Natanson 1973

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E. A. NAT ANSON
Practical English Grammar

*
by Correspondence **
Допущено
Министерством высшего и среднего специального
образования СССР в качестве учебного пособия
для студентов заочного обучения институтов
и факультетов иностранных языков
Higher School Publishing House

Moscow 1973
4 И (Англ)
Н 33
Настоящее пособие предназначено для студентов

II и III курсов заочных институтов и факультетов ино
странных языков.
В соответствии с требованиями программы материал
разделен на восемь заданий (по четыре на год). Все
грамматические явления представлены в виде моделей,
значение которых раскрывается в примерах. Затем сле
дуют разнообразные тренировочные упражнения для
закрепления материала. Для самоконтроля почти ко всем
упражнениям даются ключи. В конце каждого задания
предлагается *контрольная работа.
Пособие рецензировали: кафедра грамматики англий
ского языка Алма-Атинского педагогического института
иностранных языков и профессор Московского государ
ственного педагогического института имени В. И. Ленина
Е. Б. Черкасская.
0714—095
Н ----------------■ 170—73
001(01)—73
Издательство «Высшая школа», 1973 г

Предисловие
Настоящее учебное пособие предназначено для заочных факультетов институтов
иностранных языков и содержит грамматический материал, изучаемый по программе
на втором и третьем году обучения. (Материал I курса входит в комплексный учеб
ник.)
Пособие может быть использовано для самостоятельной работы по исправлению
ошибок и развитию навыков правильной речи и письма студентами языковых инсти
тутов, а также лицами, самостоятельно изучающими английский язык.
В соответствии с программными требованиями, материал разделен на 8 заданий,
по 4 на год. После каждого задания дается образец контрольной работы.
Пособие содержит следующие разделы: употребление временных форм, зависимое
употребление временных форм, прямая и косвенная речь, страдательный залог, не
личные формы глагола (инфинитив, герундий, причастие) и конструкции с нелич
ными формами, косвенные наклойения, модальные глаголы и синтаксис простого
предложения.
Тема «Артикль» дается как приложение. Этот материал может быть использован
для самостоятельной работы студента над правильным употреблением артиклей и как
справочник при исправлении ошибок, допущенных в письменных работах. Отдельное
задание по теме «Артикль» с контрольной работой, согласно программе, дается на 4-м
году обучения. Основные случаи употребления артикля даны в комплексном учебнике
первого курса.
Материал пособия представлен в виде моделей (Patterns), значение которых рас
крывается при помощи примеров (в большинстве случаев за английскими предложе
ниями следуют русские эквиваленты). После моделей идут тренировочные упражне
ния, рассчитанные на закрепление моделей, за которыми следуют сводные упражне
ния (на различение и выбор моделей) и упражнения на связных текстах. Ко всем
видам упражнений даются ключи.
Пособие должно помочь учащимся понять характер описываемых грамматических
явлений и овладеть практическими навыками употребления грамматических струк
тур, типичных для современного английского языка. В пособии преследовалась цель
приблизить язык упражнений к живому разговорному языку.
Автор
Assignment No. 1
Tenses in the Active Voice

4
There are four groups of tense forms in the English language: Indef
inite, Continuous, Perfect and Perfect Continuous. Each group compri
ses four tenses: the Present, the Past, the Future and the Future in the
Past.
Part I
»
Indefinite and Continuous Forms

T ab le of In d e fin ite a n d C ontinuous Form s
T~
Indefinite Forms Continuous Forms
*
The Present Indefinite The Present Continuous
do smth am
does smth are doing smth
is
The Past Indefinite The Past Continuous
did smth was к doing smth

\ were
The Future Indefinite The Future Continuous
shall shall
will do smth will be doing smth
The Future in the Past The Future Continuous in the Past
should should
would do smth would be doing smth
.1
4
*
Indefinite Forms
The Indefinite forms show that the action takes place in the present,
past, future or what was considered a future moment at some moment
in the past.
The Present Indefinite
/
The Present Indefinite may denote:

1. a permanent action
2. a general truth
3. a repeated action
4. a one-time action in the present (in case of such verbs as: to see,
to hear, to understand, to know, to love, to hate, etc. and the
verbs to say, to ask)
5. a future action
a) in adverbial clauses of time and condition
b) if planned beforehand
E.g. 1. She speaks English. She is fond of children. She knows the sub
ject well. 2. Cotton prints fade in the sun. Vegetables grow well in
this climate. 3. We write two tests each term. I take a tablet after
each meal. 4. Do you see the blackboard from where you are sit
ting? I hear somebody speaking in the hall. 5. a) I’ll phone you if
he comes. I shall know all about it when I get his letter, b) They
open on Monday. The lecture begins at six.
The Use of the Present Indefinite in Clauses of Time and Condition

Pattern 1
when
before
till
do smth until
shith } wiU <"0,) as soon as ■ smb does smth
while
if
unless /
Exersise 1. Translate into Russian:

1. If you ask her about it she will tell you. 2. She won’t tell you any
thing unless you ask her. 3. Tell her about it if she wants to know. 4. Don’t
tell her about it before she asks you. 5. I’ll tell her about it as soon as she
asks me. 6. I’ll tell you about it while you get your books together.
7. I’ll cut a few sandwiches in case we get hungry. 8. Read his letter to
me while I eat the sandwiches. 9. I shall stay here till he comes. 10.
I shall not go out until he returns.
i
5
Note 1. In object clauses introduced by if, w hen , whether the Future
Indefinite is used when speaking about a future action.
*
The Use of Tenses in Object Clauses

P a tte r n 2
knows
wonders
asks
tells smb
is (not) sure
{ when
if > smb will do smth
whether
V Exercise 2. Translate into Russian: •%
1. She wonders when somebody will come and tell her what to do.
2. I am not at all sure when she will return. 3. Do you know if the dean
will return from the conference? 4. I wonder when you will be ready and
if we shall be in time.
and
1. Я уеду, как только сдам экзамен. 2. Не уходите, пока я с ней не
поговорю. 3. Я не знаю, когда она вернется. 4. Сказал он вам, когда
начнется лекция? 5. Вы ничего не поймете, если не прочтете книгу са
ми. 6. Как только суп закипит, потуши газ. 7. Я пойду спрошу, пойдет
ли она в кино, пока ты будешь кормить детей обедом. 8. Почитай газету,
пока я улржу вещи. 9. Ничего не будет сделано, пока отец не вернется.
10. Я вам все объясню, когда мы увидимся в институте. И. Хотела бы
я знать, придет ли он сегодня. 12. Лаборантка не говорит, будем ли
мы писать контрольную работу сегодня.
The Past Indefinite

The Past Indefinite may denote:
0
2. a one-time action
4. a relatively future action:
in adverbial clauses of time and condition in indirect
if planned beforehand speech
E.g. 1. They lived on a farm. She certainly knew her job.
2. They drank coffee in the morning and tea with their lunch.
Two or three times a year she went to stay with her married
daughter. She left the room without a word and did not bang
the door.
3. I knew that the earth was round. He used to say that the night
was darkest before the morning.
6
t
►
>4
4. а) I meant to tell her the truth when she returned. And I should
never, never make fun of her again if only she got well, b) The
lecture began at six so it was time to start. I only knew that her
plane arrived in less than twenty minutes.
r
i
The Use of the Past Indefinite in Clauses of Time and Condition

Pattern 3
( !е^ ) I unless ^
c . J „HaZ*^ ■, that smb would I when i smb did
|
a
1 ™ S [ (n o t) do smth before sm th
re a lize d t ill
Exercise 4. hTranslate
op ed into/ Russian: ( as so o n as J
1. She knew that she would catch a bad cold unless she went and
changed her wet shoes at once. 2. Strange to say they did not realize that no
changes would ever take place until they themselves did something about
в- Гfe lt 'j [ J f n ]e ss 1 i
it. 3. She hoped that when the children knew her better they would grow
fond of Jher.
k n 4.
ew I only knew
I that
I wif he objectedsmIb should
h en d id give
sm b wupo uthe plan.
ld (n o t)
5. She \ u n d ersto
sm b knew that osomebody 5e forephone гher sm
d > th a t {would asthsoonf as doanything
sm th was
known. r e a liz e d
h op ed J | as S0Qn as J J
Not e 2. In object clauses introduced by if, when and w hether the
Future in the Past is used to denote a relatively future
action.
The Use of Tenses in Object Clauses

P a tte rn 4
l лм
f k n ew
I w on d ered w h en
a sk ed if smb would do smth
to ld sm b w h eth er
w a s (n o t) sure
№.
7
Exercise 5. Translate into Russian:
1. She wondered when it would be time to go and have tea. 2. No
body asked me if I should come back. 3. Did she tell you when the car
would come for us? 4. Nobody knew when the rain would stop. 5. The
clerk was not sure if the case would be heard before the recess for lunch.
Exercise 6. Translate into English. Use Patterns 3 and 4:
1. Я спросил его, когда он вернется. 2. Я понимал, что если я опо
здаю на поезд, весь мой день будет испорчен. 3. Я сказал, что верну ей
книгу, как только прочитаю. 4. Он пообещал, что поговорит с ним до
моего отъезда. 5. Я не знал, когда буду сдавать экзамен и какую от
метку получу, но понимал, что, если поработаю над темой еще два
три дня, все будет хорошо. 6. Она спросила, буду ли я выступать на
конференции. 7. Я понимал, что, если не прочту статьи, то обсуждение
ее будет для меня бесполезным. 8. Я знал, что она ничего не расскажет,
пока я ей не позволю. 9. Она думала, что они узнают ее, когда увидят.
10. Никто не знал, когда придет автобус. 11. Он знал, что не ответит
хорошо на семинаре, если не подготовится как следует. 12. Меня инте
ресовало, понравится ли детям картина.
Note 3. The Past Indefinite may be used to denote an action in the
present or future characterizing it as an unreal one.
E.g. 1. If only I knew where to turn for advice. 2. It’s not as if he
did not know. >
(The use of the Past Indefinite in such cases is treated in the Assign
ment on Moods.)
The Future Indefinite
The Future Indefinite may denote:
3. a one-time action
E.g. 1. After graduation you will be a teacher of English. 2. I shall
take the children to a really good dentist when we get back to Mos
cow. 3. She will come at eight if she is not detained.
The use of the Future Indefinite is at present mostly restricted to
link-verbs (to be, to become, to look, to sound, etc.), verbs seldom used in
Continuous forms (to know, to u n derstan d, to like, to love, etc.) and found
in the principle clauses of complex sentences with adverbial clauses
of time or condition (see examples above). For other ways to denote a
future action see the Present Continuous, the Future Continuous, the
Modal phrases sh all -f- infinitive, w ill + infinitive.
The Future in the Past

The Future in the Past denotes a relatively future action, an action
following another action in the past. It denotes a usual or a one-time
action.
8
*
I, we should do smth
you, he, she, they would do smth
E.g. 1. I knew he would not object. 2. She told me you would live in
the house on the hill. 3. She promised that I should be taken back
at once. 4. We knew that nothing would happen before sunset.
Continuous Forms
The Continuous forms denote temporary actions taking place at the
moment of speech or at a given moment in the past or future.
E.g. 1. I live in Moscow, (a permanent action) lam living at my sister’s
now while her husband is away, (a temporary action taking place
at the moment of speech)
2. Every day he took a shower first thing in the morning, (a repeat
ed action in the past) He was taking a shower and did not hear
the bell, (a temporary action in the past taking place at a mo
ment in the past)
3. She’ll go home and have her dinner, (a one time action in the •
future) She will be having her dinner when you come, (a tempo
rary action in the future taking place at a moment in the future)
Some verbs such as: to love, to h a te, to know, to u n d ersta n d , to rea lize,
to see, to hear, to hope are seldom used in Continuous forms.
The Present Continuous

The Present Continuous denotes a temporary action which takes
place at the moment of speech. This moment is usually not indicated
in the sentence because it is obvious.
*
Exercise 7. Open the brackets. Use Indefinite forms if the action is a permanent or a
repeated one, also if the verb is one of those which are seldom used in Continuous forms.
Use Continuous forms if the action is a temporary one taking place at the moment of speech.
State the character of the action.
M o d e l : 1) She (to wear) her hair very short.

She wears her hair very short.
t
Permanent action. The Present Indefinite.

2) You (to wear) your hair different to-night.
You are wearing your hair different to-night.
Temporary action taking place at the moment of speech.
The Present Continuous,
Ж
9
3) I (to see) quite well what he (to do).
I see quite well what he is doing.
A temporary action taking place at the moment of speech.
But in the case of the verb to see we use the Present Indef
inite because such verbs are seldom used in Continuous
forms.
1. Some shady trees (to grow) in our yard. 2. She always (to wear)
her hair like that. 3. Well, I (to listen) to you. 4. You never (to listen)
in class and then you (to make) mistakes in your exercises. 5. What —
these children (to play)? They (to shout) so,— they (to fight)? 6. They
are the best of friends. They always ( to play) together and never (to
fight). 7. Look! The driver has seen us. He (to stop) the car. 8. She’s
grown out of her coat. I’ll have to let it out at the hem. She (to grow)
very fast now. 9. Of course, I (to understand), I only (to think) of how
I can best help you. 10. I’m afraid you (to make) a mistake. We all (to
make) such mistakes when we are very young. 11. You (to wait) for
someone? 12. She usually (to wear) trousers and a sweater on those walks.
13. Why you (to wear) this heavy sweater? Isn’t it a bit warm for it?
14. He( to work) at school, doesn’t he? 15. Can’t you see that you (to
disturb) him? He (to work). Or at least he (to try) to. 16. We always (to
try) to give satisfaction, madam. 17. And now she (to cry). See, what
you’ve done. 18. Oh, come on. The taxi (to wait). The meter (to tick)
like mad. 19. Where — you (to take) this child? Why — he (to cry)
so? 20. I’m afraid you (to lose) your temper. You (to say) things you
will be sorry for later. 21. When I (to lose) my temper I often (to say)
things I not really (to mean) at all.
Note 4. We use the Continuous forms of the verbs to see and to hear
when they mean to meet smb or to get letters from smb (or
any kind of information ).
Compare: 1. They are seeing each other in secret.— встре
чаются
We are not seeing much of her these days.—
редко встречаемся
and
2. I see a little house with a pink roof and two
elms in front.— вижу
I see nothing unusual here. Everything’s as it
always is.— не вижу
1. What is that I’m hearing? Marty getting mar
ried! — рассказывают
We are hearing from her regularly. — пишет
and
2. Do you hear what he is saying? — слышишь
I hear nothing now.— не слышу
The Present Continuous may be used to denote a future action. The
verbs given in the Pattern below are mostly used in this case.
10
pattern 6
*
' doing smth

going somewhere
coming
( staying
taking smb, smth
giving smth
seeing smb
lunching
I having for dinner
E.g. 1. We are leaving in a few days now. I hope the weather will hold.
2. Where are you lunching today? 3. Are you doing anything
special to-night?
Exercise 8. Open the brackets. Use the Present Continuous to denote a future action.
Use the Future Indefinite in case of link-verbs and verbs which are seldom used in Continuous
forms:
\
1. What we (to have) for dinner, Mum? 2. You (to look) ever so
much nicer with your hair up. 3. You (to know) her at once. She's the
image of Anne. 4. I must run now, darling. I (to lunch) at Mother’s
and she hates it so when I’m late. 5. You (to like) her all right when you
know her better. 6. Rose and Peter (to come) to dinner on Sunday. Come
and meet them if you not (to do) anything special. 7. Gran, what you
(to give) me for my birthday this time? 8. When they (to go)? 9. What
you (to wear) to the party? 10. Tell him you are busy or something.
He (to understand). 11. Don’t tell her about camping in the open. It (to
sound) too dangerous. 12. They (to publish) it this autumn.
The Past Continuous

The Past Continuous denotes a temporary action taking place at a
given moment in the past. This given moment in the past may be indica
ted by an adverbial expression (e. g. At that time I was reading for my ex
amination in Latin), by an adverbial clause of time (e. g. Whenhecame
I was reading for my examination in Latin), by an independent sentence
(e. g. He came at a rather awkward time. I was reading for my examina
tion in Latin).
P a tte rn 7
At this time j
When smb did smth } smb was doing smth
Smb did smth )
11
E.g. 1. At a quarter to five I was going to the Institute, 2. When I met
him I was going to the Institute. 3. I came across him in Gorki
street. I was going to the Institute and had little time.
The moment in the past may be indicated in the principal clause and
the temporary action, taking place at that moment, named in the adver
bial clause of time.
smb did smth when smb was doing smth
E.g. 1. She came when I was washing my hair. 2. She stopped me on
the stairs when I was running down to check my coat out before a
queue formed. .
Exercise 9. Open the brackets. Use the Past Indefinite in case of permanent, repeated
or one-time actions. Use the Past Continuous if the action is a temporary one taking place
at a given moment in the past. State how the moment in the past is indicated.
M o d e l : 1) He (to turn) the car and (to start) back .towards Delphi.
He turned the car and started back towards Delphi.
One-time action. *
2) The local businessmen (to like) something solid with their

luncheon coffee.
The local businessmen liked something more solid with
their luncheon coffee.
*
A permanent action.
3) I (to glance) at the terrace below the balcony. He (to sit)
under one of the plane-trees, smoking.
I glanced at the terrace below the balcony. He was sitting
under one of the plane-trees, smoking.
*
A temporary action taking place at a moment in the

past. The moment in the past is indicated by an indepen
dent sentence “I glanced at the terrace”.
1. I (to open) the shutters and (to look out). The car (to stand) where
I had left it. 2. Suddenly I (to realize) that they not (to pay attention)
to me any longer. They (to mutter) something and all (to look) in the
same direction. I (to turn) my head and (to look) where they all (to
look). A man (to come) slowly down a steep little street that (to lead)
uphill between the houses on my right. 3. When I (to go) downstairs
they (to stand) still round the car. 4. On my left I (to see) the lights of
the first house of the village, and I (to hurry) towards it through the
wood when a sudden flash of light (to make) me stop. 5. I (to see) his
face before the torch (to go) out. He (to smile). 6. At that time I (to
look) for a job. 7. Miss Nobbs not (to see) him leave the office. At half
past four she (to make) herself a cup of tea in a small recess off the main
corridor. 8. The idea first (to occur) to me that afternoon as I (to back)
the car into the garage. 9. I probably (to drop) the key when I (to fish)
for small change in my bag at the news-stand. 10. All through the night
I (to hear) them work; open drawers, drag cases over the floor. They (to
pack). 11. “. . . you (to feel) better this morning? How’s your shoulder?”
12
►
»
“Гш fine, thanks.” He (to sit) on the edge of the bed, a cup of coffee in
one hand and a roll in the other, completely at ease. 12. The only person
to see it happen (to be) a middle-aged American tourist. She (to have)
tea at the window table of the cafe opposite. But, as she (to calculate)
at the time how much she ought to give the waiter, the incident not (to
register) in her mind.
Exercise 10. Make up sentences using the suggested word-combinations. Use Pattern 7.
M o d e l : to wear one's hair long.
When I saw her last she was wearing her hair long.
At that time she was wearing her hair long.
I saw her last when she was wearing her hair long.
I took this photo when she was wearing her hair long.
to help smb with his lesson; to wash one's hair;
to try on a new dress; to give the baby his dinner.
Exercise 11. Complete the following sentences. Indicate the given moment in the past
in different ways.
Mo d e l : . . . (when) she was waiting for someone.
1. I realized at once . . . 2. When I looked in . . . 3. I noticed
her for the first time... 4. The girl was still there... 5. I was
taking my second cup of coffee... 6. I was getting ready to
get off the bus... 7. We were approaching the post-office...
8. He was writing the last lines of the composition... 9. The
guide was taking a small group of tourists round the place...
Exercise 12. Translate into English:
1. В кухне хорошо пахло. Бабка пекла пирог с вишнями. 2. Нео
жиданно раздался звонок. Я распахнул дверь. На площадке стоял
Мишка. Он держал подушку и серое одеяло. 3. Мы въезжали в деревню,
когда увидели мальчика. 4. Он стоял посередине дороги и сигналил
нам, чтобы мы остановились. 5. Я проснулся очень рано. Во дворе
что-то происходило. Наш пес отчаянно лаял. Незнакомый женский
голос что-то сердито и громко говорил. 6. Я выглянул в окно. Небо
было серое. Дул холодный восточный ветер. 7. Зимой она носила тол
стые свитеры и лыжные брюки. 8. Я не узнал ее сначала. На ней были
очки, она в них казалась старше. 9. Она держала газету так, что я не
мог видеть ее лица. 10. Она всегда держала книгу близко к глазам,
хотя и не была близорукой. 11. Капитан вышел из кустов, когда они
считали деньги. Высокий парень уронил деньги и оглянулся. Вокруг
машин стояли милиционеры. 12. Мальчишки повели капитана в лес.
Вот здесь у него мотоцикл стоял, но мы его в кустах спрятали.
13. Прохожие оглядывались на ребят, идущих с высоким милиционером.
Кто знает, что они думали. 14. Домой вернулись к обеду. У калитки
стояла новая машина. Синий лак блестел на солнце. В машине кто-то
сидел. 15. Мальчики сидели в ванной, а в комнате Катина мама разго
варивала с Валеркиными родителями. Мальчикам было не слышно,
что она говорила, только когда она уходила, они отчетливо слышали ее
последние слова: Вы еще пожалеете.
13
The Past Continuous is not used as a rule if the duration of the ac
tion is mentioned.
We waited for a long tim e. She spoke for over an hour.
She just sat there hour a fte r hour.
Note 5. If the action is a temporary one but there is no mention of a
moment in the past at which it is supposed to take place the
Past Indefinite is used.
Compare: 1. She just sat there hour after hour.
and
2. She was sitting there doing nothing when the
bell rang.
1. For the next five minutes we climbed in silence.
and
2. I first heard the strange metallic sound when
we were climbing the narrow path between
the crumbling seats of the amphitheatre.
Exercise 13. A. Open the brackets. Use the Past Continuous only if the action is a tem
porary one taking place at a given moment in the past:
1. I (to run) after him till the crowd (to hide) him from my sight.
2. I (to look) at him thoughtfully for a moment. 3. I (to light) another
cigarette and (to.sit) over my cooling cup of coffee with one eye on the
door and the other on the shabby black car. 4. I (to get) into the car
when it (to occur) to me to leave my name and address at the bar. 5. Well,
it not (to be) me. At that time I still (to wait) at the cafe for Simon's
girl. 6. And then I (to see) the car. It (to stand) at the edge of the road
in the shadow of some pines. 7. For a time she (to knit) busily and (to
keep) her eyes strictly on her knitting. 8. We (to go out) on a sunny
terrace. The old lady (to knit) something pink and fleecy, listening to
a portable radio. 9. I (to wait) an hour, then (to pay) for my drink and
(to leave). 10. I (to overtake) the bus halfway between Athens andChrissa.
It (to go) at about fifty miles an hour in a cloud of dust in the middle of
the road. 11. We (to approach) the outskirts of the town when I (to
realize) that of course a service bus had to stop for passengers there. 12.
I caught a glimpse of a girl, driving. She (to sit) back in her seat, hand
ling the jeep like an expert. 13. And then somewhere in the crowd behind
me I distinctly (to hear) my name said again. I (to look) round. The two
old ladies (to be) there. They (to hold) plates heaped with Russian salad.
They (to talk) in low voices and I could not make out what they (to
say). 14. I was just about to call to him when something in the way he
(to act) (to attract) my attention. He not (to look) at the view. Suddenly
I (to know) that he (to listen) to something.
B. Translate into English:
1. Мы постояли несколько минут, потом я пошел к институту
У входа я обернулся. Они все еще стояли на том же месте. 2. Вчера мь
четыре часа писали контрольную работу. 3. Почему я тебя не видел.
в коридоре в большой перерыв? — Мы контрольную работу
14
4. Я заглянул в буфет. Они пили чай и разговаривали. 5. В этот день
не было лекции. Мы просидели это время в буфете. Пили чай и разго
варивали. 6. Я десять минут вчера ждала этого автобуса. 7. Я ждала
автобуса и вдруг увидела Таню. Она шла из института. 8. Я видела
тебя утром в метро. Ты читал газету. Я долго смотрела на тебя, но ты
не обернулся. 9. Это такая грустная книга. Я над ней целый вечер
проплакала. 10. Вчера после школы мы играли в футбол, пока не стем
нело. 11. Мы играли в футбол. Он пришел и говорит: — Я буду врата
рем. 12. Мы часами спорили об этом.
The Past Continuous may be used to denote a relatively future ac

tion (in indirect speech).
E.g. 1. He told me that he was leaving early next day. 2. He asked me
if I was doing anything special that night.
P a tte rn 8
*
lunching
(
doing smth
going somewhere
coming
I staying
smb was
t ) having smth for dinner
wearing
taking smb, smth
I seeing smb
( giving smth (as a present)
Exercise 14. Open the brackets. Use the Present Continuous to denote a future action
and the Past Continuous to denote a relatively future action:
1. She asked me what I (to wear) to the party. 2. I said that I (to
see) Ann later in the day and could give her the message. 3.— you (to
stay) to the end? The game is as good as lost already. 4. We (to have)
fried chicken and apple-pie that night so I asked her to stay to dinner.
5. We (to stay) in town till August this year. 6. What you (to do) on
Sunday? 7. Her people (to give) a party for her. A birthday party. All
her friends (to come). 8. I (to lunch) at Mother’s today. I (to tell her
what we have decided about the house. 9. It’s good-bye, Ann. I not (to
see) you again. 10. What we (to have) for dinner, mother? Two people (to
come) to dinner. — There (to be) enough to go round? 11. I (to give)
her these shoes for her birthday. I (to post) them first thing tomorrow
morning. 12. Definitely I not (to go) to Torquay in August. 13. I knew
that he (to leave) the next day. 14. She told me she not (to stay) to the
end. She did not want to see them lose. 15. She said they (to give) a
party next week and asked me to come too. 16. She said she not (to do)
anything that night and would love to come.
1
15
Note 6. The Past Continuous may be used to denote a present or
future action, characterizing it as an unreal one.
E.g. I wish they were not coming.
The use of the Past Continuous will be treated in the Assignment
on moods.
The Future Continuous

The Future Continuous denotes a temporary action in the future,
taking place at a given moment in the future.
The moment in the future may be indicated by an adverbial expres
sion (e. g. At this time tomorrow we shall be approaching Leningrad), by
an adverbial clause of time (e. g. When I come home the family will be
watching television), by an independent sentence (e. g. I shall come
home at about seven. My family will be watching the cup finale game
on television).
P a tte r n 9
at this time )
when smb does smth } smb will be doing smth
smb will do smth J
Exercise 15. Open the brackets. Use the Future Indefinite if the action is permanent,
repeated or a one-time action. Use the Future Continuous to show that the action is a
temporary onet taking place at a given moment in the future:
1. You (to know) her. She (to stand) at the news stand. She (to wear)
a scarlet rain coat. 2. I (to tell) her everything and I (to show) her the
papers. I promise you she not (to smile) this time. 3. There not (to be)
anyone in when we (to come). The secretary (to have) lunch. 4. It (to
rain) when we (to get) there. 5. Go straight up the street. The car (to
wait) for you at the entrance to the department store. 6. We are much
too early. There (to be) no one there. Why, Flora (to dress) still. 7. Of
course, I (to be) still here when you (to return). I (to mark) the papers.
8. No, don’t phone me at eleven. I ( to take) Mary to the dentist. 9. Come
and speak to me about it in your lunch hour. I (to type) your stuff. 10. Go
and look at the view. You (to find) me at the “Tourists’ Rest.” I (to try)
to find who ordered that car in my name. 11. I don’t think she (to be)
there at that time. She (to sketch) somewhere along the coast. 12. Phone
me the minute you learn something new. I (to wait) for your call. 13. No
one (to see) us come. They (to have) tea on the terrace. 14. At this time
she (to do) her shopping. 15. When you (to come) to Athens I (to cross)
the border.
There is a definite tendency at present to use the Future Continuous
instead of the Future Indefinite to denote a future action.
16
E.g. 1. Г 11 be going abroad soon so it is no use writing. 2. We’ll only
be working a couple of hours in the morning.
Exercise 16. Open the brackets. Use the Future Continuous to denote a future action.
Use the Future Indefinite if the sentence has a clause of time or condition or in case of the
verb ‘to be'.
✓
M o d e l : 1) You (to take) any more examinations this year?

Will you be taking any more examinations this year?
2) When he comes we (to take) you sightseeing.
When he comes we’ll take you sightseeing.
If she asks me I (to mention) it.
If she asks me I’ll mention it.
3) You (to be) too tired to go out to-night.
You will be too tired to go out to-night.
1. In a couple of hours the first guests (to arrive). 2.— you (to visit)
them this summer ? 3. Well, I (to see) you later. 4. That’s all right, child.
He (to come) soon now. 5. You (to go) home one of these days. 6. I hope
she (to be) pretty like her mother. 7. Of course, I (to do) it if you say
so. 8.— you (to want) me today, madam? 9. They (to go) back to town
in a few days now. 10. No one (to notice) anything queer if you keep
your head. 11. Г suppose we (to hear) from him soon. 12. That (to be)
a clever move. 13. When — you (to return) to Oxford, miss? 14. — you
(to give) any more parties this season? 15. What you (to do) if there’s
no one to meet you at the station? 16. You (to go) to school next year.
The Present, Past and Future Continuous may be used to express
the emotions of the speaker, to make the sentence emotional. The adverbs
a lw a ys , forever, c o n sta n tly are used with the verb in the Continuous
form in such cases. The Russian equivalents are «вечно ты», «постоянно»,
«все время».
Any verb can be used in the Continuous form to express the emotions
of the speaker.
P a tte rn 10
Exercise 17. Translate the following sentences into Russian:

1. She was always powdering her nose, touching up her lips and admir
ing the effect in a small round looking-glass. 2. She was forever changing
her mind and writing one will after another. 3. Why are you always com
ing late? 4. She was always coming and staying for hours giving point-
Jess advice and asking endless questions. 5. Don’t ask them. They will
be constantly quarrelling and on everybody’s nerves. 6. You
are always complaining and gfumbling. 8. She’s always borrowing one’s
17
things and forgetting to give them back. 9. Why are you always inter
fering in what doesn’t concern you? 10. A most annoying animal, prac
tically brainless. It is always barking its silly head off at shadows.
Exercise 18. Translate the following sentences into English. Make them emotional.
Use Pattern 10:
1. Вечно вы опаздываете. 2. Ну, почему вы все время ссоритесь?
3. Вечно ты повсюду окурки бросаешь! 4. Почему ты постоянно вор
чишь и жалуешься? 5. Она вечно давала бессмысленные советы. 6. Она
только и делала, что гляделась в зеркало. 7. Она постоянно теряла
библиотечные книжки. 8. Это была маленькая собачонка, которая по
стоянно тявкала. 9. Вечно ты покупаешь туфли на номер меньше, чем
тебе надо. 10. Вечно ты даешь ему конфеты перед обедом.
Exercise 19. Open the brackets. Use Continuous forms where necessary. Explain
why they are used:
1. I really not (to know) what you (to talk) about. 2. It (to be) clear
that for some reason the girl not (to come). 3. What — you (to do)
here? — I (to meet) mother. She (to come) up for a few days shopping.
4. I’ll try and be here by eight if I (to come). In any case I (to let) you
know. — you (to stay) at the “Tourists Rest?” 5. By standing on tip
toes I could just look in. The light (to move) round the room as if a man
with a torch (to look) for something. 6. You always (to find) fault with
me. If it is not one thing it’s another. 7. You (to look) wonderful today.
But then you always (to look) your best in blue. 8. At this time tomorrow
we (to leave). Mother (to pack) our things now. 9. Would you care to
come over to-night and look at the photos? Of course, if you not (to do)
anything special. 10. He (to read) steadily for an hour or so. From time
to time he (to make) a short note in his little red book. Then he (to
look) round. Nobody (to watch) him. 11. So you (to wear) your hair
short again. It suits you. 12. Say, what’s the hurry? Where you (to run)
like that?
Exercise 20. Translate into English. Give two variants where possible:
1. Почему ты в пальто в такой теплый день? 2. Он никогда не но
сит шляпы даже зимой. 3. Вы пойдете на лекцию? Он будет говорить
о своей поездке в Мексику. 4. Кого вы ищете? 5. Когда вы вернетесь?
6. Когда вы сдадите последний экзамен? 7. Вас кто-то ждет внизу.
8. Вечно ты читаешь газету за завтраком. 9. Я работала над этим зада
нием около недели. 10. Я буду работать над этим заданием на будущей
неделе. И. Я кончала это задание, когда получила ваше письмо. 12. Вы
возьмете детей в кино? 13. Когда вы будете ей писать? 14. Что вы будете
обсуждать на уроке лексики? 15. Что вы делаете по воскресеньям?
16. Что вы будете делать в воскресенье? 17. В 1952 году он жил в Одес
се. 18. Он прожил там всю жизнь. 19. Вечно ты споришь. 20. Куда ты
идешь?
Exercise 21. Translate into English. Use the Future Indefinite: 1) in principal clauses
of complex sentences with adverbial clauses of time and condition, 2) with link-verbs, 3)
with verbs seldom used in Continuous forms. Use the Present Continuous with the verbs
'to do1, 'to come1, lto go1, 'to wear1, 'to lunch1, 'togive1, 'to take smbsmth1, 'to publish1,
'to have for dinner1. Use the Future Continuous or the expression 'am1, 'is1, 'are going to
do smth1 in all other cases.
►
Mo d e l : Я пойду с вами, если вы меня подождете.
I’ll come with you if you wait for me.
2) Ко мне сегодня придут друзья.
Some friends are coming over to-night.
Some friends are going to come to-night.
3) Они будут играть с «Рапидом» теперь.
They will be playing with “Rapid” next.
They are going to play with “Rapid” next.
1. Я пойду с вами, если кончу проверять тетради вовремя. 2. Ее
приняли году, она будет стараться хорошо
ующи й 3. Я ничего не пойму. Он говорит
центом. 4. Когда вы это сами увидите, вы поймете, какая это интерес п>
я игра. 5. Сегодня не могу, я буду присматривать за детьми сестры

Через три года я стану учительницей. 7. Что вы сегодня вечером де
лаете? 8. Когда вы будете сдавать латынь? 9. Вы сегодня бу,
контрольную работу? 10. Я сегодня ее увижу в институте, Я
позвоню на днях. 12. Она вам, конечно, напишет.
The Future Continuous in the Past

/
The Future Continuous in the Past denotes a temporary action tak

ing place at a relatively future moment.
Pa t tern 11
knew • \ ( i I, we should be doing

felt I л, ,v I atthat time 1 smth
realized f ' 1 whensmth happened j you, she, they would
said j ‘*I * be doing smth
E.g. 1. He said at that time he would be having a lesson.

2. I knew that at six Mother would be waiting for me at the school
gate. 3. She knew that when she came they would be dancing and no
one would notice her.
KEYS TO EXERCISES
Exercise 3. 1. as soon as I pass 2. until (till) I speak 3. when she

will return 4. when the lecture will begin 5. unless you read 6. as
soon as the soup boils 7. if she will come 8. while I pack 9. until (till)
father returns 10. when we meet 11. if he will come 12. if we shall write
Exercise 6. 1. when he would return 2. that if I missed the train 3.
that I should return 4. that he would speak 5. when I should pass that if
I worked, everything would be 6. if I should speak 7. unless I read 8. till
(until) I allowed her 9. that they would know her when they saw her 10.
when the bus would come 11. unless he prepared well 12. if the children
would like
19
'Exercise 7. 1. grow 2. wears 3. am listening 4. listen, make 5. are
playing, are shouting, are fighting6. play, fight 7. is stopping 8. is grow
ing 9. understand, am thinking 10. are making, make 11. are waiting
12. wears 13. are wearing 14. works 15. are disturbing, is working, is
trying 16. try 17. is crying 18. is waiting, is ticking 19. are taking, is
crying 20. are losing, are saying 21. lose, say, mean
Exercise 8. 1. what are we having 2. you will look 3. you will know 4.
I am lunching 5. you’ll like 6. are coming, are not doing 7. what are you
giving 8. when are they going 9. what are you wearing 10. he’ll under
stand 11. will sound 12. are publishing
Exercise 9. 1. opened, looked, was standing 2. realized, were not pay
ing attention, were muttering, were looking, turned, looked, were
looking, was coming, led 3. went, were standing 4. saw, was hurrying,
made 5. saw, went out, was smiling 6. was looking 7. did not see, was mak
ing 8. occurred, was backing 9. dropped, was fishing 10. heard, were
packing 11. are feeling, was sitting 12. was, was having tea, was calcu»
lating, did not register /
Exercise 12. 1. It smelled, was baking 2. rang, opened, was

standing, was holding 3. were entering, saw 4. was standing, was mak
ing signs 5. woke, was happening, was barking, was saying 6. looked,
was grey, was blowing 7. wore 8. did not know, was wearing, they made
her look 9. was holding, could not see 10. held, was not shortsighted 11.
came, were counting, dropped, looked round, were standing 12. took,
was standing^ hid 13. looked, were thinking 14. returned, was standing,
was shining, was sitting 15. were sitting, was talking, could not hear,
was saying, was leaving, heard
Exercise 13. A. 1. ran, hid 2. looked 3. lit, sat 4. got, occurred 5. was,
was waiting 6. saw, was standing 7. knitted, kept 8. went out, was knit
ting 9. waited, paid, left 10. overtook, was going 11. were approaching,
realized 12. was sitting 13. heard, looked, were, were holding, were
talking, were saying 14. was acting, attracted, was not looking, knew,
was listening
В. 1. stood, went, turned, was standing 2. wrote 3. did not see, were
writing 4. looked, drinking tea and talking 5. was, stayed, drank tea
and talked 6. waited 7. was waiting, saw, was coming 8. saw, were read
ing, looked, did not turn (look up) 9. cried 10. played, became dark
11. were playing, came, said, shall be 12. argued
Exercise 14. 1. was wearing 2. was seeing 3. are staying 4. are having
5. are staying 6. are doing 7. are giving, are coming 8. am lunching,
shall tell 9. am not seeing 10. are having, are coming 11. am giving*
shall post 12. am not going 13. was leaving 14. was not staying 15. wer|
giving 16. was not doing
»
Exercise 15. 1. will know, will be standing, will be wearing 2. shall

tell, shall show, will not smile 3. won’t be, come, will be having 4. will
20
*
►
be raining, get 5. will be waiting 6. will be, will be dressing 7. shall be,
return, shall be marking 8. shall be taking 9. shall be typing 10. will
find, shall be trying 11. will be, will be sketching 12. shall be waiting
13. will see, will be having tea 14. will be doing 15. come, shall be
crossing
Exercise 16. 1. will be arriving 2. will you be visiting 3. will be seeing
4. will be coming 5. will be going 6. will be pretty 7. shall do it 8. will
you be wanting 9. will be going 10. will notice 11. shall be hearing 12. will
be 13. will you be returning 14. will you be giving 15. will you do 16.
will be going
Exercise 18. 1. are coming late 2. are quarrelling 3. are dropping
4. are grumbling and complaining 5. was giving 6. was looking 7. was
losing 8. was barking 9. are buying 10. are giving
Exercise 19. 1. don’t know, are talking 2. was clear, was not coming
3. are doing, are meeting, is coming 4. am coming, shall let, are staying
5. was moving, was looking 6. are finding 7. are looking, look 8. will be
leaving, is packing 9. are not doing 10. read, made, looked, was watching
11. are wearing 12. are running
Exercise 20. 1. are wearing 2. wears 3. are you going, will you be
going, will be speaking 4. are looking 5. are coming back, will be coming
back 6. are taking, will be taking 7. is waiting 8. are reading 9. work
ed 10. will be working 11. was finishing 12. are taking, will you be
taking 13. will be writing 14. will be discussing 15. do you do 16. are do
ing, will be doing 17. was living 18. lived 19. are arguing 20. are going
Exercise 21. 1. I ’ll come 2. will be trying 3. I’ll understand nothing
4. you’ll understand 5. shall be looking after 6. I’ll become 7. are you
doing 8. will you be taking 9. will you be writing 10. shall be seeing 11.
shall be phoning 12. will be hearing from her
In sentences 2, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 the expression am , is, are g o in g
to do sm th can also be used.
\
h
\
s,
T est
(to be sent to the Institute)
Assignment I. Answer the following questions. Give examples to prove your point:
1. How do we show that the action takes place in the future? 2. What
kind of action do continuous forms denote? 3. How is the moment in the
past or future at which a temporary action is supposed to take place in
dicated? 4. When do we not use the continuous forms even if the action
is a temporary one? 5. When do we use the continuous forms of the verbs
to see and to h ear ? 6. How do we recognize the emotiOTal use of the con
tinuous forms?
Assignment II. Open the brackets. Use the necessary tense forms:
1. I wondered why he (to laugh). I could see nothing funny inwhat
(to go on). 2. What — you two (to talk) about? — You (to discuss)
his plan? 3. — you (to leave) town early this summer? 4. When — you (to
speak) to her about her lessons? 5. She (to wear) dark spectacles. They’re
not just sun glasses. She not (to see) well. 6. Why — you wear sun glass
es on a gray day like this? 7. She’s left him. She (to live) with her par
ents now. I think she (to look) for a job. 8. I could" not see his face, he
(to sit) so that his face was in shadow. 9. When I (to see) her last she (to
try) on hats at Angela’s. 10. For some fifteen minutes he (to write) in si
lence without once raising his eyes from what he (to write). 11. We (to
walk) for some time. The road (to get) worse, just a narrow goat trail.
12. Why — you always (to find fault) with people? With people who
are kind to you? Who (to try) to help? 13. You (to leave) us soon now.
It (to get) colder with every day. 14. We were friendly at school. I still
(to see) him from time to time. 15. You (to hear) from me one of these
days. 16. Phone as late as you must. I (to be) up. I (to watch) the foot
ball game on TV. It’s the semi-finals to-night. 17. We (to wait) for that
bus twenty minutes and when it came it was chock-full. People (to block)
the entrance so we could not get in. 18. The rain started when I (to wait)
for my bus. 19. Why did you speak to him so? He only (to try) to help.
20. I hate the place in autumn. It always (to rain) there. It (to rain)
when we came and it (to rain) when we left.
22
►
Assignment HI. Translate into English:
1. Вы сегодня пойдете на лекцию по истории языка? 2. Нина пишет
нибу 3. Вы его ждали вчера? 4. Вы почему в свитере
У вас сегодня урок ходьбы на лыжах? 5. Обычно он жде'
[а в метро и мы едем домой вместе. 6. Вечно ты возражаешь
Не могу, завтра приезжает мама. 8. Ты что целую библиотеку
пь в портфеле? Он очень тяжелый. 9. У нее обычно пять или ш<
книг в сумке, поэтому она такая тяжелая. 10. День был о
На мне был свитер и лыжная куртка, и мне все же было
И. Ты увидишь в институте? Звонок когда
я кончала сочинение. Он
тор. 14. Кто-нибудь читает эту газету? Я хочу ее взять. 15. Г,
работает? 16. Приходи буду ждать
Assignment IV. Write a page-long description of any picture you like. Use the Present
Indefinite and the'Present Continuous in the description. Use the Present Indefinite speak
ing of permanent actions, the Present Continuous when speaking about temporary actions.
t
V
\
J.
Tenses In the Active Voice
Par t II *
Perfect and Perfect Continuous Forms

' %
The Perfect forms denote actions or series of actions completed be

fore the moment of speech or a given moment in the past or future.
The Perfect Continuous forms denote actions or series of actions begun
before the moment of speech or a given moment in the past or future and
continued up to that moment (either being just over at that moment or
still going on).
Table of Perfect and Perfect Continuous Forms
Perfect Forms Perfect Continuous Forms

*
The Present Perfect 1 The Present Perfect Continuous

*
£as 1 done smth
have j have } been doing smth
■
The Past Perfect ^ The Past Perfect Continuous

t
had done smth had been doing smth

*
я
The Future Perfect The Future Perfect Continuous
Ш
. 1
1
will f have done smth l have been doing smth
The Future Perfect in the Past The Future Perfect Continuous in

the Past
ф
would } have done smth wcm/d } îave ^ееп d°mg smth

1
_
r
24
Tenses in Modern English can be divided into two sets:
♦
A В
The tenses of direct speech: The tenses of the narrative:
1) The Present Indefinite 1) The Past Indefinite
The Present Continuous The Past Continuous
2) The Future Indefinite 2) The Future in the Past
The Future Continuous The Future Continuous in the Past
3) The Future Perfect 3) The Future Perfect in the Past *
The Future Perfect Continuous * The Future Perfect Continuous in
the Past *
4
4) The Present Perfect 4) The Past Perfect

The Present Perfect Continuous The Past Perfect Continuous
5) The Past Indefinite
The Past Continuous
The Present Perfect and the Present Perfect Continuous

The Present Perfect and the Present Perfect Continuous are used
only in direct speech or its equivalents (letters, newspaper articles, etc.).
1. The Present Perfect is used to denote an action or a series of ac
tions completed in a period of time not yet over at the moment of speech.
t
P a tte rn 1
*
’i
just
j today
already
smb has never done smth < this week
often this term
*
2. The Present Perfect Continuous is used to denote an action or a

series of actions begun in the past and going on or just over at the moment
of speech.
В. Mor some time

smb has been doing smth < since a certain moment
( since smb did smth
E.g. 1. I have spoken to her about you, I have a lrea d y made up my mind.
We have often written dictations this term. 2. Mother has been
looking for you since ten o'clock. She has been taking lessons for
about two m onths. She has been teaching English since she g ra d u a ted .
The Present Perfect Continuous is not used in Pattern В: 1. with the
verbs: to know, to understand, to love, to hate, to like, to dislike. 2. with
one-time actions.
E.g. 1. I have known him all my life. 2. He has written only once since
he le ft. . ■
**ma**mmut"'1111111 " V
* These forms are comparatively seldom used.
25
The Present Perfect Continuous is used in Pattern A if a process of
some duration is meant or in emphatic speech.
E.g. 1. We have just been speaking about you. He’s been drinking again,
I’m afraid. 2. Oh, Jim! I’ve been waiting and hoping so!
Exercise 1. A. Open the brackets. Use the Present Perfect or the Present Perfect Con
tinuous where necessary. Use Pattern 1 A, B:
1. I never (to see) this face. 2. I often (to see) his name in the papers
this year, 3. I (to try) to get her on the phone for about twenty minutes.
4. She (to study) English for a year and (to learn) many words and ex
pressions. 5. I (to know) it since yesterday. 6. I (to look) for him since
I (to leave) the hotel but I not (to find) him. I (to be) to the other three
hotels but there is no visitor of that name anywhere. 7. I’m sorry,— you
(to wait) long? — No, I just (to come) down. 8. He is a Dutch painter
who (to make) his way through the mountains with a donkey for a couple
of weeks and (to sleep) out of door all this time. 9. I like his work. He (to
work) in oils of late and he (to do) one or two rather striking things this
week. 10. I (to be) up here since about six. I (to sketch) for hours. 11.
I just (to remember). That man over there — he (to sit) here since the
last bus (to leave). 12. I (to come) to you to ask for some information.
13. I expect these young men (to tell) you who I am? 14. I really don’t
know what you (to do) there all this time. 15. Ever since it happened
I (to pretend) to myself that it was an accident. 16. And this is what she
(to do) ever since.
B. Translate into English. Use Pattern 1 A, B:
1. Я это тебе всегда говорил. 2. Я всегда знал, что здесь что-то не
так. 3. Я еще никогда не видела ее такой сердитой. 4. Что ты так долго
делала в кухне? 5. Я учу английский около года. 6. Давно вы учите ан
глийский язык? 7. Я пойду с вами, если вы не передумали. 8. Я работаю
над этой проблемой с прошлого года и получила интересные результа
ты. 9. Она мне уже показала эту статью. 10. Последнее время она пока
зывала мне свои статьи. Довольно интересно. 11. Я вас больше месяца
не видел. Что вы делали все это время? Вы уезжали куда-нибудь?
12. С тех пор как вы уехали, там произошло много интересного.
3. The Present Perfect Continuous and the Present Perfect may be
used side by side retaining their own meanings.
P a tte r n 2
smb has been doing smth for some time

and (smb) has done smth
E.g. 1. We have been living here for a month and it has rained only once.
2. They have been experimenting with it since last year, but have
got nothing definite as yet.
26
*
Exercise 2. Open the brackets. Use the Present Perfect Continuous and the Present
Perfect according to Pattern 2:
1. I (to translate) this article for about an hour and (to translate)
the first part. 2. “I know what you (to work) on these last days,” said
Hardcastle. “— you (to discover) any new facts?” 3. They (to discuss)
the case for hours but (to be) unable to come to any decision. 4. You (to
read) too many mystery stories of late. They (to give) you ideas. 5. You
(to listen) to gossip. The things you (to hear) are quite impossible. 6. She
(to try) all kinds of patent medicine for years but nothing (to be) of any
use. 7. I (to tell) you so for years but you never (to pay) any attention.
8. They (to take) her from one specialist to another since she was two
and it not (to be) of the slightest use. 9. She (to take) lessons of elocution
and I (to notice) a certain improvement of late. 10. They (to advertise)
for information since May but they (to receive) nothing of any value.
Just the usual letters.
1. Я жду здесь с десяти часов. Сюда никто не заходил. 2. Мы читаем
эту книгу с сентября и прочли уже больше половины. 3. Она себя не
важно чувствует последнее время и пропустила несколько занятий.
4. Я сегодня делала покупки и наконец нашла тебе перчатки. 5. Послед
нее время он брал уроки плавания в бассейне и научился довольно
хорошо плавать. 6. Он тренирует эту команду всего полгода, но они
сделали большие успехи.
N 1. Don’t confuse the Present Continuous and the Present Per
feet Continuous. Both forms correspond to the Russian pres
ent tense.
E.g I am looking for the secretary.
Я ищу секретаря.
b u t: I have been looking for her for ten minutes.
Я ищу ее уже десять минут.
Tve been waiting for you since ten o’clock.
Я жду вас с десяти часов.
The Present Perfect Continuous is used if the duration of the action
is mentioned.
Compare these two patterns of direct speech:
■
r.
1. Smb is doing smth—(at the mo 2. Smb has been doing smth... (for some
ment of speech) time, since a certain moment, since
smb did smth, of late)
E.g. 1. She’s trying to catch your eye. What are you looking for? Are
you waiting for me?
2. I’ve been trying to find you since ten o’clock. Have you been
waiting long? What have you been doing since I saw you last?
Exercise 4. A. Open the brackets. Use the Present Continuous to show that the action
takes place at the moment of speech, or the Present Perfect Continuous, to show that the
action began before the moment of speech and went on up to it:
» * <
1. Why are you so red? — you (to run)? 2,— You (to try) to tell
me something? 3. What — you (to do) to that child? 4. What — you
►
27
/
(to do) to your hair? It looks wonderful. 5. He (to do) his lessons since
after lunch. 6. Come right in but look where you (to go). We (to paint)
the^ living room. 7. The bathroom is a mess. The children (to wash)
their dog. 8. Why are your eyes so red? — you (to cry)? 9. Why — you
(to cry)? 10.— You (to get) ready to go out? И. I (to try) to make up my
mind for days. 12. She (to sleep) badly of late. 13. They (to quarrel)
and (to make) it up again all morning. 14.— you (to quarrel) again,
children? 15. I can see her face in the mirror. She (to smile). 16. She (to
type) with small intervals ever since she came back from that walk. 17.
I (to try) to make up my mind since you spoke to me at the party. In
fact I (to try) to make it up right now.
1. Вы это делаете не так. Вы уже пять минут пытаетесь открыть
дверь не тем ключом. 2. Ты куда так торопишься? — Мама ждет меня
у метро уже пять минут. 3. Вы читаете эту газету? 4. Я ношу это паль
то уже два года. Оно совсем, как новое. 5. Нет, мне не холодно. На мне
толстый свитер. 6. Кого вы ждете? 7. Давно вы его ждете? 8. Почему
вы здесь стоите? 9. Давно вы здесь стоите? 10. Она преподает англий
ский с прошлого года. И. Она учит меня английскому языку. 12. По
следнее время она пропускает уроки. 13. Я стараюсь найти эту книгу
с тех пор, как вы мне о ней рассказали. 14. Я стараюсь найти одну кни
гу. 15. У тебя усталый вид. Ты рпять плохо спала. 16. Ты почему улы
баешься? 17. Сейчас я готовлюсь к экзаменам.
4. The verb in the adverbial clause of time introduced by since is
mostly in the Past Indefinite (e. g. I have been looking after the children
since their mother died). The Present Perfect is used in this clause if
we mean за тот период времени, что.
P a tte rn 3
b / kas keen doing smth 1 since smb has

\ has done smth / done smth
E.g. 1. No one has come in here since I have been here. 2. She has been
a different girl since she has known it. 3. You’ve been to see her
only twice since she has been ill.
The Present Perfect is also used in the adverbial clause of time intro
duced by since in the following pattern:
P a t tern 4 *I
it is a long time since smb has done smth
E.g. 1. It’s a long time since I have been here. 2. It’s a long time since
I have drunk really good coffee.
28
►
Exercise 5. Open the brackets. Use the Past Indefinite or the Present Perfect in the
*since1 clause according to Patterns 3 and 4:
1. It’s a long time since I (to see) him. 2. Nobody (to leaye) this
room since we (to be) here. 3. Nobody ( to enter) this house since we (to
be posted) here. 4. They (to win) game after game since he (to begin)
coaching them. 5. It is a long time since I (to smoke) my last cigarette.
6. It is the first time she (to say) a tactless thing since I (to know) her.
7. She (to cry) ever since you (to tell) her. 8. They (to play) this game
since you (to show) them how. 9. It’s a long time since we (to speak)
of this. 10. It is only ten days since Uncle (to come).
Exercise 6. Complete the following sentences.
Mo d e l : It’s a long time (you to come to see us).
It’s a long time since you have come to see us.
No one has made this kind of mistake (the rule to explain).
No one has made this kind of mistake since the rule was
explained to us.— с тех пор, как
I haven’t read much (I to be ill).
I haven’t read much since I have been ill.— за тот период,
что...
1. You’ve been putting on weight steadily (you — to come back
from your vacation). 2. She’s been complaining about noise (to buy a
TV set). 3. They’ve been avoiding each other (they — to quarrel). 4. It’s
only five days (we — to return). 5. We have spent only one or two eve
nings at home (mother — to be here). 6. It is a long time (we — to
leave school). 7. Has anyone called (he — to be out)? 8. She has not
phoned once (you — to hurt her feelings). 9. You would not know the flat
now. We’ve been doing things to it (you — to be there last). 10. She’s
been feeling better (she— to see a specialist).
*
i^'
Note 2. The Present Perfect in direct speech corresponds to the Rus

sian past tense.
1. We have come to an agreement.— пришли к соглашению
\ 2. I have seen this girl somewhere. видел
3. He has never been to Leningrad. - не был
5. The Past Indefinite is used in direct speech only in three cases:
*
1. in “when” questions;
2. if the time of the action is definitely stated;
3. if we mean “at that time”.
•g. 1. When did he tell you so? 2. He left some fifte e n m in u tes ago.
It happened when 1 w as ou t. 3. I have spoken to her about you.
She did not object to your leaving (when I spoke to her). I have
read the poem. It rather impressed me (when I read if).
Exercise 7. Open the brackets. Use the Past Indefinite only:
0 in *when’ questions, 2) if the action is definitely stated ort 3) if a moment in the past
Cat that time') is meant:
t
*
29
/
1. When you (to hear) it? 2. I (to hear) nothing of the sort. 3. I just 4
(to think) of something. 4. They (to show) it to me already. 5. What you
(to do) there all this time? 6.— you (to wait) long? 7. I (to speak) to
him at the conference. 8.— you (to show) them my plan? What they
(to say)? 9. It’s what I always (to say). 10. How many times I (to tell)
you not to bang the door. 11.— anyone (ask) for me when I (to be) out?
12. What — he (to say)?
/
Exercise 8. A. Open the brackets. Use the Past Indefinite in the narrative and the
Present Perfect or Present Perfect Continuous in direct speech (except in ‘when’ questions,
if the time of the action is definitely stated or if a definite moment in the past is meant):
1. Alec (to work) in a bank. He (to be) twenty-five. He (to share)
a small flat with another boy. He (to have) an ancient mouse coloured
car and a dog. 2. I (to come) to you to ask for information. 3. What —
you, children, (to do) with my pen? — you (to play) with it again?
4. When — the lecture (to begin)? 5. I (to speak) to her about it many
times. 6. Why you not (to speak) at the conference? 7. What — she (to
wear)? 8.— anybody (to see) him today? — I (to see) him about half
an hour ago. He (to get) ready to leave. 9. The young man (to tear)
the envelope open and (to take) a small sheet of paper out. His hands
(to shake) a little. 10. Look! He (to open) the bag. He (to take) something
out.
1. Я помогаю ему с начала учебного года, и он уже многому научил
ся. 2. Кто взял мой словарь? Я его вчера здесь на полке оставила.
3. Он посмотрел на меня и ничего не сказал. Он ждал кого-то. 4. Она
говорит уже десять минут и сделала всего пять или шесть ошибок,
б. Почему ты с ней так разговаривала? 6. Вы давно его знаете? 7. Дав
но вы меня ждете? 8. Когда вы начали учить английский язык? 9. У те
бя красные глаза. Ты плакала? 10. Он уехал на прошлой неделе.
11. Он подошел к окну. Открыл его и помахал кому-то рукой. 12. Мы
ждем здесь с двух часов и никто не сказал нам, что делать. 13. Я бо
юсь, что она передумала. Она мне ничего не сказала, когда я видела
ее в последний раз. 14. Когда он приехал? — Неделю назад и еще ни
кому не звонил. /
I If you had no mistakes in Exercises A and В go over to the next
point directly. If you had mistakes do Exercises C and D first.
C. Open the brackets. Use the Past Indefinite, the Past Continuous, the Present Perfect
or the Present Perfect Continuous:
1. I’m so glad you (to come). We (to wait) for hours. 2. Margaret,
you (to read) my letters. Don’t deny it. 3. I don’t know how you (to
discover) that I (to be) there that night. 4. I shall do exactly as I (to
say). 5. Show me the map.— you (to find) where we are? 6. When you (to
discuss) it? I never (to hear) the subject mentioned. 7. No, you can’t
have another ice-cream. You (to have) two already. 8. Why, you not (to
change) at all. I (to recognize) you the moment I (to see) you. 9.—Mother
(to go) to bed already? 10. When — you (to go) to bed? 11. I До hear,)
30
that some flowers grow better in shady places. 12. I (to mention) the
subject once or twice. He not (to be) interested. 13. Oh, he (to explain)
everything. He (to be out) when you (to phone). It (to be) his father
who (to answer) the phone. 14. My dear girl, you (to overeat) for years.
You (to lose) your looks, you (to lose) your figure. You can’t get back
to normal overnight. Remember what doctor Blair (to tell) you on Mon
day. 15. Look! She (to write) something on the fly-leaf of the book. 16.
\Ye town-bred people (to lose) something. I (to see) it when I (to spend)
that summer in the mountains. 17. He not (to say) a single word to me
yet and he (to get) that letter on Sunday. 18. The children (to talk) of
nothing else for weeks. 19. And we (to work) together ever since that
time. 20. I wonder what (to happen) there since we (to leave)?
D. Translate into English:
1. Я его только что видела. Он с кем-то разговаривал в коридоре.
2. Ты в жизни своей никогда по-настоящему не работал. 3. Когда он
приходил? 4. Машинистка еще не вернулась. 5. Что вы там так долго
обсуждали? 6. Последнее время вы меньше работаете. 7. Вы получили
тройку за последнюю контрольную. 8. Спасибо, мы только что пообе
дали. 9. Она мне все рассказала. 10. Вчера, когда мы ехали домой, она
мне все рассказала. 11. Товарищи, еще ничего не было сказано о нашей
программе. 12. Они играют у себя в комнате с самого обеда. 13. Я ра
ботаю над этими вопросами с прошлого года. 14. Я о вас так много слы
шала. 15. Я это, кажется, читала. 16. Когда он в последний раз напи
сал вам? 17. Где я видела это лицо? 18. Она все объяснила. Она была
тогда больна и не могла позвонить. 19. Ты ей написал, наконец?
20. Что вы сказали?
6. The Present Perfect is used in clauses of time to denote a future
action if we want to emphasize the priority of the action.
Compare:*l
r when \
as soon as
smb will do smth < after l smb does smth
before I
l till J
( when \
as soon as
smb will do smth after smb has done smth
before
i till
E.g. I’ll give you my opinion of the book when I finish reading it, or
when I have finished reading it. I shall not promise anything be
fore I speak about it to my wife, or before I have spoken about
it to my wife.
t
Exercise 9. A. Make the sentences more emphatic by using the Present Perfect in clauses
of time:
Nothing will be done till he arrives. 2. I shall not make any plans
before I speak to my doctor. 3. The parents agree it till
they see her the stage He will phone his mother after he passes
the examination. 5. I shall tell you the story when she returns.
B. Translate into English. Give both variants, with the Present Indefinite and Present
Perfect, in each case:
1. Я дам тебе конфету, когда ты выпьешь молоко. 2. Я пойду за
покупками, когда прочитаю газету. 3. Я не уеду из города, пока мама
не выздоровеет. 4. Соревнование начнется, как только этот вопрос будет
решен. 5. Он не заснет, пока я не расскажу ему сказку.
N o t e 3. The Pattern smb has got smth may be used in two ways:
to denote an action completed before the moment of speech
I’ve just got a most interesting letter; Who has already
got the text-books?); 2) as an equivalent of to possess smth
. I’ve got a dog and a kitten.— У меня есть...)
1. Ты не пойдешь гулять, пока не выучишь уроки. Твой учитель
математики опять на тебя жаловался. 2. Они дадут вам ответ только
после того, как обсудят ваше предложение. Они обещали сделать это
сегодня. 3. Я начну писать статью, только когда дети уйдут в школу.
Я стараюсь закончить ее уже несколько дней. 4. Я перевожу это упраж
нение уже минут двадцать и перевела только четыре предложения.
Это самое трудное упражнение из всех, что мы делали в этом году.
Я стараюсь не делать ошибок. 5. Когда вы начали учить английский?
Я начал учить английский язык, когда был в командировке в Англии.
Я уже научился довольно бегло говорить, но все еще делаю ошибки
во временах.
Exercise 11. Translate the verbs in bold type into English. Retell the stories in
English:
A . Несчастный случай
Это *была очень уютная и чистая кухня. Солнце сквозь

Зблестел, на плите 4кипел чайник и толстый черный
любимец миссис Браун Миссис Бр
в кр есл е
Вдруг сильный взрыв 7потряс маленький домик. Миссис БрауН
8 выглянула в окно. По улице 9бежали люди. Кто-то 10крикнул: —«Это
ia фабрике! Котел 11взорвался!

Миссис Браун 12побледнела, закрыла лицоггмтт'4 руками ™14опустилась
в кресло
32
►
Ее муж 1бработал в котельной.
Я 16была ему плохой женой,— подумала она.— Только вчера
я 17выбранила его за то, что он 18не вытер ноги, когда 19вошел в кухню.
А теперь я его никогда не увижу.
20Хлопнула дверь, кто-то 21вошел в комнату.
— Не плачь, Мэри! — 22услышала она голос мужа, Ничего
особенного 23не случилось. Никто 24не ранен.
Миссис Браун подняла голову.
О, Стивен! — 25сказала она.— Сколько раз я тебе26говорила:
вытирай ноги, когда 27входишь в дом.
В. П окупая кни га
В прошлом году я Поссорился с женой. Она Говорила, что я слиш
ком много денег Зтрачу на книги. Я 4понял, что она Права и Пообе
щал, нто больше этого делать не буду.
Однако, когда я 7шел на работу, я 8увидел очень интересную книгу
в киоске.
На этой неделе я еще ничего Не покупал,— подумал я. Если
ю
я напишу на этой книге: «за участие в любительском спектакле»,
жена ничего ине скажет.
Так ты ^участвовал в спектакле? — удивилась жена, Почему
я тебя 13не видела?
Я Одержал на плечах балкон для Ромео и Джульетты,— 16отве-
тил я.
На следующей книге я 16написал: «С любовью и наилучшими поже
ланиями, твой любящий дядя Бела».
Что это за дядя? 1?спросила жена. Почему я с ним 18не
знакома?
— Бедный, милый дядя,— ответил я.— Он одарит мне книги,
19
с тех пор, как я 20научился читать. Он уже 20 лет 21живет в Гродно

и ни разу 22не выезжал оттуда, из-за своего здоровья.
Потом разные писатели 23начали дарить мне свои книги из любви
и уважения ко мне. Однажды я 24иришел домой с книгой, которую
мне 2Иодарил Золя. Жена 26стояла перед зеркалом. На'ней 27было
новое платье.
Ты купила платье? — спросил я.
28
Нет, 29ответила она.— Мне его 30подарил твой друг.

Какой друг? 31
закричал я.
Тот, который 32подарил тебе столько книг. Чарльз Диккенс.
Теперь мне ясно, почему последнее время у нас 33были такие
плохие обеды.
The Future Perfect and the Future Perfect Continuous

The Future Perfect and the Future Perfect Continuous are used in
direct speech.
1. The Future Perfect is used to denote an action or a series of actions
completed before a certain moment in the future.
2 № 813 33
Pattern 6
A. by thi time |
by the time smth happens I smb will have (already, just)
smth will happen J donesmth
when smth happens )
E.g. 1. By this time next week they will have left town. 2. By the time
we get there it will have stopped raining. 3. I shall see her on Mon
day. She will have already typed your article. 4. When.you see
her next, she will have taken the last exam.
2. The Future Perfect Continuous is used to denote an action or
series of actions begun before a certain moment in the future and going
on at that moment or just over.
«
B . by th is tim e 'j
b y th e tim e sm th h a p p e n s 1[ sm b w ill h a v e b een d o in g sm th
w h e n sm th h a p p en s if for so m e tim e
!
sm th w ill h a p p en J
*
E.g- 1. By the time she graduates I shall have been teaching English for
two years. 2. When my daughter goes to school we shall have been
living here for over five years. 3. We shall get there at 8.30 at the
earliest. They will have been waiting for over an hour. Mother will
be very cross.
к
Exercise 12. A. Open the brackets. Use the Future Perfect, the Future Indefinite, the
Present Indefinite:
1. By the time you (to get) this letter everything (to be decided).
2. When you (to return) the Swedes either (to lose) or (to win) the game
already. 3. By.the end of next month we (to learn) English for nearly six
months. 4. By the time you (to come) out here we (to tramp) over Crete
for two weeks. 5. The Conference (to be over) on Monday and the last
delegates (to leave) the place. 6. They expect us at seven. I (to type)
the last letter bv then.
1. К этому времени она тебя совсем забудет. 2. Поторапливайся.
Дети уже придут из школы, пока мы вернемся. 3. Какие-нибудь меры
будут приняты еще до его приезда. 4. Мы будем рекламировать эти
товары несколько месяцев к тому времени, как они появятся на рынке.
5. К этому времени они и сами все поймут. 6. Мы придем к часу. Секре
тарь уже уйдет обедать.
3. The moment in the future may be indicated by an adverbial ex
pression (by this time, by the end of the week, by Monday), by an ad
verbial clause of time (by the time we come; when we come), by an in-
34
dependent sentence (We shall get there at eight. They will have finished
working).
The adverbial clause of time introduced by when may be used to in
dicate a moment at which a temporary action will be going on and a mo
ment before which an action will be completed. Compare the two patterns:
When smb does smth smb will be doing smthI

I
E.g. When you come ГИ be waiting.

ft
When smb does smth smb will have done smth
E.g. When you come she will have left.

Exercise 13. Open the brackets. Use the Future Perfect, the Future Continuous or the
Present Indefinite:
1. When mother (to arrive) most of my friends (to leave) town and
we (to get ready) to leave. 2. When the bell (to go) some of the children
(to hand) in already their papers, some (to look) through the completed
work and only one or two (to write) still. 3. When we (to get) there people
(to stand) in groups talking and laughing and only Mother and Dad (to
go in) to look for their seats. 4. By the time you (to be through) I (to
book) the tickets and (to wait) for you at the office.
*
The Past Perfect and the Past Perfect Continuous

The Past Perfect and the Past Perfect Continuous are used only in
the narrative.
1. The Past Perfect is used to denote an action or a series of actions
completed before a certain moment in the past.
P a t tern 7
A. by that time
by the time smb did smth I already
smb had | just done smth
when smb did smth
smb did smth
*
1 never
E.g. 1. By that time he had already changed his mind. 2. By the time
we got there the last copy of the book had been sold. 3. When we
got there the typist had typed all the letters. 4. I finished typing
at seven. The post had already gone. 4
2. The Past Perfect Continuous is used to denote an action or a series

of actions begun before a certain moment in the past and going on or
just over at that moment.
2* 35
0
В. by that time
by the time smb did smth I smb had been doing smth for
when smb did smth [ some time
smb did smth I
E.g. 1. By the time he was twenty-three he had been writing steadily

for two years and some of his things had been accepted. 2. I gave
them lunch at two o'clock. They had been playing on the beach
for hours and were ready for food.
The Past Perfect is used in Pattern В with the verbs to know , to u n
d ersta n d , to lik e , to d is lik e , to love , to hate.
i
E.g. By that time, of course, I had known him for years and had no illu
sions left.
The Past Perfect Continuous is used in Pattern A if a process of some
duration is meant.
E.g. 1. Her eyes were red. She had been crying again. 2. She saw at first
glance that someone had been rummaging among her things.
The moment in the past may be indicated by an adverbial expression
(by th a t tim e, by the end of the y e a r , by five o'clock), an adverbial clause
of time (when we cam e ; by the tim e we came), by an independent sentence
(e.g. The train was twenty minutes late. There had been an unexplained
stop at a level crossing.)
*■
Exercise 14. A. Open the brackets. Use the Past Indefinite, the Past Continuous, the
Past Perfect, the Past Perfect Continuous:
1. By the time they (to cross) the street they (to lose sight) of the
little man. He (to disappear), probably (to enter) one of the shops. 2. The
first thing I (to see) was a footprint. Somebody (to stand) there for quite
some time judging by the cigarette butts on the grass. 3. I (to give)
Frances the flowers I (to pick), and (to sit) down. 4. By the time we (to
reach) the narrow entrance to the little bay the sun (to go) down and the
breeze (to drop). We (to walk) for hours and I could hardly drag my
feet. 5. And then we (to see) him. He (to stand) well forward looking
into the water. He not (to hear) us corn?. 6. When I (to meet) him at
that party he (to come) just to New York. 7. By the time she (to sell)
the last bunch of flowers the last bus (to go).
1. Они только что кончили школу, когда мы познакомились. 2. Им
было жарко и они устали. Они играли все утро на пляже. 3. К тому вре
мени секретарь уже вернулся. 4. Мы были очень удивлены, никто не
знал, что она пишет стихи. 5. Он сказал мне, что давно наблюдает за
этой командой и что она ему всегда нравилась. 6. К тому времени как
мы вернулись, они уже пришли к соглашению. 7. К этому времени мы
уже достигли соглашения.*
*
*
ч
If you had no mistakes in Exercises A and В go over to Exercise

15 directly. If you had mistakes do Exercises C and D first.
C. Open the brackets. Use the Past Indefinitey the Past Continuous, the Past Perfect
and the Past Perfect Continuous:
1. Since the beginning of the play Van (to watch) a dark girl sitting
in front of him. He (to notice) her at once. 2. I (to write) the letter.
I (to try) to write it for weeks. 3. He (to wonder) if she (to change)
much since he (to see) her last. 4. I (to see) her at once. She (to stand)
there on the platform, holding a bunch of wilting flowers. She never (to
look) so helpless. 5. He (to know) the girl since she (to be) a small child
and (to manage) her affairs since she (to come) of age. 6. Looking out
of the taxi window he (to be) confused to notice that some familiar build
ings (to disappear) and new ones (to take) their place. 7. Campion
who (to watch) the young widow (to decide) that he (to be) entirely
mistaken. She (to be) much prettier and younger than he (to think).
In fact it (to be) hard to believe that she (to he) married. She (to look)
such a child. 8. Lugg (to say) nothing till they (to be) in the dressing
room where they (to leave) their coats. 9. He (to be) quite sure he (to
see) that face somewhere. 10. She (to ask) me to help her because she
(to know) that I still (to work) for you. She (to know) I (to help) you
to solve that missing luggage case, (to help) you for years. 11. By the
time they (to reach) the station he (to make up) his mind. 12. The un
eaten breakfast (to be) still on the table in the kitchen. She (to be called
away) in a hurry. 13. By midnight she (to lose) hope to ever see me again
and (to start) phoning the hospitals. 14. The cheerful girl who (to come)
in with Eve (to be introduced) at last. 15. I (to learn) that nothing what
ever (to be done) though I (to leave) detailed instructions. 16. They (to
walk) much too fast and I (to be) out of breath.
3. The adverbial clause of time introduced by when may be used to
indicate a moment at which a temporary action was going on or a moment
before which an action was completed. Compare the two patterns:
When smb did smth smb was doing smth
E.g. 1. When he came home from school the younger children had already
gone to the river bank. 2. When the storm finally broke out we
had been tramping over the sodden windswept moor for hours.
Exercise 15. A. Open the brackets. Use the necessary tense forms:
37
1. When I (to bend) over him he (to sleep) peacefully. He (to leave)
the lights on. 2. When he (to speak) again he (to forget) his plan already
and {to try) to describe the situation over there. 3. When I (to give)
a last look behind me the two little figures (to turn) back and (to walk)
rapidly through the trees. 4. When she (to say) that and (to smile)
I (to make up one’s mind) already to refuse. 5. When the train started
I (to sit) with my face to the window. 6. When it (to start) raining I still
(to try) to start the engine. 7. When we finally (to get) there the children
(to wait) for hours. 8. When I (to find) the place everybody (to go) down
to the beach. The only living being left, a yellow cat (to look) at me with
out interest. *
1. Когда я пришел, машинистка уже давно печатала мою статью.
2. Когда он позвонил, дети уже давно вернулись из школы и что-то
обсуждали. 3. Когда мы вышли из дома, дождь перестал и солнце
начинало проглядывать сквозь облака. 4. Когда она пришла, мы уже
решили в театр не идти и смотрели телепередачу. 5. Когда раздался
звонок, она как раз кончала доклад, основное она уже сказала.
6. Когда мы увидели в окнах свет, он уже давно вернулся из театра и
ложился спать.
Exercise 16. A. Open the brackets. Use the Past Perfect if a usual or one-time action is
meant. Use the Past Perfect Continuous in case of a temporary action, or a series of actions.
M o d e l : 1) She did not want to stay here a minute longer. She (to try)
and (to fail).— had tried and failed.
2) Her eyes were red, her expression sullen. She (to cry).—
had been crying.
1. Their faces were smeared with purple juice. They (to eat) black
berries. 2. His hair was damp. He (to swim) again. 3. They ran to meet
me shouting and laughing. The long expected telegram (to come). 4. The
answer was brief. Jack (to leave) the hotel. 5. One look at Mother’s
face was enough. She (to discover) our hiding place. 6. She looked pale
and listless. She (to overwork) and needed a rest. 7. One look at his face
was enough — he (to get) the job. 8. I wondered if Mary was the girl
who night after night (to steal) out of the Abbey to meet someone in the
Park. 9. I could not wear my raincoat. The children (to use) it as a tent,
playing explorer games all winter and it looked it. 10. She danced better
now. Her brother (to teach) her probably.
%•

1. Велосипеда в сарае не было. Его опять взял Джек. 2. Дети стара
лись не смотреть друг на друга. Они опять поссорились. 3. Я посмот
рел в окно. Ночью опять шел дождь. 4. Я очень обрадовалась, увидев
эту книгу. Я давно старалась ее найти. 5. В комнате пахло дымом.
Там кто-то курил. 6. На нашем любимом месте мы нашли следы костра.
Там кто-то побывал до нас этим летом.
4. The Past Perfect is used in clauses of time if we want to emphasiz
the priority of the action to that of the action in the principal clause.
38
*
ComPare:
when
as soon as
smb did smth after smb did smth
before
till
P a tte rn 8
r
when
as soon as
smb did smth after Ism b had done smth
before
l till
E.g. 1. He made up his mind to become a writer when his first story
was accepted. He made up his mind to become a writer only
when his first story had been accepted.
2. They did not take any measures before the papers began to write
about it. They did not take any measures before the papers had
begun to write about it.
Exercise 17. A. Make the sentences more emphatic by using the Past Perfect in clauses
of time:
1. After we changed our blouses and washed our hands we went down
stairs. 2. I began to understand what he meant when I read the third
chapter. 3. Nothing whatever was done about the crossing till people
started complaining about it. 4. They told her all about it as
soon as they got the telegram.
B. Translate into English. Give both variants (with the Past Indefinite and Past Per-
feet):
Когда я это сам увидел, я понял, что это интересно. 2. Я
об этом не знал, пока не прочел вашу статью. 3. Мы не были уверены
в победе, пока не была сыграна последняя игра. 4. Она перестала вол
новаться, как только мы показали ей это письмо.
The Future Perfect In the Past and the Future Perfect Continuous in
the Past
These forms are used only in the narrative.
1. The Future Perfect in the Past is used to denote an action completed
before what was considered in the past a future moment (a relatively
future moment).
39
Pattern 9
said ( by that time \ j

knew 1 smb would
.. . j when smb did smth > have done
smb felt | by the time smb
understood i did smth smth
*
E.g. 1. We knew that by the end of the week we should have left the
camp. 2. He knew that by the time Joe returned with a doctor he
would have bled to death. 3. The lawyer supposed that many
more documents pertinent to the case would have been discov
ered before the end of the search. 4. He asserted that he would
have been granted his diploma before the end of the month.
2. The Future Perfect Continuous in the Past is used to denote an
action begun before what was considered in the past a future moment
(a relatively future moment) or an action either going on at that
moment or just over.
B. ' said
( by that time smb would have
J knew when smb didsmth been doing
smb,| felt that
by the time smb smth' for some
{ understood*
123 did smth time
E.g. 1. He said that he would have been working at this model for two
years by that time. 2. She understood that by the end of the year
she would have been living entirely on borrowed money for a couple
of months. 3. I knew that by the time they came back we should
have been working for hours.
General Training Exercises

Exercise 18. Open the brackets. Use the tenses of the narrative:
1. I (to see) that I (to reach) the little harbour. The water (to be)
clear and green. The sun (to shine) clear through it. Someone (to write)
“Cyprus for Greece” on the wall of a warehouse and someone else (to
try) to scratch it out. A boy (to work) in a small boat. He (to paint) it.
It was the boy who (to watch) the tennis players. I not (to want) to go
back to the hotel before I (to speak) to him.
2. Lambis (to make) no reply. I (to realize) that he not (to hear),
that he not (to listen). Everything (to be said) already. They (to make
up) their minds. They not (to want) me. That is why Sofia's eyes (to be)
red. She (to cry).
3. When I (to approach) the house I (to hear) a scream. I ( to ring)
several times. When the woman at last (to open) the door I (to under
stand) that something unusual (to happen). She (to tremble). She said
40
that the boys (to fight) again. I (to run) upstairs. The room (to be) in
disorder. There evidently (to be) a severe struggle. The younger boy (to
lie) on the floor. He (to faint).
Exercise 19. Translate the story into English. Retell the story:
Лекция, как воспитывать детей,— крикнула пожилая женщи
на. Ганна, иди слушай.
Иду, мамочка!
В комнату вбежала молодая женщина и села перед телевизором.
С ребен говорил старый профессор — надо обращаться
последовательно и твердо.
Дверь открылась и в комнату вбежал крохотный
Уходи сейчас же! крикнула молодая женщина.— Дай
послушать лекцию.
Не хочу,— сказал мальчик и сел на пол.
Ты уйдешь закричала рассерженная
Нет ответил мальчик. Молодая женщина засмеялась.
Мама,— сказала она,— ты Слышала, что он 2ответил? Какой
умный!
ребенком надо обращаться ласково,— продолжал профес-
сор Если он не хочет слушаться, скажите ему: «О любовь моя».
Что за ребенок! Зачем ты 3трогал телевизор? Вот тебе! Отдам
тебя черному человеку. Он 4стоит на лестнице.
Никогда не запугивайте ребен продолжал профессор
торый уже 5вернулся экран
Стр шум.
Мама, он разбил вазу, последнюю. Сколько раз я тебе Говорила
трогать Ну, терпение мое 8лопнуло. Запру тебя
ванную комнату и будешь там сидеть, пока папа 9не вернется.
Молодая женщина заперла ребенка в ванной комнате и вернулась
к приемнику Из этого мальчишки она 10пропустила половину
беседы. Профессор продолжал говорить, но скоро шум бегущей
“ присоединился к его голосу. Вода
комнату.
Exercise 20. In the following story the tenses of direct speech should be used as a stylistic
device. Translate the verbs in bold type. Retell the story using indirect speech and the tenses
of the narrative.
Строится дом
Смотри-ка, несколько рабочих Появились на строительной пло

щадке. Они 2стоят и разговаривают. Я 4подхожу
Что вы здесь будете 5строить?
Жилой дом,— отвечают они и Продолжают беседовать Ну
7
думаю я если они будут так 8строить, дом никогда 9не будет готов»,
Через несколько дней я 10вижу на площадке пустой грузовик.
Шофер “ беседует с человеком в плаще, потом грузовик 12уезжает.
Я 13продолжаю наблюдать. Ага, вот он и 14вернулся, но он опять пустой.
Возмутительно! Как можно так построить дом?
41
15Прошло уже две недели с тех пор, как я там 16был. Пойду-ка по
смотрю, чем они там 17занимались это время. Подумать только! Они уже
18заложили фундамент. Но сейчас экскаватор ничего 19не делает. По
чему он 20простаивает? Около него 21стоит человек в плаще. Он 22курит
и что-то 23изучает. Может быть, это план, а может быть,— газета.
Вокруг него 24стоят рабочие и тоже 25курят. Они уже давно так 26стоят.
Ну, что это за работа!
Ну, вот я и опять 27пришел. Два этажа они уже все-таки ^построи
ли. Как это они 29ухитряются? А какие красивые девушки здесь сра
ботают! Вон та блондинка, которая 31красит губы, просто прелесть.
Рабочие тоже так 32думают. Трое 33стоят около нее, 34смеются и 35раз-
говаривают. Вон тот грузовик 36привез кирпич полчаса назад. Никто
до сих пор 37не обратил на него внимания. Я не могу этого выдержать
и 38ухожу.
Давно я здесь 39не был. Они уже пять этажей 40построили. Когда
они это 41сделали? Теперь они его 42красят. Во всяком случае, пять
или шесть маляров 43ходят вокруг дома и что-то 44разглядывают. Кто-то
45кричит:
Ян! Где Ян?
Но Ян куда-то 46ушел и я уверен 47не вернется до обеда. Никто
ничего не делает. Этот дом никогда 49не будет готов.
48
Смотри-ка, а в доме уже боживут!

