Ступникова. Английский Для Юристов

Ë. Â.
Ñòóïíèêîâà
ÀÍÃËÈÉÑÊÈÉ ßÇÛÊ
ÄËß ÞÐÈÑÒÎÂ
(LEARNING LEGAL ENGLISH)
Ó×ÅÁÍÈÊ È ÏÐÀÊÒÈÊÓÌ
ÄËß ÀÊÀÄÅÌÈ×ÅÑÊÎÃÎ ÁÀÊÀËÀÂÐÈÀÒÀ
Ðåêîìåíäîâàíî Ó÷åáíî-ìåòîäè÷åñêèì îòäåëîì âûñøåãî

îáðàçîâàíèÿ â êà÷åñòâå ó÷åáíèêà äëÿ ñòóäåíòîâ âûñøèõ
ó÷åáíûõ çàâåäåíèé, îáó÷àþùèõñÿ ïî þðèäè÷åñêèì
íàïðàâëåíèÿì è ñïåöèàëüíîñòÿì
Êíèãà äîñòóïíà â ýëåêòðîííîé áèáëèîòå÷íîé ñèñòåìå

biblio-online.ru
Ìîñêâà  Þðàéò  2015

УДК 811.111
ББК 81.2Англ-923
С88
Автор:
Ступникова Лада Владимировна — кандидат педагогических
наук, доцент кафедры английского языка международно-правового
факультета Всероссийской академии внешней торговли.
Рецензенты:
Протасова М. Е. — доцент кафедры английского языка между-
народно-правового факультета Всероссийской академии внешней
торговли;
Сивохина Н. Г. — кандидат филологических наук, старший пре-
подаватель кафедры английского языка международно-правового
факультета Всероссийской академии внешней торговли.
Ступникова, Л. В.
С88 Английский язык для юристов (learning legal english) : учебник
и практикум для академического бакалавриата / Л. В. Ступни-
кова. — М. : Издательство Юрайт, 2015. — 529 с. — Серия : Бакалавр.
Академический курс.
ISBN 978-5-9916-4715-1
Цель учебника — помочь учащимся овладеть основами англоя-
зычного юридического дискурса, освоить англо-американскую юри-
дическую терминологию, сформировать лингвистическую, профес-
сиональную и стратегическую компетенции. Материалы прошли
апробацию при работе со студентами и слушателями различных
уровней на юридическом факультете Всероссийской академии
внешней торговли (ВАВТ). Учебник принят в качестве основного
и включен в учебный план юридического факультета ВАВТ. Его
можно использовать как на аудиторных занятиях под руководством
преподавателя, так и при самостоятельном изучении юридического
английского языка.
Соответствует актуальным требованиям Федерального государ-
ственного образовательного стандарта высшего образования.
Учебник предназначен для студентов и аспирантов юридиче-
ских вузов, а также для специалистов-юристов, которые владеют
английским языком на уровнях Pre-Intermediate, Intermediate, Upper-
Intermediate и продолжают его изучение для использования в профес-
сиональной сфере.
УДК 811.111
ББК 81.2Англ-923
© Ступникова Л. В., 2013

ISBN 978-5-9916-4715-1 © ООО «Издательство Юрайт», 2015
Оглавление
Введение................................................................................ 4
Unit 1. WHAT IS LAW?................................................ 9

Unit 2. LAW SYSTEMS............................................... 34
Unit 3. AREAS OF LAW.............................................. 66
Unit 4. LEGAL PROFESSION..................................... 94
Unit 5. ENGLISH COURT..........................................127
Unit 6. STARTING ACTIONS IN COURT....................156
Unit 7. LAW OF TORT...............................................183
Unit 8. HEADS OF TORT...........................................215
Unit 9. EMPLOYMENT LAW.....................................252
Unit 10. CONTRACT LAW..........................................295
Unit 11. TERMINATION OF CONTRACT.....................331
Unit 12. FORMS OF BUSINESS ORGANIZATION........368
Unit 13. INCORPORATED BUSINESSES.....................398
Unit 14. COMPANY MANAGEMENT...........................433
Unit 15. RAISING CAPITAL........................................471
Unit 16. CLOSING A COMPANY.................................495
Список литературы............................................................... 529
3
ВВЕДЕНИЕ
В современном мире расширяется сотрудничество между

представителями различных культур во многих сферах
деятельности. В связи с этим растет потребность в юриди-
ческом обеспечении деловых контактов на международном
уровне. Поэтому одной из важных задач системы образова-
ния сегодня является иноязычная подготовка специалистов
юридического профиля, которая предполагает формирова-
ние у учащихся профессиональной межкультурной комму-
никативной компетенции.
Основная сложность обучения англоязычному юриди-
ческому дискурсу русскоязычных студентов заключается
в том, что российская правовая система и право англоязыч-
ных стран базируются на разных системных основаниях.
Правовая система России основана на континентальном
(романо-германском) праве, в котором кодексы играют
решающую роль при вынесении судебных решений. Право-
вые системы англоязычных стран берут начало в английском
общем праве, где судьи в основном руководствуются суще-
ствующими судебными прецедентами при рассмотрении
дел в суде. Юридические концепты стран общего и конти-
нентального права далеко не всегда совпадают. В этой связи
изучение англоязычного юридического дискурса неизбежно
связано с изучением терминологии и сферы понятий, стоя-
щих за данными терминами.
Настоящий учебник предназначен для студентов и аспи-
рантов юридических вузов, а также для специалистов-юри-
стов, которые владеют английским языком на уровнях Pre-
Intermediate, Intermediate, Upper-Intermediate и продолжают
его изучение для использования в профессиональной сфере.
4
Цель настоящего учебника — помочь обучающимся овла
деть основами англоязычного юридического дискурса, что
даст им возможность принимать эффективное участие в про-
фессиональном общении с представителями других культур.
В ходе обучения решаются следующие задачи:
1) ознакомление с ключевыми понятиями и категориями,
сложившимися в англоязычной правовой культуре, и их
подробное объяснение как на английском, так и на русском
языках;
2) формирование терминологического словаря-мини-
мума;
3) ознакомление с грамматическими трудностями юри-
дического дискурса с целью правильного понимания текстов
юридического дискурса;
4) обучение решению поставленной юридической задачи.
В учебник включены материалы по англо-американскому
праву, взятые в основном из английских и частично из аме-
риканских источников, что позволяет значительно раширить
профессиональные знания обучающихся. Основные тексты
урока сокращены и адаптированы автором учебника для того,
чтобы они соответствовали уровню учебника (Intermediate).
Дополнительные тексты, представленные в учебнике, отно-
сятся к разным жанрам юридического дискурса: диалог
«юрист — клиент», юридическая переписка и др.
В ходе обучения учащиеся получают профессиональные
знания и осваивают юридическую терминологию по следу-
ющим правовым темам: правовые системы, области права,
профессия юриста, судебная система Англии, начало судеб-
ного разбирательства, деликтное право, трудовое право,
договорное право, правовое регулирование деятельности
коммерческого предприятия.
В процессе работы с учебником формируются следующие
компетенции:
1) лингвистическая компетенция:
— умение понимать и корректно использовать юридиче-
ские термины в речи;
5
— умение подбирать русскоязычные соответствия
к англоязычным терминам;
— умение устанавливать характер и значение термина
с точки зрения составляющих его морфем;
— умение понимать и употреблять грамматические кон-
струкции, характерные для юридического дискурса;
2) профессиональная компетенция:
— умение анализировать информацию, полученную при
чтении юридических текстов различных жанров, используя
свои профессиональные знания о нормах права как своей
страны, так и страны партнера по коммуникации;
— умение давать краткую / полную трактовку юридиче-
ских явлений, фактов и действий;
— умение участвовать в беседе на профессиональную
тему, запрашивать и обмениваться профессиональной
информацией;
— умение переводить тексты, близкие по сложности
и тематике, с английского языка на русский;
3) стратегическая компетенция:
— умение объяснять юридическую терминологию, собы-
тия, используя парафраз, дефиниции и т.д.;
— умение сопоставлять, сравнивать, классифицировать,
группировать, обобщать, обрабатывать профессиональную
информацию в соответствии с ситуацией и поставленными
задачами;
— умение находить нужную профессиональную инфор-
мацию с помощью различных источников, включая совре-
менные мультимедийные средства;
— умение понимать информацию при профессиональ-
ном чтении в соответствии с поставленной задачей профес-
сионального общения (полное, точное, глубокое понимание,
ознакомление с содержанием, просмотр текста и т.д.).
Структура учебника
Учебник состоит из 16 уроков, 6 из которых посвящены
общеюридической тематике и 10 — различным отраслям
гражданского права. Учебник рассчитан на 160 часов ауди-
6
торных занятий и 80 часов домашней работы. Каждый урок
представляет собой отдельную единицу обучения. По этой
причине полнота и порядок прохождения материала опреде-
ляются целью и задачами курса, а также уровнем подготовки
учащихся.
Каждый урок учебника состоит из следующих разделов:
I. Предтекстовое задание (Lead-in).
II. Работа с текстом урока (Reading):
— правильное произнесение основных терминов, вклю-
ченных в текст (Pronounce the following words correctly);
— словарные заметки к каждой части текста (Vocabulary
Notes);
— текст.
III. Послетекстовые задания (Read the text again and do
the following exercises).
IV. Упражнения (Exercises):
— упражнения №№ 1–10 направлены на усвоение терми-
нов и терминологических словосочетаний урока;
— упражнения №№ 11–14 (в некоторых уроках также
упражнения №№ 15, 16) направлены на повторение и закре-
пление грамматических явлений, встречающихся в уроке,
отработку лексики урока, изучение грамматических трудно-
стей перевода;
— упражнение № 15 (в некоторых уроках также упраж-
нения №№ 16, 17) направлено на обучение навыку перевода
с английского на русский методом сопоставления основного
текста урока с его аналогом на русском языке.
V. Активный словарь (Active Vocabulary):
— активный словарь урока в алфавитном порядке;
— упражнения на активный словарь урока.
VI. Ключевые термины урока (Key Terms).
VII. Решение юридической задачи (содержится в уро-
ках №№ 8–16).
VIII. Дополнительные материалы (Additional Materials).
Материалы данного учебника прошли апробацию на заня-
тиях со студентами и слушателями различных уровней
7
на юридическом факультете Всероссийской академии внеш-
ней торговли (ВАВТ). Учебник принят в качестве основного
и включен в учебный план юридического факультета ВАВТ.
Учебник может быть использован как на аудиторных
занятиях под руководством преподавателя, так и при само-
стоятельном изучении юридического английского языка.
Unit 1
WHAT IS LAW?
I. Lead-in
Society cannot exist without law. People need rules to
regulate relations between them and to end disputes.
1. What is law?
2. Who creates laws?
3. How does law help people?
4. What can we call people who break law?
5. How can people break law?
6. How can people be stopped from breaking law?
II. Reading
A) Pronounce the following words correctly.
Exercise 1. Translate the following collocations into

English and make sentences with them.
to support [səˈpɔ:t] satisfactory [ˌsætɪsˈfæktərɪ]
to govern [ˈgʌvn] dispute [dɪsˈpju:t]
to behave [bɪˈheɪv] legal [ˈli:ɡəl]
behaviour [bɪˈheɪvjə] society [səˈsaɪətɪ]
social [ˈsəuʃəl] control [kənˈtrəul]
justice [ˈdʒʌstɪs] interaction [ˌɪntərˈækʃən]
implementation [ˌɪmplɪmenˈteɪʃən] lawyer [ˈlɔ:jə]
to ensure [ɪnˈʃʋə] reasonable [ˈri:znəbl]
authority [ɔ:ˈθɔrɪtɪ] court [kɔ:t]
9
to refuse [rɪˈfjuːz] injured [ˈɪndʒəd]
transaction [trænˈzækʃən] to consult [kənˈsʌlt]
accustomed [əˈkʌstəmd] to apply [əˈplaɪ]
to cooperate [kəuˈɔpəreɪt] to
internationalize [ˌɪntəˈnæʃnəlaɪz]
to involve [ɪnˈvɔlv] evil [ˈi:vl]
knowledge [ˈnɔlɪdʒ] to provide [prəˈvaɪd]
anarchy [ˈænəkɪ] attempt [əˈtempt]
B) Vocabulary Notes
(1)
1. law право, закон
2. body of rules свод правил, совокупность норм

3. to support smth поддерживать, защищать что-л.
4. government государство, государственная власть
to govern управлять
5. behaviour поведение
6. society общество
7. anarchy анархия
(2)
8. to make a law cоздать, издать закон
9. to enforce laws against применить законы к кому-л.
smb
10. citizen гражданин
11. social control общественный контроль
to establish social устанавливать общественный кон-
control троль
12. justice правосудие, справедливость
implementation отправление правосудия
of justice
10
13. public law публичное право
14. civil law частное право
15. to ensure the authority обеспечивать власть
16. to provide framework обеспечивать рамки для чего-л.
for smth
17. interaction общение между людьми
among people
18. concept понятие
19. to define дать определение
20. just / fair справедливый
(3)
21. to appear появляться
22. to produce a law создать, издать закон
23. entirely полностью
24. satisfactory удовлетворительный
25. (in)formal (не)официальный, (не)формальный
26. dispute спор
to settle disputes урегулировать споры
informal ways неформальные способы
of settling disputes урегулирования споров
27. lawyer юрист
28. contract договор
29. legal юридический, правовой
legal obligations правовые обязательства
legal implications правовые последствия
30. to discuss a matter обсуждать вопрос с кем-л.
with smb
31. to consult smth / smb обращаться за помощью куда-л. /
к кому-л.
32. court суд
11
33. to be injured получить телесные повреждения,
пострадать
34. to refuse to do smth отказываться делать что-л.
35. to behave reasonably вести себя разумно
36. everyday activities повседневная жизнь
(4)
37. transaction сделка
complex transaction сложная сделка
to make a transaction совершить сделку
38. modern society современное общество
39. to seek (sought) legal обращаться за помощью к юристу
advice
40. business предприятие
to set up a business организовать / основать предприятие
41. property имущество
42. on the whole в целом
43. to become accustomed привыкнуть делать что-л.
to doing smth
44. legal means правовые средства
45. to regulate relations регулировать отношения с кем-л.
with smb
to regulate relations регулировать отношения друг с дру-
with each other гом
(5)
46. to cooperate сотрудничать
to cooperate сотрудничать на неформальном
informally уровне
47. increasing number увеличивающееся количество чего-л.
of smth
48. common общий
12
49. to solve global решать глобальные проблемы
problems
50. attempt попытка
51. legal standards правовые нормы
to internationalize сделать правовые нормы междуна-
legal standards родными
52. legal principles правовые принципы
to apply the same legal применять одинаковые правовые
principles to smth принципы к чему-л.
53 agreement соглашение
to reach just достигать справедливых соглашений
agreements
54 to regard smth as считать что-л. хорошей вещью
a good thing
55. to involve time and требовать временны`х и денежных
money затрат
56. (in)ability (не)способность
57. evil зло
58. basic knowledge элементарное представление
to have a basic иметь элементарное представление
knowledge of smth о чем-л.
C) Text
WHAT IS LAW?
(1) Law is a body of rules supported by the power of govern
ment. It governs the behaviour of all members of society. It is
not possible to have a society without laws, as there would be
anarchy in society then.
(2) Governments make laws and enforce them against all
citizens within their power. They have two motives in making
and enforcing laws. One is social control; the other is the imple
mentation of justice. To establish social control governments
use public law and civil law. Public law ensures the authority
of the government itself and civil law provides framework for
interaction among people. Justice is a concept that most people
13
feel is very important but few are able to define. Sometimes a
just decision is simply a decision that most people feel is fair.
(3) New laws appear all the time as our life is changing very
fast. But no country has been successful in producing laws,
which are entirely satisfactory.
Ordinary people start thinking about law only when every-
day informal ways of settling disputes break down. When we
buy a train ticket, a lawyer may tell us it represents a contract
with legal obligations, but to most of us it is just a ticket that
gets us on the train. If our neighbour plays loud music late at
night, we will probably try to discuss the matter with him
rather than consulting the police, lawyers or courts. Only when
we are injured in a train accident or when a neighbour refuses
to behave reasonably, we start thinking about the legal impli
cations of our everyday activities.
(4) Even so, some transactions in modern society are so
complex that few of us would risk making them without first
seeking legal advice. We use it when we buy or sell a house, set
up a business, or decide whom to give our property to when
we die.
On the whole, it seems that people all over the world are
becoming more and more accustomed to using legal means to
regulate their relations with each other.
(5) As countries cooperate more and more and have an
increasing number of common global problems to solve, there
are attempts to internationalize legal standards, so that the
same legal principles could be applied to all countries and
people.
When law helps people to reach just agreements, it is
regarded as a good thing. However, when it involves time and
money and shows people’s inability to cooperate informally,
law seems to be an evil — but a necessary one that everyone
should have a basic knowledge of.
14
III. Read the text again and answer the following questions.
1. What is law?
2. Why isn’t it possible to have a society without laws?
3. Who makes laws?
4. What are the motives in making and enforcing laws?
5. What do public laws ensure?
6. What do civil laws provide?
7. What decision is just?
8. Why do new laws appear?
9. Why are laws imperfect?
10. When do people start thinking about law?
11. What is a train ticket from the lawyer’s point of view?
12. Do people often make contracts in their everyday life?
13. In what transactions do people seek legal advice and why?
14. What are people becoming accustomed to doing?
15. Why is it important to internationalize legal standards?
16. How do people treat law?
IV. Exercises
Exercise 1. Supply Russian equivalents.
to settle disputes legal implications
legal obligations modern society
to seek legal advice social control
basic knowledge to become accustomed to doing
smth
to set up a business implementation of justice
to cooperate informally to solve problems
body of rules satisfactory
to define justice to consult the lawyer
to enforce laws a fair decision
to refuse to do smth common problems
complex transactions to support smth
15
Exercise 2. Word formation.
A. Complete the table.
Verb Noun Adjective
to agree
discussion
to govern
reason
successful
to regulate
satisfaction
productive
to oblige
cooperation
international
application
to define
just
fairness
refusal
B. Fill in the gaps with an appropriate word.

1. Lawyers often help people to reach just agreement (agree).
2. After long ______________ they made a decision (discuss).
3. Each citizen has rights and ______________ (oblige).
4. I think the decision is ______________ (justice).
5. It is not easy to give a _______________ of justice (define).
6. In the modern world countries ______________ more and
more (cooperation).
7. It is important to make legal standards __________________
(internationalize).
8. In many cases we have to follow _____________ (regulate).
9. The answer was entirely ______________ (satisfaction).
10. I cannot accept your ______________ (refuse).
16
Exercise 3. Match words and collocations with the ones
that have similar meanings.
1. duty a. to make laws
2. a set of rules b. involve time
3. authority c. just
4. to create laws d. to set up a business
5. fair e. to control
6. question f. a body of rules
7. to organize a business g. power
8. to take time h. obligation
9. to govern i. matter
Exercise 4. Antonyms.
A. Give antonyms and translate them.

possible — (im) _______________________
fair — (un) __________________________
just — (un) __________________________
legal — (il) ___________________________
formal — (in) _________________________
agreement — (dis) _____________________
important — (un) _____________________
necessary — (un) _____________________
B. Choose the appropriate word.
1. We go to court when we cannot settle disputes in formal /
informal ways.
2. The decision was fair / unfair and everybody agreed with it.
3. We went to court. It was possible / impossible to settle the
dispute out of court.
4. It is important / unimportant to internationalize legal stan-
dards.
5. People who come to live in another country without official
permission are called legal / illegal immigrants.
6. We’ve had a few agreements / disagreements, but we are still
good friends.
17
7. It is necessary / unnecessary to discuss the dispute with your
neighbour before you go to the police.
8. He was respected as he was a just / unjust ruler.
Exercise 5. Supply English equivalents.
обращаться за помощью к юри- регулировать отношения друг
сту с другом
основать предприятие попытка
правовые нормы публичное право
сделать правовые нормы между- сложные сделки
народными
решать проблему вести себя разумно
имущество обсуждать вопрос с кем-л.
правовые средства достигать справедливых согла-
шений
договор справедливое решение
применять одинаковые правовые урегулировать споры
принципы к чему-л.
правовые последствия регулировать отношения с кем-л.
применить законы к кому-л. совершить сделку
частное право отправление правосудия

пути
средства
нормы
правовые советы
принципы
обязательства
последствия
общественный контроль
устанавливать отношения с другими странами
власть
споры
урегулировать конфликты
разногласия
18
поведением членов общества
управлять отношениями между странами
страной
в полицию
обращаться в суд
к юристу
Exercise 7. Insert prepositions consulting the text.

1. If our neighbour plays loud music late __________ night,
we will probably try to discuss the matter __________ him.
2. We start thinking __________ law when everyday informal
ways __________ settling disputes break __________.
3. Governments make laws and enforce them __________ all
citizens __________ their power.
4. A train ticket represents a contract __________ legal obli-
gations.
5. We seek legal advice when we set __________ a business.
6. __________ the whole, people all __________ the world
are becoming more and more accustomed ______________
using legal means to regulate their relations _________ each
other.
7. The same legal principles should be applied __________ all
countries and people.
8. It is not possible to have a society __________ laws.
9. Civil law provides framework ______________ interaction
__________ people.
10. Governments have two motives ____________ making and
enforcing laws.
11. No country has been successful _______________ produc-
ing laws, which are entirely satisfactory.
PREPOSITION BANK
on the whole
to become accustomed to smth / doing smth
people all over the world
to set up a business
to apply to smth
late at night
19
Exercise 8. Fill in the gaps with missing words consulting
the text.
1. People use legal means to regulate their relations with each
other.
2. Governments use civil and public laws to _______________
social control.
3. There are ____________ to internationalize legal standards.
4. Law is a good thing when it helps to reach _______________
agreements.
5. People usually try to ______________ disputes in informal
ways.
6. Governments ___________ laws against all citizens within
their power.
7. Law ______________ the behaviour of members of society.
8. Some ______________ in modern society are very complex.
9. When we buy a house we seek ___________ ___________.
10. New laws _____________ all the time as our life is changing
very fast. But no country has been successful in producing
laws, which are entirely _______________.
11. A train ticket represents a contract with _______________
_______________.
12. We seek legal advice when we buy or sell a house, _________
a business, or decide whom to give our ______________ to
when we die.
Exercise 9. Translate the following sentences consulting
the text.
1. Билет на поезд представляет собой договор с правовыми
обязательствами.
2. Государства создают законы и применяют их к своим
гражданам.
3. Право помогает людям достичь справедливых соглашений.
4. Новые законы появляются потому, что наша жизнь
быстро меняется.
5. Невозможно иметь общество без законов.
6. Для установления общественного контроля государства
используют публичное право и частное право.
20
7. Публичное право обеспечивает власть самого государства.
8. Некоторые сделки в современном обществе очень сложны.
9. Страны сотрудничают все больше и больше.
10. Существуют попытки сделать правовые нормы междуна-
родными.
11. Одни и те же правовые принципы могли бы применяться
ко всем странам и людям.
12. Справедливое решение — это решение, которое большин-
ство людей считает справедливым.
Exercise 10. Find a suitable word or collocation for each
definition.
1. a person who is a member a. court
of a particular country
2. people in general, considered b. legal advice
in relation to the laws
3. a body of rules supported c. law
by the power of government
4. things that people own d. government
5. advice from a lawyer e. justice
6. to work or act together f. to cooperate
7. the group of people who g. society
govern a country
8. the system by which people h. property
are judged in courts of law
and criminals are punished
9. what we do every day i. citizen
10. a place where a trial is held j. everyday activities
Exercise 11. Use passive sentences in the Past and in

the Future as shown in the example.
Example:
The problem is solved.
— The problem was solved.
— The problem will be solved.
21
1. The matter is discussed.
2. A new company is set up.
3. The disputes are settled.
4. An agreement is reached.
5. Legal principles are applied.
6. A lot of money is involved.
7. Legal advice is sought.
8. Loud music is played.
9. Laws are enforced.
10. A train ticket is bought.
Exercise 12. Change sentences using the Passive Voice.
1. They solved this problem two weeks ago.
2. I hope they will reach some agreement.
3. People regard law as a good thing.
4. They made a transaction yesterday.
5. People often seek legal advice.
6. We bought train tickets last week.
7. He left his property to his grandchildren.
8. We use legal advice when we sell a house.
9. They showed me the book.
10. We will discuss this matter tomorrow.
Exercise 13. Translate the following sentences into Rus
sian / English using the structure given.
A.
Example:
Countries have an increasing number of common
global problems to solve.
— У стран существует возрастающее количество
общих глобальных проблем, которые они
должны решать.
1. There are a lot of important things to do.

2. They have got a few matters to discuss.
3. There are several problems to solve.
4. We have got a few problems to settle.
22
5. He has got a lot of books to read.
6. I know a good lawyer to consult.
7. There are a lot of necessary laws to make.
B.
1. У меня есть хороший юрист, с которым можно прокон-
сультироваться.
2. У нас много вопросов, которые нужно урегулировать.
3. Парламенту нужно издать много новых законов.
4. У меня есть предложение, которое можно рассмотреть
(consider).
5. Я знаю правовой принцип, который можно применить.
6. Есть ряд вопросов, которые нужно обсудить.
Exercise 14. Translate the following sentences into Russian
paying attention to the collocation “rather
than”.
rather than
1) а не
2) скорее чем
1. They will sell this apartment rather than pay a high rent
for it.
2. I’ll speak to John rather than to Tom.
3. I’ll discuss this problem with him rather than solve it alone.
4. The basic idea behind the “marketing concept” is that you
make what you can sell rather than sell what you make.
5. It was what he meant rather than what he said.
6. These shoes are comfortable rather than pretty.
7. It is sometimes better to set up a business in one state rather
than in another state.
Exercise 15. Translate the following sentences into English
using the strictures given.
A.
without doing
23
Example:
Никто не рискнет совершать серьезные сделки,
не обратившись за помощью к юристу.
— No one will risk making complex transactions
without seeking legal advice.
1. Он все урегулировал, не обращаясь за помощью к юристу.

2. Государство не может существовать без создания законов
и применения их к своим гражданам.
3. Он не мог уйти, не решив эту проблему.
4. Мы не можем достичь соглашения без обсуждения этого
вопроса.
5. Мы не можем купить дом, не проконсультировавшись
с юристом.
6. Невозможно решить этот вопрос без денежных затрат.
7. Невозможно организовать коммерческое предприятие,
не имея элементарного представления о существующих
законах.
B.
to be / become accustomed to doing
Example:
Люди во всем мире все больше и больше привы
кают использовать правовые средства для урегу-
лирования отношений друг с другом.
— People all over the world are becoming more and
more accustomed to using legal means to regulate
their relations with each other.
1. Я привык заключать сложные сделки.

2. Он привык консультироваться с юристом, когда заклю-
чает сложную сделку
3. Они привыкли решать споры неформальными сред-
ствами.
4. Они привыкли обсуждать сложные вопросы.
5. Я привык думать о правовых последствиях принятых
решений.
6. Мы привыкли сотрудничать на неформальном уровне.
24
Exercise 16.
A. Read the Russian part of the text comparing it with
the English part of the text.
1. Право — это совокупность Law is a body of rules supported
норм, установленная и под- by the power of government.
держиваемая государством.
2. Оно определяет поведение It governs the behaviour of all
всех членов общества. members of society.
3. Невозможно иметь общество It is not possible to have a society
без законов, т.к. в этом случае without laws, as there would be
в обществе была бы анархия. anarchy in society then.
4. Государства создают законы Governments make laws and
и применяют их к своим граж- enforce them against all citizens
данам. within their power.
5. У них есть две причины в соз- They have two motives in mak-
дании и применении законов. ing and enforcing laws.
6. Первая — общественный кон- One is social control; the other
троль, вторая — осуществле- is the implementation of justice.
ние правосудия.
7. Для осуществления обществен- To establish social control go
ного контроля государства соз- vernments use public law and
дают публичное и гражданское civil law.
право.
8. Публичное право обеспечи- Public law ensures the author-
вает власть самого государ- ity of the government itself and
ства, а гражданское право civil law provides framework for
создает рамки для общения interaction among people.
людей между собой.
9. Справедливость — это понятие, Justice is a concept that most
которое большинство людей people feel is very important but
считает важным, но мало кто few are able to define.
может дать ему определение.
10. Иногда справедливое реше- Sometimes a just decision is
ние — это просто решение, simply a decision that most peo-
которое большинство людей ple feel is fair.
признает справедливым.
25
11. Новые законы появляются по New laws appear all the time as
стоянно, т.к. наша жизнь меня- our life is changing very fast.
ется очень быстро.
12. Но ни одна страна еще не соз- But no country has been suc-
дала законы, которые бы пол cessful in producing laws, which
ностью удовлетворяли всех. are entirely satisfactory.
13. Обычно люди начинают заду- Ordinary people start thinking
мываться о праве, только когда about law only when everyday
невозможно урегулировать informal ways of settling dis-
споры неофициальным путем. putes break down.
14. Когда мы покупаем билет When we buy a train ticket,
на поезд, любой юрист может a lawyer may tell us it repre-
сказать нам, что он представ- sents a contract with legal obli-
ляет собой договор с право- gations, but to most of us it is
выми обязательствами, но для just a ticket that gets us on the
большинства из нас это просто train.
билет, который дает нам право
сесть в поезд.
15. Если наш сосед громко вклю- If our neighbour plays loud
чает музыку по ночам, мы, music late at night, we will
наверное, попытаемся решить probably try to discuss the mat-
этот вопрос с ним, а не с помо- ter with him rather than con-
щью полиции, юристов и судов. sulting the police, lawyers or
courts.
16. Только когда мы пострадали Only when we are injured in

в аварии на железной дороге a train accident or when a neigh-
или когда сосед отказывается bour refuses to behave reason-
вести себя разумно, мы начи- ably, we start thinking about the
наем задумываться о правовой legal implications of our every-
стороне нашей повседневной day activities.
жизни.
17. И все же некоторые сделки Even so, some transactions in

в современном обществе modern society are so complex
настолько сложны, что мало that few of us would risk mak-
кто из нас рискнет совершить ing them without first seeking
их, не обратившись за советом legal advice.
к юристу.
26
18. Мы пользуемся им [советом We use it when we buy or sell
юриста], когда покупаем или a house, set up a business, or
продаем дом, открываем дело decide whom to give our pro
или решаем, кому оставить perty to when we die.
нашу собственность в случае
нашей смерти.
19. В целом кажется, что люди во On the whole, it seems that

всем мире постепенно привы- people all over the world are
кают использовать правовые becoming more and more accus-
средства для регулирования tomed to using legal means to
отношений друг с другом. regulate their relations with
each other.
20. Поскольку страны сотрудни- As countries cooperate more

чают все больше и больше, and more and have an increas-
и увеличивается количество ing number of common global
глобальных проблем, которые problems to solve, there are at
они должны решать совместно, tempts to internationalize legal
существуют попытки сделать standards, so that the same legal
правовые нормы международ- principles could be applied to all
ными, чтобы одни и те же пра- countries and people.
вовые принципы можно было
бы применять ко всем странам
и людям.
21. Когда право помогает людям When law helps people to reach
достичь справедливых согла- just agreements, it is regarded as
шений, его считают хорошей a good thing.
вещью.
22. Однако когда оно требует However, when it involves

временны`х и денежных затрат time and money and shows
и показывает неспособность people’s inability to cooperate
людей общаться неофици- informally, law seems to be an
ально, право кажется злом, evil — but a necessary one that
но необходимым злом, о кото- everyone should have a basic
ром каждый человек должен knowledge of.
иметь элементарное представ-
ление.
27
B. Tell the text using the following outline.
1. Law. Reasons for having it.
2. Two motives for making and enforcing laws. Public law and
private law.
3. Law in the life of ordinary people.
4. Reasons for seeking legal advice.
5. Need for making legal standards international.
V. Active Vocabulary
1. agreement соглашение
to reach just agreements достигать справедливых согла-
шений
2. to apply [əˈplaɪ] the same применять одинаковые право-
legal [ˈli:ɡəl] principles to вые принципы к чему-л.
smth
3. attempt [əˈtempt] попытка
4. to become accustomed привыкнуть делать что-л.
[əˈkʌstəmd] to doing smth
5. behaviour [bɪˈheɪvjə] поведение
to behave reasonably вести себя
6. body of rules свод правил, совокупность норм
7. business предприятие
to set up a business организовать / основать пред-
приятие
8. citizen гражданин
9. to consult [kənˈsʌlt] smth / обращаться за помощью
smb куда-л. / к кому-л.
11. to cooperate [kəuˈɔpəreɪt] сотрудничать

to cooperate informally сотрудничать на неформальном
уровне
12. court [kɔ:t] суд
13. to discuss a matter with smb обсудить вопрос с кем-л.
28
14. dispute [dɪsˈpju:t] спор
to settle disputes урегулировать споры
informal ways of settling неформальные способы урегу-
disputes лирования споров
15. government [ˈɡʌvnmənt] государство, государственная
власть
to govern [ˈɡʌvn] управлять
16. justice [ˈdʒʌstɪs] правосудие, справедливость
implementation of justice отправление правосудия
just (syn. fair) справедливый
17. law [ˈlɔ:] право, закон
public law публичное право
civil law частное право
to make / produce a law создать, издать закон
to enforce laws against smb применять законы к кому-л.
18. lawyer [ˈlɔ:jə] юрист
19. legal [ˈli:ɡəl] юридический, правовой

legal obligations правовые обязательства
legal means правовые средства
legal implications правовые последствия
legal standards правовые нормы
legal principles правовые принципы
20. to regulate relations with регулировать отношения

smb с кем-л.
21. satisfactory [ˌsætɪsˈfæktərɪ] удовлетворительный
22. to seek (sought) legal обращаться за помощью к юри-

advice сту
23. society [səˈsaɪətɪ] общество

modern society современное общество
24. to solve global problems решать глобальные проблемы
25. transaction [trænˈzækʃən] сделка

complex transaction сложная сделка
to make a transaction совершить сделку
29
Exercise 1. Read the text below and choose the word
which best fits each space.
enforcing behaviour society relations disputes
body regulates provides rules government
Civil law (1) ____________________ relationships among

persons and organizations. It sets (2) _________________ and
principles that apply to private (3) ______________. Civil law
(4) _____________ rules for buying or selling land, setting up
a business, settling (5) ____________ with our neighbours.
Criminal law is a (6) _________________ of laws that sets
limits of social (7) _______________. Violation of criminal law
is a public wrong, or wrong against (8) ______________. The
(9) ____________, acting in the name of all the people, pun-
ishes the wrongdoer by (10) ____________ laws.
Exercise 2. Translate using the Active Vocabulary.
A.
1. Вопрос был очень сложный. Было практически невоз-
можно достичь справедливого решения.
2. Если одни и те же правовые принципы будут приме-
няться ко всем людям и странам, будет проще решить
многие проблемы.
3. Он отказался решать этот вопрос неофициально.
4. Когда мы решили продать дом, нам пришлось обратиться
за помощью к юристу.
5. Невозможно создать законы, которые удовлетворяли бы
всех.
6. Наша жизнь меняется слишком быстро, поэтому новые
законы появляются каждый день.
7. Если вы хотите создать компанию, вам следует обра-
титься к юристу.
8. Трудно дать определение понятию «справедливость».
9. Мы редко задумываемся о правовой стороне нашей
повседневной жизни.
10. Люди в США привыкли часто обращаться за помощью
к юристу.
30
B.
Закон — это свод правил, который регулирует поведе-
ние членов общества. Основная цель закона — установить
общественный порядок. В большинстве стран законы соз-
даются парламентом. Новые законы появляются постоянно,
т.к. наша жизнь быстро меняется. Однако трудно создать
законы, которые удовлетворяли бы всех.
VI. Key Terms
1. Citizen [ˈsɪtɪzn] is someone who lives in a particular town

or state
2. Court [kɔ:t] is a place where a trial is held
3. Law [lɔ:] is a body of rules supported by the power
of government
4. Lawyer [ˈlɔ:jə] is someone whose job is to advise people
about laws
5. Property [ˈprɔpətɪ] is things that people own
VII. Additional Materials

Exercise 1. Read, translate and discuss the text.
The question “What is law?” has troubled people for many
years. A whole field of study known as jurisprudence (the study
of law and legal philosophy) is devoted to answering this ques-
tion. Many definitions of law exist. For our purposes, how-
ever, law can be defined as the rules and regulations made and
enforced by the government that regulate the conduct of people
within a society.
As a child, you learned about rules first at home and later at
school. At home, your parents made and enforced rules concern-
ing issues like chores and bedtimes. Rules made and enforced
by the government are called laws. The government makes laws
that affect almost every aspect of daily life.
31
One thing is certain: every society that has ever existed has
recognized the need for laws. These laws may have been unwrit-
ten, but even pre-industrial societies had rules to regulate peo-
ple’s conduct. Native American societies, for example, were go
verned by unwritten laws. When Europeans first arrived on the
North American continent, each of the native American nations
(or tribes, as they are commonly called today) maintained order
through a system of unwritten rules. Because many non-native
American government officials and others did not see or under-
stand these traditional mechanisms, many non-native American
held the erroneous view that the societies were lawless. Today,
some native American groups are still governed, at least in part,
by traditional unwritten law.
Without laws, there would be confusion and disorder. This
does not mean that all laws are fair or even good, but imagine how
people might take advantage of one another without a set of rules.
Exercise 2. Discuss the following statements.
1. Laws haven’t changed since primeval times.
2. However hard people try, laws are always insufficient.
3. Laws are not for ordinary people, they are for lawyers.
4. All laws a situational. They suit only a particular place at
a particular time.
5. There is some eternal law. It is good for all times and places.
Use the collocations: In my opinion
From my point of view
I think /consider / believe
On the one hand… on the other hand
On the contrary
Exercise 3. Write an essay on the statement: “People can’t
live without rules and laws”. Use the outline
and information below.
1. People use laws and rules everywhere (at home, at work, in
sport, etc.). There would be a chaos and confusion without
laws (when to come to work; on which side of the road to
drive; etc).
32
2. Laws give us rights (to own our property; to safety on the
roads; to get paid for our work, etc.).
3. Laws impose duties on us (to let others own and enjoy their
property; to drive within a speed limit, etc.). When we
obey laws, we automatically protect the rights of the people
about us.
4. Conclusion. Laws and rules are to improve our lives and pro-
tect us from harm.
Unit 2
LAW SYSTEMS
I. Lead-in
The legal system of each country is shaped by its unique his-
tory. However, the legal systems of the world today are generally
based on one of two basic systems: civil law and common law
or combinations of these. Some countries make use of religious
texts which act rather like Constitution.
1. What is a legal system?
2. Can judges make law?
3. What is meant by separation of powers?
4. What legal system is used in your country?
5. What countries use religious law?
II. Reading
Commonwealth [ˈkɔmənwelθ] specific [spɪˈsɪfɪk]
ruling [ˈru:lɪŋ] beneficiary [ˌbenɪˈfɪʃərɪ]
to apply [əˈplaɪ] to prevail [prɪˈveɪl]
essential [ɪˈsenʃəl] satisfactory [ˌsætɪsˈfæktərɪ]
previous [ˈpri:vjəs] monetary [ˈmʌnɪtərɪ]
existing [ɪɡˈzɪstɪŋ] to unify [ˈju nɪfaɪ]
equitable [ˈekwɪtəbl] legislator [ˈledʒɪsleɪtə]
flexibility [ˌfleksɪˈbɪlɪtɪ] legislative [ˈledʒɪslətɪv]
to recognize [ˈrekəɡnaɪz] legislature [ˈledʒɪsleɪtʃə]
century [ˈsentʃurɪ] influence [ˈɪnfluəns]
34
emperor [ˈempərə] to appear [əˈpɪə]
to exaggerate [ɪɡˈzædʒəreɪt] judiciary [dʒu:ˈdɪʃɪərɪ]
B) Vocabulary Notes
(1)
1. system of law / legal система права
system
2. to develop развиваться
to develop differently развиваться по-разному
3. Common law / Case law общее право / прецедентное право
4. Civil law / Roman law / римское право / континентальное
Continental law право
5. to adopt a law принимать закон
6. Commonwealth страны Содружества
countries
7. former socialist бывшие социалистические госу-
countries дарства
(2)
8. to develop gradually развиваться постепенно
9. throughout the history на всем протяжении истории
10. to be based on smth основыватьcя на чем-л.
11. custom обычай
12. court ruling решение суда
13. precedent прецедент
doctrine of precedent доктрина прецедента
14. statute статут; закон, выраженный в законо-
дательном акте парламента; норма
15. concept понятие
16. to make a decision on выносить / принимать решение
a case по делу
17. higher court суд вышестоящей инстанции
18. lower court суд нижестоящей инстанции
35
19. essential elements основные элементы / составляющие
20. thus так, таким образом
21. judge судья
22. to apply smth to smth применять что-л. к чему-л.
to apply existing применять существующие преце-
precedents to new cases денты к новым делам
23. previous предыдущий
previous recorded case предыдущее дело, зафиксирован-
ное в Сборнике судебных решений
(3)
24. to modify a law вносить поправки в закон, изме-
нять закон
25. to clarify a law разъяснять смысл закона
26. to exist существовать
existing существующий
27. to interpret a statute / толковать статут / закон
a law
interpretation толкование
28. therefore по этой причине, вследствие этого,
поэтому
29. to follow a precedent следовать прецеденту
(4)
30. principle of equity принцип справедливости
31. to be satisfied with smth быть удовлетворенным чем-л.
ant. to be dissatisfied быть неудовлетворенным чем-л.
with smth
32. (in)flexibility (не)гибкость
33. to recognise the rights признавать права
34. to enforce rights осуществлять права
35. equitable / just справедливый
36. to force smb to do smth заставить кого-л. сделать что-л.
36
37. to carry out a contract выполнять контракт / договор
38. specific performance реальное исполнение, исполнение
в натуре
39. beneficiary of a trust бенефициарий доверительной
собственности
(5)
40. court of common law суд общего права
41. court of equity суд справедливости
42. to exist alongside сосуществовать
43. equitable ruling решение суда справедливости
on a case по делу
44. to prevail преобладать, превалировать
45. to start an action начать дело в суде
in court
46. satisfactory solution удовлетворяющее решение
47. damages (monetary возмещение убытков
compensation)
to seek (sought) добиваться, требовать возмещения
damages убытков
48. to unify smth объединять что-л.
(6)
49. сodified law system кодифицированная правовая
система
50. to result from smth следовать, происходить в результате
51. code закон, законодательный акт, кодекс
to produce a set of codes создать свод законов
52. to govern every legal управлять всеми правовыми вопро-
aspect of life сами жизни общества
53. legislator / lawmaker законодатель
54. to originate in the state исходить от государства
55. to separate smth отделить что-л. (от чего-л.)
37
56. legislature законодательная власть
57. judiciary судебная власть
58. to influence smth влиять на что-л.
59. under the direction под руководством кого-л.
of smb
60. emperor император
61. to pass a law принимать закон
62. legislative body законодательный орган
(7)
63. to exaggerate smth преувеличивать что-л.
64. сlear distinction четкое различие, разделение
65. to weaken ослабевать
C) Text
LAW SYSTEMS
(1) Every country has its own system of law as each country
has developed differently. However, there are two main tradi-
tions of law in the world — English Common law, or Case law,
and Civil law, or Roman law, or Continental law.
English Common law is adopted by many Commonwealth
countries and most of the USA. Continental law is adopted in
continental Europe, many countries in Asia and Africa and in
former socialist states.
(2) English Common law has developed gradually through
out the history and is based on customs, court rulings (prec
edents) and statutes. The most important concept of English
Common law is the doctrine of precedent. Precedent is a deci
sion made by a higher court on some case that serves example
for lower courts to follow if the essential elements of the case
are the same. Thus, judges have to apply existing precedents
to each new case. If the elements of the case are the same as
38
those of previous recorded cases they have to make the same
decision.
(3) Sometimes governments make new laws (statutes) to
modify or clarify common law, or to make rules which have
not existed before. Judges interpret those statutes and their
interpretations become new precedents. Therefore, judges do
not only apply law. They make law as their interpretations are
precedents for other courts to follow.
(4) Another important concept of the common law is the
principle of equity. By the 14th century people of England had
become dissatisfied with the inflexibility of common law. A new
system developed which recognised the rights that were not
enforced as common law but were equitable or just (the right
to force someone to carry out a contract, called specific perfor
mance, or the right of the beneficiary of the trust).
(5) The courts of common law and of equity existed along
side for centuries. An equitable ruling on the same case pre
vailed. The problem was that a person had to start an action in
two different courts in order to get a satisfactory solution. For
example, a person had to seek specific performance in a court
of equity and damages (monetary compensation) in a common
law court. That is why in 1873 the two systems were unified.
(6) Continental systems are often called codified law sys
tems as they have resulted from government attempts to pro
duce a set of codes to govern every legal aspect of life.
The legislators wanted to show that the legal rights of the
citizens originated in the state, not in local customs, and to
separate legislature and judiciary. It was the state that was to
make new laws, not the courts. The courts could only apply the
law that the governments had made. Making new codes the law
makers were influenced by the codes produced in the 7th cen-
tury under the direction of Roman Emperor Justinian. Thus
appeared the name — “Roman law”.
The main concept of Civil law is a government code. A code
is a law passed by a legislative body and written in a formal
document.
39
(7) It is important not to exaggerate the differences between
these two traditions of law as many countries use both (the
USA). The clear distinction between legislature and judiciary
has also weakened (Germany, France and Italy).
III. Read the text again and do the following exercises.

A. Fill in the table.
Characteristics Common Law Civil Law
1. Origin England
(11th century)
2. Countries found in
3. Central element Precedent
4. Style of legal Inductive — Deductive — decisions
reasoning reasoning in reached by reasoning
individual cases from general rules are
leads to general applied to particular
rules cases
5. Role of judges Judges apply laws that
the government have
made
6. Legal principles Principles are Principles are fixed
flexible; based on and not always
real facts, develop correspond to changing
in individual cases. circumstances; general
Lower courts principles are applied to
must follow the individual cases
decisions of higher
courts
B. Answer the following questions.

1. Why are systems of law different in different countries?
2. What are the two main traditions of law in the world?
3. What is common law based on?
4. What is the most important concept of common law?
5. What is a precedent?
40
6. What are the judges guided by when they make a decision?
7. Do governments make new laws? Why?
8. What do judges do with new laws?
9. Do judges make laws? In what cases?
10. Why did the tradition of equity appear?
11. What types of courts existed in England until 1873?
12. Why were the two systems of courts unified?
13. What are continental systems often called?
14. What have continental systems resulted from?
15. What did the lawmakers want to show?
16. Could judges make law in continental systems?
17. Why is continental law often called Roman law?
18. What is a code?
19. What is the difference between common law and continental
law?
IV. Exercises
court ruling to clarify the law
Case law to develop gradually
previous cases to apply existing precedents to new
cases
to interpret statutes specific performance
doctrine of precedent to carry out a contract
monetary compensation to originate in the state
codified law systems to recognise the rights
legislature to unify smth
judiciary legislator
principle of equity to modify a law
to be dissatisfied with smth higher court
41
Verb Noun Adjective
product
to legislate
money
to decide
equity
to interpret
clarification
satisfactory
to perform
code
influence
B. Fill in the gaps with the appropriate word.

1. Congress is US legislative body (legislate).
2. Parliament _____________ dozens of new statutes every
year to modify the existing law (product).
3. Sometimes it takes a lot of time to make a right ___________
(decide).
4. People started asking the King to give an ______________
solution (equity).
5. Judges’ __________________ of the statutes become new
precedents (interpret).
6. We have to _____________ this law (clarification).
7. This court ruling does not _____________ us (satisfactory).
8. Courts of equity enforced specific _____________________
(perform).
9. Justinian tried to ______________________ many aspects
of life (code).
10. Napoleon Code made a great __________________ on the
development of Civil law (influence).
42
1. equitable a. to use
2. legislator b. to change
3. tradition c. lawmaker
4. statute d. to make smth clear
5. distinction e. fair
6. Common law f. code
7. to modify g. Case law
8. to clarify h. monetary compensation
9. Continental law i. difference
10. court ruling j. precedent
11. damages k. Roman law
12. to apply l. custom
13. to adopt a law m. to pass a law
1) satisfied — dis ________________________
flexible — in __________________________
to interpret — mis ______________________
willing — un _________________________
essential — in / un ______________________
equitable — in ________________________
2) legal, just, fair, formal, important, possible, agreement,
necessary, satisfactory
1. The court ruling was so just / unjust that we had to appeal.
2. As a rule continental legal systems are quite flexible /
inflexible.
3. The judge did not mean this. His words were misinterpret
e d / interpreted.
43
4. People of England became satisfied / dissatisfied with
flexibility / inflexibility of common law courts.
5. It is legal / illegal to sell tobacco to someone under 16.
6. It is equitable / inequitable that one man should suffer for the
crimes of another.
7. Those facts are not important. They are essential / inessential /
unessential.
законодатель предыдущие дела
признавать права быть удовлетворенным чем-л.
создать свод законов справедливый
римское право изменять закон
обычай кодифицированная правовая
система
законодательный орган решение суда
начать дело в суде бывшие социалистические госу-
дарства
выполнять договор добиваться, требовать возмеще-
ния убытков
толковать закон разъяснять смысл закона
принимать закон влиять на что-л.
следовать прецеденту удовлетворяющее решение
исполнение в натуре принцип справедливости

решением
быть договором
удовлетворенным правительством
права
признавать обязанности
законы
44
договор
обязанность по договору
выполнять
(under the contract)
инструкции
дела
предыдущие собрания
судебные решения
социалистические государства
бывший президент
министр
прецеденты к каждому новому делу
одинаковые законы ко всем
применять
людям и странам
одинаковые правила ко всем
работникам

1. Statute is a law passed _______________ a legislative body
and written _____________ a formal document.
2. People were dissatisfied _________ inflexibility _________
common law.
3. Judges have to apply existing precedents __________ each
new case.
4. Specific performance means to force someone to carry
_____________ a contract.
5. An equitable ruling ____________ the same case prevailed.
6. Common law has developed gradually _____________ the
history.
7. The courts ___________ common law and ____________
equity existed alongside ________________ centuries.
8. English Common Law is based _____________ customs,
court rulings (precedents) and statutes.
9. Continental systems are often called codified law systems as
they have resulted ____________ government attempts to
produce a set _____________ codes to govern every legal
aspect __________________ life.
45
10. It is important not to exaggerate the differences __________
these two traditions ____________ law.
11. The first codes were produced _____________ the 7th cen-
tury _____________ the direction of Roman Emperor Jus-
tinian.
PREPOSITION BANK
to be satisfied with smth
to apply smth to smth
to carry out a contract
court ruling on smth

the text.
1. A person had to start an _____________ in different courts
to get a _____________ solution.
2. The legislators wanted to separate ________ and ________.
3. Governments made attempts to ___________ a set of codes
to govern every _____________ aspect of life.
4. Precedents are examples for other courts to _____________.
5. A statute is passed by a _____________ body.
6. The courts could only _____________ the law that the
government had _____________ .
7. Monetary compensation is often called _____________.
8. Judges ______________ the statutes and their interpreta
tions become new ______________.
9. Continental systems are often called _________________.
10. Courts of equity _____________ the rights which were not
_____________ as common law.
11. Common law is ___________ by Commonwealth countries.
the text.
1. В мире существуют две основные традиции права.
2. Прецедент служит примером, которому должны следо-
вать другие суды.
3. Общее право основывается на обычаях, прецедентах
и статутах.
46
4. Судьи должны применять существующие прецеденты
к каждому новому делу.
5. Государства создают новые законы, чтобы изменить или
разъяснить общее право.
6. Континентальные системы часто называют кодифициро-
ванными правовыми системами.
7. Законодатели хотели отделить законодательную власть
от судебной.
8. Законодательный акт — это закон, принятый законода-
тельным органом и записанный в официальном доку-
менте.
9. Cуды могли только применять законы.
10. Судьи толкуют статуты, и их толкования становятся
новыми прецедентами.
11. По одному и тому же делу превалировало решение суда
справедливости.
12. Человек должен был требовать реального исполнения
в суде справедливости и возмещения убытков в суде
общего права.
definition.
1. previous court ruling a. judge
2. codified law system b. lawmaker
3. former British colonies c. precedent
4. public officer with authority d. code
to hear and decide cases in
a law court
5 sum of money awarded by e. Commonwealth
a court as compensation
6. law passed by a legislative body f. judiciary
7. person who makes laws g. Civil law
8. the system of law courts in h. damages
a country
47
Exercise 11. Use passive sentences in the Present Perfect
as shown in the example.
Example:
— The problem has just been solved
— The problem has already been solved.
— The problem has been solved lately.
— The problem has been solved recently.
— The problem hasn’t been solved yet.
— The problem has been solved today.
— The problem has been solved this week.
1. A new law is adopted.

2. A set of codes is produced.
4. The statutes are interpreted.
5. The tickets are bought.
6. The law is written in a formal document.
7. The obligations under the contract are carried out.
8. The dispute is settled.
9. The law is modified.
10. Their rights are recognized.
Exercise 12. Change the sentences using the Passive Voice.
1. They have passed a new law lately.
2. They didn’t reach a satisfactory solution.
3. They will pay damages.
4. They haven’t adopted a new law yet.
5. They didn’t recognize the women’s rights for a long time.
6. They have already started an action in court.
7. Courts apply precedents.
8. Judges interpret statutes.
9. They have just made a decision.
10. They sought legal advice.
Exercise 13. Use the verbs in the appropriate form.
The US President (elect) every four years, and under the
Constitution (serve) no more than two terms in office. Once the
President (elect), he (select) a cabinet, each member of which
(confirm) by a majority vote in the Senate. Each cabinet member
48
(head) a department in the executive branch. The cabinet
(include), for example, the Secretary of State, the Secretary of
Defense, the Secretary of the Treasury, and the Attorney General.
Exercise 14. Translate the sentences into Russian using
the structures given.
A.
Example:
It is not possible to have a society without laws.
— Невозможно иметь общество без законов.
1. It is important not to exaggerate the differences between

these two traditions.
2. Sometimes it is difficult to apply the doctrine of precedent.
3. It is essential to adopt new laws.
4. It is necessary to internationalize legal standards.
5. It is not easy to reach a just agreement.
6. It is impossible to settle this dispute right now.
7. It was inconvenient to start an action in two different courts.
B.
Example:
Their interpretations are precedents for other
courts to follow.
— Их толкования становятся прецедентами,
которым следуют другие суды.
It is necessary for judges to apply existing
precedents.
— Cудьям необходимо использовать существу-
ющие прецеденты.
1. Precedent is a decision made by a court on some case that

serves example for other courts to follow.
2. The first thing for me to do is to find out when they arrive.
3. It is important for them to know the truth.
4. This is a problem for him to solve.
5. Precedents are for judges to apply.
6. It is difficult for them to carry out the contract.
7. It is necessary for Peter to start an action in court.
8. It is essential for him to settle this dispute immediately.
49
9. The problem under discussion was too complicated for the
participants of the congress to cope with.
C.
Example:
If the elements of the case are the same as those of
previous recorded cases they have to make the same
decision.
— Если составляющие дела такие же, как в пре-
дыдущих делах, они должны вынести такое же
решение по делу.
1. The price of tin (олово) is higher than that of copper (медь).

2. At our factory there are a few machines similar to those
described in this magazine.
3. Ordinary Americans are much more interested in local
politics than those at the federal level.
4. Most legal systems in Europe, including that of Scotland,
are strongly influenced by Roman Law.
5. According to specialists the two central banks most in
dependent of the government are those of Switzerland and
Germany.
6. Many companies invest their profits in such spheres as
sophisticated technologies and those giving fast returns.
7. The political power of the US Secretary of State is second
only to that of the President.
8. The House of Lords is considered the upper house of the
British Parliament, but its political powers are much more
limited than those of the lower house, the House of Commons.
9. International law regulates relations between governments
and also between private citizens of one country and those
of another.
Exercise 15. Combine two sentences into one using the word
“as”.
Example:
Every country has its own system of law. Each
country has developed differently.
— Every country has its own system of law as each
country has developed differently.
50
1. Judges make new laws. a. People of England were
dissatisfied with the
inflexibility of common law.
2. The two systems were b. Our life is changing.
unified.
3. Continental systems c. The lawmakers were
are often called influenced by the codes
codified law systems. produced in the 7th century
under the direction of
Roman Emperor Justinian.
4. It is important not d. It was inconvenient for
to exaggerate the people to start an action in
differences between two different courts.
these two traditions
of law.
5 Continental law is e. Countries cooperate more
often called Roman and more.
law.
6. The principle of equity f. Their interpretations are
developed. precedents for other courts
to follow.
7. New laws appear. g. They have resulted from
government attempts to
produce a set of codes to
govern every legal aspect of
life.
8. There are attempts to h. Many countries use both.
internationalize legal
standards.
Exercise 16.
A. Change the following collocations using adverbs.
Example:
a gradual development — to develop gradually
1. reasonable behaviour
2. a fair decision
51
3. a different development
4. a quick adoption
5. a clear interpretation
6. an equitable agreement
7. a legal government
8. a formal refusal
9. an entire support
10. a global solution
B. Translate the sentences into English using adjectives and
adverbs.
1. Я полностью вас поддерживаю.
2. Они официально отказали мне.
3. Законодатели быстро приняли закон.
4. Это правительство не является законным.
5. Каждая страна развивается по-своему (букв. по-разному).
6. Мы должны думать глобально.
7. В мире есть много глобальных проблем.
8. Я надеюсь, мы примем справедливое решение по этому
делу.
Exercise 17.
A. Read the Russian part of the text comparing it with the
English part of the text.
1. Каждая страна имеет свою соб- Every country has its own sys-
ственную правовую систему, tem of law as each country has
т.к. каждая страна развивалась developed differently.
по-своему.
2. Однако существует две основ- However, there are two main
ные традиции права в мире — traditions of law in the world —
английское общее право и рим- English Common law, or Case
ское, или континентальное, law, and Civil law, or Roman law,
право. or Continental law.
3. Английское общее право при English Common law is adopted
нято многими странами Содру- by many Commonwealth coun-
жества и на большей части тер- tries and most of the USA.
ритории США.
52
4. Континентальное право при- Continental law is adopted in
нято в континентальной continental Europe, many coun-
Европе, во многих странах tries in Asia and Africa and in
Азии и Африки и в бывших former socialist states.
социалистических странах.
5. Английское общее право раз- English Common law has deve
вивалось постепенно на про- loped gradually throughout the
тяжении истории и основы- history and is based on customs,
вается на обычаях, решениях court rulings (precedents) and
суда (прецедентах) и ста statutes.
тутах.
6. Самым важным понятием The most important concept of
английского общего права English Common law is the doc-
является доктрина прецедента. trine of precedent.
7. Прецедент — это решение, Precedent is a decision made by
принятое судом вышестоящей a higher court on some case that
инстанции по какому-то делу, serves example for lower courts
которое служит примером для to follow if the essential ele-
судов нижестоящей инстан- ments of the case are the same.
ции, если основные элементы
дела совпадают.
8. Таким образом, судьи должны Thus, judges have to apply exist-
применять существующие ing precedents to each new case.
прецеденты к каждому новому
делу.
9. Если элементы дела такие же, If the elements of the case are
как в предыдущих делах, они the same as those of previous
должны вынести такое же recorded cases they have to
решение по делу. make the same decision.
10. Иногда государства создают Sometimes governments make
новые законы (статуты), new laws (statutes) to modify or
чтобы изменить или разъяс- clarify common law, or to make
нить общее право или создать rules, which have not existed
правила, которые не суще- before.
ствовали прежде.
11. Судьи толкуют эти статуты, Judges interpret those statutes
и их толкования становятся and their interpretations become
новыми прецедентами. new precedents.
53
12. Следовательно, судьи не только Therefore, judges do not only
применяют право. apply law.
13. Они создают право, т.к. их They make law as their interpre-
толкования становятся пре- tations are precedents for other
цедентами, которым следуют courts to follow.
другие суды.
14. Другим важным понятием Another important concept of
английского общего права the common law is the principle
является принцип справедли- of equity.
вости.
15. К концу XIV века народ By the 14th century people of
Англии был неудовлетворен England had become dissatisfied
негибкостью общего права. with the inflexibility of common
law.
16. Развилась новая система, A new system developed which
которая признавала права, recognized the rights that were
которые не применялись not enforced as common law but
в общем праве, но считались were equitable or just (the right
справедливыми (право заста- to force someone to carry out a
вить кого-либо исполнить contract, called specific perfor-
контракт, называемое «реаль- mance, or the right of the benefi-
ным исполнением», или право ciary of the trust).
бенефициария доверительной
собственности).
17. Суды общего права и суды The courts of common law and
справедливости сосущество- of equity existed alongside for
вали веками. centuries.
18. По одному и тому же делу An equitable ruling on the same

превалировало решение суда case prevailed.
справедливости.
19. Проблема была в том, что чело- The problem was that a person
век был вынужден начинать had to start an action in two dif-
дело в двух различных судах, ferent courts in order to get a
для того чтобы получить удо satisfactory solution.
влетворяющее его решение.
54
20. Например, человек должен For example, a person had to
был требовать реального seek specific performance in a
исполнения в суде справедли- court of equity and damages
вости и возмещения убытков (monetary compensation) in a
в суде общего права. common law court.
21. Вот почему в 1873 году эти That is why in 1873 the two sys-
две системы были объеди- tems were unified.
нены.
22. Континентальные системы Continental systems are often
часто называют кодифици called codified law systems as
рованными правовыми систе- they have resulted from govern-
мами, т.к. они явились резуль- ment attempts to produce a set
татом попыток государств of codes to govern every legal
создать свод законов для aspect of life.
управления всеми сторонами
жизни.
23. Законодатели хотели показать, The legislators wanted to show
что права граждан исходят that the legal rights of the citi-
от государства, a не от мест- zens originated in the state, not
ных обычаев, и хотели отде- in local customs, and to separate
лить законодательную власть legislature and judiciary.
от судебной.
24. Государство, а не суды должно It was the state that was to make
было принимать новые за new laws, not the courts.
коны.
25. Cуды могли только приме- The courts could only apply the
нять нормы права, которые law that the government had
создало государство. made.
26. Создавая новые законы, зако- Making new codes the lawmak-
нодатели находились под ers were influenced by the codes
влиянием законов, созданных produced in the 7th century
в VII веке под руководством under the direction of Roman
римского императора Юсти- Emperor Justinian.
ниана.
27. Так появилось название Thus appeared the name —

«римское право». “Roman law”.
55
28. Основным понятием рим- The main concept of Civil law is
ского права является зако- a government code.
нодательный акт, принятый
государством.
29. Законодательный акт — это A code is a law passed by a legis-
закон, принятый законода- lative body and written in a for-
тельным органом и записан- mal document.
ный в официальном доку-
менте.
30. Важно не преувеличивать It is important not to exaggerate
разницу между двумя тра- the differences between these
дициями в праве, т.к. многие two traditions of law as many
страны используют обе тради- countries use both (the USA).
ции (США).
31. Четкое разделение между The clear distinction between
законодательной и судебной legislature and judiciary has also
властью также ослабло (Гер- weakened (Germany, France and
мания, Франция и Италия). Italy).

1. Two main traditions of law in the world.
2. Common law:
— doctrine of precedent;
— statutes;
— principle of equity;
— the role of judges.
3. Continental law:
— code;
— separation of powers;
— the role of judges.
1. to adopt / pass / produce a law принимать закон

[əˈdɔpt]
2. to apply [əˈplaɪ] smth to smth применять что-л. к чему-л.
to apply existing precedents to применять существующие
new cases прецеденты к новым делам
56
3. to carry out a contract выполнить контракт
4. Civil [ˈsɪvl] law / Roman римское право / континен-
[ˈrəumən] law / Continental тальное право
[ˌkɔntɪˈnentl] law
5. to clarify [ˈklærɪfaɪ] a law разъяснять смысл закона

6. code [kəud] закон, законодательный акт,
кодекс
сodified law system кодифицированная правовая
система
7. Common law / Case law общее право / прецедентное
право
8. damages [ˈdæmɪdʒɪz] / возмещение убытков
monetary compensation
to seek (sought) damages добиваться, требовать воз-
мещения убытков
9. decision / court ruling on a case решение суда по делу
to make a decision / court ruling выносить / принимать реше-
on a case ние по делу
10. to enforce [inˈfɔ:s] rights осуществлять права
11. equity [ˈekwɪtɪ] справедливость
principle of equity принцип справедливости
court of equity суд справедливости
(in)equitable [ˈekwɪtəbl] (не)справедливый
12. higher court суд вышестоящей инстанции
13. to influence [ˈɪnfluəns] smth влиять на что-л.
14. to interpret [ɪnˈtə:prɪt] a law толковать закон
interpretation толкование
15. judiciary [dʒu:ˈdɪʃɪərɪ] судебная власть
16. legislative [ˈledʒɪslətɪv] body законодательный орган
17. legislator / lawmaker законодатель
[ˈledʒɪsleɪtə]
18. legislature [ˈledʒɪsleɪtʃə] законодательная власть
19. lower court суд нижестоящей инстанции
20. to modify a law вносить поправки в закон,
[ˈmɔdɪfaɪ] изменять закон
57
21. precedent [ˈpresɪdənt] прецедент
doctrine of precedent доктрина прецедента
to follow a precedent следовать прецеденту
22. previous [ˈpri:vjəs] предыдущий
previous recorded case предыдущее дело, зафикси-
рованное в Сборнике судеб-
ных решений
23. to be satisfied with smth быть удовлетворенным
чем-л.
ant. to be dissatisfied with smth быть неудовлетворенным
чем-л.
satisfactory solution удовлетворяющее решение
24. specific performance реальное исполнение, испол-
[spɪˈsɪfɪk] нение в натуре
25. statute [ˈstætju:t] статут; закон, выраженный
в законодательном акте пар-
ламента; норма
26. system of law / legal system система права

A.
legal system apply continental law
Roman code Roman law
Civil law is the most common system of law in the world.

Other names for the system are _______ _______ and _______
_______. In this system there exists a set of laws or a legal
_______. These laws are abstract principles rather than concrete
facts. It is the job of the judge to interpret and _______ these
principles. The first systems of this kind come from the _______
Empire. An important modern example is the Napoleonic code of
1804 which is the basis of the French ______________.
B.
legal cases judge previous precedent
58
Common law depends on what a court and a __________
decide in individual _______. The judge’s decision depends on
the decisions of other judges in _________ similar cases and will
influence similar cases in the future. If the case is the first of this
kind, then it is the duty of the judge to create a _________.
This is the _________system in the US, the UK and many other
English-speaking countries.
A.
1. Каждый год много новых законов принимается британ-
ским парламентом.
2. Если договор не выполнен, вы можете начать дело в суде.
3. Судьи должны толковать существующие законы.
4. Он не был удовлетворен решением суда.
5. Если вы пострадали в аварии на железной дороге, вам
выплатят убытки.
6. В странах континентального права судьи могут только
применять законы.
7. Конгресс является законодательным органом в США.
8. Законы записаны в Конституции.
9. Иногда трудно добиться возмещения ущерба.
10. Этот вопрос обсуждался на предыдущем собрании.
B.
Прецедент — это судебное дело, устанавливающее прин-
цип или правило, которое суд должен использовать при
решении дел с подобными фактами в будущем. Прецедент,
которому должны следовать суды, называется обязатель-
ным (binding) прецедентом. В соответствии с доктриной
прецедента суд нижестоящей инстанции должен следовать
решениям суда вышестоящей инстанции, если основные эле-
менты дела совпадают. Суды должны также следовать своим
собственным решениям. Суды вышестоящей инстанции
не обязаны исполнять решения судов нижестоящей инстан-
ции. Суд вышестоящей инстанции может изменить суще-
ствующий прецедент, только если у него для этого доста-
точно оснований (only if it has a good reason for it).
59
VI. Key Terms
1. Code [kəud] (statute) a law passed by a legislative body and

written in a formal document.
2. Common law a legal system developed in the 11th cen

tury in England. It is based on customs,
court rulings (precedents) and statutes.
3. Continental a legal system that is based on a set of
[ˌkɔntɪˈnentl] law (Civil laws or a legal code created by a legisla-
law, Roman law) tive body.
4. Equity [ˈekwɪtɪ] a legal system developed in the 14th cen

tury in England to deal with inflexibility
of common law.
5. Precedent [ˈpresɪdənt] a decision made by a higher court on
some case that serves example for lower
courts to follow if the essential elements
of the case are the same.

Exercise 1. Read the text and decide whether these sta
tements are true (T) or false (F).
1. Legal systems have to be flexible.
2. Principles of equity are applied nowadays.
3. The Court of Chancery is still part of the English legal system.
4. The Lord Chancellor did not deal with criminal cases.
5. Specific performance, injunction and damages are equitable
remedies
EQUITY
As a rule legal systems are quite inflexible. In fact, they have
to be, otherwise people could not be certain how a case would
be decided.
Over the centuries English judge-made law has been divided
into two main types: common law and equity.
60
Equity developed in the 14th century as a way of dealing
with the inflexibility of English legal system. Equity became
a subsidiary system that corrected common law which was too
rigid. Besides, the procedure of the common law courts was slow,
highly technical and very expensive. Another serious problem
was that the use of juries became widespread, even in civil cases,
and they could be intimidated, bribed and “packed” (filled with
the friends of one of the parties).
In the late Middle Ages in England, litigants who could not
afford to go to the common law courts or were dissatisfied with
their decisions could petition the King. He would then refer
cases to the Lord Chancellor. In dealing with these petitions the
Lord Chancellor developed a kind of legal system of his own and
came to preside over his own court. It was called the Court of
Chancery. The Chancellor did not try criminal cases. He dealt
only with civil disputes concerning, for example, matters of
property and breaches of contract. He set out to do justice in
these cases where the parties (people involved in a case) were
able to show that the common law courts were not able or pre-
pared to do justice.
If two people made an agreement (a contract), one (the
seller) to sell a house and the other (the buyer) to buy it, and
the seller refused to sell, the common law courts would grant the
buyer a sum of money to compensate him for the harm done, or
for the inconvenience which he had suffered. In these circum-
stances, however, money might not be enough. After all, on the
promise of a house sale the buyer might have sold his own house
and made many plans. The Court of Chancery had the right to
order the seller to keep his promise. He would be made to sell
the house, and allow the buyer to move into it.
Thus appeared equitable remedies such as specific perfor-
mance and injunction. Actually, equitable remedies are anything
other than damages. The law that was given in the Court of
Chancery was known as equity, a word meaning justice and fair-
ness.
61
The essential principle by which the Court of Chancery acted
was that everyone should receive fairness and justice. There were
three important conditions which a person seeking justice from
the Court of Chancery had to meet:
• He had to show that he could not receive justice in the
common law courts.
• He had to show that he was himself without blame. This
was called “coming to court with clean hands”.
• He had to show that he had not delayed in bringing his case
before the court.
In the 17th century it was established that where there was
a difference between the common law and equity, equity would
prevail.
The Court of Chancery that administered equity was abol-
ished by the Judicature Acts 1873–1875. Since then, the com-
mon law and equity have been administered by the same courts.
Exercise 2. Put the paragraphs of the text into the correct
order.
Napoleon’s Law
A. Napoleon Bonaparte, the Corsican soldier who became
emperor of France after the French Revolution, established in
1800 five commissions to refine and organize the diverse legal
systems of France. The result, enacted in 1804, was the Napo-
leon’s Code.
B. The laws of much of continental Europe (particularly
France), of Quebec in Canada, and of much of Latin America —
along with the civil laws of Louisiana — owe their modern form
largely to the work of a man who never even studied law.
C. The code was adopted intact in most of the areas of
Europe that Napoleon dominated and spread from there across
the Atlantic, taking root particularly in French-speaking Ameri-
can communities. Many of its principles are still in force today.
D. Some of its original 2,281 articles were affected by his
thinking, even though he was completely self-taught in legal
matters. The code was a triumphant attempt to create a legal
62
system that treated all citizens as equals without regard to their
rank or previous privileges. It was also so clearly written that it
could be read and understood by ordinary people at a time when
only Latin scholars could make sense of the earlier laws handed
down since Roman times.
Exercise 3.
1) The Magna Carta is one of the main documents of English
unwritten Constitution. Write a paragraph about the
Magna Carta. Use the following information.
Magna Carta (Great Charter)
King John, 1215 / to sign / under the threat of civil war
to establish the principle of limited government ~
to limit the power of the monarch ~ not absolute
to protect against unjust punishment and the loss of life, lib-
erty, and property except according to law
not to punish a citizen without a fair trial
King not to take certain taxes without the people’s agree-
ment a cornerstone of British liberties
one of the oldest written constitutional papers
2) Learn to write an essay about pros and cons of a) English
common law, b) continental law. Use the information
given in the table.
When we write an essay giving the pros and cons of
a topic, we usually write it in four paragraphs.
In the introduction, we state the topic. In the main
body there are two paragraphs. In the second paragraph,
we write the pros of the topic giving reasons / examples
and in the third paragraph, we write the cons giving
examples. In the conclusion, we summarise the topic
and write our opinion. We use linking words to join our
ideas (to list points: first, second, furthermore, in addition,
etc; to show contrast: on the other hand, however, etc;
to conclude: all in all, to sum up, in conclusion.
63
Type of legal Common law Continental law
system
Advantages — rules are flexible; — easy to find the law;
— can change as — the law is not a series
circumstances change of separate decisions in
individual cases;
— the law has a coherent
general form and pattern
Disadvantages — law can be made by — laws made by
judges who are not part theorists;
of the legislative body; — may not relate to
— the law is made up actualities of real life
of separate decisions in
individual cases;
— the law doesn’t have
a coherent general form
and pattern
A. Read the essay and fill in the gaps with the words from
the list.
— firstly
— in addition
— for instance
— to begin with
— furthermore
— to conclude
— however
Pros and cons of English Common Law
1. English law is based on common law tradition. This
system has developed over the years through the decisions of
judges in the cases brought by them. The system has advantages
and disadvantages.
2. ______________, the system is flexible as legal principles
are based on real facts and may develop in individual cases.
_____________, the judge may apply existing precedents to
each new case or interpret statutes.
64
______________, common law can change as circumstances
change.
3. ____________, there are also a number of disadvantages to
common law. _______________, laws are often made by judges
who are not part of the legislative body. __________________,
the law is made up of separate decisions in individual cases and
it may not be easy sometimes to find the law as the law does not
have a coherent general form and pattern.
4. __________________, I believe that although English
common law has a number of disadvantages, it is a good legal
system as it has been working for centuries.
B. Write an essay about pros and cons of continental law.
Unit 3
AREAS OF LAW
I. Lead-in
In the English and American legal systems the law is divided
into two main areas. These are criminal law and civil law. What
is the difference between them?
Look at these situations and decide if the person needs
a criminal lawyer or a civil lawyer. In other words, is it a
criminal matter or a civil matter?
a) Mr Bellerby is opening a new factory. He needs to visit
a lawyer to get a contract for all of his employees to sign.
A. criminal B. civil
b) Mrs Robson is thinking about what she wants to happen
to her house and possessions after her death. She needs to visit
a lawyer to get the correct document, which is called a “will”.
c) The police are taking Mr Dean to the police station
because they say he stole a car. He needs a lawyer to come and
visit him there to tell him what to do.
d) Mr Flynn owns a restaurant. He has a contract with
a company to deliver fruit and vegetables to his restaurant. The
company didn’t deliver them on the agreed date, so Mr Flynn
lost money because he could not open his restaurant that day.
Mr Flynn needs to see a lawyer about asking the delivery com-
pany to give him the money he lost.
e) Mr Allen is a bank manager. The bank is saying that some
money is missing. Mr Allen has a new car and expensive clothes.
66
The police are coming to ask Mr Allen some questions. He needs
a lawyer immediately.
II. Reading
national [ˈnæʃənl] to deter [dɪˈtə:]
regional [ˈri:dʒənl] branch [brɑ ntʃ]
local [ˈləukəl] executive [ɪɡˈzekjutɪv]
international [ˌɪntəˈnæʃənl] legislative [ˈledʒɪslətɪv]
private [ˈpraɪvɪt] judiciary [dʒu:ˈdɪʃɪərɪ]
treaty [ˈtri:tɪ] to exist [ɪɡˈzɪst]
to concern [kənˈsə n] taxation [tækˈseɪʃən]
dispute [dɪsˈpju:t] environment [ɪnˈvaɪərənmənt]
attempt [əˈtempt] manufacturing [ˌmænjuˈfæktʃərɪŋ]
probate [ˈprəubɪt] procedure [prəˈsi:dʒə]
company [ˈkʌmpənɪ] individual [ˌɪndɪˈvɪdjuəl]
constitutional [ˌkɔnstɪˈtju:ʃənl] prosecution [ˌprɔsɪˈkju:ʃən]
administrative [ədˈmɪnɪstrətɪv] claimant [ˈkleɪmənt]
society [səˈsaɪətɪ] to accuse [əˈkju:z]
defendant [dɪˈfendənt] offence [əˈfens]
B) Vocabulary Notes
(1)
1. national (domestic) law национальное право
2. level уровень
regional ~ региональный ~
local ~ местный ~
at the national level на национальном уровне
3. federal laws федеральные законы
4. state laws законы штатов
67
(2)
5. international law международное право
6. to regulate relations регулировать отношения между
between smb кем-л.
7. private citizen частный гражданин
8. to obey smth подчиняться чему-л.
9. international международная организация
organization
10. the United Nations Организация объединенных наций
(ООН)
11. treaty международный договор
to enter into a ~ заключать ~
(3)
12. civil (private) law гражданское (частное) право
14. to concern smth затрагивать, касаться чего-л.
15. disputes among smb споры между кем-л.
16. within a country внутри страны
17. subject of law субъект права
18. to right a wrong восстановить справедливость
19. to honour an agreement соблюдать договор
20. to settle a dispute разрешить, урегулировать спор
21. law of contract договорное право
22. law of tort деликтное право
23. law of trust доверительное право
24. probate law наследственное право
25. company law закон о компаниях
26. employment law трудовое право
27. land law земельное право
28. family law семейное право
29. intellectual property закон об интеллектуальной соб-
law ственности
68
(4)
30. criminal law уголовное право
31. constitutional law конституционное право
32. administrative law административное право
(5)
33. to deal with smth иметь дело с чем-л.
34. to harm the well-being наносить вред благополучию обще-
of society ства
35. to commit a crime совершить преступление
36. to deter smb from smth удерживать кого-л. от чего-л.
37. similar похожий, подобный
(6)
38. branch ветвь власти
executive ~ исполнительная ~
legislative ~ законодательная ~
judiciary ~ судебная ~
39. due to smth в силу чего-л., благодаря чему-л.
40. unwritten constitution неписаная конституция
41. Magna Carta Великая хартия вольностей
42. Bill of Rights Билль о правах
(7)
43. to enforce a law обеспечивать соблюдение закона
44. international trade международная торговля
45. taxation налогообложение
46. environment protection защита окружающей среды
47. manufacturing промышленное производство
69
(8)
48. criminal procedure уголовный процесс,
уголовное судопроизводство
49. civil procedure гражданский процесс,
гражданское судопроизводство
50. criminal action уголовное дело
51. civil action гражданское дело
52. party сторона по делу
53. to bring an action возбуждать дело
54. prosecution обвинение, обвинитель
55. claimant (US plaintiff) истец
56. to accuse smb of smth обвинить кого-л. в чем-л.
57. offence правонарушение
58. defendant ответчик, обвиняемый, подсудимый
C) Text
AREAS OF LAW
(1) Every country has its own legal system and its own set
of laws that are called national (domestic) law. National law
includes not only law at the national level, but law at the state,
regional or local levels. For example, the USA has federal laws
and state laws as well.
(2) International law regulates relations between govern-
ments and also between private citizens of one country and
those of another. States agree to obey international law by
being members of a great international organization such as the
United Nations, or by entering into treaties with one another.
(3) Many countries make an important distinction between
civil (or private) and public law. Civil law concerns disputes
among citizens within a country, and public law concerns dis-
putes between subjects of law (citizens, companies) and the
state.
70
In civil law there is the attempt to right a wrong, honour an
agreement, or settle a dispute. The main categories of English
civil law are: law of contract, law of tort, law of trust, probate
law, company law, employment law, land law, family law, intel
lectual property law and others.
(4) The main categories of public law are criminal law, con-
stitutional law and administrative law.
(5) Criminal law deals with wrongs (crimes) which harm the
well-being of society, even when they are committed a crime
against an individual. The main aim of criminal law is to deter
other people from committing similar wrongs.
(6) Constitutional law states the citizen’s rights and duties.
It also regulates the relationships between different branches of
the state, such as the executive, the legislative and the judiciary
ones. Constitutional law is usually found in the Constitution of
the country. However, in the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Northern Ireland, due to historical and political reasons the
Constitution does not exist in one written document. The UK
has an unwritten constitution — the constitution of this state
is usually found in statutes such as Magna Carta, Bill of Rights
and others.
(7) Administrative law is enforced by the executive branch
of the government rather than the legislative and the judiciary
branches. It regulates international trade, taxation, environ
ment protection, manufacturing.
(8) Criminal and civil procedures are different. Criminal
actions are nearly always started by the state. Civil actions, on
the other hand, are usually started by individuals.
The party bringing a criminal action (that is in most cases
the state) is called the prosecution. The party bringing a civil
action is called the claimant (US plaintiff). The party accused
in court of a crime or a civil offence is called the defendant in
both kinds of actions.
71
A. Fill in the chart.

