expression “guinea pigs”
has come to mean more just the name of the animals. Now it means
anything or anybody on which an experiment is done. 4. New electronic
systems provide a means for distributing feeding times for each individual
throughout the day. 5. The demand for land means that extensive
agriculture must be carried on where land values are low in relation to
labour and capital, which in turn means that extensive agriculture is
practiced where population densities are low and usually at some
distance from primary markets. 6. A delay in first reproduction may
mean an increase in litter size. 7. Feeding and digestion, for example,
become a means for the enzyme-catalysed breakdown of organic
compounds into relatively small molecules. 8. Antibiotics that are
effective against various microorganisms are effective means of keeping
cattle herds healthy. H
6. Fill the gaps with the correct form of the following verbs (There may
be more than one variant.): ■'?
to account, to bear/to deliver, to descend (2), to finish, to lamb,
to be noted, to prohibit, to restrict, to shear, to subsist
1. The fleece ... from living animals, and it is necessary to cut the
fleece close to the skin, usually with mechanical shears, and remove it
in one piece. 2. Most ewes ... their first lambs when they are about

198
twenty-four months old and then they c a n ... twice per year. 3. At present,
short-tailed sheep ... for about 3 per cent of the world sheep population,
though they ... for high reproduction rates. 4. Nowadays, it not ... to
export or import purebred animals from one country to another if you
follow the international laws. 5. The lameness caused by foot rot can ...
animal grazing to a great extent. 6. The Ram bouillets ... from the
Spanish Merino have become very popular in the western part of the
US and are the most common open range breed now. 7. Lambs are
generally fattened in the dry lots on grains and preserved forages, though
they may be ... on pasture without the use of grains. 8. Shepherds often
... with their flocks from m ountain pastures when it is the time for
shearing sheep. 9. Sheep may ... very well for a considerable period of
time when they are fed a good-quality legume hay, salt and water.
7. Translate the sentences into Russian paying attention to the meaning
of the word which.
1. The wild ass, which when domesticated is usually called a donkey,
was first domesticated in Egypt about 3400 BC. 2. Only few cattle breeds
have been used for improving the cattle herd during the last century,
which has resulted in the decrease in livestock biodiversity. 3. Agricultural
research is a continuing process in which scientific inform ation is
collected and studied. 4. The system of rotational grazing is widely used
by cattle breeders as well as by pig and sheep breeders, which helps to
control diseases and parasites. 5. In developed countries the governments
have adopted some laws on the welfare of livestock animals which specify
the minimum conditions of care, housing, and transportation. 6. Animal
scientists are interested in processes how agricultural animals convert
feedstuffs into the food and other commodities which consumers need.
7. Comparative animal studies, which were of practical importance in
the discovery of some vitamins, led also to the general understanding
of the specific nutrient requirements of animals. 8. Historically, certain
sub-professions within the field o f animal husbandry are specifically
named according to the animals which are cared for. 9. Scientists are
predicting the increase in the world population in the nearest future,
which will require much more agricultural products.
8. Translate into English.
а) способность к окоту дважды в год; суягная овца; как бара­
нина, так и мясо ягненка; вызывать хромоту; шкурки ягнят, ба­
ран с изогнутыми рогами; тонкое волокно средних размеров, по­
хожий на руно; стричь шерсть; ягниться/окотиться ранней вес­
ной; родить двух ягнят/двойню; происходить от кого-л., исполь­
зовать загон для кормления; пастух и отара овец; неогороженное
пастбище; известный выносливостью; ограничивать или запре­
щать стравливание; составлять 50%; грубая шерсть для ковра,
тонкая шерсть; овчарня на 1000 голов; богатое травой пастбище,
199
выносливые животные; которые потребляют разные растения;
непортящийся продукт; рациональное производство 4
b) 1. Несмотря на такие ценные продукты как баранина и
шерсть, получаемые от овец, значимость овцеводства уменьши­
лось в пользу скотоводства и свиноводства в последние десятиле­
тия. 2. Овцы известны своей выносливостью и способностью на­
капливать жир, что позволило овцеводам адаптировать их к за­
сушливым регионам с ограниченным запасом воды и скудным
кормом. 3. Что касается длинношёрстных пород овец, а также
пород со средней длинной шерсти, то они выращиваются, глав­
ным образом, с целью получения баранины. 4. В случае стрижки
овец шёрстного направления для овцевода гораздо легче стричь
животных без складок или морщин на теле и без шерсти на морде.
5. Посредством длительной селекции и отбора баранов и овцема­
ток, овцеводы улучшили такие желательные для овец характери­
стики, как качество шерсти, процент окота, что является очень
важным для эффективности овцеводческого хозяйства. 1
9. a) Give the English equivalents of the words in brackets. j
b) Find the sentences with the attributive clause with zero relative
pronouns. 1
1. Intensive husbandry conditions farmers are widely applying for
the commercial animal production include keeping large numbers
of animals in small lots, vaccination against diseases, as well as
rapid weight gains (посредством) highly nutritious feeds and
feeding growth stimulators. J
2. (Как и в случае) other classes of farm animals, commercial
producers of sheep are concerned with m aintaining a high
percentage of lambing and with the utility features of the animals
and their ability to make efficient use of feeds.
3. ( Относительно) sheep feeding, sheep breeders know that animals
are adapted to subsist on scarce feeds, especially in winter time.
4. (В дополнение к) feeding and management, wool production
of sheep is greatly influenced by climatic conditions of the region
the sheep are bred in. 1
5. In selecting the fine-wool breed, farmers choose open-faced ewes
(в пользу) those that have any wool around eyes and on the face.
6. (В отношении/ Что касается) the mutton breeds, more em­
phasis is put on meat qualities than with fine-wool breeds,
although increased emphasis is now being placed on meat
qualities in fine-wool breeds.
7. All wool-type breeds differ with (относительно) fineness and
length of the wool fibres the sheepmen consider first of all.
8. (Как результат) careful selection, sheep of the Corriedale
breed are large and vigorous.

200
 9. ( Ввиду) of great differences in the nature of wool, the breeds may
be grouped into three main classes.
10. By performance in farm animals breeders mean the animal ability
to produce (в соответствии с) the purpose for which they are
kept.
11. (Несмотря на) the well-known breed characteristics a farmer
should give careful consideration to the selection of individual
animals he is going to use for breeding purposes on his farm.
12. In organic farming system it is possible to produce wholesome
food but usually (за счет) lower yield per unit of land.
13. (Для того, чтобы) obtain more wool, sheep breeders choose
hardy and thrifty sheep breeds with heavy fleeces of good-quality
wool they may shear twice a year.
14. (За исключением) the parasite problem, the maintenance of the
health of sheep may be simpler than that of cattle or pigs (бла­
годаря) the lower susceptibility of sheep to infectious diseases.
10. Complete the following sentences:
They have shorn...; they shear...; they will shear until...; they are to
shear...; they are shearing...; they have been shorn...; they have to
shear...; they are shorn...; they are to be shorn...; they have to be shorn...;
they will be shorn until...; they are being shorn...; they should be shorn....

EXERCISES FOR PAIR WORK

11. There are some idioms in English with the names of animals. Match
the following idioms with their meanings and write their Russian
equivalents. (Use a dictionary if necessary). Make up sentences with
these expressions and ask Student В to explain the meanings of the
idioms. Then, Student В (see p. 205) asks Student A to explain the
meanings of the sentences with his/her idioms.

Task for Student A

1. a bull in a china shop
2. to take the bull by the horns
3. to buy a pig in a poke
4. pigs might fly
5. to be stubborn as an ox
6. as meek as a lamb; lamblike
7. to take/get the right sow by the ear; to take/get the wrong sow by
the ear
8. to shoot the bull
a) to succeed in something; to fail in doing something
b) to buy something without seeing it or knowing if it is satisfactory
201
 c) to have an informal conversation about unimportant things
d) a person who is rough and clumsy when skill and care are needed
e) is used to say when somebody does not believe something is true
or will ever happen Ш
f) to be very shy, quiet, gentle and always ready to submit to others
g) to be determined not to change one’s attitude or position; to have
a strong will
h) to face a difficulty or danger directly and with courage

SUPPLEMENTARY TEXTS f
12. a) Read and translate the text into Russian. '*

T ext 1
SHEEP BREEDS Щ
Many attempts have been made to develop a breed combining the
superior wool characteristics of fme-wool breeds with the meat-producing
abilities of other breeds. These have resulted in the development of several
new breeds: the Corriedale (Merino-Leicester-Lincoln); Columbia
(Rambouillet-Lincoln); Targhee (Rambouillet-Lincoln), etc. Ц.
Crossbreeding, followed by interbreed mating and selection with the
crossbreeds, brought major changes in the sheep industries of New
Zealand and the United States. The goal of sheep breeders in New
Zealand was to produce more acceptable meat animals, while that in
the United States was to produce animals suited to Western range
conditions and acceptable both for wool and mutton.
During the late 19th century, several New Zealand sheep breeders
began crossing Lincoln and Leicester rams with Merino ewes. Early in
the 20th century, the Corriedale had become established as a breed,
carrying approximately 50 per cent Australian Merino, with Leicester
and Lincoln blood making up the remainder. The Corriedale was
successfully introduced into the United States in 1914. '*§
With different objectives in view, breeders in the United States in 1912
made initial crosses between the long-wool mutton breed, the Lincoln, and
fine-wool Rambouillets. Subsequent interbreed mating and selection
within the crossbreds led to a new breed, the Columbia. The Taighee
was another breed developed in the same way as the Columbia. Both
breeds are well-adapted to the Western ranges.
Some breeders specialise in the production of purebred animals for
use in the large com m ercial flocks. These purebred flocks are
considerably smaller in size, and genetic selection for superior productive
traits is emphasised. The income1from such flocks is obtained primarily
from the sales of the superior animals, especially the rams.

202
 It is interesting to mention such types of sheep as short-tailed2 and fat­
tailed3 sheep. The northern short-tailed sheep, similar to the medium-wool
type, are found primarily in Scandinavia. They account for about 3% of
the world sheep population and are characterized by high reproduction rates.
Fat-tailed sheep are so named because they can store large amounts of fat
in the tail and the region of the rump. They are kept primarily for their
milk-producing ability; their wool is coarse and long and is used primarily
for making carpets. Fat-tailed sheep are found mainly in the extremely
arid regions of Africa, the Middle East, and Asia, and they represent about
25% of the world sheep population. The major breeds are the Awassi,
Bakhtiari, Karakul, and Karamon. The pelts of the newborn Karakul
lambs are used for the manufacture of the so-called Persian fur coats.
D om esticated sheep on the whole are much woollier than the wild
species, but some breeds lack wool and are covered with hair. Breeds of
haired sheep are found primarily in tropical regions and are used
primarily for meat. Among the breeds of this type are the Black-bellied
Barbados, Blackhead Persian, and the Peliquey.

jarf: COMMENTS
1. income — доход
2. short-tailed — короткохвостый
3. fat-tailed — жирнохвостый
b) Complete the sentences:
1. As a result of breeders’ efforts... . 2. Owing to crossbreeding....
3. As regards the sheep breeding industry in New Zealand the aim of
breeders.... 4. In case of sheep breeding in the US the main purpose....
5. By means of crossing Merino ewes w ith.... 6. According to the
genetics the Corriedale breed carries.... 7. For the purpose of adapting
sheep breeds to western regions in the U S.... 8. In addition to producing
wool and mutton some sheep breeders get income from selling... . 9. In
comparison with other breeds the fat-tailed sheep.... 10. In spite of very
little population short-tailed sheep are noted for.... 11. At the expense
of fat in their tail, fat-tailed sheep.... 12. Sheep breeders choose fat-tailed
sheep in favour of other breeds in such regions as...
13. a) Read and translate die text into Russian. Explain why the production
of goat milk has not become large-scale commercial production.

г Text 2
GOATS
Goats were first domesticated in the same region as sheep, and for
the same uses, but about 1,500 years later. Worldwide population is
estimated to be more than 740 million and shows a similar distribution.
203
 Probably first domesticated in the East, perhaps during prehistoric
times, the goat has long been used as a source of milk, cheese, mohair,
and meat. Its skin has been valued as a source for leather. In China,
Great Britain, Europe, and North America, the goat is primarily a milk
producer. By good management its limited (six months per year)
breeding season and the consequent difficulty of maintaining a level
supply of milk throughout the year, can be overcome. The goat is
especially adapted to small-scale production of milk for the family table.
Pure-white goat’s milk compares favourably with cow’s milk in
flavour and keeping qualities under sanitary conditions. It has certain
characteristics differing from cow’s milk that make it more easily
digested by infants, invalids, and persons with allergies. Goat flesh is
edible, that from young kids being quite tender and more delicate in
flavour than lamb, which it resembles. Goat flesh is much prized in the
Mediterranean countries, particularly in Spain, Italy, the south of
France, and Greece. The Angora and Cashmere breeds are famous for
their fine wool or mohair.
The many breeds may be roughly grouped: the prick-eared1 — e.g.,
Swiss goats; the eastern, or Nubian, with long, drooping ears2; and the
wool goat — e.g., Angora. While it is usually easy to distinguish goats
from sheep, certain hair breeds of the latter are only distinguishable from
goats by the direction of the tail, upward3 in goats, downward3 in sheep.
Of the Swiss goats, from which many of the best modem breeds are
descended, the Toggenburg and Saanen are most important. The French
breeds have much Swiss blood. In Germany, many varieties originated
from Swiss breeds, which are also popular throughout Scandinavia and
the Netherlands. ЩЙЩщ ■■• ^
Nubians are African goats, chiefly Egyptian. They are usually large,
short-haired goats with large lop ears and Roman noses. They may be
of solid colour, partially coloured, or spotted. The goats in Israel and
Syria have long hair and large lop ears and most commonly are solid
black or with white spots. Most Indian varieties, the best of which come
from the Yamuna River area, have lop ears.
In Britain, the native goat was small, with short legs, long hair, which
is usually gray. The widespread use of pedigree males, mostly of Swiss
extraction, to improve the milk yield, has resulted in the almost total
disappearance of the native types.

COMMENTS
1. prick-eared — с ушами торчком, остроухий
2. drooping ears (syn lop ears) —зд. вислые уши
3. upward/downward — направленный вверх/вниз
b) Compare sheep breeding and goat breeding in the following items:
the origin, first domestication, areas of distribution, milk and wool
qualities, main breeds.
204
ШЩ: USEFUL LANGUAGE
Expressing comparison:
Just the same as...; In the same way as...; In a similar way; As in the case
of...; The same as...; The comparative study o f ... provides the basis for...;
As compared with...; On the contrary...; If we compare ... with ..., we shall
find that...; The main difference between ... is the fact th a t....

Search the following websites for additional information:

1. http://www.ics.uci.edu/~pazzani/4H/Goats.html — This site
contains information about breeding and raising goats.
2. http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/sheep/
3. http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/GOATS/

EXERCISES FOR PAIR WORK

Task for Student В
Match the following idioms with their meanings and write their Russian
equivalents. (Use a dictionary if necessary). M ake up sentences with
these expressions and ask Student A to explain the meanings of the
idioms. Then, Student A asks Student В to explain the meanings of the
sentences with his/her idioms.
1. a red rag to a bull
2. till the cows come home
3. to make a pig’s ear of something
4. to stare like a stuck pig
5. like a flock of sheep; like a herd of cattle
6. to balk like a mule
7. as strong as an ox
8. in less than a pig’s whisper (whistle)
a) to do something badly; to make a mess of something
b) an instinct in people or animals to behave and think like the
majority
c) a thing that makes somebody become very angry
d) unwilling to change one’s attitude or to do what other people want
one to do
e) immediately; quickly; in a second
f) somebody does not know what to do and is very puzzled
g) for a very long time; for ever
h) to be very healthy
 U n i t 11
POULTRY BREEDING

Vocabulary and Grammar:

1. Инфинитив в функции подлежащего.
2. Предложения типа It is necessary that... .
3. Усилительная конструкция It is ... that.
4. Значение слов it, that.

VOCABULARY TO THE TEXT

“POULTRY BREEDING”
Nouns: battery (laying battery), cage, capon, chilling, cockerel, comb
(single comb), consumption, culling, diversity, down, duck, egg (egg
laying/gathering), feather, fryer (syn broiler), fowl, goose (geese),
hatching, heat, hen (broody hen, layer hen, laying hen), humidity,
poultry (poultry house, table poultry), poultrym an (syn poultry
breeder), pullet, roaster, shell, stock (syn flock), table bird (syn table
poultry), turkey, yolk (egg yolk).
Adjectives and adverbs: advanced, approximately, hatched (newly
hatched), meaty, numerous, successful.
Verbs: achieve, decline, hatch, lay (laid, laid), predict, survive, value
(for smth). u и. j:
Word-combinations: in terms of, per capita.
Give the Russian equivalents of the following international words and
scientific terms:
aggressive [a'gresiv], bronchitis [bm rj'kaitis], cannibalism
[,kaemba,hz(a)m], carbon dioxide ['kcuban dai'oksaid], chronic ['knmik],
dozen ['dvzn], hepatitis [,hepa'taitis], incubation ['irjkji/beifn], infectious
[in'fekfas], jungle ['cfovrjgl], maximum ['maeksimam], minor ['maina],
ornam ental [,3:na'mentl], polygamous [pD'ligamas], periodically
[’pian'Ddikh], respiratory [n'spiratn]

T he N am es o f P o u ltry B reeds
Plym outh R ock ['рһтәӨ 'rok] — плимутрок (порода кур амери­
канской группы, мясо-яичного направления)
B a rre d P lym outh — полосатый плимутрок

206
 Australorp frotralacp] — австралорп (порода кур австралийской
группы яичного (лёгкого) направления)
B rahm a [Ъгситэ] — брама (порода кур азиатской группы мяс­
ного (тяжелого) направления)
C ornish ['кэ:шЛ — корниши (порода кур английской группы
мясного (тяжелого) направления)
L eghorn [leg'han] — леггорн (общепользовательная порода
кур американской группы яичного (легкого) направления)
M inorca [пи'пэ:кэ] — минорка (порода кур испанской группы
яичного (легкого) направления)
New H a m p sh ire [nju: 'haemp/э] — нью-гемпшир (порода кур
американской группы общепользовательного направления)
Rhode Island R ed ['raod 'aibnd 'red] — красные род-айленд (по­
рода кур американской группы мясного (тяжелого) направления)

G R A M M A R R E V IS IO N
A N D P R E T E X T E X E R C IS E S

И н ф и н и т и в в ф у н к ц и и подлеж ащ его
(T h e
ей в
начале предложения
функцию подлежащего. <
русский
существительным. Иногда инфинитив упот
агмгтся к нему пояснительными словами, об
группу подлежащего
Examples:
То supply claves and piglets Обеспечить телят и поросят ви-
with vitamins is a very таминами это важная задача
im nnrtant task for a farmer для фермера. (Обеспечение те-
лят и поросят витаминами яв-
задачей для
фермера.)
То tre a t sheep by means Обрабатывать (Обработка)
of special dips is one of овец посредством специальных
the efficient methods for дезинфицирующих раство-
protecting animals from ров это один из эффектив-
external parasites. методов защиты животных
от внешних паразитов.
функции подлежащего
Г 1 П Ш И П Н I П О D . ■ ,
------- -------------- f t u i \
инфинитива в функции обстоятельства цели (см. Unit 3), если
207
последний употребляется без союза (in o rd e r) и стоит
предложения. Чтобы различить эти две функции инф
а значит и правильно перевести их, необходимо установ
ется ли среди слов, стоящих после инфинитива, другое с
торое может выполнять функцию подлежащего. Если та
инфинитив
такое
для
Compare the examples:
develop proper breeding 'зработать правильную c<
programme means to obtain ционную программу знач
the offspring of highly получить потомство ВЫСОІ
productive animals. продуктивных животных.
(Разработка правильной
лекционной программы о
чает получение высокопр<
дуктивного потомства.)
develop proper breeding (Для
programme, a breeder she селекционную
rely to a great extent on грамму, селекционер должен
the pedigree of the sire. в значительной степени пола­
гаться на родословную произ­
водителя.
1. Identify the sentences where the infinitive is the subject.
1. To raise sheep in semiarid or arid regions, farmers choose hardy
sheep breeds well-adapted to such conditions. 2. To develop a breed
combining the best wool characteristics of fine-wool breeds with the
meat-producing abilities of other breeds was the aim of sheep breeders.
3. To raise highly prolific and healthy sows in confinement, farmers
should ensure proper sanitary in their pigsties. 4. If pigs are reared in
yards, it is necessary to provide animals with shelter in case of bad
weather conditions. 5. In order to maintain high-milk yields, milking cows
are to be fed nutritious feeds. 6. In 1988 any supplements made from
ruminant carcasses were prohibited in animal rations to prevent the
spread of mad cow disease in Britain. 7. To fatten cattle is a common
practice on farms where beef cattle are bred and grain crops are available
in laige quantities.

Предложения типа It is necessary that...

В английских предложениях, выражающих вероятность, необ-
ходимость или желательность, в придаточных предложениях, ко­
торые присоединены союзом th a t, форма сказуемого или совпа-

208
дает с инфинитивом (но оез частицы to), или представлена гла
голом should + инфинитив (без частицы to). Оба типа предложе
ний переводятся на русский язык глаголом в прошедшем воеме
that
триваемая конструкция может начинаться со следующих
слов:
It is necessary Необходимо
It is essential that... — Важно (существенно), чтобы
desirable Желательно
It is im portant that... — Важно
It is required that. Требуется, чтобы...
It is impossible thi Невозможно, что
Examples:
It is necessary that the system Необходимо, чтобы система от-
of fattening cattle on pasture корма скота на пастбище в те­
throughout the year be чение года применялась в тех
applied (или should be регионах, где это возможно.
applied) in those regions
where it is possible.
It is required that calves Необходимо, чтобы телята были
(should) be weaned from отняты от коровы мясной по­
the beef cow at eight to ten роды в возрасте от восьми до
months of age. десяти месяцев.

Усилительная конструкция «I t is ... that*

(The emphasizing construction “I t is ... that”)
Эта конструкция может использоваться для выделения любо­
го члена предложения (подлежащего, дополнения, обстоятель­
ства), кроме сказуемого, при этом выделяемый член предложения
находится между элементами этой конструкции: «It is/was + вы­
деляемый член предложения + that/who...». В переводе на русский
язык для выделения используются усилительные слова «именно»,
*только» и т. п.
Examples
insemination that Именно искусственное осемене­
permits to produce ние позволяет получать тысячи
outstanding телят от одного лучшего про­
sire annually. изводителя ежегодно.
It was due to the accurate Именно благодаря точным запи­
records on artificial insemi­ сям об искусственном осеме­
nation that the time of calvir нении время отёла для каждой
for each cow was known. коровы было известно.
209
It is the veterinarian who should Именно ветеринар должен про-
carry out the vaccination and водить вакцинацию и имму-
immunization of farm animals. низацию сельскохозяйствен­
ных животных. ^
2. Find the sentences which are translated into Russian using the word
именно. ' гЭ
1. It is the hogs of the lard type that are mainly produced in the US.
2. It is necessary to fatten pigs to marketable weights of about 225 lb
until the age of six months or less. 3. It is desirable that the tendency to
produce large litters should be transmitted to the offspring. 4. It is a pig
breed of medium type that produces a better quality of carcass and can
be finished for market at a younger age. 5. It is recommended to estimate
the value of milk on the basis of fat content. 6. It was due to proper
farmer’s management that milk yields have increased. •

З н ач ен и я сл о в it, th at
Значение слова it j
Местоимение it может выполнять различные функции в пред­
ложении и употребляется в следующих значениях:
1) как личное местоимение в именительном падеже, переводит­
ся на русский язык местоимениями он, она, оно;
2) как указательное местоимение со значением это; I
3) в качестве формального подлежащего в безличных предло­
жениях, при этом на русский язык не переводится, (см. Unit 4);
4) является частью усилительной конструкции «It is ... that»
и перевод предложения начинается со слова именно.

Examples'.
Holstein cattle breed was
developed in Holland and it
is widely distributed in many
countries now. It is the mild
climate of Holland that
enables to provide animals
with excellent pasture forage
most part of the year. It
greatly influences the milk
quality. It is believed that
the breed is the second oldest
breed after the Brown Swiss.
Голштинская порода крупного
рогатого скота была выведена
в Голландии, и сейчас она ши­
роко распространена во мно­
гих странах. Именно мягкий
климат Голландии позволяет
обеспечивать животных пре­
восходным пастбищным кор­
мом большую часть года. Это
значительно влияет на каче­
ство молока. Полагают, что
порода является второй ста­
рейшей породой после бурой
швицкой.

210
 Значение слова that
Слово th a t может употребляться в следующих значениях:
1) в качестве указательного местоимения и переводится на рус­
ский язык словами тот, та, то;
2) как заменитель ранее упомянутого существительного и часто
употребляется с предлогом of, при этом на русский язык перево­
дится тем существительным, которое заменяет;
3) как союзное слово который для присоединения придаточ­
ных предложений;
4) в качестве союза что для присоединения придаточных пред­
ложений;
5) как часть усилительной конструкции «It is ... that»;
6) в предложениях типа «It is necessary that...» и переводится
союзом чтобы.
Следует запомнить некоторые обороты, которые начинаются
со слова it и представляют собой целые предложения или части
Предложения:
it happens th a t — оказывается, что
it ap p ears th a t — создается впечатление, что; оказывает­
ся, что
it seem s th a t — кажется, что; по-видимому
it requires (to do sm th) — требуется... (чтобы сделать что-л.)
it follows th a t — из этого следует, что
it follows (from sm th) th a t — {из чего-л.) следует, что
it tak es (smb) to do sm th — кому-л. требуется для того, что­
бы сделать что-л.
it tu rn s o u t th a t — оказывается, что

Examples'.
T hat mating system is of greater Та система скрещивания пред­
practical value. ставляет большую практиче­
скую ценность.
art-tailed sheep are bred main Короткохвостых овец разводят
for their milk-producing главным образом из-за их мо­
ability, which is higher than лочной продуктивности, кото­
th a t o f other sheep types. рая значительно выше, чем
продуктивность у других ти­
пов овец.
Any farmer should recognize Любой фермер должен знать
the main symptoms th a t основные симптомы, которые
indicate disease problems. указывают на заболевание.
Experiments have shown th a t Эксперименты показали, что
it is heredity th a t is an именно наследственность явля-

211
 important factor in farm ется важным фактором в се­
animal breeding. лекции сельскохозяйственных
животных.
It is clear that the increase in Очевидно, что увеличение раз­
the litter sizes and growth мера потомства и темпов роста
rate in the breeding herds are в племенных стадах — это са­
the most important factors мые важные факторы для сви­
for hog breeders. новодов. ' '/Щ
It is essential that the organic Важно, чтобы «органическое»
farming should be used to земледелие применялось
a larger extent. в большей степени. '
It happens that/it appears Оказывается, овцы произошли,
that/it turns out that sheep в основном, от муфлона.
probably descended primarily
from the mouflon.
3. Read and tra n sla te the tex t into R ussian. Find in the tex t the
sentences with:
— the infinitive as the subject;
— the construction “A is necessary that...”;
— the construction “Л is ... th a t”.

POULTRY BREEDING
The term “fowl” is applied chiefly to edible species of birds raised
commercially or domestically for the production of table birds, that is
meat or white meat, eggs, down and feathers. In animal husbandry, fowl
is also called poultry and such birds as chickens, ducks, turkeys, and
geese are of primary commercial importance, while guinea fowl1 and
squabs2 are mainly of local interest.
On poultry farms, the male chicken is called the rooster or the cock;
the female, especially that is more than a year old, is called the hen; the
female less than a year old is called the pullet; the immature male is
known as the cockerel; very young chickens of either sex are called
chicks; and castrated males are called capons.
It is required that the birds bred for meat should reach a specific
weight, so they are to be grown for a particular amount of time. Thus,
in poultry markets, fowl commonly means a full-grown female bird. The
females, both mature hens and pullets, are mainly raised for meat and
for their edible eggs; while cocks as well as capons are raised to become
meat birds. Seven-week-old chickens are classified as broilers or fryers,
and those that are 14 weeks old as roasters.
In habit, chickens are strictly diurnal3, highly gregarious4, and
polygamous. It is the high fertility of the species that is considered an
important characteristic, especially because the eggs as well as the meat

212
are valued as food. Periodically, domestic hens become broody, that is
why, they stop laying and show a strong desire to sit on their nests5 and
hatch chicks. The incubation period is approximately three weeks if the
proper hatching temperature is maintained. The chicks when they are
hatched are not naked6but covered with down and are immediately able
to run around. Although they are able to feed themselves, newly hatched
chickens can survive about a week without eating, subsisting on egg yolk
that is included in the abdomen7.
Chickens are descended from the wild red jungle fowl of India and
belong to the species Gallus gallus, and they have been domesticated
for at least 4,000 years. It is interesting that humans first domesticated
chickens of Indian origin for the purpose of cockfighting8in Asia, Africa,
and Europe. Very little formal attention was given to egg or meat
production until cockfighting was prohibited in England in 1849 and
later in most other countries. For many years, poultry breeders were
interested mainly in developing exotic ornamental breeds and new
standard breeds of chickens, and poultry shows became very popular.
It was from 1890 to 1920 that chicken raisers emphasized on egg and
meat production, though meat production was often a by-product of egg
production. Only hens that could no longer produce enough eggs were
killed and sold for meat. Commercial hatcheries became important only
after 1920 in Great Britain and in the US after World War II. By the
mid-20th century, meat production had become more important than
egg production as a specialized industry.
To satisfy the requirements of commercial poultry farms is the main
aim of poultry breeders at present. They have already developed
numerous breeds and varieties of poultry that show great diversity in size
and shape. It is known that the members of one breed are alike9 in shape,
while the varieties of the breed may differ in minor characteristics such
as the shape of the comb and in colour and markings10. It is a group of
breeds developed in a single country or geographical area that is called
a class, that is why, the breeds are generally classified as Asiatic,
Mediterranean, English, and American, among which the Leghorn,
the Minorca, the Brahma, the Cornish, the New Hampshire are of great
significance.
Chicken breeding is an outstanding example of the application of
basic genetic principles. To affect faster and cheaper gains in broilers
and maximize egg production for the egg-laying strains, poultry breeders
have successfully applied inbreeding, linebreeding, and crossbreeding,
as well as intensive mass selection. It was due to incrosses11 and cross­
breeding that hybrid vigour was achieved.
Crossbreeding for egg production has used the single-comb White
Leghorn, the Rhode Island Red, the New Hampshire, the Barred
Plymouth Rock, the White Plymouth Rock, the Black Australorp, and
the White Minorca. Crossbreeding for broiler production has used the
White Plymouth Rock or New Hampshire crossed with the White or
213
Silver Cornish or incrosses utilizing widely diverse inbred strains within
a single breed. As a result, rapid and efficient weight gains, and high-
quality, meaty carcasses have been achieved. I
To ensure a maximum intake of energy for bird growth and fat !
production by means of proper chicken feeding is essential for the
efficiency of any poultry farm. It is high-quality and well-balanced
protein sources that produce a maximum amount of muscle, organ, skin,
and feather growth. In addition, it has been found that the essential
minerals produce bones and eggs, that is, three to four per cent of the
live bird is composed of minerals and 10 per cent of the egg. Thus, it is
important that birds should be provided with all minerals in their ration
and especially with calcium which is necessary for egg formation. It is
also desirable that all vitamins, such as A, C, D, E and К and all 12 of
the В vitamins, should be included in the birds’ ration. To have free
access to water at any time is essential for birds’ health. To stimulate
appetite, control harmful bacteria and prevent diseases, farmers often
use antibiotics. As a result, it has been calculated that modem rations
produce about 450 g of broiler on about 0.9 kg of feed and a dozen eggs
from 2.0 kg of feed. In terms of money, feed represents more than two-
thirds of the cost in egg production. ;Щ
Chicken meat and eggs have become mass-production commodities12
due to modem high-volume poultry farms where such operations as
feeding, watering and cleaning as well as egg gathering are highly
mechanized. To control heat, light and humidity, commercial farms
widely use the battery system for raising chickens, that is, birds are
confined in separate cages arranged in rows13 one above the other
throughout the year. It has been found that this system increases
production, lowers mortality14, reduces cannibalism, decreases feeding
requirements, reduces diseases and parasites, improves culling, and
reduces both space and labour requirements. A carefully controlled
environment that avoids crowding, chilling15, overheating, or frightening
is almost universal in chicken raising now. „ «
Among the world’s agricultural industries, meat chicken breeding is
one of the most advanced and it is presently considered the model for
other animal industries. It is the broiler industry that is leading the way
in advanced agricultural technology and efficiency. Intensive nutritional
research and application, highly improved breeding stock, intelligent
management, and scientific disease control have gone into the effort to
give a modem broiler of uniformly high quality produced at ever-lower
cost. Today, one person can care for 25,000 to 50,000 broilers that reach
market weight in three months’ time, giving an annual output of from
100,000 to 200,000 broilers. A modem broiler chick gains over 43 times
its initial weight in an eight-week period. It is the aggressive marketing
methods that have increased the per capita consumption of broilers more
than five times in the recent decades, while per capita consumption of
eggs has declined. More than 90 per cent of the 4,200,000,000 chicks
214
hatched per year in the early 1980s were used for broiler production and
the remainder for egg production. As to the achievements in egg
production, annual egg production per hen has increased from 104 to
244 since 1910. Poultry breeders and farmers predict further increase
in the demand for poultry production in the future.
It is necessary that farmers should use strict sanitary measures on
their farms as poultry are quite susceptible to a number of diseases. Some
of the more common diseases that should be mentioned are the
following: fowl typhoid16, fowl cholera, chronic respiratory disease,
bluecomb, Newcastle disease, fowl pox17, blackhead, avian infectious
hepatitis, infectious bronchitis, and some other infectious diseases. Strict
sanitary precautions, the intelligent use of antibiotics and vaccines, and
the widespread use of cages for layers and confinement rearing for
broilers have made it possible to ensure satisfactory disease control.
Parasitic diseases of poultry, including hexamitiasis of turkeys, are
caused by roundworms, tapeworms, lice, and mites. It is modem methods
of sanitation, prevention, and treatment that provide excellent control.

% COMMENTS
L guinea fowl ['gini] — цесарка _
2. squab [skwnb] — сквоб (откормленный молодой голубь массой 340—
680 г)
3. diurnal [’datanal] — дневной, действующий днём
4. gregarious [grigeanas] — стайный, живущий стаями
5. nest — гнездо
6. naked — голый
7. abdomen faebdanwn] — брюшная полость; живот
8. cockfighting — петушиный бой
9. alike — зд. похожи, подобны
10. marking — расцветка, окраска
11. incross — инкросс (скрещивание родственных особей)
12. commodity — товар
13. row —ряд
14. mortality — смертность
15. chilling — переохлаждение
16. fowl typhoid — тиф птиц
17. fowl pox — оспа (дифтерит) птиц

EXERCISES ТО THE TEXT

4. Find in the text:

the sentences with it and pay attention to the different meanings

the^senTences with that and pay attention to the different meanings

of the word;
215
 — adverbs, tran slate them into Russian and make up your own
sentences with them; л
— word-combinations with per-, c'

— the construction “to be + of + noun”; '?

— the sentences with Participle II;
— the sentences with the gerund as object.
5. Complete the following sentences using the information from the text.
1. It is important to understand that the term “fowl” includes....
2. To produce broilers, it is necessary to grow... . ^
3. To become broody, hens should... .
4. It is the egg yolk th a t.... J". " ;i ‘ ’
5. To use fowl for cockfighting was the m ain....
6. In the 1920s in order to increase meat and egg production... .
7. To classify the breeds of chickens, breeders u se.... ■ v
8. It is essential that new egg-laying strains should produce... .
9. It is due to well-balanced feed rations th a t....
10. According to the statistical data it is necessary to use about one
kilogramme of feed.... ■ '
11. It is required to provide poultry houses w ith....
12. It is interesting that the broiler industry....
13. It is possible to reduce cannibalism by... .
14. It is desirable that infectious diseases should be prevented by...
15. In order to control parasitic diseases of poultry it is necessary....
6. Complete the following table with the key words from the text and use
it for retelling the text.

Classification and main terms

The origin
Main breeds and classes
Feeding of poultry
Systems of keeping poultry
(advantages and disadvantages)
Main diseases

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
7. Fill the gaps with the suitable word in the correct form:
to achieve, advanced, approximately, battery system, cage,
chilling, comb, consumption, diversity, down, egg-laying, hatched,
hatching, humidity, in terms of, to decline, to lay, laying hen, meaty,
numerous, shell, stock, to survive, table poultry, yolk
216
 1. Because of the high content of cholesterol many people have
stopped eating eggs, and as a result the ... of eggs per capita .... 2. The
highest efficiency of the poultry production ... due to the introduction
o f ... technology and application of scientific methods to breeding
poultry.... 3.... money the intensive system of keeping poultry is more
expensive than the free range system. 4. The production o f ... has
highly specialized
farms
eggs. 6. The process of egg formation
formation
are valued for their high-quality and ... carcasses which are larger than
those of broilers. 8. Newly ... chickens are not naked but covered with
soft ... which is not enough for the chickens to ... under cold conditions
so they should be placed into the warm place in order to be protected
from .... 9. It is necessary th a t... temperature should be ... 38 °C in the
incubator. 10.... for... allow birds to stand comfortably, provide them with
forward
egg
the... means raising chickens for egg production, where thousands ot Dims
are kept in small cages. 12. It is due to breeding and selection that the
poultry breeds show great... in size and shape o f... which may be single,
rose, pea, raspberry, homed etc. 13. The relative ... is the amount of
moisture in the atmosphere which may be expressed as a percentage and
it is lost in the incubator. 14. Standard ... tests have been used for many
years to measure actual productivity of poultry.
8. a) Translate the following words into Russian:
1. incubate, incubation, incubative, incubator, incubated; 2. hatch,
hatching, hatchability, hatched, hatchery, hatcheryman; 3. lay, layer,
laying, egg-laying hen, laying cage, laying battery; 4. advance, advanced,
advancing, advancement; 5. predict, prediction, predictable, predicted,
predicting; 6. achieve, achievement, achieved, achieving, 7. survive,
survival, surviving, survived; 8. value, valued, valuable, valueless,
9. decline, declining, declined; 10. cull, culled, culling; 11. chill, chilled,
chilling
b) Translate the word-combinations with Participle I and Participle II
into Russian:
declining hatchability; predicted value; laid eggs; survived chicks;
valued characteristics; farmers culling geese; achieved incubative
temperature; a hatcheryman taking care of incubating eggs, advanced
hatching systems; breeders predicting valuable qualities, advancing new
poultry stains; chilled chicks; declined quality; birds surviving on scarce
feeds* improved culling of valueless pullets; culled capons, predicted
achievements; cockerels achieving the necessary weight; brooders
hatching eggs; ventilators chilling incubator
217
9. Make up sentences using the following constructions: 1) I t is necessary
fo r sm b to do sm th ; 2) I t is necessary that sm b (should ) do sm th ; 3) It
is ... that/w ho. r, i
Model: It is necessary/poultry breeders/to meet the requirements of
poultry farms/to develop new strains —» *
1. It is necessary for poultry breeders to meet the requirements
of large-scale commercial poultry farms by developing new highly
productive poultry strains.
2. It is necessary that poultry breeders should develop new
highly productive poultry strains to meet the requirements of
large-scale poultry farms. . ,. •..«
3. It is poultry breeders who develop new highly productive poultry
strains to meet the requirements of large-scale poultry farms.
a) It is essential/broiler producers/to choose types with excellent
table qualities/mature quickly;
b) It is required/poultrym en/pullets and cockerels/to separate/
individual cages/at the age of 8 to 9 weeks;
c) It is important/farmers/to feed broilers/high-protein and high-
energy rations;
d) It is desirable/a farmer/to obtain 150—180 eggs per year/each
laying hen;
e) It is impossible/poultry breeders/to ensure high and stable egg
production/free range system/in autumn and winter months;
0 It is recommended/poultry breeders/to choose the Leghorn or the
Rhode Island Red breeds/for egg production;
g) It is possible/breeders/to influence the future performance of
laying stock/proper chicks rearing.
10. Find the sentences where should is the modal verb and translate them
into Russian.
I. If farmers keep poultry in confinement, they should provide proper
light, humidity, heat and ventilation. 2. In selecting a poultry breed it is
important that the poultry farmer should first consider the purpose of
raising the birds, either table birds or laying stock. 3. Hatched chicks
should be kept in warmth as they are unable to survive long in the
norm al tem perature and chilled chicks often develop digestive
disorders. 4. It is recommended that neither cracked nor too small eggs
should be used for incubation. 5. Cannibalism, which expresses itself
as toe picking, feather picking, and tail picking, should be controlled
by debeaking (обрезка клюва) at one day of age and by other
management practices.
11. Identify the sentences: 1) which are translated into Russian using the
word который, 2) which are translated into Russian using the word
чтобы, 3) in which the word it is not translated into Russian.

218
 1. To feed only grain to poultry is not economical because it cannot
maximize egg production.
2. The intensive system animal scientists have recently developed is
widely used on commercial poultry farms as it is more efficient
in terms of saving labour, however it is not the only system of
raising poultry.
3. It is due to the intensive system that farmers are able to ensure
complete control of the birds’ environment, that is. temperature,
humidity etc.
4. It is important that flocks should be more genetically uniform and
it will result in little percentage of culling.
5. It is necessary to use artificial lighting and heat system in poultry
houses the farmer is going to use in winter time as it may increase
egg production to a great extent.
6. It has been shown that the energy requirement of the breeding hen
does not differ from that of the laying hen.
7. It is essential that the culling and selection of birds on the poultry
farm to be a continuous process, which means the removal of
valueless birds from the flock.
8. To improve poultry strains, breeders use mainly crosses and hybrids
that are the product of two or more intercrossed pure types.
12. Translate the sentences into Russian, pay attention to the translation
of the word no — «никакой/никакая». Change the sentences as in
the model.
Model: No other industry has been improved so greatly due to the
application of genetic principles as the poultry industry.
Никакая другая отрасль не была так улучшена благо­
даря применению генетических принципов, как пти­
цеводство. -> It is the poultry industry th at has been
improved so greatly due to the application of genetic principles.
1. No cracked eggs can be used for incubation. 2. There will be no
cannibalism if birds are kept in separate cages. 3. No other poultry breed
is as prolific layer of white eggs as the Leghorn. 4. No other broiler
characteristic is so valued by poultry breeders as the rapid weight gain.
5. No chicken can survive without some warmth provided either from
the mother hen, or artificially from brooders. 6. No other features except
longer combs and better developed tail feathers can be used to
distinguish the male bird from the female at the age of approximately
eight weeks. 7. Except high-quality flour no other product is as valued
in bakery as fresh eggs. 8. No other system is more popular on
commercial poultry farms than the battery system.
13. Translate into English.
а) клеточная батарея для несушек; бройлерная клетка; либо
каплун, либо петушок; простой (одиночный) гребень; предсказать
219
рост потребления на душу населения; в денежном выражении;
достигать большого разнообразия; производить и пух и перо; пти­
цевод; птица на мясо; успешно внедрять передовые технологии;
многочисленные разновидности уток и гусей; наседка; курица-
несушка; яйценоскость; инкубирование (высиживание) цыплят;
уменьшилось примерно на 20 %; влажность в птичнике; выживать
при неблагоприятных условиях; питательная ценность желтка
яиц; защитить как от переохлаждения, так и от перегрева; откла­
дывать и высиживать яйца; суточный вылупившийся цыпленок;
ценить за высокое качество; мясистая туша; твердая скорлупа;
стадо индеек; выращивать домашнюю птицу; выбраковка моло­
дых кур и петухов; контролировать отопительную систему
b) 1. Необходимо, чтобы куры, зараженные птичьим гриппом,
были отделены от стаи как можно скорее и забиты. 2. Именно
в птицеводстве ученые достигли наибольших успехов в селекции
и выведении новых яйценоских разновидностей птицы. 3. Обес­
печить растущие потребности населения в свежих яйцах и пти­
чьем мясе — это основная задача крупных птицеводческих хо­
зяйств, построенных вблизи крупных городов. 4. Важно, что яич­
ная продуктивность птицы определяется не только количеством
яиц, снесенных несушкой, но и общим весом яиц. 5. На качество
инкубационных яиц влияют многочисленные факторы, такие как
особенности породы птицы, ее возраст, условия кормления и со­
держания, вес и форма яиц, а также качество скорлупы.

EXERCISES FOR GROUP WORK

14. Students divide into three groups and hold a discussion about duck
production (group A), goose production (group B), and turkey
production (group C).
Students use the brief information provided for each group and
search for additional information in the Internet. Students ask each
other questions concerning the following items: original breeds, main
terms, breeds and classes, main producers in the world market,
advantages of the industry and main products.
Students may compare these three specialized poultry industries with
the fowl production.
Search the following websites for more information:
L http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/poultry/ducks/
2 . http ://www.ansi.okstate.edu/poultry/geese/
3. http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/poultry/turkeys/— The Department of
Animal Science at Oklahoma State University offers information
on ducks, geese, turkeys with pages for specific breeds, including
images.

220
 4. http://www.feathersite.com/Poultry/BRKPoultryPage.html —
An online zoological garden of domestic poultry, including
photos, video and information about various breeds of fowl, such
as chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys etc.
5. http://w w w .am erpoultryassn.com /— The American Poultry
Association.
6 . http://w w w .enature.com /guides/show _species_thum b.asp?
curGroup=Birds&shape=735 — maintained by National Wildlife
Federation. — The eNature.com Online Field Guide offers infor­
mation about many different duck species, including photo­
graphs.
7. http://ww w .utm .edu/departm ents/ed/cece/trugeese.shtm l —
True Geese of the World. The Center for Environmental and
Conservation Education offers descriptions and habits of major
goose breeds; a bibliography is also included.
8 . http://www.nwtf.org/ — The National Wild Turkey Federation
is a nonprofit conservation and education organization dedicated
to protecting wild turkeys and preserving hunting traditions.
9. http://www.turkeyfed.org/ — The National Turkey Federation
offers recipes, nutritional information etc.

USEFUL LANGUAGE
Presenting facts:
One o f the main characteristic features is...; The other thing which is
characteristic of... is...; It is necessary/interesting to look at the common
characteristics of...; It is necessary to point out the main feature of..., The
most distinguishing/characteristic feature of... is ...; Some of the common
and distinctive features of... are...; It should be noted here that it is the
main feature of...; Systematic investigation has allowed to find out... .

Group A
D uck Production
Original breeds: the Muscovy duck (Colombia, Peru); wild mallard
(China); 2,000 years ago.
Terms: the female — the duck; the male — the drake; young birds —
ducklings; flock of ducks.
Breeds: 12 domesticated breeds, three classes: meat-producing, egg-
producing, and ornamental.
Main domestic breeds: the White Peking (originally from China),
meaty, fast growing, prodigious in egg production; the Khaki Campbell
and Indian Runner; both prolific layers (each averaging 300 eggs per
year); the Aylesbury (popular in England); the Peking duck (favourite
in the USA).
221
 Main producers', small-farm enterprises in some areas in England
and the Netherlands; commercial plants in the US, especially large
duckling industry in Suffolk County on Long Island, New York; at present
also in Wisconsin, Indiana, and Virginia. |
Advantages o f duck production : convert some waste products and
scattered grain (e.g. by gleaning rice fields) into nutritious and very
desirable eggs and meat (white or yellow flesh); ready for marketing at
7—8 weeks; average weight 3.1 kg; birds are easily transported; can be
raised in close confinement.
M ain products from ducks : meat, eggs (a limited market); feathers
(have been mainly replaced by synthetics); eiderdown (гагачий пух)
(still of wide use in luxury quilts and pillows).

Group В
Goose Production
Original breed: the greylag (Anser anser), a wild goose of northern
Eurasia. J
Terms: the female — the duck; the male — the gander; young birds —
goslings; flock of geese, gaggle of geese.
Breeds', two outstanding meat breeds: the Toulouse goose (an all­
grey breed originating in France); the Embden or Emden (an all-white
goose originating in Germany). The African breed fattens more rapidly
than any other breed. j
M ain producers: a minor farm enterprise in practically all countries,
but important commercial goose production in Germany, Austria, some
eastern European countries (mainly Poland), parts of France; mainly
small-scale farms and few large farms in the USA.
Advantages o f geese production: the birds are hardy; good foragers
(are usually grown on ranges); require little care after the first 2—3
weeks. Geese may be used by farmers for weed control.
Main products from geese: meat (popular for Christmas in England),
a paste called pat6 de foie gras (a by-product of goose-meat production
made from the enlarged and fatted livers of force-fed geese; popular in
Europe); eggs (a limited market); feathers and down (high-quality
insulation in quilts, pillows, sleeping bags, coats); the demand for goose
down has increased in recent decades.

Group С
Turkey Production
Origin: the family Meleagrididae (order Galliformes), game birds
native to North America, the Indians domesticated birds for food and
sacrifice. In 1519 the Spanish brought the Mexican species to Europe.

222
 Terms, the male turkey — stags or toms, the adult female — hens;
the poult — the young turkey less than 8 weeks old.
Breeds: the Broad Breasted Bronze, the Broad Breasted White, the
1 White Holland — the most popular of the larger breeds, representing
nearly thtee-fourths of the total production.
The Beltsville Small White is the most popular of the smaller breeds
and accounts for 25 per cent.
Problems o f turkey production: in the late 1930s and early 1940s,
production rapidly developed on a large scale, but it was difficult to control
diseases; farmers grow birds on wire platforms which made production
Q costly and labour inefficient; turkey poults (птенцы) are hard to start on
feed. To make the birds eat, farmers use different methods, for example
[i bright troughs (кормушки ) or put yellow com on top of the feed.
Advantages o f turkey production: recent improvements in nutrition,
I breeding, disease control, management have made production efficient,
I iarge poultry bird; males produce more meat than females, at 24 weeks
of age the toms are fifty per cent heavier than the hens; in breeding
flocks, one tom is required per eight or ten hens.
Due to recent improvements the amount of feed required to produce
a pound of turkey meat has fallen 40 per cent; rapid increase in gains;
50 to 23-36 kg of feed; a turkey for market weight; from 2.5 to 3 pounds
of feed per pound of gain on full-size turkeys; 1.1—1.2 kg of feed per
0.45 kg of gain for turkey broilers, which are marketed at from 12 to 15
weeks of age.
Usually turkeys are given open range, but automatic waterers. sell
feeders, range shelters, heavy fencing, and rotated pastures are widely

Main producers: Canada, the US. Successful marketing techniques

have increased turkey consumption; e. g., in the US, per capita consumption
from 1930/34 to 1980 rose 500 per cent.
Main products: Turkeys began to be raised for meat on a wide scale
after Worid War П. Stags reach market weight up to 12 kg in about 26 weeks,
while hen turkeys mature earUer but rarely weigh more than 9-10 kg-
Roasted turkey is a popular dish for Christmas in many Catholic
countries.

SU PPL E M E N T A R Y TEXT

15. a) Read the text and label the parts off the bird’s body on the picture
(See Fig. 6). Use a dictionary if necessary to check your answers
and find the Russian translation of the unknown words.
b) Find in the text the words describing different parts of the bird s
body and complete the table. __ .
c) Use the table and the picture to describe the poultry body in your
own words.
223
 Part of the body The description o f the part of the body
large, heavy, ...
decorated with ...
tail feathers may be ...
consist of many feathers such as
main parts are ...