Exercise 21. Open the brackets. Use the necessary tense forms.
A Cuckoo Clock
I *(to like) that clock at once. I t 2(to be) of an attractive shape and
just the right size, so I 3(to tell) the man I 4(to want) it and how much
it 6(to be). He 6(to say) I 1 (can not) have it because it 8(to be) a cuckoo
clock and the cuckoo 9(to break off) and 10(to lose). I 11 (to say) it 12 (not
to matter) in the least and that I 13 (to take) it as it 14(to be). With the
children I 15 (to have) it 16 (to lose) the cuckoo anyway by the end of the
first week.
He 11 (to say) it 18 (not to be) a private enterprise and he 19 (can not)
sell me a cuckoo clock without a cuckoo.
Now I happened to have in my bag a cuckoo I 20(to take) out of a
broken clock. “You buy this cuckoo,” I suggested. “Put it into your clock
and sell the clock to me. 1 21 (to give) you back your money after you22 (to
sell) me the clock.”
But he would not do it. He 23(to say) that the cuckoo was private
property and the clock state property and that he 24(to be punished) if
it 25(to become known) that he 26(to sell) a state-owned clock with a pri
vate cuckoo.
I 27 (to notice) another cuckoo clock on the wall and the man 28 (to
say) that it 29 (to be) a private clock. Someone 30 (to bring) it in to have
a new cuckoo put in. They usually 31 (to have) spare cuckoos for sale
but 32(to sell) the last one to that client.
“That’s right,” said I. “Here I 33 (to take) his state owned cuckoo out
of that private clock and put my private cuckoo in. Is that all right?”
42
Не 34(to say) doubtfully that h e36(to think) it 36 (to be). “Then 1 87(to
put) the state-owned cuckoo into the state-owned clock. And now will
you please sell me this cuckoo clock?” — “Yes,” said the man who 88 (to
become) rather wild-eyed. “It is two thousand and three hundred zlotis.
Shall I pack it up for you?” — “Do, please,” I 39 (to say). “But first take
the cuckoo out. I 40(to hate) cuckoo clocks.”
(After Yanush Osenka)
KEYS TO EXERCISES
Exercise 1. A. 1. have seen 2. have seen 3. have been trying 4. has

been studying, has learned 5. have known 6. have been looking, left,
have not found, have been 7. have you been.waiting, have come 8. has
been making, has been sleeping 9. has been working, has done 10. have
been, have been sketching 11. have remembered, has been sitting, left
12. have come 13. have told 14. have been doing 15. have been pretending
16. has been doing
В. 1. have told 2. have known 3. have seen 4. have been doing 5. have
been learning 6. have been learning 7. have changed 8. have been work
ing, have achieved 9. has shown 10. has been showing 11. have seen,
have been doing, have been away 12. left, has happened
Exercise 2. 1. have been translating, have translated 2. have been
working, have discovered 3. have been discussing, have been unable
4. have been reading, have given 5. have been listening, have heard 6. has
been trying, has been 7. have been telling, have paid any attention 8.
have been taking, has not been 9. has been taking, have noticed 10. have
been advertising, have received
Exercise4. A. 1. have been running 2. are trying 3. are doing 4. have
been doing 5. has been doing 6. are going, are painting 7. have been wash
ing 8. have been crying 9. are crying 10. are getting ready 11. have been
trying 12. has been sleeping 13. have been quarrelling, have been making
it up 14. are quarrelling 15. is smiling 16. has been typing 17. have been
trying, am trying
В. 1. are not doing, have been trying 2. are running, has been wait
ing 3. are reading 4. have been wearing 5. am wearing 6. are waiting
7. have you been waiting 8. are standing 9. have you been standing 10.
has been teaching 11. is teaching 12. has been missing 13. have been
trying 14. am trying 15. have been sleeping 16. are smiling 17. am read
ing for the examinations
Exercise 5. 1. have seen 2. has left, have been 3. has entered, were
posted (с тех пор, как нас сюда поставили), have been posted (за то
время, что мы тут стоим) 4. have been winning, began 5. have smoked
6. said, have known 7. has been crying, told 8. have been playing, showed
9. have spoken 10. has come
Exercise 6. 1. came 2. bought 3. quarrelled 4. have returned 5. has
been 6. have left 7. has been out 8. hurt 9. were 10. saw
43
Exercise 7. 1. did hear 2. have heard 3. have thought 4. have shown
5. have been doing 6. have been waiting 7. spoke 8. have shown, did say
9. have said 10. have told 11. did ask, was out 12. did say. N о t e: a
question like No 12 can be asked only with a certain definite moment
in view.
*
Exercise 8. A. 1. worked, was, shared, had 2. have come 3. have done

or have been doing, have been playing 4. did begin 5. have spoken 6. did
not speak 7. was wearing 8. has seen, saw, was getting ready 9. tore, took,
were shaking 10. has opened, has taken or is taking
B. 1. have been helping, has learned 2. has taken, left 3. looked, said,
was waiting 4. has been speaking, has made 5. did speak 6. have known
7. have been waiting 8. did begin 9. have cried or have been crying 10.
left 11. walked, opened, waved 12. have been waiting, has told 13. am
afraid, has changed, did not tell, saw 14. did come, has not phoned
C. 1. have come, have been waiting 2. have been reading (have read)
3. have discovered, was 4. have said 5. have found 6. did — discuss,
have heard 7. have had 8. have not changed, recognized, saw 9. has gone
10. did — go 11. have heard 12. have mentioned, was 13. has explained,
was, phoned, was, answered 14. have been overeating, have lost, have
lost, told 15. has written 16. have lost, saw, spent 17. has said, got
18. have been talking 19. have been working 20. has been happening, left
D. 1. have seen, was talking 2. have not really worked 3. did — come
4. has not come back 5. have been discussing 6. have been working 7. were
given 8. have just had dinner 9. has told 10. were going, told 11. has been
said 12. have been playing 13. have been working 14. have heard 15. have
read 16. did — write 17. have seen 18. has explained, was ill, could not
19. have written 20. did — say
Exercise 10. 1. won’t go, learn /have learned, has complained/ has
been complaining 2. will give, discuss/ have discussed, have promised
3. shall begin, go/ have gone, have been trying 4. have been translating,
have translated, have done 5. did begin, began, was, have learned, am
making
Exercise И. A. 1. was 2. was shining 3. shone 4. was boiling 5. was
sleeping 6. was sitting 7. shook 8. looked out 9. were running 10. shouted
11. has exploded 12. grew pale 13. hid 14. sank 15. worked 16. have been
17. scolded 18. did not wipe 19. entered 20. banged 21. entered 22. heard
23. has happened 24. is/ has been hurt 25. said 26. have told 27. enter
В. 1. quarrelled 2. said 3. spent 4. understood 5. was right 6. promised
7. was going 8. saw 9. have not bought 10. write 11. will say 12. took part
13. did not see 14. was holding 15. answered 16. wrote 17. asked 18. have
not met 19. has been giving 20. learned 21. has been living/ has lived
22. has not left 23. began giving 24. came 25. had given 26. was standing
27. was wearing 28. have bought 29. answered 30. has given 31. shouted
32. has given/ has been giving 33. have been having
44
l
4
Exercise 12. A. 1. get, will have been decided 2. return, will have either
won or lost 3. shall have been learning 4. come, shall have been tramping
5. will be over, will have left 6. shall have typed
В. 1. will have forgotten 2. will have returned, come 3. will have
been taken, comes 4. shall have been advertising, put on the market 5.
will have understood 6. shall come, will have left
Exercise 13. 1. arrives, will have left, shall be getting ready 2. goes,
will have handed in, will be looking, will be writing 3. get, will be stand
ing, will have gone in 4. are through, shall have booked, will be waiting
Exercise 14. A. 1. crossed, had lost sight, had disappeared, had entered
2. saw, had been standing 3. gave, had picked, sat down 4. reached,
had gone, had dropped, had been walking 5. saw, was standing, had
not heard 6. met, had come 7. sold, had gone
B. 1. had graduated, met 2. were hot and tired, had been playing
3. had returned 4. were surprised, had known, wrote 5. said, had been
watching, had liked 6. returned, had come to an agreement 7. had come to
an agreement
C. l. had been watching, had noticed 2. wrote, had been trying 3. won
dered, had changed, saw 4. saw, was standing, had looked 5. had known,
was, had been managing, came 6. was, had disappeared, had taken 7. was
watching, decided, had been mistaken, was, had thought, was, had been,
looked 8. said, were, had left 9. was, had seen 10. asked, knew, was work
ing, knew, had helped, had been helping 11. reached, had made up 12.
was, has been called away 13. had lost, started 14. had come in, was in
troduced 15. learned, had been done, had left 16. had been walking/
had walked, was
Exercise 15. A. 1. bent, was sleeping, had left 2. spoke, had forgot
ten, was trying 3. gave, had turned, were walking 4. said, smiled, had
made up my mind 5. was sitting 6. started, was trying 7. got, had been
waiting 8. found, had gone, was looking
В. 1. came, had been typing 2. phoned, had returned, were discuss
ing 3. left home, had stopped, was beginning to look through 4. came,
had decided, were watching 5. rang, was finishing, had said 6. saw, had
returned, was going to bed
A
Exercise 16 A. 1. had been eating 2. had been swimming 3. had come

4. had left 5. had discovered 6. had been overworking 7. had got 8. had
been stealing 9. had been using 10. had been teaching
В. 1. was not —had taken 2. were trying — had quarrelled 3.
looked — had been raining 4. was glad — had been trying 5. smelled—
had been smoking 6. found — had been
Exercise 18. 1. saw, had reached, was, was shining, had written, had
tried, was working, was painting, had been watching, did not want,
spoke /had spoken 2. made, realized, had not heard, had not been listen
45
ing, had been said, had made up, did not want, were, had been crying
3. approached, heard, rang, opened, understood, had happened, was
trembling, were fighting, ran, was, had been, was lying, had fainted
Exercise 19. 1. did you hear 2. said 3. did you touch 4. is standing
5. had, returned 6. has broken 7. have I told 8. have lost my patience
9. returns 10. had missed 11. merged with 12. had found an outlet 13.
was flooding
Exercise 20. 1. have appeared 2. are standing 3. are talking 4. come
up 5. will build 6. continue 7. think 8. build 9. will be 10. see 11. is
talking 12. leaves 13. continue 14. has come back 15. have passed 16.
was 17. have been doing 18. have laid down 19. is doing 20. is standing
idle 21. is standing 22. is smoking 23. is studying 24. are standing 25.
are smoking 26. have been standing 27. have come 28. have built 29. do
manage 30. work 31. is painting 32. think 33. are standing 34. are laugh
ing 35. are talking 36. brought 37. has paid 38. am leaving 39. have
been 40. have built 41. did do 42. are painting 43. are walking 44. are
watching 45. shouts 46. has gone 47. will not be back/ will not have re
turned 48. is doing 49. will not be ready 50. live/ are living
Exercise 21. 1. liked 2. was 3. told 4. wanted 5. was 6. said 7. could
not 8. was 9. had been broken off, lost 10. had been lost 11. said 12. did
not matter 13. should take 14. was 15. have 16. would have lost 17. said
18. was not 19. could not 20. had taken 21. shall give 22. have sold 23.
said 24. would be punished 25. became known 26. had sold 27. noticed
28. said 29. was 30. had brought 31. had 32. had sold 33. take 34. said
35. thought 36. was 37. put 38. had become 39. said 40. hate
T est
(to be sen t to the I n s titu te )
Assignment I. Answer the following questions. Give examples:

1. When do we mostly use the Perfect and when the Perfect Contin
uous forms?
2. When is the Past Indefinite used in direct speech?
3. How do we indicate the moment in the past before which the ac
tion named by the Past Perfect is supposed to have been completed?
4. How to distinguish between the Present Continuous and the Pres
ent Perfect Continuous in patterns corresponding to the Russian Pres
ent tense?
5. When do we use the Present Perfect in adverbial clauses of time
introduced by when, before, a f te r ?
6. When is the Present Perfect used in the adverbial clause of time
introduced by since ?
Assignment II. Open the brackets. Use the Present Perfect, the Present Perfect Con
tinuous, the Present Indefinite, the Present Continuous, the Past Indefinite:
1. I can’t begin to tell you how much we (to miss) you. We (to talk)
of nothing else since you (to leave). 2. It is a long time since I (to speak)
to any of my friends about this. Nobody ever (to take) it seriously. 3. Much
time (to pass) since then. She (to grow) stronger and stronger. She (to
look) quite like her old self of late. 4. Nothing whatever (to be done)
about it. The heavy week-end traffic still (to go) right through the vil
lage. There (to be) several more is looking
road accidents there since
has been walking
they (to
write) to the T im es . 5. She (to look) for someone. She (to did. walk)tell up and
down the platform have
these
heard
ten minutes if not more. 6. When he (to tell)
you this? I mark never (to hear) him express such views. 7. I can leave only
has been coming
after I (to mark) all these papers. 8. Yes, I know have.
him.
seen
He (to come)
herewaspretty
watching
regularly for the last
making
month or so. I
took
never (to see) him play.
He just (to watch) Did.
and (tocall
make) notes. I (to take) him for a coach from
have seen
out*of town. 9.— anyone (to call)? came 10. Do you knowmetwhom I (to see)
at the club? 11. The Lindonswere(to having
come) back. I (to meet) Anne when
did
I was outwriteshopping. They (to have) a wonderful time. 12. — Colonel
is.
Burns (to write)
complaining
to the T im es again? — He (to do) nothing else.— What
is doing
he (to complain) about this time?
47
Assignment III. Open the brackets. Use the Past Indefinite, the Past Continuous, the
Past Perfect, the Past Perfect Continuous: did see
had send
1. Next day she (to send) me
understood
a note to find out why she not
had been noticed
(to see)
me at the party and
commented
I (to understand) that my absence read
(to be noticed)
and (to be commented) upon. 2. In the promised evening he (to read) to us a poem got
had written
he (to write) that summer. 3. He (to promise) that as soon as he (to get)
the money he would let her have some. 4. I knew that when they (to
finished
finish) the'game they would go and have supper. 5. She complained that
had become took
Sir John’s temper (to become) unbearable since he (to take) seriously
rained is?? clearing
to politics. 6. It (to rain) in the night got
but the sky (to clear) rapidly
had been working
now.
7. It was only ten days since we (to get) this letter but we (tohadwork) bedun
like
mad all this time and hadtheseenimpenetrable jungle of papers (to begin)wasto
make some sense. 8. She not ( to see) her Aunt since that visit and (to be)
had become
astonished to see a woman who (to become) definitely middle aged. 9. It
became
(to become)
had been paying
known that for the last four or five years Madame Dubreuil
(tohadpay) large
been walking
sums of money into
said
the bank in notes.
had come
10. For some time
wewas(to walk) in silence. He (to say) what he (towas come) to say, now it
(to be) my was turn to speak. 11. The expeditionexpected (to be) a failure. Even the had put
scenery (to be) not so beautiful as we (to expect) it to be. 12. She (to
put) the children to bed, (tocleared clear) the table and now (to sort)
was sorting
out stamps.
Assignment IV. Translate into English:
1. Давно мы с тобой не виделись. 2. Ты это не так делаешь. Ты
никогда не спрашиваешь объяснений, а потом делаешь ошибки. 3. Я
дам тебе эту книгу, только когда сделаю свой доклад по домашнему
чтению. 4. Мы ходим по лесу уже больше часа и еще не нашли ни одного
гриба. 5. Когда он был здесь? 6. Я видел этой осенью один француз
ский фильм. Он мне не очень понравился, но там есть одно интересное
место. 7. Последнее время вы пишете диктанты гораздо лучше. 8.
Дождь пройдет, пока мы приедем. 9. Я открыл дверь. Студенты еще
писали, только один или два уже сдали свои работы. 10. Я думала
о том, что он мне рассказал. 11. Я говорил с одной студенткой, она
работала над своей курсовой работой около трех месяцев. 12. Я знал
его недолго, но был в нем совершенно уверен.
Assignment V. Write a page-long dialogue on any subject you like. Give the contents
of the dialogue in the narrative.
т т р
I. Sequence of Tenses
II. Direct and Indirect Speech
III. Passive Voice
I. Sequence of Tenses
In English the tenses of the verb in a subordinate clause (subject,
object or predicative clauses mainly) show whether the action in the
clause takes place at the same time with the action in the principal clause,
precedes it or follows it. The tenses in this case are dependent on the
tense of the verb in the principal clause and express simultaneousness,
priority of relative future.
Simultaneousness — the actions take place at the same time.
1. I see that you know the subject well.
I saw that he knew the subject well.
You will see that she knows the subject well.
2. I see that you are trying to find an answer.
I saw that she was trying to find an answer.
You’ll see that she is trying to find an answer.
Priority — the action in the subordinate clause precedes that in the
principal clause.
1. She knows that she has made a mistake.
She knew that she had made a mistake.
She will know that she has made a mistake.
2. I see that you have been taking lessons.
I saw that she had been taking lessons.
You’ll see that she has been taking lessons.
Relative future — the action in the subordinate clause follows the
action in the principal clause.
1. I hope you will get there in time.
I hoped she would get there in time.
2. I know you are leaving soon.
I knew they were leaving soon.
3. I know that the lecture begins at seven.
I knew that the lecture began at seven.
49
P a tte r n 1
1)
sim ultaneousness
you know the subject well
you are trying to help me
.
p r io r ity
I understand that
you have made a mistake
v
you have been taking lessons
you will get there in time

you are leaving next week
the train starts at nine
P a tte r n 2
if
sim ultaneousness
you knew the subject well
you were trying to help me
«a
p r io r ity
you had made a mistake
vou had been taking lessons
you would get there in time

you were leaving next week
the train started at five
*
60
*
p a tte r n 3
sim u l taneousness
I shall understand
that you know the subject well
you are trying to help me
p r io r ity
you have made a mistake
♦
you have been taking lessons
Not e 1. The tense of the verb in a subject, object or predicative

clause does not depend on the tense of the verb in the prin
cipal clause:
a) if the time of the action is definitely stated.
b) if a scientific fact is stated.
E. g. a) He said that she came to live there in 1966.
b) We were told that the earth revolves round the sun.
Not e 2. The tense of the verb in a simple sentence may depend on
the tense of the verb in the preceding sentence.
E. g. 1. I spoke to him yesterday. He had taken his first examination.
2. You will come there too late. They will have left.
Exercise 1. Analyze the relations of actions with those named by the italicised verbs.
Use figure ‘Г to show that the actions take place at the same time (simultaneousness).
Use figure l2’ to show that the action precedes that of the italicised verb (priority). Use
figure ‘3' to show that the action follows that of the italicised verb (relative future).12345
Mo d e l : 1. I saw him just before the lecture. He was talking to some
people I did not know. *
(saw — 1 ,1 )
2. I noticed it at once. The things on the table were in order
but not in the order I had left them. Someone had been han
dling them.
(noticed— 1, 2, 2)
3. She told us she was not coming back but would phone later
to tell us the latest news.
(told — 3, 3)
4. And you w ill realize too late that you have made a mistake,
(will realize — 2)
5. You w ill only see that nobody knows you. That you have
been entirely forgotten.
(will see— 1, 2)
1. The doctor said that perhaps she wished to see you because you had
gone to school together. 2. He f e lt certain that the old woman wanted
51
to tell him something. Something that would help him to find what he
was looking for. 3. Ashenden asked himself if she had sent for him because
she knew that he was a British agent. 4. I knew Mary was leaving early
next day, that she was packing her things upstairs now and that I should
probably never see her again. 5. We were told that a new governess was
coming next week and that until then Mother would give us lessons her
self. 6. I d id not ask anyone what had been decided. 7. It w as clear that
something had gone wrong and we should be hopelessly late. 8. It w as
announced in the papers that the man had disappeared and that the po
lice was looking for him. 9. It w ill be generally believed that you have been
to blame. 10. Y o u 'll see that she knows how to handle the situation. 11.
My idea w as that they would come again. 12. His story w as that he had
missed the last train. 13. I saw that he was trying to explain why he had
refused to cooperate. 14. Father asked me if I had been winning more
games lately. 15. I can te ll you nothing definite before I have consulted
a specialist. 16. She always w onders if she has said the right thing. 17. You
w ill be so rry you have nothing to give them. 18. You w ill be g la d you have
taken my advice. 19. I know you have done nothing to be ashamed of. 20.
I wonder if you realize how difficult it is. 21. I m et him at the station
early last morning. He was waiting for his train. 22. You7/ come too late.
They will be having dinner.
Exercise 2. Open the brackets. Use the necessary verb form. Use figures 4\ i2\ i3’ (simi-
'larly to Exercise 1) to show what relations you are trying to express. Give variants where
possible.
M o d e l : 1) I knew he (to tell) the truth.
I knew he was telling the truth. (1)
I knew he had told the truth. (2)
I knew he would tell the truth. (3)
2) He said he not (to come) back.
He said he was not coming back. (3)
He said he would not come back. (3)
He said he had not come back. (2)
3) And then you will realize that she not (to understand)
anything.
And then you will realize that she has not understood
anything. (2)
And then you will realize that she does not understand any
thing. (1)
1. He felt that somebody (to watch) him. 2. We wondered how much
he (to know). 3. I thought that as he (to leave) next month he (to come)
certainly to say good bye. 4. I asked Francie who else (to come) to the
party. 5. That is what I (to tell) already your friend. 6. I thought you
(to like) him. 7. It was clear that he (to drop) something and now (to
look) for it under the table. 8. I looked at her again. She not (to listen)
to me, she only (to pretend) to. 9. The explanation was that he not (to
expect) that sort of question. 10. He (to travel) with a friend who (to go
out) to buy a newspaper and he was sure the man (to be left) behind.
11. There were few people on the platform. All who (to travel) (to take)
52
*
their seats. 12. Mother said that Aunt Bessie (to come) for a visit and (to
bring) her little girl. 13. She said carelessly that nothing (to make) her
change her mind, once she (to make) it but that at present she still (to
examine) the facts. 14. She knew she (to be) right, (to be) right from the
very beginning.
1. I noticed (что она смотрит на меня). 2. We knew (что она не вер
нется). 3. And then you will agree (что я поступил правильно). 4. Mother
said (что она просто не знает, что делать). 5. It is clear (что она старает
ся помочь вам). 6. And the explanation will be (что она опоздала на
поезд). 7. Му only hope is (что кто-нибудь нашел мои ключи и оставил их
внизу). 8. Then you’ll be sorry (что не говорите по-французски). 9. ГИ
give you my answer after I (поговорю с ней опять). 10. We’ll be there
at about nine. (Дождь уже пройдет). 11. He spoke much better. It was
clear (что он много занимался). 12. Не did not play so well in the seqond
time. (Ему повредили колено). 13. At half past ten I finally realized
(что он не придет). 14. He asked me (что я буду делать в воскресенье).
15. I see (что вы кого-то ждете). 16. And you will understand (что теряете
время зря). 17. It became quite evident (что случилось что-то нехоро
шее). 18. I have been feeling of late (что ты что-то от меня скрываешь).
19. I did not know (что у нас будет на обед) and if there was enough to
go round. 20. The room was in darkness. (Кто-то выключил свет.) 21. No
one will ever know (что они сделали с кораблем). 22. The trouble was
(что я обещала маме пойти с ней в кино). 23. It is interesting to note
(что люди уже давно (for a long time) стараются найти ответ на этот
вопрос). 24. It is interesting to note (что ученые во всем мире стараются
найти ответ на этот вопрос). 25. The interesting point was (что никто
не видел машины). 26. Не promised (что все будет сделано).
KEYS ТО EXERCISES
Exercise 1. 1. said — 1,2 2. felt — 1,3,1 3. asked — 2,1,1 4. knew —

3,1,3 5. were told — 3,3 6. did not ask — 2 7. was — 2,3 8. was an
nounced — 2,1 9. will be believed — 2 10. will see — 111. was — 3 12.
was — 2 13. saw — 1,2 14. asked — 2 15. can tell — 3 16. wonders — 2
17. will be sorry — 1 18. will be glad — 2 19. know — 220. wonder — 1,1
21. met — 1 22. will come — 1
Exercise 2. 1. was watching (1) 2. knew— (1), had known (2) 3. was
leaving — (3), would come— (3) 4. was coming — (3), had come— (2)
5. had told — (2) 6. liked — (1), had liked — (2), would like — (3) 7. had
dropped — (2), was looking — (1) 8. was listening — was pretending (1),
had not been listening — had been pretending — (2) 9. had not expect
e d — (2) 10. was travelling — (1), had gone o u t— (2), would be left
behind — (3) 11. were travelling — (1), had taken (2) 12. was coming —
(3), was bringing— (3), would come— (3), would bring— (3), had
come — (2), had brought — (2) 13. would make — (3), had made — (2),
was examining— (1) 14. was rig h t— (1), had been rig h t— (2).
\
53
Exercise 3. 1. was looking 2. was not coming back 3. had acted right
4. did not know 5. is trying 6. has missed 7. has found, has left 8. don’t
speak 9. have spoken 10. will have stopped raining 11. had been working
12. had been hurt 13. was not coming 14. was doing 15. are waiting 16. are
wasting your time 17. had gone wrong 18. are hiding 19. were having for
dinner 20. had switched off 21. have done 22. had promised 23. have been
trying 24. are trying 25. had seen 26. would be done
II. Direct and Indirect Speech

When we want to report something said by another person we use
reporting verbs.
Four verbs in the English language are mostly used to name the pro
cess of speaking: to sa y , to te ll , to ta lk , to sp ea k .
To say and to tell are reporting verbs. They are used with direct ob
jects, giving the contents of what was said.
The verb to tell takes an indirect object as well as a direct object.
to say it, this, so, nothing, something, that...
to teil smb
E. g. 1. He said nothing. He told me nothing. 2. Why did you not say
so? Why did you not tell me this? 3. He said (that) he did.not
want to do it. He told me (that) he did not want to do it.
Note 3. The verb to te ll is used without an indirect object: a) in the
following expressions: to tell the tr u th ; to tell a lie ; to tell
a s to r y ; b) if it means угадать, различить — How can I tell
what may happen? They are so much alike that only their
mother can tell which is which. Can you tell at this distance
what ship it is?
Note 4. The verb to tell may take .a prepositional object when il
* means рассказать — to tell smb about smth. Will you tel
me about it?
Exercise 4. Fill in the blanks with *say’ or Hell':
1. Who — you this? 2. Why did he — this? 3. Who — it’s wrong?
4. Why did not he — so? 5. Who — you this? 6. You’ve been — lies,
young man, 7. Let me — you a story. 8. Why did not she — the truth?
9. I have always — so. 10. I have — you so dozens of times. 11. Did
you — him the real reason? 12. She simply — nothing at all. 13. She —-
them nothing. 14. To — the truth, I — so only to please you. 15. You
never — me anything. 16. He — it was too late anyhow. 17. What did
you — ? 18. And then he — something strange. 19. What did he — to
this? 20. What did he — on the subject? 21. He — nothing about this.
22. He — us nothing about his trip. 23. He — this to spite you. 24. Can’t
you see she’s — the truth? 25. — me all about it. 26. He did not — me
about it.
54
t
Not e 5. The verb to sa y is used with a prepositional object when you
want to emphasize the person addressed.
Compare: He told me nothing.
He said nothing to me.
To speak and to talk are non-reporting verbs.
They cannot be used to give the contents of somebody’s
speech.
To speak and to talk take prepositional objects.
to spea
to talk to smb, with smb, about smth, on a certain subject
Note 6. The verb to speak takes a direct object in the following case:
to speak a foreign lan g u a g e ; to speak French.
Exercise 5. Fill in the blanks with 'say', 'tell', 'speak', 'talk':
1. I did not — at all. I did not — a word. 2. Now I’ve — it I’m not
*
going to — on the subject again. Not ever. 3. What are you two — about?
4. I don’t believe you. You’re — it just to upset me. I don’t want to — to
you. 5. Nobody — to him. Nobody so much as — “hallo”. 6. Why —
such things when you are not sure of your facts? 7. She — to me very
kindly and — me not to worry. 8. She — a little French. Just enough
to — the driver where we wanted to go. 9. To — the truth I’m not sure
I want to — to her. 10. I can’t — on the subject without — you how I got
the facts. 11. I did not — this. I only — I could — you what happened
that night. 12. I have — to her about you. She — it was all right. 13. She
wouldn’t — to other children. 14. Don’t — anyone about it. 15. I’ll —
you what he — . 16. I have been — so all along. He — too much. 17. Did
he — English? 18. What did you — ? 19. Why — about it? 20. He was
the first to — .2 1 . He was the first to — so.
A. 1. Кто это сказал? 2. Почему он это сказал? 3. Он этого не гово
рил. 4. Он об этом не говорил. 5. Он на эту тему не говорил. 6. Они
не разговаривали. 7. Он говорит по-английски. 8. Он мне этого не го
ворил. 9. Он со мной об этом не говорил. 10. Он ей этого не говорил.
11. Он об этом ничего не говорил. 12. Где он это говорил? 13. Кому он
это говорил? 14. Кому он об этом говорил? 15. Я вам ничего не говорил.
16. Он говорил хорошо. 17. Кто с ним об этом говорил? 18. Кто ему это
сказал? 19. Кто ничего не сказал? 20. Кто говорил на эту тему? 21. Он
сказал, что придет. 22. Он мне сказал, что придёт. 23. Он не говорил,
что придет. 24. Он мне не говорил, что придет. 25. Никому об этом не
рассказывай.
If you had no mistakes in Part A you need not do Part B. Otherwise
do Part B.
В. 1. Что вы ей говорили? 2. Когда вы ей это говорили? 3. Почему
вы ей сказали, что это неважно? 4. Кому вы. это сказали? 5. Где вы ей
сказали, что это важно? 6. Почему вы этого вовремя не сказали? 7. Как
55
он это говорил? 8. О чем он говорил? 9. Кому он это говорил? 10. С кем
он говорил? 11. С кем он об этом говорил? 12. Когда он об этом говорил?
13. Он об этом ни с кем не говорил. 14. Он этого никому не говорил.
15. Рассказывал ли он вам это? 16. Что он сказал? 17. Где он это сказал?
18. Почему он вам это сказал? 19. Почему он ничего не сказал? 20. По
чему он мне ничего не сказал? 21. Он об этом не говорил. 22. Он мне
ничего не говорил. 23. Он ничего такого не сказал. 24. Он еще ни с кем
не говорил. 25. Он говорил не очень хорошо. 26. Он говорил, что не
пойдет. 27. Она об этом никогда не говорит. 28. Кто вам это сказал?
29. Когда они об этом говорили? 30. Кому они об этом говорили? 31. Я
ему ни слова не сказал, я только сказал, что ... 32, Он на эту тему не
говорил. 33. Что вы можете сказать по этому вопросу? 34. Он мне ни
чего не говорил по этому вопросу. 35. Он отказался говорить по этому
вопросу. 36. С кем вы говорили по этому вопросу? 37. Он сказал не
сколько слов по этому вопросу. 38. Почему вы ничего не сказали по
этому вопросу? 39. На каком языке он говорил? 40. Почему ты мне об
этом не рассказала?
When reporting what somebody has said we use indirect speech. h
Sentence P a tte r n s of In d ire c t Speech

A . R ep o rted S ta te m e n ts
a*
fsays \
tells smb
smb <| states l that
asserts
, claims ;
.
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
— I have never seen the man before. The defendant claims that he has never
seen the man before.
— It is getting late. Father says that it is getting late.
B . R ep o rted G eneral Q u estion s
asks ч
wonders did smth

(
smb wants to know l ^ smb does smth
\
is not sure whether
I will do smth
i doubts

—~ Have they read the book? He wonders if they have read the book.
— Can it be true? He doubts whether it can be true.
— Will they manage it? He is riot sure if they will manage it.
56
►
C. Reported Special Questions
f asks when did smth

wonders where does smth
smb < wants to know why will do smth
is not sure how does — did—will do smth
who is—was—will be done
what

When did they come? He is not sure when they came.
How will they do it? He wonders how they will do it.
Who broke the cup? He wants to know who broke the cup.
What measures will be taken? He asks what measures will be taken.
D. R ep o rted O rders and R equ ests
{ asks
tells
orders smb (not) to do smth
allows
advises
smb do smth

•— Drink your milk at once. Mother told me to drink my milk at
once.
She made me drink it.
— Don’t waste my time. She told me not to waste her time.
— Open the window, please. She asked me to open the window.
— You may copy the poem if you She allowed me to copy the poem.
want to. She let me copy the poem.
When reporting what somebody has said it is necessary to make

certain changes in pronouns and adverbs so as to make the situation
clear.
Personal pronouns often have to be changed and sometimes replaced
by nouns.
57
— They will find the book rather dull. The teacher says that the children will
find the book rather dull.
— Have you ever seen the man before? Mother wonders if we (I, Mary) have
(has) ever seen the man before.
— Where shall we go now? She wants to know where they (we,
you) will (shall) go now.
When the reporting verb is in the Present, Present Perfect or Future

tense the tenses of the reported speech are not changed.
— I don’t like his face. She has often said that she doesn’t like
his face.
— Where did you get the money?%
Mother will ask where you got the
money.
— Was he waiting for you on the plat She wonders whether he was waiting
form? for you on the platform.
Exercise 7. Report the following sayings. Use the reporting verb in the Present tense.
Follow patterns A, B> C, D. Make the necessary changes irt pronouns.
M o d e l : 1) — She’ll have forgotten it long before this. Don’t worry.
Mother says that she’ll have forgotten it long before this
and tells me not to worry.
2) — How can you work in that noise? One simply can’t hear
oneself speak.
She wonders how he can work in this noise and adds that one
simply can’t hear oneself speak.
1. Are you waiting for me? 2. Have you been taking dancing lessons?
You are dancing much better today. 3. Why are you saying this? 4. At
this time they’ll be watching television. They always do. 5. What will
he say to this? 6. Have you spoken to her about me? 7. What did she say
on the subject? 8. Can I wait here? 9. What can I do for you? 10. Come and
see me when you are in town. 11. Don’t hold the book so close to your
eyes. 12. Drink up. your milk this minute. 13. Hold the line, please.
14. Sorry, Mary is out. Will you phone again or will you leave a message?
15. What have you done to your hair? It'looks ever so nice now. 16. Who
can possibly know where he lives? 17. I lost him in the crowd when the
lights went out. J8. Come and speak to.me about it when you have read
the book. 19. He wrote the play in 1950. 20. There was no one in when
I came. 21. Some boys were playing football in the yard.
t
1. Она просит вас не курить. 2. Я советую вам больше времени про

водить на воздухе. 3. Вы позволяете ему есть слишком много сладо
стей. 4. Она хочет знать, почему вы так часто опаздываете в этом полу
годии. 5. Она считает, что к тому времени она уже окончит институт
и будет преподавать в школе. 6. Учительница хочет знать, что он по
следнее время читает. 7. Интересно, когда этот разговор состоялся.
8. Не знаю, кто из них ответит лучше. 9. Он хочет знать, какие меры
58
были приняты. 10. Я хочу знать, кто взял мою ручку. 11. Ей интересно,
кто это сделал. 12. Он утверждает, что в воскресенье был за городом.
13. Она утверждает, что никогда ничего подобного не говорила. 14.
Я прошу вас не вмешиваться. 15. Доктор велит ему бросить курить.
When the reporting verb is in the Past tense the following shifting
of tenses takes place in the reported speech:
The Present Indefinite The Past Indefinite
The Present Continuous The Past Continuous
The Present Perfect The Past Perfect
The Present Perfect Continuous The Past Perfect Continuous
The Past Perfect The Past Perfect
The Past Perfect Continuous The Past Perfect Continuous
The Future Indefinite The Future in the Past
The Future Perfect The Future Perfect in the Past*I
*
( smb did smth
{ smb
smb
smb
was doing smth
had done smth
had been doing smth
I smb would do smth
I smb would have done smth

*— I am perfectly sure I have never She said that she was perfectly sure
seen him. she had never seen him.
— What will you do if he is out when She asked me what I would do if Jack
you come. was out when I came.
— Did he tell you so? She asked me if he had told me so.
Note 7. We do not use the Past Perfect instead of the Past Indefinite
if the time of the action is definitely stated by an adverbial
expression or an adverbial clause.
I first came here in 1957. She said that she first came there
in 1957.
It happened when I was out. She said that it happened when she
was out.
Note 8. The Past Indefinite in adverbial clauses introduced by since

or when usually remains unchanged in reported speech.
She has been typing this stuff ever He said that she had been typing this
since she came to work here. stuff ever since she came there.
I forgot to tell her about it when Mother said that she forgot to tell her
I saw her in town. about it when she saw her in town.
59
0
Exercise 9. Report the following sayings. Use the reporting verb in the Past tense. Pay
attention to notes 6 and 7 when doing so.
M o d e l : 1) — Nothing whatever has been done.
She said that nothing whatever had been done.
2) — Yesterday he came home at a quarter to six.
She said that he had come home at a quarter to six the day
before.
3) — They left London in 1962.
She said that they left London in 1962. (Note 6).
4) — They were away when the fire broke put.
He said that they were away when the fire broke out.
(Notes 6 and 7).
5) — I have known her since she came to live here.
She said she had known her since she came to live there.
(Note 7).
1. “But, father!” Ellie exclaimed, “I’ve been driving this car since
you gave it me for my birthday. And there has been no complaints.”
2. “Tim took your speed-boat out, Mark. He has done so before,” Clement
said, smiling. 3. “He left a message for you,” the woman said. 4. “I hurt
my knee when I fell downstairs,” said Tim. “It looks awful.” 5. “Ijiave
nothing against you, Jim,” said Kane. “You’re the best in the family.
I have always said so.” 6. “We know only what is in the papers. We have
been waiting for a call or a telegram since we heard of the accident,”
said Vic. 7. “The old car broke down when we were crossing the bridge,”
said Norma. 8. “I can’t go in the water,” she said. “I haven’t brought
my swim-suit.” 9. “I did not meari to be rude,” said Moira. 10. “Did you
work in the airplane factory too?” Ginnie asked.
If the reporting verb is in the Past tense certain changes may have
to be made in pronouns and adverbs used in direct speech.
Table of Changes
— Where is this dog? He wondered where that dog was.

— I’ll show you the book to-tfibrrow. He said he would show me the book
the next day.
— W hat are you doing here? He asked me what I was doing there»
60
»
Note 9. The adverbs y e ste rd a y and to-m orrow remain unchanged
if somebody’s words are reported on the same day they were
said. There is no shifting of tenses in this case.
%
E.g. I saw her this morning. She told me that mother phoned yesterday
and promised to come over to-morrow.
Exercise 10. R e p o rt the follo w in g sa yin g s. Use the re p o rtin g verb in the P a s t tense:
1. “The boy won’t bother me,” said Emily, “I like young people about
the place.” 2. “My son wants to talk to you about this car,” she announced.
3. “When are you moving out of Red Lodge?” inquired Miss Allison. 4.
“I believe the people who have bought the house want to make some
changes. I don’t really know what. We don’t discuss it,” said Rosie. 5. “It’s
all right,” Mother said. “You can go now if you like. Lock the garden gate
as you go out.” 6. “Are you coming down?” she asked. 7. “There was no
body in the back seat of the car when I saw it,” the boy insisted. 8. “Miss
Kate, do you know what I am thinking of?” the strange child inquired.
9. “You spoil this child, Rose,” the old woman said. “You’ve been spoil
ing her for years.” 10. “Your shoes are wet through,” she said indignantlv.
“Did you walk all the way down from the station in this rain?” 11. “She
did not say much,” replied Pat. “I’ve heard it all before, anyway.”
12. “Don’t start crying,” he shouted. “What is the matter with you? Why
are you behaving like the heroine in a Victorian novel?” 13. “He is up
stairs,” said Doris. “He is waiting on the landing.” 14. “Is anybody I know
coming to the party?” asked Win. 15. “Oh, Pete!” said Aunt Molly. “Have
you brought this horrible dog again? Go and lock it in the garage at once.”
16. “Nothing has been heard of the boys since the two were seen at the
Victoria Station,” said the sergeant. 17. “It was too dark to see the house
properly when we finally came there”, said the girl. 18. “Do you know
French?” Esrne asked. 19. “Is that Ramona? Oh, I’m dying to see her.
Do you realize I haven’t seen her since you brought her over that time,”
the girl exclaimed. 20. “Close the front door after you, please,” Eloise
called.
Exercise 11. T ra n sla te into E n g lish :
1. Она попросила меня не опаздывать. 2. Он спросил меня, что он
может для меня сделать. 3. Она спросила, где я научился так играть
на рояле. 4. Она сказала, что мое произношение стало гораздо лучше
и спросила, не работал ли я с пластинками. 5. Мама спросила, почему
мы ссоримся. 6. Я спросил его, как он это сделал. 7. Она отвечала, что
не была в институте с тех пор, как заболела. 8. Она объяснила, что
читала эту Книгу, когда была в 10-м классе. 9. Ее родители не поняли,
почему она плачет и мать спросила ее, не ушиблась ли она. 10. Он спро
сил, когда я буду дома и можно ли ему прийти поговорить со мной. 11.
Они не понимали, почему я отказался ехать с ними. 12. Он утверждал,
было дома, когда начался пожар. 13. Она спросила
нибудь. 14. Ей хотелось знать, были теперь
и умают о
15. Он попросил меня не закрывать дверь 16. Она

спросила, что случится, есди она нажмет на кнопку Он попросил
Меня отойти в сторону, потому что ему не видно дос 18. Она спро-
61
сила меня, где я оставил ключи. 19. Она хотела знать, когда я ухожу
и вернусь ли я. 20. Мы не были уверены, когда уходит поезд.
If in direct speech the verb m u st denotes necessity, we use had in
reported speech, if it expresses advice, request or order it remains un
changed. Pattern D may also be used.
— I must post this letter at once. She said she had to post that letter
at once.
— She must see her dentist at five. He said that his wife had to see her
dentist at five.
— You must always wear your hair He said I must always wear rny hair
like this. It suits you. like that, that it suited me.
She advised me to wear my hair
like that.
— You must come and see our new She said I must come and see their
flat. new flat.
She asked me to come and see her
new flat.
— You must do what you are told. She said I must do what I was told.
She told me to do what I was told.
*
Exercise 12. Report the following sayings. Use the reporting verb in the Past tense:
i
1. “It is very strange,” Miss Neville said. “You must tell Mother
about it, Edna.” 2. “How many letters must you type on a busy morning,
Miss?” the sergeant asked. 3. “I’m afraid I must go now,” she said, look
ing at her watch. 4. “It’s going to rain later in the day,” she said. “You
must take your umbrella.” 5. “She’s a little pale. You must give her plenty
of fresh milk, Mrs Devon,” the old lady said. 6. “And now I must go over
to Kate and tell her about the concert,” Grandma said. 7. “I can’t gc
just now. I must do my lessons,” the girl answered. 8. “You mustn’t cry,
darling. The doctor won’t hurt you a bit,” the young woman said. 9. “Yoi
must speak very slowly if you want them to understand you,” the ok
teacher said. 10. “Must you leave already?” she asked.
KEYS TO EXERCISES
Exercise 4. 1. told 2. say 3. says 4. say 5. told 6. telling 7. tell 8. tel

9. said 10. told 11. tell 12. said 13. told 14. tell, said 15. tell 16. said 17
say 18. said 19. say 20. say 21. said 22. told 23. said 24. telling 25. tel
26, tell
*
Exercise 5. 1. speak, say 2. said, speak 3. talking 4. saying, talk -

speak 5. spoke, said 6. say 7. spoke, told 8. spoke, tell 9. tell, speak —
talk 10. speak, telling 11. say, said, tell 12. spoken, said 13. speak— talk
14. tell 15. tell, says 16. saying, talks — speaks 17. speak 18. say 19.
speak — talk 20. speak 21. say
Exercise 6. A. 1. said 2. say 3. say 4, speak — talk 5. speak 6. speak —
talk 7. spoke 8. tell 9. speak — talk 10. tell 11. said 12. say 13. tell 14. tell
15. tell 16. spoke — talked 17. spoke 18. told 19. said 20. spoke21. said
22. told 23. say 24. tell 25. tell
62
►
ВЛ. tell 2. tell 3. tell 4. tell 5. tell 6. say 7. say 8. speak, talk 9. tell
10. speak, talk 11. speak, talk 12. speak — talk 13. speak — talk 14.
tell 15. tell 16. say 17. say 18. tell 19. say 20. tell 21. speak — talk 22.
told 23. said 24. spoken — talked 25. speak 26. said 27. speaks 28. told
29. speak — talk 30. tell 31. say, said 32. speak 33. say 34. tell 35. speak
36. speak 37. said 38. say 39. speak 40. tell
Exercise 8. 1. She asks you not to smoke. 2. I advise you to spend
more time out of doors. 3. You allow him to eat too many sweets. You
let him eat . . . 4. She wants to know why you have been so often late
this term. 5. She thinks that by that time she will have graduated from
the Institute and will be teaching at school. 6. The teacher wants to know
what he has been reading of late. 7. I wonder when this conversation took
place. 8. I don't know who of them will answer best. 9. He wants to know
what measures have been taken (or “were taken” if you mean “then”).
10.1 wonder who has taken my pen. 11. She wonders who has done it. 12.
He asserts that he was in the country that Sunday. 13. She claims that
she has never said anything of the kind. 14. I ask you not to interfere.
15. The doctor tells him to stop smoking.
Exercise 9. 1. Ellie exclaimed that she had been driving that car since
her father gave it to her and that there had been no complaints. 2. Cle
ment told Mark that Tim had taken out his speed-boat and that he had
done so before. 3. The woman said that he had left a message for me.
4. Tim said that he hurt his knee when he fell downstairs and that it
looked awful. 5. Kane said that he had nothing against Jim, that Jim
was the best in the family and that Kane had always said so. 6. Vic
said that they knew only what was in the papers, that they had been
waiting for a*call or a telegram since they heard of the accident. 7. Norma
said that the old car broke when they were crossing the bridge. 8. She
said she couldn’t go in the water because she had not brought her swim
suit. 9. Moira said that she had not meant to be rude. 10. Ginnie asked
if he had worked in the airplane factory too.
Exercise 10. 1. Emily said that the boy would not bother her, that
she liked young people about the place. 2. She announced that her son
wanted to talk to me about the car. 3. Miss Allison inquired when I was
moving out of Red Lodge. 4. Rosie said that she believed that the people
who had bought the house wanted to make some changes. She did not
really know what. She said they did not discuss it. 5. Mother said that
it was all right and that I could go if I liked. She asked me to lock the
garden gate as I went out. 6. She asked me if I was coming down. 7. The
boy insisted that there was nobody in the back seat of the car when he
saw it. 8. The strange child inquired of Miss Kate if she knew what he
was thinking of. 9. The old woman said that Rose spoiled that child,
that she had been spoiling her for years. 10. She said that my shoes were
wet through and asked if I had walked all the way from the station in
that rain. 11. Pat replied that she had not said much and that he had
heard it all before anyway. 12. He shouted at me not to start crying (or
told me not to start) and asked me what the matter with me was (or
63
Щ
what was the matter with me) and why I was behaving . . . 13. Doris
said that he was upstairs, waiting on the landing. 14. Win asked if any
one she knew was coming to the party. 15. Aunt Mollie asked if Pete had
brought that horrible dog again. She told him to go and lock it in the ga
rage. 16. The sergeant said that nothing had been heard of the two boys
since they were seen at the Victoria Station. 17. The girl said that it was
too dark when they finally came there to see the house properly. 18. Esme
asked if I knew French. 19. The girl asked if that was Ramona and ex
claimed that she was dying to see her. She asked if we realized that she had
not seen her since her mother brought her over that time. 20. Eloise
called to me to close the front door after me (or asked me to close).
Exercise 11. 1. She asked me not to be late. 2. He asked me what he
could do for me. 3. She asked where I had learned to play the piano like
that. 4. She said that my pronunciation had become much better and
asked if I had been working with records. 5. Mother asked why we were
quarrelling. 6. I asked him how he had done it. 7. She answered that she
had not been at the Institute since she fell ill. 8. She explained that she
read that book when she was in the 10th grade. 9. Her parents did not
understand why she was crying and her mother asked her if she had hurt
herself. 10. He asked when I should be at home and if he could come over
to talk to me. 11. They did not understand why I had refused to come
along. 12. He asserted that there was no one in when the fire began.
13. She asked if anybody had seen him. 14. She wondered where they were
and if they were thinking of her. 15. He asked me not to shut the door.
16. She asked what would happen if she pushed the button. 17. He asked
me to step aside because he did not see the blackboard. 18. She asked me
where I had left the keys. 19. She wanted to know when I was leaving
and if I was coming back. 20. We were not sure when the train started.
Exercise 12. 1. Miss Neville said that it was very strange and told
me to tell mother about it. (or that I must tell mother—) 2. The sergeant
asked how many letters I had to type —. 3. She said — that she was afraid
she had to go. 4. She said that it was going to rain later in the day and
advised me to take my umbrella (or said that I must take —)5. The ole
lady advised Mrs Devon to give the child plenty of milk, (or said that she
must give the child—) 6. Grandma said that she had to go over to Kate—.
7. The girl answered that she could not go just then, that she had to do
her lessons. 8. The young woman asked the child not to cry and promised
that the doctor would not hurt him. (or said that the child must not cry—)
9. The old teacher advised me to speak very slowly if I wanted them to
understand me. (or said that I must speak—) 10. She asked if I had to leave
already.
/
III. Passive Voice
Most verbs which can take direct objects can form passive construe
tions(e. g. I wrote that letter yesterday.— The letter was written yester
day). 4s
64
7
writes is written
is writing is being written
wrote was written
was writing was being written
will write will be written
has written \ has been written
has been writing /
had written \ I had been written
had been writing /
will have written I will 'have been written
will have been writing
would write \ would be written
would be writing /
would have written would have been written
There are two kinds of passive constructions: two-member passive
constructions and three-member passive constructions.
E.g. 1. The papers have not yet been signed.
2. The papers have not yet been signed by all members of the com
mission.
We mostly use the two-member passive constructions. We use active
constructions when we are interested in the doer of the action and two-
member passive constructions when we are interested in the action itself
and when the doer is either unknown or of no interest to the speaker.
Compare: 1. I had made the salad myself.
The salad had been already made.
2. He will meet you at the station.
You will be met at the station.
3. He is reading his new play in the other room.
His new play is being read in the other room.
The three-member passive is used in emphatic speech to stress the
doer of the action.
E.g. 1. By that time the point of the story had been long forgotten even
by the sto ry -te lle r h im se lf . 2. Your story is being typed b y ou r best
ty p is t .
The three-member passive is used comparatively seldom.
Exercise 1, Qive the corresponding passive co n stru ctio n s. Use two-m em ber passive
constructions o n ly . In ste a d o f the m issin g C o n tin u o u s fo rm s give the corresponding Itid efi-
nite or P erfect fo r m s .
Mo d e l : 1) We have not discussed the book yet.

The book has not been discussed.
2) I shall be typing your stuff when you come.
Your stuff will be typed when you come.
3) They have been planning the party since the new year.
The party has been planned since the new year.
1. The dean has just signed the papers. 2. Tbfe doctor was examining
the child when she came. 3. Somebody had switched off the lights. 4. They
H i 813 65
will return the books in time. 5. She will have baked the cake bv the
v
time you come. 6. She said she would type the letter first thing in the
morning. 7. We knew that she would have forgotten her promise long
before then. 8. People invent new ways of cooking vegetables every day.
9. They published one of his books last year. 10. Whom are they discuss
ing now?
If the predicate of the active construction consists of a modal yerb-f
an infinitive a passive infinitive must be used in the corresponding pas
sive construction.
E.g. 1) He can easilv translate this article. The article can be easily
translated. 2) He could write a good composition on this subject.
A good composition could be written on this subject. 3) You must
explain it to him. It must be explained to him. 4) Could one do
it without outside help? Could it be done without outside help?
Exercise 2. Give the corresponding passive constructions:
1. You should wear this dress with a belt. 2. You can’t do such things
here. 3. You must do it very slowly. 4. You should eat this cheese with
brown bread. 5. They may change the day of the meeting. 6. Somebody
ought to tell him about it. 7. Can one do it without special training?
8. Where can one find these books? 9. Must one boil the mushrooms before
.4
frying them? 10. Should I learn the rules by heart? 11. What should I do
about it? 12. Can we write the paper in pencil?
Ni
Some verbs can form two passive constructions.
y A. Verbs which can take two direct objects (to ask, to envy, to fo r
g ive, to excuse):
P a tte r n 1
E.g. a) You will be asked nothing difficult. She was not envied. He is
usually forgiven in a day or two.
b) A very unusual question was asked at the conference. Her unex
pected success was much envied.
Exercise 3* Translate into English. Use Pattern 1:
9 м
1. Его скоро простили. 2. Меня не спрашивали. 3. Этот вопрос не

задавали. 4. Его ошибка была прощена и забыта. 5. Ей многие завидо-
вали. 6. Ее успеху завидовали меньше, чем она ожидала. 7. Ее отсут
ствие можно извинить. 8. Ну, я прощен? 9. Этот вопрос могут задать.
10. Тебя могут спросить. 11. Ее ответу на экзамене можно позавидо
вать. 12. Такое нельзя простить.
66
►
В. Verbs which take a direct and an indirect object can form two pas
sive constructions:
P a tte rn 2
a) with the indirect object as the centre of the passive construction:
told
gi ven
offered
promised
shown
E.g. He was told a long story. 2. He was shown her photo.
b) with the direct object as the centre of the passive construction:14*
\ told
( is given
smth < was be l offered
( will promised
j shown
---------------------------------------------------------------------------- i
E.g. 1. A long sto ry was told (to) him. 2. H er ph oto was shown (to) him.
Note 9. Most verbs taking a direct and an indirect object form only
one passive construction with the direct object in the centre.
E.g. Mother bought me a new coat. A new co a t was bought for me.
Exercise 4. Translate into English. Use Pattern 2:
1.. Мне показали, как это делается. 2. Ей пообещали хорошую ра
боту. 3. Мне ничего не дали в библиотеке. 4. В буфете вам дадут чашку
кофе и бутерброд. 5. Вам покажут эту статью. 6. Никаких объяснений
мне не дали. 7. Эту работу кому-то другому. 8. Картину на фе
стивале не показали. 9. Нам картину не показали. 10. Мне даже ничего
не обещали. 11. Когда вам рассказали эту историю? 12. Показали вам,
как пройти на станцию? 13. Вам предложили что-нибудь поесть?
14. Почему мне предложили эту работу? 15. Почему нам этого не ска
зали? 16. Что вам там показали? 17. Почему мне не дали словаря в би
блиотеке? 18. Каждому студенту дадут программу.
Some verbs can also form passive constructions with the first ele
ment of a complex object in the centre:
I told (him to do) it.
He was told to do it.
67
P a tte r n 8
E.g. 1. He was asked to come later. 2. She will be forbidden to smoke.

3. Are they allowed to play here? 4. When was he told to come?
Exercise 5. T ra n sla te in to E n g lish . Use P a tte r n 3:
1. Детям велели идти спать. 2. Меня попросили подождать. 3. Поче
му ему запретили играть в футбол? 4. Ей не позволяют есть мороженое
5. Мне посоветовали носить туфли без каблуков. 6. Вас не будут про
сить петь. 7. Ему посоветовали бо бывать на духе. 8. Вас
попросят
и
9. Вам велели прийти 1 10. Никому

разрешается курить в аудитор 11. Почему
вать экзамены после сессии? 12. Когда вам велели прийти? 13. Кому
вам велено отдать книгу? 14. Где вам позволили играть?
Some verbs (to ex p la in , to announce, to describe, to repeat, to d ic ta te ,
to p o in t out) can be used only in the following type of passive construc
tions:
P a tte r n 4
b.dl m w m *m m w i m\
to smb
ca m. ■ «од
E.g. 1. The method was explained to her in detail. 2. He was pointed

out to me at a party. 3. Was the rule explained to them? 4. When
was he pointed out to you?
\ explained \
described
repeated (to smb) that
pointed out
4
announced
т » и
68
E.g. 1. It was pointed out to her that the process was a long one. 2. It
is announced to us that the game will take place in September.
3. Was it explained to them that the experiment is dangerous?
4. When was it announced that the lecture will not take place?
C. ^ is j explained j ( where
it < was } described > (to smb) < how todosm th
( will be J announced ) ( when
E.g. 1. It was explained to me how to switch the current off and on. 2. It
was announced to us when to expect him.
f
Exercise 6. T ra n sla te into E n g lish . Use P a tte r n 4:

1. Ей объяснили, как это делается. 2. Ей продиктовали несколько
писем. 3. Ей указали на ее ошибки. 4. Нам объявили, что концерт нач
нется в восемь. 5. Мне ее хорошо описали. 6. Нам объяснили, что он
болен. 7. Мне много раз повторяли, что мне надо бросить курить. 8. Мне
объяснили, что он уехал. 9. Вам объяснили метод работы? 10. Нам
указали на то, что в этой деревне нет клуба. 11. Ей объяснили, где
найти книги. 12. Мне указали на то, что его нет в городе. 13. Объяснил^
вам, где его найти? 14. Когда вам продиктовали это письмо?
Verbs which take prepositional objects can form passive constructions
of the following pattern:
P a tte rn 5
i
| sent for
/is j spoken about
< was ! listened to
( will be J laughed at
»
I looked after
j cared for
i1
*
E.g. 1. The poem was much spoken about last year. 2. The children were
well cared for.
1. За врачом послали. 2. Почему над ним всегда смеются? 3. О ней
всегда много говорят. 4. За детьми там будет прекрасный уход. 5. Об
этом будут много говорить. 6. Его никогда не слушали.
Exercise 8. Give the corresponding passive co n stru ctio n s, Give varian ts
possible. Use P a tte rn s 1 , 2, 3 , 4, 5:
69
about it for some time and then forget it. 9. She told him not to smoke
in the hall. 10. Have they brought the books? 11. The papers announced
that the visit would not take place. 12, They have built the house in
record time. 13. Nobody had noticed the girl. 14. Have you given the
children their milk? 15. They never speak about it in her presence. 16.
What have you done about it? 17. They were taking more effective meas
ures at the time. 18. They are building a new road here. 19. To whom
will they give the job? 20. She asked him another question. 21. What
measures will they take? 22. What can they do about it? 23. They can
say nothing at present.
Exercise 9. Translate into English. Use Patterns 1, 2, 3t 4, 5:
1. Его несколько раз просили не обращать на это внимания. 2. Ей
объявили, что поезд уже ушел. 3. Его попросили не вмешиваться. 4. Ей
задали несколько вопросов и велели подождать. 5. Его сейчас экзаме
нуют. 6. Его не станут слушать. 7. Ей указали на то, что она часто
опаздывает на работу. 8. Ей продиктовали несколько писем. 9. Кому
дадут эту работу? 10. Какие меры будут приняты? 11. Тогда как раз
строилась эта школа. 12. Ну, что-нибудь уже решено? 13. Там за ним
будет хороший уход. 14. Что говорили на эту тему? 15. Их учат анг
лийскому языку около года. 16. Когда это надо сделать? 17. Почему
это нельзя сделать сегодня? 18. Когда вам объяснили, что поезд уже
ушел? 19. Почему ничего еще не сделано? 20, Почему мне этого сразу
не сказали?
Training Exercises
Exercise 10. Open the brackets. Use the necessary tenses in the Passive voice:
1. Look! There's nothing here. Everything (to take) away. 2. We (to
tell) to wait because the man (to question) just. 3. If anyone comes in
you (to find) looking through his papers. 4. We can’t get there in time.
By the time we get there the papers (to destroy). 5. Why nothing (to do)
about it at the time? 6. You can’t go in. She (to interview) for the T V .
7. She promised that nothing (to do) till he came back. 8. I had a
most unpleasant feeling that I (to watch). 9. She looked a different girl.
Her face (to wash), her hair (to comb). All traces of tears (to remove).
10. We could still see the tracks where the car (to drag) off the road.
Exercise 11. Put questions to the italicised words:
* ^
M o d e l : 1) Surely som ething can be done about it. What can be done
about it?
2) A new movie theatre is being built in this squ are. Where
is a new movie theatre being built?
3) The story was typed by our best t y p i s t . By whom was
the story typed?
4) The article w as tra n sla te d yesterday. Was the article trans
lated yesterday?
1. The telegram will be delivered som etim e in the aftern oon . 2. Som e
stu d en ts are being examined over there. 3. The parcel has been sent there
70
>
by m ista k e . 4. The process was described in d e ta il. 5. It was explained to
them where to cross the r iv e r . 6. You w ill be g iven enough time to prepare
your answer. 7. This fish should be eaten co ld . 8. All these books must
be taken u p s ta ir s . 9. These experiments were made b y a yo u n g scien tist.
10. N o th in g was said on the subject.
Exercise 12. T ra n sla te the verbs in bold type in to E n g lis h . R e te ll the stories in E n g lish .
A.
Молодой писатель хходил взад и вперед по комнате. Он 2пытался
найти тему для рассказа. Рассказ был давно 3обещан редактору. Срок
Подходил, а ничего еще не было 5сделано. Молодой писатель Посмотрел
на книжные полки. «Столько уже Написано»,— 8подумал он.— «Все
хорошие темы уже много раз были Использованы. Вот хотя бы эти
рассказы. Они были 10написаны до моего рождения. И это хорошие рас
сказы. Без сомнения их в свое время пчитали, они 12нравились, о них
гзговорили. Но сейчас они совершенно 14забыты. А что если...»
К концу дня один из забытых рассказов был 15перепечатан и ^отос
лан в редакцию. На следующий день пришло письмо из редакции
журнала.
«Это писал редактор.— «Такие поступки нельзя
17
ни простить, ни понять. Ведь этот рассказ был 18опубликован в нашем
журнале только месяц тому назад.»
В. Частная ж изнь Генно Б огдан а
Наш старый бухгалтер хушел на пенсию и на его место 2взяли

ого. Через неделю его уже Ззнали все и всем он Понравился. 5Вы-
яснилось, что он “женат и у него 7есть ребенок. 8Было решено, что
хороший человек, тихий и‘скромный. Мы тогда и не 9думали, что
[ерез несколько недель о нем будет 10говорить контора
пСлучилось это так. Весна в прошлом году 12пришла рано. В
прекрасное утро контора была полна перешептываний. Богдана 13
15
ли в ресторане с девушкой. Они 14ели мороженое смотрел
влюбленными глазами.
Через несколько дней его16видели с этой же девушкой
17
лу парка. Они Через неделю их ^встретили на пляже
Что-то надо 19сделать,— было общее решение.— Ему
зать, его надо ^остановить, ему 22объяснить.
Наконец ему 23велели сейчас же в кабинет директора
24
его встретил^ ц комиссия.
25
Генчо бог сказал директор.— Вас много раз видели
с молодой женщиной
Потом Богдану 26в следующий же день привести эту
дую женщину к директору для серьезного разговора.
Но сказал он.— Завтра нельзя. Она 27поведет ребенка к вра
чу.
Так уже ребенок! — воскликнул профорг
Конечно,— ответил он. Я 28думал, что все уже 2
71
— Значит это была ваша жена! — сказали мы,— Почему же вы
этого сразу не 30сказали?
— Меня не ^опрашивали,— ответил он.
KEYS TO EXERCISES
Exercise 2. 1. The dress should be worn — 2. Such things can’t be

done — 3. It must be done — 4. The cheese should be eaten — 5. The
day — may be changed. 6. He ought to be told — 7. Can it be done—?
8. Where can the book be found? 9. Must the mushrooms be boiled —?
10. Should the rules be learnt —? 11. What should be done —? 12. Can
the paper be written —?
Exercise 4. 1. I was shown how to do it. 2. She was promised a good
job. 3. I wasn’t given anything — 4. You will be given — 5. You’ll be
shown — 6. I was given no explanations. 7. The job was given — 8. The
picture was not shown — 9. We were not shown — 10. I was not so much
as promised anything. 11. When were you told —? 12. Were you shown
how to reach —? 13. Were you given —? 14. Why was I offered—? 15.
Why were we not told this? 16. What were you shown —? 17. Why was
I not given —? 18. Every student will be given —
Exercise 5. 1. The children were told — 2. I was asked — 3. Whv
was he forbidden to play —? 4. She is not allowed to eat — 5. I was ad
vised to wear — 6. You won’t be asked to sing. 7. He was advised to
spend — 8. You will be asked to come — 9. Were you told to come—?
10. Nobody is allowed to smoke — 11. Why were you allowed to take —?
12. When were you told to come ? 13. Who(m) were you told to give —?
14. Where were you allowed to play?
Exercise 6. 1. It was explained to her how to do it. 2. Some letters
were dictated to her. 3. Her mistakes were pointed out to her. 4. It was
announced to us that the concert would begin at eight. 5. She was described
to me very well. 6. It was explained to us that he was ill. 7. It was
often repeated to me that I should stop smoking. 8. It was explained
to me that he had left. 9. Was the method of work explained to you?
10. It was pointed out to us that there was no club at the village. 11. It
was explained to her where to find the books. 12. It was pointed out to
me that he was out of town. 13. Was it explained to you where to find
him? 14. When was the letter dictated to you?
Exercise 9. 1. He was repeatedly asked not to pay attention — 2. It
was announced to her that the train had gone — 3. He was asked — 4. She
was asked — and told — 5. He is being examined — 6. He won’t be
listened to. 7. It was pointed out to her that she was often late. 8. Some
letters were dictated to her. 9. Who will be given —? 10. What measures
will be taken? 11. The school was just being built — 12. Has anything
been settled? 13. He will be well looked after — 14. What was said on
the subject? 15. They have been taught English — 16. When must it
be done? 17. Why can’t it be done today? 18. When was it explained to
72
you that the train had gone? 19. Why has nothing been done? 20. Why
wasn’t I told so at once?
Exercise 10. 1. has been taken 2. were told was being questioned 3.
will be found 4. will have been destroyed 5. has been done 6. is being
interviewed 7. would be done 8. was being watched 9. had been washed,
had been combed, had been removed 10. had been dragged
Exercise 11. 1. When will the telegram be delivered? 2. Who is being
examined over there? 3. Why has the parcel been sent there? 4. How was
the process described? 5. What was explained to them? 6. Shall we be
given enough time...? 7. How should this fish be eaten? 8. Where must
these books be taken? 9. By whom were these experiments made? 10. What
was said on the subject?
Exercise 12. A. 1. was walking 2. was trying 3. had been promised
4. was approaching 5. had been done 6. looked 7. has been written 8.
thought 9. have been used 10. were written 11. were read 12. liked 13. spo
ken about 14. are forgotten 15. had been typed 16. sent 17. can be neither
forgiven nor understood 18. was published
4
4
В. 1. was retired 2. was engaged 3. was known 4. was liked 5. became

known 6. was married 7. had a child 8. was decided 9. thought 10. spo
ken about 11. happened 12. came 13. had been seen 14. were eating 15. was
looking 16. was seen 17. were kissing 18. were met 19. must be done 20.
must be told 21. must be stopped 22. it must be explained to him 23. was
told 24. was received 25. had been repeatedly seen 26. was told 27. is
taking 28. thought (believed) 29. knew 30. did not say 31. was not asked

Exercise 1. Report the following sayings. Use the reporting verb in the Past tense:
1. “I have never gone to doctors and I don’t mean to. A waste of time
and money. That’s what it is,” she told Ernie. 2. “And did the man who
spoke to you look like any of these?” he asked, showing me some glossy
photos. 3. “Please, Jack, don’t see me off. Just get me a taxi, will you?”
she said. 4. “It was quite a party. Why didn’t you come?” Mary asked.
5. “Who will be responsible for that? It’s the only thing I want to know,”
father said angrily. 6. “Don’t go into the sitting room, children, Jeannie
is being fitted for a new dress,” Mother said. 7. “Nothing whatever has
been said on the subject as yet,” she confided to me. “But there’s some
thing in the air, I feel it.” 8. “You mustn’t brood over i.t,” Jeannie said.
“Things are sure to get right if you don’t bother about them.” 9. “Call
me at half past six to-morrow, Mother, I must catch the early train to
London,” Chris said. 10, “The purse was empty when I found it. Quite
empty,” the girl repeated stubbornly. 11. “What have you been doing
since I saw you last?” he inquired. “You’ve done something to your
hair. It makes you look quite grown up.” 12. “He has not been to his of
fice today,” the secretary said. “We have been trying to reach him since
we got the letter.” 13. Then she told me, “I saw that doctor yesterday,
*
73
V
I ’m q u ite a ll righ t a g a in .” 14. “W h at h a v e you done w ith th e paper?”

he sa id . “I d o n ’t see it a n y w h ere.”