Law
National law
Civil law
Criminal law
Administrative law
Law of trust
Company law
Family law

1. What law is called national law?
2. What does national law include?
3. What relations does international law regulate?
4. How do states agree to obey international law?
5. What is the main distinction between public and private law?
6. What is the aim of private law?
7. What are the main categories of private law?
8. What are the main categories of public law?
72
9. What does criminal law deal with?
10. What is the main aim of criminal law?
11. What does constitutional law regulate?
12. What are the branches of the state?
13. What kind of constitution has the United Kingdom? Why?
IV. Exercises

to bring a criminal action claimant
to honour an agreement employment law
unwritten constitution to accuse smb of smth
to harm the well-being of society to deal with smth
judiciary branch at the national level
to commit a crime law of tort
probate law criminal procedure
civil action prosecution
to settle a dispute executive branch
to enforce a law defendant
intellectual property law to deter smb from smth
international trade taxation

Verb Noun Adjective
crime
to prosecute
wrongful
nation
to defend
accusation
73
regional
to agree
administrative
harm
judicial
legislation
to protect
history
applicable

Why do we have laws and legal systems? At one
level, laws can be seen as a type of rule which is meant
to govern ____ between people. We can find these behave
rules in nearly all social _____, such as families and organize
sports clubs.
Law is the body of official rules and _____. It is regulate
generally found in legislation and ____. Law is used constitutional
to govern a society and to control the behaviour of
its members. In modern societies, judicial or the ____ legislature
branch of the state makes the law. The police, a law
____ agency, makes sure it is observed. The ____ enforce law
apply the law in court.
Of course, legal systems vary between countries,
as well as the basis for bringing a case before a court.
One thing, however, seems to be true all over the
world — starting a legal ______ is both expensive and act
time-consuming.

1. an offence a. an individual
2. a dispute b. to begin
3. a private person c. to accuse smb of
4. a difference d. plaintiff
74
5. civil law e. a disagreement
6. to start f. a distinction
7. to charge smb with g. private law
8. to concern h. to start an action
9. to bring an action i. to deal with
10. claimant j. a wrong
11. legislative branch k. legislature
1) disputable — indisputable
ordinary — extraordinary
guilty — not guilty
certain — uncertain
2) dissatisfied, indifferent, to disqualify, illegal, unusual,
inflexible, unfair, to misrepresent, informal, unqualified,
unessential / inessential, impossible, disagreement,
inexperienced, unsatisfactory, inequitable, to disobey.
1. An ordinary / extraordinary meeting was held to discuss the
problem.
2. The jury passed a guilty / not guilty verdict and the defendant
went to prison.
3. He was dissatisfied / satisfied with the judgment and decided
to appeal.
4. He lost the case as he was quite experienced / inexperienced
in arguing cases in court.
5. The client decided to appeal as he thought that he was
represented / misrepresented by his lawyer.
6. Magistrates are unqualified / qualified judges.
7. They don’t get on with their neighbours. They have had
several agreements / disagreements with them.
8. We still do not know what he is like. That is why we are
certain / uncertain what his role in the company will be.
75
регулировать отношения между наследственное право
кем-л.
внутри страны урегулировать спор
закон об интеллектуальной соб- законодательная ветвь власти
ственности
международная торговля обеспечивать соблюдение закона
совершить правонарушение споры между кем-л.
возбуждать дело против кого-л. доверительное право
гражданское судопроизводство национальное право
восстановить справедливость обвинение
административное право заключать международные
договоры
трудовое право неписаная конституция
наносить вред благополучию обвинить кого-л. в чем-л.
общества
закон о компаниях ответчик

в преступлении
быть обвиненным в воровстве
в правонарушении
уголовное преследование
начинать гражданское преследование
с правонарушениями
иметь дело с международными договорами
со спорами между гражданами
преступление
совершать правонарушение
спор
урегулировать сложный вопрос
разногласие
76
договор
заключать сделку
международный договор

1. The main aim of criminal law is to deter other people
___________committing similar wrongs.
2. States agree to obey international law ___________ being
members of a great international organization such as the
United Nations, or ___________ entering ___________
treaties with one another.
3. Criminal law deals ________________ wrongs, which harm
the well-being of society, even when they are committed
___________ an individual.
4. The UK has an unwritten constitution ________________
___________ historical and political reasons.
5. Criminal actions are nearly always started ___________ the
state.
6. The party accused ___________ court ___________ a crime
or a civil offence is called the defendant ___________ both
kinds of actions.
7. Civil law concerns disputes ________ citizens ___________
a country.
8. National law includes not only law _____________ the na
tional level, but law ______________ the state, regional or
local levels.
PREPOSITION BANK
to deter smb from smth

to enter into a contract / treaty
to deal with smth
to accuse of smth
at some level
due to smth
77
the text.
1. In civil law there is the ____________________ to right
a _______________, honor an _______________, or settle
a ______________.
2. Administrative law is enforced by the ______________
branch of the government rather than the ______________
and the ______________ branches.
3. The main aim of criminal law is to ______________ other
people from ______________ similar wrongs.
4. International law ______________ relations between
______________ and also between ______________
citizens of one country and those of another.
5. The UK has an _______________ constitution — the consti
tution of this state is usually found in ___________________
such as Magna Carta, Bill of Rights and others.
6. Constitutional law regulates the relationships between
different ___________________ of the state, such as the
______________, the ______________ and the judiciary.
7. Civil law concerns ______________ among citizens within
a country, and ___________ law concerns _____________
between citizens and the state, or between one state and
another.
8. States agree to _____________ international law by being
members of a great international organization such as the
______________ ______________, or by entering into
______________ with one another.
9. Every country has its own legal system and its own _______
of laws that are called ____________ law.
10. The party _________________ in court of a crime or a civil
______________ is called the defendant in both kinds of
______________.
the text.
1. Публичное право касается споров между гражданами
(субъектами права) и государством.
78
2. Сторона, начинающая уголовное дело, называется обви-
нением.
3. Уголовные дела почти всегда начинаются государством.
4. Существует три ветви государственной власти: исполни-
тельная, законодательная, судебная.
5. Гражданское право имеет дело со спорами, возникаю-
щими между гражданами внутри страны.
6. Государства соглашаются подчиняться международному
праву, являясь членами международных организаций
и заключая международные договоры друг с другом.
7. Cторону, которую обвиняют в преступлении или право-
нарушении, называют ответчиком.
8. Гражданские дела начинаются частными лицами.
9. Уголовное право имеет дело с правонарушениями, кото-
рые вредят благополучию общества.
10. Сторона, начинающая гражданское дело, называется ист-
цом.
11. Каждая страна имеет свою правовую систему и свой соб-
ственный свод законов, который называется националь-
ным правом.
12. В силу исторических и политических причин в Велико-
британии нет письменной конституции.
definition.
1. it regulates relations a. crimes
between governments
2. he starts a civil action b. civil law
3. actions which harm the c. national law
well-being of society
4. against him actions in d. treaty
court are started
5 it settles disputes among e. civil actions
citizens within a country
6. these actions are started f. international law
by individuals
79
7. a set of laws that every g. constitutional law
country has
8. this party usually brings h. defendant
a criminal action
9. a contract between two or i. state
more states
10. principles of law by which j. claimant
a system of government
is created and according
to which a country is
governed
Exercise 11. Use the passive sentences in the Continuous

as shown in the example.
Example:
a. now
b. when we entered the room
— The problem is being solved now.
— The problem was being solved when we
entered the room.
1. The matter is discussed.

a. at the moment
b. when we joined the meeting
2. A wrong is committed.
a. now
b. when we went out
3. The contract is made.
a. at the moment
b. when the phone rang
a. at present
b. They informed us that
5. The dispute is settled.
a. at the moment
b. when we entered the conference room
80
Exercise 12. Change the following sentences using the
Passive Voice.
1. They started a civil action.
2. It harms the well-being of society.
3. He has committed a wrong.
4. They deal with contracts.
5. The state usually brings a criminal action.
6. They are discussing the contract now.
7. They will reach an agreement soon.
8. They have settled the dispute.
9. They were solving the problem when the phone rang.
10. Constitutional law regulates relations between private
citizens and the government.
11. They are accusing him of this crime.
12. They have honoured the agreement.
13. We find the UK Constitution in statutes.
14. The state is bringing a criminal action against him.
Exercise 13.
A. Translate the following collocations using participles.
Examples:
1) wrongs committed by an individual
— правонарушения, совершенные лицом
2) an individual committing a wrong
— лицо, совершающее правонарушение
1. a criminal action brought by the state

the party bringing a criminal action
2. a contract made in 2011
the parties making a contract
3. an action started by an individual
an individual starting an action.
4. a company set up in 2010
private person setting up a company
5. a precedent applied by the judge
judges applying precedents.
6. the dispute settled by the parties
the parties settling the dispute
81
7. the wrong committed by the defendant
the defendant committing the wrong
8. treaties made by the states
the states making treaties
B. Make collocations using participles as shown in part A.
1. to adopt a new law
2. to interpret a statute
3. to carry out a contract
4. to bring a civil action
5. to seek legal advice
6. to solve a problem
7. to honour the agreement
8. to accuse of the crime
the structures given.
Example:
It was the state that was to make new laws, not the
courts.
— Именно государство, а не суды, должно было
принимать новые законы.
1. It is the state that usually starts criminal actions.

2. It is the doctrine of precedent that is the most important
concept of English common law.
3. It was the court of equity that recognized the right to specific
performance.
4. It is the claimant that brings a civil action.
5. It is public law that deals with disputes between citizens and
the state.
6. It is the judge who decides the law applicable to the case; it
is the jury who decide the facts after the judge has instructed
them concerning the law.
7. Today it is the seller’s well-established duty to make sure
that the goods cannot harm the buyer.
8. It is a general rule that the author of a work is the first owner
in it.
82
9. It is the courts themselves which have, over the last four
centuries, decided the extent of their power.
Exercise 15.

1. Каждая страна имеет свою соб- Every country has its own
ственную правовую систему legal system and its own set of
и свой собственный свод законов, laws that are called national
который называется националь- law.
ным правом.
2. Национальное право включает National law includes not

не только законы на националь- only law at the national level,
ном уровне, но также законы but law at the state, regional
на уровне штата, законы на реги- or local levels.
ональном и местном уровнях.
3. Например, США имеют федераль For example, the USA has
ные законы и законы штатов. federal laws and state laws as
well.
4. Международное право регули- International law regulates

рует отношения между государ- relations between govern-
ствами, а также между гражда- ments and also between pri-
нами одной страны и гражданами vate citizens of one country
другой страны. and those of another.
5. Государства соглашаются подчи- States agree to obey interna-

няться нормам международного tional law by being members
права, являясь членами между- of a great international orga-
народных организаций, таких как nization such as the United
ООН, или заключая междуна- Nations, or by entering into
родные договоры друг с другом. treaties with one another.
6. Многие страны проводят важную Many countries make an im

грань между гражданским (или portant distinction between
частным) и публичным правом. civil (or private) and public
law.
83
7. Гражданское право имеет дело cо Civil law concerns disputes
спорами, возникающими между among citizens within a
гражданами внутри страны, country, and public law con-
а публичное право касается споров cerns disputes between sub-
между субъектами права (граж- jects of law (citizens, compa-
данами, компаниями) и госу nies) and the state.
дарством.
8. В гражданском праве существует In civil law there is the
попытка восстановить справед- attempt to right a wrong, hon-
ливость, соблюсти договор, раз- our an agreement, or settle
решить спор. a dispute.
9. Основными категориями англий- The main categories of Eng-
ского частного права являются: lish civil law are: law of con-
договорное право, деликтное tract, law of tort, law of trust,
право, доверительное право, на probate law, company law,
следственное право, закон о ком- employment law, land law,
паниях, трудовое право, земель- family law, intellectual prop-
ное право, семейное право, закон erty law and others.
об интеллектуальной собственно-
сти и другие.
10. Основными категориями публич The main categories of public
ного права являются уголовное law are criminal law, consti-
право, конституционное право tutional law and administra-
и административное право. tive law.
11. Уголовное право имеет дело Criminal law deals with
с прав онарушениями (престу- wrongs (crimes) which harm
плениями), которые вредят бла- the well-being of society,
гополучию общества, даже если even when they are commit-
они касаются частного лица. ted against an individual.
12. Основная цель уголовного пра The main aim of criminal law
ва — удерживать других людей is to deter other people from
от совершения подобных престу- committing similar wrongs.
плений.
13. Конституционное право опреде- Constitutional law states the
ляет права и обязанности граж- citizen’s rights and duties.
данина.
84
14. Оно также регулирует отноше- It also regulates the rela-
ния между различными ветвями tionships between different
государственной власти: испол- branches of the state, such as
нительной, законодательной the executive, the legislative
и судебной. and the judiciary.
15. Конституционное право обычно Constitutional law is usually
отражено в конституции страны. found in the Constitution of
the country.
16. Однако в Соединенном Королев- However, in the United
стве Великобритании и Северной Kingdom of Great Britain
Ирландии в силу исторических and Northern Ireland, due
и политических причин не суще- to historical and political
ствует конституции в едином reasons the Constitution
письменном документе. does not exist in one written
document.
17. Соединенное Королевство имеет The UK has an unwritten
неписаную конституцию — кон- constitution — the constitu-
ституцию этого государства tion of this state is usually
обычно можно найти в статутах, found in statutes such as
таких как Великая хартия воль- Magna Carta, Bill of Rights
ностей, Билль о правах и другие. and others.
18. Соблюдение административного Administrative laws are
права обеспечивается исполни- enforced by the executive
тельной ветвью власти, а не зако- branch of the government
нодательной и судебной. rather than the legislative
and the judiciary branches.
19. Оно регулирует международ- It regulates international
ную торговлю, налогообложение, trade, taxation, environment
защиту окружающей среды, про- protection, manufacturing.
мышленное производство.
20. Уголовное судопроизводство Criminal and civil proce-
отличается от гражданского. dures are different.
21. Уголовные дела почти всегда Criminal actions are nearly
начинаются государством. always started by the state.
22. С другой стороны, гражданские Civil actions, on the other
дела обычно начинаются част- hand, are usually started by
ными лицами. individuals.
85
23. Сторона, начинающая уголовное The party bringing a criminal
дело (в большинстве случаев это action (that is in most cases
государство), называется обвине- the state) is called the pros-
нием. ecution.
24. Сторона, начинающая граждан- The party bringing a civil
ское дело, называется истцом. action is called the claimant
(US plaintiff).

1. National law.
2. International law.
3. Civil law:
— the purpose of civil law;
— categories of civil law.
4. Public law:
— the purpose of public law;
— criminal law;
— constitutional law;
— administrative law.
5. Criminal and civil procedures.
1. to accuse smb of smth обвинить кого-л. в чем-л.

[əˈkju:z]
2. action [ˈækʃən] дело
сriminal ~ уголовное ~
civil ~ гражданское ~
to bring an ~ возбуждать ~
3. administrative law административное право
[ədˈmɪ nɪstrətɪv]
4. branch [brɑ ntʃ] ветвь власти
executive [ɪɡˈzekjutɪv] ~ исполнительная ~
legislative [ˈledʒɪslətɪv] ~ законодательная ~
judiciary [dʒu:ˈdɪʃɪərɪ] ~ судебная ~
5. civil (private [ˈpraɪvɪt]) law гражданское (частное) право
86
6. claimant (US plaintiff) истец
[ˈkleɪmənt]
7. to commit a crime, a wrong / совершить преступление,
offence [əˈfens] правонарушение
8. company [ˈkʌmpənɪ] law закон о компаниях
9. constitutional law конституционное право
[ˌkɔnstɪˈtju:ʃənl]
10. criminal law уголовное право
11. to deal with smth иметь дело с чем-л.
12. defendant [dɪˈfendənt] ответчик, обвиняемый, под-
судимый
13. dispute [dɪsˈpju:t] спор, разногласие
disputes among / between споры между кем-л.
smb
to settle a ~ разрешить, урегулировать спор
14. employment [ɪmˈplɔɪmənt] law трудовое право
15. family law семейное право
16. to harm the well-being of наносить вред благополучию
society общества
17. intellectual property law закон об интеллектуальной
[ˌɪntɪˈlektjuəl] собственности
18. international law международное право
19. land law земельное право
20. law of contract договорное право
22. law of trust доверительное право
23. level уровень
regional ~ региональный ~
local ~ местный ~
at the national ~ на национальном уровне
24. national [ˈnæʃənl] law национальное право
25. party сторона по делу
26. private citizen частный гражданин
27. probate [ˈprəubɪt] law наследственное право
87
28. procedure [prəˈsi:dʒə] процесс, судопроизводство
сriminal ~ уголовный ~
civil ~ гражданский ~
29. prosecution [ˌprɔsɪˈkju:ʃən] обвинение, обвинитель
31. to regulate relations between регулировать отношения
smb между кем-л.
32. subject of law субъект права
33. treaty [ˈtri:tɪ] международный договор
to enter into a ~ заключать ~

citizens rules deals relationship concerns
disputes legal relations issues
International Law (or Public International Law) consists

of __________ and principles which govern the ___________
and dealings of states with each other. It only ________________
questions of rights between several states or states and
the ______________ or subjects of other states. In contrast,
Private International Law _____________ with ___________
between private persons, natural or _______________. They
usually concern ___________ between two or more states. In
recent years the line between public and private international
law has become increasingly uncertain, because ____________
of private international law may also involve issues of public
international law, and vice versa.
A.
1. Против него было возбуждено уголовное дело.
2. Если совершено правонарушение, вызовите полицию.
3. Была установлена камера наблюдения (security camera),
чтобы люди не воровали (букв. чтобы удержать людей
от воровства).
4. Наша страна заключила очень важный международный
договор.
88
5. В гражданском процессе есть две стороны: истец и ответ-
чик.
6. Истец начинает гражданское дело.
7. Стороны обязаны соблюдать договор.
8. Отношения между частными гражданами и государством
регулируются конституционным правом.
9. Вчера было совершено преступление.
10. Ответчик — это сторона, обвиненная в преступлении или
гражданском правонарушении.
B.
Неписаная конституция Соединенного Королевства раз-
вивалась веками. Частично она основана на статутном и пре-
цедентном праве, но в основном на традициях и конституци-
онном обычае (convention). Конституционный обычай — это
широко принятые нормы поведения, которые стали нормами
права.
Поскольку британская конституция не является писаной,
она достаточно гибкая. Ее можно изменить путем принятия
парламентского акта для того, чтобы она соответствовала
(meet) нуждам государства. Это основное различие между
конституцией Соединенного Королевства и Конституцией
США. Поскольку Конституция США писаная, она менее
гибкая (букв. более негибкая) и может быть изменена только
специальными процедурами.
С другой стороны, писаная конституция представляет
собой документ, который предусматривает, как должно проис-
ходить управление страной. Она гарантирует права гражданам.
VI. Key Terms
1. Administrative a body of law that regulates international

[ədˈmɪnɪstrətɪv] trade, taxation, environment protection,
law manufacturing
2. Civil law a body of law that concerns disputes among
[ˈsɪvl] citizens within a country
3. Claimant is the party that brings a civil action
[ˈkleɪmənt]
89
4. Criminal law a body of law that deals with wrongs which
[ˈkrɪmɪnəl] harm the well being of society, even when they
are committed against an individual
5. Constitutional a body of law that deals with the relationship
[ˌkɔnstɪˈtju:ʃənl] between the state and individual, and the
law relations between different branches of the
state, such as the executive, the legislative and
the judiciary
6. Defendant is the party accused in court of a crime or
[dɪˈfendənt] a civil offence
7. International a body of law that regulates relations between
[ˌɪntəˈnæʃənl] governments and also between private citizens
law of one country and those of another
8. National law a body of law that is used in a particular
[ˈnæʃənl] country
9. Prosecution is the party that brings a criminal action
[ˌprɔsɪˈkju:ʃən]
10. Public [ˈpᴧblɪk] a body of law that concerns disputes between
law subjects of law (citizens, companies) and the
state

Exercise 1. Read the text and insert the appropriate
connectors.
firstly secondly finally in
addition moreover since
THE LAW OF NATIONS

According to D.W.Grieg, a well-known writer on interna-
tional jurisprudence, international law cannot exist in isolation
from international relations.
____________, international law has no established coercive
judicial system for the settlement of disputes. _________, ma
naging breaches is not as straightforward as under domestic law.
Countries which breach international law are not subject to a
compulsory penal system ________ there is no institutionalized
90
punishment method. ________, there is no international police
force to monitor violations.
________, until the beginning of the 20th century, relations
between states were governed by treaties. These were unenfor
ceable agreements to behave in a certain way towards other
states. One result of this was that countries interpreted their
commitments to suit their own political purposes. As the 20th cen
tury progressed, the violent armed conflicts, such as the two
world wars, exposed the weaknesses of a voluntary system of
international agreement.
__________, in an attempt to create a stronger system of
laws, the United Nations, an international law-making body,
was founded. However, many scholars argue that these modern
developments endanger the nation states because they take
power away from state governments and give it to international
bodies. They assert that maintaining sovereignty is the only true
international law.
Exercise 2. Read what the lawyers say. They are talking
about the work they do. Match the lawyer
with the correct area of law.
Area of Law Name
1. law of contract
2. company law
3. land law
4. law of tort
5. law of trust
6. employment law
7. family law
8. intellectual property law
9. criminal law
Tom: I am with a law firm in Manchester. I am now in the sec-

ond year of my training contract. At the moment I deal with cli-
91
ents who are buying or selling their house. It is my job to make
sure everything is correct and that the sale is valid.
Jennifer: I work in a very exciting area of law here in Los
Angeles. I meet a lot of writers and musicians and sometimes
even people from movie studios! I protect their rights and make
sure that no one can copy their work and make money from it
without their permission.
Alistair: When I write the story of my life I will call my book
“Robbers, Murderers and Other Friends of Mine”! I work in
Newcastle, which is in the north of England. I defend people
who are in trouble with the police. They may even go to prison!
It is my job to help them.
Sunitta: I work in Sydney, Australia. I give advice to people
who are unhappy living together and they want a divorce. Some-
times people argue about money or the care of the children. It’s
a difficult area of law and I feel very sympathetic towards my
clients.
Cory: I work in Chicago. I’m quite famous on TV here in the
USA. That’s because Channel 10 shows my advertisement five
times every day! I ask people to call me if they were hurt or were
in an accident because somebody else wasn’t careful enough. If
people are not careful, then I’m afraid they will have to pay da
mages!
Kayleigh: I work in Christchurch, New Zealand. Most of my
clients have problems at work. I saw a lady this morning who is
going to have a baby. When she told her boss that she was preg-
nant, he fired her from her job. That is not legal in New Zealand
and I will help her to do something about it.
Michael: I work for a very big London law firm. Our clients
are banks and other big businesses. Today I am working on a
merger agreement, which means that two companies are joining
together to become one. Yesterday I advised a new client who
wants to start an internet company.
Mary: I am based in Dublin, the capital city of Ireland. I see
people or companies who want to make a legal agreement with
another person or company. Today I am dealing with an agree-
92
ment to deliver goods from Ireland to the USA. I have to check
every word very carefully!
Polly: I work in a very old and interesting area of law. Today
I met a client who is 70 years old and has no family. She wants all
of her money had been placed into a special fund after her death.
Her two friends will use this money to help pay for a training
school for actors and actresses from her home city here in Li
verpool. I explained to her how to do that and I will draft the
necessary legal documents for her.
Unit 4
LEGAL PROFESSION
I. Lead-in
Look at this list of legal occupations. All of these people work
in law. All the people who work in these jobs are called “the legal
profession”. Match the jobs with one of the descriptions.
A. solicitor B. attorney C. barrister D. lawer
1. This person is a lawyer who gives legal advice and opinions to

solicitors. He or she passed the exams of the Bar Council of
England & Wales at the end of his or her studies. _________
2. This person is a lawyer who gives legal advice to individuals
and companies. He or she passed his or her exams in the
USA at the end of his or her studies and is usually a member
of the American Bar Association. ____________________
3. This person is a lawyer who gives legal advice to individuals
and companies. He or she passed the exams of the Law
Society of England & Wales at the end of his or her studies.
____________________
4. This is the general job title that we use for people who work
as a solicitor, barrister or attorney. ___________________
II. Reading
solicitor [səˈlɪsɪtə] arrangement [əˈreɪndʒmənt]
barrister [ˈbærɪstə] allegation [ˌælɪˈɡeɪʃən]
94
qualification [ˌkwɔlɪfɪˈkeɪʃən] dismissal [dɪsˈmɪsəl]
to qualify [ˈkwɔlɪfaɪ] redundancy [rɪˈdʌndənsɪ]
audience [ˈɔ:djəns] experience [ɪksˈpɪərɪəns]
advocacy [ˈædvəkəsɪ] investigation [ˌɪnvɪstɪˈɡeɪʃən]
to complete [kəmˈpli:t] to draft [dra:ft]
to draw [drɔ:] to preside [prɪˈzaɪd]
associate [əˈsəusɪeɪt] certificate [səˈtɪfɪkeɪt]
argument [ˈɑ:ɡjumənt] commercial [kəˈmə:ʃl]
to forbid [fəˈbɪd] to represent [ˌrеprɪˈzent]
B) Vocabulary Notes
(1)
1. lawyer юрист, адвокат
2. qualifications зд. диплом
qualified дипломированный
to qualify получить диплом
3. solicitor солиситор
4. barrister барристер
5. to have a legal training иметь юридическую подготовку
(2)
6. sole practitioner работающий не по найму (только
о юристе и враче)
7. to forbid (forbade, запрещать делать что-л.
forbidden) smth / to do
smth
8. partner партнер (участник товарищества)
9. to specialize in smth специализироваться в чем-л.
10. to argue cases in front of вести дело в суде
a judge
11. the right to be heard / право выступать в суде
the right of audience
12. advocacy адвокатская деятельность
95
13. to give opinions on areas давать юридические заключения
of law по различным аспектам права
(3)
14. to instruct smb поручить кому-л. ведение дела
15. to complete a course пройти курс обучения
16. to take instructions from принять дело от кого-л.
smb
17. to represent one’s clients представлять своих клиентов
18. to brief a barrister изложить дело барристеру в крат
кой форме
19. to collect documents собирать документы
20. to enable дать возможность
21. to present the best case представить дело в суде наилуч-
to the court шим образом
22. to practise in an area работать в какой-л. области права
of law
23. commercial law торговое право
24. to draw up wills составлять завещания
25. to give advice in the field давать совет в области бизнеса
of business
26. to make legal юридически оформить что-л.
arrangements for smth
27. to assist smb помогать кому-л.
28. employee работник
29. employer работодатель
30. allegation of smth необоснованное обвинение в чем-л.
31. unfair dismissal несправедливое увольнение
32. redundancy payments выплаты при увольнении
по сокращению штатов
33. to handle smth иметь дело с чем-л., рассматривать
что-л.
36. child care опека над детьми
96
37. lower court нижестоящий суд
38. certificate in advocacy сертификат на право заниматься
адвокатской практикой
39. higher court вышестоящий суд
(4)
40. law firm юридическая фирма
41. to be set up as быть организованным в форме
partnerships товарищества
42. associate младший юрист (название должно-
сти в юридической фирме)
43. to gain some experience приобрести опыт
44. fixed salary фиксированная заработная плата
(5)
45. courtroom зал суда
46. to prepare one’s готовить выступление по делу
arguments for the court в суде
47. to make investigations проводить расследование
48. to draft a document составлять документ
49. to apply to do smth подать заявление, ходатайствовать
о чем-л.
50. to preside over cases председательствовать на судебных
заседаниях
51. to sit as a judge выполнять обязанности судьи
52. to appoint smb назначить кого-л.
C) Text
LEGAL PROFESSION
(1) In most countries there is only one legal profession. This
means that all the lawyers have nearly the same professional
education leading to the same legal qualifications, and they are
allowed to do all the legal work that has to be done. In England
97
the system is different. Here the profession is divided into two
types of lawyers, called solicitors and barristers. Solicitors and
barristers are qualified lawyers, but they have a different legal
training, they take different examinations to qualify, and once
qualified they usually do different types of legal work.
(2) Barristers are sole practitioners. They are forbidden to
work as partners. Barristers specialize in arguing cases in front
of a judge and have the right to be heard, the right of audience,
in all courts. They are specialists in advocacy, which is the skill
of speaking for someone in court. They also give opinions on
areas of law to solicitors and their clients.
(3) Until July 2004 a client could not instruct a barrister
directly. Barristers had to be instructed by a solicitor. Now
barristers who have completed a special one-day course can
take instructions directly from the client.
Solicitors represent their clients both in and out of court.
One of the functions of solicitors is to brief barristers. In other
words, they collect all the legal documents to enable the
barrister to present the best case to the court. They practice in
many areas of law, such as family, employment or commercial
law. They draw up wills, give advice in the field of business,
make all the legal arrangements for buying or selling land,
assist employees and employers in cases involving allegations
of unfair dismissal and redundancy payments, handle divorce
and child care. However, each solicitor usually specialises in one
particular area. A solicitor has the right of audience in lower
courts. He has to get a certificate in advocacy to be able to
speak in higher courts.
(4) Solicitors usually work in law firms which are set up
as partnerships. A new lawyer will usually work first as an
associate of the firm and gain some experience while being
paid a fixed salary. Then he may be offered the opportunity to
become a partner.
(5) In general, it can be said that a barrister spends most of
his time either in a courtroom or preparing his arguments for
the court and a solicitor spends most of his time in an office
giving advice to clients, making investigations and preparing
and drafting documents.
98
After several years of experience, members of either profession
may apply to preside over cases and sit as a judge. Within
the English legal system a law student cannot take an exam to
be a judge but has to wait to be appointed after some years of
experience as a lawyer.

Barrister
argues cases in
front of a judge
IN-court
work
has the right
of advocacy
Solicitor
Out-of-court
work
gives advice assist

in the field of employees and
bisiness employers

1. What does the same legal education lead to in many
countries?
99
2. How many legal professions are there in England? What are
they?
3. What is the difference between a barrister and a solicitor?
4. How do barristers practice?
5. What are they forbidden to do?
6. What do barristers specialise in?
7. What right do they have? Who do the give opinions to?
8. What couldn’t a client do until July 2004?
9. On what condition can barristers take instructions directly
from the client?
10. Where do solicitors represent their clients?
11. What do solicitors do for barristers?
12. In what areas of law do solicitors practice?
13. Do solicitors have the right of audience?
14. Can solicitors speak in higher courts?
15. How do solicitors practice?
16. What is the position of a new lawyer in a law firm?
17. On what basis are associates paid?
18. In what way can an associate be promoted?
19. Can you compare the work of a barrister with the one of a soli
citor?
20. Is it possible to take an exam to be a judge within the English
legal system?
21. How is it possible to become a judge in England?
IV. Exercises
to draft documents allegation of smth
law firm to draw up wills
certificate in advocacy to collect documents
to brief a barrister to complete a course
unfair dismissal associate
child care courtroom
sole practitioner to make investigations
100
to instruct smb to practice in an area of law
the right to be heard / the right of to give opinions on areas of law
audience
to take instructions from smb higher court
to sit as a judge to prepare one’s arguments for the
court
lower court to represent one’s clients

Verb Noun Adjective
to qualify
profession
different
division
to argue
instruction
ability
to advise
redundant
payment
to allege
application
to investigate
appointment
to specialise

1. 420 employees were made ____________________ because
of restructuring of the company (reduce).
2. I have been ______________ by Mrs. Anna Clarkson with
regard to your claim against her in your dispute (instruction).
101
3. I cannot understand the _____________ between solicitors
and barristers (differ).
4. He made a lot of _____________ against his employer
(allege).
5. We have to consider different _______________ for this
job (apply).
6. I cannot do this work now. I have an __________________
(appoint).
7. This situation _____________ us to take serious steps
(able).
8. You can make a _____________ in any bank (pay).
9. There are _____________ instructors on hand to help you
(qualify).
10. It is _____________ to write a career objective at the
beginning of your CV (advise).
1. to draw up a. the right to be heard
2. to handle b. to prohibit
3. the right of audience c. field
4. legal d. to deal with
5. to forbid e. to make investigations
6. unfair f. to draft
7. area g. lawful
8. to investigate h. wages
9. salary i. unjust
1) represent — (mis) __________________________
usual — (un) ____________________________
qualify — (dis) ____________________________
qualified — (un) ___________________________
experienced — (in) _________________________
102
2) different, legal, just, flexible, fair, to interpret, to obey, formal,
important, essential, constitutional, possible, agreement,
necessary, satisfactory, equitable
disobey inflexible inexperienced inessential
unqualified misrepresent disqualification
misrepresentation unusual disqualified
1. After that bad accident he was _________________ from

driving.
2. These statistics grossly _________________ the reality.
3. Dave is a very punctual person. It is _________________
for him to be late.
4. He was _________________ for the job.
5. A child is too young and _________________ to recognize
danger.
6. Any form of cheating (списывание) means automatic _____
_____________.
7. That was a deliberate (преднамеренный) _____________
of facts.
8. This approach is too _________________and too costly.
9. Do not include these __________________ details in your
report.
10. In the army, it is a crime to __________________a superior
officer.
юрист, адвокат приобрести опыт
вести дело в суде быть организованным в форме
товарищества
адвокатская деятельность вышестоящий суд
принять дело от кого-л. выплаты при увольнении
по сокращению штатов
работать в какой-л. области права обвинение в чем-л.
составлять завещания помогать кому-л.
103
работник представлять своих клиентов
иметь дело с чем-л., рассматри- изложить дело барристеру
вать что-л. в краткой форме
младший юрист (название долж- пройти курс обучения
ности в юридической фирме)
председательствовать на судебных давать юридические заключе-
заседаниях ния по различным аспектам
права
зал суда юридическая фирма
фиксированная заработная плата составлять документ

образование
подготовка
юридический профессия
оформление
на два типа юристов
разделять на четыре части
в суде
представлять клиентов вне суда
в ведении дел в суде
в составлении завещаний
специализироваться в ведении дел по разводу
в составлении договоров
завещание
составлять документ
договор
семейного права
работать в области трудового права
торгового права
юристу
поручить ведение дела солиситору
барристеру
1. After several years ____________ experience, members of
either profession may apply to preside ____________ cases
and sit __________ a judge.
104
2. They draw ____________ wills, give advice _____________
the field of business, make all the legal arrangements
__________ buying or selling land.
3. Now barristers who have completed a special one-day course
can take instructions directly __________ the client.
4. A solicitor has the right __________ audience __________
lower courts. He has to get a certificate _______________
advocacy to be able to speak __________ higher courts.
5. Here the profession is divided __________ two types of
lawyers, called solicitors and barristers.
6. __________ general, it can be said that a barrister spends
most __________ his time either __________ a courtroom
or preparing his arguments __________ the court.
7. Each solicitor usually specialises ____________ one
particular area.
8. Barristers are forbidden to work ____________ partners.
9. A solicitor spends most of his time in an office giving advice
____________ clients, making investigations and preparing
and drafting documents.
10. __________ the English legal system a law student
cannot take an exam to be a judge but has to wait to be
appointed __________ some years __________ experience
__________ a lawyer.
11. Solicitors represent their clients both _____________ and
__________ court.
12. This means that all the lawyers have nearly the same
professional education leading ____________the same legal
qualifications.
13. Solicitors usually work __________ law firms which are set
__________ as partnerships.
14. Barristers specialise _________ arguing cases __________
a judge.
15. They also give opinions __________________ areas of law
__________solicitors and their clients.
105
PREPOSITION BANK
to draw up wills
to preside over a case
a certificate in smth
to specialise in smth
to divide into smth
to take instructions directly from a client
to argue cases in front of a judge
in court
out of court
opinions on areas of law

the text.
1. Solicitors _____________ their clients both in and out of
court.
2. Solicitors ________________ employees and employers in
cases involving allegations of unfair _______________ and
_______________ payments, _____________ divorce and
child care.
3. Solicitors and barristers are ___________________ lawy
ers, but they have a different legal _______________, they
take different examinations to qualify, and once qualified
they usually do different types of ________________ work.
4. Solicitors _______________ in many areas of law, such as
family, employment or _____________ law.
5. A solicitor spends most of his time in an office giving
_____________ to clients, making _____________ and
preparing and _____________ documents.
6. In other words, they _____________ all the legal docu-
ments to _____________ the barrister to _____________
the best case to the court.
7. A new lawyer will usually work first as an _____________
of the firm and _____________ some experience while being
paid a _____________ salary.
106
8. A solicitor has the right of _____________ in lower courts.
9. One of the functions of solicitors is to _____________ bar-
risters.
10. Until July 2004 a client could not _____________ barrister
directly.
11. Barristers are _____________ _____________. They are
_____________ to work as partners.
12. They are specialists in _____________, which is the skill of
speaking for someone in court.
13. Now barristers who have _____________ a special one-day
course can take _____________ directly from the client.
14. Then a solicitor may be _____________ the opportunity to
become a partner.
15. He has to get a ____________ in advocacy to be __________
to speak in _____________ courts.
the text.
1. Солиситоры обычно работают в юридических фирмах,
которые организованы в форме товарищества.
2. Солиситоры представляют интересы своих клиентов как
в суде, так и вне суда.
3. Барристер большую часть своего времени проводит либо
в зале суда, либо готовя свое выступление по делу.
4. Барристерам запрещено работать в товариществе.
5. Солиситоры помогают работодателям и наемным работ-
никам в делах, касающихся несправедливого увольнения
и выплат при сокращении штатов.
6. Солиситоры составляют завещания и дают советы в обла-
сти бизнеса.
7. До июля 2004 года клиент не мог напрямую обратиться
к барристеру.
8. Каждый солиситор обычно специализируется в одной
из отраслей права.
9. Барристеры имеют право выступать в судах.
107
10. Солиситор должен получить сертификат на право зани-
маться адвокатской практикой, чтобы иметь возмож-
ность выступать в вышестоящих судах.
11. Барристеры, которые прошли однодневный курс подго-
товки, имеют право принимать дела клиентов напрямую.
12. Солиситоры и барристеры — это дипломированные
юристы, но у них разная юридическая подготовка, они
сдают разные экзамены и, как только получают дипломы,
выполняют разную работу.
definition.
1. money you receive as payment a. barrister
from the organization you
work for
2. the sum of money that an b. sole practitioner
employee of redundancy is
entitled to receive
3. he drafts contracts and wills c. will
4. self-employed professional d. judge
5. a barrister’s advice on e. dismissal
a particular question
6. he presides over cases f. advocacy
7. when someone is removed g. salary
from his job
8. a person’s declaration of how h. solicitor
he desires his property to be
disposed of after his death
9. skill of speaking for someone i. opinion
in court
10. he has the right of audience in j. redundancy
all courts payments

1. They have settled the dispute out of court.
2. Solicitors have to do much of the initial preparation for cases.
108
3. Solicitors employ barristers.
4. The employers must make redundancy payments.
5. Solicitors had to instruct barristers.
6. They have made some investigations.
7. The solicitor drew up a will a few days ago.
8. Law firms pay associates a fixed salary.
9. The barrister is preparing arguments for the court now.
10. Lord Attkins presided over the case.
11. They will give him a certificate in advocacy soon.
12. They have drafted the contract.
Exercise 12. Translate the sentences paying attention to
the given words.
to allege — заявлять (обычно без фактов)
alleged — утверждаемый (голословно), мнимый
alleged refusal — якобы полученный отказ
allegedly — как утверждают, якобы
allegation — заявление (голословное), обвинение (на словах)
Example:
Solicitors assist employees and employers in cases
involving allegations of unfair dismissal.
— Солиситоры помогают работодателям и работ-
никам в делах, связанных с обвинениями в не
справедливом увольнении.
1. Alleging human rights violations, some countries have

imposed economic sanctions against others.
2. They are alleged to have signed a secret treaty.
3. They have denied the allegations against them, and their
lawyers accused the courts of bias.
4. The allegations against him include links to the Russian
mafia and intelligence.
5. Last week the Milan prosecutors asked the judge to order
three companies to stand trial for alleged financial crimes.
6. The police allege that the man was murdered but they have
given no proof.
7. A teenager allegedly sent the message to the CIA during
a computer class.
109
8. The claimant can claim damages for defamation of charac-
ter — where he alleges that unpleasant and untrue things
have been written or said about him that have damaged his
reputation.
9. Most of the argument is about legal errors allegedly commit-
ted at the trial.
Exercise 13. Translate the following collocations and

sentences paying special attention to the word
“within”.
A.
within a year, within jurisdiction, within a few miles of Lon-
don, within the committee, within the law, within the country,
within twenty four hours, within walking distance, within the
income, within the scope of the convention, within the system.
B.
1. These are not ordinary statutes, even though they were
adopted in the ordinary legislative way, and they are codi-
fied within the structure of a single orderly document.
2. The actual role and political weight of the regional gov-
ernments within the system largely depend on the will of
the central government to buttress or to restrict their auto
nomy.
3. Northern Ireland had special autonomy within the United
Kingdom until restrictions were introduced to cope with the
emergency situation in that region.
4. Administrative law is the legal framework within which pub-
lic administration is carried out.
5. Since international law is the product of forces within
international society, in order to understand the nature of
the international legal system, it is necessary to analyse the
structure and processes which function within the global
society.
110
C.
1. Прошение должно быть подано в шестимесячный срок.
2. Необходимо обсудить этот вопрос в комитете.
3. Этот вопрос выходит за рамки конференции.
4. Мы должны решить этот вопрос за два дня.
5. Товары будут поставлены в течение недели.
6. Внутри современного общества существует много проб
лем.
Exercise 14. Translate the following sentences paying
attention to the structure given.
Example:
Once qualified solicitors and barristers usually do
different types of legal work.
— Как только солиситоры и барристеры
получают дипломы, они обычно выполняют
разную юридическую работу.
1. Up to now, EC regulations have been issued only if in fact

consented to by each of the executives of the member states.
2. Such institutions in the United States as the presidential
cabinet and the system of political parties, though not even
mentioned in the written constitution, are most certainly of
constitutional significance.
3. Nationals who commit crimes in foreign countries may be
extradited, but only if required or authorized by treaty with
the country concerned.
4. The objects of criminal law and civil law, although closely
connected, are entirely different.
5. Lawyers are mostly self-employed so, if elected to public
office, they can arrange to spend an extended period of time
at the City Hall, the State Capital or in Washington.
6. Under English law an employee may not normally work for
a competitor while employed by an employer.
7. Once approved Supreme Сourt justices hold their office for
life.
8. If granted the patent makes it illegal for others to manu
facture or use the invention without permission.
111
Exercise 15.
1. В большинстве стран суще- In most countries there is
ствует всего одна юридическая only one legal profession.
специальность.
2. Это означает, что все юристы This means that all the lawy
получают примерно одинако- ers have nearly the same pro-
вое юридическое образование, fessional education leading to
которое ведет к получению оди- the same legal qualifications,
наковых дипломов, и они имеют and they are allowed to do all
право выполнять всю необходи- the legal work that has to be
мую юридическую работу. done.
3. В Англии система иная. In England the system is dif-
ferent.
4. Здесь специальность делится Here the profession is divided
на две профессии юристов, кото- into two types of lawyers,
рых называют солиситорами called solicitors and barris-
и барристерами. ters.
5. Солиситоры и барристеры — Solicitors and barristers are
это дипломированные юристы, qualified lawyers, but they
но у них разная юридическая have a different legal train-
подготовка, они сдают разные ing, they take different exami-
экзамены и, как только полу- nations to qualify, and once
чают дипломы, выполняют раз- qualified they usually do dif-
ную работу. ferent types of legal work.
6. Барристеры не работают по Barristers are sole practitio-
найму. ners.
7. Им запрещено работать в това- They are forbidden to work as
риществе. partners.
8. Барристеры специализируются Barristers specialize in argu-
на ведении дел в присутствии ing cases in front of a judge
судьи и имеют право выступать and have the right to be
во всех судах. heard, the right of audience,
in all courts.
9. Они — специалисты в адвокат- They are specialists in advo-
ской деятельности, т.е. умении cacy, which is the skill of speak-
защищать кого-либо в суде. ing for someone in court.
112
10. Они также дают заключения They also give opinions on
по вопросам права солиситорам areas of law to solicitors and
и своим клиентам. their clients.
11. До июля 2004 года клиент не мог Until July 2004 a client
напрямую обратиться к барри- could not instruct a barrister
стеру. directly.
12. Теперь барристеры, которые Now barristers who have
прошли однодневный курс под- completed a special one-day
готовки, имеют право принимать course can take instructions
дела клиентов напрямую. directly from the client.
13. Солиситоры представляют инте- Solicitors represent their cli-
ресы своих клиентов как в суде, ents both in and out of court.
так и вне суда.
14. Одна из обязанностей солиси- One of the functions of solici-
тора — изложить дело барри- tors is to brief barristers.
стеру в краткой форме.
15. Другими словами, они собирают In other words, they collect
все юридические документы, all the legal documents to
чтобы дать возможность барри- enable the barrister to present
стеру представить дело в суде the best case to the court.
наилучшим образом.
16. Они работают во многих обла- Th ise in many areas of law,
стях права, таких как семейное, such as family, employment or
трудовое и торговое право. commercial law.
17. Солиситоры составляют заве- They draw up wills, give
щания и дают советы в области advice in the field of business,
бизнеса, юридически оформ- make all the legal arrange-
ляют документы при покупке ments for buying or selling
и продаже недвижимости, помо- land, assist employees and
гают работодателям и наемным employers in cases involving
работникам в делах, касающихся allegations of unfair dismissal
несправедливого увольнения and redundancy payments,
и выплат при сокращении шта- handle divorce and child care.
тов, имеют дело с разводами
и опекой над детьми.
18. Однако каждый солиситор обыч However, each solicitor usu-
но специализируется в какой-то ally specialises in one particu-
одной области. lar area.
113
19. Солиситор имеет право высту- A solicitor has the right of
пать в нижестоящих судах. audience in lower courts.
20. Он должен получить сертифи- He has to get a certificate in
кат на право заниматься адво- advocacy to be able to speak
катской практикой, чтобы иметь in higher courts.
возможность выступать в выше-
стоящих судах.
21. Солиситоры обычно работают Solicitors usually work in law
в юридических фирмах, которые firms which are set up as part-
организованы в форме товари- nerships.
щества.
22. Нанятый в фирму юрист обычно A new lawyer will usually
сначала работает младшим юри- work first as an associate of
стом и приобретает опыт работы. the firm and gain some expe-
При этом ему платится фикси- rience while being paid a fixed
рованная заработная плата. salary.
23. Затем у него может появиться Then he may be offered the
возможность стать партнером. opportunity to become a part-
ner.
24. В общем, можно сказать, что In general, it can be said that
барристер большую часть своего a barrister spends most of his
времени проводит либо в зале time either in a courtroom
суда, либо готовя свое высту- or preparing his arguments
пление по делу, а солиситор for the court and a solicitor
большую часть своего времени spends most of his time in an
проводит в офисе, давая советы office giving advice to clients,
клиентам, проводя расследова- making investigations and
ния и готовя и составляя доку- preparing and drafting docu-
менты. ments.
25. После нескольких лет работы After several years of experi-
представители обеих профессий ence, members of either pro-
могут ходатайствовать о том, fession may apply to preside
чтобы председательствовать over cases and sit as a judge.
на судебных заседаниях и выпол-
нять обязанности судьи.
114
26. В английской системе права сту- Within the English legal sys-
дент-юрист не может сдать экза- tem a law student cannot take
мен и стать судьей. Он должен an exam to be a judge but has
ждать, пока он будет назначен to wait to be appointed after
судьей после нескольких лет some years of experience as a
работы в качестве юриста. lawyer.

1. Legal professions in England.
2. Barristers:
— sole practitioners;
— the right of audience;
— opinions.
3. Solicitors:
— partners in law firms;
— briefing barristers;
— out-of-court work;
— the right of audience.
4. Judges.
1. advocacy [ˈædvəkəsɪ] адвокатская деятельность

certificate in advocacy сертификат на право заниматься
адвокатской практикой
2. allegation of smth необоснованное обвинение
[ˌælɪˈɡeɪʃən] в чем-л.
3. argument [ˈɑ:ɡjumənt] выступление по делу
to prepare one’s arguments готовить выступление по делу
for the court в суде
to argue cases in front of вести дело в суде
a judge
4. associate [əˈsəusɪeɪt] младший юрист (название долж-
ности в юридической фирме)
5. barrister [ˈbærɪstə] барристер
to brief a barrister изложить дело барристеру
в краткой форме
115
6. to be set up as partnerships быть организованным в форме
[ˈpɑ:tnəʃɪp] товарищества
7. to collect documents собирать документы
8. commercial [kəˈmə:ʃl] law торговое право
9. to complete a course пройти курс обучения
[kəmˈpli:t]
10. courtroom [kɔ:tru:m] зал суда
11. to draft [dra ft] a document составлять документ
12. to forbid [fəˈbɪd] (forbade, запрещать делать что-л.
forbidden) smth / to do
smth
13. higher court вышестоящий суд
14. to instruct smb поручить кому-л. ведение дела
15. law firm юридическая фирма
16. lawyer юрист, адвокат
17. lower court нижестоящий суд
18. to make investigations проводить расследование
19. opinion [əˈpɪnjən] заключение
to give opinions on areas давать юридические заключения
of law по различным аспектам права
20. to practice in an area of работать в какой-л. области
law права
21. to preside over cases председательствовать на судеб-
[prɪˈzaɪd] ных заседаниях
22. to represent one’s clients представлять своих клиентов
[ˌreprɪˈzent]
23. right to be heard / the право выступать в суде
right of audience
[ˈɔ:djəns]
24. to sit as a judge выполнять обязанности судьи
25. sole practitioner работающий не по найму (только
[səul prækˈtɪʃnə] о юристе и враче)
26. solicitor [səˈlɪsɪtə] солиситор
116
27. to take instructions from принять дело от кого-л.
smb
28. will завещание
to draw up a will составлять завещание
Exercise 1.
A. Complete the texts using the words from the Active
Vocabulary.
Every legal system needs professionals to provide
(1) __________________ services. These systems are organized
in many different ways. In England this work is carried out
by two groups of (2) __________________ — solicitors and
(3) _______________. Now a client can (4) _______________
either a solicitor or barrister.
Solicitors help their clients handle (5) _______________
transactions. They (6) __________ contracts and wills. They also
(7) _______________ their clients in (8) __________________
courts. If solicitors obtain a certificate in (9) _______________,
they can speak for their clients in (10) _________________
courts. Solicitors usually work in (11) _______________which
are set up as (12) _______________.
Barristers are specialists in (13) _______________. They
have the right of (14) _________ in all courts. If barristers
(15) _______________ a special one-day course, they can (16)
_______________ _______________ directly from clients.
Barristers give (17) __________________ on legal issues to
solicitors and their clients. In England (18) _______________
are appointed from solicitors and barristers who have gained
some legal experience.
B. Read the text below and choose the word which best fits
each space.
partner qualify partnerships judge
practices court client solicitor
attorney audience associate issued
In England we have two different types of lawyer. One is

known as a (1) __________________ and the other is a bar-
117
rister. Both are called “lawyers”. This can be a little confus-
ing because in the USA every lawyer is usually known as an
(2) ________________. An English law student has to decide
at sometime during their university studies which type of lawyer
that they would like to (3) ________________ as.
Most English law students decide to become a solicitor. These
are the lawyers that a (4) ________________, the person who
pays for the services of a lawyer, will usually meet first. Often
the solicitor can help the client without the need for a barrister.
Most solicitors work in small private businesses, known as
(5) ________________, in what are called “High Street firms”.
This phrase “High Street firm” refers to a typical, small group
of solicitors working together in the type of offices that you can
find on the major streets of any English town or city. Many law
firms are set up as (6) ________________. A new lawyer will
usually work first as an (7) ________________of the firm and
gain some experience while being paid a fixed salary before being
offered the opportunity to become a (8) ________________.
A typical High Street solicitor usually specialises in a parti
cular area of law, such as family, employment or commercial law.
Many people believe that solicitors cannot act for their clients in
(9) _______________ but this is untrue. Thousands of solici-
tors appear in court every day, especially in the county courts
where most claims are (10) ________________.
The second type of lawyer found in England is known as
a barrister. Barristers are usually specialists in a very particu-
lar area of law. They give advice and opinions to solicitors and
their clients. Barristers have the right of (11) ____________
(the right to be heard by a judge) in all of the courts in the land.
Barristers often share offices, known by the traditional name of
chambers, although they all work alone as individuals because
they are forbidden to work as partners.
After several years of experience, members of either
profession may apply to preside over cases and sit as
a (12) __________________. Within the English legal system
a law student cannot take an exam to be a judge but has to wait
to be appointed after some years of experience as a lawyer.
118
Exercise 2. Translate using the active vocabulary.
A.
1. Барристеры специализируются на защите клиентов
в суде. Они имеют право выступать в любом суде.
2. Барристеры являются экспертами в толковании права.
Они дают заключения по вопросам права солиситорам
и своим клиентам.
3. Солиситорам, у которых нет сертификата на право зани-
маться адвокатской практикой, запрещено вести дела
в Апелляционном суде (the Court of Appeal).
4. Солиситору пришлось заниматься разводом и опекой над
детьми.
5. Он встретился с барристером и поручил ему ведение сво-
его дела.
6. Эта юридическая фирма специализируется в торговом
праве.
7. Этот барристер только что прошел специальный курс,
чтобы напрямую работать с клиентами.
8. Если вы хотите оставить свое имущество после своей
смерти определенному лицу, вам нужно составить заве-
щание.
9. Чтобы начать гражданское дело, вам нужно собрать опре-
деленные документы.
10. Истец требует компенсации за несправедливое увольнение.
B.
1. Чтобы стать солиситором, вам нужно получить опреде-
ленное юридическое образование, поступить на работу
(join) к солиситору в качестве клерка и работать у него,
одновременно готовясь к сдаче экзаменов в Коллегии
адвокатов — солиситоров (Law Society).
2. Cудьи в Англии не получают специального образования.
Они выбираются из числа опытных солиситоров и барри-
стеров, которые подают заявление о том, что они хотят
быть назначенными судьями. Сначала они назначаются
временными (part-time) судьями. Это означает, что они
должны работать судьями определенное количество дней
119
в году (обычно около 20), но они продолжают работать
солиситорами и барристерами. После двух-трехлетней
работы временный судья имеет право подать заявление
о назначении судьей с полной занятостью (full-time judge).
Судьи с полной занятостью имеют право выполнять обя-
занности судьи до достижения ими 70-летнего возраста.
3. Я работаю младшим юристом в большой юридической
фирме. Сегодня я очень занят. Я составляю трудовой
договор для своего клиента. После обеда я представляю
другого клиента в суде. Дело связано с несправедливым
увольнением. Я думаю, мы выиграем дело, т.к. наши
основания очень сильные.
VI. Key Terms
1. Advocacy the skill of speaking for someone in court

[ˈædvəkəsɪ]
2. Barrister a qualified lawyer who has the right of
[ˈbærɪstə] audience in all courts and gives opinions on
areas of law to solicitors and their clients.
3. Judge [ˈdʒʌdʒ] a person who presides over cases in court
4. Sole practitioner self-employed professional
[səul prækˈtɪʃnə]
5. Solicitor a qualified lawyer who represents clients both
[səˈlɪsɪtə] in and out of court, has the right of audience
in lower courts and briefs barristers.

Exercise 1.
A. Read and translate the following legal letters.
1. croft небольшая ферма
2. conveyance переход права собственности на недвижи-
мость
3. enquiry запрос
4. standard client типовое соглашение с клиентами
care letter
120
1) Dear Sirs
Purchase of The Croft, Whittington
Your firm has been recommended to me by one of your
long-standing clients, Mr. Simon Jones. Briefly, I have
agreed to purchase the above property and wish to instruct
a competent firm of solicitors to handle the conveyance.
I should be grateful if you would send me a copy of your
standard terms and conditions by return of post.
I look forward to hearing from you.
Yours faithfully
(Mr) Jukka Virtanen
2) Dear Mr Virtanen
Thank you for your enquiry. I confirm that this firm would
be glad to act on your behalf in relation to this transaction.
This matter has been passed to me to deal with, as a Senior
Assistant Solicitor in this firm’s Residential Property
department
I enclose a copy of our standard client care letter in
duplicate. This sets out our terms and conditions. Please
read these through, and, if they are acceptable to you,
kindly sign and return the duplicate copy.
I look forward to hearing from you.
Yours sincerely
Geoffrey Lamb,
Senior Assistant Solicito
B. Answer the following questions
1. If you address your letter to a law firm, a company or an
institution you salute them as _______________________
and you finish the letter with ___________________.
2. If you address your letter to a particular person you salute
them as _______________________ and you finish the
letter with ___________________.
3. If you ask somebody to do certain things for you write
____________________________.
4. If you receive a letter from a potential client, you can start
your letter by _____________________________.
121
5. If you put some documents in your letter, you write ______
_______________.
6. If you ask a person to do something, you write _________
____________.
7. If you hope for a future contact, you write _____________
______________.
Exercise 2. Read the texts about solicitors and barristers.
Compare their jobs. Fill in the table.
Criterion for comparing Solicitors Barristers
1. Number in profession
2. Degree and exam
requirements
3. Further academic training
and other requirements
4. Practical training
5. Professional body
6. Rights of audience
7. Relationship with client
8. Liability
Solicitors
Introduction
There are around 100,000 practicing solicitors in England
and Wales, working in private practices, business, industry, local
and central government, the magistrates’ court Service and the
Crown Prosecution Service.
Training
The usual route to becoming a solicitor is to obtain a degree,
either in law or in another subject. Students who have a non-
law degree must complete an additional one-year course in law,
known as the Common Professional Examination (CPE) or
Graduate Diploma in Law (GDL). All students must then take
the Legal Practice Course (LPC) which is a one-year course to
expand theoretical knowledge and develop practical skills. After
122
this, students must complete a two-year training contract during
which they are known as trainee solicitors. They generally spend
some time gaining experience in different areas of law before
deciding which area to specialise in when they are qualified. At
some time during their training contract, trainee solicitors must
undertake a Professional Skills course, which develops the skills
learnt on the LPC.
Work
The work of a solicitor is very varied. A private practice may
specialise in particular areas such as criminal defence or com-
pany law, or they may offer a general service. Solicitors advise
and represent clients — they draw up wills and are involved in
probate (settling the affairs of deceased people), draft contracts
and partnership agreements, do conveyance, undertake matrimo-
nial work, form companies, deal with accident claims, personal
injury, intellectual property, banking and insolvency, mergers
and acquisitions, and many other areas. They are responsible for
all the preparatory pre-court work. If the matter is complex or
requires representation in the higher courts, the solicitor may
instruct a barrister and will act as an intermediary between the
barrister and the client.
Right of Audience
All solicitors have the right of audience in county courts
and magistrates’ courts and in uncontested cases in the High
Court. If they wish to be an advocate in contested cases in the
higher courts, they must apply for a certificate of advocacy. This
requires experience of advocacy in the lower courts, a short
training course and an examination on the rules of evidence.
Relationship with clients and liability
The relationship between solicitor and client is one of con-
tract and so the client may sue the solicitor for breach of con-
tract. Until recently, a solicitor could not be sued for profes-
sional negligence in respect of advocacy in court, but in 2000,
the House of Lords held that it is no longer in the public interest
for advocates to have immunity from suit. Solicitors can there-
123
fore be sued for professional negligence alleged to have occurred
both in and out of court.
Professional Body
The governing body of solicitors is the Law Society, of which
all practicing solicitors must be members. Solicitors are go
verned by the Law Society’s code of conduct, and must abide by
guidelines regarding fees and accounts. Any complaints about
a solicitor should be made to the Law Society who will then
investigate the complaint.
Barristers
Introduction
There are around 15,500 practicing barristers, or counsel, in
England and Wales. Self-employed barristers generally share
offices, known as “chambers”, with other counsel. Members of
chambers are called “tenants”. The barristers’ clerk manages the
business of the chambers, arranging work, fixing fees and obtain-
ing payment on behalf of the tenants.
Training
Students wanting to become barristers must generally have
a degree, either in law or another subject. Students who have
a non-law degree must complete an additional one-year course
in law, known as the Common Professional Examination (CPE)
or Graduate Diploma in Law (GDL). All students must then
take the one-year Bar Professional Training Course (BPTC). In
addition, students are required to join one of the four Inns of
Court, which are societies providing educational and social sup-
port for barristers and student barristers. Each Inn has its own
premises in the centre of legal London. Students must satisfac-
torily complete the BPTC and meet the attendance and dining
requirements of the Inns, before being “called to the Bar”, that
is, officially qualified as a barrister. The newly-qualified barrister
then has to complete a year of pupilage, during which he or she
is a pupil of a practicing barrister for one year, and “shadows” the
pupilmaster or pupilmistress, attending court and reading all the
papers. The barrister is then allowed to set up on his or her own,
by obtaining a tenancy at chambers.
124
Work
Barristers are known as the court advocates and consultant
specialists of the legal profession, providing specialist legal opin-
ions to solicitors and their clients. They are regulated by a Code
of Conduct, of which the main provision is that the “cab rank rul”
applies. This rule compels barristers to accept any case offered to
them, provided it is within their field of expertise and they have
the time available. This ensures that anyone can obtain represen-
tation, regardless of the case. Barristers have the right of audi-
ence in all courts.
Relationship with clients and liability
Until July 2004 a member of the public could not instruct
a barrister direct — they had to be instructed by a solicitor.
There was therefore no direct relationship with a client and so
a client could not sue a barrister for breach of contract. How-
ever, in July 2004 new Public Access Rules came into force.
Under these, barristers who have completed the Bar Council’s
“Public Access” one-day course can take instructions directly
from members of the public, although there are some limitations
on the type of work that can be done this way: for example, such
barristers cannot take control of the conduct of litigation nor
can they act in matrimonial matters. In these direct access cases,
the relationship between barrister and client is one of contract
and so the client may sue the barrister for breach of contract.
Additionally, until 2000 a barrister could not be sued for pro-
fessional negligence in respect of advocacy in court, but in that
year the House of Lords held that it is no longer in the public
interest for advocates to have immunity from suit. Barristers
can therefore be sued for professional negligence alleged to have
occurred in court and they are also liable for written opinions
provided in the out-of-court preparation work.
Professional Body
The governing body of the Bar (the collective name for bar-
risters) is the General Council of the Bar, referred to as the Bar
Council.
125
Just for Fun
When asked to explain the difference between an ordinary citizen and
a lawyer, a well-known barrister explained:
— If an ordinary citizen gave you an orange, he would say, “I give you
this orange.” But if a lawyer gave you an orange, he would say, “I hereby
give, grant and convey to you all my interest, right, title and claim of
and in this orange, together with all its rind, skin, juice and pulp, and
all right and advantage therein with full power to bite, cut, suck, or
otherwise eat or consume the said orange, or give away or dispose of to
any third party the said orange, with or without its rind, skin, juice and
pulp, subject to any amendments subsequently, introduced or drawn up
to this agreement.”
Unit 5
ENGLISH COURT
I. Lead-in
In every country there is a variety of courts, for example, family
courts, youth courts, the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal.
1. What are the reasons for having a variety of courts?
2. Why do people appeal sometimes?
In some courts a specially chosen group of ordinary citizens
(jurors) decide whether the defendant is guilty or not. It often
depends on their decision whether the defendant will go to
prison or not.
Do you think this system is just?
II. Reading
to resolve [rɪˈzɔlv] jury [ˈdʒuərɪ]
wrongdoer [ˈrɔŋ duə] juror [ˈdʒuərə]
ˈ
to prosecute [ˈprɔsɪkju:t] verdict [ˈvə:dɪkt]
trespass [ˈtrespəs] guilty [ˈɡɪltɪ]
to exercise [ˈeksəsaɪz] appeal [əˈpi:l]
authority [ɔ:ˈθɔrɪtɪ] to request [rɪˈkwest]
county [ˈkauntɪ] to re-examine [ ri:ɪɡˈzæmɪn]
ˈ
offence [əˈfens] judgment [ˈdʒʌdʒmənt]
statutory [ˈstætjutərɪ] supreme [sju:ˈpri m]
minor [ˈmaɪnə] final [ˈfaɪnl]
debt [det] to overturn [ əuvəˈtə:n]
ˈ
127
magistrate [ˈmædʒɪstreɪt] tribunal [traɪˈbju:nl]
offender [əˈfendə] judicial [dʒu:ˈdɪʃəl]
murder [ˈmə:də] to comply [kəmˈplaɪ]
crown [kraun] to challenge [ˈtʃælɪndʒ]
statutory [ˈstætutrɪ] breach [bri:tʃ]
B) Vocabulary Notes
(1)
1. civil court суд по гражданским делам, граж-
данский суд
2. criminal court суд по уголовным делам, уголовный
суд
3. to resolve disputes разрешать, урегулировать споры
4. to bring a case against начать дело против кого-л.
smb
5. to break the law нарушить закон
6. wrongdoer правонарушитель
7. to sue smb in a civil возбудить дело против кого-л.
court в суде по гражданским делам
8. to prosecute smb in возбудить дело против кого-л.
a criminal court в суде по уголовным делам
(2)
9. to bring a case before начать дело в суде по гражданским
a civil court делам
10. breach of contract нарушение контракта
11. trespass to property нарушение права владения имуще-
ством
12. disputes over land споры по земельным вопросам
13. wrongful exercise of зд. превышение должностных
power полномочий
14. public servant государственный служащий
15. county court суд графства
128
(3)
16. offence against smb правонарушение против кого-л.
17. statutory law статутное право
18. minor criminal case уголовное дело о малозначительном
преступлении
19. debt долг
20. magistrates’ court магистратский суд
21. lay magistrate непрофессиональный судья
22. Justice of Peace мировой судья
23. offender правонарушитель
24. Youth Court суд по делам несовершеннолетних
25. to be open to the public быть открытым для посещения
(4)
26. murder убийство
27. Crown Court Cуд Короны
28. to give the choice of дать выбор сделать что-л.
doing smth
29. facts of the case обстоятельства дела
30. jury суд присяжных
31. ordinary members of обычные граждане
the public
32. juror присяжный
33. question of fact вопрос факта
34. verdict вердикт
give a verdict выносить вердикт
(5)
35. to be dissatisfied with быть недовольным чем-л.
smth
36. to appeal to a higher подать апелляцию в суд вышестоя-
court щей инстанции
37. to request to do smth ходатайствовать о чем-л.
129
38. to re-examine the пересмотреть решение суда / реше-
judgment ние по делу
39. High Court Высокий суд
40. Court of Appeal Апелляционный суд
41. occasionally иногда
42. system of appeal система подачи апелляций
43. Supreme Court Верховный суд
44. final court of appeal апелляционный суд последней
инстанции
45. to bind smb обязывать кого-л.
46. to overturn a decision отменить вынесенное судом реше-
ние
47. to pass an Act of принять парламентский акт
Parliament
(6)
48. in addition to smth кроме, помимо чего-л.
49. tribunal специальный суд
50. independent judicial независимый судебный орган
body
51. to make an appeal подать апелляцию
52. employment tribunal специальный суд по трудовым
вопросам
53. immigration tribunal специальный суд по иммиграцион-
ным вопросам
54. to comply with the law соответствовать закону
55. to challenge a decision оспаривать решение
ENGLISH COURTS
(1) There are civil and criminal courts within the English
legal system. Civil courts resolve disputes between private citi-
zens or between private citizens and the state. In criminal courts,
cases are brought against a person who has broken the law.
130
The wrongdoer is sued in a civil court while in a criminal court
he is prosecuted.
(2) Cases brought before civil courts are to do with legal
matters such as breach of contract, trespass to property, and
disputes over land or the wrongful exercise of power by public
servants. Civil cases are usually considered in county courts.
(3) Cases brought before criminal courts are to do with
offences against the state which, these days, usually involve
breach of the statutory law. Minor criminal cases and some civil
matters such as debts are started in magistrates’ courts and are
heard by lay magistrates called Justices of Peace. Offenders
who are aged between 10 and 17 are dealt with by Youth Courts
with specially trained magistrates. These courts are not open to
the public.
(4) Some serious crimes, like murder, cannot be heard by the
magistrates. They must go to the Crown Court. And there are
some offences where the defendant is given the choice of hav
ing his case heard either in the magistrates’ court or the Crown
Court. It takes much longer to have a case heard in the Crown
Court, but some defendants prefer it because the facts of the
case are decided by a jury, that is, ordinary members of the
public. Jurors are to decide questions of fact and give a verdict
that is to say whether the defendant is guilty or not.
(5) If the defendant is dissatisfied with the court decision he
can appeal to a higher court requesting it to re-examine and
change the judgment.
Appeals from the Crown Court go first to the High Court
and, in special cases, to the Court of Appeal. Occasionally,
a case is carried through this system of appeal all the way to
the Supreme Court, the final court of appeal. Its decisions on
both criminal and civil matters bind all other courts. Only the
government can overturn a decision of the Supreme Court and
then, only by passing an Act of Parliament.
(6) In addition to courts Parliament sets a lot of tribunals,
independent judicial bodies, which hear appeals made in cer-
tain types of cases. There are employment tribunals, immigra
131
tion tribunals and others. In their decisions they must comply
with the law. Otherwise, their decisions may be challenged by
the High Court.

court of appeal
criminal division civil division
queen's bench family chancery

division division division
crown court
country
court
B. Fill in the gaps consulting the chart above.

1. Claims of lesser value will start in a county court. There are
250 of these around the country. They can also deal with
divorce and bankruptcy matters.
132
2. Matters of important legal dispute arising in the Crown
Court may be appealed to the ____________________
___________________.
3. From the Court of Appeal, there can be an appeal to the
_______________ on fact or law, but usually appeal is only
allowed on matters of legal importance.
4. If the case involves a serious crime, it is heard in the
_____________ (there is only one______________ but it
has about 70 centres around the jurisdiction).
5. In less serious criminal cases (which comprise over 90%
of criminal cases), the case is sent for trial in one of over
400____________________.
6. More substantial civil claims (over around £25,000) are
heard in the ____________ ________________.
7. Under the system of appeals in civil cases, it is possible
to appeal from a county court or the High Court to the
______________________.
С. Answer the following questions.
1. What courts are there within the English legal system?
2. What do civil courts deal with?
3. What cases are brought in criminal courts?
4. What matters are resolved by civil courts?
5. Where are civil cases considered?
6. What kind of cases are brought before the criminal courts?
7. What kind of cases are started in magistrates’ courts?
8. Who hears cases in magistrates’ courts?
9. What courts deal with offenders who are aged between 10
and 17?
10. Are Youth Courts open to the public?
11. What cases can’t be heard by the magistrates?
12. Where must serious cases go?
13. What choice is the defendant sometimes given?
14. Why do some defendants choose the Crown Court to hear
their cases?
15. Who does a jury consist of?
16. What questions do jurors decide?
133
17. What is a verdict?
18. What can the defendant do if is dissatisfied with the court
decision?
19. What is the system of appeal like?
20. What is the final court of appeal?
21. How can the decisions of the Supreme Court be overturned?
22. What are tribunals? What body sets them?
23. What must their decisions comply with?
24. What court can challenge the decisions of the tribunals?
IV. Exercises
to break the law facts of the case
to bring a case against smb High Court
to prosecute smb in a criminal court jury
to comply with the law to be open to the public
Supreme Court Justice of Peace
immigration tribunal offence against smb
final court of appeal trespass to property
independent judicial body wrongful exercise of power
to challenge a decision magistrates’ court
to re-examine the judgment minor criminal case
to appeal to a higher court civil court
ordinary members of the public disputes over land

Verb Noun Adjective
crime
to prosecute
wrongful
to offend
134
Verb Noun Adjective
resolution
disputable
to authorise
to defend
guilt
unsatisfactory
to decide
appeal
to judge
to immigrate
compliance
challenging

1. The court has yet to pass ___________ (judge).
2. When it comes to pollution, the chemical industry is the
worst ___________(offence).
3. This judgment is not _____________ (appeal).
4. The _____________has failed to prove its case (prosecute).
5. Society does not know how to deal with hardened _________
(crime).
6. Only the manager has the ______________ to sign cheques
(authorise).
7. Safety measures were carried out in ________________
with paragraph 6 of the building regulations (comply).
8. They have failed to comply with the _________________
(resolve).
9. The parties to the contract must fulfill their ___________
obligations (contract).
10. About 6.6 million people ___________ to the United States
in the 1970s (immigrate).
135
1. an offender a. from time to time
2. a dispute b. issue
3. citizen c. to make smth no longer valid
4. court decision d. ordinary member of the public
5. lay e. a disagreement
6. to overturn f. not having professional
qualifications
7. occasionally g. to observe
8. matter h. judgment
9. to pass i. to consider a case
10. to hear a case j. a wrongdoer
11. to comply with k. to adopt
1) disputable — (in) __________________________
ordinary — (extra) _________________________
guilty — (not) ____________________________
certain — (un) ____________________________
2) satisfied, different, qualified, legal, usual, flexible, fair, to re
present, formal, essential, possible, agreement, experienced,
satisfactory, equitable, to obey
1. An ordinary / extraordinary meeting was held to discuss the
problem.
2. The jury passed a guilty / not guilty verdict and the defendant
went to prison.
3. He was dissatisfied / satisfied with the judgment and decided
to appeal.
4. He lost the case as he was quite experienced / inexperienced
in arguing cases in court.
136
5. The client decided to appeal as he thought that he was
represented / misrepresented by his lawyer.
6. Magistrates are unqualified / qualified judges.
7. They don’t get on with their neighbours. They have had
several agreements / disagreements with them.
8. We still do not know what he is like. That is why we are
certain / uncertain what his role in the company will be.
разрешать, урегулировать споры выносить вердикт
возбудить дело против кого-л. убийство
в суде по гражданским делам
правонарушитель Cуд Короны
государственный служащий Апелляционный суд
специальный суд по трудовым суд по делам несовершеннолет-
вопросам них
отменить вынесенное судом непрофессиональный судья
решение
подать апелляцию долг
принять акт парламента мировой судья
система подачи апелляций нарушение контракта
быть виновным в чем-л. быть недовольным чем-л.
вопрос факта статутное право
присяжный суд по уголовным делам

апелляцию
правонарушение
рассматривать
обстоятельства дела
серьезное преступление
в Высокий суд
подавать апелляцию в вышестоящий суд
в Верховный суд
137
спор
разрешать разногласие
проблему
по земельным вопросам
споры по трудовым вопросам
по налогам
быть виновным в правонарушении
в нарушении контракта
закону
соответствовать стандартам
нормам
1. In their decisions the courts must comply _______ the law.
2. Appeals __________ the Crown Court go first __________
the High Court and, __________ special cases, __________
the Court of Appeal.
3. __________ addition __________ courts Parliament sets a
lot of tribunals, independent judicial bodies.
4. If the defendant is dissatisfied __________ the court decision
he can appeal __________ a higher court requesting it to
re-examine and change the judgment.
5. Occasionally, a case is carried __________ this system
__________ appeal all the way __________ the Supreme
Court. Its decisions __________ both criminal and civil
matters bind all other courts.
6. Cases brought __________ the criminal courts are to do
__________ offences __________ the state such as breach
__________contract, trespass __________ property,
and disputes __________ land or the wrongful exercise
__________ power __________ a public authority.
7. Only the government can overturn a decision __________
the Supreme Court and then, only __________ passing an
Act of Parliament.
138
8. The wrongdoer is sued ______________ a civil court while
__________ a criminal court he is prosecuted.
9. Civil courts resolve disputes ____________ private citizens
or between private citizens and the state.
10. Offenders who are aged between 10 and 17 are dealt
___________ ___________ Youth Courts _____________
specially trained magistrates. These courts are not open
__________ the public.
PREPOSITION BANK
to be guilty of smth
to appeal to a court
to comply with smth
to be dissatisfied with smth
to be open to the public
disputes over smth
trespass to smth

the text.
1. Cases brought before the criminal courts are to do with
_____________against the state which, these days, usually
involve breach of the ______________ law.
2. Civil cases are usually considered in _____________courts.
3. In criminal courts, cases are ____________ against a person
who has ______________ the law.
4. And there are some offences where the ______________
is given the choice of having his case heard either in the
magistrates’ court or the ______________Court.
5. If the defendant is ______________with the court decision
he can _____________ to a higher court requesting it to
______________ and change the ______________.
6. Offenders who are aged between 10 and 17 are dealt with by
__________ Courts with specially trained _____________.
7. Jurors are to decide questions of ______________ and give
a ______________ that is to say whether the defendant is
______________ or not.
139
8. Occasionally, a case is carried through this system of
appeal all the way to the __________________Court, the
______________court of appeal.
9. Cases brought before civil courts are to do with legal matters
such as ____________ of contract, __________to property,
and ___________over land or the wrongful ______________
of power by a public ________________________.
10. In addition to courts Parliament sets a lot of ____________,
independent ___________ bodies, which hear appeals made
in certain types of cases by civil ______________and others.
11. Only the government can _________________ a deci-
sion of the Supreme Court and then, only by passing an
______________.
12. Minor criminal cases and some civil matters such as
__________ are started in __________courts and are heard
by ____________ magistrates called ___________ of Peace.
the text.
1. Для слушания дела в Суде Короны требуется больше
времени.
2. Некоторые серьезные дела, такие как убийство, не могут
слушаться в магистратских судах.
3. Гражданские дела обычно рассматриваются в судах
графств.
4. Суды по гражданским делам разрешают споры между
частными гражданами или между частными гражданами
и государством.
5. Уголовные дела о малозначительных преступлениях
и некоторые гражданские дела, такие как долги, начина-
ются в магистратских судах.
6. Дела правонарушителей от 10 до 17 лет слушаются
в судах по делам несовершеннолетних специально обу-
ченными магистратскими судьями.
7. Эти суды закрыты для посещения.
8. Существуют некоторые правонарушения, при которых
ответчику дается право выбирать, где будет слушаться
его дело — в магистратском суде или в Суде Короны.
140
9. Только государство может отменить решение Палаты
лордов и только путем издания парламентского акта.
10. Присяжные должны решить вопросы факта и вынести
вердикт, т.е. сказать, виновен ли ответчик или нет.
11. Иногда дело проходит всю систему подачи апелляций
и заканчивается в Верховном суде, апелляционном суде
последней инстанции.
12. Если ответчик недоволен решением суда, он может подать
апелляцию в суд вышестоящей инстанции с просьбой
пересмотреть и изменить решение по делу.
Exercise 10. Find a suitable definition for each word in the
right column.
1. a lower court where civil a. Supreme Court
cases are started
2. something owed to someone b. minor cases
else
3. the highest court in Great c. county court
Britain
4. courts that deal with young d. law magistrates
defendants
5 not serious cases e. verdict
6. killing of a human being on f. Youth Courts
purpose
7. non-professional judges g. jurors
8. they decide questions of fact h. an Act of Parliament
and give a verdict
9. jurors’ decision i. murder
10. a document passed by j. debt
Parliament

1. Magistrates’ courts start minor criminal cases.
2. The Court of Appeal heard the case.
3. The jury must decide the facts of the case.
4. The police had to arrest the boy.
141
5. The Supreme Court has overturned the decision of the Court
of Appeal.
6. The High Court is considering his appeal.
7. Youth Courts deal with young offenders.
8. The High Court is going to change the judgment.
9. Parliament sets a lot of tribunals.
10. They are resolving the dispute.
Exercise 12. Study the meanings of the collocation “such
as” and translate the following sentences.
such as — такой как, например
Example:
Some civil matters such as debts may be dealt with
in the magistrates’ courts.
— Некоторые гражданские дела, такие как долги,
могут рассматриваться магистратскими судами.
1. In limited circumstances, such as in self defense or during

a time of war, even an intentional killing may be legal.
2. In many countries, such as Japan and the United States, the
highest judicial decisions are made by a Supreme Court.
3. Consumers now have a right to be correctly informed of
important information, such as quality, price and credit
terms.
4. Of course, laws do not deal only with very obvious things,
such as stealing and driving too fast; they affect us in very
many ways.
5. Later, Magna Carta was revised, and other documents, such
as the English Bill of Rights (1689), were adopted.
6. Civil laws regulate many everyday situations, such as
marriage, divorce, real estate, contracts, insurance, consumer
protection and negligence.
Exercise 13. Study the meanings of the word “otherwise”
and translate the following sentences.
otherwise — в противном случае, иначе,
по-другому, иное
142
Example:
Otherwise, their decisions may be challenged by the
High Court.
— В противном случае их решения могут быть
оспорены Высоким судом.
1. If a statute does not provide otherwise, oral contracts are

enforceable.
2. If the claimant alleges that something happened, he must
prove that it did, otherwise the court must assume that it
did not.
3. Most industrial societies throughout the world have imposed
punishments on traders who overcharge or otherwise
deceive their customers.
4. Exact fulfillment of the terms of a contract is always demanded,
otherwise the course of business would be hardly possible.
5. Some states will also require a parent to continue supporting
a child over eighteen if the child would otherwise have to go
on welfare and become a “public charge”.
Exercise 14. Study the meanings of the word “whether”
and translate the following sentences.
A.
whether — ли
whether … or not — действительно ли … или нет
Example:
Jurors are to decide questions of fact and give a
verdict that is to say whether the defendant is guilty
or not.
— Присяжные должны решить вопросы факта
и вынести вердикт, т.е.сказать, виновен ли ответ-
чик или нет.
1. Whether the owner of a trademark can stop others from

using it depends on a number of factors.
2. State laws differ greatly on the question of whether a marri
age revokes a will.
3. Imposing legal liability on the owner, whether imposed by
the state legislature or through case law, is a growing trend.
143
4. The question of whether excessive force may be used in self-
defense frequently arises.
5. Whether or not a store is responsible for the products it
sells depends on a number of things, including what state
the store is in.
6. Whether something has been done “in the course of one’s
employment” is a question which has often led to controversy.
7. Lawmakers differ in their opinions about whether the
legislature or the courts should determine the detailed rules
governing the conduct of legal actions and proceedings.
B.
1. Он не знает, начинать ли ему дело в магистратском суде
или в Суде Короны.
2. Иногда трудно сказать, является ли данное правонаруше-
ние гражданским правонарушением или преступлением.
3. Я не знаю, обсуждать с ним этот вопрос или нет.
4. Я не могу выяснить, признали ответчика виновным или
нет.
5. Он не может решить, апеллировать ему или нет.
6. Она не знает, помогать им или нет.
Exercise 15. Study the meanings of the words “bind”,
“bound”, “binding” and translate the follow
ing sentences.
to bind smb — обязывать (законом), связывать
(договором)
binding — обязывающий, обязательный
to be bound by smth — быть обязанным делать что-л.
Example:
Its decisions on both criminal and civil matters bind
all other courts.
— Его решения как по уголовным, так и по граж-
данским делам обязательны для других судов.
Its decisions are binding.
— Его решения носят обязательный характер.
We are bound by court rulings.
— Мы должны исполнять решения суда.
144
1. Договор является обязательным соглашением.
2. Решение суда обязывает их заплатить штраф.
3. Обещание, данное под давлением (under compulsion),
не является обязательным.
4. Работники не обязаны называть причины, по которым
они увольняются.
5. Соглашение обязывает ее выплатить долг полностью
(in full) в течение шесть месяцев.
6. Мы не обязаны выполнять это решение.
7. В тот момент, когда вы подписали соглашение, вы
вступили в договор, исполнение которого обязательно
по закону.
Exercise 16. Translate the following sentences using
the “by doing” gerund construction.
Example:
The government can overturn a decision of the
Supreme Court by passing an Act of Parliament.
— Государство может отменить решение Верхов-
ного суда путем принятия парламентского акта.
A.
1. Jurors often make a considerable sacrifice by coming to court
to perform their important public duty
2. We will not create a just society by simply observing public
opinion.
3. Justinian’s aim was to eliminate the confusion of centuries
of inconsistent lawmaking by formulating a comprehensive
system that would entirely replace existing law.
4. A lawyer can defend his client simply by trying to point out
weaknesses in the prosecution case.
5. The words must try to cover every eventuality, because
people are always looking for a legal loophole, a way of
avoiding a legal duty by making use of an ambiguity or an
omission in law.
B.
1. Мы можем решить этот спор, только начав дело в суде.
2. Он может добиться удовлетворяющего его решения
только путем апелляции в вышестоящий суд.
145
3. Он помог ответчику, дав свидетельские показания в суде.
4. Верховный Суд обеспечил разделение властей в Велико-
британии, забрав судебные функции у Палаты лордов.
5. Возможно изменить судебное решение путем повторного
слушания.
6. Присяжные решают, виновен ответчик или нет, путем
вынесения вердикта.
Exercise 17.
1. В английской системе права There are civil and criminal
существуют суды по граждан- courts within the English
ским делам и суды по уголовным legal system.
делам.
2. Суды по гражданским делам Civil courts resolve disputes
разрешают споры между част- between private citizens or
ными гражданами или между between private citizens and
частными гражданами и госу- the state.
дарством.
3. В судах по уголовным делам In the criminal courts, cases
возбуждаются дела против лиц, are brought against a person
которые нарушили закон. who has broken the law.
4. В гражданском суде против The wrongdoer is sued in
правонарушителя подает иск a civil court while in a crimi-
частное лицо, а в уголовном суде nal court he is prosecuted.
государство выступает в роли
обвинителя.
5. Дела, которые возбуждаются Cases brought before civil
в гражданском суде, обычно courts are to do with legal
касаются таких вопросов, как matters such as breach of
нарушение контракта, наруше- contract, trespass to property,
ние права владения имуществом, and disputes over land or the
споры по земельным вопросам, wrongful exercise of power by
превышение должностных пол- a public servants.
номочий государственными слу-
жащими.
146
6. Гражданские дела обычно рас- Civil cases are usually consi
сматриваются в судах графств. dered in county courts.
7. Дела, возбуждаемые в уголов- Cases brought before the
ных судах, касаются правона- criminal courts are to do with
рушений, совершенных против offences against the state
государства, которые в насто- which, these days, usually
ящее время обычно связаны involve breach of the statu-
с нарушением статутного права. tory law.
8. Уголовные дела о малозначи- Minor criminal cases and some
тельных преступлениях и неко- civil matters such as debts are
торые гражданские дела, такие started in magistrates’ courts
как долги, начинаются в маги- and are heard by lay magis-
стратских судах и слушаются trates called Justices of Peace.
непрофессиональными судьями,
которых называют мировыми
судьями.
9. Дела правонарушителей от 10 Offenders who are aged bet
до 17 лет слушаются в судах ween 10 and 17 are dealt
по делам несовершеннолетних with by Youth Courts with
специально обученными маги- specially trained magistrates.
стратскими судьями.
10. Эти суды закрыты для посеще- These courts are not open to
ния. the public.
11. Некоторые серьезные дела, такие Some serious crimes, like mur-
как убийство, не могут слу- der, cannot be heard by the
шаться в магистратских судах. magistrates.
12. Они должны передаваться в Cуд They must go to the Crown
Короны. Courts.
13. Существуют некоторые право- And there are some offences
нарушения, при которых ответ- where the defendant is given
чику дается право выбирать, the choice of having his case
где будет слушаться его дело — heard either in the magis-
в магистратском суде или в Суде trates’ court or the Crown
Короны. Court.
147
14. Для слушания дела в Суде Коро It takes much longer to have
ы требуется больше времени, a case heard in the Crown
н
но некоторые ответчики предпо- Court, but some defendants
читают его, т.к. обстоятельства prefer it because the facts of
дела рассматриваются судом the case are decided by a jury,
присяжных, т.е. обычными граж- that is, ordinary members of
данами. the public.
15. Присяжные должны решить во Jurors are to decide questions
просы факта и вынести вердикт, of fact and give a verdict that
т.е. сказать, виновен ли ответчик is to say whether the defen-
или нет. dant is guilty or not.
16. Если ответчик недоволен реше- If the defendant is dissatisfied
нием суда, он может подать with the court decision, he
апелляцию в суд вышестоящей can appeal to a higher court
инстанции с просьбой пере- requesting it to re-examine
смотреть и изменить решение and change the judgment.
по делу.
17. Апелляции из Суда Короны Appeals from the Crown
поступают сначала в Высокий Court go first to the High
суд, а в особых случаях — в Апел- Court and, in special cases, to
ляционный суд. the Court of Appeal.
18. Иногда дело проходит всю си Occasionally, a case is carried
стему подачи апелляций и за through this system of appeal
канчивается в Верховном суде, all the way to the Supreme
апелляционном суде последней Court, the final court of
инстанции. appeal.
19. Его решения как по уголовным, Its decisions on both crimi-
так и по гражданским делам обя- nal and civil matters bind all
зательны для других судов. other courts.
20. Только государство может отме- Only the government can
нить решение Верховного суда overturn a decision of the
и только путем издания парла- Supreme Court and then,
ментского акта. only by passing an Act of
Parliament.
148
21. Помимо судов, парламент орга- In addition to courts Parlia-
низует большое количество ment sets a lot of tribunals,
специальных судов — независи- independent judicial bodies,
мых судебных органов, которые which hear appeals made in
заслушивают апелляции в опре- certain types of cases.
деленных делах.
22. Есть специальные суды по тру- There are employment tribu-
довым вопросам, специаль- nals, immigration tribunals
ные суды по иммиграционным and others.
вопросам и другие.
23. Свои решения они должны при- In their decisions they must
нимать в рамках существующего comply with the law.
законодательства.