THE DESCRIPTION OF THE POULTRY

Like the turkey, pheasant, quail, and other related birds, the domestic
fowl is adapted for living on the ground, where it finds its natural food.
The bird’s foot (1) consisting of four toes (2) with sharp claws (3) is
designed for scratching the earth. The first toe, called a hallux (4), points
backwards. Birds have two legs; the lower part of each leg is called the tarsus
or the shank (5), and the top part of the leg is known as the thigh (6).
A pointed extension or a sharp outgrowth on the legs of male birds (e. g.
roosters) is known as a spur (7). |
Various breeds show great diversity in size and shape. The 5—kg
Brahma cock, for example, has a miniature counterpart, the Bantam,
weighing about 567 g. However, the large, heavy body with the round
and full breast (8) and short wings make most breeds of domestic poultry
incapable of flying except for short distances. The back (9) is usually
broad and tapering to the tail with saddle feathers ( 10) in great
abundance. The bird’s neck is often of medium length (though it may
be rather long in some breeds) and it is covered with feathers described

Fig. 6. Label the parts of the poultry body

as hackle feathers (11). Either of two long curving feathers in the tail of
a rooster is called main tail feathers or sometimes sickles (12). The length
of the tail feathers varies greatly, for instance the stubby tail of the squat
Cochin is one extreme; another extreme is presented by the Japanese
or Yokohama breed, in which the tail feathers of the cock may be as
much as 2 m long. The rooster’s tail is usually carried in an erect
ftosition.
The bird’s wing consists of two main types of feathers: hard or cover
wing feathers (13) which are in the middle of the wing and flight feathers
(14) which are at the end of the wing and they are usually covered by
the saddle feathers. The flight feathers are subdivided into the primary
feathers or main flight wing feathers which grow on the outer half of
a bird’s wing sickle feather and the secondary feathers growing along
the inner edge of a bird’s wing.
Because feathers of birds’ wings are nonliving structures that cannot
repair themselves when worn or broken, they must be renewed periodically.
Most adult birds molt, that is lose and replace their feathers, at least
once a year.
Plumage of various fowl ranges in colour through white, gray, yellow,
blue, red, brown, and black. The colour of fluff and feathers of the wings
may be the same or quite different.
Birds have toothless, lightweight jaws, called beaks or bills (15).
Unlike humans or other mammals, birds can move their upper jaws
independently of the rest of their heads opening their m ouths
extremely wide.
Birds’ beaks occur in a wide range of shapes and sizes depending
on the type of food a bird eats. Both female and male beaks are
commonly short, stout, well curved, hooked and its colour depends
on the breed.
In adults of both sexes the head is decorated with the wattles (16),
and the comb (17). The former are below the beak and the latter is a
naked, fleshy crest on the top of the bird’s head. The comb is more
developed in the male and is variously shaped depending on the variety
of the domestic fowl. The comb structure can range from a simple,
single, erect or drooping, serrated (зубчатый ) appearance to more
elaborate forms, such as the rose, the pea, the leaf, the strawberry combs,
the V-shaped comb etc. The wattles as well as the comb usually vary in
colour from pink to red.
The ears (18) of birds are completely internal, with openings placed
just behind and below the eyes. Special textured feathers called ear­
lobes (19), usually red in colour, form a protective screen that prevents
objects from entering the ear. Birds rely on their ears for hearing and
also for balance, which is especially critical during flight.
The eyes (20) of birds protected by the eyelids are large and provide
excellent vision. These lids moisten and clean the eye as well as protect
them from wind and bright light.
8 Комарова
225
16. a) Find the information about different classes and breeds of poultry
and summarize the data in the following table:

The name of Advantages ]

Main breeds Main characteristics
the class/group and disadvantages!
Asiatic the Brahma, ... large, heavy birds, ... hardy, m eaty,... j
Mediterranean
English
American

Search the sources:

1. http://w w w .ansi.okstate.edu/poultry/ — The Departm ent of
Animal Science at Oklahoma State University offers information
on poultry, with pages for types and breeds, including images.
2. Encarta Interactive Encyclopedia. CD-ROM, 2005. "-||1
3. Britannica Interactive Encyclopedia. CD-ROM, 2005.
b) Find the information about one of the famous Russian breeds —
the Orloffs and prepare a presentation comparing this breed with
the classes and breeds described in (a). Use the foDowing websites:
1. http ://www.feathersite .com/Poultry/CG K/Orloffs/B RKOrloff. html
2. h ttp ://w w w .fe a th e rsite .c o m /P o u ltry /C G K /O rlo ffs/O rl_
CraigR.html — about the origin of Russian Orloffs breed.
 U n i t 12
HORSE BREEDING

Vocabulary and Grammar:

1. Предложения с вводящим словом there.
2. Инфинитивная конструкция с предлогом for.
3. Значения слов for, since.

VO CABULARY ТО T H E TEXT
“ H O R S E B R E E D IN G ”

Nouns: colt, endurance, filly, foal, foaling, gelding, horse (draft/

coach/heavy/light/quarter/riding/saddle horse), life span, mare (brood
mare), necessity, racing (flat racing, harness racing), stable, stallion,
stud, studbook, thoroughbred.
Adjectives and adverbs: deliberate, distinctive, distinguished,
formerly, respectively, unique.
Verbs: avoid, employ, exist, occur, perform, prize, pull (pull a carriage/
a load/a plow), rank, regard, replace (by/with), ride (rode, ridden), shoe
(shod, shod), trace.
Other parts o f speech: at least, on the contrary, in contrast to,
compared with.
Give the Russian equivalents of the following international words:
abnormality [.sbnar’maelrtr], to accumulate [a'kju:mjuleit], assistance
[a'srstans], civilization [,srv9lai'zeijh], elegance j'elrgans], era [іәгә],
isolated [‘arsa.leitid], mattress ['maetras], nervous ['nsvas], pony ['pawn],
ranch [raintfl, stylish ['stailifl, temperament ['tempramant], transportation
((traenspa:'teifn], wagon fwaegan], zebra ['zi:bra]

The Nam es of H orse Breeds

Arabian [a'reibjan] (Arab [’aerab]) — арабская чистокровная по­
рода лошадей
Cleveland Bay ['kltvland Ъег] — Кливленд (<английская порода
упряжных лошадей)
Clydesdale ['klaidzdeil] — клайдесдал {английская порода тя­
желоупряжных лошадей)
M organ [‘mo:gan] — морган {американская порода верховых
лошадей)
227
 Shire [!faia] — шайр (английская порода тяжелоупряжных ло­
шадей) Я
S ta n d a rd ise d ['staendadbred] — стэнлардбред (американская
порода верховых лошадей) I
Suffolk [’sAfak] —суффолк (английская порода тяжелоупряж­
ных лошадей) 3
Thoroughbred ['0Arabred] — английская чистокровная порода
верховых лошадей

GRAM M AR REVISION
AND PRETEXT EXERCISES

Предложения с вводящим словом there

(Sentences introduced by there )
В предложениях с оборотом there + to be глагол to be исполь­
зуется в разных временных формах (is, are, was, were, will be, has
been etc) ( cm. Unit 1). Однако, на месте глагола to be могут также
употребляться следующие глаголы: '
1) модальные глаголы: must, should, may, can;
2 ) некоторые смысловые глаголы: arise возникать, появлять­
ся, apply применять, appear появляться, exist существовать,
follow следовать, live жить, occur происходить, remain оста­
ваться, seem казаться, take place иметь место, происходить.
При переводе на русский язык таких предложений переводят­
ся только эти глаголы, причем их значение сохраняется.
Examples: . а -irfi Л
There must be perfect sanitary В инкубаторе должны быть без-
conditions in the incubator. упречные санитарные условия.
There may be some outbreaks На любой ферме могут быть
of infectious diseases on anyw вспышки инфекционных за­
farm. болеваний.
There should be various types На ферме должны быть разные
of feeds on a farm. виды кормов.
There have appeared several Появилось несколько новых раз­
new varieties of pigs due новидностей свиней благодаря
to intercrossing. скрещиванию пород.
There exist several sheep breeds Существует несколько nopoj
of mutton-wool type. овец мясо-шерстного типа.
There remain very few wild Осталось очень мало диких ви­
species of pigs. дов свиней.
228
 Иногда глагол, стоящий после there, в рассматриваемом обо
роте может употребляться в страдательном залоге.
Example:
There should be done hard Должна проводиться усиленная
culling of birds from отбраковка птиц в племенном
the breeding stock. стаде.
There have been applied new Были использованы новые до-
supplements to cows’ rations. бавки в рационах коров.
Если в предложении с оборотом there + to be используется на­
речие there там, то оно обычно стоит в конце предложения.
Example:
There may be permanent pas- Там могут быть постоянные
tures for grazing cattle there. пастбища для выпаса скота.
1. Translate into Russian.
1. It is possible that there will take place the epidemic from the H5N1
type of avian influenzavirus in the near future. 2. There should be small
amounts of minerals and vitamins in the rations of young calves, piglets
as well as lambs. 3. There live small bands of the Bighorn, also called
the Mountain Sheep, in the remote mountainous areas of Canada.
4. There may arise several problems preventing the raising of dairy cattle
in this region. 5. There seems to be a decrease in biodiversity of farm
eggs
shape for incubation.

Инфинитивная конструкция с предлогом fo r

(The infinitive construction with preposition fo r)
Эта конструкция состоит из трех компонентов:
«for + существительное/местоимение + инфинитив».
Инфинитивная конструкция переводится на русский язык
придаточным предложением с союзом чтобы (для того чтобы ),
подлежащим которого становится существительное, а сказуемым
инфинитив, который переводится глаголом в прошедшем вре­
мени.
Рассматриваемая инфинитивная конструкция является в предло­
жении подлежащим, если употребляется после слов it Is im portant/
necessary/possible/difficult и т.п. В этом случае после предлога
for указывается лицо, которое выполняет действие, выраженное
инфинитивом (см. Unit 4).
Examples: •- f ! *іт*Щ
It is important for pharm aceu- Важно, чтобы фармацевтиче-
tical industry to provide ская промышленность обес­
farmers with sufficient печила фермеров достаточным
amounts of vaccines against количеством вакцин против
various animal diseases. различных заболеваний у жи­
вотных. I
Данная конструкция может также выполнять функцию обстоя­
тельства следствия после слов too, enough или обстоятельства цели.
Examples : ,,Л
Fattening pigs on wheat is too Откорм свиней на пшенице явля-
expensive for the pig ется слишком дорогостоящим,
production to develop чтобы свиноводство эффек­
efficiently in this region. тивно развивалось в этом
районе.
For calves to grow and develop Д ля того чтобы телята росли
rapidly, a farmer should и развивались быстро, фермер
provide the due care and должен обеспечить соответ­
feeding. ствующий уход и кормление.

Значения слов fo r , since

Н екоторы е значения слова fo r
Слово for имеет несколько способов перевода в зависимости
от контекста предложения:
1) для; за; от, против — в качестве предлога употребляется
перед существительным.
Examples :
The farmer has just sent for Фермер только что послал за ве­
a veterinarian. теринаром.
It is very important for bulls Очень важно для быков иметь до­
to have enough exercises. статочный моцион.
It has been found that organo- Установлено, что органофосфор-
phosphorous chemicals are ные препараты являются очень
very effective medicine for эффективным средством от /
external parasites as ticks против внешних паразитов,
and lice. таких как клещи и вши.
2) в течение, в продолжение — часто в предложениях со ска­
зуемым в форме Perfect.

230
Example:
For centuries, scientists have В течение столетий ученые ис-
used animals in medical пользовали животных в меди-
experments. цинских экспериментах.
3) так как — союз вводит придаточные предложения причи­
ны; обычно после запятой; syn as, since.
Example:
Quality and quantity of vitamins Качество и количество витаминов
and minerals are particularly и минеральных веществ oco-
important in the rations of бенно важно в рационах моло-
young pregnant gilts, for their дых супоросных свиней, так
requirements are much greater как их потребности гораздо
than those of the mature sow. больше, чем потребности
взрослой свиноматки.
4) чтобы — союз в конструкции for + noun + infinitive.
Example:
For the veal to be of the best Для того чтобы телятина была
quality, calves should obtain самого лучшего качества, те-
liberal feeding of whole milk. лята должны получать обиль-
g j p 1i ное кормление цельным мо-
Ец, локом.
5) некоторые словосочетания:
for a long tim e — постоянно, надолго, перманентно
for many reasons — по многим причинам
for some reason — как-нибудь', как-т о ; почему-то
for sure — подлинно', достоверно
for exam ple/for instance — например
for (the) m ost p a rt — главным образом', большей частью',
в основном', в целом
for the first time — в первый раз
to be famous for smth — знаменитый чем-л.', syn to be noted
for smth
to be ready for action (use) — готовый к действию {употреб-
лению)
as for — касательно ( чего-л., кого-л.), относительно (чего-л.,
кого-л.), что касается (чего-л., кого-л.), в отношении
as for the rest — что касается всего остального-, syn concerning

Значения слова since

Слово since имеет несколько способов перевода в зависимо
сти от контекста предложения:
231
 1) с — предлог перед словами, обозначающими время/момент
времени; чЛ
2 ) с тех пор; с тех пор как; 1
3) так как, поскольку — союз придаточного предложения при­
чины.

Examples :
Since 1910, the amount of feed
required to produce a pound
of turkey meat has fallen
40 per cent.
The Merino was developed
in Spain from stock native
to that country before the
Christian era and since
then it is known as one of
the best fine-wool breeds
of sheep.
It is advisable to use only
purebred bulls for breeding,
since they transmit their
characteristics to the calves.
С 1910 года количество корма,
требуемого для производства
фунта мяса индейки, снизи­
лось на 40%. ' 1
Порода меринос была выведена
в Испании из местного пого­
ловья скота до нашей эры
и с тех пор она известна как
одна из самых лучших тонко­
рунных пород овец. I
Рекомендуется использовать толь­
ко чистокровных быков для
разведения, т ак как они пе­
редают свои характеристики
телятам.

2. In the following sentences find the English words which are translated
into Russian as: а) чтобы; b) так как ; с) в течение:
1. Brown Swiss cows raised for milk production in the Alps should
be kept on mountain pastures since early summer, for the pasture
grasses provide the best forage and it is during the summer that
cows produce much more milk. - , ; J
2. Since hatching and during the whole rearing period of the poultry,
adequate artificial light should be provided over the food troughs
for the birds to eat regularly and with ease.
3. The records of performance for individual animals, for instance
for cows, ewes and sows, should be kept thoroughly, since it may
help to estimate the efficiency of the whole herd or flock.
4. For the beef cows to have some rest and be ready for the next
calving, the calves should be weaned at eight to ten months of age.
5. For geese to fatten well, they should be fed grain for the last six
weeks before killing.
6 . Since young pigs suck the same teat during the whole suckling
period, the smallest and the weakest piglet in the litter should be
put at birth to the gland that secretes most milk for the piglet to
gain as the other ones. ; ,r л . Si

232
 7. For centuries poultry breeders have been keeping certain fowl
varieties for ornamental purposes or for the birds to be exhibited
at popular poultry shows.
3. a) Read and translate the text into Russian. Give the headings to the
parts of the text.
b) Find in the text the sentences:
— introduced by there;
— with the construction “/o r + noun + infinitive”.

H O R SE BR EED IN G

(1) A horse is a hoofed, herbivorous, large land mammal known for

its speed, strength and endurance. Horses are members of the Equidae
family1, which also includes zebras and asses (or donkeys). However,
horses comprise a single species, Equus caballus, whose numerous
varieties are called breeds. Similar to all members of this family, the
horse is extremely well adapted to travelling long distances with great
efficiency and to surviving on a diet of nutrient-poor, high-fibre grasses.
(2) Young horses that are three years of age or less are known as foals;
male foals are called colts and females fillies. A mature male horse and
a female horse are called a stallion and a mare, respectively. A stallion
used for breeding is known as a stud and a castrated stallion is commonly
called a gelding. Formerly, stallions were employed as riding horses,
while mares were kept for breeding purposes only. Geldings were used
for work and as ladies’ riding horses. Recently, however, geldings
generally have replaced stallions as riding horses.
(3) Long before their domestication, horses were hunted by primitive
tribes for their meat which is still consumed by people in some parts of
Europe and in Iceland. When domestication of horses took place is
unknown, but it certainly was long after the domestication of the dog or of
cattle and probably occurred at least as early as 3000 BC in the Near East.
The horse’s influence on human history and civilization make it one
of the most important domestic animals. Throughout much of human
history, horses have provided humans with mobility and have served in
agriculture, warfare, and sport. For many centuries the horse was widely
used as a draft animal and riding on horseback was one of the chief
means of transportation. It is important that there may be established
unique relationships between the horse and the rider or trainer when the
animal is often regarded as a partner and a friend.
Today, domestic horses are found throughout the world, with a total
population estimated at 60 million. Nowadays, horses are widely bred
and raised for horse racing, that is, the sport of running horses at speed.
Although horse racing is one of the oldest of all sports, there has been
applied the same basic concept over the centuries, that is, the horse that
finishes first is the winner.
233
 (4) Moreover, a variety of other valuable products can be produced
from horses, for example, horse bones and cartilage2 are used to make
glue3. There can be obtained tetanus antitoxin4 from the blood serum5
of horses. From horsehide 6 a number of things are manufactured,
including fine shoes, belts, and stylish fur coats. Horsehair has wide use
in upholstery7, mattresses, lining8 for coats and suits; and even it may
be used for making violin bows9. Since the ancient times horse manure
is known as fuel. Mare’s milk was drunk by the Scythians10, the Mongols,
and the Arabs and is still valued as a drink in some countries.
(5) Selective breeding by humans has produced more than 100 breeds
of horses, many of which are characterized by distinctive traits such as
size, appearance, or temperament. Some breeds are the product of
deliberate efforts over many centuries to develop horses suitable for
performing specialized tasks, such as racing, herding livestock, or pulling
plows, wagons, or carriages. O ther breeds simply reflect regional
differences that have accumulated over years as relatively isolated
populations of animals were bred together.
In general, domestic horses may be divided into three major types
or classes, based on size and build: heavy horses, heavy-limbed 11 and
up to 200 centimetres high; ponies, that is horses under 144 centimetres
high; and light horses (or riding horses) which fall in the intermediate
size range. i- - '^r-cd
(6) Heavy horses are divided into draft and coach horse breeds. The
former used for heavy loads and farm labour descended from the ancient
war horses of the Middle Ages. Draft horse breeds including the English
Shire (the world’s largest horse), Suffolk, and Clydesdale; the Belgian
horse and some other French, German breeds are now seldom used for
their original purpose, since they have been almost entirely replaced by
the tractor in the 20th century. On the contrary, for the horses to be able
to pull large carriages and perform some light farm work horsemen
developed coach horses. The Cleveland Bay is an example of a typical
coach horse breed. £
(7) Light horses include saddle horses, such as the Arabians (or the
Arabs), thoroughbreds, and quarter horses; and light harness horses,
such as Morgans and standardbreds. The Arabian breed, prized for its
endurance, intelligence, and character as well as beauty and elegance,
is one of the oldest horse breeds developed in Arabia by the 7th century
AD. This ancient, pure breed has greatly influenced the development
of almost all modem horse breeds. The Thoroughbred is known as the
most distinguished racehorse breed, though horses are also used as
hunters and jum pers. All thoroughbreds are descendants of three
Arabian stallions that were brought to England in the late 1600s and early
1700s and bred with native European mares. The pedigree of all purebred
horses has been recorded in the British General Studbook fo r Thor­
oughbred Horses, first published in 1791 and there appeared studbooks
for other breeds. Quarter horses were developed in America from crosses
234
between thoroughbreds and descendants of Spanish horses. The quarter
horse takes its name from the length of the first racetracks, which were
straight and measured a quarter-mile long. Originally prized for its quick
start and speed over short distances, this horse soon became more
valuable for working cattle. Quarter horses are widely used for work on
cattle ranches, pulling carts and wagons.
As to the harness horses, the Morgan was developed in Vermont from
matings between various female horses and a single, famous male —
a dark bay called Justin Morgan who was bom in the late 18th century.
Used originally to pull light carriages, the Morgan is now considered a
multipurpose breed and is popular as a saddle horse. The Standardbred
is another distinctive American breed ranking as one of the world’s finest
harness racers. The breed was developed in the 19th century and can
be traced largely to the sire Messenger, a Thoroughbred imported from
Britain in 1788 and mated to various brood mares in different American
states. Compared with the Thoroughbred, the Standardbred is longer-
bodied, shorter-legged, heavier-boned, and not so tall.
(8) There exist two main kinds of racing known as racing on the flat
and harness racing. The former involves using mainly Thoroughbred
horses with a rider astride12, while the latter means racing with the
Standardbred horse pulling a conveyance13with a driver. In the modem
era, horse racing has become a huge public-entertainment business, for
instance Derby Day at Epsom in England may attract as many as
500,000 spectators.
(9) Many factors such as clim ate, location, and food greatly
influenced the main characteristics of horses. In contrast to their wild
ancestors, domestic horses tend to be nearsighted , less hardy, high-
strung 15 and often more nervous, especially thoroughbreds, where
intensive breeding has been focused mainly upon speed qualities. The
stomach is relatively small, and, since much vegetation must be ingested
to maintain vital processes, feeding is almost constant under natural
conditions. Domestic animals kept in stables are fed at least three times
a day in quantities depending on the efforts of the horse.
(10) For the horse to obtain a complete ration, a horseman should
choose the feed according to the animal particular function at a given
time, such as growth, pregnancy, lactation, or maintenance. Moreover,
horse feeding requirements may differ from the normal ones m terms
of weight, temperament and previous nutrition. Nowadays a number of
commercial feed mixes are available to modem horse breeders; these
mixes containing minerals, vitamins, and other nutrients provide
a balanced diet and may be supplemented with hay.
There exist certain rules horsemen should follow in feeding horses.
To avoid digestive troubles the animal should not be fed immediately
before or after work. The animal should never be watered when it is
overheated after working. It is necessary for the horse to have a free
access to salt at all times and especially when the horse is shedding its
235
 winter coat. Bread, carrots, and sugar are tidbits17often used to reward
an animal by the rider or trainer. ”3 E I
(11) Depending on the breed it is normally required about four years
or less for the horse to reach the mature weight and five years for the horse I
to become an adult. Fertility also varies according to the breed and may
last beyond age 20 with thoroughbreds and to 12 or 15 with other horses.
The gestation period of horses is 11 months, and as a rule, a mare
produces one foal per mating, twins occasionally, and triplets rarely. It is
recommended that the foal should be weaned at the age of six months.
Mature stallions can safely mate with from 50 to 100 mares per
season, although the practice with expensive Thoroughbreds is to mate
the sire with no more than 35 to 40 mares. Highly-bred light horses are !
known as poor reproducers. On many horse farms the average foaling
rate is approximately 60 per cent for a large band of mares. Most large
horse farms employ veterinarians to check for abnormalities or diseases
before breeding and to check pregnant mares. Expert assistance at
foaling time is an absolute necessity, especially if the foal is sired by an
expensive stallion out of a valuable mare.
(12) The feet and legs of horses require unusual attention, for they
are sensitive to blows, sprains18, and overwork, especially if the horse is
young. The old proverb “no foot no horse” remains apt19. Hooves
should be trim m ed 20 regularly, beginning when the horse is a foal.
Otherwise they may break or crack, grow long and uneven, causing
improper action. Horses that work regularly on hard and stony ground,
as well as show horses and race horses in service, must be shod.
(13) The useful life of a horse varies according to the amount of work
it is required to do and the maintenance provided by its owner. The more
carefully a horse is trained and cared, the more time it may serve the
rider. For example, racehorses that enter into races at the age of two
rarely remain on the racetrack beyond eight. Well-kept riding horses,
on the contrary, may be used for more than 20 years.
The life span of a horse is calculated at six to seven times the time
necessary for a horse physical and mental development, that is, at least
30 to 35 years, but as a rule it is about 20 to 25 years. It is interesting that
ponies generally live longer than large horses. There can be mentioned
a number of examples of horses that have passed the usual limit of age.

COMMENTS 1
1. Equidae family — семейство лошадиных
2. cartilage ['kaitilicfc] — хрящ
3. glue [glu:] — клей
4. tetanus antitoxin [tetanas .aentrtoksin] — препарат против столбняка
5. serum ['siaram] — сыворотка
6. horsehide — жеребок (конская шкура или шкура жеребёнка)
7. upholstery [Ap'haulstап ] — обивочный материал

236
 8. lining ['lainmJ — подкладка
9. violin bows — смычки для скрипок
10. Scythians ['sidisnz] — скифы
11. heavy-limbed [limd] — зд. с тяжелыми конечностями
12. astride [as'traid] — верхом на лошади
13. conveyance [kanVeians] — зд. повозка
14. nearsighted [.ma'saitid] — близорукий
15. high-strung fjhai'strAg] — легковозбудимый
16. is shedding — зд. линяет
17. tidbit — Am E лакомый кусочек
18. sprain [spreinj — растяжение связок, сустава
19. apt — зд. удачный, подходящий
20. to trim — подрезать

EXERCISES ТО THE TEXT

4. Find in the text:
a) nouns corresponding to the following verbs:
to descend, to appear, to win, to domesticate, to own, to train, to
practise, to ride, to race, to drive, to reproduce, to hunt, to jump
b) English equivalents for the following Russian word-combinations:
содержащийся в порядке; высокое содержание клетчатки; легко
возбудимый; с более длинным телом; более коротконогий; с более
крупным костяком (крупными костями); близорукий
c) Translate the following word-combinations into Russian:
short-tailed, heavy-headed, short-homed, medium-sized, heavy-
weighted, well-muscled, far-sighted, short-haired, high-set (about eyes),
broad-shouldered, narrow-breasted, long-legged
5. Find In the text:
— the description of the horse characteristics;
— the purposes for breeding horses in past times and at present;
— valuable things that can be obtained from horses; add your own
examples. ^ >1r
6. Complete the following sentences using the information from the text:
j There exists the following classification of horses... . 2. Since
ancient times there lived wild species of horses that people... . 3. For
many centuries horses have been.... 4. Since the horse is not only a
means of transport, there m ay.... 5. There remain some regions where
horses are still used... . 6 . For the horses to be strong enough to carry
heavy loads, horse breeders develop... . 7. There should be special
requirements for breeding light horses, since... . 8. There was applied
the method for estimating quarter horses which... . 9. Since the 20th
237
 century horses... . 10. There seem to be some differences between
modem horses.... 11. Since the Thoroughbred sire is very expensive....
12. To provide the horse with a complete ration, it is necessary to take
into account.... 13. The most sensitive parts of the horse body are feet
and legs, since... . 14. For the horse to serve its owner longer tim e....
7. Complete the following scheme and use it to speak about the main
classes and breeds of horses.
Main Types of Horses
I
ponies
coach

Morgan
? quarters

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
8. Fill the gaps with the suitable word(s) in the correct form:
brood mare, coach, deliberate, distinctive, distinguished, to employ,
endurance,foaling,formerly, heavy, lifespan, light, necessity, to occur,
to perform, to prize, to pull, to rank, to regard, respectively, to ride,
saddle, to shoe, stallion(2), thoroughbreds, to trace(2)
1. The ... of a horse and a camel is 20 to 25 years and 30 to 40 years,....
2. A veterinarian usually ... on a large horse breeding farm in case of
any abnormalities that may ... during the ... and to avoid any complica­
tions after it. 3. There is a strong ... to take special care of horse’s feet and
legs, so horses must be ... and their old shoes must be regularly replaced.
4. The Arabian highly... for its endurance and ... as one of world’s best
racing horses. 5...., when horses were the main means of transport, both
men and women were able ... horses skilfully. 6 . All modem horses may­
be classified according to where they originated, by the principal use of
the horse (riding or ..., d ra ft,... horse), and by th e ir... appearance and
size (...,..., pony). 7. The Morgan ranges from 14 to 16 hands in height
and resembles the Arabian in size, conformation, quality, and .... 8. The
Thoroughbred racing horse is descended from three ... brought to
England between 1689 and 1724; all of the Thoroughbreds of the world
today... to one of these .... 9. As with all pregnant animals, th e ... should
be maintained in flesh and even if it is kept in the stable, it should be
forced to get regular exercise. 10. As a result of the ... breeding, quarter
horses were developed in America by crossing ... with descendants of
Spanish horses, but later they were used to ... work on cattle ranches o r ...
carriages. 11. Messenger is the most ... sire, because he was the great-
238
grandsire of Hambletonian 10, to whom every Standardbred can ... its
inheritance. 12. The Arabian breed widely ... as the definition of beauty
and elegance in horses.
9. Change the sentences as in the model.
Model'. A few wild breeds of horses are known now. ( There exist...)
-» There exist a few wild breeds of horses.
1. It is necessary to take measures to conserve the disappearing
animal species. ( There should...)
2. Probably the Appaloosa breed descended from wild mustangs in
the Indian territory of North America. ( There seems...)
3. It is difficult to keep horses in stables in large cities and it may
cause some problems. ( There arise...)
4. The racing competition was held in Moscow last year. ( There took
place...)
5. While many colours are possible in the Arabian breed, grey
dominates. ( There may...)
6 . The Morgan horse originated from a stallion given to Justin
Morgan of Vermont around 1795. ( There lived...)
7. It is important to provide the horse with the free access to salt at
any time. {There must...)
8 . When Messenger was imported to the US, it was mated to various
Morgans and other American breeds. ( There followed...)
10. Change the sentences using the construction “/o r + noun + infinitive”.
Model'. To develop well, piglets should be fed properly. -> For the
piglets to develop well, they should be fed properly.
1. To be in thrifty condition, the stud is to be provided with proper
care and feeding. 2. In order to obtain proper ration for the horses kept
in stables, hay and grain should be included in their diet. 3. To meet
the energy requirements of horses, there may be a necessity to supplement
pasture grasses with grain. 4. To avoid any forage poisoning and
respiratory complications, horses should not be fed moldy or dusty feeds.
5. During the autumn and winter period to satisfy the needs of horses
in protein, horsemen should provide horses with high-quality legume
hays. 6 . To produce more milk, the lactating horse should obtain more
feeds rich in protein and sufficient amount of water. 7. I n order to grow
and develop properly, foals are allowed to run with their dams for five
or sue months or for longer periods. 8 . In order to serve to an older age,
the racehorses should be trained carefully and slowly.
11. Translate into English.
а) кобылка трехлетка; верховой жеребенок; высоко цените за
выносливость; ездить верхом на жеребенке; после выжеребки;
подкованный мерин; содержать верховых лошадей в конюшне;
239
исключительный (уникальный) чистокровный жеребец; рассмат­
ривать как партнера; племенная кобыла; происходить от знаме­
нитого племенного жеребца; вести племенные книги; жизненный
отрезок; тащить повозку или плуг; заменять рабочую лошадь на І
трактор; упряжная лошадь; быстроаллюрная лошадь; тяжелоуп-
ряжные лошади; лошадь на ранчо; избегать тяжелой работы; скач­
ки/состязания в скорости; скачки на лошадях, запряженных в
легкие коляски; продуманная племенная работа; раньше/прежде
выполняли тяжелую работу на ферме; считать первым (распола­
гать на первом месте); нанимать на работу ветеринара; разнооб­
разить породу; встречаются разного цвета; особые/отличительные
характеристики; по крайней мере три раза в день; наоборот; по
сравнению; существуют отличия Щ
b) 1. Благодаря многим видам работы, которые могут выпол­
нять лошади, были выведены многочисленные породы, отлича­
ющиеся по размеру от маленьких пони до массивных тяжелово­
зов. 2. При выборе скаковой лошади ценятся такие качества, как
внешний вид, скорость, выносливость, понятливость и темпера­
мент, однако родословная чистокровных лошадей имеет первосте­
пенное значение (стоит на первом месте). 3. На потребности в
питательных веществах у лошадей влияют ее живой вес, темпера­
мент (нрав), а также вид работы, выполняемой ею в данный мо­
мент. 4. Существуют разные породы верховых лошадей, но почти
все они происходят (берут свое начало) от английской породы
чистокровных верховых лошадей, выведенных в Англии. 5. Для
того чтобы племенная кобыла и жеребенок получали необходи­
мый уход и кормление, следует содержать их в отдельном загоне
в течение первых трех-четырех дней после выжеребки.
12. Translate the sentences into R ussian and identify the function o f the
infinitive. ' ■
1. To wean the foal it is necessary to take the mare from the foal
quietly and far enough for the foal not to hear its mother. 2. To keep
thoroughbred stallions or brood mares in stables in big cities or their
suburbs has become popular in recent years, but there arise a lot of
problems. 3. At present, the tendency is to breed medium-sized work
horses with a mature weight of about 1,600 lb or less. 4. It is essential
for heavy horses to possess such qualities as strength and endurance to
perform heavy farm work, though it is desirable for draft animals to have
a fair degree of speed in many cases. 5. Light horses and saddle horses f
are to be beautiful and graceful in action. 6 . To m ate expensive
Thoroughbreds to no more than 35 to 40 mares is a common practice. 1
7. For breeding stock it is important to use brood mares and studs in
order to transmit the desired characteristics to their offspring. 8. When
horses are kept on pastures, it is recommended to use rotation of
240
pastures, strict sanitation, and suitable vermifuges to prevent any
digestive troubles.
13. Translate the sentences into Russian paying attention to the different
meanings o f the word breeding.
1. Horsemen breeding Arabian horses know that stallions and mares
may be used for work until the age of 28-30. 2. Breeding racing horses
has become a very specialised business. 3. This farm specializes in
breeding quarter horses. 4. Breeding horses in dry deserts, horsemen
managed to develop the Arabian breed noted for its strength and endurance.
5. A stallion used for breeding is known as a stud. 6 . Formerly, mares
were kept for breeding purposes only. 7. Before breeding mares should be
examined by a veterinarian. 8. Climatic conditions and selective breeding
favoured the development of the English Thoroughbred. 9. The World
Arabian Horse Organization was established in 1972 to coordinate any
work connected with the improving of the Arabian breed. 10. A special
horse centre situated in Ufa is breeding the Bashkir stock. 11. As a result
of deliberate breeding by humans, horses demonstrate a remarkable
variation in size, body shape, and coat colour. 12. The breeding of
thoroughbred stallions requires the knowledge of their pedigree.
14. Fill the gaps with the correct preposition.
1. The demand ... duck eggs is small compared ... hen eggs. 2. Due ...
the friendly relations established ... the horse and the master, the latter
can rely ... the animal in any dangerous situation. 3. Forage feed is
necessary... the proper functioning... the digestive system... horses and
ponies. 4. An individual horse’s nutritional requirement will vary
depending ... its age, weight and activity. 5. The total am ount... milk
required ... the calf depends ... its birth weight and the rate varies ...
4... 6 litres ... milk ... day. 6. The pedigree and its careful study are ...
great importance ... the high-class horse breeding business. 7. The use
... synthetic hormones ... fattening cattle results ... a 10 to 20 per cent
increase ... daily gain with less feed required ... pound ... gain. 8. The
duration ... lactation has been found to vary ... the age ... the cow, the
breed and feeding. 9. The second period ... the dairy cow’s life lasts ...
6 months until the heifer calves ... the first time, usually ... about 2.5
years... age. 10. Production... cow varies... many environmental factors,
but the genetic background ... the cow is ... great value. 11. Changes ...
beef cattle, particularly the establishment... new breeds, have resulted
... selective linebreeding and crossbreeding.

EXERCISES FOR GROUP WORK

15. Students divide into two groups: Group A includes the representatives
of the American Association of the Standardbred and Group В —
241
 the Russian horse breeders. Hold a discussion comparing the breeds,
identifying their similarities, differences, strong and weak points.

USEFUL LANGUA GE
Expressing comparison: ]
Here are the data of the comparison between such horse breeds as.T h ere
is nothing with which the breed can be compared...; By comparing the
horse physical characteristics with those of other breeds...; On the
contrary...; Compared with...; In comparison with...; In contrast to the
existing common view it should be mentioned...; Such strong points can
be observed by contrast with...; If we compare ... with ..., we shall find out
that...; The differences can be clearly seen...; It should be regarded as the
main difference/essential distinction; In order to see the similarities and
differences, it is necessary to...; There exists a great variety in colour/size...

Task for Group A

THE STANDARDBRED BREED

The origin: The breed traces back to M essenger, an English

Thoroughbred foaled in 1780, later exported to the United States.
The origin o f the breed name: The early trotters were required to
reach a certain standard for the mile distance in order to be registered
as part of the new breed. The mile is still the standard distance covered
in nearly every harness race.
The breed characteristics: In many respects it resembles its ancestor
the Thoroughbred. It does not stand as tall, averaging 15.2 hands,
although it has a longer body. The horse’s head is refined, set on a medium­
sized neck. The quarters are muscular yet sleek. The clean hind legs are
set well back. The breed appears in varying colours, although bay, brown
and black are predominant. It weighs between 800 and 1,000 pounds.
Animals are good-natured, friendly, quick learners and are noted for
having a calm temperament. 1
The races: The first races were held along roads; often the streets of
major cities were cleared and races conducted, that’s why so many
American cities have a Race Street. The past few years have seen major
improvements in racetrack construction and maintenance; in sulky and
harness design; and in the breed itself. Harness racing is primarily
centred in the Northeast and Midwest. The sport is also popular in
Florida, California, and throughout Canada. The sport’s premier track,
the Meadowlands, is located within 15 minutes of New York City. Both
three-year-old trotters and pacers compete for their own Triple Crown.
The most fam ous horses: Dan Patch, one of the fastest (1:55 for the
mile) and most popular Standaidbreds ever. The legendary Niatross started
a new era with a 1:49-1/5 time-trial, the first harness horse to break 1:50.
242
 Popularity. It is a very popular road horse. The American Road
Horse and Pony Association and the World Championship Horse Show
have named a new Roadster class in honour of the United States Trotting
Association. The entries compete for prize money in excess of $15,000.
This new and exciting event will be held annually during World
Championship Horse Show Week at the Kentucky Fair and Expositions
Center. Other uses for the Standardbred include dressage, eventing,
western and hunt seat pleasure classes, hunters, jumpers, trail horses,
barrel racers, endurance mounts, cutting, gymkhana, racking and saddle
seat classes, and police and drill team mounts.
Search the following website for more information:
www.americansaddlebredsporthorse.com — The American Saddlebred
Sporthorse Association.

Task for Group В

T H E AKHAL-TEKE BREED

The origin : The Teke tribe that lived on the isolated Akhal oasis
protected from the rest of the world by natural barriers developed the
breed and it greatly influenced the relative genetic stability to their prized
horses.
The origin o f the breed name: The breed name dates back to the end
of the 19th century. It consists of two words: “Akhal”, the long oasis situated
in the foothills of the Kopet Dag Mountains and “Teke”, after the Turkmen
tribe that inhabited the oasis and for centuries raised the Turkmene horse.
The breed characteristics: The breed appearance is unique with
distinctive features. The head and neck are long, the eyes are large and
expressive and sometimes almond-shaped, the ears are narrow and high-
set, the chest is narrow, the body is long and lean, the muscling well
defined, the legs are slender, the skin is thin, the hair is silky. Several
colours are possible, but the most common include bay, black, chestnut,
grey. The most distinguished feature is a pronounced metallic sheen, a
glossy golden polish overlaying the basic coat colour.
The Akhal-Teke belongs to the hot-blood category. The severe desert
conditions in the region favoured survival of a horse that could tolerate
extreme heat, dry cold and drought. Additionally, the horse may survive
on scarce rations, mostly a low-bulk diet of high protein grains mixed
with mutton fat.
The most fam ous horses'. It is believed that the Byerly Turk, one of
the three founding stallions of the English Thoroughbred, is an Akhal-
Teke. In the beginning of the 19th century, the famous stallion Turkmen-
Atti was used to introduce new blood into the Trakehner warm blood.
Akhal-Teke blood also figured prominently in the formation of the Don
and Budyonny breed.
243
 The races: In 1935, Akhal-Tekes were tested in a famous endurance
ride from Ashkhabad to Moscow, which lasted for 84 days. Horses
covered a distance of 4,330 kilometres and had to pass various climatic
zones including the Kara Kum desert, mosquito-infested swamps, huge
forests. The purebred Akhal-Tekes, notably Arab and Alsakar demonstrated
the superiority of the breed for hardiness and endurance.
Arab’s son Absent won the gold medal in individual dressage at the
1960 Rome Olympics, won a bronze individual medal in the 1964 Tokyo
Olympics and in 1968 was a member of the gold-medal Soviet team in
Mexico. Senetir, the first Akhal-Teke stallion to stand stud in America,
was purchased at auction in Russia in 1978 and imported to Virginia.
Popularity: The exotically beautiful, extravagantly graceful Akhal-
Teke horse was not well-known outside of the former Soviet Union until
recently. But now the breed is highly regarded abroad for its speed,
endurance, comfortable gaits, intelligence, and trainability.
The breed unique features have remained the same for centuries.
Written breed records have been kept since 1885. The first studbook for
Central Asian breeds was published in 1941. In 1975, with the publication
of the fifth studbook, the breed was recognized as purebred and the book
was closed. Since 1973, breed records in the studbook for the Akhal-
Teke have been maintained by the distinguished scholar, Tatyana N.
Ryabova, of the All-Russian Institute of Horsebreeding (VNIIK). For
1994, 220 stallions and 1,156 mares were registered. That number grew
by 1997 to 290 stallions and 1,164 mares.
The best horses are currently being bred on the Stavropol Farm and
Akhal-Yurt Farm. Worldwide several organizations are supporting the
breed: the International Association of Akhal-Teke Horse Breeding
founded in 1995; the Association for Akhal-Teke Horse Breeding since
1998 which conducts a competition for Akhal-Tekes in Moscow.
Search the following w ebsites for more information:
1. http://zoo.rin.ru/cgi-bin/en/index.pl?idr=2323& art=2350 —
History and Origin of the Breed.
2. http://w w w .m aakcenter.org/E N G /B R E E D /history.htm l --
History of the Akhal-Teke.
3. http://www.maakcenter.org/ENG/news.html — The International
Association of Akhal-Teke Horse Breeding (MAAK).
4. http://www.maakcenter.org/ENG/vniik.html — The All-Russian
Scientific Research Institute of Horse Breeding (VNIIK).

SUPPLEM ENTARY TEXTS

16. While reading the text find each part o f the horse’s body in the picture
and put the number in the brackets (Fig. 7). U se the picture to describe
the horse and speak about its main characteristics.

244
Fig. 7. Find the names of the parts of the horse’s body in the text and match
them with the picture

T ext 1
THE DESCRIPTION OF THE HORSE

As a result of deliberate breeding by humans, horses display a remark­

able variation in size, body shape, and coat colour. Traditionally, a
horse’s size is measured at the withers ( ), the highest part of horse’s
back. The measurement is made in hands; one hand equals about 10 cm.
The horse is often considered to be the most intelligent among
subhuman animals. A horse’s head is composed of the skull, and the
face, distinguished by a long muzzle ( ) consisting of the nose and lower
and upper lips ( ). The skull encloses the animal’s large, complex brain,
well-developed in those areas that direct muscle coordination. The
muzzle provides enough distance between the horse’s mouth and its eyes
so that it can graze and watch for danger at the same time. The top of
a horse’s head is the poll ( ).
Horses have the largest eyes of any land mammal. The large eyes
protrude from the sides of the head, enabling horses to see almost
directly behind themselves, even while facing forward. Their night vision
is excellent. Horses have limited colour vision, so they perceive red and
blue, but they cannot distinguish between green and shades of grey.
245
 Horses can close their wide nostrils ( ) against dusty winds, and they
can move their large ears to detect sounds from various directions. The
senses of smell and hearing are sharper than in human beings.
The horse, like other grazing herbivores, has typical adaptations for
plant eating: powerful teeth and jaws to grind and break down plant
fibres. Young horses have milk (or baby) teeth, which they begin to shed
at about age two and a half. The perm anent teeth are completely
developed by age four to five years; the total number of teeth on the
upper and lower jaws for females is 36 and for males is 40. The lower
jaw is called the cheek ( ). As horses get older, their teeth surfaces wear
down providing a reliable method of judging a horse’s age.
A horse’s head is held up by its long, flexible neck, which lets the
horse both reach down to the ground to feed and rise high enough to
sight danger. Its long neck and high-set eyes enable the horse to notice
a possible threat even while eating low grasses. j
The horse’s body has a wide chest ( ), which holds its enormous
lungs and heart; and a muscular back, beneath which lie the horse’s
internal organs for digesting food and reproducing. A horse’s ability to
carry weight is dependent on the size of its chest. If the chest is narrow,
a horse usually does not do well with draft work but may be fine in
harness or with light rider. On the other hand, narroweness in the chest
may result from immaturity, poor body condition, inadequate nutrition,
or underdeveloped breast muscles from a long time in pasture and lack
of consistent work. Horses may have two types of shoulders ( ): either
straight, upright, or vertical shoulders and laid-back or sloping ones. The
former is best for park showing, parade horses, and activities requiring
a quick burst of speed, like Quarter Horse racing. A sloping shoulder is
most advantageous for jumping, polo, driving, racing, and endurance.
A horse’s long, flowing tail helps keep its hindquarters warm and is
used to swish away insects. The croup ( ) is the part of the back of a horse
near the tail (or the hindquarters). The horses with short croup such as
Arabs, Quarter Horses, draft breeds are best suited for pleasure and trail,
harness, non-speed, and non-jumping events. The flat or horizontal
croup found especially in Saddlebreds, Arabians, and Gaited horses is
best for distance trail, showing, and carriage driving.
The horse’s general characteristic is an animal of speed. Long, light
legs allow a horse to reach speeds of 70 km /h. In 1877 due to the
photographic series of a horse in motion it was shown that at one point
in a horse’s stride, all four legs are off the ground. Proper conformation
of both the front and hind (back) legs of the horse is of great important.
It is surprising that some parts of the horse’s legs have the same names
as in a human. For example, the front leg consists of the arm ( ), the
elbow ( ) and the knee ( ), which are similar to the human arm, elbow
and ankle respectively. The part of the back leg, that is equivalent to the
lower thigh in humans is known as the gaskin or the second thigh ( ).
The joint in the hind leg of a horse corresponding to the human ankle
246
is called the hock ( ). The foot of a horse as well as of a cow is covered
with bomy material forming the hoof. The thicker back part of a horse’s
leg near the hoof is the fetlock ( ) and the thin part of a horse’s leg
between the fetlock and the hoof is the pastern ( ). The upper part of
a horse s hoof where the horn of the hoof meets the skin of the pastern
is the cdronet ( ).
Many types of horses are distinguished by the colours and patterns of
their hairy coat, a tail and a mane ( ). The latter is long hair on the head
and neck of a horse, while a ridge along the neck of a horse from which
hair grows is known as the crest ( ). The front part of a horse’s mane
falling forward between its eyes on the forehead is called the forelock ( ).
A heavy winter coat grows in the fall and sheds in the spring. Among
the most important colours are black, brown, grey, gold, cream, and
white. The mane and tail can be the same or different from the body
colour, and many variations in colour can result from inherited traits. The
black colour is a true black, although there may be a white face marking1
on the muzzle and white ankles or stockings. The brown horse is almost
black but has lighter areas around the muzzle, eyes, and legs. Many colour
patterns have specific names, such as bay2 (brown with black mane and
tail), or chestnut3 (reddish brown with mane and tail of the same or lighter
colour). Bay refers to several shades of brown, from red brown and tan4
to sandy, but bay horses usually have a black mane, tail, and stockings.

COMMENTS
1. marking — расцветка; окраска, цвет
2. bay — гнедой
3. chestnut — гнедой или темно-рыжей масти (о лошади)
4. tan — желтовато-коричневый; рыжевато-коричневый
17. Read and translate the text into Russian. Prepare an advertisement
about the museum in order to attract more visitors.

USEFUL LANGUAGE
Dear visitors/guests; Welcome to visit our exhibition where you..., There
are many paintings and sculptures on display; It is worth seeing, You may
admire/enjoy...

Text 2
THE MUSEUM OF HORSE BREEDING

Yakov Ivanovich Butovich, the founder of the Museum of Horse

Breeding, was bom in a noble family and his father was also a horse
breeder. Butovich completed his education in a cavalry school and
247
became an officer of the Ulan division. In 1900, after the death of his
father, he inherited a farm of Orlov trotters and retired. In a short time
he became a very successful Russian horse breeder.
At the same time Butovich was known as the owner of an art gallery
in his own village of Prilepi in the Tula area where he collected paintings
of every horse breed. He ordered contemporary artists to paint works
of art for himself as well as collected masterpieces by the most celebrated
Russian artists of the 19th century, assembling a unique collection of
equine paintings, drawings and sculptures.
After the Russian Revolution of 1917 Butovich’s estate and art
collection were nationalized, but he remained the director of the state-
owned museum and the art gallery for 10 years until 1928 when he was
arrested. The collection was moved to Moscow and on its basis the
Scientific and Art Museum of Horse Breeding was opened January 23,
1929 at the Moscow state Hippodrome. About 1,182 wonderful paintings
and sculptures from Butovich’s collection and 262 other exhibits from
the state museum fund were held in the new museum.
Later Butovich was released but till his death, in 1937, he lived in
exile. However, he continued to systematize and make up a catalogue
of all the exhibits of his former collection. Also, he wrote a long
monograph dedicated to the famous Russian artist N. E. Sverchkov.
In 1940 the State Science-Art M useum was transferred to the
Timiryazev Agricultural Academy’s horse breeding school and was
renamed into the Museum of Horse Breeding.
A special exhibition named “The Imperial Russian Horse: Equine
Art from the Reign of the Czars” was held in the Museum of the Horse
in New Mexico, the USA, in 1995.
The museum collection has grown over the years and it is known as
the largest collection of equine art in the world. The museum visitors
can see the paintings depicting racing scenes mixed with sporting,
military and agrarian uses of the horse. The museum is proud of the
largest collection of the masterpieces by N .E. Sverchkov (1817—1898),
a great equine artist, the artworks by E. A. Lansere (1848—1886), a French
sculptor who lived in Russia. |
The museum’s library has more than 12,000 books and journals in
different languages dating to the 16th century. There are about 50,000
negatives of photos in the museum as well as collections of bells, stamps,
postcards, badges, and souvenirs devoted to horses.
The Museum of Horse Breeding is not only a gallery but it is primarily
used by the Timiryazev Academy students to study horse breeding.
Students can use various catalogues, six bibliographies and other library
resources collected and systematized carefully by the m useum ’s
employees. Foreign students from other institutes often come on
excursions to the museum.
(http://www.horses.ru/museum.htm)
 REVISION TEST 2

1. Укажите предложения, в которых есть слова-заменители суще­

ствительного .
a) Best pig breeds are those that mature early, fatten rapidly and
whose quality of meat is high.
b) In order to ensure proper care and feeding of calves and heifers
according to their age, the ones are usually kept in age groups.
c) One of the best systems of keeping sheep is to turn them to pasture
in spring as early as possible.
d) The management of a dairy herd differs significantly from that of
beef producing animals, as milk production is a daily process.
e) It is the outbreak of the bird flu that caused the decrease in poultry
consumption last year.
2. Укажите, в каких предложениях следует употребить причастие
performing.
a) Main types of walk or paces were ... by the horse so gracefully,
that it was awarded the first prize.
b) At present, extreme weight or size of a work horse is not essential,
since machines are ... most part of the heaviest work on a farm.
c) The perfect jumps ...by the horse during the jumping competition
were the result of many months of hard training.
d) Mature horses ... little or no work may be fed on good-quality
forage without any supplements.
e) ... any kind of hard work, the horse should have well-developed
muscles and give the impression of strength.
3 . Укажите, в каких предяожениях/вйот/л® переводится существи­
тельным .
a) Systems of fattening beef cattle vary with the region, the age of
the cattle, the pasture used and other factors.
b) Fattening cattle, farmers should usually feed from 2.2 to 3.0 per
cent of the animal live weight per day.
c) Fattening lambs for market means to bring the lambs up to the
desired weight and finish.
d) It is required that cattlemen fattening cattle for market should
include concentrates in the ration.
e) The fattening of cattle is a common practice on farms where grain
crops are raised.
249
4. Укажите, при переводе каких предложений надо употребить союз
чтобы. JH l
a) Proper development of gilts is essential in order to withstand the
strain of lactation. 1
b) For the lambs to be more vigorous, grow and mature more rapidly, :
they should be crossbred. '
c) To milk a cow in three to four minutes has become possible due
to modem milking machines.
d) It is legume pasture grasses that are very palatable to cattle.
e) To produce eggs with proper shell, hens should be provided with
the sufficient amount of calcium. f
5. Укажите предложения, в которых it не переводится.
a) It is required to protect horses from such infectious diseases as
anthrax by vaccination. |
b) Vaccination of horses against anthrax is widely used and it should
be repeated each year in infested areas. X
c) Vaccination is a good means to protect horses against anthrax and
it is well-known to farmers. |
d) Veterinarians think it is grazing animals that are particularly subjected
to anthrax. , Щ
e) There exist so-called anthrax districts where vaccination should
be repeated regularly and animals cannot be raised without it.
6. Укажите предложения, при переводе которых нужно употребить
союз так как. Я
a) For hundreds of years, chickens were kept in small flocks for home
consumption of eggs and meat. Щ
b) It is essential that suckling pigs should receive enough supply of
milk, for at no other stage in life they will make such great gains.
c) In feeding horses, grass hays must be adequately supplemented,
as these hays are low in digestible energy and protein.
d) Since Morgan alone founded the Morgan breed, the horse is the
world’s best example of prepotency. ж
e) It is believed that the Holstein breed has been selected for their
dairy qualities since about the time of Christ. Щ
7. Укажите, в каких предложениях нужно употребить причастие
incubated. 1

a) It is known that on average about 25—30 per cent of all eggs ... I
fail to hatch. Щ
b) Farmers ... eggs should avoid shaking them, for this may damage
the internal contents and reduce hatchability. 9
c) ... eggs, it is advisable to ensure correct temperature, relative
humidity as well as ventilation. I

250
 d) ... eggs should not be long, pointed or round.
e) Eggs with either too thin or too thick shell cannot be ... success­
fully.
g. Укажите, при переводе каких предложений следует употребить
союз который.
a) The British tradition of physiology differs from that of the continen­
tal schools.
b) It is known that the domesticated Indian buffaloes found through­
out the warmer parts of the Old World are mainly used for draft
purposes, and also for milk and butter.
c) Sufficient reserves of hay and roughages the farmers often raise
on their farms can be fed to animals during the periods of
unfavourable weather.
d) The individual laying cages the commercial farms have introduced
since the end of the 19th century help to record the egg production
of each hen.
e) The ration, which a fanner is going to use for fattening lambs, has
been chosen depending on the availability of feeds.
9. У каж ите, в каких предложениях при переводе нужно употребить
слово именно.
a) It is desirable to use free range system of management for pigs.
b) It is a specialist in animal nutrition who may help a farmer to
make up a complete feeding ration according to the animal age.
c) It is better to use purebred sires for breeding purposes in order to
ensure the transmitting of the best characteristics.
d) It is possible to increase the egg production by using artificial
lighting in the poultry house.
e) It is insects, especially flies, which cause serious blood disease of
horses and mules known as equine infectious anemia.
 U n i t 13
AQUACULTURE

Vocabulary and Grammar'.