1. Мне объяснили, почему еще ничего не было сделано. 2. Он ска
зал, что надо послать за специалистом. 3. Я понимал, что пока студен
та экзаменуют, я не могу войти в комнату. 4. Она не помнила, где она
оставила книги. 5. Им объявили, что вратарь заболел и играть не
будет. 6. Он сказал, что ему предложили хорошую работу. 7. Он ут
верждал, что окно разбили, когда его в классе не было. 8. Мы пони
маем, что многое было сделано с тех пор, как мы в последний раз были
в деревне, но мы не ожидали таких перемен. 9. Ее интересовало, будут
ли приняты какие-либо меры. 10. Никто не знает, что было сказано
при £той встрече, но она с тех пор с ним не разговаривает.
Exercise 3. Translate the verbs in bold type into English:
Когда я 1приш ла на первое занятие, я увидела группу детей, с ин

тересом 2см отрящ их на то, что п р о и сх о д и л о на площадке. Дети всегда
4приходят см отреть, как 5учат собак, и я не ^обратила на них особого
внимания. На следующий раз я 7наш ла на площадке две группы.
Группу людей со служебными собаками, которых мне надо было О б у
чать, и ребятишек, 9см отревш их на первое занятие. Они тоже 30привели
с собой собак. И каких собак! Там был очень пожилой спаниель с седой
мордой, жирная такса и лохматое беспородное существо, которое
11держ ал на цепи мальчик. Оказывается, ребята 12подумали, что для
того чтобы заниматься на площадке, 13нуж но только иметь собаку.
Мне 14было жалко ребят, но мне 1бприш лось им сказать, что здесь
16учат только служебных собак и что за это 17надо платить.
18
Дети не уш ли. Они 19отош ли подальше, 20слуш али все мои объяс
нения и 21старались делать все, что Сделали взрослые.
В этот день мы 23учили собак садиться, держать в зубах палку
и отдавать ее хозяину по приказанию. Все это 24надо было отработать
дома.
На следующий раз я увидела обычную грустную картину. ^С оба
кам велели сесть и взять палку в зубы. Две или три сели, одна даже
лениво 26взяла палку, остальные 27лежали, " ст о я л и . 29Больш е палки
не брал никто. Задание 30не было отработано.
Я 31стала о б ъ я сн я т ь хозяевам, что 82необходим о отрабатывать зада
ние дома и вдруг 33зам етила, что они 34не слуш аю т меня. Они ^ см отр е
ли на что-то сзади меня. Я " обер н ул ась. Девять ребятишек 37стояли,
выстроившись в ряд. Девять собак " си дел и точно, как положено.
Каждая " дер ж ал а в зубах палку.
{по Л . И . Острецовой «Юный дрессировщик»)
Exercise 4. Л. Open the brackets. Put the verbs into the necessary forms.
B. Give the contents of the letter in indirect speech:
“In this letter the boy asked his parents..,”
►
My dear parents!
First of all (not to worry). I (to find) what I want to be. I want to
be a lonely wanderer. As to my lessons, I (to decide) to give them up.
I (to take) everything I (to want). Adventure (to be) my life in future.
It (to be) not dangerous. I (to take) two aspirins in case I (to be) ill.
(Not to lose) courage. I not (to be) quite alone. Somebody, whom you not
(to know), (to bring) me bread and (to stay) with me when it (to rain).
(Not to look) for me, I can’t (to find). Look after Mother. When you (to
come) here again I (to change) so much that you not (to recognize) me
until I (to say): *‘It (to be) me.” Your son Marcel, the Lonely Wanderer
of the Hills.
(After M. Pagnol)
Exercise 5, Translate the verbs and word-combinations'in bold type:
Гонзе 1было уже двадцать лет, и он был самым ленивым парнем
в королевстве. Однажды он очень долго 2пролежал на правом боку
и Значал дум ать, не повернуться ли ему на левый, когда дверь О ткры
лась и в дом вбежала старушка.
Это ббыла местная ведьма. Она бприш ла, чтобы предсказать ему его
судьбу. Она ’собиралась сделать это двадцать лет тому назад, но
в с т р е т и л а знакомую у входа в деревню и О ни все эт о время прогово
рили. Так что все ее предсказания опоздали. Вот например, когда
сын старосты также еще 10лежал в колыбели, она п соби р ал ась ск азать ,
что он 12утон ет в ш естилетнем возрасте. А теперь этот верзила уже
13ж ениться собирался, а вода в речке 14была ему до пояса.
Ведьма 1бсказала Гонзе, что он 16будет здоровы м и счастливы м, что
17на двадцать первом году ж изни он 18убьет дракона, 18освободи т прин
цессу и 18ж енится на ней. Ведьма быстренько попрощалась, 1: велела
ему слуш аться маму и ‘"кушать каш у и исчезла.
Гонза 21был очень расстроен. Он 22не знал, где ^прож ивал дракон
23
и как его искать. Но он 24надеялся, что 25об этом известят по радио

или через газеты и что 26ему о б ъ я сн я т , что делать.
{Йозеф Л а д а . «Озорные сказки»)
KEYS TO GENERAL TRAINING EXERCISES

s
Exercise 1. 1. She told Ernie that she had never gone to doctors and
did not mean to. That it was a waste of time and money. 2. Showing
her some glossy photos he asked if the man she had seen had looked like
any of those. 3. She asked Jack not to see her off and told him to get her
a taxi. 4. Mary said that it had been quite a party and asked why I had
not come. 5. Father asked angrily who would be responsible for that and
said it was the only thing he wanted to know. 6. Mother asked us not to
go into the sitting room because Jeannie was being fitted for a new dress.
7. She confided to me that nothing whatever had been said on the sub
ject as yet but that there was something .in the air, she felt it. 8. Jeannie
advised me not to brood over it and said that things were sure to get right
if you did not bother about them. 9. Chris asked Mother to call him at
half past six the next day because he had to catch the early train to Lon
don. 10. The girl repeated stubbornly that the purse was empty when she
found it. 11. He asked me what I had been doing since he saw me last and
75
said that I had done something to my hair that made me look quite grown
up. 12. The secretary said that he had not been to his office that day and
that they had been trying to reach him since they got the letter. 13. Then
she told me that she had seen the doctor the day before and that she was
quite all right again. 14. He asked what we had done with the paper and
said that he did not see it anywhere.
Exercise 2.1. It was explained to me why nothing had been done. 2. He
said that a specialist had to be sent for. 3. I understood that while the
student was being examined I couldn’t enter the room. 4. She did not
remember where she had left the books. 5. It was announced to them that
the goal-keeper had fallen ill and would not play. 6. He said that he had
been offered a good job. 7. He claimed that the window was broken when
he was out of the classroom. 8. We understood that much had been done
since we were last at the village. But we had not expected such changes.
9. She wondered if anv measures would be taken. 10. Nobodv knows what
was said at this meeting but she has not spoken to him since.
Exercise 3. 1. came 2. were watching 3. was going on 4. come to see
5. dogs are being taught 6. did not pay 7*. found 8. had to teach 9. had
been watching 10. had brought 11. was holding 12. had thought 13. one
had to have a dog 14. was sorry 15. had to tell them 16. were taught 17. one
had to pay 18. did not leave 19. went 20. listened 21. tried 22. were doing
23. taught 24. had to be worked out 25. the dogs were told 26. took 27.
lay 28. stood 29. nobody else took 30. had not been worked out 31. be
an explaining to 32. that it was necessary 32. noticed 34. were not listen
ing 35. were looking 36. looked round 37. were standing 38. were sitting
39, were hoi din > -
Exercise 4. . . . not to worry. He told them that he had found what he

wanted to be. He said that he wanted to be a lonelv wanderer and as to
his lessons he had decided to give them up. He said that he had taken
everything he should want. Adventure would be (was to be) his life in
future. He said that it would not be dangerous and that he had taken two
aspirins in case he was ill. He asked his parents not to lose courage and
told them that he would not be quite alone. Someone whom they did not
know would bjing him bread and would stay with him when it rained.
He told his parents not to look for him because he could not be found.
He asked his father to look after his mother. He told them that when they
came there again he would have changed so much that they would not
recognize him until he said that it was he.
Exercise 5. 1. was 2. had been lying 3. began thinking (was beginning
to think) 4. opened 5. was 6. had come 7. intended 8. met 9. had been
talking 10. was lying 11. meant to say 12. was going to drown when he
was six 13. was going to get married 14. reached 15. told 16. would be
healthy and happy 17. when he was twenty one 18. would (was going to)
kill a dragon, free a princess and marry her 19. told him to obey his moth
er (to do what his mother told him) 20. to eat up his porridge 21. was
greatly upset 22. did not know 23. where a (the) dragon lived 24. he
hoped 25. it would be announced over the radio 26. it would be explai
ned to him
>
Te s t
»
(to be sent to the Institute)
Assignment I. Give corresponding passive constructions:

l. She announced to me that she was leaving shortly. 2. Why did
they build the house so close to the road? 3. When will you post the let
ters? 4. They will do nothing till they have reached a decision. 5. One
сапЧ do such things without long and careful preparation. 6. You must
write an application and they will give you a form to fill. 7. Did she ask
you any questions about your experience as a teacher? 8. The youngest
boy of the class made that picture. 9. They will look well after you. 10.
You can’t change anything now. They have approved the plan. 11. Why
did you not explain to her how to work the lift? 12. You must do some
thing to help her. You can’t leave things in this state.
j
Assignment II. Report the following sayings in indirect speech. Use the reporting verb
in the Past tense:1
Assignment III. Translate into English:

1. Меня попросили заполнить анкету. 2. Она утверждала, что ма
шина была в полном порядке, когда она пользовалась ею в последний
раз. 3. Ей объяснили, что самолет опаздывает. 4. Она не знала, успеет
77
ли он положить письмо обратно, прежде чем кто-нибудь заметит, что
его там нет. 5. И вы поймете, что он сделал все, чтобы помочь вам. 6. Мне
дали книгу с картинками и велели ждать, пока меня позовут. 7. Мэ*
неджер сказал, что времена очень изменились и что работы для на
чинающего актера у него не было. 8. Мы знали, что гостиница еще толь
ко строится и собирались жить в палатке. 9. Ей хотелось знать, пой
мет ли она речь английских актеров. 10. Она спросила нас, где мы ос
тавили чемоданы и где собираемся обедать. 11..Никто не помнил, кто
начал этот разговор и как он превратился в ссору. 12. Она спросила,
какие книги ей надо купить. 13. Мне сказали, что эти туфли можно
носить в любую погоду. 14. Я понимал, что ничего нельзя сделать,
чтобы спасти положение.
Assignment IV. Retell this passage in English. Use indirect speech only:
Я застал отца за обеденным столом. Он подсчитывал деньги. Мать,
сидя напротив него, пила кофе. Моя чашка была уже налита. Мать
спросила:
Ноги вымыл?
Зная, какое большое значение она этому придает, я твердо ответил:
Вымыл. Обе.
Ногти постриг?
Нет, ответил я,— не пришло в голову. Но я стриг ногти
в воскресенье.
Мать удовлетворилась этим. Я тоже.
Когда я ел свои бутерброды, отец сказал:
Ты ведь еще не знаешь, куда мы идем. Я снял домик за городом
среди холмов. Там мы проведем летние каникулы.
(After М . Pagnol)
Assignment V. Answer the following questions. Give examples to prove your point:
\
1. W hat ten se form s show th a t th e a ctio n took p lace before another

a ctio n in th e p ast? (express p rio rity to a p ast action ?)
2. W hat te n se form s show th a t th e a ctio n tak es p la ce at th e sam e tim e
w ith an oth er a c tio n in th e future? (express sim u lta n eo u sn ess w ith an
a c tio n in th e future?)
3 . W hat verb s can form tw o p a ssiv e co n stru ctio n s?
4. W hen do w e use a tw o-m em b er and w h en a three-m em ber p a ssiv e
co n stru ctio n and w h ich is used oftener?
5. W h at is th e p rin cip a l difference b etw een th e tw o groups of verbs:
to say and to tell on th e on e h an d , to speak and to talk on th e other?
6. W hen is there no sh ift of ten ses in reported speech?
Assignment No. 4 *
Non-Finite Forms of the Verb
The infinitive, the gerund and the participle are the non-finite forms
of the verb (the verbals).
Like the finite forms of the verb the verbals have tense, voice and aspect
forms, can be modified by adverbs and can take direct objects. But they
can not express person, number or mood and their syntactical functions
are different from those of the finite forms.
The Russian non-finite forms причастие, деепричастие, инфинитив
do not quite correspond to what we find in the English language.
Part I
The Infinitive
The infinitive has six forms:

••V«
Indefinite Passive Continuous
to write to be written to be writing

/
Perfect Perfect Passive Perfect Continuous

«
iin i n 11 i
!
to have written to have been written to have been writing
>
Verbs which are not used in the passive voice have only four forms of
the infinitive:
79
✓
Indefinite Continuous
■4
to stand to be standing
Perfect Perfect Continuous
to have stood to have been standing
Exercise 1. Give all the possible forms of the following infinitives.

M o d e l : 1) to discuss —
to be discussed; to be discussing; to have discussed; to have
been discussed; to have been discussing.
2) to sleep —
to be sleeping; to have slept; to have been sleeping.
to describe; to explain; to smile; to run; to do; to jump; to cross; to
read; to walk; to call
Exercise 2. Give examples of the following forms of the infinitive: the ite, the
Perfect; the Passive; the Continuous; Jhe Perfect Passive.
4
E.g. 1. She likes to play with the child. She seemed to know the way.
You will be glad to speak English again. 2. I don’t mean to go there
soon. She wanted to be told the truth. She will want to explain it
to you.
The Perfect forms: to have written, to have been written, to have been
writing show that the action precedes that of the predicate.
i
E.g. 1. I was glad to have spoken to him. 2. You seem to havl for
gotten your promise.
The Active and Passive forms of the infinitive show whether the sub
ject of the infinitive acts or is acted upon.
E.g. 1. I want you to take him to a good doctor.
Я хочу, чтобы вы повели его к врачу.
2. You are lucky to be taken to the circus.
Тебе повезло, что тебя берут в цирк.
3. She wanted to be taken seriously.
Она хотела, чтобы ее принимали всерьез.
The Continuous forms of the Infinitive: to be writing, to have been
writing show that the action is a temporary and not a usual one.*
80
*
»
Compare: 1. She seems to lose her temper easily.
Она, кажется, легко выходит из себя
2. She seems to be losing.her temper.
Она, кажется, из себя (сейчас)
The infinitive can take a direct object
to read a book write a letter
The infinitive can be modified by an adverb
walk fast; speak
Like the finite forms of the verb the infinitive has tense, voice and
aspect forms, can take a direct object and be modified by an adverb.
These are the verbal features of the infinitive.
The finite forms of the verb have onlv one syntactical function that
the predicate or part of the predicate. The syntactical functions of the
quite different. They are close to those of the noun and may
be considered to be the noun features of the infiniti\
The sentence patterns below show the use of the infinitiv differ
ent functions.
Sentence P a tte r n s w ith the I n fin itiv e
P a tte rn 1
The S u b ject
mm m m m
Г \ is (was, will be) ) necessary

to do smth < would be impossible
a mistake
means (meant) to do smth
«МИ A gM h ч*
E.g. To tell her the truth under the circumstances is not at all necessary
(would be a mistake, means to spoil her chances of recovery).
Exercise 3. Translate into English. Use Pattern 1 (Л):
1. Знать язык — значит свободно говорить и писать на нем. 2. Ду
мать так было бы неверно. 3. Сказать «да» было невозможно, сказать
«нет» было бы невежливо. 4. Объяснить ему, что это такое, было делом
_____ v +
трудным. 5. Помогать ей — значит просто все сделать самой. 6. Рас

сердиться было бы глупо.
нП> m f u f n j l V n И М h U P W il l i O i» »
*нмм тффгы иtm mm n fh м м м м в м м |
в \
important to do smth
W interestin
1S
easy to be done
it { was difficult
I will be strange
simple to be doing smth
/ nice
* r‘ «И Ч Х И К М
И т м п а м м
81
i
E. 1. It is necessary to go and explain it to her. 2. It was nice to be

speaking English again.
Exercise 4. Translate into English. Use Pattern 1 (В):

1. Трудно без словаря. 2. Очень было приятно
поговорить с вами. 3. Очень важно не быть превратно понятым. 4. Труд
но будет объяснить вам это. 5. Приятно быть опять в Москве. 6. Так
странно, когда с тобой обращаются как со школьницей. 7. Было очень
трудно делать вид, что ты не понимаешь. 8. Правда, хорошо сидеть здесь
и пить кофе? 9. Ошибаться легко, гораздо труднее понять свою ошибку.
10. Вовсе не нужно все это учить наизусть.
P a tte r n 2
The P red ica tive

I*
is
to do smth
was >
will be to be done
xtM
E.g. 1. What I want is to be left alone. 2. The main thing was to get
a permit. 3. Your job will be to look after the children.
Exercise 5. Complete the following sentences by adding a predicative infinitive to each;

M o d e 1: Her dream was to become an actress.
2) What I wanted was — not to be misunderstood.
1. The general idea was —. 2. His hobby is —. 3. The first thing you
must do is —. 4. The last thing I meant was —. 5. The main thing is
6. The only thing to do was —. 7. Your only chance is —. 8. Your job
will be —. 9. My onlv wish is
V
10. What I want is

Г быть правильно понятым. 2. Вашей работой будет
лабораторными животными. 3. Моим
было добраться до дома. 4. Его хобби — коллекционирование марок
5. Единственный шанс успеть У
6. Един
ственный выход из положения рассказать
The infinitive may be part of a compound verbal predicate. In thi
case it follows modal or aspective verbs.
E.g. 1. You needn’t wait. 2. Could you tell me the time? 3. Г т begin
ning to think so.
82
t
P a tte r n 3
The O bject
E.g. She did not want to be seen in such company.

Exercise 7. Complete the following sentences by adding an objective infinitive to each:
i. Why did you pretend—. 2. We agreed—. 3. Who w ants—?
4. I did not mean —. 5. Finally it was decided —. 6. He offered —.
7. Don’t forget —. 8. You must always remember —.
E.g. 1. She was obviously pleased to see me. 2. He was glad to be talk
ing to me. 3. They were astonished to have found me there. 4. The
girl was delighted to have been dancing the whole evening. 5. He
was afraid to be seen with me.
Exercise 8. Complete the following sentences by adding an objective infinitive to each.
Give several variants-where possible:
4
1. Why were you so angry —? 2. Were you glad —? 3. She must have
been pleased —. 4. They were simply delighted —. 5. She was not really
angry —.
Exercise 9. A. Open the brackets. Use Pattern 3 (A, B):
1. She was probably angry (to reprimand) in front of me. 2. She sat
there trying to pretend she did not want (to dance) and was quite
pleased (to sit) there and (to watch) the fun. 3. She was sorry (to be) out
when I called and promised (to wait) for me downstairs after the office
hours. 4. She said she would love to come and was simply delighted (to
ask) for a date. 5. I offered (to carry) her case but she was afraid (to
let) it out of her hand. 6. Let’s go and see the place. You will be sorry
later (to miss) it.
4
83
В. Translate into English:
1. Мы были рады, что пригласили его пообедать с нами. 2. Она дела
ла вид, что читает. 3. Не забудь отправить письма. 4. Почему ты так
удивлена, что получила двойку? 5. Она всегда очень довольна, когда
ее принимают за молодую девушку. 6. Девочка боялась, что ее поведут
к зубному врачу. 7. Он удивился, что его узнали. 8. Он был очень рад,
что его еще помнят. 9. Мы были очень рады, что поговорили с ним.
10. Вы очень огорчены, что упустили эту возможность?
P a tte rn 4
The A ttr ib u te
и м м * м т > и « м ||м м м а а ш м 1 м м ш м ш м 1 1 1 в м 1 1 1 1 в « 1 « М 1 1 М * ш м м м м и м 1 1 И И 1 р ш м 1 И М Р ш т
the first |
last } to do smth
second J
E.g. 1. Who was the last to speak to him? 2. She was the first to see
the danger. 3. He was the second to cross the finish line.
E.g. 1. I have nothing to give you. 2. Have you anything else to say?
3. There was nobodv there to show him how to do it.
E.g. 1. He is just the man to do it. 2. There is no place to put an ice

box between the sink and the stove. 3. It is not the right time to
discuss this subject. 4. It is just the book to read in the train.
Note 1. The passive infinitive is seldom used in the attributive func
tion. This is why we say “it is a book to read” and not “to
be read.”
E x c e p t i o n s : there is n o th in g to be done and n oth in g
to do; there is som eth in g to be seen, to be said and som ething
to see, to say.
*
Note 2. The attributive infinitive besides naming an action may

express a meaning corresponding to the Russian надо,
можно, следует.
84
E.g. It’s the only thing to do.
Это единственное, что можно и нужно сделать.
Не is not the man to do it.
Он не тот, кто мог бы это сделать.
It’s a book to read and rem em ber.
Такую книгу надо прочесть и запомнить.
Note 3. The attributive passive infinitive may have a future meaning.

.
E.g. The houses to be built here will be of the same type.
Exercise 10. Replace the attributive clause bu an attributive infinitive. Follow Pattern 4
(А. В. C):
1. He is the only man w h o can do it better than I. 2. She was not a
girl w h o w ou ld m iss an op p ortu n ity lik e th at. 3. It was one of those incred
ible opportunities where you cou ld get so m eth in g for n o th in g or n ea rly
n o th in g . 4. He was always speaking about a book he was going to write in
the near fu tu re. 5. She will always find something she can co m p la in
ab ou t. If it is not one thing it’s another. 6. There’s simply nothing a n y o n e
can do a b o u t it. 7. Her mother was the first w ho k isse d her and w ish ed
her luck. 8. There seemed to be no one there w ho co u ld be a s k e l for
d irectio n s. 9. I have a few more notebooks w h ich m u st be co rrected .
10. Is there anything else th a t co u ld be sa id in his defence? 11. There was
a long argument over the trees w h ich w ere g o in g to be p la n ted in the
sch o o l-y a rd . 12. There still remained things w h ich had to be said and
she was the girl w ho w o u ld sa y them .
Exercise 11. Complete the following sentences by adding attributive infinitives to them.
Give several variants where possible:
1. Is there anything — in the ice-box? 2. I wonder if you are the

man —. 3. Who was the last —? 4. I have no time —. 5. She’s not a girl—.
6. It was not the right thing — under the circumstances. 7. It’s not a
dress — with flat heels. 8. It’s a film —. 9. There was nothing more —. 10.
I’ll give you something — on the train.
Exercise 12. Translate into English. Use attributive infinitives. Follow Pattern 4
(А, В, C):1
1. He такой это был человек, чтобы передумать. 2. Ему больше не
чего было сказать. 3. Думать было некогда. 4. Кто последний входил
в эту комнату? 5. Я теперь не помню, кто первый это сказал, 6. Вот
план кинотеатра, который будет построен на этой площади. 7. Дайте
мне время подумать. 8. Это свитер, который молено носить с брюками
или широкой юбкой. 9. У меня нет времени играть с тобой. 10. У ре
бенка нет никого, кто мог бы о нем позаботиться. 11. Вы третий чело
век, который мне это сегодня говорит. 12. У меня нет никакого жела
ния вмешиваться. 13. У вас есть, что добавить? 14. Есть еще одно дело,
которое надо сделать.
85
P a tte rn 5
The A d verb ia l M o d ifie r of P u rpose

4
to get smth
to do smth to be given smth
in order 1 to get smth
so as / to be given smth
ка
The infinitive of purpose may follow practically any verb. It may be

introduced by in order th a t or so as.
E.g. 1. I have come here to speak to you. 2. She wore very high heels
so as to look a little taller. 3. She pretended to be quite well not
to be taken to the doctor. 4. She pretended to be more ill than she
actually was to be petted and made much of by her parents.
Exercise 13. Translate into English. Use the indefinite and the passive infinitives where
necessary. Follow Pattern 5: '
1. Я пришла сюда не за тем, чтобы со мной обращались как с ре
бенком. 2. Он. бежал всю дорогу, чтобы успеть на поезд. 3. Он принес
в класс карту, чтобы показать нам маршрут экспедиции. 4. Они всю
ночь жгли костер, чтобы их заметили проходящие мимо суда. 5. Мы
всегда разговаривали очень тихо в ее присутствии, чтобы она не сделала
нам замечания. 6. Мальчики стояли во дворе и не уходили, чтобы их
тоже взяли с собой. 7. Я еще раз прочел письмо, чтобы лучше его по
нять. 8. Я все это говорю, чтобы меня правильно поняли. 9. Она ни
чего не рассказала, чтобы ее не наказали. 10. Он остановился, чтобы
закурить.
P a tte r n 6
The A d verb ia l M o d ifie r of R e su lt
( young \ / to do smth
‘to hive°done
difficult ) l to have been done1

E.g. 1. You are too young to wear black. 2. She’s old enough to be taken
for his mother. 3. That girl is stupid enough to have believed every
word he said. 4. She may have been weak enough to have been
rushed to hospital.
Exercise 14. Complete the following sentences by adding infinitives of result to them.
Give several variants where possible:
1. Who of us is brave enough —? 2. The weather is much too fine —.
3. You are old enough —. 4. She’s too young and pretty —. 5. The story
is much too long —. 6. The problem is too complicated —. 7. The trou-
86
ble is too deep-rooted —. 8. She’s just not clever enough —. 9. She was
by tar too clever—. 10. Do you know him well enough—? 11. I was
going too fast —. 12. She spoke English well enough —.
1. Я не настолько хорошо его знаю, чтобы просить его помочь мне.
о Она достаточно хорошо говорит по-английски, чтобы не нуждаться
в переводчике. 3. Рано тебе читать такие книги. 4. Я стоял слишком
далеко, чтобы слышать, что она говорит. 5. Она говорит по-английски
настолько хорошо, что ее можно принять за англичанку. 6. Слишком
она молода, чтобы принимать ее всерьез. 7. Предложение было на
столько оригинальным, что вызвало общий интерес. 8. Вопрос слишком
сложен, чтобы на него сразу ответить. 9. Слишком он ленив. Не читал
он книги в подлиннике. 10. Она так неосторожна, что она ему что-то
пообещала. 11. Задача слишком сложна, чтобы ее уже решили. 12. Ты
теперь слишком большая, чтобы играть в куклы.
P a tte r n 7
The Secondary P red ica tive
чт
E.g. 1. Is she nice to work with?

С ней хорошо работать?
2. His story is hard to disprove.
Его слова трудно опровергнуть.
1. С ней трудно спорить. 2. С ним приятно иметь дело,
3. Его
вам трудно поверить. 4. Мяч было очень трудно поймать. 5. С вами
сегодня невозможно разговаривать. 6. Эту книгу невозможно до
стать. 7. С ним опасно ссориться. 8. Результаты невозможно предска
зать. 9. Этому легко поверить. 10. Ее нелегко было утешить. 11. На
нее приятно было смотреть. 12. С этой мыслью трудно было расстаться.
Training Exercises
■»
Exercise 17. State the syntactical functions of the infinitives:

1. I’m afraid you’re just a little too stout, dear, to wear those thin
jersey things. 2. To stand up and leave the room now was out of the ques
tion. 3. The main thing is not to be taken for an outsider. 4. It is a light
weight sweater to wear with a skirt or trousers. 5. I was the first to notice
that, 6. It was not easy to understand how it could be stopped. 7. Have
87
you anything else to say? 8. I had nothing to suggest and did not feel
grown up enough to be taken seriously. 9. Her dry hair was hard to keep
tidy. 10. We’re planning to take a long vacation this year. 11. Isn’t this
outfit a little too dressy to wear to the office? 12. The wool will be diffi
cult to match. 13. I hope you did not come to speak about this. 14. She
was not a woman to let an opportunity slip away. 15. It won’t be easy
to talk her out of this.
Exercise 18. Translate into English. State the syntactical functions of the infinitives:
1. Этому трудно поверить. 2. Он достаточно хорошо знает грамма
тику, чтобы не делать таких ошибок. 3. Вопрос слишком сложен, чтобы
его сразу решить. 4. Я принес книгу, чтобы показать вам эту фото
графию. 5. Слишком жарко, чтобы идти гулять. 6. Он говорит о новом
здании школы, которое будет построено в их селе. 7. У меня нет вре
мени читать такие книги. 8. Ну, я рад, что сдал этот экзамен. 9. Пра
вило легко понять. 10. Необходимо идти туда сегодня. И. Финиш был
настолько удачен, что произвел хорошее впечатление на жюри. 12.
K oihkv нелегко было поймать.
adding
syntactical functions of the infinitives:
1. This hair-do is much too fussy 2. My only wish 3. Th
coat is much too heavy pleasant 5. I have nothing
—. 6. The end of the sto 7. I have bought this magazine
8. You are just the woman 9. The children . 10. I was
a little astonished You are old enough 12 would break her
heart. 13. You should — your hair like this lice—? 15. Who
was the last
KEYS TO EXERCISES
Exercise 6. 1, to be understood 2. to look after 3. to get home 4. to

collect 5. to find 6. to tell
Exercise 9. A. 1. to have been reprimanded 2. to dance, to be sitting,
to be watching 3. to have been, to be waiting 4. to have been asked 5. to
carry, to let 6. to have missed
В. 1. to have asked 2. to be reading 3. to post 4. to have got 5. to
be taken 6. to be taken 7. to have been recognized 8. to be remembered
9. to have spoken 10. to have missed.
Exercise 10. 1. to do 2. to miss-3, to get 4. to be written 5. to complain
about 6. to be done/ to do 7. to kiss . . . and wish 8. to ask 9. to correct
10. to say (to be said) 11. to be planted 12. to be said, to say
Exercise 12. 1. a man to change his mind 2. nothing to say 3. no time
to think 4. the last to enter 5. the first to say 6. picture theatre to be
built 7. time to think 8. a sweater to wear 9. time to play 10. nobody to
look after him 11. the third to tell me so 12. wish to interfere 13. anything
to add 14. thing to do
*
88
Exercise 13. 1. to be treated 2. to catch 3. to show 4. to be noticed
5. not to be reprimanded 6. to be taken along 7. to understand 8. to be
understood 9. not to be punished 10. to light a cigarette
Exercise 15. 1. well enough to ask 2. well enough not to need 3. too
young to read 4. too far to hear 5. well enough to be taken 6. too young
to be taken seriously 7. original enough to arouse 8. too complicated to
be answered 9. too lazy to have read 10. careless enough to have promised
11. too complicated to have been solved 12. too old to play
Exercise 16. 1. hard to reason with 2. nice to deal with 3. hard to
believe 4. hard to catch 5. impossible to talk to 6. hard to get 7. dangerous
to quarrel with 8. impossible to foretell 9. easy to believe 10. difficult
to comfort 11. nice to look at 12. hard to give up
Exercise 17. 1. result 2. subject 3. predicative 4. attribute 5. attri
bute 6. subject 7. attribute 8. attribute, result 9. secondary predicative
10. object 11. result 12. secondary predicative 13. purpose 14. attribute
15. subject
>* 4
Exercise 18. 1. This is hard to believe (secondary predicative). It is

hard to believe it (subject) 2. well enough not to make (result) 3. too
complicated to solve or to be solved (result) 4. to show you (purpose)
5. It’s too warm to go (result) 6. school building to be built (attribute)
7. no time to read (attribute) 8. to have passed (object) 9. The rule is
easy to understand, (secondary predicative) It is easy to understand the
rule, (subject) 10. It is necessary to go (subject) li. good enough to
produce a favourable (result) 12. was hard to catch (secondary predica
tive).
Exercise 19. 1. result 2. predicative 3. result 4. subject 5. attribute
6. secondary predicative 7. purpose 8. attribute 9. attribute 10. object
11. result 12. subject 13. part of a compound verbal predicate 14. subject
15. attribute
Complexes with the Infinitive

The infinitive may have a subject of its own within the sentence.
In this case it forms with it a construction called a complex. The rela
tions between the elements of the complex are predicative. The infinitive
forms three such complexes.
/. The Accusative with the Infinitive •*V
This complex consists of a noun in the common case or a pronoun in

theobjectivecaseandthe infinitivemostly IndefiniteorPassive. (e. g. I saw
the boy drop the cup. I saw him drop the cup.). This complex is always
an object in the sentence. It is mostly translated into Russian by an ob
ject clause.
89
I saw him do it.
Я видел, как он это сделал.
or
Я видел, что он это елает.
P a tte r n 8
A. to see \
to hear у smb do smth
to feel J
B. to let j
to make }■ smb do smth
to have J
#
c.
to 1 smb to do smth
to firbid J smth t0 be
D. to like 1
to prefer
to want i smb to do smth
:
to know 1 i
to expect у
Note 4. Any lexical equivalent of the verbs may be used in Patterns

A, C, D but not in Pattern B.
Note 5. After the verb to help the accusative with the infinitive may
be used with or without the particle to .
E.g. H elp me do it or H elp me to do it.
Exercise 20. Find the accusative with the infinitive in the following sentences. Translate
the sentences into Russian. State in each case whether the sentence follows the Pattern A,
В, C or D: t
1. Nobody said anything, we just watched him put it away in his

case. 2. You could have heard a pin drop. 3.\She wouldn’t explain, just
urged me to use my own eyes. 4. Well, tell him to look us up to-morrow
morning, will you? 5. After lunch he begged me to accompany him home.
6. By the way, did she ask you to sign any paper yesterday? 7. Her visit
agitated the patient so much that the doctor advised her not to come again.
8. There is.no harm, I think, in letting you know. 9. I understood you
to say that you had received no letter from your brother since he left
England.
90
Exercise 21. Fill in the blanks with the particle 'to' where necessary:
1. My pride forbade me — ask any questions. 2. This job will enable
him — have a home of his own. 3. This is the place from which I saw
Inspector Blake — arrive the other day. 4. I tried to induce him — see a
doctor. 5. The family suspected it and wanted to get him — see a doctor.
6. He asked Adele — destroy his letters. 7. I told her — bring in the
children. 8. She called to her — bring some stamps. 9. Women always
want you — write them letters. 10. I’d love you — see my little daughter.
11. You can’t make me — say what you want me — say. 12. She begged
me to let her — know when Mother would be back. 13. I had expected
him — be disappointed. 14. Don’t let it — trouble you. 15. She watched
me — open the safe.
Exercise 22. Replace the following complex sentences or groups of sentences by simple
sentences with an infinitive construe lion.
*
M o d e l : 1) The sound of his voice was unexpectedly loud and I started.

The sound of his voice made me start.
2) I looked out of the window. He was backing the car into
the garage.
I saw him back the car into the garage.
i
1. I could hear it perfectly well. They were discussing me. 2. Don’t

shout so! The whole house will know what has happened.'Do you want
it? 3. I shall stay at home and do my lessons. Mother said so. 4. They
will win the game. We are sure of it. 5. I never smoke indoors. My wife
doesn’t like it. 6. He’s a truthful boy. I know it. 7. We don’t eat ice
cream before dinner because Mother has forbidden it. 8. You got off the
train at Saltmarsh city. The porter saw you. 9. He ordered that the mail
should be brought at once. 10. No one had expected that she would marry
so young.
Exercise 23. Fill in the blanks with suitable verbs. Use Pattern 1. Give several variants
where possible:
1. Why don’t you — her to wear high heels? 2. The way she looks
at me — me feel quite nervous. 3. Do you — me to show you the place
on the map? 4. No one had —her to return so early. 5. I have never —
her look so sweet. 6. What —her go off like that, without saying good
bye? 7. Who — you to miss lectures? 8. She — the children to be well
behaved. 9. You can’t — him come if he doesn’t want to. 10. Will you —
me to help you?
Note 6. The Russian equivalent of let smb do smth is позволить; of
make smb do smth — заставить; of have smb do smth —
распорядиться, чтобы ...
1. Мама не позволяет мне играть в футбол. 2. Не
лгать. 3. Распорядитесь, чтобы кто-нибудь принес м<
о
Не
кричать. 5. Заставь его выпить лекарство. 6. Пусть ош
:тант еще раз. 7. Я не могу заставить его бросить курить
91
8. Дайте мне подумать. 9. Я распорядился, чтобы ребенка посмотрел
врач. 10. Я не заставлю тебя ждать.
Exercise 25. Change the character of the sentence by changing the predicate verb. Trans
late each variant.
M o d e l : I let them use dictionaries.
Я разрешаю им пользоваться словарями.
I had them use dictionaries.
Я распорядился, чтобы они пользовались словарями.
I made them use dictionaries.
Я заставила их пользоваться словарями.
1. Why don’t you let them read the text aloud? 2. I always make
them explain why they used this or that expression. 3. You must make
them take a spoon of cod-liver oil before each meal. 4. I let them bring
a blackboard from downstairs. 5. I let her wear an old raincoat of mine.
1. Он посторонился, чтобы дать ей пройти. 2. Не смешите меня.
3. Позвольте мне помочь вам. 4. Дайте мне подумать. 5. Распорядитесь,
чтобы дети надели плащи. 6. Мама не любит, когда я поздно прихожу.
7. Дайте мне знать, когда она придет. 8. Я крикнула ей, чтобы она
спустилась вниз. 9. Она попросила меня принести ей чашку чая.
10. Я велела ему объяснить, что это значит. 11. Она считает, что он ее
лучший ученик. 12. Когда вы ожидаете, что они приедут? 13. Не по
зволяйте ему есть столько конфет. 14. Кто видел, что он брал книгу?
KEYS TO EXERCISES »
Exercise 20. 1. him put 2. a pin drop 3. me to use 4. him to look 5. me

to accompany 6. you to sign 7. her not to come 8. you know 9. you to
say
Exercise 21. 1. С 2.C З.А 4.C 5.D 6.C 7.C 8.C 9.C 10.D
11. B, D 12.В 13.D 14.В 15.A
Exercise 22. 1. heard them discuss 2. want the whole house to hear
3. told me to stay and do 4. expect them to win 5. like me to smoke
6. know him to be truthful 7. has forbidden us to eat 8. saw you get off
9. ordered the mail to be brought 10. expected her to marry.
Exercise 23. 1. C 2. В 3. D,C 4. D,C 5. A 6. В 7. C 8. C,D 9. В 10. C,D.
Exercise 24. 1. let 2. make 3. have 4. let 5. make 6. have 7. make
8. let 9. had 10. make
Exercise her pass, allow her to pass 2. make me laugh 3
me help, allow me to help 4. let me think 5. have the children wear 6
like me to return 7. let me know 8. called to her to come downstairs 9
asked me to bring 10. told him to explain 11. thinks (believes, considers
him to be 12. expect them to come 13. let him eat 14. saw him take
92
//. The Nominative with the Infinitive
This complex consists of a noun in the common case or a pronoun in

the nominative case and any of the six forms of the infinitive. The com
plex is considered to be the subject of the sentence. Its Russian equiva
lent is in most cases a subordinate clause.
E. She was seen to leave the house. *
Видели, как (что) она выходила из этого дома.

or
Ее видели, когда она выходила из этого дома.
P a tte r n 9
E.g. 1. Не had been heard to say that he was ready to sell the shop.
2. She was told to wait in the outer office. 3. She was expected to
be back any minute.
The Russian equivalent is: считали, что...; полагали, что...

«
_ 9
E.g. 1. Не is known to have been one of the most popular writers of his
time. 2. She is supposed to have been taken to hospital. 3. As long
as I might be thought to be pursuing him, the criminal would be
on his guard.
93
m t m m i m чмиш т»
to do smth
sure to be dping smth
certain to be done
smb ( was
1 3
bound to have done smth

[ will be
(not) likely to have been doing smth
to have been done
The Russian equivalent is: конечно, обязательно, вря

*■*
E.g. 1. The old man was not likely to have made a mistake. 2. Don’t
worry. Things are sure to get better. 3. The book is bound to be
remembered.
am
D. seems, seemed, will seem to do smth 4
appears, appeared, will appear to be done

smb i happens, happened, will happen [ to be doing smth
proved, will prove to have done
turned out, will turn out to have been doing smth
to have been done
м
The Russian equivalents are: seem, appear — казаться

happen — случаться
prove, turn out — оказаться
E.g. 1. Some violent emotion seemed to be torturing him. 2. He seems
to notice nothing unusual. 3. The two ladies appeared to be discuss
ing clothes. 4. I happened to be standing at the window. 5. The
picture proved to have been stolen.
i
Note 7. In Pattern C the negative statement is formed by adding

the negation to the predicate and not to the infinitive:
и»'
E.g. He seems to know it.

He does not seem to know it.
Exercise 27. Find the nominative with the infinitive in the following sentences. Translal t
s
them into Russian.

M o d e 1: 1) He did not seem to have heard her.
Кажется, он ее не слышал.
She appeared to be supporting the girl.
Казалось, что она поддерживает девушку.
Не is likely to get well.
Вероятно, он выздоровеет.
4) The cat is not likely to have been stolen.
Вряд ли кошку украли.
1. She is extremely likely to succeed. 2. We’re not allowed to go out.
3. He had been asked to remain to lunch. 4. Tell him this next time you
94
/
happen to be alone together. 5. He seemed to have noticed something

interesting on the beach. 6. A girl with long straight yellow hair appeared
to be attracting everybody’s attention. 7. The girl was not likely to have
taken an overdose of sleeping tablets by mistake. 8. It was bound to hap
pen. 9. They seem to be planning a new attack. 10. The children are sure
to have been fighting again. 11. The secret was believed to have been
lost. 12. I’m not going to change my mind because twelve stupid men
happened to make a mistake.
»
Exercise 28. Open the brackets. Use the appropriate form of the infinitive:
1. She smiled broadly and waved her hand. She seemed (to recognize)
me. 2. Even if he is out you needn’t worry. He is sure (to leave) the key
under the door-mat. 3. At that time I happened (to work) at my first
novel. 4. You won’t be likely (to miss) the train if you start right away.
5. Don’t cry! Everything is bound (to get) right between you. 6. She
lost her head and seemed (to forget) the little English she knew. 7. A young
woman is supposed (to write) this book. 8. You needn’t mention it again.
He is not likely (to forget) it. 9. He is believed (to teach) by his father.
10. You needn’t tell me this. I happen (to give) all the details by Mother.
11. She is expected (to operate) on today. 12. Just look at his hands. He
is sure (to work) in the garage.
Exercise 29. Ask questions about the following statements.
M o d e l : 1) She seems to know all about it. (yes/no, who, what)
Does she seem to know all about it?
Who seems to know all about it?
к
What does she seem to know?

2) The facts are bound to become known next year, (yes/no,
what, when)
Are the facts bound to become known?
What is bound to become known?
When are the facts bound to become known?
t
1. Miss Marple was allowed to drive into the yard, (yes/no, who, where).
2. Only the more important clients were permitted to wait there, (who,
where). 3. This conversation was bound to end in an argument, (yes/no,
how). 4. Something that he said seemed to me to be wrong, (yes/no,
what). 5. She proved to know the subject, (yes/no, who, what).-
«•
Exercise 30. Translate the following sentences into English:

*
1. Видели, как она писала стихотворение. 2. Ее попросили напи

сать стихотворение. 3. Думали, что она пишет стихи. 4. Рассчитывали,
что она напишет стихотворение на эту тему. 5. Предполагали, что она
написала это стихотворение. 6. Конечно, она сейчас пишет стихотво
рение. 7. Конечно, она написала стихотворение. 8. Вряд ли она пишет
стихотворение. 9. Вряд ли она написала стихотворение. 10. Конечно,
стихотворение уже написано. 11. Конечно, она его уже написала. 12.
Кажется, она пишет стихи. 13. Казалось, что она пишет стихотворе
ние. 14. Оказалось, что она написала стихотворение. 15. Случайно
она написала хорошее стихотворение.
95
Exercise 31. Compose English sentences based on the following Russian patterns:
1. Кому-то велели что-то сделать. 2. Кого-то просили... 3. Кому-то

позволили... 4. Видели, что кто-то что-то сделал. 5. Ожидают (ли),
что кто-то что-то сделает? 6. Конечно, кто-то что-то сделал. 7. Конечно,
что-то будет сделано. 8. Конечно, кто-то что-то делает (постоянно, в дан
ную минуту). 9. Вряд ли кто-то что-то сделает, 10. Вряд ли кто-то что-то
сделал. 11. Кажется, кто-то что-то делает, сделал. 12. Кажется что-то
было сделано.
KEYS ТО EXERCISES
Exercise 27. 1. she — to succeed весьма вероятно 2. we — to go out

нам не позволяют 3. he —to remain его просили 4. you — to be alone
вам случится 5. he — to have noticed казалось 6. a girl — to be attract
m казалось 7. the irl to have taken вряд ли 8. it — to happen
должно было 9. they — to be planning кажется 10. the children — to
have been fighting конечно 11. the secret to have been lost думали
12. men — to make a mistake случилось сделать
Exercise 28. 1. have recognized 2. to have left 3 be

miss 5. to get 6. to have forgotten 7. to have written 8. to forget 9. to
have been taught 10. to have been given 11. to be operated on 12. toha\
been work in
Exercise she was seen to write 2. she was asked to write 3. she
s believed to write 4. she was expected to write 5. she was supposed
have written 6. she is sure to be writing 7. she is sure to have written
8. she is not likely to write 9. she is not likely to have written 10. the
poem is sure to have been written 11. she is sure to have written 12. she
seems to write 13. she seemed to be writing 14. she proved to have writ
ten 15. she happened to write
Exercise ЗЬ 1. smb was told to do smth 2. smb was asked to do smth

3. smb was allowed to do smth 4. smb was seen to do smth 5. smb was
expected to do smth 6. smb is sure to have done smth 7. smth is sure to
be done 8. smb is sure to do smth; to be doing smth 9. smb is not likeb
to do smth 10. smb is not likely to have done smth 11. smb seems to be
doing smth; to have done smth 12. smth seems to have been done
III. The For~Phrase
96
+
*
Sentence P a tte r n s w ith the F or-phrase
P a tte rn 10
The S u bject
E. 1. It will be best for her to go back home.

Ей лучше уехать домой.
2. It’s easier for me to go out and buy a new pair.
Мне легче пойти и купить новую пару.
3. It’s silly for you to be asking me questions.
Глупо, что ты задаешь мне вопросы.
4. It was unusual for a woman to be seen smoking.
Женщину редко можно было увидеть курящей.
5. It is not for me to say so.
He мне это говорить.
Exercise 32. Replace the following groups of sentences by a sentence with a ‘for
phrase subject.
M o d el: 1) He must be there in time. It’s important.
I t’s important for him to be there in time.
2) Why do you smoke so much? It affects your health.
I t’s bad for you to smoke so much.
#
1. He won’t catch the six fifteen. It’s impossible. 2. She is very late.
It’s rather unusual. 3. Don’t make mistakes. It’s important. 4. She
explained everything. It was not difficult. 5. You really ought to see a
doctor about that tooth. It will be best. 6. We ought to take a vacation
now. It won’t be difficult. 7. She managed to do it in time. But it
was quite an effort. 8. We’ll spend a couple of weeks in Leningrad
next June. It will be rather pleasant. 9. You’ll speak English with
her. I t’ll do you good. 10. Her mother made the decision. It’s the
usual thing in this family.
Exercise 33. Complete the following sentences by adding ‘for*-phrases to them.
M o d el: It would be better (you; to wear a coat).
It would be better for you to wear a coat.
1. It’s very important (children; to eat plenty of vegetables). 2. It’ll
be best (she; to see a doctor). 3. It might be just possible (you; to make
him sign the paper today). 4. It would be hypocritical (I; to pretend
that I’m sorry). 5. It’s very bad (growing boys; to smoke). 6, It’s
not (you; to explain such things to him)
4 № М3 97
1. Она не может напечатать это все до перерыва на обед. 2. На нее
не похоже опаздывать. 3. Вам полезно быть на воздухе. 4. Мне легче
сделать это сегодня. 5. Им будет проще поехать туда на метро. 6. Ей
было бы трудно найти эту книгу в библиотеке. 7. Нам было странно
и приятно снова видеть нашу школу. 8. Им будет полезно поработать.
9. Вам вредно столько курить. 10. Ей было трудно возражать. 11. Не
мне ее критиковать. 12. Не им обсуждать этот вопрос.
E x cep tio n :
*
E.g. 1. It was silly of you to ask that question.

С твоей стороны было глупо задать этот вопрос
2. It’s nice (kind) of you to say so.
Это очень мило с вашей стороны так говорить (чт( го*
ворите).
3. It will be very sensible of you to go there at once.
Очень будет разумно, если ты пойдешь туда сейча
I
1. Очень было мило с его стороны помочь мне. 2. Будет очень ра

зумно, если ты напишешь ей обо всем. 3. Глупо было с его стороны
возражать. 4. Очень мило, что вы так думаете. 5. Будет просто глупо,
если он станет спорить. 6, Будет очень мило, если вы ей об этом рас
скажете.
Pattern 11
The O bject
т
to long » Л / 1
to wait
to arrange > for smb to do smth
to mean
to be anxious J
<0*
E.g. 1. Г m anxious for you to succeed.

Я очень хочу, чтобы ты добилась успеха.
2. I have arranged for you to have a private room.
Я договорился, что у тебя будет отдельная комната.
9S
3. He did not mean for you to stay here.
Он не рассчитывал (не имел в виду), что ты остановишься
здесь.
difficult N
В. to make easy
to think it necessary > for smb to do smth
to believe important
/*I
E.g. 1. Your attitude made it difficult for him to tell you the truth.
Ему было трудно сказать тебе правду из-за твоего отношения.
2. Не thinks it best for you to stay here.
По его мнению, тебе лучше оставаться здесь.
Exercise 36. Complete the following sentences by adding objective ‘for’-phrases to thenM
1. He stood there with a box of chocolate creams and a bunch of
flowers w aiting... 2. After endless argument and long telephone conver
sation with Mother we arranged . . . 3. Father was very cross and said
that when he sent me to an expensive school he did not mean . . . 4. Un
der the circumstances I really think it best . . . 5. All right, I’ll go. Why
are you so anxious . . . 6. She is out playing. The doctor does not think
it necessary . . .
I ,

О
1. Я нахожу необходимым, чтобы ты кончил школу. 2. Из-за твоего

поведения нам было только труднее понять, чего ты хочешь. 3. Ты
ждешь, чтобы я высказал свое мнение? 4. Я договорилась, чтобы он
провел воскресенье у бабушки. 5. Когда я просил вас выступить, я
имел в виду, что вы сделаете короткий доклад. 6. Вы думаете, мне легко
отказаться от этой мысли?
P a tte r n 12
The A ttrib u te
A. somebody }
nothing !• for smb to do smth
anyone I
E,g. 1. There is no one for the children to play with.

Детям не с кем играть.
2. There is nothing else for me to say.
Мне больше нечего сказать.
4* 99
t
к
E.g. 1. It is not the right time tor us to speak about it.

Сейчас не время нам об этом говорить
2. It was the only thing for me to do.
Эго было единственное. что я мог сдел
infinitives to the incomplete ‘for'-phrases in the sentences
1. It’s getting dark. It’s time for the children 2 find
» *
Pi 3. There’s simply nobody there for a young girl . . . 4. Those

are not the right people for you 5. I have bought a few things
Tony 6. Have you brought something for me
• • the train?
• •

1. Мне здесь больше нечего делать. 2. Ему сейчас некогда тебе это
рассказывать. 3. Детям там негде спать. 4. Вот несколько писем, ко
торые вам надо подписать. 5. Это не такой вопрос, чтобы мы с вами
могли его обсуждать. 6. Не такая это игра, чтобы дети могли в нее
играть.
Pattern 13
The Adverbial Modifier of Purpose
E.g. He stood aside for us to pass in.

Он отступил в сторону, чтобы мы могли пройти.
Exercise 40* Translate into English:
1. Она подняла ребенка так, чтобы я мог его видеть. 2. Я оставил
записку на столе, чтобы все могли ее видеть. 3. Он оставил дверь от
крытой, чтобы мы могли войти. 4. Мама испекла пирог, чтобы мы съе
ли его за ужином. 5. Он остановил машину у входа в магазин, чтобы
мы могли выйти. 6. Я привезу книг, чтобы вы могли читать в дождли
вую погоду.
Pattern 14
The Adverbial Modifier
I»
difficult
(too) young (enough) for smb to do smth
old
m mm iM M H
100
t
E.g. 1. The rain can last long enough for us to miss the train.
Дождь может идти так долго, что мы опоздаем на поезд.
2. The day was much too cold and rainy for anyone to have a good
time.
День был слишком холодный и дождливый, чтобы кто-нибудь
мог хорошо провести время.
Exercise 41. Replace the fo llo w in g p a irs of sentences by sentences w ith adverbial *for
phrases o f r e s u lt .
M o d e 1: 1) The text is very difficult. They will not translate it without

a dictionary.
The text is too difficult for them to translate without a
dictionary.
2) The water is quite warm. The children can bathe.
The water is warm enough for the children to bathe.
1. The street is very narrow. He won’t be able to turn the car. 2. The
conversation was interesting. The children did not want to go to bed. 3.
The heat was oppressive. We did not stay long on the beach. 4. The way
to the village was long. I felt hungry again. 5. The problem was compara
tively easy. I solved it in half an hour. 6. The situation was getting
complicated. We could no longer cope with it. 7. The noise of the traffic
grew loud. I could not sleep. 8. The light was good. She could read the
inscription. /
Exercise 42. T ra n sla te in to E nglish:
1. Машина шла слишком быстро, чтобя я мог рассмотреть лицо
водителя. 2. Дверь была слишком узкой, диван не проходил. 3. Она
говорила так медленно, что мы понимали каждое слово. 4. Я был
слишком расстроен, чтобы мама этого не заметила. 5. Пирог был такой
вкусный, что мы не смогли отказаться от второй порции. 6. Мои от
метки были не такие плохие, чтобы папа действительно рассердился.
7. Он говорил по-английски настолько хорошо, что мы поняли, что
ему надо. 8. В пещере было так темно, что мы не смогли найти выход.
Training Exercise
Exercise 43. T ra n sla te in to E n g lish . Use P a tte rn s 10 —14. S ta te the sy n ta c tic a l fu n c

tion of the 'fo r'-p h ra se:
A. 1. Вот почему я так хотел, чтобы отец показался врачу. 2. Я оста
вила письма на столе, чтобы Мистер Питерс подписал их. 3. Не мне
говорить о том, как это было сделано. 4. Надеюсь, вы понимаете, что
мне очень неудобно оставаться в Лондоне летом. 5. Ему будет проще
показать вам дорогу туда по карте. 6. Детям там совершенно нечего
делать. 7. Все это настолько просто, что каждый может это сделать сам.
8. Очень мило, что вы пришли. 9, Я подожду, пока ты дочитаешь кни
гу. 10. По его мнению, вам лучше не торопиться. 11. У нас слишком мало
времени. Я не смогу тебе все рассказать. 12. С его стороны было нетак
тично опаздывать.
f
101
л
В. 1. Ты действительно считаешь, что мне нужно заняться спор
том? 2. Он сделал так, что мне было трудно отказаться. 3. Почему ей
так хочется, чтобы вы выступили на конференции? 4. Вам будет ин
тересно прочесть эту книгу. 5. Я не рассчитывал, что доклад будете
делать вы. 6. Ему там не с кем играть в шахматы. 7. Главное — это,
чтобы ты все понял. 8. Я договорился, что ты будешь отвечать первым.
9. Она говорила слишком быстро, чтобы мы могли ее понимать. 10.
Игра была настолько интересной, что дети забыли об уроках. 11. Вы
сделали слишком много ошибок, чтобы я могла поставить вам хорошую
отметку. 12. Вы считатете важным, чтобы они делали упражнения
в письменной форме? 13. С ее стороны было глупо спорить. 14. Не тебе
его критиковать. 15. На нее не похоже делать такие ошибки.
IV. Infinitive Phrases

The infinitive may be used in combination with how, w hen , w here ,
w h a t, whojm , which, w hether, if. This combination is called the i n f i n i
tive phrase.
P a tte r n 15
A. how \
when |> to do smth
why j
where j
V
B. what \
who/m > to take (choose)
which j
*
C. whether l to do smth
if
E.g. 1. How to get across was the problem. 2. She wondered whom to
ask to the party. 3. She did not know w hether to go or stay. 4. The
difficulty was how to explain her absence. 5. She gave me a long
explanation of (about) how to do it. 6. It was clear which to choose.
As you can see from the examples above the infinitive phrase is used
in the sentence as the subject (1,6), the predicative (4), the object (2,3)
or an attribute (5). &
Exercise 44. State the syntactical functions of the infinitive phrases:

1. The only thing we did not discuss that day was the not so insignif
icant detail of how to get the money for the trip. 2. I can’t makeup my
mind whether to take this job or not. 3. She simply did not know where
102
to turn for help. 4. Well, have you finally made up your mind which to
take? 5. What to say and what to leave unsaid was a delicate point. 6.
The main difficulty was where to get the fuel. 7. The problem is how to
find him. 8. Why didn’t you explain to her how to make a long-distance
call? 9. I don’t think much of her plan how to get in touch with him. 10.
You will be told when to begin.
He знаю, куда бы пойти сегодня вечером. 2. Вот план, как доб
раться озера. 3. Основная тру [ объяснить
4. Ты решила, куда ехать летом? 5. Вопрос пригласить
6 Не * или нет. 7. Он колебался, идти ли ему
8. Мне очень понравилось его объяснение,
развивать навыки речи. 9. Совершенно
10. Потом они обсудили вопрос, не рассказать
KEYS ТО EXERCISES
\
Exercise 32. 1. for him to catch 2. for her to be so late 3. for you not
to make mistakes 4. for her to explain 5. for you to see 6. for us to take
7. for her to do it in time 8. for us to spend 9. for you to speak English
10. for her mother to make decisions.
Exercise 34. 1. it’s impossible . . . 2. it’s unusual 3. it is good 4. it
is easier 5. it will be simpler (easier) 6. it would be hard 7. it was strange
and pleasant 8. it will be useful (good) 9. it is bad 10. it was difficult
11. it is not 12. it is not.
Exercise 35. 1. it was nice (kind) of him 2. it will be sensible of you
3. it was stupid of him 4. it’s kind of you 5. it will be silly of him 6. it
will be kind (nice) of you.
Exercise 37. 1. find it necessary for you 2. made it only more diffi
3. Are you waiting for me 4. have arranged for him 5
• »
meant for you 6. Do you think it me • *
Exercise 39. 1. nothing for me to do 2. there is no time for him to

tell 3. there is no place for the children 4. letters for you to sign 5.a
problem for us to discuss 6. a game for children to play.
¥
Exercise 40. 1. for me to see 2. for everybody to see 3. for us to come

in 4. for us to eat 5. for us to go out 6. for you to read.
Exercise 41. 1. too narrow for him 2. was too interesting for the chil
dren 3. was too oppressive for us 4. was long enough for me 5. was easy
enough for me 6. too complicated for us 7. too loud for me 8. was good
enough for her to read.
Exercise 42. 1. too fast for me 2. too narrow for the couch 3. slowly
enough for us 4. too upset for mother 5. too good for us 6. bad enough
for father 7. well enough for us 8.too dark for us.
103
Exercise 43. A. 1. was so anxious for father to see (object) 2. left . . .
for Mr. Peters to sign (purpose) 3. it is not for me (subject) 4. it is very
inconvenient for me (subject) 5. it will be easier for him to show (subject)
6. nothing for the children to do (attribute) 7. is simple enough for any
one to do (result) 8. is so kind of you to come (subject) 9. wait for you
to read (object) 10. thinks it best for you not to hurry (object) 11. too
little time for me to tell (result) 12. was tactless of him to come late
(subject).
В. 1. think it necessary for me to go in (object) 2. made it difficult
for me to refuse (object) 3. anxious for me to speak (object) 4. inter
esting for you to read (subject) 5 .'mean for you to make (object) 6. no
body for him to play chess with (attribute) 7. thing is for you to under
stand (predicative) 8. have arranged for you to be the first to (object)
9. too fast for us to follow (result) 10. interesting enough for the chil
dren to forget (result) 11. too many mistakes for me to give you (result)
12. think it important for them to do (object) 13. silly of her to argue
(subject) 14. is not for you to criticise (subject) 15. usual for her to make
(subject).
Exercise 44. 1. attribute 2. object 3. object 4. object 5. subject 6. pre
dicative 7. predicative 8. object 9. attribute 10. object
'i
Exercise 45. 1. know where to go 2. a plan of how to get to 3. the

problem is how to explain 4. decided where to go 5. the problem is whom
to ask (invite) 6. know whether to interfere 7. hesitated whether to go
. . . or stay 8. explanation of how to develop 9. clear how to do 10. the
question of whether to tell.

Exercise 46. State the syntactical functions of the infinitive or complexes with the in
finitive:
1. It was pleasant for me to have someone I could go to with my small
troubles. 2. If it is all right for me to know it later it is all right for me
to know it now so you must tell me everything right away. 3. Isn’t it
too late to send in an application now? 4. I found it hard to keep my mind
on what the colonel was saying. 5. Her husband was known to stay away
from home for months at a time. 6. You are making it very difficult for
me to say what I have come to say. 7. It was so nice of Amy to take all
that trouble over baby’s teeth. 8. I think she was glad to see me but much
too stubborn to show it. 9. You seem to know what you are talking about.
10. Don’t let him talk you into anything. 11. The house was pretty but
not very comfortable to live in. 12. Well, that’s something to be thank
ful for. 13. Could you arrange for her to sleep in your room? 14. I just
happened to be passing. 15. I did not believe her to know anything of
the coming changes. 16. She held the child closer and felt a little shiver
go through him. 17. Nothing whatever to do and too many sweets to eat
that is the real cause of the trouble. 18. A soft sound behind him made
him turn. 19. She was the first to call him that. And the name stuck.
104
20. The only thing for you to do is to go to the library and ask them for
their last year newspaper files. 21. You don’t seem to take my words
seriously. 22. A nice little flat. It is easy to keep clean and it is quite
close to the park. 23. Two weeks was a long time for me to wait. 24. The
doctor held the child up for me to see. 25. She believed George to be in
some way responsible for what had happened. 26. You have been letting
your imagination run away with you. 27. The cave is just big enough
for two people to hide in. 28. I did not mean you to overhear. 29. It is
so simple to say nothing and pretend to have not noticed. 30. Why were
you so very anxious for me to see it?
1. Ты хочешь, чтобы я пригласила его к нам пообедать? 2. Некому
было присмотреть за детьми. 3. Реку было трудно перейти. 4, Еще не
поздно сказать это. 5. Кажется, вы думаете иначе. 6. Есть вещи, которые
трудно забыть. 7. Договоритесь, чтобы у нее приняли экзамен сегодня.
8. Глупо было с твоей стороны вмешиваться. 9. Главное — это, чтобы
все знали свои роли. 10. Тебе вредно столько курить. И. Считают, что
этот перевод лучше. 12. Я ждал, пока она дочитает письмо. 13. Не
смеши детей, ты не даешь им делать уроки. 14. Мне там не с кем пого
ворить. 15. Довольно легко одному из вас спуститься на пляж и подать
сигнал. 16. Вы, кажется, что-то потеряли. 17. Оказалось, что ключи
потеряны. 18. Я первой заметила, что они поссорились. 19. Детям по
лезно пить много молока. 20. Когда рассчитывают, что она приедет?
*
Exercise 48. Translate the passages in brackets into English using infinitives and
complexes with the infinitive:
1. I’ll tell you a story *(чтобы показать, как легко можно испортить
хорошую собаку). Some friends of mine bought a boxer pup of good
pedigree. Of course they meant 2(что будут ее учить), but they were too
busy 3(чтобы делать это регулярно) and too fond of the pup 4(чтобы быть
с ней строгими). They did not mean 5(чтобы она выросла игрушкой),
but that is what actually happened.
Once the Grandma went out shopping. The boxer was left behind.
в(Предполагалось, что она сторожит квартиру). Once out the old lady
realized she had left the keys behind. There was a group of road workers
in the street doing something to the pavement. She asked 7(одного из
них помочь ей). The boy was a cheerful fellow of about seventeen, his
face and hands black with the stuff he was working with. 8(Ему было не
трудно подняться на балкон, залезть в квартиру через окно и открыть
дверь изнутри). The Grandma watched 9(как он это делал) from the
street. She saw 10(как он влез на балкон, проскользнул до половины
в окно и вдруг застыл неподвижно). Only then did she remember the dog.
“Never mind the dog”, she shouted. “She won’t bite”. And she saw и (как
мальчик проскользнул в комнату). Oh, no, she did not bite. Far
from it. She was lying on the sopha probably greatly bored when she
noticed 12(что кто-то лезет в окно). She knew vaguely that 13(ей полагает
ся пресекать подобные действия) on the part of unknown people. But
she was so fond of guests. She ran to the window 14(чтобы приветствовать
мальчика).
105
When he opened the door to the old lady with his hands a little shaky
his face was quite clean. The boxer had washed it out with her tongue.
(Из устных рассказов Л. И. Острецовой)
KEYS ТО GENERAL TRAINING EXERCISES
Exercise 46, 1. for me to have — subject, go — part of a compound

modal predicate 2. for me to know — subject, tell — part of a compound
modal predicate 3. to send —■result 4. to keep — object 5. husband —
to stay — subject 6, for me to say — object, to say — purpose 7. of
Amy to take — subject 8. to see — object, to show — result 9. you — to
know — subject 10. him talk — object 11. to live— secondary predic
ative 12. to be — attribute 13. for her to sleep — object 14. I — to be
passing — subject 15. her to know — object 16. a shiver go — object
17. to do, to eat — attributes 18. him turn — object 19. to call — attri
bute 20. for you to do — attribute, to go — part of a compound verbal
predicate 21. you— to take — subject 22. to keep — secondary predic
ative 23. for me to wait — attribute 24. for me to see — purpose 25.
George to be — object 26. imagination run — object 27. for two people
to hide — result 28. you to overhear — object 29. to say and pretend —
subject 30. for me to see — object.
г
Exercise 47. 1. Do you want me to ask him to dinner? 2. There was

no one to look after the children. 3. The river was hard to cross. 4. It
is not too late to say so. 5. You seem to be thinking differently. 6. Some
things are hard to forget. 7. Will you arrange for her to be examined
to-day? 8. It was silly of you to interfere. 9. The main thing is for every
body to know their parts. 10. It’s bad for you to smoke so much. 11. This
translation is believed to be better. 12. I waited for her to finish reading
her letter. 13. Don't make the children laugh, you don’t let them do their
lessons. 14. There is no one forme to speak to. 15. It is easy enough for
one of you to go down to the beach and give the signal. 16. You seem to
have lost something. 17. The keys proved to have been lost. 18. I was
the first to notice that they had quarrelled. 19. It’s good for children to
drink lots of milk. 20. When is she expected to come?
Exercise 48. 1. to show how easy it is to spoil a good dog 2. to train
her 3. to do it regularly 4. to be firm with her 5. for her to grow up a
plaything 6. she was supposed to be guarding the flat 7. one of them to
help her 8. It was not difficult for him to climb onto the balcony, get
into the flat through the window and open the door from within 9. him
do it 10. him climb on to the balcony, slide up to his middle through the
window and suddenly stop motionless 11. the boy slip into the room 12.
somebody get in through the window 13. she was expected to stop such
activities 14. to welcome him in
«
*
4
T est
«
Assignment /. Answer the following questions. Give examples to prove your point:
i
1) Why is it possible to say that the infinitive is partly a verb partly

a noun?
2) What can be shown by the tense forms of the infinitive?
3) On the use of what adverbs does the use of the infinitive of result
depend?
4) What is the difference in the syntactical functions of the three
complexes with the infinitive?
5) What parts of the sentence can be expressed by complexes with
the infinitive?
6) When is the particle to not used in the accusative with the infini
tive?
Assignment II. State where the infinitive is independent and where it is part of a complex.
Name the complex and the syntactical function of the infinitive.
M o d e l : 1) She is not always easy to deal with.
Independent infinitive. Secondary predicative.
2) You’re not supposed to help them.
Nominative with the infinitive. Subject.
1. It will be quite easy for you to introduce the subject. 2. He’s far
too clever to be taken in by a child like you. 3. You’re bound to succeed.
4. Why don’t you let me help? 5. I’ve something else to offer* 6. It was
just the thing to say under the circumstances. 7. To go back о п т у word
would make me feel small. 8. There was simply no place for them tov
sleep and not enough food to go round. 9. The silence was so complete
that one could have heard a pin drop. 10. Nothing will make me believe
that it was an accident. 11. Her state was so grave that for a time she
was not expected to live. 12. My God, Amy! Do you think I meant for
you to get hurt? 13.1 have known him to do such things before. 14. What
do you expect me to say?
w
Assignment III. Open the brackets. Use the suitable tense, voice or aspect forms of
the infinitive:
107
1. If you go out like that you’re bound (to recognize) sooner or later.
2. Well, I am not sorry (to miss) that train. I should not have met you
otherwise. 3. Did you actually expect all this (to do) in one afternoon?
4. She’s much too young (to consult) about money matters. 5. It is cer
tainly not the kind of book (to read) on vacation. 6. They were discuss
ing the flowers (to plant) on both sides of the entrance gate. 7. She is
known (to refuse) better offers than that. 8. It is ever so kind of you (to
send) all those lovely flowers when I was ill. 9. He was not alone. The
shelf is too high for him (to reach) it and (to take) all those jars down
without dropping one. 10. She had never really tried to avoid the admir
ing crowd. It was pleasant (to recognize) and (to point out) wherever
she went.
1. Он все время смешил нас. 2. Считали, что наконец проблема ре
шена. 3. Его поведение в данной ситуации трудно объяснить. 4. Мост,
который будет здесь построен, будет самым длинным в мире. 5. Дома,
которые следует строить в этой местности, не должны быть слишком
высокими. 6. По-моему, ей лучше изучать языки. 7. Он не был виноват.
Он слишком хороший водитель, чтобы сделать ошибку. 8. Я говорю
это не для того, чтобы вас обидеть. 9. Кажется, ничего еще не сделано.
10. Не нравится мне, когда он так поздно приходит. И. Для нее сол
гать было невозможно. 12. Наконец-то стало достаточно тепло, чтобы
снять тяжелые зимние шубы.
Assignment V. Write a two page long reproduction of any passage from your individual
reading book of the term. Use at least two complexes with the infinitive in the reproduction
and the infinitive (in any form) in at least five different sentence patterns. Underline the
infinitives and the complexes and write over them in what syntactical function they are
supposed to be.
w
Non-Finite Forms of the Verb

ч
P a r t II
%
The Gerund
The gerund developed from the verbal noun.
Objective verbs have four forms of the gerund:
Indefinite Passive
writing being written
Perfect ■
Perfect Passive
having written having been written
Subjective verbs have only two forms of the gerund.

They have no passive forms:
Note 1. There is a tendency at present to avoid using the Perfect

forms of the gerund.
Exercise 1. Give all the forms of the gerund. Name the forms
to read; to attract; to surprise; to walk; to discover; to sit
109
The gerund can take a direct object {w ritin g a le tte r) and be modified
by an adverb {w ritin g slow ly).
We say that the gerund has verbal features because it has tense and
voice forms, can take a direct object and be modified by an adverb.
The gerund has also nominal (noun) features. It can be used with a
preposition {by writing; a fte r writing; before writing). Most of its syntac
tical functions strongly remind us of the noun because the gerund can
be the subject and the object in the sentence.
Like the noun the gerund can be modified by a possessive pronoun or
a noun in the possessive case. But the relations between the noun and the
modifying pronoun or noun in the possessive case are attributive while
the relations between the gerund and the modifying pronoun or noun in
the possessive case are predicative.
His reading has considerably improved.— the possessive pronoun
h is is an attribute to the verbal noun readin g — его чтение...
His reading this passage was a mistake.— the possessive pronoun
h is plays the role of a secondary subject to the gerund readin g — t o ,
что он читал этот отрывок...
Sentence P a tte r n s w ith the G erund
P a tte r n 1
The S ub iec t
E.g. 1. It's no use crying.

Бесполезно плакать.
2, It was no good objecting.
Возражать не имело смысла.
П0К
В. is
There was no doing smth
E.g. 1. There is no hiding these facts. Г
Эти факты не спрячешь. .

2. There was no going back.
Назад пути уже не было.
110
E.g. 1. Crying will do you no good.
Слезы вам не помогут.
2. Reading love stories made her cry.
Чтение романов доводило ее до слез
Exercise 2. Translate into English. Use Pattern l (Л,£,С):

1. Когда она в таком настроении поговоришь. 2. Там
разрешалось курить. 3. Бесполезно разговаривать с ней сейчас. 4. Те
перь их уже не остановить. 5. Весной эту реку перейти. 6. Рззго
ворами делу не поможешь. 7. Бесполезно было идти туда
8. Слушать музыку было ее единственным удовольствш 8. Этого
было отрицать. 10. Ее слабостью было покупать обувь
P a tte rn 2
The P re d ic a tiv e
The main thing

Smb’s wish I . , . .
:0k > is / was doing smth
duty j
E.g. The main thing is getting there in time
Главное попасть туда вовремя.
E.g. 1. I dont’t feel like walking.

Мне не хочется идти пешком.
2. Are you for or against staying here?
Ты за или против того, чтобы остаться здесь?
Exercise 3. Translate into English. Use Pattern 2 (AyB):

1. Мне не хочется об этом говорить. 2. Твоим делом будет водит]
ребят гулять. 3. Он был против того, чтобы оставаться на ночь в лесу
4. Почему ты против того, чтобы продолжать опыты? 5. Если тебе хоте
лось уйти, почему ты не ушел? 6. Мама была за то, чтобы купить маши
ну. 7. Кто за то, чтобы сделать это сегодня? 8. Никому не хотелось ей
об этом рассказывать. 9. Главное было сдать экзамены. 10. Моим делом
было обучить их английскому языку.Il
Ill
Pattern 3
The D ire c t O bject
IMNMIM
c. to mind Л
like !• doing smth
love )
4
E.g. 1. 1 couldn’t avoid speaking to her.

Я не мог избежать разговора с ней
2. That coat needs/ wants pressing.
Пальто надо погладить.
3. The film is worth seeing.
Картину стоит посмотреть.
4. I don’t mind waiting.
Ничего, я подожду.
5. Do you mind saying it again.
Повторите, пожалуйста.
Exercise 4. Translate into English. Use Pattern 3 (A,B,C):

' _ •
1. Терпеть не могу ждать. 2. Закройте, пожалуйста, двери. 3. Стоит

это читать? 4. Я не могу себе позволить тратить столько времени зря.
5. За молоком надо присмотреть. 6. Не курите здесь, пожалуйста.
7. Она ничего не имела против того, чтобы зайти еще раз. 8. Она не
могла себе позволить покупать новую пару туфель каждый месяц.
9. Он избегал выражать свое мнение. 10. Мне так неприятно оставлять
тебя здесь. 11. Я не могла не улыбнуться. 12. Он не мог не попытаться
объяснить, как это делается.
т
s
►
раШгn 4
The P re p o sitio n a l O bject
to think
to suspect smb
to accuse of
to be afraid
to object
to be used to
to succeed
to be engaged in doing smth
being done
to insist having done smth
to depend on
having been done
to apologize
to be grateful
to be responsible for
to thank smb
to blame smb
to be clever at
to prevent smb from
E.g. He apologized for coming late.

Он и з в и н и л с я за опоздание.
Exercise 5. Open the brackets. Use the appropriate forms of the gerund:
1. Are you used to (to speak to) like that by your employer? 2. He
only succeeded in (to take) for a bore. 3. I have come to apologize for
(to cause) all that trouble. 4. She insisted on (to treat) like a grown wom
an. 5. How can I thank you enough for (to come) to my rescue? 6. He
is not exactly grateful for (to put) in his place. 7. She suspects me of
(to read) her diary. 8. Who is responsible for (to keep) the place in order?
9. He was accused of repeatedly (to sell) information to rival firms. 10.
I have been thinking of (to try) my hand at it myself.
N o t e : The Indefinite forms of the gerund can be used instead of the
Perfect forms.
Exercise 6. Fill in the blanks with prepositions. Use Pattern 4:
h
1. After all I’m personally responsible — bringing you back safe and
sound. 2. They positively insisted — visiting all the rooms. 3. At last
I succeeded — backing the car into the parking place. 4. What are your
reasons to accuse her — taking the papers? 5. Everything depends —
being on the spot. 6 . 1 thanked him again — lending me the car. 7. The
author vigorously objected — being misquoted, as he put it. 8. They are
particularly clever — finding the faintest traces of finger prints. 9. Are
you thinking — leaving already? 10. Nothing could prevent her — buying
it on the spot.
113
1. Я привыкла рано вставать. 2. Наконец удалось найти
дорогу. 3. Он настаивал на том, чтобы показать мне, как это дела
4. Мы извинились за опоздание. 5. Я собираюсь поехать на север
летом. 6. Он был благодарен уже за то, что вы его слушали. 7. Она
занята приготовлением обеда. 8. Она настаивала, чтобы ей пою
все. 9. Вы подозреваете, что я вам лгу? 10. Его обвинила в краже
мобиля.
P a tte r n 5
The A ttr ib u te
intention
plan
idea
point
sense
purpose
habit > of doing smth
good
harm
mistake
difficulty
way
opportunity
E.g. 1. She had no intention of staying.

Она не собиралась оставаться.
2. I don’t like his habit of making people wait.
Мне не нравится его привычка заставлять людей ждать
3. I like his way of doing it.
Мне нравится, как он это делает.
4. Не had the sense of saying nothing.
У него хватило ума не вмешиваться «
sense ♦
There is no (little) harm

difficulty in doing smth
Smb sees no
point
danger v
E.g. 1. There is no harm in asking her again.

Ничего не случится (плохого), если мы ее еще раз спросим.
2. There is little point in refusing.
Мало смысла отказываться.
114
1. Это хороший способ объяснить, как это делается. 2. У него не

было ни малейшего намерения влезать в окно. 3. У меня и мысли не
было разрешить ей остаться. 4. Он приехал сюда с одной целью, найти
доказательства своей теории. 5. Наши шансы получить обед были очень
малы. 6. Здесь переходить реку не опасно. 7. Вреда в том не будет,
если мы скажем ему правду. 8. У нее была привычка закрывать все
окна, когда она уходила из дому. 9. У меня не было удобного случая
спросить ее об этом. 10. Не будет никакой трудности в т м , чтобы найти
место, где остановиться.
P attern 6
The A d verb ia l M o d ifie r

Iff
on
after
|
before
by > doing smth
through (because of)
without
in spite of j t
**1
E.g. 1. She locked the door before going to bed.

Она заперла дверь, перед тем как лечь спать.
2. Не left without saying, good bye.
Он ушел не попрощавшись.
3. You can call up the lift by pushing this button.
Вы можете вызвать лифт, нажав (если нажмете) на эту кнопку.
1. Он говорит без остановки уже около часа. 2. Ты ничего не добь

ешься, если будешь возражать. 3. Все это надо обсудить до того, как
принимать решение. 4. Вы можете исправить произношение, слушая
пластинки. 5. Он даст ответ, посоветовавшись с мамой. 6. Он прошел
мимо, не заметив нас. 7. Он упустил возможность поехать туда, потому
что заболел. 8. Увидев меня, она покраснела. 9. Не делайте этого, не
обдумав все, как следует. 10. Нельзя заставить его хорошо учиться
только тем, что бранить его все время.
А
115
Pattern 7
P a r t of a C om pound V erbal P red ica te
to begin '
start
keep0 [ doiHg smth
cont inue
stop ,
E.g. She kept looking at me.