1. Civil and criminal courts:
— cases brought before civil courts;
— cases brought before criminal courts.
2. Advantages of having a case heard in the Crown Court.
3. The system of appeal.
4. Tribunals.
1. appeal [əˈpi:l] апелляция

Court of Appeal Апелляционный суд
final court of appeal апелляционный суд последней
инстанции
to make an appeal подать апелляцию
system of appeal система подачи апелляций
2. to be guilty [ˈɡɪltɪ] of smth быть виновным в чем-л.
3. to be open to the public быть открытым для посещения
4. to bind smb обязывать кого-л.
[baɪnd]
5. breach [bri:tʃ] of contract нарушение контракта
6. to bring a case against smb / начать дело против кого-л. /
before a civil court в суде по гражданским делам
149
7. to challenge a decision оспаривать решение
[ˈtʃælɪndʒ]
8. civil court суд по гражданским делам
to sue smb in a civil court возбудить дело против кого-л.
в суде по гражданским делам
9. to comply with the law соответствовать, подчиняться
[kəmˈplaɪ] закону
10. county [ˈkauntɪ] court суд графства
11. criminal court суд по уголовным делам
to prosecute [ˈprɔsɪkju:t] smb возбудить дело против кого-л.
in a criminal court в суде по уголовным делам
12. Crown [kraun] Court Cуд Короны
13. dispute [dɪsˈpju:t] спор
dispute over land спор по земельным вопросам
to resolve [rɪˈzɔlv] disputes разрешать, урегулировать
споры
14. facts of the case обстоятельства дела
15. High Court Высокий суд
16. jury [ˈdʒuərɪ] суд присяжных
juror [ˈdʒuərə] присяжный
17. Justice of Peace мировой судья
18. lay magistrate [ˈmædʒɪstreɪt] непрофессиональный судья
19. minor criminal case уголовное дело о малозначи-
[ˈmaɪnə] тельном преступлении
20. murder [ˈmə:də] убийство
21. offence against smb правонарушение против
[əˈfens] кого-л.
offender правонарушитель
22. to overturn a decision отменить вынесенное судом
[ əuvəˈtə:n] решение
ˈ
23. to pass an Act of Parliament принять парламентский акт
24. public servant государственный служащий
25. to re-examine the judgment пересмотреть решение суда /
[ ri:ɪɡˈzæmɪn] решение по делу
ˈ
26. statutory [ˈstætutrɪ] law статутное право
150
27. Supreme Court [sju:ˈpri m] Верховный суд
28. trespass to property нарушение права владения
[ˈtrespəs] имуществом
29. tribunal [traɪˈbju:nl] специальный суд
employment tribunal специальный суд по трудовым
вопросам
immigration tribunal специальный суд по иммигра-
ционным вопросам
30. verdict [ˈvə:dɪkt] вердикт
to give a verdict выносить вердикт
31. wrongdoer [ˈrɔŋ duə] правонарушитель
ˈ
32. Youth Court суд по делам несовершенно-
[ju:θ] летних
Exercise 1. Complete the text using the words from

the Active Vocabulary.
OK, good morning, everyone. Today we’re going to look at
the way the court system in England and Wales is organized.
Courts are generally classified into the (1) ______________and
(2) ______________ systems. Civil courts (3) ______________
disputes between private citizens or between private citizens and
the state. Criminal courts (4) _________________ wrongdoers
who has (5) ______________ the law. These cases are usually
(6) ______________ by the state. Most civil and criminal cases
are open to the (7) ______________.
The highest court in the land is the (8) ______________. Its
decisions on both criminal and civil matters (9) _____________
all other courts and can only be (10) __________ by the govern-
ment. Below the Supreme Court is the (11) _________________
which has two separate divisions: civil and criminal. Below the
Court of Appeal is the (12) ______________.
B. Read the text below and choose the word which best fits
each space.
higher barristers magistrates qualified jury
defendant legal system professionals
151
The largest group of judges are (1) ____________________,
ordinary citizens who are not legal (2) ________________ but
are appointed to ensure that the local community is involved
in the running of the (3) ____________________. They sit as
a group of three (as a “bench”). Magistrates sit with a legally
(4) _________________clerk, who can advise on points of
law. A case is presented by the (5) __________________, who
takes over the case from the police who have already charged the
(6) ________________ (or accused) with specified crimes. In the
(7) ________________ courts, the judges are almost all former
(8) __________________. But many cases are also heard by
recorders — part-time barristers from private practice. The cases
in the Crown Court are heard by the (9) _________________.
The Crown Court jury consists of 12 persons, aged 18 to 70.
A.
1. Против него было начато уголовное дело.
2. Мы собираемся возбудить дело против мистера Джонса
в гражданском суде.
3. Питер специализируется в спорах по земельным вопросам.
4. Его обвинили в превышении должностных полномочий.
5. Слушание дела было закрытым.
6. Джона признали виновным в нарушении права владения
имуществом.
7. Мы можем оспорить решение в Апелляционном суде.
8. Верховный суд отменил решение Апелляционного суда,
т.к. был принят парламентский акт.
9. Уголовные дела о малозначительных преступлениях слу-
шаются в магистратских судах.
10. Присяжные выносят вердикт.
B.
1) Суд присяжных — это группа обычных людей, выбран-
ных произвольно (selected at random) для решения вопросов
факта и вынесения вердикта.
152
В суде Короны в Англии двенадцать присяжных. Это
обычные члены общества в возрасте от 18 до 70 лет. Им
не платят заработной платы, но дают деньги на расходы,
пока они выполняют обязанности присяжных, что обычно
продолжается две недели. Служба обязательна, и от нее
нельзя уклоняться без достаточных оснований (without
a good reason), например, болезни. Присяжному не нужно
знать что-либо о праве. На самом деле некоторым людям,
связанным с миром права, например солиситорам, не разре-
шается выполнять обязанности присяжных. Это происходит
потому, что обязанностью присяжных является слушание
дела и решение вопросов факта. Обязанностью судьи явля-
ется направлять их по вопросам права.
2) Апелляция — это ходатайство (request) в вышестоя-
щий суд о пересмотре и изменении решения.
В Англии большинство апелляций рассматриваются
путем повторного слушания. Апелляционные суды обычно
не очень хотят изменять решения нижестоящих судов
по вопросам факта, даже когда они имеют право сделать это.
Следовательно (consequently), большинство споров касается
правовых ошибок, якобы (allegedly) совершенных на суде.
Апелляционная система в основном создана на благо
ответчика, но обвинение может апеллировать о пересмотре
дела, если онo может показать, что на первом суде были
совершены неправомерные действия (improper conduct),
такие как взяточничество или запугивание (bribing or
intimidating) свидетелей или присяжных.
VI. Key Terms
1. Appeal [əˈpi:l] a request to a higher court to re-examine

and change the judgment of a previous court
hearing
2. Сounty court a lower court in England and Wales where
[ˈkauntɪ] civil cases are started
153
3. Jury [ˈdʒuərɪ] a group of ordinary people selected at random
to decide the facts of the case and give
a verdict
4. Magistrates’ a lower court in England and Wales where
[ˈmædʒɪstreɪts] criminal cases are started
court
5. Supreme Court the highest court in Great Britain
[sju:ˈpri:m]
6. Verdict jurors’ decision
[ˈvə:dɪkt]
7. Youth Court court that deal with defendants under 18

Exercise 1. Read two extracts from lectures on jury
service.
Discuss advantages and disadvantages of having a case
heard by the jury.
Extract A
In this week’s lecture we’re going to be looking at the
advantages and disadvantages of the jury system. A jury is a group
of, usually, 12 ordinary people who have been selected to listen
to the facts in a trial in a law court and decide on whether the
case has been proved. It’s claimed that the advantage of the jury
system is that it ensures a fair trial, especially in criminal cases.
People who are accused of an offence are tried by their peers —
the general public rather than trained lawyers — who use their
common sense to reach a verdict based solely on the evidence
they have heard in the case. However, in recent years many
lawyers have argued that the disadvantage of the jury system is
that in some cases, such as serious fraud, the facts are generally
too complex for the ordinary person in the street to follow…
Extract B
…There is also the problem of jury selection. Sitting on a jury
is both a right and a duty. Jurors are selected at random from
people who are entitled to vote who are under the age of 70.
154
The advantage of this is that, in theory, juries are composed
of people who come from a very wide spectrum of society.
Unfortunately, many people try to avoid their duty because
they claim they are too busy at work or will lose their salary. As
a result, juries, it is argued, have too many people with time, such
as unemployed and retired people, to provide a good balance.
Let us go back to the role of the jury. In a trial, the jury’s
function is to decide on the facts of the case. The jurors are
there to determine the truth. However, many cases have a highly
emotive element and this can, it is argued, sway the jury away
from the facts.
Should emotion have a place in a court of law? Can a group
of twelve ordinary men and women provide a fair trial and reach
the correct verdict any better or worse than trained lawyers?
The government is keen to abolish trial by jury for some crimes
but surprisingly perhaps the legal profession is not. This, I think,
is because we have an adversarial system where lawyers need to
argue the case against each other.
Unit 6
STARTING ACTIONS IN COURT
I. Lead-in
Sometimes people cannot settle their disputes informally and
they start a civil action.
1. What sort of disputes can lead to civil actions?
2. What does a person who starts a civil action want to get in
court?
3. Does a person who starts a civil action have to pay?
Sometimes criminal actions are started.
1. Who starts a criminal action?
2. What punishment can the court order?
II. Reading
county [ˈkauntɪ] procedure [prəˈsi:dʒə]
claimant [ˈkleɪmənt] to increase [ɪnˈkriːs]
workmanship [ˈwə:kmənʃɪp] suspect [ˈsʌspekt]
to supply [səˈplaɪ] to release [rɪˈli:s]
proceeding [prəˈsi:dɪŋ] unconditional [ ʌnkənˈdɪʃənl]
ˈ
amount [əˈmaunt] bail [beɪl]
to request [rɪˈkwest] to remain [rɪˈmeɪn]
to award [əˈwɔ:d] to grant [ɡrɑ nt]
damages [ˈdæmɪdʒɪz] security [sɪˈkjuərɪtɪ]
to suffer [ˈsʌfə] custodial [kʌsˈtəudɪəl]
wrongdoing [ˈrɔŋ du:ɪŋ] probation [prəˈbeɪʃən]
ˈ
156
circumstance [ˈsə:kəmstəns] to occur [əˈkə:]
injunction [ɪnˈdʒʌŋkʃən] to prevent [prɪˈvent]
community [kəˈmju:nɪtɪ] custody [ˈkʌstədɪ]
evidence [ˈevɪdəns] accusation [ˌækju:ˈzeɪʃən]
B) Vocabulary Notes
(1)
1. to be in dispute with иметь спор, разногласия с кем-л.
smb
2. to file / issue a claim подать иск в суд
with a court
3. claim form исковая форма
4. claimant истец
(2)
5. to refuse to do smth отказаться делать что-л.
6. to owe money to smb задолжать деньги кому-л.
7. workmanship качество изготовления
8. to supply smth to smb поставить что-л. кому-л.
9. properly как следует, надлежащим образом
10. court fee судебный сбор
11. to issue proceedings начать судебное разбирательство
12. amount сумма
13. to request smb to do ходатайствовать о том, чтобы кто-л.
smth сделал что-л.
14. legal costs судебные издержки
(3)
15. to award damages присуждать компенсацию
16. to suffer as the result of пострадать в результате правона-
wrongdoing рушения
17. circumstance обстоятельство
157
18. to issue an injunction наложить судебный запрет
19. to prevent from doing предотвратить
smth
20. to occur случаться
21. small claims court суд по делам на небольшую сумму
22. procedure процедура
(4)
23. suspect подозреваемый
24. to have evidence иметь улики, доказательства
25. to make a formal accu предъявить официальное обвинение
sation / charge
26. to charge smb with обвинить кого-л. в чем-л.
smth
27. to release smb освободить кого-л.
28. on condition that / при условии
provided that
29. to appear at / before предстать перед судом
a court
30. (un)conditional bail (без)условное поручительство
to grant an /a ~ предоставить ~
to agree to an /a ~ cогласиться на ~
31. custody арест, взятие под стражу
to remain in custody оставаться под стражей
to hold smb in custody держать кого-л. под стражей
32. to put some money as внести залог
security
33. to be found guilty быть признанным виновным
34. order постановление, приказ
to order punishment назначить наказание
35. custodial sentence приговор к лишению свободы
non-custodial sentence приговор к наказанию, не связан-
ному с лишением свободы
158
36. fine штраф
37. probation пробация, условное освобождение
38. community service общественные работы
C) Text
STARTING ACTIONS IN COURT
(1) When a person is in dispute with another person, some-
times it is necessary to start a claim in the civil court. This pro-
cess is called “filing a claim” or “issuing a claim”. In England
most civil claims are filed with the county court. There are over
200 county courts in England and Wales. Most cities and large
towns have a county court.
A claim form is the document that a claimant uses to start
legal action against the defendant.
(2) Why might a claimant start a claim? There are a lot of
reasons, for example:
• someone refuses to pay you money that they owe to you
• someone does a job for you, but they do it badly. This is
called bad workmanship
• something that you paid for is not supplied to you
• something that you bought is not working properly.
The claimant has to pay a sum of money, called a court fee,
for the court to issue proceedings. In the claim form, the claim-
ant must state the amount of his or her claim and request the
defendant to pay all of the legal costs of the case.
(3) In civil cases, the court can award damages to the person
who has suffered as the result of wrongdoing. In certain cir
cumstances, the court will issue an injunction to prevent the
wrongdoing from occurring again.
Sometimes people talk about “the small claims court”. They
really mean the special procedure that exists at the county court
for small claims. A small claim is a claim for a maximum amount
of £5,000. This amount is likely to increase in the future.
(4) Criminal actions are started by the state. Having arrested
the suspect, the police must decide if they have enough evidence
159
to make a formal accusation, or charge. If they charge the sus-
pect, they may release him on condition that he appears on a cer-
tain day at a certain magistrates’ court. This is known as uncon
ditional bail. However, the police may instead take a suspect to
a magistrate so that he remains in custody until he next appears
before a court. The magistrate may decide that it is not necessary
to hold the suspect in custody and may agree to unconditional
bail, or the magistrate may grant conditional bail — that is, release
the suspect provided that he puts some money as security.
If the defendant is found guilty, the court can order pun
ishment. This can either be a custodial sentence, which means
going to prison, or a non-custodial sentence such as a fine, pro
bation or a community service order.

A. Here is a conversation between a lawyer and his client.
The conversation is mixed up. Put the conversation in the
correct order. Write your answers in the boxes numbered
2-9 below. There is an example at the beginning (*), which
is the start of the conversation.
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
(*)
(*) Good Morning, Mr Rodriguez. Thank you for coming to

see me. I understand that you would like to issue a claim in the
county court?
a. Three months is a long time. I agree that you should issue
a claim. I will explain to you how it all works. The first thing
that we must do is to complete a claim form and file it at the
county court.
b. Yes, you will have to pay a fee. But if you win, the judge
will usually order the defendant to pay back the fee. The next
thing that happens after we file the claim is that the court will
serve the claim form upon the defendant.
160
с. Yes, that is correct. I think going to court is the only
thing that I can do. I supply food to restaurants and cafes in
Chatsworth. I have a contract with all of my customers. The
contract states that a customer has 14 days to pay me from the
date they receive a delivery. A customer who owns a cafe in town
is three months late in paying me. I would like to start proceed-
ings against him.
d. I see. What information do you need to complete the claim
form?
e. He has 14 days to respond. In this case I hope your cus-
tomer agrees that your claim is correct and that he will pay the
money he owes you when he receives the claim. That is the best
thing that can happen.
f. I need the name and address of your customer. When we
file the claim your customer will be called the defendant. I also
need the details of your claim. I need to know when the defen-
dant received the delivery from you and when he was supposed
to pay you. Please bring me a copy of the contract so that I can
check the part of it that talks about payment. How much money
does he owe you?
g. And when he receives the claim how many days does he
have to respond to it?
h. £430. I can bring a copy of the contract to your office this
afternoon. What happens when we file the claim? Do I have to
pay a court fee?
1. What can a person do if he is in dispute with another person?
2. What is this process called?
3. Where are civil claims filed in England?
4. How many county courts are there in England and Wales?
5. What is a claim form?
6. Why might a claimant start a claim?
7. In what case will the court issue proceedings?
8. What does the claimant state in the claim form?
161
9. What can the claimant who has suffered as the result of
wrongdoing be awarded?
10. Why can an injunction be issued?
11. What is “the small claims court”?
12. What claim is considered to be small?
13. Why do you think the amount is likely to increase in the
future?
14. Who starts criminal actions?
15. What must the police do after arresting the suspect?
16. On what condition can the police release the suspect who
has been charged?
17. Where can the police take the suspect instead?
18. Who can grant a conditional bail?
19. What is a conditional bail?
20. What can punishment be for a criminal action?
IV. Exercises
to request smb to do smth claim form
claimant to be in dispute with smb
to award damages community service
to file / issue a claim in a court to issue proceedings
to issue an injunction small claims court
to have evidence to charge smb with smth
to appear at / before a court to make a formal accusation /

charge
to grant conditional bail to agree to unconditional bail
court fee to order punishment
to hold a suspect in custody to release smb
non-custodial sentence to hold smb in custody

legal costs to be found guilty
162
Exercise 2. Word formanion.
Verb Noun Adjective
necessary
to claim
refusal
request
existence
increase
criminal
to suspect
conditional
to charge
to punish
accusation
guilt
custody
to serve
fine
to sentence

1. His ________ to discuss the matter is very strange (refuse).
2. Most of their economic policies ________ the interests of
big business (service).
3. They became ________ of his behaviour and called the
police (suspect).
4. What is the ________ for murder (punish)?
5. His ________ was proved beyond all doubt by the prosecu-
tion (guilty).
6. New laws will soon replace ________ legislation (exist).
7. The judge gave him a ________ sentence (custody).
8. Her attacker was sentenced to 120 hours of community
________ (serve).
163
9. Minors can make contracts for ________ of life (necessary).
10. Pakistan came into ________ as an independent country
after the war (exist).
1. wrongful act a. dispute
2. amount b. damages
3. disagreement c. charge
4. to file a claim d. to occur
5. to ask e. provided
6. compensation f. wrongdoing
7. to happen g. to charge smb with smth
8. accusation h. punishment
9. on condition that i. to issue a claim
10. to accuse smb of smth j. sum
11. penalty k. to request
1) custodial — (non) _________________________
conditional — (un) ________________________
proper — (im) ____________________________
to increase — to decrease ____________________
to appear — (dis) __________________________
order — (dis) _____________________________
2) legal, necessary, agreement, reasonable, equitable, just, to
behave, to use, experienced, guilty, to represent, formal, qual-
ified, ordinary, constitutional
1. It is improper / proper for the police officer to accept gifts.
2. The judge sent him to prison giving him a custodial / non-
custodial sentence.
3. Due to vaccination the number of people who have the disease
has increased / decreased significantly.
164
4. His agreement to buy our house was conditional / uncondi-
tional on leaving all the furniture in it.
5. A number of stadiums were closed because of crowd disor-
der / order.
6. Police are investigating the woman’s appearance / dis
appearance.
7. Political tensions might increase / decrease the likelihood of
war.
8. I don’t feel that it would be improper / proper for me to give
you that information.
наложить судебный запрет предстать перед судом
приговор к наказанию, не свя- обвинить кого-л. в чем-л.
занному с лишением свободы
суд по делам на небольшую назначить наказание
сумму
иметь улики, доказательства внести залог
пострадать в результате право- общественные работы
нарушения
оставаться под стражей подать иск в суд
быть признанным виновным начать судебное разбирательство
присуждать компенсацию судебные издержки
освободить кого-л. подозреваемый
предъявить официальное предоставить условное поручи-
обвинение тельство
судебный сбор штраф
истец иметь спор, разногласия с кем-л.

быть признанным в правонарушении
виновным в нарушении договора
165
отпустить подозреваемого под залог
ходатайствовать предоставить подозреваемому условное
о том, чтобы поручительство
ответчик оплатил судебные расходы
обвинить кого-л. в правонарушении
в воровстве
наложить судебный запрет
отказаться предъявить официальное обвинение
освободить кого-л.
правонарушения
пострадать несчастного случая
в результате наводнения

1. A claim form is the document that a claimant uses to start
legal action ________ the defendant.
2. Someone refuses to pay you money that they owe ________
you.
3. The claimant has to pay a sum ____________ money, called
a court fee, ________ the court to issue proceedings.
4. ______________ certain circumstances, the court will issue
an injunction to prevent the wrongdoing _______ occurring
again.
5. A small claim is a claim ____________ a maximum amount
____________ £5,000.
6. Criminal actions are started ________ the state.
7. The police may instead take a suspect ________a magistrate
so that he remains ________ custody until he next appears
________ a court.
8. Something that you paid ______ is not supplied _______ you.
9. There are ____________ 200 county courts in England and
Wales.
10. _______________ civil cases, the court can award damages
________ the person who has suffered ________ the result
________ wrongdoing.
11. They really mean the special procedure that exists ________
the county court ________ small claims.
166
12. If the police charge the suspect, they may release him
________ condition that he appears ________ a certain day
________ a certain magistrates’ court.
13. This amount is likely to increase ________ the future.
14. When a person is __________ dispute __________ another
person sometimes it is necessary to start a claim ________
the civil court.
15. The magistrate may decide that it is not necessary to hold
the suspect ___________ custody and may agree ________
unconditional bail, or the magistrate may grant conditional
bail — that is, release the suspect provided that he puts some
money ________ security or agrees to surrender his passport
or some other document.
PREPOSITION BANK
to start a legal action against smb
to owe money to smb
to prevent from doing
a claim for smth
to remain in custody
to hold smb in custody
to appear at / before a court
on condition that
to be in dispute with smb
to agree to smth

the text.
1. If the defendant is found ______________ the court can
_____________ punishment.
2. The claimant has to pay a sum of money, called a ___________
___________, for the court to issue ______________.
3. England most civil claims are ______________ in the
county court.
4. Someone does a job for you, but they do it badly. This is
called bad ______________.
5. A small claim is a claim for a maximum ______________ of
£5,000.
167
6. Having arrested the ____________ the police must decide
if they have enough __________________ to make a formal
accusation, or ______________.
7. In civil cases, the court can _________________ damages
to the person who has _________________ as the result of
wrongdoing.
8. In the claim _______________, the claimant must state the
amount of his or her claim and _____________ the defendant
to pay all of the ____________ ____________ of the case.
9. This can either be a _________________ sentence, which
means going to prison, or a _________________ sentence
such as a fine, ________________ or a _______________
______________ order.
10. In certain circumstances, the court will ______________ an
injunction to prevent the _____________ from occurring
again.
11. The magistrate may decide that it is not necessary to hold the
suspect in ______________ and may agree to unconditional
______________.
12. If they __________ the suspect, they may ______________
him on condition that he appears on a certain day at a certain
magistrates’ court.
the text.
1. Почему истец может начать дело?
2. В Англии большинство исков подаются в суд графства.
3. В исковой форме истец должен указать сумму искового
требования и ходатайствовать о том, чтобы ответчик
оплатил судебные издержки по делу.
4. Арестовав подозреваемого, полиция должна решить,
достаточно ли у нее доказательств, чтобы вынести офи-
циальное обвинение.
5. Полиция может доставить подозреваемого в магистрат-
ский суд, чтобы он оставался под стражей до своего сле-
дующего появления в суде.
6. В гражданских делах суд может присуждать компенсацию
лицу, которое пострадало в результате правонарушения.
168
7. В будущем сумма, вероятно, будет увеличена.
8. Если ответчик признан виновным, суд может назначить
наказание.
9. При некоторых обстоятельствах суд может наложить
судебный запрет, чтобы предотвратить дальнейшее пра-
вонарушение.
10. Если полиция обвинила подозреваемого, она может осво-
бодить его при условии, что он явится в определенный
день в определенный магистратский суд.
11. Уголовные дела начинаются государством.
12. Истец должен заплатить денежную сумму, которая назы-
вается «судебный сбор», чтобы суд начал судебное раз-
бирательство.
13. Когда у человека возникает спор с другим лицом, иногда
необходимо начать дело в гражданском суде.
Exercise 10. Find a suitable definition for each word or
collocation in the right column.
1. information that is given in a court a. injunction
that someone is guilty or not guilty
2. a document that a claimant uses b. claim form
to start legal action against the
defendant
3. a person against whom an action is c. court fee
started in court
4. monetary compensation d. claimant
5. an order to the suspect to appear e. legal costs
on a certain day at a certain
magistrates’ court
6. requirement not to do a particular f. defendant
act or activity
7. money a person has to pay to g. damages
lawyers, etc if you are involved in a
case in court
8. an order to release the suspect h. evidence
provided that he puts some money
as security or agrees to surrender his
passport or some other document
169
9. a person who starts an action in i. unconditional
court bail
10. a sum of money paid to the court j. conditional bail
to issue proceedings

1. Magistrates’ courts start minor criminal cases.
2. The magistrates’ court has granted him conditional bail.
3. The High Court is considering his appeal.
4. The police charged the suspect.
5. The police can take a suspect to a magistrate.
6. The jury must decide the facts of the case.
7. The magistrates do not hear serious crimes.
8. The police have released the suspect.
9. He put some money as security.
10. The police had to arrest the boy.
Exercise 12. Make up sentences using the collocation
“provided that” and translate them.
Example:
The magistrate may grant the suspect conditional
bail provided that he puts some money as security.
— Магистратский суд может предоставить
подозреваемому условное поручительство при
условии, что он отдаст какую-то сумму денег
в виде залога.
1. The police may release the suspect the suspect (appear) on

a certain day at a certain
magistrates’ court.
2. The magistrates’ court may grant the suspect (put up) some
conditional bail money as security or
surrenders his passport.
3. The youth court may deal with the the suspect (be) under the
case age of 17.
4. The police can make a formal they (have) enough

accusation evidence.
170
5. The claimant can sue his neighbour (behave)
unreasonably.
6. The trustee can make decisions about he (not make) any per-
the property under their control sonal profit
Exercise 13. Translate the sentences into Russian using the

collocation “so that”.
Example:
The police may take a suspect to a magistrate so
that he remains in custody until he next appears
before a court.
— Полиция может доставить подозреваемого
в магистратский суд, чтобы он оставался под
стражей до своего появления в суде.
1. Careful consumers try to learn as much as possible about

products and services so that they can compare their quality
and prices before buying.
2. I gave him the book so that he might study the subject at
home.
3. He recommended that Mr Novak should make the shops
a subsidiary of the Baron group so that the companies could
be consolidated for tax purposes.
4. There are attempts to internationalize legal standards so
that the same legal principles could be applied to all coun-
tries and people.
5. The judge must first tell the jury what the law is. This
includes giving them “legal directions” that the prosecution
must prove the case so that they are sure that the defendant
is guilty.
the given words.
likely — вероятно
unlikely — маловероятно
171
Example:
This amount is likely to increase in the future.
— В будущем сумма, вероятно, будет увеличена.
The penalty is likely to be increased.
— По всей вероятности, наказание будет увели-
чено.
A. Translate the following sentences paying attention to

the use of the collocation “to be (un)likely to do”.
1. At this stage the committee may agree to receive suggestions
for or against the proposed new law from anyone who is
likely to be affected by it.
2. The police perform many duties which are fundamental to
the well-being of society, but which are unlikely to make
them popular.
3. The party in power is likely to have the most members on
the committee.
4. The lawyer must use all his knowledge and skill to present
his client’s case in the best possible light. This is so if the
lawyer feels that his defence is not a good one and that is
unlikely to succeed.
5. Good advocates must be a great deal more than “good
talkers”. They will be sensitive to what is and is not likely to
result in effective presentation.
6. The most important criminal appeals are likely to be heard
by the Lord Chief Justice, sitting with two judges of the
High Court.
B. Use either the Active or the Passive Form
of the Infinitive.
1. He is unlikely to (sue) his neighbours in the tort of nuisance.
2. The shareholders are likely to (discuss) this matter at the
next general meeting.
3. The case is likely to (hear) in the nearest future.
4. The trust is unlikely to (create).
5. The police are likely to (make) a formal accusation soon.
6. The defendant is likely to (release) on unconditional bail.
172
C. Translate into English.
1. Вероятно, он потребует компенсации.
2. Маловероятно, что эта проблема будет урегулирована
в скором времени.
3. По всей видимости, этот закон будет принят.
4. Маловероятно, что он создаст благотворительный траст.
5. По всей видимости, контракт будет заключен.
6. Вероятно, он начнет дело в суде.
7. Маловероятно, что суд наложит судебный запрет.
Exercise 15. Translate the sentences into English using
this construction.
to prevent from doing
Example:
In certain circumstances, the court will issue
an injunction to prevent the wrongdoing from
occurring again.
— При некоторых обстоятельствах суд может
наложить судебный запрет, чтобы предотвра
тить дальнейшее правонарушение.
1. Постарайся сделать так, чтобы он не подал иск.

2. Ничто не помешает ему выступать против несправедли-
вости.
3. По закону ему запрещено иметь водительские права.
4. Возможно, он не будет участвовать в забеге из-за травмы
спины.
5. Возможно, ему не разрешат использовать это в качестве
доказательства.
6. Мы постараемся, чтобы это не случилось снова.
Exercise 16.
1. Когда у человека возникает спор When a person is in dispute
с другим лицом, иногда необхо- with another person, sometimes
димо начать дело в гражданском it is necessary to start a claim in
суде. the civil court.
173
2. Этот процедура называется This process is called “filing
«подать иск в суд». a claim” or “issuing a claim”.
3. В Англии большинство граж- In England most civil claims
данских исков подаются в суд are filed in the county court.
графства.
4. В Англии и Уэльсе свыше There are over 200 county
200 судов графств. courts in England and Wales.
5. Большинство городов имеют Most cities and large towns
суд графства. have a county court.
6. Исковая форма — это документ, A claim form is the docu-
который истец использует для ment that a claimant uses to
того, чтобы начать дело против start a legal action against the
ответчика. defendant.
7. Почему истец может начать Why might a claimant start
дело? a claim?
8. На это существует много при- There are a lot of reasons, for
чин, например: example:
9. • кто-то отказался заплатить • someone refuses to pay you
вам деньги, которые должен вам money that they owe to you
10. • кто-то выполняет для вас ра • someone does a job for you,
боту, но делает это плохо. Это but they do it badly. This is
называется «плохое качество called bad workmanship
изготовления»
11. • вам не поставили то, за что вы • something that you paid for
заплатили is not supplied to you
12. • что-то, что вы купили, не ра • something that you bought
ботает должным образом. is not working properly.
13. Истец должен заплатить денеж- The claimant has to pay a sum
ную сумму, которая называется of money, called a court fee, for
«судебный сбор», чтобы суд the court to issue proceedings.
начал судебное разбирательство.
14. В исковой форме истец должен In the claim form, the claimant
указать сумму искового требо- must state the amount of his
вания и ходатайствовать о том, or her claim and request the
чтобы ответчик оплатил судеб- defendant to pay all of the legal
ные издержки по делу. costs of the case.
174
15. В гражданских делах суд может In civil cases, the court can
присуждать компенсацию лицу, award damages to the person
которое пострадало в резуль- who has suffered as the result
тате правонарушения. of wrongdoing.
16. При некоторых обстоятельствах In certain circumstances, the
суд может наложить судебный court will issue an injunction
запрет, чтобы предотвратить to prevent the wrongdoing
дальнейшее правонарушение. from occurring again.
17. Иногда люди говорят о «суде Sometimes people talk about
по делам на небольшую сумму». “the small claims court”.
18. На самом деле они имеют в виду They really mean the special
процедуру, которая существует procedure that exists at the
в суде графства для рассмотре- county court for small claims.
ния исков на небольшую денеж-
ную сумму.
19. Иск на небольшую денежную A small claim is a claim for
сумму — это иск на сумму, a maximum amount of £5,000.
не превышающую £5,000.
20. В будущем сумма, вероятно, This amount is likely to in
будет увеличена. crease in the future.
21. Уголовные дела начинаются Criminal actions are started
государством. by the state.
22. Арестовав подозреваемого, Having arrested the suspect,
полиция должна решить, доста- the police must decide if they
точно ли у нее доказательств, have enough evidence to make
чтобы вынести официальное a formal accusation, or charge.
обвинение.
23. Если она обвинила подозрева- If they charge the suspect,
емого, она может освободить they may release him on con-
его при условии, что он явится dition that he appears on a
в определенный день в опреде- certain day at a certain magis-
ленный магистратский суд. trates’ court.
24. Это известно как безусловное This is known as uncondi-
поручительство. tional bail.
175
25. Однако вместо этого полиция However, the police may instead
может доставить подозрева- take a suspect to a magistrate so
емого в магистратский суд, that he remains in custody until
чтобы он оставался под стражей he next appears before a court.
до своего следующего появле-
ния в суде.
26. Магистратский суд может The magistrate may decide
решить, что нет необходимости that it is not necessary to hold
держать подозреваемого под the suspect in custody and may
стражей, и может согласиться agree to unconditional bail, or
на безусловное поручитель- the magistrate may grant con-
ство или может предоставить ditional bail — that is, release
условное поручительство, т.е. the suspect provided that he
освободить подозреваемого при puts some money as security.
условии, что он отдаст какую-то
сумму денег в виде залога.
27. Если ответчик признан вино- If the defendant is found guilty,
вным, суд может назначить the court can order punish-
наказание. ment.
28. Оно может быть либо приго- This can either be a custodial
вором к лишению свободы, что sentence, which means going
означает тюремное заключение, to prison, or a non-custodial
либо приговором к наказанию, sentence such as a fine, proba-
не связанному с лишением сво- tion or a community service
боды, такому как штраф, проба- order.
ция, общественные работы.

1. Starting a civil action in England and Wales:
— reasons for starting a claim;
— information included in the claim form;
— expenses connected with starting a claim;
— possible remedies for the claimant.
2. Starting a criminal action in England and Wales:
— the role of the police;
— unconditional bail, custody, conditional bail;
— possible punishment.
176
1. to appear at / before a court предстать перед судом

[əˈpɪə]
2. to award [əˈwɔ:d] damages присуждать компенсацию
3 to be found guilty of smth быть признанным виновным
4. to charge smb with smth обвинить кого-л. в чем-л.
5. claim form исковая форма
6. community service общественные работы
[kəˈmju nɪtɪ]
7. (un)conditional bail (без)условное поручительство
[ˈʌnkənˈdɪʃənl] [beɪl]
to grant [ɡrɑ:nt] an / a ~ предоставить ~
to agree to an / a ~ cогласиться на ~
8. court fee судебный сбор
9. custodial sentence приговор к лишению свободы
[kʌsˈtəudɪəl]
non-custodial sentence приговор к наказанию, не свя-
занному с лишением свободы
10. custody [ˈkʌstədɪ] арест, взятие под стражу
to remain in custody оставаться под стражей
to hold smb in custody держать кого-л. под стражей
11. to file / issue a claim in подать иск в суд
a court
12. fine штраф
13. to have evidence [ˈevɪdəns] иметь улики, доказательства
14. to issue an injunction наложить судебный запрет
[ɪnˈdʒʌŋkʃən]
15. to issue proceedings начать судебное разбиратель-
[prəˈsi:dɪŋz] ство
16. legal costs судебные издержки
17. to make a formal accusation / предъявить официальное
charge [ˌækju:ˈzeɪʃən] обвинение
18. order постановление, приказ
to order punishment назначить наказание
177
19. probation [prəˈbeɪʃən] пробация, условное освобож-
дение
20. to put some money as внести залог
security [sɪˈkjuərɪtɪ]
21. to release [rɪˈli:s] smb освободить кого-л.
22. to request smb to do smth ходатайствовать о том, чтобы
[rɪˈkwest] кто-л. сделал что-л.
23. small claims court суд по делам на небольшую
сумму
24. to suffer as the result of пострадать в результате право-
wrongdoing нарушения
Exercise 1. Complete the following sentences using

the words from the Active Vocabulary.
1. She applied for an ____________________to prevent the
magazine from publishing the photographs.
2. As a result of the injuries my client suffered in the car crash
she will bring an action seeking _____________ of £20,000.
3. We will be happy to advise you with regard to your legal
difficulties — a small ___________________ is payable in
advance.
4. The magistrate had no objection to _______________ him
unconditional bail.
5. The barrister quickly exposed the witness’s ______________
as mere hearsay as he hadn’t actually been there when the
conversation between the ___________________ and the
defendant had taken place.
6. Your ______________________ was accepted by the court
and served upon the defendant on June 12 and now we are
waiting to see if he files a defence.
7. The government demanded to ___________________ the
hostages and refused to discuss the terrorists’ demands.
8. A man is being held in police ____________________ in
connection with the murder.
178
9. She was asked to pay £150 in parking _______________,
plus legal _______________.
10. Two ______________ were arrested yesterday in connection
with the robbery.
Exercise 2. Translate.
A.
1. Его признали виновным в краже.
2. Ей присудили компенсацию, т.к договор с ней был нару-
шен.
3. Подозреваемого освободили под залог в £20,000.
4. Суд приговорил его к общественным работам.
5. Завтра я подам иск в суд.
6. Как только он внесет деньги в качестве залога, его осво-
бодят по условному поручительству.
7. У нас недостаточно доказательств, чтобы предъявить ему
официальное обвинение.
8. Они пострадали в результате несчастного случая.
9. Его уже больше двух месяцев содержат под стражей.
10. Было начато судебное разбирательство.
B.
1) Большинство гражданских исков касаются споров между
частными лицами или компаниями. Они обычно ходатай-
ствуют о том, чтобы суд обеспечил какое-либо средство
судебной защиты (legal remedy). Во многих случаях они
хотят, чтобы им компенсировали нанесенный им ущерб
или чтобы суд издал судебный запрет. Гражданские иски
носят частный характер. Государство в них не участвует.
2) За большинство правонарушений полиция может задер-
жать человека максимум на 24 часа. Если за это время
ему не предъявлено обвинение, полиция должна отпу-
стить его. За правонарушения, связанные с террориз-
мом, Закон о терроризме 2000 года разрешает задержание
на срок до 28 дней.
179
VI. Key Terms
1. Conditional bail an order to release the suspect provided

[ˈkənˈdɪʃənl beɪl] that he puts some money as security
2. Court fee a sum of money paid to the court to issue
proceedings
3. Injunction a court order that requires someone
[ɪnˈdʒʌŋkʃən] involved in a legal action to do something
or refrain from doing something
4. Legal costs money a person involved in a case in
court has to pay to lawyers, etc
5. Unconditional bail an order to the suspect to appear on a
[ˈʌnkənˈdɪʃənl beɪl] certain day at a certain magistrates’ court
Exercise 1. Read the letter below.

Dear Mr Aikenside
Personal injury claim
Thank you for your instructions in connection with a per-
sonal injury that you sustained two days ago. It was a pleasure
to meet you at this office.
To enable me to proceed with this matter properly, I would be
grateful if you give your attention to the following points:
1. I have enclosed our client care letter. This sets out our
fees and the basis on which you instruct this firm to act as your
lawyers. You should be aware that this forms a binding legal con-
tract between us and so you must ensure that you understand
the contents. When you have read the letter, please sign it and
return it to me as soon as possible. I am unable to proceed with
your legal matters until I have received this letter.
2. I have drafted a witness statement which is a statement of
truth about your claim. This has to be filed at the court together
with your claim form. The claim is against Greenwater shopping
centre, where you instructed me that you slipped on an oil-like
substance on the floor, fell over and sustained an injury to your
180
back. Please read this statement carefully to ensure that all the
facts are correct, before signing it and returning it to me. It is
my professional duty to inform you that this document forms
the grounds of your claim at court and it is your duty to tell
the truth. If you deliberately include facts that are not true, and
reaffirm them under oath in court, then you may be prosecuted
for perjury, which is the criminal offence of not telling the truth
before court.
I look forward to receiving both the signed client care letter
and the signed witness statement. As soon as I have received
both documents I can proceed with your claim.
If you have any questions about either document, or the case
in general, please do not hesitate to contact me and I will be
happy to go through any points with you. You can contact me
by telephone, or contact my secretary to arrange a convenient
meeting.
Yours sincerely
Adam Hicks
A. Find the answer to the following questions.
1. How is it possible to thank the client who has applied to the
law firm?
2. How can you refer to the previous contact?
3. How can you ask the client to do something politely?
4. How can you say that you cannot continue working on the
case politely?
5. How can you warn the client about something?
6. How can you say that you are waiting for your clients
actions?
7. How can you encourage the client to ask questions?
B. Here there are some explanations of the terms used in the
letter. Find them and translate into Russian.
Explanation English Russian
1. The document that sets out the
law firm’s fees and the basis on
which the client instructs this firm
181
Explanation English Russian
2. Something that the client tells the
law firm to do
3. A statement of truth about smb’s
claim
4. To be injured
5. Having made a formal promise to
tell the truth in a court of law
6. To continue with smth
7. The crime of telling a lie in a court
of law
Unit 7
LAW OF TORT
I. Lead-in
What would you advise people to do in the following
situations? Can they sue? Who can they sue?
1. “I bought my son a toy from a company on the Internet. The
toy is a battery-operated train. When the train was switched
on the batteries became extremely hot and my son burnt his
hand when he was playing with it.”
2. “I went into a bar last week with some friends and I slipped
on some beer that was on the floor. When I fell I cut my
hand on some broken glass. Another customer in the bar
told me that a man had dropped a bottle of beer there about
20 minutes earlier. The bar staff had been told that there was
beer and broken glass on the floor, but they had been too
busy to clean it up.”
3. Crystal Benn is a famous actress. A major newspaper has
published a story that Crystal takes illegal drugs. The story
is not true.
II. Reading
reputation [ˌrepju:ˈteɪʃən] merely [ˈmɪəlɪ]
to cause [kɔ:z] burden [ˈbə:dn]
physical [ˈfɪzɪkəl] contractual [kənˈtræktjuəl]
nature [ˈneɪtʃə] overlap [əuvəˈlæp]
accident [ˈæksɪdənt] tortfeasor [ˈtɔ:tfi:zə]
183
deliberately [dɪˈlɪbərɪtlɪ] tortious [ˈtɔ:ʃəs]
purpose [ˈpə:pəs] redress [rɪˈdres]
injunction [ɪnˈdʒʌŋkʃən] damages [ˈdæmɪdʒɪz]
remedy [ˈremɪdɪ] to compensate [ˈkɔmpənseɪt]
injured [ˈɪndʒəd] liable [ˈlaɪəbl]
to owe [əu] prosecutor [ˈprɔsɪkju:tə]
to prove [pru:v]
B) Vocabulary Notes
(1)
2. tort деликт
3. wrongful act противоправное действие
to commit a ~ against совершить ~ против кого-л.
smb
4. wrong правонарушение
5. harm / damage / hurt вред, ущерб, убыток
to cause ~ причинять, наносить ~
to suffer ~ / to be hurt понести / потерпеть ~
physical ~ внешний / физический ~
6. in nature по своей природе
7. duty of care обязанность соблюдать осторожность
breach of the ~ нарушение ~
8. by accident случайно
9. deliberately преднамеренно
10. to compensate smb for возмещать ущерб кому-л. за что-л.
smth
(2)
11. sign знак, указатель
12. to warn smb предупредить кого-л.
13. to slip on the floor поскользнуться на полу
184
14. to hurt one’s back удариться спиной, повредить спину
15. to make a claim based подать иск на основании чего-л.
on smth
(3)
16. overlap between smth частичное совпадение чего-л.
и чего-л.
17. burden of proof бремя доказывания
18. tortfeasor правонарушитель, делинквент
20. tortious action деликтное действие
21. to prove the elements of доказывать составляющие дела
the case
22. to be entitled to redress иметь право на денежную компенса-
цию, возмещение ущерба
23. injury 1. вред, ущерб 2. телесное повреж-
дение
24. remedу средство защиты права, средство
судебной защиты, возмещение
25. damages денежная компенсация
26. injunction предписание суда, судебный запрет
(4)
27. public law and order общественный правопорядок
to involve ~ затрагивать ~
28. therefore по этой причине
29. prosecutor обвинитель, прокурор
30. injured party потерпевшая сторона
31. complaining witness свидетель, принесший жалобу
32. convicted defendant осужденный
33. to pay a fine платить штраф
185
(5)
34. to be liable to smb отвечать, быть отетственным перед
кем-л.
35. contractual relationship договорные отношения
36. to owe a duty to smb иметь обязанность по отношению
к кому-л.
37. to be imposed by law налагаться законом
38. regardless of smth независимо от чего-л.
C) Text
LAW OF TORT
(1) The concept of tort is used in most English-speaking
states with common law traditions. A tort is a wrongful act
committed by an individual against another individual’s person,
property or reputation.
The law of tort deals with civil wrongs. A wrong is something
that causes harm or damage to another person. A person who
suffers harm or damage is hurt in some way. This hurt might be
physical in nature, but it might be some other type of hurt, such
as causing someone to lose money. The law of tort is connected
with the breach of the duty of care by accident but sometimes
deliberately. This area of law is based on the following principle.
In situations where I cause harm to another person, I may be
liable to compensate him or her for that harm, even in situations
when:
• I do not have a contract with that person and
• I did not commit a criminal act against that person.
(2) Let’s say that I am shopping in a large supermarket and an
employee of the supermarket washed the floor five minutes ago.
The floor is not completely dry. I do not know this. There is no
sign to warn me that the floor is wet. I slip on the floor and hurt
my back. I have to go to hospital and I cannot go to work for a
month. This is a situation where I need to make a claim based
on the principles of the law of tort. I am hurt physically and I
have perhaps lost money, all because of someone else’s conduct.
186
(3) How is this area of law different from criminal law or
contract law? The answer to this question is that there is a lot of
overlap between the law of tort, contract law and criminal law.
Although a tort and a crime appear to be the same in many
cases, the parties, burden of proof, and punishment are different.
The main purpose of the law of tort is to compensate people who
suffer harm and not to punish the tortfeasors, people who caused
this harm. The main aim of criminal law is to punish wrongdoers
and to deter other people from committing similar wrongs.
In a tortious action the claimant is the injured party who has
to prove the elements of his case. If he wins, he is entitled to
redress to compensate him for his injury. The usual remedies in
tort are damages and injunction.
(4) Crimes usually involve public law and order. Therefore,
in a criminal action the claimant is the state, represented by the
prosecutor. The person charged with committing a crime is the
defendant. The injured party is merely a complaining witness.
The state has the burden of proof. It is higher than in a tortious
action. The convicted defendant either pays a fine, or goes to
prison. The injured party receives nothing. Sometimes a crime
is also a tort and the injured party may try to get damages in a
civil court.
(5) An important difference between the law of tort and
contract law is that the law of tort makes us liable to people with
whom we have no contractual relationship. Contractual liability
is based on agreement between parties. Tort liability is based on the
duty one person owes to another. It is imposed by law regardless
of whether or not there is an agreement between the parties.

A. Compare crimes and torts. Fill in the table.
Points of comparison Torts Crimes
1. The main purpose
2. Party starting an action
3. Role of the injured party
187
Points of comparison Torts Crimes
4. Burden of proof
5. Punishment
B. Find the term for the definitions.

1. A wrongful act committed by an individual against
another individual’s person, property or reputation is a
___________________.
2. A person who commits a tort is a ___________________.
3. In a criminal action the state is represented by the
___________________.
4. The duty to prove that something that has been said in court
is true is the ___________________.
5. The injured party can get remedies in two forms: damages
and ___________________.
6. Contractual liability is based on the ___________________
between the parties.
7. Tort liability is based on the duty of ___________________.
8. Another word for compensation is ___________________.
9. If a person commits a wrong against you and you do not
have a contract with that person, you can sue him in the
___________________.
10. The injured party cannot get damages in a _________court.
C. Read the text again and answer the following questions.
1. What law system uses the concept of tort?
2. What is a tort?
3. Is a tort a civil or a criminal wrong?
4. How can a person against whom a tort is committed suffer?
5. What duty is breached when a tort is committed?
6. Is the duty of care always breached by accident?
7. What principle is this area of law based?
8. What is a person liable to do if he causes harm to another
person?
9. Can you give an example of a situation where a person suffers
because of someone else’s conduct?
188
10. What areas of law is law of tort connected with?
11. What is the difference between a tort and a crime?
12. What is the main purpose of the law of tort?
13. What is the main purpose of a criminal action?
14. Who is a tortfeasor?
15. What does the claimant have to do in a tortious action?
16. What is the claimant entitled to if he wins a tortious actions?
17. What do crimes usually involve?
18. What are the parties called in a tortious action?
19. What are the parties called in a criminal action?
20. What is the role of the injured party in a criminal action?
21. Can the injured party get damages in a criminal action?
22. Where may the injured party try to get damages?
23. What is an important difference between the law of tort and
contract law?
24. What is contractual liability is based on?
25. What is tort liability is based on?
26. How is tort liability imposed?
IV. Exercises
to be entitled to redress injured party
injury to involve public law and order
overlap between smth prosecutor
tortfeasor tortious action
deliberately by accident
to prove the elements of the case to suffer harm / damage / hurt
convicted defendant complaining witness
contractual relationship regardless of smth
to cause harm / damage / hurt to make a claim based on smth
breach of the duty of care burden of proof
to be imposed by law to commit a wrongful act against
smb
injunction remedу
189
Verb Noun Adjective
tortious
reputable
traditional
to hurt
natural
wrong
to damage
accident
warning
proof
to injure
to prosecute
liable
contract
to harm
punishment
remediable

1. If you have concluded a contract, you are obliged to fulfil
your _________ obligations (contract).
2. She was _________ for embezzlement (prosecute).
3. Two employees were _________ in the fire (injury).
4. They _________ for the supply of spare parts (contract).
5. An employee can complain of ______________ dismissal to
a county court (wrong).
6. We use only _________ carriers (reputation).
7. _________ law is generally accepted rules of human behav-
iour, applied in all societies (nature).
190
8. Everyone has to provide a _____________ of identification
before they can leave the country (prove).
9. He alleged that the newspaper article was ___________ the
company’s _____________ (damage, reputable).
10. The principal purpose of the law of tort is to provide a rem-
edy to those who have been _________ (wrongful).
11. A crime is an act which is against the law and _________ by
law (punish).
1. tort a. responsibility
2. deliberately b. to have the right to smth
3. tradition c. to accuse of smth
4. an individual d. damage
5. unlawful e. on purpose
6. behaviour f. monetary compensation
7. harm g. wrong
8. to make a claim h. distinction
9. wrongdoer i. to file a lawsuit
10. difference j. facts of the case
11. elements of the case k. tortfeasor
12. to be entitled to smth l. wrongful
13. to charge with smth m. conduct
14. damages n. penalty
15. liability o. custom
16. punishment p. a person
17. redress q. compensation
1) natural — un _____________________________
to connect — dis ___________________________
to represent — mis _________________________
191
different — in _____________________________
deliberate — in ____________________________
complete — in ____________________________
careful — careless
harmful — harmless
2) conduct, legal, guilty, to encourage, employment, formal,
important, ability, agreement, to obey, satisfactory
1. Unfortunately, I do not have the information because our
records are complete / incomplete.
2. It was cold which seemed quite natural / unnatural for late
spring.
3. Smoking is harmful / harmless to your health.
4. The police suggest that the letter was a deliberate /
indeliberate attempt to encourage disorder.
5. These statistics grossly represent / misrepresent the reality.
6. Divorced men can too easily become connected / disconnected
from their children.
7. They decided to try a radically different / indifferent approach.
8. It was careful / careless of him to leave the door unlocked.
совершить противоправное дей- причинять вред, ущерб
ствие против кого-л.
преднамеренно случайно
свидетель, принесший жалобу иметь право на денежную ком-
пенсацию, возмещение ущерба
налагаться законом бремя доказывания
возмещать кому-л. ущерб за что-л. внешний / физический вред,
ущерб
подать иск на основании чего-л. нарушение обязанности соблю-
дать осторожность
доказывать составляющие дела деликтное действие
затрагивать общественный отвечать перед кем-л.
правопорядок
192
правонарушитель, делинквент договорные отношения
средство защиты права предписание суда, судебный
запрет

преступление
совершить деликт
противоправное действие
лицу
причинять вред собственности
репутации
на возмещение ущерба
иметь право подать иск
обратиться к юристу
арест
противоправный действие
поведение
составляющие дела
доказать свою невиновность
виновность ответчика
1. In a tortious action the claimant, has to prove the elements
of his case and is entitled _________ damages to compen-
sate him _________ his injury.
2. A wrong is something that causes harm or damage ________
another person.
3. In situations where I cause harm _________ another person,
I may be liable to compensate him or her _________ that
harm.
4. The person charged _________ committing a crime is the
defendant.
5. I did not commit a criminal act _________ that person.
193
6. I cannot go to work _________ a month.
7. A tort is a wrongful act committed _________ an individual
______________ another individual’s person, property or
reputation.
8. The law of tort makes us liable _________ people _________
whom we have no contractual relationship.
9. Tort liability is imposed ____________ law __________
________________ whether or not there is an agreement
________________ the parties.
10. How is this area of law different _________ criminal law or
contract law?
11. Tort liability is based _________ the duty one person owes
_________ another.
12. The law of tort is connected ___________ the breach of the
duty of care _________ accident but sometimes deliberately.
13. The main aim of criminal law is to punish wrongdoers and to
deter other people __________ committing similar wrongs.
PREPOSITION BANK
to owe smth to smb
to charge smb with smth
to commit smth against smb
to compensate smb for smth
to deter smb from smth
to be imposed by law
to be liable for smth to smb
to be based on smth
to be entitled to smth
to be different from smth
by accident
regardless of smth

the text.
1. Crimes usually involve public ____________________ and
_____________.
2. This is a situation where I need to make a _________________
based on the principles of the law of _____________.
194
3. The law of tort is connected with the breach of the ______
__________ of _____________ by accident but sometimes
_____________.
4. There is a lot of _______________ between the law of tort,
_____________ _____________ and criminal law.
5. In a criminal action the ___________________ is the state,
represented by the _____________.
6. Sometimes a crime is also a tort and the _____________
party may try to get _____________ in a civil court.
7. An important difference between the law of tort and criminal
law is that the main ______________ of the law of tort is to
______________ people who suffer harm and not to punish
the _____________, people who caused this harm.
8. In situations where I _____________ harm to another per-
son, I may be ________________ to compensate him or her
for that harm.
9. In a __________ action the claimant, has to _____________
the elements of his case and is _____________ to redress to
compensate him for his injury.
10. Tort liability is _____________ by law regardless of whether
or not there is an agreement between the parties.
11. The state has the burden of _____________.
12. The law of tort makes us _____________ to people with
whom we have no _____________ relationship.
13. The usual ___________________ in tort are damages and
injunction.
the text.
1. Ответственность по договору основана на соглашении
между сторонами.
2. Иногда преступление является также деликтом, и потер-
певшая сторона может попытаться получить возмещение
убытков в гражданском суде.
3. В деликтном действии истец должен доказывать состав-
ляющие дела и имеет право на возмещение ущерба
за причиненный ему вред.
195
4. Я пострадал и, возможно, потерял деньги, и все это про-
изошло из-за действий другого лица.
5. Деликтное право связано с нарушением обязанности
соблюдать осторожность — случайным, а иногда и пред-
намеренным.
6. Понятие деликта используется в большинстве англо
язычных стран, в которых существуют традиции общего
права.
7. Каким образом эта область права отличается от уголов-
ного или договорного права?
8. Преступления обычно затрагивают общественный право-
порядок.
9. В случаях, когда я причиняю ущерб другому лицу,
я могу быть обязанным возместить ему этот ущерб даже
в ситуациях, когда у меня нет договора с этим лицом
и я не совершал преступных действий в отношении этого
лица.
10. Правонарушение — это то, что приносит вред или ущерб
другому лицу.
11. Лицо, обвиненное в совершении преступления, является
ответчиком.
12. Ответственность по деликту налагается законом незави-
симо от того, есть ли соглашение между сторонами или нет.
definition.
1. a legal responsibility based on a. crime
the duty one person owes to
another
2. a situation where the laws of b. tort
a country are being obeyed by
most people
3. something that causes harm or c. duty of care
damage to another person
4. an act which is against the law d. tortfeasor
and punishable by law
196
5. an agreement between parties e. contractual
which is binding in law liability
6. a person who commits a wrong f. wrong
7. a wrongful act committed by g. tort liability
an individual against another
individual’s person, property
or reputation
8. a legal obligation which h. damages
imposes a duty on individuals
not to act negligently
9. a legal responsibility for i. law and order
something as stated in the
contract
10. monetary compensation j. contract
11. a way of repairing harm or k. injunction
damage suffered
12. A court order that requires l. remedy
someone involved in a legal
action to do something or
refrain from doing something
Exercise 11.
A. Use passive sentences with model verbs as shown
in the example.
Example:
— The problem can be solved.
— The problem may be solved.
— The problem might be solved.
— The problem must be solved.
— The problem has to be solved.
— The problem is to be solved.
1. These matters are discussed.

2. A fine is paid.
3. The elements of the case are proved.
4. High damages are sought.
197
5. The action is recognized as a tortious one.
6. Harm is caused.
7. A ban is imposed.
B. Change sentences using the Passive Voice.
1. They charged Mr Green with committing a tort.
2. The prosecutor represents the state.
3. The claimant is seeking high damages.
4. The robbers stole expensive equipment yesterday.
5. He has committed a tort.
6. They recognise this action as a tortious one.
7. We must prove a breach of duty.
8. The company compensated Mr Brown for his injury.
9. The injured party must receive damages.
10. Law imposes contractual liability.
11. Mr Smith has to pay a fine.
Exercise 12. Use the words “that”, “which”, “who” only
if you cannot go without them.
Example:
Tort liability is based on the duty (that) one person
owes to another.
— The breach of duty that must be proved is defined
in a statute.
1. Common law is based on decisions ___________ the judges

make.
2. The law of torts helps those __________________ are not
in contractual relationship.
3. The plaintiff is a person _________ starts a civil action.
4. Damages are the money _____________ the defendant pays
to the plaintiff.
5. Justice is a concept _________ most people feel is very
important.
6. No country has been successful in producing laws _________
are entirely satisfactory.
7. Sometimes a just decision is simply a decision _____________
most people feel is fair.
198
8. Precedent is a decision made by a court on some case
____________ serves an example for other courts to follow.
9. A new system of law developed _________ recognized the
rights _________ were not enforced as common law.
10. The obligations _____________ the parties to contract owe
to each other may be very complicated.
11. One of the first things __________ a man learns in politics
is to be cautious about words.
12. A person ________________ suffers harm or damage is hurt
in some way.
13. Tort liability is based on the duty ____________ one person
owes to another.
attention to conjunctions.
both … and — и … и, как … так и

either … or — или … или
neither … nor — ни … ни
not only … but also — не только … но и
as well as — так же, как и
1. The convicted defendant either pays a fine or goes to prison.

2. We either settle this dispute now or I go to court.
3. We object not only to the terms of payment, but also to the
terms of delivery.
4. Both the wheat and the barley will be shipped tomorrow.
5. We have received your telegram as well as your letter of
20 May.
6. Neither weapons nor drugs have been intercepted.
Exercise 14. Translate the following sentences using
the word “impose”.
to impose — 1) облагать (налогом, сбором)
2) налагать, устанавливать,
назначать (в законе, приговоре)
to impose a ban, a tax, burden of proof on / upon
smb
199
1. Государство ввело более высокий налог на сигареты.
2. Государство ввело запрет на торговлю слоновой костью
(ivory).
3. Суд постановил выплатить штраф в размере £100.
4. Обязанность соблюдать осторожность вводится законом.
5. В гражданском деле бремя доказывания лежит на истце.
6. Они ввели запрет на курение в общественных местах.
7. Таможня на 10% увеличила налог на электротовары.
Exercise 15.

1. Понятие деликта используется The concept of tort is used in
в большинстве англоговорящих most English-speaking states
стран, в которых существуют with common law traditions.
традиции общего права.
2. Деликт — это противоправное A tort is a wrongful act com-
действие, совершенное одним mitted by an individual against
лицом против другого лица, его another individual’s person,
собственности или репутации. property or reputation.
3. Деликтное право имеет дело The law of tort deals with
с гражданскими правонаруше- civil wrongs.
ниями.
4. Правонарушение — это то, что A wrong is something that
приносит вред или ущерб дру- causes harm or damage to
гому лицу. another person.
5. Человек, который несет ущерб A person who suffers harm or
или убыток, каким-то образом damage is hurt in some way.
страдает.
6. Ущерб может быть внешним This hurt might be physi-
по своей природе, но может быть cal in nature, but it might be
и другой вид ущерба, например, some other type of hurt, such
способствование тому, чтобы кто- as causing someone to lose
либо понес денежные убытки. money.
200
7. Деликтное право связано с нару- The law of tort is connected
шением обязанности соблюдать with the breach of the duty
осторожность — случайным, of care by accident but some-
а иногда и преднамеренным. times deliberately.
8. Эта область права основана This area of law is based on
на следующем принципе. the following principle.
9. В случаях, когда я причиняю In situations where I cause
ущерб другому лицу, я могу быть harm to another person, I may
обязанным возместить ему этот be liable to compensate him
ущерб даже в ситуациях, когда: or her for that harm, even in
situations when:
• у меня нет договора с этим • I do not have a contract
лицом with that person and
• я не совершал преступных дей- • I did not commit a criminal
ствий в отношении этого лица. act against that person.
10. Давайте представим себе, что Let’s say that I am shopping
я делаю покупки в большом in a large supermarket and an
супермаркете, а сотрудник мага- employee of the supermarket
зина вымыл полы пять минут washed the floor five minutes
назад. ago.
11. Пол не совсем высох. The floor is not completely
dry.
12. Я этого не знаю. I do not know this.
13. Нет предупреждающего знака, There is no sign to warn me
что пол влажный. that the floor is wet.
14. Я поскальзываюсь на полу I slip on the floor and hurt my
и ударяюсь спиной. back.
15. Я вынужден обратиться в боль- I have to go to hospital and
ницу и не могу ходить на работу I cannot go to work for a month.
в течение месяца.
16. Это та ситуация, в которой я дол This is a situation where I need
жен подать иск, основанный to make a claim based on the
на деликтном праве. principles of the law of tort.
201
17. Я получил физические увечья и, I am hurt physically and I
возможно, потерял деньги, и все have perhaps lost money, all
это произошло из-за действий because of someone else’s
другого лица. conduct.
18. Каким образом эта область How is this area of law differ-
права отличается от уголовного ent from criminal law or con-
или договорного права? tract law?
19. Ответом на этот вопрос явля- The answer to this question is
ется то, что существует неко- that there is a lot of overlap
торое совпадение деликтного, between the law of tort, con-
договорного и уголовного права. tract law and criminal law.
20. Хотя деликт и преступление Although a tort and a crime
кажутся похожими во многих appear to be the same in many
случаях, стороны, бремя доказы- cases, the parties, burden of
вания и наказание различны. proof, and punishment are
different.
21. Главная цель деликтного права — The main purpose of the
это возместить ущерб людям, law of tort is to compensate
которым он был причинен, а не people who suffer harm for
наказать делинквента, т.е. лицо, this harm and not to punish
которое причинило ущерб. the tortfeasors, people who
caused this harm.
22. Главная цель уголовного права — The main aim of criminal law
наказать правонарушителя и удер- is to punish wrongdoers and
жать других людей от совершения to deter other people from
подобных правонарушений. committing similar wrongs.
23. В деликтном действии истец In a tortious action the claim-
является пострадавшей сторо- ant is the injured party who
ной и должен доказывать состав- has to prove the elements of
ляющие своего дела. his case.
24. Если он выиграет, он имеет If he wins, he is entitled to
право на возмещение ущерба redress to compensate him for
за причиненный ему вред. his injury.
25. Обычными средствами судебной The usual remedies in tort are
защиты при деликте являются damages and injunction.
денежная компенсация и пред-
писание суда.
202
26. Преступления обычно затраги- Crimes usually involve public
вают общественный правопоря- law and order.
док.
27. Поэтому в преступном действии Therefore, in a criminal action
истцом является государство the claimant is the state, rep-
в лице прокурора. resented by the prosecutor.
28. Лицо, обвиненное в совершении The person charged with com
преступления, является ответ mitting a crime is the defen-
чиком. dant.
30. Потерпевшая сторона является The injured party is merely
просто свидетелем, принесшим a complaining witness.
жалобу.
31. Бремя доказывания лежит на го The state has the burden of
сударстве. proof.
32. Оно выше, чем в деликтном дей- It is higher than in a tortious
ствии. action.
33. Осужденный либо платит штраф, The convicted defendant
либо садится в тюрьму. either pays a fine, or goes to
prison.
34. Потерпевшая сторона не полу- The injured party receives
чает ничего. nothing.
35. Иногда преступление является Sometimes a crime is also a
также деликтом, и потерпев- tort and the injured party
шая сторона может попытаться may try to get damages in a
получить возмещение убытков civil court.
в гражданском суде.
36. Важным различием между де An important difference bet
ликтным правом и договор- ween the law of tort and con-
ным правом является то, что tract law is that the law of
деликтное право делает нас tort makes us liable to people
ответственными перед людьми, with whom we have no con-
с которыми у нас нет договор- tractual relationship.
ных отношений.
37. Ответственность по договору Contractual liability is based
основана на соглашении между on agreement between par-
сторонами. ties.
203
38. Ответственность по деликту Tort liability is based on the
основана на обязанности одного duty one person owes to
человека по отношению к дру- another.
гим.
39. Она налагается законом незави- It is imposed by law regard-
симо от того, есть ли соглашение less of whether or not there
между сторонами или нет. is an agreement between the
parties.