1. Значение глаголов to assume, to believe, to consider, to suppose,
to think.
2. Инфинитивная конструкция «сложное дополнение».
3. Инфинитивная конструкция «сложное подлежащее» со сказуемым
в страдательном залоге. Ц

VOCABULARY ТО THE TEXT “AQUACULTURE”

N o u n s: aquaculture, aquaculturist, capture, catfish, crayfish,

crustacean, culture (salmon culture), enclosure, fishery (sport/capture
fishery), fry, im poundm ent, invertebrate (ant vertebrate), lobster,
overfishing, oyster, pond, raceway, salmon, shellfish, shrimp (marine
shrimp), spawning, stock (fish stock), trout, vertebrate.
A d jectives a n d a d verb s: aquatic, brackish (brackish water),
formulated (formulated feed), fresh (fresh water), juvenile (juvenile fish/
organism).
Verbs: assume, believe, capture, culture, encourage, exceed, harvest,
release, restock, spawn, stock, suppose.
O ther p a rts o f speech: despite, whereas.

Give the Russian equivalents of the following international words:

agency ['eicfeansi], aquarium [әЪ үеәпәт], carp [kcup], decorative
['dekarativ], dietary ['daratan], intervention [.mte'venfn], mollusks
[nrn'Usks], pharm aceutical [.fcuma'sjirtikl], plankton ['plaerjktan],
to stimulate ['stimjuleit]

Значение глаголов
to assum e , to believe , to consider , to suppose , to think
Рассматриваемые глаголы используются в инфинитивных кон-
струкциях «сложное дополнение» и «сложное подлежащее» и при­
обретают иное значение в отличие от тех случаев, когда они яв­
ляются глаголами, выражающими действие. В таблице приведе­
ны некоторые значения этих глаголов, которые часто встречают­
ся в научной литературе.
252
 Значение глагола
Значение глагола, в конструкциях «сложное
Глагол выражающего действие подлежащее» и «сложное
дополнение»
assume принимать, приобретать полагать, считать
(характер^ форму);
допускать, предполагать
believe верить, доверять ' полагать, считать
consider рассматривать, обсуждать; полагать, считать
обдумывать; принимать
во внимание
think думать, считать, иметь полагать, думать
(какое-л.) мнение, размышлять
(about, of — о к о м - л о чем-л.),
обдумывать

(Примеры употребления этих гла

струкциях будут рассмотрены далее)
Examples:
Due to the influence of climate, климата
food, and humans, the horse пиши и людей лошадь быстро
rapidly assumed its present приобрела свою нынешнюю
form. форму. * " , л
Let us assum e that the cloning Допустим, что клонирование
of farm animals will be сельскохозяйственных живот­
possible on a large scale. ных будет возможно в большом
масштабе.
Some people believe in the люди іОЗМ ОЖ -

possibility of cloning their ность клонирования своих

favourite pets in the future. любимых питомцев в будущем

Before breeding animals the Прежде чем начать разведение

breeder should consider
the possible methods of
mating.
e concept of internal regula­
tions is developed by Claude
Bernard, who thought of
blood as an internal
environment in which cells
function.
животных, селекционер дол­
жен обдумать/рассмотреть
возможные способы скрещи-
ания.
внутреннего
рования была разработана
Клодом Бернардом, который
думал/размышлял о крови как
о внутренней среде, в которой
функционируют клетки.

253
 GRAM M AR REVISION
AND PRETEXT EXERCISES

Инфинитивная конструкция «сложное дополнение»

(The complex object)
Данная инфинитивная конструкция состоит из трех основш
частей:

I II ш
Подлежащее Сказуемое Сложное дополнение
может быть вы­ выражено глаголом Ц выражено существитель­
ражено суще­ в форме действительного ным или местоимением
ствительным или залога (следует запом- в объектном падеже с по­
местоимением шдаъ глаголы наиболее следующим инфинити­
в именительном часто употребляемые вом
падеже в этой конструкции)
Scientists beUeve/consider/suppose farmers to use the results
o f their research. j
Ученые считают/полагают, что фермеры использу­
ют результаты их иссле­
дований.

Как видно из примера, на русский язык «сложное дополне­

ние» переводится придаточным предложением с союзом что
(или чтобы, как), при этом существительное-дополнение в рус­
ском предложении становится подлежащим, а инфинитив — ска­
зуемым. - ' ,л -'. ‘а
Сложное дополнение часто употребляется после следующих
глаголов: to think думать, полагать ; to consider считать, по­
лагат ь ; to believe полагать, считать; to assum e полагать, счи­
тать; to expect ожидать, предполагать; to suppose полагать,
считать; to know знать; to find находить; to show показывать;
to prove доказывать; to require требовать; to want/would like
хотеть; to enable/to allow позволять, давать возможность.
Examples'.
Pig breeders consider the Свиноводы считают, что йорк­
Yorkshire breed to be one ширская порода является од­
of the most widely-distributed ной из самых широко распро­
pig breeds of bacon type. страненных пород свиней
беконного типа.
The farmer wants the veteri- Фермер хочет, чтобы ветеринар
narian to examine his cows. осмотрел его коров.

254
Poultry farmers expect vaccina- Фермеры ожидают, что вакци-
tion to prevent the poultry нация защитит домашнюю
from the bird flu.; птицу от птичьего гриппа.

Предложения со «сложным дополнением» после глаголов

to enable, to allow, to cause, to make можно переводить без при­
даточного предложения.

Example:
Recent studies at the molecular Недавние исследования на мо­
level have allowed (enabled) лекулярном уровне позволили
animal breeders to improve селекционерам-животново-
some important animal traits дам улучшить некоторые ха­
to a great extent. рактеристики животных в зна­
чительной степени.

Сложное дополнение употребляется без частицы to после сле­

дующих глаголов; to see видеть ; to hear слышать; to w atch/
to observe наблюдать; to m ake/to cause заставлять; to let по­
зволять, разрешать.
Examples:
A farmer can make the sow может
exercise if the feed is placed свиноматку совершать мо-
at some distance from находить-
the shelter. ся на некотором расстоянии
I от укрыти я.
If chickens are kept in separate Если цыплята содержатся в кле­
cages, the farmer can se e / тях, то фермер видит/наблю­
watch each bird consume дает, как каждая птица по­
its ration. требляет свой рацион.

1. Find the sentences with the complex object and translate them into
Russian.
farms
u a iiu u i n ia iv ^ — * * — —-------- —-
farm
e
employ an experienced rider for his horse in order to win the competition.
3. The public opinion can make scientists use fewer animals in their
experiments. 4. Farmers have found the method of fattening pigs on
concentrates to be the most efficient one. 5. It is assumed that organic
farming may develop successfully in some regions. 6 . Scientists suppose
severe exploitation of some fish species to result in their extinction m
the nearest future. 7. It has been proved that human activies cause
undesirable environmental changes.
255
 Инфинитивная конструкция «сложное подлежащее»
со сказуемым в страдательном залоге
(The complex subject with the verb in the passive voice)
Данная инфинитивная конструкция состоит из следующих трех
основных частей: * Щ
I 1 И III |
Подлежащее Сказуемое Инфинитив
может быть вы­ выражено глаголом глагол с частицей to
ражено суще- в форме страдательного
ствительным или залога (следует запом­
местоимением нить глаголы наиболее
в именительном часто употребляемые
падеже в этой конструкции)
Scientists are believed/ to be able to clone all
considered/supposed farm animals in the nearest
future. j
Ученые как считают/ смогут клонировать всех
полагают домашних животных
в ближайшем будущем.

Инфинитив, стоящий за личной формой глаголов определенной

группы, образует вместе с этой формой особого рода сказуемое.
Первая часть такого сказуемого характеризует отношение автора к
высказыванию и на русский язык переводится вводными словами
(как считают, как полагают), а вторая часть — инфинитив —
обозначает действие, которое совершает подлежащее.
Возможен второй способ перевода такой конструкции: Счита­
ют/Полагают, что ученые смогут в ближайшем будущем кло­
нировать всех домашних животных. |
В конструкции «сложное подлежащее» употребляются следую­
щие глаголы в страдательном залоге: to think (is thought) думать,
полагать', to consider (is considered) считать, полагать', to believe
(is believed) полагать, считать', to assum e (is assum ed) пола­
гать, считать', to expect (is expected) ожидать, предполагать',
to suppose (is supposed) полагать, считать’, to know (is known)
знать', to find (is found) находить, уст анавливат ь’, to show
(is shown) показы ват ь’, to say (is said) говорить', сообщать ;
ут верж дат ь’, to re p o rt (is re p o rte d ) сообщ ат ь’, to observe
(is observed) наблюдать", to prove (is proved) доказать (что).
При переводе следует учитывать, что глаголы, являющиеся пер­
вой частью сказуемого, могут употребляться в любом времени.
Следует обращать внимание также на форму инфинитива (слож­
ные формы инфинитива будут рассмотрены ниже (см. Unit 15).

256
1 Неопределенная форма инфинитива переводится глаголами на-
I стоящего или будущего времени.
I Example:
I The new strainНовый
of the штамм
bird flu птичьего гриппа,
I has been foundкак fatalобнаружено, явля­
было
to be
I both for wild andется
domestic
смертельным как для ди­
I birds.кой, так и для домашней птицы.
I Если в конструкцию входят модальные глаголы (can, may,
м might), то при переводе они относятся к первой части конструк-
I ции.
| Example:
The new drug may be expected Можно ожидать, что новое ле-
to be efficient in treating this карство окажется эффектив-
illness. ным для лечения этого забо-
v левания.
Если при сказуемом имеется отрицание, то при переводе оно
обычно ставится перед второй частью конструкции.
Example:
The experiment does not seem Кажется, эксперимент не дает
to provide enough evidence достаточного доказательства
for the theory. теории.

2. Translate the sentences into Russian. Pay attention to the different

meanings of the verbs to assume, to believe, to consider, to think.
Identify the sentences with the complex object and the complex
subject.
1. Due to selection and breeding, cattle breeds have assumed new
improved characteristics. 2. Sheep breeders think sheep without any folds
and wrinkles to be more desirable for wool production. 3. The entire
length of our farm is assumed to be about thirty-two miles. 4. In ancient
time people believed in God as they could not explain many natural
phenomena. 5. Many people consider duck eggs to possess com­
paratively strong taste and do not like eating them. 6 . Both Russian and
foreign scientists believe I. P. Pavlov to be a distinguished physiologist of
the 19th century. 7. Horse breeders have assumed the Akhal-Teke to have
the unique appearance and no other breed of horse shares its distinctive
features. 8. Interbreeding is believed to improve the dominant trait in
the breed. 9. The application of genetics principles to the breeding of
improved livestock is considered to be of great practical value. 10. It is
necessary to consider the ways and means of applying scientific
achievements in practice. 11. The veterinarian thinks that some protection

9 Комарова 257
from infections may be given by available vaccines. 12. Pregnant mares
are thought to be more susceptible to various infections.
3. Read and translate the text Into Russian. Find the sentences with:
— the complex object;
— the complex subject. 1

AQUACULTURE |
(1) Aquaculture, also called Fish Farming, Fish Culture, or Maricul-
ture, means the propagation and husbandry of aquatic organisms for
commercial, recreational, and scientific purposes. The main aim of
aquaculture is to ensure the production of aquacultural crops for human
consumption and for use by the pharmaceutical and chemical industries.
However, aquaculture is known to produce aquatic b ait 1animals,
ornamental or aquarium fishes, aquatic animals used to increase natural
populations for capture and sport fisheries. 1
(2) Aquaculture is supposed to be an agricultural activity, despite the
many differences between aquaculture and terrestrial 2 agriculture.
Aquaculture mainly produces protein crops, while starchy staple crops3
are the primary products of terrestrial agriculture. In addition, terrestrial
animal waste is usually collected by farmers and used as fertilizer,
whereas in aquaculture such waste accumulates in the culture environment.
Consequently, aquaculturists are expected to manage their production
units carefully in order to avoid any water deterioration4 or pollution,
especially in areas where fish usually spawn. Moreover, aquaculturists
should not make the culture organisms suffer from any stresses as a result
of the intensive production.
(3) Scientists know fish to be cold-blooded aquatic vertebrates, some
species of which are especially valued as food due to high content of
protein, phosphorus, iodine and vitamins A and D. In addition, a wide
variety of other aquatic organisms are produced through aquaculture,
including crustaceans (mainly shrimps, crayfish, and prawns), mollusks,
algae5 (a seaweed), and some aquatic plants. In contrast to capture
fisheries, aquaculture requires deliberate human intervention in the
organisms’ productivity to result in yields that exceed those from the
natural environment alone. Stocking water with juvenile organisms (also
called seed), fertilizing the water, feeding the organisms, and maintaining
water quality are considered to be common examples of such intervention.
The concept of pond fertilization6 was developed in Europe about 1500.
In this process, manure is added to the water to encourage the growth
of small organisms such as aquatic invertebrates and plankton, which
in turn are eaten by the fish.
(4) Aquaculture was developed more than 2,000 years ago in such
countries as China, Rome, and Egypt. Formerly, aquacultural practices
involved capturing wild immature specimens7 and then raising them

258
under optimal conditions in which they were well fed and protected from
predators8 and competitors for light and space. For instance, carp
fmgerlmgs (or juvenile fish) were captured from rivers, and kept in ponds
or other bodies of water for further growth. It was not until 1733,
however, that a German farmer successfully raised fish from eggs that
he had artificially obtained and fertilized. Male and female trout were
collected when ready for spawning. Eggs and sperm were pressed from
their bodies and mixed together under favourable conditions. After the
eggs hatched, the fish fry were taken to tanks or ponds for further
cultivation. Methods have also been developed for artificial breeding of
saltwater fish, and now it is possible not only to rear sea animals but
also to have the complete life cycle under hatchery control.
(5) Nowadays various methods enable aquaculturists to rear aquatic
organisms artificially in fresh, brackish or salt water. In addition,
aquacultural production can occur not only in natural waters but in
artificial aquatic impoundments, for instance fish may be confined in
earthen ponds, concrete pools9, barricaded coastal waters10, or cages
placed into open water. In these enclosures, the fish can be supplied with
adequate food and protected from many natural predators. Earthen ponds
have been found to be suitable for fish and crustacean aquaculture. These
ponds are usually equipped with water inlets and outlets that provide
independent control of water addition and discharge. Ponds are stocked
with a specific quantity of juvenile aquatic animals. Management practices
range from pond fertilization, which increases the number of natural food
organisms, to the supply of a complete, formulated feed that provides all
nutrients necessary for growth. Animals that have reached market size are
harvested from the ponds. Channel catfish grown in the United States,
and marine shrimp grown in China, Central America, and South
America, are often cultured in earthen ponds of about 5 to 10 hectares.
(6) Fish can also be raised in cages or raceways. The latter are long,
narrow earthen or concrete ponds that receive a continuous flow of water
from a nearby artesian well, spring, or stream11. Fish breeders believe
raising fish in cages to be a good method in case of using the water of
lakes, bays12, or the open ocean. Besides, aquaculturists have shown
raceways and cages to be more efficient than earthen ponds, for many
more fingerlings can be stocked in them, however, nutritionally complete
formulated feed must be provided to fish grown in these systems.
Rainbow trout are grown in raceways in many places, including Chile,
Europe, and the United States. Salmon are grown in cages, and Norway
ranks the first in the world production of farmed salmon.
(7) Recently in aquaculture there have appeared a method known as
ocean ranching which means the rearing of fish and shellfish under
artificially controlled conditions in order to restock lakes, seas and
oceans and it is usually carried out by government agencies in the US
and some other countries. According to this method young fish are bred
in the controlled environment until they become mature enough to be
259
released into the open sea. Using this approach, oysters (as a source of
both food and pearls), scallops13, and mussels14 are raised throughout
the world. Moreover, ocean ranching is of great value for raising carp, i
trout, catfish, and tilapia15. Experiments with ocean ranching in the late
20th century led to the economically successful aquaculture of lobsters.
( 8) By introducing advanced technologies aquaculture has assumed
commercial importance, for instance world production has more than
doubled between 1970 and 1975. The rapid expansion of aquaculture
has been to a large extent in the production of relatively high-priced
species frequently consumed as a fresh product. In 1959 the first marine
shrimp hatchery and farm was established in Japan, and it was the
beginning of the commercial shrimp-culture industry. The salmon-
culture industry in Europe and the channel-catfish-culture industry in
the United States both began in the 1960s. Catfish farming in the United
States has more than quintupled its production since it began to grow
in the 1960s. At present the production of catfish, carp, and tilapias
reared in extensive, low-energy systems is still increasing. The given
examples prove the commercial production of shrimp, crayfish, prawns,
trout, salmon, and oysters to be of great importance for the economy
of many countries, such as Norway, Japan, the US etc. |
(9) One of the main aims of aquaculture is to breed edible fish in
special ponds for sale to meet the increasing demand of population for
fish. However, the growth of world aquaculture has been stimulated by
a number of other factors, including overfishing, destruction of habitats
for some unique fish species, water pollution, and dietary changes.
Globally, consumer demand for fish continues to increase, especially
in developed countries which in 2004 imported 33 million tonnes of fish
worth over $61 billion, that is 81 per cent of all fish imports that year,
in value terms. Levels of captures of fish in the wild have remained
roughly stable since the mid- 1980s, fluctuating around 90-93 million
tonnes annually. There is little chance of any significant increases in
catches above these levels. Although catches in the wild are still high,
they have declined in recent years. World aquaculture production has
been experiencing a boom since the mid- 1980s, maintaining an average
growth rate of around 8 per cent per year and today it continues to
expand in almost all world regions. According to the Food and Agricultural
Organization of the United Nations (FAO), nearly half of all fish
consumed as food worldwide are raised on fish farms rather than caught
in the wild. The report on The State o f World Aquaculture was presented
at the meeting held in September, 2006 in New Delhi. In accordance
with the report, while in 1980 just 9 per cent of the fish consumed by
people cam e from aquaculture, today 43 per cent com es from
aquaculture, which is 45.5 million tonnes of farmed fish, worth $63
billion, eaten each year. For comparison, currently, freshwater and
marine capture fisheries produce 95 million tonnes annually, of which
60 million tonnes is used for hum an consum ption. FAO’s report

260
estimates that an additional 40 million tonnes of aquatic food will be
required by 2030 in order just to maintain current levels of consumption.
However, there exist some problems preventing further growth of aqua­
culture production such as the lack of investment capital for producers
in the developing countries, a shortage of land and freshwater for use
in aquaculture, rising energy costs, environmental pollution and questions
of product safety. Specialists consider China, India, Japan, Philippines,
Indonesia, Thailand, South Korea, Bangladesh, and Vietnam to be the
major aquaculture-producing countries at present.
(10) While most fish farming is devoted to the commercial food
market, sport fishing is supposed to be one of the most popular forms
of recreation in the world which allows people to enjoy fishing from
shore and from boats, for almost every type of game fish. In addition,
there exists a steady commercial market for goldfish and other decorative
fish because many people want beautiful fish to swim in their home
aquariums. Nowadays in many cities people can visit special water parks
where they can observe various fish species swim, eat and communicate
with each other in the surroundings closer to their natural habitats.

COMMENTS
1. bait [beit] — приманка, наживка
2. terrestrial [ti'restnal] — происходящий на земле, на суше
3. starchy staple crops — зд. основные культуры, содержащие крахмал
4. deterioration [di.tiana'reifn] — зд. ухудшение состояния или качества
5. alga [‘аеідә] (pi algae) — водоросль
6. pond fertilization — зд. внесение органических веществ в пруд в ка­
честве питательной среды
7. specimen ['spessmm] — экземпляр
8. predator ['predate] — хишник
9. concrete pools — забетонированные небольшие пруды
10. barricaded coastal waters —зд. огороженные участки прибрежных вод
Н. artesian well, spring, stream — артезианский колодец, источник или
родник/ручей
12. bay [bei] — залив
13. scallop [‘skotop] — зоол. гребешок, двустворчатый моллюск
14. mussel ['nusal] — мидия
15. ШарІЭ —тилапия (африканская пресноводная рыба семейства цихлид,
используемая в пищу и широко выращиваемая сейчас во всем мире)

EX ER C ISES ТО TH E TEXT

4. Find in the text the English equivalents of the following words and word-
combinations:
to increase twice; to increase five times; reproduction; very expensive;
to decrease to a great extent; in spite of; relaxation; something can be
261
eaten; to satisfy the requirements; useless substances; unnatural; the young
of various fish; young organisms of a certain species; animals taking part
in competition; aggressive animals hunting and killing other animals;
any animal with backbone; the process of producing and depositing eggs
by fish; salty water; large reservoirs for saving and collecting water; place
for keeping fish eggs under artificial conditions; to catch and keep smb/
smth; to increase above the limit; to let smb go or be free; to gather/
to collect; fish caught for sport -£
5. Translate the following words into English and find in the text the
sentences with them. Find more examples of conversion in the text.
культивировать — культура; разводить рыбу — косяк/стая
(рыб); ловить (рыбу) — улов (рыбы); выпускать/освобождать -
освобождение -'Щ
6 . Put the questions in the correct order according to the text content.
The first question is given in italics. ^
How have the yields of aquacultural production increased? *
What methods are used for rearing aquatic organisms at present?
What data prove that aquacultural production has become of great
commercial importance? M
What are the main aquatic organisms?
What are the fields of interest for aquaculturists?
What is the concept of pond fertilization based on?
How does aquaculture differ from terrestrial agriculture?
What agricultural practices did the first method of artificial fish
breeding include? 1
When and where did aquaculture begin to develop?
Why is fish valued as food for people?
What is the difference between aquaculture and capture fisheries?
What kinds of fish are aquaculturists rearing in addition to valuable
edible species of fish? *ll
What is the main principle of rearing fish in earthen ponds?
1. What is included in the term “aquaculture ”? -j
What are the advantages and disadvantages of raising fish in cages
and raceways? ІІШН 9 Н
Why is sport fishing still popular nowadays?
Why is ocean ranching controlled by the government agencies?
What aquatic organisms are raised in earthen ponds?
What problems does aquaculture deal with?
What are the reasons for the increasing role of aquacultural produc­
tion nOW? fc
7. Match the beginnings of the sentences with their endings.
1. The term “aquaculture” is known...
2. Animal scientists consider aquaculture... I
 3. Edible species of fish has been found...
4. Aquaculturists suppose the concept of pond fertilization...
5. In many countries aquaculture is considered...
6. Farmers believe crustaceans, mollusks, algae, and some aquatic
plaitts...
7. Aquacultural production is thought...
8. Most aquaculturists think ocean ranching...
9. Rearing fish in cages and raceways has been proved...
10. Statistical data have proved aquacultural production...
a) to be a branch of agriculture but there exist great differences in
their activities.
b) to be an important branch of economy as it enables to meet the
demands of population for fish.
c) to be one of the possible ways of restocking lakes, seas and oceans.
d) to be the most important aquatic organisms for commercial
aquacultural production.
e) to be more efficient than raising fish in earthen ponds.
f) to be a source of protein, phosphorus, iodine and some vitamins.
g) to rely on deliberate human intervention in the process of fish rearing.
h) to contribute significantly to the supply of people with food.
i) to include rearing of various aquatic organisms for different
purposes, such as commercial, recreational, and scientific ones.
j) to be the basis for artificial fish rearing.
8. Make up a dialogue between an interviewer (Student A) and an
aquaculturist (Student B) who take part in a popular radio programme
about nature. (Use exercises 6 and 7).
M odel:
Student A: Could you tell us what the term “aquaculture” include?
Student B: The term “aquaculture” is known to include rearing of
various aquatic organisms for different purposes, such
as commercial, recreational, and scientific ones.
Student A: It is interesting to know what problems aquaculture...
Student B: Firstly, aquaculture deals with...
Use additional data:
1. The FAO’s most recent global assessment of wild fish stocks found
that out of the nearly 600 species groups it monitors, 52 per cent are
fully exploited while 25 per cent are either overexploited (17 per cent),
depleted (7 per cent) or recovering from depletion (истощение) (1 per
cent). Twenty per cent are moderately exploited, with just 3 per cent
ranked as underexploited. (Present the data in the graphic form.)
2. The global aquacultural yield at the beginning of the 21st century
was 37.5 m illion m etric tons, and in term s of m oney it was
approximately $56 billion. This yield, which represented about 29 per

263
cent of world fishery production, was composed of 51 per cent fishes,
23 per cent mollusks, 22 per cent algae, aquatic plants, and other
organisms, and 4 per cent crustaceans. (Present the data in the graphic
form).
Seach the following websites for more information:
1. http://www.fao.oig/newsroom/en/news/2006/ 1000383/index, html
2. http://darc.cms.udel.edu/ — The Delaware Aquaculture Resource
Center is an archive of information about aquaculture.

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES

9. Change the sentences or combine the two sentences using the complex
object. 1
M odel: Japanese fish-breeders traditionally catch immature shrimps
in coastal waters and transfer them to ponds. Aquaculturists
know about it. -> Aquaculturists know Japanese fish-
breeders to catch immature shrimps in coastal waters and
transfer them into ponds. %
1. A red alga makes up a traditional part of Japanese diet. Foreign
tourists think so. j
2. Japanese farmers dealing with algae culture would like some help
with harvesting, especially from November till March. Some part-
time fishermen or land farmers can help them.
3. Lobsters require two to three years to reach market size. Students
studying aquaculture know that.
4. Cultivating mussels, farm ers should consider a num ber of
problems. Protecting the young mussels from predators is of great
importance. J
5. Japanese were the first to develop the method of producing natural
pearls in oysters. The latter were stimulated to produce a pearl in
their living tissue. j
6 . At present, to collect eggs or fry from wild fish is undesirable for
breeding fish stocks. Fish-breeders believe so.
7. Lobster culture has become of greater commercial interest now.
Americans, Australians, and Europeans have assumed that fact.
8 . Climate in southern Europe is warm and favourable for carp
growth. Carps grow faster and reach their market weight after the
second summer. i
10. Change the sentences using the complex subject.
M odel: People say salmon to be native to northern Atlantic and
northern Pacific. -» Salmon are said to be native to
northern Atlantic and northern Pacific.

264
 1. Fishermen believe Atlantic salmon to be valuable game fish.
2. Farmers raising carp expect special shallow and warm ponds with rich
vegetation to provide a good environment for spawning. 3. It has been
found that in a few large species of fish some individuals may live as
long as 10 or 20 years or even longer. 4. Ichthyologists, scientists studying
fish, suppose the deep oceanic habitat to be very much the same
throughout the world, but there exist species differences. 5. We usually
consider three types of fisheries such as commercial fisheries, recrea­
tional fisheries or small subsistence fisheries. The latter provides the
basic needs of the fishing community. 6 . Members of numerous fishing
associations say that the greatest dangers to sport fishing are overfishing
by commercial fishers and pollution. 7. It is known that fisheries are
difficult to manage effectively because they exist in a complex ecosystem.
8. Scientists report that changes in ocean currents and temperatures can
dramatically influence the size and health of fish stocks. 9. Students
observed the catfish in the aquarium. The fish touched food using its
sensitive long whiskers or barbels around its mouth. 10. Visitors of the
water park can see trout. Fish are similar to salmon but are smaller than
the related salmon and have bodies in spots.
11. Transform the sentences with the complex object into the sentences
with the complex subject.
M odel: Ichthyologists have found oysters to inhabit seabed of
coastal waters. -» O ysters have been found to inhabit
seabed of coastal waters.
1. Scientists know the nature of a response of an individual fish to
stimuli from its environment to depend on the inherited charac­
teristics of its nervous system.
2. Ichthyologists have proved fish to perceive (воспринимать) the
world around them by special detectors.
3. Scientists have found fish to possess the usual senses of sight,
smell, hearing, touch, and taste.
4. Scientists suppose one or another of these senses often to be more
developed at the expense of others depending upon the fish’s
other adaptations.
5. We know some fish with large eyes to have a very poor sense of smell.
6. Ichthyologists believe other types of fish with small eyes such as
eels (угри ) to be able to hunt and feed primarily by smell.
7. Aquaculturists know a catfish to use taste and touch when it is
examining a food object with its oral barbells (усы).
8 . Experiments have shown pain and temperature receptors to be
present in fish and produce the same kind of information to a fish
as to a human.
9. Fish-breeders consider feeding, reproduction, and escape from
predators to be the three most important activities in the fish’s life.

265
 10. Ichthyologists think sleep in fish to consist of indifferent state in
which the fish maintains its balance but moves slowly. .*•
12. Translate Into English.
а) специалист по аквакультурам; водяные растения и живот­
ные; выращивать/культивировать искусственно; несмотря на со­
леную/солоноватую воду; разработанный состав (рецепт) корма;
ловить мальков: собирать улов; выпускать мальков в открытое
мальков/ювенальную
урожай
реститься в пресной воде; поддерживать производство аквакуль­
тур; сом относится к позвоночным; промышленный рыбный про­
мысел; спортивная рыбная ловля; рыбный запас; выращивать
форель в искусственных каналах; разводить лосося в прудах и
водоемах; хозяйство по разведению речных раков; огороженное
для морских
устриц
ние рыбных запасов; омары относятся к ракообразным
b) 1. Известно, что рыбы относятся к холоднокровным водным
позвоночным, которые могут искусственно размножаться в прес­
ной, морской или солоноватой воде в зависимости от вида. 2. Спе­
циалисты по аквакультурам полагают, что передовые технологии
таких аквакультур
моллюски
являются
дах во многих странах мира в искусственных условиях. 4. Специа­
листы считают, что разведение мальков ценных видов рыб, а также
других аквакультур в искусственных, контролируемых условиях,
поможет восстановить рыбные запасы морей и океанов. 5. Не­
смотря на принятые некоторыми правительствами меры не удалось
предотвратить истощение рыбных запасов некоторых видов рыб.

EXERCISES FOR PAIR WORK

13. Students read the texts (student A — p. 267, student В — p.271)
about such well-known species of fish as carp and trout, then compare
these two types in terms of their main characteristics (size, weight,
time of spawning), habitat, varieties and problems of artificial breeding.
Items to compare Carp Trout
1. fish family
2. main varieties
3. domesticated/the most
popular varieties/species
4. origin

266
 Items to compare I Clfp______I_____ Trout |
щщщЩШшшшатШіфіт p i f .-— "Iіщрч' да...
5. type of water for living
6. size/weight
7. spawning time
8. feedi ng
9. habitat/parts of the world
10. purposes for breeding
II systems for commercial breeding
12. problems of commercial breeding

И Я ? :‘ USEFUL LANGUAGE /
Exprm tag contpa rison; JEj'\0& f 4- *
The important point w that...; One of the outstanding features of Thr
other difference is more important...; There is nothing with which it can
be compared...; If we compare the habitats of...; Comparison of the data
obtained by aquaculturists shows that In contrast to...; Such character­
istics as ... contrast to the ones o f....

Task for Student A

CARP

Classification and varieties: С а ф is a com m on name for certain fish

belonging to the m innow family which is som etim es also called the carp
femily. , . , .
In the wild, the olive-brown com m on carp com es in three forms- the
leather carp, almost scaleless; the mirror carp, with a few large scales,
and the scale carp, which is covered with scales. The first two varieties
have been domesticated. Ornamental varieties o f the com m on carp,
known as koi, may be of various forms and colouration: they were bred
in the late 1800s and are still popular today There exist other species,
for example the grass carp, which has been introduced into the US as
a biological control for aquatic vegetation ,
The origin and habitat: Apparently originated in China, it was
introduced into Europe in the 1st century AD and into the United States
in the 1870s, and it now exists in fresh waters worldwide The carp is
often raised for food, especially in Europe and Asia, because it is
possible to produce large amounts of fish per acre.
Main characteristics: A large-scaled, hardy, greenish brown fish
with two barbels on each side of its upper jaw, the carp lives alone or in
weedv
It is omnivorous, as bottom feeders they stir up mud, may adversely
affect other fish, but carp can survive in polluted waters In winter, the
cam becomes torpid (inactive), stays near the bottom, and stops feeding.
It usually spawns in spring (from May to July), when the female lays
numerous eggs among water plants, usually in shallow water. The eggs
hatch four to eight days later. С аф grow rapidly, attain sexual maturity
about the third year, and in captivity may live more than 40 years. They—
average about 35 cm in length but may grow to more than 100 cm and
22 kg. Adults generally weigh no more than 2.3 kg, but specimens
weighing more than 35 kg have been recorded. .Ш
Commercial breeding: С аф are prolific and breed rapidly, and they
are bred and fished commercially in Asia, Europe, southern Africa, and,
on a smaller scale, the US. С аф raising, practiced worldwide, is a good
example of advanced techniques. For the whole life cycle, at least three
different types of ponds are used in Europe: 1) special shallow and warm
ponds with rich vegetation provide a good environment for spawning;
2 ) after spawning, the parent fish are separated from the eggs and taken
to a second pond; 3) the fry, which hatch after a few days, are transported
to shallow, plankton-rich nursing ponds, where they remain until the
fall of the year or the next spring. Bigger ponds are needed for rearing
the fish in the second year of life. For feeding саф in ponds, soybean
meal, rice bran, and similar agricultural products are used. Concentrated
food in the form of pellets has also been successfully introduced. In
central Europe, саф are ready for the market after the third summer.
To accelerate growth, there exist warm-water ponds in the temperate
zone, where an average harvest of 400 to 500 kilograms per hectare is
normal in intensive cultivation. By scientific management and careful
selection it is possible to obtain yields up to 3,500 kilograms per hectare
for саф in warm-water ponds. %
Search the following website for more information:
http://www.koiusa.com/ — The Associated Koi Clubs of America
offer a variety of information about keeping, breeding, and exhibiting koi.

SU PPL E M E N T A R Y TEXT
14. a) Before reading the text answer the questions and then find
the answers in the text. |
1. Have you ever caught a fish? Can you describe it?
2. Is the fish eyesight good or not?
3. How well can the fish hear the sounds?
4. Can the fish smell? ,1

THE DESCRIPTION OF THE FISH

Fish are cold-blooded vertebrate animals living in the fresh or salt waters
of the world. Living species range from the primitive, jawless lampreys and
hagfishes through the cartilaginous sharks, skates, and rays to the abundant
268
and diverse bony fishes. They are poikilothermic and reproduce by laying
eggs. An animal whose body temperature varies with that of its surroundings
is said to be poikilothermic. The temperature of such an animal is usually
a few degrees above that of its environment, but a rise or fall in the
temperature of the air or water in which it lives will produce a corres­
ponding change in the animal’s body temperature. Thus, the rate of
activity offish depends to a large extent on the surrounding temperature.
The bony fishes or true f shes usually have a complete bony skeleton
and an air bladder. There are more than 12,000 different species of these
fishes distributed through waters everywhere and familiar to us as various
types of game and food fish.
Fish are streamlined in shape and their bodies are covered with
scales. The latter are bony plates made in the skin that grow throughout
the fish life. In sharks, rays and dogfish the scales grow out through the
skin but in other fish they are covered by skin. They overlap each other
and give a protective covering. Under the microscope, rings can be seen
in the scales, and from these rings the age of the fish can be estimated.
One ring does not correspond to one year, but the groups of rings appear
spaced close together or far apart according to the rate of feeding of the
fish, since its growth rate affects the increase in size of the scales.
An important sensory system in fishes is the lateral line system. The
latter is a fluid-filled tube or canal just below the skin. It opens to the
water outside by a series of tiny pores. Its function is to detect movements
in the water. Any movements in the water and changes in pressure will
cause the fluid in the tube to vibrate. The canal is lined with nerve
endings which are stimulated by vibrations and send impulses to the
brain The system allows a fish to detect the direction and intensity of
water currents, thus helping the fish to orient itself to the various changes
that occur in the physical environment or to avoid enemies even if its
vision is poor, for instance in muddy water.
It must be emphasized that the swimming movements are produced
by the whole muscular body of the fish, and in only a few fish the fins
contribute any propulsive force. The main function of fins is to control
the stability and direction of movement during the fish swimming. The
following types fins are usually found in the bony fish.
The dorsalfin is a single fin on the back of a fish that gives it stability
while swimming. , .
The ventralfin is a fin on the underside of a fish, especially a pelvic
fin or anal fin. ,„ „ _, , ,
The anal fin is a single fin on the underside of some fish, behind
the anus. -t, . , с-_„с
The pelvic fin (either of a pair of fins) is on the lower surface of
a fish that have skeletal support and are analogous to the hind limbs ol
land animals. > 3 .. , ,
The pectoral fin (either of a pair of fins) is located either directly
behind the gill openings or below them.
269
 Thus, there are two types of fins: the median fins, such as the dorsal,
the ventral and the anal fins, and the paired ones, that is the pelvic and
the pectoral fins. The first type of fins controls the rolling and yawning
movements of the fish by increasing the vertical surface area presented
to the water. While the paired fins act as hydroplanes and control the
pitch of the fish, causing it to swim downwards or upwards according
to the angle to the water at which they are held by their muscles. The
pectoral fins lie in front of the centre of gravity and, being readily
mobile, are chiefly responsible for sending the fish up and down. The
paired fins are also the means by which the fish slows down and stops.
The nostrils of fish do not open into the back of the mouth as do those
of mammals, and are not, therefore, used for breathing. They lead into
organs of smell which are, as a rule, very sensitive, so that a fish can detect
the presence of food in the water at considerable distances. The nostrils
are double and allow water to pass through the oigan of smell.
Sight is extremely important in most fishes. The eye of a fish is
basically like that of all other vertebrates, but the eyes of fishes are
extremely varied in structure and adaptation. In general, fishes living in
dark and dim water habitats have large round pupils which do not vary in
size. Fishes living in brightly-lighted shallow waters often have relatively
small but efficient eyes. Most fishes see well, despite the restrictions
imposed by frequent turbidity of the water and by light refraction.
Experimental evidence indicates that many shallow-water fishes, have
colour vision and see some colours especially well, but bottomdwelling
shore fishes apparently are unable to respond to colour differences.
Sound perception and balance are intimately associated senses in
a fish. Although fish have no ears visible externally, the organs of hearing
are entirely internal, located within the skull, on each side of the brain
and somewhat behind the eyes. However, sound waves, especially those
of low frequencies, travel readily through water and impinge directly
upon the bones and fluids of the head and body, to be transmitted to
the hearing organs. Fishes readily respond to sound, though compared
with humans the range of sound frequencies heard by fishes is greatly
restricted. Many fishes communicate with each other by producing
sounds in swim bladders, and throats by rasping teeth, or in other ways.
The mouth serves for taking in food; also for the breathing current
of water. Some fish have a wide gape, and filter microscopic plants and
animals out of the surface waters as they swim along, trapping them in
gill rakers before the water is expelled from the operculum.
Bony fishes also have an operculum which is a bony structure
covering and protecting the gills; it plays an im portant part in the
breathing mechanism. Oxygen dissolved in the water is absorbed by the
gills. The movements of the mouth and operculum are coordinated to
produce a stream of water, in through the mouth, over the gills and out
of the operculum. There are usually four gills on each side consisting of
a curved bony gill bar bearing many fine filaments.
 Fig. 8. Label the parts of the fish body in the picture:
1. scales; 2. lateral line; 3. dorsal fin; 4. caudal fin; 5. anal or ventral fin; 6. pelvic fin;
7. eye or pupil; 8. mouth; 9. operculum or gill cover; 10. pectorial fin

b) Label the parts of the fish body in the picture (Fig. 8).
Search the following websites for more information:
1. http://www.wh.whoi.edu/faq/index.html — The Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institute. _
2. http://ww w.fishbase.org/seach.php — This online database
includes more than 25,000 fish species and offers photographs.
3 http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/history/faqs.html The Northeast
Fisheries Science Center of the National Marine Fisheries Service.
4. http://www.austmus.gov.au/fishes/ — The Australian Museum
Fish Site offers hundreds of fact sheets on fish.

Task for Student В

TROUT
Classification and varieties'. Trout is a common name for many
species of fish belonging to the salmon family. Trout are usually
restricted to fresh water, though a few types migrate to the sea between
spawnings. The trout remain among the most difficult fishes to classify
due to great differences in anatomy of the body and from great variation
in colour and habits. Trout belong mainly to two genera: Oncorhynchus
and Salvelinus. The former contains the cutthroat trout, rainbow trout,
and the golden trout. The latter contains the brook trout, Dolly Varden
trout lake trout, and bull trout. These are all species of chars (голец).
Members of the two genera are chiefly distinguished by differences in
body colouring, the shape of the vomer bone in the roof of the mouth,
and the teeth. The brown trout is common European trout that has been
widely introduced into suitable waters around the world. Salmon trout
is a common name for the brown, lake, cutthroat, and sea-run rainbow
trout. Sea trout is the common name for various trout and chars that
enter the sea.
271
 H abitat: Most of the species usually live in cool fresh water and are
found in most of the lakes and streams of northern regions. Trout, like
salm on, spawn during the spring or occasionally in the autum n,
depending on the latitude and the species. They are native to the
Northern Hemisphere but have been widely introduced to other areas.
M ain characteristics'. The most widely distributed species is the
brook trout, which is sim ilar to the brown trout o f Europe. It is
recognized by its large mouth, violet mantle, dark mottlings, and red
lateral spots, the general colouring being dark grey or green. The male
has a reddish band running along the side of the body. Brook trout vary
in size, the average weight is about 1 kg. Trout spawn between fall and
spring and bury their eggs in a gravel nest scooped out by the female on
a streambed. The eggs take two to three months to hatch, and the newly
hatched trout, or fry, become known as fingerlings when they leave the
nest and begin feeding on plankton. Their diet consists of insects, small
fishes and their eggs, and crustaceans.
Commercial breeding: They are important sport fishes and are often
raised in hatcheries for later transfer to habitable bodies of water.
Although trout was the first fish to be artificially fertilized, trout
cultivation in Europe and North America is much younger than саф
cultivation. Trout are cold-water fish and must have a constant supply
of sufficient oxygen, making cultivation more difficult. Though trout
ponds can be sm aller than carp ponds, good year-round water
circulation is essential. Trout farms are therefore often located in
mountainous areas where plentiful pure water is available. The young
fish are obtained mainly by artificial fertilization; thus, hatchery
buildings with low-temperature water and good filtres are the centre of
this type of pond fishery. There the eggs are kept under control during
breeding in special small tanks. As soon as the hatched fry can swim and
eat on their own, they are transplanted to rearing ponds for feeding.
Trout are carnivores; meat-packing by-products are used for feed.
Such food may be released into the ponds at regular intervals automa­
tically. In many countries, rearing is done in concrete-lined ponds or
concrete tanks, which are easy to keep clean and permit disinfectant
application. The time necessary to rear fish and the yield per hectare
depend on feeding. Some trout farms sell their fish not only fresh and
frozen but also smoked and filleted.
For trout and salmon, a new system of fish cultivation has been
introduced. Instead of ponds, enclosures of netting or other materials
are placed in natural waters, such as lakes, and also in brackish waters.
By this means, areas formerly of low value can be farmed intensively.
Farming trout in brackish water or seawater is of especial interest.
(http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/ffrf/rfeost.html —
Images and ofher Data for Rainbow Trout)
 U n i t 14

Vocabulary and Grammar:

1. Значения слова one.
2. Значения слов like, alike, unlike, likely, unlikely.
3. Инфинитивная конструкция «сложное подлежащее» со сказуемым
в действительном залоге.

VOCABULARY ТО TH E TEXT “BEEK EEPING ”

Nouns', apiary (syn bee-garden), apiarist (syn apiculturist, bee­

keeper), apiculture (syn beekeeping), bee (queen/worker bee), beeswax
(syn wax), colony, comb, destruction, drone, hive (syn beehive, cluster),
honey, honeybee, pollen, pollination, pollinator, (venomous) sting (syn
stinger).
Adjectives and adverbs', alike, capable of doing smth, like, likely,
be sure (of), tolerant, unlike, widespread.
Verbs: appear, contaminate, destroy, disappear, earn (one’s living),
happen, be likely, poison, pollinate, seem, turn out (syn prove), be unlikely,
weaken.
Give the Russian equivalents of the following international words and
scientific terms:
antibacterial [.sentibaek'trariel], continent [’kontinant], complex
[’kDmpleks], eucalyptus [juka'liptas], exporter [ik'spsta], to extract
[ik'straekt], fungicide ['fvujgi.said or 'fXnc^i,said], immune system [imju:n
'sistim ], im porter [im'porta], insecticide [in'sektisaid], migratory
['mai'greitari], nectar ['nekta], propolis ['propolis], social [saujl], therapy
['Өегәрі}, transport ['transport]

Значения слова one

Слово one имеет следующие значения:
1) числительное один.
Examples:
Among the world’s agricultural Среди отраслей мирового сель-
industries, meat chicken ского хозяйства бройлерное
273
 breeding is one of the most птицеводство является одним
advanced. из самых развитых.
Australia produces more than Австралия производит более од-
one quarter of the world’s ной четверти мирового объема
yearly output of wool. шерсти за год.
2) употребляется как слово-заместитель (см. Unit 8).
Example :
The system of fattening in the dry істема откорма скота на сухих
lot is more effective though кормах является более эффек­
it is a more expensive one. тивной, хотя это более дорого­
стоящая система.
формального подлежащего
о one на русский язык не
модальными
m ust/has to /is t нужно; необходимо
should/ought to следует; нужно;
can/m ay — можно
Examples :
In the United States one must В США необходимо покупать
buy an annual fishing license ежегодную лицензию на лов-
лю рыбы.
One should preserve nature Следует охранять природу от
from pollution. загрязнения.

4) the one уникальныи

Example:
The stud called Morgan is Жеребец-производитель по клич
the world’s best example of ке Морган — это самый луч­
prepotency, since he was ший в мире пример домини­
the only one who founded рования признаков, так как
the Morgan breed. он был единственным, от ко
го произошла порода лошадей
Морган.
1. Identify the sentences where one is not translated into Russian.
1. A balanced ration is the one consisting of several nutrients in
proper proportion. 2. One of the reasons of low gains may be infection
in the pigsty. 3. In order to obtain offspring with desired characteristics
one should choose the sire and the dam carefully. 4. The new pond for
fry is much better than the old one. 5. One can use the animal natural
instincts to develop the necessary response to man’s commands.

274
 Значения слов lik e , alike , unlike , likely, unlikely
Слово like может быть разными частями речи в английском
языке:
1) глаголом: нравиться, любить;
2) прилагательным: аналогичный, подобный, похожий, сход­
ный; syn similar, resembling;
3) прилагательным: идентичный, одинаковый, равный, тож­
дественный; syn equal, identical;
4) наречием: подобно, так;
5) предлогом: так; как что-л.; подобно чему-л.;
6) to be like — быть похожим.
Слово alike имеет значения:
1) прилагательного: одинаковый; идентичный, подобный, по­
хожий, тождественный; syn similar;
2) наречия: точно так же, подобно, одинаково, тождест­
венно, похоже, идентично;
3) to be alike — быть подобным, похожим.
Слово unlike может иметь значения:
1) прилагательного: разный, отличный, непохожий на, не та­
кой, как; syn different;
2) прилагательного: неравный, неравноценный; syn unequal;
3) предлога: в отличие от; syn different from;
4) to be unlike — быть отличным, непохожим.
Слово likely имеет значения:
1) прилагательного: вероятный, возможный; syn probable;
2) прилагательного: годный, подходящий; пригодный, приме­
нимый; syn suitable;
3) наречия: вероятно (most likely, very likely).
Слово unlikely имеет значения:
1) прилагательного: маловероятный, неправдоподобный;
syn improbable;
2) прилагательного: малообещающий, неперспективный;
3) наречия: вряд ли, едва ли, невероятно, неправдоподобно;
syn improbably. I
ffiamplesi
The Indian buffalo is a large И ндийский буйвол — это боль­
ox-like animal of massive шое животное похожее на бы­
build with large horns. ка, массивного телосложения
с больш ими рогами.
Like the Arabian and the English Подобно арабским и английским
Thoroughbred the Akhal-Teke чистокровным лош адям ахал-
 breed belongs to the hot-blood текинская порода относится
category. к категории резвых.
In general, the members of one В общем, представители одной
poultry breed are alike in птицы
shape. хожи/ идентичны
It is quite likely that some of the Вполне вероятно, что некоторые
sire’s descendants, especially потомки производителя, осо­
the more remote ones, may бенно более дальние потомки,
not inherit certain “good” могут вообще не унаследовать
genes at all. «хорошие» гены. |
The swan is quite unlike most бедь очень отличается от
other birds as it is unable to большинства других птиц,
sing sweet songs and mostly так как не умеет петь краси­
silent through its life. вые песни и в основном мол­
чит в течение своей жизни.
Unlike its monogamous wild В отличие от своего дикого моно-
cousin, the domestic goose гамного родственника, домаш­
is polygamous and thus more ний гусь является полигамным
commercial и поэтому более продуктивным
U
uses. для промышленных целей.
It is unlikely that the demand Маловероятно
for clothes made from natural одежду, изготовленную
high-quality wool will туральной высококачес
decrease. шерсти, понизится
2. Translate the sentences into Russian paying attention to the meanings
of the words like, alike , unlike, likely, unlikely.
1. The distinctive features of the Akhal-Teke breed can be described
in words like dry, thin, straight, and lean. 2. The existing concept of
the intensive farm animal management is clear enough to be of use to
specialists and common farmers alike. 3. The horse is like other
herbivores to a great extent, for it has strong teeth and a relatively long
digestive tract which are necessary for eating plants. 4. The number of
people who do not like the idea that animals should be killed for human
food has increased in recent years. 5. Unlike trained behaviours,
instinctive behaviours are those that animals do without being taught.
6. Like so many basic, or “theoretical” , sciences, genetics has many
actual and potential practical applications. 7. It is unlikely that carp can
be raised in sea or brackish waters as it is known to be a freshwater fish.
8. A crayfish is a freshwater crustacean with large claws like those of
a lobster. 9. Trout, like salmon, spawn during the spring or occasionally
in the autumn, depending on the latitude and the species. 10. Cattle
breeders expect a likely increase in the price for beef by the end of the
year.