Exercise 10. Translate into English, Use Pattern 7:
1. He бросайте работу из-за меня. 2. Когда вы начнете обсуждать
статью? 3. Он продолжал улыбаться. 4. Я начал беспокоиться. 5. Когда
он начал приводить бесконечные цифры, я перестал слушать. 6. Люди
продолжали приходить и уходить.
The Gerund can be easily confused with the verbal noun. In some
cases it is impossible to tell whether you are dealing with a gerund or
with a verbal noun and consequently impossible to translate the sentence
with any degree of exactness.
E.g. I like singing.
If “singing” is a gerund the sentence should be translated as „Я люблю
петь", if it is a noun, as „Я люблю пение" which is not at all the same
thing. Only the person speaking knows in this case what he means.
In most cases we can distinguish between the gerund and the verbal
noun in the following way:
The gerund:
1) has tense and voice forms; so the forms bein g done, h a vin g done,
h avin g been done can not be nouns,
2) can take a direct object; so an “-ing” form followed by a direct ob
ject (readin g a letter) can not be a noun,
3) can be modified by an adverb; so an “-ing” form modified by an
adverb (readin g fast) can not be a noun,
4) can be part of an aspective verbal predicate; so “-ing” forms follow
ing the verbs to begin, to sto p , to go on,, to keep, to continue are mostly
gerunds.
The verbal noun:
1) can be used in the plural,
2) can have an article,
3) can be followed by a prepositional phrase in an attributive function,
4) can be modified by an adjective, a demonstrative pronoun or an
indefinite pronoun.
116
1. She read the first act between a fitting and a rehearsal, made up
her mind to play Kate and there was no persuading her that the part was
too young for her. 2. The whirring and banging of the lift kept her awake
most of the night. 3. She kept repeating the bright sayings of her chil
dren to bored friends and relations. 4. She insisted on my showing her the
letter and explaining who Pat was. 5. On getting home she felt so faint
and exhausted that she went to bed without taking off her make up and
creaming her face. 6. On being told to her face that she was a liar and a
schemer Polly felt like giggling and restrained herself with difficulty.
7. She broke the fastening of the purse in her hurry to get the papers out.
8. She looked with distaste at the toilet table. Dust, spilt powder and
hair combings everywhere. 9. You have never learned the way of treating
children kindly but without undue familiarity. 10. She promised to send
me the cutting the moment she found it. 11. I could just see a faint glim
mering of light in the distance. 12. For some time she said nothing and
we could only hear the clicking of her false teeth. A certain sign of grow
ing irritation. 13. On being asked what her plans were she gave a most
evasive answer. 14. She lost this job through falling ill at the wrong time.
15. Her first big part was Katherine in “The Taming of the Shrew”.
Training Exercises
Exercise 12, Fill in the blanks with prepositions where necessary:
1. Much depends — getting him to listen to us. 2. She was engaged —
sorting out stockings. 3. She only succeded — entirely blocking the
way. 4. She showed no intention — leaving. 5. There seemed to be no
point — staying. 6. He saw no harm — having a drink or two from time
to time. 7. You can only do harm — interfering. 8. No measures can be
taken — first making a full investigation. 9. He did not in the least ob
ject — being examined and our doctor went all over him — finding any
trace of recent injuries. 10. We suspected her — not telling all she knew
117
t
but we could not very well accuse her — hiding facts — knowing our
selves what those facts were. 11.1 was not used — driving a big car through
crowded streets. 12. She was surprisingly clever — finding out things.
13. How can I prevent her — going there — actually locking her up?
14. I was thinking at the time — selling the place. 15. She got the in
vitation— meeting Jill at some party and — talking about dogs with
sympathy and understanding. 16. I can find that out — asking.
m
Exercise 13. Complete the following sentences by adding gerunds to them:

1. Why should I insist —. 2. The picture was definitely w orth—.
3. It was no earthly good —. 4. Do you mind —? 5. I’m not trying to
accuse you —. 6. You can get there in fifteen minutes by —. 7. I can’t
give you any answer without first —. 8. The driver kept —. 9. I see no
harm —. 10. We had no hope—. 11. He got this job —. 12. She lost
about eight pounds last month —. 13. Who is responsible —? 14. We
couldn’t help —. 15. Can you afford'—? *
Exercise 14. Replace the italicised parts of the sentence or clauses by gerundial phrases:
1. He said all this and he d id n o t even sm ile. 2. We suspected that the
boy w as lyin g . 3. N obody could tell when they were going to return. 4. She
did not w a n t to make an effort. 5. I t is necessary to brush the coat. 6. I t
w as im possible to reason w ith her when she felt like this. 7. She was very
clever, she could turn an old dress into a new one. 8. He wouldn’t sav
7 ^
whether he meant to buy the car before he took it for a trial run. 9. Let’s
go out for dinner I d id n o t feel w ell enough to cook a n y th in g . 10. I don’t
like the idea th at 1 should do i t a ll.
Exercise 15. Analyse the syntactical functions of the gerund:
1. This habit of discussing other people’s affairs may damage reputa
tions and ruin friendships. 2. Well, don’t go if you don’t feel like going
but for God’s sake stop talking about it. 3. Can’t you see how perfectly
useless it is trying to save the shop now? It is simple throwing good money
after bad. 4. I see no harm in letting them enjoy themselves in vacation
time. 5. So you like the part and want to play.it. But is it worth going
to such lengths to get it? 6. He was only thanking me for taking his part
at lunch. 7. Once he gets elected there will be no holding him. 8. You
can’t learn to skate without falling. 9. It’s no use trying to make you see
my point, 10. It’s different for you. You’re used to walking. 11. As to
me I simply love cooking. 12. My job is not teaching you manners. 13
She can’t stand being contradicted. 14. She washed her face and combed
out the tangles in her hair before going downstairs again. 15. Of course
Г11 go. I’d go any place if there’s the slightest chance of getting this job.
1. Мне не хочется спорить. 2. Он продолжал курить, не говоря ни
слова. 3. Я не видела смысла в том, чтобы продолжать этот разговор.
4. Бесполезно обсуждать этот вопрос. 5. Я вас ни в чем не обвиняю.
6. Станьте, пожалуйста, в сторону. 7. Я была против поездки туда
с самого начала. 8. План нуждается в доработке. 9. У нее не было на-
118
дежды когда-нибудь поехать в Самарканд. 10. Одними разговорами
результатов не получишь. 11. Теперь назад уже не повернуть. 12. Мы
были благодарны ему за то, что он пришел нас встретить. 13. Она не
пропускает ни одной возможности поговорить по-английски. 14. На
учиться творить на языке можно только, если много говорить. Только
читать недостаточно. 15. Кто за то, чтобы пригласить ее?
*
KEYS TO EXERCISES
Exercise 2. 1. there is no talking 2. smoking was 3. it is useless speak

ing 4. there’s no stopping 5. there is no crossing 6. talking won’t help
7. it was no good going 8. listening to music was 9. there was no denying
10. buying shoes— was \
Exercise 3. 1. feel like speaking 2. job will be taking 3. was against

staying 4. are against going 5. felt like leaving 6. was for buying 7. is
for doing 8. felt like telling 9. the main thing was passing 10. job was
teaching
Exercise 4. 1. can’t stand waiting 2. mind closing 3. worth reading
4. can’t afford wasting 5. wants/needs watching 6. mind smoking 7. mind
coming 8. could not afford buying 9. avoided expressing 10. hate leaving
11. couldn’t help smiling 12. couldn’t help trying
Exercise 5. 1. being spoken 2. being taken 3. having caused/ causing
4. being treated 5. having come/ coming 6. having been put 7. having
read/ reading 8. keeping 9. having repeatedly sold 10. trying
Exercise 6. 1. for 2. on 3. in 4. of 5. on 6. for 7. to 8. at 9. of 10. from
1
Exercise 7. 1. am not used to 2. succeeded in 3. insisted on 4. apolo

gized for 5. am thinking of 6. was grateful for 7. was engaged in 8. insist
ed on 9. suspect me of 10. was accused of
У
Exercise 8. 1. way of explaining 2. intention of climbing 3. idea of

letting 4. purpose of finding 5. chances of getting 6. danger in crossing
7. harm in telling 8. habit of closing 9. opportunity of asking 10. diffi
culty in finding
Exercise 9. 1. without stopping 2. by objecting 3. before taking 4. by
listening 5. after consulting 6. without noticing 7. through/ because of
falling ill 8. on seeing 9. without thinking it all out 10. by scolding
Exercise 11. 1. fitting— v. noun; persuading—gerund 2. whirring,
banging — v. nouns 3. repeating — gerund, sayings— v. noun 4. show
ing, explaining — gerunds 5. getting, taking, creaming — gerunds
6. being told, giggling — gerunds 7. fastening — v. noun 8. combings —
v. noun 9. treating — gerund 10. cutting — v . noun 11. glimmering —
v. noun 12. clicking— v . noun 13. being asked — gerund 14. falling —
gerund 15. taming — v . noun
Exercise 12. 1. on 2. in 3. in 4. of 5. in 6. in 7. by 8. without
9. to, without 10. of, of, without 11. to 12. at 13. from, without
14. of 15. through, through 16. without
119
Exercise 14. 1. without smiling 2. the boy of lying 3. there was no
telling 4. feel like making 5. wants brushing 6. there was no reasoning
7. at turning 8. before taking 9. did not feel up to cooking 10. at doing
Exercise 15. 1. attribute 2. going — predicative; talking — part of
a compound verbal predicate 3. trying — subject; throwing — predica
tive 4. attribute 5. object 6. prep, object 7. subject 8. adv. mod. ofatt.
circ. 9. subject 10. prep, object 11. object 12. predicative 13. object 14.
adv. mod. of time 15. attribute
Exercise 16. 1. don’t feel like 2. went on smoking without saying
3. no sense in 4. it’s no use 5. don’t accuse you of 6. do you mind 7. was
against going 8. wants/ needs working out 9. no hope of 10. by talking
11. there’s no turning 12. were grateful to him for 13. does not miss any
opportunity of 14. by talking, only reading is not 15. who is for
The Gerundial Complex

The gerund can have a subject of its own different from that of the
sentence. (Compare: I insist on doing it — I insist on your doing it).
In this case the gerund and its subject form a construction called the ger
undial complex. The relations between the elements of the complex are
predicative. The first element of the complex may be expressed in a
number of ways: by a noun in the common case, a noun in the possessive
case, a pronoun in the objective case, a possessive pronoun.
boy’s
boy doing smth
my being done
me
Note 2. There is a tendency to avoid the perfect forms of the gerund

i
even when logically suitable.
'
E.g. I’m so grateful for his helping me out

instead of
I’m so grateful for his having helped me out.
The gerundial complex has practically the same syntactical functions
as the gerund and is used in most of its patterns.
The Russian equivalent of the complex is often a clause.
Sentence P a tte r n s w ith the G eru n dial C om plex
P a tte r n 8
The S u b ject
120
g g, It is useless your going there now.
Вам теперь бесполезно туда идти.
E.g. His saying this made all the difference.

To что он это сказал, стало решающим.
P a ttern 9
The P re d ic a tiv e
E.g. I ’m against your going there alone.

Я против того, чтобы вы пошли туда один.
P a ttern 10
The D ire c t O bject *V
A. ( avoid
afford
(can) <| stand smb’s doing smth
I help
V prevent
E.g. 1. I can’t help his making mistakes.

Я не могу помешать ему делать ошибки.
2. How can you stand their making all that noise?
Как вы можете выносить то, что они так шумят?
to mind 'l
like 1 smb’s doing smth
love |
hate j
1. Do you mind my waiting here?

Ничего (вы не возражаете), если я здесь подожду?
2. Mother does not like his coming late.
Маме не нравится, что он поздно приходит.
1
Pattern 11
E. Much depends on your taking the job.

Многое зависит от того, возьметесь ли вы за это дело
P a tte r n 12
The A ttr ib u te
plan
idea
point
sense
pu r pose
good > of smb’s doing smth
harm
mistake
difficulty
opportunity )
E.g. I had no idea of your being here. *1
Я понятия не имел, что ты здесь.
М
i
r harm
There is good
sense in smb’s doing smth
Smb sees
point
m iic> mш
E.g, There’s little sense in your staying here now.

Теперь тебе не к чему здесь оставаться.
122
Pattern 13
The A d v e rb ia l M o d ifie r
E.g. All that was after their leaving the place.

Все это случилось после того, как они уехали.
Exercise 17. Fill in the blanks with prepositions:
1. If it was settled there was no point — my objecting. 2. She had
been crying again and was afraid — his noticing it. 3. He insisted —
my taking a job— any more time being wasted. 4. Everything depend
ed now — his being found. 5. I see little harm — your trying to get a
better price. 6. He did not waste the opportunity — the boss being in a
friendly mood. 7. There’s no chance whatever — his being believed.
8. They were used by that time — my coming and leaving at the most
unexpected times. 9. I hope you don’t object — my saying so. 10.
He profusely apologized — the waiter’s overcharging me.
i
Exercise 18. Replace the italicised clauses by gerundial complexes. Use prepositions
where necessary:
'1. She did not go to the party after all because the baby cau gh t the
measles. 2. He said there was no danger whatever th a t anybody should
see us there. 3. For some time we discussed the idea th a t seven yea r olds
should be tau gh t algebra an d geom etry. 4. She gave me the letter when I
came home in the evening. 5. Don’t come here again before he sends in a
report on yo u r st uff. 6. The fire started because somebody d ropped a ligh ted
cigarette in to a w a ste p a p e r basket.
Exercise 19. Replace the gerund by ft gerundial complex by adding a subject to it. The
subject of the gerundial complex must be different from the subject of the sentence.
Mo d e l : 1) Everything depends on getting there in time.
Everything depends on your getting there in time.
2) I’m against writing this review.
I’m against Jack’s writing this review.
1. I fail to see the point of raising the question now. 2. She simply
can’t help laughing at you. 3. We did not mind waiting a little. 4. I’ll
take the opportunity of being here to ask you some questions. 5. He suc
ceeded only through making the right contacts from the very beginning.
6. He began to grow fast only after coming to live with us. 7. You can’t
go through college without planning and saving. 8. It’s no good trying
123
%
to make her change her mind. 9. I’m used to coming home very late
10. She likes being praised and made much of.
Exercise 20. Translate into English. Use the complex only if the gerund has a subject
different from that of the sentence.
Mode l :
Он требовал, чтоб они ему немедленно заплатили.
Не insisted on their paying him at once.
But:
Она требовала, чтобы ей немедленно заплатили.
She insisted on being paid at once.
1.Я сделаю все до того, как он вернется. 2. Ты не боишься, чт
тебя увидят? 3. Я не вижу большой беды, если он пропустит одну лек
цшо. 4. Она извинилась за то, что дети так шумели. 5. Я отвечаю за тс » ч
чтобы все было в порядке. 6. Кто за то, чтобы сделать все в воскре
сенье? 7. Кто за то, чтобы я сделал все в воскресенье? 8. Терпеть н
могу возражать и спорить. 9. Терпеть не могу, когда ты возражает ,
и споришь. 10. Закройте, пожалуйста, дверь. И. Ничего, если я з;
крою дверь? 12. Он привык оставаться с бабушкой. 13. Он привык,
что Джек остается с ним. 14. Она была так благодарна за то, что ее
взяли тоже. 15. Она была так благодарна за то, что мы взяли ее с собой.
16. Он ушел не попрощавшись. 17. Он ушел так, что мы этого не за
метили. 18. Я не могла не видеть его. 19. Я не могла помешать ему ви
деть вас. 20. Мне нравится, когда ты так говоришь.
KEYS ТО EXERCISES
t
Exercise 17. 1. in 2. of 3. on, without 4. on 5. in 6. of 7. of

8. to 9. to 10. for
Exercise 18, 1. through/because of the baby’s catching 2. of anybody’s
seeing 3. of seven year olds being taught 4. on my coming home 5. before
his sending 6. through somebody’s dropping
Exercise 20, 1. before his coming 2. of being seen 3. in his missing
4. for the children making/having made 5. for everything being in order
6. for doing 7. for my doing 8. arguing and objecting 9. your arguing and
objecting 10. mind closing 11. my closing 12. to staying 13. to Jack’s
staying 14. for being taken 15. for our taking 16. without saying good bye
17, without our noticing it 18. could not help (avoid) seeing 19. couldn’t
help (avoid) his seeing 20. your saying
Note 3. Sentence patterns with the infinitive and complexes with the
infinitive are in most cases different from sentence patterns
with the gerund or the gerundial complex. We say “It is
nice to see you” but “It is useless speaking to her.” Care
should be taken not to confuse the patterns and to use the
right verbal or construction in each sentence pattern.
124
Training Exercises
Exercise 21. Complete the following sentences by adding to them infinitives, gerunds or
complexes. Give variants where possible.
Mo d e l : 1) It’s quite impossible —
to do it.
for me to do it.
2) There will be no —
stopping her.
3) Nobody insisted on —
your doing it.
going there.
1. The book is really worth — 2. I don’t suspect you — 3. You’re
old enough —. 4. It’s perfectly easy —. 5. The story is hard— . 6. I did
not mind —. 7. There was no— . 8. Is he a man —? 9. You can do it by —.
10. He spoke without — . 11. She was the last — . 12. I don’t feel— .
13. They were against— . 14. The main thing is —. 15. She was engaged— .
16.' We are used — . 17. She is too lazy — . 18. His absence was easy — .
19. I think it best — .20. Who has heard —? 21. It’s quite useless —.
22. She seems — . 23. Are you waiting —? 24. Is there any hope —? 25.
You are supposed — .
Exercise 22. Translate the contents of the brackets into English;
1. I insist (чтобы вы мне это рассказали). 2. She is far too clever
(чтобы этому поверить). 3. She turned out (опоздала на поезд). 4. I am
waiting (чтобы ты кончила болтать по телефону). 5. There is no hope
(что они достанут билеты). 6. I’m so grateful to you (за то, что вы мне
это объяснили). 7. Mother thinks it best (чтобы я пожила летом у нее).
8. Do you want (чтобы он это сделал сегодня)? 9. Do you suspect (что
я лгу)? 10. The picture was believed (украденной). 11. I don’t like (когда
ты так говоришь). 12. I ’m too tired (чтобы разговаривать). 13. I don’t
mind (чтобы ты сделала все завтра) if you don’t feel up to (работать се
годня). 14. Can you discuss this problem (и не ссориться)? 15. I’m not
the first (который это говорит).
Exercise 23. Open the brackets. Use infinitives or gerunds in the appropriate forms.
Add prepositions where necessary:
1. We felt the ground (to rock and tremble) under our feet. 2. There
is no (to reason) with her now. 3. The poems are believed (to write) by
a young woman. 4. How can I do it without somebody (to notice) me
and (to begin) to ask questions? 5. She is not likely (to forget) her prom
ise. 6. The poet is known (to live) in Odessa at the time. 7. Don’t
make the mistake (to underestimate) the opponent. 8. Can I learn to
speak better (to listen) to records? 9. He is far too lazy (to do) it him
self. 10. Are you really thinking (to give up) this job? 11. So much de
pends (he to be) the right man for the job. 12. I see no harm (he to play
football). 13. I must apologize (to be) so late. 14. Have you ever heari
(he to say) anything of the kind? 15. They don’t seem (to understand)
the explanation, they are still making the same mistake, 16. It’s most
unusual (she to lose her temper). 17. Why are you so anxious (me to
leave)? 18. I have a right to know. I insist (to tell) the truth. 19. It
is worth (to try) anyway. 20. When are they expected (to come)?
1. Вряд ли она вернется. 2. Мне не хочется об этом говори 3
Словам вашим трудно поверить. 4. Он не дал мне слова сказать.
5. Бесполезно объяснять ей это. 6. Никто не настаивал, чтобы она оста
лась. 7. Вы довели ее до слез. 8. Оказалось, что он уехал. 9. Кто видел
ее последним? 10. Мне не нравится мысль, что она останется одна в ла
гере. 11. Факты спрячешь. 12. Стоит об этом разговаривать?
13. Она не могла не добиться успеха. 14. Ни к чему писать ей об
15. Вымой руки, прежде 16. Спасибо 17
У тебя нибу 18. Мне не
19. Не он человек, чтобы позволить кому-нибудь оскорбл
себя. 20. Все оказалось гораздо проще, чем мы думали. 21. Он первый
вышел из себя. 22. У тебя странный способ помогать людям. 23. Я могу
успеть на поезд, если буду бежать всю дорогу. 24. Я не могла не согла
ситься 25. Будьте добры, говорите помедленнее.
KEYS ТО TRAINING EXERCISES
Exercise 21. 1. gerund 2. of -|- gerund 3. infinitive; for-phrase 4. in-

. finitive; for-phrase 5. infinitive 6. gerund; g. complex 7. gerund 8. infini
tive 9. gerund 10. gerund; g. complex 11. infinitive 12. like -f- gerund
13. gerund; g. complex 14. gerund 15. in + gerund; g. complex 16. to -f-
gerund; g. complex 17. infinitive 18. infinitive 19. for-phrase 20. acc +
inf 21. gerund; g. complex 22. infinitive 23. for-phrase 24. of + gerund;
g. complex 25. infinitive
%
Exercise 22. 1. on your telling 2. to believe; to have believed 3. to

have missed 4. for you to stop talking 5. of their getting 6. for explain
ing / having explained 7. for me to stay 8. him to do 9. me of lying 10. to
have been stolen 11. you to speak /your speaking 12. to talk 13. your
doing; doing 14. without quarrelling 15. to say so
Exercise 23. 1. rock and tremble 2. reasoning 3. to have been written
4. noticing and beginning 5. to forget; to have forgotten 6. to have been
living 7. of underestimating 8. by listening 9. to do; to have done 10. of
giving up 11. his being 12. in his playing 13. for being 14. him say 15. to
have understood 16. for her to lose 17. for me to leave 18. to be told 19.
trying 20. to come
Exercise 24. 1. is not likely to return 2. don’t feel like speaking 3. are
hard to believe 4. let me say 5. explaining 6. on her staying 7. made her
cry 8. proved to have left 9. was the last to see 10. the idea of her staying
alone 11. there’s no hiding 12. is it worth talking about? 13. couldn’t
help succeeding 14. is useless writing 15. before eating 16. for helping
17. anything to read 18. feel like interfering 19. not the man to let anyone
insult 20. turned out to be 21. the first to lose his temper 22. way of help
ing 23. by running 24. couldn’t help agreeing 25. do you mind speaking
126
Pa r t III
The Participle is a non-tinite form which has certain verbal features

and the syntactical functions of adjectival or adverbial character.
There are two participles in the English language — Participle I and
Participle They called the present and the past participl
though they differ in voice rather than in tense.
Objective verbs have four forms of Participle I:
* _ Л
Indefinite active Indefinite passive

. ____ ________ _
writing being written
Perfect active Perfect passive
having written having been written
Subjective verbs have only two forms of Participle I:
Indefinite active Indefinite passive

Ы
standing
Perfect active Perfect passive
having stood
Participle II has only one form:
written
Most subjective verbs have no forms of Participle II outside the ana

lytical forms of the verb. (Such participles as died, risen , w alked can
not be used predicatively or attributively, they only help,.to form the
analytical forms of the verb — have w alked, etc.)
The tenses of the participle are relative and show whether the action
named by the participle took place at the same time with that of the fi
nite verb or whether it preceeded it.
Participle I Indefinite active and passive show that the action named
by the participle took place at the same time with that of the finite verb.
These forms denote simultaneousness in the present, past or future.
127
E.g. 1. Do you see that child? The curly-headed one. The one waving
a flag. 2. That day we sta yed at home watching “The Lone Ranger”
on television. 3. In a lew more minutes the first guests w ill be a r
riv in g wearing smiles and carrying delicately beribboned boxes.
Participle I Perfect active and passive shows that the action named by
the participle preceeded that of the finite verb. These forms denote
priority to a present, past or future action.
E.g. 1. Having said what I was obliged to say I w a n t to tell you now how
sorry I am that it has come to this. 2. Having thus said “a” he p r o
ceeded, to saying “b” without loss of time. 3. Having settled this
point to your satisfaction you w ill look round for something to take
your mind off business.
Participle II in most cases denotes priority.
E.g. She p u lle d the long forgotten letter out of its hiding place.
Participle II may sometimes have a meaning of simultaneousness.
E.g. The dog carried by the youngest child gave a sharp yelp of protest.
Participle I Indefinite and Perfect may take direct objects.
E.g. 1. Holding the chi Id d o s e to her she seemed to be showing him
something. 2. Having written the last w ord she looked up interroga
tively.
Participles I and II may be modified by adverbs. *■
E.g. 1. The dolphin came a little closer, the dark ringed eye watching
me ste a d ily with what I could have sworn was a friendly and inter
ested light. 2. D e e p ly hurt, Mrs Stabbins cleared the table without
any further suggestions.
Exercise 1. Give all possible forms of the participle of the following verbs:
to explain, to break, to cook, to stand, to walk, to wear.
Different forms of the participle have different syntactical functions.
a) Participle I Indefinite active and passive can be an attribute and
an adverbial modifier.
E.g. I looked at the smiling child. Smiling she showed me the letter.
2. The cinema theatre being built here will be one of the largest
in Moscow. Being asked for her opinion she blushed.
b) The Perfect and Perfect passive participles can be only adverbial
modifiers.
1. Having voiced his objection he sat down. 2. Having been told
to wait, she waited.
c) Participle II can be' an attribute and a predicative.
1. She was wearing a knitted cap pulled low over her eyes. 2. She
was always well dressed.
d) Participle II can be an adverbial modifier when it is used with the
conjunctions when, w hile, as if, as though, though, unless, if.
128 \
E.g- 1* A good child was not supposed to speak unless spoken to. (con
dition) 2. When told to go in he seemed to change his mind and still
clutching the briefcase left the room, (time) 3. She continued star
ing at the screen as if fascinated by her first sight of television,
(comparison) 4. The dress was not hopelessly damaged though badly
stained in one or two places, (concession)
Russian Equivalents of Participles Used as Attributes
A. 1) читающий reading
который читает /
2) читавший
(тогда) reading
который читал
У
прочитавший
О
который прочитал раньше who

который будет читать
E.g. L Look at that reading boy! 2. We looked at the reading boy. 3.

(The boy who had read the poem was now taking part in the discus
sion.) ■

1. Она что-то говорила плачущему ребенку. 2. Студент, потерявший
ручку, может получить ее обратно в деканате. 3. Проигравшая команда
молча покидала поле. 4. Он болел за проигрывающую команду. 5. На
писавший это человек ошибается. 6. Девушке, которая пела, было
около шестнадцати лет. 7. Вот девушка, рассказавшая мне эту историю.
8. Она положила яйца в кипящую воду. 9. Посмотри на девушку, ко
торая стоит у окна. 10. Я подошла к девушке, стоявшей у окна (кото
рая стояла у окна). 11. Девушка, стоявшая у окна, уже ушла. 12. Дети,
которые играли во дворе, громко смеялись. 13. Дети, которые игра-
f j
ли во дворе, уже ушли домой

шЛ
В. применяющиеся
применяемые (обычно) used
которые применяются J
применявшиеся
которые применялись (раньше) used
примененные
которые были применены (тогда) used
4) применяемые
которые применяются (в момент речи) being used
But: которые будут применяться—to be used
5 JVa 813 129

E.g. 1. These are the methods used for treating arthritis. 2. These are
the methods used before the invention of penicillin. 3. This is the
method used in the first heart swop operation. 4. What do you think
of the method being used?
1. Вот темы, обычно обсуждающиеся на семинарах по лексиколо
гии. 2. Это тема доклада, обсуждавшегося на прошлом семинаре. 3. Вот
мои записи лекций, прочитанных в прошлом году. 4. Как вам нравится
книга, которую сейчас обсуждают? 5. Игра, которую выиграла эта ко
манда, была ключевой игрой чемпионата. 6. Я хорошо помню его сло
ва, сказанные на открытии конференции. 7. Это было стихотворение,
написанное за год до смерти поэта. 8. Эти стихи были похожи на все
стихи, которые пишут подростки. 9. Если мы сравним дома, которые
строили пять лет назад, и дома, которые строят теперь, мы увидим зна
чительные перемены. 10. В доме, который строится напротив нас, бу
дет большой магазин. И. Она показала мне его письмо, написанное
в 1941 году. 12. Очень интересно читать некоторые сочинения, напи
санные детьми. 13. Сочинения, которые пишут современные дети, от
личаются от тех, которые писали дети 20-х годов. 14. Как тебе нравят
ся фасоны, которые теперь носят? 15. Фильм, показанный в первый
день фестиваля, произвел хорошее впечатление. 16. Фильм, который
будет показан здесь завтра, одна из первых картин этого режиссера.
»
Exercise 4. Paraphrase the following sentences. Use the appropriate forms of the
participle instead of the italicised attributive clauses where possible. (Place the attributive
participle before the modified noun if it is preceded by dependent words and after the modi-
fied noun if it is followed by dependent words.)
Mo d e 1: ...
The q u ie tly p la y in g children
Tfte children playing in the yard # » •
A fresh ly typed p a g e ...

A page typed by an expert ...1
1. The afternoon which D e n is sp e n t a t the ty p e w rite r had been a happy
one. 2- The blonde who had been d riv in g was sitting over her cup of coffee
on the now empty terrace. 3. From time to time she shouted some direc
tions to the children who were p la y in g on the san d . 4. It was a striking
dress with a red belt which she wore low on her h ips. 5. They were still
speaking of the game which they had lo s t . 6. She tried to look grave but
she could not control her lips which were cu rvin g in to a h a p p y sm ile. 7. De
nis who w as h u rry in g p a s t them , turned at the sound of her voice. 8. Angie
who had j u s t le ft school joined them at the hotel. 9. The boat which had
been fresh ly p a in te d looked smart and expensive. 10. He indicated a low
building which had been p a in te d a v iv id p in k . 11. It was only Angie who
w as r a p id ly com ing down the slope. 12. Nothing remained except the car
which he had bought the week before and had n o t y e t p a id for.
,-w
1. ломающийся голос 2. разбитая чашка 3. проигранная игра

4. проигравшая команда 5. проигрывающая команда 6. кипяченая
130
7. кипящая вода8. забытый метод 9. человек, забывший... 10
щая собака 11. испытанный метод 12. жареная рыба 13. жарящаяся
рыба 14. вспрыгнувший на стол кот 15. прыгающая собака 16. украден
ная тема 17. смеющийся голос 18. смеявшаяся девушка 19. выбранная
тема 20. печеный картофель 21. потерянный шанс 22. найденное реше
ние 23. выигравший спортсмен 24. написанное письмо 25. разорванный
конверт
1. Говорившая по телефону девушка положила трубку и поверну
лась ко мне. 2. Говорившая с ней девушка показала на меня. З.Этобыла
одна из историй, которые часто рассказывала его сестра. 4. Ему хотелось
забыть грустную историю, рассказанную ему девочкой. 5. Он сидел,
не слушая историю, которую рассказывала одна из девочек. 6. Я ду
маю, что девочка, рассказывающая эту историю, уверена, что это прав
да. 7. Он дал мне несколько отпечатанных на машинке листков. 8. Обе
щанная помощь не приходила. 9. Где девушка, обещавшая вам это?
10. Его разбудил шум приближающихся машин. 11. Это был один из
студентов, принимающих участие в конференции. 12. Я разговаривал
с одним из студентов, принимавших участие в конференции два года
тому назад. 13. Мы шли по дорожке, которая вела на станцию. 14. Мы
оказались перед закрытой дверью
Russian Equivalents of Participles Used as Adverbial Modifiers
читая
когда читаю ) (when, while) reading
когда читал j а
E.g. 1. Reading this book 1 wrote out a number of useful expressions.

2. When reading this book I remembered a certain episode from my
own childhood. 3. While reading this book I always remember my
own childhood.
0
прочитав
когда прочитал having read
потому что прочитал1
E.g. 1. Having read this book 1 can tell you my opinion of it. 2. Having
read the book I wrote an outline of the plot.
Exercise 7. Replace the italicised adverbial clauses of time and cause by the appropriate
form of the participle:
1. When l had fin a lly made up m y m in d 1 told my parents about my
new plans. 2. When 1 spoke to her I always tried to . make my meaning
clear. 3. When he had passed the la s t exa m in a tio n he began to look round
for a job. 4. A s I had never seen a n y th in g like th a t before 1 was eager to
5* 131
see the performance. 5. When we were p la y in g chess th a t evening we kept
watching each other. 6. A s she had not had any lunch she wanted
her tea badly. 7 A s she had been w a lk in g m o st of the n ig h t she
felt tired and sleepy. 8. When she had taken the children to school she could
go and do her weekly shopping. 9. Whenever she spoke on the su bject she
was liable to get all hot and bothered. 10. When I take a child to the circus
I always know I’m going to enjoy myself. 11. When he had dru n k his
second cup of coffee he folded the newspaper and rose. 12. A s she had
sp en t m o st of her housekeeping m oney she reluctantly decided to go home.; i
3) If the actions named by the participle and by the predicate closely

follow each other the Indefinite participle is used instead of the Perfect
participle. It often happens in case of such verbs as: to see , to e n te r , to
a r r iv e , to close , to open, etc.
увидев
когда увидел
E;g. Seeing me she blushed with pleasure.

Увидев меня, она покраснела от радости.
Exercise 8. Replace the italicised adverbial clauses of time by the appropriate form of
the participle:
1. When she had seen a ll she had come to see Mrs Brooks began to plan
her retreat. 2. When she saw that I was not going to give in Mother changed
her line of attack. 3. When I entered the room I at once felt some change
in the atmosphere. 4. When we had fin a lly reached the bank o f the river
we decided to stay right there and wait for the rest of the party. 5. When
/ reached out in the u tte r darkness I felt a stone wall where the en
trance was supposed to be. 6. W hen she opened the parcel she saw
a large box of her favourite chocolate creams. 7. W hen they had
fin a lly opened the safe a fte r m an y unsuccessful a tte m p ts they found
that most of the papers had gone. 8. W hen she closed the su itcase she
pushed it out of sight under the bed. 9. W hen she had closed and
locked the su itcase she rang for the porter to come and take it downstairs.
10. W hen she had b u ttered the la s t slice of bread she started pouring
out the coffee.
2) When we mention two consecutive actions one of them may
be named by the Indefinite participle. The Indefinite participle in
this case may be an adverbial modifier of attending circumstances,
manner or cause.
E .g . Он посмотрел на меня и улыбнулся.
Не looked at me smiling.
Мы увидели, что становится холодно и пошли домой.
Seeing that it was beginning to get cold we went home.
4
Exercise 9. Translate into English; Use the Indefinite participle instead of the
italicised verb:
132
1. Мы оставили ему записку и отправились на прогулку в парк
2. Он открыл книгу и показал мне подчеркнутое 3. Она улы б
нулась и вышла из комнаты. 4. Она тяжело вздохнула и налила себе
вторую чашку кофе. 5. Она от крыла зонтик и храбро пошла под
дождь. 6. Мы камере хранения и отправились
на поиски комнаты в гостинице. 7. Он еще раз посмотрел на карту
и сказал, что мы свернули не там. 8. Мы не заст али его дома и остави
ли ему записку. 9. Я не был уверен, что она права, и ничего не сказал.
10. Она медленно печатала что-то на машинке и по временам сп раш и
вала меня, как пишется то или другое слово.
Note 4. You can distinguish between the gerund and the ing- forms
of the participle in the following way: if the in g -io rm is
the subject, object or predicative it is not a participle.
The in g- form in the attributive or adverbial function is a gerund if
it has a preposition and a participle if it has no preposition (the parti
ciple may follow “when” and “while”). The in g - form after such verbs as
to keep , to b eg in , to s t a r t , to con tin u e , to go on is always a gerund.
E.g. 1. Speaking fast does not always mean speaking fluently.— gerunds
2. She is used to speaking fast.— gerund
3. On seeing me she smiled and waved her hand.— gerund
Seeing me she blushed.— participle
4. I like your way of doing it.— gerund
We watched the playing children.— participle
Exercise 10. Analyse the ‘ing'-forms. St ate which of them are gerunds and which parti
ciples:
1. There is no telling what she may do. 2. They were engaged inpack-
ing. 3. She went back to the terrace trying not to step on the grass.
4. Laughing and talking at the top of their voices the little girls filled
the hall. 5. She poured the boiling water over the tomatoes. 6. You spoke
without thinking. 7. The book is not worth reprinting. 8. Is there any
chance of seeing him here again? 9. Having once made up her mind she
was not likely to change it. 10. Finally we managed to lock the still bark
ing dog in the bathroom.
1. Мы вес) день бродили по городу и уехали поздно вечером. 2.
Сделав уроки он включил телевизор. 3. Читая книги, выписывайте
новые слова. 4. Он показал мне ручку, купленную в Ленинграде.
5. Спортсмены, занявшие первые десять мест, будут выступать во вто
рой половине состязания. 6. Лающие собаки не кусаются. 7. Он боялся
лаявшей собаки. 8. Когда он рассказал все, ему стало легче. 9. Методы,
применявшиеся в этой операции, были сначала испробованы на жи-
133
вотных. 10. Он говорил о методах, применяющихся в советской хирур
гии. 11. Врачи, пользующиеся этим методом, достигают хороших
результатов. 12. Врач, пользовавшийся этим методом, сделал интерес
ный доклад. 13. Это был дом, построенный в прошлом веке. 14. Пытаясь
привлечь мое внимание, он постучал по столу. 15. Когда мы обратили
внимание на этот вопрос, мы поняли, как это важно. 16. Он подписал
письмо и отдал его секретарю. 17. Она не знала, что сказать, и не го
ворила ничего. 18. Говоря на эту тему, он всегда волнуется. 19. Когда
он перечитывал письмо, он нашел его довольно убедительным. 20.
Перечитывая письмо, он нашел в нем ошибку.
KEYS TO EXERCISES
Exercise 2. 1. crying child 2. who has lost 3. which had lost 4. the
losing team 5. who has written 6. singing girl 7. who has told 8. the boil
ing water 9. the girl standing 10. the girl standing 11. who had been
standing 12. the children playing 13. who had been playing
Exercise 3. 1. discussed 2. discussed 3. delivered 4. being discussed
5. won 6. said 7. written 8. written 9. built, built 10. being built 11. writ
ten 12. written 13. written, written 14. being worn 15. shown 16. which
will be shown.
Exercise 4. 1. afternoon spent 2. im possible 3. children playing 4. belt
worn 5. of the lost game 6. her lips curving 7. Denis hurrying 8. im p o ssi
b l e 9. painted boat 10. building painted 11. coming 12. car bought... paid.
Exercise 5. 1. breaking 2. broken 3. lost 4. clause 5. losing 6. boiled

7. boiling 8. forgotten 9. clause 10. barking 11. tried 12. fried 13. frying
14. clause 15. jumping 16. stolen 17. laughing 18. clause 19. chosen 20.
baked 21. lost 22. found 23. clause 24. written 25. torn.
Exercise 6. 1. who had been speaking 2. the girl speaking to her 3. a
story often told 4. told 5. the story being told 6. the girl telling 7. type
written sheets 8. the promised help 9. who has promised 10. of approaching
cars 11. of the students taking part 12. who had taken part 13. a path
leading 14. a locked door
Exercise 7. 1. having made up my mind 2. speaking to her 3. having
passed 4. having never'seen 5. playing chess 6. having had no lunch
7.‘ having walked 8. having taken 9. speaking 10. taking 11. having
drunk 12. having spent
Exercise 8. 1. having seen 2. seeing 3. entering 4. having reached
5. reaching out 6. opening the parcel 7. having opened 8. closing 9. hav
ing closed and locked 10. having buttered
Exercise 10. 1. gerund 2. gerund 3. participle 4. participle 5. parti*
ciple 6. gerund 7. gerund 8. gerund 9. participle 10. participle
Exercise 11. 1. leaving late in the evening 2. having done 3. reading
4. bought 5. who have taken 6. barking 7. barking 8. having told 9. used
10. used 11. using 12. who had used 13. built 14. trying 15. having direct
ed 16. signing 17. not knowing 18. speaking 19. having read 20. reading;
134
Complexes with the Participles
The participle forms three complexes.
/. The Accusative with the Participle

The accusative with the participle consists of a noun in the common
case or a pronoun in the objective case and the present, passive or past
participle.
P a tte rn 1
E.g. 1. I her playing garden t imagine her cooking

mending
N о t e 5. to see
hear smb doing smth — Когда, как кто-то что-то
feel делал
and
to see
hear smb do smth что(бы), когда, как кто-то что-то
feel делал
to have smb doing smth — довести до..., заставить
to have smb do smth — распорядиться чтобы
Exercise 12. Translate into English. Use the accusative with the participle or the in-
nitive complex depending on the predicate verb and on the meaning of the sentence. Give
'o variants where possible.
o d e 1: 1) Ты за полчаса довел ее до слез.
You had her crying in half an hour.
You made her cry in half an hour.
2) Я видел ее, когда она выходила из дома.
I saw her leaving the house.
I saw her leave the house.
3) Я застал ее в слезах.
I found her crying.
4) Я никогда не видал, чтобы она брала эти книги.
I have never seen her take the books.
135
5) Мы не ждали, что она придет сегодня.
We did not expect her to com e to-day.
Она спала, когда я уходил. 2. Не могу себе представить, чтобы
ждала. 3. Не беспокойтесь обьюсь. чтобы
делала, как надо. 4. Я никогда их не видела во время ссоры. 5. Я ни
когда не видела, чтобы они ссорились. 6. Я застала их перед телеви
зором. Они смотрели передачу. 7. Я легко могу себе представить, что
она откажется от этой работы. 8. Кто-нибудь видел его, когда он брал
9. Мы не видели, чтобы он бр 10. Кто
говорил Кто-то слышал его, когда он это говорил
N o t e 6. to order ^
allow
expect sm th to be done
know
enable
Exercise 13. T ra n sla te in to E n g lish . Use the accusative w ith P a rtic ip le I I or the accu
sative w ith the passive in fin itiv e depending on w hat verb precedes the com plex .
M o d e l : 1) Он рассчитывает, что все будет сделано сегодня

Не expects e v e r y th in g to be done to-day.
2) Я хочу, чтобы все было сделано сегодня".
I want e v e r y th in g done to-day.
Я видел, как снимали эту картину. 2. Мы нашли стекло разби

тым. 3. Он принесли в номер Он приказал
чтобы дело было расследовано. 5. Он не хотел, чтобы его слова были
записаны на пленку. 6. Я не хочу, чтобы вопрос обсужда
7. Я нашел все сделанным. 8. Почему ты оставил дверь не запертой?
9. Я хочу, чтобы это было напечатано сегодня. 10. Он з*
говорить Она позвонила, чтобы принесли обед
The ; used pattern
to have srnth done
136
I
Exercise 14. T ra n sla te in to E n g lish using the p a tte r n to have sm th done.

i\\ o d Я делаю прическу в парикмахерской каж ую ПЯТНИЦ)г
I have my hair done every Friday.
2) Здесь вам почистят пальто за одни сутки
Here you can have coat cleaned overnight
1. Вам надо отгладить и почистить костюм. 2. Мне надо сфотогра
фироваться. 3. Здесь можно отдать в чистку плащ? 4. Вам не починя'
кран до понедельника. 5. Г 6. Где
7. У него украли документы в прошлом году. 8. Ей выкрасили кухню
в светло-зеленый цвет. 9. Она сшила себе новое пальто. 10. Мне нужно
сделать прическу.
E.g. 1. I couldn’t make myself heard. 2. How did she get herself in
vited?
Exercise 15. T ra n sla te into E n g lish . Use P a tte r n C:
1. Она добилась всеобщего уважения. 2. С некоторым удивлением
она услышала, что о ней говорят. 3. Вы увидите, что вас забыли.
4. Я сделаю так, что меня'будут помнить. 5. Он хотел, чтобы его за
были. 6. Он услышал, как о нем упомянули. 7. Она хотела, чтобы
о ней помнили. 8. Вы только добьетесь того, что вас будут бояться.
9. Если вы хотите, чтобы вас уважали, не выходите из себя из-за
пустяков. 10. Ей не хотелось, чтобы ее повели к зубному врачу.
D. to see
hear \ smth being done
feel
E.g. We watched the heavy door being unbolted.

N o t e : The pattern is used comparatively seldom. Pattern C can be
used instead.
Exercise 16. Open the brackets. Use the a p p ro p ria te fo rm s o f the p a rtic ip le or o f the
in fin itive:
1. He did not wish himself (to criticize). 2. She’s been like that ever
since she had her youngest (to kill) in Africa. 3. Do you want your things
137
(to move) to room 305? 4. Nobody expected any measures (to take),
5. How can I make myself (to hear) in this uproar? 6. And I want every,
thing (to deliver) at my hotel. 7. Nobody heard the door (to open),
8. When do you want the letters (to type)? 9. I had the dress (to copy)
and sent the original back. 10. How could you leave that child (to cry)
in the darkness? 11. There were so many people there and nobody saw
it (to do). 12. They found him (to wander) in the park. 13. They found
the lock (to break) and the man (to go). 14. He ordered the garage door
(to lock and to seal). 15. How he got himself (to elect) is a mystery.
r
4
Exercise 17. T ra n sla te -into E nglish:

1. Он говорил громко, чтобы его было слышно. 2. Он услыша
как назвали его имя. 3. Мне это сделали за три дня. 4. Я добьюсь,
что все будет улажено. 5. Я бы хотела, чтобы эту песню записали на
пленку. 6. Я никогда не видела, как это делают. 7. Она нашла их
играющими в саду. 8. Маме не нравилось, что она курит. 9. Она не
ожидала, что что-нибудь будет сделано. 10. Я не хочу, чтобы мои дела
обсуждали. 11. Вы хотите, чтобы письмо было написано сегодня же?
12. Можешь ты ее себе представить в брюках и резиновых сапогах?
13. Сошьют ли мне здесь костюм за неделю? 14. Мы нашли его сильно
изменившимся. 15. Мы слышали, как сигнал повторился. 16. Я почув
ствовал, что меня толкают к краю платформы. 17. Врач не позволил
его допрашивать. 18. Я знаю, что оц прав. 19. Кто видел, как это слу
чилось? 20. За несколько дней она добилась того, что он стал вести себя
вполне хорошо.
KEYS TO EXERCISES
Exercise 12. 1. left her sleeping 2. imagine her waiting 3. have her
doing 4. have never seen them quarrelling 5. have never seen them quar
rel 6. found them watching 7. imagine her refusing 8. see him taking
9. see him take 10. heard him say 11. heard him saying
Exercise 13. 1. saw the picture taken 2. found the glass broken 3. had,
got dinner brought 4. ordered the case to be investigated 5. did not want,
his words recorded 6. want the question (problem) discussed 7. found
everything done 8. leave the door unlocked 9. want it typed 10. knew him
self to be easily persuaded 11. allowed dinner to be brought
Exercise 14. 1. must have your coat pressed and cleaned 2. must have
my photo taken 3. can I have a raincoat cleaned 4. you won’t have the
tap fixed (repaired) 5. Where do you have your things made? 6. Where
did you have that dress made? 7. had his papers stolen 8. had her kitchen
painted 9. had a new coat made 10. must have my hair done
Exercise 15. 1. got herself respected 2. heard herself discussed 3. find
yourself forgotten 4. get myself remembered 5. wanted himself forgotten
6. heard himself mentioned 7. herself remembered 8. get yourself feared
9. want yourself respected 10. want herself taken
138
Exercise 16. 1. criticized 2. killed 3. moved 4. to be taken 5. heard
6. delivered 7. open 8. typed 9. copied 10. crying 11. done 12. wandering
13. broken; gone 14. to be locked and sealed 15. elected
Exercise 17. 1. make himself heard 2. heard his name mentioned
3. had it made 4. have/get everything settled 5. should like the song
recorded 6. have never seen it done 7. found them playing 8. did not like
her to smoke 9. did not expect anything to be done 10. don't want my
affairs discussed 11. want the letter written 12. can you imagine her
wearing 13. can I have a suit made 14. found him greatly changed 15. heard
the signal repeated 16. felt myself pushed/being pushed 17. allow him
to be questioned 18. know him to be right 19. saw it happen 20. had him
behaving
* t
//. The Nominative with the Participle

t
The nominative with the participle consists of a noun in the common

case or a pronoun in the nominative case and the present or past parti
ciple.
P attern 2
m m
seen . \
heard 4
smb 1 was
( 1 S
found , doing smth

smth I will be
l can be left
kept j
E. i . She was kept waiting for a long time.

he заставили долго прождать
2. The children were heard singing lustily on the beach.
Слышали, как дети громко пели на пляже.
Exercise 18. Paraphrase the following sentences. Use Pattern 2 A in each sentence
Mo d e l : 1) In the afternoon we could see her when she was watering
the plants in her window boxes.
In the afternoon she could be seen watering the plants...
2) Sometimes I heard her say that she could look after herself.
Sometimes she was heard saying . . .
1. I left her sleeping upstairs. 2. I found them talking earnestly over
cups of tea. 3. For some time they kept me guessing what their intentions
were. 4. She left the kettle boiling furiously on the hot-plate. 5. I saw
her last trying on hats in a small shop off Bond Street. 6. I found him in
doors. He was hunting high and low for some paper or other. 7. She'll keep
you waiting for hours while she mak^s up her mind which dress to wear.
8. And all night long we heard the window frames rattle in the wind.
9. I could hear her from where we sat singing in the bathroom. 10. From
my bedroom window I could sometimes see her when she was taking her
little woolly dog for his daily run.
139
* •ма * * ёш
В. . found
I left
> considered
I believed
seen
E.g. The boat was considered lost.

Судно считали погибшим.
Exercise 19. Paraphrase the following sentences. Use Pattern 2 В in each sentence
M o d e l : They considered that the picture had been stolen.
The picture was considered stolen.
1. We found the safe locked and the papers stolen. 2. It could be con
sidered that she was cured. 3. We found the village. It had been burnt
to the ground. 4. Somebody had seen the child. A very black tall negro-
was carrying her. 5. We found the missing car. It had been abandoned on
the highway. 6. They considered that the plan had been lost. 7. One
can believe that the art of glass blowing has been forgotten. 8. When I left
her she was greatly upset and worried. 9. I found her in her room. She
was dressed for the party. 10. You will find the letter on your desk. It
is signed and ready to be posted.
The second element of the construction may be an adjective, a noun
or an adverb. *
considered
called
elected clever
chosen > a beauty
over *
named
made
1. The lesson can be considered over.

Урок можно считать оконченным. ч
2. She may be made your boss.

Ее могут сделать твоим начальником
Exercise 20. Paraphrase the following sentences. Use Pattern 2 C:
1. You may call it luck if you want. 2. They will elect him chain
man of the meeting. 3. They considered her responsible for all that hap-
pened at school. 4. Nothing can make the house more attractive, 5. They
named the child after her mother. 6. They consider that she is a beauty.
7. They call her clever, 8. That was when they elected him president.
9. Then they made him head of the sales department. 10. They can’t
consider you responsible.
140
Exercise 21. Complete the following sentences by adding infinitives, participles^ etc.
tо them. Give variants where possible.
Mo d e l : 1) He does not seem — to know you.
2) She was found — crying/fully dressed.
3) She has been heard -—singing/to sing.
1. I have been told —. 2. She does not seem —. 3. Is she likely —?
4. Someone was heard —. 5. The house was found —. 6. Her son was
named —. 7. Something is bound —. 8. The secret was believed —. 9. He
was elected —. 10. She may be called —.1 1 .1 happened —. 12. The car
was last seen —. 13. The children were left —. 14. The safe was left —.
15. He may be chosen —.
\
Exercise 22. Translate into English. Use Pattern 2 (А, В, C):
i
1. Ее можно назвать хорошенькой. 2. Сейф нашли запертым. 3. Че

модан в последний раз видели стоящим в вестибюле. 4. Все документы
были найдены изорванными в клочки. 5. Детей оставили играющими
на пляже. 6. Ее назвали Мэри в честь бабушки. 7. Его нельзя считать от
ветственным за то, что случилось. 8. Вазу нашли разбитой. 9. Иногда
слышно было, как они смеются у себя в комнате. 10. Меня заставили
долго ждать.
Exercise 23. Translate into English. Use the nominative with the participle and the
nominative with the infinitive where necessary.
Mo d e l : 1) Ее попросили подождать.
She was asked to wait.
2) Ее застали ожидающей своей очереди.
She was found waiting for her turn.
1. Оказалось, что она все знает. 2. Ее считали умной. 3. Вряд ли
чемодан найдут. 4. Чемодан считали украденным. 5. Работу можно
считать хорошей. 6. Кажется, никто не знает его адреса. 7. Письма
были обнаружены в корзинке для бумаг, отпечатанные и подписанные.
8. В последний раз его видели занимающимся в читальном зале. 9.
Оказалось, что он ничего не знает. 10. Слышали, как он говорил, что
он очень сожалеет. И. Его назначили секретарем общества. 12. Ночью
слышали, как собака лаяла в саду. 13. Собаку нашли привязанной
к дереву. 14. Считали, что книга раскуплена. 15. Меня не заставили
ждать.
KEYS ТО EXERCISES
Exercise 18. 1. she was left sleeping 2. they were found talking 3. I was
kept guessing 4. the kettle was left boiling 5. she was last seen trying on
6. he was found indoors hunting 7. you will be kept waiting 8. the win
dow frames were heard rattling 9. she could be heard singing 10. she
could be seen taking
Exercise 19. 1. the safe was found locked 2. she could be considered
cured 3. the village was found burnt 4. the child had been seen carried
5. the car was found abandoned 6. The plan was cpnsidered lost. 7. The
141
art of glass blowing can be believed forgotten. 8. she was left highly upset
9. She was found dressed for the party. 10. the letter will be found signed
and ready
Exercise 20. 1. it mav be called luck 2. he will be elected chairman
" ^ _
3. she was considered responsible 4. The house can’t be made more attract
ive. 5. The child was named after her mother. 6. She is considered a
beauty. 7. She is called clever. 8. he was elected president. 9. he was made
head 10. You can’t be considered responsible.
Exercise 21. 1. inf. 2. inf. 3. inf. 4. inf./part. 5. part. 6. noun 7. inf. 8.
part./inf. 9. noun 10. adj. 11. inf. 12. part. 13. part. 14. part./adj. 15. noun
Exercise 22. 1. may be called pretty 2. was found locked 3. was seen
standing 4. were found torn 5. were left playing 6. was named Mary 7. can’t
be considered responsible 8. was found broken 9. were heard laughing
10. was kept waiting
Exercise 23. 1. proved to know 2. was considered clever 3. is not likely
to be found 4. was considered stolen/to have been stolen 5. may be consid
ered good 6. seems to know 7. were found typed and signed 8. was last
seen working 9. proved to know 10. was heard to say/saying 11. was ap
pointed secretary 12. was heard to bark/barking 13. was found tied 14.
was considered sold out/to have been sold out 15. was not kept waiting
///. The Nominative Absolute
The nominative absolute construction consists of a noun in the com-
mon case or a pronoun in the nominative case and any of the five forms
of the participle.
P a tte r n 3
doing smth
' \
smb being done
ih < having done smth > smb did smth
m having been done
v done >
E.g. 1. The room being practically dark I could not at first see where
the speaker was.
Так как в комнате было почти совсем темно # •
2. The ultimatum delivered she waited for their next move.

Когда ультиматум был объявлен ...
щ \
Though formally independent of the sentence the nominative absolute

construction is a logical adverbial modifier of time, cause or condition.
N o t e : There is a tendency to use participle II or a predicative noun,
adjective or adverb as the second element of the construction
when it has the meaning of an adverbial modifier of time.
142
C om pare: 1 he went out to post
w ritte n
Когда письмо было
The r he went home
Ког кончились
2. The letter having been written he went out to post it.
Так как письмо было написано
The lessons being over he went home
Так как занятия кончились
Exercise 24. Replace the italicised clauses by nominative absolute constructions:
L i t w as very h ot and we went down to the beach for a swim. 2. When
her g rey h a ir w as s m a r tly w aved an d shingled she looked a different woman.
3. A s C hrissie had been unable to come the tea-party was a dull affair.
4. A s sixteen is a d if f ic u lt age in g en era l the girl proved more of a prob
lem than we had expected. 5. A s the sea w as p e rfe c tly calm they had
every chance of safely reaching the rocks. 6. When every th in g w as packed
she went downstairs for a much needed cup of tea. 7. When the la s t m orsel
of the iced p u d d in g w as eaten the children began to fidget. 8. A s the d e li -
cate p o in t of her sa la ry had been se ttle d in the m o st sa tisfa c to ry w ay she
could relax. 9.' the w eather w as s till cold an d w in d y she was wearing
a heavy winter coat. 10. When the la st le tte r w as signed she put them on
the “outgoing” tray.
Exercise 25. Translate the contents of the brackets into English by means of nominative
absolute constructions:
1. (Когда покупки были сделаны) she caught the midday bus to
Buckland. 2. (Так как платье было очень длинно) I spent most of the
afternoon fixing it. 3. (Так как судно быстро погружалось в воду)
there wasn’t a moment to lose. 4. (Так как дети ушли в школу) the house
was unusually peaceful. 5. (Так как день был по-настояш,ему солнечный
и теплый) I told them they could take their lunch and eat it in the park.
6. (Когда двери и окна были закрыты) he sat down to enjoy his favourite
T. V. show. 7. (Так как телефон был отключен) she had to send somebody
down to the village for the missing fish. 8. (Так как дети устали и были
возбуждены) she had a harder time than usual putting them to bed.
9. (Когда решение было принято) nothing could make her give it up.
10. (Так как ночь была темная и туманная) we missed the right turning
and had to go back.
In Pattern 3 В the nominative absolute construction has the
meaning of an adverbial modifier of manner or attending circumstances.
143
т
E.g. 1. She looked even prettier with most of the make up gone from
her young face.
Она казалась еще милее без косметики на молодом лиде.
2. Denis rose to his feet his arms folded in his favourite Napoleon
ic pose.
Денис встал, руки его были сложены в его любимой позе На
полеона.
Exercise 26. Replace the italicised sentences by a nominative absolute construction of
the 3 В Pattern:
1. Angie was coming easily down the steep slope. B uck w as close be
hind h er . 2. She rolled over on her front and lay motionless. H er face was
hidden in the curve of her arm . 3. She was a charming healthy child of
eight. H er long a rm s an d legs were a lrea d y tanned to a lovely golden brown.
4. A few more steps and she disappeared behind some dusty shrubs. She
w as s till h oldin g the little dog in her arm s. 5. H er face w as p a le , her sm ile
listless. She looked a different girl. 6. Madame came out of her office,
smiling and bowing. H er black silk dress w as b u tto n ed up over corsets three
sizes too sm a ll for com fort. 7. Even Mr. Bolham went out at the sound
of her voice. The unread new spaper w as s t il l in h is hand. 8. Mary sat lean
ing forward watching the fire-works. M a r k 's a rm w as round her shoul
ders. 9. How can you expect me to do any work when the children are m a k
in g so much noise. 10. He spent the rest of the journey in a screwed-up
and uncomfortable position. The m assive knees of M rs. Gush were p ressin g
in to him a t every jo lt.
KEYS TO EXERCISES /
Exercise 24. 1. it being very hot 2. her grey hair smartly waved and
shingled 3. Chrissie having been unable to come 4. sixteen being a diffi
cult age 5. the sea being perfectly calm 6. everything packed 7. the last
morsel of the iced pudding eaten 8. The delicate point of her salary
having been settled 9. The weather being still cold and windy 10. The
last letter having been signed
Exercise 25. 1. her shopping done 2. the dress being much too long
3. the ship sinking fast 4. the children having gone to school 5. the day
being really sunny and warm 6. the doors and windows being locked
7. the telephone having been disconnected 8. the children being tired
and excited 9. the decision made/taken 10. the night being dark and foggy
*
Exercise 26. 1. (with) Buck close behind her 2. (with) her face (hid
den) in the curve of her arm 3. (with) her long arms and legs already
tanned to a lovely golden brown 4. (with) the little dog still (held) in her
arms 5. (with) her face pale, her smile listless 6. (with) her black silk
dress buttoned up 7. (with) the unread newspaper still in his hand 8.
(with) Mark’s arms round her shoulders 9. (with) the children making
so much noise 10. (with) the massive knees of Mrs. Gush pressing into
him
ч
144
Exercise 27. Translate the passages in bold, type by non-finite forms or constructions
with non-finite forms:
Ленивый Гонза
Когда Гонза родился, ведьма предсказала, что он, *когда вы растет,

убьет дракона, спасет принцессу и женится на ней. 2Этому трудно
было поверить, потому что 3Гонзу знали, как самого ленивого парня
в королевстве. Да и самому 4Гонзе совсем не хотелось сраж аться
с драконами. 5Так как его мать была очень добрая старуш ка, он про
водил свои дни лежа на кровати и 6ничего не делая.
Но в один прекрасный день в их дом приехал генерал, разбудил
’спавш его Гонзу и сказал ему, что дракон, П рож иваю щ ий неподалеку
от королевства, П отр ебовал себе на день рож дения принцессу с вареным
картофелем и салатом из свежих огурцов. А свежих огурцов 10было
) всем королевстве.
о
предложили немедленно пойти и убить дракона. 12Так

была погода, Гонза никуда не пошел.
После генерала пришла 13привратница, посланная королем при- 14
Гонзу во дворец, но она заговорилась с матушкой Гонзы и забыла

пору Она как раз 15
старуш ку пить липовый чай от
простуды, когда вошел сам коро
Никуда я пойду
Ы
Гонза 16
П усть приведут сю да
дракона, 17чтобы я мог стукнуть его по башке!
Видя, что Х9Гонза слишком упрям и ленив, чтобы его мож но было
>рить, и что настаивать не имеет смысла, король приказал, чтобы
20 привели деревню
о
На следующее утро деревенские жители увидели 21
трое
22
ут дракона беж ит сзади с короной
Все село помогало 23королю и полицейским засун уть голову дракона
в окно, а Гонза 24все просил пододвинуть дракона поближе. Наконец
25дракон, которого Г онза ударил по голове, испустил дух. Все были
рады 26Гонзу попросили выйти на балкон и обратиться с речью
народу, но во всей деревне не было балкона и он 27продолжал лежать
на кровати.
В королевском дворце придет за прин
28
цессой. Кор 29
распоря чтобы полы мыли каждый день.
30
Повару было приказано печь пироги, а Гонза
Но Гонзы. 31 ещ е мирно распахнулись
Двери, вошла принцесса и крикнула громко, как в лесу.
— Вон с печки! Я тебе покажу, 33как себя вести.
И Гонза тут же соскочил на пол и надел башмаки.
Так принцесса сумела заставить 33Гонзу действовать.
Exercise 28. Analyse the 4ng'-forms in the following sentences. State whether they are
gerundSy participles or verbal nouns:
l/T m not really used to teaching yet,”she sa id blu sh in g a little. 2. She
stood there tall and slim with her hand pressed to her side, tr y in g to still
145
the b ea tin g of her heart. 3. I’ve little chance of succeeding, you say. But
there’s no harm in tryin g . 4. When slicin g onions remember d ip p in g
your knife in cold water from time to time and your eyes won’t smart.
5. H a vin g beaten up two egg whites she folded them carefully into the
w a itin g dough. 6. K eep in g your skin soft and p re v e n tin g it from dehydra
tion may become quite a problem in hot weather. 7. Their com ings and
g o in g s attracted the attention of the neighbours who began w atch in g
the house. 8. The long expected breakin g of the weather came at last
b rin g in g warmth and sunlight. 9. It was a h eartbreakin g picture. The
puppy, his four legs stiff and u n yield in g , protested with all his might
against bein g d ragged away. 10. The dress was ruined. The red trim m in g
had run. 11. Before s lip p in g the letter into the envelope she played with
the idea of sig n in g it with her first name but gave it up with a sigh. 12.
L ooking back on what happened that summer I can’t help th in kin g that
it Vas all to the best.
Exercise 29. Transform the following sentences or groups of sentences by using gerunds,
participles or complexes with gerunds or participles instead of the italicised passages. In
two sentences such transformation is impossible. Explain why.
M o d e 1: 1) She put the letter back and nobody noticed i t . . . . without
anybody noticing.
2) Som ebody had sw itched o ff the lig h ts . The passage was in
complete darkness.
Somebody having switched off the lights, the passage
was . . .
1. She pushed the ro a st in to the oven and felt that her day’s work was
done. 2. It is generally considered that people have fo rg o tten the secret
of m a n u fa c tu rin g ruby g la ss. 3. The baby giraffe, w h o w a sb o rn this A u g u st
is the seventh offspring of the happy giraffe family which is much adm ired
by the children of Leningrad. 4. The woman leant out of the window and
called something to the children who were p la y in g in the yard. 5. In
stricken silence we watched our team which had lo st both the gam e and
the la st chance of s ta y in g in the u pper league leave the field. 6. Sometimes
when she was in this mood she dreamed of a country cottage; roses clim bed
over the porch and a p p le trees grew in the back y a rd . 7. Mother strongly
suspected th at / w as w a stin g m y tim e a t school. 8. He counted his m oney
and realized that it would last him for a week or so. 9. When he had count'
ed his m oney he saw that there was not enough to buy both books. 10. The
idea th a t she could come to P a r is had never once occurred to him. 11. The
rain w as over and we could leave our shelter. 12..He gave his seat to a girl
who had en tered the b u s , her arms full of packages. 13. From time to time
he looked over the top of the paper at a girl who w as s ittin g at the corner
table. 14. She expected th a t everyth in g w ould be done quietly.
Exercise 30. State the syntactical function of the participles.
M o d e l : 1) Part of the way we rode in a car driven by a little old lady.
(driven —attribute)
2) When asked to explain his presence he could say nothing,
(when asked — adv. mod. of time)
146
3) I found them arranging the details of the birthday party,
(arranging — part of an accusative with the participle
complex object)
1. She was delighted to see us. 2. The children were already gone.
3‘. She left the document in question typed and signed and ready to be
posted. 4. She pursed her painted little mouth as if trying to express dis
approval and sympathy at the same time. 5. She ran like a boy of twelve,
slim, poised and swift, her long dark hair streaming in the breeze behind
her. 6. She was not at all surprised to see us. 7. Of course a clever lawyer
would have her contradicting herself in close to no time. 8. It was with
a shock of surprise that I read the chapter containing a description of
these customs. 9. She raised her eyebrows a little as if astonished to see
me there. 10. You, my dear lady, having led a rather sheltered life, have
probably never seen anything of the kind. 11. My mother, horrified by a
particularly lurid cover of one of my books, told me to tear it up. 12. The
room was nearly empty now, most of the audience having already left.
13. This problem once solved, there will be nothing to stop us. 14. They
were found playing in the garden. 15. I noticed you looking at this pic
ture yesterday. 16. I don’t want this problem discussed in my presence.
17. He earns a living playing the violin in the streets. 18. Agrowing boy
should get plenty of vitamins.
s
«
Exercise 27. 1. on growing up 2. This was hard to believe (It was hard
to believe this) 3. Gonza was known to be the laziest boy 4. Gonza did
not feel like fighting 5. His mother being a very kind old woman 6. doing
nothing without doing anything 7. the sleeping Gonza 8. living 9. de
manded to be served (given) on his birthday 10. could not be found 11.
Gonza was told to go 12. The weather being rainy 13. the door-keeper
sent by the king 14. to bring/to take Gonza 15. persuading the old lady
to drink 16. Let the dragon be brought/have the dragon brought 17. for
me to bang him 18. seeing that 19. Gonza was too stubborn and lazy to
be persuaded 20. the dragon to be brought 21. three policemen leading
(lead) the dragon 22. the king running behind them (with) his crown
on the back of his head 23. the king and the policemen to push the drag
on’s head 24. kept asking for the dragon to be moved closer to him 25. the
dragon hit by Gonza over the head 26. Gonza was asked to come out and
speak 27. went on lying 28. for Gonza to come 29. had the floors washed
30, The cook was ordered to bake 31. still sleeping peacefully 32. how to
behave 33. Gonza to act.
Exercise 28. 1. gerund; participle 2. participle; verbal noun 3. ger
unds 4. participle; gerund 5. participles 6. gerunds 7. verbal nouns;
gerund 8. verbal noun; participle 9. adjective; participle; gerund 10.
verbal noun 11. gerunds 12. participle; gerund
Exercise 29. 1. Having pushed . . . she felt that 2. The secret of manu
facturing ruby glass is generally considered forgotten. 3. The baby giraffe
born . . . family much admired 4. children playing 5. N o tra n sfo rm a tio n
Г 147
is p o ssib le . The p rese n t p a r tic ip le can n o t render the m ean in g of p r io r ity ,
6. cottage with roses climbing . . . and apple trees growing 7. suspected
me of wasting my time 8. Counting his money 9. Having counted his
money 10. The idea of her coming 11. The rain being over 12. N o tra n sfo r
m a tio n is possible. 13. a girl sitting 14. She expected everything to be done
Exercise 30. 1. delighted — predicative 2. gone — predicative 3.
typed, signed — part of the acc. + part., object 4. painted — attribute;
trying— adv. mod. of comp. 5. poised — attribute; streaming — part
of the nom. abs., adv. mod. of attending circ. 6. surprised — predicative
7. contradicting— part of the acc. -f part., object 8. containing — attri
bute 9. astonished — adv. mod. of comp. 10. having led — adv. mod.
of cause; sheltered — attribute 11. horrified — attribute 12. having
left — part of the nom. abs., adv. mod. of cause 13. solved part oi
the nom. abs., adv. mod. of time 14. playing — part of the nom. + part.,
subject 15. looking — part of the acc. + part., object 16. discussed —
part of the acc. + part., object 17. playing — adv. mod. of manner
18. growing — attribute
Tes t
{to be sen t to the I n s titu te )
Assignment I. Answer the following questions. Give examples to prove your point:
1) What are the verbal features of the infinitive, gerund and parti
ciple?
2) In what do the syntactical functions of the gerund differ from those
of the infinitive?
3) What are the syntactical functions of the participle?
4) When do we translate the Russian past participle active (стояв
ший, читавший) by the English participle and when by an attributive
clause?
5) When do we use the accusative with participle II and when the
accusative with the passive infinitive (smth done — smth to be done)?
Assignment II. Analyse the 4ng'-forms in the following sentences. State whether they
are gerunds, participles or verbal nouns and in what syntactical functions they are used.
M o d e l : 1) The cinema theatre being b u ilt in N. Square shows just
such a mixture of styles, (participle, attribute)
2) I have always insisted on your being told, (gerund, part
of a gerundial complex, prep, object)
3) The b in d in g of the book was of faded red leather, (verbal
noun, subject)
1. The paper was yellow, the w r itin g faded and hardly legible. 2. On
hearing the bell ring we all turned to look at Liz. She went on e a tin g
without ra isin g her eyes. 3. And all the time while p re te n d in g to be at
ease, she could not help th in k in g of her laddered stocking, her s lip p in g
hat and w onderin g if the safety pin h oldin g her belt in place was showing.
4. Of course all this w in n in g of friends and in flu en cin g of other people is
greatly overdone but much can be achieved by stu d y in g the other person’s
point of view. 5. She suspected them of correspon din g in secret and spent
her days schem ing and sp yin g . 6. After much c o n su ltin g , w h isp erin g and
some subdued g ig g lin g she said that they would come. 7. Aunt Edna
showing some signs of re le n tin g , tea was a more cheerful meal. 8. She
sailed forth in all her Sunday finery, her lipstick a little crooked,, her
wispy hair already s lip p in g from under her picture hat. 9. Strange to
say, nobody noticed her com ing in or leaving the building. 10. The threat
149
of father being told was still hanging over my luckless head. 11. I did not
mind his m en tio n in g the subject in the least. 12. The fa d in g light of the
s e ttin g sun, the w h isp erin g of the wind in the tree tops made me listen
with less criticizm than usual to his poetic ram blin gs.
Assignment ill. Translate into English. Use gerunds, participles or complexes with
gerunds or participles instead of the words and clauses in bold type:
1. Я не виню вас за то, что вы опоздали. Вы не привыкли вставать
так рано. 2. Костюм выглядит совсем иначе, если его носить с тонким
свитером. 3. У меня еще есть банка вишневого варенья, сваренного
прошлым летом. 4. Он не видел большой беды в том, что ребенок съест
порцию мороженого перед обедом. 5. У него хватило ума послать
за доктором. 6. Вы пришли к этому выводу только после того, как
я показал вам карту. 7. Все зависит от того, будет ли найдена машина.
8. Мне больше всего нравится его первая книга, написанная когда
ему было всего 23 года. 9. Я не вижу смысла поднимать теперь этот
вопрос. 10. Детей нашли, играющими в саду. 11. Я привыкла, что он
приходит домой очень поздно. 12. Машина перевернулась, но никто
из пассажиров не был ранен. 13. Он распорядился, чтобы обои пере
менили, прежде чем он переехал в новую квартиру. 14. Вы не могли
бы не хлопать дверью, когда приходите поздно? 15. Я хочу, чтобы все
было сделано сегодня.
Assignment IV. Compose sentences using the directions given in brackets:
1. (gerundial complex) will do me no good. 2. (nominative absolute
construction) she could not read the name on the door. 3. I see little
sense (preposition, gerund) the problem now. 4. This bridge (partici
ple) by the flood was a danger to the community. 5. The stone (parti
ciple) to build these houses is cut in the local quarry. 6. They were en
gaged (prep, gerund) ideas on how to cook vegetables. 7. I’m old enough
to face my own problems (preposition, gerundial complex) 8. She did
not want (accusative with the participle) 9. (nominative) was found
(with the participle) 10. Whom do they suspect (preposition, gerund)?
11. The children watched (accusative with the participle) with unflag
ging attention. 12. You need not come unless you feel (preposition, ger
und) 13. I wondered how he could work in this noise. One could hardly
make (accusative with the participle) with (nominative absolute). 14.
(nominative) was seen by some early passers by (with the participle)
15. You must have (accusative with the participle) today. 16. Why do
you thank me (preposition gerund)? 17. It is useless (gerundial complex)
on the subject. She has made up her mind. 18. She cried and cried. There
was no (gerund) her. 19. Sometimes a word (participle) by chance is
treasured by someone long after (gerundial complex). 20. (participle)
the receiver, she seemed to hesitate for a moment and then, evidently
(participle) her mind, dialled a number.
Assignment V. Write a two page long reproduction of any passage from your individual
reading book of the term. Use gerunds and participles in different syntactical functions.
Use at least six different sentence patterns with participial and gerundial complexes. Urn
derline the gerunds, participles and complexes in the text and write over them in what syn
tactical functions they are supposed to be.
150
к
Assignment No. 6
Forms Expressing Unreality
General Description
In Russian when we want to show that the action is not real we use
the subjunctive mood (the form of the past tense plus the particle бы —
сказал бы, пошел бы, ответил бы).
In English the unreality of the action maybe expressed in a number
of ways.
Very little has remained in Modern English of the subjunctive mood
which existed in the language in older periods of its history.
We can use the term “subjunctive mood” only when speaking of two
cases:
1) the use of the plain stem of the verb to denote an unreal action.
E.g. 1. He insisted that the hearing be adjourned. 2. Far be it from me
to cast any doubt on the proceedings.
This form of the subjunctive mood is found mainly in American Eng-
lish, some set expressions and certain specific styles.
2) the use of the form were for all persons.
E.g. .1.1 wish he were here! 2. Oh, if it were time to go!
This form is used alongside with the form of the past tense of the in
dicative mood.
E.g. I wish he was not so set in his ways.
Instead of the old subjunctive mood we use a number of other ways in
Modern English to show that the action is unreal:
1) the conditional mood (should, would plus the infinitive)
%
E.g, 1. I should not like to be in his shoes. 2. He would have done it

better.
. Ш
'
2) the forms of the Past Indefinite and of the Past Perfect of the in
dicative mood.
E.g. 1. It’s time he knew about it. 2. It looks as if he had changed his
mind. «
3) Certain modal phrases:

A. should plus the infinitive
E.g. I suggest that we should discuss it later.
B. can (could) ^
may (might) \ plus the infinitive
(would) J ь
E.g. 1. Stand straight so I can see how the coat fits. 2. It’s just possible
that they may come by the six twenty. 3. I wish he would not come.
C. were plus the infinitive
E.g. And what if I were to call your bluff?
All forms denoting unreality may be classified into two groups:
1) forms characterising the action as contradicting reality (unreal
in general);
2) forms characterising the action as problematic (unreal at present
only, sometimes unlikely to take place).
The conditional mood, the Past Indefinite, the Past Perfect are forms
characterising the action as contradicting reality in the present, future
or past.
E.g. 1. She would have suited the part much better. 2. If only it did
not rain all the time! 3. I wish he had been there to see it.
The subjunctive mood (the plain stem of the verb) and the modal
phrases characterise the action as problematic.
E.g. 1. It’s advisable that all further supply of gas be discontinued in
such cases. 2. She suggested that someone stay behind to oversee
the packing. 3. She. held her face averted so that I might not see
her reddened lids. 4. If he were to^sk me I would probably agree.
The choice of the form denoting unreality may be determined either
by the structure of the sentence or by the meaning the speaker wants to
express. In the first case we speak of the o b i i g a t o r y use of the
form.
E.g. 1. I wish you did it yourself. 2. Do you suggest that she should be
allowed to go on?
After the expression 1 wish. . . the use of the Past Indefinite or of the
Past Perfect is obligatory. The verb to suggest demands the use of
should+infinitive.
When the choice of the form depends on the meaning the speaker
wants to express we speak of the f r e e use of the form. The use of moods
in clauses of condition is an example of the free use of forms denoting
unrealitv.
E.g. 1. If she hears from him she’ll phone or send a message.— The
condition is real.
152
2. If she should hear from him she’ll phone or send a message.— The
condition is problematic.
3. If she had heard from him she would have phoned or sent a mes
sage.— The condition is unreal.
The Free Use of Forms

I
•
The Conditional Mood

The use of the conditional mood is always free.
The conditional mood is the only one among the many forms denoting
unreality to be regularly used in opposition to the indicative mood.
The indicative mood characterises the action as a fact, the conditional
mood characterises it as contradicting reality.
E.g. 1. He wants to see the letter at once.
Он сейчас же хочет видеть письмо.
Не would want to see the letter at once.
Он сейчас же захотел бы увидеть письмо.
2. Не raised the window and looked out.
Он открыл окно и выглянул.
Не would have raised the window and looked out.
Он открыл бы окно и выглянул.
ш
The conditional mood can be used in any type of sentence, independ

ent or subordinate clause where the indicative mood is used with only
one exception. It is n о t used in the adverbial clause of condition.
The conditional mood has two tenses. The present tense refers the
action to the present or the future.
I, we should do smth
•
Не, she, they would do smth
E.g. 1. I should know what to do.