1. The concept of tort.
2. The main principle of law of tort.
3. An example of a tortious action.
4. Tort vs crime:
— parties;
— burden of proof;
— punishment.
5. Tortious liability vs contractual liability.
1. to be imposed by law налагаться законом

[ɪmˈpəuzd]
2. to be liable to smb отвечать, быть ответственным
[ˈlaɪəbl] перед кем-л.
3. burden [ˈbə:dn] of proof бремя доказывания
4. by accident [ˈæksɪdənt] случайно
5. to compensate smb for smth возмещать ущерб кому-л.
[ˈkɔmpənseɪt] за что-л.
6. complaining witness свидетель, принесший жалобу
7. contractual relationship договорные отношения
[kənˈtræktjuəl]
8. convicted defendant осужденный
9. damages денежная компенсация, воз-
мещение ущерба
to award ~ присуждать ~
204
10. deliberately [dɪˈlɪbərɪtlɪ] преднамеренно
[dɪˈtə:]
12. duty of care обязанность соблюдать осто-
рожность
breach of the ~ нарушение ~
to breach of the ~ нарушить ~
13. harm / damage / hurt /injury вред, ущерб
to cause [kɔ:z] ~ причинять, наносить ~
to suffer ~ понести / потерпеть ущерб
physical ~ внешний / физический ~
14. injunction [ɪnˈdʒʌŋkʃən] предписание суда, судебный
запрет
15. injured [ˈɪndʒəd] party потерпевшая сторона
16. to make a claim based on подать иск на основании
smth чего-л.
17. to owe [əu] a duty to smb иметь обязанность перед кем-л.
18. prosecutor [ˈprɔsɪkju:tə] обвинитель, прокурор
19. to prove [pru:v] the elements доказывать составляющие дела
of the case
20. public law and order общественный правопорядок
to involve ~ затрагивать ~
21. redress [rɪˈdres] компенсация, возмещение
ущерба
to be entitled to ~ иметь право на ~
22. remedy [ˈremɪdɪ] средство защиты права, сред-
ство судебной защиты, возме-
щение
23. tort деликт
law of tort деликтное право
24. tortfeasor [ˈtɔ:tfi:zə] правонарушитель, делинквент
25. tortious action деликтное действие
[ˈtɔ:ʃəs]
26. wrongful act противоправное действие
to commit a ~ against smb совершить ~ против кого-л.
205
Exercise 1. Complete the sentences and texts using
the words and collocations from the Active
Vocabulary.
A.
1. There was a breakdown of ___________________following
the assassination of the president.
2. In most legal systems around the world the ______________
is on the claimant and not upon the defendant.
3. As a result of the ___________________ my client suffered
in the car crash she will bring an action seeking damages of
£20,000.
4. Once you reach the age of 65 you are __________________
to free travel around the city by public transport.
5. Last year the government ___________________ a ban on
smoking cigarettes in all bars and restaurants to protect the
health of the people who work with them.
6. Our firm specializes in personal injury claims, particularly
those ___________________ by accidents in the work-
place.
7. The police suggest that the letter was a ________________
attempt to encourage disorder.
8. According to the law of tort there are certain situations in
which the law imposes a _________________upon people.
9. She was awarded damages of £5,000 to ________________
her for the injuries that she suffered in the car accident last
year.
10. My client admits that his conduct was a breach of the duty of
care that he ___________________ to your client. He also
acknowledges that your client is ___________________ to
some kind of redress (компенсация), probably in the form
of damages, to compensate her for her loss.
B.
The word “tort” comes from the latin term “tortus”, which
means “twisted”. From there it came to mean “wrong”, as the
word continues to be used in French. In English, the word “tort”
206
is only used as a technical term by lawyers. The law of tort is the
law that deals with (1) ___________________wrongs. Some
law textbooks describe the law of tort as “the law of wrongs”.
What is the (2) ___________________ of this area of law?
Many lawyers describe this as the most disorganised area of law.
It has even been described as “the dustbin of law”, meaning that
it is the place where all of the problems that other areas of law
cannot deal with will eventually arrive.
However, the principal purpose of the law of tort is to provide
a remedy to those who have been wronged by others. Some of
these wrongs might be covered by (3) ___________________
law or by (4) ___________________law as well as by the law
of tort, but some might not be.
However, people are not (5) ___________________ for
wrongs to others in every situation in life. Let’s say that person
A harms person В in some way. Is person В (6) _____________
to what lawyers call “redress”? It is certainly not automatic that
person В can make a (7) ___________________ against per-
son A according to the law of tort. It depends on the type of
harm that has been (8) ___________________ and under what
circumstances. The law of tort is (9) ___________________
upon principles that have developed over many years. These
principles explain what lawyers refer to as “tortious liability”.
This is where one person or organisation has a duty in the eyes
of the law not to harm another in any way. This duty is called
a duty of (10) ___________________. To make a successful
(11) ___________________ against someone according to the
law of tort, you must first of all establish that:
• the person who has harmed you owed a duty of care to
you, and
• the duty of care was (12) ___________________.
In some cases you also need to provide the court with proof of
harm, but in other cases just proving that the duty of care was
breached is enough.
207
The main objective of the law of tort is not to punish the wrong-
doer, but to (13) ___________________ the injured party. This
compensation usually takes the form of a payment of money that
is referred to as (14) ___________________. Let’s say that per-
son A is driving dangerously and causes (15) ______________
to person В by crashing into his car. In this example, person A
has an automatic (16) __________________ not to harm any-
one in this way and that duty has been breached. A court might
(17) ___________________ damages to cover the cost of buy-
ing a new car.
A.
1. Я могу преследовать в судебном порядке человека
на основании того, что мне нанесен вред.
2. Человек, который виновен в нанесении вреда другому
лицу, называется делинквентом.
3. Основанием нашего иска против вас является то, что вы
нарушили вашу обязанность соблюдать осторожность.
4. Суд присудил моему клиенту возмещение ущерба в раз-
мере £15,000.
5. Мой клиент имеет право на возмещение ущерба за тот
вред, который ему нанесен.
6. Многие обязанности, которые мы имеем по деликтному
праву, налагаются законом.
7. Вы согласны с тем фактом, что ваш клиент несет ответ-
ственность за несчастный случай?
8. У людей нет выбора относительно того, принимать ли
ответственность по деликту, поскольку закон налагает
на них эту ответственность.
9. Основной целью деликтного права является возмещение
пострадавшей стороне ущерба, который она понесла.
10. В соответствии с английским правом каждый гражданин
имеет обязанность соблюдать осторожность по отноше-
нию к другим гражданам при определенных обстоятель-
ствах.
208
B.
Действия, которые приносят вред другому лицу, называ-
ются деликтными. Если человек совершает деликт, он вино-
вен в гражданском правонарушении. Если кто-то причи-
няет мне вред, я могу подать иск на основании деликта. Это
означает, что я могу преследовать в судебном порядке лицо
на основании того, что я пострадал. Большинство деликтов
связаны с нарушением правовой обязанности соблюдать
осторожность, которая вводится законом. Если я выиграю
дело, я получу возмещение (remedy) от лица, которое при-
чинило мне ущерб. Возмещение — это то, что компенсирует
мне понесенные потери или предотвращает дальнейшее
причинение вреда. Обычное возмещение по деликту — это
денежная компенсация. Лицо, которое виновно в соверше-
нии деликта, называется делинквентом.
VI. Key Terms
1. Contract an agreement between parties which is

binding in law
2. Crime an act which is against the law and
punishable by law
3. Damages [ˈdæmɪdʒɪz] monetary compensation
4. Duty of care a legal obligation which imposes a duty
on individuals not to act negligently
6. Remedy [ˈremɪdɪ] a way of repairing harm or damage
suffered
7. Tort a wrongful act committed by an
individual against another individual’s
person, property or reputation
8. Tortfeasor a person who commits a wrong
209
Exercise 1. Ann Edington is going to give a lecture about

tortious liability. Here are the notes that Ann
has prepared for her lecture. Read what Ann is
planning to say to her students about tortious
liability and decide whether the statements
that follow are true or false.
Lecture notes — tortious liability
It is very difficult to give an exact definition of what tortious
liability is. Lawyers and academic writers do not seem to be able
to find a clear definition upon which they agree completely. In
general, it is liability for harm that is caused to another person
due to a breach of a duty of care. Let us now look at some
important aspects of tortious liability.
• Some tortious liability arises from the common law and
some from statute.
• All citizens within a particular jurisdiction have a duty
of care automatically imposed upon them by the law of tort.
In this way, it is very different from contract law, in which the
parties to a contract assume their obligations voluntarily. For
example, the law of tort in England imposes an automatic duty
upon every citizen not to go onto anyone else’s land without his
or her permission. There is no need for any two individuals to
agree privately upon this. The parties concerned may not have
had any contact with each other at all before the tort of trespass
to land is committed. In this respect, it is much the same as in
criminal law.
• The law of tort will impose liability where a person has
acted in a certain way, or failed to act in a certain way if the
law requires it. This means that liability in the law of tort can
arise as a result of either an act or an omission. It is also possible
according to the law of tort to be liable for the acts or omissions
of another person with whom you have a certain relationship.
An employer, for example, can sometimes be held liable for the
210
acts or omissions of his or her employees. This type of liability is
called vicarious liability.
• Most of the tort claims that are brought are based on fault.
This means that the defendant has done something wrong. This
fault can consist of having an intention to commit a wrong, but
negligence is often enough to establish fault.
• Some torts are based on what lawyers call “strict
liability”. This means that there is liability in certain situations
independent of any fault. The defendant in any situation, known
as the tortfeasor, will be liable even though harm to the claimant
happened without intention or negligence. For example, let’s say
a defendant keeps something on his or her land that is dangerous,
such as a harmful chemical. The chemical escapes, due to no fault
of the defendant, and causes harm to neighbours. This is called
a breach of a strict duty. The defendant is liable even though he
or she is not at fault.
• Most torts require proof of damage suffered. In addition,
that damage must not be too remote as a consequence of the
defendant’s behaviour. However, some torts do not require proof
of actual damage. Libel is an example of this. If I write something
about someone that is not true, that person does not need proof
of damage to bring an action against me under the law of tort.
Statement True False
1. According to English law the liability that
arises in the law of tort comes from both
statute and the common law.
2. It is possible to bring a case against someone
under the law of tort without having any
kind of private agreement or contract with
that person.
3. It is impossible to be liable under the law of
tort because you haven’t done something.
4. It is impossible to be liable for the actions of
another person under the law of tort.
5. It is not always necessary to be guilty of
some fault to be liable for a tort.
211
Exercise 2. Read this information about the duty of care in
the tort of negligence. Complete the sentences
that follow by matching the first half of each
sentence with the correct ending.
In the UK and the USA most cases in tort are based upon
the tort of negligence. In order to bring a successful claim
against someone for negligence, the claimant must prove that
the defendant was in breach of his or her duty of care. The duty
of care is the duty to make sure that my conduct does not harm
anyone.
However, the law is a little more complicated than this. The
law of tort says, for example, that I am liable for:
• the things that I do, and also
• the things that I don’t do.
In other words, I can be liable for harming another person
because of my actions and I can also be liable because I fail
to do something that a reasonable person would do under the
circumstances. A lawyer will say that I am liable for my acts and
also for my omissions. Omissions are the things that I do not do.
For example, when doctors give patients medicine to treat an
illness, and that medicine is dangerous if people drink alcohol
at the same time, the doctors must warn their patients. If the
doctors do not warn the patients, then the doctors omit to tell
the patients something important and that omission can cause
harm to the patients. Both statute and the common law contain
rules about the situations in which people are liable for their acts
and their omissions.
Do I have a duty of care to everyone under all circumstances?
The answer to this is “no”. It is an established common law
principle that I am only liable in certain situations. The main
limit upon my liability to others is that the harm that I cause to
another person must be “reasonably foreseeable”.
Foreseeable means that the results of my conduct are
predictable. For example, a gas company is doing some work in
the street. The men doing the work dig a deep hole. The men
then go home at the end of the day. They do not put a sign
212
anywhere to warn people that the hole is there and they do not
provide a light. A man falls into the hole at night time and breaks
his leg. Was the result of the gas company’s omission reasonably
foreseeable? The answer to this is “yes”. A reasonable person can
anticipate the results of conduct such as this.
How do we know if something is reasonably foreseeable? The
test is objective and not subjective. It does not really matter
what the defendant says that he or she was thinking at the time of
the harmful conduct. The common law provides many principles
that come from hundreds of cases about what is foreseeable and
what is not foreseeable.
All of these factors must be considered when we ask the
question: “Is the defendant in breach of the duty of care?”
A.
1. Negligence is... a. not to do that particular thing.
2. The duty of care is... b. predictable. Something that I
anticipate might happen as a
result of my conduct.
3. Acts are... c. things that I actively do.
4. Omissions are... d. influenced by your own, personal
feelings and opinions when you
have to decide something.
5. To omit to do e. not being careful enough.
something means... It is similar in meaning to
“carelessness”.
6. Reasonably f. the duty not to harm other
foreseeable means... people. However, this duty is
limited depending upon the
situation in which the harm is
caused.
7. Objective means... g. not influenced by your own
feelings when you have to decide
something.
8. Subjective means... h. things that I do not do.
213
B. Read the information in A again and decide if statements
the following statements are true or false.
Negligence is the tort that most legal action
under the law of tort is based upon.
I am not liable for omissions under the law of
tort.
All of the rules about liability under the law of
tort come from the common law.
I do not owe a duty of care to everyone under
all circumstances.
A defendant can always escape liability by
saying that he did not personally foresee the
harm that the claimant suffered.
Unit 8
HEADS OF TORT
I. Lead-in
There are numerous individual torts but they are easily
divided into two main types. Many torts will be about unlawful
interference while many others will be about a breach of a duty
created by law.
II. Reading
negligence [ˈneɡlɪdʒəns] interference [ˌɪntəˈfɪərəns]
nuisance [ˈnju:sns] manufacturer [ˌmænjuˈfæktʃərə]
trespass [ˈtrespəs] behalf [bɪˈhɑ:f]
defamation [ˌdefəˈmeɪʃən] statutory [ˈstætjutərɪ]
vicarious [vaɪˈkɛərɪəs] defective [dɪˈfektɪv]
to anticipate [ænˈtɪsɪpeɪt] equipment [ɪˈkwɪpmənt]
permission [pəˈmɪʃən] permanent [ˈpə:mənənt]
assault [əˈsɔ:lt] libel [ˈlaɪbəl]
battery [ˈbætərɪ] slander [ˈslɑ ndə]
negative [ˈneɡətɪv] unreasonable [ʌnˈri:znəbl]
remediable [rɪˈmi:djəbl] slanderous [ˈslɑ ndərəs]
libellous [ˈlaɪbləs] capacity [kəˈpæsɪtɪ]
false [fɔ:ls] liability [ˌlaɪəˈbɪlɪtɪ]
215
B) Vocabulary Notes
(1)
1. head of tort категория деликта
2. negligence небрежность
3. nuisance нарушение покоя
4. trespass to land нарушение чужого права владения
5. trespass to the person посягательство на лицо
6. defamation диффамация, дискредитация
7. product liability ответственность за качество про-
дукции
8. vicarious liability ответственность за действия
третьих лиц
(2)
9. to anticipate smth предвидеть, предчувствовать что-л.
10. breach of the duty of нарушение обязанности соблюдать
care осторожность
11. ground for smth основание для чего-л.
12. to bring an action подать иск по деликту
in tort
13. unreasonable inter незаконное вмешательство
ference
14. use / enjoyment of land пользование недвижимостью
15. to sue in the tort of подать иск по деликту
smth
(3)
16. to enter someone’s land входить на территорию владения
17. without smb’s permis без разрешения кого-л.
sion
18. assault угроза физическим насилием
19. battery причинение физического вреда
20. false imprisonment неправомерное лишение свободы
216
(4)
21. attacks against smb’s нанесение вреда репутации кого-л.
reputation
22. through the written or в письменной или устной форме
spoken word
23. to think in a more думать хуже о ком-л.
negative way about smb
24. libel клевета в письменной форме
libellous клеветнический, оскорбительный
25. in a permanent form в постоянной форме
26. slander клевета в устной форме
slanderous клеветнический, оскорбительный
(5)
27. manufacturer производитель
28. faulty goods некачественный товар
29. on behalf of smb от имени кого-л.
30. in the normal course of в рабочее время
one’s employment
31. to seek (sought) high требовать большой денежной ком-
damages пенсации
32. statutory tort деликт, определенный в статуте
33. defective equipment неисправное оборудование
34. the 1969 Employers Закон об ответственности нанима-
Liability Act телей 1969 года
35. to be remediable in tort иметь средства судебной защиты
по деликту
36. legal capacity правоспособность
C) Text
HEADS OF TORT
(1) Lawyers refer to different kinds of torts as the heads of
tort, the most important of which are:
217
• negligence
• nuisance
• trespass to land
• trespass to the person
• defamation
• product liability
• vicarious liability
(2) Negligence occurs when you cause harm to another person
because you were not careful enough. The law of tort says that in
situations where you can anticipate that your conduct is likely
to cause harm to another person you have a duty to be careful.
Lawyers refer to this duty as the duty of care. Negligence covers
breach of the duty of care. It is the most common ground for
claimants bringing an action in tort.
Nuisance covers an unreasonable interference with a per
son’s use or enjoyment of land. This tort can be used in many
situations. An individual can sue in the tort of nuisance when
his neighbour creates too much noise or keeps rubbish that
causes unpleasant smells.
(3) Trespass to land covers entering someone’s land without
the owner’s permission.
Trespass to the person means harming someone in a physical
way. To make someone afraid that I will physically hurt him is
the tort of assault. To actually hurt someone in a physical way is
the tort of battery. To keep someone in a certain place without
that person’s permission is the tort of false imprisonment.
(4) Defamation covers attacks against someone’s reputation
through the written or spoken word. In other words, it means
saying or writing something negative about someone, so that
other people think in a more negative way about that person.
Defamation comes in two forms. The tort of libel is publishing
a libellous statement in a permanent form, for example, writing
it in a book. The tort of slander refers to a statement in a form
that is not permanent, for example, saying something slanderous
in an ordinary conversation.
(5) Product liability is the seller’s or manufacturer’s
responsibility for damage or injury caused by faulty goods.
218
Vicarious liability (liability on behalf of someone else) gives
the right to sue the employer of a person who commits a tort in
the normal course of his employment. The tort is useful when
high damages are sought and the defendant does not have the
money to pay them.
A lot of torts are based on the common law that is on
precedents. Some torts come from statutes and are known as
statutory torts. The breach of duty that must be proved is
defined in a statute. For example, injury suffered because of
defective equipment may lead to a negligence action regulated
by the 1969 Employers Liability Act.
However, not every wrong committed in the society is
remediable in tort. The claimant has to show that he has suffered
an action recognised as a tortious one and he has to show that
his relation to the tortfeaser gives him the legal capacity to sue.

A. Divide the torts mentioned in the text into two groups
and fill in the table.
Torts relating to unlawful Torts relating to a breach
interference of a duty created by law
B. Determine which the head of tort is.

battery nuisance defamation negligence
false imprisonment assault vicarious liability
1. Mary was shopping in a large department store last week.

A shop assistant says that she saw Mary take a necklace
from the shop without paying. The manager of the shop
kept Mary in an office for 45 minutes until the police arrived.
219
The manager did not allow Mary to leave. The police discover
ed that Mary paid for the necklace. Mary sued the store on
the grounds of___________________.
2. Last year Paul was successful when he sued the police on the
grounds of ___________________. Paul was taking part in
a political demonstration when a policeman kicked him and
pushed him for no reason.
3. Gary was playing football on Saturday. Gary shouted
at his friend named Bill on the other football team. He
shouted, “I am going to kill you!” This is not the tort of
________________________, as Bill did not really believe
that Gary intended to cause him physical harm in this situa-
tion.
4. “My neighbour has started to keep animals in her gar-
den. She has some hens and a small pig. The noise and
the smell are terrible. I’m thinking of suing in the tort of
____________________________.”
5. “I own a company that transports goods by lorry. Last week
one of my drivers was in a petrol station during his working
hours. He lit a cigarette and threw away a lighted match,
which caused an explosion. I can be sued in the tort of ____
____________________________.”
6. “I own a magazine that contains a lot of gossip about celeb-
rities. Last month my magazine printed a story that said a
local footballer here in Chatsworth had kept some money
raised at a charity event for homeless people. I now know
that the story was completely untrue. The fooatballer can
make a claim based on ____________________________.”
7. “I went into a bar last week with some friends and I slipped on
some beer that was on the floor. When I fell I cut my hand on
some broken glass. Another customer in the bar told me that
a man had dropped a bottle of beer there about 20 minutes
earlier. The bar staff had been told that there was beer and
broken glass on the floor, but they had been too busy to clean
it up. I can sue the bar on the grounds of _______________
_____________________.”
220
C. Here is a conversation between a lawyer and his client.
Read the conversation and answer the questions.
1. What tort is the client talking to his solicitor about?
2. What is the difference between slander and libel?
3. How are damages calculated in this case?
Solicitor: Good morning, Mr Decker. Thank you for coming
to see me today. I understand that you have a complaint about
a newspaper story concerning you and your family published on
5 September.
Mr Decker: Yes, that’s correct. The story was in a Lon-
don newspaper on 5 September and again in a magazine called
“Celebrity Gossip” on 7 September. My wife is very upset about
it. We’re trying to make sure that our children do not see the
story, but it is difficult. Because I’m a professional footballer, my
family are often in the newspapers and millions of people seem
to be interested in our personal lives.
Solicitor: I see. I understand that protecting your family is
very important to you. As a professional sportsman, people are
naturally interested in what you do. However, no one is allowed
to say or write anything untrue about you that causes damage to
your reputation. When this happens, you have the right to sue.
Mr Decker: That’s good news. I’m glad that I’m entitled to
do something about this. And I’m certainly sure that this story
damaged my reputation. But what does sue mean? Will the per-
son who wrote this story go to prison?
Solicitor: No. In England this type of thing is not a criminal
matter. It is what we call a tort. It’s a type of civil wrong. The
punishment for the person who published the story will almost
certainly be that he or she has to pay you damages.
Mr Decker: Is that the same as compensation?
Solicitor: Yes, it is. Both are a payment of money that the
court considers will compensate you for the harm that the story
did to your reputation. In this case the story was in written
form, so we will sue them on the grounds of libel.
Mr Decker: Really? I thought the grounds would be slander.
Solicitor: That would be the grounds if the untrue story
about you was spoken and not written. In this situation however,
we have good grounds for a defamation claim based upon libel.
221
D. Read the text again and answer the following questions.
1. What do lawyers call different kinds of tort?
2. What are the most important heads of tort?
3. What is the most common ground for claimants bringing an
action in tort?
4. When can negligence occur?
5. In what case do you have a duty to be careful by law?
6. What does negligence cover?
7. What does nuisance cover?
8. In what case can an individual sue in the tort of nuisance?
9. What does trespass to land cover?
10. What does trespass to the person mean?
11. In what way does assault differ from battery?
12. What is false imprisonment?
13. What does defamation cover?
14. What are the forms of defamation?
15. What is product liability?
16. What is vicarious liability?
17. What right does vicarious liability give?
18. When is the tort of vicarious liability useful?
19. What are torts based on?
20. What are statutory torts?
21. Can you give an example of a statutory tort?
22. Are all wrongs remediable in tort?
23. What does the claimant have to show?
IV. Exercises
breach of the duty of care head of tort
trespass to the person nuisance
enjoyment of land to anticipate smth
without smb’s permission unreasonable interference
false imprisonment to enter someone’s land
slander attacks against smb’s reputation
222
faulty goods libel
legal capacity in the normal course of one’s
employment
statutory tort to be remediable in tort
to think in a more negative way through the written or spoken
about smb word
battery assault
to sue in the tort of smth vicarious liability
negligence defamation
product liability ground for smth

Verb Noun Adjective
slander
to situate
anticipation
to interfere
negligent
reference
faulty
to enjoy
negation
to permit
statute
to manufacture
defect
to recognise
productive
libellous
to defame
223
1. She coped well in a difficult ____________ (situate).
2. The workers have called off their strike in ____________ of
a pay offer (anticipate).
3. Mr Brown was guilty of ___________ driving (negligence).
4. They have a ____________ image of the police (negative).
5. The Council refused ______________ for the development
(permit).
6. All the cars are tested for ____________ before they leave
the factory (defect).
7. She said that the report was ____________ (libel).
8. Games can make learning more ____________ (enjoy).
9. He made __________________ statements about the prime
Minister (slander).
10. His title to the property is ____________ (defect).
11. Read the ________________ instructions before using your
new dishwasher (manufacture).
12. They were unable to ____________ any statistics to verify
their claim (product).
13. He was accused of ____________ with the course of justice
(interfere).
14. The article made no ____________ to previous research on
the subject (refer).
15. In defamation cases a court must decide whether a statement
is ____________ (defame).
1. ground a. faulty
2. damage b. to allow
3. to bring an action in tort c. unlawful
4. defective d. during working hours
5. enjoyment of land e. to foresee
6. to permit f. basis
7. head of tort g. producer
224
8. unreasonable h. to break
9. manufacturer i. harm
10. in the normal course of j. actions
one’s employment
11. to anticipate k. talk
12. to breach l. use of land
13. conversation m. type of tort
14. conduct n. to sue in tort
1) pleasant — un _____________________________
reasonable — un ___________________________
to use — mis ______________________________
certain — un ______________________________
written — un _____________________________
normal — ab ______________________________
useful — useless
2) natural, legal, guilty, to connect, deliberate, formal, careful,
ability, complete, to obey, to represent, harmful, different
1. Great Britain has written / unwritten Constitution.
2. The strange and abnormal / normal habits of certain savage
tribes were noticed.
3. An action was brought against him for use / misuse of funds.
4. Nothing could be done. It was useful / useless to complain.
5. After the dismissal my whole future seemed certain / uncer-
tain.
6. He behaved in a very strange way. Everybody considered his
behaviour to be abnormal / normal.
7. I was very upset as he had said very pleasant / unpleasant
things.
8. It is reasonable / unreasonable to expect a person to work
seven days a week.
225
нарушение покоя некачественный товар
незаконное вмешательство правоспособность
причинение физического вреда нанесение вреда репутации
кого-л.
клевета в письменной форме ответственность за действия
третьих лиц
от имени кого-л. небрежность
иметь средства судебной защиты подать иск по деликту
по деликту
в постоянной форме деликт, определенный в статуте
в письменной или устной форме входить на территорию владе-
ния
неправомерное лишение свободы ответственность за качество
продукции
пользование недвижимостью нарушение обязанности соблю-
посягательство на лицо без разрешения кого-л.
основание для чего-л. требовать большой денежной
компенсации
угроза физическим насилием Закон об ответственности нани-
мателей 1969 года
клеветнический, оскорбительный нарушение чужого права вла-
дения

небрежности
подать иск по деликту нарушения покоя
диффамации
заявление
клеветнический статья
сообщение
226
истца
от имени ответчика
пострадавшей стороны
иска
основание для жалобы
судебного решения
1. Nuisance covers an unreasonable interference ____________
a person’s use or enjoyment of land.
2. Lawyers refer ____________ different kinds of torts as the
heads ____________ tort.
3. Trespass _________________ land covers entering some-
one’s land ____________ the owner’s permission.
4. The tort of libel is publishing the libellous statement
____________ a permanent form.
5. Vicarious liability is liability ________________ behalf of
someone else.
6. Not every wrong committed in the society is remediable
____________ tort.
7. Negligence is the most common ground _______________
claimants bringing an action ____________ tort.
8. Product liability is the seller’s or manufacturer’s responsibil-
ity ____________ damage or injury caused ____________
faulty goods.
9. A lot of torts are based ____________ the common law that
is ____________ precedents.
10. Defamation covers attacks ____________ someone’s repu-
tation ____________ the written or spoken word.
11. An individual can sue ____________ the tort of nuisance
when his neighbour creates too much noise or keeps rubbish
that causes unpleasant smells.
12. Vicarious liability gives the right to sue the employer of
a person who commits a tort ____________ the normal
course ____________ his employment.
227
PREPOSITION BANK
to sue in the tort of smth
to be remediable in tort
interference with smth
attacks against smb
ground for smth
trespass to smth
through the written or spoken word
on behalf of smb

the text.
1. The tort of ___________ is publishing a libellous statement
in a _____________ form, for example, writing it in a book.
2. Negligence occurs when you __________________ harm
to another person because you were not _______________
enough.
3. Lawyers refer to different kinds of torts as the ____________
of tort, the most important of which are: negligence, nuisance,
____________ to land, _________________ to the person,
defamation, ______________ liability, _______________
liability.
4. Defamation covers __________________ against someone’s
reputation through the ___________ or _______________
word.
5. Vicarious liability gives the right to _______________ the
employer of a person who _______________ a tort in the
normal _______________ of his employment.
6. Some torts come from statutes and are known as __________
torts.
7. To keep someone in a certain place without that person’s
___________ is the tort of _____________ imprisonment.
8. To make someone afraid that I will physically hurt him is
the tort of _______________. To actually hurt someone in
a physical way is the tort of _______________.
228
9. An individual can sue in the tort of _______________ when
his neighbour creates too much noise or keeps rubbish that
causes _______________ smells.
10. The law of tort says that in situations where you can
___________________ that your conduct is likely to cause
___________________ to another person then you have a
_________________ to be careful.
11. Product liability is the seller’s or manufacturer’s responsibility
for _____________ or injury caused by _______________
goods.
12. The tort of __________________ refers to a statement in
a form that is not permanent, for example, saying something
slanderous in an _______________ conversation.
the text.
1. Многие деликты основаны на общем праве, т.е. на пре-
цедентах.
2. Ответственность за качество выпускаемой продук-
ции — это ответственность продавца или производителя
за ущерб, который может причинить некачественный
товар.
3. Нарушение правовой обязанности, которое должно быть
доказано, определено в статуте.
4. Деликт клеветы в устной форме относится к заявлениям,
которые не носят постоянного характера, — например,
произнесение чего-то оскорбительного во время обычной
беседы.
5. Нарушение владения — это вторжение на чью-либо тер-
риторию без разрешения владельца.
6. Деликтное право гласит, что в ситуациях, в которых вы
можете предвидеть, что ваши действия могут причинить
вред другому лицу, у вас есть обязанность быть осторож-
ным.
7. Заставить кого-либо бояться, что ему будет нанесен
физический вред, значит совершить деликт угрозы физи-
ческим насилием.
229
8. Диффамация — это нанесение вреда чьей-либо репута-
ции в письменной или устной форме.
9. Небрежность – это нарушение обязанности соблюдать
осторожность.
10. Небрежность происходит, когда вы причиняете вред дру-
гому лицу, потому что вы недостаточно осторожны.
11. Человек может подать иск по деликту нарушения покоя,
если его сосед слишком сильно шумит или хранит мусор,
который неприятно пахнет.
12. Юристы говорят о разных деликтах как о категориях
деликта, наиболее важными из которых являются:
небрежность, нарушение покоя, нарушение чужого
права владения, посягательство на лицо, диффамация,
ответственность за качество продукции, ответственность
за действия третьих лиц.
13. Однако средства судебной защиты по деликту касаются
не каждого правонарушения, совершенного в обществе.
14. Например, травма, вызванная неисправным оборудова-
нием, может привести к иску по деликту небрежности,
регулируемому Законом об ответственности нанимате-
лей 1969 года.
definition.
1. breach of the duty of care a. nuisance
2. entering someone’s land without b. vicarious liability
the owner’s permission
3. an untrue spoken statement which c. trespass to the
damages someone’s reputation person
4. harming someone in a physical way d. defamation
5. a published or broadcast statement e. assault
which damages someone’s
reputation
6. using force against another person f. libel
7. an unreasonable interference with g. false
a person’s use or enjoyment of land imprisonment
230
8. acting in such a way that someone h. negligence
is afraid that he or she will be
physically hurt
9. keeping someone in a certain place i. product liability
without that person’s permission
10. liability on behalf of someone else j. battery
11. attacks against someone’s k. statutory tort
reputation through the written or
spoken word
12. a tort defined in a statute l. trespass to land
13. the seller’s or manufacturer’s m. slander
responsibility for damage or injury
caused by faulty goods
Exercise 11. Read the story of the most famous negligence

case and put the verbs into correct forms.
THE MOST FAMOUS TORT CASE
On 26 August 1928, Mrs May Donoghue of Glasgow (0) left
her home to make the short journey into Paisley, a neighbour-
ing town. Upon arriving in Paisley, Mrs Donoghue (1) (meet)
a friend at Minchella’s cafe. Her friend (2) (order) and (3) (pay)
for a pear, an ice-cream and a bottle of ginger beer, which is
a drink that was very popular at that time.
The ginger beer (4) (manufacture) by Mr David Stevenson
of Paisley. It (5) (come) in an “opaque” bottle, so unfortunately
no one was able to see what was in the bottle until the contents
(6) (pour) out. The cafe’s owner, Mr Francis Minchella, (7)
(pour) part of the ginger beer onto Mrs Donoghue’s ice cream
to make what is known as “an ice cream float”. Mrs Donoghue
apparently (8) (begin) to eat with enthusiasm.
What happened next was the basis for the entire case. It is
said that when Mrs Donoghue’s friend (9) (pour) out the rest
of the contents of the bottle into a glass, he or she saw some
remains of a snail (остатки улитки) (10) (float) out of the bot-
tle. Mrs Donoghue (11) (claim) she was made ill by what she
231
(12) (see). Certainly, she (13) (have) medical treatment from
her doctor three days later for gastro-enteritis, and again three
weeks later, on 16 September 1928, at the Glasgow Royal Infir-
mary (королевская больница). She also claimed that she (14)
(suffer) from “nervous shock”.
If it (15) (be) Mrs Donoghue’s mysterious friend (he or she
was never named), rather than Mrs Donoghue herself who (16)
(suffer) the effects of the ginger beer, then the legal world prob-
ably (17) (hear) nothing about it. The friend (18) (sue) Mr
Minchella because there was a contract of sale between them, of
which Mr Minchella (19) (be) clearly in breach. However, there
(20) (be) no contractual relationship between Mr Minchella
and Mrs Donoghue. The only person she could possibly sue was
David Stevenson, the manufacturer of the ginger beer. The ques-
tion was, on what grounds?
Mrs Donoghue (21) (advise) by a remarkable solicitor,
Walter Leechman, of Leechman and Co, Glasgow. Mr Leech-
man (22) (decide) to proceed with Mrs Donoghue’s case, even
though there (23) (be) no legal precedent for such an action.
The basis of the claim was simple. It was that any manufacturer
of a product intended for human consumption must be liable to
the consumer for any damage resulting from a lack of reasonable
care to ensure that the product is fit for consumption.
The case (24) (proceed) through various appeals to the
highest court in the land, the House of Lords. The Lords (25)
(decide) in favour of Mrs Donoghue, and so it (26) (happen)
that a new precedent (27) (establish). These days, millions of
pounds and dollars (28) (win) by claimants based on the tort of
negligence.
Exercise 12. Translate paying attention to nouns and
pronouns before the Gerund.
Example:
It is the most common ground for claimants bring
ing an action in tort.
— Это самое распространенное основание для
истцов, подающих иск по деликту.
232
A.
1. Nobody objected to the contract / contract’s being made.
2. She doesn’t mind the reporters / reporters’ interviewing
her.
3. The trial resulted in him / his being sentenced to 3 years in
prison.
4. He insisted on Mr Jones / Mr Jones’ trespassing his prop-
erty.
5. I wonder what the reason is for her son remaining in custody
so long.
6. He denies them / their bringing an action for nuisance.
7. I don’t approve of you / your supporting Walter.
8. I remember her seeking high damages.
9. I regret Peter / Peter’s having said that.
10. We were disappointed at them / their getting no monetary
compensation.
B.
1. Он гордится тем, что его сына назначили прокурором.
2. Они были против того, чтобы он подал иск по деликту
небрежности.
3. Я сожалею о том, что Джону не выплатили денежную
компенсацию.
4. Он настаивал на том, чтобы контракт был заключен.
5. Все зависит от того, получишь ли ты хорошее образова-
ние.
6. Он не одобрял того, что она много работала сверхурочно.
7. Она настаивала на том, что репутации ее мужа нанесен
ущерб.
8. Они настаивали на том, что работодатель нарушил свою
обязанность соблюдать осторожность.
9. Работодатель отрицал, что деликт был совершен в рабо-
чее время.
10. Питер сожалел, что магазину был поставлен некачествен-
ный товар.
233
Exercise 13. Fill in the gaps with the words either “damage”
or “damages”.
Damage — вред, повреждение; дефект, поломка;
убыток, ущерб, урон
Damages — денежная компенсация, возмещение
ущерба, возмещение убытков
1. The closure of a factory will cause severe _____________ to

the local economy.
2. The court awarded him £15,000 in ______________.
3. These chemicals have been found to cause serious
environmental ______________.
4. His eyesight suffered irreparable ______________.
5. He claims that there has been a considerable ______________
to his reputation.
6. The usual remedies in tort are ____________________ and
injunction.
7. If the ______________ caused to the claimant by the
defendant’s conduct was not reasonably foreseeable then a
court might describe this as remote ______________.
8. The amount of ______________ that you have to pay will
depend on the circumstances of the case.
9. The liability that people have under the law of tort where
no proof of ______________ is required, is known as strict
liability.
attention to the word “ground”.
A.
1. Does he have good grounds for complaint?
2. The proposal was rejected on environmental grounds.
3. We oppose the bill on the grounds that it discriminates
against women.
4. Often parents and teenagers think they have little common
ground.
5. Mental cruelty (психическая жестокость) can be grounds
for divorce.
234
6. Jason vowed (клясться) to stand his ground, even if it
meant losing his job.
7. The rivers are used as dumping grounds (место сброса
отходов) for industrial waste.
8. The man has gone to ground since his photograph was
published in a national paper.
B.
1. Каковы основания для подачи иска на возмещение
ущерба?
2. Нет оснований для подачи на нас иска.
3. Есть достаточные основания верить его заявлению.
4. Каковы основания для его ареста?
5. Они подали иск на основании деликта небрежности.
attention to the word “way”.
to harm someone in a physical way —
причинить кому-л. физический вред
way — путь, манера, способ, особенность,
характерная черта
A.
1. Much was certainly lost when the former Soviet Republics
decided to go separate ways.
2. I will find a way to do it.
3. Freezing isn’t a bad way of preserving food.
4. Another way of making new friends is to go to an evening class.
5. He had a strange way of talking.
6. She smiled in a friendly way.
7. It is not in his way to be communicative.
8. I urged him to alter his ways.
9. He has changed in every way.
10. The changes will benefit the company in more ways than one.
B.
1. Он странно ответил мне.
2. У нас есть несколько способов решить эту проблему.
235
3. Мы попытались решить спор разумным путем.
4. Начальник разговаривал с работником в оскорбительном
тоне.
5. Работник действовал небрежно.
Exercise 16.
А. Read the Russian part of the text comparing it with

1. Юристы говорят о разных делик- Lawyers refer to different
тах как о категориях деликта, kinds of torts as the heads of
наиболее важными из которых tort, the most important of
являются: небрежность, нару- which are: negligence, nui-
шение покоя, нарушение чужого sance, trespass to land, tres-
права владения, посягательство pass to the person, defamation,
на лицо, диффамация, ответ- product liability, vicarious
ственность за качество продук- liability.
ции, ответственность за действия
третьих лиц.
2. Небрежность происходит, когда Negligence occurs when you
вы причиняете вред другому cause harm to another person
лицу, потому что вы недоста- because you were not careful
точно осторожны. enough.
3. Деликтное право гласит, что The law of tort says that in
в ситуациях, в которых вы situations where you can
можете предвидеть, что ваши anticipate that your con-
действия могут причинить вред duct is likely to cause harm
другому лицу, у вас есть обязан- to another person you have a
ность быть осторожным. duty to be careful.
4. Юристы называют эту обязан- Lawyers refer to this duty as
ность обязанностью соблюдать the duty of care.
осторожность.
5. Небрежность — это нарушение Negligence covers breach of
обязанности соблюдать осторож- the duty of care.
ность.
6. Это самое распространенное осно It is the most common
вание для подачи иска по деликту. ground for claimants bring-
ing an action in tort.
236
7. Нарушение покоя — это незакон- Nuisance covers an unrea-
ное вмешательство в чье-либо sonable interference with
право пользования недвижи a person’s use or enjoyment
мостью. of land.
8. Этот деликт может использо- This tort can be used in many
ваться во многих ситуациях. situations.
9. Человек может подать иск по де An individual can sue in the
ликту нарушения покоя, если его tort of nuisance when his
сосед слишком сильно шумит или neighbour creates too much
хранит мусор, который неприятно noise or keeps rubbish that
пахнет. causes unpleasant smells.
10. Нарушение владения — это втор- Trespass to land covers enter-
жение на чью-либо территорию ing someone’s land without
без разрешения владельца. the owner’s permission.
11. Посягательство на лицо означает Trespass to the person means
причинение физического вреда harming someone in a physi-
кому-либо. cal way.
12. Заставить кого-либо бояться, что To make someone afraid that
ему будет нанесен физический I will physically hurt him is
вред, значит совершить деликт the tort of assault.
угрозы физическим насилием.
13. Действительное нанесение кому- To actually hurt someone in
либо физического вреда называ- a physical way is the tort of
ется деликтом причинения физи- battery.
ческого вреда.
14. Насильственное удержание кого- To keep someone in a certain
либо в каком-либо месте явля- place without that person’s
ется неправомерным лишением permission is the tort of false
свободы. imprisonment.
15. Диффамация — это нанесение Defamation covers attacks
вреда чьей-либо репутации в пись- against someone’s reputation
менной или устной форме. through the written or spo-
ken word.
237
16. Иными словами, это значит напи In other words, it means
сать или сказать что-то негатив- writing or saying something
ное о ком-либо с целью, чтобы negative about someone, so
другие люди думали хуже об этом that other people think in
человеке. a more negative way about
that person.
17. Диффамация бывает в двух фор- Defamation comes in two
мах. forms.
18. Деликт клеветы в письменной The tort of libel is publish-
форме — это опубликование кле- ing a libellous statement in a
ветнического заявления в посто- permanent form, for example,
янной форме, например, написа- writing it in a book.
ние его в книге.
19. Деликт клеветы в устной форме The tort of slander refers to
относится к заявлениям, кото- a statement in a form that is
рые не носят постоянного харак- not permanent, for example,
тера, — например, произнесе- saying something slanderous
ние чего-то оскорбительного in an ordinary conversation.
во время обычной беседы.
20. Ответственность за качество Product liability is the sell-
выпускаемой продукции — это er’s or manufacturer’s respon-
ответственность продавца или sibility for damage or injury
производителя за ущерб, кото- caused by faulty goods.
рый может причинить некаче-
ственный товар.
21. Ответственность за действия Vicarious liability (liability
третьих лиц дает право подать on behalf of someone else)
иск на работодателя лица, совер- gives the right to sue the
шившего деликт в рабочее время. employer of a person who
commits a tort in the normal
course of his employment.
22. Этот деликт полезен, когда тре- The tort is useful when high
буется большая денежная ком- damages are sought and the
пенсация, а у ответчика недоста- defendant does not have the
точно денег, чтобы выплатить ее. money to pay them.
23. Многие деликты основаны A lot of torts are based on the
на общем праве, т.е. на прецеден- common law that is on pre
тах. cedents.
238
24. Некоторые деликты происходят Some torts come from sta
из статутов и известны как ста- tutes and are known as statu-
тутные деликты. tory torts.
25. Нарушение правовой обязанно- The breach of duty that must
сти, которое должно быть дока- be proved is defined in a sta
зано, определено в статуте. tute.
26. Например, травма, вызванная For example, injury suffered
неисправным оборудованием, because of defective equip-
может привести к иску по деликту ment may lead to a negli-
небрежности, регулируемому gence action regulated by
Законом об ответственности the 1969 Employers Liability
нанимателей 1969 года. Act.
27. Однако средства судебной However, not every wrong
защиты по деликту касаются committed in the society is
не каждого правонарушения, remediable in tort.
совершенного в обществе.
28. Истец должен показать, что он The claimant has to show that
пострадал от действия, признан- he has suffered an action re
ного деликтным, и что его отно- cognised as a tortious one and
шение к делинквенту дает ему he has to show that his rela-
право подать иск. tion to the tortfeaser gives
him the legal capacity to sue.

1. Heads of tort.
2. Negligence (duty of care).
3. Nuisance (unreasonable interference).
4. Trespass to land.
5. Trespass to the person:
— assault;
— battery;
— false imprisonment.
6. Defamation (attacks against reputation):
— slander;
— libel.
7. Product liability.
239
8. Vicarious liability.
9. Statutory torts.
1. assault [əˈsɔ:lt] угроза физическим насилием

2. attacks against smb’s нанесение вреда репутации
reputation [ˌrepju:ˈteɪʃən] кого-л.
3. battery [ˈbætərɪ] причинение физического вреда
4. to be remediable in tort иметь средства судебной защиты
[rɪˈmi:djəbl] по деликту
5. breach of the duty of care нарушение обязанности соблю-
6. to bring an action in tort / подать иск по деликту
to sue in the tort of smth
7. defamation [ˌdefəˈmeɪʃən] диффамация, дискредитация
defamatory [dɪˈfæmətərɪ] дискредитирующий
8. enjoyment of land пользование недвижимостью
9. false [fɔ:ls] imprisonment неправомерное лишение свободы
10. faulty / defective goods некачественный товар
[ˈfɔ:ltɪ] [dɪˈfektɪv]
11. ground for smth основание для чего-л.
12. head of tort категория деликта
13. legal capacity [kəˈpæsɪtɪ] правоспособность
14. libel [ˈlaɪbəl] клевета в письменной форме
libelous [ˈlaɪbləs] клеветнический, оскорбительный
15. negligence [ˈneɡlɪdʒəns] небрежность
negligent [ˈneɡlɪdʒənt] небрежный
16. nuisance [ˈnju:sns] нарушение покоя
17. on behalf [bɪˈhɑ:f] of smb от имени кого-л.
18. product liability ответственность за качество про-
[ˌlaɪəˈbɪlɪtɪ] дукции
19. to seek high damages требовать большой денежной
компенсации
240
20. slander [ˈslɑ:ndə] клевета в устной форме
slanderous [ˈslɑ:ndərəs] клеветнический, оскорбительный
21. statutory [ˈstætjutərɪ] tort деликт, определенный в статуте
22. through the written or в письменной или устной форме
spoken word
23. trespass to land нарушение чужого права владе-
[ˈtrespəs] ния
24. trespass to the person посягательство на лицо
25. unreasonable interference незаконное вмешательство
[ʌnˈri:znəbl] [ˌɪntəˈfɪərəns]
26. vicarious liability ответственность за действия
[vaɪˈkɛərɪəs] третьих лиц
27. without smb’s permission без разрешения кого-л.
[pəˈmɪʃən]
Exercise 1.
A. Complete the sentences using the words and collocations
from the Active Vocabulary.
1. My new mobile phone doesn’t work properly. I have returned
it to the phone company with a letter saying that I haven’t
damaged it at all and that it was ___________________
from the very first time I tried to use it.
2. The actor decided that the comments made about him in a
radio discussion amounted to ___________________ and
he consulted his lawyer immediately.
3. The right of quiet ___________________ is the right of an
occupier to occupy a property without anyone interfering
with that right.
4. If you want to sue them in the tort of defamation, you need
sufficient ___________________and I can’t a good enough
reason for you to go ahead.
5. The disturbance caused by the new theme park was so bad
that nearby homeowners decided to ___________________
an action for ____________________to try to reduce noise
levels.
241
6. The court decided that his failure to maintain the machinery
properly amounted to gross _____________________ and
the injured employee was awarded substantial ___________
____________.
7. If you enter premises without ___________________ it is
the tort of ___________________.
8. ___________________ and ___________________ are
collectively known as the tort of defamation.
9. The law of tort says that you have a duty of _______________
to other people.
10. The liability of an employer for acts committed by an employee
in the course of work is known as ___________________
liability.
11. Trespass to the person comes in two forms _______________
and ___________________.
B. Complete the texts using the words and collocations from
the Active Vocabulary of Unit 7 and Unit 8.
THE LAW OF TORT
The law of tort compensates people who suffer a (1) ________
____________ wrong. The formal name for a civil wrong is
a (2) ___________________. Several different categories of
tort exist under English law. Lawyers refer to these categories
as “the (3) ___________________ of tort”. These divide easily
into two main types. They are torts relating to people and torts
relating to land.
The tort that deals with being on another person’s
land without his or her permission is known as the tort of
(4) ______________ to land. This tort also includes plac-
ing objects on another person’s land without that person’s
(5) ___________________. The second tort relating to land
is the tort of nuisance. This is the tort of interfering with some-
one’s (6) ___________________ of his or her own land. The
usual complaints from claimants in this area are noise, pollution
or bad smells. All of these are unacceptable when they last for
a long period of time.
242
The second category of tort deals with a person’s (7) _______
_________________ that causes harm to another person. Most
cases in this area are on the grounds that the defendant was
(8) ___________________. The unacceptable behaviour can
be an act or an omission. An omission is a failure to do something
that a normal, reasonable person would do under the same cir-
cumstances. However, the law places a limitation upon liability
for negligent acts or omissions. The law says that a person only
owes a (9) ___________________ to another person in situa-
tions where it was reasonably foreseeable that the act or omis-
sion would (10) ___________________ harm.
The law of tort is concerned with the idea of redress more
than with the idea of punishment. The main aim of the law of
tort is to compensatethe (11) ___________________ party. In
cases where the defendant has liability for causing harm, the law
offers the claimant a remedy. This means the claimant receives a
solution for the wrong that he or she suffered.
In a case involving tort, the defendant, who is referred to
by the formal name of a (12) _____________________, will
usually have to pay damages to the claimant if he or she is
(13) ___________________ of causing harm.
A.
1. Клевета в письменной форме считается более серьезной,
чем клевета в устной форме, поскольку вещи, которые
написаны, более постоянны, чем вещи, которые сказаны.
2. У нас у всех есть право пользоваться свой собственно-
стью. Человека, который мешает другому человеку поль-
зоваться своей собственностью, могут заставить заплатить
денежную компенсацию или прекратить совершать деликт
нарушения покоя путем наложения судебного запрета.
3. Деликт диффамации касается нанесения вреда репута-
ции.
4. Не все сказанные неприятные или недобрые вещи могут
стать предметом диффамации.
243
5. Каждый год тысячи людей погибают или получают
травмы в несчастных случаях на дорогах или на работе.
Это часто происходит потому, что кто-то нарушил обя-
занность соблюдать осторожность.
6. На человека можно подать иск на возмещение ущерба,
если он входит на чью-либо территорию без разрешения
владельца.
7. Вещи, которые передаются по радио и телевидению
и по этой причине могут стать известными миллио-
нам людей, считаются клеветой в письменной форме,
а не клеветой в устной форме.
8. Суд может постановить, чтобы лицо, вторгающееся
в чужие владения, выплатило денежную компенсацию.
Он также может наложить судебный запрет — постанов-
ление суда, запрещающее входить на территорию владе-
ния в дальнейшем.
9. Если стороны не могут достичь соглашения и урегули-
ровать спор самостоятельно, суд должен решить, кто вел
себя неосторожно и какая компенсация должна быть.
10. Пострадавшая сторона не может получить денежную
компенсацию в уголовном преследовании. Для получе-
ния убытков необходимо возбудить гражданское дело.
B.
1) Если я хочу подать иск против кого-либо, действия этого
лица должны подпадать под (fit into) одну из категорий
деликта. Однако некоторые области деликтного права
постоянно развиваются. По мере того как общество меня-
ется, действия, которые мы считаем неприемлемыми или
приносящими вред, тоже меняются.
Юристы обычно разделяют виды деликта на две кате-
гории. Это деликты, которые наносят вред людям,
и деликты, которые наносят вред недвижимости.
2) Нарушение чужого права владения означает вхождение
на территорию владения без разрешения владельца. Это
может быть прогулка по территории или ее использова-
ние на постоянной основе. Нарушение чужого права вла-
244
дения также включает размещение объектов на чужой
территории без разрешения владельца.
3) Нарушение покоя означает вмешательство в чье-либо
пользование своей собственной недвижимостью. Это
означает, что каждый человек имеет право пользоваться
своим домом или другой недвижимостью. Ни у кого нет
права помешать ему в этом. Истцы, которым не удалось
выиграть дело по деликту нарушения чужого права вла-
дения, часто используют этот деликт как основание для
судебного разбирательства.
Например, у меня в саду есть красивые деревья. Неда-
леко от моего дома находится фабрика, которая исполь-
зует сильные химикаты (strong chemicals). Эти химикаты
издают сильный запах, а кроме того, из-за паров, кото-
рые исходят от этих химикатов, гибнут деревья в моем
саду. Владелец фабрики не совершил деликта нарушения
чужого права владения. Однако его действия могут дать
мне право подать против него иск на основании наруше-
ние покоя.
VI. Key Terms
1. Assault [əˈsɔ:lt] acting in such a way that someone is afraid

that he or she will be physically hurt
2. Battery [ˈbætərɪ] using force against another person
3. Defamation attacks against someone’s reputation
[ˌdefəˈmeɪʃən] through the written or spoken word
4. False [fɔ:ls] impri keeping someone in a certain place without
sonment that person’s permission
5. Libel [ˈlaɪbəl] a published or broadcast statement which
damages someone’s reputation
6. Negligence breach of the duty of care
[ˈneɡlɪdʒəns]
7. Nuisance [ˈnju:sns] an unreasonable interference with
a person’s use or enjoyment of land
8. Product liability the seller’s or manufacturer’s responsibility
[ˈprodəkt ˌlaɪəˈbɪlɪtɪ] for damage or injury caused by faulty goods
245
9. Slander [ˈslɑ:ndə] an untrue spoken statement which damages
someone’s reputation
10. Statutory tort a tort defined in a statute
[ˈstætjutərɪ]
11. Trespass to land entering someone’s land without the
[ˈtrespəs] owner’s permission
12. Trespass [ˈtrespəs] harming someone in a physical way
to the person
VII. Case Study

A. Read this information about a famous case from the law
of tort in England. Fill in the table that follows.
A FAMOUS CASE IN ENGLISH LAW
“The McLibel case”
On 15 February 2005, the longest case in English legal his-
tory came to an end. The case lasted for an amazing nine years
and six months, the longest case in either criminal or civil legal
history. There were 313 days of legal argument in court and
20,000 pages of court transcripts, which are the documents that
record what happened in court. 130 witnesses gave oral evidence
to the court. This case was based upon the law of tort.
The case was famous all over the world because of the nick-
name that people gave to it. This nickname was “the McLibel
case”. The claimant in the McLibel case was of course, McDo
nald’s, the chain of fast food restaurants. The case was so famous
that the word “McLibel” now appears in some respected English
dictionaries.
The facts of the case are as follows. The defendants in this
case, Helen Steel and David Morris, belonged to a group of peo-
ple who were worried about the environment and about the way
that certain large corporations were behaving in relation to the
environment. The group decided that the best way to tell the
public about this was to give out leaflets containing informa-
tion about the problem. In 1990, Helen and David stood outside
several McDonald’s restaurants in London. They gave leaflets to
246
people who were in the area. The title of the leaflets was “What’s
wrong with McDonald’s: Everything they didn’t want you to
know”.
The problem was that the leaflets contained some very con-
troversial claims. For example, the leaflet said that McDonald’s
was partly to blame for the destruction of the rainforests. It also
claimed that McDonald’s’ food was unhealthy and eating too
much of this food could give people health problems later in life.
In 1990 McDonald’s issued a claim against Helen and David
on the grounds of libel. The company did not need proof of
damage, as libel is actionable per se. The libel trial started in
1994. There was no judgment until three years later. Helen
and David were found to be guilty of libel. In 1999 Helen and
David appealed, but again they were ordered to pay damages to
McDonald’s.
Helen and David refused to pay the damages. They decided
instead to appeal to the European Court of Human Rights in
Strasbourg. Two barristers from England represented Helen and
David in Strasbourg. The Strasbourg court made a decision that
changed English law. The court decided that the English court
followed the correct procedure but that nevertheless the trial in
England was unfair. This was mainly because Helen and David
were poor compared to a big corporation such as McDonald’s,
which meant that they could not pay for an expensive legal
team. As a result of this, Helen and David’s defence was not so
well prepared. The court also ruled that Helen and David’s right
to free expression was violated. The court awarded Helen and
David damages of nearly £47,000.
1. The facts of the case
2. The ground for the claim
3. The claimant
4. The defendant
5. The decision of the English Court
6. The decision of the European
Court of Human Rights
247
Use the following plan when you decide a case:
A. General information
1. The case relates to… (law of tort)
2. The facts of the case are as follows: …
B. Case solution
1. The issue raised by the case is whether…
2. Judging from the facts of the case…
C. If the parties go to court
1. The claimant is…
2. The defendant is…
3. The claimant can file a claim on the grounds of…
4. If the claimant wins a claim, he may be entitled to the following
remedies: …
4. Personal comments
From my point of view, in my opinion / view, I think, I believe,
I suppose…
B. Speak about the torts committed using the plan above.

1. Mrs. Brown was trapped in the ladies’ lavatory because of
a faulty lock on the door. She fell and was injured while try-
ing to climb out by standing on the toilet-roll holder.
2. An elderly woman throws large amounts of bread around
her house. Birds flock to her home, which is a semidetached
house in a suburban area. It causes serious inconvenience
and concern to her neighbours, because they think it is dan-
gerous for health.
3. Cynamon Product is a limited company. They produce col-
lapsible furniture. They send their employee Christopher to
collect five pounds of nails from the local ironmonger. On the
way back Christopher falls off the bike and drops the bag of
nails on the road. A patrol tank goes along the same road.
Its tyres burst. The tanker swings, bumps over the pavement
and finishes with its nose in someone’s front garden.
4. “My neighbour walks across my land as a shortcut to the
shops. I have been asking him to stop doing this for months
now, but he doesn’t listen to me.”
248
VIII. Additional Materials
Exercise 1. Read this information about some of the general

principles of the tort of negligence. Match the
questions that follow this information with
the answers that are provided.
The rules in the law of tort concerning negligence aim to
compensate anyone who suffers harm. However, these rules have
another purpose. They aim to act as a deterrent against negli-
gent conduct. A deterrent is something that persuades a person
not to behave in a particular way. For example, the idea of prison
may act as a deterrent to a person who considers committing a
criminal act. The principles of the tort of negligence are designed
to act as a deterrent against negligent conduct. Negligent con-
duct is behaviour that might lead to harm.
However, when a person is guilty of negligent conduct then
it may be necessary to make a claim against that person. A court
will look at the evidence and decide if the claimant is entitled to
redress. The verb “to redress” means to correct something that
is unfair, usually by putting the claimant back in the position
that he or she was in before the negligent conduct happened.
The noun “redress” has a very similar meaning to compensation.
Redress usually takes the form of damages. Lawyers often talk
about being “entitled to redress”. This means being entitled to
receive compensation or damages. Lawyers do not say “entitled
to a redress”.
As we already know, a court first of all considers whether or
not the defendant owed a duty of care to the claimant. If there
is no duty of care, then there is no claim. Then the court con-
siders whether or not that duty of care was breached. If there
was a breach, was the harm that the claimant suffered reasonably
foreseeable? If the harm was not reasonably foreseeable then
a lawyer will describe it as remote damage. The claimant is not
usually entitled to redress for remote damage.
Some torts require proof of damage. In other words, the
claimant must prove that the defendant’s conduct caused harm.
However, some torts, such as libel, are actionable per se. If con-
duct is actionable per se, it means that the claimant does not
249
need to provide proof of damage. The phrase “per se” is Latin.
In English, per se means “by itself”. The fact that the defendant
committed the tort is enough for the claimant to be entitled to
redress.
1. What is a. It means the same as
a deterrent? compensation.
2. What is negligent b. It means that the claimant can
conduct? make a claim for the thing that
happened without any evidence
of actual harm
3. What does redress c. It is evidence that the claimant
mean? actually suffered real harm,
such as physical harm or loss of
money.
4. What is remote d. It is something that is designed
damage? to make people not do
a particular thing or not behave
in a particular way.
5. What is proof of e. It is careless behaviour that is
damage? likely to cause harm to another
person.
6. What does it mean f. It is damage that the defendant
if something is could not reasonably foresee.
actionable per se?
Exercise 2. Read a lawyer’s letter to his client and answer

the questions after the letter.
Dear Mr Aikenside
Personal injury claim
Thank you for your instructions in connection with a per-
sonal injury that you sustained two days ago. It was a pleasure
to meet you at this office.
To enable me to proceed with this matter properly, I would be
grateful if you will give your attention to the following points:
1. I have enclosed our client care letter. This sets out our
fees and the basis on which you instruct this firm to act as your
lawyers. You should be aware that this forms a binding legal con-
tract between us and so you must ensure that you understand
250
the contents. When you have read the letter, please sign it and
return it to me as soon as possible. I am unable to proceed with
your legal matters until I have received this letter.
2. I have drafted a witness statement which is a statement of
truth about your claim. This has to be filed at the court together
with your claim form. The claim is against Greenwater shopping
centre, where you instructed me that you slipped on an oil-like
substance on the floor, fell over and sustained an injury to your
back. Please read this statement carefully to ensure that all the
facts are correct, before signing it and returning it to me. It is
my professional duty to inform you that this document forms the
grounds of your claim at court and it is your duty to tell the truth.
If you deliberately include facts that are not true, and reaffirm
them under oath in court, then you may be prosecuted for perjury,
which is the criminal offence of not telling the truth before court.
I look forward to receiving both the signed client care letter
and the signed witness statement. As soon as I have received
both documents I can proceed with your claim.
If you have any questions about either document, or the case
in general, please do not hesitate to contact me and I will be
happy to go through any points with you. You can contact me
by telephone, or contact my secretary to arrange a convenient
meeting.
Yours sincerely
Adam Hicks
1. What tort is the claim based on?
____________________________________________
2. What are the facts of the case?
____________________________________________
3. What happens if facts stated in the witness statement
turn out to be untrue?
____________________________________________
4. What is perjury?
____________________________________________
5. How soon can the solicitor proceed with the claim?
____________________________________________
251
Unit 9
EMPLOYMENT LAW
I. Lead-in
Employment law deals with a lot of situations that concern
the rights and obligations of employers and employees. Look at
the employees’ complaints below.
1) What matters does employment law settle?
Anna Kingston: “I am a machine operator in a factory in
Chatsworth. I have worked here for two years. I have just dis-
covered that a man who works here is paid £2 an hour more than
I am for doing exactly the same job as me.”
Arthur Bentley: “I am 55 years old. I work for a travel agency.
Last month our manager resigned and the job of branch manager
became available. Despite the fact that I have 20 years’ experi-
ence of this type of work, a younger man in my office was pro-
moted over me. The area manager actually told me afterwards
that although they were impressed by me at my interview they
thought that I was too old to handle the new technology that
the company were planning to introduce over the next few years.
I feel that this is extremely unfair.”
Dan Beale: “I work for an advertising agency based here in
Chatsworth. My employment contract clearly states that I will
be paid on 26th of each month but my employer always pays me
later than that. I have had a few financial troubles as a result.”
Maggie Redman: “I used to work as a manager of a restau-
rant business until I resigned last July. I didn’t want to resign
but when my employers found out that I was expecting a baby
they treated me very badly and I didn’t feel that I could stay.”
Brian Hedley: “I am 19 years old. I work for a sole trader
who runs a gardening business. Last month I decided to take
out a loan and the bank asked for my last three months’ pay
252
slips. My employer pays me in cash at the end of every day and
refuses to give me pay slips. Without proof that I earn money
I can’t get a loan.”
2) What problems can the employer have with employees?
3) Have you ever had problems as an employer or an
employee?
II. Reading
employment [ɪmˈplɔɪmənt] grievance [ˈɡri:vəns]
employer [ɪmˈplɔɪə] unilaterally [ˈju nɪˈlætərəlɪ]
employee [ˌemplɔɪˈi:] bound [baund]
recruitment [rɪˈkru:tmənt] termination [ˌtə:mɪˈneɪʃən]
discrimination [dɪsˌkrɪmɪˈneɪʃən] failure [ˈfeɪljə]
dismissal [dɪsˈmɪsəl] to observe [əbˈzə:v]
safety [ˈseɪftɪ] constructive [kənˈstrʌktɪv]
source [sɔ:s] to resign [rɪˈzaɪn]
statutory [ˈstætjutərɪ] conduct [ˈkɔndʌkt]
European [ˌjuərəˈpi:ən] to dismiss [dɪsˈmɪs]
to cover [ˈkʌvə] disability [ˌdɪsəˈbɪlɪtɪ]
confidentiality [ˌkɔnfɪˈdenʃəlɪtɪ] nationality [ˌnæʃəˈnælɪtɪ]
restriction [rɪsˈtrɪkʃən] redundant [rɪˈdʌndənt]
remuneration [rɪˌmju:nəˈreɪʃən] to warn [wɔ:n]
rival [ˈraɪvəl] gross [ɡrəus]
tribunal [traɪˈbju:nl] to encourage [ɪnˈkʌrɪdʒ]
procedure [prəˈsi:dʒə] benefit [ˈbenɪfɪt]
notice [ˈnəutɪs] provision [prəˈvɪʒən]
B) Vocabulary Notes
(1)
1. employment law трудовое право
2. employer работодатель
253
3. employee работник
4. recruitment process процедура приема на работу
5. discrimination дискриминация, ограничение
в правах
6. fair pay справедливая оплата труда
7. dismissal увольнение
8. employee benefits дополнительные выплаты и льготы,
предоставляемые работникам
9. workplace safety безопасность труда
(2)
10. source источник
11. to give rise to smth давать начало чему-л.
12. statutory rights and права и обязанности, закрепленные
obligations законодательно
13. employment contract трудовой договор
14. European Union законодательство Европейского
legislation Союза
15. European Court of Европейский суд
Justice
(3)
16. clause статья договора
17. to cover касаться
18. job title название должности
19. hours of work продолжительность рабочего дня
20. term of the contract срок действия договора
21. time off and leave выходные и отпуск
22. remuneration оплата труда
23. sick pay оплата больничного листа
24. confidentiality конфиденциальность
25. notice предупреждение об увольнении
to give smb notice предупредить кого-л. об увольнении
254
26. non-competition clause статья договора о неконкуренции
27. restriction ограничение
to impose restrictions накладывать ограничения на что-л.
on smth
28. rival of the employer конкурент работодателя
29. to provide for smth предусматривать что-л.
30. grievance жалоба
grievance procedure порядок подачи жалоб работода-
телю
31. in the event of smth в случае чего-л.
32. provisions of the положения / условия договора
contract
33. to vary unilaterally изменить в одностороннем порядке
34. The Employment Rights Закон о трудовых правах 1996 года
Act 1996
35. to provide smb with представить кому-л. документ
a document
36. terms and conditions of условия найма / трудового договора
employment
(4)
37. to be bound by smth быть обязанным чем-л.
38. in relation to smth в отношении чего-л.
39. termination of прекращение трудового договора
employment
40. to observe smth соблюдать что-л.
41. wrongful dismissal незаконное увольнение
42. constructive dismissal конструктивное увольнение
(вынужденное увольнение «по соб-
ственному желанию» под давлением
работодателя)
43. unfair dismissal несправедливое увольнение
44. to resign уволиться
255
45. conduct поведение
46. to breach statutory нарушать положения законодатель-
provisions ства
47. to dismiss smb уволить кого-л.
48. disability ограниченные физические возмож-
ности
49. to make smb redundant уволить кого-л. в связи с сокраще-
нием штатов
50. to follow a certain следовать определенной процедуре
procedure of doing smth чего-л.
51. to warn smb предупредить кого-л.
52. to terminate a contract расторгнуть договор с кем-л.
with smb
53. to fail to do не сделать / забыть сделать что-л.
54. to claim unfair dismissal подать иск о несправедливом уволь-
нении
55. gross misconduct серьезное правонарушение
56. to result in smth привести к чему-л., иметь (своим)
результатом что-л.
57. immediate dismissal увольнение без соблюдения проце-
дуры увольнения, незамедлительное
увольнение
(5)
58. employment case дело о трудовых спорах
59. employment tribunal специальный суд по трудовым
вопросам
60. to encourage to do smth побуждать сделать что-л.
C) Text
EMPLOYMENT LAW
(1) Employment law deals with relationship between
employers and employees in a recruitment process, during
employment and at the end of employment. It is related to most
256
aspects of employment including discrimination, fair pay, dis
missal, employee benefits, and workplace safety, etc.
(2) In the UK rights and obligations of employers and
employees come from the following main sources:
• Acts of Parliament, which give rise to statutory rights and
obligations;
• Employment contracts, which give rise to contractual
rights and obligations. This area of law is largely governed by
case law;
• European Union legislation and judgments from the Euro
pean Court of Justice.
(3) Clauses in employment contracts cover job title, hours
of work, term of the contract, time off and leave, remuneration,
sick pay, confidentiality, giving notice. The non-competition
clause imposes restrictions on the actions of an employee once
the employment is ended. The employee is not allowed to start
the same business or work for a rival of the employer for a cer-
tain period of time. The employment contract also provides for
the grievance procedure in the event of the employee’s prob-
lems at work or job loss. The parties to the employment contract
may agree to vary provisions of the contract but they cannot be
unilaterally varied.
The Employment Rights Act 1996 requires the employer to
provide the employee with a document containing the terms
and conditions of employment.
(4) Employers are bound by the employment contract and
statutory regulation as to how they may deal with employees,
particularly in relation to the termination of employment.
Failure to observe such obligations and regulations may give
rise to a claim for wrongful dismissal, constructive dismissal
or unfair dismissal. In case of wrongful dismissal the employer
is in breach of contract. When an employee resigns because of
the conduct of his employer, it is constructive dismissal. Unfair
dismissal happens when the employer breaches certain statu
tory provisions by dismissing an employee. For example, an
employee has been dismissed because of his sex, age, race, dis
257
ability or nationality or made redundant unfairly. The employ-
ment law also states that the employer is obliged to follow a cer
tain procedure of warning the employee before terminating the
contract with him. If the employer fails to do this, the employee
may also claim unfair dismissal. However, the employer does
not have to follow the procedure when the employee is guilty
of gross misconduct that is a very bad behaviour, such as steal-
ing money from the employer. Gross misconduct may result in
immediate dismissal.
(5) Employment cases in the UK are heard in employment
tribunals. Employment tribunals have the power to make deci-
sions on employment cases but there is a period where the par-
ties are encouraged to reach an agreement before the case is
heard.

A. A new employee has some questions about her employ
ment contract. Complete each question using the correct
word from the box below.
hours provisions term title sick pay
holiday salary terminate
A. What does the ______________ of the contract mean?

B. It means the duration of the contract.
A. What are the______________ of a contract?
B. They are all of the terms and conditions contained in the
contract.
A. What is my job______________?
B. It is assistant manager.
A. What are my______________ of employment?
B. Monday to Friday, 9am to 5.30pm.
A. What will my annual ______________ be?
B. £25,000 a year.
A. How many weeks’______________ can I have?
B. You are entitled to four weeks a year, in addition to public
holidays.
258
A. Am I entitled to ______________ when I am ill?
B. Yes. But you must provide us with a medical certificate.
A. How much notice must I give if I want to______________
the contract?
B. Four weeks. We use that time to find a new employee who
can begin work at the time that you leave us.
B. Complete these sentences with a word orcollocation from
the text.
1. I am sure my employer treats me badly because I am a fo
reigner. My lawyer says that I can sue my employer on the
grounds of ________________________.
2. I was the only woman in my office. The men working there
made jokes about me all of the time and said that my job
was only to make coffee for them. I stopped working there
because it was horrible and my employer didn’t help me. The
grounds for my claim were________________________
dismissal.
3. I have made a claim against my employer. The case will be heard
next month by an employment ________________________.
4. I am making a claim for ________________________ dis-
missal. My employer sacked me last month and the only rea-
son was that my employer’s daughter wanted to have the job.
5. The printing company ________________________ Jason
because he did some printing for his friend and he did not
ask his friend to pay for it.
6. My employer did not follow the correct _________________
when he dismissed me. My lawyer says that I can make
a claim against my employer because he breached employ-
ment law.
7. The law says the employer must listen to employees’ ______
_____________and try to settle the problems the employ-
ees might have at work.
C. Answer the following questions.
1. What kind of relations does employment law regulate?
2. What issues does employment include?
259
3. What are sources of the employment law in the UK?
4. What aspects do employment contracts cover?
5. What is restrictive covenant?
6. What is grievance procedure?
7. What does The Employment Rights Act 1996 require?
8. What document must the employers obey?
9. What happens if the employer fails to observe the employ-
ment contract?
10. What kinds of dismissal exist?
11. What is wrongful dismissal?
12. What is constructive dismissal?
13. What is unfair dismissal?
14. What does the law require the employer to do before termi-
nating the contract with the employee?
15. When isn’t the employer obliged to follow the procedure of
warning the employee before terminating the contract with
him?
16. Where are employment cases in the UK heard?
17. What are the parties to the dispute encouraged to do before
the case is heard?
IV. Exercises
grievance procedure to vary unilaterally
statutory rights and obligations to provide smb with a document
termination of employment terms and conditions of employment
to breach statutory provisions employee benefits
to observe smth employment contract
wrongful dismissal workplace safety
disability unfair dismissal
to resign to follow a certain procedure of
doing smth
to give smb notice to impose restrictions on smth
260
time off and leave hours of work
employment tribunal gross misconduct
to warn smb employment case
remuneration job title
non-competition clause to provide for smth

Verb Noun Adjective
to dismiss
safe
statute
to employ
obligation
confidential
to recruit
disabled
behaviour
to restrict
termination
guilty
to fail

1. The theatre has good access for the ______________ (able).
2. Many members thought the rules were too _______________
(restrict).
3. The training scheme aims to make people more ___________
(employ).
4. The employer failed to carry out his _____________ duties
(statute).
261
5. Flying is one of the _____________ forms of travel (save).
6. The shoe factory is the largest _____________ in the area
(employ).
7. _____________ to comply with these conditions will result
in _____________ of the contract (fail, terminate).
8. The government has agreed to lift _____________ on press
freedom (restrict).
9. For your own _____________, please do not smoke inside
the plane (save).
10. The virus will _____________ your computer (able).
11. Bryant was unfairly ________________ from his post (dis
miss).
12. He is responsible for the _________________ at all levels
(recruit).
13. Your medical records are strictly _____________ (confide).
14. It is _____________ for all _____________ to wear pro-
tective clothing (oblige, employ).

1. obligation a. to fire
2. conduct b. to discharge a contract
3. condition c. to occur
4. to dismiss d. duty
5. to employ e. to fail to do
6. to terminate a contract f. remuneration
7. to happen g. term
8. not to do smth h. behaviour
9. salary i. to deal with
10. court decision j. judge
11. to cover k. competitor
12. justice l. to hire
13. rival m. court ruling
262
1) ability — (dis) ____________________________
safe — (un) _______________________________
guilty — (not) ____________________________
employment — (un) ________________________
conduct — (mis) ___________________________
to encourage — to discourage
2) to behave, fairly, experienced, satisfactory, useful, equitable,
to satisfy, interpretation, dependent, to obey, to include
1. Public places are becoming more accessible to people with
abilities / disabilities.
2. The campaign is aimed at discouraging / encouraging smok-
ing among teenagers.
3. The health centre serves all patients regardless of their
ability / disability to pay.
4. Make sure to keep these documents safe / unsafe.
5. Closure of the plant means 80 workers are facing unemploy-
ment / employment.
6. The jury passed a guilty / not guilty verdict and the defen-
dant was released.
7. The doctor was accused of professional conduct / misconduct.
8. The meaning of these statements is not quite clear. They may
be interpreted / misinterpreted.
условия найма следовать определенной проце-
дуре чего-л.
незаконное увольнение специальный суд по трудовым
вопросам
порядок подачи жалоб работо- серьезное правонарушение
дателю
права и обязанности, закреплен- конструктивное увольнение
ные законодательно
263
предупредить об увольнении ограниченные физические воз-
можности
трудовой договор подать иск о несправедливом
увольнении
Европейский суд уволиться
статья договора о неконконку- быть обязанным чем-л.

ренции
изменить в одностороннем уволить кого-л.

порядке
безопасность труда соблюдать что-л.
процедура приема на работу уволить кого-л. в связи с сокра-

щением штатов
накладывать ограничения прекращение трудового договора

на что-л.

определенной процедуре
следовать инструкциям
чьему-л. совету
на деятельность работника
накладывать ограничения на свободу прессы
на торговлю
по закону
быть обязанным по договору
по решению суда
о незаконном увольнении
подать иск о несправедливом увольнении
о конструктивном увольнении
решить спор вне суда
побуждать кого-л. подать aпелляцию
заключить договор
264
статью о неконкуренции
предусматривать порядок подачи жалоб работодателю
конфиденциальность
1. The Employment Rights Act 1996 requires the employer to
provide the employee ________ a document containing the
terms and conditions of employment.
2. Acts of Parliament give rise _________ statutory rights and
obligations
3. Employers are bound __________ the employment contract
and statutory regulation as to how they may deal ________
employees, particularly ________ relation ________ the
termination of employment.
4. Employment tribunals have the power to make decisions
________ employment cases.
5. The parties ________ the employment contract may agree
to vary terms ________the contract but terms cannot be
unilaterally varied.
6. Employment law deals __________ relationship between
employers and employees ________recruitment process,
____________ employment and ___________ the end of
employment.
7. Failure to observe such obligations and regulations may give
rise ________ a claim ________ wrongful dismissal, con-
structive dismissal or unfair dismissal.
8. The employer does not have to follow the procedure when
the employee is guilty ________ gross misconduct
9. Unfair dismissal happens when the employee has been dis-
missed ________ ________ his sex, age, race, disability or
nationality or made redundant unfairly.
10. Clauses ________ employment contracts cover restrictions
________ the actions of an employee.
11. When an employee resigns ________ ________the conduct
of his employer, it is constructive dismissal.
265
12. The employment law states that the employer is obliged to
follow a certain procedure ________warning the employee
________ terminating the contract ________ him.
13. Gross misconduct may result ____________ immediate dis-
missal.
14. The non-competition clause imposes restrictions ________
the actions of an employee once the employment is ended.
15. The employee is not allowed to start the same business or
work ________ a rival of the employer ________ a certain
period of time.
16. The employment contract also provides ________ the griev-
ance procedure ________ the event _________ the employ-
ee’s problems ________ work or job loss.
PREPOSITION BANK
to provide smb with a document

to provide for smth
restriction on smth
to be bound by smth
to give rise to smth
to result in smth
in the event of smth
in relation to smth

the text.
1. Employers are bound by the ________ ________and statu-
tory regulation as to how they may deal with employees, par-
ticularly in relation to the ______________ of employment.
2. Acts of Parliament give ______________ to statutory rights
and ______________.
3. The Employment Rights Act 1996 requires the employer to
______________ the employee with a document contain-
ing the ______________ and ______________ of employ-
ment.
266
4. The employment law states that the employer is obliged to
______________ a certain procedure of ______________
the employee before terminating the contract with him.
5. Employment cases in the UK are heard in employment
______________.
6. Employment law deals with __________________between
employers and employees before ______________ process,
during employment and at the end of employment.
7. Failure to observe such obligations and regulations may give
rise to a ______________ for ______________dismissal,
______________ dismissal or ______________dismissal.
8. When an employee ______________ because of the con-
duct of his employer, it is ______________dismissal.
9. The parties to the employment contract may agree to
_____________ terms of the contract but terms cannot be
______________ varied.
10. In case of wrongful dismissal the employer is in ___________
of contract.
11. The employer does not have to follow the ______________
when the employee is guilty of ______________ miscon-
duct that is a very bad behaviour, such as ______________
money from the employer.
12. Employment ______________ have the power to make
decisions on employment cases but there is a period where
the parties are _________________ to reach an agreement
before the case is ______________.
13. Employment law is related to most aspects of employment
including discrimination, fair _________, dismissal, employee
______________, and workplace ______________, etc.
14. Unfair dismissal happens when the employee has been
______________ because of his sex, age, race, disability or
nationality or made ______________ unfairly.
15. The employee is not ________________ to start the same
business or work for a ______________ of the employer for
a certain period of time.
267
16. The employment contract also provides for the ___________
____________in the event of the employee’s problems at
work or _____________ ______________.
Exercise 9. Find in the text English equivalents to the
following Russian sentences.
1. В Соединенном Королевстве права и обязанности рабо-
тодателей и работников определены в актах парламента,
трудовых договорах, законодательстве Европейского
Союза и решениях Европейского суда.
2. Стороны трудового договора могут согласиться на изме-
нение условий договора, но условия договора не могут
быть изменены в одностороннем порядке.
3. Трудовое право имеет дело с отношениями между рабо-
тодателями и работниками в процесе приема на работу,
во время трудовой занятости и при ее прекращении.
4. Статьи трудового договора охватывают продолжитель-
ность рабочего дня, выходные и отпуск, вопросы конфи-
денциальности.
5. Закон о трудовых правах 1996 года требует, чтобы рабо-
тодатель предоставил работнику документ, содержащий
условия трудового договора.
6. Трудовое право имеет отношение к основным вопросам
занятости, которые включают в себя дискриминацию,
справедливую оплату труда, увольнение, дополнитель-
ные выплаты и льготы, предоставляемые работникам,
безопасность труда и др.
7. Статьи трудового договора касаются ограничений дея-
тельности работника, когда он прекращает работу (статья
договора о неконкуренции), порядка предупреждения
об увольнении, порядка подачи жалоб работодателю
в случае прекращения занятости.
8. Несоблюдение обязанностей договора и положений
законодательства может привести к искам о незаконном
увольнении, конструктивном увольнении и несправедли-
вом увольнении.
268
9. Когда работник вынужден уволиться из-за действий
своего работодателя, это называется «конструктивное
увольнение».
10. Дела о трудовых спорах решаются в специальных судах
по трудовым спорам.
11. В случае незаконного увольнения работодатель нарушает
трудовой договор.
12. Работодатель не обязан следовать процедуре увольнения
в случае, если работник виновен в серьезном правонару-
шении, например, воровстве денежных средств у работо-
дателя.
Exercise 10. Find a suitable definition for each word in
the right column.
1. an employee resigns because of a. gross misconduct
the conduct of his employer
2. the employer has breached b. employment law
the terms of the employment
contract
3. the employer breaches certain c. wrongful
statutory provisions by dismissal
dismissing an employee
4. the contract is not carried out d. non-competition
clause
5. law that regulates relationship e. statutory rights
between employers and and obligations
employees
6. rights and obligations defined in f. benefits
Acts of Parliament
7. advantages that employees get g. unfair dismissal
from their employer in addition
to the money that they earn
8. behaviour that is clearly wrong h. breach of contract
and unacceptable
9. it imposes restrictions on the i. grievance
actions of an employee once the procedure
employment is ended
269
10. a person or a business that pays j. constructive
people to work for them. dismissal
11. the way of telling the employer k. employer
your complaints at work
Exercise 11. Read the text below and put the verbs into the
correct form.
There are a variety of circumstances in which an employee
can (0) claim unfair dismissal. For example: your boss (1) (ask)
you to perform a task that you think is outside the range of skills
which you (2) (employ) for. You do the task badly and, as a
result, you (3) (fire). In these circumstances, if the tribunal (4)
(accept) that you (5) (not provide) with adequate training to
perform the task, and the task was outside your job description,
it might (6) (conclude) that you (7) (dismiss) unfairly, if you
(8) (complete) one year’s continuous service. It could (9)
(argue) that the management simply believed that the employee
was incompetent and unable to carry out the task, regardless of
whether or not training (10) (offer). It is then up to the tribunal
to decide, on the facts, if the dismissal was unfair.
Exercise 12. Study the meanings of the word “provide” and
translate the following sentences.
to provide for smth — предусматривать
to provide for a family — обеспечивать семью
to provide smb with smth — снабжать, обеспечивать,
представить, предоставить кому-л. что-л.
1. Я должен много работать, чтобы обеспечить своих детей.

2. Трудовой договор предусматривает, что работник имеет
право на четырехнедельный отпуск.
3. Работникам должен быть предоставлен трудовой дого-
вор.
4. Договор предусматривает оплату наличными.
5. Обыск дал полиции важные улики (vital clues).
6. Мы можем предоставить вам всю необходимую инфор-
мацию относительно этого дела.
270
7. Закон предусматривает наказание за вождение в состоя-
нии алкогольного опьянения (drunk driving).
8. К сожалению, нам не представили отчет.
9. Договор предусматривает решение споров в арбитраже
(arbitration dispute settlement).
10. Проект создан для того, чтобы обеспечить молодых
людей работой.
Exercise 13. Study the meaning of thecollocation “result
in” and translate the following sentences.
to result in smth / doing smth — привести к чему-л.,
иметь (своим) результатом что-л.
Example:
Серьезное правонарушение может привести
к незамедлительному увольнению.
— Gross misconduct may result in immediate
dismissal.
1. Такая политика может привести к безработице.

2. Увольнение работника привело к подаче иска в специ-
альный суд по трудовым вопросам.
3. Суд закончился победой истца.
4. Сильные дожди привели к наводнениям.
5. Спор может привести к началу дела в суде.
6. Такая ситуация часто приводит к конструктивному
увольнению.
Exercise 14. Use the verb “to fail” instead a negative form
in the following sentences.
Example:
If the employer does not follow a certain dismissal
procedure the employee, the employee may claim
unfair dismissal.
— If the employer fails to follow a certain dismissal
procedure the employee, the employee may claim
unfair dismissal.
1. They didn’t draft an employment contract.

2. The employer didn’t provide the employee with a document
containing the terms and conditions of employment.
271
3. If an employee does not come to work without a good reason,
the employer has the right to dismiss him.
4. The seller did not deliver the goods.
5. The buyer did not pay for the goods.
6. The contract does not explain the grievance procedure.
7. They didn’t make redundancy payments.
Exercise 15. Translate the following collocations using
the construction “failure to do smth”
Example:
Несоблюдение постановлений — failure to
observe the regulations
1. Невыполнение условий договора

2. Несоблюдение процедуры
3. Невозможность достичь договоренности
4. Невыплата заработной платы
5. Неполучение сообщения
Exercise 16. Translate the sentences into Russian paying
attention to the complex prepositions.
because of the conduct of his employer — из-за действий
своего работодателя
in the event of job loss — в случае потери работы
in relation to the termination of employment — в отноше-
нии прекращения занятости
according to согласно
apart from помимо
because of из-за
by means of посредством, с помощью
in addition to в дополнение к
in relation to в отношении
in spite of несмотря на
in the event of в случае
instead of вместо
owing to из-за
on behalf of от имени
owing to из-за
thanks to благодаря
272
1. He signed the contract on behalf of the sellers.
2. I have something to tell you in relation to this matter.
3. She didn’t go there because of the rain.
4. I’m sending you this information in addition to my telegram.
5. He finished the work in time in spite of all difficulties.
6. We couldn’t get there in time owing to a severe storm.
7. Give me the red pencil instead of the green one.
8. Thanks to his help we finished our work early.
9. In Russian ports ships are discharged by means of cranes.
10. Apart from the high price the terms of payment and delivery
proposed by that firm do not suit us.
11. According to the information received, the steamer will
arrive on the 10th May.
12. In the event of an accident, call this number.
Exercise 17.
1. Трудовое право имеет дело с отно Employment law deals with
шениями между работодателями relationship between employ-
и работниками в процессе при- ers and employees in a re
ема на работу, во время трудовой cruitment process, during
занятости и при ее прекращении. employment and at the end of
employment.
2. Оно имеет отношение к основ- It is related to most aspects
ным вопросам занятости, кото- of employment including
рые включают в себя дискри- discrimination, fair pay, dis-
минацию, справедливую оплату missal, employee benefits,
труда, увольнение, дополнитель- workplace safety, etc.
ные выплаты и льготы, предо-
ставляемые работникам, безопас-
ность труда и др.
3. В Соединенном Королевстве In the UK rights and obli-
права и обязанности работода- gations of employers and
телей и работников определены employees come from the fol-
в следующих основных источни- lowing main sources:
ках:
273
4. • парламентские акты, в которых • Acts of Parliament, which
содержатся права и обязанности, give rise to statutory rights
закрепленные законодательно; and obligations;
5. • трудовые договоры, на которых • Employment contracts,
основаны права и обязанности, which give rise to contrac-
вытекающие из договора. Эта tual rights and obligations.
большая область права в основ- This area of law is largely
ном регулируется прецедентным governed by case law;
правом;
6. • законодательство Европей- • European Union legisla-
ского Союза и решения Европей- tion and judgments from the
ского суда. European Court of Justice.
7. Статьи трудового договора охва- Clauses in employment con-
тывают название должности, про- tracts cover job title, hours
должительность рабочего дня, of work, term of the contract,
срок действия договора, выход- time off and leave, remunera-
ные и отпуск, оплату труда, оплату tion, sick pay, confidentiality,
больничного листа, вопросы кон- giving notice.
фиденциальности, порядок пред-
упреждения об увольнении.
8. Статья договора о неконкурен- The non-competition clause
ции накладывает ограничения imposes restrictions on the
на деятельность работника, когда actions of an employee once
он прекращает работу. the employment is ended.
9. Работнику не разрешается орга- The employee is not allowed
низовывать такой же бизнес или to start the same business or
работать на конкурента работо- work for a rival of the em
дателя в течение определенного ployer for a certain period of
периода времени. time.
10. Трудовой договор также предус- The employment contract
матривает порядок подачи жалоб also provides for the griev-
работодателю в случае возник- ance procedure in the event
новения у работника проблем of the employee’s problems
в связи с работой или прекраще- at work or job loss.
нием занятости.
274
11. Стороны трудового договора The parties to the employ-
могут согласиться на изменение ment contract may agree to
условий договора, но условия vary provisions of the con-
договора не могут быть изме- tract but they cannot be uni-
нены в одностороннем порядке. laterally varied.
12. Закон о трудовых правах 1996 года The Employment Rights Act
требует, чтобы работодатель пре- 1996 requires the employer
доставил работнику документ, to provide the employee
содержащий условия трудового with a document containing
договора. the terms and conditions of
employment.
13. Трудовой договор и положения Employers are bound by
законодательства обязывают the employment contract
работодателя вести себя по отно- and statutory regulation as
шению к работникам определен- to how they may deal with
ным образом, особенно в отно- employees, particularly in
шении прекращения занятости. relation to the termination of
employment.
14. Несоблюдение обязанностей Failure to observe such obli-
договора и положений зако- gations and regulations may
нодательства может привести give rise to a claim for wrong-
к искам о незаконном увольне- ful dismissal, constructive
нии, конструктивном увольнении dismissal or unfair dismissal.
и несправедливом увольнении.
15. В случае незаконного увольне- In case of wrongful dismissal
ния работодатель нарушает тру- the employer is in breach of
довой договор. contract.
16. Когда работник вынужден уво- When an employee resigns
литься из-за действий своего because of the conduct of his
работодателя, это называется employer, it is constructive
«конструктивное увольнение». dismissal.
17. Несправедливое увольнение про- Unfair dismissal happens
исходит, если, увольняя работ- when the employer breaches
ника, работодатель нарушает certain statutory provisions
определенные положения зако- by dismissing an employee.
нодательства.
275
18. Например, работника уволили For example, an employee
из-за его пола, возраста, расовой has been dismissed because
принадлежности, ограниченных of his sex, age, race, disabi
физических возможностей, наци- lity or nationality, or made
ональной принадлежности или redundant unfairly.
несправедливо провели сокраще-
ние штатов.
19. В трудовом законодательстве The employment law states
говорится, что работодатель обя- that the employer is obliged
зан следовать определенной про- to follow a certain procedure
цедуре предупреждения работ- of warning the employee
ника о расторжении трудового before terminating the con-
договора с ним. tract with him.
20. Если работодатель не делает этого, If the employer fails to do
работник также может подать иск this, the employee may also
о несправедливом увольнении. claim unfair dismissal.
21. Однако работодатель не обязан However, the employer does
следовать процедуре увольнения not have to follow the pro-
в случае, если работник виновен cedure when the employee
в серьезном правонарушении, is guilty of gross misconduct
т.е. в очень плохом поведении, that is a very bad behaviour,
например, в воровстве денежных such as stealing money from
средств у работодателя. the employer.
22. Серьезное правонарушение может Gross misconduct may result
привести к незамедлительному in immediate dismissal.
увольнению.
23. Дела о трудовых спорах в Соеди- Employment cases in the UK
ненном Королевстве решаются are heard in employment tri-
в специальных судах по трудо- bunals.
вым вопросам.
24. Специальные суды по трудовым Employment tribunals have
вопросам принимают решения the power to make decisions
по трудовым спорам, но суще- on employment cases but
ствует период времени, в тече- there is a period where the
ние которого стороны должны parties are encouraged to
попытаться договориться между reach an agreement before
собой, прежде чем дело будет the case is heard.
заслушано в суде.
276
1. Employment law and its aspects.
2. UK sources for rights and obligations of employers and
employees.
3. Employment contract and its clauses.
4. Termination of employment:
— wrongful dismissal;
— constructive dismissal;
— unfair dismissal;
— gross misconduct.
5. Employment tribunal.
1. to be bound [baund] by smth быть обязанным чем-л.