276
 GRAM M AR R EV ISIO N
A N D PRETEXT EXERCISES

Инфинитивная конструкция «сложное подлежащее»

со сказуемым в действительном залоге
(The complex subject with the verb in the active voice)
Данная инфинитивная конструкция состоит из следующих трех
основных частей:

I И III
Подлежащее Сказуемое Инфинитив
может быть вы­ выражено глаголом глагол с частицей to
ражено суще­ в форме действительного
ствительным или залога (следует запом­
местоимением нить глаголы наиболее
в именительном часто употребляемые
падеже конструкции
Shellfish seem/appear to be in high demand in
many restaurants.
Ракообразные, по-видимому/кажется, пользуются большим
многих
торанах.

По
видимому/ Кажется , что ракообразные пользуются большим
спросом во многих ресторанах.
В этой конструкции употребляются следующие глаголы в дей­
ствительном залоге: to seem, to appear по-видимому, казаться ;
to prove, to turn out оказываться ; to happen случаться; to be
likely вероятно-, to be unlikely маловероятно, вряд ли] to be sure,
to be certain наверняка, безусловно.
Следует обратить внимание, что некоторые глаголы в рассмат­
риваемой конструкции приобретают иное значение. Для сравне­
ния разные значения глаголов приведены в таблице.
Значение глагола
Значение глагола, в конструкциях
Глагол выражающего действие «сложное подлежащее*

appear появляться по-видимому; казаться

happen случаться, происходить случайно оказываться,
случаться
prove доказать (что-л.) оказываться

277
 Значение глагола
Глагол Значение глагола, в конструкциях
выражающего действие «сложное подлежащее»
to be sure быть уверенным (в чём-л.) наверняка, безусловно
(of/about smth)

Если при сказуемом имеется отрицание, то оно обычно ставит­

ся перед второй частью конструкции.
Examples: .
The sow has proved to be more Свиноматка оказалась более
prolific than the farmer плодовитои, чем ожидал
expected. фермер.
Horse races appear to be very Скачки лошадей, по-видимому,
popular in many countries in будут очень популярны во
the coming years. многих странах в ближайшие
годы.
The Shorthorn does not seem Шортгорнская порода, кажется,
to be the main cattle breed не является главной породой
in Russia. крупного рогатого скота в Рос­
сии.
3. Translate the following sentences into Russian. Identify the sentences
with the complex subject. Pay attention to the different meaning of
the words appear, happen, to be (un)likely, prove, seem.
1. When the first settlers appeared in the United States, they found
the woods full of big birds. The birds happened (or turned out) to be
like birds that Europeans had imported from Turkey. Thus, the new bird
seemed to be called a turkey. 2. The Muscovy duck and wild mallard
appear to be the ancestors of all domestic ducks. 3. The horse’s tail is
very expressive and “high-tailing known
excitement. 4. Outbreaks of subtypes of H7 happened in 2003 and 2004
on some poultry farms in Europe and the eastern United States, however
it is unlikely that this avian strain may currently be dangerous to humans.
5. Scientists are sure of the obtained experimental data. 6. Scientists have
proved the eye of a fish to be basically like that of all other vertebrates,
but the eyes of various fish are extremely differ in structure and
adaptation. 7. Of all nutrients, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, and
vitamin BI2 are most likely to be deficient in ordinary feeds. 8. Crayfish
are sure to be prized for its tail meat.
4. Read and translate the text into Russian. Find the sentences with:
— one and identity the meaning of the word;
— the complex subject;
— the complex object;

278
 — the emphasizing construction It is ... that ;
— the construction “ there + verb”',
— the attributive clause with zero relative pronoun.

BEEKEEPING
(1) Beekeeping, also called apiculture, means management of
colonies of bees for the production of honey and other hive products
and for the pollination of crops. Bees are sure to be among the most
studied and best known insects. The honeybee is considered to be
a common name for any of several species of highly social bees known
for their honey-hoarding behaviour1 and their use as a domesticated
species. One should refer the honeybee to the order Hymenoptera and
to one of the Apis species. Honeybees are native to Asia and the Middle
East and were introduced to North America by early European colonists.
By the mid-1800s, honeybees had become widespread in the world.
At present, one may find honeybees on every continent except
Antarctica, since they can be easily reared and adapted to many climates.
(2) It has been found that honeybees are social insects noted for
providing their nests2 with large amounts of honey. One can describe
a colony of honeybees as a highly complex cluster of individuals functioning
actually as a single organism. The colony usually consists of the queen
bee, the worker bees and male bees, or drones. The former is normally
the only one in each colony. Unlike the worker bee, the queen bee is
a fertilized female capable of laying a thousand or more eggs per day. Like
any worker bee the queen bee has a sting but it is a venomous strng. The
number of the worker bees known as sexually undeveloped females may
vary from a few to 60,000 bees. It is quite likely that there may be few drones
in the colony, but sometimes there may live as many as 1,000 drones.
Colonies are kept in hives where honeybees build the nest. Groups
of hives are called apiaries, and a beekeeper may also be called an apiarist
or apiculturist. ,
(3) There exist a few recognized species of honeybees, including the
European honeybee, the Indian honeybee, the dwarf honeybee*, the
mountain giant honeybee etc. However, only the European, the Indian,
and to some extent, the dwarf honey bees are the species that have been
domesticated. The former is said to be the most widespread domesticated
bee and the one species kept in North America. There have been found
many races of the European honeybee, but the ones most popular in
modem beekeeping are the Italian, Carniolan, and Caucasian. Most
honeybees used in hives today seem to be mixtures of these and sometimes
other races. Thus, modem beekeeping mainly refers to the husbandry
of the European honeybee, though one can also refer beekeeping to the
management of other domesticated species.
(4) A beekeeper is an ancient and widespread profession and beekeeping
originally appeared in the Middle East. The early Egyptians kept bees
279
I
and traded for honey and beeswax along the East African coast several
thousand years ago. Until 1851, beekeepers harvested honey and beeswax
by killing the colonies inhabiting the hives. In that year the American
apiarist Lorenzo Lorraine Langstroth discovered the principle of “bee
space” according to which bees leave spaces of about 0.6 cm between
wax combs. In artifici al hives, if this space is left between adjacent comb
frames4 and between the end frames and the walls of the hive, each comb
will remain unattached to neighbouring5 combs. Langstroth’s discovery
made it possible to remove individual frames from a beehive and to
harvest honey and wax without destroying the colony. Due to this
discovery, one can control bee diseases and maintain a larger number
of colonies.
(5) Honeybees are the primary source of honey and beeswax. The
latter is described as fine wax with unusual qualities. Honeybees also
produce propolis, a substance possessing antibacterial properties, and
royal jelly6 and pollen for human consumption. Honeybee venom7 is
extracted for the production of antivenom7therapy and is being investigated
as a treatment for several serious diseases of the muscles, connective
tissue8, and immune system, including multiple sclerosis9 and arthritis10.
In addition, bees have proved to be of great practical value for crop
farming as in the act of collecting nectar they pollinate the flowers of
many valuable crops and wild plants they visit.
(6) The pollination of plants is sure to be the most im portant
contribution of bees to the economy and the environment. Many species
of wild pollinators have disappeared from the land as their habitats were
destroyed by humans. It is the honeybee that has taken over11 as
pollinator of many of the wild plants that remain. In this regard, the
ecological value of honeybees is tremendous12. It has been found that
approximately one fourth of all crops produced in the United States and
some other countries are pollinated by honeybees. The value of the crops
that rely on such pollination has been estimated as high as $10 billion
annually in the United States.
Beekeepers worldwide are known to earn their living from selling the
honey and beeswax their hives produce, but in some countries, beekeepers
are paid for their pollination services. However, honeybee colonies used
in commercial pollination and those kept in cities may suffer from
pesticides, fungicides, fertilizers, and other agricultural chemicals widely
used in modem crop farming. As a result, bees are frequently poisoned
by accident13and this is a major concern14 of modem beekeepers.
(7) Apiaries require an abundant supply of nectar and pollen. One
should keep apiaries in an area where nectar-producing plants such as
clover or eucalyptus are in abundance. As a rule, the apiaries of major
honey producers are established in areas where intensive agriculture
occurs, because it is not practical to grow plants for honey production
alone. For a commercially successful operation, the area should support
30 to 50 colonies in an apiary.
280
 Some beekeepers have migratory apiaries and transport their bees to
suitable forage. Apiaries may consist of from 1 to 200 hives, depending
on the means of the beekeeper and the flower resources available.
Commercial beekeepers who make their entire living from bees often
keep hundreds or thousands of hives.
Most beekeepers use standard equipment, that is, boxes (called supers15)
holding ten separate comb frames. It is interesting that the modem hive
and the one described by Langstroth in 1851 are alike in dimensions16.
(8) Modern-day apiculturists believe the honeybee to be an adaptable
animal that can survive under a variety of situations and conditions.
Nevertheless, insecticides are likely to kill and weaken thousands of colonies
each year. Beekeepers who rent their colonies for pollination also may expect
some loss of bees to result from collecting the nectar from contaminated
areas. Generally, honey itself turns out to be fiee from insecticides, because
when a food source becomes contaminated, the colony is killed or
weakened, and so the bees cannot produce an excess for harvest. Other
problems facing beekeepers include parasitic mites17; bacterial, fungal18, and
viral diseases18; and loss of forage due to habitat destruction by humans.
One should know that two species of blood-sucking parasitic mites are
particularly troublesome19for beekeepers and are currently affecting both
wild bees and honeybees worldwide. It is the mites that have killed tens
of thousands of honeybee colonies in North America during the past ten
years. Scientific breeding programmes are aimed at developing tolerant
strains of domestic honeybees to replace the mite-susceptible ones
currently used. .
(9) Beekeeping is a successfully developing branch of agriculture m
many countries, for example China, the United States, Argentina,
Turkey, Ukraine, Mexico, and Russia are believed to be the world
leading honey-producing countries. The leading honey exporters are
China, Argentina, Mexico, while the leading importers are Germany,
the United States, Japan, and the United Kingdom.
In regard to American beekeeping, imports of honey from the United
States have exceeded exports in recent years. At the beginning of the 21st
century the US maintained an estimated 2.5 million colonies of
honeybees, producing about 78 million kg of honey. According to the
statistics more than 200,000 people owned one or more hives but only
about 1 600 earned a full-time living due to beekeeping. Such states as
North Dakota, California, Florida, Minnesota, Montana, Idaho, and
New York are supposed to be the leading ones in honey production.
Nowadays average commercial production is about 31 kg of honey per
colony, and 9 to 18 kg of beeswax for every ton of honey harvested.

COMMENTS
1. honey-hoarding behaviour — способность к накоплению меда
2. nest — зд. рой (пчел)
281
 3. dwarf honeybee [dwoifj — пчела карликовая (Apis florae)
4. adjacent comb frames — зд. рамки смежных сот
5. neighbouring ['пеіЬәщ)] — соседний
6. royal jelly — маточное молочко пчел
7. venom [Venam] (antivenom) — яд (противоядие)
8. connective tissue — соединительная ткань
9. multiple sclerosis т- рассеянный склероз
10. arthritis [cu'Graitis] — артрит
И. to take over — зд. взять на себя обязанности
12. tremendous [tri'mendas] — огромный, громадный
13. by accident ['aeksidant] — случайно
14. concern [karis3:n] — забота, беспокойство
15. super ['sjupa] — магазин для мёда, медовая надставка
16. dimension [dai'menjh] — размер
17. mite [mart] — клещ
18. fungal [fXrjgal], viral [Vaiaral] diseases — грибковые, вирусные забо­
левания
19. troublesome ['trAbls(a)m] — причиняющий беспокойство

E X E R C ISE S TO T H E TEXT
5. Find in the text the English equivalents for the following Russian
phrases:
насекомые известные (чем-л.); рой отдельных особей, функци­
онирующий как...; оплодотворенная самка; среди самых изучен­
ных и наиболее известных насекомых; самая широко распро­
страненная одомашненная пчела; единственный вид, имеющий­
ся в Северной Америке; большинство медоносных пчел, исполь­
зуемых в ульях сейчас; семьи, населяющие ульи; вещество, обла­
дающее антибактериальными свойствами; примерно одна чет­
верть всех культур, производимых в США; химикаты, используе­
мые в растениеводстве; растения, производящие нектар; десять
отдельных рамок для сот; загрязненные территории; другие про­
блемы, стоящие перед пчеловодами; успешно развивающаяся от­
расль сельского хозяйства; ведущие экспортеры/импортеры меда;
люди, имеющие один и более ульев; на каждую тонну собранно­
го меда
6. Agree or disagree with the following statements:
1. Honeybees are likely to be native to North America. 2. Of all
species the European honeybee seems to be the most important in
modern agriculture and in nature. 3. Drones are certain to be important
members of the colony. 4. To harvest honey and beeswax by killing the
colony is unlikely to be a good method. 5. Honeybees appear to produce
a number of substances that are valuable for human consumption.
6. Honeybees happen to pollinate a few wild plants. 7. The modem
282
standard beehive has turned to be similar to the hive described by its
inventor in 1851. 8. Scarce forage resources are sure to be the main
reason for the losses in beekeeping. 9. The United States have proved
to be the leading honey exporter in the world.

USEFUL LANGUAGE
Expressing agreement and disagreement:
There is no doubt...; 1 agree with the argument that...; I completely agree...;
I don’t quite agree with it; Nothing o f the kind; I’m afraid it is wrong;
Quite the opposite.

7. Complete the following sentences to make up a summary of the text

“Beekeeping”.
1. The main aim of beekeeping is to... . 2. Firstly, despite a number
of bee species, beekeepers mainly deal w ith.... 3. Moreover, the unique
structure of the colony enables the cluster to function.... 4. Honeybees
are known to provide people with... . 5. In addition, bees are supposed
to be of great value for.... 6. However, the application of pesticides seems
to be... . 7. On the one hand, honeybees can be adapted... . 8. On the
other hand, they are subject to different.... 9. It is essential for beekeepers
that tolerant strains of honeybees... . 10. It is due to Langstroth’s
discovery of “bee space” and his design of the hive th at.... 11. Standard
equipment for beekeeping appears to be... . 12. Although many people
are interested in rearing honeybees, only few thousands of people... .
13. To sum up, beekeeping is sure to be... . 14. One can name such
honey-producing countries as... .

A D D IT IO N A L E X E R C IS E S

8. Give the words described by the following definitions. All the words
are from the active vocabulary to Unit 14.
a) — a sharp, often poisonous, pointed part of certain insects and
other creatures, used for wounding.
b) — a sweet sticky yellowish substance made by bees from nectar.
c) — a female bee which works in a colony of bees but does not
reproduce.
d) _ a powdery substance produced by flowering plants that
contains male reproductive cells. It is carried by wind and
insects to other plants, which it fertilizes.
e) — a male bee that has no sting, does not gather pollen, and exists
only to mate with the queen bee.
f) - a place where beehives are kept and bees are raised for their
honey.
283
 g) — a collection of six-sized cells constructed of wax by bees inside
a hive or nest in which honey is stored, eggs are laid, and larvae
develop. ; . f•
h) — a honey-producing bee that lives in organized groups and has
been domesticated for its honey and beeswax since ancient
times.
i) — a container made for bees to live in.
j) — a group of insects, or organisms of the same kind that are
living together and dependent on each other, or a group of
plants growing in the same place. |
k) — the dark yellow substance secreted by honeybees and used for
building honeycombs; it may be used for making furniture
polish or candles.
1) — a large, fully-developed female bee that lays eggs continually.
9. a) Translate the following words into Russian:
1. pollen, pollination, pollinator, pollinate, pollinated, pollinating;
2. contaminated, contaminate, contamination; 3. success, successful,
successfully; 4. contribute, contribution, contributed, contributing;
5. poison, poisoning, poisoned, poisonous; 6. destruct, destruction,
destructive; 7. destroy, destroyed, destroying; 8. disappear, disappearance,
disappearing, disappeared; 9. apiary, apiarist, apiculture
b) Fill the gaps with the words from (a).
1. One should assume the g reat... of insects, especially bees to ...,
that is, the process of transferring ... and fertilizing plants.
2. The ... crop production on this farm is due to the well-developed
commercial... in its neighbourhood.
3. Changing and even ... natural habitats of some species of wild
insects known as wild ..., such as butterflies, dragonflies, humans
may cause their....
4. The ... of land and water resources with heavy metals and other...
substances near large industrial cities has been found to be above
the allowable level.
5. Venom is a kind o f ... which is usually produced by wide range of
animals, including snakes, scorpions, spiders, and fish. When
venom is injected into the attacker’s body by a bite or sting, it may
be ... to the attacker’s health and even cause his death.
10. a) Fill the gaps with the following words: like, alike, unlike, likely,
unlikely. r 1
Africanized honeybee is ... to be a variety of honeybee obtained by
hybridization from African honeybees naturalised in the western hemi­
sphere. ... the European honeybee, Africanized honeybees are highly
defensive and attack more readily, that’s why they are known by the
popular name killer bees. It is ... that this variety of bees appeared due

284
to hybridization from African honeybees whose first bee queens were
imported by Brazilian scientists in the 1950s. Scientists thought the
African honeybee to be a ... species for breeding in tropical climates.
Despite hybridization, Africanized honeybees are ... African honeybees
in many basic traits including rapid population growth, minimal storing
of honey, the ability to survive on sparse supplies of pollen and nectar,
and a highly defensive nature. It is ... that Africanized honeybees will
be as popular with beekeepers as the European ones. Many beekeepers
do n o t... dealing with Africanized honeybees, for they are more difficult
to manage and produce less honey. These honeybees are ... to be widely
spread in Latin American countries, but Africanization of beehives
in the United States is highly ... because of advanced beekeeping
technology and climatic limitations on the spread of the species.
b) Make up eight special questions on the text ( What, When, Why,
How etc) and retell it.
11. Change the sentences using the complex subject construction.
Model: Many people consider bees to be the most important polli­
nating insects. —» Bees are sure to be the most important
pollinating insects.
1. It seems that honeybees are widely used by scientists for the study
of evolution and social behaviour in insects. 2. Scientists know for sure
that the greatest diversity of bee species exists in warm, arid or semiarid
areas, especially in the American Southwest and Mexico. 3. It is difficult
for non-specialists to distinguish 11 families of bees, because 0ПІУ
scientists know the differences in the structure of wings, mouthparts and
other microscopic characteristics. 4. It appears that adult bees can
subsist on honey or sugar, a pure carbohydrate diet. 5. Beekeepers can
be certain that the queen lays the eggs that will develop into more queens
in specially constructed cells filled with royal jelly. 6. Scientists have
proved that on average the queen honeybee is capable of laying 1,500
eggs per day. 7. Many animals, for example bee eaters (birds), can hunt
individual honey bees, which may sometimes weaken colonies. 8. It is
not possible for the beekeeper to direct the bees to a particular source
of food but through experience he learns which plants are the sources
of honey 9 It is known that the colour and flavour depend on the age
of the honey and on the source of the nectar. 10. Sometimes bee wolves
or wasps (осы) may enter the nest or hive and steal larvae (личинки).
12. Modify the sentences as in the model.
Model: It is necessary to know the sequence of events in a bee­
keeper’s year. -> One should know the sequence of events
in a beekeeper’s year.
1 A beekeeper may start examining his colonies in March or April
depending on the part of the country and the weather.
285
 2. In May it is required to practice swarming (роение пчел), decide
about the desired number of colonies and prepare enough extra
equipment. <J
3. In June and July it is essential to make sure the demand for food,
for brood rearing does not exceed the supply of food coming into
the hive. a
4. Supers are to be removed at the end of August or beginning of
September and honey is to be extracted.
5. It is possible to finish feeding bees by the end of September or in
the middle of October.
6. In autumn it is also recommended to make the final inspection
of colonies, that is, to ensure that they have plenty of stores for
the winter.
7. It is not desirable to disturb bees from November till February,
though snow is to be removed from the entrance of the hive to
allow ventilation.
8. Winter is a good time for looking through the previous year’s
records and planning next year’s campaign.
13. Translate into English.
a) заниматься пчеловодством; подобно рабочим пчелам; в отли­
чие от трутней; ядовитое жало; управлять пасекой; высококвали­
фицированный пчеловод; изучать химический состав пчелиного
воска; ослаблять рой; разводить пчелиные рои; пчелиные соты
с медом; быть похожим на пчелиную матку; современные ульи;
разрушение среды обитания; цветочная пыльца; процесс опыле­
ния; широко распространенный опылитель; быть одинаковыми
по размеру; загрязненные территории; вид устойчивый к клещам;
получать доход от пчеловодства (или зарабатывать на жизнь за
счет пчеловодства); вряд ли исчезнут; инсектициды, по-видимо­
му, отравляют...; опылять культурные и дикие растения; уничто­
жать случайно; пчелиные матки способны откладывать тысячи
яиц
b) 1. Безусловно, уникальное строение пчелиной семьи позво­
ляет ей функционировать как целому организму. 2. В отличие
от рабочих пчел, пчеломатка редко использует свое жало, толь­
ко против другой пчелиной матки. 3. Строя улей, следует точно
соблюдать расстояние между сотами. 4. Известно, что пчелы
дают ряд ценных для потребления человеком продуктов, такие
как мед, прополис, воск и пыльца, но следует также помнить об
их важной функции как опылителей растений. 5. Оказалось, что
применение пестицидов в сельском хозяйстве приводит к за­
грязнению территорий, где медоносные пчелы обычно собира­
ют нектар. 6. Хотя пчелиная матка, рабочая пчела и трутень очень
похожи, они сильно отличаются друг от друга по размеру.

286
 E X E R C IS E S FO R G R O U P WORK

14. Students are participants of the quiz show. Choose one student who
will ask questions and check the answers. Students may divide into
two groups or answer individually. Make the questions more polite
using the words in brackets. See the keys at the end of the unit.

GENERAL KNOW LEDGE Q U IZ O N BEES

11 How many species of bees are there in the world? (It is interesting
to know...)
2. Are there any places in the world where bees cannot be found?
(Do you know...)
3. In which parts of the world is the greatest diversity of bee species?
(I wonder...)
4. What is the average temperature in the hive? (Have you got an
idea...)
5. Which maximum temperature can the colony survive at? (Can
you say...)
6. Which temperature do the bees stop flying at? (Do you know...)
7. Which minimum temperature can the colony survive at? ( Could
you tell us...)
8. Where do mining bees live? (Do you have any idea...)
9. What is the smallest size of the bee in length? What is the largest?
(Do you happen to know...)
10. How many times can the worker bee feed wormlike larva per day.
(Do you think...)
11. How many eggs can the queen bee lay per day? (Do you know...)
12. Which fruit crops depend on pollination by bees? ( Could you tell
US..»)
13. Which vegetables rely on pollination by bees? (Have you studied...)
14. How much nectar, water and pollen may a colony carry into the
hive per year? (Could you possibly tell us...) _
15. How much water may honey contain? (I wonder if you could
tell us...) . ' - _ . ,
16. What are the main components of bee honey? (Do you mind
telling us...)
17. What are the main kinds of honey? (Can you name...)
18* Are there any idioms with the words bee, honey, wax? (Do you
remember...)

SUPPLEMENTARY TEXTS
15 a) Read the text and match the description o f the queen b ee, the
worker bee and the drone with the pictures 1— 111 (Fig. 9).
287
 10
7
I II III

Fig. 9. Pictires of the bees

L three simple eyes (ocelli) — три простых глаза; 2. antenna — усик;
3. pollen basket — корзиночка для пыльцы; 4. hind legs — задние ноги;
5. wing — крыло; 6. abdomen — брюшко; 7. sting/stinger — жало;
8. compound eye — сложный глаз; 9. thorax — торакс, грудная клетка;
10. double claw — раздвоенная лапка

b) Complete the table comparing the main characteristics of the queen

bee, the working bee and the drone.
. i '" Ш
Part of the body and other
The queen bee The worker bee The drone
characteristics
1. sting yes yes no
2. eyes
3. antennae
4. segments in
the abdomen
5. wax plates
6. honey sac
7. pollen baskets
8. the length o f the period
for development from
egg to adult
9. the life span

T ext 1
HONEYBEES
The honeybee community consists of three structurally different
forms—the queen (reproductive female), the drone (male), and the
worker (non-reproductive female). These castes are associated with
288
different functions in the colony; each caste possesses its own special
instinct^ required to meet the needs of the colony.
The queen is the only sexually productive female in the colony and
thus is the mother of all drones, workers, and future queens. Her
capacity for laying eggs is outstanding; her daily output often exceeds
1,500 eggs, the weight of which is equivalent to that of her own body.
The normally fertilized queen may produce eggs for three or more years.
Her egg-laying rate is influenced by the amount and kind of the food
she is fed by the nurse bees and by the temperature in the hive. The
queen can live up to five years, although many beekeepers replace the
queen every year or two.
Anatomically, the queen is strikingly different from the drones and
workers. Her body is long, with a much larger abdomen than a worker
bee. Her mandibles1, or jaws, contain sharp cutting teeth, whereas her
offspring have toothless jaws. The queen has a curved, smooth stinger
that she can use repeatedly without endangering her own life. In
contrast, the worker honeybees are armed with straight, barbed stingers,
so that when a worker stings, the barbed, needle-sharp organ remains
in the flesh of its victim. In trying to withdraw the stinger, the bee tears
its internal organs and dies shortly thereafter. The queen bee lacks the
working tools possessed by worker bees, such as pollen baskets, beeswax-
secreting glands2, and a well-developed honey sac3. Her larval food
consists almost entirely of a secretion called royal jelly that is produced
by worker bees.
Worker bees are the most numerous members of the colony. A healthy
colony may contain 80.000 worker bees or more at its peak growth in
early summer.
Worker bees live about six weeks during the active season but may
live for several months if they emerge as adults in the fall and spend the
winter in the cluster. As the name suggests, worker bees do all of the
work of the hive, except the egg-laying.
Workers build and maintain the nest and care for the brood. I ney
build the nest from wax secreted from glands in their abdomen. The cells
of the comb constructed by the workers provide the internal structure
of the nest and are used for storage of the developing young bees and
all the provisions used by the colony. Comb used for storage of honey
is called honeycomb. Workers leave the hive to gather nectar, pollen,
water, and propolis, a gummy substance used to seal and caulk the
exterior of the nest. They convert the nectar to honey, clean the comb,
and feed the larvae5, drones, and the queen. They also ventilate the nest
and when necessary, defend the colony with their stings. Workers do not
mate and therefore cannot produce fertile eggs. They occasionally lay
infertile eggs, which give rise to drones.
As with all bees, pollen is the principal source of protem, fat, minerals,
and vitamins, the food elements essential for the growth and development
of larvae of all three castes. Adult bees can subsist on honey or sugar, a

10 Комарова
289
pure carbohydrate diet. Besides gathering and storing food for all the
members of the colony, the workers are responsible for maintaining the
brood at 33.9°C, the optimum temperature required for hatching the eggs
and rearing the young. When the nest or hive becomes too hot, the workers
collectively ventilate it by fanning their wings. During cool weather, they
cluster tightly about the nursery and generate heat.
The eggs, which are laid one per cell, hatch in three days. The larvae
are fed royal jelly for at least two days and then pollen and nectar or honey.
It is interesting that future workers receive royal jelly only during the first
two days, compared to future queens, who are fed royal jelly throughout
their larval life. This difference accounts for the great variation in anatomy
and function between adult workers and queens. Each of the hundreds
of larvae in a nest or hive must be fed many times a day. Worker bees may
feed the wormlike larva as many as 1,300 times a day. On average, the
development of the queen from egg to adult requires 16 days; that of the
worker, 21 days; and that of the drone, 24 days. }
For the first three weeks of their adult lives, the workers confine their
labours to building the honeycomb, cleaning and polishing the cells,
feeding the young and the queen, controlling the temperature, evaporating
the water from the nectar until it thickens as honey, and many other
miscellaneous tasks. At the end of this period, they function as field bees
and defenders of the colony. The workers that develop early in the season
live extremely busy lives, which, from egg to death, last about six weeks.
Worker bees reared late in the fall usually live until spring, since they
have little to do in the winter except eat and keep warm. Unlike other
species of bees, honeybees do not hibernate6; the colony survives the
winter as a group of active adult bees.
Drones, male honeybees, are stingless, defenceless, and unable to
feed themselves, so they are fed by worker bees. Drones have no pollen
baskets or wax glands and cannot secrete royal jelly. Their one function
is to mate with new queens. After mating, which always takes place on
the wing in the open air, a drone dies immediately. Early investigators
of the mating habits of the honeybee concluded that a queen mates only
once in her life. Recent scientific studies, however, have established that
she usually mates with six or more drones in the course of a few days.
Drones are prevalent in colonies of bees in the spring and summer
months. As fall approaches, they are driven out of the nests or hives by
the workers and left to die.

COMMENTS

1. mandible (jaw) — мандибула (нижняя челюсть)

2. beeswax-secreting glands — железы, выделяющие воск (сальники)
3. honey sac — медовый зобик, медовый желудочек
4. larval ['larval] — личиночный

290
5. larva ['lava] {pi larvae ['la:vi:]) — личинка
6. to hibernate [’haibaneit] — находиться в зимней спячке
Search the websites for more information about honeybees:
1. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/bees/ — NOVA Online: Tales
from the Hive. PBS Online offers a variety of information about
bees, including many images and video clips.
2. http://gears.tucson.ars.ag.gov/ — Global Entomology Agriculture
Research Server. Materials at this site range from bee-related
activities for grade school students to scholarly papers on bees.
c) Use the texts about beekeeping and honeybees and data from (b)
to compare the structure of the body as well as the behaviour of
different bees.
Model: In contrast to the queen bee and other working bees, drones
do not have a sting. Like the queen bee, working bees have
stings. Unlike drones, working bees have stings. Compared
with the curved and smooth queen’s sting, the worker
honeybees have straight stings. Contrary to the working bees
that die after stinging their victims, the queen bee can use
the sting repeatedly without endangering her own life.

USEFUL LANGUAGE
Expressing comparison:
In comparison with; Compared with...; On the contrary...; In contrast to...;
As ... as; Not so ... as;... than; As little as...; As many as...; The same as...;
Like...; Similar to...; Unlike....

16. a) Read and translate the text into Russian. Give a summary of the
text. Use the models from exercise 7.

T ext 2
HONEYBEE DANCES

An amazing symbolic communication system exists among honeybees.

In studies of bees begun in the early 1900s, the Austrian zoologist Karl
von Frisch determined many of the details of their means of communi­
cation. In a classic paper published in 1923, Frisch described how after
a field bee discovers a new source of food, such as a field in bloom, she
fills her honey sac with nectar, returns to the nest or hive, and performs
a vigorous but highly standardized dance.
If the new source of food is within about 90 m of the nest or hive,
the bee performs a circular dance, first moving about 2 cm or more, and
291
then circling in the opposite direction. Numerous bees in the nest or
hive closely follow the dancer, imitating her movements. During this
ceremony, the other workers scent the fragrance of the flowers from
which the dancer collected the nectar. Then the bees leave the hive and
fly in widening circles until they find the source.
If the new source of nectar or pollen is farther away, the discoverer
performs a more elaborate dance characterized by intermittent move­
ments across the diameter of the circle and constant, vigorous wagging
o f her abdom en. Every m ovem ent o f this dance seems to have
significance. The number of times the bee circles during a given interval
informs the other bees how far to fly for the food. Movement across the
diameter in a straight run indicates the direction of the food source. For
example, if the straight run is upward, the source is directly toward the
sun. Should the straight run be downward, it means that the bees may
reach the food by flying with their backs to the sun. Bees under observation
in a glass hive demonstrate their instructions so clearly that it is possible
for trained observers to understand the directions given by the dancers.
Certain aspects of the dance language, such as how attendant bees
perceive the motion of dancers in the total darkness of the nest or hive,
are still unknown. The dance language is an important survival strategy
that has helped the honeybee in its success as a species.
b) Give the examples of the behaviour of other insects (butterflies,
dragonflies, ants etc).
Search the websites for more information on insects:
1. http://www.insectclopedia.com/ — Encyclopedia of online insect
resources including species databases, research sites, schools and
associations.
2. http://www.earthlife.net/insects/ — The site introduces insect
classification and anatomy and includes book reviews, an Ask an
Expert feature, and many other resources.
Answers to the General Knowledge Quiz on Bees.
1. There are about 20,000 species of bees worldwide.
2. Bees are found throughout the world except at the highest
altitudes, in polar regions, and on some small oceanic islands.
3. The greatest diversity of bee species is found in warm, arid or
semiarid areas, especially in the American Southwest and Mexico.
4. The bees maintain a uniform temperature of about 34°C in the
brood nest regardless of outside temperature.
5. The colony can survive daily maximum temperatures of 49°C if
water is available with which they can air-condition the cluster.
6. When the temperature falls below about 14°C, the bees cease
flying, form a tight cluster to conserve heat, and await the return
of warm weather. л
7. They can survive for several weeks in temperatures of —46°C.

292
 8. Mining bees are a large group of bees that make soil nests of many
branching chambers, each ending in one or more cells. They are
either solitary or communal, living in separate but nearby nests.
They carry pollen on body and leg hairs.
9. Bees range in size from tiny species only 2 mm in length to rather
large insects up to 4 cm long.
10. Worker bees feed the wormlike larva constantly—as many as 1,300
times a day—after it hatches.
11. The queen honey bee may lay 1,500 eggs in a single day.
12. Examples of fruit crops that rely on honeybees are almonds,
apples, apricots, avocados, blackberries, blueberries, cantaloupes,
cherries, cranberries, cucumbers, pears, raspberries, strawberries,
and watermelons.
13. The seeds of many vegetables are also produced with honey bee
pollination; examples include alfalfa, asparagus, broccoli, brussels
sprouts, cabbage, carrots, clover, cotton, cucumbers, onions,
radishes, squash, sweet clover, and turnips.
14. A populous colony in a desirable location may, in a year’s time,
collect and carry into the hive as much as 450 kilograms of nectar,
water, and pollen.
15. Nectar may consist of 50 to 80 per cent water, but when the bees
convert it into honey, it will contain only about 16 to 18 per cent
water. si i$ St '• ;■;r.-
16. Bee honey is composed of fructose, glucose, and water, in varying
proportions; it also contains several enzymes and oils.
17. It may be heavy-bodied or thin-bodied, dark or light, mild-
flavoured or strong-flavoured.
Some idioms:
busy as a bee — to describe someone who enjoys being busy or active;
to have a bee in one’s bonnet — to think or talk about smth constantly,
the bee’s knees (Br E) — to describe someone who thinks they are
clever or good at smth;
none of your beeswax (Am E) — used to tell someone that what they
have asked you is private and personal;
milk and honey — means to have plenty of food and good things that
make life easy and pleasant.
 U n i t 15
MILK PROCESSING

Vocabulary and Grammar:

1. Значения слова whether.
2. Сложные формы инфинитива.
3. Инфинитив в функции определения и обстоятельства следствия.

VOCABULARY ТО T H E TEXT
“M ILK P R O C E S S IN G ”
Nouns: breakdown, butter, buttermilk (cultured buttermilk), cheese
(hard/soft/semisoft cheese), cream (sour/whipping cream), dairyman,
flavour (artificial/natural flavour), flavouring, grade (high/low grade),
layer, liquid, milk (dried/condensed/evaporated/fresh/low-fat/pasteurized/
powdered/raw milk), ripening (syn ageing), shelf life, solid, spoilage,
taste (sour to the taste), whey. Шш л
Adjectives and adverbs : dairy (dairy farming), partial(ly), solid,
sour, versatile.
Verbs’, accelerate, accomplish, chill, churn, derive (from smth),
enrich (syn fortify), freeze (froze, frozen), heat, lower, remove, retard,
ripen, skim (milk), store, sweeten, undergo (underwent, undeigone).
Give the Russian equivalents of the following international words and
scientific terms:
albumin ['aelbjumin], aluminium [.aelja'miniam], casein ['keisin],
centrifuge ['sentnflucfe], cholesterol [ka'lestaral], consistency [kan'sistansi],
container [kan'teina], dessert [di'z3:t], globule ['gtobjirl], globulin
[’gtobjulin], homogenization [ha.modpnai'zeifn], iodine ['aiadm], lactose
['laektaus], llama ['lcuma], manganese ['maerjganirz], microbiologist
[lmaikraubailDlad$ist], molecule ['molikju:!], pasteurization [pcustfarai’zeijn],
pathogenic [.раеЭэ'фешк], refrigeration [ri.fricfca'reifh], separation
[.sepa'reifn], sterilization [.steralai'zeifn], sulphur ['sAlfa], texture ['tekstfa],
vacuum [Vaekjwm], zinc [zirjk]

Значения слова w hether

Слово whether обычно переводится как частица ли, если вво­
дит косвенный вопрос (особенно, если дальше стоит союз o r или),
а также некоторые виды придаточных предложений, выражающих
294
неуверенность, предполагающих выбор из нескольких альтерна
тив. Синонимом whether в английском языке является слово if.
Examples:
The students asked whether they Студенты спросили, смогут ли
could visit the commercial они посетить промышленную
apiary the following week. пасеку на следующей неделе.
The farmer should decide Фермер должен решить, собира­
whether he is going to ется ли он специализироваться
specialize in egg or broiler в производстве яиц или брой­
production. леров.
Whether the calves will inherit Унаследуют ли телята самые луч-
the best parents’ characteristics шие характеристики родите­
may be clear only after testing лей, может быть ясно только
of their productivity. после проведения тестов на
продуктивность.
It is not known yet whether this Еще не известно, является ли эта
infection is bacterial or viral. инфекция бактериальной или
вируснои.

Следует
или
Example:
It’s quite true whether or no Так или иначе, это абсолютно
верно.
Whether or not the farmer Независимо от того согласен
agrees, all the cattle with any фермер или нет, весь скот
symptoms of BSE must be с какими-либо симптомами
slaughtered. коровьего бешенства долже
быть уничтожен.

GRAM M AR R EVISIO N
A N D PRETEXT EXERCISES
Сложные формы инфинитива
(The complex forms of the infinitiv

Формы инфинитива Active Passive

Simple to breed to be bred

Progressive to be breeding
Perfect to have bred to have been bred
 Сложные формы инфинитива часто употребляются в инфини­
тивных конструкциях «сложное подлежащее» и «сложное допол­
нение», причем из указанных в таблице форм наиболее часто
используются простая и перфектная формы. Форма инфинитива
в страдательном залоге наиболее часто встречается в научных тек­
стах и употребляется для обозначения действия, направленного
на существительное, которое образует данную конструкцию.
1. Простая форма инфинитива (simple form) на русский язык
переводится с помощью глаголов настоящего или будущего вре­
мени.

Examples: ,,,. ■■-<g j и . - . ,г

Pig breeders expect farmers to Селекционеры-свиноводы ожида
raise this prolific pig variety будут
on their farms. плодовитую
новидность
хозяйствах.
infinitive)
I Ж

Pig breeders expect this prolific Селекционеры-свиноводы ожида

nio variety
pig varipfv tft
to Һр
be гяісогі
raised hv
by TAT ЧТО чтя плодовитая пазно
шйш farmers видность
щиваться многими фермера­
ми. (complex object, passive
infinitive)
Farmers are expected to raise Ожидают, что фермеры будут
this prolific pig variety. выращивать эту плодовитую
разновидность свиней, (complex
subject, active infinitive)
This prolific pig variety is Эта плодовитая разновидность
expected to be raised on свиней, как ожидают, будет
many farms. выращиваться на многих
фермах, (complex subject,
passive infinitive)

2. Продолженная форма инфинитива (progressive form) упо

требляется только в действительном залоге, обозначает действие
происходящее одновременно с действием, выражаемым сказуемы?
и переводится на русский язык глаголом настоящего времени.

Examples:
Ecologists have found many
animal species to be
disappearing at a rapid rate
now.
Экологи установили, что многие
виды животных исчезают
сейчас очень быстро, (complex
object)

296
Many animal species are sure Безусловно, многие виды живот-
to be disappearing at a rapid ных исчезают сейчас очень
rate now. быстро, (complex subject)

3. Перфектная форма инфинитива (perfect form) обозначает

действие, которое уже совершилось с существительным, входя­
щим в инфинитивную конструкцию, и переводится на русский
язык глаголом прошедшего времени.

Examples’.
Scientists believe Columbus to Ученые считают, что Колумб при­
have brought wild pigs to вез диких свиней в Северную
North America in 1493. Америку в 1493 году, (complex
object, active infinitive)
Scientists believe wild pigs to Ученые считают, что дикие
have been brought by свиньи были привезены Ко­
Columbus to North America лумбом в Северную Америку
in 1493. в 1493 году, (complex object,
passive infinitive)
Columbus is believed to have Полагают, что Колумб привез ди­
brought wild pigs to North ких свиней в Северную Амери­
America. ку. (complex subject, active
infinitive)
Wild pigs are believed to have Считают, что дикие свиньи были
been brought by Columbus привезены Колумбом в Север­
to North America. ную Америку, (complex subject,
passive infinitive)

1. Identify the sentences in which the infinitive is translated into Russian

in the past tense.
1. The horses are supposed to have been first used by a tribe of Indo-
European origin that lived in the steppes north of the chain of mountains
adjacent to the Black and Caspian Seas. 2. Specialists know Asian
aquaculturists to be breeding the fry of common or golden carp under
culture conditions in hatcheries. 3. An ancient and widespread profession,
beekeeping is believed to have originated in the Middle East. 4. Such
breeds as the Brangus, Santa Gertrudis, Charbray, Beef Master, and Braford
are said to be new cattle breeds that continue to develop. 5. Geese do
not appear to have attracted the attention of geneticists on the same scale
as the meat chicken and the turkey. 6. Horse breeders have assumed the
older Akhal-Teke breed to have made significant contribution to the
Arabian and the English Thoroughbred. 7. Cattlemen suppose about 274
important recognized cattle breeds to exist at present. 8. The former
USSR is know to have produced '/ 4 of the world’s honey supply.
297

I
 Инфинитив в функции определения
и обстоятельства следствия
(The infinitive in the function o f attribute
and adverbial modifier o f result)
Кроме рассмотренных ранее функций (обстоятельства цели —
Unit 3, подлежащего — Unit 11), инфинитив может выполнять функ­
цию определения и обстоятельства следствия, причем очень часто
в этих конструкциях он употребляется в страдательном залоге.
Инфинитив в функции определения следует за существитель­
ным, которое он определяет, при этом возможны три способа пе­
ревода его на русский язык.
1 Инфинитив (обычно употребляется в простой форме
simple active) может переводиться на русский язык неопределен­
ной формой глагола.
Example:
The Austrian zoologist was Австрийский ученый был пер­
the first to begin studies of вым, кто начал исследования
the communication system системы передачи информации
between honeybees. между пчелами.
Horse owners have an opportunity Владельцы лошадей имеют воз-
to choose the jockeys. можность выбирать жокеев.
2. Инфинитиву в сложной форме (чаще всего в страдательном
залоге) в русском языке обычно соответствует определительное
придаточное предложение, вводимое союзом который. Инфини­
тив обозначает действие, которое должно произойти в будущем
и в этом случае переводится сказуемым в придаточном предложе­
нии. Независимо от времени сказуемого, при переводе на русский
язык используются слова должен, нужно, можно.
Examples: И
Honey to be marketed is usually Мед, который должен прода-
heated by special processes ваться на рынке, обычно на­
to about 66°C to dissolve гревается особым образом до
the crystals. 66°С, чтобы растворить кри­
сталлы.
The wool to be cut from Шерсть, которую можно со­
the shoulders and sides of стричь с плеч и боков овцы,
the sheep is usually superior обычно превосходит по каче­
to that from other parts of ству шерсть с других частей
the body. тела.
Инфинитив в функции обстоятельства следствия обычно упо­
требляется ближе к концу предложения и его можно опознать по
298
наречиям too слишком, enough/sufficiently достаточно или
ельному
ствуют
Инфинитив переводится неопределенной формой русского гла­
гола с союзом чтобы или что. Иногда в переводе необходимо
употребить слова может, можно, могли.
Examples: ■
In some areas, pastures are too В некоторых районах пастбища
scarce to provide animals слишком скудные, чтобы
with sufficient amount of feed обеспечить животных доста­
точным количеством пищи.
The water in the pond is not да в пруду не достаточно све
fresh and clean enough tc жая и чистая, чтобы исполь­
used for raising the fry. зоваться для выращивания
мальков.
2. Identify the sentences which are translated into Russian with the
words: а) который, b) что/чтобы.
1. The sow to farrow should be washed thoroughly and placed into
the farrowing pen. 2. The boar is not vigorous and thrifty enough to be
used for mating. 3. The bulls of the Polled Hereford breed will be used
for mating with the few naturally hornless animals to be chosen among
the local homed herds of Herefords. 4. Horses to participate in racing
competitions should be registered in studbooks. 5. The amount of oxygen
dissolved in water is sufficient to ensure the fish breathing. 6. In autumn
heifers kept on pasture should obtain supplementary feeds because the
pasture grasses become too scarce to satisfy their needs in nutrients.
7 Eggs to be used for hatching should be incubated not later than ten
days after collection. 8. The lamb has not reached the sufficient weight
to be slaughtered this month.
3. a) Read and translate the text. Find in the text the sentences with:
— the complex object;
— the complex subject;
— the infinitive as attribute;
— the infinitive of purpose and result;
— the word whether.
b) Suggest the headings to each of the eight parts of the text and use
them to write the summary of the text (about 10—12 sentences).

M IL K P R O C E S S IN G
(1) Milk is known to be highly nutritious, versatile food that has been
used by humans since the beginning of recorded time. People enjoy
299
drinking milk in its natural form and also use it to make a wide range
of food products, including cream, butter, yoghurt, cheese, and ice j
cream.
Humans drink the milk produced from a variety of domesticated
mammals including cows, goats, sheep, camels, reindeer, buffaloes1, and
llama. Cow milk is the main type of milk used for commercial produc­
tion and consumption throughout the world. However, the goat is i
believed to be an important milk producer in China, India, and other
Asian countries and in Egypt. Although goat’s milk is also produced in
Europe and North America but, compared to cow’s milk, goat’s milk
is relatively unimportant. Dairymen know buffalo’s milk to be produced
in commercial quantities in some countries, particularly India. In
general, whether the milk is obtained from a cow or other species, the
technology to be used for its processing will be the same.
(2) It is interesting that the milk of all species contain the same
nutrients, varying only in proportions. Although milk is a liquid composing
of 80 to 90 per cent water and most often considered to be a drink, it
contains between 12 and 13 per cent total sohds and perhaps should be
regarded as a food. The solid part of milk consists of an abundance of
the major nutrients needed by the body for good health, including fats,
carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, and vitamins.
Cow milk has been found to contain about 3.5 to 5 per cent fat, which
is dispersed2throughout the milk in globules. In addition to providing
milk’s characteristic taste and texture, fat supplies vitamins A, D, E, and
K, as well as certain fatty acids that the body cannot produce on its own.
Scientists consider sweet taste of milk to be due to lactose, a kind of sugar
found only in milk. Making up about 5 per cent of milk’s content,
lactose is a carbohydrate that is broken down by the body to supply
energy. The most important protein in milk is casein, accounting for
80 per cent of milk protein. Casein is known to be a complete protem,
which means that it contains all the essential amino acids. Casein
molecules and globules of fat deflect light rays3 passing through milk,
giving milk its opalescent4 appearance. Other proteins present in milk
include albumin and globulin.
Milk contains many minerals, the most abundant of which are
calcium and phosphorus, as well as smaller amounts of potassium5,
sodium5, sulphur, aluminium, copper5, iodine, manganese, and zinc.
Milk is likely to be the best dietary source of calcium, for the amount
of this mineral in one litre of milk is quite enough to supply as much
calcium as 21 eggs, 12 kg of lean beef, or 2.2 kg of whole wheat bread.
Milk has been proved to be an excellent source of vitamins A and B2.
Besides, all other vitamins are present also, though in lower amounts.
The milk to be sold commercially should be fortified with vitamin D.
Vitamin A found in the globules of fat is removed when fat is skimmed
away to make low-fat or skim milk. Generally, vitamin A is also added
during the production of commercially sold low-fat milk.
300
 (3) Many factors influence the composition of milk, including breed,
genetic constitution of the individual cow, age of the cow, stage of
lactation, interval between milkings, and certain disease conditions. In
general, the type of feed only slightly affects the composition of milk.
However, the feed quality may be too low or its quantity is insufficient
to result in either a low yield or a low percentage of total solids. To
achieve the greatest efficiency from the herd one should utilize computer
programmes to optimize the feeding rations to be fed to each milking
cow.
(4) In most countries almost half of the milk consumed is sold as
fresh pasteurized whole, low-fat, or skim milk. The rest part of the milk
is processed into more stable dairy products of worldwide commerce,
such as cream, butter, cheese, yoghurt, dried milks, ice cream, and
condensed milk.
Milk in its natural form, directly from a cow, is called raw milk. It
is an extremely versatile product from which a countless number of
commercial products are derived. i
Since the fat in raw milk is lighter in weight than the rest of the milk,
it will naturally rise to form a layer of cream if allowed to stand.
Spinning6 the milk in a centrifuge, accelerates the formation of a cream
layer, or the separation of fat, from raw milk. Varying amounts of fat to
be removed from the raw milk, it is possible to obtain different kinds of
milk. If the fat content is lowered to 3.25 per cent, the milk is sold as
whole milk. Low-fat milk typically has 1 per cent or 2 per cent fat. Skim
milk, or nonfat milk, is the liquid that remains after removing all the
cream; it contains about half a per cent of milk fat.
Once the fat level has been reduced to the desired level, most fresh
milk is homogenized to prevent the further separation of a cream layer.
Much of the milk sold as a beverage7 has undergone homogemzation,
a process in which the hot milk is forced under high pressure through
small openings to distribute the fat evenly8 throughout the milk.
(5) Many countries are known to have adopted laws requiring that
milk should be pasteurized as a protection against disease-causing
organisms called pathogenic. Pasteurization is a partial sterilization
accomplished by raising the milk to a temperature high enough to
destroy pathogenic bacteria and a large proportion of those causing
spoilage. The process called pasteurization is said to have been described
by French microbiologist Louis Pasteur who proved that harmful
organisms in raw milk are killed when it is heated either to 62 С for 30
minutes or to 71°C for 15 seconds. Pasteurized milk to be kept refrigerated
in closed containers may remain consumable for approximately 14 days.
Ultrapasteurized9 milk, common in Europe and Canada, is heated to
an even higher temperature and can be stored at room temperature for

(6) Condensed, evaporated, and powdered milk are produced by

evaporating some or all of the water in milk. Whole, low-fat, and skim
301
 milk, as well as whey and other dairy liquids, can be efficiently
concentrated by the removal o f water, using heat under vacuum.
Sweetened condensed milk to be made by partial removing the water and
adding sugar should contain about 8.5 per cent milk fat and at least
28 per cent total milk solids. Sugar is added in sufficient amount to
prevent bacterial action and subsequent spoilage. Whether the milk is
condensed or powdered, the obtained products are sure to have long
shelf lives.
For a product to be labelled10 as cream, it must contain 18 per cent
milk fat or more. Light whipping cream must contain at least 30 per cent
fat, while the minimum fat content to be contained in heavy whipping
cream should be 36 per cent fat. Half-and-half, an equal mixture of milk
and cream, must have at least 10.5 per cent fat. The various grades of
cream are valued in cooking for their smooth11, thick texture.
When chilled cream is churned gently12, the fat globules gather
together to form butter, leaving buttermilk as the by-product. Butter is
supposed to contain at least 82.5 per cent fat. In the past, before
refrigeration became widespread, people thought the salt added to butter
to have been the only possible way of retarding13 bacterial spoilage but
now salt is added mainly for flavour.
Ice cream, a popular frozen dessert, is made of milk, cream, sugar,
and flavouring. The mixture is slowly beaten while chilled until it is
partially frozen, then packed into containers, and chilled until firm14.
Variants of ice cream include ice milk, which contains less fat; sherbet15,
which has even less fat; and French ice cream, which is enriched with
egg yolks.
Fermented milk products, including yoghurt and cheese, are formed
when bacteria break down lactose to produce lactic acid16, which makes
the milk sour. Yoghurt is usually made from milk that has been fortified
by the addition of nonfat powdered milk to improve its texture and
taste. The fortified milk is pasteurized at a very high temperature and
homogenized. Then, a culture containing the bacteria Streptococcus
thermophilus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus, and sometimes Lacto­
bacillus acidophilus, is added. The two most popular types of yoghurt
sold in many countries are Swiss-style, with added fruit mixed through­
out, and sundae-style, with fruit on the top or bottom.
Cultured buttermilk and sour cream, like yoghurt, are produced by
the breakdown of lactose by bacteria. In the past, cultured buttermilk
proved to have been made from buttermilk, but now dairymen more
commonly make cultured buttermilk from skim milk. Sour cream is
made from cream. Both buttermilk and sour cream have a sour taste due
to lactic acid.
(7) Cheese is thought to be one of the world’s oldest and most
versatile foods in the world. Nutritionists say cheese to be a concentrated
source of almost all the valuable nutrients found in milk, such as protein,
vitamins, and minerals, as well as the less desirable fat and cholesterol,
302
substances that may lead to health problems when consumed in excess.
The fat content in cheese varies depending on whether the whole or skim
milk is used. Cheese to be made with whole milk, or milk enriched with
cream will have the highest amount of fat, cholesterol, and calories but
cheese made from skim milk has the lowest one. Many cheeses are now
made from pasteurized milk, decreasing the likelihood17 that harmful
bacteria will contaminate cheese during the ripening process.
Because of its high protein and calcium content, cheese in reasonable
quantities is sure to be an important component of a balanced diet and
most people consider cheese to be a healthy component of cuisines
all over the world. Cheese-making technology developed rapidly during
the last half of the 19th century and at present there exist more than
400 varieties of cheese differing in shape, size and texture, flavour, and
aroma. Different types of cheese can be classified in many ways, but the
most commonly used classification is based on cheese hardiness
(consistency) or ripening (or ageing) method. Whether the produced
cheese is hard or soft or semisoft depends to a great extent on the period
of ripening, the percentage of moisture in the final product as well as
on the type of the ripening bacteria to be used. Cheeses are allowed to
undergo longer fermentation process than yoghurt, buttermilk, and sour
cream. Generally, the longer cheeses ripen, the sharper flavours, harder
textures, and deeper colours they develop. Cheese making is a complex
process based on introducing bacteria into milk that consume lactose
and produce lactic acid. The production of a particular variety of cheese
may differ in the details of the process but the basic steps are common
to all methods of cheese-making. .
(8) It is obvious that dairy farming dealing with production ana use
of milk and milk products is one of the important branches of agriculture
in many countries. Dairy husbandry includes the management of dairy
cows, the cultivation of crops for feed, the production of пШк and cream,
and the manufacture of butter, cheese, and ice cream. In the early 180Us,
the average dairy cow produced less than 1,500 litres of milk annually.
With advances in animal nutrition and selective breeding, on a properly
managed dairy farm one cow may produce an average of6,500 litres
of milk and approximately 250 kg of butterfat a year. Individual high
milk-producing cows can produce up to 10,000 litres. The Holstein-
Friesian cow produces the greatest volume, but other breeds such as
the Ayrshire, Brown Swiss, Guernsey, and Jersey producing less milk
are valued for supplying milk that contains higher amount of fat,
protein, and total solids.
It is necessary to mention some essential features of modem dairy
farming. Under the modem system of evaluating milk on the basis of
butterfat content, it is important that the dairy farmer keep records, not
only of the total production of a herd but of the performance о
individual cows. In this way the best cows can be selected and poor
producers can be replaced by better cattle. Moreover, one should take
303
into account that there has been an enormous expansion of milk-drying
facilities, which has resulted in the increase in human consumption of
nonfat dry milk solids. The introduction of labour-saving machinery,
especially the vacuum milking machine, has made the dairy farmer’s
work much easier. Besides, modem improvements in refrigeration and
transportation have eliminated the influence of climate and adverse
weather conditions on milk delivery. The research done by governmental
and association agencies has led to higher milk production and greater
use of dairy products and especially to the discovery of new industrial
uses for milk by-products.