Я бы знала, что делать (сейчас или в будущем).
2. Не would stop at nothing now.
Он бы теперь ни перед чем не остановился.
The past tense refers the action to the past.
V
I, we • should have done smth

He, she, they would have done smth
*
E.g. 1. I did not know you wanted this book. 1 should have bought a
copy for you too.
Я бы тебе тоже купила экземпляр', (тогда)
153
2. He would have certainly objected.
Он бы обязательно возражал, (тогда)
Note 1. There is a tendency to use “would” for all persons
Л
E.g. I would not like to give an answer at once.

Note 2. In spoken English the contracted form “’d+infinitive” is
often used.
■V * *
E.g. He’d know how to stop him.

Exercise 1. Make the following sentences hypothetical by using the conditional mood
instead of the indicative mood. Refer each statement to the past by using the past tense of
the conditional mood.
M o d e l ; You won’t like this book.
You wouldn’t like this book.
You wouldn’t have liked this book.
1. Swimming and playing in the hot sand will be so good for him.
2. She will cry her eyes out. 3. They fry this fish in oil with tomatoes and
a little garlic. It’s wonderful. 4. I shall explain to her how to do it. 5. We
shall be late. 6. We’ll miss the train, my dear. 7. I shall give her this
for her birthday. 8. She will be so glad to see you. 9. She won’t dream
of refusing. 10. You will feel lonely there without any friends of your own
age. 11. Nothing will make me change my mind. 12. The hat does not
match vour coat.
Exercise 2. Paraphrase the following sentences so as to make them hypothetical. Use
the past tense of the conditional mood when speaking about the past, the present tense when
speaking about the present or future. Translate each sentence into Russian.
M o d e l : 1. I knew what to do.
I should have known what to do
Я бы знала (тогда), что делать.
2. Не will show you the way.
He would show you the way.
Он показал бы вам дорогу. 4
‘ 1
1. Nobody minded in the least. 2. Nothing was said on the subject.

3. Someone is sure to object. 4. I simply don’t know where to find him.
5. He does not keep anything valuable in this room. 6. I don’t believe
him, 7. They did not come in time. 8. She did not leave them without
saying good-bye. 9. It was a mistake. 10. You will get a lot of experience
that way. 11. Someone warned him in time. 12. People saw a low gray
car pass at a wicked speed. 13. They refused to do anything about it.
14. You will be more comfortable in bed, dear. 15. The neighbours will
complain about the children again. 16. Any girl will look her best in
this outfit. 17. She guessed the truth at once. 18. She gave up her job to
look after her invalid mother. 19. The children will play in the garden.
20. She does not understand such things.
Exercise 3. Answer the following questions using the verb in brackets in the conditional
mood.
154
✓
M o d e l : 1. Why don’t you show him howto do it?(toresent) Because

he would resent it.
2. Why did not you tell me so at once? (not to believe).
You wouldn’t have believed me.
1. Will you take a taxi? (to be too expensive) 2. Why didn’t you take
Tony? (to get tired) 3. Did you explain it to her? (not to be interested)
4. Do you do all the exercises in written form? (to take too long) 5. Why
don’t you wait for us, Mary? (to miss the train) 6. Do you want to see the
new picture (to be delighted) 7. Do you want to go for a walk after the
meeting? (to be too tired) 8. Why didn’t you tell her it was not necessa
ry? (to be hurt) 9. Why did you ask her to the party? (to feel left out)
10. Why didn’t you wash the sweater yourself? (to shrink to half its
size)
Exercise 4. Translate into English. Pay attention to whether the action refers to the
present, future or the past:
>
1. Его там не было. Я бы у него спросил. 2. Погода была хорошая.

Вам бы там понравилось. 3. Картина была грустная. Она бы плакала.
4. Ты недостаточно читаешь. Тебе бы это было очень полезно. 5. По
чему ты не покажешь ему чертеж? Он бы сразу все понял. 6. Почему
они не предлагают ему эту работу? Он бы согласился. 7. Мамы нет
дома. Она была бы так рада вас видеть. 8. Я не знаю этого правила.
Я бы тебе охотно объяснила. 9. Они бы выиграли, но их вратарь был
болен. 10. Я не знал, что ты хочешь посмотреть эту картину. Я бы взял
билет и тебе. 11. Я бы купила этот словарь, но мне некогда поехать за
ним. 12. Почему она не позвонила мне? Я бы дала ей твой адрес.
Sentence P a tte r n s w ith the C on d itio n a l M ood
P a tte rn 1
ницей.
2. But for your help and understanding this book would have never
been written.
Если бы не ваша помощь и сочувствие, эта книга никогда не
была бы написана.
Exercise 5. Complete the following sentences. Use the present tense of the conditional
mood to refer the sentence to the present or future. Use the past tense to refer it to the past.
155
M o d e l : But for her nose, which is a little long—
1. she would be rather pretty (now).
2. she would have been rather pretty (then).
1. But for one difficult place the translation— . 2. But for her slightly
trembling hands the girl— . 3. But for her accent she— . 4. But for the
wind the day— . 5. But for his words we— . 6. But for the kitchen which
is really too small, the flat— . 7. But for the spelling mistakes the compo
sition— . 8. But for one or two mistakes she made at the very beginning
her report— . 9. But for me you— . 10. But for my headache I— . »
Exercise 6. Translate into English. Pay attention to whether the situation refers to
the present or the past:
1. Он показал мне, как это делается. Если бы не его помощь, я бь
ничего не сделала. 2. В начале диктанта было одно трудное место
Если бы не это, он был бы совсем легкий. 3. Я всегда теряюсь на экза
менах. Если бы не мое волнение, я бы отвечала лучше. 4. Она немного
ленива. Если бы не это, она была бы прекрасной студенткой. 5. Там
часто шли дожди. Если б не погода., мы бы прекрасно отдохнули.6. Мы
сбились с дороги. Если бы не это, мы не пришли бы так поздно. 7. Она
показала нам дорогу. Если б не она, мы бы заблудились. 8. Она
объяснила мне это правило. Если бы не ее объяснение, я бы и
сейчас делал эти ошибки. 9. Если бы не болезнь их вратаря, они бы
вчера выиграли. 10. Если бы не туфли, которые были мне малы, мне
было бы очень весело.
P a tte r n 2
' 1, we should do smth

smb would do smth
or (otherwise) \ -------------- -----------------------
I, we should have done smth
\ smb would have done smth
E.g. 1. He is out or there would be a light in his**window. 2. You are new

in these parts or I should know you. 3. She lost her temper or she
would not have spoken so. 4. I was tired or I should not have made
this mistake.
<• *
*
1. Она тебя не видела, иначе бы она поздоровалась. 2. Никто

отсюда не выходил,
ч ^
видел. 3. Ты не знаешь фактов,
[е я бы его видел,
бы. 4. Вы не знаете этот материа
бы свои собственные примеры. 5. Он опоздал на поезд. Иначе
был бы уже здесь. 6. Она з собрании, иначе она пришла бы
7. Ты дал мне неправильный адрес, иначе я нашла бы магазин. 8. Ты
мало бываешь на воздухе, иначе ты не была бы такой бледной. 9.. Он
знал, что вы хотите работать в школе, иначе он не предложил бы вам
эту работу. 10. Я хорошо его знаю, иначе я не рекомендовал бы его
вам.
156
KEYS TO EXERCISES
Exercise 2. 1. would have minded 2. would have been said 3. would
object 4. should not know 5. would not keep 6. should not believe 7. would
not have come 8. would not have left 9. would have been a mistake 10.
would get 11. would have warned 12. would have seen 13. would have
refused 14. would be 15. would complain 16. would look 17. would have
guessed 18. would have given up 19. would play 20. would not understand
Exercise 3. 1. would be too expensive 2. would have got tired 3. would
not have been interested 4. would take too long 5. should miss my train
6. should be delighted 7. should be too tired 8. would have been hurt
9. would have felt left out 10. would have shrunk
Exercise 4. 1. should have asked 2. should have liked 3. would have
cried 4. would do you good 5. would understand 6. would agree 7. would
be glad 8. should explain 9. would have won 10. should have bought 11.
should buy 12. should have given
Exercise 6. 1. I should have done 2. would have been easy 3. should
answer 4. would be 5. should have rested 6. shouldn’t have come 7. should
have lost 8. should be making 9. would have won 10. should have had a
good time
Exercise 7. 1. would have said 2. should have seen 3. would not
speak 4. would give 5. would be 6. would have come 7. should have found
>
8. would not be 9. would not have offered 10. should not recommend .
t
F
II
The Forms of the Past Indefinite and the Past Perfect
Used to Denote Unreality
In present day English the forms of the Past Indefinite and the Past
Perfect may be used to denote unreality as well as temporal relations.
The Past Indefinite denotes unreality in the present and future. The
Past Perfect denotes unreality in the past.
The Past Indefinite may either refer the action to the past or charac
terise a present or future action as unreal.
1. She told me why she was crying.
Она сказала мне, почему она плачет.
In Sentence 1 the Past Indefinite shows that the action took place
before the moment of speech (in the past) and was a fact.
2. If only she told us why she is crying.
Если бы она сказала нам, почему она плачет.
In Sentence 2 the Past Indefinite shows that the action takes place
at the moment of speech (in the present) and is unreal, contradicts re-
ality.
The Past Perfect tense may either show that the action was completed
before some moment in the past and was a fact or that it was an unreal
action in the past.
157
3. I was sorry I had promised to come.
Я жалел, что пообещал прийти.
In Sentence 3 the Past Perfect is used to show that the action was
completed before some moment in the past and was a fact. i
4. If only I had not promised to come.

Если бы я не пообещал прийти.
In Sentence 4 the Past Perfect is used to show that the action contra
dicted reality in the past.
The free use of the Past Indefinite and the Past Perfect to denote un-
*
reality is limited to three cases. We find it in ajdverbial clauses of condi

tion; in simple sentences, having the structure of clauses of condition;
traces of such use are found in certain set expressions: had better, would
rather, would sooner.
F
Sentence Patterns with the Past Indefinite and the Past Perfect Used- f
to Denote Unreality
/. Adverbial Clauses of Unreal Condition
In adverbial clauses of condition we use the Past Indefinite and the-
Past Perfect to show that the condition is unreal.
Speaking of the present we use the Past Indefinite in the adverbial
clause and usually have the present tense of the conditional mood in
the principal clause.
P a tte rn 3
A. if j smb* did smth smb would do smth

even if 1 ------------------
even though I 1, we did smth I, we should do smth
4
E.g. 1. If I knew his address 1 should say so.

Если бы я знал его адрес, я бы вам сказал.
2. If she did not like children she would not be a teacher.
Если бы она не любила детей, она не была бы учительницей.
We use the Past Perfect in the adverbial clause, speaking of the past
and in this case we mostly have the past tense of the conditional mood in
the principal clause.
B.if J smb had done smth smb would have done smth
even if \ --------------------------- ----------------------------------- —
even though) I, we had done smth I, we should have done smth
,
w
* In case of the verb “to the form were may be used instead of was.
158
E.g. И you had given me this example I should have understood the
rule at once.
Если бы вы дали мне (в прошлом) этот пример, я бы сразу поняла
правило.
ъ
M o d e l : 1. We should have stayed there longer if it not (to begin)

raining. ,
— if it had not begun raining.
2. I’d tell him like a shot if I (to know) him better.
— if I knew him better.
1. Mother would worry herself sick if I not (to be) home by eleven
o’clock. 2. The weather would have been just right for a long walk if
there not (to be) a threat of rain in the air. 3. If you (to know) what
is good for you, you would not refuse. 4. If you not (to waste) all that
time arguing we should have got there already. 5. Even if nothing (to
happen) to delay us we should not be able to reach Sidney ahead of them.
6. If the taxi driver not (to recognize) him he would have never been
suspected. 7. Even if you not (to go) so fast we should not have found
the right turning in the dark. 8. I should not have paid the slightest
attention to his words if he not (to look) so upset. 9. If you (to know)
her better you would not think so. 10. If it not (to be) so late we’d go
there now.
B. Open the brackets. Use the present or past tense of the conditional mood, depending
on whether the sentence refers to the present or the past.
M o d e l : 1. If I had not seen it myself I not (to believe) it.
— I should not have believed it.
2. You not (to see) the coast-line if the weather were not ex
ceptionally clear.
— would not see.
i
1. No one (to understand) anything if he had not been there to trans

late and explain. 2. There not (to be) any accident even if that woman
had not screamed. 3. If you had lived there long enough you (to make)
many friends among the fishing folk. 4. If I had a map of the island I
(to go) there myself. 5. If the boys were here you not (to dare) to speak
like that. 6. If the light were better you (to see) traces of an inscription
over the door. 7. Even if there had been people in the house they not
(to hear) me. 8. If I knew the way I (to show) you how to get there. 9. If
you had not been so nervous you (to notice) it yourself. 10. If the wind
were not so strong they (to try) sailing it close to the shore.
Exercise 9. Translate into English. Pay attention to whether the situation refers to the
present or to the past:
1. Собака не укусила бы тебя, если бы ты ее не дразнил. Перестань
плакать. 2. Даже если сегодня не было бы так холодно, я бы не пошла
кататься на лыжах. 3. Если бы ты слушал объяснение внимательнее,
ты бы не сделал так много ошибок. 4. Если бы ты не вмешался, они бы
169
уже давно помирились. 5. Было бы меньше несчастных случаев, если
бы детей обучали правилам уличного движения. 6. Вы бы лучше знали
язык, если бы больше читали. Вы мало читаете. 7. Даже если бы у меня
был тогда словарь, я бы не стал им пользоваться во время контроль
i*
ной работы. 8. Было бы сейчас потеплее, мы бы пошли на озеро купать-;
ся. 9. Он не знал, как серьезно он болен. Но даже если бы и знал, он?
не прекратил бы эксперименты. 10. Он был так рад вас видеть. Он
был бы рад, даже если бы вы не привезли ему игрушки.
Exercise 10. Complete the following sentences. Use the Past Indefinite or the present
tense of the conditional mood when speaking of the present or future, the Past Perfect and
the past tense of the conditional mood, when speaking of the past.
M o d e l : 1. If you had seen his face —
— you would have believed him.
2. If you were not so angry —
— you would not speak so.
3. I shall have told you —
— if I had noticed anything.
4. They would be angry with you —
— if they knew about it.
1. If she had not fallen ill — 2. We should be so glad— . 3. They would
have been astonished— .4. If I had this book here-— . 5. If I did not have
this cold— . 6. He would have been delighted— . 7. If you had not over
slept— . 8. If he were here— . 9. We should have known what to do— .
10. Even if I had not been a little unwell—
i
P a t tern 4
smb would do smth (

A. if it were (was) not for smb (smth) < ----------------------------
1 I, we should do smth
E.g. 1. If it were not for him I should not know where to turn for help.
2. If it were not for the wind the weather would be perfect.
smb would not have

done smth
B. if it had not been
I, we should not have
done smth
'y
Exercise 11. P araphrase the fo llo w in g sentences. Use P a tte r n 4 in stea d of P a tte r n 1 .
M o d e l : But for you I should not know what to do. If it were not for
vou I should not know what to do.
160
1. But for that carroty hair she would be quite a pretty girl. 2. But
for what you said that evening I should have taken him seriously. 3. But
for his smile I should not have known him. 4. But for a slight irritation
in the throat I should feel quite fit again. 5. But for her temper she would
make quite a good teacher. 6. But for a couple of tourists yawning over
their morning coffee the place would have been a desert. 7. But for a cer
tain diffidence I should have taken her for one of the younger teachers.
8. But for an unexpected spell of cold weather in March the winter would
have been an exceptionally mild one. 9. But for her unexpected inter
ference things would have taken a bad turn. 10. But for the children I
should simply love to go.
Exercise 12. Complete the following sentences using the words in brackets:
1. If it had not been for what he said (nobody — to believe). 2. If
it had not been for your help and understanding (I — to achieve nothing).
3. If it were not for the children (we — to take a more interesting route).
4. If it were not for my bad foot (I — to go to the beach with them).
5. If it had not been for the rain (the forest fire — not to go out). 6. If
it were not for you (she — to agree with our idea). 7. If it were not for
a slight stammer (she — to have a good pronunciation). 8. If it had not
been for this fall (he — to come first).
The parts of a conditional sentence do not necessarily refer to the
same period of time. The condition may refer to the past while the result
may refer to the present or future.
P a tte r n 51
if 1, we had done smth I, we should do smth

even if
even though smb had done smth smb would do smth
E.g. If you had not eaten so much ice-cream you would not feel sick
now. '
Если бы ты не съел столько мороженого (раньше), тебя бы не
тошнило (сейчас).
Exercise 13. Open the brackets. Refer the condition to the past, the results to the present.
M o d e l : If you (to follow) the directions on the box the jelly not (to
be) such a mess.
If you had followed the directions on the box the jelly would
not be such a mess.
1. If you (to take) her advice you (to know) what to do. 2. If she (to
be told) to come she (to be) here now. 3. She (to be) well now if she
(to stay) in bed a few days longer. 4. I (to show) you this place if 1 not
(to leave) the book at home. 5. I (to stay) to the end if I not (to promise)
Mother to be back by ten. 6. You (to feel) much better if you not (to
spend) a sleepless night. 7. You (to like) the picture better if you hot
(to read) the book. 8. I (to stay and help) if I not (to promise) Jane to
i
6 № 813 161
fetch the children from school. 9. I (to go over) at once if she (not to
specially ask) me not to interfere. 10. She (to be) here if she (not to
miss) the night bus from Duluth. 11. You (to know) what to do if you (to
think) the matter over. 12. If it (not to rain) heavily all through the night
we (to try) to cross the river here.
The form were of the verb to be in its modal meaning can also be used
in the clause of condition to denote unreality in the future. The present
tense of the conditional mood is used in the principal clause.
P a tte r n 6
I I, we should do smth
if smb were to do smth \ ----------------------------
\ smb would do smth
E.g. 1. If I were to see him again he would not even try to explain his
action. 2. If he were to offer the job to me I should not hesitate to
take it.
1. Если бы я сказал вам это, что бы вы ответили? 2. Если бы я встре

тила его теперь, не знаю, узнала ли бы я его. 3. Если бы он теперь и
пришел, мы все равно опоздали бы на поезд. 4. Если бы ночью стало
холодно, мы бы развели костер. 5. Если бы ветер усилился, они бы были
в опасности. 6. Если бы он попросил тебя помочь, ты согласилась бы?
7. Если бы пошел дождь, он бы все испортил. 8. Если бы они приехали,
я бы испекла пирог. 9. Если бы мы не спустились благополучно, ни
за что бы не пошел опять в горы. 10. Если бы вы услышали, как она
играет, вы бы со мной согласились.
Exercise 15. Complete the following sentences. Use Pattern 6.
M o d e l : I don’t know what I should do —

— if he were to come now.1
1. Гш not sure I should know him— . 2. What should we do —? 3. Whe
re would you find a doctor —? 4. There would not be time enough to
pack — . 5. I believe I should take the job after all— . 6. I think he would
understand everything and do his utmost to help— . 7. I don’t think you
would find rooms in Palanga— . 8. They would be delighted — . 9. She
would only feel uncomfortable — . 10. They would not mind in the least—.
The form would of the modal verb will may be used in the clause of
condition to denote an unreal action in the future with an additional
meaning of wish — если бы кто-то захотел сделать что-то.
162
Pattern 7
| I, we should do smth
if smb would do smth <! ----------------------------
l smb would do smth
E.g. We should take Anne too if Mother would only let her.
Мы бы взяли и Энн, если бы мама захотела ее отпустить.
Exercise 16. Make the sentences more emphatic by using the modal verb ‘would’ in the
clauses of condition.
M o d e l : The throat symptoms would trouble you less if only you
did not smoke so much.
. . . if only you would not smoke so much.
1. The children would not annoy you if you did not pay attention
; to them. 2. I’d fix you a meal of sorts if only somebody went and bought
me some cigarettes. 3. No one would mind in the least if only you did
not make such a noise. 4. Father would let you take the car if you left
it clean. 5. I should be much better if you stopped asking me how I feel.
6. They would be all right if people let them alone. 7. I should work much
better if you did not interrupt me all the time. 8. You would not make so
many mistakes in your typing if you attended to what you are doing.
9. Your health would be better if you stopped experimenting with one
patent medicine after another. 10. Mother would not feel so bad about
it if only you remembered her birthday and wrote from time to time.
The form should of the modal verb shall is used in the clause of con
dition to denote a problematic future action. As the action is not unreal
the conditional mood is very seldom found in the principal clause.
Mostly we find there the future tense of the indicative mood or the im
perative mood.
Pattern 8 ■Ф
! $mb will do smth

----------—— ----- ---
I, we shall do smth
do smth 1
E. g. If he should object show him this letter.
The problematic character of the action is rendered in Russian by
such words and expressions as случайно, если окажется, все же, когда-
нибудь, если вам случится.
1. Если вам случится быть в Таллине, пойдите на выставку .цветов.
2. Если ему все же удастся это сделать, я первый его поздравлю. 3. Если
эта команда случайно выиграет, даже тренер будет удивлен. 4. Если
6* 163
вы все же будете себя плохо чувствовать, не выходите. 5. Если вы все
же передумаете, позвоните мне. 6. Если окажется, что он ничего об
этом не знает, дайте ему это письмо. 7. Если вам случится с ней разго
варивать, не напоминайте ей об этом. 8. Если вода окажется холодной,
мы купаться не будем. 9. Если их случайно не будет дома, вы подож
дете их. 10. Если окажется, что он хороший преподаватель, мы будем
очень рады.
Exercise 18. Change the type of condition in the following sentences by making it prob
lematic, unreal in the present and future, unreal in the past.
Mo d e l : R ea l condition
If nobody objects we shall begin at once.
P roblem atic condition
If nobody should object (should nobody object...) we shall
begin at once.
U n real condition in the p resen t-fu tu re
If nobody objected we should begin at once.
If nobody were to object we should begin at once. .
U n real con dition in the p a s t
If nobody had objected we should have begun at once.
1. If the weather is fine (to-morrow) the outing will be a success.
2. If we take the children they will be in everybody’s way. 3. If you add
a little sugar and cinnamon it’ll taste just right. 4. If he is here by five
o’clock it will be all right with me. 5. If we have traffic lights here the
number of road accidents will decrease. 6. If you speak to her about it
she will just shrug it off.
Use of Moods in Conditional Sentences
Clause of Condition Principal Clause
I. R e a 1 C o n d i t i o n
a) re fe rrin g to the fu tu re
The Present Indefinite The Future Indefinite
If they like the idea they will finance the expedition.
The Imperative Mood
give them all the particulars.
b) referrin g to the present
The Present Indefinite The Present Indefinite
If we feel like going out we go to the pictures.
c) re fe rrin g to the p a st
The Past Indefinite The Past Indefinite
If the weather was fine we had tea on the terrace.
N o t e : Sentences of real condition seldom refer to the present or p ^

and in this case mostly express repeated actions.
164
f
Clause of Condition Principal Clause
II. U n r e a l C o n d i t i o n
0) re fe rrin g o n ly to the fu tu re
Modal verb w e r e 4- infinitive
The Present Tense of the Condi
tional Mood
If he were to give me the job I should take it.
If the weather were to change they would stay at some hotel.
Modal verb w infinitive The Present Tense of the Condi-
o u l d - ] -
tional Mood
If he would stop smoking his cough would get better at
once.
If you would remember about
switching off the lights I should be most grateful.
P) referrin g to the p resen t fu-
ture
The Past Indefinite The Present Tense of the Condi
tional Mood
If he knew about it he would come.
If he were here I should ask him.
If it were not for you I should not know what to do.
c) re fe rrin g to the p a st
The Past Perfect The Past Tense of the Condition
al Mood
If he had seen it in the papers he would have written.
If he had insisted I should have given in.
If it had not been for you nothing would have happened.
III. P r o b l e m a t i c
Condition
referrin g to the fu tu re
Modal verb s h o u l d + infinitive The Future Indefinite
If he should be out I shall wait for him.
Should he be out I shall wait for him.
The Imperative mood
If he should object show him this letter.
Exercise 19. Open the brackets. Use the necessary forms denoting unreality:
1
d*
1. It was a wet day. If I not (to wear) my raincoat I (to be) wet to
the skin. 2. Kate is such a comfort to me. If it not (to be) for her I (to
feel) lost. 3. You certainly came in time. If it not (to be) for you I (to
Jose) my temper. 4. I have not seen her since she was a child. If I (to see)
her now I not (to know) her. 5. No one is likely to come now. But if
ariyone (to come) ask them to wait. 6. She looks awfully young for her
165
years. If it not (to be) for her gray\hair she (to look) about thirty. 7. The
passage was not lighted. If the mo^n not (to shine) so brightly through
the cob-webby windows we (to be) in total darkness. 8. All her things
are here. If she (to go away) for good she (to take) them. She intended
to come back. 9. “You.see,” the lady said* “if you not (to stuff) yourself
with meat you (to be able) to eat a peach now.” 10. She was the moving
spirit of the whole thing. Nothing (to be done) if it not (to be) for her.
11. Everything depended now on whether she had spoken the truth. If
she (to lie) we (to be) lost. 12. Probably the man had not recognized
me. If he (to recognize) me he (to speak) tome. 13. We should have left
a message. If we (to tell) them where we were going they (to look) for
us now. 14. There's enough money to last you for ten days. If you (to
want) more Anne will lend you some. 15. I can't tell you how grateful
I am for what you did. If it not (to be) for you Dicky (to be crippled)
for life. 16. It's not your heart, May, and you know it. If you not (to eat)
so much lobster salad at lunch you (to feel) fine. 17. I haven’t danced
for years, baby. If I (to start) dancing again people (to wonder).
18. Of course it's important. If it not (to be) so important I not (to
insist) on it. 19. It was raining. If the road not (to be wet) the car not
(to skid). 20. She knew what the matter with her was. If she not (to
know) she not (to consent) to the operation.
II. Simple Sentences with the Structure of Adverbial Clauses of Condition

We use the past tense and the past perfect tense to express unreality
in simple sentences which have the structure of adverbial clauses of con
dition.
E.g. If only I knew what to do!
Such sentences state no condition but express a wish represented as
unreal or are used to show that the speaker is sorry something was done
or not done in the past.
P a t tern 9 *I
Oh, if ) smb did smth

If only
Oh, that I -smb had done smth
i
E.g. 1. If only I had his address.
Если бы у меня был его адрес (сейчас)!
2. If only I had not promised to do it.
Если бы я не пообещала (тогда) сделать это!
or И зачем я пообещала сделать это! A
Exercise 20. Express an unreal wish concerning the following statements.

M o d e l : 1. I don't know him well enough.
If only I knew him better.
166
2. He will not be in time.
If only he were in time.
1. She makes article mistakes. 2. She always comes late. 3. I forgot
to wind my alarm-clock. 4. I don’t know who is responsible for it. 5. He
will miss the train. 6. There is something the matter with her heart.
7. That dog keeps barking all through the night. 8. The show will be over
by the time we come. 9. I’m not able to concentrate somehow. 10. They
are coming today.
Exercise 21. Show that you are sorry an action took or did not take place in the past.
M o d e l : 1. I lost my wrist watch.
If only I had not lost my wrist watch.
2. I did not give him my address.
If only I had given him my address.
1. I forgot to tell her about the lecture. 2. I did not leave any message.
3. He did not know her address. 4. She promised to come and help them.
5. They did not know about that. 6. They found no taxi. 7. They stayed
the night at a motel. 8. She switched off the lights before going to bed.
9. She did not read the paper that day. 10. They wrote and told her so.
1. И зачем я ей не сказала об этом! 2. Если бы я знала, где они сейчас!
3. Если бы он (тогда) пришел вовремя! 4. Если бы только она так не
волновалась на экзаменах (всегда). 5^ И зачем она вышла из себя!
6. Ах, если бы они (тогда) не сбились с дороги.
111. Set Expressions Used to Denote Unreality

a) would rather (sooner)-finfinitive
b) had better+infinitive
In these set expressions the first element (the modal verb will, the
verb to have) is used in the past tense to express the unreality of the-
action named byv the infinitive. The action is characterised as prob
lematic.
The expression would rather (sooner)-f- infinitive denotes preference.
P a tte r n 10
smb would rather (sooner) \ do smth

smb’d rather (sooner) f have done smth
t
i
E.g. 1. I’d much rather walk.

Я б охотней пошла пешком (сейчас).
2. She’d rather have stayed at home.
Она бы предпочла (тогда) остаться дома.
167
Exercise 23. Paraphrase the following sentences. Use Pattern 10.
M o d e l : 1. She would prefer to stay here.

She’d rather stay here.
2. She would have preferred not to go there.
She’d have rather not gone there.
1. I should prefer not to make any decision now. Not before I know all
the facts. 2. She would prefer to have dinner in bed. 3. They would have
preferred to play football. 4. Would you prefer to have lunch at the can-
teen? 5. Mother would have much preferred to stay at home and watch
television. 6. Would you prefer to go through the letters now? 7. She
would prefer not to discuss it in public. 8. He woul.d prefer to do this
himself. He likes doing jobs round the house.
1. Я бы лучше здесь подождала, если вы не возражаете. 2. Я так
устал вчера. Я предпочел бы никуда не ходить. 3. Мне не хочется есть.
Я предпочла бы обедать попозже. 4. Он очень волнуется. Он предпочел
бы отвечать первым. 5. Они устали после контрольной работы и пред
почли бы сегодня не оставаться на консультацию. 6. Может быть вы
предпочитаете сделать это сами? 7. Погода была плохая, и мы бы охот
ней пошли в кино. 8. Я сейчас свободен и охотно сделал бы перевод
сразу.
ф
The expression had better ^-infinitive denotes advice.
P a tte r n 11
smb had better (not) do smth
E.g. 1. You had better wait here.

Лучше подождите здесь.
2. You had better not eat this salad.
Тебе лучше не есть этот салат.
1. Лучше поезжайте автобусом. 2. Лучше не говорите ей об этом.
3. По-моему, им лучше пообедать в институте. 4. Ты бы лучше не пил
кофе так поздно вечером. 5. Ты бы лучше пошел и позвонил им. 6. Луч
ше перестаньте спорить и займемся делом. 7. Лучше подчеркни примеры
в тексте. 8. Лучше возьмите с собой несколько бутербродов. 9. Лучше
говорите немного помедленней. 10. Ему лучше посоветоваться с вра
чом перед тем, как ехать. И. Вам лучше не есть этой рыбы. 12. Лучше
говорите правду.
The past tense of the modal verbs can, may, will may also be used to
denote unreality.
168 t
g g. 1. I could do it easily.
Я легко мог бы это сделать.
2. I would not apologize.
Я не стал бы извиняться.
3. You might bring me a cup of coffee.
Ты могла бы принести мне чашку кофе.
When the past tense of a modal verb is used to denote unreality it
has no temporal meaning and refers neither to the present nor to the past.
If it is followed by an indefinite infinitive the situation refers to the pres
ent or future. If it is followed by a perfect infinitive it refers to the past.
Exercise 26. Refer the following sayings to the past by using a perfect infinitive
instead of the indefinite.
Mo d e l : But for our luggage we could walk there, (сейчас)

But for our luggage we could have walked there, (тогда)
1. If I could help you I’d do it with pleasure. 2. If I knew where he
lives I could take you there in my little car. 3. She knows the place bet
ter than you think or she could not find her way in the dark. 4. You really
could carry some of the parcels! 5. If only I could find a doctor! 6. If
only he would speak! 7. But for you I would never agree. 8. I like you,
kid, or I would not stand it for a minute. 9. Nothing you say could change
anything now. 10. If only the fog might get a little denser! 11. If I
could see the original letter I might tell you how bad it is. 12. I’ll turn
my head away or she might notice my eyes. 13. But for a cloud of dust
we could see them ford the river. 14. But for her gray hair one might
take her for a young woman. 15. Keep that silly animal quiet or someone
might complain.
Exercise 27. Make the following sentences hypothetical by using the past tense of the
modal verb. Refer the situation to the past by using the perfect infinitive.
Mo d e l : I can tell you who it is.

Я могу сказать вам, кто это.
I could tell you who it is.
Я мог бы сказать вам, кто это.
I could have told you who it was.
Я мог бы вам (тогда) сказать, кто это был1
1. I can see people go in and leave the house if I stand here. 2. I can
take these letters and show them to Ann. 3. No one can do more under
the circumstances. 4. It can be done after all. 5. You can’t change any
thing now. 6. I simply won’t talk if you go on like that. 7. No, sir, I won’t
answer these questions unless a lawyer is present. 8. I’m afraid I can’t
go now. The boss may want me. 9. Some children may find it. 10. Some
good may be done by an early operation. 11. A good dozen of people may
shelter here from the rain. 12. We still may miss that train. 13. Nothing
can stop me now. 14. It may rain before long. 15. Something can delay
us at the last moment.
169
K E Y S TO E X E R C I S E S
Exercise 8. A. 1. was 2. had not been 3. knew 4. had not wasted 5. hap,
pened 6. had not recognized 7. had not been going 8. had not been looking
9. knew 10. were
В. 1. would have understood 2. would not have been 3. would have
made 4. should go 5. would not dare 6. would see 7. would not have heard
8. should show 9. would have noticed 10. would try
Exercise 9. 1. would not have bitten — had not been teasing 2. were
not so cold — should not go 3. had listened — would not have made
4. had not interfered — would have made it up 5. would be fewer acci
dents — were taught 6. would know better — read 7. had had — should
not have used 8. were — should go 9. had known — would not have
stopped 10. would have been — had brought
Exercise 12. 1. would have believed 2. would have achieved 3. should
take 4. should go 5. would not have gone out 6. would agree 7. would
have 8. would have come
Exercise 14. 1. were to tell — would answer 2. were to meet — should
recognize 3. were to come — would miss 4. were to grow cold — should
make 5. were to grow — would be in danger 6. were to ask — would you
agree 7. were to rain — would spoil 8. were to come — should bake 9.
were to get down — should never go 10. were to hear — would agree
Exercise 17. 1. should be 2. should manage 3. should win 4. should
feel sick 5. should change your mind 6. he should prove to know nothing
7. should speak 8. should prove cold 9. should not be at home 10. should
prove to be
Exercise 19. 1. had not been wearing — should have been 2. were —
should feel 3. had not been — should have lost 4. were to see (saw) —
should not know 5. should come 6. were — would look 7. had not been
shining — should have been 8. had gone — would have taken 9. had not
stuffed — would be able 10. would have been done — had not been
11. had been lying — should be lost 12. had recognized — would have
spoken 13. had told — would be looking 14. should want 15. had not
been — would have been crippled 16. had not eaten — would feel fine
17. started (were to start)— would wonder 18. were — should not insist
19. had not been wet — would not have skidded 20. had not known
would not have consented
Exercise 22. 1. If only I had not told 2. If only I knew 3. If only he
had come 4. If only she were not so nervous 5. If only she had not lost
6. If only they had not missed
Exercise 24. 1. I’d rather wait here 2. would have rather not gone
3. would rather have dinner later 4. would rather be the first 5. would
rather not stay 6. would you rather do 7. would have rather gone 8. would
rather do
170
м
Г
Training Exercises
Exercise 28. Make the sentences hypothetical by changing the form of the verbs in italics
*
jv\ o d e 1: 1. He is the only one to object.

He would be the only one to object.
2. She knew me at once.
She would have known me at once.
3. I can show you how to do it.
I could show you how to do it.
4. You could do this last Sunday.
You could have done it last Sunday.
l.That A o g w illb ite you. 2. I w as sorry to be left behind. 3. Doubtlessly
you knew what is*to be done. 4. That one is easy. I can answ er it. 5. He
was a gentle creature. A child could m anage him. 6. Of course, nobody m in
ded her saying so. 7. Can you tell me what it is all about? 8. No one w as
informed of the change of the plan. 9. They take an endless lot of trouble
to get things to work. 10. They fully realize their responsibility. 11. She
wore her best black silk. 12. They d o n 't allow her to take part in theatri
cals.
Exercise 29. Give advice, using the words in brackets.
Mo d e l : She makes an awful lot of spelling mistakes, (to make smb
write dictations)
You had better make her write dictations every day.
1. That skirt is too wide for me. (to take it in at the Waist) 2. I’ve
been sleeping badly of late, (to take a walk last thing in the evening)
3. I think he made a mistake here, (to write and tell him so) 4. I have to
be there in half an hour, (to take this bus) 5. Fish never agrees with me.
(to order some French beans) 6. I don’t think much of the book, (to
read it to the end first) 7. I can’t makeup my mind about that job. (not
to hurry with your decision) 8. My, but I am hungry, (to go down to the
canteen and have a snack)
Exercise 30. Express a preference.
Mo d e l : 1. Do you want to go upstairs .with me? (to wait here)

I’d rather wait here.
2. Will you give us your opinion of this paper? (not)
I’d rather not.
1. Shall we take a taxi? (to walk) 2. Let’s have dinner first, (to
have a cup of coffee and a sandwich) 3. Ann wants us to come over on
Sunday, (to go to the pictures) 4. Are you going to give her a doll for
her birthday? (to give a pair of skates) 5. Shall we see this Polish serial
°u television? (to go to bed) 6. Take the dog for his run while I fix some
?upper. (to do the cooking) 7. Shall I pack your things for you? (to do
h myself) 8. Will you explain what you mean by this, (not)
Exercise 31. Make the condition problematic by using *should'+ infinitive.
171
M o d e l : If he is out don’t wait.
If he should be out don’t wait.
1. If they refuse to act we’ll write to the papers about it. 2. If the weath
er does not change we’ll leave at the end of the week. 3. If there is no
communication from them by the end of the term send an official inquiry.
4. If he returns he will find no one in. 5. If she objects we’ll have to stop
the proceedings at once. 6. If you succeed I’ll be the first to congratulate
you. 7. If he is in town bring him to see me. 8. If you decide to go on with
it tell me so at once. ч
Exercise 32. Paraphrase the following sentences so as to make them conditional expressing
unreal conditions.
t
M o d e l : 1. She did not recognize you or she would have spoken to you.
If she had recognized you she would have spoken to you.
2. I was tired and did not go to the skating-rink.
If I had not been so tired I should have gone. . .
1. You forgot to ask me to the party so I did not come. 2. She is angry
with you because you were downright rude to her. 3. She does not confide
in her parents because she does not trust them. 4. You are feeling cold
and unhappy because you did not eat a good breakfast in the morning.
5. She could not answer that question so she said nothing. 6. He did not
like the idea and he did not support me. 7. The text was easy and we did
not use the dictionaries. 8. I have not brought the book. I cannot show
you this example. 9. Ask her to explain: she will gladly do so. 10. Gn
there in autumn and you will see what I mean. 11. She lost her temper
and said things she did not mean. 12. The child was feverish and I coulu
not leave her alone.
i

1. Если бы ты был тогда там, этого не случилось бы. 2. И зачем я это
ему сказала! 3. Целую неделю шли дожди, а то мы смогли бы перейти
речку без всякого моста. 4. Лучше возьмите словарь и проверьте, как
пишется это слово. 5. Знаешь, я бы охотней сначала сделала домашнее
задание. 6. Если бы мы вчера не легли спать так поздно, ты бы не была
такая сонная. 7. Если бы не это, мы бы сейчас могли уйти. 8. Если бы
я теперь попал в этот город, я бы, наверно, его не узнал. 9. Если бы
не его машина, мы бы не смогли приехать вовремя. Я так рада, что
мы его встретили. 10. Если вам случится с ним говорить, спросите его
об этом. И. Вы бы лучше карту с собой взяли. 12. Ах, если бы я знала
его лучше! Я бы попросила его купить мне этот словарь, когда он бу
дет в Ленинграде. 13. Я бы с тобой не спорила теперь, если бы сама
этого не видала. 14. Если вы все же передумаете, напишите мне.
15. Туфли были мне малы, иначе я бы их обязательно купила.
KEYS ТО EXERCISES
Exercise 28. 1. would bite 2. should have been sorry 3. would know
4. could answer 5. could have managed 6. would have minded 7. could
you tell 8. would have been informed 9. would take 10. would realize
11. would have worn 12. would not allow
172
Exercise 32. 1. if you had not forgotten — should have come 2. if
you had not been rude — would not be angry 3. would confide — trust
ed 4. would not be feeling — had eaten 5. if she could have answered —
would have said 6. if he had liked — would have supported 7. if it had
not been so easy — should have used 8. if I had brought — could show
9. if you asked (were to ask) — would do 10. if you went (were you to) —
would see 11. if she had not lost — would not have said 12. if the child
had not been feverish — could have left
Exercise 33. 1. had been — would not have happened 2. if only
1 had not told 3. or we could have crossed 4. you had better take 5. I
would rather do 6. had not gone — would not be 7. but for this we could
8. were to get — should not know 9. but for his car we could not have
come 10. should speak 11. had better take 12. if only I knew — should
ask 13. should not argue — had not seen 14. if you should change 15. or
I should have bought
The Obligatory Use of Forms

The structure of some complex sentences demands the use of certain
forms in subordinate clauses.
I
Sentence Patterns with the Past Indefinite and the Past Perfect Used
to Denote Unreality
We use the Past Indefinite in the following pattern:
P a ttern 12 *I
it II was
lsoe )1 time smb did smth
#
E.g. 1. It’s time we knew where we stand.

Пора бы нам знать наше положение.
2. It was time he told us the aim of his visit.
Ему пора было сообщить нам о цели своего посещения.
Exercise 1. A. Open the brackets. Use the Past Indefinite to express unreality:
1. It is time it (to stop) raining. 2. It is about time you (to make) up
your mind one way or another. 3. It is high time somebody (to tell) me
what it is all about. 4. It is nearly time he (to be) here. 5. Isn’t it time
something (to be done) about it? 6. It is high time you (to do) something
about that stove. 7. Father said it was high time we (to realize) how much
our education was costing him. 8. Ma said it was about time somebody
(to go and to do) the dishes.
_ .f
173
1. Пора тебе серьезно начать тренироваться. 2. Я начал волновать
ся. Ему давно пора было прийти. 3. Тебе давно пора перестать делать
такие ошибки. 4. Пора бы вам знать, как это делается. 5. Мама сказала,
что мне давно пора идти спать. 6. Пора бы ему объяснить нам, что это
значит. 7. Пора бы ей самой принимать решения. 8. Тебе не кажется,
что нам пора начинать?
Both the Past Indefinite and the Past Perfect are used in the follow
ing patterns.
Pattern 13
} as if smb did smth

{ will speak j as though smb was (were) doing smth
Both the Past Indefinite and the Past Continuous may be used in
the subordinate clause to show that the unreal action in the subordinate
clause takes place at the same time with the action in the principal clau
se (to denote the simultaneousness of actions).
E.g. 1. She behaved as if she knew nothing of what had happened.
Она держала себя так, словно ничего не знала о том, что про
изошло.
2. Why do you behave as if you did not know me?
Почему ты себя ведешь так, словно ты меня не знаешь?
3. She will treat you as if she did not know you.
Она будет держаться с вами так, словно она вас не знает.
4. She rummaged in her bag as if she was trying to find some change.
Она порылась в сумке, словно пытаясь найти мелочь.
^ к / s^)ef^s { as if smb had done smth

Sm { will Ipeak J as smb âd been doing smth
Both the Past Perfect and the Past Perfect Continuous may be used
in the subordinate clause to show that the unreal action preceded that
in the principal clause (to denote the priority of the action in the subor
dinate clause).
E.g. 1. She smiled and reached out her hand as if she had only just
noticed me.
Она улыбнулась и протянула мне руку, словно только что
заметила меня.
2. Look, her eyes are red as if she had been crying.
Смотри, у нее красные глаза, словно она плакала.
3. In a couple of weeks he will be running and jumping as if he
had never been hurt.
174
Через несколько недель он будет бегать и прыгать, словно
и не был ранен.
Exercise 2. A. Open the brackets. Use the Past Indefinite or the Past Continuous to
show that the actions in the principal clause and in the subordinate clause take place at the
same time:
1. Why are you crying as if your heart (to break)? 2. The children
are taking it so quietly as if it (not to matter) or (not to concern) them.
3. They will joke and laugh as if they (to be) the best of friends. 4. She
gravely examined the palm of my hand as if she (to see) something of
interest there. 5. She wore her shabby clothes as if she (to be proud)
of them. 6. She kept looking at me from time to time with a puzzled ex
pression as if she (to try) to remember where she had seen me before.
7. Opposite our house she stopped as if she (not to be) sure if it was the
place she wanted. 8. She smiled at me in a friendly way as if she (to be)
really glad to see me.
B. Open the brackets. Use the Past Perfect or the Past Perfect Continuous to show that
the action in the subordinate clause preceded that in the principal clause:
1. There was an unmistakable smell of Virginian tobacco in the room
as if someone (to smoke) there. 2. She gave us a pale watery smile as
if she (not to understand) who Jane was. 3. The boys ran about yelling
with joy as if they (to go wild). 4. He looked from one of us to the other
in indecision as if he (to forget) what he was here for. 5. She will sail
past you without a look as if she (never to see) you. 6. Clothes were strewn
all over the room as if someone (to dress) in a hurry. 7. You behave as
if you (never to see) a baby in your life. 8. My people are treating me as
if I (to contract) some mortal disease.
C. Open the brackets. Use the Past Indefinite or Past Continuous to denote simulta
neousness; the Past Perfect or Past Perfect Continuous to denote priority:
1. He kept smiling and cracking jokes as if he (to have) not a care
in the world. 2. There was a thin line across one side of the cup as if it
(to be broken) and carefully mended. 3. The grass here is trodden down
and crushed as if someone (to stand) here for quite some-time. 4. She’ll
treat you as if nothing whatever (to happen). 5. Will you please stop
discussing me as if 14(not to be) present? 6. He drank his coffee and ate
his omelet as if he (not to feel) the taste. 7. They'll receive you as if you
(to be) their long lost child. 8. Why do you go on as if you (not to mind)?
Have you no pride, child? 9. At breakfast you hide behind your paper
as if it (to make) you sick to look at me. 10. She always gave us presents
as if she (to be) a relation. 11. You are so pale and shaky as if you (to
see) a ghost. 12. She discussed the book quite intelligently as if she (to
read) it.
If we have the past tense of a modal verb in such patterns we use
the indefinite infinitive to denote simultaneousness and the perfect in
finitive to denote priority.
175
*
C. f does smth \
smb < did smth \
as if smb could do smth
{ will do smth I
as though smb could have done smth
E.g. 1. You speak as if you could help me.

Вы говорите так, словно можете мне помочь.
2. She will reproach you as if anybody could have done more.
Она будет вас упрекать, словно кто-нибудь мог сделать больше.
P a tte r n 14
smb did smth

\
. ( looks (looked) 1 as ii 1 smb could do smth
s \ feels (felt) J as though j smb had done smth
) smb could have done smth
E.g. 1. The boy looks as if he were feverish.

У мальчика, кажется, температура.
2. You look as if you could eat all of it.
Ты, кажется, мог бы съесть все.
• *
3. She felt as if she had lost something.

Ей казалось, что она что-то потеряла.
4. You will feel as if you could do it easily.
Вам покажется, что вы легко сможете это сделать.
Exercise 3. Complete the following sentences by adding principal clauses to them.
Mo d e l : 1. — as if she could explain everything.
She felt as if —
She feels as if —
She will feel as if —
2. — as if she had just left a beauty parlour.
She will look as if —
She looked as if —
She is looking as if —
1. — as if she knew all about him. 2. — as if they had been friends
for years. 3. — as if nothing had happened. 4. — as if someone could
see her. 5.— a*s if he had not slept. 6.— as if he did not believe me.
1. Ей казалось, что она все забыла. 2. Мне кажется, что теперь я
смогла бы ее понять. 3. Он, казалось, принял решение. 4. Почему у вас
такой вид, словно вы мне не верите? 5. Он казался совершенно здоро
вым. 6. По вашему виду можно подумать, что вы никогда об этом не
слышали. 7. Комната выглядела так, словно ею никогда не пользова
лись. 8. Городок теперь выглядит так, словно войны не было. 9. Ему
всегда кажется, что он не нравится людям. 10. Мне казалось, что ни
кто не смог бы меня остановить.
176
1. It looks as if they had not been expecting us.
Они нас, кажется, не ждали.
2. It seems as if he knew the way.
Он, кажется, знает дорогу.
3. It was as if night was falling. /
Казалось, наступает ночь.

4. It is not as if I could help.
Ведь я же не могу помочь.
1. Ведь я же ничего не обещал. 2. Ведь я ничего и не смог бы
3. Ведь вы его не знаете. 4. Ведь вы с ним не говорили. 5. Я
чужой Казалось, она приняла решение. 7. Каза
лось, утешить. 8. Казалось дож. уже
9. Вы 10. Похоже, что они уже ушли
Она, кажется, уже проверила тетради. 12. Погода, кажется, ста
ятся лучше.
Not e . You say smb looks as if—when you judge by a person’s appear
ance; you say it looks as if — when you judge by the situation.
E.g. 1. He looked as if he did not mind.
2. It looked as if someone had made a mistake.
( wishes
wished smb did smth
smb had done smth
will wish
p
•§♦1. I wish he were here.
Жаль, что его нет.
2. I wish it stopped raining.
Хорошо бы дождь перестал.
3. I wish he had told me what to do in such cases.
Жаль, что он мне не сказал, что делать в таких случаях.
4. How we wished it were summer.
Как мы жалели, что было не лето.
17 ?
5. You’ll wish you had not promised.
Вы пожалеете, что пообещали.
Exercise 6. Open the brackets. Use the Past Indefinite to denote simultaneousness or a
relatively future action; use the Past Perfect to denote priority:
1. For a moment I wished I (to refuse) to come. 2. You’ll wish you
(to stay) back home. 3. I sometimes wish I (to be) like other girls, not a
child prodigy with a life of problematic achievement in front of me.
4. Don’t you wish you (to be invited)? 5. I wish I (to know) what to
tell you. 6. Mother wished I (not to look) so much like a “cover girl”
as she put it, she meant I looked fast. 7. Sometimes Mother wished we (to
stay) in the North. 8. Do you never wish now you (to take) her advice?
9. I wish you (not to let) her wear those ridiculous clothes. 10. Oh, what
a pretty dress! I wish I (to have) one like that.
B. j' w is h e s ) sm b co u ld do sm th
sm b \ w is h e d > sm b m ig h t do sm th
[ w ill w ish J sm b c o u ld h a v e d on e sm th
E.g. 1. It was so funny. I wish you, people, could have seen her.
...жаль, что вы не могли ее видеть.
2. I wish someone could show me how to work it.
Хорошо бы кто-нибудь мог показать мне, как этим пользо
ваться.
The following variant of the pattern is used to make the wish more
emphatic. It can be used only if the subjects in both clauses are diffe
rent.
»
wishes smb would do smth

*
w ish e d
E.g. 1. I wish you would not think so.

Жаль, что вы так думаете.
2. I wish they would not come.
Хоть бы они не приехали!
3. I wished she would stop looking at me.
Мне очень хотелось, чтобы она перестала смотреть на меня.
Exercise 7. Translate into English. Use Pattern 16 (В , C):
1. Жаль, что вы не смогли посмотреть эту игру. 2. Жаль, что я не
могу туда пойти. 3. Жаль, что вы не обращаете внимания на свое про*
изношение. 4. Он пожалел, что не смог заставить ее переменить реше-
ние. 5. Хоть бы он перестал курить в комнатах! ч6. Хорошо бы вы при
ходили вовремя. 7. Вы пожалеете, что не сможете увидеть дворец в его
довоенном виде. 8. Ей очень хотелось, чтобы кто-нибудь заметил ео
178
и спросил, что она тут делает.,9. Как ей хотелось, чтобы он не курил
за столом! 10. Хоть бы ей кто-нибудь сказал, что это нехорошо.
Exercise 8. A. Compose sentences expressing an unreal wish in the present using the
sentences given below as basis:
M o d e l : 1. I can’t drive.
I wish I could drive.
2. Nobody warned me against him.
I wish someone had warned me against him.
3. He smokes at meals.
I wish he would (did) not smoke at meals.
4. I have no cigarettes.
. I wish I had some cigarettes.
1. That stupid animal of Jack’s is barking his silly head off again.
2. It was raining practically the whole time. 3. I can’t explain it to you
now. 4. From where you were sitting you could not hear what she was
saying. 5. They will probably bring their child too. 6. I did not know it
was so important. 7. She just sits on the porch doing nothing. 8. She
could not reach him on the phone.
B. Compose sentences expressing an unreal wish in the past using the sentences below
as basis.
M o d e l : 1. We had no time to go there.
I wished we had time to go there.
2. There had been an accident.
I wished there had been no accident.
3. He could not read the inscription.
I wished he could read the inscription.
4. He was in everybody’s way.
I wished he were not (would not be) in everybody’s way.
1. It was rather cold there. 2. Our usual room had been already taken.
1 She could not make up her mind whether to go or stay. 4. She complai
ned all the time. 5. She had eaten something at lunch that disagreed with
her. 6. I had not brought my coat. 7. They did not like her at all. 8. They
hid not go away.
C. Compose sentences expressing an unreal wish in the future using the sentences below
2S basis.
Mo d e l : 1. I’m wearing high-heeled shoes.
You’ll wish you were not wearing them.
2. I can stay there only two days.
You’ll wish you could stay there longer.
3. I have brought no raincoat.
You’ll wish you had brought a raincoat.
4. They brought their dog.
You’ll wish they had not brought their dog.
1. We have no guide-book. 2. I have left the map at the hotel. 3. I can’t
^°vv the children this wonderful city. 4. It is going to be warm. 5. I have
Jr°mised to stay with her. 6. I bought lots of things here.
179
Pattern 17
ч
smb did smth

smb had done smth
" 1 1 т т ш л т ш т я т i m — — mm i h i ш ч . к и п ■ штp— — ■ » ' > n .................. ... w i >■■ ■ ■ * п м н \ п \ т пшш m m — w w — ш и — и — шттт н и n il
E.g. 1. I’d rather you did not mention names.

Я бы предпочел, чтобы вы не называли имен.
2. I suppose you would rather I had stayed there for good.
Полагаю, вы предпочли бы, чтобы я там остался навсегда*
*
Exercise 9. Paraphrase the following sentences, using Pattern 17.
M o d e l : 1. I don’t want you to interfere.

I would rather vou did not interfere.
2. I’m sorry you gave up the job.
I’d rather you had not given up the job.
t
1. You know I don’t like you to take my car. 2. My wife wants us to*
stay here a few days longer. 3. She is not pleased we came. 4. I am sorry
you took all that trouble. 5. Mother does not want her to have a key of
her own. 6. Do you want me to go with you? 7. They don’t like the chil
dren to play in their garden. 8. She is sorry you did not go with them.
9. I don’t want you to touch things in my room. 10. She does not like me
to borrow her things.
1. Я бы предпочла, чтобы ты вообще не задавал так много вопросов.

2. Они предпочли бы, чтобы вопрос был обсужден на прошлом собра
нии. 3. Конечно, мы предпочли бы, чтобы вы остановились у нас.
4. Я предпочла бы, чтобы ты пообедал дома. 5. Ты, конечно, предпочел
бы, чтобы все было уже сделано. 6. Я предпочел бы, чтобы ты со мной
посоветовалась, прежде чем ты это сделала. 7. Он предпочел бы, чтобы
мы выслушали его первым, и мы так и сделаем. 8. Я предпочла бы, что
бы вы ей ничего не обещали, но теперь уже ничего не поделаешь. 9.
Ты бы предпочла, чтобы я не имел собственного мнения? 10. Я бы пред
почел, чтобы ты отказалась сразу, когда я тебе об этом говорил.
Sentence Patterns with the Subjunctive Mood and Modal Phrases
The structure of certain complex sentences demands the use of some

modal phrases, mostly should-f infinitive or the use of the subjunctive
mood.
180
pattern 18
ordered
requested
necessary that smb should do smth
important (smb do smth)
t
advisable
arranged
urgent
E.g. 1. It was arranged that we should spend the winter vacation at

Aunt Molly’s (that we spend).
2. It is requested that the patients should keep within the bounda
ries of the park (that the patients keep).
3. It is important that they should come to a decision without
any prompting and undue influence (that they come).
P a tte rn 19
jrequests (requested) t
I insists (insisted) |
, ] suggests (suggested) ! that smb should do smth
srat) ‘ demands (demanded) j (smb do smth)
orders (ordered) I
4 arranges (arranged) j
E.g. 1. Why do you insist that he should be told? (that he be told?)

2. She suggested that they should inquire at the airport (that they
inquire).
3. I shall arrange that you should be shown his collection (that
you be shown).
Pa ite m 20
\ \
the order
the demand
the suggestion that smb should do smth
the arrangement (smb do smth)
the request
the rule
the wish /
E.g. 1. Her suggestion is that the conference should take place right
here (that the conference take place).
2. His only request was that he should take no part in the proceed
ings (that he take);
181
N
t
Pattern 21
j
the order
the demand i
the request that smb should do smth

the arrangement (smb do smth). . .
the rule
the suggestion
the .
wish
E.g. 1. Her demand that she should be paid for the extra work in
volved seemed reasonable enough (that she be paid).
2. The arrangement that we should take turns in taking the chil
dren to school worked quite well for some time (that we take
turns).
3. I don’t like your suggestion that someone should be held respon
sible for what is after all your own concern (someone be held
responsible).
P a t tern 22
did smth
{ j , , (sm^ should do smth
smb does smth
{ > s ,h , < (smb do smth)
(will do smth J s a (smb should not do smth
E.g. 1. I drew a plan of the place for him lest he should lose his way
(lest he lose his way).
... чтобы он не заблудился
2. She keeps him away from other children lest he should notice
that he is different from them (lest he notice).
... чтобы он не заметил
3. ГП write at once so that they should not think I have forgotten
my promise (lest they think).
... чтобы они не подумали
In Patterns 18, 19, 20, 21,22 we must use either should + the indef
inite infinitive or the subjunctive mood.
The subjunctive mood is used in American English, mostly. In British
English the use of the subjunctive mood is limited to certain specific
styles. It is practically never used in everyday speech.
i
Exercise 11. Complete the following sentences using the words in brackets:
1. Do you actually suggest that (he — to take in somebody’s confi
dence)? 2. My only wish is that (I — to let alone). 3. Is it quite so neces
sary that (they — to punish)? 4. Why do you insist that (you — to be
the first to answer)? 5. She won’t take any sleeping pills lest (she — to
grow used to them). 6. She proposed the arrangement that (we — to
182
take turns in helping smb with smth). 7. I suppose it is rather important
that (everybody — to understand the necessity of these measures). 8. I as
sure you her suggestion will be that (you — to leave it all to her). 9. No
one objected to her demand that (he — to inform of our decision). 10. We
asked her too lest (she — to be hurt). 11. Do you think it advisable that
(he — to coach the younger boys)? 12. The general rule is that (children
over twelve — to admit). 13. She kept repeating the directions again and
again lest (I — to confuse smth). 14. We did not quite like the arrange
ment that (she — to supervise our work). 15. The only condition was
that (she — to keep the children).
E xercise 12. T r a n s la te in to E n g lish :
1. Важно, чтобы дети занимались спортом с раннего возраста. 2.

Я предлагаю, чтобы мы сначала сделали письменные упражнения.
3. Ее предложение состояло в том, чтобы детей на это время оставить
у бабушки. 4. Всем понравилась его мысль, чтобы мы присоединились
к экспедиции. 5. Не спорь, чтобы потом не жалеть. 6. Убери этот стул,
чтобы кто-нибудь не споткнулся. 7. Я сделаю это на том условии, что
ты поедешь в библиотеку и привезешь мне нужные книги. 8. Я не
понимаю ваше требование, чтобы мы тренировались только в утренние
часы. 9. Есть правило, чтобы студенты не уносили книги из читального
зала домой. 10. Кто настаивает на том, чтобы это было сделано сегод
ня? 11. Я вовсе не требую, чтобы ее исключили из команды, но совер
шенно необходимо, чтобы игроки слушали тренера. 12. Стоит ли нам
оставаться здесь еще несколько дней? 13. Почему вы предлагаете, что
бы мы обсудили доклад сегодня? 14. У меня одно желание, чтобы на
эту тему больше не говорили. 15. Я говорю это, чтобы вы не поду
мали, что я на вас сердит.
E xercise 13. C o m p le te the fo llo w in g sen ten ces:
M о d e 1: 1. It’s important that —

— they should come in time.
2. The order was —
— that we should stay there.
1. Is it advisable that—? 2. Her first suggestion was—. 3. I can arran
ge that — . 4. What do you think of our plan that —? 5. I think it is a
good arrangement that— . 6. Nobody demands t h a t — . 7. It is very
important that a growing child — . 8. She had only one wish that — .
9. I’ll give them some sandwiches lest — . 10. I don’t want to speak about
it lest — . 11. Have you forgotten her request that — . 12. The general
rule is that every student — . 13. I shall write her address and telephone
number on this sheet of paper lest — . 14. I say it again lest — .
E xercise 14. A. P a r a p h r a s e the fo llo w in g sen ten ces. G ive tw o v a r ia n ts .
M o d e l : 1. I suggest that we should do it ourselves.

My suggestion is that we should do it ourselves.
I’m putting forward a suggestion that we should do it
ourselves.
183
2. 1 shall arrange that we should be given a meal at the camp.
The arrangement will be that we should be given a meal
at the camp.
I spoke of an arrangement that we should be given a meal
at the camp.
1. I demanded that they should show me the letter. 2. Some students
suggested that the consultations should take place on Sunday. 3. She
ruled that the children should always come in time. 4. We have arranged
that the swimming pool should be reserved for the younger children for
two hours every other day. 5. We requested that there should be at least
ten copies of the book at the reading room. 6. Mother ordered that my
light should be out at ten o’clock.
B. Paraphrase the following sentences. Give two variants.
M o d e l : 1. I told her about it or she would have heard it from some
body else.
I told her about it lest she should hear it from somebody
else, (so that she should not hear —)
2. I’ll explain it to her again otherwise she’ll make some
mistake.
I’ll explain it to her again lest she should make a mistake
(so that she should not make —)
1. I’ll mark the place in the book otherwise you will waste time loo
king for it. 2. She will stay with him for a day or two otherwise he will
feel lonely. 3. She did not mention any words or mother would have wor
ried. 4. They gave me a lift in their car or I should have walked all the
way. 5. She turned her head awray or he would have seen her smile. 6. I’ll
speak very slowly and clearly or they will misunderstand me.
P a tte rn 23
smb
feels (felt)
considers (ed)
believes (ed)
{ necessary
advisable
important that smb should do smth
finds (found) desirable
better
E.g. 1. I find it highly desirable that she should live in a milder climate.
Я нахожу весьма желательным, чтобы она жила в более мяг
ком климате.
2. Do you think it necessary that I should stay here any longer?
По-твоему мне необходимо здесь еще оставаться?
Exercise 15. Paraphrase the following sentences.
M o d e l : I believe it important for you to read aloud every day.
I believe it important that you should read aloud every day*
184
1. She feels it necessary for the children to get plenty of exercise
in the open air. 2. Do you consider it important for me to write short
outlines of the stories I read? 3. Some people believe it important for
people studying a foreign language to learn passages by heart. 4. Mother
believed it better for me not to interfere in their quarrels. 5. She thinks
it important for them to learn to be independent at an early age. 6. I did
not think it advisable for you to spend so much time indoors.
Exercise 16. Complete the following sentences. Use Pattern 23.
M o d e l : 1. I have never considered it important —
— that you should play the piano.
2. We found it advisable that —
— you should listen to records.
1. Why do you believe it important that —? 2. He did not feel it
necessary that— . 3. Do you find it advisable that—? 4. At that time
it was considered desirable that —. 5. No one thinks it important now
Ihat — . 6. Mother finds it better that — . 7. Does anyone feel it impor
tant that —? 8. I don’t find it desirable that — .
Exercis 17. Translate into English:
1. По-моему важно, чтобы все дети умели плавать. 2. Никто теперь
не считает необходимым, чтобы студенты, изучающие иностранный
язык, заучивали большие отрывки наизусть. 3. Мама считала нужным,
чтобы мы пили молоко. 4. Стоит ли нам, по вашему мнению, читать
только современных авторов? 5. Почему вы считаете нужным, чтобы
мы занимались в лингафонном кабинете? 6. Я не нахожу нужным, что
бы ты вмешивался в это дело. 7. Мы считаем совершенно необходимым,
чтобы у всех студентов были эти книги. 8. Он нашел нужным, чтобы
я не выходила из дому еще несколько дней.
P a tte rn 24
E.g. 1. It’s impossible that he should have meant what he told you.
He может быть, чтобы он действительно так ; умал
(before the expression of incredulity)
2. t was impossible that they should still know nothing.
Казалось невероятным, что они все еще ничего не знают,
at the same time with the expression of incredulity)
In this pattern the indefinite infinitive denotes simultaneousness
or relative future; the perfect infinitive denotes priority.
Exercise 18. Complete the following sentences using the words in brackets. Use the inde
finite infinitive to denote simultaneousness or relative future, the perfect infinitive to de
note priority. Give two variants where logically possible.
Mo d e l : 1. It is impossible— (you — to forget)
— that you should have forgotten your promise.
185
2. It is impossible — (he — to be ill)
— that he should be ill.
— that he should have been ill.
3. It was impossible — (a child — to do smth)
— that a child should have done it.
— that a child should do it.
1. It is impossible— (you — not to recognize smb). 2. I think it im

possible— (he— to lie). 3. It seemed impossible— (that a s tu d e n ts
not to know). 4. It is quite impossible — (the team — to win). 5. It is
impossible— (you — to think so). 6. It was impossible— (we — to lose
the way).
1. He может быть, чтобы они пошли по верхней дороге. 2. Не може

быть, чтобы он не знал ее адреса (вообще). 3. Не может быть, чтобы они
так плохо играли (тогда). 4. Невозможно, чтобы машину никто не ви
дел, когда она проезжала через деревню. 5. Невозможно, чтобы он
сумел тогда найти дорогу в темноте. 6. Невозможно, чтобы они переш
ли через горы в это время года. Там уже лежит снег.
There exists a number of patterns where the indicative mood is used

as a rule, for the action is considered to be real.
But should + infinitive may be used in these patterns in emotional
sp eech.
P a tte rn 25
understandable does smth

natural did smth
is strange had done smth
was odd that smb B u t also:
curious should do smth
doubtful / should have done smth
E.g. 1. It’s natural that she does not like it ( o r . . . should not like it).
2. It was not strange that she refused to go (o r . . . should refuse
to go).
3. It is curious that she did not go there (or . . . should not have
gone there).
186
pattern 26
( does smth
strange will do smth
feels (felt) nice did smth
believes (ed) J natural , ,, , , had done smth
srnb considers (ed) it curious that smb \ B u t also; '
finds (found) doubtful should do smth
understandable /
\ should have
done smth
g.g. 1. I find it natural that she wants to be a teacher (or —should

want to be a teacher).
2. They consider it understandable that he left without saying
good-bye ( o r — should have left ).
p a tte rn 21
E.g. 1. I was astonished that she did not want to go (or—should not
want to go)..
2. I’m sorry you did not like the play (or — should not have liked
the play). 4
Exercise 20. Make the following sentences more emotional by using 'should1-{-infinitive
according to Patterns 25, 26, 21.
\
Mo d e l : Her mother thinks it curious that she did not make any friends
at the camp.
$ *
— that she should not have made any friends at the camp.
1. Don’t you think it strange that he keeps promising to come and
never does. 2. We found it doubtful that the book would sell well. 3. I’m
so pleased they managed to do it. 4. It is curious that you are the only per
son to object. 5. It is understandable that he does not want to give up
his job. 6. I’m sorry you were ill. 7. It’s odd you noticed nothing out of
the way. 8. We were astonished that the children spoke quite good English.
9. She finds it strange that you did not warn her about your coming.
10. It was strange that nobody had phoned.
Exercise 21. Translate into English. Give two variants (with the indicative mood and
'should*+ infinitive):
187
1. Странно, что он вам это сказал. 2. Понятно, что он этого не зна
ет. 3. Я нахожу вполне естественным, что они делают эти ошибки.
4. Мы были так рады, что вы пришли. 5. Мы нашли естественным, что
она пришла к нам со своими сомнениями. 6. Странно, что она ничего
не написала о своей болезни. 7. Тебе не кажется странным, что он с тех
пор больше ничего не написал? 8. Дети были рады, что у них не будет
уроков в такой хороший день. 9. Естественно, что она хочет быть учи
тельницей, как ее мать. 10. Вполне понятно, что они хотят увидеть эту
игру. 11. Странно, что вы все еще делаете такие ошибки. 12. По-ваше
му естественно, чтобы дети все время ссорились?
In some complex sentences we find the obligatory use of may/might-f-
infinitive and can/could+infinitive
P a tte rn 28
*
E.g. 1. I’m giving you my address so that you may (can) write to mei
if anything goes wrong.
2. I gave her my address so that she might (could) write to me if
anything went wrong.
Стой чтобы тебе все было видно. 2. Я принесу тебе эту
книжку, чтобы ты сама посмотрела. 3. Он нарисовал мне план, чтобы
я нашла дорогу к озеру. 4. Мама сделала нам несколько бутербродов,
чтобы мы поели в поезде. 5. Он подчеркнул все неличные формы крас
ным карандашом, чтобы я их сразу увидела. 6. Я куплю коробку кон
фет, чтобы ты их ей подарила. 7. Не забудь купить яйца, чтобы я могла
пирог. 8. Я оставила записку у нее на подушке, чтобы
ее, бу спать. 9. Объясни ей это еще раз
правильно. 10. Пожалуй чтобы
О
вечером мы могли пойти куда-нибуд

Exercise 23. Change the infinitive of purpose into a clause of purpose.
M o d e l : to do smth — so that smb may/can do smth
1. I’ll take a book to read in the train.
I’ll take a book so that you may/can read it in the train.
2. She bought a few yards of some thin stuff to make a sum
mer dress.
She bought a few yards of some thin stuff so that Mary
might (could) make a summer dress.
1. I’ve brought some picture books to keep the children busy. £. I’ll
buy some cooking apples to bake a pie. 3. I’ll stay after the office hours
to speak to her. 4. She wrote me a short letter to let me know how she
188
was. 5. He spoke in a cutting tone to make them understand that he meant
business this time. 6. She promised him a pair of skates to make him take
the medicine. 7. She spoke in a whisper to show them that it was a secret.
8. He smiled to show her that he did not mind.
P a tte rn 29
In Pattern 29 we find modal phrases as well as the indicative mood.