2. confidentiality конфиденциальность
[ˌkɔnfɪˈdenʃəlɪtɪ]
3. disability [ˌdɪsəˈbɪlɪtɪ] ограниченные физические воз-
можности
4. dismissal [dɪsˈmɪsəl] увольнение
constructive dismissal конструктивное увольнение
[kənˈstrʌktɪv]
unfair dismissal несправедливое увольнение
wrongful dismissal незаконное увольнение
to dismiss smb уволить кого-л.
to claim unfair dismissal подать иск о несправедливом
увольнении
5. employee [ˌemplɔɪˈi:] работник
employee benefits [ˈbenɪfɪts] дополнительные выплаты
и льготы, предоставляемые
работникам
6. employer [ɪmˈplɔɪə] работодатель
7. employment занятость
employment case дело о трудовых спорах
employment contract трудовой договор
employment law трудовое право
employment tribunal специальный суд по трудовым
вопросам
termination of employment прекращение занятости
277
8. European Court of Justice Европейский суд
[ˌjuərəˈpi:ən]
9. European Union legislation законодательство Европейского
Союза
10. to follow a certain следовать определенной проце-
procedure of doing smth дуре чего-л.
[prəˈsi:dʒə]
11. grievance [ˈɡri:vəns] жалоба
grievance procedure порядок подачи жалоб работо-
дателю
12. gross misconduct серьезное правонарушение
[ɡrəus]
13. hours of work продолжительность рабочего
дня
14. in relation to smth в отношении чего-л.
15. in the event of smth в случае чего-л.
16. job title название должности
17. to make smb redundant уволить кого-л. в связи с сокра-
[rɪˈdʌndənt] щением штатов
18. non-competition clause статья договора о неконкуренции
19. notice [ˈnəutɪs] предупреждение об увольнении
to give smb notice предупредить кого-л. об уволь-
нении
20. to observe smth соблюдать что-л.
[əbˈzə:v]
21. to provide [prəˈvaɪd] smb предоставить какой-л. документ
with a document
to provide for smth предусматривать что-л.
22. provisions of the contract положения / условия договора
[prəˈvɪʒənz]
23. remuneration оплата труда
[rɪˌmju nəˈreɪʃən]
24. to resign [rɪˈzaɪn] уволиться
278
25. restriction [rɪsˈtrɪkʃən] ограничение
to impose restrictions on накладывать ограничения
на что-л.
26. to result in smth привести к чему-л., иметь
(своим) результатом что-л.
27. sick pay оплата больничного листа
28. term of the contract срок действия договора
29. terms and conditions условия найма / трудового
of employment договора
30. time off and leave выходные и отпуск
31. to vary unilaterally изменить в одностороннем
[ˈvɛərɪ] [ ju nɪˈlætərəlɪ] порядке
ˈ
32. to warn [wɔ:n] smb предупредить кого-л.
33. workplace safety [ˈseɪftɪ] безопасность труда

notice notice unfair
dismissal employer
gross misconduct property provide
breach of
contract reduction resigns terms
In wrongful dismissal cases, the (1) _________________ has

breached the (2) ________________ of the contract by, for exam-
ple, failing to give the correct period of (3) ________________,
or failing to (4) _________________ adequate compensation
instead of the period of notice. Wrongful dismissal may also occur
if an employee (5) _________________ from the job because
the employer has committed a serious (6) ________________.
From the point of view of the contract, a serious breach would
be something like a complete change of the job description or a
substantial (7) _________________ in pay.
Leading on from the previous point, wrongful dismissal
cases follow the common law rules of contract. An employer has
defences against wrongful dismissal if an employee has commit-
ted (8) _________________ by, for example, stealing company
(9) ______________. In such a case, the employer has the right
279
to sack the employee without (10) ______________________.
Of course, it’s true to say that the same reason can also be given
in cases of (11) ________________because your employer has
a good reason which justifies your dismissal.
Exercise 2. A lawyer is giving advice to a client about an
employment contract. Replace the underlined
words and collocations with words and col
locations from your Active Vocabulary.
I’ve looked through the contract and it seems satisfactory in
relation to your (1) pay, (2) advantages that employees get from
their employer in addition to the money that they earn and (3)
the period of warning that the contract is going to end. How-
ever, you should discuss with the employer (4) clause preventing
you working in the same field for three years after you’ve left the
company. I believe three years is too long. Other than that, the
terms relating to being (5) let go by the company if it fails and
(6) being removed from the job are quite straightforward. The
(7) procedure for making a complaint is clear.
A.
1. Джейн уволили за нарушение трудовой дисциплины.
Она пропустила несколько рабочих дней без уважитель-
ной причины.
2. Трудовой договор предусматривает оплату больничного
листа, если работник представляет работодателю меди-
цинскую справку.
3. Если работодатель не следует процедуре увольнения
работника, определенной в законодательстве, работник
может подать иск о несправедливом увольнении в специ-
альный суд по трудовым вопросам.
4. Трудовой договор подписывается работником. Он содер-
жит условия найма.
5. Если трудовой договор содержит статью о конфиден-
циальности, работнику запрещается сообщать важную
280
информацию (to disclose material information) о работе
третьим лицам.
6. Согласно трудовому договору, работодатель может пре-
кратить договор с работником, уведомив его об этом
за 4 недели.
7. Несоблюдение работодателем трудового договора
и положений закона может привести к искам о незакон-
ном увольнении, конструктивном увольнении и неспра-
ведливом увольнении.
8. Если работника увольняют в связи с сокращением штата,
он получает определенную сумму денег.
9. Если работник не удовлетворен условиями найма, он
может подать жалобу. Трудовой договор предусматри-
вает процедуру подачи жалоб.
10. Приветствуется, чтобы стороны трудового спора пришли
к согласию до слушания их дела в специальном суде по тру
довым вопросам.
B.
1. В делах о незаконном увольнении работодатель нару-
шил условия трудового договора. Например, он не преду-
предил работника об увольнении в установленный срок или
не предоставил ему соразмерную (adequate) компенсацию
вместо своевременного уведомления. Незаконное уволь-
нение может также произойти, если работник увольняется
из-за того, что работодатель серьезно нарушил договор.
С точки зрения договора серьезным нарушением является
полное изменение служебных обязанностей (job description)
или существенное сокращение заработной платы.
У работодателя есть защита (defences) от обвинений
в незаконном увольнении в случае, если работник совершил
серьезное правонарушение, например, кражу денег ком-
пании. В таком случае работодатель имеет право уволить
работника без уведомления.
2. В отличие от незаконного увольнения несправедливое
увольнение может произойти без нарушения трудового дого-
вора. Дела, касающиеся несправедливого увольнения, слуша-
281
ются в специальных судах по трудовым вопросам. Обычно
работнику нужно непрерывно проработать на одном месте
год (to have a year’s continuous service), чтобы он мог подать
иск о несправедливом увольнении. Существует много обсто-
ятельств, при которых работник может подать иск о неспра-
ведливом увольнении. Например, ваш начальник просит вас
выполнить работу, которая не входит в ваши должностные
обязанности (job description). Вы выполняете работу плохо,
что приводит к увольнению. Если вам не предоставили соот-
ветствующую подготовку и работа выходила за рамки ваших
должностных обязанностей, специальный суд по трудовым
вопросам может признать, что вас уволили несправедливо,
при условии, что вы проработали на этом месте год.
Поскольку несправедливое увольнение регулируется ста-
тутным правом, размер компенсации в случае несправедли-
вого увольнения установлен статутом.
Работодатели должны следовать определенной проце-
дуре, прежде чем они уволят работника, который проработал
на этом месте год и более. Если они этого не делают, уволь-
нение автоматически считается назаконным.
VI. Key Terms
1. Constructive dismissal the situation when an employee resigns

[kənˈstrʌktɪv dɪsˈmɪsəl] because of the conduct of his employer
2. Employment law an area of law that deals with relation
ship between employers and employees
3. Employment tribunal a special court that settles disputes
[traɪˈbju nl] between employers and employees
4. Grievance procedure a procedure that an employee has to
[ˈɡri:vəns prəˈsi:dʒə] follow when telling the employer his
complaints at work
5. Gross misconduct the employee’s behaviour that is clearly
[ɡrəus mɪskənˈdʌkt] wrong and unacceptable which entitles
the employer to dismiss him or her
without following the procedure of
dismissal
282
6. Unfair dismissal the removal of an employee from his or
her job by an employer without a valid
reason
7. Wrongful dismissal the situation when the employer
breaches the terms and conditions of
the employment contract by dismissing
an employee
VII. Case Study

You specialize in employment. Give advice to clients who
have some problems at work.
1. “I didn’t think I was being paid the minimum wage and
firstly I asked my line manager to help me. When I got no
response I contacted my trade union. The next day I was called
into the office and given a week’s notice.”
2. “I’m 65 next week and still very fit. I enjoy my job. When
the managers asked to see me I thought they wanted to give me
a birthday card. They gave me my dismissal card instead. It’s
a disgrace. They’re always complaining of being short-staffed but
they still kick you out when you reach a certain age.”
3. “I work for an advertising agency based here in Chatsworth.
My employment contract clearly states that I will be paid on
26th of each month but my employer always pays me later than
that. I have had a few financial troubles as a result.”
4. “My name is Julie Murphy. My former employer has an
estate agency in the town of Chatsworth. His name is Keith
Penhaligon. I worked for Mr Penhaligon as a receptionist in his
office for four years. My job was to welcome people who came
into the office and give them information about property that
was for sale. I liked my job. I was a good employee. I was never
late for work. I had a good relationship with my colleagues.
During the four years that I worked there I only had two days’
absence.
Six months ago Mr Penhaligon said that he needed an assis-
tant manager. He advertised the vacant position in the local
283
newspaper. The advertisement said that candidates for the job
should be ‘young and ambitious and with previous experience of
working for an estate agent’. I am 27 years old, very ambitious
and I have experience. I applied for the job. 15 other people also
applied for the job. Mr Penhaligon refused to interview me for
the job. He explained that it was a waste of his time to discuss
my C.V. and talk about the job. He told me this was because I
got married a year ago. He said that he was afraid I would have
a baby very soon and would need lots of time away from work.
He said he would prefer to employ an older woman or a man.
I stopped working for Mr Penhaligon immediately. I am very
angry.”

Exercise 1.
A. Here are the titles of some clauses in an employment
contract. Lawyers usually call them “clause headings”.
Match the description of what each clause deals with
the heading given in the box.
term of the contract job title working hours remuneration
holidays sick pay grievance procedure disciplinary procedure
confidentiality non-competition termination pension
1. This clause deals with the payment that the employee will
receive in return for working for the employer.
The clause heading is ______________________________
2. This clause deals with the employee’s obligation not to
tell anyone about certain information that belongs to the
employer.
The clause heading is _____________________________
3. This clause deals with the period of time that the contract
will be valid.
The clause heading is _____________________________
4. This clause deals with the amount of time that the employee
is obliged to work every week or month.
284
5. This clause deals with what the employer must do if he or
she is unhappy with the way that the employee is behaving
at work.
6. This clause deals with the arrangements for the employee to
have money in his or her old age.
7. This clause gives the name of the employee’s job.
8. This clause deals with the time that the employee is allowed
to stay away from work to rest and relax and still receive his
or her pay.
9. This clause deals with the ways in which the contract of
employment can end. The clause heading is ______________
10. This clause deals with what an employee must do if he or she
is unhappy at work and wants to complain to the employer.
11. This clause deals with the employee’s obligation after the
contract of employment ends not to start the same business
or work for a rival of the employer for a certain period of
time.
12. This clause deals with the money that an employer must pay
to an employee when the employee is ill and cannot work.
B. Below are some very short extracts from an employment
contract. Match the correct heading from the box in (A)
with each extract.
1. “For a period of 12 months after the termination of this agree-
ment the Employee agrees that he or she will not start a busi-
ness that is the same or similar to the Employer’s business.”
The clause is ____________________________________
2. “The Employer shall pay the Employee a salary of £21,000
a year.”
The clause is ____________________________________
285
3. “If you have a complaint relating to your employment you
should follow the procedure attached to this contract in
order to inform your manager about your complaint.”
The clause is ____________________________________
4. “The Employer agrees to employ the Employee in the posi-
tion of sales assistant.”
The clause is ____________________________________
5. “On the first day of your absence from work you must inform
your manager. If you are absent for more than seven days
you must provide your manager with a medical certificate
signed by your doctor.”
The clause is ____________________________________
6. “This contract is for a duration of 12 months.”
The clause is ____________________________________
7. “Employees who wish to contribute to the Fund may do so
until the age of 65 years.”
The clause is ____________________________________
8. “The Employee is entitled to 25 days per year in addition to
public holidays.”
The clause is ____________________________________
9. “A summary of the rules and procedures that the Employer
must follow in relation to difficulties with the Employee’s
performance in the workplace is attached to this contract.”
The clause is ____________________________________
10. “The Employee is required to work Mondays to Fridays
between 8.30am and 5.30pm, with one hour for lunch.”
The clause is ____________________________________
11. “The Employee shall not during the term of his or her
employment disclose any material information relating to
his or her employment to any third party.”
The clause is ____________________________________
12. “The Employer may end this agreement by giving four weeks’
written notice to the Employee.”
The clause is ____________________________________
286
Exercise 2. Role play. Employment negotiation.
A. Read this true story about an employment dispute
in Cambridge. This story will form the basis for your
negotiation.
Cambridge Daily Star
Local man in surprise sacking case claims compensation
An employee of Freshfoods supermarket who was offered
a promotion one day and was sacked the next was at a tribunal
yesterday in Cambridge. He is claiming “substantial” damages
from Freshfoods to compensate him for lost earnings and the
humiliation he says he has faced due to his treatment by the
supermarket giant.
Stephen Willis (20) from the Oakington area of Cambridge
was a sales assistant at the new Freshfoods branch in Churchill
Lane. Mr Roger Bruce, acting for Stephen told the tribunal that
his client was regarded as a model employee by the store, and
had recently been offered a promotion to a trainee manager’s
position.
The problem is that Mr Willis was taken on by the store dur-
ing the Christmas holiday when they were very busy and were
open 24 hours a day to meet the demand from customers. Unfor-
tunately the store manager, Mrs Shiona Wagstaffe, employed
Stephen Willis before the result of a 40 question psychometric
test was known. Mrs Wagstaffe told the tribunal yesterday that
the company was indeed at fault for offering Mr Willis the job so
soon, but that the company were prepared to meet him half way
by offering him his job back as a sales assistant.
Mr Willis’ response to the court was one of outrage. He said,
“How can I possibly go back to a company that behaves towards
its employees like this?”
However, Miss Fenella Williams, acting for Freshfoods,
said that her client had been more than reasonable in offering
Mr Willis his job back. She said, “Given that Mr Willis failed
an essential part of the recruitment process my client has been
as reasonable as it is possible to be under the circumstances.”
She added that as Mr Willis had only worked at the store for
287
2 months, any amount of damages awarded by the tribunal
should be “negligible”. “There is too much of a movement these
days towards a compensation culture”, she said. “I would urge
Mr Willis to settle this case as soon as possible by accepting my
client’s very generous offer.”
Mr Willis took the Freshfoods test by computer, responding
to 40 questions by pressing numbers 1-5. A score of 1 expressed
strong agreement, whereas 5 expressed strong disagreement.
Here are some of the questions, together with Mr Willis’
response:
I will report fellow employees who take food from the store
without paying (4)
I never miss work because of illness (3)
If a customer asked me about the vitamins contained in
a canned food and I didn’t know the answer I might just invent
an answer (1)
Miss Williams told the tribunal that these tests were a valid
part of the selection process and a much better indicator than
a C.V. as to who would be successful in a particular job. The case
was adjourned at 4pm and continues.
B. Study the facts of the employment dispute.
Freshfoods in Cambridge employed Stephen Willis for
2 months. The store manager offered Stephen a promotion to the
position of trainee manager on 16 February this year. However,
on 17 February the result of Stephen’s pyschometric personality
test showed that he had failed. The store manager then sacked
Stephen and gave him one months’ pay.
Stephen’s gross pay (before tax and other deductions) was
£18,000 per year.
The company also made a contribution into Stephen’s pen-
sion plan of £100 per month.
As a trainee manager, a position Stephen was told he could
take up on 1 April this year, his salary would have increased to
£22,000 per year.
288
On this salary, the company would have increased the pen-
sion contribution to £130 per month.
C. Divide the class into two groups: lawyers for Fresh
foods and lawyers for Stephen Willis. Hold negotiations.
You are absolutely free to negotiate any settlement you can
achieve with the lawyer of the other party in this dispute. How-
ever, each client has instructions for his lawyers.
Task for lawyers for Freshfoods
Your instructions are to settle this case today as cheaply as possible
but you must settle it.
Your client is in a difficult situation. Your client 100% does not want
to employ Stephen as a trainee manager and would prefer him to either
take back his old job as a shelf-stacker or take a small amount of damages.
Your client’s preference is not to employ Stephen at all.
Also, your client is desperate for this case not to go to court. A local
newspaper has started to investigate the story and your client does not
want any bad publicity with the public. Freshfoods has just spent over
2 million pounds on a television advertising campaign saying:
“Because we’re the supermarket with the happiest staff in Britain it
means you are the happiest customers.”
The Freshfoods marketing manager for the UK is furious and wants this
situation resolved as soon as possible and with the minimum of publicity.
The client has told you to try to settle this as close to a £10,000 budget as
you can but they are prepared to go up to £30,000 if they really have to.
Task for lawyers for Stephen Willis

Your instructions are to settle this case for as much sum of money
as possible.
Your client is in a difficult situation. After this dismissal it will be difficult
for him to find a job, but he does not want to return to The Freshfoods
as sales manager. He is ready to consider a trainee manager’s position in
a Freshfoods supermarket in some other town. The Freshfoods is to pay
the costs of movement
He would also like to have an adequate compensation of £35,000 —
£50,000 for mental distress and have some official apology from the
Freshfoods published in a national paper.
He wants to make this case public. He is even ready to to go to the
European Court of Human Rights.
289
Exercise 3. Complete an employment precedent.
You are going to use an employment precedent from a pre
cedent library. Your client has a business that offers private
security services to other businesses. According to your client’s
instructions, complete the precedent accurately.
• The contract will be signed tomorrow
• Your client’s name and address is REX Security Limited,
54 Green Avenue, Peckham, London.
• Your client’s employee is Mr Mark Hoffmann, 14 Coro
nation Street, Primrose Hill, London.
• The client wants to start Mark Hoffmann’s employment
tomorrow as a security operative at ATS telephone Systems,
77 Gallagher Street, Holborn, London.
The client wants to pay £25,000 per annum and wants to pay
weekly.
1. The client is very concerned about the possibility of Mark
Hoffmann setting up a rival business and taking customers with
him. It is important that this contract forbids Mark Hoffmann
from contacting anyone who was a client of REX Security for
2 years before termination for the 2 years after this contact ter-
minates.
2. An agreement about working conditions between the
security officers’ trade union and REX Security will be included
as part of this agreement. The trade union’s name is NUSO and
the agreement was made with Rex Security on 3 July 2006.
3. If Rex Security want to give an employee a warning about
his or her behaviour they can do so according to the rules con-
tained in “A Guide for REX employees 2010”.
4. Employees are entitled to 28 days paid holiday every cal-
endar year. They must not take more than two weeks at any
single time.
5. New employees can join the company pension plan and
will receive a booklet called “You and your REX pension” telling
them about it. However, employees can contract out of this plan
if they choose to do so.
6. New employees are entitled to two weeks sick pay per
annum.
290
7. Previous employment at any subsidiary of REX will not
be counted as previous employment with this company.
8. Working hours for an employee are 6am — 3pm Monday
to Friday and 7.30 am — l pm on Saturdays.
9. Overtime is paid at a rate of £12.00 per hour.
EMPLOYMENT CONTRACT
THIS AGREEMENT IS MADE the __ day (1)
of __(2) ____________________year (3) ___
BETWEEN (4) _________________________________ of
(5) ____________________________________________
(the “Employer")
and
(6) ___________________________________________ of
(7) ____________________________________________
(the “Employee")
This document sets out the terms and conditions of employ-

ment which are required to be given to the Employee under sec-
tion I Employment Rights Act 1996 and which apply at the date
hereof.
1. COMMENCEMENT AND JOB TITLE. The Employer
agrees to employ the Employee from (8) _________________
______________ year (9) __________________ in the capac-
ity of (10) ________________________________at (11) ___
_________________________________.
[No employment with a previous employer will be counted
as part of the Employee’s period of continuous employ-
ment] [The employment under this Agreement forms part
of a continuous period of employment which began on
(12) _________________________] The Employee’s duties
may from time to time be reasonably modified as necessary to
meet the needs of the Employer’s business.
2. SALARY. The Employer shall pay the Employee a salary
of £(13) __________________________________________
per year by equal <weekly> <monthly> installments in arrears.
3. HOURS OF EMPLOYMENT. The Employee’s normal
hours of employment shall be (14) ______________________ to
291
(15) _____________________ on Mondays to Fridays [and
(16) _______________ to (17) _____________________ on
Saturdays] during which time the Employee may take up
to one hour for lunch between the hours 12pm and 2pm, and
the Employee may from time to time be required to work
such additional hours as is reasonable to meet the require-
ments of the Employer’s business at an overtime rate of
(18) £______________________ per hour.
4. HOLIDAYS. The Employee shall be entitled to
(19) ______________________ days holiday per calendar year
at full pay in addition to the normal public holidays. Holidays
must be taken at a time that is convenient to the Employer and
no more than (20) _______________weeks’ holiday may be
taken at any one time.
5. SICKNESS. The Employee shall be paid normal
remuneration during sickness absence for a maximum of
(21) ______________ weeks in any period of twelve months
provided that the Employee provides the Employer with a medi-
cal certificate in the case of absence of more than seven con-
secutive days. Such remuneration will be less the amount of any
Statutory Sick Pay or Social Security sickness benefits to which
the Employee may be entitled.
6. COLLECTIVE AGREEMENTS. [There are no collec-
tive agreements in force directly relating to the terms of your
employment] [The terms of the collective agreement dated
(22) ________________________________ made between
(23) _______________________ and (24) ________________
______________ shall be deemed to be included in this agree-
ment].
7. PENSION. [There is no pension scheme applicable to the
Employee] [The Employee shall be entitled to join the Employer’s
pension scheme the details of which are set out in the Employer’s
booklet/leaflet entitled (25) ______________________ which
is available on request]. A contracting-out certificate under the
Pension Schemes Act 1993 [is] [is not] jn force in respect of this
employment.
292
8. TERMINATION. The Employer may terminate this
Agreement by giving written notice to the Employee as follows:
(a) with not less than one week’s notice during the first two
years of continuous employment;
(b) with not less than one week’s notice for each full year
of continuous employment after the first two years until the
twelfth year of continuous employment; and
(c) with not less than twelve weeks’ notice after twelve years
of continuous employment.
The Employer may terminate this Agreement without notice
or payment in lieu of notice in the case of serious or persistent
misconduct such as to cause a major breach of the Employer’s
disciplinary rules.
The Employee may terminate this Agreement by one week’s
written notice to the Employer.
9. CONFIDENTIALITY. The Employee is aware that dur-
ing his employment he may be party to confidential informa-
tion concerning the Employer and the Employer’s business. The
Employee shall not during the term of this employment disclose
or allow the disclosure of any confidential information (except
in the proper course of his employment). After the termination
of this Agreement the Employee shall not disclose or use any of
the Employer’s trade secrets or any other information which is of
a sufficiently high degree of confidentiality to amount to a trade
secret. The Employer shall be entitled to apply for an injunction
to prevent such disclosure or use and to seek any other remedy
including without limitation the recovery of damages in the case
of such disclosure or use.
10. NON-COMPETITION. For a period of (26) [__ months]
[_____ year(s)] after the termination of this Agreement the
Employee shall not solicit or seek business from any customers
or clients of the Employer who were customers or clients of the
Employer at any time during the ________years immediately
preceding the termination of this Agreement.
11. DISCIPLINE AND GRIEVANCE. The Employer’s dis-
ciplinary rules and the grievance and appeal procedure in con-
293
nection with these rules are set out in the Employer’s booklet
entitled, (27) ________________which is attached hereto.
12. NOTICES. All communications including notices
required to be given under this Agreement shall be in writing
and shall be sent either by personal service or first class post to
the Parties’ respective addresses.
13. SEVERABILITY. If any provision of this Agreement
should be held to be invalid it shall to that extent be severed
and the remaining provisions shall continue to have full force
and effect.
14. ENTIRE AGREEMENT. This Agreement contains the
entire Agreement between the Parties and supersedes all prior
arrangements and understandings whether written or oral with
respect to the subject matter hereof and may not be varied
except in writing signed by both the Parties hereto.
15. GOVERNING LAW. This Agreement shall be construed
in accordance with the laws of England and Wales and shall be
subject to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts.
IN WITNESS OF WHICH the parties hereto have signed
this Agreement the day and year first above written.
SIGNED _______________ ________________________
Signed by or on behalf in the presence of (witness)
of the Employer
Name __________________
Address ________________
DATED _______________
Occupaton _____________
SIGNED ______________ ________________________
Signed by or on behalf in the presence of (witness)
of the Employee
Name __________________
Address ________________
DATED _______________
Occupaton _____________
Unit 10
CONTRACT LAW
I. Lead-in
Discuss the following situation in class. What would be
your legal advice to Charlotte?
Charlotte Hewittson has a language school in Chatsworth.
Her school teaches English to foreign students. On the last
Thursday of every month Charlotte takes her students for a day
in London. They visit attractions like Madam Tussaud’s and
Buckingham Palace and they eat lunch in Hyde Park. Charlotte
uses a local bus company to take her students to London. The
name of the bus company is Chatsworth CitiTravel. Charlotte
first used this bus company six years ago. She trusts them and
has a good working relationship with them. However, Charlotte
never signs a contract with them. She always books the bus by
phone.
On 2 June Charlotte telephoned the bus company to book the
bus as usual for the last Thursday of the month. Unfortunately it
was lunchtime and no one was in the office. Charlotte left a mes-
sage on the answering machine to make her usual booking. The
bus company secretary called Charlotte back, but Charlotte was
teaching her class. The secretary left a message for Charlotte.
The message was: “We are very sorry, Charlotte, but we can’t
give you a bus on the last Thursday of this month. We will send
one on Friday instead. Call us back immediately if this is not
OK. If you don’t call us our driver will be there on Friday.”
Charlotte needed a bus for Thursday, not Friday. So, she used
another bus company. She forgot to call Chatsworth CitiTravel
295
to say that Friday was no good. The bus arrived on Friday mor
ning. Now Chatsworth CitiTravel wants the cost of hiring the
bus. This is £360.
II. Reading
1)
duress [djuəˈres] contrary [ˈkɔntrərɪ]
voluntarily [ˈvɔləntərɪlɪ] advertisement [ədˈvə:tɪsmənt]
average [ˈævərɪdʒ] auction [ˈɔ:kʃən]
competent [ˈkɔmpɪtənt] advertiser [ˈædvətaɪzə]
acceptance [əkˈseptəns] obliged [əˈblaɪdʒd]
valid [ˈvælɪd] to accept [əkˈsept]
exchange [ɪksˈtʃeɪndʒ] to reject [rɪˈʤekt]
item [ˈaɪtəm] fraud [frɔ:d]
reciprocal [rɪˈsɪprəkəl] false [fɔ:ls]
enforceable [ɪnˈfɔ:səbl] hire-purchase [ˈhaɪə ˈpə:tʃəs]
contents [kənˈtents] void [vɔɪd]
to communicate [kəˈmju:nɪkeɪt]
2) Words pronounced with a different stress.

contract [ˈkɔntrækt] to contract [kənˈtrækt]
conduct [ˈkɔndʌkt] to conduct [kənˈdʌkt]
conflict [ˈkɔnflɪkt] to conflict [kənˈflɪkt]
contest [ˈkɔntest] to contest [kənˈtest]
contrast [ˈkɔntrɑ:st] to contrast [kənˈtrɑ:st]
convict [ˈkɔnvɪkt] to convict [kənˈvɪkt]
object [ˈɔbʤɪkt] to object [əbˈʤekt]
subject [ˈsʌbʤekt] to subject [səbˈʤekt]
proceeds [ˈprəusi:dz] to proceed [prəˈsi:d]
increase [ˈɪnkri:s] to increase [ɪnˈkri:s]
suspect [ˈsʌspekt] to suspect [səˈspekt]
296
3) au — [ɔ:]
auction [ˈɔ:kʃən] auditor [ˈɔ:dɪtə]
authorised [ˈɔ:θərɪzd] author [ˈɔ:θə]
audit [ˈɔ:dɪt] audience [ˈɔ:djəns]
caught [ˈkɔ:t] cause [kɔ:z]
autumn [ˈɔ:təm] fraudulent [ˈfrɔ:djulənt]
audio [ˈɔ:dɪəu] August [ˈɔ:gʌst]
Austria [ˈɔ:strɪə] automobile [ˈɔ:təməubi:l]
B) Vocabulary Notes
(1)
2. party to a contract сторона в договоре
3. to be binding in law иметь обязательную силу по закону
4. reasonable man благоразумный человек
5. average citizen среднестатистический гражданин
(2)
6. offer оферта
legally binding offer оферта, имеющая юридическую силу
to communicate an offer передать оферту кому-л.
to smb
7. acceptance акцепт
8. to comply with the law соответствовать закону, не противо-
речить закону
9. valid contract законный, юридически действитель-
ный договор
10. consideration встречное удовлетворение
exchange of consider обмен встречными удовлетворени-
ation ями
to provide ~ предоставить ~
11. item вещь
12. reciprocal взаимный, обоюдный
13. to be contrary to law быть в нарушение закона, быть
противозаконным
297
(3)
14. legal intention правовое намерение
15. to be legally bound быть обязанным по закону
16. to make a contract / заключить договор
enter into a contract
17. to contract on certain заключить договор на определен-
terms ных условиях
18. contractor сторона в договоре
19. to be legally competent иметь право по закону сделать
to do smth что-л.
20. person under 18 лицо, не достигшее 18 лет
21. mentally ill person психически больной человек
22. to conclude a contract заключить договор
(4)
23. voluntarily добровольно
24. duress давление
to sign a contract under подписать договор под давлением
duress
25. subject matter of предмет договора
the contract
26. fraud мошенничество
27. false evidence ложные свидетельские показания
to give false evidence in давать ложные свидетельские пока-
court зания в суде
28. written contract договор в письменной форме
29. oral contract договор в устной форме
30. enforceable in court of могущий быть принудительно осу-
law ществлённым в судебном порядке
31. contract of insurance договор страхования
32. contract of договор о купле-продаже в рас-
hire-purchase срочку
298
(5)
33. advertisement / ad реклама, рекламное объявление
34. to offer goods for sale предлагать товар на продажу
35. shop window витрина магазина
36. auction аукцион
37. tender тендер
38. general public широкая публика, общественность
39. to make an offer сделать оферту
40. invitation to treat приглашение сделать оферту
41. advertiser рекламодатель
42. to be obliged to do smth быть обязанным сделать что-л.
43. to accept an offer принять оферту
44. to reject an offer отказаться принять оферту
(6)
45. business коммерческое предприятие
46. contents содержание
47. terms and conditions of условия договора
the contract
48. void contract ничтожный договор
C) Text
CONTRACT LAW
(1) A contract is an agreement which is made between two
or more parties and which is binding in law. The most impor-
tant principle guiding a judge when he decides if an agreement
is a contract is whether a reasonable man, an average citizen,
would consider it a contract.
(2) In order to be binding in law the agreement must include
a legally binding offer which must be followed by an accep
tance of that offer. The offer must be communicated in a way
that complies with the law.
In every valid contract there must also be an exchange of
consideration. Consideration is something a person has given,
299
or done, or agreed not to do when making a contract. For exam-
ple, when you buy an item at a store, your consideration is the
money you pay, and the seller’s consideration is the item you
buy. Under common law, there is no contract if there is no con-
sideration. Consideration is usually goods, money, services. It
must be reciprocal, with both parties providing consideration.
Consideration cannot be an act or thing which is contrary to
law. For example, you cannot enter into a legal contract with an
unqualified pilot to fly a plane.
(3) The parties to a contract must have a legal intention to
be legally bound before making a contract. They must agree to
contract on certain terms, that is, they must know what they
are agreeing to, though they need not know that their agreement
can be described in law as a contract.
To make a valid contract contractors must be legally com
petent. Under English law, there are special rules of interpret-
ing contracts if one of the contractors is a company, rather than
an individual, a person under 18, or a mentally ill person or
if one or more contractors made a mistake when concluding a
contract.
(4) Both parties must enter into a contract voluntarily. The
contract signed under duress is illegal.
The subject matter of the contract must be legal. For exam-
ple, an agreement to commit a crime, a tort or a fraud or to give
false evidence in court could never be enforced in court.
Most contracts can be either written or oral. However, cer-
tain kinds of contracts must be in writing to be enforceable in
court of law. These include contracts for the sale of land and
real estate, contracts of insurance and hire-purchase.
(5) The English system of law recognises some things as
being less than offer. These include advertisements in newspa-
pers, goods offered for sale in a shop window, goods offered at
auctions, tenders since it is impossible to make a contract with
all the people who might be interested in getting them. All these
things are seen as invitations to general public to make an offer.
The law calls them “an invitation to treat”.
300
If I see an ad in a newspaper offering to sell a car, and I tele-
phone the advertiser and agree to buy it, he is not obliged to
sell it to me. This is because the law considers that the real offer
is when I contact the seller asking to buy the car. The seller may
then decide whether to accept or reject my offer.
(6) In general, businesses are free to enter into whatever
contracts they agree between themselves. However, business
contracts must not be contrary to case law or to Acts of Par-
liament. If the contents of a contract, usually called the terms
and conditions, do not comply with the law, then the judge will
probably decide that the contract is void.

A. Read the information below about the elements of a con
tract. Complete the text below by writing the correct
element of a contract after its description.
To form a binding contract according to English law, four ele-
ments must be present.
• The first of these is where one of the parties makes a pro-
posal to the other party. The proposal is on absolutely cer-
tain terms. For example, “I will sell you my car cleaning busi-
ness on 1 January for £20,000.” This proposal is called an
(a) __________________________.
• In order to make the contract valid, the parties must
exchange something. Each of them must give something to the
other, such as money, work or goods. In the above example one
party exchanges a car cleaning business in return for £20,000.
Each gives something to the other. If one party promises the
other a gift (in return for nothing) then in a situation like this
the parties do not usually have a contract. So, another element
of a contract is (b) ____________________.
• The courts look at the relationship between the two par-
ties. The courts decide if the parties really want to make things
legally binding in this particular situation or not. If I agree to do
some work for my mother or my father did I really mean to make
301
the agreement legal? Did I have (c) _____________________
________?
• It is absolutely necessary that a person accepting an offer
does not change the terms of the original offer. For example, if I
say, “I will buy your car cleaning business. But not for £20,000
as you ask. I will give you £15,000”, then there is no binding
contract because there was no (d) ______________________
________.
В. Complete the text below answering the question: “What
must a judge consider when deciding if a valid contract
has been made?”
First of all, the judge must examine the agreement from the
point of view of a ____________________, an average citizen.
Will an ordinary person decide that the agreement is a contract?
Secondly, the judge must decide if all the essential elements
are present. Under English law they are a ________________
________________________, ________________________,
_________________and __________________. Besides, the
subject ____________________ must be legal. A valid con-
tract cannot be signed under ____________________.
Capacity of contractors is important. Some contracts cannot be
concluded by _______________, or ____________________.
There are special rules of interpreting contracts if there are mis-
takes in them or contracts in which one of the contractors is a
____________________.
C. Read the text again and answer the following questions.
1. What is a contract?
2. What must the parties to a contract have before making
a contract?
3. Is it necessary for the parties to know that their agreement
can be described in law as a contract?
4. Is it legal to make a person enter into a contract?
5. What is the most important principle guiding a judge when
he decides if an agreement is a contract?
6. Who is a reasonable man?
302
7. What elements must a contract include to be binding in law?
8. In what way must an offer be communicated?
9. What is consideration?
10. Is there a contract under common law if there is no con
sideration?
11. In what forms can consideration be?
12. Do both parties have to provide consideration?
13. What can’t be consideration?
14. Is a legal intention necessary to make a binding contract?
15. Do the parties to the contract have to know that their agree-
ment can be described in law as a contract?
16. What does “to be legally competent” mean?
17. Can a person under 18 make a contract?
18. In what cases are there special rules of interpreting con-
tracts?
19. Can people be forced to enter into contracts?
20. Is a contract legal if it is signed under duress?
21. Why can’t an agreement to commit a crime, a tort or a fraud
or to give false evidence in court be enforced in court?
22. What things are less than offer?
23. What does the law call them?
24. Why can’t advertisements in newspapers be regarded as
offers?
25. When does the real offer happen in case of advertisements?
26. In what forms can most contracts be?
27. What contracts must be in writing to be enforceable in court
of law?
28. Into what contracts can’t businesses enter?
29. What are the contents of a contract called?
IV. Exercises
to enter into a contract reasonable man
duress to be legally bound
mentally ill person valid contract
to accept an offer invitation to treat
303
subject matter of the contract fraud
contract of insurance to comply with the law
to give false evidence in court to reject an offer
reciprocal auction
consideration void contract
to be binding in law to be legally competent to do smth

Verb Noun Adjective
to volunteer
intentional
competence
to accept
validity
to contract
to advertise
fraudulent
enforcement
to insure
compliance

1. Workers are being encouraged to take _________________
redundancy (volunteer).
2. We believe the patient was not mentally __________ (com
petence).
3. The offer is not __________ to both parties (accept).
4. One of the essential elements of a contract is an __________
to create a legal relationship (intend).
5. This case falls within the __________of the court (compe
tent).
6. Parties to the contract must fulfil their __________ obliga-
tions (contract).
304
7. He asked the jury to consider the __________ of the wit-
ness’s claims (valid).
8. He was accused of __________ use of the stolen credit card
(fraud).
9. The documents were drawn up in __________ with the pro-
visions of the Act (comply).
10. The recommendations are not legally __________ (enforce).
11. The company has to take out an ____________ against fire
(insure).
12. They no longer __________alcohol or cigarettes at sporting
events (advertiser).
1. to enter into a contract a. legal
2. party to a contract b. false evidence
3. valid c. reciprocal
4. pressure d. to reject
5. mutual e. mentally ill person
6. against law f. to conclude a contract
7. perjury g. person under 18
8. to refuse h. contractor
9. thing i. to obey
10. able to do smth j. contrary to law
11. insane k. competent
12. to be bound l. item
13. minor m. to be obliged
14. to comply n. duress
1) enforceable — un __________________________
real — un ________________________________
qualified — un ____________________________
305
voluntary — in ____________________________
valid — in ________________________________
competent — in ___________________________
2) reasonable, pleasant, normal, useful, written, to obey, to rep-
resent, equitable, to interpret
1. The permit is out of date and therefore valid / invalid.
2. The accused defence was that she acted involuntarily /volun-
tarily.
3. He was competent / incompetent to sign the contract as he
was intoxicated.
4. Police officers must have a valid / invalid reason for stopping
motorists.
5. He was qualified / unqualified as he did not have any experi-
ence.
6. The subject matter of the contract is illegal. That is why the
contract is enforceable / unenforceable in court.
7. The police were instructed to use reasonable / unreasonable
force in dealing with the riot.
договор о купле-продаже в рас- мошенничество
срочку
ложные свидетельские показания приглашение сделать оферту
аукцион взаимный, обоюдный
обмен встречными удовлетворениями передать оферту кому-л.
оферта, имеющая юридическую акцепт
силу
благоразумный человек правовое намерение
подписать договор под давлением сторона в договоре
среднестатистический гражданин заключить договор на опре-
деленных условиях
ничтожный договор условия договора
отказаться принять оферту договор в устной форме
306
соглашение
заключить договор
международный договор
договора
в нарушение закона
интересов общества
мнениями
обмен встречными удовлетворениями
информацией
оферта
законный договор
предмет договора
1. Certain kinds of contracts must be __________ writing to
be enforceable __________ court of law.
2. If the terms and conditions of the contract do not comply
__________ the law, then the judge will probably decide
that the contract is void.
3. The parties __________ a contract must agree to contract
__________ certain terms, that is, they must know what
they are agreeing __________.
4. Both parties must enter __________ a contract voluntarily.
5. __________ common law, there is no contract if there is no
consideration.
6. Consideration cannot be an act or thing which is contrary
__________ law.
7. There are special rules __________ interpreting contracts
if one of the contractors is a company, rather than an
individual, a person __________ 18, or a mentally ill person.
8. These include advertisements ______________ newspapers,
goods offered __________ sale in a shop window, goods
offered __________ auctions, tenders.
307
9. The English system of law recognises some things
__________ being less than offer.
10. A contract is an agreement which is made __________ two
or more parties and which is binding __________ law.
PREPOSITION BANK
to agree to smth
to comply with smth
to enter into a contract
to contract on certain terms
to offer at auctions
to be binding in law
to be in writing
party to a contract
under common law
contrary to law

the text.
1. In order to be binding in law the agreement must include
a legally binding ______________ which must be followed
by an ______________ of that offer.
2. Under English law there are special rules of ______________
contracts if one of the contractors is a company, rather than
an individual, a person under 18, or a ______________ ill
person or if one or more contractors made a mistake when
______________ a contract.
3. The parties to a contract must have a legal ______________
to be legally ______________ before making a contract.
4. Both parties must enter into a contract ______________.
5. For example, an agreement to _________________ a crime,
a tort or a fraud or to give ____________ evidence in court
could never be ______________ in court.
6. In every valid contract there must also be an _____________
of consideration.
7. Consideration must be ______________, with both parties
______________ consideration.
308
8. Contracts for the sale of land and real estate, contracts of
_____________ and ____________ must be in writing to
be ______________ in court of law.
9. Business contracts must not be ______________ to case
law or to Acts of Parliament.
10. Advertisements in newspapers are seen as invitations to
general public to make an ______________. The law calls
them “an invitation to ______________”.
11. If the contents of a contract, usually called the ____________
and ______________, do not _____________ with the
law, then the judge will probably decide that the contract is
______________.
12. The offer must be ______________ in a way that complies
with the law.
the text.
1. Договор, подписанный под давлением, не является закон-
ным.
2. Стороны в договоре должны иметь правовое намерение
быть обязанными по закону перед заключением дого-
вора.
3. Чтобы иметь обязательную силу по закону, соглашение
должно включать оферту и акцепт этой оферты.
4. Встречное удовлетворение — это то, что лицо дало, сде-
лало или согласилось не делать при заключении дого-
вора.
5. Встречным удовлетворением не может быть действие
или вещь, которые являются противозаконными.
6. В любом законном договоре также должен быть обмен
встречными удовлетворениями.
7. По общему праву не существует договора, если нет
встречного удовлетворения.
8. Самый важный принцип, которым руководствуется
судья, решая, является ли некое соглашение догово-
ром, — это сочтет ли благоразумный человек, среднеста-
тистический гражданин, данное соглашение договором.
309
9. Договор — это соглашение, которое заключено между
двумя или более сторонами и которое имеет обязатель-
ную силу по закону.
10. Обе стороны должны заключить договор добровольно.
11. По английскому праву существуют специальные правила
толкования договоров, если одна из сторон является ком-
панией, а не частным лицом, лицом, не достигшим 18 лет,
или психически больным, либо если при заключении
договора одна или несколько сторон совершили ошибку.
12. Продавец может тогда решить, принять или отвергнуть
мое предложение.
definition.
1. one of the main conditions of a. сonsideration
a contract, where one party agrees to
what is proposed by the other party
2. imaginary person with average b. offer
judgement and intelligence, who is
used as a reference point for usually
expected standards of social behaviour
3. act of asking someone to make an offer c. duress
to buy, e.g. by putting items for sale in
a shop window
4. harming someone by obtaining their d. contract
property or money after making them
believe something which is not true
5. agreement which is made between two e. insurance
or more parties and which is binding
in law
6. something a person has given, or done, f. reasonable
or agreed not to do when making man
a contract
7. illegal threat to use force on someone g. hire-purchase
to make him or her do something contract
310
8. one of the main conditions of h. fraud
a contract, where one party states that
he or she proposes to do something.
9. contract which does not have any legal i. invitation to
effect treat
10. contract to pay for something by j. acceptance
installments
11. agreement that in return for regular k. void contract
small payments, a company will pay
compensation for loss, damage, injury
or death
Exercise 11. Look at this letter taken from a newspaper.

The letter is from the newspaper’s legal page.
Put the verbs in the letter into correct forms.
LEGAL CORNER
Ed Samuelson,
Chatsworth lawyer, answers YOUR legal problems.
I (0) bought (buy)a new fitted kitchen from a company
called Simply Kitchens in Chatsworth in June. The total cost of
the kitchen (1) _______ (be) just over £10,000. It (2) ______
(fit) on 8 July. The kitchen (3) _______ (include) a fridge that
(4) _______ (build) into the system. The fridge (5) _______
(break) down in early September and I (6) _______ (contact)
Simply Kitchens to ask for a new one. The manager (7) _______
(say) that I (8) _______ (have) no right to a new one and I (9)
_______ (have) to wait for an engineer to look at the fridge.
The manager (10) _______ (tell) me I (11) _______ (have) to
wait at least two weeks for an engineer because the fridge (12)
_______ (be) one of a batch that (13) _______ (not work)
properly. The engineer (14) _______ (come) on 21 Septem-
ber. He (15) _______ (tell) me that two parts of the fridge, the
thermostat and the fan, (16) _______ (be) defective. He (17)
_______ (replace) them.
It (18) _________ (be) now 22 November and I (19) just
(return) from a two-week holiday in Goa. When I (20) got
311
home I (21) _______ (find) that the fridge (22) _______
(break) down again. All of the food in it (23) _______ (be) bad
and the smell when I (24) _______ (come) through the front
door of my house (25) _______ (be) terrible. The manager of
the Chatsworth branch of Simply Kitchens (26) _______ (tell)
me that I must wait for the engineer to visit me again. He also
(27) _______ (say) the company (28) _______ (have) no
complaints department. What (29) I _______ (can do)? (30) I
_______ (can make) a claim against the company?
Stephen Blakely, Rose Terrace, Chatsworth
Exercise 12. Here is Ed Samuelson’s answer to Stephen’s
letter. Complete the gaps in the letter with the
correct preposition.
Dear Stephen
Try writing a letter (0) to the Chatsworth branch asking (1)
________ a new fridge. If that doesn’t work, SUE them! The ma_
nager of Simply Kitchens admitted that he had originally supplied
you (2) _______ defective goods, so you have a case (3) _______
the company (4) ___________ breach (5) __________ contract.
You bought the fridge (6) _______ part of a fitted kitchen and you
therefore have what the law calls “a contract (7) _________ work
and materials” (8) _______Simply Kitchens. This means that your
legal rights (9) _______ a consumer are covered (10) _________
the Sale and Supply of Goods Act 1982. The supplier is also respon-
sible (11) _________consequential loss arising (12) _______ the
defects (13) _________ the fridge. So, you can claim compensa-
tion (14) _________ the spoiled food as well!
Exercise 13. Stephen Blakely has followed Ed’s advice
and he has written this letter to the manager
of Simply Kitchens. The words in parentheses
are too informal. Replace these words by
choosing the correct word or collocation
from the box below.
breach issue proceedings replacement
inconvenience grounds are aware compensation
notice as soon as possible admitted
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Fitted Kitchen, supplied by Simply Kitchens Ltd, June 20XX
Dear Mr Russell
In June of this year I purchased a new kitchen from your com-
pany for a total price of £10,345. The fridge that you supplied
was defective. As you (a) (know very well) ______________.
I have had numerous difficulties in trying to get this fridge
replaced. This letter is (b) (warning) _____________ of my
intention to begin legal action if the problem is not rectified
immediately.
The kitchen was fitted in June and the fridge broke down
for the first time just three months later, on 5 September. When
I contacted your office I was advised that I should wait for an
engineer to repair the fridge, as I had no right to a (c) (new one)
__________________. During that conversation you (d) (said
it was true) _____________________ that the fridge was one
of a batch that was defective and that I would have to wait two
weeks (without having the facility of a fridge) as your engineer
was so busy.
Now the fridge has broken down for a second time, which
has caused me both expense and (e) (personal trouble)
___________________. I am not prepared to wait for a sec-
ond visit from an engineer and request that you supply me
with a new fridge immediately. I have taken legal advice and
I am advised that I have (f) (reasons) ______________ to
make a claim against your company based on (g) (dishonor)
___________ of contract. I understand that as a consumer I am
covered by the Sale and Supply of Goods Act 1982. If it is neces-
sary to (h) (start a legal action) _____________________ in
Chatsworth County Court I shall claim for the cost of the fridge
and I will also include in the amount of the claim (i) (money)
___________________ for the consequential loss of spoiled
food, which amounts to approximately £150.
I look forward to hearing from you (j) (very quickly)
_______________.
Yours sincerely
Stephen Blakely
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Exercise 14. Change the following sentences using the
Gerund.
Example:
The parties must have a legal intention to be bound
before they make a contract.
— The parties must have a legal intention to be
bound before making a contract.
1. A valuable consideration is something a person has given, or

done, or agreed not to do, when he made a contract.
2. After the police have arrested the suspect, they must
decide if they have enough evidence to make a formal accu-
sation.
3. Before we accept an offer, we must consider it carefully.
4. Before judges make a decision, they consider previous prec-
edents.
5. After the solicitor does the initial preparation for cases, he
hands them to barrister to argue in court.
6. The government can overturn a decision of the House of
Lords after it passes an Act of Parliament.
7. Before he started an action in court, he tried to settle the
dispute out of court.
attention to the translation of “since”.
Example:
An advertisement to sell something is not normally
considered an offer, since it is impossible to make
a contract with all the people who might read it.
— Рекламное объявление о продаже чего-
либо обычно не считается офертой, так как
(поскольку) невозможно заключить контракт со
всеми людьми, которые могли прочитать его.
1. Even where there is a precise statute, the case law interpret-

ing the statute may be very important since the circum-
stances of each crime may be very different.
2. In the United States, doctors, dentists and lawyers are often
sued for millions of dollars. This has in turn increased the
314
cost of many services since such professionals have to pay
very high insurance premiums to cover themselves in case
they are successfully sued.
3. Under Anglo-American law the dead person’s property
passes immediately to administrators (called executors if
the dead person left a will). Administrators and executors
are not technically trustees since their powers and duties
are defined in statute. However, since they become the legal
owners of the dead person’s property and hold it on trust
until they have paid debts and taxes and can pass it on to
those entitled to inherit, their position is very similar to that
of a trustee.
4. Shareholders cannot insist on the payment of a dividend
every year, since this is up to the directors to decide.
5. There are some restrictions on the choice of the name: for
example, the registrar will not accept a name that is the same
or very similar to a company already registered, since this
could confuse consumers and clients.
Exercise 16. Study the difference between the verbs “offer”
and “suggest”. Use either “offer” or “suggest”.
suggest — предлагать, подавать идею
suggest a plan / an idea / the idea of doing smth
suggest that smb (should) do smth
suggest doing smth
offer smth — предлагать, давать что-л.
offer smb one’s help / a loan / money / a lift
offer to help smb (with smth) / give smb a lift / show smb around
(a city / Paris / an exhibition)
Note: Если прямое дополнение выражено инфинитивом,
не следует ставить личное местоимение в косвенном падеже
сразу же после глагола “to offer”.
Example:
He offered to do the translation for me.
— Он предложил мне сделать перевод.
(Он вызвался сделать перевод для меня.)
315
A. Change the following sentences using the verbs “to
suggest” or “to offer”.
Example:
“Let’s go there,” Peter said.
— Peter suggested going there.
1. “Let’s make a contract,” Mr Jones said.

2. “Let’s include these terms into the contract,” he said.
3. Donald said that it wouldn’t be bad if we considered various
proposals.
4. “Let’s try to settle the dispute out of court.”
5. He volunteered to help them to do this work.
6. Jane said she would show me round London.
7. Let John apply to the manager, that’s what Helen said.
8. Philip said he would take me for a drive in his new car.
9. “I’ll make a claim on your behalf,” the solicitor said.
B. Translate.
1. Мистер Бейкер предложил обсудить этот вопрос немного
позднее.
2. Он вызвался решить этот вопрос без посторонней
помощи.
3. Кто предложил вам обратиться к юристу?
4. Он предложил заключить контракт в письменной форме.
6. Он вызвался подготовить все нужные документы.
7. Он предложил, чтобы Джон составил завещание.
8. Солиситор предложил провести расследование, прежде
чем передавать дело в суд.
Exercise 17.
A. Read the Russian part of the text comparing it

with the English part of the text.
1. Договор — это соглашение, ко A contract is an agreement
торое заключено между двумя which is made between two or
или более сторонами и кото- more parties and which is bind-
рое имеет обязательную силу ing in law.
по закону.
316
2. Самый важный принцип, кото- The most important principle
рым руководствуется судья, guiding a judge when he decides
решая, является ли некое согла- if an agreement is a contract is
шение договором, — это сочтет whether a reasonable man, an
ли благоразумный человек, сред- average citizen, would consider
нестатистический гражданин, it a contract.
данное соглашение договором.
3. Чтобы иметь обязательную силу In order to be binding in law
по закону, соглашение должно the agreement must include
включать оферту и акцепт этой a legally binding offer which
оферты. must be followed an acceptance
of that offer.
4. Оферта должна быть пере- The offer must be communi-
дана таким способом, который cated in a way that complies
не противоречит закону. with the law.
5. В любом законном догово In every valid contract there
ре также должен быть обмен must also be an exchange of
встречными удовлетворениями. consideration.
6. Встречное удовлетворение — Consideration is something
это то, что лицо дало, сделало a person has given, or done, or
или согласилось не делать при agreed not to do when making
заключении договора. a contract.
7. Например, когда вы покупа- For example, when you buy an
ете какую-то вещь в магазине, item at a store, your considera
ваше встречное удовлетворе- tion is the money you pay, and
ние — это деньги, которые вы the seller’s consideration is the
платите, а встречное удовлет- item you buy.
ворение продавца — это товар,
который вы покупаете.
8. По общему праву не существует Under common law, there is no
договора, если нет встречного contract if there is no consi
удовлетворения. deration.
9. Встречным удовлетворением Consideration is usually goods,
обычно являются товар, деньги, money, services.
услуги.
10. Оно должно быть взаимным, It must be reciprocal, with
т.е. обе стороны должны пре- both parties providing consi
доставить встречное удовлет- deration.
ворение.
317
11. Встречным удовлетворением Consideration cannot be an act
не может быть действие или or thing which is contrary to
вещь, которые являются про- law.
тивозаконными.
12. Например, вы не можете заклю For example, you cannot enter
чить законный договор с не into a legal contract with an
квалифицированным пилотом unqualified pilot to fly a plane.
об управлении самолетом.
13. Стороны в договоре должны The parties to a contract must
иметь правовое намерение have a legal intention to be
быть обязанными по закону legally bound before making
перед заключением договора. a contract.
14. Они должны согласиться заклю They must agree to contract on
чить договор на определенных certain terms, that is, they must
условиях, т.е. они должны знать, know what they are agreeing
на что они соглашаются, хотя им to, though they need not know
и необязательно знать, что их that their agreement can be
соглашение по закону является described in law as a contract.
договором.
15. Чтобы заключить законный To make valid contract con-
договор, стороны в договоре tractors must be legally com-
должны иметь право по закону petent.
сделать это.
16. В английском праве существуют Under English law, there are
специальные правила толко- special rules of interpreting
вания договоров, если одна contracts if one of the contrac-
из сторон является компанией, tors is a company, rather than
а не частным лицом, лицом, an individual, a person under
не достигшим 18 лет, или психи- 18, or a mentally ill person or if
чески больным, либо если при one or more contractors made
заключении договора одна или a mistake when concluding
несколько сторон совершили a contract.
ошибку.
17. Обе стороны должны заклю- Both parties must enter into
чить договор добровольно. a contract voluntarily.
18. Договор, подписанный под дав- The contract signed under
лением, не является законным. duress is illegal.
318
19. Предмет договора должен быть The subject matter of the con-
законным. tract must be legal.
20. Например, соглашение совер- For example, an agreement to
шить преступление, деликт commit a crime, a tort or a fraud
или мошенничество либо дать or to give false evidence in court
ложные свидетельские показа- could never be enforced in court.
ния в суде не может быть защи-
щено в суде.
21. Большинство договоров могут Most contracts can be either
быть как в письменной, так written or oral.
и в устной форме.
22. Однако некоторые типы догово- However, certain kinds of con-
ров должны быть только в пись- tracts must be in writing to be
менной форме, чтобы иметь enforceable in court of law.
юридическую силу в суде.
23. Сюда входят договоры по про These include contracts for
даже земли и другой недвижимо- the sale of land and real estate,
сти, договоры по страхованию, contracts of insurance and
договоры по купле-продаже hire-purchase.
в рассрочку.
24. Английская система права The English system of law re
признает, что некоторые вещи cognises some things as being
не являются офертой в полной less than offer.
мере.
25. К ним относятся объявления These include advertisements
в газетах, товары, выставля- in newspapers, goods offered
емые на продажу в витрине for sale in a shop window,
магазина, товары, предлагае- goods offered at auctions and
мые на аукционах и тендерах, tenders since it is impossible
поскольку невозможно заклю- to make a contract with all the
чить договор со всеми людьми, people who might be interested
которые могут быть заинтере- in getting them.
сованы в их получении.
26. Все это рассматривается как All these things are seen as
адресованное широкой публике invitations to general public to
приглашение сделать оферту. make an offer.
319
27. В праве это называется «при- The law calls them “an invita-
глашение сделать оферту». tion to treat”.
28. Если я вижу объявление в га If I see an ad in a newspaper
зете, предлагающее купить offering to sell a car, and I tele-
машину, звоню рекламодателю phone the advertiser and agree
и соглашаюсь ее купить, прода- to buy it, he is not obliged to
вец не обязан продать ее мне. sell it to me.
30. Это потому, что закон считает, This is because the law consid-
что реальная оферта возни- ers that the real offer is when
кает, когда я связываюсь с про- I contact the seller asking to
давцом и предлагаю продать buy the car.
машину мне.
31. Продавец может тогда решить, The seller may then decide
принять или отвергнуть мое whether to accept or reject my
предложение. offer.
32. В основном коммерческие In general, businesses are free
предприятия могут заключать to enter into whatever con-
между собой любые договоры. tracts they agree between
themselves.
33. Однако коммерческие дого- However, business contracts
воры не должны противо- must not be contrary to case
речить прецедентному праву law or to Acts of Parliament.
и парламентским актам.
34. Если содержание договора, кото- If the contents of a contract,
рое обычно называют «условия usually called the terms and
договора», не соответствует conditions, do not comply with
закону, в этом случае судья, the law, then the judge will
по всей вероятности, решит, что probably decide that the con-
договор является ничтожным. tract is void.

1. Contract.
2. The principle of reasonable man.
3. Essential elements of a contract:
— offer;
— acceptance;
320
— consideration;
— legal intention.
4. Legal capacity of the parties.
5. Subject matter of the contract.
6. Types of contract:
— written contracts;
— oral contracts.
7. Invitation to treat.
1. acceptance [əkˈseptəns] акцепт

2. average [ˈævərɪdʒ] citizen среднестатистический гражданин
3. to be binding in law иметь обязательную силу
[ˈbaɪndɪŋ] по закону
4. to be legally bound быть обязанным по закону
5. to be legally competent иметь право по закону сделать
[ˈkɔmpɪtənt] to do smth что-л.
6. to be obliged to do smth быть обязанным сделать что-л.
[əˈblaɪdʒd]
7. to comply with the law соответствовать закону
[kəmˈplaɪ]
8. consideration встречное удовлетворение
[kənˌsɪdəˈreɪʃən] обмен встречными удовлетворе-
exchange of consideration ниями
[ɪksˈtʃeɪndʒ]
to provide ~ предоставить ~
9. contract [ˈkɔntrækt] договор
oral contract договор в устной форме
written contract договор в письменной форме
contract of insurance договор страхования
contract of hire-purchase договор о купле-продаже в рас-
срочку
void [vɔɪd] contract ничтожный договор
valid [ˈvælɪd] contract законный, юридически действи-
тельный договор
321
10. to contract [kən’trækt] заключить договор на определен-
on certain terms ных условиях
11. duress [djuəˈres] давление
to sign a contract under подписать договор под давле-
duress нием
12. enforceable in court of law могущий быть принудительно
[ɪnˈfɔ:səbl] осуществлённым в судебном
порядке
13. false evidence ложные свидетельские показания
[fɔ:ls]
to give false evidence in давать ложные свидетельские
court показания в суде
14. fraud [frɔ:d] мошенничество
15. invitation to treat приглашение сделать оферту
16. legal intention правовое намерение
17. to make / conclude заключить договор
a contract / enter into
a contract
18. mentally ill person психически больной человек
19. offer оферта
legally binding offer оферта, имеющая юридическую
силу
to communicate an offer to передать оферту кому-л.
smb [kəˈmju nɪkeɪt]
to make an offer сделать оферту
to accept [əkˈsept] an offer принять оферту
to reject [rɪˈʤekt] an offer отказаться принять оферту
20. party to a contract / сторона в договоре
contractor
21. person under 18 лицо, не достигшее 18 лет
22. reasonable man благоразумный человек
23. subject matter of the предмет договора
contract
24. terms and conditions of условия договора
the contract
25. voluntarily [ˈvɔləntərɪlɪ] добровольно
322
Exercise 1. Complete the sentences and texts using
the words and collocations from the Active
Vocabulary.
A.
1. The contract was declared ___________________ by the
court as one of the ___________________ was only 16 at
the time of signing it.
2. This contract will not be ___________________ until both
parties have signed it.
3. I’m sorry but the contract you have described to me has an
illegal ___________________ and as such will be seen as
unenforceable by a court.
4. In order to form a legally ___________________ contract
one party must have made an ___________________ that
the other party has clearly ___________________.
5. He asked his solicitor to advise on the ________________
of the hire-purchase agreement given to him by the car com-
pany.
6. In ___________________ of services mentioned in the
contract the client will pay £5,000.
7. At the moment you signed the agreement you
___________________ a legally binding contract.
8. The offer was made in January and we received his letter of
___________________ at the end of February.
9. They alleged they had committed the crime under
___________________.
10. English contract law requires an element of consideration,
that is what the parties actually ___________________
under the contract.
B.
Contract law is a significant part of the law of any legal juris-
diction. The main aim of contract law is to ensure that there
is fairness in the way a contract is (1) __________________
between two (2) _________________ and to provide a mech-
anism to (3) ____________________ it if one of the parties
fails to carry out its obligations under the contract. Under
323
UK and US law there is a requirement for certain basic ele-
ments to be present before an agreement will be considered
a legally (4) ______________________ contract. First of all,
it is important to establish that the parties intended to cre-
ate a legal relationship when they formed the contract and
not merely an informal agreement. Secondly, there must be
both an (5) _______________________ by one party and an
(6) ___________________ of that offer by the other. Finally,
both sides must exchange (7) ___________________ which
can be described more simply as what the parties exchange under
the contract, for example, goods, services or money.
A.
1. В торговом договоре обычно две стороны: продавец
и покупатель.
2. Если вы не будете соблюдать условия договора, мы
попросим суд предоставить средство судебной защиты.
3. По условиям договора вы должны поставить товар ком-
пании Offtell Ltd 14 сентября этого года.
4. Они дали ложные свидетельские показания и позднее
были обвинены в уголовном преступлении лжесвиде-
тельства (perjury).
5. Выставляя товар с ценой в магазине, вы приглашаете
покупателей сделать вам оферту на товар, которую вы
можете принять или нет.
6. Если договор имеет обязательную силу по закону, он
может быть принудительно осуществлён в судебном
порядке.
7. Мы заключили договор в устной форме, и, хотя он каса-
ется очень большой суммы денег, он не должен быть
в письменной форме, чтобы быть юридически действи-
тельным.
8. Вы подписали договор добровольно, или он был подпи-
сан под давлением?
9. Возраст человека является важным фактором при реше-
нии того, имеет ли человек право по закону заключить
договор.
324
B.
Оферты и акцепта недостаточно, чтобы заключить дого-
вор. Также необходимы еще два элемента, которыми явля-
ются:
• намерение создать правовое отношение и
• встречное удовлетворение.
Что такое встречное удовлетворение? Встречное удов-
летворение — это то, что одна сторона обещает дать другой
стороне или сделать для нее. Обе стороны должны предоста-
вить встречное удовлетворение, чтобы заключить юридиче-
ски действительный договор. В английском праве есть много
прецедентов, где судьи решают, что является юридически
действительным встречным удовлетворением, а что нет.
Встречным удовлетворением обычно является одна
из следующих вещей:
• обещание сделать что-либо или обещание не делать
чего-либо в будущем,
• товар,
• услуги,
• деньги.
По английскому праву обещание подарка или бесплат-
ной услуги не создает договорной ситуации. Это происходит
потому, что одна из сторон не предоставила встречного удов-
летворения. Чтобы заключить договор, обе стороны должны
дать что-то или сделать что-то. Другими словами, встречное
удовлетворение должно быть обоюдным. Если встречное
удовлетворение юридически действительно и положительно
по своей сути, мы говорим, что сторона получила выгоду
(benefit). Примером этому будет получение денежного пла-
тежа. Однако иногда предоставленное встречное удовлетво-
рение негативно по своей сути. Давайте представим ситуа-
цию, когда работник в своем трудовом договоре соглашается
не заниматься бизнесом в течение двух лет после окончания
договора. Он обещает не делать чего-то в будущем, тогда мы
говорим, что сторона понесла невыгоду (detriment).
325
VI. Key Terms
1. Acceptance one of the main conditions of a contract,

[əkˈseptəns] where one party agrees to what is proposed
by the other party
2. Сonsideration something a person has given, or done, or
[kənˌsɪdəˈreɪʃən] agreed not to do when making a contract
3. Contract an agreement between parties which is
binding in law
4. Invitation to treat act of asking someone to make an offer to
buy, e.g. by putting items for sale in a shop
window
5. Offer [ˈɔfə] one of the main conditions of a contract,
where one party states that he or she
proposes to do something
6. Reasonable man imaginary person with average judgement
[ˈri:znəbl] and intelligence, who is used as a reference
point for usually expected standards of social
behaviour
7. Void contract contract which does not have any legal effect
[vɔɪd]
VII. Case Study

1. Maria is Charles’s girlfriend. The relationship started eight
months ago. Charles asks Maria if she would like to go to
Italy with him for a skiing holiday. Maria agrees. Charles
pays for the holiday by his credit card. The cost is £2,500
in total. However, a week before the holiday Maria meets
Will. She calls Charles and explains that she is now Will’s
girlfriend and she doesn’t want the holiday. Charles is very
angry. He demands £1,250 from Maria and says she has to
pay. She says she thinks the holiday was a present from him.
Charles says the holiday was not a present because Maria has
a great job and makes more money than him. Do they have
a contract? Why? / Why not?
326
2. I promise to tidy a friend’s garden because she is ill. I don’t
want to be paid. However, I am busy and I don’t tidy the
garden for her. Is our agreement a contract?
3. A Texas company called Pennzoil agreed to buy another
company called Getty Oil. The deal was done with a hand
shake but no written contract was signed between the two
companies. Pennzoil then announced the acquisition of
Getty Oil. However, a few weeks later a third oil company
called Texaco announced that it had bought Getty Oil. Can
Pennzoil sue and win the case?
Exercise 1. Diana Williams is sending a short letter to

Charlotte Hewittson about her case. The let
ter is in the wrong order. Put the parts of the
letter into the correct order by writing your
answers in the boxes numbered 2–9 below.
Williams & Co
1 Dublin Square
Chatsworth
CHI 1DX
Mrs С. Hewittson 11 July 20XX
Chatsworth School of English
Braebum House
Chatsworth
CH3 2SJ
(a) As I explained to you, the relevant precedent says that
acceptance of an offer cannot be made by silence and you have
told me that you did not call them. I will write to CitiTravel
today on your behalf and make our opinion on this matter clear
to them.
(b) I enclose my account for your attention and hope that
this matter is now at an end. If you have any further questions
please do not hesitate to contact me.
(c) Diana Williams
(d) Your dispute with Chatsworth CitiTravel
327
(e) I am pleased to confirm to you the advice that I gave you
when you visited my office. In my opinion, you did not form
a contract with CitiTravel as you did not accept their offer to
provide you with a bus on Friday 28 June.
(f) Thank you very much for coming to see me yesterday in
connection with the above matter.
(g) Dear Mrs Hewittson
(h) My advice is then to do nothing more about this matter
and wait to see if CitiTravel respond to our letter.
(i) Yours sincerely
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
(g)
Exercise 2. You are now going to read part of a statute that

deals with contract law. The complete statute
has ten sections and is six pages long. This is
part of Section 1, which forms the first page of
the statute. It deals with the rights of people
who are not one of the parties to a contract
but who may have rights under that contract
in certain circumstances.
Contracts (Rights of Third Parties)
Act 1999
1999 CHAPTER 31
An Act to make provision for the enforcement of contractual
terms by third parties. [11th November 1999]
Be it enacted by the Queen’s most Excellent Majesty, by and
with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Tempo-
ral, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by
the authority of the same, as follows:—
1.— (1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, a person who is
not a party to a contract (a “third party”) may in his own right
enforce a term of the contract if —
(a) the contract expressly provides that he may, or
(b) subject to subsection (2), the term purports to confer
a benefit on him.
328
(2) Subsection (l) (b) does not apply if on a proper construc-
tion of the contract it appears that the parties did not intend the
term to be enforceable by the third party.
(3) The third party must be expressly identified in the con-
tract by name, as a member of a class or as answering a particular
description but need not be in existence when the contract is
entered into.
(4) This section does not confer a right on a third party to
enforce a term of a contract otherwise than subject to and in
accordance with any other relevant terms of the contract.
(5) For the purpose of exercising his right to enforce a term
of the contract, there shall be available to the third party any
remedy that would have been available to him in an action for
breach of contract if he had been a party to the contract (and the
rules relating to damages, injunctions, specific performance and
other relief shall apply accordingly).
Match each explanation below with the correct subsection of
the statute. The statute has five subsections, which are
clearly numbered 1–5.
a. This subsection says that a third party may not enforce
a right if a correct interpretation of the contract concludes that
the parties did not actually intend that the third party should be
able to enforce that right.
This describes subsection __________________
b. This subsection says that the third party who wishes to
enforce a right must be clearly named in the contract or be a
member of a group of people that is clearly named in the con-
tract. This section also says that the third party does not need to
exist at the time the contract is made. This gives rights to third
parties such as unborn children or future husbands or wives of
the contracting parties.
c. This subsection says that a third party can enforce a right if
the contract clearly states that he or she may do so. This section
also says that if a contract term clearly gives a benefit to a third
party, then he or she can enforce that term.
329
d. This subsection says that if a term is enforced the court can
give the third party any of the usual remedies available to any
person who brings a claim for breach of contract. This section
also says that the normal rules of law that apply to remedies will
apply in the normal way to third party claims.
e. This subsection says that if a third party wishes to enforce
a contract term he or she can only do so subject to any other
term in the contract that is relevant. This means that the parties
to the contract can limit or place conditions on the third party’s
right. There may be another term for example, that says that any
dispute must be resolved by mediation. The third party would
have to comply with this term when enforcing his or her right.
This describes subsection ___________________
Unit 11
TERMINATION OF CONTRACT
I. Lead-in
Read the facts and decide if John Oliver can win the case.
John Oliver is the owner of a car business called Oliver’s
Auto. John Oliver sells second-hand (used) cars in Chatsworth.
Many of the cars that John Oliver sells previously belonged
to a taxi company. Two months ago, John Oliver sold a car to
a woman named Susan Hicks. Susan Hicks paid for the car by
cheque. The cost was £1,000. The car was not a good one. It
stopped working twice in the first week that Susan bought it.
Susan was angry and went to John Oliver’s office. Susan asked
John Oliver to give her a different car. He refused. Susan tele-
phoned her bank and cancelled the cheque. John Oliver did not
receive any money. The car is at Susan’s house. The car will not
start. Susan telephoned John Oliver last week and said he can
collect his broken car any time he wants to. John Oliver refused.
He decided to sue Susan Hicks for breach of contract on the
grounds that she did not pay him.
Yesterday Susan received a claim from Chatsworth County
Court, which is the local civil court. John Oliver is claiming
£1,000 from her for the car, plus a court fee of £60. His total
claim is £1,060.
II. Reading
accordingly [əˈkɔ:dɪŋlɪ] to discharge [dɪsˈʧɑ:ʤ]
to determine [dɪˈtə mɪn] hardship [ˈhɑ:dʃɪp]
331
liquidated [ˈlɪkwɪdeɪtɪd] sufficient [səˈfɪʃənt]
distress [dɪsˈtres] specific [spɪˈsɪfɪk]
remoteness [rɪˈməutnəs] frustration [frʌsˈtreɪʃən]
laundry [ˈlɔ ndrɪ] to contemplate [ˈkɔntempleɪt]
mutual [ˈmju:tjuəl] to terminate [ˈtə:mɪneɪt]
to frustrate [frʌsˈtreɪt] partially [ˈpɑ:ʃlɪ]
B) Vocabulary Notes
(1)
1. termination a contract прекращение, расторжение договора
to terminate a contract прекращать, расторгать договор
2. performance выполнение договора
to terminate a contract прекратить договор ввиду его
by performance выполнения
3. agreement договоренность
to terminate a contract прекратить / расторгнуть договор
by mutual agreement по взаимной договоренности
4. breach of contract нарушение договора
by breach в результате его нарушения
5. frustration фрустрация (утрата договором
своего смысла)
by frustration в результате фрустрации
6. to perform the obliga выполнять обязательства по дого-
tions under the contract вору
7. fully or partially полностью или частично
8. to give notice to smb уведомлять, предупреждать кого-л.
(2)
9. material breach of существенное нарушение договора
contract
minor ~ несущественное ~
332
10. party in breach сторона, нарушившая договор
non-breaching / injured потерпевшая сторона
party
11. accordingly соответственно
12. remedy средство судебной защиты, средство
защиты права
to seek a ~ добиваться / требовать ~
13. means средство; способ, метод; возмож-
ность
14. to enforce a right осуществлять право в судебном
порядке
15. to compensate for возместить ущерб
an injury
(3)
16. damages (monetary возмещение ущерба, денежная ком-
compensation) пенсация (за убытки)
amount of ~ размер ~
17. to breach a contract нарушить договор
18. liquidated damages (компенсация за) заранее оценен-
ные [ликвидные] убытки
19. to suffer a loss потерпеть / понести убытки
20. unliquidated damages (компенсация за) заранее не оце-
ненные [неликвидные] убытки
21. to seek / claim damages требовать возмещения убытков
22. mental distress моральный ущерб
23. employment contract трудовой договор
24. to dismisses уволить работника незаконно
an employee wrongfully
25. the latter последний
26. commercial contract торговый договор
333
(4)
27. remote отдаленный
remoteness отдаленность причинной связи
28. laundry прачечная
29. to deliver smth доставить что-л.
30. boiler (паровой) котёл, бойлер
31. profit прибыль
to make a ~ получать ~
32. to enable smb to do давать возможность делать что-л.
smth
33. to take on a contract заключать договор
34. dyeing contract договор по окрашиванию
35. to put the claimant поставить истца в такое же финан-
into the same financial совое положение
position
(5)
36. specific performance исполнение в натуре, реальное
исполнение
37. to cause hardship to причинять трудности кому-л.
smb
38. injunction against smb судебный запрет на действия кого-л.
39. to be in breach of нарушить договор
contract
40. court of equity суд справедливости
41. common law court суд общего права
42. sufficient достаточный
(6)
43. on the grounds of smth на основании чего-л.
44. to contemplate smth предполагать что-л.
45. to hold smth решать что-л., выносить решение
о чем-л.
334
46. hire of a music hall аренда концертного зала
47. to frustrate a contract делать договор тщетным
48. to discharge from the освободиться от выполнения даль-
performance of any нейших обязательств по договору
future obligations
C) Text
TERMINATION OF A CONTRACT
(1) Any contract can be terminated by performance, by
mutual agreement, by breach, or by frustration.
When a contract has been performed by both parties, it is
said to be terminated by performance. If a contract is terminated
by agreement, it means that the parties to the contract decide
to terminate it without performing the obligations under the
contract fully or partially. In this case one party usually gives
notice to the other party. A typical notice period in an employ-
ment contract, for example, is four weeks.
(2) When one party refuses to perform or fails to perform the
obligations under the contract, it is called a breach of contract.
If the breach is material, the non-breaching party has the right
to terminate the contract. It is not usually possible to termi-
nate a contract because of a minor breach. However, the party
in breach must compensate the other party. Accordingly, the
injured party may seek any of several remedies for the breach
in court. A remedy is the means to enforce a right or to com
pensate for an injury.
(3) The usual remedy is damages — monetary compensation.
In many contracts the parties determine the amount of damages
to be awarded in case the contract is breached. Such damages
are called liquidated damages. If the amount of damages is not
stated in the contract, the parties often go to court. The court
must be satisfied that there was a contract, that one party is
in breach, and the other party has suffered some loss because of
the breach. The court awards unliquidated damages.
335
In addition to damages for financial loss a claimant some-
times tries to seek damages for mental distress caused by the
breach of contract. When the employer breaches the employ
ment contract and dismisses an employee wrongfully, the lat
ter can claim damages for mental distress. In commercial con
tracts damages for mental distress are not awarded.
(4) A court will award damages only for the loss closely con-
nected with the defendant’s breach, i.e. for the loss that is not
too remote. The precedent for remoteness is the 1949 English
case of Victoria Laundry vs Newman Industries. The defendants
were five months late in delivering a new boiler for the laundry.
The laundry claimed damages first for profits they would prob-
ably have made if they had had the boiler on time. They would
have increased their regular laundry customers then. Secondly,
they claimed damages for profits they might have made if the
boiler had enabled them to take on new dyeing contracts. The
court decided that the first claim was reasonable, but the sec-
ond was too remote. Remoteness is an important concept in both
contract and tort.
In deciding how much in damages to award, courts try to put
the claimant into the same financial position that he would have
been in if the defendant had carried out the contract properly.
(5) Instead of damages, a claimant sometimes asks the court
to force the other contractor to carry out the contract. In Eng-
lish law this is called specific performance. The court will not
agree to award specific performance if it causes hardship to
the defendant, however, or if it is no longer possible or prac-
tical to carry out the contract. Sometimes the court decides
to award damages instead of specific performance, and some-
times it awards both. Another remedy is injunction against the
defendant, that is, to order the defendant not to do something
that would be in breach of contract. Specific performance and
injunctions are remedies that were developed by the courts of
equity because damages that common law courts used to award
were not always sufficient.
(6) Also, the contract can be terminated on the grounds of
frustration. This means that something happens to prevent the
336
contract from being carried out that neither party could have
contemplated at the time the contract was signed. For example,
in the case of Taylor vs Caldwell, the judge held that a contract
for the hire of a music hall was frustrated because the hall had
burnt down. In a frustrated contract both parties are discharged
from the performance of any future obligations.