COMMENTS
1. buffalo [ЪлҒэІэи] (pi buffaloes) — буйвол
2. to disperse [di'sp3:s] — рассредоточиваться, рассеиваться
3. to deflect light rays — зд. преломлять лучи света
4. opalescent [.aupa'lesnt] — опаловый, имеющий молочный отлив
5. potassium [рэ^аевіэш], sodium ['saudiam], copper [‘kDpa] — калий, на­
трий, медь
6. spinning ['spmir)] — быстрое круговое вращение
7. beverage [Ъеуэпф] (syn drink) — напиток
8. evenly [’Lvanli] — равномерно
9. ultrapasteurized — улырапастеризованный, сверхпастеризованный
10. to label — относить к какой-л. категории
11. smooth [smu:6] — зд. однородный
12. gently ['cfcenth] — зд. осторожно
13. to retard — зд. замедлять
14. firm — твердый; to firm — отвердеть
15. sherbet ['Ja:bat] — зд. фруктовое мороженое
16. lactic acid — молочная кислота
17. likelihood ['laiklihud] — вероятность
18. cuisine [kwi'zLn] — кухня (поваренное искусство)

EXERCISES ТО THE TEXT

4. a) Translate the words into English. Use a dictionary if necessary.

Find in the text the English equivalents for the italicized words.
1) пастеризовать, пастеризация, пастеризованный, пастери­
затор (аппарат для пастеризации); 2) добавлять, добавление, до­
бавка, добавляя, добавленный', 3) сушить, сушка, высушивающий,
высушенный’, 4) замораживать, замороженный, морозильная
установка; 5) охлаждать, охлажденный, охлаждение, охлажда­
ющий (реагент); 6) питательное вещество, питание, питатель­
ный, диетолог', 7) диета, диетический', 8) созревать, созревший,
созревание, созревающий; 9) сгущать/конденсировать, сгущенное
304
(молоко), сгущение/ конденсация; 10) гомогенизация, гомоге­
низировать, гомогенизированный; 11) сладкий, подслащенный',
12) часть, частичный, частично', 13) здоровье, здоровый (про­
дукт)’, 14) молочный (продукт), работник молочной промыш­
ленности, молочная промышленность.
b) Write the antonyms of the following words and find them in the text:
liquid, fat, important, soft (cheese), sufficient, sweet, to accelerate,
to chill or freeze, processed, to add, increase, improvement (about
products), milder (flavours)
5. a) Find in the text the English equivalents for the following words:
болезнетворный (о микроорганизмах), экономяший/рациона-
лизаторский (о методах и т. п.), высушивающий молоко (об ап­
паратах, машинах), образующий/производящий молоко (о жи­
вотных), изготовление сыра
b) Translate the following compound words into Russian:
power-consuming, labour-consum ing, data-processing, food-
packaging, record-breaking, water-carrying, nitrogen-fixing, water-
heating, air-cooling, air-cleaning, water-recycling, sour-tasting, sweet-
tasting
6. Use the following table to compare the proportion of nutrients in
different types of milk. Present the data in the form of a pie chart or
a bar chart.
The
Types o f M ilk

N utrient Casein Solids Water

(solid) (solid)
Type of milk
Human 3.74 6.37 0.80 12.42 87.58

Cow 3.68 4.94 2.88 12.73 87.27

Goat 4.07 4.64 2.87 13.32 86.68

Sheep 7.90 4.17 4.17 18.15 80.71

Buffalo 7.51 4.77 4.26 17.84 82.16

5.38 5.39 3.49 15.38 87.13

Camel
3.15 5.60 3.00 13.45 86.55
Llama
2.53 6.19 0.79 11.04 89.03
Ass
1.14 5.87 1.30 9.42 90.58
Mare
22.46 2.81 8.38 37.58 63.30
Reindeer
(From Encyclopedia Encarta)

305

I
7. Draw flow charts showing different ways of milk processing ana
describe them.
M odel’, raw milk —►whole milk —►condensed or powdered milk
/ I \ Щ
ice milk sherbet French ice cream
Raw milk obtained directly from a cow is centrifuged to separate the
layer of cream from the whole milk which may be processed into... -j-
8. Think and answer the questions. f
1. Which countries are the main producers and consumers of cow’s
(goat’s/llama’s/buffalo’s etc) milk?
2. Why is this kind of animal (the cow/goat/mare etc) considered to
be the main producer of milk in a particular country/region/area?
3. Which characteristics of cow/goat/mare milk are valued most of all?
4. Do you think cow/goat/mare milk is consumed fresh or in the
form of various processed dairy products?
5. What are the most important dairy products produced from this
type of milk? §
6. Do you know any traditional dishes made from milk or dairy
products? I
7. What are the main achievements and improvements in the field
of dairy farming? s
8. What do you know about the dairy farming in Russia?
Search the websites on dairy farming in the United States:
1. http://www.10acresbackyard.com/ — This site allows users to
observe life on a real dairy farm.
2. http://w w w .tpt.org/new tons/ll/dairyfrm .htm l — Dairy Farm
[Newton’s Apple]. This site, created for the public television
program Newton’s Apple, has information on dairy farming, with
activities and a bibliography. \
3. http://www.moomilk.com/ — Moo Milk. This commercial page
presents information about the dairy industry, including facts
about cows and milk production and animal husbandry tips from
veterinarians. T ; ■ 1
4. http://www.dfamilk.com/ — Dairy Farmers of America. This
commercial site offers statistics and market information for dairy
products in the United States.

ADDITIO NAL EX ER C ISES

9. Translate the sentences with the word whether into Russian.
1. Many people would like to know whether the protein content i
human milk is the same as in cow’s milk. 2. Whether a farmer may have
306
excess of milk for making cheese or not, depends on a number of factors
including the number of animals and their productivity. 3. Whether the
milk meets the standard quality can be estimated only on the basis of
butterfat content. 4. Whether the condensed milk can be produced on
a farm depends on the availability of the special vacuum equipment.
5. It is the farmer who should decide whether he is going to specialize
in dairy farming or beef production. 6. By tasting cheese you may decide
whether it should be referred to very hard or hard type.
10. Give the names of the dairy products described by the following
definitions. All the words are from the active vocabulary to the text.
a) — is the milk that has been condensed by removing some of the
water by evaporation.
b) — is the milk that is condensed by evaporating most of the water
content and then sweetened.
c) — is a heavy cream containing a high proportion of butterfat,
which causes it to stiffen when whipped.
d) — is the smooth thick cream that has been soured artificially,
used in cooking and baking.
e) — is the milk with most or all of its fat content removed.
f) — is the cow’s milk from which no fat has been removed.
g) — is the sour-tasting liquid that is formed after milk or cream
has been churned to make butter.
h) — is the substance described as a soft, pale yellow, fatty food that
can be derived from chilled cream by churning.
i) — is the most popular sweet frozen dessert traditionally made
with cream and egg yolks and flavoured with a variety of fruits,
j) — is the watery liquid that separates from the solid part of milk
when it turns sour or when enzymes are added in cheese-
making.
k) — is said to be solid food made from the milk of cows, sheep,
goats, and some other animals. It can range from hard to
semisoft, and from mildly acidic to sharp. Bacteria and acid
are added to separate the coagulated milk and watery liquid
whey.
11. Fill the gaps with the correct form of the following verbs:
to accomplish, to accelerate, to chill, to enrich (or fortify),
to freeze, to heat, to lower, to remove, to retard, to skim, to store,
to undergo
1 By using the centrifuge one can ... the percentage of fat in the
whole milk. 2. Milk to be consumed as pasteurized whole milk should
at a temperature of 63°C for 30 minutes, rapidly cooled or ..., and
then ... at a temperature below 10°C. 3. Milk to be consumed by little
children always ... with vitamins and minerals because it is not rich
enough in nutrients to satisfy the needs of young growing organisms.
307
4. To achieve the proper stage of ripening, cheese should... the fermentation
process. 5. Unfortunately, vitamin A ... together with fat layer, which ...
away to make low-fat or skim milk. 6. Lactose reduction is finished or
... by subjecting the appropriate milk to the action of the enzyme lactose
in a refrigerated tank for approximately 24 hours. 7. Nowadays, dairymen
may decrease the time of ripening for cheese a n d ... the process of ageing
using so-called immobilized enzymes. 8. In order... the spoilage of some
perishable products one can ... them and store in the refrigerator.
12. Use the correct form of the verbs in brackets. Translate the sentences
into Russian.
1. Dairymen (to believe) a large variety of ice cream, ice milk, and
sherbets (to enjoy) both by adults and children because they are
refreshing, appetizing, convenient and nutritious. 2. Historians (to find)
frozen milk products (to appear) from flavour ices that were available
only to the rich Roman in the 4th century BC. 3. In the 1st century AD,
the substance resembling ice cream (to say) (to prepare) from the
mountain snow mixed with honey, juices, and fruit and the Emperor
Nero enjoyed it. 4. Marco Polo (to think) (to bring) a recipe for making
water and milk ices from China in the 13th century. 5. Many researchers
(to think) the 84-page manuscript The Art o f Preparing Ice Cream
(to be) the first description made by the unknown author about 1700.
6. George Washington (to know) (to spend) about 200 dollars on ice
cream in New York during the summer of 1790. 7. The widespread
distribution and mass consumption of ice cream (to be) unlikely (to be)
possible until the mechanical refrigerator was developed in the 19th
century. 8. For example, the US ice cream manufacturing industry
(to consider) (to start) by Jacob Fussell in Baltimore only in 1851.9. More
frozen desserts (to be) sure (to consume) during summer than any other
season. 10. However, producers (to suppose) the trend towards more
uniform monthly ice cream consumption (to grow) in many countries
now. 11. The consumption of dietetic and diabetic frozen desserts (to seem)
(to increase) at present. 12. Ice cream manufacturers (to believe) new
delicious ingredients for frozen desserts (to develop) and (to introduce)
in the future. \ \ •'I 1 Я
13. Modify the sentences as in the models.
M odel 1: The cow produces too much milk. The milk cannot be
consumed only by the cow’s calf. —» The cow produces
too much milk to be consum ed only by her calf. The
cow produces too much milk for the calf to consum e it.
1. Cheese made from whole milk is rich in cholesterol. It is not
recommended to be consumed by old people. 2. Due to homogenization
the size of fat particles will be very small. It cannot cause further
separation of a cream layer. 3. Milk contains from 80 to 90 per cent
water. People always refer it to drinks rather that to food. 4. According

308
to the records, the buttermilk content in this cow’s milk is very low.
It is not reasonable to use this cow for milk production. 5. This cheese
has developed very sharp taste and hard texture. The cheese cannot be
referred to the soft type of cheeses. 6. The produced cultured buttermilk
is very sour. It is not tasty to eat it without some sugar.
Model 2: Modem milking machines are efficient. They enable the
farmer to milk twenty cows twice a day. -> Modern
milking machines are efficient enough to enable the
farmer to milk twenty cows twice a day. Modem milking
machines are efficient enough for the farm er to milk
twenty cows twice a day.
1. The time for the breakdown of lactose by bacteria was quite
enough. The obtained yoghurt was of high quality. 2. The equipment
for processing milk is dirty. It may result in the spoilage of the milk. 3. Milk
may undergo coagulation. To accelerate this process the temperature
should be high enough. 4. Both the government and commercial
companies have spent money on the research in the field of dairy
farming. This seems to have been sufficient to begin the production of
various new dairy products. 5. The Jersey has not become a widespread
breed of cattle. The amount of milk produced by the Jersey cow is lower
than that produced by the Holstein-Friesian cow. 6. The fat content in
half-and-half products is sufficiently low. They are considered to be
healthy products.
14. Modify the sentences by changing the italicized words into the
infinitive construction.
Model: The milk yields that may be obtained by a farmer will
depend to a great extent on the care and management of
cows. _> The milk yields to be obtained by a farm er will
depend to a great extent on the care and management of
COWS.
1. The raw milk that is to be drunk by little children should be
boiled. 2. The whole milk that will be processed into cheese is always
pasteurized. 3. Concentrated and dried milk products that have to be
used in cookery may remain edible longer than fresh milk. 4. The salt
that can be added tofortify theflavour of butter may also retard bacterial
spoilage. 5. Butter that may be labelled grade A should be distinguished
by its excellent aroma, flavour, and texture. 6. In Scandinavia, especially
Norway, whey that will be obtained as a by-product in cheese-making
process can be turned into cheese called mysost. 7. The term condensed
milk” refers to the milk that is concentrated under vacuum.
15. Translate into English.
а) расщепление лактозы бактериями; сбивать масло, кисломо­
лочный продукт, приготовленный из снятого молока; пахта с вы-
309

I
соким содержанием жира; ускорять созревание твердого <£Ьіра;
подвергаться пастеризации; охлажденное цельное молоко; хра­
нить сырое молоко; завершать процесс ферментации; получать/
извлекать из пастеризованного молока; удалять слой жира; иметь
продолжительный срок хранения (о продуктах)', молочное сель­
ское хозяйство; частично высушенное молоко; подслащенное сгу­
щенное молоко; снимать сливки с молока; работник молочной
промышленности/фермы; замедлять порчу/гниение продуктов;
нагревать молоко с низким содержанием жира; замороженный де­
серт; уменьшать/понижать содержание жира до 3%; обогащать мо­
локо витаминами и минеральными веществами; многоцелевой/
универсальный продукт питания; порошкообразное молоко; су­
хая/твердая часть; общее содержание сухих веществ в молоке; вре­
мя для созревания мягкого сыра; сметана высшего качества/сор­
та; обезвоженное молоко; кислый вкус; (густые) сливки для взби­
вания; естественный вкус; белки сыворотки; отделять жидкость
в сепараторе; перерабатывать свежее молоко; искусственные до­
бавки для придания вкуса и запаха; созревший полумягкий сыр
b) 1. Будет ли молоко пригодно для переработки в масло или сыр
зависит в большой степени от содержания жира в цельном молоке.
2. Известно, что производство подслащенного сгущенного моло­
ка в промышленных масштабах началось примерно в 1858 году
в Нью-Йорке. 3. Работники молочной промышленности знают, что
французское мороженое обогащено яичными желтками. 4. В отли­
чие от сгущенного молока содержание жира в сухих молочных
продуктах достаточно маленькое, чтобы увеличить срок хранения
продуктов до нескольких месяцев. 5. Согласно требуемым стандар­
там процентное содержание молочного жира, которое должно быть
во фруктовом мороженом, составляет 1—2 процента.

EXERCISES FOR PAIR WORK

16. Student A (or a group of students) is provided with some information

about cheese-making, while Student В (or a group of students) is
given the information about the production of butter.
Use the flow charts to prepare a presentation describing the whole
process of making cheese or butter.

USEFUL LANGUA GE
Describing the sequence of events:
first, at first, first of all, to begin with, second(ly), next, after this,
further, then, finally, lastly, in the end.

310
 Task for Student A
Match the description of the main steps with the scheme. Check 1
answers at the end of the Unit.
Essential steps in the processing of whole fresh milk into cheese:
whole milk —1 pasteurized milk —- standardised milk

lactic-acid-producing bacteria + ultrafiltrated milk

unripened cheese -— curd + whey —»- butterfat

ripened cheese
Example — Step 2
a) — curdling the milk — the process of milk coagulation due to the
fermenting microorganisms
b) — shrinking the curd by cooking — the process of gentle heating
in order to make the curd shrink
c) — ageing and ripening — the process catalyzed by enzymes and
requiring some time in order to bring about the chemical changes
necessary for transforming fresh curd into a distinctive aged
cheese. The ripening time may be as short as one month, as for
Brie, or a year or more, as in the case of sharp cheddar.
d) — standardization — the process when milk is passed through a
standardizing separator to adjust the fat-to-protein ratio of the milk
e) — draining and dipping of whey which may be further processed
to make whey cheeses (e.g., ricotta) or beverages, or it may be
dried in order to preserve it as a food ingredient
l.f) — pasteurization — the process of destroying pathogenic micro­
organisms ' .. „
g) — cutting — the process of cutting the curd with fine wire ‘ knives
into small cubes about one centimetre square
h) — pouring curds into molds for shaping after pumping
i) — ultrafiltration — the process of concentrating protein in order to
improve the cheese yield
j) — additional processing of butterfat to food ingredients
k) — inoculation of culture — the process of adding fermenting
microorganisms and rennet, which promote curdling. Rennet is
a protein-digesting enzyme that curdles milk by transforming
caseinogen into insoluble casein.
1) — draining and pressing of curds .
— pumping of curds from the cheese vat after coagulation and shrinking
n) — salting — the addition of salt to the curd enhances flavour and
helps to withdraw the whey from the curd and inhibits the growth
of undesirable microorganisms
311
 Task for Student В
Essential steps in the processing of whole fresh milk into butter:
whole milk —►cream —►pasteurized cream —- butter granules
►liquid buttermilk
butter + additions — crude butter
a) — churning — the process of agitating (shaking) the cream
emulsion until the microscopic butterfat granules meet together
and separate from the water phase (buttermilk)
b) — adding of salt and colouring ingredients in order to contribute
to the butter flavour and colour as well as to preserve it
1. с) — separation o f cream or butterfat from other components in
milk by using the high-speed centrifuge
d) — additional drying and processing of by-products into food ingredients
e) — kneading (or working) — the process of washing the crude butter
with water to remove as much of the milk curd and other non­
fatty components of the cream as possible
0 — molding and packaging
g) — pasteurization
Find more information about cheese and butter production:
1. Campbell J.R ., Marshall R.T. The Science of Providing Milk
for Man. New York/Mcgraw-Hill Book Company, 1975.
2. http://www.cheesemaking.com/ — New England Chesse - making
Supply Company, a commercial site, presents information on the
basics of chesse making and offers recipes.
3. http://www.butterinstitute.org/ — The American Butter Institute
offers information about the butter industry, recipes, and other
resources. r
4. Encarta Interactive Encyclopedia. CD-ROM, 2005.
5. Britannica Interactive Encyclopedia. CD-ROM, 2005.

SUPPLEM ENTARY TEXT

17. a) Read and translate the text. Use a dictionary if necessary. Suggest
the scheme showing the main steps of ice cream production.

ICE CREAM MANUFACTURE

Ice cream producers know milk, cream, sugar, flavouring, and
stabilizer to be the essential ingredients in ice cream. However, cheaper
ingredients such as dry whey, corn syrup, and artificial flavourings may
be introduced to create a lower-cost product.

312
 The first step in ice cream making is said to include the formulating
of a suitable mix which may be composed of a combination of dairy
ingredients, such as fresh milk and cream, frozen cream, condensed or
dried skim, buttermilk, dairy whey, or whey protein concentrate. Sugars
may include sucrose, com syrup, honey, and other syrups. Stabilizers
and emulsifiers are added in small amounts in order to prevent formation
of ice crystals, particularly during temperature fluctuations in storage.
The ice cream mix is pasteurized at no less than 79°C for 25 seconds.
The heated mix is typically homogenized in order to ensure a smoother
body and texture.
After homogenization, the hot mix is quickly cooled to 4.4°C and it
must age at this temperature for at least four hours to allow the fat to
solidify and fat globules to clump1. The ageing process is expected to
result in quicker freezing and a smoother product:
The next step, freezing the mix, is accomplished by one of two
methods: either continuous freezing2, which uses a steady flow of mix,
or batch freezing3, which makes a single quantity at a time. For both
methods, the aim is to freeze the product partially and, at the same time,
incorporate air. . , . • . ,
In case of semifrozen ice cream it should be left in the freezer at a
temperature between —9° and —5°C. Then it is placed in a suitable
container and conveyed to a blast freezer4, where temperatures are in
the range of -29° to -34°C. Rapid freezing at this stage prevents the
formation of large ice crystals and favours a smooth body and texture.
The length of time in the hardening room5 depends on the size of the
package, but usually 6 to 12 hours are required to bring the internal ice
cream temperature to —18°C or below. In larger manufacturing plants,
final freezing takes place in a hardening tunnel, where packages are
automatically conveyed on a continuous belt to the final storage area.
Much of the appeal of ice cream comes from the variety of standard
mixes and flavours available throughout the year. Most ice cream
manufacturers make a standard mix consisting of milk, cream, sugars,
and stabilizers, to which flavours may be added just before freezing.
Various types of flavours to be added at different stages of the process
can be classified as high-volume flavours (vanilla, chocolate, strawberry)
or flavours with large particles (fruit, nuts, cookies, or candy parts).
If ice cream as well as other frozen desserts are kept below -2 3 С
and protected from temperature fluctuations, they require no preservatives
and have long shelf lives. Ice cream producers have found airtight
packaging materials to be of great use for storing frozen products. It is
possible to store the products for six months or longer without loss oi
flavour or body and texture.
Manufacturers have several alternative sources of ingredients tor
frozen desserts and their choices depend upon availability, costs,
functional properties, and the quality of product to be produced. Quality
guarantee of frozen desserts includes examination of ingredients, mix,
ИІШРЖ" ^ - 3i3
and finished products, as well as tests for microbial contamination,
composition of fat and total solids, flavour, body, texture, colour, and
meltdown. When standards of high quality are met, frozen desserts
become an excellent means of providing milk for man.

COMMENTS
1. to clump — собираться в группу
2. continuos freezing — непрерывное замораживание
3. batch freezing — порционное замораживание
4. blast freezer — морозильная камера, в которой замораживание про­
исходит в интенсивном потоке воздуха
5. handering room — помещение, где происходит затвердевание и по­
вышение устойчивости продукта
6. airtight — воздухонепроницаемый
Search the website for more information:
http://www.foodsci.uoguelph.ca/dairyedu/icecream.html — The
Department of Food Science at the University of Guelph offers
information about the history, chemistry, and manufacture of ice cream.
b) Complete the sentences (1—7) with the removed parts (a—g) which
are the infinitives used as attributes.
1. To develop new kinds of ice cream ... is still the main purpose of
different ice cream producing companies.
2. The artificial flavourings ... should be tested whether they are
harmful for human health or not.
3. The main aim ... is to prepare a suitable mix of ingredients.
4. Freezing the mix ... can be done in two ways.
5. The length of time ... will depend on the size of the package.
6. The demand for different kinds o f ice cream ... will change
according to the season.
7. The choice of ingredients ... is determined by a number of factors
such as the availability and quality of raw materials and production
costs.
a) to be reached at the first step
b) to be used in ice cream manufacturing
c) to be attractive to consumers
d) to be required to bring the internal ice cream temperature to —18°C
e) to be accomplished at the next step
f) to be added to frozen desserts
g) to be sold throughout the year
Keys to exercise 16
Steps of cheese-making: 1 — f; 2 — d; 3 — i; 4 — k; 5 — a; 6 — e;
7 — m; 8 —j; 9 —g; 10 — b; 11 — h; 12 — n; 13 — 1; 14 — с
Steps of butter-making: 1 —c; 2 —g; 3 — a; 4 —e; 5 —b; 6 — f; 7 —d
 U n i t 16
MEAT PROCESSING

Vocabulary and Grammar:

1. Некоторые устойчивые словосочетания с глаголами.
2. Сложные формы причастия.
3. Сложные формы герундия.
4. Неполные придаточные предложения.

VOCABULARY ТО TH E TEXT
“MEAT P R O C E SSIN G ”

Nouns',: canning, contamination, cut (shoulder/rib cut), curing,

digestion, flesh, game, grading, ham, juiciness, kidney, lean, liver, meat­
packing, preservation, preservative, rancidity (syn rancidness), rib (rib
steak), sausage, slaughtering, smoking, stomach, tenderness.
Adjectives and adverbs', aware (to be aware of), harmless, rancid.
Verbs, cure, digest, extend, inhibit, preserve, ship, tend, thaw.
Give the Russian equivalents of the following international words and
scientific terms:
component [кэт'рэопэт], decentralize [di'sentralaiz], dehydration
[ diihai'dreijn], enzymatic [.enzai'maetik], epidemic [.epi'demik],
fermentation [,f3:men'teijh], inspection [in'spekfn], microorganism
[ maikrao'nganizm], niacin ['naiasin], nitrite fnaitrait], oxidation
[oksi'deijbn], plastic ['plaestik], promote [prs'maut], protective [ргәtektiv],
reptile [’reptail], riboflavin [.raibau'fleivin], skeletal [’skelitl], terminology
^згпи'пЫэф]

Некоторые устойчивые словосочетания с глаголами

to give/pay attention to smth — обращать внимание на нто-л.
to take саге o f smb — заботиться о ком-л.
to be under test — испытываться, находиться в стадии ис­
пытания _ Л
to be under study — изучаться, находиться в стадии изуче-

Щ be under developm ent — разрабатываться, находиться

в стадии разработки
315
 to be under consideration — рассматриваться, находиться
в стадии рассмотрения
to be in use — использоваться, применяться
to make use o f smth — использовать, применять что-л.
to be in excess o f smth — превышать что-л.
to bring/put into use — начать использовать/применять
to put into practice — вводить в действие
to take into consideration — принимать во внимание, учиты­
вать
to take into account — принимать во внимание (в расчет)
to give rise to smth — вызывать что-л.
to give preference to smth — отдавать предпочтение чему-л.
to place/put em phasis on smth — придавать особое значение
чему-л., подчеркивать что-л.
to make reference to smb/smth — ссылаться на кого-л./что-л.
to draw a conclusion — делать вывод
to take part in smth — принимать участие в чем-л.
to take place — иметь место, происходить
to take advantage o f smth — использовать что-л., восполь­
зоваться чем-л. *
to be aware o f smth — знать о чем-л.
to feel certain/sure about smth — быть уверенным в чем-л.

G RAM M AR R E V ISIO N
A N D PRETEXT E X E R C ISE S

Сложные формы причастия

(The complex forms o f (he participle)
Кроме простых форм английских причастий, рассмотренных
ранее (см. Unit 8), существуют сложные формы причастий, состо­
ящие из двух-трех слов, и перевод их на русский язык зависит от
функции, которую они выполняют в предложении.
Форма причастия Active Passive
Present Participle I pollinating being pollinated
опыляющий будучи опыленным
опыляя когда/если опылили
Past Participle II pollinated
опыляемый
опыленный
Perfect having pollinated having been pollinated
опылив после того как/когда
опылили
316
 Сложные причастия обычно выполняют функцию обстоятель­
ства и служат для обозначения дополнительных действий, кото­
рые совершаются с подлежащим или которые само подлежащее
совершает наряду с действиями, обозначенными сказуемым.
Сложные формы причастий в страдательном залоге можно пере­
водить на русский язык придаточными предложениями, которые
вводятся союзами когда, так как или после того как.
Examples:
Pollinating crops, honeybees Опыляя культурные растения,
make a great contribution пчелы вносят большой вклад
to crop farming. в растениеводство
Having pollinated the crops in іылив культурные і
this field, honeybees increased этом поле, пчелы ]
the crop yield to a great extent повысили урожай
культур.
The crops pollinated by honey- Культуры, опыленные пчелами
• А -в

bees produce higher yields. дают более высокие урожаи.

чтт. 'ИР ’Я '

ing pollinated by honeybees опыляются

crops produce higher yields. лами ы-
сокие урожаи. ИЛИ: Будучи
опыленными пчелами, культу­
ры дают более высокие урожаи
Having been pollinated by )сле того как культуры были
honeybees, crops produced опылены пчелами, они дали
higher yields. более высокие урожаи.
form
sentences:
a) raising, b) raised, с) being raised, d) having raised, e) having
been raised
1. for mutton, sheep can be also sheared in order to obtain some
farmers
profitable. 3. several open-faced sheep, the farmer decided to use
them for breeding purposes. 4.... under severe conditions in mountains,
lambs seemed to be healthier and hardier than the ones raised in the
sheep-pen. 5. Lambs ... on pasture may require additional feeding m
order to be finished with the desired weight.

Сложные формы герундия

(The complex forms of the gerund)
Герундий имеет простую, перфектную и пассивную формы. Из
приведенных таблиц видно, что сложные формы причастия I и
герундия совпадают, так как оба имеют окончание -Ing.
317
 Форма герундия Active Passive x ~1
Simple rearing being reared ]
Perfect having reared having been reared

Сложные формы герундия переводятся на русский язык глаго­

лами-сказуемыми в придаточном предложении, при этом их вре­
мя определяется в зависимости от времени сказуемого и формы
герундия. :уЩ
Простая форма герундия (simple) обозначает действие, которое
происходит одновременно с действием сказуемого, и обычно пе­
реводится на русский язык глаголом в настоящем времени. Пер­
фектная форма герундия (perfect) обозначает действие, которое
происходит раньше, чем действие, выраженное сказуемым, поэто­
му переводится на русский язык глаголом в прошедшем времени.
Examples'.
Due to artificial rearing of fish Благодаря тому, что рыба выра-
опе may restock seas. щивается искусственным
путем, можно восстанавли-
вать запасы морей.
Ecologists insist on fish and Экологи настаивают, чтобы рыба
shellfish being reared и ракообразные выращивались
artificially to restock the sea искусственно для восстанов­
ления запасов морей.
The Fishery Department was Министерство рыбной промыш­
informed of the fish having ленности было проинформи­
been reared artificially on ровано о том, что рыба была
this farm to restock the sea. выращена искусственно
в этом хозяйстве для восста­
новления запасов морей.
Aquaculturists should be Работники по аквакультурам
rewarded for having reared должны быть вознаграждены
artificially some fish за то, что вырастили искус­
and shellfish. ственно рыбу и ракообразных.
2. Use the correct form of the gerund in the following sentences:
a) processing, b) being processed, c) having processed, d) having
been processed
1. Farmers obtain whey as a by-product while ... milk into cheese.
2. Due to ... the excess of milk into cheese, the farmer was able to
manage a herd of dairy cows. 3. After ... into powder by drying or
evaporation, milk can be stored for several months. 4. The farmer has
agreed to the milk ... either into cultured buttermilk or sour cream.

318
 Неполные придаточные предложения
(Incomplete subordinate clauses)
Группы слов, состоящие из союзов when когда, while в то вре­
мя как, If если, until пока не, unless если не, though хотя и при­
частия или прилагательного, рассматриваются как неполные при­
даточные предложения, и при их переводе на русский язык необ­
ходимо восстановить пропущенное подлежащее.
Example:
If fattened on grain, piglets Если поросята откармливают-
grow and develop rapidly. ся зерном, то они растут
и развиваются быстро.
Полное английское предложение было бы следующее: If piglets
are fattened on grain, they grow and develop rapidly.
3. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Unless otherwise trained, female chickens lay their eggs on the
ground, in tall grass or weeds. 2. When first recognized in cattle in the
United Kingdom in 1986, BSE became epidemic there, particularly in
southern England. 3. If fed diets high in unsaturated fats, non-ruminants
deposit the fat in their muscles with high levels of unsaturated fatty acids.
4. Although bom healthy, the new-born calf requires proper care and
management. 5. Until inoculated with special bacteria, the milk will not
coagulate to form the curd. 6. When prepared well in the fall, colonies
of bee need little attention during the winter.
4. a) Read and translate the text into Russian. Write questions to each
of the of parts of the text,
b) Find in the text the sentences with:
— the complex forms of the participle;
—the complex forms of the gerund;
— incomplete subordinate clauses.

M EAT P R O C E S S IN G
(1) “Meat” is the common term applied to describe the flesh and
the edible portions of domestic mammals such as cattle, calves, sheep,
lambs, and swine. One should know of processed or manufactured
products prepared from animal tissues being also referred to meat.
Moreover, the term “meat” can be applied to the edible portions of
poultry and wild birds and mammals and to the portions of other
animals such as crustaceans and reptiles that are eaten by humans.
(2) Meat consists of skeletal muscle, with varying amounts of fat and
connective tissue1, but internal organs are also used. Known as variety
319

I
meats, these include the liver, kidneys, thymus gland2 and pancreas3
(also known as sweetbreads), brain, heart, and stomach.
Meat is considered to be a nutritious food. Regardless of the animal,
lean muscle usually consists of approximately 21 per cent protein, 73 per
cent water, 5 per cent fat, and 1 per cent ash (the mineral component
of muscle). Having changed feeding or fattening systems, it is possible
to influence the percentage of the main nutrients in meats. Containing
quantities of essential amino acids in the form of protein, meat is valued
as a complete protein food. The fat of meat, which varies widely with
the species, quality, and cut, is a valuable source of energy and also
influences the flavour, juiciness, and tenderness of the lean. Generally,
as fat increases, the percentages of protein and water decrease. Meat also
contains В group vitamins (especially niacin and riboflavin), iron,
phosphorus, ash, and calcium. Such parts as liver, kidney, and heart
have been found to be especially rich in vitamins and minerals, for
example liver contains vitamins A and D.
Having been consumed, meat digests somewhat slowly, but 95 per
cent of meat protein and 96 per cent of the fat are digested. Fats tend to
retard the digestion of other foods. Thus, the higher the proportion of
fat, the longer meat remains in the stomach, delaying4 hunger and giving
“staying power”. Extractives5 in meat cause a flow of saliva6 and gastric
juice7, creating the desire to eat and ensuring ease of digestion.
(3) Being obtained from different kinds of animals, meats are often
classified by the type of animal. Red meat refers to the meat taken from
mammals; white meat refers to the meat taken from fowl; seafood refers
to the meat taken from fish and shellfish; and game refers to meat taken
from animals and birds that are not commonly domesticated. In addition,
most commonly consumed meats are specifically identified by the live
animal from which they come. The meat of cattle is known as beef; calves,
as veal; sheep, as mutton; lambs, as lamb; and swine, as pork.
The most widely consumed meat is beef, the flesh of mature cattle
that normally weigh from 450 to 540 kg and yield between 55 and 60
per cent of their weight in meat. Being much less fatty than beef, veal is
the flesh of calves of cattle.
The pig is believed to be the world’s second largest provider of meat
known as pork. When taken to slaughter, pigs generally weigh between
90 and 135 kg and provide about 70 to 74 per cent of that weight in meat.
Meat from lambs and sheep is produced on a much smaller scale than
either beef or pork (less than one-tenth of that provided by cattle, for
example). Having reached the weight between 45 and 70 kg, lambs are
commonly slaughtered, although the most select lambs may weigh no more
than 14 to 18 kg and yield about 48 to 50 per cent of their weight in meat.
(4) Being regarded an important branch of agricultural sector, meat
production involves thousands of workers in different countries.
Moreover, there exists a large variety of national and international
companies specializing either in meat processing or storing or shipping
320
to consumers. Producers dealing with meat processing have already
succeeded in new technologies having been introduced in order to satisfy
the increasing demand for their products, however, they are interested
in new meat products being developed and sold.
Meat is considered to be an essential part of human diet, so producers
dealing with meat processing feel sure about high demand for their
products and they are paying much attention to the developing and
selling new meat products.
In the US though called meat-packing industry, meat production
includes the slaughtering of animals, processing of meat, and distribution
of cattle, sheep and pigs. The American the meat-packing industry has
tended to be decentralized in recent years, and slaughtered livestock are
now generally moved directly from farms, ranches, and feedlots to meat-
packers. The cattle-slaughtering sector of the industry, in particular, has
become concentrated in cattle-raising regions, where beef is shipped to
sellers or directly to consumers primarily in the form of fresh cuts. Hog
slaughtering is still carried on chiefly in large plants, where the hogs are
processed into numerous cuts and products.
(5) The main steps of the slaughtering process generally include
stunning8, bleeding8, eviscerating8, and skinning8. Then carcasses are to
be inspected and graded according to government-set standards of quality.
Cutting carcasses is said to be the next step in meat processing. However,
the methods of cutting carcasses of meat animals into parts, and the names
given to the different cuts, vary locally. Nevertheless, shoulder cuts of beef
are frequently termed chuck9; rib cuts are known as chops10or rib steaks;
the part of the loin11 nearest the ribs is called short steak; and the part
nearest the hip12 is known as sirloin13. Terminology for cuts of veal,
mutton, and lamb is roughly14 similar to that used for beef. Cured pork
cuts are given a special terminology: ham is meat from the thigh and hip;
a picnic ham is meat from the shoulder; and bacon is side meat.
Meat grading divides meat into different classes based on expected
eating quality (e.g., appearance, tenderness, juiciness, and flavour)
and expected yield of meat sold from a carcass. In contrast to meat-
inspection procedures, meat-grading systems vary significantly throughout
the world. These differences are mainly due to different countries having
introduced their own meat quality standards.
(6) Many parts of the slaughtered animals are shipped for consumption
as fresh meat, while processed meat products may become ingredients of
various types of sausages and luncheon meats15. In order to prevent
spoilage of fresh meat, one can use refrigeration, though some other
methods for meat preservation such as freezing, curing, freeze-drying, and
canning are widely used.
Preserving meat, it is necessary to control spoilage by inhibiting the
growth of microorganisms, slowing enzymatic activity, and preventing
the oxidation of fatty acids that promote rancidity. While stored for
a long time, meat products may be subjected to the influence of many
11 Комарова 321
factors changing their quality and safety. The number of microorganisms
to be able to grow on meat depends on the physical state of meab For
example, grinding16 meat increases the surface area, releases moisture
and nutrients from the muscle fibres, and distributes surface microorga­
nisms throughout the meat. Chemical properties of meat, such as pH
and moisture content, affect the ability of microorganisms to grow on
meat. Natural protective tissues (fat or skin) can prevent microbial
contamination, dehydration, or other undesirable changes. Covering
meats with paper or protective plastic films prevents the excess of
moisture loss and microbial contamination.
(7) Having found temperature to be the most im portant factor
influencing bacterial growth, scientists recommended to use refriger­
ation or cold storage for preserving meat. Due to the temperature being
decreased under 3°C, one can prevent pathogenic bacteria from growing.
The refrigerated storage life for fresh meats has been shown to be
extended to 5 or 7 days.
Freezer storage is an excellent method of meat preservation. It is
important to wrap frozen meats closely in packaging that limits air
contact with the meat in order to prevent moisture loss during storage.
The length of time meats are held at frozen storage also determines
product quality. Under typical freezer storage of —18°C beef can be
stored for 6 to 12 months, lamb for 6 to 9 months, pork for 6 months,
and sausage products for 2 months. Moreover, being frozen rapidly, meat
maintains its quality. Thus rapid methods of freezing meats are widely
used at the commercial level to maintain maximal product quality. It
should be m entioned, however, that freezing does not kill most
microorganisms; they simply become dorm ant17. When the meat is
thawed, the spoilage continues where it left off.
To prevent meats from being contaminated by harmful bacteria,
producers widely use vacuum-packaging which helps to extend the
storage life under refrigerated conditions to approximately 100 days. In
addition, vacuum packaging minimizes the oxidation of unsaturated fatty
acids and slows the development of rancid meat.
One more commonly used method of meat preservation is canning
which involves sealing18 meat in a container and then heating it to
destroy all microorganisms capable of food spoilage. Under normal
conditions canned products can safely be stored at room temperature
indefinitely. However, certain quality concerns can make producers or
sellers recommend an optimal “sell by” date.
One should be aware of drying as another common method of meat
preservation. Drying removes moisture from meat products so that
microorganisms cannot grow. Dry sausages, freeze-dried meats, and
jerky19 products are all examples of dried meats capable of being stored
at room temperature without rapid spoilage.
Fermentation is supposed to have been an ancient form of food
preservation used in the meat industry. Due to adding certain harmless
322
bacteria to meat the former produce acid as they grow, lowering the pH
of th t meat and inhibiting the growth of many pathogenic microorga­
nisms.
Meat curing and smoking are believed to be the oldest methods of
meat preservation. They not only increase the safety and shelf life of
meat products but also improve the colour and flavour. Smoking of meat
decreases the available moisture on the surface of meat products,
preventing microbial growth and spoilage. Meat curing, as commonly
performed in products such as ham or sausage, involves the addition of
mixtures containing salt, nitrite, and other preservatives. Salt decreases
the moisture in meats available to spoilage microorganisms. Nitrite
prevents microorganisms from growing and retards rancidity in meats.
However, the use of nitrite in meat products is controversial20 owing to
its potential cancer-causing activity21.
Sodium ascoibate is another common curing additive, which not only
decreases the risks associated with the use of nitrite but also improves
cured meat colour development. Other common additives include
alkaline phosphates, which improve the juiciness of meat products by
increasing their water-holding ability.
(8) In the late 1990s and early in the 21st century, governments of
many countries took a variety of measures regulating the meat-products
industry to prevent the spread of BSE in the wake of22 a BSE epidemic
in the United Kingdom and the discovery of a BSE-infected cow in the
United States. For example, the United States Department of Agriculture
prohibited using meat from downer cattle23 in meat products for human
consumption and banned the use of brains, skulls24, eyes, certain nerve
tissues from cows older than 30 months as older animals tend to be more
susceptible to BSE.

COMMENTS

1. connective tissue — соединительная ткань

2. thymus gland — вилочковая железа
3. pancreas ['pasijkras] (syn sweetbread) — поджелудочная железа
4. to delay [dilei] — замедлять; препятствовать
5. extractives — экстрактивные вещества (экстрагируемые из тканей)
6. saliva [sa'laiva] — слюна
7. gastric juice [‘gaestnk djixs] — желудочный сок
8. stunning, bleeding, eviscerating [i.visa'reitig], skinning — оглушение,
обескровливание, изъятие внутренностей (потрошение), свежевание
туши
9. chuck [tfXk] — большой отруб мяса
10. chop [tjbp] — небольшой отруб мяса
11. loin [loin] — зд. поясница
12. hip —бедро
13. sirloin ['s3:lpm] — филейная часть (туши)

323
|
14. roughly ['глПі] — зд. приблизительно
15. luncheon meat ['Lvntfan] — легкая закуска 44
16. to grind — измельчать
17. dormant fdamsnt] — находящийся в состоянии покоя
18. sealing — зд. уплотнение
19. jerky [с&з:кі] — вяленое мясо
20. controversial [.кэШгәЧ^з:Д] — зд. спорный
21. panpw-pansing activity — способность вызывать рак
22. the wake of — зд. последствие {чего-л.)
23. downer cattle ['dauna] — падший скот
24. skull — череп

EXERCISES ТО TH E TEXT

5. a) Find in the text the sentences with the italicized words. Identify
which part of speech in English the other words belong to and
translate them into Russian. Pay attention to different suffixes.
1. digestion, digest, digestible, digested, digesting, digestibility,
digestive; 2. extend, extended, extending, extension, extendable; 3. inhibit,
inhibiting, inhibited, inhibition, inhibitor; 4. preserve, preservation,
preservative, preserved, preserving', 5. ship, shipping, shipment,
shipped', 6. tend, tendency; 7. thaw, thawing, thawed', 8. slaughter,
slaughtering, slaughtered, slaughterable, slaughterer; 9. harmful, harmless,
harm, harmfully; 10. contamination, contaminate, contaminated,
contaminating, contaminant
b) Use the words from (a) to complete the following sentences:
1. Repeated ... and freezing of meat has been found undesirable for
meat quality. 2. The ... of frozen meat to consumers was delayed because
inspectors insisted on the meat being tested for possible ... with
undesirable microorganisms. 3. By rapid vacuum-packaging one can ...
the growth o f ... bacteria but not to destroy them. 4. As soon as animals
are fattened enough to be marketed, veterinarians should examine them
and decide whether they are ... and their meat can be consumed.
5. Nowadays, there exists a growing ... towards the healthier way of
living, and more people are giving preference to lean or white meats.
6. ... of m eat greatly depends on the way of its cooking. 7. Such
substances as salt, nitrite, sodium ascorbate are known as ... ensuring
the ... of meat storage life.
6. Complete the following sentences:
1. Being used to describe the flesh of animals, the term “meat”... .
2. People know of meat consisting mainly o f.... 3. By changing feeding
and fattening rations of animals, one can... . 4. When consumed, meat
fat tends... . 5. Being obtained from different farm animals, meats can

324
be classified.... 6. The ease of meat digestion results from .... 7. Having
weighed the cow, the farmer decided... . 8. Being the second largest
provider of meat, hogs are widely... . 9. Companies involved in meat
processing are interested in .... 10. Until shipped to consumers, animals
carcasses must be... . 11. Having been established in the US, meat­
packing industry includes.... 12. Some people prefer buying fresh meat
while... . 13. Due to the m eat-packaging industry having been
decentralized, cattle slaughtering... . 14. When accomplished, the
slaughtering process is followed by... . 15. In spite of using different
names and methods of cutting carcasses, the terminology... . 16. The
main purpose of grading meat is... . 17. The methods of preserving
meat can be... . 18. Unless refrigerated or frozen, meat... . 19. Having
been canned, meat was stored... . 20. Having dried meat, one can... .
21. By using fermentation, it is possible to... . 22. The advantage of
meat being cured or smoked is.... 23. Some producers have objected to
using nitrite because... . 24. The United States Department of Agri­
culture insisted on... . 25. Being slaughtered at the age of 30 months,
cows... .
7. a) Think of the heading to each part of the text. Complete the table
with the key words summarizing the main idea of each part. (Part 1
is done as an example.)

Part 1 Meat—flesh, edible portions of cattle, calves, sheep,

The definition of lamb, swine, poultry, game, crustaceans; processed
the term “meat” and manufactured meat products
Part 2
Part 3
Ф Ф 0

Part 8

b) Use the questions written in exercise 4 (a) and the table above to
prepare the summary of the text MMeat Processing” (15—20
sentences).

USEFUL LANGUAGE
The main theme of the discussed text is... ; The major point is... ; In
principle...; The text points o u t...; The text starts off with the assumption
that... ; The text is devoted to the problem of... ; Major consideration
should be given to... ; The first thing to be mentioned in this connection
is... ; Adding... ; In addition... ; There is one more thing to be noted... ;
Moreover... ; More than that... ; In the first/second place... ; Then... ;
Next... ; After this... ; To sum it u p ...; Summarizing... .