E.g. 1. I’m afraid you will think me rather silly (or — that you may
(can) think me —).
2. I was afraid that I should disturb them (or — that I might
(could) disturb them).
Exercise 24. Paraphrase the following sentences, using 1may/can' might/could')
instead of the indicative mood:
1. I’m afraid they are out. 2. She fears that the children will prove
too noisy. 3. Mother worries that Jane will catch cold in the open car.
4. I feared that they did not know the way. 5. We worried that they would
lose the way in the fog. 6. Don’t you fear she will be short-sighted like
her father? 7. I’m afraid the way will seem a little long to you. 8. I fea
red she was mistaken. 9. She worried that she would lose her eye-sight.
10. She worried that she would miss the train.
Exercise 25. Put the verb predicate in the principal clause in the past tense changing the
tense of the modal verb in the subordinate clause accordingly.
%
Mo d e 1: I say it again so that you may remember it better. I said it

again so that you might remember it better.1*7
1. They are afraid that the book may be a little difficult. 2. The teach
er always writes the rules on the blackboard so that the children may
copy them correctly. 3. I’ll send him a note so that he may know when to
come. 4. I’ll show you a short cut to the station so that you may reach
it in ten minute:. 5. He opens the window wide so that the swreet spring
air can enter the little flat. 6. I’m afraid that I can keep you waiting.
7. I fear that we can come too late to be of any use. 8. I’m afraid lean
make some spelling mistakes. I’m so nervous. 9. I’ll wait a few minutes
so that he may get his breath back. 10. Turn the meat over so that it
:an get evenly browned.
ч 189
Pattern 30
smb may do (have done) smth

it is (was) possible that smb might do smth
4
E.g. 1. It’s quite possible that he may know nothing about it. 2. It’s
possible that he may have forgotten about it. 3. It was just possible
that we might catch the eight fifteen.
May + infinitive can, be found after “it is possible” as well as
should + infinitive. We mostly use should-)- infinitive in interrogative
sentences and may + infinitive in declarative sentences.
E.g. 1. Is it possible that he should think so? 2. It is possible that he
may think so.
KEYS TO EXERCISES
Exercise 1. В. 1. began 2. came 3. stopped 4. knew 5. went 6. ex

plained 7. took 8. began
Exercise 2. A. 1. were breaking 2. did not matter; did not concern 3.
were 4. saw 5. were 6. were trying 7. were 8. were
B. 1. had been smoking 2. had not understood 3. had gone wild
4. had forgotten 5. had never seen 6. had been dressing 7. had never seen
8. had contracted
C. 1. had 2. had been broken 3. had been standing 4. had happened
5. were 6. did not feel 7. were 8. did not mind 9. made 10. were 11. had
seen 12. had read
Exercise 4. 1. She felt as if she had forgotten everything. 2. I feel
as if I could now understand her. 3. He looked as if he had come to a de
cision. 4. Why do you look as if you did not believe me? 5. He looked as
if he were quite well. 6. You look as if you had never heard about it. 7. The
room looked as if no one ever used it. 8. The town looks as if there had
been no war. 9. He always feels as if people did not like him. 10. I felt
as if nobody could stop me.
Exercise 5. 1. It’s not as if I had promised anything. 2. It’s not as if '
I could have done anything. 3. It is not as if you knew him. 4. It is not
as if you had spoken to him. 5. It is as if I were a stranger here. 6. It was
as if she had corfie to a decision. 7. It was as if nothing could comfort
her. 8. It was (it looked) as if it had been raining for a long time. 9. It
looks as if you were pleased (satisfied). Д0. It looks as if they had gone.
11. It looks as if she had already marked the papers. 12. It looks as if
the weather was getting better.
Exercise 6.1. had refused 2. had stayed 3. were 4. had been invited
5. knew 6. did not look 7. had stayed 8. had taken 9. did not let 10. had
№
Exercise 7. 1. could haê seen 2. could go 3. would pay 4. could have
made 5. would stop 6. would come 7. could see’8. would notice 9. would
not smoke 10. would tell
Exercise 8.A. 1. I wish it did not (would not) bark. 2. I wish it had
not rained. 3. I wish I could explain it. 4. I wish you could have heard
5. I wish they did not (would not) bring 6. I wish 1 had known 7. I wish
she did not (would not) sit 8. I wish she could have reached
B. 1. I wished it were not 2. We wished the room had not been taken.
3. We wished she made up her mind (could make) 4. I wished she did
not complain 5. She wished she had not eaten 6. I wished I had brought
7. I wished they liked 8. I wished they went (would go) away.
C. 1. You’ll wish you had 2. You’ll wish you had not left 3. You’ll
wish you could show 4. You’ll wish it was not going 5. You’ll wish you
had not promised 6. You’ll wish you had not bought
Exercise9. 1. I would rather you did not take 2. My wife would rath
er we stayed 3. She would rather we had not come. 4. I would rather
you hadn’t taken 5. Mother would rather she did not have 6. Would you
rather I went 7. They would rather the children did not p.lay 8. She would
rather you had gone 9. I would rather you did not touch 10. She would
rather I did not borrow
Exercise 10. 1. did not ask 2. had been discussed 3. stayed 4. had din
ner 5. had been done 6. had consulted me 7. heard 8. had not promised
9. had no opinion 10. had refused
Exercise 14. В. 1. lest you should waste time, so that you should not
waste time 2. lest he should feel lonely, so that he should not feel lonely
3. lest mother should worry, so that mother should not worry 4. lest I
should walk, so that I should not walk 5. lest he should see, so that he
should not see 6. lest they should misunderstand, so that they should
not misunderstand
Exercise 15. 1. that the children should get 2. that I should write
3. that people... should learn 4. that I should not interfere 5. that they
should learn 6. that you should spend
Exercise 17. 1. I think it important 2. No one thinks it necessary now
3. Mother found it necessary 4. Do you think it advisable 5. Why do you
find it important 6. I don’t feel it necessary 7. We consider it absolutely
necessary 8. He found it necessary
4
Exercise 19. 1. should have taken the upper road 2. should not know
3. should have played 4. should have seen 5. could have found 6. should
have crossed
V
Exercise 22. 1. may/can see 2. may/can look 3. might/could 4. might/

could 5. might/could 6. may/can 7. may/can 8. may/can 9. may/can 10.
may/can (Key to Ex. 23 see on p. 197.)
191
V
Table of the Obligatory Use of Forms Expressing Unreality in Different Types of Subordinate Clauses
со
to
Type of clause Principal clause Conjunction Subordinate clause Examples
1 3 A О
Subject clause 1. It had been arranged that the

introduced by necessar у library should supply all out
the antici important of town students with the nec
patory “it advisable smb should do smth essary books (or . . . that the
it f is
was requested that smb do smth library supply .. .).
urgent 2. It was important that he should
arranged be informed at once (or
that be informed . . . ) .
natural
( 1. It’s only natural that she
1 strange should feel offended.
smb should do smth 2. It’s curious that she should
odd that smb should have done
it {I was
ls curious have been there.
smth
doubtful
| impossible
smb may do smth 1. It is possible that she may
smb may have done know it.
it \\ was
ls possible that smth 2. It is possible that she may
smb might do smth save heard it.
3. It was possible that she m ig h t
retu rn .
t
V
/
\
\
S c *
time 1. I t time
O
C . t / is у about time smb did smth 9 Ti time
O
C | was high time
looks (ed) 1. You look as if you had been

smb feels (felt) as if Jsmb did smth running.
smth seems (ed) as though smb had done smth 2. She felt as if she were a child.
is (not) (was) 3. It looks as if they were out.
4. It is not as if I had prom
ised.
5. It is as if my life were over.
Predicative The order 1. Her only request was that we
clause request should keep the door locked
demand is (or that we keep the
was that smb should do smth door.
suggestion smb do smth
plan 2. My is that we
wish should again (or that
we try again)
demands (ed) 1. Do vou suggest that he should

suggests (ed) that smb should do smth be the one to do it? (o r...
smb insists (ed) smb do smth that he be the one...).
Object clause
arranges (ed) 2. She demanded that I should
stop the car (or . . . that I
stop the car).
cc
Cl?
I
CD
Type of clause Principal clause Conjunction Subordinate clause Examples
1 2 3 4 5
^ feels (felt) 1. Do you find it necessary that

it important somebody should stay at
finds (found) camp? (or that somebody
. it necessary smb should do smth stay . . . ) .
smb ] considers (ed) that smb do smth 2. She felt it advisable that they
it advisable should be told
believes (ed) they be told . . . ) .
it better
feels (felt) 1. I find it curious that she

it strange does not write (or . that
finds (found) smb does/did/had done she should not write).
Object clause Г
it curious smth 2. She believed it natural that
smb considers (ed) that smb should do/have she was tired in the evening
it natural done smth (or that she should be
believes (ed) tired . . . ) .
it doubtful
wi shes smb did smth 1. I wish you did not interfere.

smb wished that smb had done smth 2. You’ll wish you had stayed
&
smb would do smth at home.
fears (ed) that smb does/will do/did/ 1. I fear that she will miss the
smb < worries (ed) had done smth tra i n (or... th at she may/can
is/was afraid smb may/can do smth miss...).
smb might/could do 2. We were afraid that she was
smth out (or... that she might/could
be out).
does smth lest smb should do smth 1. Here’s my address lest you
smb -I will do smth so that smb do smth should forget it (or... lest
did smth smb should not do you forget it).
smth 2. Here’s my address so that you
should not forget it.
Adverbial clause does smth so that smb may/can do smth 1. I’ll show you the letter so
of purpose smb 1 will do smth smb might/could do that you may/can see for
did smth smth yourself.
2. I left a note so that they
might/could know where we
were.
CD
Cn
\
’■ s СО i rv СП
03
3t-3 зз
я с/) "t/з
c3 E
соо £ 03CJ
X .
CD сл >»
JS u
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I
Exercise 23. 1. the children may/can be kept busy 2. that she may/
can bake 3. that she may/can speak to me 4. I might/could know 5. that
they might/could understand 6. that he might/could take the medicine
7. that they might/could see (understand) 8. that she might/could see
T ra in in g E xercises
E xercise 26. C o m p le te the fo llo w in g sen ten ces u s in g the P a s t I n d e f in ite , the P a s t P e r
fect , ‘sh o u ld '+ in f in itiv e ( o r the s u b ju n c tiv e m o o d ) ,* m a y Jean' - { - in f in itiv e w h ere n ecessa ry.
Use the w o rd c o m b in a tio n ‘to w a r n sm b a g a in s t s m t t i .
Model: 1.
It is tim e — you w arned her a g a in st th is m an .
2. It is im p o rta n t— th a t you sh o u ld w arn h im in tim e.
1. It is high time — .2. It is advisable — . 3. Do you think it rig h t—?
4. It is not as if — . (priority) 5. I went there only so that — . 6. It’s quite
possible that — . 7 . 1 wish somebody — . (priority) 8. I’m afraid that— .
9. It looks as if — . (priority) 10. She spoke to me as if —.(priority) 11.
It’s strange that —.(priority) 12. She finds it natural that she— .(rel
ative future) 13. I would rather somebody — . (relative future) 14. She
actually suggested that — . 15. Her suggestion was that — . 16. We did
not like her request that — . 17. It is possible that someone — . (prio
rity) *k
Exercise 27. P a r a p h r a s e the fo llo w in g sen ten ce s , u s in g c la u ses in s te a d o f the ita lic is e d
com plexes.
Mo d e l : 1. It is time for you to act without prompting.

It is time you acted without prompting.
2. She positively insists on your going there.
She positively insists that you should go there.
1. It’s quite possible for him to change his mind. 2. No one insisted
on your coming. It was entirely your own idea. 3. Mother thinks it best
for me to stay out of it. 4. She disliked the very idea of anything being
done without her. 5. I have specially come here for you to tell me all
about the accident. 6. The youngest child brought his kitten to her room
for her not to feel lonely. 7. It was perfectly impossible for anyone to
have learned of his arrival. 8. Isn’t it natural for me to want a family of
my own? 9. It is time for them to give the signal. 10. It was time for
him to return and we began to watch the road. 11. Have you arranged
for Angel to be taken back to school on Monday? 12. It’s time for them
to go.
Exercise 28. O pen the b r a c k e ts . U se the P a s t I n d e f in ite , the P a s t P e r f e c tt *sh o u Id ’+
in fin itiv e , 1m a y /сагС Ц -in f in itiv e .
Щ
1. I’m afraid that it (to take) me spme time to find his address.
2 .1 don4 see why you should be so cross with me. I t’s not as if I (to prom
ise) anything definite. 3. I’d much rather you (to stay) here, Eddie.
It’s not as if you (can) be of any use to me over there. 4. It is all right now.
It’s been arranged that you (to be given) a free passage. 5. He was the
only one to insist that the matter (to be investigated). 6. Mother made
quite a fuss over her so that she (not to feel) out of things. 7. I’ve brbught
197
the letter in question so that you (to judge) for yourself. 8. You keep
treating me as if I (to be) a child of twelve and not overbright at that.
9. It looks as if something (to be) very much the matter with him. 10.
Well, it’s about time somebody (to tell) me what it is all about. 11. She
keeps worrying that someone (to object) to her having the dog in her
room. 12. They found it natural that she (to be) rather cold and reserved
at first. 13. She felt as if her life (to reach) a new stage. 14. It’s impossible
that in a house full of people no one (to hear) the shot. 15. I sometimes
wish now I (not to be) so choosy at the time. 16. I wish you (not to speak)
as if I (to be) an outsider to be kept in the dark as to family troubles.
17. They won’t say a word of it if you would rather they (not to do).
18. Before you’re through you’ll wish you never (to hear) of me. 19. I feel
as if I (not to have) a worry in the world. 20. It looks as if someone (to
be) here already.
1. Жаль, что вы не сохранили письмо. 2. Он считает естественным,
что молоденькую девушку интересуют наряды. 3. Я не требую, чтобы
вы дали мне ответ сейчас же. 4. Боюсь, что мы прождем здесь доволь
но долго. 5. Вам не кажется странным, что она это вам сразу не сказа
ла? 6. Мне казалось, что я его уже давно знаю. 7. Похоже, что все уже
ушли. 8. Не может быть, чтобы он ничего не знал об этом (сейчас).
9. Почему ты считаешь нужным, чтобы мы пили столько молока?
Ведь мы же не маленькие дети. 10. Почему у тебя такой вид, словно
ты мне не веришь? 11. Он требовал, чтобы я объяснил ему, как это де
лается. 12. Хорошо бы кто-нибудь объяснил ей, что это не так. 13.
Я запер собаку в кухне, чтобы она не укусила почтальона. Собаки
всегда реагируют на почтальонов, словно это их злейшие враги. 14.
Он замолчал, словно позабыв, что он хотел сказать. 15. Она накрыла
бутерброды влажным полотенцем, чтобы они не зачерствели. 16. Ты
пожалеешь, что не пошел со мной. 17. Возможно, что дети, игравшие
на школьном дворе, видели его, когда он выходил. 18. Она умылась
холодной водой, чтобы никто не заметил, что она плакала. 19. Не делай
вид, что ты этого не знаешь. 20. Вам давно пора принять меры.
KEYS ТО TRAINING EXERCISES
t
Exercise 26. 1. warned 2. should warn 3. should warn 4. had warned

5. might/could warn 6. may warn; may have warned 7. had warned 8.
may warn 9. had warned 10. had warned 11. should have warned 12.
should warn 13. warned 14. should warn 15. should warn 16. should
warn 17. may have warned
Exercise 27. 1. that he may have changed 2. that you should come
3. that I should stay 4. that anything should be done 5. that you may/can
tell me 6. lest she should feel lonely/so that she should not feel lonely
7. that anyone should have learned 8. that I should want 9. they gave
10. he returned 11. that Angel should be taken 12. they went
Exercise 28. 1. may take 2. had promised 3. stayed; could 4. should
be given 5. should be investigated 6. should not feel 7. may/can judge
198
8. were 9. were 10. told 11. may/can object 12. were 13. had reached 14,
should have heard 15. had not been 16. did not speak; were 17. did not
18. had never heard 19. had not 20. had been
Exercise 29. 1. had kept 2. should be interested in 3. should give
4. may/can wait 5. should not have told 6. felt as if I had known 7. had
left 8. should know 9. should drink 10. did not trust 11. should explain
12. explained 13. lest it should bite/so that it should not bite; were 14.
had forgotten 15. lest they should get dry/so that they should not get dry
16. had come 17. may have seen 18. lest somebody should notice/so that
no one should notice 19. Don’t look as if you did not know ... 20. took
some measures
Tes t *
A ssig n m en t I. A n sw e r the fo llo w in g q u e s tio n s , G ive y o u r ow n e x a m p le s to p ro v e y o u r

p o in t:
1. In what ways can the unreality of the action be expressed in the

English language?
2. What is the difference between the English conditional mood and
the Russian subjunctive mood?
3. How does the temporal meaning of the Past Indefinite and the Past
Perfect change when the forms are used to express the unreality of the
action?
4. What do we mean by the free and obligatory use of formsexpressing
unreality?
5. On what structural elements does the choice of forms, expressing
unreality depend in case of the obligatory use of forms?
A ssig n m en t I I . Complete the following sentences:
1. She was out of town or — . 2. If you had not been so angry — .
3. If I were you — .4 . If he should object — . 5. Nothing would have
stopped him — . 6. You would know what to do — . 7. I’d rather — .
8. You had better.'— . 9. I ’ve brought you his letter — . 10. Don’t you
fear —? 11. She found it quite natural — . 12. I wish — . 13. She felt — .
14. It’s not — . 15. It looks —.16. Why do you treat her — . 17. They
think it important — . 18. It’s quite possible — . 19. It was arranged — .
20. My suggestion is — . 21. We. were against her suggestion that — .
22. I’m only doing it lest — . 23. If only he — . 24. It is time — . 25. It
was as if — .
A ssig n m en t II, O p en th e b r a c k e ts . S h o w th a t the a c tio n n a m ed b y the in f in itiv e is an
u n r e a l on e b y u s in g som e fo r m o f e x p r e s s in g u n r e a lity :
1. Let’s count the money so that we (to know) where we stand.

2. Isn’t it time somebody (to explain) to us what we are waiting for?
3. If only I (to know) what it is all about! 4. If it (to rain) in the night
the dog will lose the trail. 5. I (to do) anything in my power if I (can)
help you. 6. I do wish you (to make up your mind) one way or the other. *
200
X
7. Do you find it quite natural that she (to treat) you like a servant?
8. I’m afraid the dog (to bite) you. 9. But for his blue eyes I (can take)
•him for a native. 10. Гш sorry I did not buy that coat, it (to be) very
useful later when the real cold began. 11. Nothing I (can say) (to stop)
him. He had made up his mind. 12. Why do you want me to go? I t’s
not as if (to speak) their language. 13. The children feel as if it (to be)
holidays already. 14. It looks as if it (to be) going to rain.
1. Боюсь, мы можем опоздать. 2. Я говорю это, чтобы ты на меня
не сердилась. 3. Ее не было дома, а то я попросил бы ее перевести мне
эту заметку. 4. Если бы не ее последние слова, я бы не стал спорить.
5. Я считаю важным, чтобы дети учились плавать. 6. В случае, если
он этого не знает, он скажет вам, куда обратиться за информацией.
7. Ах, если бы она объяснила мне заранее, как это трудно! Я бы не
поехала в альпинистский лагерь. 8. Очень важно, чтобы все знали о
собрании. 9. Как мне жаль, что я не послушалась вашего совета!
10. Ведь я же не знала, как это интересно! 11. Лучше не возражай.
12. Я бы предпочла, чтобы ты не вмешивался. 13. Наш план состоял
в том, чтобы переночевать в лесу и рано утром двинуться дальше.
14. Если бы я не знала его так хорошо, я бы ему просто не поверила.
15. Если бы ты пропустил первую лекцию, ты бы сейчас ничего не по
нимал. 16. Мне казалось, что случилось что-то очень важное. 17. Вы
еще пожалеете, что не пригласили ее приехать. 18. Пора бы им быть
здесь. 19. Я положу книги в твою сумку, чтобы ты не оставил их дома.
20. Они смеялись, словно я сказала что-то в самом деле смешное.
I
Assignment No. 7
Modal Verbs
General Description
Modal verbs (can, m a y, m u st, need, sh all, w ill, ou gh t ) have certain
features in common.
I. They have no verbals, consequently they have no analytical forms
(perfect, continuous, passive, etc.) and need no auxiliaries to form ques
tions and negations:
E.g. Can you do it? — No, I can’t.
II. The verbs can, m ay, sh all, w ill have two tense forms of the indic
ative mood — the present and the past.
E.g. 1. I can just reach the shelf.from 1. I could just reach the shelf from
where I’m sitting. where I was sitting.
2. Stop telling me what I may, 2. He kept telling me what I might
or may not do. or might not do.
3. You’ll (will) be sorry for what 3. He said I’d (should) be sorry for
you said. what I had said.
4. The door won’t (will not) open. 4. The door would not open.
III. The forms could, m ig h t , should and w ould instead of denotin
a past action may denote an unreal action.
E.g. 1 could do it now if I wanted to.
бы мог сделать это сейчас...
When the forms co u ld , m ig h t, should and w ould denote unreality they
have no meaning of a past action. They have no temporal meaning at all.
202
ftiey are used with the indefinite infinitive when we speak of the present
0x the future, and with the perfect infinitive when we speak about the ■m
past.
g. g. 1. He could help you (now) if he 1. He could have helped you (then) if
wanted to. he had wanted to.
2. You might remember your 2. You might have remembered your
child’s birthday, (in general) child’s birthday (yesterday).
3. You should see a dentist about 3. You should have seen a dentist
this tooth before it gets about that tooth before it got
really bad. really bad.
4. I would not stay now if you 4. I would not have stayed there if
asked me. they had asked me.
IV. The verbs m u st and need have only one form of the indicative
mood. They are used with the indefinite infinitive when we speak of the
present or the future, and with the perfect infinitive when we speak about
the past.
E.g- 1. She must be about thirty now. 1. She must have been about thirty
at. the time.
2. You need not wait for me 2. You needn’t have waited, (then)
to-day.
V. The modal verb ou gh t has only one form. The form of the infini
tive after the verb ou gh t shows whether we are speaking of the present-
future or of the past. 4
E.g. 1. You ought to take a taxi. 1. You ought to have taken a taxi.
(now) (then)
t
VI. Most modal verbs have three sets of meanings: the primary; the
imperative; the suppositional.
VII. Modal verbs are always used in combination with the infinitive.
Can
The modal verb can has two tense forms of the indicative mood: the
present tense can and the past tense cou ld .
The verb can has the following meanings:
I, The primary meaning: mental, physical or circumstancial ability
to do something.
E. g. 1. She can do sums in her head. 2. He can easily carry the child.
3. We can see Yalta from here in clear weather.
P a ttern 1
can do smth now — может

could do smth then—мог
could do smth now—мог бы
could have done smth—мог бы тогда*
*
203
E.g. 1. Baby can walk now. 2. Baby could walk when she was ten
months old. 3. Baby could walk perfectly well. She’s just lazy. 4. Baby
could have walked across the room but she was afraid to.
Note 1. In the primary meaning the verb can is used in affirmative,
negative and interrogative sentences.
E.g. 1. I can speak English. 2. I can’t speak English. 3. Can you speak
English?
Exercise 1. Analyse the form ‘could’ In the following sentences. State whether it denotes
the past or the unreality of the action.Translate the combinations of ‘could' with the infin
itive. Pay attention to whether it means «мог», «мог бы сейчас» или «мог бы тогда»:
1. Не could reel off line after line of poetry when he was a child.
2. He told us that the place could be reached by car. 3. I could see through
the window that the room was empty. 4. I could tell you many things if
you would only care to listen. 5. She’s as tall as you are. She could wear
your things. 6. You simply did not care. Why, you could have lent him
the money. 7. The game was as good as lost. Nothing could have saved
“the Ramblers”. 8. By the evening I had gone through the pile of papers.
It was no use. I could not find any mention of the case. 9. Don’t try to
find excuses for her. She could at least offer to help you put the house
to rights after the party. But she won’t, not she. 10. The last copy was
sold. I could have cried. 11. We had to tell him everything. We could
not have managed without his help. 12. So you walked the whole way,
carrying that heavy suitcase. Why couldn’t you ask somebody for a lift?
7
Exercise 2. In the following sentences *could’ denotes unreality. Refer the situation to
the past by changing the form of the infinitive.
M o d e l : Could you do anything for her? (now)
Could you have done anything for her? (then)
1. Only an immediate operation could save her now. 2. I could get
there in less than two hours in my car. 3. I could not make a cake without
eggs anyway. 4. Could you translate this without a dictionary? 5. How
could you get in touch with her? You don’t know where she is. 6. I could
refuse her nothing. 7. Don’t do that. A better way out could be found.'
8. Of course I could ask Father to post it for me. 9. Jackie could stay with
Edna. She would love to have him. 10. You could take it to the cleaner’s
on the way to town and I’d get it back in time for the party.
Exercise 3. Translate into English. Pay attention to whether ‘could’ denotes the past
or the unreality of the action.1
1. Из моего окна я мог видеть только часть двора. 2; В темноте я не

могла разобрать, сколько там людей. 3. Ночь была такая темная, что
я не смогла бы найти дорогу без фонарика. 4. Я могла бы ему это сразу
сказать, но мне не хотелось портить ему настроение. 5. Никто не мог
бы сделать для него больше, чем это сделали вы, доктор. 6. Девочка
верхней Она
спущенную петлю на тонком чулке
204
3, Как ты могла оставить ее одну? Ведь она могла бы заблудиться.
9. Задачу он решить не смог. 10. Один он задачу не решил бы.
II. The imperative meaning: 1. permission, 2. request, 3. prohibition
P a tte rn 2
Permission
you can do smth—можете • #
mem
E.g. 1. You can go now , Marv. 2. You can stay, if you want to.
P a tte rn 3
Request
can
could you do smth? — вы не могли бы
can’t
couldn’t
%
ттгет
E.g. 1. Can you tell me the time? 2. Could you give me a lift? 3. Couldn’t
you just give me a hint?
Pa ttern 4
Asking for Permission
Щ > 19 *
can ^
could I I (smb) do smth—можно мне (кому-либо) ...?
can’t I
couldn’t /
__________________ ___________________________ _______________________________________________________________ ■ __________ _____________________________________________ _
E.g. 1. Can I have another egg, Mother? 2. Could Eddie come too?
3. Couldn’t I wait in the car?
#
P attern 5
Prohibition
S.,g. 1. You can’t cross the street here. 2. No, children, you can’t take
■he dog indoors.
205
Note 2. The modal verb can has an imperative meaning in these pat
terns only. If you change the pattern the meaning will also
change.
Compare:
Can Леspell? (Умеет ли он грамотно.писать?)— no imperat
meaning.
Can you spell your name for me? (Продиктуйте вашу фами
буквам request
Can / spell this word for you? (Можно я вам это слово по б\
вам продиктую?) — asking for permission.
Exercise 4. Form requests, ask for permission to do something, give permission to do
something, express prohibition using the following word-combinations:
t
1. to help smb with his work; 2. to do smth directly one returns;

3. to take smb’s picture; 4. to have cream with one’s tea; 5. to drop in at
a shop for some face-cream.
M o d e l : to discuss the subject with one’s friends.
1. request — Can (could) you discuss the subject with your
friends?
Вы не могли бы обсудить этот вопрос со своими друзьями?
2. asking for permission — Can (could) I discuss the subject
with my friends?
Можно мне обсудить вопрос с моими друзьями?
3. permission — You can discuss the subject with your friends.
Можете обсудить вопрос со своими друзьями.
4. prohibition — You can’t discuss the subject with your
friends.
Нельзя обсуждать (не обсуждайте) этот вопрос с вашими
друзьями.
Exercise 5. Translate into English. Use Patterns 2, 3, 4, 5:
1. Вы не могли бы дать мне еще один пример? 2. Нельзя давать
примеры из учебника (Не давайте примеров из учебника). 3. Можно,
я вам это объясню после урока? 4. Можете сдать работу, если вы ее уже
закончили. 5. Можно, я вам помогу? 6. Вы не могли бы мне помочь?
4
7. Нельзя говорить по-русски на уроке (Не говорите по-русски на
уроке). 8. В этой модели герундий употребить нельзя (Не употребляй
те герундий в этой модели). 9. Можно, я позвоню маме и скажу, чтобы
меня не ждали к обеду? 10. Вы не могли бы зайти попозже?
N o t e 3. 1. The form could used instead of can in these patterns makes
the sentence more polite. 2. The forms c a n 't , co u ld n 't make
the sentence more emotional and insistent.
Compare: 1) Can you say it again, please?
Could you say it again, please?
2) Can I come too?
Can’t I come too?
Couldn’t I come too?
III. The suppositional meaning: 1. strong doubt, 2. very strong doubt.
206
%
Strong Doubt
Hn w j H i i j *
A. can
could smb be; know; be doing smth?
4
[ Г*i
E.g. 1. Can (could) it be so late? 2. Can (could) she really mean it?
3. Can (could) they be waiting for us?
Mo t e 4. To distinguish between a question about somebody’s ability
to do something (умеет ли, может ли кто-то сделать что-то)
and the expression of strong doubt (неужели кто-то что-то
делает) we use the Indefinite infinitive in the first case and
the Continuous infinitive in the second (with the exception
of the verbs to be , to know, to love , to liv e , to h a te , and some
others).
E.g. 1. Can he write poetry?
Умеет ли он писать стихи?
2. Can he be writing poetry?
Неужели он пишет стихи?
1. Can he carry this heavy box? 2. Can he be carrying a monkey?
3. Can he teach the children to swim? 4. Can he be teaching the children
to swim? 5. Can he know all this? 6. Can they be meeting in secret? 7. Can
it be true? 8. Can you translate this article without a dictionary? 9. Can
she be so old? 10. Can one see your house from here?
The Perfect infinitive in Pattern 6 refers the situation to the past.
B. can t smb have been, have known, have been doing?

could 1 smth have been, have been done—неужели (было) ...
E.g. 1. Can (could) it have been so cold? 2. Can (could) he have known
about it? 3. Can (could) they have been waiting for us?
i
Exercise 7. Refer the situation to the past by changing the form of the infinitive.
M o d e l : 1. Can (could) it be so late?

Неужели сейчас так поздно?
2. Can (could) it have been so late?
Неужели было так поздно?1
1. Can she be only five? 2. Can he be telling the truth? 3. Can it be
raining? 4. Can the children be home already? 5. Can the cake be burning?
6. Can he be trying to tell us something? 7. Can she be so fond of them?
8. Can it be dangerous?
4
t
207
Exercise 8. Translate into English. Use Pattern 6 (A and B):
1. Неужели я потеряла карту? 2. Неужели я так потолстела?
3. Неужели уже темнеет? 4. Неужели ей все рассказали? б. Неужели
я трачу время зря? 6. Неужели он переплыл реку в темноте? 7. Неужели
молоко опять убежало? 8. Неужели они еще играют во дворе? 9. Не
ужели это так трудно? 10. Неужели было так холодно?
N o t e 5. There is practically no difference in meaning between can
and could in Pattern 6. C ould makes the sentence a little
more emphatic.
P a tte r n 7
Very Strong Doubt *
в* (
can not be, know, be doing smth

A. smb
could not
• • быть, чтобы (не может, не спо
собен) сделать
can not have been, have known, have been doing

В. smb smth
could not
• • it быть, чтобы сделал
не мог (был не способен) сделать
*т МРь
E.g. 1. You can’t be thinking of leaving. 2. You can’t mean it. 3. He

can’t have said it. 4. He can’t have been trying to swim the river
in that place.
Exercise 9. Refer the statement to the past by changing the form of the infinitive.
M o d e l : 1. She can’t be lying.
He может быть, чтобы она лгала (сейчас).
i
2. She can’t have been lying.

He может быть, чтобы она лгала (тогда).
Не могла она лгать.
1. It can’t be true. 2. She can’t be in London now. 3. You can’t mean
it. 4. You can’t be doing your best. 5. She can’t be crying. 6. It can’t
be so difficult as all that. 7. There can’t be only one way out of the cave.
8. They can’t be still waiting for you.
Exercise 10. Translate into English. Use Pattern 7 (A and B):
1. He может быть, чтобы он забыл свое обещание. 2. Не может
быть, чтобы молоко уже выкипело. 3. Не мог он вам это сказать. 4. Не
могла она опоздать на поезд. 5. Не может она это думать. 6. Не может
быть, чтобы ты этому действительно верил. 7. Не может быть, чтобы
208
#•
л было двадцать пять лет. 8. Чай не может быть все еще горячим.
д Не может быть, чтобы вы знали это лучше нее. 10. Не мог он принять
Бас за другого.
jj о t е 6. То express strong or very strong doubt about an action not

taking place (неужели кто-то не делает, не сделал что-то;
не может быть, чтобы кто-то не делал, не сделал что-то)
we use the expression to fa il to do som ething. Negative pre-
d is - and used
Can she have failed to see him?

Неужели она его не увидела?
She can’t have failed to see him.
He может быть, чтобы она его не увидела.
t
Не могла она его не увидеть.
Can she dislike me?
Неужели я ей не нравлюсь?
She can’t have misunderstood me.
He может быть, чтобы она меня не поняла.
Не могла она меня не понять.
Exercise 11. Express strong and very strong doubt about the statements made in the
following senfences. \
Mo d e 1: 1. She did not trust him from the start.

Can she have mistrusted him — .
She can’t have mistrusted him — .
2. She did not explain to me how to do it.
Can she have failed to explain to him — .
She can’t have failed to explain to him — .
1. She did not leave her address. 2. She does not believe his story.
3. She did not recognise him when they met on the platform. 4. They
did not deliver the mail in time. 5. Mother did not understand my direc
tions. 6. You did not buy the butter.

1. Неужели он не проверил, все ли на месте? 2. Не мог он не слышать
звонка. 3. Не может быть, чтобы она этому не верила. 4. Неужели вы
Не принесли статью? 5. Неужели он вам действительно не нравится?
3. Неужели он не понял ваших объяснений? 7. Не может быть, чтобы
°н завтра не приехал. 8. Неужели вы еще не проверили сочинения?
9. Не мог он не прийти вчера <на лекцию. 10. Неужели он так и не
°тослал письмо?IV
.
IV. The modal verb can may be used to make a sentence more emo
tional. Such sentences have the form of questions but are not questions
because the speaker does not really expect an answer.
4
%
Pattern 8
mm
A. when 'i v
where | can smb do/have done smth

why J
how j
E.g. 1. Oh, Jack, how can you! — Don’t mind him darling. He is only
teasing. 2. Where can I have left my spectacles! 3. When can it
have happened! *
B . w hat |
who >
ca n d o /h a v e d o n e sm th
w h ic h J
i
I 11,1 1 ” , M 1,1,1 - ■ on* ■ ПМ II, i. . — ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ I I I M . M . - . n ■ ■— ........ ........................................................
E.g. 1. What can it mean! 2. Who can it have been! 3. Which of the two
can have taken it!
Exercise 13. Make the following sentences more emotional by transforming them accor*
ding to Pattern 8:
1. I wonder where he is now. 2. I wonder why he said so. 3. I have no
idea who wrote that letter.,4. The room was locked. How did he get in?
5. What astonishes me is why he left that note. 6. I wonder why she i&
taking so much trouble. 7. The entrance was watched all the time. Whert
did he get out, I’m asking you?8. I wonder how it was possible for him
to find us in that crowd. 9. It astonishes me that you find pleasure in read
ing such stuff. 10. I wonder which of the children is writing these things
on the blackboard.
Training Exercises
v 4
Exercise 14. Translate the following sentences, State in what meaning the modal verb
'can' is used. Name the pattern and give the Russian equivalent.
M o d e l : 1. Sorry, you can’t bring your own food here.

(imperative, prohibition, нельзя, Pattern 5)
2. Can it be so very expensive?
(suppositional, strong doubt, неужели, Pattern 6)
1. “You can’t talk about correspondence,” the policeman said. “That’s
forbidden.”2.Mum, can I have another ice-cream?3. Why didn’t you eat any
lunch? A little bit of boiled fish could not have hurt you. 4. He was not
old. He couldn’t have been more than forty. 5. “And you can play with
Ginger,” Moira said kindly. 6. Can he have meant me? 7. Could you show
me how you do it? 8. Can I bring my sister too? 9. Sorry, you can’t take
the papers out of the reading hall. 10. She can’t have deliberately diso
beyed me.
210
1. Во время контрольной пользоваться словарями нельзя. 2. Неуже
ли сегодня так холодно? 3. Не мог он сделать такой глупой ошибки.
Д.
Не мог он вам этого не объяснить. 5. Можете идти в кино, если хо
•
тите. 6. Почему ты меня не спросил? Я бы могла тебе все объяснить.

7. Нельзя брать ход назад. 8. Вы не могли бы показать мне это место
в учебнике? 9. Жаль, что я не умею это делать так хорошо, как вы.
10. Я не знал, что она была в Москве летом. Я бы мог попросить ее от
везти эту книгу маме. 11. Принесите мне, пожалуйста, стакан воды.
12. Можно, мы возьмем Джека тоже? 13. Неужели они опоздали на
поезд! 14. Как они могли опоздать на поезд! Они очень рано вышли
из дома. 15. Кто ему мог рассказать об этом? 16. Можно мне попытать
ся еще раз? 17. Нет, Мэри, мороженое на улице есть нельзя. 18. Вы
бы не могли передать ей этот журнал? 19. Можете пользоваться слова
рем, если вы не поймете какое-нибудь слово. 20. Не может быть, чтобы
они этому действительно верили.
KEYS ТО EXERCISES
Exercise 1. 1. past t. мог 2. past t. можно было 3. past t. мог 4. un

reality мог бы (сейчас) 5. unreality могла бы (сейчас) 6. unreality мог
бы (тогда) 7. unreality могло бы (тогда) 8. past t. не мог 9. unreality
могла бы (сейчас) 10. unreality мог бы (тогда) 11. unreality не смоглй
бы (тогда) 12. past t. не могла
Exercise 3. 1. could see 2. could not tell 3. could not have found4. co
uld have said 5. could have done 6. could only just reach 7. could mend
8. could leave; could have got lost (could have lost her way) 9. could
not solve 10. could not have solved
Exercise 5. 1. Can/could you give 2. You can’t give 3. Can I explain
4. You can hand in 5. Can/could I help 6. Can/could you help 7. You
can’t speak 8. You can’t use 9. Can I phone 10. Can/could you come
Exercise 6. 1. может ли нести 2. неужели носит 3. может ли учить
4. неужели учит 5. неужели знает 6. неужели встречаются 7. неужели
это правда 8. можете ли перевести 9. неужели она так стара 10. можно
ли увидеть
Exercise 8. 1. Can/could I have lost the map? 2. Can/could I have
grown so stout? 3. Can/could it be growing late? 4. Can/could she have
been told everything? 5. Can/could I be wasting time? 6. Can/could h e'
have crossed the river in the dark? 7. Can/could the milk, have boiled
over again? 8. Can/could they be still playing in the yard? 9. Can/could
it be so difficult? 10. Can/could it have been so cold?
Exercise 10. 1. He can’t have forgotten his promise. 2. The milk can’t
have already boiled over. 3. He can’t have told you so. 4. She can’t
have missed the train. 5. She can’t really think so. 6. You can’t really
believe it. 7. She can’t be twenty five. 8. The tea can’t be still hot.
9. You can’t know it better than she does. 10. He can’t have taken you
for somebody else.
211
Exercise 11, 1. Can she have failed to leave/She can’t have failed to
leave 2. Can she disbelieve/She can’t disbelieve 3. Can she have failed
to recognise/She can’t have failed to recognise 4. Can they have failed
to deliver/They can’t have failed to deliver 5. Can mother have misun-
derstood/Mother can’t have misunderstood 6. Can you have failed to buy/
You can’t have failed to buy
Exercise 12. 1. Can he have failed to check whether 2. He can’t have
failed to hear 3. She can’t disbelieve it. 4. Can you have failed to bring
5. Can you really dislike him?6. Can he have misunderstood 7. He can’t
fail to come 8. Can you have failed to mark 9. He can’t have failed to
attend 10. Can he have failed to post
Exercise 13. 1. Where can he be now! 2. Why can he have said so!
3. Who can have written it! 4. How can he have got in! 5. Why can he have
left that note! 6. Why can she be taking so much trouble! 7. When can he
have got out! 8. How can he have found us! 9. How can you read such
stuff! 10. Which of the children can be w riting...!
з
/ \
Exercise 14. 1. imperative, prohibition, нельзя, P.5; 2. imperative,

asking for permission, можно, P.4; 3. primary, physical ability, не могла
бы, P.l; 4. suppositional, very strong doubt, не может быть, P.7; 5. im
perative, permission, можешь, P.2; 6. suppositional, strong doubt,
неужели, P.6; 7. imperative, request, не могли бы, P.4; 8. imperative,
asking for permission, можно, P.4; 9. imperative, prohibition, нельзя,
P.5; 10. suppositional, very strong doubt, не может быть, P.7.
Exercise 15. 1. You can’t use 2. It can’t be 3. He can’t have made
4. He can’t have failed 5. You can go 6. I could have explained 7. You
can’t take a move back. 8. Could you show 9. I wish I could do 10. I could
have asked 11. Could you bring 12. Can we take 13. Can they have mis
sed 14. How can they have missed 15. Who can have told 16. Can I try
17. You can’t eat 18. Could you give 19. You can use 20. They can’t,
really believe
May
/
The modal verb m ay has two tense forms of the indicative mood:
the present tense m a y and the past tense m ig h t.
The verb m a y has the following meanings:
/
I. The primary meaning: absence of obstacles to the action.

E.g. 1. One may still hear this expression used by older people. 2. On
fine mornings one may see strips of fog down in the valley. I t’s
a sign of good weather coming.
Note 7. At present can is used as well as m a y in the following pattern:
Pattern 9
E.g. 1. We may (can) expect them any minute now. 2. Mother said that
one might (could) set one’s watch by him.
1. В этой модели предложения можно употреблять и инфинитив
и герундий. 2. На острове можно найти семь видов грибов. 3. В ясную
погоду отсюда можно видеть университет. 4. Это можно объяснить
влиянием родного языка. 5. В это время его всегда можно видеть в
читальном зале. 6. Студенты могут сдавать экзамены досрочно. 7.
Многого можно достигнуть тренировкой. 8. Хорошего произношения
можно добиться только упорной работой. 9. Эту книгу можно взять
в любой библиотеке. 10. В этой модели инфинитив можно употреблять
с частицей to и без нее.
II. The imperative meaning: 1) asking for permission, 2) permis
sion, 3) prohibition, 4) request, 5) re
proach.
Note 8. In patterns 10, 11, 12 can may be used as well as m ay. V
P a tte rn 10
Asking for Permission

M
\
1
E.g. 1. May (can) I answer you now? 2. May (can) he come in? 3. May
(can) we begin?
P a tte rn 11
Permission
mm
4
do smth можете
213
E.g. 1. You may (can) do it in oral form if you want. 2. He may (can)
stay after the lessons and copy the text. 3. You may (can) be the
first to answer if you are in a hurry.
P a tte r n 12
Prohibition
you > not do smth—нельзя
E.g. 1. No, Jack, you may (can) not sit down to dinner without chang
ing. 2. Mother says I may (can) not go to the pictures. 3. We
may (can) not go out to play. We’ve got colds.
P a tte r n 13
Request (mostly ironic) or Suggestion
you might do smth мог бы # •
сделал бы это
E.g 1. You might tune that wireless a little lower, children. 2. You
might bring me the paper, Mary. There’s a good girl.
P a tte r n 14
Reproach
Щ .
E.g. 1. You might have brought her a few flowers. It was her birthday.
2. You might have phoned. Mother was so worried when you did
not come.
4
Exercise 17. Ask for permission to do smth; give permission to do smth; prohibit an
action; express a request, a reproach using the following word combinations:
1. to show smb how to do smth 2. to explain to smb how smth hap-'
pened3. to help smb do smth 4. to look after the children for smb 5. to do,
the shopping 6. to take the dog for his run 7. to exchange the books atf
the library 8. to bring home a carton of ice-cream
Mo d e l : to sandwiches for Tiny’s lunch
1. May (can sandwiches for Tiny’s lunch?
2. You may sandwiches for Tiny’s lunch
3. You may (can) not cut sandwiches for Tiny’s lunch
4. You might cut a few sandwiches for Tiny’s lunch
5. You might have a sandwiches Tiny
214
$
Exercise 18. Translate into English. Give two variants where possible:
1. Можно, я вас подожду? 2. Ему нельзя идти с нами кататься на
коньках. 3. Ты мог бы подумать, прежде чем отвечать. 4. Ты бы сдела
ла мне яичницу, Нэн. 5. А теперь, дети, можете идти играть в сад.
6. Можно мне взять вашу газету на минутку? 7. К сожалению, здесь
ждать нельзя. 8. Ты бы, по крайней мере, позвонила, что не приедешь.
9. В диктанте много ошибок. Вы могли бы быть повнимательней.
10. Можно мне выйти?
Exercise 19. Transform the following sentences into ironic requests or suggestions ac
cording to Pattern 13. Change them into expressions of reproach according to Pattern 14.
M o d e l : You never listen when I speak to you.
1. request or suggestion: You might listen when I speak to you.
2. reproach: You might have listened when I spoke to you.
1. You do not wear your new suit to the office. 2. You always forget
to sew the buttons on, Alice. 3. You don’t pay enough attention to the
child. 4. Do come and help me choose a present for her. 5. You do not
try enough. 6. Get up a little earlier and help me to clean up after the
party. 7. You never let me know when you are coming. 8. Give me a
detailed account of what happened. 9. You never tell me your plans. 10.
You always leave your room in disorder.
✓
III. The suppositional meaning: doubt.

P a tte r n 15
Doubt*
*
mav
smb may not
* /
do/have done smth—может быть, возможно

smb might do smth
Note 9. The form m ig h t expresses greater doubt. It is practically

never used when speaking about the past.
✓
E.g. 1. Let’s leave the key under the mat. She may come when we’re
out. 2. Someone may have seen her leaving the building. 3. Let’s
wait just a little longer. She might come after all.
Exercise 20. Use ‘may''plus the infinitive instead of thy parenthetical expressions in the
following sentences. Use the Indefinite infinitive when the sentence refers to the present or
future, the Perfect infinitive, if it refers to the past.
M o d e 1: 1. Maybe, he is at home now.

He may be at home now.
2. Perhaps, the rain will stop later in the day.
The rain may stop later in the day.
3. Maybe, he was too angry to measure his words.
He may have been too angry to measure his words.
215
4. Perhaps, he was ill.
He may have been ill.
1. Maybe, you will meet him at some party. 2. Maybe, he will know
you when he sees you. 3. Perhaps, it is less difficult than you think.
4. Maybe, the door was not locked. 5. Maybe, she has forgotten her prom
ise. 6. Maybe, she is only trying to help. 7. Maybe, she was out when
you phoned. 8. Perhaps, you have left your gloves in the taxi. 9. Maybe,
the stain will come out in the wash. 10. Perhaps, he does not know about
it.
1. Ты могла оставить сумку в кафе. 2. Она может знать его адрес.
3. Его может не быть дома. 4. Вы можете опоздать на поезд. 5. Книга
может быть уже распродана. 6. Там все же может быть такси. Там
иногда бывают. 7. А вдруг она знает его телефон. 8. Вы могли ошибить-
9. Более удивительные вещи могут 10. Ты можешь
встретить.
Note 10. When we express doubt about an action in the present we
mostly use the Continuous infinitive after the verb m a y
(with the exception of such verbs as: to love , to h a te , to
know , to u n d ersta n d ).
E.g. 1. She may be wearing her hair long now. 2. They may be living
in the country. /
This is probably done to avoid confusion with the pattern of doubt

about a future action.
Compare:
They may be living in the country, (now) They may live at the
country, (at some future time)
Exercise 22. Translate into English. Use the Continuous infinitive to express doubt
about an action in the present, the Indefinite infinitive to express doubt about a future
action:
1. Возможно, она печатает это после работы. 2. Возможно, она на
печатает это после работы. 3. Может быть, они обсуждают это между со
бой. 4. Может быть, они обсудят это на совещании. 5. Возможно, она
уже начинает тренироваться. 6. Возможно, он начнет тренироваться
осенью. 7. Может быть, она живет в этом городе. 8. Может быть, она
будет здесь жить, когда кончит институт.
Training Exercises
Exercise 23. Translate the following sentences. State in what meaning the modal verb
*may’ is used. Name the pattern and give the Russian equivalent.
M o d e l : 1. You might look where you are going.
(imperative, могли бы, Pattern 13)
. 2. She may not know about this.
(suppositional, возможно (может), Pattern 15)
1. Children may borrow books from the camp library. 2. No one may
drive a car when under the influence of spirits. 3. It may stop raining
in the afternoon. 4. The infinitive may also be found in this pattern. 5.
May I show you what I have written on the subject? 6. You might go and
wash your hands. 7. Oh, Mother, may we stay a little later! 8. I may
have spoiled my own life but I will not let you spoil yours. 9. I may be a
little slow but I’ll get there in the end. 10. A definite improvement may
be achieved by rational dieting and plenty of exercise. 11. Oh, Ernest,
we may never be married! 12. And then it suddenly occurred to her that
she might be the person they were looking for. 13. You might have asked
me if I had any objections. 14. It might have been worse. 15. He may
have written this letter but he never told me about it. 16. You might
remember that it is very late. 17. May I help you do it? 18. Children under
twelve may not leave the grounds without permission. 19. She may be
waiting for us at the other entrance. 20. Sorry, people, no one may leave
the place.
Exercise 24. Express doubt about the statements made in the following sentences. Make
the doubt stronger by using more and more emphatic expressions:
M o d e l : 1. They spent part of the summer here.

They may have spent—. They might have spent — .
Can they have spent—? They can’t have spent— .
2. They meet in secret.
They may be meeting in secret. They might be meeting
in secret. Can they be meeting in secret? They can’t be
meeting in secret.
1. In the end Joe took the job. 2. She is very particular about such
things. 3. He is lying in wait for you downstairs. 4. They think much of
her. 5. Someone broke that lock. 6. He sent her some flowers. 7. He tells
her all that happens at the office. 8. He helps the child with his lessons.
Exercise 25. Fill in the blanks with ‘may', ‘might', ‘can', ‘could1. Give two variants
where possib le:
1 .1 — be away from home tomorrow. 2. He — have been hurt. 3. It —
or — not be true. 4. It was so dark we — see nothing. 5. — you lend me
a shilling? 6.— you hear what he is saying? 7. You — walk miles in
this district without seeing a house. 8.— this be true? 9. — we go to
the pictures after we wash up? 10. Mother says I — not go out. 11. Sor
ry, sir. You — smoke in here. 12. It — not be so far as all that. 13.—
I have some more bread? 14. You — ask him to be chairman at the meet
ing. He’ll be so pleased. 15. The letters — have been written in this
very house. 16. She — have consulted me before acting. 17. What —
have happened to prevent their coming? 18. I wonder what he — say to
this. 19. You — pay less attention to other people’s affairs and more to
; our own. 20. Nothing — make me give up this idea.
Exercise 26. Translate into English. Use sentence patterns with ‘can1 and ‘may'. Give
uriants where possible:
217
Она могла уже приехать. 2. Не может быть, чтобы она уже прие
хала. 3. Неужели она это сказала? 4. Можете и посмотреть
5. Можно мне пользоваться словарем? 6. Не бы вы сказать
когда он придет? 7. Он может зайти сюда по дороге домой. 8. Вы могли
бы приходить вовремя. 9. Я не мог прийти вовремя. Мой поезд опоз
дал. 10. Вы бы принесли мне чашечку кофе. 11. Кто бы это мог заходить,
когда нас не было дома? 12. Ты могла бы вымыть посуду после обеда,
а не болтать по телефону с подружкой. 13. Пора бы тебе самому уметь
вещи Собаку в купе взять нельзя. Ее можно
багажный 15. Он мог передумать
KEYS ТО EXERCISES
Exercise 18. 1. May/ can I wait 2. He may / cannot come 3. You

might have thought 4. You might make 5. You may / can go 6. May /
can I borrow 7. You may / can not wait 8. You might at least phone and
say 9. You might have been 10. May / can I go out?
Exercise 19. 1. You might wear / might have worn 2. You might re
member / might have remembered 3. You might pay / might have paid
4. You might come and help / might have come and helped 5. You might
try more / might have tried 6. You might get up / might have got up
7. You might let me know / might have let me know 8. You might give
me / might have given me 9. You might tell me / might have told me
10. You might leave / might have left your roonTin order
Exercise 21. 1. may have left 2. may know 3. may be out 4. may miss
5. may have been sold out 6. There may be a taxi there. There some
times are. 7. she might know 8. may have been mistaken 9. Stranger things
may happen. 10. may meet
Exercise 22. 1. may be typing 2. may type 3. may be discussing 4.
may discuss 5. may be beginning 6. may begin 7. may be living 8. may
live h
Exercise 23. 1. primary, absence of obstacles, могут, P.9; 2. impera

tive, prohibition, нельзя, P.12; 3. suppositional, doubt, может быть,
P.15; 4. primary, absence of obstacles, можно, P.9; 5. imperative, ask
ing for permission, можно, P.10; 6. imperative, (ironic) request, мог
бы, P.13; 7. imperative, asking for permission, можно, P.10; 8. supposi
tional, doubt, может быть, P.15; 9. suppositional, doubt, может быть,
P.15; 10. primary, absence of obstacles, можно, P.9; 11. suppositional,
doubt, может быть, P.15; 12. suppositional, doubt, может быть, P.15;
13. imperative, reproach, могла бы, P.14; 14. imperative, reproach,
могло бы быть, P.9; 15. suppositional, doubt, может быть, P.15; 16.
imperative, suggestion, мог бы, P.13; 17. imperative, asking for permis
sion, можно, P.10; 18. imperative, prohibition, нельзя, P.12; 19. suppo
sitional, doubt, может (быть), P.15; 20. imperative, prohibition, нель
зя, P.12.
Exercise 25. 1. may 2. may 3. may; may 4. could 5. can / could 6. can
7. can / may 8. can 9. can / may 10. can / may 11. can / may 12. can
218
t о
3. can / may 14. might 15. may 16. might 17. can 18. may / might 19.
night 20. can
Exercise 26. 1. may have come 2. can’t have come 3. can she have
aid 4. you may / can go 5. may / can I use 6. can /could you tell 7. may
:ome 8. might come 9. could not come 10. might bring 11. can have called
[2. might have washed 13. could do 14. can’t / may not take; may / can
ake 15. may have changed his mind
Must
*
The modal verb m u st has only one form. The verb has the following
neanings: ' ■
I. The primary meaning: necessity
In this meaning m u s t has an equivalent — to have.
t
P attern 16
Necessity
smb кому-то нужно (кто-то должен)

STb
кому-то нужно было,
smb do smth пришлось (кто-то должен был)
had to
i
кому-то нужно будет,

smb do smth придется
will have to
E.g. 1. I’m afraid I must (have to) go now. 2. There was no one to leave
him with so I had to take him along. 3. He is out. You will have to
come later.
Exercise 27. Fill in the blanks with *lmitsf or ‘have

1. The dress is much too short for her, you — let it out. 2. We — wait
for forty minutes because we missed the six fifteen. 3. I — stay in today.
I — finish the composition. 4. These mushrooms — be boiled first. 5.
She — get up very early to do the shopping. 6. If we don’t find him in
now we — go there again. 7. The students — write four tests a year.
8. If I don’t hear from her today I — send her a telegram. 9. I couldn’t
come. I — see a doctor about that tooth. 10. He’s too little for a long
walk like that. Somebody — carry him part of the way.
The modal verb m u st in its primary meaning has another equiva
lent — to be — but there is a slight difference in meaning in this case.
To be denotes an expected action, an action which it is necessary to
do because somebody expects it to be done.
219
Pattern 17
~ #•
Expected Action
smb i is l to do smth должен

\ was f был должен
E.g. We have chosen C in derella and I am to be the Prince.

Exercise 28. Paraphrase the following sentences. Use *must\ 'have'-}- infinitive or
'be'+ infinitive.
M o d e l : 1. The lecture is supposed to begin at eight.
The lecture is to begin at eight.
2. We expect her to come for a visit.
She is to come for a visit.
3. It was arranged that the children should stay with their
Grandma.
The children were to stay with' their Grandma.
4. It is necessary that he should come.
He must come. (He has to come.)
1. It is necessary that the papers should be marked to-night. 2 . 1 am
supposed to be the first to answer to-morrow. 3. They expect the mail to
be delivered before eight o’clock. 4. It is necessary that he should be ex
amined by a good doctor. 5. Where is it necessary to take her? 6. He is
expected to go there at once. 7. I expect you to explain this to your par
ents. 8. It is necessary that he should get in touch with me before he
goes to his office.
Exercise 29. Fill in the blanks with ‘must’, “to have’, ‘to be’. Pay attention to whether
the action is only necessary or necessary and expected:
1. I — meet Mother at the station. So when the train drew in and she
did not see me on the platform she was in a state! 2. I — leave early be
cause I was not feeling quite well. 3. One thing is clear. Someone — stay
behind and look after the children and I don’t see why it — always be me.
4. The inn was very small and we — share a room. 5. This is Mary. She —
live with us till her people come back from the East. 6. I’m the girl who —
show you the place and introduce you to everybody. 7. At last everything
was arranged. Daddy — call for us at ten and take us to the Zoo. 8. Moth
er had it all planned. Eileen — grow up a beauty and I — be the brains
of the family. Having no pretensions to looks I — be clever. 9. You —
hurry if you want to catch the train. lO.There’s no ice-cream. It — be de
livered at twelve. I’m afraid someone — go down to the village and in
quire.
1. Кто должен был вас встречать? 2. Где вы должны были встретить
ся? 3. Им пришлось вызывать пожарных, чтобы снять его с крыши.
4. Вам придется взять такси. Уже поздно. 5. Мйе надо купить хлеба
*
220
и масла по дороге домой. 6. Он должен был купить молоко утром. Се
годня была его очередь. 7. Кто сегодня должен делать доклад по до
машнему чтению? 8. Вопрос о том, где щенку спать, долго обсуждался.
9. В этом году я должен был кончить школу. 10. Кто-то должен был
сказать ей, задачу мы не поняли.
No t e 11. to beplus the infinitive may correspond to the Russian
«суждено стать, сделать...».
E.g. 1. It was the girl who was to become my mother. 2. The man
who was to prove it was then a schoolboy of fifteen.
II. The imperative meaning: 1) order, 2) prohibition
In this meaning m u st has an equivalent to be which is used to make
orders and prohibitions stricter.
p a tte r n 18
Order
y0U
you { аТ
a TЛtoо } d0 smth
E. g. 1. You must stay here till Father comes back. 2. You are to
tell me everything, Mary.
P a tte rn 19
Prohibition
must not не делай,

you are not to do smth
не смей делать
E.g. 1. And remember you must not ask for things. 2. You are not to
say a word to anyone.
✓
Mo t e 12. In the imperative meaning the form must is retained in

indirect speech.
E.g. 1. He told me I mustn’t cry. 2. He said I must come and see his
new car.
4
Exercise 31. Make the following orders and prohibitions stricter by using •to be'
instead of ‘must\
Mo d e l : 1. You mustn’t fight, children.
2. You are not to fight, children.
< ,
1. You must tell me all about it one of these days. 2. And mind you,
you must wear it not just keep it in moth-balls the year round. 3. You
Hustn’t interrupt Father, Dicky. 4. No, you can’t. You must first eat
221
4
your porridge. 5. You must not start spending like mad the moment you
get to New York. 6. You must remember your promise to me. 7. And,
of course, you must stop smoking. 8. You must not wear your best dress
to school. 9. You must not talk with your mouth full. 10. You must stay
here and wait.
Exercise 32. Translate into English. Give two variants in each case:
1. Он сказал, что я должен ждать его здесь. 2. Не смейте ничего
•V
трогать в саду. 3. Вы обязательно должны поговорить с ней об этом.

4. За столом не разговаривать. 5. Сейчас же перепечатайте это письмо.
6. Никому не выходить из комнаты.
III. The suppositional meaning: near certainty
P a t tern 20
4
Near Certainty
must be smth; must be doing smth;

(
должно быть,
smb I must have been smth; must have done smth;
по-видимому
{ must have been doing smth*
■
29
E.g. 1. She must be about twenty.

Ей должно быть (сейчас) около двадцати.,
2. She must have been about twenty.
Ей должно быть было (тогда) около двадцати
We use the Indefinite infinitive speaking about the present, the Per
fect infinitive speaking about the past.
Note 13. When we express near certainty about an action in the pres
ent we mostly use the Continuous infinitive after m ust
(with the exception of such verbs as to be , to love , to h ate ,
to know , etc.) not to confuse the patterns of primary and sup
positional meanings.
Compare: 1. He must take better care of his health.
Ему надо лучше следить за своим здоровьем.
(primary meaning)
2. Не must be taking good care of his health.
Он, д о л ж н о быть, хорошо следит за своим здоровьем,
(suppositional meaning)
1. You must speak to her about it. 2. He must be speaking to her
about it. 3. He must live in the Crimea because of his lungs. 4. He must
be living somewhere in the Crimea. 5. He must be working very hard. 6. He
must work hard if he wants to get anywhere. 7. She must do her shopping
in the afternoon. 8. She must be doing her shopping in the afternoon.
9. You must read more books in the original. 10. 'He must be reading
books in the original.
222
Exercise 34. Refer the statement to the past by changing the form of the infinitive.
0
M o d e l : 1. She must know about it.

Должно быть, она знает об этом.
2. She must have known about it.
Должно быть, она об этом знала.
1. They must be playing in the school-yard. 2. You must know her
very well. 3. She must be very fond of you. 4. This must be the dog’s
owner. 5. She must be laughing at you. 6. They must be taking you quite
seriously. 7. The situation must be rather grave. 8. They must be great
friends. 9. Somebody must be trying to frighten you away. 10. They
must be doing their lessons.
Exercise 35. Paraphrase the following sentences, using *must'+ infinitive to express
near certainty. Use the Indefinite infinitive when speaking about the present, the Perfect
infinitive when speaking about the past:
1. No doubt she read about it in the papers. 2. He is sure to be out at
this time. 3. Of course she has changed her mind. 4. Probably they wanted
to find a short cut through the forest. 5. They are certain to be looking
for you. 6. Apparently she was trying to make up her mind about it. 7. No
doubt they abandoned the car afterwards. 8. They are sure to have taken
the wrong turning. 9. He is sure to be waiting for you at the office. 10.
Probably they have taken the necessary steps.
Note 14. M u st be used to express near certainty about a
negative or a future action. In such cases we use the modal
word probably.
Compare: 1. He must know about it.
2. Probably he does not know about it.
Exercise 36. Translate the following sentences into English. Use lmust'+ infinitive
or -probably* where necessary.
M o d e l : 1. Он, должно быть, хорошо говорит по-английски.

Не must speak English well.
2. Он. должно быть, не знает английского языка.
Probably' he does not know English
о
О. Он, должно быть, будет говорить по
Probably he will speak English.
1. По-видимому, они еще здесь. 2. Очевидно, он вас не узнал. 3.
Должно быть, спектакль ей понравился. 4. Вероятно, вы много тре
нируетесь. 5. Должно быть, она вас не понимает. 6. По-видимому,
они приедут завтра. 7. Должно быть, они стояли вот здесь. 8. Очевидно,
вы видели его портрет в газетах. 9. Должно быть, ей об этом расска
зали. 10. По-видимому, это труднее, чем вы думали.
Training Exercises
V
Exercise 37. Translate the following sentences. State in what meaning the modal verb
'must' and its equivalents are used. Name the pattern and give the Russian equivalent:
223
i* .
.1. She must be younger than you thought. 2. You must pay more at
tention to details. 3. You’re not to speak to her again, not ever. 4. She
must have done something to her hair, it looks ever so much nicer. 5. And
you are not to breathe a word to anybody about this. 6. It must have ta
ken some time to cut a passage through these bushes. 7. They were to
come and stay with us. 8. It’s Miss Arnold’s birthday and I’m to make a
speech. 9. This problem must be solved before we can do anything. 10.
Whatever he says you must not stop writing. 11. I ’ll have to speak to
them about that dog. It’s getting dangerous. 12. The day we were to
start it rained worse than ever. 13. You’ll have to go home now, Georgie.
Go straight home. And remember you’re not to come here any more.
14. Just think how she must be suffering. 15. There comes a day when one
has to decide. 16. A good coach must be patient. 17. I had to take a long
chance. 18. And what am I to do if they come when you’re out? 19. You
must do what you are told. 20. You must go out and post it at once.
Exercise 38. Paraphrase the following sentences so as to express very strong doubt,
strong doubt or doubt about the action taking place. Paraphrase the sentences so as to show
that you are practically certain of the action taking place. Pay attention to whether the
action refers to the present or the past and use the Indefinite or Perfect infinitive correspond
ingly.
M o d e l : 1. She knows it perfectly well.

She can’t know it perfectly well.
Can she know it perfectly well?
She may know it perfectly well.
She must know it perfectly well.
2. She saw it herself.
She can’t have seen it herself.
Can she have seen it herself?
She may have seen it herself.
She must have seen it herself.
3. She wears her hair shoulder length.
She can’t be wearing her hair like that.
Can she be wearing her hair like that?
She may be wearing her hair like that.
She must be wearing tier hair like that.
1. They were all out. 2. She reads only detective stories. 3. She makes
all her dresses herself. 4. She advised him to do it. 5. He gave up the idea
of taking a teaching job. 6. She complained of the children making too
much noise. 7. She wears glasses now. 8. She’s a very good cook.
Exercise 39. Use the following word combinations to compose imperative sentences of
varying degrees of strictness. Give milder forms first.
M o d e l : to write smb a letter

Order Prohibition
You must write me a letter. You mustn’t write me letters.
You are to write me a letter. You can’t write me letters.
You’re not to write me letters.
You may not write me letters.
224
1. to wear sun glasses, 2. to drink lots of milk between meals, 3. to
help the children with their lessons, 4. to take smb to the pictures, 5. to
write an outline first, 6. to tell mother all about it, 7. to go and look for
smb, 8. to ask smb to dinner.
Exercise 40. A. Translate into Russian:
1. She must have noticed it. 2. I simply had to take him along. 3.
They must be trying to attract our attention. 4. You must try to catch
her eye. 5. She must be a cousin. 6. I had to explain the rule twice to
make it perfectly clear. 7. You must have explained it badly. They seem
not to have understood. 8. A good teacher must be fond of children.
1. Мне надо сделать покупки заранее. 2. Должно быть, она об этом
знает. 3. Мне пришлось с ней об этом поговорить. 4. Должно быть,
они об этом говорили, когда вошли. 5. Ей приходится проводить мно
го времени в лингафонном кабинете. 6. Должно быть, она проводит
там много времени.
Exercise 41. A. Fill in the blanks with 'must', ‘have', ‘be'. Give variants where it can
be done without changing the meaning. Introduce the particle ‘to' where necessary:
1. What — they do to improve their speech habits? 2. I’m afraid we —
stand most of the wav, the train is overcrowded. 3. He — wait at the
V 7
entrance. I’ve been here for twenty minutes already. He — overslept or

something. 4. You — do better than that if you want to succeed. 5.
You — n’t take the cat to bed with you. 6. What a smell! Something —
be burning down in the kitchen! 7. Who — do the washing up to day? 8.
You — not touch anything here. 9. You — take every little thing into
consideration. 10. He — become mv closest friend.
1. Мне надо видеть его сегодня же. 2. Мне пришлось долго ждать.
3. Вам придется написать ей. 4. Когда он должен прийти? 5. Не надо
так говорить. 6. Сейчас же иди домой. 7. Не смей возражать. 8. Долж
но быть, сегодня холодно. 9. Вам надо переписать сочинение. 10. Ни
кого отсюда не выпускать. 11. Кто покажет нам музеи? 12. Должно
быть, вы слишком много работаете?
KEYS ТО EXERCISES
Exercise 27. 1. must / will have to 2. had to 3. must /-have to; must /
have to 4. must / have to 5. had to 6. shall have to 7. must / have to
8. shall have to 9. had to 10. will have to
Exercise 29. 1. was to 2. had to 3. will have to; must 4. had to 5. is
to 6. is to 7. was to 8. was to; was to; had to 9. must / have to 10. was to;
will have to
Exercise 30. 1. was to meet 2. were you to meet 3. had to call in 4. will
have to take 5.have to buy 6. was to buy 7. is to make 8. was to sleep 9. was
to graduate 10. had to tell
8 № 813 225
I
Exercise 33. 1. надо 2. должно быть 3. нужно. 4. должно быть 5.

должно быть 6. надо 7. надо 8. должно быть 9. надо 10. должно быть
Exercise 36. 1. They must be here. 2. Probably he did not recognise
you. 3. She must have liked the show. 4. You must be training hard. 5.
Probably she does not understand you. 6. Probably they will come to
morrow. 7. They must have been standing right here. 8. You must have
seen his picture in the papers. 9. She must have been told about it. 10. It
must be more difficult than you expected.
Exercise 37. 1. suppositional, near certainty, должно быть, P.20;
2. imperative, order, должны, P.18; 3. imperative, prohibition, не смей,
P.19; 4. suppositional, должно быть, P.20; 5. imperative, prohibition,
не смей, P.19; 6. suppositional, near certainty, должно быть, P. 20;
7. primary, expected action, должны были, P.17; 8. primary, expected
action, должна, P.17; 9. primary, necessity, должна быть, P.16; 10.
imperative, prohibition, не бросай, P.19; 11. primary, necessity, при
дется, P.16; 12. primary, expected action, должны были, P.17; 13.
primary, necessity, придется, P.16; imperative, prohibition, нельзя,
P.19; 14. suppositional, near certainty, должно быть, P.20; 15. primary,
necessity, приходится, P.16; 15. primary, necessity, должен быть,
P.16; 17. primary, necessity, пришлось, P.16; 18. primary, expected
action, должна, P.17; 19. imperative, order, должен, P.18; 20. impera
tive, order, должны, P.18.
Exercise 40. A. 1. должно быть, заметила 2. пришлось взять 3. долж
но быть, стараются 4. тебе надо привлечь внимание 5. должно быть
6. пришлось объяснить 7. должно быть, объяснили 8. должен любить
В. 1. must do the shopping 2. must know 3. had to speak 4. must have
been speaking 5. has to (must) spend 6. must be spending
Exercise 41.A. 1. must 2. 'll have to 3. was to; must have 4. must
5. must not / are not to 6. must 7. is / must 8. are not to / must not 9. must
/ have to 10. was to
В. 1. must/have to 2. had to 3. will have to 4. is to come 5. mustn’t
6. are to go 7. are not to object 8. must 9. must 10. are not to let out
11. is to show 12. must be working
Need
The modal verb need has only one form.
Note 15. The modal verb need should not be confused with the no
tional verb to need. The latter being a notional verb has
non-finite forms, analytical forms of the verb, is used with
auxiliary verbs in interrogative and negative constructions
and takes direct objects.
»
E.g. 1. Do you need me today? 2. You will need a raincoat and rubber
boots.
The modal verb need is used only in the primary and imperative
meanings.
I. The primary meaning: absence of necessity.
In this.meaning need has an equivalent — to have.
P a tte r n 21
A bsence of N ecessity
E.g. 1. He needn’t go there. He can ring her up and inquire. 2. We don’t

have to buy the books. We get them from the library.
Exercise 42. Change the meaning of the following sentences. Use the verbs ‘need’ and
*have’ to show that the actions are n o t necessary. Give two variants in each case.
/
M o d e l : I really must speak to her about 'it.

I needn’t speak to her about it.
I don’t have to speak to her about it.
1. She must work so hard to improve her speech habits. 2. I must go
there every day. 3. They have to write dictations three times a week.
4. They must walk from the station. 5. The children must wear their
skiing outfits. 6. We must do all the exercises in written form.
The Perfect Infinitive used after need shows that an unnecessary ac-
\ ^ у
tion was done. \
Pattern 22
A bsence of N ecessity for a P erfo rm ed A ction
smb needn’t have done smth—можно было и не делать
E.g. 1. I needn’t have gone there. They had done everything by the
time I came. 2. We needn’t have been in such a hurry. We have
nearly twenty minutes before our train leaves.
Did not have + infinitive simply shows that there was no necessity
for the action in the past without showing whether the action was per
formed or not.
/
P a tte rn 23 ir
A bsence of N ecessity in th e P a s t
smb did not have to do smth можно было не делать

не пришлось делать
j
8* 227
I
E.g. 1. I did not have to go to the office so I went for a long walk. 2. I did
not have to buy a dictionary, my brother gave me one.
Patterns 22 and 23 are not equivalents.
E xercise 43.Paraphrase the following sentences. Use ‘needn't+ Perfect Infinitive’ to
show that an unnecessary action was carried out. Use ‘did not have to’ to show that an action
was unnecessary in the past.
M o d e l : 1. I’m sorry I changed before dinner. Nobody else did.

I needn’t have changed before dinner. Nobody else did.
2. I’m so glad it was not necessary for me to take this exami
nation in spring.
I’m so glad I did not have to take that examination in
spring.
1. They did not-make us buy a full ticket for Andy. We saved some
money that way. 2. It was not necessary to explain the rules to them.
They made no mistakes of this kind. 3. They did not expect us to write
outlines and I wasted so much time on mine! 4. I’m sorry I bought these
gloves. Mother gave me better ones for my birthday. 5. It was a comfort
able journey because it was not necessary to change anywhere. 6. It is
a pity you walked. There is a bus which could take you here in ten miib
utes.
U se of M odal Verbs to Express N ecessity
Time of Expected or
Necessity Absence of necessity planned action
the action
I m u st leav e you I n e e d n ’t leave now. I am to leav e on the

now. Here comes There’s plenty of time. fifth. Everything
my bus. is settled.
the present I h av e to le a v e you I d o n ’t h a v e to leav e now.
now. Here comes There’s plenty of time.
my bus.
I had to leav e her 1 did not Everything was

h a v e to le a v e
because my bus because there was plenty settled and I w as
the past of time. to leav e on the
came.
I n e e d n ’t h a v e le ft. fifth.
I ’ll h av e to leav e I w on’t have to le a v e

the future her to catch my It’s only ten to five.
bus.
E xercise 44. Translate into English:

1. Нам можно было не торопиться. У нас еще много времени. 2. Вы
гли и не рассказывать ей об этом. Она и так все знала. 3. Напрасно
волновались. Все прошло хорошо. 4. Мне не надо было идти за по
пками. Я все купил накануне. 5. Ему не пришлось сдавать латынь.
228
.J
Она у него была сдана досрочно. 6. Зря вы так далеко ходили. Эти
учебники продаются в нашем магазине. 7. Я успела все сделать вчера
только потому, что мне не надо было готовить обед. 8. Мамочка, зря
ты столько возилась, мы все привезли с собой. 9. Мне не пришлось егс
>. Он пришел сразу. 10. Мне не пришлось ему ничего объ
яснять. Он
E xercise 45. Translate into English:
>
1. Ему суждено было стать моим лучшим другом. 2. Вам придется

позвонить ему еще раз. 3. Мне не пришлось его долго уговаривать.
4. Ты могла бы и не поливать цветы. Сейчас пойдет дождь. 5. Я не могу
пойти. Я должна присмотреть за ребенком. Я обещала сестре. 6. Ко
му 7. Я должен был билеты ждать их
у входа. 8. Подожди немного, я должна дочитать главу до конца.
9. Мне пришлось оставить всей ехать ее встречать. 10. Это был первый
было идти в школу Она
говорить. Я и сам понимал, что сделал глупость. 12. Если
олжна встретить маму шестичасовым поездом, то тебе
шить. Тебе нечего торопиться. Она 14. Ког
должен приехать? 15. Оказывается, мне вовсе не надо было
почту, а я потратил столько времени.
•ъ
II. The imperative meaning: permission not to do smth

P a tte r n 24
P erm ission N ot to Do
E.g. 1. You needn’t wait for me. 2. You needn’t think her dull. She’s
simply timid.
E xercise 46.Compose sentences giving permission not to do the actions mentioned in the
following interrogative sentences.
M o d e l : — Must we copy the text too?
— No, you needn’t (copy it).
1. Must we go there today? 2. Must somebody ring her up? 3. Must
I write an outline first? 4. Must we stay after the lecture? 5. Must we
take the examination this week? 6. Must we learn the poem by heart?
7. Must we translate the text? 8. Must we compose the examples our
selves?
T ra in in g E x ercise
E xercise 47.Translate the following sentences. State in what meaning the modal verb
'need' is used. Name the pattern and give the Russian equivalent:
1. You needn’t come over if you’d rather not. 2. You need not try
quite so hard. Take it easy for a time. 3. We need not bother to refute
229
I
these views. 4. They need have no fear of that. 5. You needn’t have ta
ken so much trouble. 6. All this needn’t have taken place if only you had
paid attention to my warning. 7. He need not have spoken to her in that
tone. He was quite unnecessarily rude. 8. She doesn’t have to work on^
Mondays. 9. He did not have to go to the office. He could do something'
about those roses at last. 10. You needn’t do all this in written form, you
know. 11. We did not have to wait long. 12. You need not shout so.
I can hear you perfectly well.
KEYS TO EXERCISES
Exercise 43. 1. did not have to buy 2. did not have to explain 3. needn’t
have written 4. needn’t have bought 5. did not have to change 6. needn’t
have walked
'ц
Exercise 44. 1. needn’t have hurried 2. needn’t have told 3. needn’t

have worried 4. did not have to do any shopping 5. did not have to take
6. needn’t have gone 7. did not have to cook 8. needn’t have taken so
much trouble 9. did not have to wait 10. did not have to explain
Exercise 45. 1. was to become 2. will have to ring up 3. did not have
to persuade 4. needn’t have watered 5. am to look after 6. must do / has
to do 7. was to buy and wait 8. must read / have to read 9. had to leave
10. did not have to go 11. needn’t have said 12. are to meet; must hurry /
have to hurry 13. needn’t hurry 14. is he to come 15. needn’t have gone
Exercise 47. 1. imperative, можете не, P.24; 2. imperative, можете не,
P.24; 3. primary, незачем, P.21; 4. primary, незачем, P.21; 5. primary,
можно было и не, Р.22;6. primary, могло и не, Р.22;7. primary, мог и не,
Р.22; 8. primary, не нужно, Р.21; 9. primary, не нужно было, Р.23;
10. imperative, можете не, Р.24; 11. primary, не пришлось, Р.23;
12. imperative, можешь не, Р.24.
4
Shall
The modal verb shall has two forms of the indicative mood: the pres
ent tense shall and the past tense should.
The modal verb shall has the following meanings:
I. The primary meaning: certainty
Pattern 25
C ertain ty
smb shall do smth—обязательно сделает
Depending on the contents of the sentence shall may be used to express

promises, warnings, threats.
230
E.g. 1. You shall get your money back in time. 2. You shall catch
another of your beastly colds. 3. You shall be sorry.
Note 16. In its primary meaning shall refers only to the future.
In indirect speech the form should is used to denote a rela
tively future action.
E.g. D irect Speech In d ir e c t Speech
— You shall be sorry. He said I should be sorry.
*— Don’t wear such high heels She said I should twist my ankle one
when you are out walking. of these days.
You shall twist your ankle
one of these days.
Exercise 48. Change the follow ing sta tem en ts in to p ro m ises , w a rn in g s , th rea ts b y u sin g
‘sh a ll' + in fin itiv e . R e p o rt them in in d irect speech:
I. He will catch pneumonia one of these days, walking bare-headed in the
rain the way he does. 2. You will be perfectly all right. I’ll look after
you.3. You will remember these words. And quite soon at that. 4. Things
will right themselves. Just take it easy. 5. She will be well in no time.
She's as strong as a horse. 6. You will get a wonderful time. See if you
don’t. 7. He will pay you back sooner or later for what you did to him.
Better watch your step, baby. 8. You will be hungry if you don’t eat
anything now. 9. You will drive the car as soon as we get out of town.
II. The imperative meaning: 1) asking for instructions, 2) advice,
3) criticizm of a past action.
P a tte rn 26 •
Asking for Instructions
Shall I (smb) do smth? Хотите ли вы, чтобы

я это сделал?
E.g. 1. Shall I open the window? 2. Shall I come a little later?

Exercise 49. A s k fo r in stru ctio n s concerning the actions nam ed below.
M o d e l : to give smb an example

— Shall I give you an example?
1. to fetch an evening paper, 2. to go and change, 3. to write and
tell smb smth, 4. to explain smth to smb, 5. to show smb how to do smth,
6. to give smb one’s opinion, 7. to lend smb one’s pen, 8. to let smb out
at the corner, 9. to have lunch now, 10. to make smb some coffee.
1. Рассказать вам об этом? 2. Сварить вам кофе? 3. Показать
это место в книге? 4. Будем сейчас обедать? 5. Нам здесь перехо,
улицу? 6. Пойти сказать им, чтобы они так не шумели? 7. Нам
231
ождать? 8. Мне это в письменной форме перевести? 9. Сказать ему
? 10. Нам идти наверх?
P a tte r n 21
Advice
you (smb) should (not) do smth — следует, не следует,

надо, вы бы . . .
ЧРЭ
E.g. 1. You should always wear your hair like that. You look ten years
younger. 2. You should not eat so many sweets, May. Bad for your
figure, you know. *
i
Exercise 51. A dvise smb to do or not to do the actions nam ed below.