A. Complete the text below by writing the correct term from
the table.
frustration liquidated
damages remoteness
specific
performance material injunction
minor mental distress
1. A taxi driver is booked to take a passenger to the airport in

time for a certain flight to New York, where the passenger
expects to complete a deal worth $1 million. If the taxi driver
breaches the contract by arriving late and makes the passen-
ger miss the flight, the taxi firm may be liable for expenses such
as any extra cost for getting the next flight, but is unlikely to
be expected to compensate the passenger for the lost $1 mil-
lion on the grounds of _____________________________.
2. Ken, a horse owner, rents a field from Julie, and it is a term
of their agreement that no buildings should be put up on
the land. If Julie discovers that Ken is about to build a
stable (конюшня), she could apply to the court for an
______________________ to prevent him from doing so.
3. Building contracts often contain provisions for specified
damages to be paid in the event that the building is not com-
pleted on time, and holiday contracts often state that the
tour company is allowed to keep a percentage of the price
paid if the customer cancels at a late stage. Such damages are
called ____________________________________.
4. ______________________________ can be available only
where the goods that are the subject of the contract are in
337
some way unique, for example in contracts to sell land, since
each piece of land is thought to be unique and impossible to
replace exactly.
5. The doctrine of __________________________ provides
a remedy where, during the life of the contract, and without
the fault of either party, some event occurs that makes fur-
ther performance impossible, illegal or radically different.
6. Parties contract to exchange a box of 100 tomatoes for
$50. The seller gives the buyer a box containing 96 toma-
toes and the buyer refuses to pay. A court would likely call
this a ___________________________ breach and would
require the buyer to pay (although it may allow a small
adjustment in price), but the contract is enforceable.
7. Parties contract to exchange a box of 100 tomatoes for $50.
Instead of a box of 100 tomatoes, the seller provides a box of
100 apples (he ran out of tomatoes). The buyer sues. This is
a ___________________________ breach and the buyer is
permitted to terminate the contract.
8. To be awarded damages for ________________________
the non-breaching party has to show that it has suffered pain
from personal injury or physical inconvenience.
В. Read the text again and answer the following questions.
1. What is a breach of contract?
2. What right does the non-breaching party have if the breach
is material?
3. What right does the non-breaching party have if the breach
is minor?
4. What is a remedy?
5. What are liquidated damages?
6. In what case do the parties go to court?
7. What are unliquidated damages?
8. What can a claimant get in addition to damages for financial
loss?
9. In what case can an employee claim damages for mental dis-
tress?
10. What principle does the court use when awarding damages?
338
11. What is the precedent for remoteness?
12. What principle does the court use when deciding how much
in damages to award?
13. What remedies can the claimant seek besides damages?
14. Can the claimant be awarded several remedies?
15. What court developed specific performance and injunctions?
16. Why did specific performance and injunctions appear?
17. On what other grounds can contracts be terminated?
18. What is frustration?
19. What right do the parties in a frustrated contract have?
IV. Exercises
material breach of contract to terminate a contract
to enforce a right employment contract
unliquidated damages to discharge from the performance
of any future obligations
to award damages injunction against smb
mental distress sufficient
frustration to frustrate a contract
to cause hardship to smb to hold smth
to suffer a loss to dismiss an employee wrongfully
remote to make a profit
specific performance to contemplate smth
to terminate a contract by fully or partially
performance

Verb Noun Adjective
termination
remediable
339
Verb Noun Adjective
to perform
addition
remote
practice
profitable
to frustrate
refusal
obligatory
dismissal
to lose

1. A ___________ contract is automatically discharged (frus
trate).
2. An employer usually ___________ the employee by giving
him the required period of notice (dismissal).
3. Mrs Smith’s claim for damages is based upon her
___________ arising out of the car crash (lose).
4. Each new member of staff has to pass an ___________ medi-
cal examination (oblige).
5. Failure to comply with these conditions will result in
___________ of the contract (terminate).
6. The carrying out the _______________ under a contract is
called the ___________ of contract (oblige, perform).
7. There are some obvious ___________ applications of the
research (practice).
8. It usually more ___________ to sell direct to the public
(profit).
9. His _______ to discuss the matter is very annoying (refuse).
10. The government is providing an ___________ £25 million
to expand the service (add).
11. The court decided that the damage was too ___________ to
be recoverable by the claimant (remoteness).
12. The problem can be easily ___________ (remedy).
340
1. termination a. injured party
2. to carry out b. sum
3. duty c. monetary compensation
4. non-breaching party d. party to the contract
5. damages e. not to do
6. to claim damages f. case
7. precedent g. relief
8. contractor h. discharge
9. remedy i. to foresee
10. to contemplate j. to perform
11. to hold k. to seek damages
12. material l. serious
13. to fail to do m. to make a decision
14. amount n. obligation
1) breaching — non- _________________________
to charge — dis ___________________________
sufficient — in ____________________________
liquidated — un __________________________
to increase — to decrease
practical — un ___________________________
typical — un _____________________________
2) enforceable, real, qualified, voluntary, valid, competent,
to obey, to represent, experienced, formal, necessary, satis-
factory, equitable, flexible, fair, usual
1. The committee has been discharged / charged with the deve
lopment of sport in the region.
2. He had to do translations at home. His salary was sufficient /
insufficient to meet his needs.
341
3. It’s unpractical / practical to live in one city and work in
another.
4. The North’s share in the world’s energy consumption is
expected to increase / decrease from 70% to 60%.
5. Several of the recruits were discharged / charged from the
army due to medical problems.
6. Damages which are not for a fixed amount of money but are
awarded by a court are called unliquidated / liquidated da
mages.
7. We cannot arrest him: there is sufficient / insufficient evi-
dence.
8. They always use this strategy. This advertisement is a typic
l / untypical example of their marketing strategy.
a
9. The breaching / non-breaching party has to pay damages.
10. He had sufficient / insufficient savings to buy a car so he
applied for a bank loan.
на основании чего-л. потерпевшая сторона
решать, выносить решение требовать возмещения убытков
поставить истца в такое же добиваться / требовать средства
финансовое положение судебной защиты
исполнение в натуре, реальное размер возмещения ущерба
отдаленность причинной связи судебный запрет на действия
кого-л.
получать прибыль уведомлять, предупреждать
кого-л.
уволить работника незаконно делать договор тщетным
заранее оцененные [ликвидные] моральный ущерб
убытки
выполнять обязанности нарушить договор
по договору
возместить ущерб расторжение договора
прекратить / расторгнуть договор прекратить / расторгнуть договор
по взаимной договоренности в результате его нарушения
342
обязанность соблюдать осторожность
нарушить договор
условия международного договора
денежную компенсацию
компенсацию за заранее оцененные
присуждать убытки
компенсацию за заранее не оценен-
ные убытки
договор
выполнять/играть обязательства по договору
важную роль
средства судебной защиты
возмещения убытков
добиваться реального исполнения
судебного запрета
вред кому-л.
причинять/вызывать трудности кому-л.
проблемы у кого-л.
торговые отношения
прекращать договор
переговоры

1. The contract can be terminated ___________ the grounds
___________frustration.
2. ___________ damages, a claimant sometimes asks the court
to force the other contractor to carry ___________ the
contract.
3. When one party refuses to perform or fails to perform the
obligations ___________ the contract, it is called a breach
___________ contract.
4. _____________ ___________ to financial loss a claimant
sometimes tries to seek damages _______________ mental
distress caused ___________ the breach of contract.
343
5. A remedy is the means to enforce a right or to compensate
___________ an injury.
6. In a frustrated contract both parties are discharged ________
the performance ___________any future obligations.
7. A court will award damages only ______________ the loss
closely connected ___________the defendant’s breach, i.e.
for the loss that is not too remote.
8. In deciding how much ___________ damages to award,
courts try to put the claimant ______________ the same
financial position that he would have been _____________
if the defendant had carried _______________ the contract
properly.
9. They claimed damages ___________ profits they might have
made if the boiler had enabled them to take ___________
new dyeing contracts.
10. The court must be satisfied that there was a contract, that
one party is ___________breach, and the other party has
suffered some loss ___________ ___________ the breach.
11. Another remedy is injunction ___________ the defendant,
that is, to order the defendant not to do something that
would be ___________ breach of contract.
12. The contract can be terminated if one party gives notice
___________ the other.
13. For example, in the case of Taylor vs Caldwell, the judge held
that a contract ____________ the hire of a music hall was
frustrated because the hall burnt ____________.
14. When the employer breaches the employment contract
and dismisses an employee wrongfully, the latter can claim
damages ___________ mental distress.
15. The precedent ___________remoteness is the 1949 English
case ___________Victoria Laundry vs Newman Industries.
16. Any contract can be terminated ___________ performance,
________________ agreement, ___________breach, or
___________frustration.
344
PREPOSITION BANK
to carry out the contract
to take on a contract
to compensate for smth
to discharge from smth
to be in breach of smth
precedent for smth
damages for smth
contract for smth
injunction against smb
under the contract
on the grounds of
instead of
because of
in addition to

the text.
1. If the breach is material, the non-breaching party has the
right to ___________ the contract.
2. The court awards ___________ damages.
3. The laundry ______________ damages first for profits they
would probably have made if they had had the boiler on time.
4. If the ___________ of damages is not stated in the contract,
the parties often go to court.
5. The court decided that the first claim was reasonable, but
the second was too ___________.
6. The court will not agree to specific performance if it causes
___________ to the defendant, however, or if it is no longer
possible or ___________ to carry out the contract.
7. Specific performance and injunctions are _______________
that were developed by the courts of ___________ because
damages that common law courts used to ________________
were not always ___________.
8. Frustration means that something happens to prevent the
contract from being carried out that neither party could have
___________ at the time the contract was ___________.
345
9. In many contracts the parties ___________ the amount of
damages to be awarded in case the contract is ___________.
10. The injured party may ___________ any of several remedies
for the ___________ in court.
11. When the employer breaches the employment contract and
___________ an employee wrongfully, the latter can claim
damages for ___________ distress.
12. In deciding how much in ___________ to award, courts try
to put the claimant into the same _____________ position
that he would have been in if the defendant had carried out
the contract ___________.
13. Sometimes the court decides to award damages instead of
___________ ___________, and sometimes it awards both.
14. In a frustrated contract both parties are ___________ from
the performance of any future obligations.
the text.
1. Вместо компенсации ущерба истец иногда просит суд
заставить другую сторону выполнить договор.
2. Суд присуждает компенсацию за заранее не оцененные
убытки.
3. Суд решил, что первое требование было разумным, а вто-
рое имело слишком отдаленную причинную связь.
4. Решая вопрос о размере компенсации ущерба, суды пыта-
ются поставить истца в такое же финансовое положение,
в котором он был бы, если бы ответчик выполнил дого-
вор надлежащим образом.
5. В тщетном договоре обе стороны освобождаются
от выполнения дальнейших обязательств по договору.
6. Другое средство судебной защиты — наложить судебный
запрет на действия ответчика, т.е. постановить, чтобы
ответчик не делал то, что явилось бы нарушением договора.
7. Прецедентом для отдаленной причинной связи является
дело «Прачечная “Виктория” против “Ньюман Инда-
стриз”».
346
8. Во многих договорах стороны определяют размер возме-
щения ущерба, который будет присужден в случае нару-
шения договора.
9. Договор может быть прекращен, если одна из сторон
предупреждает другую сторону.
10. Когда одна сторона отказывается выполнять или
не выполняет обязательства по договору, это называется
нарушением договора.
11. Обычно невозможно прекратить договор из-за несуще-
ственного нарушения.
12. Средство судебной защиты — это способ осуществить
право в судебном порядке или возместить ущерб.
13. Когда работодатель нарушает трудовой договор и уволь-
няет работника незаконно, последний может добиваться
возмещения за моральный ущерб.
14. Владельцы прачечной потребовали возмещения ущерба
сначала за прибыль, которую они получили бы, если бы
котел был поставлен вовремя.
15. Если договор прекращается по взаимной договоренности,
это означает, что стороны договора решают расторгнуть
его без исполнения обязательств полностью или частично.
definition.
1. damages awarded by the court a. liquidated
damages
2. when one party refuses to perform or b. mental
fails to perform the obligations under distress
the contract
3. the means to enforce a right or to c. remoteness
compensate for an injury
4. extreme personal suffering caused by d. specific
the intentional or negligent actions performance
of another person
347
5. a situation where the terms of e. breach of
a contract cannot possibly be fulfilled contract
6. the amount of damages determined f. injunction
in the contract
7. a court order to a party to carry out g. unliquidated
his or her obligations in a contract damages
8. the fact of not being connected or h. frustration
relevant to something
9. a court order that requires someone i. remedy
involved in a legal action to do
something or refrain from doing
something
Exercise 11. Read the text below on the subject of

frustration in contract law. Put the verbs in
the letter into correct forms.
FRUSTRATION IN CONTRACT LAW
The doctrine of frustration in contract law (1) __________
(develop) during the nineteenth century. The idea of frus-
tration is that it (2) _____________ (refer) to a superven-
ing (наступивший впоследствии) even. It is something that
(3) _________ (happen) unexpectedly which (4) __________
(interrupt) a planned situation. In the context of contract law,
this means that something (5) __________ (happen) to pre-
vent the contract from (6) __________ (carry) out that nei-
ther party could have contemplated at the time the contract
(7) __________ (sign). For example, in the case of Taylor vs
Caldwell (1863), the judge (8) __________ (hold) that a con-
tract for the hire of a music hall (9) __________ (frustrate)
because the hall (10) __________ (burn) down.
The supervening event must, however, have a fundamental
impact (влияние) on the performance of the contract. Mere
(простой) disappointment or inconvenience are not in them-
selves sufficient to give rise to frustrated contracts.
What are the effects of frustration? In general, both parties
(11) _____________ (discharge) from the performance of any
348
future obligations. However, there are rules (12) __________
(govern) advance payment. The rule is that any money
which (13) ____________ (pay) before the frustrating event
(14) ____________ (occur) is recoverable by the party who
(15) __________ (pay) this money.
A typical case of frustration (16) __________ (illustrate)
by the following situation. SUN Enterprises own a piece of
land in the countryside and they agree to lease it to GM Agri-
culture in order for them to carry out experiments in (17)
__________ (grow) genetically modified crops. The lease (18)
__________ (provide) that the lease rental will become pay-
able in ten months’ time when the first crop (19) __________
(grow). There is much opposition to the project from local
people who (20) (worry) about health and safety issues. A pub-
lic inquiry (21) __________ (order) and GM Agriculture
(22) __________ (forbid) to harvest the crop until the inquiry
(23) __________ (be) complete. GM claims that the contract
(24) __________ (frustrate).
Unfortunately, there is no definite answer to whether this
situation is one of frustration. It (25) ____________(depend)
on a variety of factors. (26) ______________ the circumstances
(change) so much that the contract is incapable of performance?
Was the supervening event reasonably foreseeable by the party
(27) __________ (claim) frustration? If so, this could seriously
influence the court’s point of view if it deems (казаться) that
a calculated and known risk was voluntarily taken.
Exercise 12. Conditional sentences.
A. Change sentences using Conditionals I, II or III.
Example:
Type I. If the contractor delivers the boiler on time,
the laundry will increase their regular customers.
Type II. If the contractor delivered the boiler on
time, the laundry would increase their regular cus-
tomers.
Type III. If the contractor had delivered the boiler
on time, the laundry would have increased their
regular customers.
349
1. If he consults a lawyer, he will draw up this document very
quickly.
2. If the plaintiff puts some money as security, he will be
released on conditional bail.
3. If the defendant wants his case to be heard by a jury, he will
go to the Crown Court.
4. If the contract is not carried out properly, they will go to court.
5. If the defendant is not satisfied with the court’s decision, he
will appeal.
6. If they don’t settle the dispute in informal ways, they will
start an action in court.
7. If the defendant is under 18, he will be tried in a juvenile court.
8. If the police make a formal accusation, they will arrest the
suspect.
9. If we decide to sell our house, we will seek legal advice.
10. If the judge deals with a new problem, he will have to make
a decision based upon general legal principles.
B. Translate paying attention to Conditionals II and III.
1. Even the simplest sport, such as a race, must have rules. If it
had none at all, everyone would set off at different times and
in different directions and stop at different places.
2. If it were not against the law to steal, society would swiftly
descend into chaos and violence.
3. In contract, the aim of damages is to put the plaintiff in the
position that he would have been in if the contract had been
performed, damages in tort are to restore the position there
would have been if the tort hadn’t occurred.
4. If all drivers drove within the speed limit, it would help all
road users to travel in safety.
5. If a person was injured in a taxi because of the driver’s care-
less driving, he could sue the driver for breach of an unwrit-
ten contract to take him to the airport, or could sue him in
the tort of negligence.
6. If it were not for the law, you could not go out in broad day-
light without the fear of being kidnapped, robbed, or mur-
dered.
7. If we were all as good as we ought to be, laws would still be
necessary.
350
C. Translate using Conditionals II and III.
1. Если бы не было законов, каждый бы делал то, что ему
хочется.
2. Ecли бы контракт был исполнен надлежащим образом,
им бы не пришлось идти в суд.
3. Если бы ему удалось получить компенсацию за мораль-
ный ущерб, он бы выплатил все свои долги.
4. Если бы он тогда обратился к юристу, он бы очень быстро
урегулировал этот вопрос.
5. Если бы он подал апелляцию, его дело пересмотрели бы.
6. Если бы суд признал их соглашение договором, он был
бы должен возместить ущерб.
7. Если бы можно было урегулировать все споры неофици-
альным путем, суды были бы не нужны.
D. Translate using Mixed Conditionals.
1. Если бы я знал законы, я бы вызвал тогда полицию
немедленно.
2. Если бы отец тогда составил завещание, сейчас бы
не было судебного разбирательства.
3. У него не было бы стольких проблем, если бы договор
составил опытный юрист.
4. Если бы он был опытным адвокатом, он бы не вызывал
этого свидетеля вчера.
5. Ему бы сейчас не пришлось продавать дом, если бы его
не уволили с работы год назад.
6. Если бы работодатель соблюдал трудовой договор, он
не подал бы против него иск вчера.
Exercise 13. Study the difference between the words
“reason” and “cause”. Use either “reason”
or “cause“.
A reason explains something.
Ex.: He has given several reasons for his decision.
The cause of something is what makes it happen.
Ex.: We do not yet know the cause of the accident.
1. There are several _____________why this is my favourite

book.
351
2. Unemployment is a major _____________ of poverty.
3. There was discussion about the fire and its likely __________
_____________.
4. I have no particular _____________ for doubting him.
5. Drinking and driving is one of the most common _________
________ of traffic accidents.
6. I’d like the _____________ why you are late.
7. She resigned for personal _____________.
8. He died of natural _____________.
9. We have every _____________ to feel optimistic.
attention to the verb “hold”.
Hold
1) держать, владеть
2) признавать, решать, выносить решение (о суде)
3) обязывать
4) проводить (собрание, конференцию, выборы и т.п.)
5) занимать (должность)
A.
1. An option is a promise to hold an offer open for a fixed
amount of time.
2. As there was no negligence committed it was held that the
defendant wasn’t liable.
3. If the marriage is valid by the law of the place where it
occurred, it will be held valid wherever the question arises.
4. The right to a speedy trial is intended to relieve the accused
of the hardship of being held in jail indefinitely.
5. The court held that editorial was fair comment.
6. Any two or more offices may be held by the same person,
except the offices of president and secretary.
7. Three per cent of the shares are now held by US investors.
8. In some states, when the punishment is by fine only, the trial
may be held in the defendant’s absence.
9. Too often, married persons believe they can avoid the
necessity for making a will by having all property jointly held.
352
10. The courts have held that well-meaning but unauthorized
surgical operations may give rise to a cause of battery.
B.
1. Конференция была проведена в конце мая.
2. Суд решил, что ответчик виновен.
3. Работодатель несет ответственность за действия своего
сотрудника в рабочее время.
4. Он занимает эту должность уже 4 года.
5. Подозреваемый сейчас находится под стражей.
6. Суд постановил, что нарушившая сторона договора
должна выплатить компенсацию за нанесенный ущерб.
7. Родители отвечают за поведение своих детей.
8. Он придерживается странных взглядов на образование.
attention to the word “amount”.
amount — количество, сумма, величина
1. The insurance company will refund any amount due to you.

2. We’ve had an enormous amount of help from people.
3. You will receive a bill for a full amount.
4. The server is designed to store huge amounts of data.
5. They settled out of court for an amount less than $600,000.
Exercise 16.
1. Любой договор может быть пре Any contract can be termi-
кращен ввиду его исполнения, nated by performance, by
по взаимной договоренности, mutual agreement, by breach,
в результате нарушения, в резуль- or by frustration.
тате фрустрации.
2. Когда договор выполнен обеими When a contract has been
сторонами, говорят, что договор performed by both parties,
прекращен ввиду его выполне- it is said to be terminated by
ния. performance.
353
3. Если исполнение обязательств If a contract is terminated
из договора прекращается по дого- by agreement, it means that
воренности, это означает, что the parties to the contract
стороны договора решают рас- decide to terminate it with-
торгнуть его без исполнения обя- out performing the obliga-
зательств из договора полностью tions under the contract fully
или частично. or partially.
4. В этом случае одна из сторон In this case one party usu-
обычно уведомляет другую сто- ally gives notice to the other
рону. party.
5. Например, типичный период A typical notice period in
уведомления в трудовом дого- an employment contract, for
воре составляет четыре недели. example, is four weeks.
6. Когда одна сторона отказывается When one party refuses to
выполнять или не выполняет perform or fails to perform
обязательства по договору, это the obligations under the
называется нарушением дого- contract, it is called a breach
вора. of contract.
7. Если нарушение договора явля- If the breach is material, the
ется существенным, потерпев- non-breaching party has the
шая сторона имеет право прекра- right to terminate the con-
тить договор. tract.
8. Обычно невозможно прекратить It is not usually possible to
договор из-за несущественного terminate a contract because
нарушения. of a minor breach.
9. Однако сторона, нарушившая до However, the party in breach
говор, должна возместить ущерб must compensate the other
другой стороне. party.
10. Соответственно потерпевшая Accordingly, the injured
сторона может требовать в суде party may seek any of seve
любого средства судебной за ral remedies for the breach in
щиты. court.
11. Средство судебной защиты — A remedy is the means to
это способ осуществить право enforce a right or to compen-
в судебном порядке или возме- sate for an injury.
стить ущерб.
354
12. Обычное средство судебной за The usual remedy is damag
щиты — это возмещение ущерба, es — monetary compensation.
т.е. денежная компенсация.
13. Во многих договорах стороны In many contracts the par-
определяют размер возмещения ties determine the amount
ущерба, которое будет присуж- of damages to be awarded in
дено в случае нарушения до case the contract is breached.
говора.
14. Такое возмещение ущерба назы- Such damages are called li
вается «компенсация за заранее quidated damages.
оцененные убытки».
15. Если размер возмещения ущерба If the amount of damages is
не определен в договоре, стороны not stated in the contract,
часто обращаются в суд. the parties often go to court.
16. Суд должен быть убежден, что The court must be satisfied
договор был, что одна из сторон that there was a contract,
его нарушила, а другая сторона that one party is in breach,
понесла убытки из-за наруше- and the other party has suf-
ния. fered some loss because of the
breach.
17. Суд присуждает компенсацию The court awards unliqui-
за заранее не оцененные убытки. dated damages.
18. Помимо возмещения ущерба In addition to damages
за финансовые потери, истец for financial loss a claim-
иногда пытается получить воз- ant sometimes tries to seek
мещение за моральный ущерб, damages for mental distress
вызванный нарушением дого- caused by the breach of con-
вора. tract.
19. Когда работодатель нарушает When the employer breaches
трудовой договор и увольняет the employment contract
работника незаконно, последний and dismisses an employee
может добиваться возмещения wrongfully, the latter can
за моральный ущерб. claim damages for mental
distress.
20. В торговых договорах возмеще- In commercial contracts
ние за моральный ущерб не при- damages for mental distress
суждается. are not awarded.
355
21. Суд присуждает возмещение A court will award damages
ущерба только за убытки, тесно only for the loss closely con-
связанные с нарушением дого- nected with the defendant’s
вора ответчиком, т.е. убытки, breach, i.e. for the loss that is
которые имеют не слишком отда- not too remote.
ленную причинную связь с нару-
шением договора.
22. Прецедентом для отдаленной The precedent for remoteness
причинной связи является дело is the 1949 English case of
«Прачечная “Виктория” против Victoria Laundry vs Newman
“Ньюман Индастриз”». Industries.
23. Ответчики задержали поставку The defendants were five
нового бойлера для прачечной months late in delivering a
на пять месяцев. new boiler for the laundry.
24. Владельцы прачечной потребо- The laundry owners claimed
вали возмещения ущерба сна- damages first for profits they
чала за прибыль, которую они would probably have made
бы получили, если бы котел был if they had had the boiler on
поставлен вовремя. time.
25. Тогда они бы увеличили число Then they would have in
своих постоянных клиентов. creased their regular laundry
customers.
26. Во-вторых, они потребовали воз- Secondly, they claimed da
мещения ущерба за прибыль, mages for profits they might
которую они могли бы получить, have made if the boiler had
если бы бойлер дал им возмож- enabled them to take on new
ность заключить новые договоры dyeing contracts.
по окрашиванию.
27. Суд решил, что первое требо- The court decided that the
вание было разумным, а второе first claim was reasonable, but
имело слишком отдаленную при- the second was too remote.
чинную связь.
28. Отдаленная причинная связь — Remoteness is an important
важное понятие как в договоре, concept in both contract and
так и в деликте. tort.
356
29. Решая вопрос о размере ком- In deciding how much in
пенсации ущерба, суды пыта- damages to award, courts try
ются поставить истца в такое же to put the claimant into the
финансовое положение, в кото- same financial position that
ром он был бы, если бы ответчик he would have been in if the
выполнил договор надлежащим defendant had carried out the
образом. contract properly.
30. Вместо компенсации ущерба Instead of damages, a claimant
истец иногда просит суд заста- sometimes asks the court to
вить другую сторону выполнить force the other contractor to
договор. carry out the contract.
31. В английском праве это называ- In English law this is called
ется реальным исполнением. specific performance.
32. Однако суд не согласится при- The court will not agree to
судить реальное исполнение, award specific performance
если оно причинит трудности if it causes hardship to the
ответчику или если выполнить defendant, however, or if it is
договор невозможно либо неце- no longer possible or practical
лесообразно. to carry out the contract.
33. Иногда суд решает присудить Sometimes the court decides
компенсацию ущерба вместо to award damages instead
реального исполнения, а иногда of specific performance, and
присуждает и то, и другое. sometimes it awards both.
34. Другое средство судебной за Another remedy is injunction
щиты — наложенить судебный against the defendant, that is,
запрет на действия ответчика, to order the defendant not to
т.е. постановить, чтобы ответчик do something that would be
не делал то, что явилось бы нару- in breach of contract.
шением договора.
35. Реальное исполнение и судебные Specific performance and
запреты — это средства судебной injunctions are remedies that
защиты, которые были развиты were developed by the courts
судами справедливости, т.к. ком- of equity because damages
пенсация за убытки, которую that common law courts used
обычно присуждали суды общего to award were not always suf-
права, была не всегда достаточ- ficient.
ной.
357
36. Также договор может быть пре- Also, the contract can be ter-
кращен на основании фрустра- minated on the grounds of
ции. frustration.
37. Это означает, что происходит This means that something
нечто, препятствующее осущест- happens to prevent the con-
влению договора, чего ни одна tract from being carried out
из сторон не могла предвидеть that neither party could have
в момент подписания договора. contemplated at the time the
contract was signed.
38. Например, в деле «Тэйлор про- For example in the case of
тив Колдуэлла» судья вынес Taylor vs Caldwell, the judge
решение, что договор об аренде held that a contract for the
концертного зала является тщет- hire of a music hall was frus-
ным, т.к. зал сгорел дотла. trated because the hall had
burnt down.
39. В тщетном договоре обе сто- In a frustrated contract both
роны освобождаются от выпол- parties are discharged from
нения дальнейших обязательств the performance of any future
по договору. obligations.

1. Ways of terminating a contract.
2. Termination by performance.
3. Termination by agreement.
4. Termination by breach:
a. nature of breach;
b. remedies for the injured party:
— damages (types: liquidated damages / unliquidated
damages, damages for mental distress, principle of
remoteness of damages, how damages are calculated);
— specific performance;
— injunction.
5. Termination by frustration.
358
1. agreement договоренность
to terminate a contract by прекратить / расторгнуть
mutual [ˈmju:tjuəl] agreement договор по взаимной договорен-
ности
2. breach of contract нарушение договора
material ~ существенное ~
minor ~ несущественное ~
to be in breach of contract / нарушить договор
to breach a contract
to terminate [ˈtə:mɪneɪt] прекратить/ расторгнуть дого-
a contract by breach вор в результате его нарушения
3. commercial contract торговый договор
4. to compensate for an injury возместить ущерб
5. damages, monetary com возмещение ущерба, денежная
pensation компенсация (за убытки)
amount of ~ размер ~
to seek / claim ~ требовать возмещения убытков
liquidated damages (компенсация за) заранее оце-
[ˈlɪkwɪdeɪtɪd] ненные [ликвидные] убытки
unliquidated damages (компенсация за) заранее
не оцененные [неликвидные]
убытки
6. to discharge from the освободиться от выполнения
performance of any future дальнейших обязательств
obligations по договору
7. frustration [frʌsˈtreɪʃən] фрустрация (утрата договором
своего смысла)
to terminate a contract by прекратить / расторгнуть
frustration договор в результате фрустра-
ции
to frustrate a contract делать договор тщетным
[frʌsˈtreɪt]
8. fully or partially [ˈpɑ:ʃlɪ] полностью или частично
9. to hold smth решать что-л., выносить реше-
ние о чем-л.
359
10. injunction against smb судебный запрет на действия
[ɪnˈdʒʌŋkʃən] кого-л.
11. mental distress [dɪsˈtres] моральный ущерб
12. non-breaching / injured потерпевшая сторона
party
13. to perform the obligations выполнять обязательства
under the contract по договору
to make a ~ получать ~
15. to put the claimant into the поставить истца в такое же
same financial position финансовое положение
16. remedy [ˈremɪdɪ] средство судебной защиты,
средство защиты права
to seek a ~ добиваться / требовать ~
17. remote [rɪˈməut] отдаленный
remoteness [rɪˈməutnəs] отдаленность причинной связи
18. specific performance исполнение в натуре, реальное
19. to suffer a loss потерпеть / понести убытки
20. sufficient [səˈfɪʃənt] достаточный
21. to terminate a contract прекратить / расторгнуть
[ˈtə:mɪneɪt] договор
Exercise 1.
A. Complete the sentences using the words and collocations
from the Active Vocabulary.
1. The claimant won the case and he was _______________
damages to compensate him for his ___________________.
2. If they fail to deliver the goods on time, we will sue them for
a ___________________ of contract.
3. As a result of the injuries my client suffered in the car crash
she will bring an action ___________________ £20,000.
4. As well as the damages for the injuries sustained by my
client, we believe we have an additional claim arising from
mental ___________________.
360
5. The tribunal _______________________ that the employee
had ___________________ the confidentiality clause of his
employment contract as his employer had claimed.
6. Where there has been a breach of contract one of the parties
is referred to as “the party in breach” and the other party is
known as the ___________________.
7. My client is in court today to seek a ___________________
following a breach of contract that has resulted in very
serious ___________________ to the business.
8. She applied for an ___________________ to prevent the
magazine from publishing the photographs.
9. In some breach of contract the injured party asks the court for
an order of ___________________, which will require the
party in breach to ___________________ the obligations
under the contract.
10. Many torts give rise to claims for ___________________
damages as it is impossible to put an accurate figure on
something such as damage to someone’s reputation, for
example.
B. Complete the text using legal words and collocations.
The remedy of (1) ___________________ performance for
breach of contract involves the court issuing an (2) ___________
directing one of the parties to (3) ______________________
his or her obligations. The sanction for failure to comply is
that the person is (4) _________________ to a fine or even
(5) __________________ as a result of being found in contempt
of court (неуважение к суду). For this reason it is a discretionary
(предоставленный на усмотрение суда) (6) ______________
to which the (7) __________________ party has no automatic
right.
It was developed because in some cases (8) _______________
are considered not to be an adequate remedy. If no pecu
niary(финансовый) (9) ________________ can be established
or if it is impossible to quantify, it would mean that there would
not be an effective sanction for breach in the absence of an order
to actually (10) ___________________ the obligation. In most
361
cases it is available as a (11) ___________________ where the
contract breached is for the sale of land.
A.
1. Если одна из сторон не выполняет обязательств по дого-
вору, это называется нарушением договора.
2. Если одна из сторон нарушила договор, другая сторона
может подать иск против нарушившей стороны. Постра-
давшая сторона является истцом, а сторона, нарушившая
договор, ответчиком.
3. Потери, которые вы понесли из-за нарушения договора,
не являются прямым результатом нарушения.
4. Исполнение в натуре — это постановление суда, кото-
рое предписывает, чтобы сторона, нарушившая договор,
выполнила свои обязательства по договору.
5. Судья апелляционного суда постановил, что ответчик
не нарушил договор.
6. Средствами судебной защиты по общему праву явля-
ются: возмещение ущерба, судебный запрет и исполне-
ние в натуре.
7. Вы бы не могли представить основания, в соответствии
с которыми вы считаете, что мой клиент нарушил дого-
вор?
8. Существенное нарушение договора может привести к пре
кращению договора.
9. У него было недостаточно сбережений, чтобы купить
машину, поэтому он обратился за кредитом в банк.
10. По моему мнению, у нас достаточно оснований, чтобы
требовать возмещения ущерба.
11. Пострадавшая сторона имеет право на такое возмеще-
ние убытков, которое привело бы ее в такое положение,
в котором она была бы, если бы договор был выполнен.
12. Заранее оцененные убытки определяют сумму, которую
необходимо заплатить в случае нарушения договора.
362
B.
1. Когда происходит нарушение договора, пострадавшая
сторона имеет право быть поставленной в такое же финансо-
вое положение, в котором она была бы, если бы договор был
исполнен надлежащим образом. Стороны договора часто
урегулируют нарушение напрямую или с помощью своих
юристов. Если им не удается прийти к соглашению, постра-
давшая сторона может обратиться в суд, чтобы получить воз-
мещение ущерба.
2. Право стран континентальной Европы исходит из того,
что требование об исполнении в натуре является основным
средством судебной защиты, и нарушившая договор сторона
в принципе всегда может быть принужден к исполнению
в натуре, когда этого желает пострадавшая сторона. Требо-
вание денежной компенсации рассматривается, если испол-
нение в натуре оказывается невозможным или пострадавшая
сторона потеряла интерес к получению такого исполнения.
С точки зрения англо-американского права требование
возмещения убытков рассматривается как основное сред-
ство, и потерпевшая сторона всегда имеет право получить
денежную компенсацию в случае нарушения договора.
3. Фрустрация — это непредвиденное прекращение дого-
вора в результате события, которое делает выполнение усло-
вий договора невозможным или незаконным либо не дает
осуществиться основной цели договора. Фрустрация имела
бы место, например, если бы товар, указанный в торговом
договоре (specified in a sale of goods contract), был уничто-
жен (невозможность исполнения); если бы начало войны
сделало одну из сторон подданным неприятельского госу-
дарства (enemy alien) (незаконность); если бы X должен был
арендовать комнату у Y, чтобы наблюдать за процессией,
а процессия была бы отменена (неисполнение основной
цели). Если в договоре не делается специальной оговорки
(specific provision) о фрустрационном событии, тщетный
договор автоматически прекращается, а права и обязан-
ности сторон регулируются Актом о тщетных договорах
363
1943 г. (Frustrated Contracts Act 1943). Деньги, полученные
до наступления фрустрации, можно истребовать. Деньги,
которые не выплачены, но должны быть выплачены, пере-
стают выплачиваться. Однако сторона, которая получила
материальную выгоду (valuable benefit) по договору, должна
выплатить за нее надлежащую сумму. Акт не применяется
к определенным видам торговых договоров, к договорам
на морскую перевозку и к договорам по страхованию.
VI. Key Terms
1. Breach of contract when one party refuses to perform or fails to

perform the obligations under the contract
2. Frustration a situation where the terms of a contract
[frʌsˈtreɪʃən] cannot possibly be fulfilled
4. Liquidated damages the amount of damages determined in the
[ˈlɪkwɪdeɪtɪd] contract
5. Mental distress extreme personal suffering caused by the
[mentl dɪsˈtres] intentional or negligent actions of another
person
6. Remedy [ˈremɪdɪ] a way of repairing harm or damage suffered
7. Specific [spɪˈsɪfɪk] a court order to a party to carry out his or
performance her obligations in a contract
8. Unliquidated damages awarded by the court
damages
VII. Case Study

1. The seller agreed to supply the buyer with birch (берё-
зовый) timber. Unknown to the buyer, the seller was going
to obtain timber directly from Finland. A war broke out and
the seller’s supplies were cut off. Can the seller terminate the
contract on the grounds of frustration?
364
2. A 16 year old agreed by contract to play the drums for the
defendant’s band for 7 nights per week for 5 years. The claimant
suffered a mental breakdown and was told by his doctor that
he should not perform more than 4 nights per week. The band
dismissed him. He brought a claim for wrongful dismissal. Can
he win the case?
3. Wanes contracted with Holland to install some coffee
machines in Holland’s snack bar. When Wanes attempted to
deliver the machines, Holland said he had changed his mind and
cancelled the contract. What rights did Wanes have?
4. Kelly contracted to buy 160 acres of land from McCalls.
She planned to develop an amusement park on the land. When
the McCalls learned of her plan, they refused to deliver the deed.
Can Kelly sue the McCalls?
Exercise 1. Reading a contract case.

This case is on intention, one of the four elements of a con
tract. It is a precedent case from the year 1919, concerning
whether or not a husband and wife can form an oral contract.
The claimant is referred to as “the plaintiff” because the case
is an old one. The extract is an example of the ratio of a com
mon law contract case. The ratio is the legal reasoning that
forms the law for the future. The first part of the text below
is explanatory notes. The case begins with the words of the
judge, Lord Justice Atkin.
BALFOUR VS BALFOUR
Court of Appeal (1919)
(1) The defendant was a civil servant based in Ceylon. In
November 1915 be came to England with the plaintiff, his wife.
They stayed in England until August 1916, when the husband’s
holiday period ended and he returned to Ceylon. The plaintiff,
on her doctor’s advice, stayed in England. The husband, before
leaving, promised to give the plaintiff £30 a month until she
returned to Ceylon. Later the husband wrote saying that it
365
would be better if they remained apart. The plaintiff sued on the
promise to pay her £30 a month.
(2) Sarjant J. gave judgment for the plaintiff, holding that
the husband was under an obligation to support his wife and the
parties bad legally contracted that the extent of the obligation
should be £30 a month.
The husband appealed.
(3) ATKIN L.J.: “It is necessary to remember that there are
agreements between parties, which do not result in contracts
within the meaning of that term in our law. The ordinary exam-
ple is where two parties agree to take a walk together, or where
there is an offer or acceptance of hospitality. Nobody would sug-
gest in ordinary circumstances that those agreements result in
what we know as a contract, and one of the most usual forms of
agreement, which does not constitute a contract appears to me to
be the arrangements which are made between husband and wife.
(4) To my mind, those agreements, or many of them, do
not result in contracts at all, even though they may be what
as between other parties would constitute consideration for
the agreement. Nevertheless, they are not contracts, and they
are not contracts because the parties did not intend that they
should be attended by legal consequences. To my mind it would
be of the worst possible example to hold that agreements such as
this resulted in legal obligations, which could be enforced in the
courts.
(5) The common law does not regulate the form of agree-
ments between spouses. Their promises are not sealed with seals
and sealing wax. Their consideration is really that natural love
and affection which counts for so little in these cold courts.”
A. Answer the following questions.
1. In which court was this case heard?
2. What was Mr Balfour’s occupation at the time of the case?
3. Why didn’t the claimant return to Ceylon with her hus-
band?
4. What did the judge in the court of first instance decide?
5. What was the name of the judge in the Court of Appeal?
366
B. In each paragraph of the case find a word that matches
the definitions provided for you.
1. Paragraph (1) A word meaning “take legal action”.
_____________________
2. Paragraph (2) A word meaning “the amount of some-
thing”.________________
3. Paragraph (3) A more formal word that means “word”.
____________________
4. Paragraph (4) A word meaning “to decide in a legal
way”.__________________
5. Paragraph (5) An old-fashioned word meaning “husbands or
wives”._________________
C. Say whether the following statements about the case are
true or false.
1. The judge says that it is possible to have
agreements that are not contracts.
2. The judge says that accepting an offer to have
a meal with someone, for example, is usually
a contract.
3. The judge says that what can be consideration
between other parties might not be
consideration between spouses.
4. The judge says that there is generally no
contract when a husband and wife make an
agreement because they don’t mean it to be
a legal agreement.
367
Unit 12
FORMS OF BUSINESS ORGANIZATION
I. Lead-in
Simon Thorpe and Cynthia Twine have invented some
collapsible furniture. Now they would like to start producing
and selling it. What form of business would you recommend
them under your jurisdiction?
II. Reading
proprietorship [prəˈpraɪətəʃɪp] partnership [ˈpɑ:tnəʃɪp]
structure [ˈstrʌktʃə] incorporated [ɪnˈkɔ:p(ə)reɪtɪd]
assets [ˈæsets] debt [det]
loan [ləun] to dissolve [dɪˈzɔlv]
Majesty [ˈmædʒɪstɪ] revenue [ˈrevɪnju:]
annual [ˈænjuəl] assessment [əˈsesmənt]
income [ˈɪnkʌm] separate [ˈsep(ə)rət]
to register [ˈredʒɪstə] identity [aɪˈdentɪtɪ]
association [əˌsəusɪˈeɪʃən] amount [əˈmaunt]
registration [ˌredʒɪsˈtreɪʃən] proprietor [prəˈpraɪətə]
B) Vocabulary Notes
(1)
1. business structure / форма ведения бизнеса
organisation
2. implication зд. последствие
368
3. sole proprietorship индивидуальное частное предприятие
4. partnership товарищество
5. limited liability товарищество с ограниченной
partnership (LLP) ответственностью
6. private limited company частная акционерная компания
(Ltd)
7. public limited company публичная [открытая] акционерная
(PLC) компания
(2)
8. unincorporated business неинкорпорированное частное ком-
мерческое предприятие (без образо-
вания юридического лица)
9. to be liable for smth отвечать за что-л., нести ответствен-
ность за что-л.
10. personal assets личное имущество
11. to be at risk подвергаться риску
12. sole proprietor / sole частный предприниматель
trader
13. to have unlimited нести неограниченную личную
personal responsibility ответственность за что-л.
for smth
14. liabilities денежные обязательства
15. to raise money привлекать капитал
16. security залог; обеспечение залога
security over one’s обеспечение залога личным имуще-
personal assets ством
17. loan ссуда
to repay the loan выплатить / погасить ссуду
(3)
to carry on a business заниматься бизнесом для получения
for profit прибыли
19. to share smth разделять что-л., совместно исполь-
зовать что-л.
369
20. joint and several liabi солидарная и индивидуальная
lity ответственность
21. equal share равная доля
22. Partnership Agreement Соглашение товарищей
23. to reflect smth отражать что-л.
24. amount of capital размер капитала
25. to invest in the business вкладывать в дело / предприятие
26. to dissolve прекращать деятельность товарище-
a partnership ства, распустить товарищество
27. to draw up smth составить что-л.
28. to be subject to smth подпадать под действие, подлежать,
подчиняться
29. Partnership Act 1890 Акт о товариществах 1890 года
30. registration требования к / по регистрации
requirements
31. apart from кроме, помимо
32. Her Majesty’s Revenue Управление по налогам и таможен-
and Customs (HMRC) ным сборам Великобритании
33. Annual Assessment Tax ежегодная налоговая декларация
Return
34. income tax подоходный налог
(4)
35. incorporated business инкорпорированное предприятие
(зд. зарегистрированное в Регистра-
ционной палате)
36. Companies House Регистрационная палата
37. to have a distinct and иметь самостоятельную / отдель-

separate legal identity ную правосубъектность
38. (un)limited liability (не)ограниченная ответственность
39. to pay debts only up to платить по долгам только до опре-

a certain limit деленного предела
370
C) Text
(1) One of the key decisions to be made before setting up
a business is what business structure to use. Choosing the wrong
structure can have serious implications. In the UK there are five
main structures, which are:
• sole proprietorship
• partnership
• limited liability partnership (LLP)
• private limited company (Ltd)
• public limited company (PLC).
(2) Sole proprietorship and partnership are unincorpo
rated businesses, which means that there is no legal separation
between the business and its owner(s). The owners of such busi-
nesses are fully liable for all the debts of the business and their
personal assets may therefore be at risk.
Sole proprietorship is owned by one person called the sole
proprietor, or the sole trader. He has unlimited control over the
business and keeps all the profits. However, the sole trader also
has unlimited personal responsibility for the losses, debts, and
liabilities that the business may have. The sole trader may find it
difficult to raise money as the bank will want security over his
personal assets to make sure he repays the loan.
(3) Partnership is an association of two or more persons to
carry on a business for profit. They share management, profits,
and liabilities. The liability of the partners is joint and several.
That means that creditors can sue partners as a group as well as
sue them separately. Each partner has a share in the partnership.
The share is not necessarily an equal one, but depends upon the
Partnership Agreement. It usually reflects the amount of capi
tal each partner has invested in the business. The Partnership
Agreement also covers such issues as how decisions are to be
made, how profits and losses are to be divided between partners,
the procedure for dissolving the partnership, what will happen
to the partnership if one of the partners leaves or dies and others.
However, partners are not legally bound to draw up a Partner-
371
ship Agreement. If no Partnership Agreement is drawn up, or a
particular situation is not covered in the agreement, the arrange-
ments between the partners will be subject to the Partnership
Act 1890. This may not give the result intended by the partners.
For example, if a partner leaves the partnership the Act states
that the partnership has to be dissolved.
There are no registration requirements for sole traders and
partners, apart from Her Majesty’s Revenue and Customs
(HMRC). They have to complete an Annual Assessment Tax
Return and pay income tax individually. Unincorporated busi-
nesses themselves do not pay income tax.
(4) Public limited companies (PLC), private limited compa-
nies (Ltd) and limited liability partnerships (LLP) are incor
porated businesses that are registered at Companies House.
In these structures the business and its owner(s) have distinct
and separate legal identities. The owner(s) usually have limited
liability. This means that if the business has debts, they can be
made to pay them only up to a certain limit. The business itself
has unlimited liability.

A. George Martin is a website designer. He is thinking about
starting his own business and yesterday evening he went
to a talk given by the local Business Connect office, which
gives information to entrepreneurs. Look at George’s
notes and match the headings in the box with the correct
summary in the notes.
setting up management tax profits / losses
staff liability
capital employing
Notes about being a sole trader.

a. ______________________________________
It is very easy to start the business and you can begin to trade
immediately. The owner does not need to register with anyone
other than Her Majesty’s Revenue and Customs, which is the
government department in the UK that collects tax.
372
b. ______________________________________
The owner is completely responsible for the business. If the
business fails, the owner is fully responsible for all the business
debts. This is called unlimited liability.
c. ______________________________________
If the business does well and makes money, that money
belongs to the owner. But if the business does badly, the owner
bears all the losses.
d. ______________________________________
The owner runs the business himself or herself and does not
have a boss. You can pay other people to work for you if you start
to get busy, but you will remain the boss.
e. ______________________________________
You must register with Her Majesty’s Revenue and Customs
within three months of starting the business. If you make a profit
you will have to pay part of it to the government.
f. ______________________________________
The owner’s word is final. The owner has full control over
how he or she runs the business.
g. ______________________________________
The owner uses his or her personal money, or borrows from
friends or relatives. Banks can be reluctant to offer a loan to a new
sole trader. You need a good business plan and the bank will want
security over your personal assets to make sure you repay the loan.
В. Read the text again and answer the following questions.
1. What decision should be made before setting up a business?
2. What business structures are there in the UK?
3. What businesses are called unincorporated?
4. To what extent are owners of unincorporated businesses
liable for the debts of the business?
5. Who owns a sole proprietorship?
6. Does the sole trader have unlimited personal responsibility
for the losses of his business?
7. Why is it difficult for the sole trader to raise money?
8. Who can form a partnership?
9. What do partners share?
373
10. What kind of liability do partners have?
11. What does joint and several liability mean?
12. What does the share of the partner depend upon?
13. What does the share of the partner usually reflect?
14. What issues are covered in the Partnership Agreement?
15. In what case are the arrangements between the partners re
gulated by the Partnership Act 1890?
16. What may happen if partners do not have a Partnership
Agreement?
17. Are there any registration requirements for sole traders and
partners?
18. What is HMRC?
19. What are partners obliged to do?
20. Do unincorporated businesses pay taxes?
21. What businesses are incorporated?
22. Where are incorporated businesses registered?
23. What kind of legal identities do the incorporated business
and its owner(s) have?
IV. Exercises
incorporated business to repay the loan
security over one’s personal assets sole proprietor / sole trader
sole proprietorship partnership
to dissolve a partnership to raise money
Her Majesty’s Revenue and Cus- joint and several liability
toms (HMRC)
income tax to be subject to smth
limited liability partnership (LLP) to invest in the business
personal assets public limited company (PLC)
Partnership Agreement liabilities
registration requirements equal share
to pay debts only up to a certain to have a distinct and separate
limit legal identity
374
Verb Noun Adjective
to imply
incorporation
to separate
liable
security
personal
profitable
limit
to invest
dissolution
to lose
registration
to require
responsible

1. The president announced the _________________of the
National Assembly (dissolve).
2. We want a ____________________ future for our children
(security).
3. You must bring your insurance card with you when you
___________________________ with a dentist or doctor
(registration).
4. The sole trader also has unlimited personal ______________
for the _________________, debts, and liabilities that the
business may have (responsible, lose).
5. He had a highly _________________ business (profit).
6. The new computer system will meet all the ______________
(require).
375
7. We plan to buy some property as an _________________
(invest).
8. The members of the company usually have limited
_________________ (liable).
9. The car is for _________________ use only (person).
10. You have to file a number of documents at Companies House
to _________________ your business (incorporation).
11. My wife and I have _________________ bank accounts
(separation).
12. The minister’s statement is being seen as ________________
criticism of the work of research laboratories (implication).
1. responsiblity a. to run a business
2. sole proprietor b. matter
3. personal assets c. to terminate
4. to carry on a business d. liability
5. to draw up e. demand
6. to choose f. to be obliged
7. issue g. to draft
8. to dissolve h. agreements
9. to be bound i. to select
10. arrangements j. personal property
11. requirement k. sole trader
1) incorporated — un _________________________
limited — un ______________________________
responsible — ir ___________________________
secure — in _______________________________
personal — im _____________________________
equal — un _______________________________
2) flexible, legal, to interpret, just, fair, formal, important, pos-
sible, agreement, necessary, satisfactory
376
1. Sole proprietorship and partnership are unincorporated /
incorporated businesses.
2. As an artist he was always financially insecure / secure.
3. It was highly responsible / irresponsible of him not to come to
work without warning.
4. The company has an unequal /equal opportunities policy
(equal).
5. Let’s keep the criticism general and impersonal / personal.
6. The shareholders usually have unlimited / limited liability,
whilst the business itself has unlimited / limited liability.
7. It is legal / illegal not to draw up a Partnership Agreement.
8. Unincorporated / incorporated businesses themselves do not
pay income tax.
нести ответственность за что-л. Управление по налогам и тамо-
женным сборам Великобрита-
нии
публичная акционерная компа- прекращать деятельность това-
ния рищества
солидарная и индивидуальная частная акционерная компания
ответственность
инкорпорированное предпри- частный предприниматель
ятие (зд. зарегистрированное
в Регистрационной палате)
индивидуальное частное пред- выплатить ссуду
приятие
личное имущество равная доля
вкладывать в дело / предприятие подоходный налог
нести неограниченную личную платить по долгам только
ответственность за что-л. до определенного предела
товарищество с ограниченной ежегодная налоговая декларация
ответственностью
привлекать капитал Соглашение товарищей
377
подпадать под действие требования к / по регистрации
размер капитала (не)ограниченная ответствен-
ность

солидарная
и индивидуальная
ограниченная ответственность
неограниченная
предприятие
вкладывать в товарищество
компанию
долги
ведение бизнеса
отвечать за подачу документов в Регистраци-
онную палату
Соглашение товарищей
составить договор
завещание
подпадать Акта о товариществах 1890 года
под действие, налогообложению
подлежать регистрационных требований

1. Partnership is an association of two or more persons to carry
________ a business ________ profit.
2. If no Partnership Agreement is drawn ____________, or
a particular situation is not covered ________the agreement,
the arrangements ____________ the partners will be subject
________ the Partnership Act 1890.
3. The sole trader may find it difficult to raise money as the
bank will want security ___________ his personal assets to
make sure he repays the loan.
4. There are no registration requirements _____________ sole
traders and partners, _________ _________ Her Majesty’s
Revenue and Customs (HMRC).
378
5. If the business has debts, they can be made to pay them only
________ ________ a certain limit.
6. The Partnership Agreement usually reflects the amount
________ capital each partner has invested ________ the
business.
7. The Partnership Agreement covers the procedure ________
dissolving the partnership and what will happen ________
the partnership if one of the partners leaves or dies.
8. The share is not necessarily an equal one, but depends
________ the Partnership Agreement.
9. The owners of unincorporated businesses are fully liable
________ all the debts of the business and their personal
assets may therefore be _____________ risk.
10. Sole trader has unlimited control ___________ the business
and keeps all the profits.
PREPOSITION BANK
to be subject to smth
to be liable / responsible for smth
to carry on a business
control over smth
to be at risk
procedure for smth
requirement for smth
apart from smth
up to smth

the text.
1. Partners ______________ management, profits, and debts.
2. Choosing the wrong structure can have serious __________
_____________.
3. Sole proprietorship is __________________ by one person
called the ___________________, or the sole trader.
4. The liability of the partners is ___________________ and
___________________ That means that creditors can
379
___________________ partners as a group as well as sue
them ___________________.
5. The share is not necessarily an ___________________ one,
but depends upon the ___________________.
6. Sole traders and partners have to ___________________
an Annual Assessment Tax ___________________ and pay
income ___________________ individually.
7. Public limited companies (PLC), private limited com
pan ies (Ltd) and limited liability partnerships (LLP)
are ___________________________ businesses that are
___________________ at Companies House.
8. The sole trader also has ____________ personal responsibi
lity for the losses, debts, and _________________ that the
business may have.
9. Each partner has a _________________ in the partnership.
10. Unincorporated businesses themselves do not pay ________
___________________ tax.
11. The Partnership Agreement usually reflects the __________
of capital each partner has ___________________ in the
business.
12. Partnership is an ______________ of two or more persons
to carry on a business for _________________.
the text.
1. Неинкорпорированные предприятия не платят подоход-
ный налог.
2. Частные предприниматели и товарищи должны запол-
нять ежегодную налоговую декларацию и платить подо-
ходный налог с каждого физического лица.
3. В инкорпорированных структурах предприятие и его
владельцы имеют самостоятельную правосубъектность.
4. Каждому товарищу принадлежит доля в товариществе.
5. Одним из ключевых решений, которое нужно принять
до создания коммерческого предприятия, является
вопрос о том, какую структуру бизнеса использовать.
380
6. Владельцы таких предприятий несут полную ответствен-
ность за долги предприятия, и по этой причине их личное
имущество может подвергаться риску.
7. Товарищество — это организация из двух или более лиц,
которые совместно ведут дело для получения прибыли.
8. По закону товарищи не обязаны составлять Соглашение
товарищей.
9. Доля обычно отражает размер капитала, который каж-
дый товарищ вложил в предприятие.
10. Товарищи несут солидарную и индивидуальную ответ-
ственность.
11. В Акте говорится, что, если товарищ уходит, товарище-
ство должно быть ликвидировано.
12. Кредиторы могут подавать иск как на товарищество
в целом, так и отдельно на каждого товарища.
definition.
1. business structures where there is no a. incorporated
legal separation between the business businesses
and its owner(s)
2. property that a person owns b. sole
proprietorship
3. a document that partners draw up c. security
4. an amount of money borrowed from d. partnership
a bank
5. a business owned by one person who e. personal assets
has unlimited control over it
6. an association of two or more persons f. Partnership
to carry on a business for profit Agreement
7. businesses that are registered at g. loan
Companies House
8. something such as property that h. unincorporated
you promise to give someone if you businesses
cannot pay back money you have
borrowed from them
381
correct form.
A sole proprietorship is a business that (own) by a single
individual who (earn) all the profits and (assume) all the
liabilities. In the case of a partnership, these profits and liabilities
(share) between the partners who between them (own) the
business. Neither sole proprietor nor partners (register) their
businesses. Their businesses only (register) at Her Majesty’s
Revenue and Customs. Sole proprietors and partners (pay)
income tax individually. If a sole proprietor or partner (die), the
business may (dissolve).
Exercise 12. Study the meanings of the word “subject” and
translate the following sentences.
the subject (существительное) — предмет, тема,
вопрос, подданный
subject to (предлог) — при условии, с соблюдением,
в соответствии, допуская, в том случае если
to be subject to (прилагательное) — быть подвержен-
ным, подпадать, подлежать
Example:
1) “Goods” shall mean any goods or services that are
the subject of the contract.
— «Товар» — любые товары и услуги, которые
являются предметом данного договора.
2) The Seller agrees to supply the goods to the
Buyer subject to the terms and conditions set out
in this Agreement.
— Продавец согласен поставить товар Покупа-
телю в том случае, если условия, содержащиеся
в договоре, соблюдены.
3) The prices are not subject to change.
— Цены не подлежат изменению.
A.
1. Bankruptcy judges are appointed by the president subject to
approval by the Senate.
2. This continues to be a subject of debate between the courts
and the media.
3. A contract of sale is sometimes entered into subject to certain
conditions.
382
4. This subject has been debated for many years.
5. Now all partnerships, individuals, and corporations are
subject to one reorganization chapter (статья о структур-
ной реорганизации).
6. Religious practices are subject to the rules of government.
7. There are many rules governing the subject of offers and
acceptances.
8. British subjects do not need visas to visit EU countries.
9. This property is not subject to tax.
10. All corporations listed on any stock exchange are subject to
the Securities Laws (законодательство о рынке ценных
бумаг).
11. Subject to the provisions of this Act, a person who is not
a party to a contract may enforce a term of the contract if
the contract expressly provide that he may.
B.
1. Это решение не подлежит обсуждению.
2. Нарушители должны заплатить штраф в £100.
3. Этот вопрос не был предметом нашего обсуждения.
4. Курильщики подвержены сердечным приступам.
5. Этот вопрос больше не упоминался.
6. Он — британский подданный.
7. Предметом судебного разбирательства была ответствен-
ность ответчика за физический вред, нанесенный истцу.
Exercise 13. Study meanings of the verbs “to raise” and
“to rise”.
to raise — поднимать
1) one’s hand, hat, eyes, glass, voice
2) prices, capital, the standard of living, a problem
to rise (rose, risen) — подниматься

(about prices, the sun, temperature,
the standard of living, etc.)
A. Use either “to raise” or “to rise”.

1. He is ________ money for a new undertaking.
2. Prices continue to ________.
383
3. Prices were ________.
4. The directors know whether the shares are likely to
________ or to fall.
5. Nobody saw him ________ and leave the room.
6. You shouldn’t ________ your voice.
7. Selling shares is one of the ways in which companies
________ capital.
8. The prices ________ as a result of inflation last year.
9. No important questions were ________.
10. The moon has ________.
B. Translate the following sentences using either “to raise”
or “to rise”.
1. Многие магазины подняли цены.
2. В прошлом году безработица выросла на 3%.
3. Они собирают деньги (funds), чтобы помочь нуждаю-
щимся детям.
4. В книге поднимается (букв. Книга поднимает) много
важных вопросов.
5. Значительно увеличилась сумма денежных средств
(research budget), выделяемая на научные исследования.
6. Я рад, что вы подняли вопрос о деньгах.
7. Мы собираем деньги на благотворительность.
Exercise 14. Translate the sentences using the verbs
“to share” and “to divide”.
to share — разделять, совместно использовать
They share management, profits, and debts.
to divide — делить (на несколько частей),

разделять
Profits and losses are divided between partners.
1. Конференция — хорошее место, где можно поделиться

информацией и обменяться идеями.
2. Деньги будут разделены между благотворительными
организациями в равных долях.
3. Вы хотели бы поделиться опытом с другими членами
группы?
384
4. В Англии юридическая профессия делиться на два типа
юристов, которых называют солиситорами и барристерами.
5. Мы разделяем ответственность за детей.
6. Мы разделили наши обязанности. Каждый из нас отве-
чает за определенную область.
7. Мы придерживаемся одних политических взглядов.
8. Этот вопрос разделил правительство.
Exercise 15.
1. Одним из ключевых решений, One of the key decisions to
которое нужно принять до созда- be made before setting up
ния коммерческого предприятия, a business is what business
является вопрос о том, какую structure to use.
структуру бизнеса использовать.
2. Выбор неправильной структуры Choosing the wrong struc-
может привести к серьезным по ture can have serious impli-
следствиям. cations.
3. В Соединенном Королевстве In the UK there are five
существует пять основных струк- main structures, which are:
тур бизнеса: • sole proprietorship
• индивидуальное предпринима- • partnership
тельство • limited liability partner-
• товарищество ship (LLP)
• товарищество с ограниченной • private limited company
ответственностью (Ltd)
• частная акционерная компания • public limited company
• публичная акционерная компа- (PLC).
ния.
4. Индивидуальное частное пред- Sole proprietorship and part-
приятие и товарищество явля- nership are unincorporated
ются неинкорпорированными businesses, which means that
частными предприятиями, что there is no legal separation
означает, что с точки зрения between the business and its
закона не существует разграни- owner(s).
чения между предприятием и его
владельцем (владельцами).
385
5. Владельцы таких предприятий The owners of such busi-
несут полную ответственность nesses are fully liable for all
за долги предприятия, и по этой the debts of the business and
причине их личное имущество their personal assets may
может подвергаться риску. therefore be at risk.
6. Индивидуальное частное пред- Sole proprietorship is owned
приятие принадлежит одному by one person called the sole
лицу, которое называют частным proprietor, or the sole trader.
предпринимателем.
7. Он имеет неограниченный кон- He has unlimited control
троль над бизнесом, и ему при- over the business and keeps
надлежит вся прибыль. all the profits.
8. Он также несет неограничен- However, the sole trader
ную личную ответственность also has unlimited personal
за убытки, долги и денежные обя- responsibility for the losses,
зательства, которые может иметь debts, and liabilities that the
предприятие. business may have.
9. У частного предпринимателя The sole trader may find it
могут быть трудности в привле- difficult to raise money as
чении капитала, т.к. банк потре- the bank will want security
бует обеспечения залога лич- over his personal assets to
ным имуществом, чтобы он мог make sure he repays the loan.
выплатить ссуду.
10. Товарищество — это организация Partnership is an association
из двух или более лиц, которые of two or more persons to
совместно ведут дело для полу- carry on a business for profit.
чения прибыли.
11. Они разделяют руководство, при- They share management,
быль и денежные обязательства. profits, and liabilities.
12. Товарищи несут солидарную и ин The liability of the partners
дивидуальную ответственность. is joint and several.
13. Это означает, что кредиторы могут That means that creditors
подавать иск как на товарищество can sue partners as a group
в целом, так и отдельно на каж- as well as sue them sepa-
дого товарища. rately.
386
14. Каждому товарищу принадлежит Each partner has a share in
доля в товариществе. the partnership.
15. Эти доли необязательно равны, The share is not necessarily
доля зависит от Соглашения an equal one, but depends
товарищей. upon the Partnership Agree-
ment.
16. Она обычно отражает размер It usually reflects the amount
капитала, который каждый това- of capital each partner has
рищ вложил в предприятие. invested in the business.
17. Соглашение товарищей также The Partnership Agreement
включает вопросы о том, как при- also covers such issues as
нимаются решения, как прибыль how decisions are to be made,
и убытки распределяются между how profits and losses are to
товарищами, какова процедура be divided between partners,
ликвидации товарищества, что the procedure for dissolving
произойдет с товариществом, the partnership, what will
если один из товарищей вый- happen to the partnership if
дет из товарищества или умрет, one of the partners leaves or
и другие. dies, and others.
18. Однако по закону товарищи However, partners are not
не обязаны составлять Соглаше- legally bound to draw up
ние товарищей. a Partnership Agreement.
19. Если Соглашение товарищей If no Partnership Agreement
на составлено или определен- is drawn up, or a particular
ная ситуация не прописана situation is not covered in
в Соглашении, регулирование the agreement, the arrange-
отношений между товарищами ments between the partners
подпадает под действие Акта will be subject to the Part-
о товариществах 1890 года. nership Act 1890.
20. Это может и не принести товари- This may not give the result
щам желаемого результата. intended by the partners.
21. Например, в Акте говорится, что For example, if a partner
если товарищ выходит из това- leaves the partnership the
рищества, товарищество должно Act states that the partner-
быть ликвидировано. ship has to be dissolved.
387
22. Для частных предпринимате- There are no registration
лей и товарищей нет требований requirements for sole traders
по регистрации, кроме регистра- and partners, apart from Her
ции в Управлении по налогам Majesty’s Revenue and Cus-
и таможенным сборам Велико- toms (HMRC).
британии.
23. Они должны заполнять еже- They have to complete an
годную налоговую декларацию Annual Assessment Tax
и платить подоходный налог Return and pay income tax
с каждого физического лица. individually.
24. Сами неинкорпорированные пред Unincorporated businesses
приятия не платят подоходный themselves do not pay
налог. income tax.
25. Публичные акционерные ком- Public limited companies
пании, частные акционерные (PLC), private limited com-
компании и товарищества с огра- panies (Ltd) and limited lia-
ниченной ответственностью bility partnerships (LLP) are
являются инкорпорированными incorporated businesses that
предприятиями и зарегистриро- are registered at Companies
ваны в Регистрационной палате. House.
26. В этих структурах предприятие In these structures the busi-
и его владелец (владельцы) имеют ness and its owner(s) have
самостоятельную правосубъект- distinct and separate legal
ность. identities.
27. Владельцы обычно несут ограни- The owner(s) usually have
ченную ответственность. limited liability.
28. Это означает, что если у предпри- This means that if the busi-
ятия есть долги, то владельцев ness has debts, they can be
можно заставить выплачивать made to pay them only up to
долги только до определенного a certain limit.
предела.
29. Само предприятие несет неогра- The business itself has
ниченную ответственность. unlimited liability.
В. Tell the text using the following outline.

1. Business structures in the UK.
2. Unincorporated businesses:
388
a. sole proprietorship:
— liability of the owner and the business;
— possibilities to raise money;
— registration requirements.
b. partnership:
— liability of the owners and the business;
— Partnership Agreement;
3. Incorporated businesses:
— types of businesses;
— liability of the owner and the business;
1. amount [əˈmaunt] of capital размер капитала

2. Annual [ˈænjuəl] Assessment ежегодная налоговая деклара-
Tax Return ция
3. to be at risk подвергаться риску
4. to be subject to smth подпадать под действие, под-
лежать, подчиняться
5. business structure [ˈstrʌktʃə] / форма ведения бизнеса
organization
6. to carry on a business заниматься бизнесом для полу-
for profit чения прибыли
7. Companies House Регистрационная палата
8. to dissolve a partnership прекращать деятельность това-
[dɪˈzɔlv] [ˈpɑ:tnəʃɪp] рищества, распустить товари-
щество
9. Her Majesty’s Revenue Управление по налогам
[ˈrevɪnju:] and Customs и таможенным сборам Велико-
(HMRC) британии
10. income [ˈɪnkʌm] доход
income tax подоходный налог
11. incorporated business инкорпорированное предпри-
[ɪnˈkɔ:p(ə)reɪtɪd] ятие (зд. зарегистрированное
в Регистрационной палате)
389
12. to invest in the business вкладывать в дело / предпри-
[ɪnˈvest] ятие
13. joint and several liability солидарная и индивидуальная
ответственность
14. legal identity [aɪˈdentɪtɪ] правосубъектность
to have a distinct and separate иметь самостоятельную /
[ˈsep(ə)rət] legal identity отдельную правосубъектность
15. liabilities денежные обязательства
16. (un)limited liability (не)ограниченная ответствен-
ность
to have unlimited personal нести неограниченную личную
responsibility for smth ответственность за что-л.
17. limited liability partnership товарищество с ограниченной
(LLP) ответственностью
18. loan [ləun] cсуда
19. Partnership Agreement Соглашение товарищей
20. personal assets [ˈæsets] личное имущество
21. private limited company частная акционерная компания
(Ltd)
23. public limited company публичная [открытая] акцио-
(PLC) нерная компания
24. to raise money привлекать капитал
25. registration requirements требования к / по регистрации
[ˌredʒɪsˈtreɪʃən]
26. security [sɪˈkjuərɪtɪ] обеспечение залога
security over one’s personal обеспечение залога личным
assets имуществом
27. share доля
equal share равная доля
to share разделять, совместно исполь-
зовать
28. sole proprietor / sole trader частный предприниматель
[prəˈpraɪətə]
390
29. sole proprietorship индивидуальное частное пред-
[prəˈpraɪətəʃɪp] приятие
30. unincorporated business неинкорпорированное частное
[ʌnɪnˈkɔ:p(ə)reɪtɪd] предприятие (без образования
юридического лица)
Exercise 1. Complete the texts using the words and

collocations from the Active Vocabulary.
A.
1. The partners asked their lawyer to draft a new Partnership
___________________ upon the entry of a new partner.
2. She took out a ________________ 2 years ago to buy a new
car and she still has 3 more years of repayments to make.
3. When you apply for a loan, the bank will ask you for details
of your total ___________________, including any money
you receive in addition to your salary.
4. A business partnership agreement involves the partners
entering into _________________ liability for any business
debts.
5. A _________________ is a person who runs an unregistered
business by himself or by herself.
6. Your ___________________ is the amount of money you
get from selling something or providing a service to someone,
after you deduct the costs of making that thing or providing
that service.
7. You _____________________ in the business with the aim
of making that business successful and getting more money
back.
8. If a new business is created as a limited liability company it
has a legal _____________________ separate to that of its
owners.
9. Reiss used his Brooklyn home as ___________________
for the loan.
10. Each partner has a _________________ in the partnership.
11. A partnership is a type of business in which two or more
people share joint and several liability for the business debts
without the benefit of ___________________ liability.
391
B.
Being a sole trader is the simplest way to set up and
(1) ____________ a business. It is not necessary to follow
any (2) ________________. Keeping records and accounts is
straightforward and you keep all of the (3) _______________.
But you are (4) ___________________ for any debts that your
business might have. That is why it is a risky structure for busi-
nesses that need a lot of investment. That also means that your
(5) ___________________ may be at risk if your business runs
into trouble.
When you set up a (6) ___________________, you have
register as self-employed with (7) ______________________
and pay (8) ______________________. You also have to send
(9) ___________________ to HMRC.
To (10) ____________ money you can borrow money from a
bank but the bank will want (11) ___________________ over
your personal assets to make sure you (12) __________________
As sole proprietorships are (13) ___________________ busi-
nesses, the owner can be sued by customers in the event of a dis-
pute.
A.
1. Многие заказчики предпочитают работать с частными
предпринимателями, которые принимают во внимание
пожелания (needs) заказчиков, поскольку частное пред-
приятие — небольшой бизнес, и его владелец полностью
отвечает за бизнес.
2. Когда они создавали товарищество, мистер Хикс решил
вложить £5,000, а миссис Пиэрсон — £3,000.
3. Если кредиторы преследуют товарищей, их личное иму-
щество подвергается риску.
4. Товарищам легче привлечь капитал, чем частным пред-
принимателям.
5. Частные предприниматели и товарищи платят подоходный
налог в Управление по налогам и таможенным сборам Вели-
кобритании. Их предприятия не платят никаких налогов.
392
6. Если у товарищества есть долги, кредиторы могут подать
иск на товарища или на группу товарищей, поскольку
ответственность товарищей является солидарной и инди-
видуальной.
7. Товарищество не имеет отдельной правосубъектности.
С юридической точки зрения нет разницы между вла-
дельцами и бизнесом.
8. Банк хотел, чтобы он заложил дом, чтобы обеспечить
погашение ссуды.
B.
1. Клиент, который хочет заниматься бизнесом для полу-
чения прибыли, может выбрать различные формы ведения
бизнеса. Каждая форма имеет свои правовые характеристики
и подчиняется различным правилам и правовым нормам.
Самая простая и типичная форма ведения бизнеса — это
индивидуальное частное предприятие. Она подходит отно-
сительно небольшому бизнесу. Разработчик программного
обеспечения, парикмахер или владелец маленького магазина
могут быть частными предпринимателями. Такой бизнес
обычно возглавляет один человек, и он отличается от ком-
пании тем, что один и тот же человек и владеет, и управляет
предприятием. Он несет личную ответственность за долги
предприятия, и у него есть риск стать банкротом. Он прак-
тически не обязан соблюдать никаких формальностей,
за исключением заполнения ежегодной налоговой деклара-
ции и выплаты подоходного налога.
2. Когда мистер Смит вышел из товарищества, оно пре-
кратило свою деятельность. При образовании товарищества
товарищи не составили Соглашения товарищей, и отноше-
ния между товарищами подпадали под действие Акта о това-
риществах 1890. Согласно Закону, товарищество должно
прекратить свою деятельность, если один из товарищей
выходит из товарищества или умирает.
3. Когда вы образовываете товарищество, не существует
каких-либо требований к регистрации. Однако товарищам
рекомендуется подписать Соглашение товарищей. Оно охва-
тывает такие вопросы, как: сколько денежных средств каж-
393
дый товарищ внес в дело, как принимаются решения, как
распределяется прибыль между товарищами, каким обра-
зом могут быть приняты новые товарищи, как товарищество
может прекратить свою деятельность, и другие.
VI. Key Terms
1. Incorporated business that is registered at Companies

[ɪnˈkɔ:p(ə)reɪtɪd] House, the owners of which enjoy limited
business liability
2. Loan amount of money borrowed from a bank
[ləun]
3. Partnership association of two or more persons to carry
[ˈpɑ:tnəʃɪp] on a business for profit
4. Partnership document that partners draw up
Agreement
5. Personal assets property that a person owns
[ˈæsets]
6. Security something such as property that you
[sɪˈkjuərɪtɪ] promise to give someone if you cannot pay
back money you have borrowed from them
7. Sole proprietorship business owned by one person who has
[səul prəˈpraɪətəʃɪp] unlimited control over it and is fully liable
for it
8. Unincorporated business structure where there is no legal
business separation between the business and its
owner(s)
VII. Case Study

1. Ward and Chang organized and operated Cinema Theatre.
They agreed to share profits and losses equally after paying the
expenses. The land was leased from Alien for rent which was 6%
of the gross revenue. Chalmer was hired as Manager for $1,000
a month plus 3% of the net profits. Are all four people partners
in the business?
394
2. Palm, a partner in the Robbin’ Cork Bait Shops, normally
purchases goods for the business. Unknown to her, the other
three partners voted to no longer deal with Trout Attractions
Inc., one of their main suppliers. Before finding out about their
decision, Palm contracted for $1,000 worth of lures (приманка)
from Trout Attractions Inc. Is the partnership bound by the con-
tract?
3. For several years, Morgan and Bridle had been partners in
a bicycle retail and repair business. Morgan wanted to hire two
well-qualified mechanics in order to divide the shop work for
sales promotion. Bridle objected to it. Could Morgan hire staff
without Bridle’s consent?
4. Hudson, De Soto and Auburn were partners in an advertis-
ing agency. Hudson, who spent days playing golf and tennis with
prospective clients and friends, brought in most of the firm’s
accounts. De Soto did most of the actual production and often
worked ten-hour days as well as weekends. Auburn, who had no
creative talent and little energy, spent most of his time deliver-
ing and picking up copy and layouts. Are Hudson and De Soto
entitled to a larger share of the profits than Auburn?