325
8. Write the English equivalents of the following words using the word-
combination “verb+noun” and make up sentences with them.
Model: to test smth -» to be under te st -» New technological
equipment for meat processing is being under test now.
to concentrate/focus on smth; to look after smb; to investigate smth;
to develop smth; to be considered; to use/apply; to exceed; to begin to
use; to introduce; to consider smth (2); to cause smth; to prefer smth;
to emphasize smth; to refer to smth; to conclude; to participate; to occur,
to be informed; to be due to smth; to be confident; to use smth that is
available for personal benefit
9. Write the English equivalents of the words in brackets.
1. Commercial (консервирование) is known to have been introduced
into the United States in 1821 by the William Underwood Company
of Boston. 2. People should (осведомленными о) bacteria and viruses
causing serious digestive troubles in case of food (загрязнение) during
its shipment. However, there exist some (безопасные) bacteria. 3. Meat
(iвяление) and (копчение) are still among the widely used methods for
making (ветчины/окороков). 4. Nearly 70 per cent of all hogs (за­
бивается/идет на убой) and turned into (мясные отрубы) at the
packing plant and (транспортируются) to commercial processors
who produce a complete line of (колбас) and (копченых) products.
5. Traditionally, hog (убой) has involved more complete processing at
the packing plant than cattle (убой). 6. Scientists have proved the double
bonds found in unsaturated fatty acids to be susceptible to oxidation,
which accelerates (прогорклость) in meat. 7. The percentage of fat in
meat greatly influences the flavour, (сочность), as well as (мягкость)
of the (постного мяса). 8. The term “offal” should be applied to the
edible, mainly internal organs of an animal, such as the heart, (печень),
brains, (почки), and tongue that sometimes regarded as unpalatable. 9. In
animals with simple (желудками), called non-ruminants (e.g., pigs),
diet can significantly change the (жирные) acid composition of meat.
10. The edible (мякоть/мясо) of wild birds, animals or fish that have
been killed for sport is known as (дичь). 11. There is a large international
beef trade, thus it is essential to develop (стандарты оценки каче­
ства) that should be somewhat similar in various countries. 12. The hot
weather may accelerate the development of (прогорклое мясо) if the
latter (не заготавливается/хранится) properly.
10. Translate into English using the complex forms of Participle I.
1. Оценивая качество туш, инспекторы ...
Оценив качество мясных туш, инспекторы ...
Когда качество туш оценивается инспекторами, они ...
326
 После того как качество туш было оценено инспекторами,
они ...
2. Замедляя процесс усвоения пищи, находящиеся в мясе
жиры ...
Замедлив процесс усвоения пищи, находящиеся в мясе
жиры s ‘
Так как процесс усвоения пищи замедляется жирами, нахо­
дящимися в мясе, он ...
После того как процесс усвоения пищи замедлился жира­
ми, находящимися в мясе, он ...
3. Забивая свиней, необходимо (следует) ...
Забив свиней, необходимо ...
Если свиней забивают, они ...
После того как свиней забили, они ...
4. Перевозя/Доставляя свежее мясо, мясокомбинаты (meat­
packing plants)...
Доставив свежее мясо, мясокомбинаты ...
Если свежее мясо перевозится с мясокомбинатов, оно ...
После того как свежее мясо было доставлено с мясокомби­
ната, оно ...
5. Заготавливая мясо путем копчения, можно ...
Заготовив мясо путем копчения, можно ...
Когда мясо заготавливается путем копчения, оно ...
После того как мясо было заготовлено путем копчения, он о...
11. Replace the clauses in italics by the construction with the appropriate
forms of Participle I, making necessary changes in the principal
clause.
Model: If the meat was frozen, it can be stored for several months.
—» Having frozen the m eat, it is possible to store it for
several months.
1. While the percentage of fat in a meat cut is increasing, one can
expect the percentage of water to be declining. 2. After people found
the lean to be lower in cholesterol, most of them began to eat only this
kind of meat. 3. Since meat is rich in such nutrients as essential amino
acids, it is highly valued as human food. 4. When a product called
SPAM was introduced by Hormel Foods Corporation in 1937, it was
the first canned meat product in the world that did not require
refrigeration. 5. By the late 20th century, Americans had become more
concerned about their diet, so they began to eat more poultry, fish and
fresh fruits and vegetables and fewer eggs and less beef. 6. SPAM is
made as a mixture of chopped pork shoulder and ham and it is still
a popular canned meat product in the US. 7. Various meat imitations
that are made of proteins have been derived from soybeans, wheat,
yeast, and other plants. 8. When the plant proteins that were obtained
from soybeans have been treated, forced to form fibres, processed,
327
flavoured, and coloured with special substances, they may simulate
different kinds of meat. 9. Fresh or processed meat products arebeing
widely marketed now, but they also have become ingredients of various
types of sausages. * * •** *&&& -1
12. a) Use the verbs in brackets in the correct form of the gerund.
Some meat producers specialize in (to process) various non-muscular
parts of animal carcasses known as offal (потроха). One should be aware
of people (to consume) offal in ancient times. Later, due to the receipts
(to develop) by different cuisines, variety meats (мясные субпродук­
ты) have become a part of the human diet. After (to cook) in a proper
way, indigestible animal parts such as kidneys, liver, may be turned into
delicious meat dishes. Moreover, in terms of nutritional value, physicians
have approved of calf s liver (to include) in human diet as the major
source of iron. Some people prefer (to eat) sweetbread to (to consume)
beef as the former is higher in albumin, a water-soluble protein. In
addition, while (to slaughter) pigs, blood may be collected for the
purpose of (to use) as an ingredient in black pudding (кровяная кол­
баса). Besides, many meat-packers insist on pigs’ intestines (кишки)
(to use) as natural containers for (to make) high-quality sausages.
In the US some people are against the idea of offal (to sell) in
supermarkets as they remember the offal (to be) a typical food of the
poor rural population. However, some restaurants in America suggest
variety meats (to cook) and (to serve) by special order. In contrast, the
European cuisine is famous for numerous classical dishes (to cook) on
the basis of variety meats, for example grilled sweetbreads.
b) Write six special questions on the text and retell it.
13. Replace the clauses in italics by incomplete subordinate clauses,
making the necessary changes in the principal clause.
Model'. Though a hamburger is found to be fatty and harmful
food, it is still a popular snack for many people. —>Though
found to be fatty and harm ful food, a hamburger is still
a popular snack for many people. \ . ’[i
1. Although cholesterol is found in many foods, particularly
dairy products and meat fat, it can be synthesized by the body from
cholesterol-free substances. 2. When animals are subjected to extreme
stress or exercise of the muscles before slaughtering, they will produce
dark, firm and dry meat as the result of high pH. 3. While meat is
vacuum -packaged, it is protected from the contact with the air, which
minimizes the oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids and slows the
development of rancid meat. 4. Until the fermenting bacteria grow
enough to produce sufficient amount of acid, they will not be able to
lower the pH of the meat and inhibit the growth of many pathogenic
microorganisms. 5. If fresh meat products have been exposed to doses

328
of radiation, they will have significantly lower microbial contamination.
6. Unless meat products are packaged, they cannot be protected from
spoilage and rancidity.
14. Translate Into English.
a) консервирование говядины; загрязнение поверхности теля­
тины; лопатки и ребра (о кусках мяса); соление и копчение вет­
чины/окорока; осведомленный/знающий о безопасных/невред­
ных бактериях; мясо животных, добытых на охоте; забой/убой
овец; легкость усвоения пищи; оценка качества баранины; соч­
ность и мягкость постного мяса; замораживать и хранить мясо
молодого барашка; перевозить мясо потребителям; размораживать
свинину; задерживать/подавлять прогорклость мяса с помощью
консервантов; соленый бекон; перерабатывать почки и печень во
вкусные мясные продукты; переваривать мясной жир; увеличи­
вать срок хранения замороженной говядины; иметь тенденцию к
образованию прогорклого мяса; желудок жвачного животного;
производить колбасы/сосиски; способы хранения мясных продук­
тов; жирные части туши животного; производство фасованного/
мороженого мяса
b) 1. Так как разные виды мяса, включая говядину, телятину,
баранину, мясо птиц и диких животных, являются важным источ­
ником таких ценных питательных веществ как незаменимые ами­
нокислоты, жиры, минеральные вещества и витамины, они, как
полагают, вносят значительный вклад в рацион питания челове­
ка. 2. Обнаружив холестерин во всех тканях животных, медики
рекомендовали людям уменьшить потребление мясных продуктов,
особенно жирного мяса. 3. Так как мясо было заготовлено при
требуемой температуре, оно сохранило все свои качества, такие
как вкус, сочность и мягкость. 4. Благодаря использованию раз­
нообразных способов заготовки мяса, таких как охлаждение, за­
морозка, вакуумная упаковка, соление и копчение, ферментатив­
ная обработка и консервирование, можно увеличить срок хране­
ния мясных продуктов до нескольких месяцев. 5. Если мясо об­
рабатывается консервантами, оно может храниться дольше, одна­
ко, оказалось, что некоторые консерванты вредны для здоровья
человека.

EXERCISES FOR GROUP WORK

15. Students divide into two groups and prepare presentations about
Hormel Foods Corporation, an American food processing company,
and Pamas-M Russian, a meat-processing company. Search the
websites for additional information. Compare the two companies
according to the following criteria:
329

I
 how long it has been in the market;
type of property (state or private);
the share in the national/world market;
main types of meat products;
the output;
areas for product distribution;
current position;
future plans.

Task for group A

HORMEL FOODS CORPORATION
(Some facts from the company’s history)
1891 — Founded by George Hormel as Geo. A. Hormel & Co.
in Austin, Minnesota, the company started as a meat­
packing operation and meat retailer, mainly pork products.
1926 — Developed the w orld’s first canned ham , Hormel
Flavor-Sealed Ham.
1927 — Initiated a distribution system for its products involving
sausage trucks”.
1941 — Company’s 50th anniversary in 1941, the number of
employees — 4,500, sales — $74.6 million.
1939 —1945 — Hormel products became main foods for Allied military
forces including the Soviet Army. In 1945 the United
States government purchased nearly tw o-thirds of
Hormel’s total output.
1959 — The one-billionth can of SPAM® Luncheon Meat was
produced.
2000 — Prepared Foods Magazine again presented the “New
Products Company of the Year” award to Hormel Foods;
Meat Marketing & Technology Magazine named
Hormel Foods the “Company of the Decade.
2001, 2002 — Forbes named Hormel Foods one of “The 400 Best Big
and 2003 Companies in America”.
At present — the leading food processing company, produces a
variety of convenience and ethnic foods in order to meet the growing
diversity of America’s population, such as Mexican, Chinese, Italian
foods. The company has expanded into international markets due to
acquisition (приобретение) of such companies as Dubuque Foods,
a maker of hams, sausages, and bacon; Jenny-O, a brand of turkey roast;
and House of Tsang, a manufacturer of spiced vegetable oils etc. The
company puts emphasis on product innovation, convenience, and
freshness. It provides consumers with high-quality, high-value branded
products that are flavourful, nutritional, and convenient.
(http: / / www.hormel.com)

330
 Task for group В
PARNAS-M
(Some facts from the company’s history)

1983 — Established as a state-owned meat-processing plant.

1992 — Privatized, the company was incorporated, there were a series
of changes in the system of management, as well as in the
organization of production process.
1999 — Introduced the system of quality management based on interna­
tional standards.
At present — Pamas-M ’s daily production is about 100 tons of
processed meat. Pamas-M processes the following amounts of raw meat
products in a course of a month: beef, bone in 1,000 tons; pork, bone
in 1.000 tons; beef, boneless 400 tons; pork, boneless 400 tons; pork back
fat 100 tons; pork skin 100 tons.
Pamas-M is the leading meat-processor in the north-west of Russia,
both in terms of the market share and of the highest quality of our
products; is one of the most recognizable brand names on St. Petersburg
meat market, known for its commitment to provision of meat-products
of adequate quality to consumers with various needs and different levels
of income.
Currently, Parnas-M supplies over one hundred brands of meat
products to consumers all over Russia — from the Baltic Sea to the
Pacific Ocean, with about 80% of sales being made in St. Petersburg
and the Leningrad Region, about 15% — in the north-west of Russia
and 5% — in Siberia. Pamas-M owns shares in several meat-processing
plants located near St. Petersburg and operates a chain of stores,
composed of 14 units in St. Petersburg and the Leningrad Region.
The Company has also gained the reputation of socially responsible
producer — even during the most critical times there were no significant
cuts in employment. Parnas-M is concerned about environment
protection so technological processes and equipment ensure that the
level of waste is already below the allowed limits.
Company’s current plans include technological integration, which
should result in establishment of a unified production process — starting
from cattle breeding on affiliated farms in the Leningrad Region and
up to selling the final products in company’s own stores.
(http://www.parnas.spb.ni/eng/l)
Search the websites to find more information about other leading
Russian meat-processing plants:
1. http://www.tsaritsyno.ru/
2. http://www.glavproduct.ru/
3. http://www.cherkizovsky.ru/

331

I
 SUPPLEM ENTARY TEXTS x

16. a) Read and translate texts 1—3. To compare the three types o f meat
complete the following table.

Type of meat Beef Veal Pork

1. Requirements to
slaughtered animals
2. Meat characteristics
3. Grading
4. Main consuming countries
5. Best cuts
6. Popular meat dishes
b) U se the table from (a) and make an oral presentation o f the
material.

USEFUL LANGUA GE
Expressing contrast:
On the other hand...; Although/Though...; But...; However...; On the
contrary...; Despite...; In spite of...; Not only... but also...; While/Whereas;
Nevertheless... .

Search the website for more information:

http://www.meatami.com/ — The American Meat Institute.

T ext 1 v
BEEF

Beef is flesh of mature cattle, as distinguished from veal, i.e. the flesh
of calves. The best beef is obtained from early maturing, special beef
breeds. High-quality beef has firm, velvety, fine-grained lean, bright red
in colour and well-marbled, the fat being smooth, creamy white, and
well distributed. In young beef, the bones are soft, porous, and red; the
less desirable mature beef has hard white bones. Beef tenderness and
flavour are improved by ageing; in one common ageing method the
carcass is hung for about two weeks at approximately 2°C, encouraging
physical changes in the muscle tissue that enhance the quality of the
meat.
Grading standards are somewhat similar in various countries, as there
is a large international beef trade. In the US, grades in order of quality
are prime, choice, good, commercial, utility, cutter, and canner. Commercial
grades are mainly from mature cattle, especially cows. Utility, cutter, and
332
canner grades are used in processed meat products. Beef hide, used for
leather manufacture, is a valuable by-product of beef.
The primary beef-consuming countries of the world (in per capita
terms) are Uruguay, Argentina, New Zealand, Australia, and the US.
Beef is not particularly popular in most of Southeast Asia, Africa, and
the Indian subcontinent; the sanctity1of the cow in the Hindu religion
forbids the consumption of its meat by the Hindus. Beef is not unusual
in the cuisines of Korea and Japan.
Butchering practices differ among countries, resulting in a variety of
names for the different cuts. In the United States, where beef is the most
popular meat, steaks (that is cross-sections2 from the fleshier parts of
the carcass) are among the most desirable cuts. In Britain, ribs used for
roasting are the most valued cuts. Less desirable cuts may be used in
stews3 or ground meat. Boiled beef is popular in some cuisines, as in
the French dish known as pot-au-feu A. Corned beef or salt beef in
Britain is prepared from a brisket or rump cut.

COMMENTS
1.sanctity — святость
2.cross-section — поперечное сечение
3.stew — зд. смесь
4.pot-au-feu — мясное жаркое с овощами

Text 2
VEAL
Veal is meat of calves slaughtered between 3 and 14 weeks, delicate
in flavour, pale greyish white in colour, Firm and fine-grained, with
velvety texture. It has no marbling, and the small amount of fat covering
is firm and white. In modem livestock farming, calves bred to yield high-
quality veal are raised indoors under controlled temperatures 16e—18eC and
intensively fed on milk, high-protein calf meal (мука), or both. Grasses
are excluded, resulting in an iron deficiency producing the desirable
light colour in the meat. Although the meat of an animal from 15 weeks
to one year is technically called calf, it is frequently marketed as veal.
Wholesale cuts, usually smaller than comparable beef cuts, vary in
different countries. Because of its high amount of connective tissue and
low fat content, large cuts of veal require long, slow cooking. Fat in the
form of lard or salt pork may be added to avoid dryness. Veal is often
served rare in European countries but is usually thoroughly cooked in
the US. Cuts such as the leg, loin, shoulder, and breast are usually
roasted, often boned and stuffed, or braised. Schnitzel, pan-fried cutlets
coated with bread crumbs, are a specialty of Germany and Austria.
Scallops, small thin slices — called scallopine in Italy and escalopes or
miedaillons in France — may be cooked in wine or other sauces.
333
 Text 3
X,
PORK

Pork is flesh of hogs, usually slaughtered between the ages of six

months and one year. The most desirable pork is greyish pink in colour,
firm and fine-grained, well-marbled, and covered with an outer layer
of firm white fat. About 30 per cent of the meat is consumed as cooked
fresh meat; the remainder is cured or smoked for bacon and ham, used
in sausage, and also to produce lard. Because pigs may be infected by
the parasitic disease trichinosis1, pork must be cooked to an internal
temperature of 71°C in order to destroy the disease-causing organism.
Pork carcasses are graded according to the amount of edible meat
they will yield. In the United States, where individual cuts are not
graded, a US Number 1 carcass is the one having the most satisfactory
ratio of fat to lean. Utility-grade pork, which is usually from mature
animals, has too little fat and is less firm. The main cuts of pork are
hams, spareribs, loin chops, bellies, picnic shoulders.
Pork is one of the most popular types of meats and is consumed
around the world. However, it is prohibited by the dietary laws of
Judaism and Islam, so pork is virtually unknown in the cuisines of the
Middle East and those of some local populations in Asia and Africa.
The chief pork-consuming countries are Germany, Denmark, Poland,
and Austria. j|
In western cooking, fresh pork is commonly roasted so the choice
cuts are the loin, leg, and rib sections known as spareribs. Chops from
the loin and ribs are usually grilled or pan-fried. A spin-roasted2 whole
young piglet, or suckling pig, is a delicacy in Central and Eastern
Europe; wild pigs have traditionally been cooked in a similar manner
throughout the Pacific. Less desirable parts — ears, tail, hocks3, feet,
brains — and the fatty portions of the back of the carcass (fatback), may
be cooked with various greens, especially in the southern United States.
In China and Southeast Asia, pork is commonly shredded and fried
with vegetables and spices. Pork-and-vegetable mixtures are also used
to stuff a variety of small rolls, buns or dumplings4.

COMMENTS
1. trichinosis [,triki'nausis] — трихинеллез
2. spin-roasted — зажаренный на вертеле
3. hock — коленное сухожилие
4. dumpling — клецка
 U n i t 17
FARM MANAGEMENT

Vocabulary and Grammar:

1. Многозначность некоторых английских глаголов.
2. Условные предложения.
3. Независимый причастный оборот.

VOCABULARY ТО THE TEXT

“FARM M ANAGEM ENT”

Nouns: advance, asset, cash (cash crop/receipts), commodity, costs

(syn expenses), debt, economics (agricultural economics), implement
(syn tool), income (net incom e), input, labourer, management,
opportunity, owner, ownership, possibility, price, profit, profitability,
property, receipts, statement (profit and loss/cash-flow statement),
support, trend (towards), welfare.
A djectives a n d adverbs: accurate(ly), competitive, economic,
(un)econom ical, (in)direct(ly), own, (un)productive, profitable,
profitably, responsible (for).
Verbs: borrow, calculate, contract (for), direct, implement, lease (syn
rent), manage, negotiate (on), own, run (a farm)
Conjunctions: provided, unless.

Give the Russian equivalents of the following international words:

aspect ['aespekt], capital [’kaeprtl], credit ['kredit], drainage ['dreinitfe],
engineering [.епф'шэпг)], erosion [і'гэозэп], financial [fai'naenjl],
hectare ['hektea], instability [.msta'bilati], integrate [’mtigreit], irrigation
[.irigeifn], invest [in'vest], legal ['li:gl), machinery [тэ'Л:пэп], manager
[’тагпкйэ], market ['mcckit], policy ['polisi], potential [рэиЧеп/l],
psychology [sai‘kobcfei], revolutionize [,rev3'lu:/3tnaiz], social ['saufl],
technological [.tekna'totfcikl]

Многозначность некоторых английских глаголов

Обратите внимание, что некоторые английские глаголы, кото­
рые встретились в Units 1—17, имеют разные значения и их пере­
вод на русский язык зависит от контекста. Далее приведены лишь

335

I
некоторые значения этих глаголов, представляющие интерес с
точки зрения их употребления в биологических и сельскохозяй­
ственных текстах. Н • .
to co n tract — 1) заразиться, заболеть; 2) заключать договор,
соглашение
to cure — 1) излечивать, исцелять (от чего-л.); 2) заготавли­
вать, консервировать
to deliver — 1) рожать, разрешаться от бремени; 2) передавать;
доставлять, разносить; снабжать, поставлять
to derive — 1) получать, извлекать; 2) происходить, устанавли­
вать происхождение, возводить (к чему-л.)
to descend — 1) спускаться, сходить; 2) опускаться, снижать­
ся; 3) происходить, вести род
to develop — 1) развивать(ся); 2) разрабатывать, конструиро­
вать, создавать; 3) выводить, разводить (сорт растений, породу
животных)
to examine — 1) исследовать; изучать; проверять (на какой-л.
предмет)’, 2) выслушивать, осматривать; обследовать (живот­
ных) | • ••|§| -
to fertilize — 1) удобрять, обогащать почву, вносить удобрение;
2) оплодотворять; опылять
to m anage — 1) содержать (животных и птицу)’, 2) обрабаты­
вать, возделывать (почву)’, 3) руководить, управлять (фермой, ком­
панией) - j
to preserve — 1) сохранять, сберегать (природу)’, 2) хранить/
заготавливать впрок (овощи, продукты)’, 3) заготовлять впрок;
консервировать ;
to ra ise — 1) выращивать (растения ); разводить (птицу,
скот)\ 2) ухаживать за молодняком; 3) поднимать, повышать, уве­
личивать (количество, степень, уровень чего-л.); 4) собирать
(особ, о финансовых средствах)
to tre a t — 1) обращаться; обходиться; вести себя по отноше­
нию (к кому-л., как-л.); относиться; 2) лечить, проводить курс
лечения

GRAM M AR REVISIO N
AND PRETEXT EXERCISES

Условные предложения
(Conditional sentences)
Условные предложения в английском языке наиболее часто
вводятся союзами if если, provided если; при условии что, unless
если не. Условные предложения можно разделить на три типа.
336
 Тип условного Главное Придаточное
предложения предложение предложение
Первый тип Future Simple Tense Present Simple Tense
Реальные The cattle will be kept on pasture if the weather is warm,
условия Скот будет содержаться на если погода будет
пастбище, теплой.
Второй тип would/should + infinitive 1 Past Simple Tense
Маловероят­ The cattle would be kept on if the weather were*
ное условие pasture today warm,
Скот содержался бы на если погода была бы
пастбище сегодня , теплой.
Третий тип would/should + have + infinitive Past Perfect Tense
Нереальное The cattle would have been kept if the weather had
условие on pasture yesterday been warm,
Скот содержался бы на если погода была бы
пастбище вчера , теплой.

Условные предложения первого типа выражают реальные пред­

положения и обычно относятся к будущему, причем глагол-ска­
зуемое в придаточном английском предложении употребляется в
форме Present Simple, а в главном предложении — в форме Future
Simple. На русский язык оба глагола переводятся в будущем вре­
мени. Предложения такого типа были рассмотрены в Unit 6.
Условные предложения второго типа выражают маловероят­
ные предположения и относятся к настоящему или будущему вре­
мени. На русский язык такие предложения переводятся глагола­
ми в сослагательном наклонении с частицей бы. В английском
языке в главном предложении употребляется глагол should или
would, а в условном придаточном предложении глагол-сказуемое
употребляется в форме Present Simple.
Условные предложения третьего типа выражают нереальные со­
бытия, относящиеся к прошлому, и переводятся на русский язык, как
и предложения второго типа, сослагательным наклонением. В анг­
лийском языке в главном предложении употребляется глагол should
или would с перфектным инфинитивом, а в условном придаточном
предложении глагол-сказуемое употребляется в форме Past Perfect.
Следует обратить внимание на то, что предложения второго и
третьего типа на русский язык переводятся одинаково, и их мож­
но отличить только по наречиям времени (сегодня, вчера) или
другим пояснительным словам.

* Глагол to be в этом случае употребляется в форме were во всех лицах как

единственного, так и множественного числа, однако в современном языке иног­
да встречается форма was.

337

I
Examples: !
If a farmer wished to raise hens Если фермер захотел бы вь?ра-
for egg production, it would щивать кур для производства
be necessary for him to choose яиц, ему нужно было бы вы­
the breed more adapted to брать породу, наиболее адап­
the region conditions. тированную к условиям ре­
гиона.
Provided a farmer had raised Если фермер выращивал
sheep for mutton, he would для получения
have been able to increase эффектив
the efficiency of his farm by ность своего хозяйства за счет
shearing and selling wool. стрижки и продажи шерсти.
1. Identity the sentences which are translated into Russian with the
particle бы.
1. Unless there had been achievements in genetics, it would not be
possible to improve cattle breeds. 2. Farmers would supply horses with
high-quality hay, provided he raised pasture grasses on his farm. 3. If cold
milk is given to new-born calves, it will cause digestive troubles. 4. Such
biological sciences as animal biochemistry and animal biotechnology
would not have appeared, unless the scientists had achieved great progress
in fundamental sciences such as biology and chemistry. 5. Provided the
rotational system of grazing cattle is used, one can control the infectious
animal disease. 6. The bull would be provided with the increased rates of
feeding, if it were to be used for breeding.

Независимый причастный оборот

(The nominative absolute participle construction)
Независимый причастный оборот — это причастный оборот со
своим подлежащим, который можно определить по следующим
признакам: .*
1) причастие стоит на месте сказуемого и имеет свое подлежащее;
2) от основной части предложения оборот отделяется запятой.
Предложения с независимым причастным оборотом могут
быть двух типов: 1) Причастный оборот предшествует основной
части предложения и переводится на русский язык придаточным
предложением с союзами так как, когда , если в зависимости от
смысла всего предложения.
Examples: Щ .,.v.. йЩрМЗ ' ~ •' WftTBM
Roughages being high in fibre, Если грубые корма имеют вы-
pigs should not be given such сокое содержание клетчат-
feeds. ки, то свиньям такие корма
давать не следует.
338
The к как лошадь отбиралась
selected for racing, its для скачек, ее способности
running abilities were valued к бегу оценивались в первую
first of all. очередь.
2) Причастный оборот находится после основной части пред­
ложения. В этом случае он переводится предложением, присое­
диняемым словами причем, при этом, а, и. Оборот после основ­
ной части предложения может начинаться словом with, что не
меняет его значения и способа перевода.
Examples:
Feeds are composed of many Корма содержат много веществ,
substances, with some of при этом некоторые из них
them being required in требуются в небольших ко­
small amounts for the личествах для правильного
proper growth and роста и развития животных
development of animals.
The Thoroughbred is a pure Чистокровная верховая это
breed of horse descended from беспримесная порода лошадей,
English mares and Arabian произошедшая от английских
stallions, the breed originally кобыл и арабских жеребцов,
having been bred in Britain причем порода первоначально
and most often being used была выведена в Британии
for racing. и наиболее часто использу­
ется для скачек.
Из примеров видно, что в обоих случаях причастие в незави­
симом обороте переводится как сказуемое. Перфектные формы
причастия переводятся глаголом в совершенном виде.
2. Translate the sentences into Russian.
11Technically, the term “duck” applies to the female, the male being
called a “drake”. 2. A cow producing 25 pounds of milk, 2.5 to 3 pounds
of protein must be provided in her ration. 3. There are eight common
breeds of hogs in the United States, six breeds being of the lard type and
two being of the bacon type. 4. Nearly all sheep breeds of mutton type
having originated in England, the breed names were taken either from
the names of English counties or hills. 5. The only Asiatic breed of any
significance today, the Brahma, has three varieties, the light Brahma
being preferred because of its size. 6. Foals being weaned from the dam,
they should not be able to see, hear or smell their dams again.
3. a) Read and translate the text. Find in the text:
— conditional sentences;
— the sentences with the nominative absolute participle construction;
— the sentences with provided and identify its meaning.

339

I
 b) Match the following headings with the appropriate parts of the text.
Summarize the main idea of each part in 2—3 sentenced and
prepare the summary of the text.
a) — Factors of Production.
b) — Renting as a Means of Increasing Farm Profitability.
c) — Essential Knowledge and Skills for Running a Farm.
d) — Financial Statements on a Farm.
e) — The Main Trend in Modem Farming.
f) — Government Support.
g) — Advantages of Large-scale Farms.
h) — Main Aspects and Basis of Farm Management.
i) — Individual Approach to Farm Management.
j) — Measures for Estimation of Farm Profitability.

FARM MANAGEMENT
(1) Farm management means making and implementing the decisions
involved in organizing and operating a farm for maximum production
and profit. Farm management draws on1 agricultural economics for
information on prices, markets, agricultural policy, and such economic
aspects as leasing and credit. In general, agricultural economics is the
study of the allocation2, distribution, and utilization of the resources
used, along with the commodities produced, by farming.
Farm management also relies on plant and animal sciences for
information on soils, seed, and fertilizer, on control of weeds, insects,
and diseases, and on rations and breeding; on agricultural engineering
for information on farm buildings, machinery, irrigation, crop drying,
drainage, and erosion control systems; and on psychology and sociology
for information on human behaviour. In making his decisions, a farm
manager thus integrates information from the biological, physical, and
social sciences. Only being provided with all the necessary information,
a manager will be able to run the farm efficiently and profitably.
(2) Farms differing widely, the particular individual farm is of special
interest for farm management. If the plan were developed for one farm,
it would not be satisfactory for another. Farm management problems
range from those of the small or middle-sized, usually family-operated,
farms to those of large-scale commercial farms where trained managers
use the latest technological advances, and from farms run by single
owner to farms managed by the state. •^ о
(3) A good farm manager should be aware of the legal description of
the farm property for which he is responsible, locality3 in relation to
other property, roads, markets, and sources of supply, the details of the
field arrangement4 and farmstead layout5, the farm’s capital position or
relation of debts to assets, and the resources of the farm, the soil fertility
being of great importance for successful crop farming. Provided the

340
manager did not consider these facts, he would not be able to analyse
and evaluate his resources and plan their use. To calculate possible
profit, the farm manager estimates the yield expected from each hectare
of land and from each head of livestock. Then, these quantities are
calculated in terms of money, the farm profit varying from year to year
due to weather conditions, changes in animal productivity, instability
of prices in the market etc.
(4) The size of a farm business, an indication of its profit-making
potential, is measured by the total number of hectares in the farm, hectares
planted to cash crops, productive man-work units (the number of
workdays of labour required under average efficiency to care for crops and
livestock), livestock units kept, capital invested, and total cash receipts.
Total acreage6 being used to describe farm size, it is unlikely to be a very
satisfactory measure since it does not specify how much land is hilly, stony,
or otherwise unproductive. Total cultivated land, total receipts, invested
capital, or productive work units have been found to be better measures.
Though livestock are counted by the head for easier comparison, for
management purposes one cow is approximately equal in value to two
calves, five hogs, 10 young pigs, seven sheep, 14 lambs, or 100 laying hens.
(5) Any farm manager should take into consideration the following
three main factors of production such as labour, livestock and land. It is
necessary to know that some kinds of farm work are known to be directly
productive, some are not productive at all, and some indirectly productive.
Work such as plowing7, planting, cultivating, harvesting, feeding, and
milking is directly productive, the main kind of work greatly depending
on the farm type. Maintenance of fences, buildings, and machinery,
though often necessary, is not directly productive. Such work as trimming
shrubbery8 and mowing lawns9, unless it adds to the market value of the
farm, is not considered productive. Similarly, capital can be highly
productive, as in the case of livestock; indirectly productive (e.g., tractors,
buildings, and supplies); or unproductive, as a large barn10 or house. As
to land, it can also be either highly or relatively productive, or waste11.
Analysis of farm records has shown that farmers are often provided with
more equipment than they need, thus using buildings and machinery to
less than full capacity12. Generally, in developed countries small farmers
have been shown to own a higher proportion of their total investment in
buildings than in machinery, which seems to be uneconomical.
(6) For the traditional farmer, land and labour (his own and that of
his family) are sure to be the major resources. Under favourable
conditions, the farmer has changed his role from labourer to operator-
manager, which has resulted in much larger farm units with high capital
investments. Such conditions include the existence of a considerable
amount of applicable scientific knowledge, an opportunity for greater
efficiency from large-scale operations, the existence of good markets and
transportation, the opportunity to optimize and centrally direct farm
work, and the support of large-scale agriculture by the government.
341

I
 Nowadays, there exists the trend towards the replacement of labour
by capital in farming, this trend being especially noticeable in the CFhited
States, where capital accounts for a steadily increasing proportion of
farm inputs. In the US in 1940, capital comprised 29 per cent of farm
inputs, labour 54 per cent, and land 17 per cent; by 1976 capital accounted
for 62 per cent of farm inputs, labour 16 per cent, and land 22 per cent.
Capital typically replaces labour when large machines do the work of
several men using smaller implements, for example when milking
pipelines13, and bulk tanks14 replace handmilking operations; when
a mechanized installation15 replaces the bushel basket16 in dairy, beef,
or hog feeding; when special implements remove animal waste etc.
(7) The financial tools a farmer can use to analyse, plan, and control
his business include a number of financial statements such as a profit
and loss statement, a cash-flow statement etc. A profit and loss statement
shows sources and amounts of income and operating expenses. Compar­
ison of profit and loss statements over a period of years tells which
resources have been most profitable and whether there has been an
advance or decline in net income. If a farmer had borrowed some
additional money to buy new equipment or animals or rent the land,
the sources and uses of the funds at a given periods during the year would
have been recorded in a cash-flow statement. Thus, such a statement
provides a useful check on the accuracy17of the farm’s business records,
records on the rate of gain, production or performance records for each
animal, feed records being the most important on animal farms. These
records should be kept accurately on a daily, or weekly, or monthly basis.
The technical knowledge that a modern large-scale farm manager
must possess is frequently said to be much greater than that required
of most businessmen with the same investment. As a result, financial-
management techniques resembling those of industry are often employed
in farm management now. Capital is im ported from the outside;
production is scheduled18to meet quantity, grade, and timing requirements;
and labour is given specific tasks, as in a factory.
(8) One of the ways for small and middle-size farms to increase their
profitability is to rent land as well as machinery and even livestock.
Renting or leasing land enables farmers to operate on a much larger scale
than it would be possible if the limited land resources were under
ownership. Rental of machinery is another management tool farmers
use to obtain, the services of equipment too expensive to be owned
individually. Rental of livestock is also becoming widespread now, for
example in the north-eastern United States dairy farmers often lease
cows. Cows being leased, the owner of the cows may be a contracting
firm, a local bank, or an individual investor. The scheme is useful both
to older farmers who wish to retire but want to retain their interest in
dairying and to young dairy farmers who want to expand but have
limited capital. Besides, farmers who do not wish to tie up capital in
high-priced farm machinery and equipment can contract for such
342
operations in livestock as sheep shearing, dehoming, branding, and
artificial insemination.
(9) Research has shown that large farms produce more efficiently
than small farms. Nevertheless, a well-managed small dairy farm using
modem milking machines may achieve great efficiency, provided there
are only two men and fewer than 100 cows. In the future, as technology
advances, the farms that are managed most efficiently will probably be
larger than the most efficient farms at present.
Large farms can reduce costs by claiming volume discounts19 on the
inputs they buy. For example, they can negotiate prices on fertilizers,
seed, crop chemicals, petroleum products, machinery, and repair
services. Large operators also have an advantage in selling their products.
Managers of large dairy farms, for instance, can contract directly with
a large processor for an entire year’s production of given quantity and
quality for a specific date in the future, thus selling milk at a higher price
without any middleman. Moreover, production and processing of farm
commodities can be organized according to the schedule for greater
efficiency. Large farms also have a smaller investment in machinery and
buildings per crop acre or animal head.
Recognizing the economic advantages of large-scale agriculture,
governments in many developing countries have tried to create condi­
tions for its existence. National governments, often with outside help,
have financed large-scale development programmes, involving irrigation
or improvement of huge acreages by means of dams20, drainage facilities
etc. These improvements turned out to have revolutionized the lives of
many traditional farm managers within the period of a few years. Unless
there were certain improvements in crops and livestock, marketing
techniques and organization, transport and electricity supply, it would
not have been possible to increase agricultural productivity and income
several times over.
(10) Almost all the governments of the world today have departments
or ministries of agriculture which have been established for the purpose
of advancing agricultural welfare by spreading technological information.
Often these agencies perform or support extensive experimentation with
new crop varieties, new cultivation techniques, and improved breeds of
livestock, thus reducing the risk of unexpected losses the individual farm
manager might undergo if he applied new unreliable crop varieties,
animal breeds, or technologies on his farm. Considerable experimenta­
tion and research are also carried out by private agricultural supply firms
that hope to improve their competitive position in the marketplace by
developing valuable new products.
Thus, the world’s agriculture involves millions of farmers managing
their resources in different ways, the efficiency of agricultural production
resulting from a large variety of settings21 in regard to human, capital,
and land resource combinations; technological possibilities, and social
and political conditions. Future agricultural progress depends on
343
improving the quality of management and the environment in which
farmers make decisions and on helping them adjust22 their decisions to
the changing environment.

COMMENTS
1. to draw on — зд. заимствовать, использовать
2. allocation — размещение, распределение (средств, ресурсов)
3. locality — зд. местоположение участка (фермы)
4. field arrangement — зд. расположение поля
5. farmstead layout — зд. схема/план фермы со вспомогательными по­
стройками
6. acreage — площадь земли (в акрах)
7. plowing — вспашка земли
8. trimming shrubbery — обрезка кустарника
9. mowing lawn — стрижка газонов или лужаек
10. barn — подсобное помещение; амбар; (сенной) сарай
11. waste — зд. непригодный, бесполезный
12. capacity — зд. мощность
13. pipeline — трубопровод
14. bulk tanks — большие емкости
15. installation — установка
16. bushel basket (Am Е) — корзина, вмещающая бушель (36,4 л)
17. accuracy — правильность, точность
18. to schedule — зд. составлять график
19. to claim volume discounts — требовать скидки на покупку больших
объемов (товаров)
20. dam — дамба, плотна
21. setting — окружающая обстановка, окружение
22. to adjust — приспосабливать

E X E R C IS E S TO T H E TEXT

4. Find in the text the words with the following suffixes or prefixes.
Add the examples from Units 1—16.
Nouns: Adjectives:
-tion/sion: production, ... -al: special, ...
-ment: management, ... -able: ...
-(t)ure:... -ive: ...
-ence/ance: ... -fill: ...
-er/or: ... -ic: ...
-ity: ... -ent: ...
Words with negative prefixes:
un-:
in-:
344
5. a) Translate the following words into Russian. Try to guess the
meaning of unfamiliar words by their suffixes. Find the sentences with
itahcized words in the text. Think of word-combinations or sentences
with the other words.
1. to invest, investment, invested, investor, investing; 2. directly,
indirectly, direction, to direct, directing, directed; 3. rent, rental, to rent,
rentable, renter, rented, renting; 4. management, manager, to manage,
managing, managerial, managed', 5. to labour, labour, labourer,
6. profit, profitability, profitable, profitably, to profit; 7. to own,
ownership, owner, own, owned, owning; 8. product, productivity,
production, productive, productively, unproductive', 9. efficient,
inefficiency, efficiently, efficiency, inefficient; 10. to notice, noticing,
noticeable, noticeably, noticed; 11. to lease, lease, leaser, leasing,
leased', 12. to economize, economic, economist, economical, economy,
economics, economically
6. Complete the following sentences:
1. If a farm manager makes decision, h e .... 2. Unless there had been
the small family farm, the plan developed by the economist... . 3. The
farmer would be able to calculate the ftiture profit provided he... . 4. If
economists used only total acreage to describe farm size, it.... 5. Unless
the farmer maintained farm building, fences, machinery in proper
condition, it... . 6. Provided the scientists had not made such a great
contribution to agriculture, the farmers... . 7. Large-scale commercial
farms would not be so efficient unless.... 8. In many developed countries
if a farmer has limited capital, he... . 9. It would be difficult to buy
fertilizers, seeds and other inputs at lower prices unless.... 10. Agricultural
production would not become so efficient in developed countries if
governments... .

A D D IT IO N A L E X E R C ISE S

7. Fill the gaps with the correct form of the following verbs:
to contract, to cure, to deliver, to derive, to descend, to develop,
to examine, to fertilize, to manage, to preserve, to raise, to treat
Make up sentences where these verbs have different meanings.
1. In 1988 the British government prohibited the use of protein
supplements ... from dead animals. 2. The farm ... for building the new
incubator and the farm manager has already signed the agreement. 3. Pork
is known to be more often ... and smoked for preservation. 4. Farmers
know animals to ... by veterinarians just before slaughtering. 5. As fresh
milk is extremely perishable product, it m ust... to the nearest processing
plant as soon as possible. 6. Whether the plant ... by a wild bee or a

345
honeybee is not essential. 7. The better methods for rearing fish
artificially ..., the fewer amounts of fish will be caught by commercial
fishery. 8. ... the soil properly one should learn a lot about its type,
chemical structure and texture etc. 9. Such an organization as the
American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals insists on
farm animals kept in confinement ... properly. 10. Sometimes it is not
easy to make owners of companies ... nature by constructing expensive
recycling systems on their plants and factories. 11. ... enough money in
order to protect disappearing or endangered species of plants, birds and
animals is the aim of the World Wildlife Fund. 12. Sheep grazing on
mountainous pastures can ... stony and steep hills without any injuries.
8. a) Translate the following word-combinations into Russian:
1. owning the land, the farmer...; the farmer owning the land; the
land owned by the farmer; being owned by the farmer, the land...; having
been owned by the farmer, the land...
2. leasing bulls to his neighbours, the cattleman...; having leased the
bulls, the cattleman...; leased bulls; bulls leased by the cattleman to his
neighbours; having been leased by the farmer, the bulls...; the cattleman
leasing his bulls; being leased by the farmer, the bulls...
b) Translate the following word-combinations into English. Use simple
or complex forms of Participle I or Participle II.
1. деньги, инвестированные в оборудование; инвестируя деньги
в оборудование, управляющий...; управляющий, инвестирующий
деньги в оборудование; непосредственно инвестированные день­
ги; инвестировав деньги в оборудование, управляющий...; если
деньги инвестируются в оборудование, они...; после того как день­
ги были инвестированы в оборудование, они...; инвестируемые
деньги будут использованы на покупку оборудования
2. сельскохозяйственное предприятие, управляемое опытным
менеджером; управляя предприятием, опытный менеджер...;
опытный менеджер, управляющий предприятием; если предпри­
ятие управляется опытным менеджером, оно...; так как предпри­
ятие управлялось опытным менеджером, оно...; управляемое
опытным менеджером предприятие...
9. Give the English equivalents of the words in brackets.
1. There is a large variety of (возможностей) for the (владельца
земли) how to use the excess of the land but it seems to be (выгодно/
доходно) to lease it to the farmer living nearby and the (владелец)
should take such an ( благоприятной возможностью). 2. A farm
manager is usually (ответственный) for preparing such financial
(отчеты) as (отчет о доходах и убытках) and (отчет о дви­
жении денежных потоков). 3. Nowadays one can notice the (тен­
денцию) towards (аренды) not only land but expensive machinery and

346
farm animals in the agricultural sector of the US. 4. In developed
countries the private (собственность) of the land is guaranteed by the
law. 5. In the US, unless a farmer is good at any problem relating to (уп­
равлению), he may ask for the (поддержкой) and advice in the special
local consulting centre. 6. If sheep breeder’s (собственной) labour is
not enough to manage the farm work, he may either employ additional
(рабочую силу) or (заключить договор на) such labour-consuming
ones as sheep shearing, branding etc. 7. One of the essential characteristics
showing the financial position of a farmer is his ability to pay all (дол­
ги) and return the credit (заимствованный) from a bank if the
business is forced to discontinue. 8. How much a farm raising beef cattle
is (конкурентоспособная) in the market and whether it is operating
(прибыльно/рентабельно) can be calculated as the difference between
(доходом) obtained from selling beef and (затратами/издержка­
ми) spent on buying such (вложений/ вводимых ресурсов) as feeds,
nutritious supplements, vaccines etc. 9. The aim of a manager on a dairy
farm is to reduce the (издержки/затраты) on the production of one
litre of milk by using fewer (работников), but more efficient milking
machines. 10. One of the problems (экономики сельского хозяйства)
deals with is how the (цена) for farm (товары) is influenced by demand
for and supply of them in the market. 11. Due to technological (до­
стижениям) the (рентабельность) of animal farms has increased,
which results in a higher level of farmers’ (благосостояния). 12. ( Товар­
ная культура) is considered to be a crop grown for (непосредствен­
ной/прямой) sale, and not for personal consumption. 13. Economists
consider (поступления наличности) to be a good measure for
estimating whether a farm is making (прибыль) or not. 14. Capital (ак­
тивы/фонды) of an animal farm include farm animals, buildings,
machinery, equipment as well as other (инвентарь/оборудование),
thus the main (собственность) owned by a farmer.
10. Open the brackets using the verbs in the correct forms of Conditionals I,
II or III.
1. If the farmer (to use) a purebred sire for breeding, he would improve
his stock. 2. Unless a farm manager had spent too much time on making
a decision, he (not to miss) the opportunity to increase the profitability
of the farm business. 3. If animal scientists study farm management in
terms of the functions performed by managers, they (to consider) its three
basic functions such as planning, implementing and control. 4. Provided
a farmer (to collect) enough data and facts from various sources, he would
be able to organize, analyse and summarize them into useful information.
5. The farm manager (to implement) the developed plan provided the
required resources, such as livestock and other inputs, had been available
at the proper time and place. 6. Unless the commercial farm (to direct)
on the basis of the schedule, it would have been impossible to avoid
unproductive expenses. 7. It will be easier to calculate the annual production
347

1
of milk and butterfat for each animal provided production records for each
cow in the herd (to keep) accurately. 8. Profits in agricultural sector (to
be higher) unless the farm production were less risky and there were losses
as a result of bad weather, crop diseases, animal infections etc. 9. If it had
not been a large commercial farm, a farm manager (not/ negotiate) on
the discount for animals feeds.
11. Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention to the
different functions of the word should.
1. Before purchasing farm animals, one should find out which breed
or variety is better adapted to the climatic conditions of the region. 2. It
is necessary that a farm manager should take into consideration
individual characteristics of the animal such as appearance, pedigree,
and performance if he is buying new animals. 3. It is the individual
productivity of a dairy cow that should be recorded by a farm manager
on a daily basis. 4. If we had been provided with the data concerning
the number of pigs and their weight, we should have calculated the
expected income. 5. The farm economist suggested that a special table
should be used for keeping feed records on a monthly basis. 6. If
breeding records are kept for a commercial breeding herd, one should
include production and performance information to use it in culling
decisions and selection of herd replacements. 7. The manager insisted
that farm-raised feed fed to livestock should be evaluated at market
value. 8. A farm manager should use different possibilities to obtain the
necessary data such as bulletins and pamphlets from state experiment
stations, and agricultural colleges, radio, TV, farm magazines, but the
relative accuracy and reliability of the information obtained should be
considered. 9. We should increase the labour productivity in agriculture,
provided the farm management system were improved and government
support of this sector were ensured.
12. Modify the sentence or combine the two sentences into one using
the nominative absolute participle construction. Make the necessary
changes.
Model'. Since the records have been kept accurately, the farmer is
provided with all the necessary information to make a short-
and long-term planning, -» TTie records having been kept
accurately, the farmer is provided with all the necessary
information to make a short- and long-term planning,
1. Management has always been an important factor in operation of
a farm or a ranch. In addition, the role of farm management has increased
in recent decades. 2. As modem agriculture has become highly mechanized,
a farm manager should possess a good technical knowledge to operate
various farm machines. 3. When farms and ranches operate with large
amounts of borrowed capital, financial statements may be of great

348
significance for farm management. 4. The manager’s decisions are
concerned with the proper use of limited resources of land, labour and
capital. It is the manager who is responsible for choosing among
alternative and usually competing uses. 5. If a farmer runs the farm on
his own, it is difficult to separate the management activity from labour
because both tasks may be performed at the same time. 6. The profit­
ability of a farm is determined by its size to a great extent. However,
differences in the profitability of farms of the same size due to different
management are observed. 7. Farm management is thought to be a
continuous decision-making process. At the same time continual
changes take place in a country’s economy and in an individual business.
8. A large-scale farm has bought a large amount of commercial fertilizers
from this agrochemical company, for the farm manager and the director
of the company negotiated on a lower price.
13. Fill the gaps with correct conjunctions: as, if/provided, so, though,
unless, until, while.
1. ... bees have diverse nesting and social habits, it has provided
scientists with a natural laboratory for the study of evolution and
social behaviour in insects.
2. ... a farm manager ran a beef cattle farm, it would be more
economical to raise some crops on a farm as feed for cattle.
3. ... the lambs reached the marketing weight, they would be fed
protein supplements in order to bring them to the desired weight
and finish.
4. ... such methods of meat preservation as freezing and canning were
developed, the meat had mainly been cured or smoked.
5. The manager of a pig-breeding farm has chosen an intensive
system of pig management,... there was a possibility to lease a good
pasture near the farm.
6. On this chicken farm the building belongs to the farmer, ... the
chickens and feed are supplied by the poultry company, ... the
farmer is paid according to the ratio of the weight gained and the
amount of feed used.
14. lYanslate into English.
а) технологические достижения; управлять фермой эффектив­
но и с прибылью; подсчитывать активы хозяйства; удовлетвори­
тельные результаты; повышать благосостояние; возделывать то­
варную культуру; владелец/собственник птицеводческого хозяй­
ства; заключать контракт на стрижку овец; прибыльное/рента­
бельное хозяйство; общие/суммарные денежные поступления; не­
экономичная машина; брать взаймы деньги; конкурентоспособ­
ные сельскохозяйственные товары; изучать экономику сельского
хозяйства; затраты труда; государственная поддержка; количество
неквалифицированных рабочих; экономические проблемы; соб-
349

I
ственный крупный рогатый скот; частная собственность на зем­
лю; уменьшать издержки/расходы; влезть в долги; иметь тенден­
цию к чему-л.; небольшое оборудование/инвентарь; чистый до­
ход хозяйства/фермы; ответственный за управление фермой; вы­
сокая рентабельность производства; воспользоваться благоприят­
ным стечением обстоятельств; большая вероятность чего-л.; цена
инвестиций/затрат на вложения; отчет о прибылях и убытках;
отчет о денежных потоках; приобретать или продавать собствен­
ность; непосредственно производительный/продуктивный труд;
косвенно производительный труд; экономические преимущества;
сдавать землю кому-л. в аренду; арендовать оборудование у кого-л.;
выполнять решения; руководить/управлять фермой; вести пере­
говоры о ценах на корм; вести тщательно/точно записи о продук­
тивности каждого животного
b) 1. В отличие от прошлых лет, когда собственность на землю
считалось важным фактором производства в сельском хозяйстве,
сейчас широко распространена аренда земли, причем техника
и животные тоже берутся в аренду. 2. Так как выбор системы хо­
зяйствования, степень специализации фермы, ее оптимальный
размер и способ финансирования являются основными вопроса­
ми при управлении фермой, управляющий должен хорошо раз­
бираться как в вопросах сельского хозяйства, так и в экономиче­
ских проблемах. 3. Если фермер будет специализироваться в про­
изводстве нескольких сельскохозяйственных товаров, то его хо­
зяйство будет более рентабельным. 4. Количество непроизводи­
тельного труда в сельском хозяйстве уменьшилось бы в том слу­
чае, если эффективные и производительные сельскохозяйствен­
ные машины и разнообразные устройства продавались бы по бо­
лее низким ценам. 5. Если бы не было вспышки птичьего гриппа
в прошлом году, спрос на мясо птицы и яйца не упал бы и дохо­
ды фермеров не снизились бы.