M o d e l : 1. to wear a sweater
— You should wear a.sweater.
2. not to overdo smth
— You should not overdo it.
1. to take better care of one's health, 2. to take more pains with your
Latin, 3. not to talk and laugh loudly in public, 4. to go and see smth
for oneself, 5. to eat more fruit, 6. not to smoke while eating, 7. not to
read such trash, 8. to buy a really good dictionary, 9. to go and see the
picture, 10. not to waste one's time watching television evening after
evening.
Exercise 52. Give advice in answer to the follow ing sta tem en ts. Use the word com bina
tions in brackets.
M o d e l : I have such a headache, (to take an aspirin and go to bed)

You should take an aspirin and go to bed.
1. My feet are killing me. (not to wear such high heels) 2. I’ve been
sleeping badly of late, (to take a walk last thing in the evening) 3. She’s
grown out of this dress too. (to let it out at the hem) 4. I have a slight
irritation in my throat, (to smoke less) 5. They are making spelling
mistakes, (to make smb copy passages out of a book) 6. It is so hard to
make him get up in the morning, (not to let smb watch television till
all hours) 7. She never has any appetite, (not to give smb sweets) 8. The
secretary must be out. There’s no one there, (to try the room next door)
9. She may have forgotten her promise, (to phone and remind her) 10.
The students seemed unable to follow what he was saying, (not to speak
so fast)
P a tte rn 28
Criticism of a Past Action
smb should (not) have done smth — надо было, не надо

было, напрасно
232
E.g. 1. You should have come straight to me. 2. You shouldn’t have
tried to do everything yourself.
Exercise 53. C riticise the actions nam ed in the sentences below.
M o d e l : 1. I took him to the pictures.
You shouldn’t have taken him to the pictures.
He надо было брать его в кино.
2. She clean forgot to tell me about the letter.
She should have told you about the letter.
Ей следовало сказать вам про письмо.
1. I’m not feeling well. It’s probably the fish I ate for lunch. 2. I nev
er thought to leave a message for her. 3. He did not explain to me
how to work the thing. 4. I can’t think now why I bought these red shoes.
5. We did not wait for them. It was beginning to rain. 6. I handed in
my paper without rereading what I had written. I was afraid to. 7. She
may not come. I forgot to remind her of her promise. 8. I was so busy at
the time. I did not see the film. 9. She was so cross, she was downright
rude to me. 10. We did not feel like going anywhere. We just stayed at
home.
Exercise 54. Change the follow ing expressions of advice in to criticism of a p a st action
by changing the fo rm of the in fin itiv e .
M o d e l : 1. You should not say such things.

He надо так говорить.
2. You should not have said such things.
He надо было так говорить.
1. You should try again. 2. He should speak to her about it. 3. They
should keep that dog chained. 4. You should not eat starchy foods. 5. She
should not go out in such weather. 6. You should not buy a hat which
does not go with anything else you’ve got. 7. You should switch off the
lights when you go out. 8. He should not forget to take his medicine.
9. You should spend more time out of doors. 10. Her mother should not
let her read such trash.
Exercise 55. T ra n sla te in to E n g lish . Use 'sh o u ld '-{-in d efin ite in fin itiv e to express
advice; ^should'+ p erfect in fin itiv e to express critic ism of a p a s t action.
M o d e l : 1. Вам надо больше читать.

You should read more.
2. Вам надо было больше читать.
You should have read more.
Ей надо было сразу это сказать. 2. Вам надо было спросить
3. Детей надо учить плавать. 4. Это 5. Вам
было ехать на автобусе. 6. Им надо побольше говорить по-английски.
7. Вам надо было извиниться. 8. Вы бы не спорили, если не уверены
в фактах. 9. Напрасно вы возражали. 10. Напрасно вы так думаете.
11. Им лучше выйти пораньше. 12. Вам нужно повернуть налево. 13.
Вам надо было повернуть 14. Не надо было бр
щей. 15. Ей надо взять хороший плащ
233
III. The suppositional meaning: near certainty.
P a tte r n 29
Near Certainty
should do smth, олжно быть, вероятно*

should be smth по-видимому
Note 17. Should in the suppositional meaning is an equivalent of

must but is used only about the p re se n t and the fu tu r e .
E.g. 1. Potatoes should grow well here. 2. She should make a good
teacher.
Exercise 56. Change the fo llo w in g sta te m e n ts in to expressions of near c e r ta in ty b y u sin g
4should' and 'm u s t'-{ -in fin itiv e s . Use 'sh o u ld ', sp ea kin g about the fu tu re ;'sh o u ld ' or 'm u s t',
speaking about the p re se n t ; 'm u st'-{-p e rfe c t in fin itiv e , sp ea kin g about the p a st.
M o d e l : 1. She knows all about it.

She must know all about it.
She should know all about it.
2. She will grow up pretty.
She should grow up pretty.
(Probably she will grow up pretty.)
3. It rained in the night.
It must have rained in the night.
1. The weather will be good to-morrow. 2. He knew where it was.
3. It is somewhere here. 4. He will be here by nine o’clock. 5. He was the
only one there who knew what to do. 6. They were playing chess. 7. The
climate is very good there. 8. The sweater will look nice with your tweed
jacket. 9. She will be very glad to see you. 10. The nights are cold up
there in the mountains. 11. He was rather upset by it all. 12.She was work
ing night and day to get everything ready in time.
Note 18. Should is comparatively seldom used to express near cer
tainty. So use must to express near certainty where it can
be used, and probably where it can’t (negative sentences;
sentences referring to the future).
Should is used in a set expression corresponding to the Russian чего
j
P a tte r n 30
Why should (not) smb do smth?

Why should (not) smb have done smth?
E.g. 1. Why should he interfere? 2. Why should he have said so? 3.

Why shouldn’t he think so?
234
Exercise 57. T ra n sla te in to E n g lis h . Use the in d e fin ite in fin itiv e sp ea kin g about the
present or fu tu r e , the p erfect in fin itiv e sp ea kin g about the p a st. C o n su lt P a tte r n 30.
У
M o d e l : 1. Чего ради ей лгать?

Why should she lie?
2. Чего ради стал бы он спорить?
Why should he have argued?
1. Почему бы ему не знать об этом? 2. Чего ради мы ее будем спра
шивать? 3. Зачем ей приходить? 4. Зачем ей было вмешиваться? 5. По
чему бы нам и не взять детей? 6. Почему я должен тебе верить? 7. По
чему нам было не поехать? 8. Чего ради мне здесь оставаться? 9. По
чему он должен был опоздать? 10. Зачем ему было покупать словарь?
Training Exercises
Exercise 58. fo llo w in g

‘sh a ll' is used. N a m e the p a tte r n and give the R u s s ia n equivalent:
1. Anyone found smoking on the premises shall be heavily fined.
1 . Why should he have taken your word for it? 3. You should not have
acted so rashly. 4. Shall I tell you all about it now? 5. The weather should
be just right over there. August is always very sunny in the hills. 6. You
should not promise things and then go back on your word. 7. Where shall
I wait for you? 8. Why should you mind if I don’t? 9. You shall lose
your looks before you are thirty if you go on eating sweets like that.
10. He should have written to explain why he was not coming. 11. Nothing
should have been done without him. 12. You shouldn’t say things behind
peoples’ backs. 13. He should do well in this job. It’s just in his line.
14. She should know what she is speaking about. She’s quite an authority
on the subject.
Exercise 59. A. R eplace the in fin itiv e s in brackets b y 's h o u ld ', ' m u s t', ‘had to ', 'sh a ll
have to '+ in fin itiv e depending on w hether the sentences co n ta in advice, c ritic ism o f a p a s t
action or a sta te m e n t o f n ecessity:
1. My sister was taking an examination yesterday and I (to look
after) her baby. 2. I (to get up) at half past seven to get to the office in
time! 3. You (to wear) a rain-coat. You are wet through. 4. You knew
1 was bringing people to dinner. You (to bake) a cake. 5. It was my son’s
birthday so I (to bake) a cake. 6. They will get hungry on the train. You
(to give) them some sandwiches. 7. He could not do his lessons. I (to
explain) some things to him. It took me lots of time. 8. You (not to get)
so excited. It’s bad for you. 9. There was no kindergarten where they lived
and she (to take) the child across half Moscow. 10. She was out when I
came. I (to go) there again to-morrow. 11. You (to give) him more milk to
drink. I t’s so good for the teeth. 12. The dress is a little too wide. You
(to take) it in at the seams.
B. T ra n sla te in to E n g lish . Use 'sh o u ld '-{ -in fin itiv e to express advice; 'sh o u ld '-{-p erfect
in fin itiv e to express c ritic ism o f a p a s t a ctio n , 'h a ve', ' m u s t ' to express necessity:
1. He надо было возражать. 2. Вам надо меньше курить. 3. В конце
учебного года студенты должны сдать книги в библиотеку. 4. Не надо
235
ничего писать на библиотечных книгах. 5. Мне надо завтра встать
в 8 часов. В. Мне пришлось долго ждать. 7. Вам надо написать ей об
этом. 8. Надо было самому туда зайти. 9. Не надо было спорить. 10.
Мне пришлось рассказывать все опять с самого начала. 11. Вы бы сна
чала план составили. 12. Не следует вдаваться в детали.
Exercise 60. A. Replace the infinitives in brackets by ‘s h o u l d 1need'/have'infinitive,
depending on whether you give advice, permission not to do something, criticise a past action
or state an absence of necessity for the action.
You go out) in this rain. You have a bad cold. 2. You (not
to go out) to-day. We have everything we want. 3. You (not to lose one’s
temper). It put you automatically in the wrong. 4. You (not to give)
all the details. You forgot that you were dealing with well-informed
people. 5 Sundav and go) to the office. 6. You (not to
tell) her that. Now she sleep. 7. You put) so much sugar
the custard. No one will be able to eat it. 8. You any
gelatine. Such thick broth jells by itself. 9 warm
. It was very pleasant. 10. You try) to do
thing You must plan things. 11. It warm there you (not
bring) 12 that worry). There was no
danger whatever
В He надо было выходить из себя. Это всегда признак слабости
2. Ему не надо было идти на лекцию. Этот предмет он уже сдал. И
пошел в читальный зал. 3. Е
его интересовала эта тема, и он пошел. 4. Мне не пришлось ей :
объяснять. Она очень хорошо знает грамматику. 5. Те, кто уже
работу, могут на консультацию эставаться. 6. Лучше не
звони ему сегодня. У него завтра экзамеь 7. Лучше не спорь. Ты
не знаешь всех обстоятельств. 8. Он мог приезжать. Надо было
просто выслать работу. 9. Масла ты могла не покупать. 10. Не
было пускать его в кино. У него уроки не сделаны.
л
Exercise61.Translate the following sentences. Analyse the verb ‘should‘. State where it
is an auxiliary verb (forming the conditional mood), where it is a modal verb (name the
meaning of the modal verb) and where it is part of a modal phrase expressing unreality.
M o d e l : 1. If it should be so I’ll be the first to congratulate you.

Modal phrase expressing unreality.
2. But for his smile I should not have known him.
The conditional mood.
3. You should have taken the first train home.
Modal verb. Criticism of a past action.
1. Why shouldn’t he have said so if he meant it. 2. Strange that you
should not have noticed anything out of the way. 3. He knew perfectly
well that he should not have done it but he would not admit it. 4. This
heat wave should last till the end of May at least. 5. But for these words
I should have given in. 6. The more I thought the less I liked her idea
that we should take Ethel’s money. 7. You really should try harder.
You don’t seem to make any progress. 8. They should not allow young
children to take part in the contest. 9. I wonder what I should have done
236
but for her advice. 10. I should come too if it was not for the children.
11. I wonder why you never asked me. I should have told you all the
facts. 12. Why should it be always me? 13. It was arranged that mother
should come over for a long visit and look after them. 14. You should
wear the hat a little lower over your eyes. 15. The picture should look
very nice here where the light would fall on it. 16. I did not know he was
in Moscow or I should have come over to see him. 17. You should not
wear sports clothes with high-heeled shoes. It does not look right.
18. Nothing should have been touched. 19. Her suggestion was that we
should do it in turns, boys and girls alike. 20. You should make up your
mind one way or the other and stop wasting your time.
4
KEYS TO EXERCISES
Exercise 55. 1. should say 2. should have asked 3. should be taught

4. should be done 5. should not have gone 6. should speak 7. should have
apologized 8. should not argue (to be sure of one’s facts) 9. should not
have objected 10. should not think 11. should start 12. should turn 13.
should have turned 14. should not have taken (brought) 15. should take
Exercise 56. 1. should be good 2. must have known 3. must / should
be 4. should be 5. must have been 6. must have been playing 7. must /
should be good 8. should look 9. should be glad 10. should / must be
cold 11. must have been upset 12. must have been working
Exercise 57. 1. Why shouldn’t heknow2. Why should we ask 3. Why
should she come 4. Why should she have interfered 5. Why shouldn’t
we take 6. Why should I trust 7. Why shouldn’t we have gone 8. Why
should I stay 9. Why should he have come late 10. Why should he have
bought
Exercise 58. 1. primary, certainty, обязательно P. 25;
2. set expression, чего ради, P. 30; 3. imperative, criticism of a past ac
tion, не надо было, P. 28; 4. imperative, asking for instructions, мне рас
сказать, P. 26; 5. suppositional, near certainty, должно быть, P. 29;
6. imperative, advice, не следует, P. 27; 7. imperative, asking for in
structions, где мне ждать, P. 26; 8. set expression, чего ради, P. 30;
9. primary, certainty, обязательно, P. 25; 10. imperative, criticism of
a p_ast action, надо было, P. 28; 11. imperative, criticism of a past
action, не надо было, P. 28; 12. imperative, advice, не надо, P. 27; 13.
suppositional, near certainty, должно быть, P. 29; 14. suppositional,
near certainty, должно быть, P. 29.
Exercise 59.A. 1. had to look 2. must get up/ have to get up 3. should
have worn 4. should have baked 5. had to bake 6. should give 7. had to
explain 8. should not get 9. had to take 10. shall have to go 11. should
give 12. should take it in
В. 1. should not have objected 2. should smoke 3. must return / have
to return 4. should not write 5. must get up/ have to get up 6. had to
wait 7. should write 8. should have gone 9. should not have argued 10. had
to tell 11. should make 12. should not go
237
Exercise 60. A. 1. should not go 2. need not go 3. should not have
lost 4. needn’t have given 5. did not have to go 6. should not have told
7. should not have put 8. need not have used 9. did not have to wear 10.
should never try 11. needn’t bring/ don’t have to bring 12. need not have
worried
В. 1. should not have lost your temper 2. did not have to attend
3. needn’t have attended 4. did not have to explain 5. need not stay /
don’t have to stay 6. should not phone 7. should not argue 8. need not
have come 9. need not have bought 10. should not have let
Exercise 61. 1. modal verb, set expression 2. modal phrase expressing
unreality 3. modal verb, criticism of a past action 4. modal verb, near
certainty 5. the conditional mood 6. modal phrase expressing unreality
7. modal verb, advice 8. modal verb, advice 9. the conditional mood
10. the conditional mood 11. the conditional mood 12. modal verb, set
expression 13. modal phrase expressing unreality 14. modal verb, advice
15. modal verb, near certainty 16. the conditional mood 17. modal verb,
advice 18. modal verb, advice 19. modal phrase expressing unreality
20. modal verb, advice.
Ought
The modal verb ought has only one form. It is used in the same pat
terns as should. /
The infinitive after ought is used with its particle to.
The modal verb ought has the following meanings:
I. There is no primary meaning.
II. The imperative meaning: 1) advice, 2) criticism of a past action.
P a tte rn 31
Advice
you (smb) ought (not) to do smth — (не) надо (бы), (не) следует,
(не) следовало (бы), вы бы (не)
E.g. 1. You ought to make an effort. 2. You ought not to say such things
if you don’t mean them. 3. You ought to write and tell her so.
4. Something ought to be done.
4
4
N o t e 19. There are two set patterns with ought expressing reproach:
you o u g h t to know this (полагается это знать) and you
o u g h t to know b e tte r (мог бы понимать такие вещи).
Exercise 62. Give advice to do or not to do something using the following word combina
tions.
M o d e l : to write in pencil
You ought to write in pencil.
You ought not to write in pencil.
1. to cross the street here, 2. to work it out for yourself, 3. to explain
the rule in Russian, 4. to give your own examples, 5. to play this game in
the yard, 6. to tell mother about it, 7. to underline the patterns in the
text, 8. to ask her to the party.
P a tte rn 32
Criticism of a Past Action
smb ought (not) to have done smth—надо было, не надо было,

не следовало
E.g. 1. You ought to have warned me what to expect. 2. She ought not
to have tried.
Exercise 63. Criticize the actions mentioned in the following sentences.
M o d e l : 1. She did not write to thank them.
She ought to have written.
2. She was wearing her best hat and it was ruined.
She ought not to have worn it.
1. I took Mother’s favourite cup to measure the sugar and broke it.
2. I spoke too fast I’m afraid. The children did not quite follow what
I was saying. 3. I did not explain where I could be reached in case of emer
gency. 4. He did not even count the money. Just slipped it into the bag.
5. I’m afraid I forgot to type a letter. 6. She did not work enough. She’s
quite a bright child really. 7. We did not realise it was so grave. 8. The
children did not eat any lunch. They were so excited.
III. The suppositional meaning: near certainty about the present
or the future only.
P a tte rn 33
Near Certainty
mm
become, to know smth—должно быть,

по-видимому
Flowers ought to grow well here. 2. She ought to make a good
usi txe[cise 64. Change the following statements into expressions of near certainty by
nS ought'-]- inf ini tive.
239
M o d e l : She is a clever child.
Она умный ребенок.
She ought to be a clever child.
Должно быть, она умный ребенок.
1. The climate is rather mild here. 2. This is just her size. 3. She will
come by the eight fifteen. 4. The summer will be cold and rainy. 5. There
will be many mistakes in this test. 6. They will make a good couple.
7. This will be good for you. 8. She’s very fond of children.
Note 20. Do not use ought to express near certainty. Use must or
the modal word probably in negative sentences or sentences
referring to the future. It is more usual.
Revision Exercise
Exercise 65. Translate the following sentences. State whether the verb ‘ought' is used
to denote advice, criticism of a past action or near certainty:
1. I think you ought to apologize, Fred. 2. This is what he said and
he ought to know. 3. She ought not to have said that. She lost her tem
per. 4. Such things ought to be attended to at once. 5. You ought not to
have taken this attitude. It was most unwise. 6. She ought to be here long
before that time. 7. Nothing ought to have influenced you. Nothing at
all. 8. You ought not to say so even if you do think it. 9. There ought
to be someone to look after those children. 10. They ought to win easily,
but one never can tell with any degree of certainty about that team.
Key to the Exercise

Exercise 65. 1. advice 2. near certainty 3. criticism of a past action
4. advice 5. criticism of a past action 6. near certainty 7. criticism of a
past action 8. advice 9. advice 10. near certainty
Will
The modal verb will has two forms of the indicative mood: the pres
ent tense will and the past tense would.
The modal verb will has the following meanings:
I. The primary meaning: volition.
It is used speaking about living beings and things alike.
P a tte rn 34
Volition
*
smb (smth) will (not) do smth (не) хочет

would (не) станет
240
E.g. 1. She will not tell me what is wrong, just keeps crying. 2. I asked
her what the matter was but she would not answer. 3. I would not
marry you if you were the only man in the world. 4. This pen won’t
write. 5. The door would not open, though I pushed and pushed
hard. 6. Boys will be boys. 7. Children will say such things.
Exercise 66. Make a statement about somebody refusing to act the way he should or is
expected to. Refer the situation to the past by changing the form of the modal verb. Use
the groups of words given below. *
M o d e l : the dog — to stop barking
The dog won’t stop barking.
The dog would not stop barking.
1. Jackie — to take his cod-liver oil. 2. Mother — to stop worrying
about Dad’s health. 3. He — to see a doctor about that pain. 4. She —
to listen to reason. 5. The man — to take less than a pound. 6. She —
to hear of it. 7. She — to speak to him. 8. I — to forget it in a hurry.
9. The doctor — to allow him to play football. 10. The children — to go
to bed.
Exercise 67. Make a statement about something not functioning the way it should or is
expected to. Refer the situation to the past by changing the form of the modal verb. Use
the groups of words given below.
M o d e l : the kettle — to boil
The kettle won’t boil.
The kettle wouldn’t boil.
1. The seams of her stockings — to stay straight. 2. The dress — to
fit. 3. The words — to make sense. 4. The figures — to add. 5. The
jelly — to jell. 6. The stain — to go out. 7. Her hair — to stay in place.
8. The folding chair— to fold. 9.The milk — to boil. 10. The rain — to
stop.
Exercise 68. Make a statement about somebody insisting on acting in the wrong way.
Refer the situation to the past by changing the form of the modal verb. Use the groups of
words given below.
M o d e l : the children — to play in the street
The children will play in the street.
The children would play in the street.
1. She to wear her hair like that. 2. Mother to let the child eat
sweets between meals. 3. He — to stay late at the office. 4. She to
spend more money on clothes than she can (could) afford. 5. She to
interfere. 6. They — to wear such clothes. 7. What can you expect if
you — to smoke cigarette after cigarette and to drink lots of black cof
fee? 8. She — to spend her days lying on the sofa.
Exercise 69. Make a statement about a thing functioning contrary to your expectations
and wishes. Refer the situation to the past by changing the form of the modal verb. Use
the groups of words given below.
M o d e l : the window — to bang in the wind
The window will bang in the wind.
The window would bang in the wind.
9 241
№ 818
1. This door — to open. 2. That folding bed — to fold unexpectedly
under him. 3. The car — to break down in lonely places. 4. The fountain
pen — to start leaking in his pocket. 5. The milk — to boil over the mo
ment she turns (ed) her back on it. 6. Fuses — to blow without any prov
ocation.
Note 21. Would -f infinitive may denote a repeated action in the
past without any special meaning of volition.
E.g. He would always say hallo.
Он бывало (когда-то) всегда здоровался.
The synonymous expression used to refers to both states and actions,
whereas would refers only to actions.
Compare: He used to come here every year.
He used to live here,
but:
He would come here every year.
Exercise 70, T ra n sla te into E n g lish . Give two v a r ia n ts where possible:
A
I. Когда-то ты очень любил варенье. 2. Он, бывало, дарил нам игруш

ки и конфеты. 3. Вы, бывало, звонили и спрашивали, можно ли вам зай
ти вечером. 4. Он, бывало, говорил, что все это неправда. 5. Когда-то
ты писал маме каждую неделю. 6. Он, бывало, очень старался сделать
все хорошо. 7. Когда-то я его знал. 8. Он, бывало, всегда советовался
с женой. 9. Когда-то ты был очень худой. 10. Она когда-то меняла
прически каждую неделю.
II. The imperative meaning: 1) order, 2) request.
Pattern 35
Order
you will (not) do smth—(не) делай(те)
E.g. You will tell your parents that I wish to speak to them.
Pattern 36
Request
will
won’t ( you do smth?
would пожалуйста, сделай(те)
wouldn’t
E.g. 1. Will you say it again, please? 2. Won’t you come and sit over
here? 3. Would you have a cup of tea? 4. Wouldn’t you take me
instea d?
242
The patterns differ in the insistence of the request, the top one being
the most neutral. Wouldn’t + infinitive is seldom used.
Exercise 71. Compose orders using the following word-combinations. Turn them into
requests. Make the requests more pressing, insistent.
*
M o d e l : to wait here *
You will wait here.

Will you wait here?
Won’t you wait here?
Would you wait here?
1. to tell the story in one’s own words, 2. to take more pains in fu
ture, 3. to come ,in time, 4. to do something about one’s hair, 5. to go and
change into dry things at once, 6. to do what you are told, 7. to eat more
fruit, 8. to step round the corner for some cigarettes, 9. to make a note
of it, 10. to bring someone a ham sandwich and a cup of coffee
III. The suppositional meaning: near certainty.
In this meaning will is an equivalent of must.
Pattern 37
Near Certainty
E.g. 1. This will (would) be the place he meant. 2. That will (would)
have been the manager.
Exercise 72. Change the following statements of fact into expressions of near certainty
by using ‘will (would)'-{-infinitive. Use the indefinite infinitive when speaking about the
present, the perfect infinitive when speaking about the past.
M o d e l : 1. The tall building in the centre is the bank. -
The tall building in the centre will be the bank.
2. The blonde in black was the secretary.
The blonde in black will have been the secretary.
1. And this is the person in question. 2. This is your mother. 3. You
have noticed it already. 4. She left a message for us. 5. Something was
decided. 6. The man noticed you leaving the grounds. 7. It was someone
the dog knew. 8. That is the asylum.
Training Exercises
Exercise 73. Translate the following sentences. State whether the modal verb ‘wilt'
is used to denote volition, a repeated action in the past, order, request or mar certainty:
9* 243
1. Now and again a dog would bark. 2. She will stay like that evening
after evening, her eyes glued to the screen of theT.V. set. 3. You will
have passed your examinations already. 4. What’s that? The safe won’t
open. 5. No matter what time of day I went to the store I would find
him sitting there on the steps. 6. Will you state your business, sir?
7. Would you drop in at the delicatessen’s on your way home and get me a
box of their pimiento salad? 8. You will go and apologize at once. 9. Those
teenagers! They will wear those weird clothes. 10. You will do this in
written form. 11. Will you fill in this form, Miss? State your name and
address over here. 12. That will be our new gym-teacher. 13. She would
not say what she wanted with him. Just said it was a life and death mat
ter. 14. I would not be in her place for anything. 15. Watched pot won’t
boil.
4,
1. Ключ не поворачивается. 2. Нож не режет. 3. Должно быть, это

была ее мать. 4. Она ни за что не говорила, кого она там видела.
5. Оставайтесь с нами пообедать. 6. Заполните, пожалуйста, эту анкету.
7. Он, бывало, всегда опаздывал. 8. Он не желает меня слушать. 9.
Скажите, пожалуйста, который час? 10. Сейчас же иди и вымой руки.
11. Напишите пятнадцать примеров на эту модель. 12. Объясните это
правило своими словами, пожалуйста. 13. Должно быть, это наш ав
тобус. 14. Он, бывало, всегда рассказывал нам сказки. 15. Суп он
есть не стал, и я не смогла его заставить. 16. Окно все время откры
вается. 17. Вот надо было тебе есть рыбу! 18. Я обязательно пойду
посмотрю эту картину. 19. Мама не захотела пустить меня в кино.
20. Садитесь, пожалуйста.
Exercise 75. Analyse 'would' in the following sentences. State where it is a modal verb
and where an auxiliary verb forming the Future in the Past or the conditional mood. In
case of the modal verb state the modal meaning.
M o d e l : 1. Would you say it again very slowly.

Modal verb, request.
2. He said he would call later.
Auxiliary verb, Future in the Past.
3. But for this he would have won.
Auxiliary verb, conditional mood.1
1. Whenever Uncle took out his violin Aunt Mary would complain
of feeling faint and go to bed. 2. This hat would look just right with
your tweeds. 3. He said that nothing would stop him and went out.
4. Would you come with me part of the way, Fan? I have something to
tell you. 5. She would not say yes and she would not say no. She was just
stalling for time. 6. That would have been what she wanted. 7. He was
out of town or he would have called. 8. They tried to put the butter into
the kettle. It would not go in and what was in would not come out.
244
K E Y S TO E X E R C I S E S
Exercise 70. 1. used to 2. would / used to 3. would / used to 4. would

/ used to 5. would / used to 6. would / used to 7. used to 8. would /
used to 9. used to 10. would / used to
Exercise 72. 1. will be 2. will be 3. will have noticed 4. will have left
5. will have been decided 6. will have noticed 7. will have been 8. will be
Exercise 73. 1. repeated action 2. volition 3. near certainty 4. voli
tion 5. repeated action 6. request 7. request 8. order 9. volition 10. order
11. request 12. near certainty 13. volition 14. volition 15. volition
Exercise 74. 1. won’t turn 2. won’t cut 3. will have been 4. would
not say 5. will you stay 6. will you fill in 7. would always come late
8. won’t listen 9. will you tell me the time 10. you will go and wash
11. you will write 12. will you explain 13. will be 14. would tell 15.
would not eat 16. will open 17. you would eat 18. will go and see 19.
would not let 20. will you sit down
Exercise 75. 1. modal verb, repeated action in the past 2. conditional
mood 3. future in the past 4. modal verb, request 5. modal verb, volition
6. modal verb, near certainty 7. conditional mood 8. modal verbs, vo
lition.
►
t
f
Summary Tables on Modal Verbs
Table I
Sentence Patterns with Modal Verbs and Their Equivalents
Imperative Meaning2 Suppositional Meaning
can 1. perm ission 1. stro n g doubt

ability you can do smth can smb be doing;
можете could know smth
can (not) do
smb 2. request smb have
could smth
can can done;
может, мог could "i have been do
could ^ you do
could (not) do can’t smth ing smth
*
smth couldn’t неужели.. !

smb 'l could have
done smth вы не могли бы... 2. v e r y stro n g doubt
3. a sk in g for p erm is can’t be doing;
мог бы; мог бы sion
тогда smb couldn’t know
Can I (smb) do smth? smth
можно?
can’t have done;
4. p ro h ib itio n couldn’t have
you can’t do smth |smb been doing
нельзя smth
не может быть,
чтобы...
ь
may 1. [doubt
a sk in g for per m is-
absence of obstacles to ston may (not) do
the action
May smb do smth? Lmu smth; be
можно? mightJ doing smth
smb 1 may (not) do
smb \ might 2. perm ission может быть, возможно
you may do smth (сейчас)
может, мог; мог бы можете
have done
3. proh ibition smth
you may not do smb <may >have been
smth doing
нельзя smth
4. requ est
you might do smth может быть, возможно
мог бы... (тогда)
5. reproach
you might have
done smth
мог бы (тогда)
246
----------------------------------------------------------------1
Primary Meaning1 Imperative Meaning2 Suppositional Meaning3
1 2 3
must Ы- 1. o r d e r n e a r c e r t a i n t y
have must be you must do smth i
n e c e
2. s s
smb must be doing

i t y o f t h e a c t i o n
s t r i c t e r o r d e r <
smb must do you are to do smth smth

has to smth должен сделать должно быть, 1
должен, нужно
I
3. по-видимому p r o h i b i t i o n
had to you must not do

will do /'have been
smb smth smth,
have smth
to 4. have been
smb must
s t r i c t e r p r o h i b i t i o n
you are not to do doing,

пришлось, придется smth have done
must не делай, не смей smth
be делать должно быть, по-
видимому делал,
e x p e c t e d a c t i o n
is to do сделал
smb was
smth
должен, должен был
need p e r m i s s i o n n o t t o d o
have s m t h
ч
1. a b s e n c e
n e c e s -1 Уои needn’t do smth
s i t y f o r t h e a c t i o n
можете не
needn’t do
smb smth
does not have
to do smth
не нужно
2. a b s e n c e o f n e c e s s i t y
f o r a p e r f o r m e d
a c t i o n
smb needn’t have done

smth
можно было и не...,
напрасно, зря
3. a b s e n c e o f n e c e s s i t y
i n t h e p a s t
smb did not have to

do smth
можно было не...,
не пришлось
t
247
Primary Meaning1 Imperative Meaning2 Suppositional Meaning 3
i 2 3
shall 1. a sk in g for in stru c near c e r ta in ty

c e r ta in ty tions ( should be, be
smb shall (not) do Shall I do smth? smb { come
smth Мне делать что-то? ( should do smth
обязательно 2. advice
you (smb) should должно быть,
(not) do smth по-видимому
(не) надо, (не) следует,
(не) полагается
3. c r itic ism of a p a st
action
smb should (not) have
done smth
(не) надо было, (не)
следовало
will 1. order near c e r ta in ty

vo litio n you will (not) do ) be smth
smb twill j(not) do smth smb
O A i i u I will
w i n J A
smth (would smth (не) делайте smth .would. s^ th g

9 request
(не) хочет, (не) станет, должно быть,
(не) стал will по-видимому
smb would not have won’t ^ you do
would smth have
done smth been
(не) стал бы (тогда) wouldn’t smb will have
пожалуйста, smth i would done
сделай(те) smth
4 /
должно быть;
по-видимому, было
ought 1. advice near c e r ta in ty
you (smb) ought ought to be
(not) to do smth smb to know
(не) надо (бы), (не) ( to become
следует
2. c ritic ism of a p a st должно быть,
action по-видимому
smb ought (not)
to have done
smth
(не) надо было,
не следовало
м
248
Notes to Table I:
V
1 When modal verbs are used in their primary meanings the subject of the sentence
can be expressed by any personal pronoun or noun. The sentence can be affirmative,
negative or interrogative.
2 When modal verbs are used in their imperative meanings the subject of the sen
tence is mostly you. The structure of the sentence should be strictly that of the pattern:
negative if you want to express prohibition, interrogative, if you are asking for permis
sion, etc.
3 In case of the suppositional meaning the structure of the sentence should be strict
ly that of the pattern. If the pattern contains no negation then negation can not be
expressed by means of that modal verb. Avoid using patterns of should, ought, will/
would in the meaning of near certainty. Use the must pattern instead.
Table 11
Notions Which Can Be Expressed by Modal Verb Patterns
1. Request
can
could
can’t
[ you do smth
will
won’t
would J
You might do smth
2. Prohibition
can’t
you are not to
must not do smth
may not
3. Asking for Permission to Do smth
can
may I (smb) do smth?
could
might
4. Asking for Permission Not to Do smth
must I (smb) do smth?
need
5. Permission to Do smth
can
you (smb) | may do smth
6. Permission Not to Do smth

you (smb) need not do smth
7. Advice
you (smb) should (not) do smth

ought (not) to do
249
8. Order
will
you must do smth
are to
9. Asking for Instructions
Shall I (smb) do smth?
10. Asking for Advice
should I (smb) (to)
ought do smth
11. Criticism of a Past Action
should (not) do smth
smb ought (not) to
12. Reproach
you (smb) might have done smth
13. Expected Action in the Present-Future; in the Past
is to do smth
smb was
14. Necessity the Present. Past and Future
must
has to do smth
smb had to
will have to
15. Strong Doubt
can smb be doing smth
could smb have done smth
16. Very Strong Doubt
can’t be doing smth
smb couldn’t Г have done smth
17. Doubt
may do smth
smb < might
may have done smth
18. Near Certainty
must be doing smth
smb must have done smth
General Training Exercises on Modal Verbs
. Exercise 76. Translate Into Russian. Use Tables I and II for reference;
1. You might at least give an explanation. 2. You are not to give
any explanations. 3. You should give an explanation. 4. You might have
given an explanation. 5. He must have given an explanation. 6. Can he
have given an explanation? 7. You can’t give any explanations now. 8.
You should have given an explanation. 9. You needn’t give any expla
nation. 10. I was to give an explanation. 11. I had to give an explana
tion. 12. Could you give an explanation? 13. I could have given them an
explanation then and there. 14. He must be giving them an explanation.
15. You needn’t have given any explanation. 16. I did not have to give
any explanation. 17. Will you give me an explanation? 18. Shall I give
you an explanation? 19. Must I give you an explanation? 20. He can’t
have given them any explanation. 21. You’ll have to give them an expla
nation. 22. He may have given them an explanation. 23. You will give
an explanation at once. 24. Why should he give an explanation? 25. He
won’t give an explanation.
A. 1. Вам нужно поговорить с ней. 2. Вам придется поговорить
с ней. 3. Вы могли бы поговорить с ней. 4. Мне пришлось поговорить
с ней. 5. Кто должен с ней об этом поговорить? 6. Надо было погово-
рить с ней. 7. Вы бы не могли поговорить с ней? 8. Вам следует с ней
поговорить. 9. Поговор пожалуйста. 10. Можете с ней об
говорить. 11. Не надо было с ней об этом говорить. 12. Вы
могли говорить с ней об 13. Поговорите с ней об этом. 14.
Поговорить с ней об 15. Нельзя с ней об этом говорить. 16. Не
смейте с ней об этом говорить
В. 1. Неужели он собирается сделать это один? 2. Не может быть,
чтобы он пытался сделать это один. 3. Он может быть, попытается сде
лать это один. 4. Может быть, он пытается сделать это один. 5. Должно
быть, он пытается сделать это один. 6. Должно быть, он пытался сде
лать это один. 7. Может быть, он пытался сделать это один. 8. Должно
быть, он не пытался сделать это один. 9. Неужели он пытался сделать
это один? 10. Не может он пытаться сделать это один.
Exercise 78. Make each of the following word combinations into: 1. an order 2. a
request 3. a piece of advice 4. a reproach 5. a criticism of a past action 6. permission to do
or not to do smth 7. prohibition 8 . statement of necessity in the present, past, future 9 .
strong doubt about the action's taking place in the past 10. doubt about the action's taking
place in the future 11* near certainty about the action's taking place at the moment of speech
12. characterize it as an expected action in the past.
A
M o d e l : to talk smth over with smb

1. You will talk it over with him.
2. Will you / could you talk it over with him?
3. You should talk it over with him.
4. You might have talked it over with him.
5. You should have talked it over with him.
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6. You m ay /сап talk it over with him. You needn’t talk

it over with him.
7. You can’t / are not to talk it over with him.
8. You must / have to talk it over with him. You had to /
will have to talk it over with him.
9. He can’t have talked it over with him.
10. He may talk it over with him.
11. He must be talking it over with him.
12. He was to talk it over with him.
1. to plant some flowers somewhere, 2. to look for examples in some
book, 3. to talk sense to smb, 4. to help smb with his work, 5. to explain
smth to smb
Exercise 79. Translate the passages in bold type using modal phrases:
Однажды Малыш вернулся из школы с шишкой на лбу. Мама огор
чилась.
Бедный малыш! 1П окаж и-ка мне, что у тебя на лбу? — попросила
она. 2Д олж но бы ть, ты опять дрался.
Кристер швырнул в меня камнем,— хмуро ответил Малыш.
Какой противный мальчишка! 3Н адо было сразу прийти и ска
зать мне.
4
Ч его ради! Ведь бты не умееш ь кидаться камнями. Ты 6бы не
могла попасть камнем в стену сарая.
Ах ты, глупыш. Ш еуж ели ты дум аеш ь, что 8я стала бы бросать
камни в Кристер а?
А чем же 9ты мож еш ь в него ещ е бросить? — удивился Малыш.
\
Мама вздохнула. Было ясно, что не один Кристер при случае
бросается камнями.
Скажи, а 10нельзя ли вообщ е обойтись без драки?
Нет, мама. Вот вчера я тоже дрался с Кристером...
И совершенно и напрасно дрался. 12П раво, вы могли бы разреш ить
ваш спор словами.
Да? Ты так думаешь? — спросил Малыш и неодобрительно по
смотрел на маму.— Нет. Нам 13приш лось драться. Кристер мне сказал:
«14Я могу тебя отлупить.» Так он и сказал. А я ему ответил: «15Н ет,
не можеш ь.» Ну, скажи, 16как бы мы смогли разреш ить наш спор
словами?
(по Астрид Лингрен)
Exercise 76. 1. мог бы дать 2. не смей давать 3. вам бы следовало

дать 4. вы могли бы дать (тогда) 5. должно быть, дал 6. неужели дал
7. нельзя давать 8. надо было дать 9. можете не давать 10. должен был
дать 11. пришлось дать 12. не могли бы вы дать 13. я мог бы им тогда
дать 14. должно быть, дает 15. можно было не давать 16. не пришлось
давать 17. дайте мне, пожалуйста 18. дать вам? 19. Можно мне не да
вать...? 20. Не может быть, чтобы он дал 21. вам придется дать 22.
может быть, дал 23. сейчас же дайте 24. чего ради ему давать 25. ни за
что не дает
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Exercise 77. A. 1. you must speak / have to speak 2. you’ll have to
speak 3. you might speak 4. I had to speak 5. who is to speak 6. you
should have spoken 7. could you speak 8. you should speak 9. will you speak
10. you needn’t speak 11. you should not have spoken 12. you needn’t
have spoken 13. you will / must speak 14. shall I speak 15. you can’t
speak 16. you are not to / may not speak
В. 1. can he be trying 2. he can’t have tried 3. he may try to do 4. he
may be trying 5. he must be trying 6. he must have tried 7. he may have
tried 8. probably he did not try 9. can he have tried 10. he can’t be trying
Exercise 79. 1. will you show me 2. you must have been fighting
3. you should have come 4. why should I 5. you can’t throw 6. you could
not hit 7. can you think 8. I would throw 9. you can throw 10 can’t you
do without fighting? 11. you needn’t have fought 12. you might have
settled 13. we had to fight 14. I can beat you 15. you can’t 16 how could
we have settled
\
T est
Assignment I. Answer the following questions. Give your own examples to prove your
point: m
1. When is the perfect infinitive used after a modal verb? (In what
three cases?)
2. Why is the continuous infinitive used after modal verbs in the sup
positional meaning?
3. How can one make a request more pressing?
4. Is there any relation between the meaning of the modal verb and
the structure of the sentence?
Assignment II. Translate into English:
1. Ты никогда об этом не пожалеешь. 2. Чего ради ей было вме
шиваться? 3. Ты мог бы научиться это делать самостоятельно. 4. Ты
сейчас же пойдешь к маме и извинишься. 5. Напрасно вы беспокоились.
Все в порядке. 6. Она теперь, должно быть, совсем взрослая. 7. Вы
не могли бы продиктовать мне это? 8. Надо было повернуть налево.
9. Нет, нельзя брать собаку домой. 10. Можете мне об этом не расска
зывать. И. Неужели я забыл ей об этом сказать? 12. Возможно, он
ждет нас у другого входа. 13. Может быть, он уже ушел. 14. Должно
быть, он много работает. 15. Ему надо много работать. 16. Мне не
пришлось долго ждать. 17. Не смей выходить из дома без плаща.
18. Покажите мне, пожалуйста, то, что вы написали. 19. Должно быть,
он звонил, когда меня не было дома. 20. Он, бывало, всегда возражал,
когда она что-нибудь предлагала. 21. Она не стала ничего есть за завт
раком. 22. Замок не открывался.
Assignment HI. A. Which of the following sentences contain a) reproach,
b) request, c) advice, d) criticism of a past action. Some sentences may contain none of
these meanings.
1. You might have warned me. 2. You might put a little whipped
cream on top of my helping. 3. I bought this to give my wife on her birth
day. She ought to like it. 4. You ought to read aloud. 5. You should nev
er shout at children. You only frighten them. 6. You ought to have bought
254
two pairs of stockings. 7. Could you give me an example of your own?
8. You say that the shelves were quite low. Could you see what was on
the top? 9. Will you sit here and wait till I call you? 10. The flat is small
but it should be very warm and snug in winter. 11. Why should I worry?
12. She might have taken more pains. 13. She should have been asked to
the party. 14. Somebody ought to have gone there. 15. You should drink
a glass of fruit juice first thing in the morning.
B. Which of the following sentences contain expressions of a) near certainty, b) doubt,
c) strong doubt:
1. He must live in the South because of his lungs. 2. He must be liv
ing somewhere here. I often meet him. 3. You may find this expression
in any American newspaper. 4. She may be looking for us in the entrance
hall. 5. Can he write poetry? 6. Can he be writing poetry? 6. Can you tell
me the time? 7. He can’t spell. 8. You must read more. 9. You must be
reading a lot. 10. He can’t be really trying to hurt me. 11. I may have
lost my pen. I may have dropped it when I was taking my handkerchief
out. 12. You might have told me the truth. 13. He must have taken a lot
of trouble. 14. If he left at seven he should be here in about ten minutes.
15. He should speak a little slower. 15. This will be the manager. 16. I can
do nothing about it. It will not lock properly.
Assignment IV. Write a two page long reproduction of any passage from your individ
ual reading. Use 15 modal phrases. Underline each modal phrase in the text and write
over it what modal meaning you suppose it to express (prohibition, advice, request, etc.).
i
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Assignment No. 8
The Simple Sentence

The sentence is a unit of communication, containing a more or less
complete -idea. In every given language it has structure patterns and sets
of typical intonations of its own.
Every sentence contains an indication as to whether one should com
sider its contents a fact, a potentiality or an urge.
E. g. She is such a good child. She would be such a good child. Be a
good child.
Classifications of the Simple Sentence

I. Simple sentences may be classified into:
1) declara tive
E.g. The young man studied his wrist-watch.
2) in te rro g a tiv e
a) general questions
E.g. 1. Do you like my hat? 2. Can you read the inscription?
b) special questions
E.g. 1. Where shall I sit? 2. What have you been trying to do?
c) disjunctive questions
E.g. Will you do it or shall I?
3) im pera tive
E.g. Come down and see the ladies, Curtis.
II. Simple sentences may be exclamatory:
E.g. My, what a nice boyl How kind you are!
III. Simple sentences may be divided into t w o-m e m b e r sen
tences (if they contain a subject and a predicate, e.g. Mrs Cook spoke
sharply.) and o n e - m e m b e r sentences (if they have either only a
predicate, e.g. Come here! Stop talking! or one unanalysable principal
256
part with or without dependent words, e.g. Upstairs! Out with it! This
way, sir “Youth! Beauty! Novelty! They are badly wanted in this
house.”).
Two-member sentences may be incomplete if the subject, predicate
or part of the predicate are missing but can be understood from the con
text (e.g. “Getting cooler out,” roared Mr. Matson. “Getting sore about
Florence Learning!”). This type of sentences is called elliptical.
•щ
IV. Simple sentences may be u n e x t e n d e d if they consist

of the subject and predicate only (e.g. She looks sweet. We have been
dancing.) and e x t e n d e d if they contain any secondary parts of speech
(e.g. She looks very sweet. We have been dancing again.).
Exercise 1. Make the following sentences exclamatory by changing their structure.
Use 'what' if the stressed word is a noun or a noun with an attribute. Use ‘how' if the
stressed word is an adjective, adverb or participle.
Mo d e l : 1. It was a difficult question.
What a difficult question it was!
2. It was very hard.
How hard it was!
1. You are a child. 2. The path was very narrow. 3. She sang easily
and well. 4. The baby had big brown eyes. 5. She spoke angrily, twisting
a wet handkerchief in her hands. 6. They ran noiselessly. 7. She was al
ways kind to me. 8. The leaves of the horse-chestnuts are turning yellow.
9. He told us a very involved story. 10. She looked rather angry. 11. It
was a tiring day. 12. It was a relief to everybody to hear it.
*
Exercise 2. Underline the elliptical sentences. State what part of the sentence is miss
ing.
Mo d e l : 1. Waiting for the bus?
(Subject; auxiliary verb.)
2. The Boss in?
(Predicate.)
3. — Are you angry with me?
— I’m not.
(Predicative.)
1. It’s a wonderful picture, Mr. Green. What a type! 2. “Can’t kick
my heels here for ever,” thought Soames. 3. “Can’t possibly,” said Ste
phen to the back of George’s head. 4. Have I got many to-day? — Thirty
one, sir. 5. I’m sure Dr. Sheppard’ll see me. He must. 6. “Any more new
patients?” called Nurse Lake. 7. Tell Nurse you’re a new patient.— But
I’m not. 8. Why didn’t you tell the Nurse? Can’t expect the girl to know
by instinct. 9. I got a right to go in next. Got a double-decker to take
over to Barnet. 10. He’s a London man, you know. Comes down here
specially once a week.
к
The Principal Parts of the Sentence

i
The subject and the predicate are the principal parts of a two-member
sentence.
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The subject is gramatically independent of any other part of the sen

tence. The predicate agrees with the subject in person and number.
The Subject
The subject may be expressed by
1) a noun or noun eq u iva len ts (personal, interrogative, demonstra
tive, negative, indefinite, defining or possessive pronouns).
E.g. 1. The place does not look the same to me now. 2. They’ve painted
the barn red. 3. Who wants to be a back number? 4. This is Ann,
Mike. 5. Nobody’ll mind, dear. 6. Both wanted the job and neither
agreed to a compromise. 7. Some like it here. 8. Mine is the better
plan.
2) su b sta n tiv ize d a d jectives or p a r tic ip le s .
E.g. The reds and the blues of the shawl gleamed unsubdued in the
dusk. 2. The unusual should never be confused with the impossible.
3) a n u m era l .
E.g. 1. Two are company and three are not. 2. The second will be yours.
4) a geru n d or an in f in itiv e .
E.g. 1. Crying won’t mend matter. 2. To tell her this now would be
useless cruelty.
5) a s y n ta c tic a lly in d ivisib le g ro u p of w ords.
E.g. 1. How to get there is another matter. 2. My lord and master has
been called away.
6) a n y p a r t of speech if i t is su b sta n tiv ize d .
E.g. 1. A has been is always full of anecdotes of her former successes.
7) a su bordin ate clause.
E.g. 1. What you decide is nothing to me. 2. It is strange that you
should have heard nothing.
i
8) d iffe re n t com plexes w ith the verb a ls .
P a tte r n 1
The Nominative with the Infinitive in the Function of the Subject
is known
I was supposed
\ will be sure to do smth
happens/ed
proved
g.g. She was sure to succeed.
p a tte rn 2
The for-Phrase in the Function of the Subject
А. 4
{ 'l nice 'i

. \ difficult f for smb t0 d0 smth
w lli be J hard J
E.g. It was hard for her to hear those bitter words.
B.
/(is• ) nice
For smb to do smth < was > ,,
[ win be / 'f r + i
E.g. For her to explain what she meant was always a task near to impos
sible.
*
P a tte rn 3
r
The Qerundial Complex in the Function of the Subject
A. r
Smb’s doing smth { ^ s 'smth
E g. Your saying that made all the difference.
259
Pattern 4
The Nominative with the Participle in the Function of the Subject
A..
"I seen 'i
( heard (
found doing smth
left j
E.g. The child was found playing in the garden.
seen
is heard
smb 1 was
smth considered
( will found
left
E.g. The lock was found broken.
considered
is
smb < was
f
named a noun
smth ( will elected + an adjective
found an adverb
left
E.g. The child was named M ary

Exercise 3. State by what complex the subject is expressed in the following sen
tences.
M o d e l : The plan was generally believed to have been stolen.
The plan — to have been stolen
The nominative with the infinitive
*
1. Your carrying on in this way won’t mend matters. 2. It was not

pleasant for me to pretend to know nothing. 3. It’s no good your saying
so when you have no proof whatever. 4. The safe was supposed to have
been left open by negligence. 5. She was left penniless after her father’s
death. 6. Is it all right for me to go and tell him? 7. It was bound to hap
pen one of these days. 8. They were heard discussing something in whisper
on the landing. 9. The matter was considered closed. 10. Mother’s ta
king my part made me all the more eager to go on with the adventure.
11. For her to praise one of us was a most unusual thing. 12. The car was
260
ч
found later slightly damaged. 13. With so many people concerned at

least some information was bound to leak out. 14. From time to time
they were seen dancing in some hot spot or other. 15. She was appointed
secretary to the head of the department.
There are two introductory subjects in the English language — the
anticipatory it and the introductory particle there. They introduce sub
jects expressed in different ways.
The anticipatory it introduces subjects expressed by infinitives, fo r -
phrases, gerunds, gerundial complexes and clauses. The predicate of the
sentence with an anticipatory it is in most cases compound nominal.
P a tte rn 5
A 1. easy
nice to do
* smth
necessary for smb to do smth
is ч important
was > 2. useless doing smth
I will be no use
smb’s doing smth
no good
3. necessary ) that smb should
important do smth
E.g. 1. It was necessary to get in touch with him as soon as possible.

2. It will be nice for you to see them again. 3. It is useless speaking
to her now. 4. It was no earthly use your apologizing. 5. It is neces
sary that he should be told.
In the given examples the subject is expressed by the anticipatory
it+ an infinitive (sentence 1); it+ a fo r -phrase (sentence 2); it+ a ger
und (sentence 3); it+ a gerundial complex (sentence 4); it+ a subordi
nate clause (sentence 5). The predicate is a compound nominal one in
each case.
Exercise 4. Analyse the subjects in the following sentences. State how the part intro-
utced by the anticipatory *if is expressed:
1. It was clearly no use waiting any longer. 2. It will be arranged
that every child should undergo a medical examination before taking
part in the contest. 3. It will be difficult for them to cross the river.
4. It was no good my trying to explain that the action had been entirely
unintentional. 5. Is it necessary for me to write a formal application?
G. It is so nice to see you again, old man. 7. It’s no good, I suppose, going
into all this again. 8. It’s very important that somebody should be right
there to supervise the packing. 9. It was not at all pleasant to tell her so.
10. It won’t be easy for me to explain it to them.
The pattern with the anticipatory it introducing a subject clause is
sometimes used to make the sentence emphatic.
ф
261
it
E.g. 1. It is here that the fire broke out. 2. If was late in the afternoon
that we reached the camp. 3. It was you who did it.
Exercise 5. Make the following sentences emphatic by using an anticipatory 4t* intro•
ducing a subject clause. Emphasize the words in bold type.
M o d e l : 1. He told me about it.
It was he who told me about it.
2. The storm began at eight o’clock.
It was at eight o’clock that the storm began.
3. They hid the guns somewhere here.
It was somewhere here that they hid the guns.
1. Mother told me this herself. 2. She told me this only yesterday.
3. We discussed all the details in the garden. 4. The worst part of the
storm began in the second half of the day. 5. The dog attacked him with
out any provocation. 6. They buried the papers under one of the elms.
7. I saw him for the first time only yesterday. 8. She likes you best. 9.
That boy started the fight. 10. We noticed this only in the morning.
The introductory particle there introduces subjects expressed by
nouns or indefinite pronouns. The subject may also be expressed by a ger
und but only in negative sentences. The predicate is mostly a simple
verbal one or a compound modal verbal one.
P a tte r n 6
There there
♦
E.g. 1. There is a book on the table. 2. There was nobody in the room.
3. There is no stopping her now. 4. There may be no one in now.
Exercise 6. Fill in the blanks with 4 f or *there' depending on how the subject is ex•
pressed.
M o d e l : 1. — will be amusing to watch it.
It will be amusing to watch it.
2. — is no one to help her.
There is no one to help her.
262
1. — is nothing more to do. 2. — is just one more thing to add. 3. —
is impossible to get lost in a town like that. 4. — is a name for such as
you. 5. — is no making her listen to reason. 6. — was decided to keep
our change of plans a secret. 7. — was no use whatever her appealing
to his sense of justice. If you ask me he did not have any. 8. — must have
been someone behind those bushes after all. 9. — is no denying the fact
that we’re behind in our payments. 10. — will be perfectly easy for you
to keep the carbon paper. 11. — won’t be necessary for anyone to stay
after the office hours. 12. — is no telling what may happen. 13. — is
someone downstairs, asking for you. 14. — is important that everybody
should be present. 15. — was you whom I saw talking to her at Ella’s
party. 16. — should be a law against it.
The pronoun it used as the subject of the sentence may represent a liv
ing being, a thing, a process, an idea. In this case it is used either in
stead of a noun or instead of a demonstrative pronoun and is a p e r
s o n a l subject.
E.g. 1. She put a tentative finger to her swollen lip. It (the lip) was
bleeding a little. 2. With a disappointment so sharp that it (the
disappointment) felt like a bereavement I saw him walk out. 3. The
water parted and I caught a glimpse of a bright dark eye and a dor
sal fin shaped like a crescent. It (this) was a dolphin.
The pronoun it used as the subject of the sentence may be a purely
formal subject if it does not represent any person or thing, process or
idea. In this case it is an i m p e r s o n a l subject.
Sentence Patterns with the Impersonal It
P a tte r n 7
с. D. far to a
near cer
it late tain
^ drizzles/ed early place
two o’clock
E. morning
♦j. f is I Monday
1 } was j April
J summer
E.g. 1. It often rains in autumn. 2. It was quite dark in the room. 3. It

has been raining again. 4. Is it far to the railway station? 5. It
was summer again now.
Exercise 7. State in which of the following sentences Hf is an anticipatory subject, a
substitute for a noun or a demonstrative pronoun or a formal subject:
1. It’s none of your business anyway. 2. It was warm and sunny, the
sea a strip of faintly wrinkled silk in the distance. 3. Was it really neces
sary to mention it in front of Aunt Kate? 4. It will be so nice for Edna to
have somebody to talk to. 5. Is it really so late? 6. Is it your dog? 7. It
was no one I knew. 8. He made another step towards the door without
taking his eyes off the dog. It did not object. It was not even looking.
If only it were possible to reach that door in a sudden rush and bang it
in the animal’s silly face! 9. Are you sure it is cats? It sounds like a baby
crying. 10. It was only a mile or so to the river. 11. Andover, Miss? It
is quite close by. 12. It was already settled and it was no earthly use my
objecting. 13. It was Monday and time to get up. 14. It was raining softly
all the way to London. 15. He felt in his pocket for the money. It was right
there, safe enough for the present.
Exepcise 8. Fill in the blanks with Hf or *there'. Analyse all the cases of Hf and
state whether Hf is a noun-pronoun substitute, formal subject or an anticipatory subject:
1. — was nothing more to be said on the subject. 2. — was my only
hope. After all — was just possible that he would notice nothing. 3. —
is no going back now. We have burned our ships. So — is no use wonder
ing and sighing. 4. — had been raining in the night and — were pools of
brown water in the road. 5. — was nothing grave. Just a slight irritation
of the throat caused by too much smoking. But — made her uneasy.
6.—was a strip of sandy ground behind the house with a couple of starved
looking apple trees.— was called the garden. 7. A nice brisk walk!
Of all the crazy ideas!—was freezing cold out of doors and—was snow
in the air. 8. I looked for the cottage and—was there right enough. With
a strip of crazy pavement running from the gate to the door.—even was
a well in the back-yard. 9.—must have been perfectly easy for her to
264
rent this cottage in my name. 10.-r-was close to midnight and not a taxi
in sight. 11. “So what?—is no rule against keeping a dog,” she said bellig
erently.—was clearly a case of mistaken identity. 12.—was no railing
of any kind and on a dark night—was easy to step off the plank into
three feet of cold water. 13.—is somebody waiting for you downstairs.
I don’t think—is anyone we know. 14.—is later than you think, dear.—
always is, you know. 15.—was summer. Everybody out of town.—was
just the right time to spend a long week-end in the country.
Subjects may be classified into definite personal, indefinite personal
and impersonal.
A definite personal subject denotes some living being, thing, process,
idea and may be expressed in any of the above described ways.
E.g. 1. An animal is not a toy. 2. There was no holding her back. 3. Sev
en is my lucky number.
An indefinite personal subject denotes a vague group of people which
may or may not include the speaker. It is expressed by the pronouns
one , w ey they , you.
E.g. 1. How can one be sure? 2 . You never should take such things for
granted. 3. We can’t live for ever. 4. They say he looks all right.
An impersonal subject stands for no person or thing. Its function is
purely formal. It is always expressed by it.
E.g. It is getting rather dark. Well, it’s autumn.
Exercise 9. Analyse the subjects in the following sentences:
1. How funny it will seem if I fall right through the earth and come
out among the antipodes. 2. It was all dark overhead and in front of her
there was a long passage. 3. There was nothing on the table except a tiny
golden key. 4. There’s an animal in the middle of the desert with a long
neck and long legs. 5. Five weeks later it was very hot on the shores of
the Red Sea and everybody took off all the clothes they had. 6. This is
Whitehall. There used to be a palace here once. Now it is just a street,
leading to the Houses of Parliament. 7. A member of Parliament speaking
in the House is not supposed to step beyond his strip of carpet in front
of the members’ benches. 8. Strange as it may seem, the shouting “Who
goes home?” is still heard in the House after a night debate. 9. It was
nice to be back in the sunshine. 10. Toy wooden soldiers are the favourite
toys of our children at home. These seem to be the favourites of the English
children. 11. Office girls and businessmen can be seen taking tea side by
side. 12. A cinema star happened to be taking her five black poodles
for an airing. 13. Pink is definitely not your colour. Nobody over twenty
should dream of wearing pink. 14. Two is enough, May. And the ones
with whipped cream are much too rich for my liver. 15. It’ll be nice for
her to have someone her own age to play with. 16. Just talking about
diets and exercising won’t help you lose weight. 17. The man’s staring
so made me drop things and talk in an unnatural high voice. 18, For
a girl her age to have a novel accepted by a noted publishing house was
265
I
an unsurpassed achievement. 19. The pictures were in water-colours.

The first represented clouds rolling over a sullen sea. 20. Some like it
this way. Others prefer them boiled. 21. The worst is yet to come.
The Predicate
"• r
The predicate is the second principal part of the sentence in which

a certain activity, state or quality is ascribed to the subject with refer
ence to time and reality.
E.g. 1. He would have done it better.—An action is ascribed to the
subject in the past and is characterised as unreal.
2. She is quite pretty.—A quality is ascribed to the subject in the
present and is characterised as a fact.
The English predicate always includes the finite form of the verb.
The predicate is the organising centre of the sentence and the main secon
dary parts of the sentence depend on it (the object, the adverbial modi
fiers).
According to the structure of the predicate we distinguish two main
types: the simple predicate and the compound predicate.
The simple predicate consists of a finite verb in any tense, voice or
mood form.
E.g. 1. Nothing has been said as yet about the aims of the expedition.
2. You would have been taken for a tramp.
The simple predicate may be expressed by a phraseological unit con
sisting of a verb with a somewhat weakened meaning and a noun which
form an indivisible unit and express one idea:
to take part, place, pity, care, a look, an interest
to lose sight, weight, patience, temper
to make fun, use, trouble, noise
to have a drink, a walk, a talk,, a bite
to give a start, a push, a look, a cry, a chuckle
E.g. 1. You’ve been making use of me. 2. She’ll be making fun of you,
my boy. 3. They are having dinner. *
The compound predicate consists of two parts: a finite verb and either
a verbal (an infinitive, a gerund, a participle) or a nominal (a noun, a
pronoun, an adjective) part.
The compound predicate may be n o m i n a l or v e r b a l .
1. The compound nominal predicate consists of a finite verb and a
nominal part or predicative. The finite verb serves as a link between the
subject and the predicative which is the significant part of the predicate.
The link-verb besides joining the subject and the predicative expresses
the categories of the verb: person, number, tense, voice.
There are three groups of link-verbs:
Link-verbs of being: to be, to look, to seem, to a p p e a r, to sound, to sm ell,
to ta ste, to feel.
266
Link-verbs of becoming: t o b e c o m e , t o t u r n , t o g r o w , t o m a k e , t o g e t ,
t o etc. g o ,
Link-verbs of remaining: t o r e m a i n , t o c o n t i n u e , t o k e e p , t o s t a y .
All link-verbs belonging to the same group have the same meaning
of being, becoming or remaining but they also retain part of their con
crete meaning.
E.g. When you say: “The child Is quite healthy”, you state that the sub
ject possesses a certain quality. In the sentence: “The child looks
quite healthy” this statement is less definite — judging by its looks
it is quite healthy.
“She grew pale” — a long slow process is meant.
“She turned pale” — denotes a swift change.
E x ercise 10. A n a ly s e the f i n i t e fo r m s o f the verb a n d s t a t e w h e th e r th ey a re lin k -v e rb s
or s im p le p r e d ic a te s .
%
M o d e l : 1. She tasted the soup and added a little water.

Simple predicate. An action is named.
2. The water tasted sweet.
Link-verb. A state or quality is meant.
1. All my dreams will come true. 2. I have come to say good-bye.
3. She felt in her pockets for a dime. 4. The cat’s fur felt soft and warm.
5. She appeared dull and listless. 6. A tall untidy woman with a duster
in her hand appeared in the doorway. 7. She keeps a Pekinese and two
cats. 8. The children kept suspiciously silent. 9. She made a very good
wife and a superlative mother. 10. Mother made me this dress. 11. She
fell and tore her stockings. 12. You’ll fall asleep, 'see, if you don’t. 13.
I went there early one morning. 14. Is anyone in? 15. He is blind.
E xercise I I . F i l l in the b la n k s w ith d if f e r e n t lin k -v e r b s so a s to ch an ge the m e a n in g o f
the p r e d ic a te to a c e r ta in d eg ree.
M o d el: 1. The weather fine

was, became, turned, grew
Погода была хорошей, стала хорошей, резко изменилась
к лучшему, постепенно стала лучше.
2. This — interesting
is, sounds, looks
Это интересно. Это звучит интересно.
Это, кажется, интересно.
1. The child—bright. 2. Не—well. 3. The book—astonishingly good.
4. Later he—proficient in this trade. 5. My, but the pie—good! 6. He—
a man of action. 7. The clouds — dark. 8. This piano—out of tune. 9. The
door—locked. 10. The cream—fresh.
There is a group of verbs which while retaining their full lexical mean
ing also serve to link the subject with the predicative and to express
the categories of the verb.
This group includes the following verbs: t o s i t , t o s t a n d , t o l i e , t o
l e a v e , t o r e t u r n , t o l i v e , t o d i e , t o f a l l , t o m a r r y , t o c o m e , t o g o , t o b e b o r n ,
e t c .
267
E.g. There he lived forgotten by his contemporaries to a ripe old age.
(“lived” names an action but the point is that he was “forgotten”).
Exercise 12. Fill in the blanks with link-verbs retaining their lexical meaning : Ho set\
Ho stand', Ho lie', Ho leave', Ho return', Ho come back', Ho live', Ho die', Hobeborn'\
Ho fall', Ho get up', so that they should form a compound nominal predicate with the pre'-
dicatives in bold type.
M o d e l : He — a new man.
He returned (came back) a new man.
1. The child—blind. 2 . They — there for a long time respected by
everybody. 3. All through the night she—sleepless waiting for the tele
gram to come. 4. The huge beast—motionless, his amber eyes were slits.
5. He—the place determined never to go back. 6. The house still—there
grey and forbidding. 7. She—in the doorway listening ready to draw
back at the slightest noise. 8. The woman made two or three uncertain
steps, clutched at her throat and—dead, or so I thought at the moment.
9. The children—tired to exhaustion. 10. We just— there too, frightened
to move or call out. 11. The woman—a little alarmed. 12. He—a helpless
cripple.
The predicative or the significant part of the compound nominal
predicate may be expressed by:
1) an a d jective r
E.g. 1. The night is young. 2. They grew prosperous. 3. She remained

pale. 4. She lay sleepless.
2) a n ou n , or a preposition al- phrase
E.g. 1. Why, the girl’s a beauty. 2 . She seemed a mere child. 3. He died
a hero. 4. He is out of work.
3) a pronoun
E.g. 1. It’s me, Tim. 2. It is no one we know. 3. It is nothing to write
home about. 4. What is the score?
4) a nu m eral
E.g. 1. She’s thirty if she is a day. 2. She’ll be the first to blame you.
5) a w ord of the ca teg o ry of s ta te
E.g. 1. Well, I’m not afraid of him. 2. He’s fast asleep.
6) an in f in itiv e , an in fin itiv e ph rase or a for-ph rase (only with the
link verb to be)
E.g. 1. The main thing is not to give in. 2. The problem is how to stop
her. 3. The only way out is for you to stay here.
7) a g e ru n d , a g e ru n d ia l com plex , a g eru n d w ith a p re p o sitio n (only
with the link verb to be)
E.g. 1. His hobby is collecting such stories. 2. The main difficulty was
his refusing to leave the place. 3. She did not feel like dining out.
i 268
8) P a r tic ip le I I
E.g. She was delighted to see us. t
9) an adverb (but not adverbs of manner)

E.g. 1. Your time is up. 2. The lesson is over.
10) a p re d ic a tiv e clause
E.g. This is what he said.
*
11) a grou p o f w ords

'E.g. She was twenty-five years old.
' r
Exercise 13. Analyse the following predicates. State how the predicative is expressed:
*
1. That’s enough now. You were born a fool and a fool you will re
main. 2. Who is this? 3. She married young. She was only nineteen. 4. The
story sounds a little strange. 5. It is nothing to me whether she is a liar
or a wronged angel. 6. The town was astir with the news. 7. He seemed
out of breath with the effort. 8. I’ve always been against taking Nan in
our confidence. 9. She was deeply concerned about Father’s health. 10.
The main thing is to keep your head. Carson is the best man for heart
operations. 11. You’ve come back a different woman. You are years
younger and you look the picture of health. 12. She sounded rather out of
temper over the telephone so I told her you were still too weak to be
:alled. 13. And there she lived for a long time forgotten by her rich rela
tives. 14. That part of Aunt Celia’s address was finally over. I felt a little
dazed by the possibilities just opened to me. 15. The wind continued
rough but the sea was noticeably smoother. The long promised treat was
becoming more real and I was the first to mention it.
2. The compound verbal predicate consists of two verbs: a finite verb
and a non-finite verb. We divide the compound verbal predicates in two
groups according to the character of the finite verb.
The compound verbal m o d a l predicate consists of a modal verb
(can, m a y , m u s t, sh a ll, w ill, o u g h t, need, dare) or a verb used with a modal
meaning (to be, to have, to w an t) followed by an infinitive.
E.g. 1. You needn’t have waited. 2 . She must be thinking of a drastic
change. 3. Nothing is to be touched in the room. 4. I dare say it
is so. 5. You don’t want to fight walls. 6. We had to wait for some
time.
The compound verbal a s p e c t i v e predicate consists of such verbs
as: to begin, to s ta r t, to go on, to keep, to con tin u e, to sto p , to g iv e u p, to
cease followed by an infinitive or gerund. To be g o in g and used plus an
infinitive also belong to this group.
✓
E g. 1. It began raining. 2. He kept interrupting. 3. She ceased to

listen. 4. We used to take him along. 5. I’m going to show you the
path.
The compound verbal predicate may be modal and aspective at the
same time.
269
E.g. 1. He had to give up smoking. 2. You should stop wearing those
crasy hats. 3. You needn't have stopped dancing on my account
Exercise 14. Analyse the predicates in the following sentences. State which predicates
are simple and which compound verbal modal.
M o d e l : 1. You should have stayed the night at the motel.
Compound verbal modal predicate.
2. You were not there or I should have seen you.
Simple predicate. Conditional mood.
3. I knew I should he found out.
Simple predicate. Future in the Past.
4. Would you say it again slowly, please?
Compound verbal modal predicate.
5. But for this he would gladly come.
Simple predicate. Conditional mood.
1. But for the accident he would have got there all right. 2. Would
you come a little later? 3. He simply would not answer. 4. You will
get out of here and you will stay out. 5. Nothing will make me change
my mind. 6 . Will you have a cup of coffee with me? 7. This will take
some time. 8. That knife won’t cut. 9. The dog knew him or it would have
barked the house down. 10. Shall I fix you something to eat? И. I shall
know it tomorrow if he writes at once. 12. Why should I waste my time
here? 13. You shouldn’t have said this. Mother was hurt. 14. You should
take more trouble with your hair, Pat. 15. Thanks for giving me a lift.
But for you I should still be standing there in this rain. 16. I knew I
should never make it. But I wanted to try. 17. You should wear the hat
a little more to the front. 18. I know he was out of town or I should have
gone to him. 19. You shall eat these words, young man. 20. He would
tell us he was going away and would promise to send us post-cards.
Not e . The compound nominal predicate may be modal or aspective
as well.
The compound nominal modal predicate:
1. She must be quite young. 2. What shall it be, tea or coffee? 3. I
was to be Cinderella. 4. I must be getting old. 5. Can it be growing dark
already?
The compound nominal aspective predicate:
1. It is beginning to grow cold. 2. When it began to sound real excit
ing I was sent to bed. 3. She continued looking pale and listless.
Exercise 15, Analyse the predicates in the following sentences:
1. I didn’t hear what he was going to say. 2. He couldn’t have gone
back alone. Getting that boy off wasn’t a one man’s job. 3. Who was to
meet you there? 4. It must have been only imagination but the gay fire
light seemed dimmer too. 5. You needn’t be involved at all. We could
invent a story. 6. It does not make sense. Why should they have taken
so much trouble to get something which was already theirs. 7. The story
was amusing enough but I was getting tired of being amused. 8. She
was amusing the baby dangling her beads before her delighted eyes.
270
*
f
9.
It must have been guess work, Mary would not have told them any
thing. 10. He should be fit enough by now to tell us exactly what took
place on the beach. 11. Darling, stop looking like that and stop worry
ing. 12. They may have begun to realise that his story did not sound right.
13. He lay unconscious in the shadow thrown by an overhanging cliff.
14. It may begin raining any minute now. 15. She wasn’t born blind like
the other children. 16. It must have seemed natural to use the caves in
the cliff for storing things at the time. 17. There is no light from here on.
We must begin to use the torch. Don’t look so scared. 18. Spiro looked
comfortable enough and not at the moment particularly ill. He half
sat half lay propped up on his pillows, drinking coffee. 19. Godfrey had
stayed in the cabin busy with his camera and equipment. 20. He took
a quick drag on the cigarette. His leg was beginning to hurt him. 21. He
had no recollection of being found. 22. Money would have been no use
to me. 23. She had a bath and emerged from the bathroom as pink and
white as if she had not stayed awake half the night. 24. The snow had
almost gone but further north the Albanian peaks still gleamed white.
25. Some time later I caught a glimpse of moving white in the harbour
below me.
The Secondary Parts of the Sentence.
The Object 3
The object is a secondary part of the sentence which completes or re

stricts the meaning of a verb, a predicative adjective or a word of the
category of state.
E.g. 1. Max pushed the damp hair off his brow. 2. Holding the lamp
high over her head she peered into the darkness. 3. They were en
gaged in sorting out the mail. 4. He went there to examine the scene
of the accident. 5. She was very fond of the children. 6 . Г т not
afraid of you.
The object may be expressed by:
1) a n o u n
E.g. I gripped his arm, almost crying with relief.

2) (personal, possessive, definite, reflexive, demonstra
a p r o n o u n
tive, indefinite, negative)

E.g.. 1. And look at him now. 2. “Here, darling, take mine,” and he
slipped a handkerchief into my hand. 3. She tells everybody the same
thing. 4. What have you been doing with yourself? 5. I did not know
that. 6. You will meet someone you know. 7. I could see nothing.
3) a s , u b s t a n t i v i z e d a d j e c t i v e p a r t i c i p l e o r n u m e r a l
E.g. 1. She is teaching the blind. 2. She knew the two quite well.
4) a n i n f i n i t i v e , a g e r u n d
E.g. 1. She was delighted to see us. 2. We did not know how to begin.
3. The play was not worth seeing. 4. Thank you for coming.
271
5) a com plex w ith a n o n -fin ite form o f the verb o r a p red ica tive element
E.g. 1. We did not see him leave. 2 . I did not insist on her staying. 3. 1
want it done like that. 4. We thought you very brave.
6) by a sy n ta c tic a lly in d ivisib le g ro u p o f words
E.g. He took a pinch of snuff.
7) a su bordin ate clause
E.g. I know what I have to do.
8) The pronoun it may be used as an object instead of a noun or of
the pronoun this.
E.g. He took a ten dollar bill out of his wallet and reached it out to me.
2. I understood it at once.
9) The pronoun it may also serve as an a n tic ip a to r y o b ject introducing
a real object expressed by an infinitive, a gerund, a complex, ora subor
dinate clause.
P a tte r n 7
1. necessary
l
important to do smth
f thinks > best for smb to do smth
believes impossible
smb \ considers , it J 2. useless I doing smth
feels no use \
smb’s doing smth
l finds J no good J
3. necessary that smb should do
( important smth
E.g. He really thinks jit bestl for me to marry Peggy.

It best is a complex object in which it stands for the /or-phrase
for me to marry.
The Direct Object. The Indirect Object

The direct object stands after a transitive verb and denotes a thing
or person involved in the action.
E.g. He took only his camera.
The indirect object denotes a living being, seldom a thing, for whom
or against whom the action is done.
E.g. She gave me a picture book.
In the Russian language the difference between the direct object and
the indirect object is mainly a difference in form. The direct object is in
the Accusative case, the indirect object in the Dative case.
272
т:
Я вижу мальчика. — direct object

Я помогаю мальчику.— indirect object
In Enlish the difference between the two types of objects is only in
meaning because the English nouns and pronouns have no forms of the
Accusative and Dative cases.
Consequently we often have a direct object in English where we
should have an indirect object in Russian.
Help me, please! — direct object
Помогите мне, пожалуйста.— indirect object
The only object in the sentence if it has no preposition is always a
d i r e c t object. The indirect object cannot be the only object in the
sentence.
The direct object follows the verb unless there is an indirect object
in the sentence which is placed between the verb and the direct object.
I gave him a picture BOOK.
Some verbs have two direct objects:
to ask smb a question
to envy smb smth
to forgive smb smth
Both objects are direct because either one can be used as the only ob
ject in the sentence.
E. g. I asked him a question.
I asked him.
Я спросил его.
I asked a question.
Я задал вопрос.
In case of a direct and indirect object this is impossible.
E .g gave him a picture book
You I gave him. (Я дал ему) or I gave a picture book.
(Я книгу с картинками)
The indirect object may be prepositional. In this case it follows the
prepositions to and for and is placed after the direct object.
We use prepositional indirect objects mostly if the direct object is
expressed by a pronoun.
E.g. 1. Give it to your Mother. 2. Show them to Father when he comes
home. 3. But I’ve bought it especially for you.
Exception: The verbs to w r ite , to ready to sin g may take indirect
prepositional objects without a direct object.
*
E.g. 1. She’ll sing to us after dinner. 2. 1 read to him or we just talk.