Exercise 1. Read why Samantha Sully and Kate Mace
decided to set up a partnership. Fill in the
checklist below.
“I’m Samantha Sully and this is my friend Kate Mace. We’re
both beauty therapists. We went to college together in Shore-
don and worked together at Faces Beauty Salon, so we know
each other well. We want to set up our own beauty salon in
Chatsworth, called Revitalise. We want to make a lot of money
and give up work when we are 55. Of course, I suppose one of us
may meet the man of our dreams and go to live in Australia, so
we may need to leave the partnership before we reach our retire-
ment age — you never know! We agree that it’s OK to leave
the partnership if you tell the other partner three months in
395
advance. We’ll share everything 50:50. We’ll both put in £2,500
in the partnership so we can buy some equipment but we don’t
need much more than that. We each want to be able to take
£500 each month from the partnership account. Either of us can
sign cheques otherwise it will be difficult if one of us is away on
holiday when we have to pay a bill.”
Checklist for a new partnership
a. Names of partners:
b. Partnership name:
c. Capital contribution of each partner:
d. Share of profits / losses:
e. Drawings:
f. Cheque signing arrangements:
g. Period of notice for resignation:
h. Retirement age:
Exercise 2. Read the letter about the details of Ms Sully

and Ms Mace’s Partnership agreement.
A. Does the Partnership agreement include everything
that the ladies wanted?
PARTNERSHIP AGREEMENT
FOR REVITALISE BEAUTY SALON
Dear Ms Sully and Ms Mace
I have drawn up a partnership agreement in accordance with
your instructions.
You are all contributing an amount of £5,000 to the busi-
ness. I have provided in clause 8 of the agreement that you will
receive interest on this sum at the rate of 5% each year. You will
share any profit and losses equally. Similarly, you will be equally
liable for the costs of running the business and for paying the
partnership debts if there are insufficient funds in the partner-
ship account.
Clause 7 provides that each of you will be able to draw £500
a month each from the partnership account for your personal
396
use, which represents a prepayment of your part of the pro
fits over the accounting period. If at the end of the accounting
period either of you has had more than your share of the profits,
then you have to repay back the excess amount immediately.
Clause 9 specifies the earliest possible retirement age as being
60. Clause 12 sets out the grounds for expelling a partner from
the partnership, either because they have done something wrong
or for some other reason. Finally, clause 15 says what will hap-
pen when you want to dissolve the partnership.
I look forward to seeing you next Wednesday morning at
10 o’clock when I can answer any questions that you may have
and we can finalise the agreement.
Yours sincerely
Franchesca Rood
1. How much money can each partner get a month?
2. Is £500 their monthly profit?
3. In what case do they have to repay to the partnership
account?
4. When can a partner be expelled?
5. When can partners retire?
C. The letter is written in a formal language. Find in it
corresponding formal collocations to the informal ones.
a. what you told me
b. giving an amount of
c. have any gains equally
d. amounts of money that the partnership
owes
e. take £500 a month
f. time for leaving the partnership for age
reasons is 60
g. forcing a partner to go out of the
partnership
h. finish the partnership
397
Unit 13
INCORPORATED BUSINESSES
I. Lead-in
Read the case below. What are the main advantages of

setting up a limited company?
BELT UP!
Eighteen months ago, two young sisters opened a small shop
selling belts of all kinds for men and women — fashion accessory
and trouser belts, money belts, key belts, and sports belts.
Karen and Julia spent a long time choosing the name for their
shop. They were both very pleased with the name they chose —
Belt Up! — as it seemed to attract just the right kind of customer.
Expansion Plans
Their business partnership has done so well that they have
decided to expand. They plan to move to a much bigger shop in
the high street, and open two other branches elsewhere. After
that, they want to print a direct-mail catalogue which will be
sent to targeted consumers through a mailing-list service.
They have worked out all the details of their expansion plans.
All they need now is the money to finance it — £300,000.
They have already asked their bank manager for a loan. He
would only lend them enough money to open the high-street
shop, because he thought they were trying to expand their busi-
ness too fast.
However, a number of people whom they have met through
their business have been far more enthusiastic. Some of them
have already said they might be interested in investing in the
business — if it became a limited company.
398
Limited Company
“There’s nothing else for it,” said Karen. “We’ll have to form
a company if we want to raise the money.”
“Oh, I wouldn’t like that at all. We haven’t got enough money
to buy 51 per cent of the shares. We’d be minority shareholders.”
“That’s right, but we’d still be running the business from day
to day.”
“It wouldn’t be the same, Karen. If we had outsiders in the
business, we’d never know what they might want to do.”
“They wouldn’t interfere as long as we were making good
profits. In any case, Julia, if we remain a partnership, we’re per-
sonally responsible for all the debts if anything does go wrong.
That’s never bothered us up to now.”
Valuable Asset
“It might do if we expand. There’s another thing, too. At the
moment, anyone can open a shop and call it Belt Up!. Once it’s
registered as a company name, no one else can use it. Our name
is too valuable an asset to lose.”
“Oh, I don’t know,” said Julia, who was always far more cau-
tious than her older sister. “Maybe the bank manager was right
after all. Perhaps we are trying to expand too fast. What if we
formed a company and just opened the high-street shop? We
could raise enough money then to buy the majority of the shares,
so we’d still be in full control.”
II. Reading
entity [ˈentɪtɪ] to contribute [kənˈtrɪbju:t]
wound [waund] guarantee [ˌɡærənˈti:]
memorandum [ˌmeməˈrændəm] registration [ˌredʒɪsˈtreɪʃən]
address [əˈdres] certificate [səˈtɪfɪkeɪt]
shareholder [ˈʃɛəˌhəuldə] personality [ˌpə:səˈnælɪtɪ]
to correspond [ˌkɔrɪsˈpɔnd] board [bɔ:d]
designated [ˈdezɪɡnɪtɪd] administrative [ədˈmɪnɪstrətɪv]
399
accountancy [əˈkauntənsɪ] association [əˌsəusɪˈeɪʃən]
charitable [ˈtʃærɪtəbl] scientific [ˌsaɪənˈtɪfɪk]
equivalent [ɪˈkwɪvələnt] identity [aɪˈdentɪtɪ]
minutes [ˈmɪnɪts] to register [ˈredʒɪstə]
B) Vocabulary Notes
(1)
1. legal entity юридическое лицо
to be a legal entity являться ~
2. to consist of smth состоять из чего-л.
3. legal identity / правосубъектность
personality
to have a ~ обладать ~
4. share акция
to hold a share держать акцию
5. company limited by компания, ограниченная акциями
shares
6. to undertake to do smth брать на себя обязательства / гаран-
тировать сделать что-л.
7. to contribute to smth делать вклад во что-л.
8. assets of the company капитал, активы компании
9. to wind up a company прекратить деятельность компании,
ликвидировать компанию
10. company limited by компания, ограниченная гарантией
guarantee
11. charitable благотворительный
(2)
12. shareholder акционер
13. corporation tax корпоративный налог
14. memorandum меморандум, учредительный
of association договор о создании акционерной
компании
400
15. to file smth with подать что-л. в Регистрационную
Companies House палату
16. application for заявление о внесении в реестр
registration of the компаний
company
17. to register a company зарегистрировать компанию в Реги-
at / with Companies страционной палате
House
18. subscriber зд. лицо, подписавшее меморандум;
нижеподписавшийся
19. member of the company участник / член компании
20. proposed name предполагаемое название
21. registered office юридический адрес
22. articles of association устав компании
23. registration number регистрационный номер
24. certificate of свидетельство о регистрации
incorporation
(3)
25. to sell shares outside продавать акции не членам компа-
the company нии
26. to sell shares on the продавать акции на открытом
open market рынке
27. to satisfy a long list of удовлетворять целому ряду требо-
regulations ваний закона
28. Stock Exchange биржа
to sell shares on the продавать акции на бирже
Stock Exchange
(4)
29. in the name of smb от имени кого-л.
30. have the advantage of пользоваться преимуществом
smth чего-л.
31. to correspond to smth соответствовать чему-л.
401
32. capital contributions to капиталовложения во что-л.
smth
33. to protect smth защищать что-л.
34. to tax as a limited облагать налогом как компанию
company с ограниченной ответственностью
35. flexible structure гибкая структура
36. to comply with rules соблюдать правила
and regulations и постановления
37. board meeting собрание совета директоров
to hold board meetings проводить ~
38. minutes протокол
to keep minutes вести протокол
(5)
39. designated member назначенный участник
40. to be responsible for отвечать за административные
administrative and filing функции и подачу документов
duties
41. accountancy firm бухгалтерская фирма
C) Text
INCORPORATED BUSINESSES
(1) A company is a legal entity, with the right to sue and
be sued. It may consist of a single person, but in each case it
has a legal identity separate from the individuals. The company
itself has unlimited liability. The members of a company have
limited liability. This means that if the business has debts, they
can be made to pay them only up to a certain limit. Normally this
limit is the amount unpaid on shares they hold (companies limi
ted by shares) or the amount the members undertake to con
tribute to the assets of the company if it is wound up (com
panies limited by guarantee). Companies limited by guarantee
are organized for charitable, educational or scientific purposes.
(2) Companies, their employees and shareholders are regis-
tered at Her Majesty’s Revenue and Customs (HMRC). Compa-
402
nies pay corporation tax while their employees and shareholders
pay income tax.
To set up a company it is necessary to file a memorandum of
association together with an application for registration of the
company with Companies House. The memorandum of asso-
ciation states that the subscribers wish to form a company, to
become the members of the company and to take at least one
share. The application for registration must contain the compa-
ny’s proposed name, a registered office, a copy of any proposed
articles of association, etc. After being registered the company
receives a registration number and a certificate of incorpora
tion and is ready to do business.
(3) There are private limited companies (Ltd) and pub-
lic limited companies (PLC) in the UK. The shares of private
limited companies cannot be sold outside the company with-
out the agreement of the other members. The shares of public
limited companies are sold on the open market. The company
has to satisfy a long list of regulations to be able to sell its
shares on the Stock Exchange.
(4) Setting up a limited liability partnership (LLP) is similar
to setting up a limited company. LLPs are registered at Compa-
nies House and the requirements are similar to those for com-
panies. The name of the partnership must end with “LLP”. LLP
as well as a limited company has a separate legal personality. It
may sue and be sued in the name of the LLP. The partners of an
LLP have the advantage of limited liability, which corresponds
to their capital contributions to the LLP. It protects partners’
personal assets. However, an LLP is not taxed as a limited
company but as a partnership. Also, an LLP is a more flexible
structure than a company, with fewer rules and regulations to
comply with. It does not have to hold board meetings or keep
minutes.
(5) The partners of an LLP are called members. At least two
of those members are chosen to be “designated members”, which
are the equivalent of the directors of a company. The designated
members are responsible for certain administrative and filing
duties. The “rules” of the partnership are contained in an agree-
ment, decided by the members.
403
Limited Liability Partnerships (LLPs) were first introduced
in the UK in April 2001. They are becoming an increasingly pop-
ular form of business structure. This is especially true of accoun
tancy firms and law firms.

A. Look at the following list of five different business
structures. Read what the people say below and match
their businesses with the correct business structure.
sole proprietorship partnership
imited liability partnership
private limited company public limited company
a) Esther Jackson: “We set up our business together two

years ago. I’m an accountant and Mark is a builder. We trade
under the name of MH Property Services. Mark does all the
building work while I deal with all the paperwork. Mark and
I share all the profits. We didn’t have to register the business
anywhere, but we joined the local small builders’ association. We
took out a loan from the bank when we set up, to buy a van and
any tools that Mark needed. The bank insisted on securing the
loan on our house, but as we were confident about the future of
the business, we decided to take this risk. We’re doing quite well
at the moment.”
This type of business is a_______________
b) Harriet Higgins: “I own shares in Express Enterprises
which I bought two years ago through a stockbroker. Express
Enterprises has just announced that it has made record profits
this year. It has declared a dividend which provides an excel-
lent return on my investment. This dividend is to be distributed
soon. All of the shareholders will be delighted that the price of
shares has risen by 21 pence each since this announcement was
made. Stockbrokers are reporting that a lot of people are inter-
ested in buying Express Enterprises’ shares.”
404
c) Hassan Abdullah: “I own a specialist business consul-
tancy firm. I have office premises in Birmingham and I employ
two full-time employees. I have just completed the annual return
for the last year of trading, providing details of the capital, the
shareholders, address of the registered office and other informa-
tion. My accountant is preparing the annual financial accounts.
Business fluctuated last year, but I am optimistic that it will
grow and provide a steady income.”
d) Elliot Solomon: “The four of us set up our accountancy
business about 18 months ago. After considering the options, we
decided on this type of business structure. Most new professional
services are using this structure. There is less risk involved as we
are only liable for the amount of money we contributed to the
business. Tax was another consideration. We didn’t want to pay
corporation tax which is generally at a higher rate, so we opted
for this. We each have to pay income tax on our share of the
business profits.”
e) Suzanne Marshall: “I am a maths teacher. I used to work
in a big school, but decided that I wanted to do private tutoring,
specialising in helping children who find it difficult to under-
stand maths. The business is very successful and I have a waiting
list of parents who are interested in their children having lessons
with me. I don’t want a big business, I’m happy just doing the
hours I want. I can be as flexible as I want. If I need more money,
I just accept extra pupils. The business is easy to run and I’m not
restricted by rules and regulations.”
B. Read the text again and answer the following questions.
1. What is a company?
2. What rights has a company?
3. What kind of liability have members of a company?
4. What does limited liability mean?
5. By what is the members’ liability limited?
6. Has the company itself a limited liability?
7. Do companies pay taxes?
405
8. What tax do employees and shareholders pay?
9. What documents is it necessary to file with Companies
House to set up a company?
10. What does the memorandum of association state?
11. What must the application for registration contain?
12. When is the company ready to do business?
13. What types of companies are there in the UK?
14. What is the difference between private limited companies
(Ltd) and public limited companies (PLC)?
15. Can any company sell its shares on the Stock Exchange?
16. What are the requirements for setting up a limited liability
partnership (LLP)?
17. What does limited liability of the partners of an LLP cor-
respond to?
18. Why does an LLP have a more flexible structure than a com-
pany?
19. What are partners of an LLP called?
20. What are designated members responsible for?
21. Where are the “rules” of an LLP contained?
22. When did LLPs appear in the UK?
23. What businesses are organised as LLPs?
IV. Exercises
to be responsible for to hold board meetings
administrative and filing duties
to keep minutes to sell shares on the Stock
Exchange
to sell shares on the open market to correspond to smth
application for registration of the to comply with rules and
company regulations
to wind up a company registration number
legal entity shareholder
memorandum of association registered office
certificate of incorporation to have a legal identity
406
to satisfy a long list of regulations to hold a share
capital contributions to smth assets of the company
designated member articles of association

Verb Noun Adjective
to identify
contribution
to employ
applicable
corporate
similarity
to tax
personal
flexibility
advantageous
structural
compliance
to regulate
administrative
to subscribe
charity
science

1. Computers offer a much greater degree of _____________
in the way work is organized (flexible).
2. We receive hundreds of job _________________ each year
(apply).
3. A company has a legal _________________ separate from
the individuals (identify).
407
4. He was now in a more ____________ position (advantage).
5. To run a company it is necessary to observe a lot of ________
___________ formalities (corporation).
6. A company has a separate legal _________________ (per
son).
7. Profits, income and earnings are usually _______________
(tax).
8. Have you been making regular ___________________ to
a pension plan (contribute)?
9. We must follow certain procedures to ensure full _________
________ with the law (comply).
10. The pension funds are _________________ by commercial
banks (administrative).
1. legal entity a. sum
2. to sue b. corporation
3. legal identity c. to contribute
4. amount d. to form a company
5. company e. to observe
6. to dissolve f. to start an action in court
7. to set up a company g. obligation
8. to comply with h. legal person
9. duty i. to wind up
10. to put some money j. legal personality
1) paid — un ________________________________
outside — in ______________________________
advantage — dis ___________________________
flexible — in ______________________________
2) satisfied, different, qualified, legal, essential, possible, agree-
ment, experienced, incorporated, personal, equal, limited,
secure, responsible
408
1. The advantage / disadvantage of forming a company is that
it offers its members protection in case of bankruptcy as the
members have unlimited / limited liability for the company’s
debts.
2. The advantage / disadvantage is that there are many formali-
ties to comply with in setting up a company and running it.
3. The job of a juror is paid / unpaid.
4. She does not like to work from 9am to 5pm. She prefers
flexible / inflexible working hours.
5. The information comes from sources outside / inside the
company.
6. He was dissatisfied / satisfied with the court ruling and
decided to appeal.
7. It would be responsible / irresponsible not to come to work
without calling.
корпоративный налог защищать что-л.
капитал, активы компании бухгалтерская фирма
продавать акции на бирже свидетельство о регистрации
облагать налогом как компанию заявление о внесении в реестр
с ограниченной ответственностью компаний
вести протокол прекратить деятельность компа-
нии, ликвидировать компанию
назначенный участник юридическое лицо
проводить собрания совета подать что-л. в Регистрацион-
директоров ную палату
капиталовложения во что-л. юридический адрес
компания, ограниченная гаран- продавать акции на открытом
тией рынке
меморандум, учредительный соответствовать чему-л.
договор о создании акционерной
компании
409
участник / член компании соблюдать правила и постанов-
ления
удовлетворять целому ряду гибкая структура
требований закона

на открытом рынке
продавать акции на бирже
не членам компании
законы
соблюдать правила и постановления
требования
административные функции
отвечать за подачу документов
регистрацию компании
уставу
соответствовать их капиталовложениям в компанию
решению собрания совета директоров
1. An LLP is a more flexible structure than a company, with fewer
rules and regulations to comply __________. LLPs are reg-
istered _____________ Companies House and the require-
ments are similar ___________ those __________ companies.
2. The company has to satisfy a long list _______________
regulations to be able to sell its shares ____________ the
Stock Exchange.
3. To set _______________ a company it is necessary to file a
memorandum of association ____________ ____________
an application ____________ registration of the company
__________ Companies House.
4. Normally this limit is the amount unpaid __________ shares
they hold (limited __________ shares) or the amount the
members undertake to contribute __________ the assets of
410
the company in the event of its being wound __________
(limited __________ guarantee).
5. The shares of public limited companies are sold __________
the open market.
6. An LLP is not taxed __________ a limited company but
__________ a partnership.
7. The shares of private limited companies cannot be sold
__________ the company __________ the agreement of
the other members.
8. The partners of an LLP have the advantage __________
limited liability, which corresponds _____________ their
capital contributions to the LLP.
9. The designated members are responsible ______________
certain administrative and filing duties.
10. It may consist __________ a single person, but in each case
it has a legal identity separate __________ the individuals.
11. Limited liability means that if the business has debts, the
owners can be made to pay them only _______________
__________ a certain limit.
PREPOSITION BANK
to consist of smth
to correspond to smth
to sell shares on the open market / the Stock Exchange
to comply with to
to wind up a company
to contribute to smth
to register a company at / with Companies House
to be similar to smth
application for smth
together with

the text.
1. The memorandum of association states that the ___________
wish to form a company, to become the _____________ of
the company and to take at least one _____________.
411
2. The shares of _____________ limited companies cannot be
sold outside the company without the _____________ of
the other members.
3. Limited _____________ means that if the business has
_____________, the owners can be made to pay them only
up to a certain _____________.
4. The ________________ for registration must contain
the company’s proposed name, a _____________ office,
a copy of any proposed _____________ _____________
_____________, etc.
5. A company is a legal __________, with the right to sue and
be sued. It may consist of a ________ person, but in each
case it has a legal __________ separate from the individuals.
6. After being registered the company receives a ____________
number and a _____________of incorporation and is ready
to do business.
7. The company has to ____________ a long list of regulations to
be able to sell its shares on the ________________________.
8. LLPs are ________________ at Companies House and the
requirements are _____________ to those for companies.
9. A limited liability partnership does not have to hold
____________ _____________ or keep _____________.
10. The designated members are responsible for certain _______
and _____________ duties.
11. The partners of an LLP have the _____________ of limited
liability, which corresponds to their capital _____________
to the LLP. It protects partners’ personal _____________.
12. Companies pay _____________ tax while their employees
and shareholders pay _____________ tax.
the text.
1. Чтобы образовать компанию, необходимо подать мемо-
рандум и заявление о внесении в реестр компаний для
регистрации компании в Регистрационной палате.
2. Компания является юридическим лицом, которое имеет
право возбуждать дела в суде и против которого могут
быть возбуждены дела в суде.
412
3. В заявлении о внесении в реестр компаний должны
содержаться предполагаемое название, планируемый
юридический адрес, экземпляр любого предполагаемого
устава компании и т.д.
4. После того как компания зарегистрирована, она получает
регистрационный номер и свидетельство о регистрации
и готова вести бизнес.
5. Акции частной акционерной компании не могут прода-
ваться не членам компании без согласия ее членов.
6. Компания может состоять из одного лица, но в любом
случае она обладает правосубъектностью независимо
от ее членов.
7. В Соединенном Королевстве существует два вида компа-
ний: частная акционерная компания и публичная акцио-
нерная компания.
8. Чтобы продавать акции на бирже, компания должна
удовлетворять целому ряду требований закона.
9. Члены компании несут ограниченную ответственность.
Это означает, что если у предприятия есть долги, то чле-
нов компании можно заставить выплачивать эти долги
только до определенного предела.
10. Компании платят корпоративный налог, а работники
компаний и акционеры платят подоходный налог.
11. Товарищи LLP пользуются преимуществом ограничен-
ной ответственности, которая соответствует их капита-
ловложениям в LLP.
definition.
1. a legal entity, with the right a. income tax
to sue and be sued
2. a tax paid by companies b. limited liability
3. an obligation to pay the c. memorandum of
business’s debts only up to association
a certain limit
413
4. a document that states that d. corporation tax
the subscribers wish to form
a company, to become the
members of the company
and to take at least one
share
5. a tax paid by individuals e. private limited company
6. a document that contains f. Companies House
the company’s proposed
name, the intended regis
tered office, a copy of
any proposed articles of
association, etc.
7. companies’ registration g. company
office
8. a company whose shares h. public limited company
cannot be sold outside
the company without the
agreement of the other
members
9. a place where shares are i. designated members
sold to the general public
10. a company whose shares are j. Stock Exchange
sold on the open market
11. members that are k. application for
responsible for certain registration
administrative and filing
duties
correct form.
Working in her father’s manufacturing company during
the school holidays and at weekends (0) convinced Satbir
Billen that she (1) ______________ (not want) to go into
the family business. “I (2) ______________ (enjoy) working
there but I (3) _____________ (see) the hard work that
(4) _____________ (need), the long unsociable hours, the
414
setbacks (неудачи) and the stress. I also (5) _____________
(see) the good things — but I (6) _____________ (have) no
illusions,” she explains.
After (7) _____________ (complete) her degree, Satbir
(8) _____________ (work) as a scientist, followed by a couple
of years in public relations.
Satbir’s views (9) _____________ (change) since working
in PR. “I (10) _____________ (realize) that to be successful
in your career, even if you (11) _________________ (work)
for somebody else, you still (12) ________________ (have)
to work long hours and deal with stress. That’s when I
(13) _____________ (start) to re-think my views about working
for yourself: at least my father (14) _____________ (reap) the
rewards (получать воздаяние) from (15) _____________ (be)
his own boss,” she adds.
“My brother, Jatinder, (16) ____________ (join) the family
business straight from university, but (17) _____________
(decide) to leave after two and a half years. He (18) _____________
(feel) that because it (19) _______________ (be) our father’s
company, he never (20) _____________ (get) the recognition
he (21) _______________ (deserve). He (22) _____________
(go) to work for another company for a year. However,
he now (23) _____________ (realize) that working for
himself is what he (24) _____________ (want) to do and he
(25) _____________ (start) his own company. When my father
(26) ______________ (retire) Jatinder (27) _______________
(run) both companies,” she says. So according to Satbir, working
outside the family business (28) _______________ (help) you
decide whether it’s right for you.
Exercise 12. Use either active or passive form of the
Gerund.
1. The purpose of the doctrine was to stop company assets from
being used for unauthorized purposes.
2. If the company is limited by guarantee the members under-
take to contribute some money to the assets of the company
in the event of its (wind up).
3. To prevent other companies from (use) their trademark,
companies often register them.
415
4. After (register) the company receives a registration number
and a certificate of incorporation and is ready to do business.
5. Poor countries are more interested in the benefits of (copy)
than the problems of (copy).
6. The main emphasis of recent laws is not to prevent people
from (copy), but to ensure they pay for (do) so.
7. The Unfair Contract Terms Act specifies circumstances in
which a contractor may avoid (oblige) by some parts of
a contract.
8. The company avoided (pay) by arguing that their advertise-
ment was not an offer.
9. In the United States people are accustomed to (sign) con-
tracts connected with daily life.
10. The defendant held a girl in front of him to prevent the
police from (fire) at him.
11. The laws prevent companies from (transfer) funds to third
parties.
12. There are many regulations to observe in (set up) a business
and (run) it.
13. It is essential that anyone who is charged with a crime and
who denies (involve) in it should have a fair trial.
Exercise 13. Use the words “that” and “those” instead of
nouns.
Example:
Setting up a limited liability partnership (LLP)
involves a similar process to the process of setting
up a limited company.
— Setting up a limited liability partnership (LLP)
involves a similar process to that of setting up
a limited company.
LLPs are registered at Companies House and the
requirements are similar to the requirements for
companies.
— LLPs are registered at Companies House and the
requirements are similar to those for companies.
1. Many companies invest in such spheres as sophisticated

technologies and spheres giving fast returns.
416
2. The Supreme Court has direct jurisdiction in only two
kinds of cases: cases involving foreign diplomats and cases
in which a state is a party.
3. The most urgent question everywhere in this country today
is the question of complying with the law.
4. Many people, in particular teenagers and people in their
twenties, who become addicted to drugs, turn to life of crime.
5. The political power of the US Secretary of State is second
only to the political power of the President.
6. International law comprises the regulation of relations
between governments and also between private citizens of
one country and private citizens of another.
7. Most legal systems of Europe, including the legal system of
Scotland and indirectly legal systems in many other parts of
the world, were strongly influenced by Roman Law.
8. Ordinary Americans are much more interested in local
politics than in politics at the federal level.
Exercise 14. Use degrees of comparison.
Example:
1) An LLP is a more flexible structure than
a company.
2) Sole proprietorship and partnership are the
most flexible business structures.
Comparison of adjectives
Adjectives of: Positive Comparative Superlative
one syllable long longer than the longest of / in
two syllables happy happier than the happiest of / in
ending in
-y, -w, -er
two or more flexible more flexible the most flexible
syllables than of / in
• Certain adjectives form their comparatives by adding

-er / -est or with more / most.
Some of these are: clever, stupid, narrow, gentle.
clever — cleverer — the cleverest OR:
more clever — the most clever
417
Irregular Forms
Positive Comparative Superlative
good better the best
bad worse the worst
much more the most
many / a lot of more the most
little less the least
far farther / further the farthest / furthest
A. Fill in the blanks with the correct comparative and

superlative forms.
1. fair _____ _____ 7. simple _____ _____
2. satisfactory _____ _____ 8. little _____ _____
3. far _____ _____ 9. complex _____ _____
4. common _____ _____ 10. valuable _____ _____
5. reasonable _____ _____ 11. easy _____ _____
6. modern _____ _____ 12. binding _____ _____
B. Use either comparative or superlative form.
1. The plaintiff’s burden of proof is _____________ (great) in
a criminal case than in a civil one.
2. If you want to make a will, _____________ (good) man to
advise you is a solicitor.
3. The Queen is certainly one of _____________ (wealthy)
women in the world.
4. A candidate has only to put down a deposit of 500 pounds
and collect ten signatures from residents in the constituency
where he wants to be elected. A candidate who gets
_____________ (little) than 5 per cent of the total votes
loses his deposit.
5. One of _____________ (important) figures in the British
legal system is the solicitor.
6. The rules of social institutions tend to be _____________
(formal) than customs, carrying precise penalties for those
who break them.
418
7. California, the state with ____________ (large) population,
has 45 representatives.
8. Democrats tend to favour a _____________ (active) role of
the central government in social matters.
9. In most countries lawyers will tell you that the time they
spent studying for their finals was one of _____________
(bad) periods of their life.
10. High Court Judges deal with _________________ (serious)
crimes, such as those for which the criminal might be sent to
prison for _____________ (many) than a year.
11. The American constitution is _____________ (old) still in
force in the world.
12. The magistrates’ court is _____________ (common) type of
law court in England.
Exercise 15.
1. Компания является юридиче A company is a legal entity,
ским лицом, которое имеет право with the right to sue and be
возбуждать дела в суде и против sued.
которого могут быть возбуждены
дела в суде.
2. Она может состоять из одного It may consist of a single per-
лица, но в любом случае она son, but in each case it has a
обладает правосубъектностью legal identity separate from
независимо от ее членов. the individuals.
3. Сама компания несет неограни- The company itself has unli
ченную ответственность. mited liability.
4. Члены компании несут ограни- The members of a company
ченную ответственность. have limited liability.
5. Это означает, что если у предпри- This means that if the busi-
ятия есть долги, то членов компа- ness has debts, they can be
нии можно заставить выплачивать made to pay them only up to
долги только до определенного a certain limit.
предела.
419
6. Обычно этот предел составляет Normally this limit is the
сумма, не выплаченная по акциям, amount unpaid on shares
которые они держат (компании, they hold (companies limited
ограниченные акциями), или by shares) or the amount the
сумма, которую они гарантиро- members undertake to con-
вали внести в активы компании tribute to the assets of the
в случае ее ликвидации (компа- company if it is wound up
нии, ограниченные гарантией). (companies limited by gua
rantee).
7. Компании, ограниченные гаран- Companies limited by gua
тией, создаются для благотво- rantee are organized for chari-
рительных, образовательных table, educational or scientific
и научных целей. purposes.
8. Компании, сотрудники компа- Companies, their employees
ний и акционеры зарегистриро- and shareholders are regis-
ваны в Управлении по налогам tered at Her Majesty’s Rev-
и таможенным сборам Велико- enue and Customs (HMRC).
британии.
9. Компании платят корпоратив- Companies pay corporation
ный налог, а сотрудники компа- tax while their employees and
нии и акционеры платят подо- shareholders pay income tax.
ходный налог.
10. Чтобы образовать компанию, To set up a company it is nec-
необходимо подать меморандум essary to file a memorandum
и заявление о внесении в реестр of association together with an
компаний для регистрации application for registration of
компании в Регистрационной the company with Companies
палате. House.
11. В меморандуме говорится, что The memorandum of associa-
лица, подписавшие меморандум, tion states that the subscrib-
хотят создать компанию, стать ers wish to form a company,
ее членами и приобрести хотя to become the members of the
бы одну ее акцию. company and to take at least
one share.
12. В заявлении о внесении в реестр The application for registra-
компаний должны содержаться tion must contain the com-
предполагаемое название, пла- pany’s proposed name, a re
нируемый юридический адрес, gistered office, a copy of any
экземпляр любого предполагае- proposed articles of associa-
мого устава компании и т.д. tion, etc.
420
13. После того как компания зареги- After being registered the
стрирована, она получает реги- company receives a registra-
страционный номер и свиде- tion number and a certificate
тельство о регистрации и готова of incorporation and is ready
вести бизнес. to do business.
14. В Соединенном Королевстве There are private limited
существуют частные акционер- companies (Ltd) and public
ные компании и публичные limited companies (PLC) in
акционерные компании. the UK.
15. Акции частной акционерной The shares of private limited
компании не могут продаваться companies cannot be sold out-
не членам компании без согла- side the company without the
сия ее членов. agreement of the other mem-
bers.
16. Акции публичной акционерной The shares of public limited
компании продаются на откры- companies are sold on the
том рынке. open market.
17. Чтобы продавать акции на бирже, The company has to satisfy
компания должна удовлетворять a long list of regulations to be
целому ряду требований закона. able to sell its shares on the
Stock Exchange.
18. Создание товарищества с огра- Setting up a limited liability
ниченной ответственностью partnership (LLP) is similar
(LLP) похоже на создание ком- to setting up a limited com-
пании с ограниченной ответ- pany.
ственностью.
19. Товарищества с ограниченной LLPs are registered at Com-
ответственностью регистриру- panies House and the require-
ются в Регистрационной палате, ments are similar to those for
и требования к ним похожи companies.
на требования, предъявляемые
к компаниям.
20. Название товарищества с огра- The name of the partnership
ниченной ответственностью must end with “LLP”.
должно оканчиваться на «LLP».
21. Как и компания, LLP обладает LLP as well as a limited com-
самостоятельной правосубъект pany has a separate legal per-
ностью. sonality.
421
22. Оно может возбуждать дела It may sue and be sued in the
в суде от своего имени, и про- name of the LLP.
тив него могут быть возбуждены
дела в суде.
23. Товарищи LLP пользуются The partners of an LLP have
преимуществом ограниченной the advantage of limited lia-
ответственности, которая соот- bility, which corresponds to
ветствует их капиталовложе- their capital contributions to
ниям в LLP. the LLP.
24. Она защищает личное имуще- It protects partners’ personal
ство товарищей. assets.
25. В тоже время LLP платит налог However, an LLP is not taxed
не как компания с ограниченной as a limited company but as
ответственностью, а как товари- a partnership.
щество.
25. Кроме того, LLP имеет более Also, an LLP is a more flex-
гибкую структуру, чем компа- ible structure than a company,
ния, поскольку оно должно со with fewer rules and regula-
блюдать меньше правил и поста- tions to comply with.
новлений.
26. Оно не должно проводить собра- It does not have to hold board
ния совета директоров и вести meetings or keep minutes.
протокол.
27. Товарищи LLP называются The partners of an LLP are
участниками (членами). called members.
28. По крайней мере двое из участ- At least two of those members
ников LLP выбираются «назна- are chosen to be “designated
ченными участниками», кото- members”, which are the
рые равнозначны директорам equivalent of the directors of
компаний. a company.
29. Назначенные участники отве- The designated members are
чают за определенные админи- responsible for certain admi
стративные функции и подачу nistrative and filing duties.
документов.
30. Правила товарищества содер- The “rules” of the partnership
жатся в соглашении, которое are contained in an agreement,
принимают участники. decided by the members.
422
31. Товарищества с ограниченной Limited Liability Partner-
ответственностью (LLP) впер- ships (LLPs) were first intro-
вые появились в Соединенном duced in the UK in April
Королевстве в апреле 2001 года. 2001.
32. Они становятся все более попу- They are becoming an increas-
лярной формой организации ingly popular form of business
бизнеса. structure.
33. Это особенно касается бухгал- This is especially true of
терских и юридических фирм. accountancy firms and law
firms.

1. A company as a legal entity.
2. Liability of the members of the company:
— companies limited by shares;
— companies limited by guarantee.
3. Taxation of companies.
4. Registration requirements:
— memorandum of association;
— application for registration.
5. Private limited companies and public limited companies.
6. Limited liability partnership.
— registration requirements;
— liability of the members;
— taxation;
— flexibility;
— management;
— businesses using this structure.
1. application for registration заявление о внесении в реестр

of the company компаний
2. articles of association устав компании
[əˌsəusɪˈeɪʃən]
to file ~ with Companies House подать ~ в Регистрационную
палату
423
3. assets of the company капитал, активы компании
to contribute to the ~ делать вклад в ~
[kənˈtrɪbju:t]
4. board meeting собрание совета директоров
to hold a board meeting проводить ~
5. certificate of incorporation свидетельство о регистрации
[səˈtɪfɪkeɪt]
6. charitable [ˈtʃærɪtəbl] благотворительный
7. company limited by компания, ограниченная гаран-
guarantee [ˌɡærənˈti:] тией
8. company limited by shares компания, ограниченная акци-
ями
9. to comply with rules and соблюдать правила и постанов-
regulations ления
10. corporation tax корпоративный налог
11. in the name of smb от имени кого-л.
12. legal entity [ˈentɪtɪ] юридическое лицо
to be a legal entity являться ~
13. legal identity / personality правосубъектность
[aɪˈdentɪtɪ] [ˌpə:səˈnælɪtɪ]
to have a ~ обладать ~
14. member of the company участник / член компании
15. memorandum of association меморандум, учредительный
[ˌmeməˈrændəm] договор о создании акционер-
ной компании
16. minutes [ˈmɪnɪts] протокол
to keep minutes вести протокол
17. to register a company at / зарегистрировать компанию
with Companies House в Регистрационной палате
18. registered office юридический адрес
19. registration number регистрационный номер
20. share акция
to hold a share держать акцию
to sell shares on the open продавать акции на открытом
market рынке
424
21. shareholder акционер
22. Stock Exchange биржа
to sell shares on the Stock продавать акции на бирже
Exchange
23. to tax as a limited company облагать налогом как компанию
с ограниченной ответствен
ностью
24. to wind up a company прекратить деятельность ком-
[waɪnd] пании, ликвидировать компа-
нию
Exercise 1. Complete the following sentences and text

using the words and collocations from the
Active Vocabulary (you can use some words
and collocations from the previous unit).
A.
1. As a shareholder in a company he is allowed to vote at com-
pany meetings as specified in the ___________________.
2. We are a _______________________, which operates like
a company but is taxed as a partnership.
3. The defence documents must be ___________________
very soon as the judge has ordered the case to be speeded up
as much as possible.
4. If a new business is created as a limited liability company
then it has a legal ___________________ separate to that
of its shareholders.
5. The decisions taken at the meeting were recorded and the
___________________ were signed by the chairperson.
6. People who create a company are called _______________.
7. The members each ________________ £6,000 to the LLP.
8. If someone wants to sue a company, perhaps because it
did not fulfil its obligations, the claimant names the com-
pany as the defendant, because a company is a legal
___________________.
9. Shareholders can be people or companies. They own, or
___________________ a share or shares in the company.
425
10. Shares in companies are bought and sold on the ___________
_____________.
B.
A company is an independent (1) ___________________.
Its ownership is divided into (2) ________________________
which are equal parts of the company’s capital. The owners of
the shares are known as (3) __________________________.
They have (4) _______________________. This means that
if the business has (5) _______________________, they are
(6) _______________________ for them only up to a certain
extent. Shareholders can vote at the Annual General Meeting
(AGM) to elect the Board of Directors.
There are two types of limited company: (7) __________
_________and (8) ___________________. In a private limit
ed company, all shareholders must agree before any shares can be
bought or sold. In a public limited company, shares are bought
and sold freely, for example on the (9) ___________________.
When setting up a company it is necessary to (10) _________
__________ with the Companies Acts.
Every company must be registered with (11) _________
__________. If all the documents are in order Companies House
issues a (12) ___________________ of incorporation.
The principal attraction of a company is that the shareholder’s
liability is limited. In this way, by buying shares, a larger number
of people can (13) ___________________ funds to the business
without risking their personal (14) ___________________.
Exercise 2. Translate using the active vocabulary.
A.
1. Компания является юридическим лицом. Она обладает
своей собственной правосубъектностью.
2. Компания платит корпоративный налог, а ее работники
платят подоходный налог.
3. Если компания ограничена гарантией, то в случае ее лик-
видации члены компании гарантируют внести в активы
компании определенную сумму.
426
4. Компания несет неограниченную ответственность, а ее
члены несут ограниченную ответственность.
5. Все компании и товарищества с ограниченной ответ-
ственностью регистрируются в Регистрационной палате,
где они получают свидетельства о регистрации.
6. Устав компании устанавливает правила внутреннего
регулирования компании.
7. Мы с женой являемся единственными акционерами ком-
пании и ее директорами. Мы назначили секретаря компа-
нии, но он не владеет акциями компании.
8. Секретарь компании отвечает за подачу документов
в Регистрационную палату и в Управление по налогам
и таможенным сборам Великобритании.
9. Ответственность членов товарищества с ограничен-
ной ответственностью зависит от их денежного вклада
в активы товарищества.
10. Мы зарегистрировали наш домашний адрес в качестве
юридического адреса. Как только мы арендуем офис, мы
поменяем наш юридический адрес.
B.
Наша юридическая фирма является товариществом
с ограниченной ответственностью. В традиционном товари-
ществе каждый товарищ несет неограниченную ответствен-
ность за долги товарищества. Но в товариществе с огра-
ниченной ответственностью это не так. Товарищи несут
ограниченную ответственность за долги предприятия. Это
означает, что если товарищество должно большую сумму
денег кому-либо и не может ее заплатить, товарищ не дол-
жен использовать свои денежные средства, чтобы выпла-
тить долг. Другими словами, личное имущество товарищей
не подвергается риску. Личное имущество составляют вещи,
которыми кто-либо владеет, например, машина, дом, деньги,
которые у него есть на счету в банке. Товарищество с ограни-
ченной ответственностью использует капитал товарищества,
чтобы выплатить свои долги.
427
Когда люди хотят организовать товарищество с ограни-
ченной ответственностью, они должны зарегистрировать
его в Регистрационной палате. Название товарищества
с ограниченной ответственностью должно заканчиваться
аббревиатурой «LLP». Когда кто-либо регистрирует това-
рищество с ограниченной ответственностью, оно стано-
вится инкорпорированным предприятием. Это означает,
что предприятие зарегистрировано от своего собственного
имени и имеет свою собственную правосубъектность. Оно
является юридическим лицом. Товарищество с ограни-
ченной ответственностью должно подавать определенные
сведения о товарищах в Регистрационную палату. Любой
может ознакомиться с этой информацией. В этом смысле
товарищество с ограниченной ответственностью отличается
от традиционного товарищества. Информация о традици-
онном товариществе не является общедоступной в отличие
от товарищества с ограниченной ответственностью. Това-
рищество с ограниченной ответственностью должно соблю-
дать больше правил и постановлений, чем традиционное
товарищество.
Товарищество с ограниченной ответственностью облага-
ется налогами так же, как традиционное товарищество. Каж-
дый член LLP должен платить подоходный налог на свою
долю в прибыли товарищества.
Основным документом LLP является устав товарищества
(deed of partnership), который похож на Соглашение товари-
щей в традиционном товариществе. Устав содержит сведе-
ния о количестве денежных средств, которые каждый член
внес в товарищество, об обязанностях каждого члена и о том,
что случится, если один из членов выйдет из товарищества.
Товарищество с ограниченной ответственностью стано-
вится популярной структурой ведения бизнеса в случаях,
когда двое или более лиц хотят организовать предприятие.
Сейчас эта структура особенно популярна у людей, которые
хотят создать юридическую фирму.
428
VI. Key Terms
1. Application for a document that contains the company’s

registration proposed name, the intended registered
office, a copy of any proposed articles of
association, etc.
2. Companies House a body where incorporated businesses are
registered
3. Company a legal entity, with the right to sue and be
sued
4. Corporation tax a tax paid by companies
5. Income tax a tax paid by individuals
6. Limited liability an obligation to pay the business’s debts
only up to a certain limit
7. Memorandum of a document that states that the subscribers
association wish to form a company, to become the
[ˌmeməˈrændəm əv members of the company and to take at least
əˌsəusɪˈeɪʃən] one share
8. Private limited a company whose shares cannot be sold
company outside the company without the agreement
of the other members
9. Public limited a company whose shares are sold on the
company open market
10. Stock Exchange a place where shares are sold to the general
public
VII. Case Study

1. A is an incorporator of the newly formed Galaxy Space
Research Corporation. B is a director. C is a president. D, E, and
F are shareholders who own most of the stock. If the corporation
buys an electronic microscope, who owns it?
2. Mrs Hull organized a corporation to manufacture antibiotics
for cattle. She owned most of the capital stock. All went well
before a faulty batch of drugs caused the serious illness or death
of more than 3,000 cows. After a series of lawsuits, the corporation
was forced into bankruptcy with some $200,000 in debts unpaid.
Could Mrs Hull be held personally liable for these debts?
429
Exercise 1. Read the text about different types of com
panies in the UK and decide whether the sta
tements below the text are true or false.
Public and private limited companies
There are several different types of company in England, but
the most common are the private limited company and the pub-
lic limited company. The name of a private limited company must
end with “Ltd” or “Limited”, and a public limited company’s name
must end with “PLC”. This means that when you look at a com-
pany’s name you can see immediately what type of company it is.
A private limited company cannot offer shares in the com-
pany to members of the public, but a public limited company
can do this. Some people use the services of a stockbroker to
buy and sell shares. A stockbroker is someone who buys and sells
shares on behalf of his or her clients. A stockbroker only deals
in shares of public limited companies. The law does not allow
people to trade in shares of private limited companies through
a stockbroker.
A private limited company can have any number of share-
holders. However, it is very common to have a private limited
company with just one shareholder. If a company has just one
shareholder, the company is called a single-member company.
Under Companies Act 2006 a public limited company may have
only one shareholder, but usually it has a lot more.
There used to be a big difference between the two types of
companies before Companies Act 2006 was passed. That was the
amount of share capital that the companies had to have in order
to incorporate and register them. Someone could register a pri-
vate limited company with a very small amount of share capital,
maybe only £1. However, to register a public limited company
it was necessary to have a substantial amount of share capital.
The minimum amount required was £50,000. Now there is no
requirement for the minimum amount of share capital for public
limited companies.
430
1. There are only two types of companies in
England
2. A company which has the name of Lexton
Metals Ltd is a private limited company.
3. A single-member company has just one
shareholder.
4. A public limited company can be a single-
member company.
5. A public limited company must have a share
capital of at least £50,000 at the time when
someone registers it.
6. A stockbroker can sell shares of a private
limited company.
Exercise 2. Read the case and decide what business

structure is better for the client.
Mr Patel wants to set up a business. At the moment Mr Patel
is working alone, but his brother will probably want to join the
business at some time in the future. The business supplies com-
puters and software to small businesses and advises the busi-
nesses on operating the systems. Mr Patel has capital of £25,000
to start the business. Mr Patel owns his house, but wants to
make sure that if everything goes wrong, he will not lose the
house. Mr Patel is married and has three children. Mr Patel
wants advice on what sort of business he should set up.
Exercise 3. A solicitor is writing to Mr Patel. Put the
parts of the letter in the right order by
writing your answers in the boxes numbered
1–10 below. There is an example at the
beginning, which is the start of the letter.
(a) Setting up as a sole trader is certainly the easiest type of
business. A sole trader is self-employed and this type of business
does not have to be registered or comply with complicated rules,
other than the obligation to pay tax.
(b) I look forward to hearing from you.
431
(c) I understand from this message that you wish to set
up a business which supplies computers and software to small
businesses and you would like some advice on what is the most
appropriate structure for this new business.
(d) Dear Mr Patel
New computer consultancy business
(e) Therefore, in view of the fact that you are investing a
substantial amount of money into the business, and more par-
ticularly that you wish your personal assets to be as safe as pos-
sible, I think the best option is for you to incorporate a private
limited company. Your brother will be able to join the company
at a later date.
(f) However, the main disadvantage is that as a sole trader
you will have unlimited liability for all the debts of the business
if it does not succeed in the way in which you hope. This means
that you may have to sell your personal assets to pay the debts
of the business.
(g) I will be very pleased to explain the procedure of incor-
porating a company to you. Please telephone me to arrange a
convenient time to meet.
(h) Thank you for your telephone message regarding the
formation of a new business.
(i) Yours sincerely
Greg Harrison
(j) As you are the only person involved in the business at
present, there are two options available to you. One is to operate
as a sole trader and the other is to incorporate a private limited
company. Let me give you a little more detail about each option.
(1) (d) (2) (3) (4) (5)

(6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
Unit 14
COMPANY MANAGEMENT
I. Lead-in
Jessica Ryder is a law student at the University of Chatsworth.
She must write a short paper about the people who are con-
nected with a company. The most important words are in the
frame below.
A. Read the text and answer the questions below using a full
sentence.
• shareholders • employees • directors
• accountant • company secretary
• auditor • creditors • debtors
When the founders of a new company register the company at

Companies House, the company exists as a separate legal entity.
This is important as it means that the company is separate from
its owners, who are the shareholders of the company. Sharehold-
ers are also known as the members of the company. The people
who work for the company are the employees.
The people who have the power to run the company are the
directors. The company’s articles of association give the direc-
tors this power. Together, the directors are called the Board of
Directors. They make all the decisions about the management of
the company.
There is a lot of paperwork in connection with a company.
Some of this is financial paperwork, for example dealing with
the payroll, which means calculating salaries and wages for the
employees. It also involves sending invoices to people who buy
goods or services from the company, and paying invoices from
433
suppliers. Companies usually employ an accountant to deal with
all this financial paperwork.
Other paperwork is in connection with the legal administra-
tive duties of the company. This includes the duty to send an
annual return each year to Companies House, containing up-to-
date information about the company, together with annual finan-
cial accounts. It is the duty of the company secretary to make
sure that these legal requirements are followed. If this person
fails to send the correct documents to Companies House at the
correct time, then he or she may have to pay a fine.
Each year, a qualified accountant, called an auditor, must
inspect all the financial records of the company. The auditor has
to look at the creditors and the debtors of a company. Creditors
are the people, including banks and other companies, who the
company owes money to. Debtors are all the people who owe
money to the company. The auditor must be satisfied that the
annual financial records are accurate.
Example:
Question: Who are the shareholders?
Answer: The shareholders, also known as the mem-
bers, are the owners of the company.
1. Who are the employees?

2. What do the directors of a company do?
3. What does an accountant do?
4. What does a company secretary do?
5. What does an auditor do?
6. What are creditors?
7. What are debtors?
B. Look at the following statements. All of the statements are
made by people or organisations that have a connection
with a company called Foxtrot Ltd. Complete each
statement by using the correct word from vocabulary in
the frame above.
a) Kerry Knight
I invested £5,000 in Foxtrot Ltd by buying shares in the
company. I am a _______________of the company. I am also
known as a member of the company.
434
b) The manager of the Royal Chatsworth Bank
Foxtrot Ltd took out a loan from us six months ago. They
owe us £4,200. We are a ____________________ of Foxtrot
Ltd.
c) Harry Orm
I am a ___________________of Foxtrot Ltd, together with
two others, Mary Parker and Josh Copeland. Mary and I are also
shareholders, but Josh does not own any shares in the company.
Together we make all the decisions about the company and we
are responsible for running the company.
d) Mary Parker
I am a director of Foxtrot Ltd and I am also the company
_______________. This means that in addition to my duties as
a director, I have the important task of making sure that I fol-
low all the statutory requirements connected with a company,
for example, sending notices of meetings to shareholders and
sending documents to Companies House.
e) Samuel Dickenson
I am an accountant and I work for a firm called AB Char-
try & Co. Most of my clients are medium-size private limited
companies. One of my clients is Foxtrot Ltd. I have to check
the companies’ financial accounts and make sure that they are
accurate and show the true financial position of the company. I
am Foxtrot Ltd’s __________________________.
f) Eliza Taylor
I work for Foxtrot Ltd as their__________________. I deal
with all the financial transactions of the company. For example,
I send invoices to people and pay our suppliers. I also deal with
the payroll each month to make sure that all of our employees
receive their correct monthly salary.
g) Ron Baxter
I bought some goods from Foxtrot Ltd three weeks ago. The
cost of the goods is £795 have an invoice for these goods, which
I must pay next week. I am a ____________ of Foxtrot Ltd.
435
h) Jane Wilkinson
I am one of Foxtrot’s _______________. I work in the sales
department. I like working here. I receive a good salary and I
also receive a commission on any new sales.
II. Reading
effect [ɪˈfekt] community [kəˈmju:nɪtɪ]
environment [ɪnˈvaɪərənmənt] majority [məˈdʒɔrɪtɪ]
to disclose [dɪsˈkləuz] removal [rɪˈmu:vəl]
financial [faɪˈnænʃəl] executive [ɪɡˈzekjutɪv]
to ensure [ɪnˈʃuə] faith [feɪθ]
fiduciary [fɪˈdju:ʃjərɪ] to declare [dɪˈklɛə]
disqualification [dɪsˌkwɔlɪfɪˈkeɪʃən] insider [ˈɪnˈsaɪdə]
legislation [ˌledʒɪsˈleɪʃn] resolution [ˌrezəˈlu:ʃən]
penalty [ˈpenltɪ] voting [ˈvəutɪŋ]
B) Vocabulary Notes
(1)
1. company management управление компанией
2. statutory regulations положения закона
3. legislation закон, законы
4. Companies Act 2006 Закон о компаниях 2006 года
5. to set out the basic устанавливать основные правила
rules for smth чего-л.
6. unlike в отличие
7. effects of smth on smth влияние чего-л. на что-л.
8. business practices деловая практика
9. community зд. местное население
10. environment окружающая среда
436
(2)
11. to disclose information раскрывать информацию
12. financial accounts бухгалтерская отчетность
13. Annual Return ежегодная декларация (направляе-
мая в Регистрационную палату)
14. balance sheet баланс
15. profit and loss account отчет о прибылях и убытках
16. up-to-date information свежая, уточненная информация
17. constitutional document учредительный документ
18. to register зарегистрировать устав компании
articles of association в Регистрационной палате
at Companies House
19. internal management of внутреннее управление компанией
the company
to set out the ~ определять ~
20. to detail rules конкретизировать правила
21. notice уведомление
formal notice of the официальное уведомление о собра-
meeting нии
22. voting rights право принимать участие в голосо-
вании
23. size of majority размер большинства
24. to pass a resolution принимать резолюцию
25. share issue выпуск акций
26. removal of directors смещение директоров
(3)
27. board of directors совет директоров
28. executive director исполнительный директор
29. to run day-to-day руководить текущей деятельностью
business of the company компании
30. non-executive director неисполнительный директор (член
совета директоров, не являющийся
исполнительным лицом компании)
437
31. to ensure the success обеспечить успешную деятельность
of the company компании
32. to exercise reasonable проявлять разумную заботу, осто-
care рожность
33. to act in good faith действовать добросовестно
34. to act in the best действовать с максимальным уче-
interests of the том интересов компании
company
35. to make secret profits извлекать скрытую прибыль
from smth из чего-л.
36. fiduciary duty фидуциарная обязанность
37. to declare smth объявить что-л. на собрании совета
at a board meeting директоров
(4)
38. disqualification from отстранение от чего-л.
doing smth
39. criminal conviction осуждение в уголовном порядке
40. to gain private profits получать личную прибыль
41. insider trading инсайдерская торговля
42. penalty for smth наказание за что-л.
С) Text
COMPANY MANAGEMENT
(1) One of the main disadvantages of setting up and run-
ning a company is that there are a lot of statutory regulations
that a company must comply with. The most recent legislation
that governs companies in England and Wales is the Companies
Act 2006. The Act sets out the basic rules for how a company
should operate. Unlike previous company law, the Act states that
companies must consider the effects of their business practices
on the community, employees and environment.
(2) Companies must disclose certain information and it is
available to the general public. Each year, a company must file
438
its financial accounts and Annual Return at Companies House.
The financial accounts include a balance sheet and a profit and
loss account. The Annual Return contains up-to-date informa
tion about that company.
Under the Act the main constitutional document of the
company is the articles of association that must be registered
at Companies House. They set out the internal management
of the company. The articles of association detail rules about
when and at what notice meetings must be held; member’s vot
ing rights, and the size of majority required to pass resolutions;
share issue. They also regulate the appointment, powers and
removal of directors.
The shareholders decide a lot of matters at shareholders’
meetings where they pass resolutions. The company has to send
a formal notice of the meeting to shareholders.
(3) The company is managed by a board of directors
appointed by the shareholders. Executive directors run day-to-
day business of the company. Non-executive directors are not
involved in the daily running of the company. They usually give
executive directors advice on different important issues. The
directors must ensure the success of the company, exercise
reasonable care, act in good faith and in the best interests of
the company as a whole and not make secret profits from the
company’s business. That is called fiduciary duty of the director.
A director need not be a member (that is, a shareholder), but
details of any shares he holds must be registered. If he holds an
interest in another firm with which the company is doing busi-
ness, the law requires him to declare that interest at a board
meeting.
(4) If a director acts improperly, this may lead to a fine, dis
qualification from being a director, personal liability for the
company’s debts, or a criminal conviction.
Directors and some employees of companies are often in a po
sition to know if a company’s shares are likely to rise or to fall
long before ordinary shareholders. As a result, they can make
439
profits by buying or selling shares before everybody else, or by
selling their special information. Using inside knowledge to gain
private profits when buying and selling the company’s shares is
a crime of insider trading. In the UK the maximum penalty for
insider trading is 7 year imprisonment.
III. Read the text again and answer the following questions.

1. What must a company comply with?
2. What is the most recent legislation that governs companies
in England and Wales?
3. What does the Act set out?
4. What effects must a company consider?
5. What information must companies disclose?
6. What do financial accounts include?
7. What does the Annual Return contain?
8. What is the main constitutional document of the company?
9. Where must the articles of association be registered?
10. What information do the articles of association contain?
11. What do shareholders do at shareholders’ meetings?
12. What does the company have to do before shareholders’
meetings?
13. Who runs day-to-day business of the company?
14. Are non-executive directors involved in the daily running of
the company?
15. What are the duties of directors?
16. What is fiduciary duty of the director?
17. Can only shareholders be appointed directors?
18. What must directors declare?
19. What happens if a director acts improperly?
20. What information do directors learn before ordinary share-
holders?
21. What can they do with this information?
22. What is insider trading?
23. What is the maximum penalty for insider trading in UK?
440
IV. Exercises
business practices formal notice of the meeting
to declare smth at a board meeting profit and loss account
to gain private profits to disclose information
environment size of majority
financial accounts internal management
of the company
up-to-date information criminal conviction
removal of directors voting rights
to act in good faith Companies Act 2006
penalty for smth to ensure the success
of the company
to exercise reasonable care to register articles of association
at Companies House
non-executive director to run day-to-day business
of the company

Verb Noun Adjective
major
disclosure
to legislate
basis
consideration
effective
environmental
finance
constitutional
to resolve
to issue
441
Verb Noun Adjective
execution, executor
to declare
to convict
to detail detail
to empower

1. The new speed limit on this road becomes ________________
from 1 June (effect).
2. Before leaving he gave me ____________________ instruc-
tions (detail).
3. The courts were _________________ to impose death sen-
tence for certain crimes (power).
4. Your opinion will not ____________ my decision (effect).
5. He became even more ________________ in his opposition
to the plan (resolution).
6. The ____________________of the takeover bid raised the
price of the shares (disclose).
7. The re-election of the chairman for a second term is not
_________________ (constitution).
8. You can’t _________________ against freedom of speech
(legislation).
9. He was named __________________ of his brother’s will
(execute).
10. There are two _________________ political parties in the
USA (majority).
11. He has a ____________________ interest in the company
(finance).
12. It was an international meeting to discuss _______________
issues (environment).
1. responsiblity a. to follow smth
2. day-to-day b. modern
442
3. to comply with smth c. stockholder
4. effect d. insider dealing
5. up-to-date e. to manage a company
6. shareholder f. daily
7. to run a company g. for the benefit of the
company
8. company h. punishment
9. shares i. corporation
10. in the best interests of j. gains
the company
11. profits k. stock
12. insider trading l. liability
13. penalty m. influence
1) like — (un) _______________________________
to close — (dis) ____________________________
internal — external
management — (mis) _______________________
majority — minority
executive — (non) _________________________
reasonable — (un) _________________________
properly — (im) ___________________________
qualification — (dis) ________________________
ordinary — (extra) _________________________
inside — outside
maximum — minimum
2) incorporated, personal, limited, responsible, secure, to
include, equal, satisfied, different, to represent, essential, pos-
sible, experienced, equitable, to obey
443
1. An ordinary / extraordinary meeting was held to discuss this
urgent problem.
2. After the accident she was fined £1,000 and qualified / dis-
qualified from driving for two years.
3. The prosecution in a criminal case has to establish beyond
reasonable / unreasonable doubt that the accused committed
the crime.
4. Non-executive / executive directors attend board meetings
and give advice, they do not work full time for the company.
5. Parties to a case are required to close / disclose relevant docu
ments.
6. A majority / minority shareholder is a person who owns more
than half of the shares in a company.
7. She was accused of acting improperly / properly in going to
see the prisoner/s father.
8. China will not tolerate any external / internal interference in
its affairs.
9. The minimum / maximum age for retirement is 55.
10. Consultants were brought in to provide some inside / outside
advice.
раскрывать информацию отчет о прибылях и убытках
исполнительный директор внутреннее управление компа-
нией
действовать добросовестно выпуск акций
инсайдерская торговля смещение директоров
проявлять разумную заботу, официальное уведомление
осторожность о собрании
принимать резолюции размер большинства
учредительный документ руководить текущей деятель
ностью компании
положения закона действовать с максимальным
учетом интересов компании
444
получать личную прибыль объявить что-л. на собрании
совета директоров
фидуциарная обязанность обеспечить успешную деятель-
ность компании
право принимать участие в голо- зарегистрировать устав компа-
совании нии в Регистрационной палате
управление компанией конкретизировать правила

выпуска акций
регулирования текущей дея-
давать совет по поводу тельности
проведения собрания совета ди
ректоров
права акционеров при голосо-
вании
в уставе конкретизиру выпуск акций
ется (конкретизиру-
ются) назначение, полномочия и сме
щение директоров
добросовестно
с максимальным учетом интере-
действовать сов компании
на благо компании
доказательства
раскрывать информацию
документы
местное население
влияние бизнеса на работников компании
окружающую среду

1. The directors can make profits ________ buying or selling
shares before everybody else, or ________selling their spe-
cial information.
2. The directors must ensure the success of the company, exer-
cise reasonable care, act ________ good faith and ________
445
the best interests of the company ________ a whole and not
make secret profits ________ the company business.
3. If a director acts improperly, this may lead ________ a fine,
disqualification ________ being a director, personal liability
________the company’s debts, or a criminal conviction.
4. The shareholders decide a lot of matters ________ share-
holders’ meetings where they pass resolutions.
5. Non-executive directors are not involved ________ the
daily running of the company.
6. The articles of association set ________ the internal man-
agement of the company.
7. If a director holds an interest ________ another firm with
which the company is doing business, the law requires him
to declare that interest ________ a board meeting.
8. In the UK the maximum penalty ________ insider trading
is 7 year imprisonment.
9. The company has to send a formal notice __________ the
meeting ________ shareholders.
10. __________ previous company law, the Act states that com-
panies must consider the effects ________ their business
practices ________ the community, employees and environ-
ment.
11. ________ the Act the main constitutional document of the
company is the articles of association that must be registered
________ Companies House.
12. There are a lot of statutory regulations that a company must
comply ________.
13. Non-executive directors usually give executive directors
advice ________ different important issues.
14. Directors ________ companies are often ________ a posi-
tion to know if a company’s shares are likely to rise or to fall
long before ordinary shareholders.
446
PREPOSITION BANK
to set out smth
to act in good faith
to act in the best interests
to be involved in doing smth
to give advice on smth
effects of smth on smth
disqualification from doing smth
penalty for smth
under the Act
unlike previous company law

the text.
1. Under the Act the main __________ document of the com-
pany is the articles of association that must be ____________
at Companies House.
2. ___________________ directors run day-to-day business
of the company.
3. The shareholders decide a lot of matters at shareholders’
meetings where they pass ____________.
4. The Annual ____________ contains ____________infor-
mation about that company.
5. If a director acts ____________, this may lead to a fine,
____________ from being a director, personal liability for
the company’s ____________, or a criminal ____________.
6. The most recent ____________ that governs companies in
England and Wales is the Companies Act 2006.
7. The articles of association set out the ________________
____________ of the company.
8. Directors and some employees of companies are often
in a position to know if a company’s shares are likely to
___________or to fall long before ordinary ____________.
9. The directors must _______________ the success of the
company, exercise _____________ _______________, act
in ____________ ____________ and in the best inter-
ests of the company as a whole and not to make secret
447
______________from the company business. That is called
____________ duty of the director.
10. The financial ____________ include a ____________ sheet
and a ____________ and ____________ account.
11. Unlike previous company law, the Act states that companies
must consider the ____________ of their business practices
on the ____________, employees and ____________.
12. A director need not be a __________ (that is, a share-
holder), but ____________ of any shares he holds must be
registered.
the text.
1. Если у директора есть интерес в другой фирме, с которой
компания ведет дела, закон требует, чтобы он объявил
об этом интересе на собрании совета директоров.
2. Фидуциарная обязанность директора — обеспечивать
успешную деятельность компании, проявлять разумную
осторожность, действовать добросовестно и с максималь-
ным учетом интересов компании в целом и не извлекать
скрытую прибыль из бизнеса компании.
3. Исполнительные директора руководят текущей деятель-
ностью компании.
4. Использование внутренней информации для получения
личной прибыли при покупке и продаже акций компа-
нии является преступлением инсайдерской торговли.
5. В отличие от предыдущих законов, регулирующих дея-
тельность компаний, в Законе о компаниях 2006 года
говорится, что компания должна учитывать влияние,
которое оказывает ее бизнес на местное население, работ-
ников компании и окружающую среду.
6. Акционеры решают многие вопросы на собраниях акци-
онеров, где они принимают резолюции.
7. Каждый год компания должна подавать свою бухгалтер-
скую отчетность и ежегодную декларацию в Регистраци-
онную палату.
8. Директору необязательно быть участником компании
(т.е. акционером), но сведения о том, какие акции он
имеет, должны быть зарегистрированы.
448
9. Если директор ведет себя ненадлежащим образом, это
может привести к штрафу, отстранению от должности
директора, личной ответственности за долги компании
или к осуждению в уголовном порядке.
10. По Закону основными учредительным документом ком-
пании является устав, который должен быть зарегистри-
рован в Регистрационной палате.
11. Существует много положений закона, которые компания
должна соблюдать.
12. Директора компаний часто в состоянии узнать, подни-
мутся или упадут в цене акции компании, гораздо раньше
обычных акционеров.
definition.
1. document that contains a. the Companies Act 2006
up-to-date information
about that company.
2. shareholder’s decision at b. articles of association
annual general meeting
3. obligation to act in good c. executive directors
faith and in the best interests
of the company as a whole
4. main constitutional d. non-executive directors
document of the company
that sets out the internal
management of the company
5. directors that run day-to- e. insider trading
day business of the company
6. meeting of the directors f. fiduciary duty
of a company
7. directors who are not g. resolution
involved in the daily
running of the company,
they give executive
directors advice on different
important issues
449
8. legislation that governs h. board meeting
companies in England and
Wales
9. crime of selling inside i. Annual Return
information about shares
Exercise 11. Read the letter below and put the verbs into
the correct form.
Dear Brian
Greenfingers Ltd
Thank you for (0) coming in to see me yesterday when you
(1) ________________ (instruct) me (2) ________________
(assist) in the formation of a limited company under the name
Greenfingers.
I (3) ____________ (carry) out a search at Companies
House and confirm that the name Greenfingers (4) __________
(register) currently. This means that you are free (5) ________
_________ (use) that name.
During our meeting we (6) ______________ (discuss) the
particulars of the company, which will be as follows:
1. The objects of the company shall be the provision of gar
dening and landscaping services.
2. The authorized share capital will consist of 1,000 £1 shares.
3. Initially 100 shares (7) ______________ (issue): 51 to you
and 49 to Graham Shorter.
4. You and Mr Shorter will be the company directors. You
will need in due course to decide who is to act as company
secretary.
5. The registered office will be 16 Anderton Crescent.
The next step is for me (8) _______________ (draw up)
the articles of association, then transfer the company to you,
issue the shares, and appoint directors and a company secretary.
We also (9) _________________ (discuss) the question
of the shareholders’ agreement. Briefly, this is an agreement
between the shareholders (in this case, you and Mr Shorter)
about how the company should (10) ____________ (run). It
is worth (11) ______________ (have), mainly because it can
450
(12) ______________ (use) to protect your individual interests
in the company in ways which cannot (13) ______________
(achieve) through the articles of association. We should
(14) ______________ (consider) this issue in more detail once
the company (15) ______________ (register).
I enclose this firm’s client care letter in duplicate. Kindly
sign, date, and return the spare copy.
With best wishes
Mark Howells
Partner
Enc. Client care letter in duplicate
attention to the verb “to ensure”.
to ensure — гарантировать, обеспечивать
Директора должны обеспечить успешную деятельность
компании.
— The directors must ensure the success of the company.
1. Мы обеспечим равные возможности для всех.

2. Это дело принесло ему успех.
3. Публичное право обеспечивает власть самого государ-
ства.
4. Пожалуйста, убедитесь, что все документы подписаны
должным образом.
5. Должны быть приняты меры, чтобы гарантировать, что
эта ситуация никогда не повторится.
6. Устав компании гарантирует определенные права акцио-
неров.
attention to the verb “to exercise”.
to exercise:
1) осуществлять
2) использовать (право), пользоваться (правами)
3) выполнять (обязанности)
The directors must exercise reasonable care.
— Директора должны проявлять разумную осторожность.
451
1. Когда она предстала перед судом, она использовала свое
право не отвечать на вопросы.
2. Он был человеком, который оказывал существенное вли-
яние на людей.
3. Директора должны выполнять свои обязанности добро-
совестно.
4. Президент воспользовался своим правом вето.
5. Жаль, что я не могу оказывать влияние на действия
комитета.
6. Диктатор осуществлял управление островом многие
годы.
attention to subject clauses and predicative
clauses.
Using inside knowledge to gain private profits when
buying and selling the company’s shares is a crime of
insider trading.
— Использование внутренней информации для полу-
чения личной прибыли при покупке и продаже акций
компании является преступлением инсайдерской
торговли.
1. What is needed is the reduction of the company’s staff.

2. The advantage of forming a company is that it offers its
members some protection in case of bankruptcy.
3. Choosing an appropriate business structure depends on
a number of factors, such as the size and type of business and
the need to limit liability.
4. One of the reasons why a Partnership Agreement is drafted
is to determine the procedure for dissolving the partnership.
5. What is needed to set up a new company under the Companies
Act 2006 is to register the Articles of Association.
6. Whether the company could reduce its current expenses was
uncertain.
7. The duties to be carried out by a company director are set
out in the Companies Act 2006.
452
8. Whether or not a resolution is passed depends on whether
the majority of votes are in favour or against that resolution.
Exercise 15.
1. Один из существенных недостат- One of the main disadvan-
ков создания и управления ком- tages of setting up and run-
панией состоит в том, что есть ning a company is that there
много положений закона, которые are a lot of statutory regula-
компания должна соблюдать. tions that a company must
comply with.
2. Самым последним законом, кото- The most recent legislation
рый регулирует деятельность ком- that governs companies in
паний в Англии и Уэльсе, явля- England and Wales is the
ется Закон о компаниях 2006 года. Companies Act 2006.
3. Этот закон устанавливает основ- The Act sets out the basic
ные правила того, как компания rules for how a company
должна осуществлять свою дея- should operate.
тельность.
4. В отличие от предыдущих зако- Unlike previous company
нов, регулирующих деятельность law, the Act states that
компаний, в Законе говорится, companies must consider
что компании должны учиты- the effects of their business
вать влияние, которое оказывает practices on the community,
их бизнес на местное население, employees and environment.
работников компаний и окружа-
ющую среду.
5. Компании должны раскрывать Companies must disclose
определенную информацию, certain information and it
и она должна быть общедоступ- must be available to the gen-
ной. eral public.
6. Каждый год компания должна Each year, a company must
подавать свою бухгалтерскую file its financial accounts and
отчетность и ежегодную деклара- Annual Return at Compa-
цию в Регистрационную палату. nies House.
453
7. Бухгалтерская отчетность вклю- The financial accounts
чает баланс и отчет о прибылях include a balance sheet and
и убытках. a profit and loss account.
8. Ежегодная декларация содержит The Annual Return con-
уточненную информацию о ком- tains up-to-date information
пании. about that company.
9. По Закону основным учредитель- Under the Act the main con-
ным документом компании явля- stitutional document of the
ется устав, который должен быть company is the articles of as
зарегистрирован в Регистрацион- sociation that must be regis-
ной палате. tered at Companies House.
10. Он определяет внутреннее управ- They set out the internal
ление компанией. management of the company.
11. В уставе подробно говорится о том, The articles of association
когда и при каком уведомлении detail rules about when and
акционеров проводятся собрания; at what notice meetings
о правах акционеров при голо- must be held; about mem-
совании и размере большинства, ber’s voting rights and the
необходимого для принятия резо- size of majority required to
люций; о выпуске акций. pass resolutions; about share
issue.
12. В нем также регулируются вопро They also regulate the
с ы назначения, полномочий и сме- appointment, powers and
щения директоров. removal of directors.
13. Акционеры решают многие во The shareholders decide a lot
просы на собрании акционеров, of matters at shareholders’
где они принимают резолюции. meetings where they pass
resolutions.
14. Компания должна посылать акци- The company has to send
онерам официальное уведомле- a formal notice of the meeting
ние о проведении собрания. to shareholders.
15. Компанией руководит совет дирек The company is managed
торов, который назначается акцио- by a board of directors
нерами. appointed by the sharehold-
ers.
454
16. Исполнительные директора руко Executive directors run day-
водят текущей деятельностью ком to-day business of the com-
пании. pany.
17. Неисполнительные директора Non-executive directors are
не участвуют в повседневной дея- not involved in the daily
тельности компании. running of the company.
18. Они обычно дают исполнитель- They usually give executive
ным директорам советы по раз- directors advice on different
личным важным вопросам. important issues.
19. Директора должны обеспечи- The directors must ensure
вать успешную деятельность the success of the company,
компании, проявлять разум- exercise reasonable care, act
ную осторожность, действовать in good faith and in the best
добросовестно и с максималь- interests of the company as
ным учетом интересов компании a whole and not make secret
в целом и не извлекать скрытую profits from the company’s
прибыль из бизнеса компании. business.
20. Это называется фидуциарной That is called fiduciary duty
обязанностью директора. of the director.
21. Директору необязательно быть A director need not be a mem
участником компании (т.е. акци- ber (that is, a shareholder),
онером), но сведения о том, какие but details of any shares he
акции он имеет, должны быть holds must be registered.
зарегистрированы.
22. Если у него есть интерес в другой If he holds an interest in
фирме, с которой компания ведет another firm with which
дела, закон требует, чтобы он объ- the company is doing busi-
явил об этом интересе на собра- ness, the law requires him
нии совета директоров. to declare that interest at
a board meeting.
23. Если директор ведет себя ненад- If a director acts improperly,
лежащим образом, это может this may lead to a fine, dis-
привести к штрафу, отстранению qualification from being a di
от должности директора, личной rector, personal liability for
ответственности за долги компа- the company’s debts, or a cri
нии или к осуждению в уголов- minal conviction.
ном порядке.
455
24. Директора и некоторые сотруд- Directors and some employ-
ники компании часто в состоянии ees of companies are often
узнать, поднимутся или упадут in a position to know if a
в цене акции компании, гораздо company’s shares are likely
раньше обычных акционеров. to rise or to fall long before
ordinary shareholders.
25. В результате они могут извлечь As a result, they can make
прибыль, покупая или продавая profits by buying or selling
акции либо продавая имеющуюся shares before everybody else,
у них специфическую информа- or by selling their special
цию. information.
26. Использование внутренней ин Using inside knowledge to
формации для получения лич- gain private profits when
ной прибыли при покупке и про- buying and selling the com-
даже акций компании является pany’s shares is a crime of
преступле нием инсайдерской insider trading.
торговли.
27. В Соединенном Королевстве In UK the maximum pen-
максимальным наказанием за ин alty for insider trading is
сайдерскую торговлю является 7 year imprisonment.
тюр емное заключение сроком
на 7 лет.