EXERCISES FOR GROUP WORK

15. Students revise and summarize the material preparing the project.
The aim of the project is to describe an animal farm.
Students divide into three groups. Each group works at the project
of an imaginary farm (or a company) specializing in one of the
branches in animal husbandry. For example, Group A—a farm
raising calves for veal; Group В—a farm raising pigs for bacon;
Group С—a broiler farm (or you may think of any other type of
a farm). Students discuss and prepare the presentation of the
material on the following items. Some ideas and prompts are given
in brackets; then students read supplementary Text 2 as an example
of the description of a small dairy farm.
350
 1. Name of the farm/company (maybe logotype). 2. Type of farm and
form of property (family farm, cooperative, large commercial enterprise).
3. Location of the farm (region, area, climatic conditions, land resources,
water supply). 4. Types of animals breeds. 5. The number of animals.
6. Feeding of animals, availability of natural grasses. 7. Management
system (free range or intensive, availability of pastures throughout the year).
8. The number of workers, employment of other specialists. 9. Equipment
and machinery which is necessary to perform different kinds of work.
10. Measures for ensuring animal health. 11. Possible risks (unfavourable
weather conditions, scarcity of feeds, possible outbreaks of infectious
diseases). 12. Profitability of a farm in economic terms (expected profits,
possible losses, borrowing capital). 13. Marketing farm products
(fresh or processed, potential consumers, local or international markets).
14. Advertising campaign of products (names of products and their
description, possible brand, packaging).
Additional data
Use the following data to prepare your project.
M ost important changes in the livestock and meat industries
in recent decades in the United States
Ranked by priority
Most important livestock 1. increased direct marketing use o f auctions,
developments less dependence on terminal markets
| 2. large-scale cattle feeding
3. improved transportation
4. grading
5. improved market information
6. improved volume and quality
Most important meat 1. centralized cutting processing, and
industry developments prepackaging
2. supermarket and chain store growth
3. improved transportation and refrigeration
4. grading and inspection
5. decentralization o f meat business
6. improved quality and volume
(From Marketing of Agricultural Products
by R.L. Kohls, J.N.Uhl.)
Ш

SU PPLEM EN TA R Y TEXTS

16. Read the text and find the answers to the following questions:
1. Why is farming considered to be a risky business?
2. How can one reduce risks in agriculture?
351
 T ext 1

REDUCING MARKET RISKS

The marketplace for agricultural commodities is exceptionally risky

for three important reasons. First, no single farm producer can place
or withhold enough of a single item on the market to affect the market
price; second, the quantity of a commodity taken off the market does
not increase in proportion to price dechnes; third, the farm manager
cannot respond to falling prices by quickly switching production from
an unprofitable item to a profitable one. To reduce his risks and safeguard
profits, the farm manager may specialize or diversify depending on
conditions; he may also use the futures market.
A specialized farm manager concentrates his effort on the production
of one item such as wheat, cotton, milk, eggs, or fruit. By such specialization
he can realize the benefits of large-scale production and can make the
most money from an enterprise in which he is highly skilled. On the
other hand, the specialist is vulnerable to sudden changes in the market,
to plant and animal diseases, and to soil exhaustion resulting from
cultivation of a single crop.
Diversification, that is the spreading of one’s talents over more than
one farming enterprise, may be accomplished horizontally or vertically.
Horizontal diversification means the production of more than one item
for sale. In vertical diversification, the farm manager handles raw
products after harvest by processing, packaging, transporting, or even
selling at retail. A poultry farmer who produces eggs and candles, grades,
packages, and markets them at retail is said to be vertically diversified.
He has taken on some of the jobs that could have been performed
elsewhere, and, as a result, he generally receives a better return for his
efforts. '
Programmes of agricultural diversification have been carried out by
some developing countries, with the government acting as a kind of
national farm manager. Upon achieving independence, nations such as
Ghana and Nigeria, in West Africa, found their economies highly
dependent upon a single raw agricultural export (cocoa for Ghana; palm
oil for Nigeria). Sharply falling prices for these commodities or epidemics
of plant disease were seen to have disastrous effect on national prosper­
ity. Erosion problems also caused concern. The governments responded
by horizontally diversifying into other profitable crops and vertically
diversifying in the establishment of industries to process these com­
modities or turn them into manufactured goods before export.
A capable farm manager may use the futures market to try to
minimize his risks. In the futures market, the farm manager contracts
with a buyer to deliver a given quantity of some commodity at a specified
date in the future for an agreed price. The buyer is often a speculator
who hopes that prices will rise, enabling him to sell the commodity or

352
 the contract at a profit. Futures markets enable the farm manager to
establish in advance a price for a crop or eam payment for holding a
crop in storage. Futures markets also permit some farmers to speculate
on a price increase without storing a crop, establish in advance the price
of livestock feed intended for later use, and establish an advance price
for livestock.
Find more information about farm management:
1. World’s Poultry Science Journal, 2003, Vol. 59, No. 2, P. 249. —
About the history of Basmakci region (in Turkey) in the egg
business, the government support of farmers, transformation of
family business into commercial production.
2 . http://museum.agropolis.fr/english/pages/expos/agriculteurs/
monde.htm — The site allows to learn and compare the diversity
of farming types on a worldwide scale.
3. http://en.w ikipedia.org/w iki/Factory_farm ing — The term
“factory farming” is used to describe a set of often controversial
practices in large-scale, intensive agriculture, usually referring to
the industrialized production of livestock, poultry, and fish. The
methods applied are aimed at making use of economies of scale
to produce the highest output at the lowest cost. The practice is
widespread in developed nations, and most of the meat, dairy, and
eggs available in supermarkets are produced in this manner.
17. a) Read and translate the text into Russian. Give an example of any
family farm in Russia, describe it. Search the Internet for
examples of family farms in other countries.

Text 2
THE BLIND COW CHEESE COMPANY - A FAIRYTALE
COME TRUE!
This is a story about a blind cow, who has given rise to a small but
extremely successful dairy company run by a lady with the name Inger
Rosenfeld. She produces high-quality “gourmet” cheese, which has
received even international fame.
The Blind Cow Cheese Company is situated on a small farm called
“ Rosetten” near As in Norway. For many years the farm specialized in
producing lettuce (green salad) in greenhouses. But when the owner,
Inger Rosenfeld, turned fifty, she got a present she had always dreamed
of. It was a cow! Inger built a bam for the cow, named her Melissa, and
began to manufacture handmade cheese. She named her company “The
Blind Cow”, because Melissa had one blind eye.
Blind Cow cheese quickly became a favourite in the local community
around Rosetten. Word spread, and the cheese was soon to be found in
a selection of gourmet restaurants and speciality food shops in Oslo. One
12 Комарова 353
can taste such famous varieties of cheeses as Cumin and Camembert that
are handmade by The Blind Cow. Inger’s business is so successful that
she has begun to export her cheese to Clermont Ferrant in France, and
to New York.
As the popularity of Inger’s cheese increased, the production facilities
became too small, and Melissa could not produce enough milk to meet
the demand. So, today the milk is sourced from cows at the Agricultural
University of Norway. Melissa has retired, and is living a life of luxury
grazing on the fields around Solheim.
Inger has acquired two additional production facilities in the West
of Norway. The high-quality production facilities for handmade cheese
at Solheim have expanded within the strict requirem ents o f the
Norwegian Food Control Authority. The Blind Cow is one of the few
cheese producers in Norway authorized to export cheese within the EU
and other countries.
In addition to meeting the governmental standards set for Norwegian
cheese production, several of the cheeses from The Blind Cow carry the
quality label “Norwegian Specialty”. The quality label is awarded to
Norwegian specialty products of outstanding quality combined with
a unique story.
This story is important for two main reasons. The future of Norwegian
agriculture and agricultural industry is threatened by the globalization
of trade through the WTO negotiations. It is very important to find
niche products and activities for Norwegian agricultural industry to
survive. The Blind Cow is indeed a positive contribution to Norwegian
agricultural production.
Secondly, The Blind Cow is a good example of prosperous small-
medium business. It is generally accepted that small and medium
business is very important for the robustness of a country’s economy.
In Western Europe small and medium business constitutes some 67 per
cent of the economy, in the US 50 per cent, and in Russia only 20 per
cent.
b) Think and answer:
1. Which type of farm enterprises is dominating in Russia now?
2. How can farm management be improved in Russia?
3. Which type of management may be the most suitable one for the
Russian agricultural sector?
 REVISION TEST 3

1. Укажите предложения, при перепаде которых нужно употребить

слово который.
a) То manufacture some kinds of glue, paints, and plastics one can
use the protein casein obtained from cow’s milk.
b) Goats to be bred for milk and wool were first domesticated in the
same region as sheep.
c) The term concentrated milks” refers to those products from
which sufficient water is removed.
d) Scientists have found certain genes inherited by heifer calves to
affect future milk yields.
e) Firstly, the whole milk to be used for making butter is to be
separated.
2. Выберите правильный перевод следующего английского предло­
жения:
The demand for lean is said to have increased in recent years.
a) Говорили, что спрос на постное мясо увеличился в послед­
ние годы.
b) Спрос на постное мясо, как говорили, увеличивается в по­
следние годы.
c) Спрос на постное мясо, как говорят, увеличился в после­
дние годы.
d) Спрос на постное мясо, как говорят, увеличивается в по­
следние годы.
e) Говорят, что спрос на постное мясо увеличился в последние
годы.
3. Укажите, в каких предложениях при переводе следует употре­
бить частицу бы.
a) Provided livestock records were organized in the table form, it
would save time in preparing various financial statements or for
other purposes.
b) It would not have been possible to calculate accurately the profit
for each livestock farm, incomes for $100 of feed fed or other
measures of efficiency, unless feed records had been kept properly
on a weekly basis.
c) If heifers or gilts are to be transferred from the group of market live­
stock to the breeding livestock, additional records should be kept.

355
I
 d) Young piglets may gain rapidly and reach the market faster
provided they are supplied with the required feeds and properfcare.
e) If a farmer were provided with the necessary information concerning
feeds, equipment, farm implements, one could expect him to
make proper management decisions.
4. Выберите правильную форму герундия в предложении.
The shelf life of dried milk products was extended due to their ... to
less than four per cent moisture.
a) drying b) being dried c) having dried d) having been dried
5. Выберите правильное окончание предложения.
Unless non-ruminants were fed diets rich in unsaturated fats, the fat
accumulated in their muscles...
a) would be higher in unsaturated fatty acids.
b) would not be higher in unsaturated fatty acids.
c) would have been higher in unsaturated fatty acids.
d) would not have been higher in unsaturated fatty acids.
e) could not be higher in unsaturated fatty acids.
6. Укажите предложения, при переводе которых нужно употребить
причем или при этом.
a) Animals being bred for different purposes, various types of forms
may be used for breeding records emphasizing either the animal
productivity or the breeding value.
b) The planning process having been completed, the farmer was able
to choose the best alternative and put it into operation.
c) The statement of cash flows represents the sources and the use of
the farm funds for operating activities, the data about additional
financial support being included in it as well.
d) The income is considered to be the difference between the profit
and the costs, the income being calculated for a definite time
interval, usually a year.
e) The farmer having limited amount of capital to start business, the
land leasing may be of special interest to him.
7. Укажите предложения, при переводе которых нужно употребить
вероятно.
a) Beekeeping is likely to have been practised in Armenia and
Georgia in ancient times.
b) Honeybees like other insects play an im portant role in cross
pollination, thus increasing yields of crops, fruit and vegetables.
c) It is likely that propolis possessing bactericidal properties may be
more widely used in human and veterinary medicine.

356
 is not likely to be highly
profitable as it is a seasonal activity.
e) The bee-killer wasp is like a wasp, but with a bigger head and
a more yellow abdomen.
8. Выберите правильный перевод следующего русского предложения:
Если лошадь используется для скачек, то она должна быть ог­
раничена в потреблении грубых кормов.
a) If used for racing, the horse should be restricted in consuming
roughages.
b) If the horse would be used for racing, it should be restricted in
consuming roughages.
c) The horse being used for racing, it should be restricted in
consuming roughages.
d) If the horse is to be used for racing, it should be restricted in
consuming roughages.
e) The horse having been used for racing, it was restricted in
consuming roughages.
9. Укажите предложения, при переводе которых нужно употребить
союз чтобы.
a) То own an apiary may be of practical interest for small individual
farmers thinking of additional sources of income.
b) To keep farm records accurately is of great importance both for
family-owned farms and large farm enterprises.
c) The produced meat was not juicy, tender and lean enough to be
graded as the first-class meat.
d) The quantity of harmless bacteria added was not sufficient enough
to prevent milk from spoilage.
e) To produce comb foundation for apiaries, special factories process
about three quarters of the beeswax obtained from honeybees.
10. Выберите правильную форму инфинитива в предложении.
Due to water pollution and as a result of overfishing, the number of
some species of fish and crustacean is supposed ... in the seas and oceans
at present.
a) to have decreased b) to be decreasing c) to be decreased
d) to decrease e) to have been decreased
11. Укажите предложения, в которых one не переводится.
a) One can protect milk from contamination and spoilage while
shipping it to consumers by using modem processing technologies
and packaging equipment.
b) The ability of mammary glands to secrete milk is sure to be one
of the greatest natural wonders in the world.

357
 c) The milk produced by cows kept in confinement and the one
obtained from grazing cows will vary in the amount of main nutrients.
d) To maintain the fat and the protein percentage at the same level,
one should milk cows at 12-hour intervals.
e) To avoid milk fever during the first few days after calving, one
must not feed high-producing cows too much and leave some milk
in the udder after milking.
12. Укажите, в каких предложениях инфинитив переводится на рус­
ский язык глаголом в прошедшем времени.
a) The Meat and Livestock Commission is sure to be promoting the
sale of British meat to other foreign countries.
b) Cheese-making has been found to depend mainly on the coagulation
of casein from milk.
c) Land leasing seems to have certain advantages as well as disadvantages.
d) First pearls are known to have been cultivated in Japan in 1893
and since that time pearl farming has been one of the most famous
industries in this country.
e) The low yield of honey seems to have resulted from the spreading
of an infectious bee disease.
13. Выберите правильную форму причастия в предложении.
... several hundred thousand eggs, the European carp does not
provide any protection to them neither by building a nest nor by guarding
them against predators.
a) Having produced b) Producing c) Produced
d) Being produced e) Having been produced
14. Укажите, в каких предложениях нужно употребить unless.
a) ... the milking machines had been used properly, it would have
done much damage to the tissues of the cow’s teats.
b) ... the water temperature is not suitable, the spawning activity of
some fish species will not be initiated.
c) ... all farm products are not sold it is impossible to calculate the
net income per year.
d) ... cows are grazed or fed green forage, the colour o f butter
obtained from their milk will be deep yellow.
... calves reach the desirable weight, it is not profitable to market
them for veal
 VOCABULARY

Условные сокращения
а — adjective — имя прилагательное
adv — adverb — наречие
Ат Е — American English
ant — antonym — антоним
Br E — British English
cj — conjunction — союз
corr cj — correlative conjunction — парный союз
n — noun — имя существительное
p i — plural — множественное число
phr prep — phrase preposition — составной предлог
prep — preposition — предлог
pron — pronoun — местоимение
syn — synonym — синоним
v — verb — глагол
В квадратных скобках дается номер урока, в котором данное слово вклю­
чено в словарный минимум.

А account [s'kaunt] п [2] внимание

ability [әЪіІШ]* п [10] способность,
возможность (делать что-л.)
abundance (of smth) [skndansj n [8]
изобилие, избыток (чего-л.); to be
in ~ иметься в изобилии
abundant [s'bAndont] a [10] обильный,
богатый
accelerate [dk'setareit] v [15] уско­
ряться), убыстрять
accomplish [әЧсотрІі/] и [15] выпол­
нять; достигать; завершать
accordance [a’koidsns] п [5] соответ­
ствие; in ~ with smth в соответ­
ствии с чем-л.; согласно чему-л.
according (to) [ә'кэхіід] phr prep [4]
в соответствии с, согласно
(к чему-л.); принятие в расчет
(чего-л.); to take into ~ прини­
мать во внимание
account (for smth) [s'kaunt] и [10]
объяснять; вызывать (что-л.),
приводить к чему-л., служить
причиной (чего-л.); составлять,
доходить до (какой-л. величины)
accurate ['aefcjurot] а [17] точный,
правильный; тщательный
accurately ['aekjuritli] adv [17] точно,
правильно; тщательно; безошибочно
achieve [3*tfl:v] и [11] добиваться,
достигать, успешно выполнять
acid ['aesid] п [3] кислота; amino ~
аминокислота; fatty ~ кислота
жирного ряда; saturated fatty ~s

* Для правильного произношения слов можно использовать озвученный сло­

варь, который имеется в составе энциклопедии Microsoft Encarta, 2006, и сло­
варь Lingvo 11, ABBYY, 2005.