3. Write to me as soon as you get there (write me is also possible).
Exercise 16. Extend the following sentences by adding indirect objects to the verbs in
bold type. Replace the indirect object by a prepositional indirect object.
10 № 813
♦'
k
Г4
M o d e l : I bought a box of chocolate creams.
I bought my little daughter a box of chocolate creams.
*
I bought a box of chocolate creams for my little daughter.
1. She walked about the room handing cups of tea and slices of seed
cake with a pretty smile. 2. Promise to send a telegram the moment you
arrive. 3. She brought a couple of folding chairs. 4. Only once did she
tell the story of her life. 5. Intentionally or not you caused much anxiety.
6. She spent the morning baking a chocolate layer cake. 7. I know a short
cut to the valley and Г11 show it. 8. Can’t you offer anything more inter
esting than this? 9. I’ll buy a good box of water colours. 10. I have
made some coffee.
Some verbs can take only prepositional indirect objects.
P a tte r n 8
E.g 1. She announced this to her parents. 2. He dictated the

the secretary. 3. I pointed it out to her at once.
P a tte r n 9
is 1 explained
something to smb
was l dictated
E.g. 1. It was pointed out to her that she had made a mistake. 2. It was
explained to us that we should not lie in the sun. 3. The letter was
dictated to the secretary.
Exercise 17. Translate into English. Analyse the objects.
Model: Я покажу вам его.
I’ll point him out to you.
(him — direct object; to you — prepositional indirect object)
274
*
J. Я объясню вам, как это делать. 2. Мне дважды повторили объяс
нение. 3. Она мне это не посоветовала. 4. Я познакомил его с моей се
строй. 5. Продиктуйте мне, пожалуйста, это стихотворение. 6. Она
объявила, что немедленно уезжает. 7. Все мои ошибки были мне ука
заны. 8. Мне повторили, что мне нужно отдохнуть. 9. Мне продикто
вали несколько писем. 10. Мне его представили на конференции. 11.
Нам это вчера объявили. 12. Нам предложили попробовать сделать это
самим.
The Prepositional Object
Some verbs and all predicative adjectives and words of the category
of state govern their objects by means of prepositions.
E.g. 1. She did not look at me. 2. The dog is so fond of the children.
3. She was strangely aware of his presence. 4. They were engaged
in sorting out the mail.
It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between a prepositional ob
ject and an adverbial modifier expressed by a prepositional phrase.
E.g. He opened the door with his own key.
You may consider with his key an object and an adverbial modifier
of manner depending on whether you ask w ith w h a t ? or how .
The Complex Object

The object may be expressed by a complex with a non-finite form or
a predicative element, in this case we call it a complex object. The com
plex object may be prepositional.
E.g. 1. We saw them leave. 2. We waited for them to leave. 3. I can't
help his coming. 4. She insisted on my coming.
The complex object may be expressed by:
1) the A ccu sa tive w ith the in fin itiv e
E.g. Nobody saw him leave the room.
2) the A ccu sa tive w ith the p a r tic ip le
E.g. I don’t want it mentioned again.
3) the g e ru n d ia l com plex
E.g. She did not mind my saying so.
4) the g e ru n d ia l com plex w ith a p re p o sitio n
E .g. I don’t insist on your staying.
t
5) the for-ph rase

.g. Are you waiting for me to go?
f. *
Ю* 275
6) a com plex w ith a p re d ic a tiv e elem ent
E.g. I think her sweet.
They appointed him secretary of the society.
Exercise 18. Analyse the complex objects in the following sentences.
%
M o d e l : 1. I simply longed for somebody to notice me. (for somebody

to notice me — a fo r- phrase)
2. I left them playing chess on the terrace, (them playing —
Accusative with the participle)
1. We left them making plans for a June wedding. 2. He saw a white
flag flying from the window of John Barker’s store. 3. Godfrey found
them taking tea in a seaside cafe. 4. And then I thought I felt the dolphin
stir against me. I felt the big muscles flex under his skin, a slow ripple
of strength run along the powerful back. 5. Have him see Clyde, if he
can. 6. I heard my sister called a beauty. 7. He had believed Fleur hon
est. 8. He’d better wait for me to go. 9. I don’t want it said that I can’t
manage my own children. 10. No one had seen the mirror broken. 11. She
positively insisted on John taking me all the way back in his car. 12. How
can I rely on his being there in time for the train? 13. Oh, my dear! Of
course I did not mean for you to be taken so far out of your way and all
for nothing. 14. Some people consider her pretty. 15. How can you stand
their taking your home from you? 16. How I hated her saying it! 17. She
was anxious for us to look our best. 18. We voted her the most likely to
succeed this year. 19. I remember your saying so at the time.
Exercise 19. Analyse the objects in the following sentences. State how they are expressed.
M o d e l : 1. May I help you with your luggage?
(you — direct object, personal pronoun; with luggage —
prep, object, prep, phrase)
2. Show me that letter, please.
(me — indirect object, personal pronoun; letter — direct
object, noun)
3. I waited for her to put the receiver down.
(for her to put — complex object, fo r- phrase)
1. Believe me! Say that you believe me. 2. She explained to me where
I could park the car. 3. They passed me the bread and the salt at table
but otherwise ignored me completely. 4. Alice did not like shaking hands
with either of them first. 5. After a time she heard a pattering of feet
in the distance. 6. Don’t you envy her that poise and assurance. 7. They
seemed to think it impossible to cross the river in the dark. 8. He leaned
on the gate whistling and waited for the girl to notice him. 9. She was
so surprised that for a moment she forgot how to speak good English.
10. The first thing was to get rid of the package. I crouched and let the
thing slide between the platform and the boat. 11. I could feel, rather
than hear, his weight moving about the boat. 12. Now you are annoyed
with me. 13. I know what you told me. Do you expect me to believe you?
14. The man said something rough and urgent to his wife. 15. While
276
I struggled out of my sopping clothes the old woman kept asking me
questions. 16. What did you give me? 17. We shall never know all about
it now. 18. Even now, she could only see herself and wonder how this
new circumstance would affect her interests. 19. Could you show me a
sample of her handwriting? 20. I saw him having tea at the Rumpel-
mayer’s with a very young girl. 21. Have you ever heard me say so?
22. I’m sorry to have kept you waiting. 23. Well, I won’t let you boss
me around for one thing. 24. Nobody seems to know anything about
those people. 25. Will you do it for me, Nan? 26. And I shall sing to you
after dinner. 27. Г1! teach her how to do this. 28. I was watching the bay
with glasses, and I saw something odd floating, a way out. 29. Godfrey’s
eye met mine. 30. He caught me watching him and smiled. 31. She no
ticed nothing in my tone. 32. I’d much rather take a walk out than see
you work yourself into a hysterical fit.
Types of Objects
«
D irect Object P re p o sitio n a l Object
Do you see that white house? Look at that white house.
In d ire c t Object In d ire c t P re p o sitio n a l Object
1. Give me the box. 1. Give it to me.

2. I’ve bought you a sweater. 2. I’ve bought a sweater
for you.
•t
C om plex object P re p o sitio n a l com plex object
1. I felt the ground tremble. 1. I’m waiting for you to

2. We noticed the boat floating in tell me.
the bay. 2. He relied on my telling
3. I don’t mind your going. you this.
4. We found it useful. i
The Attribute
The attribute is a secondary part of the sentence which modifies
a noun or a pronoun.
An attribute may stand before or after the modified word. The attri
bute may be expressed by:
1) an adjective
277
E.g. 1. It’s a good idea. 2. I know a better way. 3. She was my best
friend at school.
2) a pronoun (p o ssessive, d em o n stra tive, in te rro g a tiv e , defin in g)
E.g. 1. It ’s was my idea. 2. Look at this girl. 3. Whose little boy are
you? 4. There’s some milk left.
*
3) a n u m eral
E.g. 1. The place was called “The Four Poplars”. 2. The second letter
came only two days later.
4) a noun in the possessive case
E.g. It was still called Mother’s room.
4) an a d je c tiv ize d noun *
E.g. It was a charming forest scene.
6) a p re p o sitio n a l ph rase
E.g. The young man with the scenic cravat glanced nervously at the
girl in the fringed dress.
7) n o n -fin ite form s
E.g. 1. He was the last to learn about it. 2. I have no intention of telling
you. 3. The still admiring Joe, while on a business trip, had seen
Herbie. 4. The tightly stored tears would squeeze from her eyes as
she teetered past on her aching feet.
8) a com plex w ith a n o n -fin ite form
E.g. 1. The idea of Debbie taking him seriously never once crossed his
mind. 2. There’s no place for them to sleep unless we let them have
our room.
9) an adverb
E.g. 1. The downstairs closet was their favourite hiding place. 2. We
could hear somebody move in the room above.
10) a s y n ta c tic a lly in d ivisib le g ro u p of w ords
E.g. The woman with faded blue eyes turned out to be Jan’s mother.
11) a clause
E.g. All I know is that he is gone.
Exercise 20. Analyse the attributes in the following sentences and say by what they are
expressed:
1. Have I done anything to annoy your mother? 2. And the silken sad
uncertain rustling of each purple curtain thrilled me — filled me with
* The point as to whether the attribute in such word-combinations as stone wall,
gold watch is a noun in the common case or an adjective (adjectivized noun) constitutes
an unsolved problem. There are arguments pro and against each theory. The problem
will be treated at length in your course of Lexicology.
278
fantastic terrors never felt before. 3. She lay down on the living-room
davenport, and pressed her thin hand against her dull brown hair. 4. It
was a lively little narrative with carefully chosen amusing phrases of
description. 5. It was an off night for news — a long speech of somebody’s,
a plan for a garbage dump, a four-day-old murder mystery. 6. Some men
cannot pass a book shop. 7. My friend here and myself merely happened
to wonder how much are those pearls in your window. 8. It is the second
time it happens this week. 9. The large white monkey with its brown
haunting eyes impressed her at once. 10. A brown knitted frock with
little clear yellow buttons — unsoiled, uncreased. How could anybody
spare a thing like that? 11. The people upstairs are moving. 12. Anette’s
handsome person, stiffened. 13. It is not a question of taking money from
him. 14. I had to take a three months’ leave and go to a nursing home.
15. The image of his first love did not often haunt him now. 16. The dan
ger of his meeting Mother or Dad at some party was not negligible. 1-7.
What’s the sense of waiting I’m asking you. 18. No, Miss, she’s not a girl
for you to play with. 19. Have you anything to add? 20. You were the
last to see him alive.
The Apposition
The apposition is a special kind of attribute which is expressed by
a noun or pronoun which can have attributes of its own. The apposition
denotes the same person or thing as the noun it modifies.
E.g. She spoke of her son, a boy of fourteen.
There are two kinds of appositions: loose appositions and close appo
sitions.
L o o s e a p p o s i t i o n s are separated by commas from the
word they modify.
♦
E.g. 1. Tommy Trott, a man of law, sold his bed and lay upon straw.
2. She was greatly concerned about Juliana, her youngest and
prettiest daughter.
C l o s e a p p o s i t i o n s are not separated by commas from the
word they modify. They usually name a person’s profession, rank, title.
E.g. I. Doctor Beddoes was called in. 2. A letter from uncle Samuel
cheered him no end.
Exercise 21. Find the appositions. Say which are loose and which are close appositions:
1. And now her mother, a woman of sense, is also getting bored?
2. The boy, a natural model, fitted into the back ground of rock and sea
as inevitably as the pillars of the temple. 3. Here was I, Lucy Waring,
being asked into the water for a play. 4. There was the dolphin Jack who
saw the ships through Cook Strait for twenty years. 5. Far below us
I could still catch a glimpse of the sea, a silvery ribbon, between over
hanging cliffs. 6. Old Mother Hubbard went to the cupboard, to get her
poor dog a bone. 7. Tell him to bring his note of Colonel Saxley’s instruc
tions. 8. The kitchen, a windowless little room, was very clean. 9. The
«
279
child, a pretty little thing of eight, was considered delicate. 10. Cousin
Sally was considered the beauty of the family. 11. She trusted no one
except Doctor Barlow. 12. Nurse Attwood, you will come to mv studv
after tea.
Exercise 22. Extend the following sentences by filling the blanks with loose appositions.
Use nouns with or without attributes:
1. We were ushered in by his secretary — . 2. She was very fond of
her cat — . 3. She brought her sister — . 4. We met in the city park — .
5. She showed us the way to the beach — . 6. The school house — stood
at the bottom of the hill. 7. He introduced us to his mother — . 8. There
he was — .
The Adverbial Modifier

The adverbial modifier is a secondary part of the sentence which mod
ifies verbs, finite and non-finite, adjectives and adverbs.
There are the following kinds of adverbial modifiers:
1) The a d verb ia l m o d ifier o f tim e.
E.g. 1. Come at once. 2. After reading the book I changed my mind.
*
2) The a d verb ia l m o d ifier of frequency.
E.g. I sometimes see her there.
3) The a d verb ia l m o d ifier o f place.
E.g. 1. Come here! 2. Don’t stand there, dear.
4) The a d verb ia l m o d ifier of
«
m anner.
E.g. You must not talk so fast.
5) The adverbial m o d ifier of a tte n d a n t circu m stan ces.
E.g. He spoke without looking at me.
6) The adverbial m o d ifier of degree an d m easu re.
4
E.g. 1. He danced quite well. 2. We walked a mile.
7) The adverbial m o d ifier of cause .
E.g. I lost that job through falling ill.
8) The adverbial m o d ifier of resu lt.
E.g. She was bright enough to see through him.
#
9) The adverbial m odifier of co n d itio n .

E.g. But for this things would have eventually come right.
10) The adverbial m o d ifier of com parison .
E.g. She raised her eyebrows slightly as if surprised
11) The adverbial m o d ifier o f pu rpose.
280
E.g. Have you come to talk business?
The adverbial modifier can be expressed by:
1) an adverb .
E.g. He will sign it tomorrow.
2) a noun or a noun w ith depen den t w ords
E.g. To swim a mile and a half in this chopping sea for an indifferent
swimmer seemed practically impossible.
3) a p re p o sitio n a l ph rase
E.g. 1. Don’t speak without thinking. 2. The car still stood there in
front of the house.
4) a n ou n , p ro n o u n , p a r tic ip le or a d jective in trodu ced b y a subordi
n a tin g con ju n ction
E.g. 1. He kept his eyes obstinately down as if ashamed to look at me.
2. He learned to swim when holidaying in Brittany.
*
5) a p a r tic ip le
E.g. Having made up his mind he drew a plan of action.
t
6) a geru n d w ith a p re p o sitio n or a com plex w ith a geru n d

E.g. 1. On hearing this I opened the window and walked in. 2. She
couldn’t have left any message without my seeing her.
7) an in fin itiv e or a for-ph rase *
E.g. 1. He stood aside to let us pass. 2. The hint was broad enough for
anybody to understand.
N o t e 1. The Nominative absolute construction without being actually
a part of the sentence conveys certain adverbial meanings.
E.g. 1. I sat with my hands jammed tightly between my knees. 2. The
dress being a little short I spent the afternoon letting it out. 3. The
first step thus taken we had to go on with it. 4. I saw Petros move
forward from the door, gun in hand.
Exercise 23. A n a lyse the adverbial m odifiers.
M o d e l : 1. She turned to give a hard look to her enemy.

(to give a look — adv. mod. of purpose, infinitive)
2. Again unwillingly his mind returned to Maria Estragon.
(again — adv. mod. of frequency, adverb; unwillingly —
adv. mod. of manner, adverb)
3. Her disappointment was too acute for her to proceed further,
(for her to proceed further — adv. mod. of result,
for-phrase) i
1. Lucian and his brothers were waiting in the courtyard to receive

him, the sun shining on their bare heads. 2. The guest embraced Lucian
281
warmly and turned to be presented to the brothers. 3. An hour later she
met him on the terrace. 4. She put her hands before her eyes, rose slowly
and tremblingly and walked out of the open French window on to the
lawn outside. 5. She walked across the lawn without looking back at the
house. 6. At that moment she saw him standing at a little distance under
one of the trees, the back turfted towards her. 7. They had got the boat
out shortly before midnight. 8. She frowned considering the question.
9. The night was too black and thick for them to notice much. 10. It all
happened very fast. 11. The owners of the house had moved out, leaving
the doors and windows unlocked. 12. He ate his food slowly, mechani
cally, still thinking of Angie’s words. 13. If warned in time Louis would
not be dangerous. 14. Angel looked at him steadily, trying to make
him drop his eyes. 15. The others looked at him pityingly, understanding
that he was Charley’s only friend. 16. He was leaning against the wall
as though waiting for a friend to come. 17. He stepped back immediately,
stammering an apology. 18. I could easily swim a mile in this calm warm
sea. 19. She continued to stare in silence as if too astonished to speak.
20. After Bart’s coming things became more lively. 21. Having no place
to go he drove home. 22. The boy was visible below, the younger child
still trotting behind him. 23. He was still sitting there with the newspaper
raised like a shield between him and the world. 24. The path being very
narrow and slippery, we were forced to dismount. 25. Having changed
her mind once, she could not be trusted not to do it again. 26. Here’s
the thermometer. They’ve left it for the doctor to see. 27. Being told to
wait she obediently sat down crossing her hands over her shabby plastic
purse. 28. She left the room in tears, her face and neck an unhealthy mott- -
led pink. 29. Here it lay for everybody to see. 30. Having entirely for
gotten about her rash promise, she was unpleasantly surprised. 31. To
gether we managed to drag and shove him a foot or so downshore.
N o t e 9. Prepositional phrases can be found in the functions of object,

attribute, adverbial modifier and predicative.
Exercise 24. Analyse the prepositional phrases in the following sentences and state in
what syntactical functions they are used:
1. The boat-house was a vast structure with a high roof lost in shadows.
2. There was a window in the back of the boat-house. 3. I know nothing
against his way of life, madam. 4. She rose, yawned, nodded to us and
went in to warn her family of our arrival. 5. The members of my house
hold, naturally, are above suspicion. 6. Gregory agreed to this after a
time. 7. He was strongly in favour of starting at once. 8. I did not feel
like going over all this again. 9. When you feel up to talking of this you’ll
tell me everything. 10. Max pushed the damp hair off his brow with
a gesture almost of desperation. 11. Frightened of the man’s presence or
hurt by our tugging and by the friction of sand and pebbles, the animal
began to struggle. 12. Mr. Glenmore put the tips of his fingers together
and peered through them at Anthony. For a moment he looked rather
like a monkey peering through the bars of a cage.
282
N o t e 3. Complexes with the non-finite forms and with predicative
elements can be found in the functions of subject, object,
attribute and adverbial modifier.
Exercise 25. Analyse the complexes with the non-finite forms and the complexes with
predicative elements in the following sentences.
M o d e l : 1. And am I supposed to be going down there to shoot it in
the middle of the night?
(Nominative with the infinitive, subject)
2 . Why don't you want me to go down there?
(Accusative with the infinitive, object)
3. A small motor-boat came nosing round the bay, her engine
spluttering and sneezing.
(Nominative absolute construction, adverbial modifier
of attendant circumstances)
4. They considered me rather bright at school.
(complex with predicative element, object).
1. I saw him stand up and deliberately rock the boat. 2. He was be
side me on the sand with a coil of rope over his arm. 3. The dolphin lay
like a log, his eye turning back to watch us. 4. I’d planned for you to
visit it one day but there is an objection. 5. It was perfectly possible for
a man to work on an abstruse problem one day and yell his head off at
a football game the next. 6. I was hardly back in my hiding place before
we heard him coming back, the lights of his car growing at a terrible
speed and blinding me. 7. It’ll be all right. No one is likely to find it
here before morning. 8. I can't stand seeing anything hurt. 9. It was
a mistake for her to come. She’s not supposed to go out or see people.
10. He shouldered his way purposefully to the car and reached out a hand
for me to surrender the keys. И. I had to drive slowly, the roads being
packed and the harbour boulevard teeming with people. 12. The wall
was just a little too high for me to see what was going on on the other
side. 13. He knew his way, no doubt of that. There was not the slightest
danger of his getting lost. 14. He even mentioned my not being used to
right side driving. 15. The secret was considered lost. 16. It’s no use,
no use whatever my going to bed. I won’t sleep a wink. I know it. 17. It
was quite sufficiently unpleasant as it is without you butting in. 18. It
was a frilly pink dress, something for a child of ten to wear to a birthday
party. 19. The dolphin — Spiro’s dolphin — was stranded on the beach
and Max told them to float it again. 20. I found the snapshot hidden
under a pile of handkerchiefs.
The Independent Elements of the Sentence

Independent elements are words or groups of words which are not
grammatically dependent on any part of the sentence.
They are: interjections, direct address and parenthesis.
1) I n te r je c tio n s : ah, oh, hullo, look here, here, say, etc.
E.g. 1. “Here,” she whispered, “take this!” 2. “Oh, Max, this is marvel
lous!”
283
2) D ir e c t A d d re ss .
E.g. 1. Did you go to watch the procession this morning, Mr. Gule?
. 2. My dear child, you’ve done us both a kindness. 3. I can’t do it,
Sweetie, I can’t even budge you.
*
3) P a ren th e sis .
a) such modal words as: of course , c e r ta in ly , su re ly , p o ssib ly , obvious
ly , e v id e n tly , p erh a p s , p ro b a b ly , m aybe, fce/fer
E.g. 1. “Better don’t,” she advised. 2. Surely, I left it here on the hall
table.
b) such adverbs as: f i r s t l y , secondly , a n y w a y , besides, s t i l l , etc.
E.g. 1. Still, I don’t want her to be hurt. 2. Anyway, we are leaving
in two days.
c) such prepositional phrases as: m m y opin ion , in sh o rt, lea st, etc.
E.g. 1. At least, I have always thought so. 2. In short, I ought to be
grateful to you for all you’ve done.
d) such infinitive and participial phrases as: to tell the tr u th , to &e-
g in w ith , g e n e ra lly sp ea k in g , fra n k ly sp ea k in g , etc.
E.g. 1. Frankly speaking, he seemed much as usual. 2. To begin with, it

was your own idea.
Exercise 26. Analyse the independent elements in the following sentences:
1. “You are sure, naturally,” the boy nodded. “And it did not need
a genius with engines to know there was nothing wrong. Even you would
have known, my pretty one.” 2. Steady as you go, boy, the boat is pitch
ing a bit. 3. Well, you’d better get some sleep. 4. You, surely, don’t
imagine that he was irritated with you for trying to do his work? 5. I have
thought. Of course I have thought. 6. In fact, he made sure that you saw
nobody all that day. 7. Goodness, what was he singing about? 8. Heav
ens, I must have slept like the dead. 9. Strictly speaking, it did not
concern me. 10. To be sure, she had vaguely hinted once or twice at some
thing of the sort. 11. Godfrey! Are you telling me you did it on purpose?
12. As a matter of fact, I enjoyed it. 13. To tell you the truth, I’m not
absolutely against it. 14. And yet, here he was again, waiting for some
thing he was not even sure he wanted. 15. Look here! I don’t know how
to tell you this. He’s gone.
KEYS TO EXERCISES
Exercise 1. 1. What a child you are! 2. How narrow the path was!
3. How easily and well she sang! 4. What big brown eyes the baby had!
5. How angrily she spoke...! 6. How noiselessly they ran! 7. How kind
to me she was! 8. How yellow the leaves are turning! 9. What a very in
volved story he told us! 10. How angry she lookedl 11. What a tiring day
it was! 12. What a relief to everybody it was!
284 r
Exercise 2. 1. subject; link-verb 2. subject 3. subject; second element
of a compound verbal modal predicate 4. subject; predicate 5. second
element of a compound verbal modal predicate 6. introductory particle
4‘there,,; predicate 7. predicative 8. subject 9. subject; auxiliary verb
10. subject
Exercise 3. 1. your carrying, — ger. comp. 2. for me to pretend, for-
phrase 3. your saying, ger. comp. 4. the safe — to have been left, Nom.
with the inf. 5. she — penniless, Nom + adj. 6. for me to go and tell,
for-phrase, 7. it — to happen, Nom. with the inf. 8. they — discussing,
Nom. with the part. 9. the matter — closed, Nom. with the part. 10. moth
er’s taking, ger. comp. 11. for her to praise, for-phrase 12. the car —
damaged, Nom. with the part. 13. information — to leak out, Nom.
with the inf. 14. they — dancing, Nom. with the part. 15. she — secre
tary, Nom.+noun.
Exercise 4. 1. waiting — gerund 2. that every child should — clause
3. for them to cross — for-phrase 4. my trying — ger. comp. 5. for
me to write — for-phrase 6. to see — infinitive 7. going gerund
8. that somebody should... — clause 9. to tell — infinitive 10. for me
to explain — for-phrase
Exercise 5. 1. It was mother who— 2. It was only yesterday that
3. It was in the garden that — 4. It was in the second half of the day
that 5. It was the dog who — 6. It was under one of the elms that
7. It was only yesterday that — 8. It’s you (whom) — 9. It was that boy
who 10. It was onlv in the morning that
Exercise 6. 1. there 2. there 3. it 4. there 5. there 6. it 7. it 8. there
9. there 10. it 11. it 12. there 13. there 14. it 15. it 16. there
Exercise 7. 1. substitute 2. formal subject 3. anticipatory 4. antic
ipatory 5. formal subject 6. substitute 7. substitute 8. substitute; sub
stitute; anticipatory 9. substitute; substitute 10. formal subject 11. sub
stitute 12. substitute; anticipatory 13. formal subject 14. formal subject
15. substitute
Exercise 8. 1. there 2. it — substitute; it — anticipatory 3. there;
it — anticipatory 4. it — formal subject; there 5. it — substitute; it —
substitute 6. there; it — substitute 7. it — formal subject; there 8. it —
substitute; there 9. it — anticipatory 10. it — formal subject 11. there;
it — substitute 12. there; it — anticipatory 13. there; it — substitute
14. it, it — fqrmal subjects 15. it — formal subject; it — substitute
Exercise 9. 1. it— if I fall — clause 2. It — pronoun; there—
passage — noun 3. there— nothing — negative pr.; 4. there— animal —
noun 5. it — pronoun; everybody — defining pr.; they — personal
pr. 6. this — demonstrative pr.; there — a palace — noun; it — pronoun;
7. member of Parliament — group of words 8. it — pronoun;
the shouting — verbal noun 9. it — to be — infinitive 10. soldiers —
noun; these — demonstrative pr.; 11. girls and businessmen — taking
tea — Nom. with the part. 12. star — to be taking — Nom. with the
inf. 13. pink — adjective; nobody — negative pr. 14. two — numeral;
t
285
the ones — indefinite pr. subst. 15. it — for her to have — for-phrase
16. talking — gerund 17. the man’s staring — ger. complex 18. for a
g irl. . . to have — for-phrase 19. pictures — noun; the first — numeral
20. some — indefinite pr.; others — defining pr. 21. the worst — adjec
tive
Exercise 10. 1. link-verb 2. simple pr. 3. simple pr. 4. link-verb
5. link-verb 6. simple pr. 7. simple pr. 8. link-verb 9. link-verb 10. simple
pr. 11. simple pr. 12. link-verb 13. simple pr. 14. simple pr. 15. link-verb
Exercise 13. 1. enough — adverb of degree; a fool — noun; a fool —
noun 2. who — interrogative pronoun 3. young — adjective; nineteen —
numeral 4. strange — adjective 5. nothing — negative pronoun; liar,
angel — nouns 6. astir — category of state 7. out of breath — prepo
sitional phrase 8. against taking — gerund with preposition 9. concerned
— participle 10. to keep — infinitive; man — noun 11. woman —
noun; younger — adjective; picture of health — group of words 12. out
of temper — prepositional phrase; weak — adjective 13. forgotten —
participle 14. over — adverb; dazed — participle 15, rough — adjec
tive; smoother — adjective; real — adjective; the first — numeral
Exercise 14. 1. simple pr. cond. mood 2. comp. verb. mod. pr. 3. comp,
verb. mod. pr. 4. comp. verb. mod. predicates 5. comp. verb. mod. pr.
6. comp. verb. mod. pr._7. simple pr. 8. comp. verb. mod. pr. 9. simple
pr. cond. mood 10. comp. verb. mod. pr. 11. simple pr. 12. comp. verb,
mod. pr. 13. comp. verb. mod. pr. 14. comp. verb. mod. pr. 15. simple
pr. cond. mood 16. simple pr. 17. comp. verb. mod. pr. 18. comp. verb,
mod. pr. 19. comp. verb. mod. pr. 20. comp. verb. mod. pr.
Exercise 15. 1. simple pr.; comp. verb. asp. pr. 2. comp. verb. mod.
pr.; comp, nominal pr. 3. comp. verb. mod. pr. 4. comp, nominal pr.;
comp, nominal pr. 5. comp. verb. mod. predicates 6. simple pr. (phr.);
comp. verb. mod. pr. (phr.); comp, nominal pr. 7. comp, nominal pr.;
comp, nominal pr. 8. simple pr. 9. comp, nominal pr.; simple pr. 10. comp,
nominal modal pr.; simple pr. 11. comp, verbal asp. pr.; comp, verbal
aspective pr. 12. comp. verb. mod. asp. pr.; comp, nominal pr. 13. comp,
nominal pr. 14. comp. verb, modal asp. pr. 15. comp, nominal pn 16.
comp, nominal modal pr. 17. simple pr.; comp. verb, modal asp. pr.;
comp, nominal pr. 18. comp, nominal pr.; comp, nominal pr. 19. comp,
nominal pr. 20. simple pr.; comp. verb. asp. pr. 21. simple pr. 22. comp,
nominal pr. 23. simple pr.; comp, nominal pr.; comp, nominal pr. 24. sim
ple pr.; compound nominal pr. 25. simple pr.
Exercise 18. 1. them making — Acc -f part 2. flag flying — Acc +
part 3. them taking — Acc + part 4. the dolphin stir — Acc + inf;
muscles flex — Acc + inf; ripple run — Acc + inf 5. him see — Acc +
inf 6. sister called — Acc + part 7. Fleur honest — complex with
predicative element 8. for me to go — for-phrase 9. it said — Acc +
part 10. the mirror broken — Acc + part 11 on John taking — ger
und comp. 12. on his being — gerund comp. 13. for you to be taken —
for-phrase 14. her pretty — comp, with predicative element 15. their
taking — gerund comp. 16. her saying — gerund comp. 17. for us to
look — for-phrase 18. her . . . likely — comp, with predicative element
19. your saying— gerund comp.
♦
Exercise 19. 1. m e— direct object, personal pronoun 2. to me —

prep, indirect object, prep, phrase where I could... — direct object,
clause; 3. me — indirect object, personal pronoun; the bread, the salt —
direct objects, nouns; me — direct object, personal pronoun 4. shaking
hands — direct object, gerund; with either — prep, object, prep, phrase
5. a pattering — direct object, verbal noun 6. her — direct object, per
sonal pronoun; poise, assurance— direct objects, nouns 7. it impossi
ble— complex object, complex with pred. elements; to cross object an
ticipated by “it”, infinitive; river — direct object, noun 8. for the girl *
to notice — complex object, for-phrase; him’— direct object, personal
pronoun 9. how to speak — direct object, infinitive phrase; English —
direct object, substantivised adj. 10. of the package — prep, object,
prep, phrase; the thing slide — complex object, Acc + inf. 11. weight
moving— complex object, A cc-f part. 12. with me — prep, object,
prep, phrase 13. what you told — direct object, clause; me — indirect
object, personal pronoun; what — direct object, connective pronoun;
me to believe — complex object, Acc -f inf; you — direct object, per
sonal pronoun 14. something — direct object, indefinite pronoun, to
his wife — prep, indirect object, prep, phrase 15. me — indirect object,
personal pronoun; questions — direct object, noun 16. what — direct
object, interrogative pronoun, m e— indirect object, personal pronoun
17. all — direct object, defining pronoun 18. herself— direct object,
reflexive pronoun; how th is... — direct object, clause; interests — di
rect object, noun 19. me — indirect object, personal pronoun, sample —
direct object, noun 20. him having tea — complex object, Acc + part.;
with a girl — prep, object, prep, phrase 21. me say — complex object,
Acc -f inf. 22. to have kept— direct object, inf.; you waiting — ger
und comp. 23. you boss — complex object, Acc + inf.; me — direct
object, personal pronoun 24. anything — direct object, indefinite pronoun
25. it — direct object, personal pronoun; 25. ijt — direct object, personal
pronoun; for me — prep, indirect object, prep, phrase 26. to you — prep,
indirect object,prep, phrase 27. her — direct object, personal pronoun; how
to do — direct object, inf. phrase; this — direct object, demonstrative
pronoun 28. bay — direct object, noun; something floating — complex
object, Acc -f part 29. mine — direct object, possessive pronoun 30. me
watching — complex object, Acc + part; him — direct object, person
al pronoun 31. nothing — direct object, negative pronoun 32. you work
yourself — complex object, Acc -f inf.
*
Exercise 20. 1. to annoy — inf.; your — possessive pronoun

2. silken, sad, uncertain — adj.; of curtain — prep, phrase; purple —
adj.; each — defining pronoun; fantastic — adj.; felt — participle 3. liv
ing-room— adj. noun; thin, dull, brown — adj. 4. lively, little, amus
in g — adj.; chosen — participle; with phrases, of description — prep,
phrases 5. long — adj.; garbage, murder — adj. nouns; for news, for
dump, of somebody — prep, phrases; off — adverb; a four-day-old —
group of words 6. some, another — pronouns; book — adj. noun 7. my,
287
*
your — possessive pronouns; here — adverb; those — demonstrative pro
noun 8. second — numeral; this — demonstrative pronoun 9. large,
white, brown, haunting — adj.; with eyes — prep, phrase, its — pos
sessive pronoun 10. brown, little, clear, yellow — adj.; knitted, unsoiled,
uncreased — participles; with buttons — prep, phrase; like that —
prep, phrase 11. upstairs — adverb 12. Anette’s — noun in the possessive
case; handsome — adj.; 13. of taking— prep, gerund 14. three — numer
al; months’ — noun in the possessive case 15. of love — prep, phrase;
his — possessive pronoun; first — numeral 16. his meeting — gerund,
complex; some — indefinite pronoun 17. of waiting — prep, gerund
18. for you to play with — for-phrase 19. to add — inf. 20. to see — inf.
Exercise 21. 1. a woman of sense — loose ap. 2. a natural model —
loose ap. 3. Lucy Waring — loose ap. -4. dolphin Jack — close ap. 5. a
silvery ribbon — loose ap. 6. Mother Hubbard — close ap. 7. Colonel
Saxley — close ap. 8. windowless little room — loose ap. 9. a pretty
little thing of eight — loose ap. 10. Cousin Sally — close ap. 11. Doctor
Barlow — close ap. 12. Nurse Attwood — close ap.
* •
Exercise 23. 1. in the courtyard — place, prep, phrase; to receive —

purpose, inf.; the sun shining . . . — attendant circ., Nom. abs. constr.
2. warmly — manner, adverb; to be presented — purpose inf. 3. an
hour later — time, group of words; on the terrace — place, prep, phrase
4. before her eyes — place, prep, phrase; slowly, tremblingly — manner,
adverbs; on to the lawn — place, prep, phrase; outside — place, adverb
5. across the lawn — place, prep, phrase; without looking — attendant
circ., prep, gerund; back — place, adverb 6. at that moment — time,
prep, phrase; at a distance — place, prep, phrase; under one of the trees
— place, prep, phrase; the back turned towards her — manner, Nom.
abs. constr. 7. out — place, adverb; shortly — degree, adverb; before
midnight — time, prep, phrase 8. considering — time, participle 9. too —
degree, adverb; for him to notice — result, for-phrase 10. very — degree,
adverb; fast — manner, adverb 11. leaving — attendant circ., partici
ple 12. slowly, mechanically — manner, adverbs; thinking — attendant
circ., participle; still — time, adverb; 13. if warned — condition, par
ticiple; in time — time, prep, phrase 14. steadily — manner, adverb;
trying — cause, participle 15. pityingly — manner, participle; under
standing— cause, participle; 16. against the wall — place, prep, phrase;
as if waiting — comparison, participle 17. back — place, adverb;
immediately — manner of time, adverb; stammering — attendant circ.,
participle 18. easily — manner, adverb; a mile — measure, noun; in
this sea — place, prep, phrase 19. in silence — manner, prep, phrase;
as if astonished — comparison, participle; too — degree, adverb; to
speak — result, inf. 20. After Bart’s coming — time, gerund complex
21. having — cause, participle; home — place, adverb 22. below —
place, adverb; the younger child still trotting after him — attendant
circ., Nom. abs. constr. 23. still — time, adverb; there — place, adverb;
with the newspaper raised — attendant circ., Nom. abs. constr.; like
a shield — comparison, prep, phrase 24. the path being very narrow
and slippery — cause, Nom. abs. constr. 25. having changed her mind —
288
cause, participle; once — manner, adverb; again — manner, adverb
26. here — place, adverb; for the doctor to see — purpose, for-phrase
27. being told — cause, participle; obediently — manner, adverb; cross
ing— attendant circ., participle; over . . . purse — place, prep, phrase
28. her face and neck an unhealthy mottled pink — attendant circ.,
Nom. abs. constr. 29. here — place, adverb; for everyone to see — pur
pose, for-phrase 30. having forgotten — cause, participle; entirely —
degree, adverb; unpleasantly — manner, adverb 31. a foot — measure,
noun; downstairs — place, adverb; together — manner, adverb
Exercise 24. 1. with a roof — attribute; in shadows — adv. mod.
place 2. in the back — adv. mod. place; of the boat-house — attribute
3. against ... way — attribute; of life — attribute 4. to us — prep,
object; of arrival — prep, object 5. of household — attribute; above
suspicion — predicative 6. to this — prep, object; after a time — adv.
mod. of time 7. in favour — predicative; of starting — prep, object;
at once — adv. mod. of time 8. like going — prep, object; over this —
prep, object 9. up to talking — prep, object; of this — prep, object 10. off
his brow — adv. mod. place; with a gesture — adv. mod. manner; of
desperation — attribute 11. of . . . presence — prep, object; by our tug
ging, by the friction — prep, objects 12. through them — prep, object;
at Anthony — prep, object; for a moment — adv. mod. of time; like
a monkey — predicative; through the bars — prep, object; of a cage —
attribute
Exercise 25. 1. him stand, rock — Acc.+ inf., object 2. with a coil
of rope over . . . — Nom. abs. constr., adv. mod. attendant circ. 3. his
eye turning... — Nom. abs. constr.; adv. mod. of attendant circ. 4. for
you to visit — for-phrase, object 5. for a man to work. . . and yell —
for-phrase, subject 6. him coming — Aec.-f- part., object; the lights
growing . . . blinding . . . — Nom. abs. constr., adv. mod. attendant
circ. 7. no one . . . to find — Nom.+ inf., subject 8. anything hurt —
Acc.+ part, object 9. for her to come — for-phrase, subject 10. for me
to surrender . . . — for-phrase, adv. mod. of purpose 11. the roads being
packed . . . the boulevard teeming . . . — Nom. abs. constructions, adv.
mod. of cause 12. for me to see — for-phrase, adv. mod. of result 13. of
his getting lost — gerund complex, attribute 14. my not being used . . .
— gerund complex, object 15. the secret . . . lost — Nom. + part.,sub
ject 16. my going — gerund, complex, subject 17. without you butting
in — gerund complex, adv. mod. of attendant circ. 18. for a child of ten
to wear — for-phrase, attribute 19. them to float — Acc. + inf., object
20. snapshot hidden — Acc. + part., object
Exercise 26. 1. naturally — parenthesis; my pretty one — direct
address 2. boy — direct address 3. well — interjection 4. surely — pa
renthesis 5. of course — parenthesis 6. in fact — parenthesis 7. good
ness — interjection 8. heavens — interjection 9. strictly speaking —
parenthesis 10. to be sure — parenthesis 11. Godfrey — direct address
12. as a matter of fact — parenthesis 13. to tell you the truth — parenthe
sis 14. And yet — parenthesis 15. look here —- interjection
289
Test
( to be sent to the In s ti tu te)
Assignment L Answer the following questions. Give examples:

1. Into what groups can English predicates be classified?
2. In what syntactical functions are prepositional phrases used?
3. What complexes with the non-finite forms can be adverbial modi
fiers?
Assignment II. Give a complete syntactical analysis of the following sentences:
1. Someone was shooting at the dolphin from the woods above the
bay. 2. The cold water closing over me for the second time, I started figh
ting back to the surface. 3. The room seemed full of people, talking at
the top of their voices as if trying to shout each other down. 4. For a mo
ment he stood speechless, his face blazing with excitement and satisfac
tion. 5. He must have been watching us trying to float the boat for quite
some time.
*
Assignment III. Give examples of the pronoun 4 f as a) a formal subject, b) an anti

cipatory subject, c) an anticipatory object, d) as a noun or demonstrative pronoun substi
tute in the function of subject or object.
Assignment IV. Give examples of all kinds of objects: a) direct object,b) prepositional
object, c) indirect object, d) indirect prepositional object, e) complex object, f) preposi
tional complex object.
I
Assignment V. Write out all non-finite forms and complexes with the non-finite
forms from the following passage. Analyse them:
I swallowed more water, and in my panic began to struggle again.
I burst free of the water, my eyes wide and sore, my arms failing to keep
me above water. The roar of the waves came to me oddly muffled now.
I was being carried back down, down like a sackful of lead.
But the dolphin was here now. He was lifting me out of the nightmare
of choking blackness, into the air.
I could breathe. I was at the surface, thrown there by a strength
I hadn’t believed possible.
As I moved forward I felt his body turn beside me in a rolling dive
which half lifted, half threw me across the current.
4
I have a half memory oMooking back for my rescuer and of seeing

him rear up from the waves as if to see me safe home, his body gleaming
black through the phosphorescence, his track burning green and white
on the water. Then he was gone with a triumphant smack of the tail.
(After M. Stewart)
*
Assignment VI. Write a two page long reproduction of some passage from your indi*
vidual reading. Show in the reproduction all possible ways of expressing the subject.
The Article
Articles are mostly used with nouns which have the forms of the sin
gular and of the plural.
A. The Indefinite Article

j i
I. The indefinite article developed from the old English numeral

an — one and can be used only with nouns in the singular.
E.g. There is a sandwich left.
But:
There are sandwiches left.

Exercise 1. Change the forms of the nouns in bold type from the singular to the plural.
Change the form of the verb accordingly. Change the personal pronoun if necessary.
1. There’s a banana in the ice-box. Don’t touch it. 2. I’ll put a cherry
on top of your porridge. 3. I saw a handkerchief in that drawer. 4. Have
you a pen or will you use a pencil? 5. I’ll give you a book to read in the
train. 6. We found a mushroom in the park. 7. There is a bird in that tree.
8. Is there a cat in the house? 9. He has a spelling mistake. 10. What
a strange mistake! 11. She is rather a pretty girl. 12. They have such
a noisy child. 13. I saw quite a large house there. 14. Have you a ribbon
of just this shade of blue?
Exercise 2. Change the forms of the nouns in bold type from the plural to the singular.
Make all the necessary changes in the sentences.
\
1. What pretty flowers! You’re spoiling me. 2. Here’s everything you

may want: books, papers, magazines. 3. She sent me to buy stamps.
4. You will need old papers to wrap it in. 5. Mother is busy baking pies
for tomorrow’s outing. 6. Are you looking for mistakes in my letter?
7. You told them lies and nothing but lies. 8. They were rather elderly
ladies, in their sixties I’d say. 9. They are such nice little girls if you
know what I mean. 10. They are quite big boys now. 11. I <fan’t go around
in taxis spending a fortune in fares. 12. Would you like baked potatoes
with your chop?
291
И. The indefinite article is used when we name an object, state that
it belongs to a certain class of objects and that it is just one object of
this class, no matter which.
ч
E.g 1. Give him an apple and send him out to play. 2. It’s a chocolate
cream. My favourite kind. With a cherry inside.
The Russian equivalents of the indefinite article in this case are:
один, какой-нибудь, какой-то, некий.
The indefinite article is often (but not always) found in the follow
ing word-combinations: what a such a rather a
• • quite • •
a • • like a •as a
* to be, become, seem a
I I I
Exercise 3. Translate the following sentences:

1. Что за ребенок! 2. Он еще такой ребенок! 3. Она довольно хоро
шая студентка. 4. Это совсем хорошая работа. 5. Ты ведешь себя, как
ребенок. 6. Я говорю это как преподаватель. 7. Она будет хорошим
преподавателем. 8. Это, кажется, хороший выход из положения.
9. Это довольно неприятное положение. 10. Это совсем легкая конт
рольная работа. 11. Это был такой неожиданный ответ. 12. Как врач
я должен с вами согласиться. 13. Здание похоже на большую коробку.
14. Он новичок (начинающий). 15. Как жаль! (a pity)
III. The indefinite article may be used to show that the object in
*
question represents the whole class.

E.g. 1. A mother knows such things by instinct (we mean that every
mother does). 2. A child of eight could be taught to do it. 3. A cat
will never scratch a baby.
The Russian equivalents of the indefinite article in this case are:
каждый, любой, ни один, никакой.
IV. The indefinite article may be used with the remnants of its old
lexical meaning — one:
E.g. 1. A glass of milk a day will save your teeth. 2. An apple a day
keeps the doctor away.
4
V. In some set expressions the indefinite article has the meaning of

‘the same’!
E.g. 1. We are of an age. 2. Birds of a feather flock together.
Exercise 4. Find approximate Russian equivalents to every indefinite article in the
following sentences.
M o d e l : 1. A boy’s first friend is his father, (каждый)

2. A boy I know told me this, (один)
1. A sweater can be worn with trousers or a skirt. 2. I’m giving you
a clean handkerchief. 3. I’ll put a cherry in every glass. 4. Are these glo
ves of a size? 5. A girl of your age should think of her lessons. 6. A cac
tus will never bloom if you water it too often. 7. What a silly child you
292
arel 8. Add a carrot or two and it will taste much better. 9. There is a
word I don’t know in this sentence. 10. My husband lost a pair of spec
tacles here last night. 11.1 think it was a trick to divert your attention.
B. The Definite Article

I. The definite article has developed from The Old English demonstra
tive pronoun se.
II. The definite article is used to show that the object (or group of
objects) is the only one under the circumstances or is already known to
the person addressed.
E.g. 1. Where’s the dog? 2. Look at the child. 3. It’s all right. I’ve found
the keys.
The Russian equivalents of the definite article in this case are:
тот, этот, те, эти, тот самый.
Exercise б. Fill in the blanks with articles where necessary.
1. When I opened — letter — folded sheet of paper fell out. 2. What —

unexpected pleasure! 3. — door leading to — kitchen stood wide open.
4. There is — taxi waiting downstairs. — driver says he won’t wait any
longer. 5. Here are — glasses.— address is inside — case. I sent David
— cable to say you’d be arriving on Thursday and asked him to meet —
Algier’s plane. 6. One should never leave valuables in — hotel bedroom,
darling. 7. — telephone is ringing, will you answer it, dear? 8. Is there —
telephone here? 9. I’m afraid — banana is a little bit off, better take —
apple. 10. I looked up and saw — speed-boat no more than twenty yards
away. It was hopeless to shout and attract — attention of — pilot. He
could not hear us. — boat bore down on us like — swooping hawk.
11. So this is — place. I’ve always wanted to have — look at it. — house
was built by my grandfather just before — war. 12. He took — girl
down to — ground floor and out to — terrace. On — steps she stopped
to say good-bye.
1. Лифт направо по коридору. 2. Лифт не работает. 3. В доме есть
лифт. 4. На площадке стоит мальчик, он принес тебе какой-то пакет.
5. Это тот самый мальчик. Я его сразу узнал. 6. Где я могу купить анг
ло-русский словарь? 7. Я забыла словарь в аудитории. 8. Хороший
словарь всегда пригодится. 9. Это совсем хорошая книга. 10. Какая
странная история! 11. Возьми бутерброд. 12. Пирог вкусный. 13. Хо
чешь чашку кофе? 14. Посмотри. Чашка грязная. 15. Ты настоящий
друг. 16. Настоящий друг никогда не станет лгать. 17. Я подожду
тебя на лестнице. 18. Я оставила тебе чистую рубашку на кровати.
1) We use no article if the noun is modified by a cardinal numeral in
post position: room twelve, chapter two, pattern five.
E.g. 1. We’re staying in room twenty two. 2. Use Pattern nine. 3. We
first see his name on page four.
293
2) We use no article if the noun ^m odified by a cardinal numeral
in pre-position.
E.g. 1. Two cups of black coffee and half a banana is not enough break
fast for a working girl.
But:
The two cups of coffee kept her sleepless most of the night.— Эти
две чашки...
3) We use the definite article if the noun is modified by an ordinal
numeral.
E.g. It’s the second time I come.
But if we use the ordinal numeral instead of “one more”, “another”
the indefinite article is used with the noun.
E.g. She refused a second cup saying that coffee was bad for her.
Exercise 7. Fill in the blanks with articles where necessary:
1. —chapter one contains—description of — early history of my hero.
2. Open — books on — page twenty-five. 3. It’s — first volume and —
chapter thirty-two is in — second. 4. He put — volume one back on —
shelf. 5. — two people can’t live as cheaply as one. 6.— two girls looked
alike though — resemblance did not lie in their features. 7. Our flat is
on — second floor and — kitchen window commands — beautiful view
of — yard. 8. He took — third sandwich and continued eating in si
lence. 9. It’s — third door down — corridor. 10. — suitcase contained —
two clean shirts, some socks and handkerchiefs. 11. At — second at
tempt — key turned in — lock and — door opened. 12. She promised
to tell him about it — second time he called and I wondered if there
would be — second time.
4) We use the definite article with nouns modified by wrong, right,
very, same.
E.g. 1. You are the very man we need. 2. You’ve been doing it the wrong
way. 3. Wait till the right man comes along. 4. It is the same thing.
4
Л
1. Это не тот дом. 2. Мне кажется, что это тот ключ. 3. Он перехо
дил улицу не в том месте. 4. Он подходящий человек для этой работы.
5. Это как раз та книга, которую я искал. 6. Это случилось в тот самый
день, когда он приехал. 7. Я покажу тебе, как это правильно делать.
8. Это и есть правильное объяснение. 9. Это неправильный ответ. 10.
Вы взяли не тот портфель. 11. Вот это правильная дорога. 12. Вы вло
жили письмо не в тот конверт. 13. Вы неподходящий человек для этого.
14. Это не то же самое. 15. Это не то же самое письмо.
5) No article can be used after “no”.
E.g. 1. There is no (such) book on the table. 2. There are no (small)
children in the yard. 3. I have no (red) pen. 4. We have no (gram
mar) lessons today.
294
1. На полке нет английских книг. 2. В институте сегодня нет сту
второго курса. 3. Таких книг у меня нет. 4. У гр о
этому вопросу. 5. Никакого плана было Такой
было. 7. Перчаток на полу не было. 8. В буфете
было таких папирос. 9. У меня нет красного 10. В сумке
нет красного карандаша.
Use of Articles in Some Negative Patterns

P a tte rn 1
находиться
h. 1. There is no such book in this bag. 2. There are no English books

on the table.
But if we are speaking of a definite object (этот, тот, мой, его,
etc.) we follow the pattern below.
E.g. 1. The English books are not in the bag. 2 . This interesting book
is not on the shelf.
P a tte rn 2
иметь
A. r such \
Smb { had } no fo re stin g b00k(s) (0f his own)

I English )
E.g. 1. I have no English books of my own. 2. They have no such book

at the library.
But if we are speaking of a definite object (этот, тот, мой, его,
etc.) we follow the pattern below.
295
/
f
в.
book(s)
E.g. 1. He has not got my book. 2. They have not got the map.
If we mean “not a single one” we follow the pattern below.
C Smb { “ } n°‘ g°' 3<n) ( i i b m g ) W
E.g. He has not got an idea of his own.

Exercise 10. T ra n sla te in to E n g lish . Use P a tte r n s 1, 2:
1. У меня нет собственной книги. 2. У него нет ни единой собствен
ной мысли. 3. На полке этой книги нет. 4. Моей ручки нет на столе.
5. У него нет своего плана действий. 6. У него не было собственного
мнения. 7. Словаря на столе больше не было. 8. У нее нет этой книги.
9. В буфете нет этих папирос. 10. У нее нет этих писем. *
III. The definite article is used with objects considered to be unique.

There are two groups of words naming objects or notions generally
felt to be unique and so used with the definite article:
A. The earth, the sun, the moon, the sky, the world, the atmosphere,
the ground.
B. The present, the past, the future, the plural, the singular, the
South, the North, the East, the West, the press, the post
E.g. 1. The sun’s gone dim and the moon’s turned black.
2. The ground was thinly covered with snow. 3. The future is yours,
my lad.
When we are speaking of some aspect or quality of an object believed
to be unique we may use the indefinite article if we mean “какой-то”
or “такой”.
Compare the following examples:
The low grey sky overhead lent a cheer I mean to spend the rest of my days
lessness to the scenery that could under a bluer sky. (каким-то)
dampen the highest spirits, (это)
The moon rode high in the sky. (един Is there a moon to-night? (какой-ни
ственно возможная) будь)
She never spoke about the past, Why try to hide a blameless past?
(единственное возможное) (какое-то)
Exercise 11.
F ill in the b la n ks w ith a rticles. Use ‘the * to m ean «единст венны й »,
<штот». U se *a * to m ean «к а к о й -н и б у д ь »:
1. There is nowhere in world I’d rather go. 2. Keep looking at —
ground. 3. — sky was a uniform milky white. 4. What is — plural of
296
“mouse”? 5. — earth revolves round — sun. 6. One of — planets has —
moon. 7. She dreamt of — kinder world, of — warmer sun. 8. — sea
lay, far below, inky black in — shadow of — cliff. 9. I gave — agoniz
ing look at what looked like — sea of faces. 10. That will be enough
for — present. 11. The letter was lost in — post, or so we were told.
12. It had become news and — press was after it. 13. I’ve lived most of
my life in — East. 14. — East of veiled beauties and bazaars exhists
only in your imagination. 15. He left before — rain. On — wet ground
his bycicle would have left deeper tracks. 16. They left no traces on —
frozen ground. 17.— hot, tropical sun was kind to him. He neither
burned nor peeled. 18. I’ve seen no mention of — project in — press.
Use of Articles with Different Semantical Groups of Nouns
a) Material nouns are mostly used without an article because they

name unities.
E.g. 1. Milk is good for growing children. 2. Linen and cotton look crisp
and fresh in summer. 3. We need lots of sand. 4. Why bring coal
to Newcastle?
We use the definite article with a material noun when we mean a
limited quantity of the stuff.
Compare: Do you have tea or coffee in the morning? Is the coffee good?
(this)
We sometimes use the indefinite article with a material noun when
we mean a portion, a helping.
E.g. 1. Mummy, can I have an ice-cream? 2. Here you are, Miss. A salad
and a coffee.
Exercise 12. F ill in the b la n k s w ith a r tic le s w h ere n ecessa ry:
1. No, you can’t have — chocolate. You’ve had three already. 2. She
had a bar of — chocolate in her pocket. 3. I’m afraid — milk has turned,
Ann. 4. You must drink lots of — fresh milk. 5. I hate — wool next the
skin. 6. I couldn’t match — wool. They’ve nothing at all like this shade
of pink. 7. I don’t think much of that sweater. — wool is good but it is
sizes too large and then why pink? 8. Don’t take the top sandwich. —
cheese is quite dry. 9. — sand shone silvery white in the moonlight.
10. She slept or dreamed while the children played in — sand. fl. You
need — sand to produce — bricks. 12. And the whole thing is topped
with — whipped cream. 13. He hated the freaky chairs made of — steel.
b) We use no articles with abstract nouns which are used only in the
singular. *
E.g. 1. Silence is golden. 2. Love makes the world go round.

3. What you need is experience.
297
/
We use the definite article with a b str a c t n o u n s when the feeling, idea,
process or notion named by the noun is limited to a certain place or mo
ment.
E.g. 1. The sile n c e became oppressive (at that moment). 2. The lo v e o f
Rom eo and J u lie t still makes us sigh and wonder. 3. I could see
a vague shape in the d a rk n ess (there, at that time).
We use no article if the abstract noun is modified by:
I. great
perfect experience, understanding, knowledge
sufficient
real
II. modern
ancient
Moscow literature, poetry, time
Paris
English
French
III. proletarian
bourgeois
ideology, morality, economy, society
capitalist
Soviet
We use the indefinite article with abstract nouns if they are used in
a prepositional phrase and are modified either by “certain”, “peculiar”
or by a subordinate clause.
a certain assurance
a peculiar grace
to do smth with a charm that was all her own
a nervousness that made her drop things
Exercise 13. F ill in the blanks w ith a rticles where necessary:
1. She spoke with — indifference which was not convincing. 2. You
need — companionship, my dear and — new interest in — life. 3. She
treated me with — complete understanding. 4. “I don’t hold with —
modern fashions,” she stated. 5. She spoke without — conviction. 6. Fa
ther said I was unequipped to meet — life because I had no sense of —
humour. 7. I got up from my chair with mixed feelings of — regret and —
confusion. 8. She realised from — impatience with which he answered
that it was — matter of — life o r— death with him. — young always
took — things so seriously. 9. While — conversation went on Rosemary
just sat there in — sullen silence without saying — word on — subject
under — discussion. 10. She listened to — story with — strange feeling
of — curiosity and — sadness. It was such — usual story. 11. Mrs.
Tallant was — very good-looking woman with — good deal of — ele
gance and — dignity. She had — figure on which any dress would look
well and carried herself with — unaffected distinction of — woman who
had never suffered from — doubt or — fear. 12. He wrote essays on —
modern poetry. 13. It is only ten by — Moscow time. 14. Give him —
sufficient time and there will be results. 15. He taught — ancient lite
rature in — obscure little college in Lyon. 16. — English literature of —
19th century was represented by a few volumes of Dickens.
298
c) We use no articles with personal names.
E.g. 1. I distinctly remember Ann warning me against him. 2. Is Aunt
Clara also coming? 3. Poor old Mary! 4. How will they manage?
And June earning nothing.
When speaking of our own family we use the nouns M o th e r , F a th er ,
B a b yy G ra n d fa th er , G randm other ( G ran dm a , G ra n n y ) like personal na
mes and so use no articles with then!
E.g. Is Mother still out? —
In such cases these nouns are spelled with a capital letter.
We use the definite article with a personal name in the plural when
it means the whole family.
E.g. 1. Oh, Joe, I’ve gone and asked the Wedells to dinner. 2. The Du-
lacs were known for their astonishing good looks.
We use the definite article with a personal name when we mean “тот
самый. “
E.g. Are you the P o iro t? The French detective?
We use the indefinite article with a personal name if we mean one
member of a family.
E.g. 1. She married an A sto r . 2. She’s a B raddon by birth.
Exercise 14. F ill in the blan ks w ith a rticles where necessary:
1.—Mother was — extremely intelligent person. 2. Say,—Sister,

what’s the hurry? 3. I have — kid sister back home. 4.—growing boy
needs—father. 5. He is missing—Father so much. 6. The child was trying
to wriggle off — mother’s lap. 7.— mother should have — endless
patience. 8. When — young Mrs. Gerald Cruger came home from the
hospital,— Miss Wilmarth came along with her and — baby. 9. She’s
— Miss Marshall.— Devonshire Marshalls. Her sister married — Carfax.
10. “Oh,” I said brightly, “— Bertran de Borne. Of course I remember.—
man we met in Paris last autumn?” But it was not — one. He meant some
body who lived and died in — thirteenth century. 11. She liked to think
of — little Curtis waiting to deliver her his respectful kiss. 12. What
a shame it was that — Albert Matsons had no child. All that money
would go to — Henry Matsons’ children.
d) The following nouns: news, in fo rm a tio n , advice , p erm issio n ,
w ea th er , m on ey , lu ck , f u n , work, progress are never used with the in
definite article.
E.g. 1. No n ew s is good n ew s. 2. What rotten w ea th er! 3. He gave us
such good a d v ic e . 4. M oney means nothing to him. 5. Hard w ork
made him what he is. 6. What lu ck meeting you here!
The nouns above may be used with the definite article when we mean
a certain definite amount (when the notion is limited in place, time, etc.).
299
E.g. The weather (now) is a little cold for June.
e) Both articles may be used in the following word-combinations:
piece of luck, news, information, advice, work;
bit of luck, fun;
spell of weather;
sum of money.
1. It was — bit of luck, getting — money just when I did. 2. She was
fond of giving — advice and it was mostly — good advice. 3. — spell
of cold — weather we were having could not last much longer. 4. What
I want is — full information on — subject. And you are going to give
it. 5. I have nothing against — bit of — fun now and then. 6. You’re
coming too? What — fun! 7. She asked for — permission to go out in —
afternoon. 8. She was refused — permission to see her husband. 9. I don’t
think Г11 ta k e —job. — money is good, of course, but — work is not
quite in my line. 10. Black cats are supposed to bring — good luck, you
know, and I could do with some. 11. What is it, Bart,— good news or —
bad news? 12. Go to him, ЬеЛ1 give you all — information you need.
13. They mostly talk about — weather. 14.— weather is brea
king.
f) Names of meals are used without articles.
E.g. 1. Come, Nick, dinner’s waiting. 2. I like plenty of coffee at break
fast. 3. Let’s have tea at Rumpelmeyer’s.
The indefinite article is used with the names of meals when we mean
some quality or aspect of the meal.
E.g. 1. A working girl needs a good nourishing breakfast. 2. I’ll stand
you a good dinner at the restaurant. /
Both articles may be used with the names of meals if a party is meant.
Exercise 16. Fill in the blanks with articles, where necessary:
E.g. 1. They met at a dinner given by the faculty for some visiting lec
t
turer. 2. The dinner was a success and she was proud of herself.
1. You’d think that just one night he might go and wash b e fo re -
dinner was on — table. 2. How about coming to — tea tomorrow, tiny
one? 3. Are they staying to — dinner? 4. Come and talk to me in my room
after — breakfast. 5. You’ve eaten too much for — dinner, that’s what’s
wrong with you. 6. And I think we might have — tea on the terrace.
7.— breakfast will be ready in about twenty minutes. 8. It was — excel
lent dinner, the best I’ve eaten in weeks. 9. Ask him to have — supper
with us. 10.— dinner was a gloomy affair and we left as soon as we de-
centlv could. 11. We had — lunch at a road-side restaurant.
g) We find a fixed use of articles in some word-combinations.
I. The In d e fin ite A r tic le
1) to be in a hurry, at a loss 2) to do smth in a hurry 3) to see, under
300
stand, realise smth at a glance 4) to say smth, to speak, talk in a loud
(low) voice 5) it is a pity (a shame, a pleasure) 6) to have a great deal of
smth 7) as a result of
W 4
//. The D e fin ite A r tic le

1) to tell the truth 2) to take the trouble 3) to play the piano, violin,
guitar, flute 4) to be out of the question 5) in the original 6) on the one
hand 7) the other day 8) in the morning, night, afternoon, daytime 9) in
(at, to) the cinema, theatre, park, beach, forest
III. No A r tic le
1) to be in despair, in danger, out of danger, out of control 2) to play

tennis, football, chess, cards 3) from beginning to end 4) from head to foot
5) from morning till night 6) at first sight 7) at table, at work 8) at dinner,
breakfast, lunch, supper, tea 9) at sunrise, sunset, night 10) by chance,
mistake, accident, luck 11) by train, plane, boat, car, taxi, bus, sea,
air, land 12) by post, phone, radio, letter, telegram 13) by day 14) by
heart 15) by name 16) for hours 17) on leave, business, holiday 17) on
foot 18) late (early) morning, night, spring, summer, autumn 19) by mid
night, morning, noon 20) yesterday (tomorrow, tuesday, Sunday)'morn
ing, evening, afternoon.
1. Why are you in such—tearing hurry all of a sudden? 2. We’re
off to—cinema. 3. Nothing was said at—dinner. 4. I saw her atMacy’s—
other day. 5. Don’t mention it. It was—pleasure. 6. We’ll go to—beach
in—morning. 7. It was love at—first sight with me. 8. You’re never
at—loss for something to say. 9. Why go for a cruise if you play—cards
from—morning till—night? We might as well be in London. 10. You
can’t go there by—land. You’ll have to go by—plane. 11. By—morning
most of the snow will be gone. 12. His youngest plays—piano. It’s hard
on the neighbours. 13. It was a failure from—beginning to—end. 14. I
could see at—glance that he’d had—good deal of experience with cars.
15. She’s out of—danger now but it was touch and go for a time.
1. За столом мы никогда не разговаривали. 2. Он встал на рассве
те. 3. Я понял это с первого взгляда. 4. Мы поедем морем. 5. С одно!
стороны, это слишком далеко. Надо будет лететь. 6. Вы играете в тен
нис? 7. Я читаю это в подлиннике. 8. Я просто не знаю, что делать
9. Если вы не торопитесь, я вам об этом расскажу. 10. Вы здесь по де
лу или в отпуске? 11. Я по ошибке взял не тот том. 12. Я ей утром по
звоню. 13. Он влюбился с первого 14. Я просто
туда нельзя лететь самолетом из-за погоды. 15. Как 16. И в ре
ему пришлось Почему
[ываешь по имени? 18. За завтраком ты читал газету. 19. Я
днях. 20. Жди меня здесь на рассвете. 21. Это совершенно
22. Они могут часами играть в шахматы. 23. Она немного
301
на пианино. 24. Она громко говорила и смеялась. 25. По правде гово
ря, мне не хотелось возиться. ✓
KEYS ТО EXERCISES
ч
Exercise 4. 1. любой; какая-нибудь 2. какой-то 3. одну 4. одного
5. каждая 6. ни один 7. какой 8. одну 9. одно 10. одну (какую-то)
11. какой-то.
Exercise 5. 1. the letter; а . . . sheet 2. an 3. the door, the kitchen
4. a taxi, the driver 5. the glasses, the address, the case, a cable, the ...
plane 6. a . . . bedroom 7. the telephone 8. a telephone 9. the banana, an
apple 10. the (a) speed-boat, the attention, the pilot, the boat, a ...
hawk 11. the place, a look, the house, the war 12. the girl, the ground
floor, the terrace, the steps.
Exercise 6.1. the lift 2. the lift 3. a lift 4. the landing, a boy, a parcel
5. the boy 6. a dictionary 7. the dictionary 8. a dictionary. 9. a book
10. a story 11. a sandwich 12. the pie 13. a cup 14. the cup 15. a friend
16. a friend 17. the stairs 18. a shirt, the bed
Exercise 7. 1.—chapter, a description, the history 2. the books,—
page 3. the first volume,—chapter, the second 4.—volume, the shelf
5.—people 6. the two girls, the resemblance 7. the second floor, the kit
chen window, a, view of the yard 8. a third sandwich 9. the third door,
the corridor 10. the suitcase,—two clean shirts 11. the second attempt,
the key, the lock, the door 12. the second time, a second time
Exercise 8. 1. the wrong house 2. the right key 3. the wrong place
4. the right man 5. the very book 6. the very day 7. the right way 8. the
right explanation 9. the wrong answer 10. the wrong bag 11. the right
way 12. the wrong envelope 13. not the right man 14. not the same thing
15. not the same letter
Exercise 9. 1. there are no 2. there are no 3. no such books 4. no text
books 5. no plan 6. no idea 7. no gloves 8, they had no such cigarettes
9. no red pencil 10. no red pencil
Exercise 10. 1. have no (have not got a) book of my own 2. has no
(has not got an) idea of his own 3. the book is not 4. my pen is not 5. has
no (has not got a) plan of his own 6. had no (had not got an) opinion of
his own 7. the dictionary was no longer 8. has not got this book 9. have
not got these cigarettes 10. has not got these letters
Exercise И. 1. the world 2. the ground 3. the sky 4. the plural 5. the
earth, the sun 6. the planets, a moon 7. a kinder world, a warmer sun
8. the sea, the shadow, the cliff 9. an agonizing look, a sea'10. the pre
sent 11. the post 12. the press 13. the East 14. the East 15. the rain, a wet
ground 16. the frozen ground 17. the hot sun 18. the project, the press
Exercise 12. 1. a chocolate 2. chocolate 3. the milk 4. fresh milk
5. wool 6. the wool 7. the wool 8. the cheese 9. the sand 10. the sand 11.
sand, bricks 12. whipped cream 13. of steel 14. the wood 15. of wood
16. of grey stone
302
Exercise 13. 1. an indifference 2. companionship, a new interest, in
life 3. with complete understanding 4. modern fashions 5. without con
viction 6. life, of humour 7. of regret and confusion 8. the impatience,
a matter of life or death, the young, things 9. the conversation, in sullen
silence, a word on the subject under discussion 10. the story, a strange
feeling of curiosity and sadness, a usual story 11. a woman with a good
deal of elegance and dignity, a figure, with the unaffected distinction
of a woman, from doubt or fear 12. on modern poetry 13. by Moscow time
14. sufficient time 15. ancient literature, an obscure college 16. the Eng
lish literature of the 19th century 17. capitalist economy, such problems
Exercise 14. 1. Mother, an . . . person 2. Sister 3. a kid sister 4. a gro
wing boy, a father 5. Father 6. the mother’s lap 7. a mother, . . . patience
8. young Mr. Cruger, Miss Wilmarth, the baby 9. a Miss Marshall, the
Devonshire Marshalls, a Carfax 10. Bertran de Borne, the man, the one,
the thirteenth century 11. of little Curtis 12. the Albert Matsons, the
Henry Matsons’ children
Exercise 15. 1. a bit, the money 2. advice, good advice 3. the spell
of cold weather 4. full information on the subject 5. a bit of fun 6. fun
7. for permission, the afternoon 8. permission 9. the job, the money, the
work 10. luck 11. news 12. the information 13. the weather 14. the wea
ther 15. weather 16. the money 17. money 18. progress
Exercise 16. 1. dinner, the table 2. to tea 3. to dinner 4. after break
fast 5. dinner 6. tea 7. breakfast 8. an excellent dinner 9. supper 10. the
dinner 11. a very good tea 12. lunch
Exercise 17. 1. a hurry 2. the cinema 3. at dinner 4. the other day 5. a
pleasure 6. the beach, the morning 7. at first sight 8. at a loss 9. play
cards, from morning till night 10. by land, by plane 11. by morning 12. the
piano 13. the beginning to the end 14. at a glance, a good deal 15. of
danger 16. for hours, play football 17, on business 18. the wrong door
by mistake 19. the trouble 20. by day, at night, the only thing
Exercise 18. 1. at table 2. at sunrise 3. at a glahce, at first sight 4. by
sea 5. on the one hand, by plane 6. play tennis 7. in the original 8. at a
loss 9. in a hurry 10. on business, on vacation 11. by mistake 12. in the
morning 13. at first sight 14. in despair, by plane 15. What a pity! 16. as
a result, in the night 17. by name 18. at breakfast 19. the other day 20. at
sunrise 21. out of the question 22. for hours, play chess 23. play the
piano 24. in a loud voice 25. to tell the truth, to take the trouble
T a b le of C o n te n ts
Tenses of the Active V o ic e .................................................................................. 4

Indefinite and Continuous F o r m s ................................................................ ^
Perfect and Perfect Continuous F o r m s ............................................................... 24
Sequence of T e n s e s ...................................................................................................... 49
Direct and Indirect S p e e c h ...................................................................................... 54
Passive V o ic e ................................................................................................................. 64
Non-Finite Forms of the V e r b .................................................................................. 79
The In fin itiv e ...................... 79
Complexes with the In fin itiv e .......................................................................... 89
The G e ru n d ............................................................................................................. Ю9
The Gerundial C o m p le x ...................................................................................... 120
The P a rtic ip le .............. . ..................................................................................... 127
Complexes with the P a rtic ip le s...................................................................... I 35
Forms Expressing U n re a lity ......................................................................................... 15
The Free Use of F o r m s ......................................................................................... I5
The Obligatory Use of F o r m s .............................................................................. I7
Modal V e rb s ...................................................................................................................... 20
C a n ............................................................................................................................. 20
M a y ................................................................................................................
Must; to have; to b e ............................................................................................. 21
N e e d ........................................................................................................................... 22
S h a l l .............................................................................................................
O u g h t ......................................................................................................................... 23
W i l l ........................................................................................................................
The Simple Sentence........................................................................
A p p e n d ix , The A rtic le ..................................................................................................... 291
Елена Александровна Натанзон

Практическая грамматика английского языка для заочников
Р едакторы И. Э. Волкова, Л. И. Кравцова
И з д а т е л ь с к и й р е д а к т о р Л. А. Долгопятова
Х у д о ж н и к Н. Л. Кузнецова
4
Т ех н и ч еск и й р е д а к т о р Т. Д. Гарина
К ор р ек тор В. А. Золотова
С дано в набор 24/Х -72 г. П о д п . к п еч ати 17/1-73 г. Ф о р м а т 60X 90Vte. О б ъ е м 19 печ. л.

18,89 у ч .-и з д . л. И з д , № А —319. Т и р а ж 44 000 э к з. Ц ен а 87 коп. З ак . 813.
П л а н в ы п уск а л и т ер а т у р ы и зд а т е л ь с т в а « В ы сш а я ш к ол а» (в у зы и т ех н и к у м ы )
н а 1973 г. П о зи ц и я № 170
М о ск в а , К-51, Н е г л и н н а я у л ., д . 29/14.
И з д а т е л ь с т в о « В ы сш а я ш к о л а »
С о ю зп о л и г р а ф п р о м при Г о с у д а р с т в е н н о м к о м и т ет е С о в ета М и н и стр ов С С С Р п о д е л а м и з д а
тел ь ст в , п о л и гр а ф и и и к н и ж н о й то р гов л и . О т п е ч а т а н о в о р д е н а Т р у д о в о г о К р а с н о г о З н а м ен и
Л е н и н г р а д с к о й т и п о гр а ф и и Ns 1 «П еч атн ы й Д в о р » и м ен и А. М . Г ор ь к ого, Л ен и н град»
Гатчинская у л ., 26 с м а тр и ц о р д е н а Т р у д о в о г о К р а сн о го З н а м е н и П ер в о й О б р а зц о в о й
типографии имени А, А, Жданова, Москва, М-54, Валовая, 28
\

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1 1 ^ ♦ I .

^ Г {I 1 1514’ H I ! * ^ t* i «*« 1 i ^ 31 *t ^ 22 ‘ 1' ^ 5^ ! c !J t s S l

Practical English Grammar

Higher School Publishing House

Настоящее пособие предназначено для студентов

Издательство «Высшая школа», 1973 г

Tenses in the Active Voice

Indefinite and Continuous Forms

The Present Indefinite The Present Continuous

The Past Indefinite The Past Continuous

did smth was к doing smth

The Future Indefinite The Future Continuous

The Future in the Past The Future Continuous in the Past

The Present Indefinite may denote:

The Use of the Present Indefinite in Clauses of Time and Condition

Exersise 1. Translate into Russian:

The Use of Tenses in Object Clauses

V Exercise 2. Translate into Russian: •%

The Past Indefinite

The Use of the Past Indefinite in Clauses of Time and Condition

The Use of Tenses in Object Clauses

The Future in the Past

The Present Continuous

M o d e l : 1) She (to wear) her hair very short.

Permanent action. The Present Indefinite.

' doing smth

The Past Continuous

2) The local businessmen (to like) something solid with their

A temporary action taking place at a moment in the

The Past Continuous may be used to denote a relatively future ac­

The Future Continuous

M o d e l : 1) You (to take) any more examinations this year?

Exercise 17. Translate the following sentences into Russian:

я игра. 5. Сегодня не могу, я буду присматривать за детьми сестры

The Future Continuous in the Past

The Future Continuous in the Past denotes a temporary action tak­

knew • \ ( i I, we should be doing

E.g. 1. He said at that time he would be having a lesson.

Exercise 3. 1. as soon as I pass 2. until (till) I speak 3. when she

Exercise 12. 1. It smelled, was baking 2. rang, opened, was

Exercise 15. 1. will know, will be standing, will be wearing 2. shall

Tenses In the Active Voice

Perfect and Perfect Continuous Forms

The Perfect forms denote actions or series of actions completed be­

Perfect Forms Perfect Continuous Forms

The Present Perfect 1 The Present Perfect Continuous

The Past Perfect ^ The Past Perfect Continuous

had done smth had been doing smth

The Future Perfect in the Past The Future Perfect Continuous in

would } have done smth wcm/d } ^iave ^ееп d°mg smth

4) The Present Perfect 4) The Past Perfect

The Present Perfect and the Present Perfect Continuous

2. The Present Perfect Continuous is used to denote an action or a

В. Mor some time

* These forms are comparatively seldom used.

smb has been doing smth for some time

b / kas keen doing smth 1 since smb has

it is a long time since smb has done smth

Note 2. The Present Perfect in direct speech corresponds to the Rus­

Это *была очень уютная и чистая кухня. Солнце сквозь

ia фабрике! Котел 11взорвался!

с тех пор, как я 20научился читать. Он уже 20 лет 21живет в Гродно

Нет, 29ответила она.— Мне его 30подарил твой друг.

The Future Perfect and the Future Perfect Continuous

^ Г {I 1 1514’ H I ! * ^ t* i «« 1 i ^ 31 t ^ 22 ‘ 1' ^ 5^ ! c !J t s S l

The Past Continuous may be used to denote a relatively future ac

The Future Continuous in the Past denotes a temporary action tak

The Perfect forms denote actions or series of actions completed be

Note 2. The Present Perfect in direct speech corresponds to the Rus

Смотри-ка, несколько рабочих Появились на строительной пло

1. Она просит вас не курить. 2. Я советую вам больше времени про

Когда я 1приш ла на первое занятие, я увидела группу детей, с ин