1. Some disadvantages of setting up and running a company:
— strict statutory regulation;
— disclosure of certain information.
2. Internal management of the company.
— articles of association;
— meetings of shareholders;
— board of directors:
a. executive directors and non-executive directors;
b. duties of directors.
3. Crime of insider trading.
456
1. to act in good faith [feɪθ] действовать добросовестно

2. to act in the best interests of действовать с максимальным
the company учетом интересов компании
3. Annual Return ежегодная декларация, направ-
[ˈænjuəl] ляемая в Регистрационную
палату
4. board of directors совет директоров
to declare smth at a board объявить что-л. на собрании
meeting совета директоров
5. Companies Act 2006 Закон о компаниях 2006 года
6. company management управление компанией
7. constitutional document учредительный документ
[ˌkɔnstɪˈtju:ʃənl]
8. director директор
executive [ɪɡˈzekjutɪv] director исполнительный директор
non-executive director неисполнительный дирек-
тор (член совета директоров,
не являющийся исполнитель-
ным лицом компании)
9. to disclose information раскрывать информацию
[dɪsˈkləuz]
10. disqualification from doing отстранение от чего-л.
smth [dɪsˌkwɔlɪfɪˈkeɪʃən]
11. to ensure [ɪnˈʃuə] smth обеспечить что-л.
to ensure the success of the обеспечить успешную деятель-
company ность компании
12. to exercise reasonable care проявлять разумную заботу,
осторожность
13. fiduciary [fɪˈdju:ʃjərɪ] duty фидуциарная обязанность
14. financial accounts бухгалтерская отчетность
[faɪˈnænʃəl] [əˈkaunts]
15. insider [ˈɪnˈsaɪdə] trading инсайдерская торговля
16. internal management of the внутреннее управление ком-
company панией
to set out ~ определять ~
457
17. legislation [ˌledʒɪsˈleɪʃn] закон, законы
18. notice уведомление
formal notice of the meeting официальное уведомление
о собрании
19. to pass a resolution принимать резолюцию
[ˌrezəˈlu:ʃən]
20. penalty [ˈpenltɪ] for smth наказание за что-л.
to make / gain secret profits извлекать скрытую прибыль
from smth из чего-л.
22. profit and loss account отчет о прибылях и убытках
23. removal of directors смещение директоров
[rɪˈmu:vəl]
24. to run day-to-day business руководить текущей деятель-
of the company ностью компании
25. to set out the basic rules устанавливать основные пра-
for smth вила чего-л.
26. share issue выпуск акций
27. size of majority размер большинства
[məˈdʒɔrɪtɪ]
28. statutory regulations положения закона
29. voting [ˈvəutɪŋ] rights право принимать участие
в голосовании

A.
1. The people who make the important decisions on behalf of
a company are referred to as the ___________________.
2. Personal financial information is confidential and the bank
generally has no right to ___________________ details to
any third party.
458
3. Within a partnership each partner must _______________
in the best possible interests of the others, an obligation
known in law a ___________________ duty.
4. He had been engaged in ___________________for several
months before he was caught. The share prices had been
affected to a significant degree as a result of his actions.
5. If you wish to terminate this contract of employment you are
required to give at least 4 weeks’ ___________________in
writing.
6. He bought the car in ___________________not knowing
that it had been stolen.
7. At the company meeting the members ________________
to change the name of the company to Jedexpress Ltd.
8. The _________________ no longer want Mr Fox as a di
rector of the company. They will discuss the motion to
___________________ this director at the meeting next
week.
9. Directors who are closely involved in the decision-making of
a company are known as ___________________.
10. A statent of a company expenditure and income over a period
of time showing whether the company has made a profit or
loss is called ___________________.
11. The _________________ for carrying an offensive weapon
(наступательное оружие) is a fine of £2,000 and three
months in prison.
12. Caroline Thomson has been ___________________from
being a director of any company for five years.
B.
1)
“My name is David Merriman. I’m one of the directors of
Halloway & Riggs Ltd. Our company produces mobility equipment
for people who cannot walk properly. Halloway & Riggs Ltd
has a (1) _________________ of five directors. Four of us are
(2) ____________ directors. That means that we are the people
who make all of the (3) ____________________decisions about
running the company. We also have one (4) _________________,
459
called Jack Dairy. As a non-executive director, he is not involved
in the daily (5) _________________ of the company, but he
gives us advice on new designs for our equipment.
When the (6) ___________________of Halloway & Riggs
Ltd appointed me as a director of the company six years ago,
the rules about the (7) _____________________of directors
were not really very clear. There wasn’t a statute dealing
with the duties of directors. The law came from the common
law. The main duties of a director were the duty to act in
(8) ___________________. Because a director knows so much
about a company, the shareholders must trust the director
always to act in the best (9) _____________________ of the
company. For example, we, as directors, aren’t allowed to make
a (10) ___________________by using our knowledge of the
company for our own benefit.
However, since the (11) ___________________2006 came
into force, the law about the duties of directors has become a
little clearer. The Act includes some provisions about directors.
It talks about (12) _______________________ directors and
(13) ___________________, which I mentioned earlier. It also
talks about shadow directors. Basically, a shadow director is a
person who is not officially a director of the company, because
the shareholders did not (14) ___________________ him or
her as a director, but this person gives instructions to the other
directors. Executive directors, non-executive directors and
shadow directors all have the same duties and responsibilities
to the company. Directors have a duty to avoid a conflict of
interest. In other words, we’re not allowed to be in a position
where our personal interest may tempt us to do something that
would not be in the best interests of the company. If a director
has a personal interest that may conflict with the interests of the
company, then the director must tell the other directors about it.
In other words the director must (15) ___________________
that interest so that everyone knows about it.
I hope to remain in my position of director of Halloway
& Riggs Ltd for many years. My service agreement with the
460
company expires in two years, but I hope that the shareholders
will reappoint me. I can remember only one occasion, which was
three years ago, when the directors and shareholders were so
dissatisfied with the performance of one of the directors, that the
shareholders had to (16) ___________________ that director.
That means they dismissed him. I would be devastated if that
happened to me. I’m very proud of the company and its products
and I firmly believe that this company has a great future. I will
do my very best to (17) ___________________ that I exercise
my powers as a director to the best of my ability.”
2)
Company Meetings
Both the directors and the (1) _____________________
make their decisions at meetings. These decisions are called
(2) ___________________. If someone has a proposal that they
want to discuss at a meeting, this proposal is called a motion or a
proposed resolution. The shareholders discuss each motion and
then (3) ___________________ to decide whether or not to
accept that proposal. When the shareholders accept or agree to
a motion, we say that the shareholders ___________________.
There must be enough people (4) ___________________ in
favour of a resolution in order to formally accept it. If everyone
agrees to the motion, then the resolution is passed unanimously.
However, you do not need everyone to agree. It depends
on what you are voting about. Some motions need a simple
(5) ___________________ of over 50% of people who are voting
to agree in order to pass them. These decisions are called ordinary
resolutions. Other motions need a (6) ___________________
of 75% of people who are voting to agree in order to pass them.
These decisions are called special resolutions.
You do not always have to (7) _____________________
a meeting in order to pass a resolution. Shareholders can make
lots of decisions by using written resolutions, especially if the
company is a private limited company. This saves the time and
cost of holding formal meetings.
There are a lot of rules about holding company meetings.
Some of these rules are (8) ______________________, which
means the Companies Act 2006 requires companies to have
these rules. In addition to these statutory rules, each individual
company imposes its own rules. The rules of each individual
461
company are in that company’s (9) _____________________.
For example, if you are a director, you cannot just announce
that you will hold a company meeting today! The company has
to send a formal (10) ___________________ of the meeting
to the shareholders. That means you have to officially announce
to the (11) ___________________that a company meeting will
take place. You also have to make sure you give the shareholders
the correct number of days’ (12) ___________________. You
must study a company’s (13) ______________________ very
carefully to make sure that you follow all these rules.
A.
1. Если компания выносит официальное решение на общем
собрании, она принимает резолюцию.
2. Компания послала официальное уведомление всем
своим акционерам, информируя их о том, что компания
созывает (convene) внеочередное собрание акционеров
(EGM) 12 июня.
3. Директора проводят регулярные собрания совета дирек-
торов, на которых они обсуждают положение дел в ком-
пании и принимают решения, касающиеся текущей дея-
тельности компании.
4. Банк не имеет право раскрывать информацию о состоя-
нии моего счета налоговой службе.
5. Он был назначен исполнительным директором на послед-
нем ежегодном собрании акционеров.
6. Директор действовал не в интересах компании и был
снят.
7. Неисполнительные директора не руководят текущей дея-
тельностью компании.
8. Устав определяет основания для смещения директоров.
9. Он получал незаконную прибыль, продавая конфиденци-
альную информацию об акциях компании. Суд признал
его виновным в инсайдерской торговле.
10. По всей вероятности, наказание за это преступление уве-
личится.
462
B.
«Меня зовут Луиза Николз. Я владею 40% акций в ком-
пании Sanders & Nichols Ltd. Другими акционерами компа-
нии являются Деннис Сандерз и Кит Нельсон. Помимо того,
что мы являемся участниками компании, мы также отвечаем
за управление компанией, поскольку являемся ее акционе-
рами. Кит Нельсон несет дополнительную ответственность,
т.к. он является секретарем компании. Он должен заботиться
о том, чтобы все требования закона, связанные с подачей
документов в Регистрационную палату, были соблюдены.
В нашем магазине работают три сотрудника. Мы пользуемся
услугами бухгалтера, которая ведет нашу финансовую отчет-
ность. Она подает ежегодную декларацию в Регистрацион-
ную палату. Мы регулярно встречаемся с ней и просматри-
ваем список людей, которые не заплатили нам по счетам. Мы
выясняем, есть ли уважительная причина, по которой долж-
ники не заплатили нам вовремя. Если такой причины нет, мы
связываемся с ними и просим заплатить немедленно. Есть
люди, которым мы должны деньги. Это наши кредиторы.
Мы стараемся платить им вовремя. Раз в год необходимо,
чтобы аудитор проверял финансовые документы и отчет-
ность нашей компании. Это независимая проверка, чтобы
удостовериться, что наша ежегодная финансовая отчетность
показывает истинное положение дел в компании Sanders &
Nichols Ltd».
VI. Key Terms
1. Articles of the main constitutional document of the

association company that sets out its the internal
[əˌsəusɪˈeɪʃən] management
2. Board meeting a meeting of the directors of a company
3. Executive directors directors that run day-to-day business of the
[ɪɡˈzekjutɪv] company
4. Fiduciary duty an obligation to act in good faith and in the
[fɪˈdju:ʃjərɪ] best interests of the company as a whole
463
5. Insider trading a crime of selling inside information about
[ˈɪnˈsaɪdə] shares
6. Non-executive directors who are not involved in the daily
directors running of the company, they give executive
directors advice on different important issues
7. Resolution a shareholder’s decision at annual general
[ˌrezəˈlu:ʃən] meeting
VII. Case Study

1. Krug, a prosperous banker, was willing to go into a pro
mising fiberglass boat manufacturing business with Ericson, an
engineer. Krug could not devote any time to the business, but
she wanted to have some voice on major decisions. Yet she did
not want to have unlimited liability if the business should fail.
What form of business organization would be appropriate?
2. Plush Play Products, Ltd., produced toy animals and
dolls. A new doll “tootsie twins” proved to be so popular that
the factory could not meet the demand. The dolls were com-
manding premium prices in toy stores. Shortly before Christmas,
the board of directors of Plush Play Products voted a dividend
which was to include one pair of the “twins” — valued at the
low $10 cost of production — for each stockholder. All share-
holders with more than one share would receive the balance of
their dividends in cash. Lane, a stockholder, sued the directors to
prohibit the doll distribution. He claimed that the corporation
could earn more by selling the dolls.
Should the injunction be issued?
3. Mr Jackson was an architect. He was employed by IDC
Ltd as an executive director. One day he negotiated a contract
with another and suddenly realized that it would be more profit-
able for him to obtain the contract himself so he told everybody
that he was seriously ill and had to leave the job. He resigned
and successfully obtained the profit. IDC found out about the
deal and sued Mr Jackson.
What can IDC claim?
464
Exercise 1. Read the text and solve cases below the text.
Qualifications and duties of a company director
There are no mandatory qualifications to become a director
of a private or public limited company (PLC), although the fol-
lowing persons are disqualified and are not allowed to hold the
position:
— an undischarged bankrupt, who has not been released by
the court from his debts, unless leave, or permission, is obtained
from the court;
— a person disqualified by a court from acting as a company
director. If leave is given by a court, it must be for the person to
be appointed as a director for a specific company;
— in Scotland, a person under the age of 16;
— anyone over the age of 70 in the case of a public limited
company. This age requirement may be waived, or ignored, in the
case of a candidate named by a general meeting of the company.
Although incorporation limits liability, the directors retain
personal responsibility to ensure the company complies with the
filing of documents at Companies House on time, as required by
the Companies Act. Failure to do so is a criminal offence and
may result in the imposition of a fine together with a criminal
charge. Persistent failure to fulfill these duties may lead to dis-
qualification from holding the office of director in the future. The
directors must ensure that:
— accounts for limited companies are delivered to Com-
panies House within the requisite period, normally within ten
months of the accounting reference date in the case of private
limited companies or within seven months in the case of a PLC,
although the requisite period may be amended by legislation.
The defaulting company may be charged a late filing penalty in
addition to any other fine imposed by a court;
— annual returns are submitted as specified by the Com-
panies Act 2006. In the event that these are not submitted,
and Companies House believes that the company is no longer
465
operating, it may be struck off the register and dissolved. Any
assets of the company at that point may become the property of
the Crown;
— notice of change of directors or their details is provided to
Companies House;
— notice of any change to the registered office is provided to
Companies House. If this is not done, statutory notices may be
validly served on the registered office.
1. Hugh Minton-Davies has been offered an appointment as
a director for Gecko plc, registered in England. He’s 71,
a non-EU citizen with South African nationality, and has
been a director of several South African companies. He has
unpaid debts and has been unable to pay his creditors.
Is he qualified to hold the office of company director for
Gecko PLC? Why? / Why not?
2. The directors of Gecko plc have filed their accounts at Com-
panies House more than nine months after the accounting
reference date. They have failed to notify Companies House
of the death of a director and the appointment of Hugh
Minton-Davies.
Can you advise the directors on their situation?
3. The annual returns of Monocles Ltd have not been submit-
ted for two years and correspondence sent to their registered
office in England has been returned.
What may happen to the company?
Exercise 2.
A. Read the text about company secretaries and answer

the questions.
1. Have all the companies in the UK company secretaries?
2. What are the company secretaries’ duties?
Under the Companies Act 2006 a private company is not
required to have a secretary unless the company’s Articles of
Association provide otherwise. The directors usually perform
the company secretary’s duties.
466
A public company is required to have a secretary. The com-
pany secretary must have certain qualifications to perform his or
her duties efficiently.
As a company officer, the company secretary may be criminal
ly liable for a default committed by the company, for example
failure to file the company’s annual return with Companies
House in time. An employment contract will usually specify the
remit of their duties, that is, the areas of responsibility, which
normally include:
— maintaining the statutory registers, for example the regis-
ter of members;
— filing the statutory forms, for example notifying changes
among the directors;
— serving members and auditors with notice of meetings;
— supplying a copy of the accounts to every member of the
company;
— keeping minutes of directors meetings and general meet-
ings (AGM).
B. A new managing director, Simon Brown, is getting an
update from the company secretary, Helen Bernard.
Match Simon’s questions and instructions (1–5) with
Helen’s responses (a—e).
1. Helen, can I just quickly a. Yes, we’ll comply with the
check what’s been done? requirement to inform the
What’s happened to the Companies House.
accounts?
2. When did you do that? b. Yes, I’ve provided notice
of the details about her on
the statutory forms to the
Companies House.
3. You remember we lost Eva c. No problem, Simon. I’ve
Friberg as a Director? served a notice to members
and included the minutes
of the last AGM.
4. And we’re going to d. Don’t worry. I submitted
change the location of the them within the required
company’s registered office. time.
467
5. We’ve got the annual e. I delivered them to
general meeting coming up Companies House.
soon.
Exercise 3. Ellson Garwood law firm wants to recruit

a lawyer to work in their company and com
mercial department. They put the following
advertisement in a legal magazine.
A. Read the advertisement and put the correct words

or collocations into each sentence below to complete
the definition.
ELLSON GARWOOD LLP
Chatsworth law firm seeks dynamic company lawyer with
at least two years PQE*. We are advising our clients in the
following areas:
• Company incorporation • Joint ventures
• Raising finance • Shareholders’ agreements
• Company restructuring • Directors’ service agreements
• Mergers • Directors’ duties
• Acquisitions • Insolvency
1. _____________________ are contracts of work between

a company and a director. They are similar to contracts of
employment. The agreement contains all of the details of
the director’s position, for example his or her remuneration,
obligations, any restrictive covenant (ограничительное
условие договора) that applies, and a confidentiality clause.
2. __________________ is a situation where a company does
not have enough money to pay its debts.
3. _____________________ take place when two companies
join together to form one company.
4. Obtaining money from banks private individuals, or invest-
ment institutions is known more formally as _____________
____________.
5. ________________ occur when one company buys another
company. They are also called take-overs.
* PQE — post-qualification experience.
468
6. _____________________ is all of the legal work involved
in setting up a new company.
7. ____________________ is changing the existing structure
of companies with the aim of improving their performance.
8. Situations where two or more companies work together on
a particular project for a limited period of time are called
__________________. Each company remains independent
from each other.
9. Agreements between the members of a company are called
_____________________. They are important as they con-
tain the members’ obligations to the company and to each
other. For example, they state what happens when a share-
holder wants to sell his or her shares.
10. All of the obligations and requirements of a director are
called _____________________.
B. Peter Hapworth saw the advertisement and wrote a letter
to Fiona Bailey. Peter’s letter is mixed up. Put the parts of
the letter into the correct order by writing your answers
in the boxes numbered 2—9 below.
(a) Upon qualification, Hedgsons offered me a position in the
company law department.
I now have eighteen months’ PQE, specialising in this area.
I have an excellent working relationship both with clients and
other members of the company department team.
(b) Position of Company Lawyer
(c) I look forward to hearing from you.
(d) Following successful completion of the Legal Practice
Course at Oxton, I undertook my training contract with Hedg-
sons LLP. I gained experience in civil litigation, banking, prop-
erty, and company law.
(e) Dear Ms Bailey
(f) Peter Hapworth
(g) I read your advertisement for a company lawyer in the
Legal Gazette (20 July 20XX) with interest. I would like to
apply for this position.
(h) Yours sincerely
469
(i) Whilst I enjoy my current position, I believe that Ellson
Garwood would offer a widerclient base and that I could acquire
further skills and experience. I enclose my C.V. for your informa-
tion and would welcome the opportunity to meet you. I am able
to attendan interview next month.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
(e)
Unit 15
RAISING CAPITAL
I. Lead-in
The number one problem facing people who want to start or
grow a business is the lack of money. In fact, when you look at it
the statistics say that seven out of ten businesses that get started
fail, and they fail for one main reason. They run out of money. An
old saying goes: “It takes money to make money.”
If a company wants to start a business or expand in what
way do you think it can do it?
II. Reading
debenture [dɪˈbentʃə] value [ˈvælju:]
authorised [ˈɔ:θərɪzd] proportion [prəˈpɔ:ʃən]
quarter [ˈkwɔ:tə] dividend [ˈdɪvɪdend]
to acquire [əˈkwaɪə] premium [ˈpri mjəm]
discount [ˈdɪskaunt] to borrow [ˈbɔrəu]
loan [ləun] quantity [ˈkwɔntɪtɪ]
extraordinary [ɪksˈtrɔ:dnrɪ] profitability [ˌprɔfɪtəˈbɪlɪtɪ]
to default [dɪˈfɔ:lt] entity [ˈentɪtɪ]
to borrow [ˈbɔrəu]
B) Vocabulary Notes
(1)
1. obvious очевидный
2. to raise capital привлекать капитал
471
3. business entity коммерческое предприятие
4. to borrow money брать деньги взаймы у кого-л.
from smb
5. sale of shares продажа акций
6. ownership владение
7. total amount of smth полная стоимость чего-л.
8. nominal value номинальная стоимость
(2)
9. proportion of profit часть прибыли
10. dividend дивиденд

to declare a dividend объявить о выплате дивидендов /
объявить выплату дивидендов
11. in proportion to smth соразмерно чему-л.
12. voting rights право голоса
13. annual general meeting ежегодное общее собрание акцио-

(AGM) неров
14. extraordinary general внеочередное общее собрание акци-

meeting (EGM) онеров
(3)
15. to acquire shares приобретать акции
16. to be equal in value стоить одинаково, быть равными
друг другу по стоимости
17. market value рыночная стоимость / цена акции
of the share
18. profitability рентабельность, прибыльность
19. to sell shares продавать акции (по цене) выше
at a premium номинала
20. to sell shares продавать акции (по цене) ниже
at a discount номинала
472
(4)
21. debenture облигация
to issue a debenture выпустить облигацию
22. to evidence smth служить доказательством, под-
тверждать что-л.
23. loan ссуда
to take out a loan from брать ссуду в банке
the bank
to repay the loan выплатить, погасить ссуду
24. charge залог; обеспечение залога
to be secured быть обеспеченным залогом в виде
by a charge over имущества компании
a company’s assets
25. debenture holder держатель облигации
26. to default on the loan не погасить ссуду
27. to be entitled to smth иметь право на что-л.
28. annual payment ежегодная выплата процентов
of interest
29. to be linked to smth быть связанным с чем-л.
30. security ценная бумага
C) Text
RAISING CAPITAL
(1) One of the obvious advantages of a company is that it
is easier for companies to raise capital than for other business
entities. They can do it by borrowing money from banks and
through the sale of shares.
A share is one of the parts into which ownership of the com-
pany capital is divided. The shareholders of the company do
not have to pay for the total amount of their shares at the time
they receive them, but they must pay for at least a quarter of the
nominal value of all their shares at that time.
(2) A share gives its owner the right to a proportion of any
profit the company makes (dividend). A company may declare a
dividend only if it has made a profit. A dividend is paid to share-
473
holders in proportion to how many shares they hold. Sharehold-
ers cannot insist on dividend payments every year, since this is
up to the directors to decide. If shareholders are dissatisfied with
the management of the company, as members they have the right
to remove the directors. The more shares a member holds, the
more voting rights he will have at annual general meetings
(AGM) or at extraordinary general meetings (EGM).
(3) Shares may be acquired when the company is set up or at
a later share issue. They may also be bought or received from an
existing shareholder. Sometimes a company gives existing mem-
bers the right to buy shares from another member before he is
allowed to sell them to a new member.
Each share is equal in value. But the market value of the
share may be greater or less than its nominal value. It depends
upon the profitability of the company. For example, a member
of a successful company who bought shares at £10 each may be
able to sell them at a premium — perhaps £12 each. However,
he may also find that he has to sell them for less than their nomi-
nal value — at a discount. Sometimes a company issues shares
at a premium: for example, it sells £10 shares at £15 each. How-
ever, it cannot issue shares at a discount.
(4) Another way for a company to raise capital is by issu
ing debentures. Companies usually issue debentures to borrow
some money from banks. A debenture is a document evidencing
that the company has taken out a loan from the bank. Deben-
tures are usually secured by a charge over a company’s assets,
so that debenture holders will have the right to take the com-
pany’s assets if the company defaults on the loan. That means
that the company has no money to repay the loan. Debenture
holders are entitled to an annual payment of interest, and this
is not linked to the company’s profits or losses.
Debentures and shares are both securities of the company.
The major difference between the two is that shareholders are
owners of the company while debenture holders are creditors of
the company.
474
III. Read the text again
and answer the following questions.
1. What is an obvious advantages of setting up a company?
2. How can companies raise capital?
3. Into what parts is the ownership of the company capital is
divided?
4. Do the shareholders of the company have to pay for the total
amount of their shares at the time they receive them?
5. How much do they have to pay for their shares at the time
they receive them?
6. What right does a share give to its owner?
8. What is dividend?
9. In what case is a company entitled to declare a dividend?
10. Are dividend payments made every year?
11. Who decides when to make dividend payments?
12. What can members of the company do if they are dissatisfied
with the management of the company?
13. Which shareholders have more voting rights at general meet
ings?
14. Where does a shareholder vote?
15. When can shares be acquired?
16. What right have members of the company if a member wants
to sell his shares?
17. Is the value of each share of the company equal?
18. How can shares be sold on the open market?
19. What does the market value of the share depend on?
18. What is a debenture?
19. Who gives loans to companies?
20. How are debentures secured?
21. What are debenture holders entitled to?
22. Is an annual payment of interest linked to the company’s
profits or losses?
23. What kinds of securities exist?
475
IV. Exercises
to issue a debenture to sell shares at a discount
to acquire shares in proportion to smth
to be secured by a charge over profitability
a company’s assets
to declare a dividend annual payment of interest
extraordinary general meeting voting rights
to be equal in value to raise capital
market value of the share security
to repay the loan to default on the loan

Verb Noun Adjective
obviousness
to sell
valuable
to own
insistence
profitable
acquisition
to succeed
security
repayment

1. We congratulated them on the ________________
completion of the project (success).
2. An _________________ crime is committed in order to get
money or possessions, e.g. shoplifting, fraud, theft (acquire).
476
3. The loan is _________________ in monthly installments
(repay).
4. He succeeded in getting a place at a law firm (success).
5. The value of the shares depends on the ________________
of the company (profit).
6. At her ________________the case went to court (insist).
7. The company defaulted as they were unable to meet the
_________________ on the loan (repay).
8. His home and business are being held as _______________
for the loan (secure).
9. The company has had another _________________ year
(success).
10. The book provides _________________ information on
recent trends (value).
1. capital a. par value
2. advantage b. to get
3. amount c. assets
4. nominal value d. creditor
5. proportion e. plus
6. to acquire f. owner
7. debenture holder g. main
8. shareholder h. to take money
from a bank
9. management i. to evidence
of the company
10. to borrow money from j. structure
a bank
11. major k. sum
12. to prove l. running of the company
13. entity m. part
477
Exercise 4. Give antonyms and translate them.
maximum, to close, internal, qualification, majority, execu-
tive, ordinary, properly, flexible, inside, like, equal.
номинальная стоимость продажа акций
продавать акции (по цене) выше объявить о выплате дивидендов

номинала
брать деньги взаймы у кого-л. ежегодное общее собрание акци-

онеров
ценная бумага рентабельность
привлекать капитал ежегодная выплата процентов
выпустить облигацию рыночная стоимость акции
быть равными друг другу по сто- быть обеспеченным

имости залогом в виде имущества
компании
не погасить ссуду брать ссуду в банке

брать
погасить ссуду
не погасить
по номинальной стоимости
продавать акции выше номинала
ниже номинала
прибыль
объявить о выплате дивидендов
интерес в другой компании
часть прибыли
право на выплату дивидендов
ежегодную выплату процентов
долг
не погасить ссуду
арендную плату
478
1. Each share is equal _____value.
2. A member of a successful company who bought shares _____
£10 each may be able to sell them ________ a premium —
perhaps £12 each.
3. If the company has no money to repay the loan, it defaults
_____ the loan.
4. Companies can raise capital _____ borrowing money from
banks and _____ the sale of shares.
5. A dividend is paid _____ shareholders _____ proportion
_____ how many shares they hold.
6. A debenture is a document evidencing that the company has
taken _____a loan _____ the bank.
7. A share is one of the parts _____ which ownership of the
company capital is divided.
8. Debentures are usually secured ______ a charge ______
a company’s assets, so that debenture holders will have the
right to take the company’s assets if the company defaults
_____ the loan.
9. It is easier ______ companies to raise capital than ______
other business entities.
10. The more shares a member holds, the more voting rights he
will have _____ annual general meetings (AGM) or _____
extraordinary general meetings (EGM).
11. Debenture holders are entitled _____ an annual payment of
interest, and this is not linked _____ the company’s profits
or losses.
12. If shareholders are dissatisfied ______ the management of
the company, as members they have the right to remove the
directors.
PREPOSITION BANK
to buy at a price
to default on the loan
to take out a loan
to be equal in value
at a meeting
in proportion to
479
the text.
1. A company may only declare a __________________ if it
has made a profit.
2. A company cannot issue shares at a __________________.
3. Shares may be __________________ when the company is
set up, at a later share __________________.
4. The shareholders of the company do not have to pay for the
total __________________ of their shares at the time they
receive them, but they must pay for at least a quarter of the
__________________ value of all their shares at that time.
5. One of the obvious advantages of a company is that it is
easier for companies to __________________ capital than
for other business __________________.
6. The more shares a member ________________________,
the more ___________________ rights he will have at
__________________ general meetings (AGM) or at
__________________ general meetings (EGM).
7. Companies usually issue debentures to _________________
some money from banks.
8. Debentures and shares are both __________________ of
the company.
9. Shareholders cannot _______________ on dividend pay
ments every year, since this is up to the ________________
to decide.
10. Debentures are usually secured by a __________________
over a company asset, so that debenture holders will have
the right to take the company’s __________________ if
the company __________________ on the loan.
11. The major difference between the debentures and shares is
that shareholders are __________________ of the com-
pany and debenture holders are __________________ of
the company.
12. A debenture is a document __________________ that the
company has taken out a loan from the bank.
480
the text.
1. Акция является одной из частей, на которые разделено
владение капиталом компании.
2. Акция дает своему владельцу право на часть любой при-
были, которую получает компания (дивиденд).
3. Акции могут быть приобретены, когда компания созда-
ется или при последующем выпуске акций.
4. Компании могут привлечь капитал путем получения
ссуды в банке или через продажу акций.
5. Компания может объявить о выплате дивидендов, только
если она получила прибыль.
6. Если акционеры не удовлетворены управлением компа-
нии, они как члены компании имеют право снять дирек-
торов.
7. Дивиденд выплачивается акционерам соразмерно числу
акций, которые они имеют.
8. Держатели облигаций будут иметь право на имущество
компании, если компания не погасит ссуду.
9. Иногда компания выпускает акции и продает их выше
номинала: например, продает акции с номинальной сто-
имостью £10 по цене £15 за каждую.
10. Облигации обычно обеспечены залогом в виде имуще-
ства компании.
11. Чем больше акций имеет акционер, тем большими пра-
вами он обладает при голосовании на ежегодных общих
собраниях акционеров или на внеочередных общих
собраниях акционеров.
12. Рыночная цена акции может быть выше или ниже ее
номинальной стоимости.
definition.
1. document evidencing that the a. dividend
company has taken out a loan
from the bank
2. one of the parts into which b. extraordinary
ownership of the company general meetings
capital is divided (EGM)
481
3. amount of the profits that c. interest
a company pays to its
shareholders
4. value of the share as indicated d. annual general
on the share certificate meetings (AGM)
5. charge for borrowing money e. debenture holders
6. actual value of the share and f. nominal value of the
the amount for which it can be share
bought or sold
7. meeting of shareholders that is g. shareholders
held at an irregular time
8. ordinary meeting of h. debenture
shareholders
9. creditors of the company i. share
who are entitled to an annual
payment of interest
10. owners of the company who j. market value of the
are entitled to dividends share
Exercise 11. Read the text below and put the verbs into
the correct form.
Company law (0) dictates that certain business decisions
about a company must (1) (approve) by shareholders. In
particular, shareholders’ meetings (2) (require) when major
changes to the company (3) (propose). Proposals for such
changes (4) (put) to a shareholders’ meeting in the form of
resolutions. Shareholders’ meetings can (5) (attend) by the
company’s directors as well as by its shareholders. However,
only shareholders have the right to vote.
A company’s annual general meeting (AGM) is an ordinary
shareholders’ meeting. Other shareholders’ meetings (6) (know)
as extraordinary general meetings (EGMs). Twenty-one days’
notice is normally required to (7) (provide) to the shareholders
before an AGM can be validly held. 14 days’ notice (8) (require)
for an EGM. A vote on a proposed resolution (9) usually (take)
initially by “a show of hands”. In the course of such a vote each
482
shareholder normally (10) (have) one vote, irrespective of the
number of shares s/he (11) (possess). Once the result of the
vote on “a show of hands” (12) (declare), any member may (13)
(demand) what is known as a “poll” (поименное голосование
по принципу «одна акция — один голос»).
If a poll (14) (hold), votes (15) (count) differently then. Each
member has one vote for each share s/he holds. The chairman
of the company usually (16) (have) a casting vote (решающий
голос) in the event that the number of votes are the same for
and against a resolution. Shareholders’ meetings (17) usually
(call) by the board. If however the board does not want (18)
(call) a shareholders’ meeting then the shareholders can (19)
(require) one.
Exercise 12. Make up sentences using repeating compa
ratives.
Example:
The member holds a lot of shares (voting rights).
— The more shares the member holds, the more
voting rights he will have in general meetings.
1. The general election will be later (good for the government).

2. The European Union gets bigger. (The differences will be
inevitable (неизбежный) between the member countries.)
3. The company is successful. (Its shares cost more.)
4. You occupy a high position in the company. (You have got
a lot of inside knowledge.)
5. The company makes a lot of profit (pay high dividends to its
shareholders.)
6. The crime is serious (harsh penalty).
7. The company has a lot of problems (it often holds EGMs).
Exercise 13. Use the verb “to lend”, or “to borrow”,
or “to owe”.
to borrow smth from smb — брать что-л. у кого-л. взаймы
to lend smth to smb — давать что-л. кому-л. взаймы
to owe smth to smb — быть должным кому-л.
483
A.
1. A loan is a sum of money that you ______________from
another person. You must pay back the money, usually with
interest.
2. If the owner of the house does not pay the loan back, then
the person who ______________ the money can take the
house and sell it in order to get his or her money back.
3. She still ______________ the bank £3,000.
4. The bank considered the application for a loan and agreed to
______________ the money to the company.
5. How much do you ______________ for this service?
6. The company needed to ______________ a lot of money to
finance this project.
7. How much do I ______________ you for your job?
8. We won’t ______________ you for delivery.
B.
1. Компания должна много денег своим кредиторам.
2. Сколько они взяли за ремонт?
3. Я решил взять деньги в кредит в банке и купить машину.
4. Я не люблю занимать деньги у друзей.
5. Он взял с меня только полцены.
6. Банк отказался дать нам кредит.
7. Я должен своему соседу £20.
8. Сколько денег ты взял взаймы, чтобы заплатить за это?
attention to the word “while”.
while — тогда как, в то время как, хотя, а, если
Example:
The major difference between the two is that
shareholders are owners of the company while
debenture holders are creditors of the company.
— Основная разница между ними заключается
в том, что акционеры являются владельцами
компании, а держатели облигаций — кредито-
рами компании.
484
1. Jurors are not paid but are given expenses while they are on
jury service.
2. While the UK has ratified the Convention, it has not in
corporated its provisions into English law.
3. While in England and Wales there are only two possible
verdicts: guilty or not guilty, in Scotland there is a third
possibility: not proven.
4. In criminal trials the prosecution makes the opening speech to
the jury and the defence lawyer makes the final speech while
in a civil trial the claimant has the first and the last word.
5. While the general duties of the company secretary can be
described easily, the role of the company secretary in the
management of the company is more difficult to explain.
6. Some customs became internationally recognized as laws,
while others were applied only in a particular locality or trade.
Exercise 15.
1. Одним из очевидных преиму- One of the obvious advantages
ществ компании является то, of a company is that it is easier
что компаниям легче привле- for companies to raise capital
кать капитал, чем другим ком- than for other business entities.
мерческим предприятиям.
2. Они могут сделать это путем They can do it by borrowing
получения ссуды в банке или money from banks and through
через продажу акций. the sale of shares.
3. Акция — это одна из частей, A share is one of the parts into
на которые разделено владение which ownership of the com-
капиталом компании. pany capital is divided.
4. Акционеры компании не должны The shareholders of the com-
выплачивать полную стоимость pany do not have to pay for the
своих акций, когда они их полу- total amount of their shares at
чают. Но они должны выпла- the time they receive them,
тить по крайней мере четверть but they must pay for at least
номинальной стоимости акций a quarter of the nominal value
на момент их получения. of all their shares at that time.
485
5. Акция дает своему владельцу A share gives its owner the
право на часть любой прибыли, right to a proportion of any
которую получает компания profit the company makes
(дивиденд). (dividend).
6. Компания может объявить A company may declare a divi
о выплате дивидендов, только dend only if it has made a profit.
если она получила прибыль.
7. Дивиденд выплачивается акцио A dividend is paid to share-
нерам соразмерно числу акций, holders in proportion to how
которые они имеют. many shares they hold.
8. Акционеры не могут настаи- Shareholders cannot insist on
вать на выплате дивидендов dividend payments every year,
каждый год, т.к. это решают since this is up to the directors
директора. to decide.
9. Если акционеры не удовлет- If shareholders are dissatis-
ворены управлением компа- fied with the management of
нии, они как члены компании the company, as members they
имеют право снять директоров. have the right to remove the
directors.
10. Чем больше акций имеет акци- The more shares a member
онер, тем большими правами holds, the more voting rights he
он обладает при голосовании will have at annual general meet-
на ежегодных общих собраниях ings (AGM) or at extraordinary
акиционеров или на внеочеред- general meetings (EGM).
ных общих собраниях акцио
неров.
11. Акции могут быть приобре- Shares may be acquired when
тены, когда компания создается the company is set up or at
или при последующем выпуске a later share issue.
акций.
12. Их также можно купить или They may also be bought
получить от действтельного or received from an existing
акционера компании. shareholder.
13. Иногда компания дает право Sometimes a company gives
действительным членам поку- existing members the right to
пать акции у другого члена buy shares from another mem-
компании прежде, чем ему ber before he is allowed to sell
будет позволено продать их them to a new member.
новому члену компании.
486
14. Все акции равны друг другу Each share is equal in value.
по стоимости.
15. Но рыночная цена акции может But the market value of the
быть выше или ниже ее номи- share may be greater or less
нальной стоимости. than its nominal value.
16. Это зависит от рентабельности It depends upon the profitabil-
компании. ity of the company.
17. Например, член преуспеваю- For example, a member of
щей компании, который купил a successful company who
акции по цене £10 за акцию, bought shares at £10 each may
сможет продать их по цене be able to sell them at a pre-
выше номинала — возможно, mium — perhaps £12 each.
по £12 за акцию.
18. Но он также может оказаться However, he may also find that
в положении, когда он будет he has to sell them for less than
вынужден продать их по цене their nominal value — at a dis-
ниже номинальной стоимости. count.
19. Иногда компания выпускает Sometimes a company issues
акции и продает их выше номи- shares at a premium: for exam-
нала: например, продает акции ple, it sells £10 shares at £15
с номинальной стоимостью £10 each.
по цене £15 за каждую.
20. Однако она не может выпускать However, it cannot issue shares
акции по цене ниже номинала. at a discount.
21. Другим способом, с помощью Another way for a company
которого компания может при- to raise capital is by issuing
влечь капитал, — это выпуск debentures.
облигаций.
22. Компании обычно выпускают Companies usually issue
облигации, чтобы взять ссуду debentures to borrow some
в банке. money from banks.
23. Облигация — это документ, A debenture is a document evi-
который является доказатель- dencing that the company has
ством того, что компания взяла taken out a loan from the bank.
ссуду в банке.
487
24. Облигации обычно обеспечены Debentures are usually secured
залогом в виде имущества ком- by a charge over a company’s
пании, чтобы держатели обли- assets, so that debenture hold-
гаций имели право на имуще- ers will have the right to take
ство компании, если компания the company assets if the com-
не погасит ссуду. pany defaults on the loan.
25. Это означает, что у компании That means that the company
нет денег, чтобы выплатить has no money to repay the
ссуду. loan.
26. Держатели облигаций имеют Debenture holders are entitled
право на ежегодную выплату to an annual payment of inte
процентов, и это не связано rest, and this is not linked to
с прибылями и убытками ком- the company’s profits or losses.
пании.
27. Облигации и акции — это цен- Debentures and shares are
ные бумаги компании. both securities of the company.
28. Основное различие между ними The major difference between

заключается в том, что акци- the two is that shareholders are
онеры являются владельцами owners of the company while
компании, а держатели облига- debenture holders are creditors
ций — кредиторами компании. of the company.

1. Ways of raising capital.
2. Shares:
— shareholders’ rights;
— nominal value and market value;
— sale of shares at a premium and at a discount.
3. Debentures:
— debenture holders and their rights.
4. Difference between shareholders and debenture holders.
488
1. to acquire [əˈkwaɪə] shares приобретать акции

2. annual general meetings ежегодное общее собрание
(AGM) акционеров
3. annual payment of interest ежегодная выплата процентов
4. to be equal in value быть равными друг другу
по стоимости
5. to borrow money from smb брать деньги взаймы у кого-л.
[ˈbɔrəu]
6. business entity коммерческое предприятие
7. charge залог; обеспечение залога
to be secured by a charge over быть обеспеченным залогом
a company asset в виде имущества компании
8. debenture [dɪˈbentʃə] облигация
to issue a debenture выпустить облигацию
9. dividend [ˈdɪvɪdend] дивиденд
to declare a dividend объявить о выплате дивидендов
10. extraordinary general meet внеочередное общее собрание
ings (EGM) акционеров
11. loan [ləun] ссуда
to take out a loan from the bank брать ссуду в банке
to default [dɪˈfɔ:lt] on the loan не погасить ссуду
12. market value of the share рыночная стоимость / цена
[ˈvælju:] акции
13. nominal value номинальная стоимость
14. profitability [ˌprɔfɪtəˈbɪlɪtɪ] рентабельность, прибыльность
15. to raise capital привлекать капитал
16. sale of shares продажа акций
17. security ценная бумага
18. to sell shares at a discount продавать акции (по цене)
[ˈdɪskaunt] ниже номинала
19. to sell shares at a premium продавать акции (по цене)
[ˈpri mjəm] выше номинала
20. voting rights право голоса
489
A.
1. The company ______________ £25,000 from the bank to
finance its new advertising campaign.
2. Yesterday _____________ prices fell dramatically on the
London and New York stock markets.
3. The bank pays 10% _____________ on deposits.
4. The document by which a company acknowledges it owes a
debt and gives the company’s _____________ as security is
a _____________.
5. A _____________ is a sum of money that you borrow from
another person.
6. Shareholders usually meet at ______________________.
If they have to discuss something urgent they convene an
_____________________________.
7. The bank wanted a guarantee that the company would
_____________ the loan.
8. Share can be issued at a _____________ — for a sum greater
than their _____________.
9. Every shareholder has a right to _______________, that is
a share in the company’s _____________.
10. _____________ is measured with income and expenses.
B.
Farmfoods Ltd is a private (0) limited company that supplies
animal food for sheep, cows and other animals. The company
traded successfully for the last four years. The directors
decided to expand the (1) __________________. Farmfoods
Ltd needed to (2) ______________________ a lot of money
to (3) ___________________ capital for the expansion. The
directors applied for a (4) __________________ from the
Royal Chatsworth Bank. The bank considered the application
and agreed to lend the money. However, the bank wanted
490
a guarantee from Farmfoods Ltd that the company would
(5) _____________________ the loan. The bank demanded
a (6) ___________________ over Farmfoods Ltd’s assets. The
directors granted a mortgage (ссуда под недвижимость) to the
bank over Farmfoods Ltd’s factory. Now the Royal Chatsworth
Bank is a (7) __________________to which Farmfoods Ltd
has to pay (8) __________________ annually.
A.
1. У компаний есть много преимуществ перед другими ком-
мерческими предприятиями.
2. Рыночная стоимость акций определяется многими фак-
торами, среди которых экономические условия, в кото-
рых находятся страна и отрасль промышленности (the
industry), а также сама компания, особенно ее суммарная
прибыль (past profits) и будущие перспективы.
3. Компании берут ссуды в банках, чтобы обеспечить себе
дальнейшее расширение.
4. У акционера есть сертификат, который свидетельствует
о том, что он владеет акциями компании.
5. В большинстве стран мира компания стала самой типич-
ной формой коммерческого предприятия.
6. Компании легче увеличить капитал, чем товариществу
и частному предпринимателю.
7. Облигация свидетельствует о том, что залог существует.
8. Ссуда должна быть выплачена 6 июня.
9. На протяжении некоторого времени акционеры были
не удовлетворены действиями одного из директоров ком-
пании и в конце концов приняли резолюцию о его уволь-
нении на внеочередном общем собрании.
10. Некоторое имущество компании было продано, чтобы
выплатить ссуду.
B.
Компания может увеличить капитал, взяв ссуду в банке.
Она выплачивает проценты по ссуде. Выплата ссуды обеспе-
чивается залогом в виде имущества компании. Залог может
491
быть фиксированным (fixed) или плавающим (floating).
Фиксированный залог — это залог зданий и земли. Плава-
ющий залог — это залог имущества, которое имеет непосто-
янный характер (of a changeable nature), как транспортные
средства, сырье и т.д. Залог подтверждается документом,
который называется облигацией. Банки, которые выдают
ссуды, являются держателями облигаций. Это означает, что
они являются кредиторами компании. Они имеют право
на ежегодную выплату процентов. Если компания отказыва-
ется платить по долгам, ее имущество, упомянутое в обли-
гации, может перейти к держателю облигации. Держатели
облигаций имеют приоритет перед другими кредиторами
при получении выплат.
VI. Key Terms
1. AGM annual general meetings, ordinary meeting

of shareholders
2. Debenture document evidencing that the company has
[dɪˈbentʃə] taken out a loan from the bank
3. Debenture hold creditors of the company who are entitled
ers to an annual payment of interest
4. Dividend amount of the profits that a company pays
[ˈdɪvɪdend] to its shareholders
5. EGM extraordinary general meetings, meeting
of shareholders that is held at an irregular
time
6. Interest charge for borrowing money
7. Market value of actual value of the share and the amount
the share for which it can be bought or sold
8. Nominal value of value of the share as indicated on the share
the share certificate
9. Share one of the parts into which ownership
of the company capital is divided
10. Shareholders owners of the company who are entitled
to dividends
492
VII. Case Study
Penny was the majority shareholder of the Hoarse Lion. Inc.
Recording studios. Penny was neither an agent nor an employee
of the company. Supposedly on behalf of Hoarse Lion. Inc.,
Penny contracted with Btyant for the installation of a new
intercom system in the company headquarters.
Did Penny have authority to do this as the majority share
holder?

Exercise 1.
A. Read a lawyer’s letter and answer the questions after the
letter.
Dear Mr Barley
Full House Ltd
Sale of shares to Gordon Green by Christopher Moon
I am instructed by Gordon Green and understand that
you act for Christopher Moon. My client has instructed me in
connection with the proposed purchase of your client’s shares in
Full House Ltd.
I understand from my client that Full House Ltd was
incorporated by Mr Moon, Salil Mani and David May. The
company’s issued share capital is £300. Mr Moon, Mr Mani and
Mr May are the sole shareholders in the company, each holding
100 shares, which were fully paid at the time of purchase.
I have been informed that Mr Moon is moving to Spain
and wishes to sell his shares in Full House Ltd. My client has
been an employee of the company for many years and the other
shareholders are in favour of Mr Green becoming a shareholder.
All agree with the proposal that Mr Green purchases the shares
from your client.
I have drafted a share sale agreement. The purchase price for
the shares is £100, as agreed. My client will pay this amount
to your client by cheque on the day of completion of this
transaction, 26 July 20XX. There will be no deposit in view of
493
the low consideration. I have also drafted waivers to be signed
by Mr Mani and Mr May, evidencing that they have waived
their pre-emption rights in respect of these shares. Signatures
are required in advance of completion of this transaction
I understand that Mr May, the company secretary, is drawing
up the necessary paperwork evidencing that the EGM took place
during which the resolution regarding the purchase of the shares
by Mr Moon was passed unanimously.
I look forward to hearing from you with any amendments you
may have to the enclosed drafts.
Yours sincerely
Patrick Muche
1. Who is buying shares of Full House Ltd?
2. Who is selling shares of Full House Ltd?
3. Who is the letter addressed to?
4. What is Mr Barley’s position?
5. On whose behalf does Patrick Muche act?
6. How many shareholders are there in the company?
7. Why is Christopher Moon selling his shares?
8. Why are other shareholders in favour of Mr Green becoming
a shareholder?
9. What document regulates the sale of shares?
10. What is Gordon Green’s consideration?
11. Why is there no deposit?
B. Find the terms for the following definitions in the letter
and translate them.
Definition Term Translation
The act or process of buying smth
To register
Money given in advance so that a thing
which you want to buy will not be sold to
someone else
A document evidencing that smb gives up
a legal right
Shareholders’ rights to buy shares before
they are sold to anybody else
By everyone in a group
494
Unit 16
CLOSING A COMPANY
I. Lead-in
The business world has changed in recent years and company
liquidation no longer has the stigma attached to it that it once
did. It is becoming increasingly common for a company to go
into liquidation and then to start up again under a different
name.
I am owed €7,489.00 by a company that is refusing to pay me.
Can I wind up the company to get my money?
Why do you think a company can be wound up?
II. Reading
to dissolve [dɪˈzɔlv] voluntarily [ˈvɔləntərɪlɪ]
to submit [səbˈmɪt] liquidator [ˈlɪkwɪdeɪtə]
to liquidate [ˈlɪkwɪdeɪt] authorities [ɔ:ˈθɔrɪtɪz]
to distribute [dɪsˈtrɪbju:t] administrator [ədˈmɪnɪstreɪtə]
affair [əˈfɛə] benefit [ˈbenɪfɪt]
solvent [ˈsɔlvənt] petition [pɪˈtɪʃən]
A) Vocabulary Notes
(1)
1. legal person юридическое лицо
2. to close a company закрыть компанию
3. in connection with smth в связи с чем-л.
495
4. to dissolve a company распустить, ликвидировать компанию
5. to trade зд. работать, вести деятельность
6. to submit smth подать что-л. в Регистрационную
to Companies House палату
7. annual accounts ежегодные отчеты
8. annual returns ежегодные декларации
9. to reply to smb ответить кому-л.
(2)
10. family business семейный бизнес
11. to carry on the business заниматься бизнесом
12. to set up a company for основать компанию для определен-
a particular project ного проекта
13. to liquidate / wind up ликвидировать компанию
a company
14. (in)solvent (не)платежеспособный
15. voluntary liquidation добровольная ликвидация
16. liquidator ликвидатор
17. to realise the assets реализовать / распродать активы
of the company компании
18. tax authorities налоговые органы
19. supplier поставщик
20. to distribute smth распределять что-л.
(3)
21. going concern действующее предприятие
to save a company сохранить компанию как действую-
as a going concern щее предприятие
22. administrator управляющий, администратор
administration административное управление
to go into administration переходить в ~
23. to manage управлять делами компании
the company’s affairs
496
24. benefit благо, льгота
for the benefit of smb в интересах кого-л.
to run the company управлять компанией в интересах
for the benefit of the кредиторов
creditors
25. to sell the company’s продать активы компании по наи-
assets for the best более выгодной цене
possible price
(4)
26. compulsory liquidation принудительная ликвидация
to order a compulsory издать постановление суда о ~
liquidation
27. petition исковое заявление, ходатайство
winding up petition исковое заявление о ликвидации
компании
to present a winding up подать исковое заявление о ликви-
petition to the court дации компании в суд
28. on the grounds of smth на основании чего-л.
29. official receiver официальный ликвидатор
30. officer of court представитель суда
31. to investigate smth расследовать что-л.
32. causes of smb’s failure причины неудачи
C) Text
CLOSING A COMPANY
(1) As a company is a legal person, the directors cannot simply
stop business and close the company. There are rules in connection
with closing a company. The directors must follow the correct
procedures, which vary depending on the reason why the company
is closing. There are a number of reasons why a company closes.
Companies House has the power to dissolve a company if
it believes that the company is not trading. This will happen if
the company does not submit any annual accounts or annual
returns to Companies House and fails to reply to any letters
from Companies House.
497
(2) The shareholders may wish to close the company. For
example, the company is a family business and the family no
longer wishes to carry on that business. The shareholders may
have set up the company for a particular project, which is now
finished. In these situations, the shareholders must liquidate the
company. If the directors believe that the company is solvent, the
shareholders can follow a process called a voluntary liquidation.
The liquidation starts when the shareholders pass a resolution
to wind up the company voluntarily. The liquidator, who has
the necessary qualifications to deal with closing companies, is
appointed to wind up the company. The liquidator must realise
the assets of the company. The liquidator then has to give the
money from the sale of the assets to the creditors of the company
who are tax authorities, debenture holders, suppliers, employees
and others. If any money remains, the liquidator distributes
it among the shareholders of the company. At the end of this
process, Companies House dissolves the company.
(3) Another reason for closing a company is that it does
not have enough money to pay its debts. In other words, the
company is insolvent. There are many rules to follow if a
company is insolvent. However, it is important to remember
that not all insolvent companies must close. To save a company
which cannot pay its debts as a going concern the directors,
or the court, or the creditors can appoint an administrator to
manage the company’s affairs. In this case the company goes
into administration. The administrator runs the company for
the benefit of the creditors of the company. If it is not possible
to save a company as a going concern, he sells the company’s
assets for the best possible price.
(4) The court may also order a compulsory liquidation of
the company when a creditor presents a winding up petition to
the court on the grounds of that the company cannot pay its
debts. The official receiver who is an officer of court, becomes
the liquidator. He has the duty to investigate the company’s
affairs and the causes of its failure, including the conduct of the
directors.
498
A. Here is a conversation between two lawyers. The con

versation is mixed up. Put the conversation in the correct
order. Write your answers in the boxes numbered 2–9
below. There is an example at the beginning (*), which
is the start of the conversation.
(*) Good morning, Sarah. How are you?
a) Another one? There seem to be so many businesses in
financial trouble at the moment. Is this one a large company?
b) I’m OK thanks. How’s life in the insolvency department?
Are you busy?
c) A familiar story, I’m afraid. The company did really well at
first and made a profit. Then the directors made some decisions
about expanding the company, which didn’t produce the results
they wanted. They borrowed a lot of money from the bank and
now they can’t make the loan repayments.
d) No. Last week, the bank demanded full payment of the
loan, which the company can’t pay. There are a lot of other cre
ditors, too. But after the bank gets its money back, I don’t think
there will be any money left for them. And certainly none for the
shareholders. The company will be wound up.
e) No, it’s small. 15 employees I think.
f) So what will happen? Isn’t there any chance of saving the
company?
g) Very busy. I’m just going to start work on a new matter.
Another liquidation.
h) 15 more people out of a job, then. What happened?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

(*)
B. Read the text again and answer the following questions.

1. Why can’t the directors of a company simply stop business
and close the company?
2. What does the procedure of closing a company depend on?
3. In what case has Companies House the power to dissolve
a company?
499
4. What evidences that the company is not trading?
5. In what case can shareholders wish to close the company?
6. When can shareholders follow a voluntary liquidation?
7. What is the beginning of the liquidation procedure?
8. Who is appointed to wind up the company?
9. What are the duties of the liquidator?
10. In what case does the liquidator distribute the money among
the shareholders of the company?
11. What does the liquidation procedure result in?
12. When is the company insolvent?
13. Is it necessary to close all insolvent companies?
14. Who manages the company’s affairs to save it as a going
concern?
15. How does the administrator run the company ?
16. What does the administrator do if it is not possible to save
a company as a going concern?
17. What is a compulsory liquidation of the company?
18. What must a creditor present to the court?
19. On what grounds does the creditor present a winding up
petition?
20. Who becomes the liquidator?
21. What are the duties of the official receiver?
IV. Exercises
officer of court administration
going concern insolvent company
to run the company for the benefit legal person
of the creditors
official receiver to submit smth to Companies
House
winding up petition to realise the assets of the
company
to liquidate a company annual accounts
500
on the grounds of smth to set up a company for a particu-
lar project
voluntary liquidation tax authorities
to order a compulsory liquidation supplier
to investigate smth administrator

Verb Noun Adjective
dissolution
to fail
submission
to volunteer
distribution
to liquidate
solvent
administrative
safety
appointment

1. ________________ of the company may be either voluntary
or compulsory (dissolve).
2. When is the final date for the _____________________ of
proposals (submit)?
3. _____________________ is the state of being able to pay
one’s debts (solvent).
4. The ____________________ usually administers the assets
and supervises the winding-up of the company (liquidate).
5. A trustee _____________________ property for another
person’s benefit (administrator).
501
6. The articles of Association sets out ____________________,
duties, powers and removal of directors (appoint).
7. The money was _____________________ among schools
in the area (distribution).
8. Many _____________________ are specifically trained
in the areas they work in, such as medicine, education,
or emergency rescue (voluntary).
9. He became discouraged by his repeated _______________
______ in business (fail).
10. We watched the fireworks from a _____________________
distance (save).
1. legal person a. having enough money to pay
debts
2. to dissolve a company b. winding up
3. to reply c. to file smth with Companies
House
4. to trade d. property
5. to submit smth e. to wind up a company
to Companies House
6. solvent f. a business that is actively
trading
7. liqidation g. in the interests of smb
8. assets h. to answer
9. going concern i. liquidator
10. for the benefit of smb j. legal entity
11. official receiver k. actions
12. conduct l. lack of success
13. failure m. to do business
1) to manage — mis ___________________________
solvent — in ______________________________
502
solvency — in _____________________________
voluntary — in ____________________________
official — in/un ____________________________
2) to interpret, satisfied, qualified, legal, essential, experienced,
incorporated, personal, equal, limited, secure, responsible,
to represent, to connect

1. The company was declared solvent / insolvent and went into
administration.
2. Researchers warned the world will face a crisis if countries
continue to manage / mismanage water.
3. No one can make you take part in this programme. Parti
cipation in the program is completely voluntary / involuntary.
4. Insolvency / solvency can arise from poor cash management.
5. We cannot use these data in our report. They are official /
unofficial.
6. Both parties must enter into a contract voluntarily / invo
luntarily.
на основании чего-л. административное управление
принудительная ликвидация неплатежеспособная компания
подать исковое заявление о лик- сохранить компанию как дей-
видации компании в суд ствующее предприятие
основать компанию для опреде- представитель суда
ленного проекта
распродать активы компании управлять компанией в интере-
сах кредиторов
продать активы компании добровольная ликвидация
по наиболее выгодной цене
подать что-л. в Регистрацион- налоговые органы
ную палату
поставщик ликвидатор
503
дивиденды
распределять имущество
прибыль
акционеров
на благо компании
кредиторов
искового заявления о ликвидации компании
на основании неплатежеспособности
небрежности
ежегодный отчет в Регистрационную палату
подать декларацию в налоговые органы
исковое заявление о ликвидации компании
в суд
1. There are rules __________connection __________ closing
a company.
2. __________ the end __________ this process, Companies
House dissolves the company.
3. The company goes __________ administration.
4. If it is not possible to save a company __________ a going
concern he sells the company’s assets __________ the best
possible price.
5. A creditor presents a winding up petition __________ the
court __________ the grounds that the company cannot
pay its debts.
6. Another reason ____________closing a company is that it
does not have enough money to pay its debts.
7. The liquidator then has to give the money __________ the
sale of the assets to the creditors of the company.
8. The administrator runs the company ______________ the
benefit of the creditors ____________ the company.
9. The liquidator is appointed to wind ________________ the
company.
10. If any money remains, the liquidator distributes it ________
the shareholders of the company.
504
PREPOSITION BANK
to wind up the company
to go into administration
in connection with smth
on the grounds of smth

the text.
1. Companies House has the power to ____________a company
if it believes that the company is not_______________.
2. The shareholders may have set up the company for a par
ticular _______________, which is now finished.
3. The liquidator then has to give the money from the sale of
the _______________ to the creditors of the company who
are tax _______________, suppliers, employees and others.
4. The administrator runs the company for the _____________
of the creditors of the company.
5. The official receiver has the duty to _________________ the
company’s affairs and the causes of its _______________,
including the _______________ of the directors.
6. If any money remains, the liquidator _______________ it
among the shareholders of the company.
7. If the directors believe that the company is _____________,
the shareholders can follow a process called a _________
____________.
8. The liquidation starts when the shareholders ____________
a resolution to ___________the company ______________.
9. To save a company which cannot pay its debts as a ________
the directors, or the court, or the creditors can appoint an
__________ to manage the company’s affairs.
10. The court may also order a _______________ liquidation
of the company when a creditor presents a winding up
__________________ to the court on the grounds that the
company cannot pay its debts.
505
11. The liquidator must _______________the assets of the
company.
12. If the company does not _______________ any annual
accounts or annual _______________ to Companies House
and fails to reply to any letters from Companies House, it is
_______________ by Companies House.
the text.
1. Если невозможно сохранить компанию как действующее
предприятие, управляющий продает активы компании
по наиболее выгодной цене.
2. Другая причина закрытия компании — то, что компания
является неплатежеспособной.
3. Ликвидатор должен отдать деньги, полученные от про-
дажи активов, кредиторам компании, которыми явля-
ются налоговые органы, поставщики, работники компа-
нии и другие.
4. Регистрационная палата имеет право ликвидировать
компанию, если она считает, что компания не работает.
5. Если директора считают, что компания платежеспособна,
акционеры могут начать процесс, который называется
добровольной ликвидацией.
6. Управляющий руководит компанией в интересах креди-
торов компании.
7. Суд также может издать постановление о принудитель-
ной ликвидации, когда кредитор подает исковое заявле-
ние о ликвидации компании в суд на основании того, что
компания не может выплатить свои долги.
8. Ликвидатор должен реализовать активы компании.
9. Обязанность официального ликвидатора — расследовать
положение дел в компании и причины ее неудачной дея-
тельности, среди которых могут быть действия директо-
ров.
10. Ликвидация начинается, когда акционеры принимают
решение ликвидировать компанию добровольно.
11. Компания переходит в административное управление.
506
definition.
1. winding up procedure initiated a. voluntary
by the court liquidation
2. person appointed to wind up b. administration
a company
3. management of a company c. insolvency
by an administrator appointed
by the directors or the court
or the creditors in order to save
a company as a going concern
4. state of not being able to pay one’s d. liquidator
debts
5. court officer appointed to wind up e. petition
a company
6. winding-up procedure initiated by f. compulsory
a resolution of the company liquidation
7. person appointed to help a company g. administrator
pay its debts and continue operating
as a going concern
8. written application for a remedy h. official receiver
Exercise 11. Read the letter below and put the verbs into
the correct form.
Why don’t all businesses use a structure which (0) provides
(provide) limited liability? One of the main reasons is the
costs (1) ___________________ (involve). The main expense
(2) _________________ to the initial registration costs and
the ongoing costs. Every business with limited liability must
(3) ____________________ (register) at Companies House. It
(4) ______________ (issue) with a certificate of incorporation
(5) _____________ (contain) its registration number before
it (6) __________________ (begin) to trade. That number
must (7) ______________ (include) on all correspondence
(8) _________________ (issue) in the name of the business.
In addition the business has to file an annual return with
Companies House. It (9) ______________ (provide) details
507
of the ownership and governance of the business. Also, annual
accounts (10) ______________ (submit) to Companies House.
It is the costs (11) ______________ (involve) and the lack of
privacy why many business owners choose not to use a structure
with limited liability.
attention to the word “benefit”.
benefit — выгода, прибыль, польза, благо; полезность;
преимущество; привилегия, льгота
for smb’s benefit — на благо кого-л., с выгодой для кого-л.
to benefit — помогать, приносить пользу, оказывать бла-
готворное воздействие
A.
1. We should spend money on something that will benefit the
company.
2. He could not see the benefit of arguing any longer.
3. I think the boy would benefit by further study.
4. The insurance plan will provide substantial cash benefits to
your family in case of your death.
5. In addition to the salary and bonus, we provide a standard
medical-benefits package.
6. The sale of new shares to outsiders brings in new capital,
which should increase the total profit, thus benefiting all
shareholders.
7. Both parties benefited from the talks.
8. Charities enjoy tax benefits.
9. He explained the benefits of public ownership of the postal
system.
10. The most important lesson I ever learned was that making
good connections with people may benefit your work.
B.
1. Компания предлагает своим сотрудникам пенсионный
план, бесплатное медицинское страхование и другие льготы.
2. Предприятия малого бизнеса имеют налоговые льготы.
3. Траст был создан для детей-инвалидов.
508
4. Его лекции по договорному праву были очень полезны
студентам.
5. Он объяснил преимущества создания компании.
6. Смещение директора пойдет на пользу компании.
7. Новая система страхования принесет пользу автовла-
дельцам.
8. Он не видел смысла в продолжении своего образования.
attention to the verb “to follow”.
to follow
1) следовать за, наступать после
The meat followed the soup. — После супа подали
мясо.
2) следовать, соблюдать
to follow rules — следовать правилам
3) понимать
I don’t quite follow you. — Я не совсем понимаю, что
ты говоришь.
4) преследовать, следить
I think we are being followed. — За нами следят.
A.
1. I remember little of the days that followed the accident.
2. She followed her mother into the medical profession.
3. A period of unrest followed the president’s resignation.
4. He has trouble following simple instructions.
5. The first two classes were followed by a break.
6. The new law is almost impossible to follow.
7. Millions of people followed the trial on TV.
8. A detailed news report will follow shortly.
B.
1. Он стал юристом, как и его отец.
2. При ликвидации компании необходимо следовать опре-
деленной процедуре.
3. После переговоров договор подписали.
4. После лекции был семинар.
509
5. Он последовал совету юриста.
6. Мы должны следовать судебному решению.
7. Его доклад трудно было понять.
Exercise 14. Translate the following sentences using the
verbs “may” and “must” with the Perfect
Infinitive and the Continuous Infinitive.
may — возможно, может быть
The shareholders may have set up the company for a
particular project.
— Возможно, акционеры основали компанию для
определенного проекта.
They may be winding up the company now.
— Возможно, они ликвидируют компанию сейчас.
They may not be winding up the company now.
— Не может быть, чтобы они ликвидировали компа-
нию сейчас.
must — должно быть, вероятно, наверняка

The shareholders must have set up the company for a
particular project.
— Вероятно, акционеры основали компанию для
определенного проекта.
They must be winding up the company now.
— Они наверняка ликвидируют компанию сейчас.
NB: сочетание “must not” в этих конструкциях
не употребляется.
1. Возможно, его назначили управляющим.

2. Не может быть, чтобы компания сейчас работала.
3. Наверняка они уже подали ежегодную декларацию
в Регистрационную палату.
4. Вероятно, сейчас ликвидатор распродает имущество ком-
пании.
5. Управляющему, должно быть, удалось сохранить компа-
нию как действующее предприятие.
6. Возможно, компания стала неплатежеспособной.
7. У них, должно быть, возникли проблемы с налоговыми
органами.
510
8. Наверное, сейчас ликвидатор распределяет полученные
денежные средства между кредиторами.
9. Возможно, управляющему удалось продать активы ком-
пании по наиболее выгодноц цене.
10. Не может быть, чтобы кредиторы подать исковое заявле-
ние о ликвидации компании в суд.
Exercise 15.
1. Поскольку компания является As a company is a legal per-
юридическим лицом, директора son, the directors cannot
не могут просто прекратить ее simply stop business and
деятельность и закрыть компа- close the company.
нию.
2. Существуют правила, связанные There are rules in connection
с закрытием компании. with closing a company.
3. Директора должны соблюдать The directors must follow the
определенные процедуры, кото- correct procedures, which
рые зависят от причины, из-за vary depending on the reason
которой закрывается компания. why the company is closing.
4. Существует ряд причин, по кото- There are a number of rea-
рым компания может закрыться. sons why a company closes.
5. Регистрационная палата имеет Companies House has the
право ликвидировать компанию, power to dissolve a company
если она считает, что компания if it believes that the com-
не работает. pany is not trading.
6. Это происходит, если компа- This will happen if the com-
ния не подает ежегодные отчеты pany does not submit any
и ежегодные декларации в Реги- annual accounts or annual
страционную палату и не отве- returns to Companies House
чает на запросы из Регистраци- and fails to reply to any let-
онной палаты. ters from Companies House.
7. Акционеры могут пожелать The shareholders may wish
закрыть компанию. to close the company.
511
8. Например, компания является For example, the company
семейным бизнесом, и семья is a family business and the
больше не желает заниматься family no longer wishes to
этим бизнесом. carry on that business.
9. Возможно, акционеры основали The shareholders may have
компанию для определенного set up the company for a par-
проекта, который закончился. ticular project, which is now
finished.
10. В этих случаях акционеры In these situations, the
должны ликвидировать компа- shareholders must liquidate
нию. the company.
11. Если директора считают, что If the directors believe that
компания платежеспособна, the company is solvent, the
акционеры могут начать процесс, shareholders can follow a
который называется доброволь- process called a voluntary
ной ликвидацией. liquidation.
12. Ликвидация начинается, когда The liquidation starts when
акционеры принимают решение the shareholders pass a reso-
ликвидировать компанию добро- lution to wind up the com-
вольно. pany voluntarily.
13. Для ликвидации компании на The liquidator, who has the
знач ается ликвидатор, облада- necessary qualifications to
ющий необходимой квалифика- deal with closing companies,
цией для того, чтобы заниматься is appointed to wind up the
ликвидацией компании. company.
14. Ликвидатор должен реализовать The liquidator must realise
активы компании. the assets of the company.
15. Затем ликвидатор должен отдать The liquidator then has to
деньги, полученные от продажи give the money from the sale
активов, кредиторам компании, of the assets to the credi-
которыми являются налоговые tors of the company who are
органы, поставщики, работники tax authorities, suppliers,
компании и другие. employees and others.
16. Если какая-то сумма денег оста- If any money remains, the
ется, ликвидатор распределяет ее liquidator distributes it
между акционерами компании. among the shareholders of
the company.
512
17. В завершении этого процесса At the end of this process,
Регистрационная палата ликви- Companies House dissolves
дирует компанию. the company.
18. Другая причина закрытия ком- Another reason for closing a
пании — то, что у компании company is that it does not
недостаточно денежных средств, have enough money to pay
чтобы выплатить свои долги. its debts.
19. Другими словами, компания In other words, the company
является неплатежеспособной. is insolvent.
20. Существует много правил, кото- There are many rules to fol-
рым компания должна следовать, low if a company is insolvent.
если она является неплатежеспо-
собной.
21. Однако важно помнить, что However, it is important to
не все неплатежеспособные ком- remember that not all insol-
пании должны закрываться. vent companies must close.
22. Чтобы сохранить компанию, To save the company which
которая не может выплатить свои cannot pay its debts as a
долги, как действующее предпри- going concern the directors,
ятие, директора, суд или креди- or the court, or the creditors
торы могут назначить управля- can appoint an administra-
ющего, который будет управлять tor to manage the company’s
делами компании. affairs.
23. В этом случае компания перехо- In this case the company
дит в административное управ- goes into administration.
ление.
24. Управляющий руководит ком- The administrator runs the
панией в интересах кредиторов company for the benefit of
компании. the creditors of the company.
25. Если невозможно сохранить ком If it is not possible to save
панию как действующее предпри- a company as a going con-
ятие, он продает активы компа- cern he sells the company’s
нии по наиболее выгодной цене. assets for the best possible
price.
513
26. Суд также может издать поста- The court may also order
новление о принудительной лик- a compulsory liquidation of
видации, когда кредитор подает the company when a credi-
исковое заявление о ликвидации tor presents a winding up
компании в суд на основании petition to the court on the
того, что компания не может grounds of that the company
выплатить свои долги. cannot pay its debts.
27. Ликвидатором становится офи- The official receiver who is
циальный ликвидатор, который an officer of court, becomes
является представителем суда. the liquidator.
28. Его обязанность — расследо- He has the duty to investi-
вать положение дел в компании gate the company’s affairs
и причины ее неудачной деятель- and the causes of its failure,
ности, среди которых могут быть including the conduct of the
действия директоров. directors.

1. Difficulties in closing a company.
2. Closing a company by Companies House.
3. Closing a solvent company by shareholders.
4. Dealing with an insolvent company:
— administration;
— compulsory liquidation.
1. administrator [ədˈmɪnɪstreɪtə] управляющий

administration административное управление
2. benefit [ˈbenɪfɪt] благо, льгота
for the benefit of smb на благо, в интересах кого-л.
to run the company for the управлять компанией в интере-
benefit of the creditors сах кредиторов
3. compulsory liquidation принудительная ликвидация
[kəmˈpʌlsrɪ]
to order a compulsory издать постановление суда о ~
liquidation
514
4. to distribute [dɪsˈtrɪbju:t] smth распределять что-л.
5. going concern [kənˈsə:n] действующее предприятие
to save a company as a going сохранить компанию как дей-
concern ствующее предприятие
6. ground основание
on the grounds of smth на основании чего-л.
7. to investigate smth расследовать что-л.
[ɪnˈvestɪgeɪt]
8. (in)solvent [(in)ˈsɔlvənt] (не)платежеспособный
(in)solvency (не)платежеспособность
9. legal person юридическое лицо
10. to liquidate / wind up / ликвидировать компанию
to dissolve a company
11. liquidator [ˈlɪkwɪdeɪtə] ликвидатор
12. to manage the company’s управлять делами компании
affairs [əˈfɛəz]
13. officer of court представитель суда
14. official receiver официальный ликвидатор
15. petition исковое заявление
winding up petition исковое заявление о ликвида-
ции компании
to present a winding up подать исковое заявление
petition to the court о ликвидации компании в суд
16. to realise the assets реализовать / распродать
of the company активы компании
17. to sell the company’s assets продать активы компании
for the best possible price по наиболее выгодной цене
18. to set up a company основать компанию для опреде-
for a particular project ленного проекта
19. to submit [səbˈmɪt] smth to подать что-л. в Регистрацион-
Companies House ную палату
20. supplier поставщик
21. tax authorities [ɔ:ˈθɔrɪtɪz] налоговые органы
22. to trade зд. работать, вести деятельность
23. voluntary liquidation добровольная ликвидация
[ˈvɔləntərɪ]
515
Exercise 1.
A. Complete the following sentences and text using the
words and collocations from the Active Vocabulary (you
can use some words and collocations from the previous
unit).
1. The business was sold as a ___________________ following
the death of the owner.
2. If you want to sue them for breach of contract you need
sufficient grounds and I don’t see sufficient ___________
__________ for you to go ahead.
3. The company was experiencing financial difficulties and
called a meeting to discuss what _____________________
procedure was available.
4. The court ordered that the company be _______________
and its assets sold in order to pay off its debts.
5. Legal __________________ can be very expensive and you
should think twice before issuing a claim against someone.
6. If a court orders to wind up a company, it is ______________.
7. The new regulations will be of _____________________ to
everyone concerned.
8. According to the Partnership Agreement profits and losses
are _____________________ equally among the partners.
9. A situation where a company itself it must close and sell its
assets is called _____________________.
10. She _____________________a claim to the insurers’.
B. Complete the text using legal words and collocations.

The effect of the liquidation of a company is to prevent that
company from (1) _____________as a commercial entity. The
liquidator has to (2) _____________ all the company’s assets.
The aim is to (3) _____________ as much money as possible.
The money of the (4) _______________ of the assts are then
(5) _____________ between creditors who are entitled to it. It
is often the case that not everyone will get the money they are
516
(6) _____________. The (7) _____________ pays people in a
particular order of priority. The order of priority is:
— the costs of (8) ___________________ (including the
liquidator’s fees and expenses);
— secured (9) _____________;
— preferential creditors (employees who are (10) _________
_______ wages and tax authorities);
— unsecured creditors;
— interest on debts
— (11) _____________.
When the winding-up is complete, the company is (12) _____
______________ and it does not exist any longer as a legal
(13) _____________.

A.
1. Кредиторы могут подать иск о ликвидации неплатеже-
способной компании. В этом случае оставшиеся активы
используются для выплаты долгов кредиторам.
2. Принудительное завершение деятельности компании
происходит по решению суда на основании иска, подан-
ного, например, акционерами, недовольными тем, как
осуществляется руководство компанией.
3. Компания может быть ликвидирована письменным
согласием всех акционеров или большинством голосов
акционеров, имеющих право голоса, на общем собрании
акционеров.
4. Добровольное завершение деятельности компании имеет
место, если компания создавалась для достижения опре-
деленной цели на ограниченный, а не на неопределенный
срок.
5. Завершение деятельности компании означает прекраще-
ние ее существования в качестве самостоятельного юри-
дического лица.
517
6. Предприятие будет ликвидировано, если в следующем
месяце не будет прибыли.
7. Управляющий вел дела компании настолько хорошо, что
она смогла рассчитаться с кредиторами и получить при-
быль.
8. Регистрационная палата закрыла компанию, поскольку
она не вела никакой деятельности.
B.
1. При некоторых обстоятельствах компания или физи-
ческое лицо не может выполнить свои финансовые обяза-
тельства. Существует ряд законов, связанных с банкрот-
ством. Лицо или его кредиторы могут подать прошение
в суд о принятии управления собственностью (estate) и ее
распределении между кредиторами. Должны соблюдаться
три принципа. Распределение собственности между креди-
торами должно быть честным. Должник должен быть осво-
божден от долгов. Необходимо выяснить причины неплате-
жеспособности (insolvency).
2. Существует два типа добровольной ликвидации:
добровольная ликвидация участников компании (members’
voluntary liquidation) и добровольная ликвидация компании
с целью погашения задолженности кредиторам (creditors’
voluntary liquidation). Добровольная ликвидация участни-
ков компании означает, что директора сделали официальное
заявление о платежеспособности компании. Это происхо-
дит, когда продается семейный бизнес или когда компания
реализовала цели, для которых она создавалась. Ликвида-
ция начинается в тот момент, когда участники на общем
собрании принимают резолюцию ликвидировать компанию
добровольно.
В случае добровольной ликвидации компании с целью
погашения задолженности кредиторам компания не может
выплатить свои долги. Процедура начинается директорами
компании, а не кредиторами. Компания принимает резо-
люцию, в которой говорится, что она не может продолжать
518
бизнес из-за долгов и хочет его закрыть. Назначается ликви-
датор, который должен завершить дела компании. Он делает
это путем продажи активов компании и выплаты долгов
кредиторам. Если после этого остается какая-то сумма, она
переходит к участникам компании.
В обоих видах добровольной ликвидации, когда деятель-
ность компании полностью завершается, происходит офици-
альное закрытие компании и она прекращает свое существо-
вание.
VI. Key Terms
1. Administration management of a company by

[ədˌmɪnɪsˈtreɪʃən] an administrator appointed by the
directors or the court, or the creditors
in order to save a company as a going
concern
2. Administrator person appointed to help a company
[ədˈmɪnɪstreɪtə] pay its debts and continue operating
as a going concern
3. Compulsory liquidation winding up procedure initiated
[kəmˈpʌlsərɪ ˌlɪkwɪˈdeɪʃən] by the court
4. Insolvency [ɪnˈsɔlvənsɪ] state of not being able to pay one’s

debts
5. Liquidator person appointed to wind up

[ˈlɪkwɪdeɪtə] a company
6. Official receiver court officer appointed to wind up

[əˈfɪʃəl rɪˈsi:və] a company
7. Petition [pɪˈtɪʃən] written application

for a remedy
8. Voluntary liquidation winding up procedure initiated
[ˈvɔləntərɪlɪ ˌlɪkwɪˈdeɪʃən] by a resolution of the company
519
VII. Case Study
1. According to its articles of association, Fun Foods Ltd
was created to operate restaurants and food stands at the fair
for the duration of the event. When the fair ended, how was the
corporate existence terminated?

Exercise 1. Match the words in the box below with their
definitions.
liquidator members’ voluntary liquidation receiver
administration order administrator winding up order
official receiver compulsory liquidation
1. _____________________
This is when the shareholders of a company decide to close
the company and there are enough assets to pay all the debts of
the company.
2. _____________________
This is when the shareholders of a company decide that they
must close the company, because there are not enough assets to
pay all the debts of the company.
3. _____________________
This is an order made by a court for a company to be closed.
4. _____________________
This is an order made by a court that gives a company some
time to try to resolve its financial difficulties or sell its assets in
order to pay its creditors.
5. _____________________
This is a person who supervises companies which are in
administration. This person has passed special examinations to
become an authorised insolvency practitioner.
6. _____________________
This is a person who supervises the closing of a company
which is in liquidation.
520
7. _____________________
This is a person who is appointed by a creditor of a company
to take control of that company in order to sell its assets and pay
the money it owes to that creditor.
8. _____________________
This person is a government official who is appointed to close
a company which is in financial difficulties.
Exercise 2. Read a few notices which have been pub
lished in a newspaper. These notices refer
to companies that are in financial difficulties.
Decide if the statement a under each notice is
true or false.
1)
Appointment of liquidators
Company Number: 099974622. Liquidators’ Names and Addresses:
Name of Company: LANCO Nigel Orm, 1 Station Road,
LIMITED. Linchester, LN3 7VX, and
Nature of Business: Manufacture Alistair Dean, 3 Prince Street,
of food products. Linchester, LN1 4FP.
Type of Liquidation: Members’ Office Holder Numbers:
voluntary liquidation. 97983 and 97291.
Address of Registered Office: Date of Appointment:
Fine House, Sharpes Road, 2 August 20XX.
Linchester, LN32 7BA. By whom Appointed: Members.
Lanco Ltd is insolvent.

True False
2)
Appointment of receivers
Company Number: 085743. Receivers’ Names and Addresses:
Name of Company: BARTSON Helen Woods and Simon Allen
LIMITED. of Jackson LLP, 4 Arcade House,
Nature of Business: Manufacture Chatsworth, CHI 9DV.
of paper products. IP* Numbers: 97983 and 97291.
Address of Registered Office: Date of Appointment:
Unit 3, Frosham Industrial Estate, 2 August 20XX.
Chatsworth, CH5 4KM. By whom Appointed: Royal
Chatsworth Bank.
* IP — insolvent practitioner.
521
The Royal Chatsworth bank is a creditor
of Bartson Ltd.
True False
3)
Administration Orders
In the High Court of Justice Administration Order made:
No 1221 of 20XX 29 July 20XX.
MODEL RAIL LIMITED P.В. Norris (Office Holder
(Company Number 888564732) No 87699), Taylor Wallis
Registered Office: Hanover Hall, 6 Newater Street, London, EC5 9HN,
Reginald Street, Oxton, Hapshire and S.J. Pederson (Office Holder
0X1 6QD. No 36528),
Nature of Business: 21 Footgate Park, London,
Educational Toys. EC9 6PP,
Joint Administrators.
Two people have been appointed to supervise

Model Rail Limited.
True False
4)
Appointment of Administrators Nature of Business: Computer
In the High Court of Justice Related Activities.
(Chancery Division) Chatsworth Date of Appointment:
District 7 August 20XX.
Registry No 111 of 20XX Joint Administrators’ Names and
Comp Professional Limited Address:
(Company Number 2727164) Kim Watts and Keith Price
Registered Office of Company: (IP Nos 6103P and 7583H),
c/o* Hedgsons LLP, 1 High both of Hedgsons LLP,
Street, Chatsworth, CHI 6GT. 1 High Street, Chatsworth,
CHI 6GT.
9 August 20XX.
Administration is being held by an LLP.
* c/o — care of.
522
True False
5)
Winding up Orders
Name of Company: Yeloo Date of Filing Petition —
Services Ltd 18 May 20XX.
Company Number — 1827540385. No. of Matter —
Address of Registered Office — 0003958 of 20XX.
4 Gover Way, Ellerton, EL8 6EJ. Date of Winding up Order —
Court — 25 July 20XX.
High Court Of Justice. Official Receiver —
4th Floor, Tower House,
4 The Parade, Oxton, Hapshire,
0X6 7RX.
The petition to wind up Yeloo Services Ltd

was presented on 25 July 20XX.
True False
6)
Notice to Creditors
Treeland Property Services All persons having in their
Limited possession any of the effects*
(in Compulsory Liquidation) or assets of the Company must
In accordance with Rule 4.106, deliver them up to me and all
I, Kim Watts, of Hedgsons LLP, debts due to the Company must
1 High Street, Chatsworth, CHI be paid to me. Creditors who have
6GT, give notice that I was not yet proved their debts must do
appointed Liquidator of the so by 10 August.
Company on 23 July 20XX. К. Watts, Liquidator
3 August 20XX.
Anyone who thinks that Treeland Property

Services Ltd owes money to them
* effects — имущество.
523
must inform Kim Watts.
True False
Use the following plan when you decide a case:

I. General information
1. The case relates to… (law of tort)
2. The facts of the case are as follows:
II. Case solution
1. The issue raised by the case is whether…
2. Judging from the facts of the case…
III. If the parties go to court

1. The claimant is…
2. The defendant is…
3. The claimant can file a claim on the grounds of…
4. If the claimant wins a claim, he may be entitled to the following
remedies:…
IV. Personal comments:
From my point of view, in my opinion/view, I think, I believe,
I suppose
524
№ Item Sole Partnership Limited liability Private limited Public limited
proprietorship partnership company company
1. Statutory No Partnership Act Limited liability Companies Act Companies Act
regulation 1890 partnership Act 2006 2006
2000
2. Owners of the Sole proprietor / Partners Members, Members / Members /
business sole trader designated shareholders shareholders
members
3. The nature of Unincorporated Unincorporated Incorporated Incorporated Incorporated
the business business (no business (no business business business
Legal separation Legal separation
between the between the
business and its business and its
owner) owner)
4. Registration No, apart from No, apart from Companies House Companies House Companies House
requirements Her Majesty’s Her Majesty’s
Revenue and Revenue and
Customs Customs
525
526
5. Liability of the Unlimited Unlimited Unlimited Unlimited Unlimited
business for
its debts
6. Liability of the Unlimited Unlimited / joint Limited liability Limited by Limited by
owners for the and several based on shares, limited by shares, limited by
debts of the members’ capital guarantee guarantee
business contributions to
the business
7. Management Sole proprietor / Partners Designated Board of directors Board of directors
sole trader members
8. Management Sole trader Partners Financial General meetings General meetings
requirements completes complete accounts and of shareholders, of shareholders,
an Annual an Annual Annual Return at board meetings, board meetings,
Assessment Tax Assessment Tax Companies House keep minutes, keep minutes,
Return Return financial accounts financial accounts
and Annual and Annual
Return at Return at
Companies House Companies House
9. Raising capital The owner’s The owners’ The owners’ Share issue, Share issue,
savings, a bank savings, a bank savings, a bank debenture issue debenture issue
loan based on loan based on loan based on
security over the security over the security over the
owner’s personal owners’ personal owners’ personal
assets assets assets
10. Main No Partnership Incorporation Memorandum Memorandum
documents Agreement document, of association, of association,
Partnership application for application for
Agreement, registration, registration,
certificate of certificate of certificate of
incoporation incorporation, incorporation,
articles of articles of
association association
11. Taxation Sole trader pays Partners pay Members pay Corporation tax, Corporation tax,
income tax income tax income tax members pay members pay
individually individually income tax income tax
individually individually
527
528
12. Privacy Sole trader Partners do not Have to disclose Have to disclose Have to disclose
does not have have to disclose essential essential essential
to disclose any any information information information information
information about about the about the about the about the
the business business business in the business in the business in the
documents filed documents filed documents filed
at Companies at Companies at Companies
House House House
13. Termination Can be Can be Voluntary Voluntary Voluntary
terminated terminated liquidation, liquidation, liquidation,
voluntarily or if voluntarily or administration, administration, administration,
the sole trader if a partner dies compulsory compulsory compulsory
dies or leaves the liquidation liquidation liquidation
partnership if
the Partnership
Agreement does
not provide
otherwise
Список литературы
1. Агабекян, И. П. Практический английский для сту-

дентов-юристов. Серия «Учебники и учебные пособия». —
Ростов н/Д : Феникс, 2003. — 416 с.
2. Илиади, Ю. А. Английский язык для юристов: Учеб-
ник. — М.: Проспект, 2006. — 392 с.
3. Brown, G. D., Rice, S. Professional English in Use. Law. —
Cambridge University Press, 2007. — 128 p.
4. Day, J., Krois-Linder, A. and TransLegal. International
Legal English. Teacher’s Book. — Cambridge University Press,
2006. — 294 p.
5. Day, J., Krois-Linder, A. and TransLegal. International
Legal English. Student’s Book. — Cambridge University Press,
2006. — 320 p.
6. Haigh, R. Legal Correspondence. — Oxford University
Press, 2006. — 232 p.
7. Krois-Linder, A., Firth, M. and TransLegal. Introduction
to International Legal English. Teacher’s Book. — Cambridge
University Press, 2008. — 184 p.
8. Krois-Linder, A., Firth, M. and TransLegal. Introduction
to International Legal English. Student’s Book. — Cambridge
University Press, 2008. — 160 p.
9. Mason, C., Atkins, R. The Lawyer’s English Language
Coursebook. — Global Legal English Ltd, 2007. — 452 p.
10. Mason, C., Atkins, R. An Essential A-Z of Business Law. —
Cambridge Law Studio, 2006. — 52 p.
11. Practice Papers for TOLES Advanced. Practice Book
One. — Global Legal English Ltd, 2011. — 113 p.
12. Wallen, J. English for Law in Higher Education Studies. —
Garnet Publishing Ltd, 2009. — 236 p.
13. McKay, W. R., Charlton, H. E. Legal English. — Pearson
Longman, 2005. — 188 p.
529
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Ступникова Лада Владимировна

АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК ДЛЯ ЮРИСТОВ

(LEARNING LEGAL ENGLISH)


Учебник и практикум для академического бакалавриата

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Ðåêîìåíäîâàíî Ó÷åáíî-ìåòîäè÷åñêèì îòäåëîì âûñøåãî

Êíèãà äîñòóïíà â ýëåêòðîííîé áèáëèîòå÷íîé ñèñòåìå

Ìîñêâà  Þðàéò  2015

© Ступникова Л. В., 2013

Unit 1. WHAT IS LAW?................................................ 9

В современном мире расширяется сотрудничество между

Exercise 1. Translate the following collocations into

2. body of rules свод правил, совокупность норм

18. concept понятие

19. to define дать определение

20. just / fair справедливый

35. to behave reasonably вести себя разумно

36. everyday activities повседневная жизнь

B. Fill in the gaps with an appropriate word.

A. Give antonyms and translate them.

Exercise 6. Translate the following collocations into

Exercise 7. Insert prepositions consulting the text.

Exercise 11. Use passive sentences in the Past and in

1. There are a lot of important things to do.

1. Он все урегулировал, не обращаясь за помощью к юристу.

1. Я привык заключать сложные сделки.

16. Только когда мы пострадали Only when we are injured in

17. И все же некоторые сделки Even so, some transactions in

19. В целом кажется, что люди во On the whole, it seems that

20. Поскольку страны сотрудни- As countries cooperate more

22. Однако когда оно требует However, when it involves

11. to cooperate [kəuˈɔpəreɪt] сотрудничать

13. to discuss a matter with smb обсудить вопрос с кем-л.

18. lawyer [ˈlɔ:jə] юрист

19. legal [ˈli:ɡəl] юридический, правовой

20. to regulate relations with регулировать отношения

21. satisfactory [ˌsætɪsˈfæktərɪ] удовлетворительный

22. to seek (sought) legal обращаться за помощью к юри-

23. society [səˈsaɪətɪ] общество

24. to solve global problems решать глобальные проблемы

25. transaction [trænˈzækʃən] сделка

Civil law (1) ____________________ relationships among

VI. Key Terms

1. Citizen [ˈsɪtɪzn] is someone who lives in a particular town

VII. Additional Materials

64. сlear distinction четкое различие, разделение

65. to weaken ослабевать

III. Read the text again and do the following exercises.

B. Answer the following questions.

B. Fill in the gaps with the appropriate word.

Exercise 6. Translate the following collocations into

Exercise 7. Insert prepositions consulting the text.

Exercise 8. Fill in the gaps with missing words consulting

1. A new law is adopted.

1. It is important not to exaggerate the differences between

1. Precedent is a decision made by a court on some case that

1. The price of tin (олово) is higher than that of copper (медь).

18. По одному и тому же делу An equitable ruling on the same

27. Так появилось название Thus appeared the name —

B. Tell the text using the following outline.

1. to adopt / pass / produce a law принимать закон

5. to clarify [ˈklærɪfaɪ] a law разъяснять смысл закона

Exercise 1. Read the text below and choose the word

Civil law is the most common system of law in the world.

1. Code [kəud] (statute) a law passed by a legislative body and

2. Common law a legal system developed in the 11th cen­­

4. Equity [ˈekwɪtɪ] a legal system developed in the 14th cen­­

VII. Additional Materials

Exercise 11. Use passive sentences in the Past and in

2. Common law a legal system developed in the 11th cen

4. Equity [ˈekwɪtɪ] a legal system developed in the 14th cen

6. Многие страны проводят важную Many countries make an im