359
I
 насыщенные жирные кислоты;
unsaturated fatty ~s ненасыщен­
ные жирные кислоты
actual [’sektfual] а [5] фактический,
реальный, действующий
addition te'difn] п [10] добавление,
дополнение, прибавление, phr prep
in - to вдобавок, в дополнение к,
кроме того, к тому же
additional [ә^і/(ә)п1] а [1] дополни­
тельный, добавочный
advance [ad'vains] п [17] успех, про­
гресс, достижение; technological ~
технический прогресс
advance и [7] продвигать; содейство­
вать, способствовать
advanced [adVamst] а [11] современ­
ный, передовой, развитой
advantage [sdVamticfc] п [5] преиму­
щество; превосходство; выгода,
польза; to be at an ~ иметь пре­
имущество; находиться в выиг­
рышном положении
affect (smb/smth) [a'fekt] v [3] влиять,
воздействовать (на кого-л./что-л.)
age [eicfe] п [8] возраст
ageing ['eicfcig] п [15] выдержка, со­
зревание (сыра, мяса)
agriculture [,ждп|клИ|э] п [1] сельс­
кое хозяйство; syn farming
agricultural [.эедп'клИГэгэ!] а [1] сель­
скохозяйственный
ailment ['eilmant] п [7] болезнь, забо­
левание; нездоровье, недомогание
alike [a'laik] [14] а одинаковый; иден­
тичный, подобный, похожий; adv
точно так же, подобно, одинаково,
идентично; to be ~ in smth быть
похожим в чем-л.
allow (smb to do smth) [э'1аи] и [8]
позволять, разрешать (кому-л. де­
лать что-л.); to be ~ed to do smth
иметь разрешение делать что-л.
along (with) adv [5] вместе, наряду с
already [o:l'redi] adv [1] уже
amino acid [э,ші:пәи 'aesid] n [3] ами­
нокислота
amount [s'maunt] n [4] количество; ве­
личина; сумма, объем; syn quantity
analyse ['aenalaiz] (Am E analyze) v
[2] анализировать, исследовать
360
analysis [a'naetasis] n (pi analyses
[s'naebsiiz]) [2] анализ, изучйше,
исследование
ancestor ['aensesta] n [5] прародитель,
предок
animal husbandry [.aemml 'hAzbandri]
n [1] животноводство; syn animal
farming
animal scientist n [1] ученый в об­
ласти животноводства
annual ['aenjual] a [8] ежегодный
annually adv [8] ежегодно; syn yearly
any ['em] a , pron [1] какой-нибудь;
сколько-нибудь; любой
apiary ['еіріәп] n [ 14] пасека; syn
bee-garden
apiarist ['eipianst] n [14] пасечник,
пчеловод; syn apiculturist
apiculture ['eipi.kAltfa] n [14] пчело­
водство; syn beekeeping
appear [э'рю] v [14] показываться;
появляться
appearance [э'рюгэш] л [5] внешний
вид, наружность
application [.aepli'keijn] п [2,5] примене­
ние, использование, употребление;
применимость; внесение (удобрений)
applied [.aplaid] а [6] практический,
прикладной; ~ area прикладная
область знаний
apply (smth to smth) [a'plai] v [2, 5]
применять, использовать, внед­
рять (метод, систему, правило ,
закон и т.п.); syn to use,
to introduce; найти практическое
применение; применять, вносить
(удобрения , ядохимикаты , навоз ,
органические вещества в почву)
approach (to smth) [a'prautf] п [2]
подход (к решению проблемы)
approximately [a'proksimstli] adv [11]
около, приблизительно
aquaculture ['sekwa.kAltfa] п [13] аква­
культура или акви культур а; мари-
культура; разведение морских жи­
вотных и растений в естественных
условиях; syn aquiculture
aquaculturist п [13] специалист по
аквакультурам
aquatic [o'kwaetik] а [13] водный, во­
дяной; ~ plants водяные растения
 arm la;mj n [12] плечо (у лошади
чаётъ передней ноги)
artificial [Kti'fifl] а [5] искусственный
as pron [1, 3] cj так как; как (вводит
прид. предл.); по мере того как;
such as такой как, the same as
такой же как; adv как (например);
в качестве; as to/as for что каса­
ется; as well так же, тоже; as well
as так же, как и; as ... as corr cj
такой же ... как, так же ... как; not
so ... as не такой ... как; as ... as
possible как можно ...
asset [‘aeset] п [17] средство, имуще­
ство, капитал; (часто pi) активы,
фонды
assume [s'sjuimj и [13] допускать,
предполагать; syn to suppose
availability [э.үеіІәЪіііи] n [8] присут­
ствие, наличие; полезность
available [aVeibbl] а [3] наличный,
имеющийся в распоряжении; ~ to
smb доступный (кому-л.)
average ['aevancfc] а [5] средний; [8]
on ~ в среднем
avoid [aVoid] и [12] избегать
aware (of smth) [эЧуеэ] a [16] знаю­
щий, осведомленный (о чем-л.)
В сверх того, более того; syn
back [baek] я [11] спина, спинка; ~
of neck загривок
bacon [Ъеікәп] п [9] бекон, копченая
свиная грудинка
baconer [Ъеікпэ] п [9] свинья бекон­
ного типа
band [baend] п [10] стая, стадо, syn
flock, herd
banian hospital [Ъаепіәп] лі [7] вете­
ринарная лечебница, пункт вете­
ринарной помощи
barley f'bcdi] п [4] ячмень
basis fbeisis] (pi bases [’beisfcz]) n [2]
базис, основа; основной компо­
нент; основополагающий прин­
цип - •*" : ^ ft
battery fbaetsn] п [11] клеточная ба­
тарея, laying ~ клеточная батарея
для несушек
beak [bi:k] п [11] клюв syn bill
bear [Ьеэ] (bore [bo:], borne [bo:n]) и
[10] рождать, производить на свет
bedding ['bedir)] п [9] подстилка для
скота
bee п [14] пчела; queen ~ пчелиная
матка; worker —рабочая пчела;
cluster -/sw arm of - пчелиный
рой; colony - пчелиная семья; syn
honeybee
beekeeper [ЪҚкірә] п [ 14] пасечник,
пчеловод; syn apiarist
beekeeping ['bi:tki:pig] n [14] пчело­
водство; syn apiculture
beeswax ['bi.z.waeks] n [14] воск
beef [’buf] n [8] бык, корова, буйвол
(взрослые — в отличие от молод­
няка)', корова, бычок (откормлен­
ный на убой); [8, 16] говядина;
[ 1] —cattle мясной скот
beet [bL*t] п [4] свёкла; sugar - са­
харная свёкла
behaviour [bi'heivjo] п [6] поведение
behavioural [bi'heivjarol] а [6] пове­
денческий
believe [bi'lirv] v [13] верить; думать,
полагать
belong (to) [bi'loij] v [9] принадлежать
(кому-л.), относиться к (чему-л.)
besides [bi'saidz] adv [6] кроме того,
moreover, furthermore; prep
кроме, за исключением, исклю­
чая; syn except
birth [Ьә:Ө] п [8] рождение, появле­
ние на свет; - rate уровень рож­
даемости; ~ weight вес при рож­
дении; to give —to smb родить
boar [bo:] n [9] хряк
borrow (from smb) [Ъюгәіу] v [ 17] за­
имствовать, занимать, брать на
время (у кого-л.)
brackish fbraekifl а [13] соленый, со­
лоноватый
breakdown ['breikdaun] п [15] раз­
рушение, распад, разложение
breast [brest] я [11] грудь (у птиц,
животных); грудинка (часть
туши)
breed [brird] п [2] порода (скота,
птицы), сорт (растения); syn
stock, strain
361
t
breed (bred [bred], bred) v [1] раз­
множаться, плодиться (о расте­
ниях и животных); выводить,
разводить
breeder [Ъгігіә] я [1] тот, кто разво­
дит животных; horse ~ (horseman)
коневод; hog ~ (hogroan) свино­
вод
breeding [Ъпхкд] п [5] разведение,
размножение (животных, расте­
ний); [8] ~ condition заводская
кондиция; [8] ~ season период
размножения, случной период;
[5] —value племенная ценность
brisket fbnskit] я [8] грудинка
both ... and ... corr cj [1] и ... и;
к а к ... так и
bulky [Ълікі] а [4] большой, объеми­
стый; —feeds объемистые корма
bull [bul] п [8] бык; буйвол; —calf
бычок в возрасте до года
butter [Ъліэ] п [15] масло; whipped -
сбитое масло; rancid - прогорк­
лое масло
buttermilk [Ъліэпиік] п [15] пахта;
cultured ~ кисломолочный про­
дукт
by-product fbaijprockkt] п [4] побо­
чный продукт
С cereal а [4] зерновой, хлебный, зла­
cage [keicfc] п [11] клетка, клеть;
laying-battery ~ клетка или кле­
точная батарея для кур-несушек
cake [keik] п [4] жмых
calculate [‘kaelkjuleit] и [17] вычис­
лять; подсчитывать
calf (pi calves) [koif] n [8] теленок
(в возрасте до года); dairy
heifer —тёлочка молочной породы
calve [ka:v] и [8] отелиться, родить
детёныша
calver f'karvs] п [8] стельная корова;
syn pregnant cow
calving [kaiviij] n [8] отёл; ~ pen от­
деление/стойло для отёла
canning ['kaemg] n [16] консервиро­
вание; syn preserving
capable (of smth) ['кеірәЬІ] a [14]
способный; квалифицированный
362
capon [Чсеірәп] n [11] каплун, кастри­
рованный самец
capture [‘kaeptfs] n [13] поимка,
добыча
capture v [13] захватить, поймать
carcass ['kaikss] n [9] туша
carbohydrate [.kaba'haidreit] n [3]
углевод
carrier ['каепэ] n [7] мед. бациллоно­
ситель
case [keis] n [10] случай; обстоятель­
ство, факт; phr prep in ~ of в случае
cash [kaej] n [17] наличные деньги,
наличный расчет; ~ crop товарная
культура, ~ receipts поступления
наличных денег
catfish [*kaet,fij] п [13] сом
cattle ['kaetl] п [1] (pi без измен.;
употр. с гл. в ед. и мн. ч.) круп­
ный рогатый скот; beef ~ мясной
скот; dairy ~ молочный скот;
draft [draft] ~ тягловый (рабочий)
скот, [8] —breeder скотовод (Ат
Е cattleman)
cause (smth) [ko:z] v [6] быть при­
чиной, вызывать (что-л.); при­
чинять (что-л.)
cell [sel] п [2] клетка
cereal [Ъіәпәі] п [4] pi хлебный злак;
зерновые культуры
ковый (о растениях); cereal crop
зерновая культура
characteristic [.kaerekta'nstik] п [5] р!
характерная черта; (характерная,
типичная) особенность, свойство,
атрибут, качество, признак; syn
feature, trait
cheek n [12] щека, ганаш (у лошади)
cheese [tfi*z] п [15] сыр; hard ~ твер­
дый сыр; soft ~ мяг-кий сыр, не­
острый сыр; semisoft ~ не очень
острый сыр
chemical ['kemikl] а [2] химический
chest [tfest] п [12] грудная клетка
chill [tfil] v [15] охлаждать, замора­
живать (продукты в холодильнике
или на льду)
chilling ['tfvlir)] п [11] охлаждение
churn [tfa:n] v [15] сбивать масло
claw [kb:] /f [11] коготь
clinical [klinikl] a [7] клинический;
~ practice клиническая практика;
клинический опыт
coarse [ko:s] a [10J грубый, шерохо­
ватый
cockerel ['кок(ә)гэі) n [11] петушок
(в возрасте до 18 месяцев);
индюшонок (в возрасте до года)
colony ['kDbni] п [14] семья (пчел)
colostrum [кәіш ігәш ] п [8] молозиво
colt [kdult] п [12] жеребёнок (в возра­
сте от отъёма до четырёх лет)
comb [кэшп] п [11] гребень, гребе­
шок, хохолок (у петуха и других
птиц); single ~ простой/одиноч­
ны й гребень; rose ~ розовидный
гребень; реа ~ стручковидный
фебень; [14] пчелиные соты
commodity [кэ'тЫ эП ] п [17] часто
pi товар, продукт, предмет по­
требления
common [Тшшэп] а [8] обший, обык­
новенный; распространенный
community [ks'mjuinati] п [6] обще­
ство, сообщество; animal ~ сооб­
щество животных (зооценоз)
comparative [kam'p&ratrv] а [4] срав­
нительный, сопоставительный
comparatively [kam'paeratrvli] adv [9]
сравнительно; относительно;
syn relatively
compare [кэш'реэ] v [9] сравнивать,
~ with smth сравнивать, сопостав­
ляться с чем-л.; ~ to smth упо­
доблять чему-л; (as) compared
with/to [12] по сравнению с
comparison [кэт'раегкп] п [9] сопо­
ставление, сравнение; in ~ with
smth в сравнении с чем-л.
competitive [ksm'petitrv] а [ 17] кон­
курентный; конкурентоспособ­
ны й
complete [kdm'plirt] а [4] полный;
~ ration полный рацион
compose (smth) [kam'pauz) ег[3] со­
ставлять, формировать (обычно
в страдательном залоге) to be
composed of smth состоять из
чего-л.; syn to consist of
composition [.kompa'zi/n] n [4] струк­
тура, состав; смесь
compound [kDmpaund) n [ 3] соедине­
ние; смесь; состав
comprise (smth) [kam'praiz] v [3|
включать, заключать в себе, со­
держать (что-л.); syn to compose;
составлять, состоять из ( чего-л
о количестве чего-л./кого-л.)
concentrate ['krnsontreit] п [4] (обыкн.
pi) концентрат
concentrate (on smth) v [2] сосредо­
точиваться) (на чем-л.)
concern (smth) [kon'sain] v [6] ка­
саться, относиться; описывать;
затрагивать, касаться (чего-л.)
condition [kQn'di/n] п [6] состояние,
положение; условие; pi обстоя­
тельства, условия; under ...
conditions в ... условиях; on ~ that
при условии если
confinement [ksn'fainmant] п [6]
ограничение (свободы, простран­
ства и т.д.); (жив.) стойловое
содержание, содержание животных
в закрытом помещении, безвы-
гульное содержание (птиц);
in ~ при содержании в помещении
connect [ka'nekt] v [6] соединять(ся),
связывать(ся), сочетать
consequently ['konsikwsntli] adv [3] сле­
довательно; поэтому; в результате,
вследствие; syn therefore, hence, so
conservation [.kDnssVeifn] n [6] охра­
на, сохранение; защита
consider [kan'sida] v [2] рассматри­
вать, обсуждать; думать, полагать,
считать; принимать во внимание
consideration [kan.sida’reijn] п [9]
размышление, анализ; взгляд,
мнение; to take into ~ принимать
во внимание
consist (of smth) [kdn'sist] v [2, 3]
состоять (из чего-л.); содержать
(что-л.); составлять (из чего-л.):
syn to comprise
consume [kan'sjam] v [3] потреблять;
съедать, поглощать (о еде)
consumption [kdiVsAmpjnl п ( 11| по­
требление; расход
contain [kdn’tein] v [3| содержать в
себе, включать, иметь в своем
составе; вмещать
363
I
contaminate [ksniaemi.neit] и [ 14] за­
грязнять, отравлять; заражать,
инфицировать (в том числе
отравляющими и радиоактив­
ными веществами); syn to pollute
contamination [kan.taemi'neijn] n
[16] загрязнение, заражение
content ['kDntent] n [4] доля, процент,
содержание ( чего-л . в чем-л.)
contract ['tontraekt] v [7] заразиться,
заболеть; syn to catch; [17] to —for
doing smth заключать договор, со­
глашение о чем-л.
contrary ['tontrsn] п нечто противо­
положное; on the ~ [12] наоборот
contrast ['kuntraist] п различие; in ~
to [12] в отличие от
contribute (to smth) [кәпЧпЬіаі] и [9]
делать вклад (во что-л .); содей­
ствовать, способствовать (чему-л.)
coronet п [12] зоол. венчик, нижняя
часть бабки (у лошади)
cost [tost] п [ 17] цена, стоимость; pi
издержки, расходы; syn expenses
cowshed ['kaufed] n [8] коровник,
хлев; syn cow-house, cattle-shed
crayfish ['kreifiJl n [13] речной рак;
лангуст
cream [kri:m] n [ 15] сливки (густой
жирный верхний слой молока);
sour - сметана; whipping ~
(густые) сливки для взбивания
crest п [11] гребешок, хохолок, плю­
маж (у птиц); [12] гребень шеи
(у лошади)
crisis ['kraisis] (pi crises ['kraisi:z]) [6]
кризис; перелом
crop [krop] n [1] сельскохозяйствен­
ная культура (с.-х. растение)
crop farming n [1] растениеводство
cross [kros] n [5] помесь, гибрид; ги­
бридизация, скрещивание (пород)
croup [kru:p] п [12] зад, круп (лошади)
crustacean [krVsteiJn] п [13] ракооб­
разное
culling ['клііг)] п [11] отбор, браковка,
отбраковка, выбраковка
cultivate ['kivltrveit] и [1] обрабаты­
вать, возделывать
cultivation [.kAltiVeifn] п [6] обработ­
ка (почвы); культивация, воз­
364
делывание; ~ practices агротехни­
ческие приемы
culture ['k/dtfa] п [13] разведение (рыб,
устриц и т.п.), выращивание (ис­
кусственного жемчуга и т .п.);
salmon ~ разведение лососей
culture и [13] разводить (рыб, уст­
риц и т.п.)
cure (smb of smth) [kjuo] v [7] изле­
чивать, исцелять (от чего-л.); [16]
заготавливать, консервировать;
солить, сушить, вялить; to ~ bacon
солить бекон
curing ['kjuanr)] п [7] [16] лечение,
заживление (ран); syn treatment;
[16] консервирование, маринова­
ние, соление; syn preserving
curved [k3:vd] a [ 10] изогнутый, кривой
cut n [16] мясной отруб; shoulder ~
отруб лопаточной части, rib —
отруб реберной части
D
daily f'deili] а [8] ежедневный; каждо­
дневный, суточный
daily adv [8] ежедневно; syn per day,
a day
dairy ['desn] a [1] молочный; ~ cattle
молочный скот; [15] ~ farming мо­
лочное животноводство
dairyman [Уеэпшэп] n [15] работник
молочной промышленности (фер­
мы); владелец молочной фермы;
продавец молочных продуктов
dam [daem] п [8] матка (о животном ,
чаще о четвероногом млекопита­
ющем); ant sire
data ['deitd] n (pi от datum) [2] дан­
ные, сведения; информация
datum ['deitom] n [2] данная величи­
на, данное; исходный факт
deal (with smth/smb) [di:l] (dealt) v
[2] иметь дело (с чем-л./кем-л.)
debt [det] п [17] долг, задолженность,
обязательство; to fall/get/run into ~
влезть в долги, наделать долгов
decisive [di'saisrv] а [5] решающий,
имеющий решающее значение
decline [di'klain] и (11] уменьшаться,
идти на убыль; спадать
decrease (in smth) [*di:kri:s] n [5]
уменьшение, понижение, сниже­
ний (чего-л.)
decrease [dii'kxiis] v [5] уменыиать(ся),
убывать, снижаться, сокрашать(ся)
(о количестве, степени , размере)
deliberate [di'lib(d)r9t] а [ 12] хорошо
обдуманный, намеренный
deliver [di*livo] v [10) рожать, разре­
шаться от бремени, syn to bear,
to produce; [ 17] передавать; до­
ставлять, разносить; снабжать
demand (for smth) [di'mornd] n [9]
спрос (на что-л .); требование;
запрос; потребность; consumer ~
потребительский спрос; to be in
high (low) —пользоваться боль­
шим (маленьким) спросом; to
meet (smb’s.) ~s соответствовать
требованиям
depend (on/upon smth/smb) [di'pend]
v [2] зависеть (от чего-л./кого-л.);
обусловливаться
derive (from smth) [di'rarv] и [15] по­
лучать, извлекать; происходить,
устанавливать происхождение
descend [di'send] и [10] спускаться,
сходить; опускаться, снижаться;
происходить, вести род
desirable [di'zaisrabl] а [5] желатель­
ный, пригодный, подходящий
despite [di'spait] prep [ 13] несмотря на,
вопреки чему-л., syn in spite of
destroy [di'stroi] v [14] разрушать;
истреблять, уничтожать
destruction [di'str/vkjn] n [14] разру­
шение; уничтожение; истребление
determine [di't3:mm] v [4] опреде­
лять, устанавливать (с помощью
расчетов, рассуждений, проведе­
ния расследования); обусловли­
вать; определять
dewlap ['dju^laep] п [8] подгрудок
(у животных) (складка свисаю­
щей вокруг гортани кожи)
develop [diVetap] и \ 1] выводить
(сорт растений , породу живот­
ных); расти, развивать(ся) (о ра­
стениях и животных); разраба­
тывать, развивать, совершенство­
вать
development [di'vebpmant] п [3] раз­
витие, рост; разведение, выведе­
ние (растений и животных);
разработка, создание, улучшение,
совершенствование (машин,
технологий и т.п.)
devote (to smb/smth) f'drvaut] v [2] по­
свящать, уделять (время) (чему-л./
кому-л.)
dewclaw ['dju:kb:} я [8] копытце, ру­
диментарный палец
diet ['daiot] п [3] питание, пища; еда,
корм; диета, режим питания
differ ['difa] v [8] колебаться, варь­
ироваться (о качестве, количе­
стве чего-л.); разниться, разли­
чаться; to ~ in smth различаться,
отличаться чем-л.; to —from smb/
smth различаться, отличаться от
кого-л., чего-л.; to - from smb in
smth отличаться от кого-л. чем-л.
(iвнешностью, возрастом, взгля­
дами и т.д.); to - smth from smth
отличать, различать (одну вещь
от другой); to ~ from/with smb
about/on/over smth не согла­
шаться с кем-л. о чем-л.; иметь
другую точку зрения на что-л.;
syn to disagree
difference [‘difrans] n [2] разница;
несходство; отличие, различие;
несовпадение, разногласие, рас­
хождение (во взглядах, мнениях)
digest [dai'<feest] v [16] переваривать
(пищу); усваивать(ся)
digestible [dai'cfcestdbl] а [4] удобова­
римый, легко усваиваемый
digestion [dai'cfeestfn] п [16] пищеваре­
ние
direct [di'rekt, dai'rekt] а [17] прямой,
непосредственный; ant indirect
directly [di'rektli, dai'rektli] adv [17]
непосредственно, сразу (без по­
средников)
disadvantage [.disadVaintKfc] n [5] не­
достаток; невыгодное, неблаго­
приятное положение
disease [di'ziiz] п [7] заболевание, бо­
лезнь
disorder [dis'oidd] п [7] заболевание,
недомогание; нарушение, расстрой-
365
\
 стройство (какой-л. функции ор­
ганизма)
disappear [.disa'pia] v (14] исчезнуть
(перестать существовать)
distinctive [dis'tnjktiv] а [12] отличи­
тельный, характерный; особен­
ный, особый; —feature отличи­
тельная черта
distinguish (smth from smth)
[dis'tirjgwiJ] и [8] выделять, отли­
чать, различать (одну вещь от
другой); ~ between things прово­
дить различие между двумя вещами
distinguished (for smth) [dis*tir)gwijt]
a [12] выдающийся, знаменитый,
известный, прославленный (чем-л.)
distribute [dis'tnbja't] и [9] распреде­
лять; распространять
distribution (.distn'bjur/n] п [8] рас­
пространение; распределение
disturbance [dist3:tons] п (7] нару­
шение; расстройство; дисфунк­
ция, патологическое отклонение
diversity [daiVarsiti ] я [11] разнооб­
разие; многообразие; syn variety
divide (m/into) [diVaid] v (2| отде­
ляться), делить(ся), распреде­
ляться, разъелинять(ся); подразде­
лять; делить (на)
domestic [da'mestik] а \ \] домашний,
прирученный (о животных)
domesticate [dd'mestikeit] v |1 | при­
ручать, одомашнивать (животных)
domesticated (dd.mesti'keitid) a |l |
прирученный, одомашненный
domestication [da.mesti'keifn] п |l |
приручение, одомашнивание (жи­
вотных)
down [daun] /2 (11) пух; (первый) Пу-
draft (draft) п (1) (Ат Е) тягловый;
— cattle тягловый скот
drone [drawnj п (14) трутень (в пче­
лином улье)
dual-purpose ['djiral.parpas] а [8] двух­
целевой; двойного назначения;
*• cattle мясо-молочный скот
due (djurj [9] а надлежащий, соответ­
ствующий; prep ~~ to вследствие,
благодаря; v to be ~ to объяснять­
ся, обусловливаться
366
duck [dvk] п [ II ] утка; Muscovy ~ мус­
кусная утка (американская группа)
Е
ear (іә) п (11] ухо, ушная раковина;
inner/internal - внутреннее ухо;
outer —наружное ухо
ear-lobe ('іәІәиЬ] п [11] мочка уха;
наружное ухо
earn (one’s living) |з:п] v (14] за­
рабатывать на жизнь; получать
доход
economic [.Lka'nomik] а (17] эконо­
мический, экономически выгод­
ный, рентабельный
economical [,ккэ‘пошхк1] а [17] бе­
режливый, расчетливый; эконо­
мичный; экономный; ant
uneconomical
economics [,i:ka'nmmks] n [17] эконо­
мическая наука, экономика;
agricultural ~ экономика сельско­
го хозяйства
edible (‘edibl] а (9) съедобный
egg [eg] л | 11] яйцо, ~ -laying яйце­
кладка, период яйцекладки,
--laying hen курица-несушка,
~ gathering сбор яиц, —yolk жел­
ток яйца
either ... or ... corr cj 111 или ... или;
либо... либо... 4 *
elbow |'еІЬәи| п (12] локоть
eliminate [riimineit] и (7| устранять,
исключать; уничтожать
emphasis ['emfasis) п (6] (pi emphases
I'emfasiizl) акцент, ударение;
to put/place ~ on smth придавать
особое значение чему-л., делать
акцент на чем-л.
employ (irrVpbi] и (12] предоставлять
работу, нанимать; применять, ис­
пользовать
enable (smb to do smth) (I'neibl) v |3]
давать возможность или право
(кому-л. сделать что-л .), позво­
лять (кому-л . сделать что-л.)
enclosure [т'к1әщә] п [ 13] огоро­
женное место, загон
encourage |іп'клгіс&| и [13| ободрять;
поощрять, поддерживать (в чем-л.)
endurance [in'djuarsns] n [12] вынос­
ливость, способность переносить
{боль, страдание и т.п.)
enrich [in'ritf] v [15] обогащать(ся),
улучшать(ся); syn to fortify
ensure [in'Ju:] v [3] обеспечивать,
гарантировать
enterprise ['ent^praiz] л [8] промыш­
ленное предприятие
environment [in'vairsn.msnt] n [6]
окружение, окружающая обста­
новка; окружающая среда
environmental [in,vair9n'mentl] а [6]
относящийся к окружающей среде;
относящийся к борьбе с загрязне­
нием окружающей среды
equipment (for) [I'kwipmsnt] п [9]
оборудование; оснащение (для)
essential [I'senfl] о [3] обязательный,
необходимый, существенный,
важнейший; ~ amino acid неза­
менимая аминокислота; - fatty
acid незаменимая жирная кислота
eradicate [i‘raedikeit] v [7] искоре­
нять, истреблять; ~ disease унич­
тожить, искоренить болезнь
eradication [i.raedi'keijn] п [7] искоре­
нение, уничтожение, подавление
(о болезни)
establish [is'taeblij] v [5] основывать,
создавать, организовывать
estimate ['esti.meit] и [9] оценивать,
производить оценку, давать оценку
evaluate [iVaelju.eit] и [4] оценивать;
давать оценку, определять каче­
ство, важность
ewe fja:] п [10] овца; pregnant ~
суягная овцематка
examine [ig'zaemin] v [7] рассматри­
вать, осматривать; исследовать;
изучать; проверять (на какой-л.
предмет); мед. выслушивать,
осматривать; обследовать
exceed [ik'sird] и [13] превышать;
выходить за пределы
exception [ik'sep/n] п [10] исключение,
отклонение от нормы, несоответ­
ствие правилам; phr prep with the ~
of за исключением
excess [ik'ses] n [3] избыток,
излишек, излишнее количество
exercise ['ekss.saiz] n [8] моцион,
упражнение; to take ~ s совер­
шать моцион
exist [ig'zist] v [12| существовать;
иметься в природе, жить
expense [ik'spens] п [10, 17] затрата,
расход; pi затраты, издержки; phr
prep at the ~ of за счёт
extend [ik'stend] v [16] удлинять,
продлевать (срок хранения про­
дуктов); простирать(ся), тя­
нуться)
extent [iks'tent] п [5] степень, мера;
to some/certain ~ до некоторой
степени
eyelid [ai'lid] п [11) веко
F
fall [fo:l] (fell, fallen) v [5] падать, по­
нижаться
farming ['frcmir)] n [1] занятие сель­
ским хозяйством; земледелие
и животноводство; syn agriculture;
animal ~ животноводство; cattle ~
скотоводство; crop ~ растение­
водство; poultry - птицеводство
farrow [Таегэи] и [9] пороситься; при­
носить приплод
farrowing [Таегэадд] п [9] опорос; ~ реп
клеть для опороса
fat [faet] п [3] жир, сало; жир (класс
соединений)
fatten ['faetn] у [8] откармливать на
убой
fattening ['faetmr)] п [8] откорм, на­
гул (скота)
fatty acid п [3] кислота жирного ряда
(in) favour (of) phr prep [ 10] в пользу
feather [Тебэ] я [11] перо (у птиц);
saddle ~s поясничные перья;
hackle ~s перья шеи и гривы;
tail ~ рулевое перо; hard/cover ~s
кроющие/покровные перья;
flight ~ маховое перо
feature [Ті#ә] п [2] особенность, ха­
рактерная черта; деталь, признак,
свойство; syn characteristic;
pi особенности, черты (для обо­
значения каких-л. частей тела
или особенностей строения тела)
367
*
 feed [£bd] n [1] корм, фураж (обозна­
чает любые виды корма доступ­
ные для животных)
feeding [‘fLdirj] я [2] питание, кормле­
ние; ~ ration рацион кормления
feedlot ffbdtot) п [10] откормочная
площадка, загон для кормления
female ['fbneil] п [5] самка; матка
fertilization [гіз:іэ1аі zeifni « 16] вне­
сение удобрений; оплодотворе­
ние; (13] pond - внесение удоб­
рений в пруд для размножения
простейших; [ 14) опыление
fertility (fx'uliu) я [5] плодовитость^
способность к воспрои зведению
потомства; плодородие, изобилие
(в обмети животного и расти­
тельного мира)
fertilizer (/здэіаиэ) я ft] удобрение
fetlock я £12] путовый сустав
fibre [ТаіЬә} * И] клетчатка; [10] во­
локно
ГШу [Ytli] я 112) млюда* кобыла (* воз-
росте от отъёма до четырех лет )
Пя п {13] плавник {рыбы), ~ гщу а щ -
никовый луч; caudal * хвостовой
плавник; dorsal * спинной плав­
ник; шш1/ventral ~ брюшной ш -
ник pectoral ~ грудной плавни*
pelvic * анальный плавник
fine [lain] а (10) тонкий, -wool ш и­
кая шерсть Ж A h*
Л яеіем [Үвіппэ») я [ 10) тонкость,
высокое качество; чистота, бес*
приме снос гь ійһЧ іГ Ш*
finish {finifl v I lOj откармливать
в завершающий период, прида­
вать упитанность * щ гаігоіД г ^ [Ч
fishery fffjan] я [13| рыбная ловля,
рыболовство; рыбный промысел;
т е ш л о п ц рыбного промысла;
sport ^ спортивное рыболовство;
capture ~ аромысю ме рыболов­
ство
flavour fflefv?| я j 15) вкус, привкус;
artificial ~ неестественный вкус;
natural ~ естественный вкус; gym
ti^ c , аромат, saiuu; syn nmeil
flavouring [Псіуәпяі я (15] гфилрава.
специя. придание вкуса, запала
fleece ifibf п (Щ] руно, овечья шерсть
flesh (fie/l п ( 16) тело; сырое масо
{пища)
(in) flesh а ( 8) упитанный, мясистый:
ш high - хорошо упитанный» in
thin - плохо упитанный
flock Itlok] я (5, 8, 10, 11, 12} стая,
стадо; поголовье (птиц); отара
(овец); табун (лошадей)
foal (foul) я (12) жеребенок; filly -
кобылка
foaling [іәоіід) я [ 12] выжеребка
fodder [Тжіә] я (4) корм, грубый корм;
фураж (общий термин dm обозна­
чения корма для скот а , однако,
обычно относится к грубым кор­
мам. е частности включает соло­
му ы сено) . , . ы.илръ
food [tkd] л H i продовольствие, про­
дукты питания; пиша, питание;
еда; sytt foodstuff
food chain я (6) нишевая цель, цепь
питания ^
foot [fall (pi feet (fit)) я (11) ступня,
лапа (у мереи)
forage I'fontfe) я (4) корм, грубый
корм, фураж; syn fodder, feed,
^ crops кормовые культуры
forager I'forufed) я 110) потребитель
растений ,
forehead (land, fxhedj я (8, 12] лоб
forelock | fb:lpk} я |12] челка
(the) former [% т з | a (3) первый (hj
двух упомянутых ранее), преж­
ний, бывший
formerly (Татэк) adv (12) когда-то,
прежде, раньше, некогда
formulated а (13] разработанный,
изготовленный по рецептуре,
- feed репетированный корм,
комбикорм ' * ;-И,-
fortlfy (ТэліСшІ v 115) обогащать, по­
вышать питательную ценность; ви -
там и и и зировать (пищевые про*
дуктыУщ жуп enrich
fowl (feu!) я fllj домашняя птица
(обыкн, курица или петух; # США
также домашняя утка или ин­
дейка), мясо домашней птииы
freeze [friyj (froze (Гтам/), frozen
[Ггэигл]) о (15) замораживать;
ЧОрОіИТЬ ■ -■=V .
fresh a [13] пресный, свежий; ~ water
пресная вода; ~ product свежий
продукт
fry [frai] я [13] мелкая рыбешка;
мальки (особенно семги)
fryer [Тгаіә] я [11] (Ат Е) цыпле­
нок, годящийся для жарки; syn
broiler
furthermore [/з:дэ'тэ:] adv [3] к тому
же, кроме того, более того
G среда обитания
gain [gein] я [8] прирост, увеличение
массы животного; ~ rate норма
привеса; liveweight ~ прирост
живой массы; ~ in weight per head
прирост массы на одну голову;
to give ~ давать прирост массы
gain v [8] увеличиваться, прибавлять
в массе (о животном)
game [geim] я [16] дичь; wild ~ мясо
диких животных или птиц
gaskin я [12] голень (лошади); нога,
ляжка (коровы)
gelding ['geldir)] я [12] кастрирован­
ное животное, особенно мерин
general ['фепәгәі] а [2] распростра­
ненный, общепринятый, обычный;
in ~ обычно, вообще; в большин­
стве случаев
gilt [gilt] я [9] молодая племенная
свинья (до первого опороса), под­
свинок
goose [gus] (pi geese [gis]) я [11] гусь;
гусыня
grade [greid] я [15] степень; качество,
сорт; high —высший класс/сорт;
low ~ низкое качество
grading ['greidig] я [16] классифика­
ция, сортировка по качеству; оцен­
ка качества
grain ['grein] я [4] зерно
grazing ['greizio] я [1] выпас, пасть­
ба, содержание скота на пастби­
ще, на подножном корму; пастби­
ще, выгон
grow [дгэи] (grew [дги:], grown [дгэип])
v [1] произрастать (о растениях);
расти, вырастать (о растениях
и животных в естественных
условиях); syn to develop; (Br E)
выращивать, культивировать
(о растениях); syn to cultivate
growth ['дгэиӨ] я [3] рост, развитие
Н
habitat ['haebitaet] я [6] родина, место
распространения, ареал (живот­
ного, растения); естест-венная
среда; natural ~ естественная
hallux [’haeteks] я [11] задний палец
(у птиц ); первый палец задней
конечности (у животных)
ham [haem] я [16] ветчина, окорок
hand: [3] on the one ~ с одной сто­
роны; on the other ~ с другой
стороны
happen [Ъаерэп] v [14] случаться,
происходить; syn to occur, to take
place
hardiness ['tedrnas] я [10] выносли­
вость, крепость
hardy ['hcL’di] a [10] выносливый;
крепкий, здоровый (о животных),
морозоустойчивый, зимостойкий
(о растениях), зимующий на от­
крытом воздухе
harmful ['harmful] а [7] вредный,
опасный, губительный
harmless ['hamtas] а [16] безвредный,
безопасный
harvest ['haivist] я [13] улов (рыбы);
урожай; v вылавливать рыбу, со­
бирать улов; собирать урожай
hatch [haetf] и [11 ] высиживать
(цыплят); насиживать (яйца);
выводить (цыплят) искусственно;
syn to incubate; to ~ out вылуп­
ляться из яйца
hatched a [И] выведенный, выси­
женный, вылупившийся; newly -
суточный (о цыплятах)
hatching ['haetfir)] я [И] инкубирова­
ние, высиживание, выведение
(цыплят)
hay [hei] я [4] сено
heat [hit] я [111 тепло; отопительная
система, отопление
heat v [15] нагревать; подогревать
369
I
heifer [hefa] n [8] тёлка; ~ ca lf
тёлочка
hen n [И] курица; broody ~ наседка;
laying - курица-несушка
herbivorous [Һ зі Ъ іуэгэб ] a [1] траво­
ядный
herd [h3:d] n [5] стадо; гурт (крупно­
го рогатого скота); табун (ло­
шадей)
herdbook (herd-book) ['h3:dbuk] п [5]
с.-х. племенная книга; ~ cattle
чистопородный скот; скот,
занесенный в племенную книгу
heredity [ha'redati] п [5] наслед­
ственность
h ig h -q uality [.hai'kwDhti] а [3] высо­
кокачественный; ant p o o r-q uality
hindquarters [.haind'kwortaz] n (12]
задняя часть (туши)
hive [harv] n [14] улей; рой пчел; syn
beehive, cluster
hock n [12] скакательный сустав
hog [hog] n [9] (Br E) боров, (Am E)
свинья
hoof [hu:f| n [8, 12] копыто
hoofed a [8] копытный; even-toed ~
парнокопытный; syn cloven-hoofed
horn [ho:n] n [8] рог; hollow ~ s
полые; paired ~~s парные;
unbranched ~ s неразветвленные
horse n [12] лошадь, draft/heavy ~
тяжелоупряжная (рабочая) лошадь;
coach —упряжная лошадь; light ~
быстроаллюрная лошадь; q u a rte r/
ranch —лошадь ранчо, укрючная
(подседельная) лошадь; rid in g /
saddle ~ верховая лошадь
however [hau'eva] cj [1] однако, тем
не менее, несмотря на (э)то
humidity [hjur'midati] я [И] влажность;
влага
I риваемый
illness films] п [7] болезнь, заболева­
ние; нездоровье
imperishable [гт'реп/эЫ] а [10] проч­
ный, стойкий, непортящийся
implement fimplimant] п [17] инстру­
мент; орудие; syn tool; p i ~ s при­
надлежности; инвентарь
370
implement fimpli.mant] v [17] выпол­
нять, осуществлять; обеспечивать
выполнение
im portance (for/to sm b/sm th)
[im'pDrtns] n [2] важность, значи­
мость, значительность; значение
(для кого-л./чего-л.); syn sig n i­
fican ce; to be o f ~ быть важным,
иметь (большое) значение
im portant (for/to sm b/sm th)
[im'portnt] a [2] важный, значи­
тельный, существенный (для
ко го -лчего -л.); syn significant,
essential
impoundment [im'paundmnt] n [13]
водохранилище, пруд
improve [im'prav] v [1] улучшать(ся);
совершенствоваться)
improvement [im'pruivmant] n [4]
улучшение, усовершенствование
income fir)kAm] n [17] (периодический,
обыкн. годовой) доход, прибыль,
поступления; заработок; to earn
ап ~ зарабатывать; net - чистый
доход
include (smth in smth) [irikluid] i; [1, 3]
содержать, включать; заключать,
содержать в себе; включать (что-л.
в состав чего-л.); to be included
in smth включаться (во что-л.),
являться частью (чего-л.)
indirect [.indi'rekt] а [17] непрямой,
косвенный
indirectly [.indi'rektli] adv [17] непря­
мо, косвенно; опосредованно
increase (in smth) finkiis] n [5] уве­
личение, рост, возрастание, при­
рост (чего-л.); syn rise, raise
increase [in'kri:s] v [1] возрастать,
увеличивать
indigestible [.indi'cfcestabl] a [8]
неудобоваримый, трудно перева­
individual [.individual] a [5] индиви­
дуальный, личный, отдельный,
единственный; характерный, осо­
бенный; оригинальный
infection [in'fek/n] п [1] инфекция
(заражение организма болезне­
творными микробами); инфекци­
онное заболевание; болезнетвор-
 ные микроорганизмы, зараза; to
pass on/spread/transm lt (an) ~ раз­
носить, распространять инфекцию
infectious [in'fekfas] a [7] заразный,
инфекционный; вызванный ин­
фекцией (или) вызывающий ин­
фекцию
influence (smb/smth) [‘influansj v [1|
оказывать влияние, влиять
(на кого-л.I что-л.); syn to affect
inhabit [m'haebit] и [6] жить, насе­
лять, обитать; существовать
inherit (from smb) [m'herit] и [5] на­
следовать; унаследовать (от кого-л.)
inhibit (smb from sm th/doing smth)
[in'hibitj и [16] задерживать, подав­
лять, препятствовать, сдерживать
(кого-л. от чего-л.)
input ['input] п [17] вложение; инве­
стиция; вводимый ресурс; затраты
insem ination [in.semi'neijn] п [5]
оплодотворение, осеменение;
artificial - искусственное
оплодотворение/осеменение
instance ['instans] п [2] отдельный
пример, случай, образец; for ~
например; syn for example
interference (in smth) [.inta'fiarans] n
[6] вмешательство (во что-л.)
internal [in'tarnl] a [7] внутренний;
pi внутренние органы; —medicine
медицина внутренних органов
interrelation [.intan'leijn] п [6]
взаимоотношение, взаимосвязь,
отношения, соотношение;
syn interrelationship, relationship
interrelationship [.intan'leijanjip] n [6]
взаимоотношение, взаимосвязь
introduce (smth into/to smth)
[.intra'djuis] v [5] внедрять, вводить,
впервые начать использовать (но­
вый сорт, вид , породу); привозить
впервые куда-л. (растение, жи­
вотное, болезнь); вносить (удоб­
рения в почву)
introduction [.mtra'ckkfn] п [5] введе­
ние, внедрение (новых методов,
сортов и т.д.), включение
(в структуру, в состав чего-л.);
введение (внутрь чего-л.), внесе­
ние (удобрений)
invertebrate [in'v3:tibrat| п [13| бес­
позвоночное животное
investigate [mVesti.geit] v [2] изучать,
исследовать
involve (smb in smth) [in'vDlv) v [3|
включать в себя, содержать; to ~
smb in doing smth вовлекать кого-л./
что-л. во что-л.; привлекать к уча­
стию
J
jaw [cfeo:] п [8] челюсть; pi пасть, рот
judge (by, from smth) ['c&vcfe] о [5]
оценивать, судить (no чему-л.)
juiciness ['cfeuisinis] n [16] сочность
juvenile ['cfcirva.nail] a [13] молодой;
ювенильный, недоразвитый; ~ fish
мальки, молодь; ~ organism моло­
дой организм, молодая особь
К
kidney ['kidni] п [16] анат. почка
knee [ni:] п [8, 12] колено, коленный
сустав
л , l
labour ['leiba] п [ 1] труд; рабочая
сила
labourer ['ІеіЬәгә] п [ 17] неквалифици­
рованный рабочий; чернорабочий
lam b [1шт] п [10] ягнёнок, барашек;
[16] мясо молодого барашка; baby ~
ягненок-молочник; поярок;
spring ~ ягненок весеннего окота
lamb [teem] v [10] ягниться
lambing [Чаеппг)] n [10] окот овец,
ягнение
lameness ['lemmas] n [10] хромота
lard [laid] n [9] свиное сало, свиной жир
lateral line n [13] боковая линия
(у рыб)
(the) latter [4aeta] a [3] последний
(из двух названных ранее); ant
the former
lay [lei] (laid, laid [leid]) v [И] откла­
дывать яйца; нестись
layer ['lew] n [11] несушка (о птице,
несущей яйца); [15] слой; про­
слойка; cream ~ слой сливок
371
I
lean [li:n] n [16] постное мясо, пост­
ная часть мясной туши
lean [lfcn] а [9] нежирный, постный
(о мясе)
lease [ii:s] v [17] сдавать внаем, в арен­
ду; брать внаем, в аренду; syn to rent;
to - s m th /to sm b сдавать что-л.
кому-л. в аренду; to ~ sm th /fro m
smb арендовать что-л. у кого-л.
(at) least [li:st] [12] по крайней мере,
по меньшей мере
legume [legjirm] п [4] обыкн. pi боб;
стручковое растение; бобовые
level [levl] п [2] уровень; at some ~
при/на некотором уровне
liberal ['ІіЬэгәІ] а [8] обильный;
а — m eal обильная еда
liberally adv [8] обильно, в огромном
количестве
life span п [12] жизненный отрезок
like [laik] [14] а аналогичный, подоб­
ный, похожий; идентичный, оди­
наковый; adv подобно, так; prep
так; как что-л.; подобно чему-л.;
v любить, нравиться; to be —быть
похожим
likely ['laikli] [14] а вероятный, воз­
можный; syn probable; а годный,
подходящий; пригодный, приме­
нимый; syn suitable; adv вероятно
lip п [12] губа; the lower ~ нижняя
губа; the upper ~ верхняя губа
litter Щф] п 19] помёт, приплод
liquid ['likwid] п [15] жидкость
liver ['ііүә] п [16] (анат.) печень
livestock ['laiv.stok] п [ 1] домашний
скот; поголовье скота (общее коли­
чество каких-либо животных на
определенной территории; осо­
бенно на ферме); скот, живой ин­
вентарь (совокупность живот­
ных, особенно рассматриваю­
щихся в качестве актива , ис­
точника извлечения прибыли;
термин может относиться не
только к крупному или мелкому
рогатому скоту , но также и к
курам и другой домашней
птице); syn stock
lobster ['lobstd] n [13] омар
local ['taukl] a [6] местный
372
loss [Ids] n [7] потеря, утрата; убыток,
ущерб, потеря
lower (Іәиә] v [15] снижать(ся), умень­
ш аться), понижать(ся)
lung п [12] анат. легкое; pi легкие
М
m ain [mein] а [1] главный; важней­
ший, основной
m ainly [‘meinli] adv [1] главным об­
разом, в основном
m aintain [mein'tein] v [2] поддержи­
вать, сохранять, обслуживать; со­
держать в исправности
m aintenance ['meintanans] п [6] под­
держание; сохранение; содержание
и техническое обслуживание, уход;
текущий ремонт
m ajor ['meicfeo] а [7] более важный,
значительный
male [meil] п [5] самец
m am m al ['таетәі] п [1] млекопитаю­
щее
m anage ['maenicfc] v [17] содержать
(животных и птицу); обрабаты­
вать, возделывать (почву); руко­
водить, управлять (фермой, ком­
панией) руководить, управлять
management fmaemcfcmdnt] п [8, 17]
содержание (животных, птицы),
уход (за животными , птицей);
возделывание, обработка (почвы);
управление; руководство, органи­
зация производства
mane п [ 12] грива (у лошади)
manufacture [lmaenju,faektTd] v [3] про­
изводить, изготовлять (промыш­
ленным способом); делать, обра­
батывать, перерабатывать
manure [тэ'щиэ] п [1] навоз, компост,
удобрение
т а г е [теэ] п [12] кобыла (старше
четырёх лет , используемая в вос­
производстве конепоголовья);
brood/breeding - племенная ко­
была, конематка
mating fmeitir)] п [5] спаривание,
скрещивание
m atter ['maeta] п [4] вещество; dry ~
сухое вещество
mature [matjua] a [8) взрослый; зре­
лый (о животном), созревший,
спелый (о фрукте, злаке}; ant
im mature
meal [mid] n [4] мука крупного по­
мола; alfalfa ~ люцерновая мука;
barley ~ ячменная мука; bone ~
костная мука; саке - жмыховая
мука; corn gluten ~ кукурузная
глютеновая мука; oats ~ овсяная
мука
means [mi:nz] п [8] средство, сред­
ства (употребляется с глаголом
в ед. и во мн. ч.)
(by) means of phr prep [ 10] посред­
ством, при помощи
measure ['тезэ] п [4] мера, система
измерений; степень; мероприятие
measurement ['тезэтэш ] п [5] изме­
рение, замер; pi размеры
m eat-packing ['тҚрэекіг)] п [16]
(Ат Е) производство фасованно­
го или мороженого мяса
meaty [‘mLti] я [11] мясистый
medicine fmedsn] п [7] медицина,
терапия; clin ical - клиническая
медицина; internal —медицина
внутренних органов; preventive ~
профилактическая медицина
medium ['miidiam] а [10] средний;
промежуточный
mention (smth) ['menjn] v [9] упоми­
нать, ссылаться (на что-л.)
m erit [’merit] п [5] качество, показа­
тель; ценность, оценка
m ilk [milk] п [8, 15] молоко; skim -
снятое молоко; whole ~ цельное
молоко; condensed ~ сгущенное
молоко; dried ~ сухое молоко;
evaporated ~ обезвоженное, сгу­
щенное молоко без сахара; fresh ~
свежее молоко, ice ~ молочное
мороженое, low -fat ~ молоко
с низким содержанием жира,
pasteurized щ пастеризованное
молоко, powdered - сухое,
порошковое молоко, raw —сырое
молоко
m ilk wells п [8] молочные колодцы
moisture ['moistfa] п [4] влажность,
сырость; влага
moreover [тэ:(г)'эотэ] adv [3] сверх
того, кроме того; syn besides
most [maust] a [4] наибольший
n большинство, большая часть;
adv больше всего; усил. весьма
mouth [тәиӨ) п [13] рот
much п \4) многое, большое количе­
ство; adv (при сравнительной сте­
пени) гораздо, значительно
mutton ['тліп] п [10) баранина
muzzle ['nuzl] п [8] рыло, морда
(у животных)
N
neither... nor... corr cj [1] ни... ни
necessary ['nesasan] a [2] необходи­
мый, нужный
necessity [na'sesati] n [12] необходи­
мость, настоятельная потребность;
требование (чего-л.); pi предметы
первой необходимости
negotiate (on) [ni'gaujieit] v [ 17] вести
переговоры, договариваться
(о чем-л.)\ обсуждать условия
nevertheless [,neva6a'les] [6] cj тем не
менее, однако, несмотря на
non-essential [.noni'senjl] а [3] заме­
нимый; ~ amino acid заменимая
аминокислота; ~ fatty acid заме­
нимая жирная кислота
nostril ['nustral] п [12] ноздря; wide ~
широкая ноздря
note [naut] v [10] замечать, обращать
внимание; noted for smth знаме­
нитый, известный, славящийся
(чем-л.)
notice f'nautis] v [7] замечать, обра­
щать внимание; быть видимым;
быть заметным; предупреждать
notifiable ['nautifaiabl] а [7] подлежа­
щий регистрации; - disease бо­
лезнь, подлежащая регистрации
nowadays ['naua.deiz] adv [1] в наше
время, в наши дни, теперь
number fiumba] п [4] число, количе­
ство; номер; цифра, сумма; э ~ of
некоторое количество, ряд
numerous ['njuimaras] а [11] много­
численный, множественный
nutrient fnjiunant] п [3] спец. тер­
мин питательное вещество
373
nutrition [njirtn/n] n [3] с.-х. обес­
печение животных {растений)
питательными веществами: пи­
тание; пиша; animal - питание
животных
nutritional [пдеЧп/әпі ) a |3) относя­
щийся к питанию: пищевой, пита­
тельный; syn nutritive; — value
питательная ценность
nutritive [fnjiLtnt!v| a |3) питательный;
пищевой * =?Й^ййс і шфвЩ
oats (guts) п [4] обыкн. pi овёс
objective [abcfeektiv] a [$] объектив­
ный; действительный, реальный;
объективный; ап ~ study объек­
тивное исследование
objectively (ab'ifcektivh) adv |5| объек­
тивно; беспристрастно
obtain |әМеіп| v |4 |получать, доста­
вать, приобретать
occur [Лъ:\ v (12) происходить, слу­
чаться, совершаться; встречаться
offspring (£r>fspriQ| п |2 | отпрыск, по­
томок
omnivorous |отш \эгәі) а |9) всеяд­
ный; всепоглощающий
operculum [о'рз:kjoiо т | п (13) жабер­
ная крышка; syn gill cover
opportunity І.орә tjtcmti | n |I7| благо­
приятный случай, возможность;
to tali* an - воспользоваться
стечением обстоятельств
(in) order Ito) (2| для того, чтобы
origin (’ш ф п ) и (2) происхождение
originate (from smb/smth} [ә'пф>і,пег!|
v 121 давать начало, порождать;
со-ідаватъ, брать начало, проис­
ходить. возникать (от кого-л J
Ч Ф Ш Ш J . ) -г - - , - -
outbreak |'ambretk| н |7 | вспышка;
внезапное появление, начало;
- of disease вспышка болезни
overfishing п [ 131 перелов (рыбы),
истощение рыбных запасов
own |доп| а | I7J свой, собственный
own v (17) владеть; иметь, обладать
owner |эипэ| п (17) владелец; соб­
ственник, хозяин
374
ownership (‘эипә/ірі я 117) собствен­
ность; владение, имущество; право
собственности; private - частная
собственность
ox (Bks) {pi oxen ['akssnj) н (8) вол
{кастрированный бык старше
трёх лет): всякий представитель
семейства быков: буйвол, бизон
и т.п.; pi {собир, сущ.) рогатый скот
oyster (taste) п 113) устрица
- -чі • ******
о paddock ('рдеіәк) п (8) выгул, загон;
огороженный участок земли
palatable (‘ржЫэЫ) а [4] аппетитный,
вкусный
partial ГрсқЛІ а |15| частичный, не­
полный; частный
partially adv j 15} немного, частично
particular |рә1ікіиІә| а |2) конкрет­
ный, частный, отдельный, особый;
in - в особенности, в частности
particularly |рэ1ікд>Іәһ) adv |2| очень,
чреівычайно; особенно, особым
образом; детально, подробно
pastern {'p<estern| п 112} бабка, путо
(надкопытп ый сустав ноги у жи ­
вотных)
pedigree f'pedKjri:) п |5| генеалогия,
происхождение, родословная
pedigree а |5| племенной, породи­
стый (о скоте): - cattle племен­
ной скот; селекционный, элитный
(о семенах) '-п ш
pelt fpelt) п 110) шкура; кожа; не вы-
деланная шкура животного (особ,
овцы или козы)
реп п |9| клетка, секция, бокс, гнез­
до. небольшой загон (для скота .
птицы), (ft) c a b in * - за гои для
. ' = Г : отёла; |9| farrowing —станок/
клеть для опороса; (10| lam bing ~
мгои для ягнения; sheep "• ов-
чария '
per fр а:| prep f5. t | за, на. в, с (каж-
rkh*o)\ (ука ihumem на коиіичество,
приходящееся на определенную
единицу): - year *а гоя; f 111
—capita/ head на человека/на
душу населения
perform [рэТэяп] v (12] исполнять,
выполнять, делать, совершать;
спорт, выступать
performance [ps'fD'.mans) п [5] испол­
нение, выполнение; продуктив­
ность, производительность;
проявление (нрава, характера );
production ~ продуктивность;
reproductive - репродуктивная
способность
period [’ріәгіәё] п [8] период, фаза;
dry ~ сухостойный период;
gestation - период беременности
perishable ['реп/эЫ] а [10) скоро­
портящийся ( продукт ); ant
im perishable
permanent [‘рз.тэпэпг] а [8] постоян­
ны й, долговременный; ~ pasture
постоянное пастбище
pig breeding п [9] свиноводство; syn
swine breeding, hog breeding
piggery ['рідәп] n [9] свинарник,
хлев; syn pigsty
piglet fpigbt] n [9] поросенок
pigsty ['pig.stai] n [9] свинарник, хлев
poison f'poizn] v [14] отравлять; за­
ражать
poll n [12] затылок, макушка
pollen J'pobn] n [14] пыльца
pollinate ['pob.neit] v [14] опылять
pollination [.pDb'neiJn] n [14] опыление
pollinator ['poh.neita] n [14] опылитель
pollutant [palirtant] n [6] загрязняю­
щий агент
pollution [рэ'1и:/п] n [6] загрязнение
pond [pond] n [13] пруд; искусствен­
ный водоем, бассейн, запруда; са­
док (для разведения рыбы)
pork [park] п [9, 16] свинина
porker ['рэ:кэ] п [9] сальная свинья
possibility [.ргаәЪіІПі] п [ 17] вероят­
ность, возможность
poultry fpaultn] п [1, 11] собир. до­
машняя птица; ~ farming птице­
водство; [ 11 ] ~ house птичник;
table ~ птица, откормленная для
стола, мясная птица
poultryman л [11] (Ат Е) птицевод,
( Br Е) syn poutry breeder
predict [pn'dikt] v [И ] предсказывать;
прогнозировать
pregnant [’pregnant] a [8] беременная;
~ cow стельная корова; [9] -s o w /
swine супоросная свинья; [ 101
~ ewe суягная овца; [11] - mare
жерёбая кобыла
preservation [.prezaVeiJn] n [16] со­
хранение; консервирование; охра­
на, защита
preservative [pn'z3*.v3tiv] n [16] кон­
сервант
preserve [pn*z3:v] и [16] сохранять,
сберегать; to - wildlife охранять
дикую природу; хранить (овощи,
продукты ); заготовлять впрок;
консервиров ать
prevent [pnVent] v [7] предотвращать,
предупреждать; мешать, не допу­
скать; to - from smth оберегать от
чего-л.
prevention [pnVenfn] п [7] предотвра­
щение, предохранение, предуп­
реждение
preventive [pnVentiv] а [7] предупре­
дительный, предохранительный;
мед. профилактический;
~ m edicine профилактическая
медицина
price [prais] п [17] цена; at high/low
~ s по высоким/низким ценам;
~ fo r/o f a commodity цена на то­
вар, цена за товар; input ~ цена
вложений, цена основных средств
производства
prize [praiz] и [12] высоко ценить,
оценивать (по достоинству);
оценивать, производить оценку
process [‘prauses] v [4] обрабатывать,
перерабатывать
processing ['prausesig] п [4] обработ­
ка, переработка
productivity [.procLvk'tiviti] п [5] про­
изводительность, продуктивность;
syn performance
produce [pra'djus] и [1] производить,
вырабатывать
productive [pra'cLvktiv] а [17] про­
изводительный; продуктивный,
эффективный; ant unproductive
profit [‘profit] n [17] прибыль, доход
profitability [.profita'biliti] n [17] при­
быльность, рентабельность
375
I
 profitable ['pmfitsblj а [ Щ прибыль­
ны й. выгодный, рентабельный
profitably adv [17) выгодно; с выго­
дой, с прибылью; с пользой
progeny [pnx&imj п [5] потомство;
потомок
prohibit [prohibit] v [10] запрещать,
препятствовать, мешать; to —by
law запрещать законом
prolific [p rw lifikj а [9] плодовитый,
плодоносный (о животных. рас­
тениях); плодородный (о почве)
prolificacy (prwlifikd&i] п [9| плодо­
родность, продуктив ность, плодо­
витость; syn fertility
propagation Lpropogeijnj n [5| вос­
произведение, размножение; syn
reproduction
proper (ргорә) a [3] правильный,
надлежащий
property [ргорэи] n свойство, каче­
ство; отличительная черта, особен­
ность, (17| имущество; собствен­
ность, состояние, хозяйство
protein [ргэиил) п |3) белок, протеин
provide (smb with smth) [pravaid1 - |i)
1
обеспечить (кого-л. ч е м - л . syn.
to supply; to ~ smth for smb обес­
печить ко го -л. чем-л.
provided (that) Ipravaidid) cj {17) при
условии ( ш ) , если только; в том
случае, если . щі
Р«11 (put) v |12| тянуть, тащить; to ~
a ca rria g e /a load/a plow тащить
п о во ж у/гр уз/ плуг
pullet | puiit) п [11) молодая курица,
молодка (самtut птицы первого
года яйцекладки)
pupil п (13) зрачок
purchase [ рэ:$э*| v |4f покупать, за­
купать, приобретать
purebred ( pjoa^fed) а |5 | породистый,
чистокровный; чистосортный
purpose Грәрәв) п [5| цель, намере­
ние; prep for the ~~ of с целью
80
quality [ kwDiiti) * | 3) качество
quantity f kwrntm) n ()) количество;
syn amount
376
R
raceway ( reiswei) n [ 13j искусствен­
ный канал (для разведения рыб)
racing [!гешг>| п [12] состязание в ско­
рости; бега, скачки; flat ~ гладкие
скачки; harness - скачки на лоша­
дях, запряженных в легкие коляски
raise |reiz) и [1J (Am E) выращивать
(растения): разводить (птицу,
скот); ухаживать за молодняком
ram [raemj п 110) баран
rancid ('raen&ftdl а [16) прогорклый,
протухший (о жирах, лига}
rancidity (rsensiditi) п [16| прогорк­
лое гь; прогорклый запах/вкус; syn
rancidness
range [reiiKfeJ n [9| предел» размах,
диапазон; пастбище, выгон; j 10)
open - неогороженное пастбище
со свободным выпасом; syn free ~
range (from ... to) и |9) колебаться
в известных пределах
rank (подк) & 112) ценить, расцени*
вать, распадагать по рангу; коти-
роваі ься, занимать какое-л. место
rale (reitj п (8) доза, норма; скорость,
быстрота (как фи шческая характе­
ристика); темп; интенсивность,
birth ~ показатель рождаемости;
calving ** показатель отелов;
fattening ~ скорость откорм»;
growth скорость/темп роста
ration f гж|‘п) п (2| рай ион, норма;
feeding —рацион кормления
mw |пх) а (11сырой, необработанный;
~ materials сырье
reach |itg] v 18) достигать;
to ♦ a success достигать успеха
rear |гіә) v j I j ( Br E) выращивать
<растения ), разводить (скот);
ухаживать за молодыми животны­
ми; syn. to raise
reasonable |г»упэЫ| а |Ю| разумный,
рациональный; приемлемый, под­
ходящий; недорогой (о иене)
receipts (р!) fn‘№ttj п | I7j приход, до­
ход, выручка; cash ~ поступления
наличности щ '
record | rtipcd| п |5 | запись, регистра­
ция; p i учетные документы, доку
 ментация; - keeping ведение
учвга; учет
record [ri'ksd] v [5] записывать, ре­
гистрировать
recording [n'ko:dii3 | n [5] регистрация,
запись (чего-л. куда-л.); запись
в журнале (регистрационная,
учетная , бухгалтерская и т.п.)
recycling (ri:'saiklir)| п [6] переработка
отходов; повторное использование;
использование для другой цели
reduce [n'dju:s] v [5] ослаблять, пони­
жать, сокращаться), умень­
шаться), убывать
reduction (in smth) [n'cUkJh] n [5]
снижение, уменьшение, сокраще­
ние (чего-л.)
refer (to smth/smb) [пТэ] и [9] посы­
лать, отсылать (к чему-л./кому-л.);
объяснять (чем-л.); ссылаться (на
что-л./кого-л.); иметь отношение,
относиться (к чему-л./кому-л.)
(with/in) regard to [n'ga:d] phr prep
[5, 10] относительно; в отноше­
нии; что касается; syn as regards
regard (as) и [12] расценивать, рас­
сматривать; считать (кем-л./
чем-л.); (for) высоко ценить, почи­
тать, уважать (за что-л.); прини­
мать во внимание, считаться
(с кем-л./чем-л.)
(as) regards phr prep [ 10] что касает­
ся, в отношении; syn with respect
to, in respect of, concerning
regardless (of) prep [9] не обращая
внимания; невзирая на; не счи­
таясь с
relate (to smb/smth) [n'leit] и [2]
относиться, иметь отношение
(к кому-л./чему-л.), затрагивать;
быть связанным, устанавливать
связь, определять соотношение
relation [n'leijn] п [6] отношение;
зависимость, связь; phr prep [10]
in ~ to относительно; что касается
relationship [n'leifnfip] п [6] отно­
шение, взаимоотношение
relative ('retotiv] а [4] относительный,
сравнительный
relatively ['retotivli] adv [4] относи­
тельно, сравнительно
release [n'li:s] v [13] отпускать, вы­
пускать, освобождать
reliable [п‘1аіәЫ| а [4] надежный
достоверный
rely (on smb/smth) [n'lar| v [1] пола­
гаться, рассчитывать (на кого-л./
что-л,)
remain [n'mem| v [4| оставаться,
обитать, пребывать; находиться;
оставаться (в каком-л. состоянии)
remove [n'murv] и [15] перемешать,
убирать; удалять, устранять
repair [п'рсэ] п [3] восстановление;
поправка; заживление
replace (by/with) [n'pleis] v [12] заме­
нять, замещать (чем-л./кем-л.)
require (smth) [n'kwaia] v [3] нуждать­
ся (в чем-л.); требовать (чего-л.)
requirement [n'kwaiamsnt] п [1] тре­
бование; необходимое условие;
нужда, потребность; to meet
the ~s удовлетворять потребно­
стям; отвечать требованиям
research [n'ssitf] п [2] (научное)
исследование; изучение; изыска­
ние; исследовательская работа;
to conduct/do - in smth проводить
научные исследования чего-л.
resemble [n'zembl] v [9] походить,
иметь сходство
resource(s) [n'zo:s(iz)] п [6] ресурс(ы),
средства; natural ~s природные
ресурсы
respectively [n'spektrvli] adv [12] в ука­
занном порядке; соответственно,
соответствующим образом
responsible (for smth) [ris'pmsabl] a
[17] ответственный, несущий от­
ветственность
restock ['lt'stDk] v [13] пополнять
запасы (рыбы), снова наполнять
restrict [ns'tnkt] v [10] ограничивать
(в пределах чего-л.), syn to limit
result [n'z/dt] n [ 10] результат; вывод,
итог, следствие; phr prep as a ~ of
smth в результате (чего-л.)
result (in smth) v [6] приводить (к че­
му-л.), кончаться (чем-л.); иметь
результатом; [8] ~ from smth следо­
вать, происходить в результате;
происходить от, обуславливаться
377
I
retard [пЧаісі] и [15] замедлять; задер­
живать; тормозить (развитие
и т.п.)
rib п [16] ребро (вид кости в живых
организмах); ~ steak рёберная пор­
ционная часть (при разделке туши)
(to be) rich in smth иметь высокое
содержание; богатый (чем-л.);
syn to be high in smth; ant to be
low in smth
ride [raid] (rode [raud], ridden [ndn])
v [12] ехать верхом
ripen ['гаірәп] v [15] зреть; созревать;
выдерживать (сыр)
ripening п [15] вызревание, созрева­
ние (сыра), syn ageing
rise [raiz] n [5] повышение, увеличе­
ние, подъем
rise (rose, risen) v [5] подниматься,
возрастать (в объеме)
roaster [’гәшіә] п [11] молодой пе­
тушок или молодая курица для
жаренья с массой больше 1,8 кг
root crop ['гид ,кл>р] п [4] корнеп­
лод; syn edible root
roots [rats] n [4] pi корнеплоды
rotational [гэиЧеі/әпІ] и (8] перемен­
ный, чередующийся; ~ grazing
пастбищеоборот
roughage ['глГк&] п [4] (обыкн. pi)
грубые корма; грубая пища;
трудноперевариваемая пиша с
большим содержанием клетчатки
ruminant ['nrminsnt] а [1] жвачный;
~ animal жвачное животное; ant
non-ruminant
rump [гА ш р] n [8] крестец; огузок; зад
run (ran) (smth) v [17] (Am E) руко­
водить, управлять; вести (дело,
предприятие и т. п.); to ~ a farm
управлять фермой
rye (гаі| п [4] рожь
salmon (pi salmon) ['saeman] n [13]
лосось; семга, лососина
(the) same [seim] a [3] тот же самый,
одинаковый
sanitary ['saenitdn] a [7] санитарный,
гигиенический; ~ measure сани­
378
тарно-профилактическое меро­
приятие; syn sanitation measure
sanitation [.saeni'teifn] n [7] оздоров­
ление, улучшение санитарных
условий; санитария
satisfy (smb with smth) ['saetisfai] v [4]
удовлетворять (кого-л.; ньи-л.
требования, запросы)
sausage J'sDsicfc] п [16] колбаса;
сосиска; колбасный фарш
scale п [ 13] чешуйка; p i чешуя (рыб)
scarce [skeds] а [8] недостаточный,
скудный
scarcity (of smth) ['skeasiti] n [6] не­
достаток, нехватка (него-л.)
segregation [.segri'geijn] п [7] отде­
ление, изоляция; отсоединение
seem [si:m] и [14] казаться, видеться,
пр едставляться
sensitive ['sensitiv] а [9] чувствитель­
ный, восприимчивый
severe [siVia] а [7] строгий, суровый;
требовательный; жестокий
sex п [8] биол. пол; the female ~
женский пол; the male ~ мужской
пол
shank [faeok] п [11] голень, плюсна
share (smth with smb) Цеэ] и [6] раз­
делять (с кем-л . что-л.); исполь­
зовать совместно; делить
shear Ціә] (sheared, sheared/shorn) и
[10] стричь; обрезать
sheepman (Am Е) п [10] овцевод,
syn sheep breeder (Br E)
shelf life n [15] срок хранения (про­
дукции); сохраняемость; syn store
life
shell [fel] n [11] скорлупа
shellfish ['Jelfif] n [13] моллюск; рако­
образное; syn mollusc
shelter ['Jeltd] n [6] укрытие; защита;
пристанище; убежище
shepherd ['Jepod] n [10] пастух, чабан
ship и [16] перевозить, отправлять,
поставлять товар
shoe Цк] (shod, shod [fod]) и [ 12] под­
ковывать
shoulder ['Jduldd] п [8, 11] плечо; пле­
чевой сустав; ~ blade лопатка, ло­
паточная часть (мясной туши);
straight ~s круто поставленные
 лопатки, sloping ~s косо постав­
ленные лопатки
shrimp Ifnmp] п [13] креветка;
marine - морская креветка
sick а [7] больной, болезненный;
нездоровый, испытывающий не­
домогание
sickles (pi) п [I] косицы (серпо­
видные хвостовые перья у пе­
туха)
sickness ['siknis] п [7] болезнь, забо­
левание; нездоровье, истощение;
определенный тип болезни
significance [sig'nifikans] п [2] важ­
ность, значительность; значимость
similar ['simib] а [10] подобный;
похожий, сходный; ~ to smth по­
добный чему-л.
similarity (among, between, to)
[.simi'laenti] n [2] подобие, похо­
жесть, сходство, схожесть
sire [‘saia] n [5] производитель (са­
мец, производящий потомство)
skim v [15] снимать; ~ milk снимать
сливки с молока
slaughter fsbto] v [7] забивать, ре­
зать (скот); syn to kill
slaughtering ['sbrtani)] n [16] забой
скота
smoking [’smaukig] n [16] копчение
snout [snaut] n [9] рыло; морда (жи­
вотного)
soil [soil] n [6] почва; ~ fertility пло­
дородие почвы
solid ['solid] n [15] твердая частица,
твердая фаза; total ~s общий плот­
ный остаток, общее содержание
сухих веществ
solid а [15] твердый (об агрегатном
состоянии вещества); чистый,
без примесей (о цвете); прочный,
крепкий; солидный (чаще всего
о телосложении)
solve [solv] v [6] решать (проблему)
some [sAm] a, pron [1] какой-нибудь,
некоторый, несколько, немного
sorghum fsrapm) п [4] сорго (хлеб­
ный злак)
sour ['saua] а [15] кислый, кислова­
тый; прокисший, перекисший
(испорченный в результате
брожения, длительного хранения
и т.п.); ~ cream сметана
source [so:s] п [1] источник
sow [sau] п [9] свинья; свиноматка
soybean (Ат Е) ['sDibirn] п [4] соя
spawn [spo:n] и [13] метать икру
spawning ['spojiio] п [13] нерест;
- season/time сезон нереста
specialize (in smth) ['speja.laiz] и [5]
специализироваться (в чем-л.)
species (pi species) ['spir/iz] n [2] вид
(о диких растениях и животных);
вид, сорт, разновидность; род, по­
рода; представитель какою-л. био­
логического вида
(in) spite of phr prep [10] несмотря на
spoilage ['spoilicfe] n [15] порча, гние­
ние пищевых и скоропортящихся
продуктов
spread [spred] п [7] распространение;
распространяемость
spread (spread) и [7] разносить(ся),
распространяться)
spur [sp3 *.] л [11] отросток в виде шпо­
ры (на крыле или лапе у птиц),
петушиная шпора
stable ['steibl] п [12] конюшня, стойло
stallion fstaeljan] п [12] жеребец
statement ['steitmant] п [ 17] отчет, ве­
домость; смета, баланс; financial ~
финансовый отчет; profit and
loss ~ отчет о прибылях и убытках;
cash-flow ~ отчет о денежных по­
токах
steer [stia] п [8] кастрированный бы­
чок; молодой вол (в возрасте от
шести месяцев до двух лет)
sting [stir)] п [ 14] жало, укус (насеко­
мого); venomous ~ ядовитое жало;
syn stinger
stock [stok] n [1] скот, поголовье
скота; syn livestock; [11] поголовье,
стадо птиц; syn flock; [13] ~ fish
косяк, стая рыб
stock [stok] и [ 13] снабжать, постав­
лять, обеспечивать; to ~ a pond
with fish разводить рыбу в пруду
stockings п [12] pi чулки (отметины
на ногах у лошади)
stomach ['st\mak] л 116] желудок;
живот
379
 store [sto:J *; [15] хранить, сохранять;
хранить на складе
storage ['storncfe] я [4] хранение, хра­
нилище
strain [strein] я [2] род; вид; разно­
видность; линия, сорт; порода;
штамм (для микроорганизмов)
straw [stro:] я [4] солома; oats ~ со­
лома из овса
structure ['stFAktfo] я [3] строение,
структура; устройство
stud [stAd] я [12] племенной жеребец,
жеребец-производитель
studbook я [5, 12] студбук, родослов­
ная книга
subject J'sAbcfeikt] я [5] предмет
subject (to) [sab'<feekt] v [5] подвер­
гать (воздействию , влиянию)
subsist [sab'sist] v [10] существовать,
жить, кормиться; содержать
substance ['sAbstans] я [3] вещество
successful [sak'sesfl] а [11] успеш­
ный, преуспевающий
succulent ['s/dgulant] я [4] pi сочные
корма
such as [ 1] такой как
suckle [’sAkl] v [8] сосать (грудь, вымя)
suffer (from smth) ['safa] и [7] стра­
дать; испытывать, претерпевать;
страдать от чего-л., страдать по
какой-л. причине
suitable (for smth) [’sjuLtabl] a [ 1]
годный, подходящий, пригодный,
применимый, соответствующий
superior [sjur'piaria] а [5] лучший,
превосходный, высшего качества
supplement fsAplimant] я [3] добав­
ление, дополнение; pi добавки
к кормам; nutritive ~ пишевые
добавки
supply [sa'plai] я [3] эк, предложе­
ние; снабжение; поставка, обес­
печение; pi запасы, общее коли­
чество
supply v [3] снабжать, поставлять,
обеспечивать, давать; ~ smb with
smth/supply smth to smb постав­
лять (что-л. кому-л.) I снабжать
(кого-л. нем-л.)
support (for/in) [sa'part] я [17] под­
держка; помощь
380
support (smb/smth) v [3] поддержи­
вать; помогать, содействовать,
с пособствовать
suppose [sa'pauz] v [13] допускать,
думать, полагать, предполагать
(be) sure (of) [fua] и [14] уверенный;
убедившийся; syn to be certain;
to make ~ of/that быть уверенным
(в чем-л .), убедиться, удостове­
риться
surgery ['s3:<fean] я [7] хирургия
surgeon ['s3:cfcan] я [7] хирург;
veterinary ~ ветеринар
surgical ['s3;cfpkl] а [7] хирургический
surroundings [sa'raundigz] п (pi) [6]
окружающая среда, окружение,
естественные условия
survive [saVarv] и [11] выдержать, пе­
режить; остаться в живых
susceptibility [ssfseptәЪіliti) я [6]
восприимчивость; чувствитель­
ность
susceptible (to smth) [sa'septabl] a [7]
восприимчивый, чувствительный
(к чему-л.)
sweeten [‘swLtn] v [ 15] подслащивать
swine [swain] я [9] свинья
switch [switf] я [8] кисть хвоста
T
table bird я [ 11] откормленная для
стола, мясная птица; syn table
poultry
tail [teil] я [8, 11] хвост; stubby ~
плотного сложения (у птиц)
tarsus {'taisas] я [11] плюсна (у пти­
цы ); лапка (у насекомого)
taste [teist] я [15] вкус, sour to the ~
кислый на вкусщг
teat [tirt] я [8) анат. сосок
technique [tek'nkk] я [51 техника, тех­
нические приемы; метод; методи­
ка, способ; syn method, means
temporary [temparan] a [8] временный;
~ pasture временное пастбище
tend (to/towards) v [16] иметь тенден­
цию (к чему-л .); склоняться
(к чему-л.)
tenderness ['tendanis] я [16] нежность,
мягкость
(in) terms of smth в каком-л. выра­
жении, с какой-л. точки зрения
чего-л.
thaw [Өэ:] и [16] таять; оттаивать;
размор ажив ать( ся)
the ... the adv [4] чем ... тем (при
сравнении)
therefore ['deafo:] adv [6] поэтому,
следовательно; syn consequently
thesis ['0i:sis] (pi theses ['0i:sLz]) n [6]
тезис; положение; диссертация
thigh [Өаі] n [8] бедро
thorough ['Өлгә] a [5] исчерпываю­
щий, полный, основательный,
тщательный; syn careful, complete
thoroughbred ['ӨлгәЬгесі] a [12] поро­
дистый, чистокровный; п чисто­
кровное, породистое животное
thoroughly ['Өлгэіі] adv [5] тщатель­
но, как следует
though [бэи] cj [5] хотя, несмотря на;
все же; adv однако, тем не менее
thrifty ['0nfti] а [8] цветущий, нахо­
дящийся в хорошем состоянии
throat [ӨгәіП] п [8] горло, гортань;
глотка
throughout [Эгш'ат] prep [2] через,
по всей площади, длине, и т.п.;
на всем протяжении (о времени)
thus adv [3] следовательно, итак,
в соответствии с этим; так, таким
образом
till cj [6] пока, до тех пор пока (не);
syn until
tissue ['tisjm] n [2] биол. ткань
toe [tau] n [11] палец ноги (у жи­
вотного, птицы)
tolerant [Чоіәгәш] а [14] устойчивый,
терпимый
total [Чэоіі] а [4] весь, целый, полный;
общий; суммарный
trace (to) [treis] v [12] прослеживать
(ся); восходить к определенному
источнику или периоду в прошлом
trait [treit] п [5] (formal term) харак­
терная черта, особенность, особое
качество; syn characteristic
transmit [traenz'mit] v [7] передавать,
отдавать; передавать по наследству
treat [trit] v [7] обращаться, обхо­
диться, вести себя по отношению
к кому-л. как-л.; относиться;
лечить, проводить курс лечения;
syn cure
treatment (for smth) ['triitmsnt] n [7]
уход, лечение (от чего-л,); syn cure
triple-purpose a [8] тройного назна­
чения
trouble [ЧглЬ(ә)1J n [7] болезнь, забо­
левание; расстройство; syn illness,
disorder
trout [traut] n [13] форель
turn out [ 14] v оказываться
turkey [Чә:кі] я [11] индюк; индейка
twin [twin] n [10] pi близнецы;
двойня
type [taip] n [2] тип; типичный пред­
ставитель какого-л. рода или вида;
syn. sort, kind
U
udder [4dd] n [8] вымя
undergo l^nds'gau] (underwent,
undergone) v [15] испытывать,
переносить, подвергаться (чему-л.)
uniformly ['juini.foimli] adv [9 ] едино­
образно, равномерно (no времени)
unique [jir'niik] a [12] уникальный;
исключительный; необыкновен­
ный
unless [an'les] cj [17] если не; пока не
unlike [14] а разный, отличный,
непохожий на, не такой, как; syn
different; неравный, неравноцен­
ный; syn unequal; prep в отличие
от; syn different from; to be ~
быть отличным, непохожим
unlikely [14] а маловероятный, не­
правдоподобный; syn improbable;
малообещающий, неперспектив­
ный; adv наречие: вряд ли, едва
ли, невероятно; syn improbably
until cj [6] (до тех пор) пока... не
use [ju:s] п [2, 5] применение, польза;
использование
use [ju:z] v [1, 5] использовать, поль­
зоваться, применять, употреблять
(израсходовать
useful ['jusfll а [1] полезный, при­
годный
usefulness п [3] применимость
381
utility [jurtiliti] n [5] полезность;
выгодность; n обшепользователь-
ного направления, общепользова-
тельной категории (о животном)
utilization [jatilai'zeifn] п [5] исполь­
зование, употребление, утилиза­
ция; syn use
utilize ['juitilaiz] и [5] утилизировать,
использовать, расходовать
V
valuable [Vaeljubl] а [1] полезный,
ценный; высоко ценимый; syn
useful
value [Vaelju:] n [2] важность, цен­
ность, полезность; syn importance;
breeding — [5] племенная цен­
ность; nutritional/nutritive — [3, 4]
питательная/пищевая ценность;
[17] стоимость, цена; рыночная
цена
value (for smth) и [11] ценить (за
что-л.), быть высокого мнения;
syn to prize; оценить, высказать
мнение, дать характеристику;
syn to evaluate
variety [va'raisti] n [1] вид, разновид­
ность (о животных и птицах );
сорт (культурного растения );
многообразие, разнообразие;
а —of ряд, множество; [16]
meat ~s мясные субпродукты
(язык, печень)
various [Vesrias] а [1] различный,
разный, разнообразный
vary [Vesn] v [4] менять(ся), изме­
няться), варьировать; - from...
to... изменяться, коле-баться в
пределах (от ... до/к ...); ~ in smth
различаться по (какому-л. призна­
ку ); различаться в чем-л. (разме­
ре, объеме); - with smth менять­
ся, раз-личаться в зависимости от
чего-л., зависеть от чего-л.
veal [vi:l] п [8, 16] телятина
vertebrate [V3:tibr9t] [13] п позвоноч­
ное животное
versatile f'aisstail] а [15] многоцеле­
вой, универсальный
veterinarian [.vetarfneanan] (Am Е) п
[7] ветеринар; (Br Е) syn veterinary
surgeon, vet
veterinarian a [7] ветеринарный;
syn veterinary
(in) view of phr prep [ 10] ввиду
vigorous [Vigaras] a [8] сильный,
энергичный; syn healthy
vital ['vaitl] a [3] жизненный; необ­
ходимый; syn significant
W
wattle [wutlj n [11] сережка (у птиц);
бородка (индюка , петуха); ус
(у рыб)
weaken [Sviikan] и [14] ослаблять
wean [wi:n] и [8] отнимать от груди
weigh [wei] и [8] взвешивать
weight [weit] п [8] вес; масса; birth ~
вес при рождении; to gain ~ тол­
стеть, поправляться
welfare ['welfeo] п [17] благополучие
wheat [wit] п [4] пшеница
whereas [wear'aez] conj [13] тогда как;
несмотря на то, что
whether [*wedQ] cj [15] (частица) ли
whey [wei] п [15] сыворотка;
butter ~ пахта
wholesome ['haulsam] а [7] целебный;
полезный для здоровья; ~ food
здоровая пища
widespread [lwaidlspred] а [14] (широ­
ко) распространенный
withers (pi) ['widaz] п [8] загривок,
холка O' коровы у лошади)
wool [wul] п [ 10] шерсть, syn fleece
Y
yield [jiild] n [1] урожай; размер вы­
работки; выход (продукции); milk
~ надой молока; meat ~ выход
мяса
yolk Цэик] п [11] желток (яйца)
 LIST OF GRAMMAR MATERIAL

UNIT I Конструкция there is / are. Местоимения some / any. Видо- времен­

ные формы английского глагола в действительном залоге.
UNIT 2: Видо-временные формы английского глагола в действительном
залоге. Существительное в функции определения. Конструкция
to be + infinitif. Конструкция to be + o f + noun.
UNIT 3 Особые случаи употребления страдательного залога. Инфинитив
в функции обстоятельства цели. Предложения типа It is +
adjective + infinitif.
UNIT 4 Степени сравнения прилагательных и наречий.
UNIT 5 Конверсия. Повторение видо-временных форм английского глагола.
UNIT 6 Предложения времени и условия.
UNIT 7 Модальные глаголы в действительном и страдательном залогах. Мо­
дальные глаголы, выражающие долженствование. Два варианта
перевода конструкции to be + infinitif.
UNIT 8 One, that, those как заменители существительного. Простая форма при­
частий I и II и их функции в английском языке. Причастие II в пост­
позиции.
UNIT 9 Отглагольное существительное. Герундий. Сравнение Ving форм.
UNIT 10 Бессоюзные определительные придаточные предложения.
UNIT 11 Инфинитив в функции подлежащего. Предложения типа It is
necessary that.... Усилительная конструкция It is... that.... Значение
слов it / that.
UNIT 12 Предложения с вводящим словом there. Инфинитивная конструк­
ция с предлогом for.
UNIT 13 Инфинитивная конструкция «сложное дополнение». Сложное под­
лежащее со сказуемым в страдательном залоге.
UNIT 14 Значение слова one. Сложное подлежащее со сказуемым в действи­
тельном залоге.
UNIT 15 Сложные формы инфинитива. Инфинитив в функции определения
и обстоятельства следствия.
UNIT 16: Сложные формы причастия и герундия. Неполные придаточные
предложения.
UNIT 17 Условные предложения. Независимый причастный оборот.

LIST OF REFERENCES

Dictionary o f Agriculture / by Alan Stephens. — Finland: Peter Collin Publishing,

1996.
Dictionary o f Biological Terms / by I. F. Henderson and W. D. Henderson. —
Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1968.
Elsevier*s Dictionary o f Fundamental and Applied Biology. Russian-English and
English-Russian / by N.N. Smirnov, A. N. Smirnov. — Amsterdam—-Lausanne—New
York—Oxford—Shannon—Tokyo, 1996.
Encyclopedia Encarta Interactive. — CD-ROM, 2005.
Encyclopedia Wikipedia. — http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page.

I
 Kohls R.L., Uhl J.N . Marketing of Agricultural Products. — Englewood Cliffs,
New Jerdey: Prentice Hall, 1985. ^
Lingua . CD-ROM, ABBYY 11.
Longman Dictionary o f Contemporary English. — Barcelona, 2003.
Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary o f Current English / by A. S. Hornby. —
Oxford University Press, 1999.
Англо-русский словарь начинающего переводчика / под ред. О. В. Сиполса,
Г. А. Широковой. — М., 2005.
Англо-русский сельскохозяйственный словарь / под ред. В. Г. Козловского,
Н.Г. Ракипова. — М., 1986.
Англо-русский экономический словарь / под ред. И. Ф.Ждановой, Э. JI. Вар-
тумян. — М., 2000. , ; t ІІЙ J
Международный словарь конника / под ред. М. А. Политовой. — М., 2004.
Новый англо-русский биологический словарь / под ред. О. И. Чибисовой. —
М., 2003.
Новый большой англо-русский словарь: в 3-х т. / под ред. Э.М.Меднико-
вой, Ю.Д.Апресяна. — М., 1994.

Учебное издание
Комарова Елена Николаевна
Английский язык для специальностей
«Зоотехния» и «Ветеринария»

English for students o f animal husbandry

and veterinary m edicine

Учебник

Редактор A. И. Миронова. Технический редактор Е. Ф. Коржуева.

Компьютерная верстка: А. В. Бобылёва
Корректоры В. П. Белоножко, Д. А. Молин

Изд. № 102112446. Подписано в печать 06.05.2010. Формат 60x90/16.

Гарнитура «Таймс». Печать офсетная. Бумага офсетная № 1. Уел. печ. л. 24,0.
Тираж 1 000 экз. Заказ № 30154.
Издательский центр «Академия», www.academia-moscow.ru
125252, Москва, ул. Зорге, д. 15, корп. 1, пом. 266. /
Адрес для корреспонденции: 129085, Москва, пр-т Мира, 101В, стр. 1, а/я 48.
Тел./факс: (495) 648-0507, 616-00-29: Р ^
Санитарно-эпидемиологическое заключение N° 77.99.60.953.Д.007831.07.09 от 06.07.2009.
Отпечатано в соответствии с качеством предоставленных издательством
электронных носителей в ОАО «Саратовский полиграфкомбинат».
410004, г. Саратов, ул. Чернышевского, 59. www.sarpk.ru
АНГЛИИСКИИ ЯЗЫК
ДЛЯ СПЕЦИАЛЬНОСТЕЙ
«ЗООТЕХНИЯ*
И «ВЕТЕРИНАРИЯ»

ENGLISH FOR STUDENTS

OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
AND VETERINARY
MEDICINE
r e

If