Shlyamova, Azorkina, Fedotova Aviation English. Manual 2018

ФЕДЕРАЛЬНОЕ АГЕНТСТВО ВОЗДУШНОГО ТРАНСПОРТА
ФЕДЕРАЛЬНОЕ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЕ БЮДЖЕТНОЕ

ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНОЕ УЧРЕЖДЕНИЕ ВЫСШЕГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ
«УЛЬЯНОВСКИЙ ИНСТИТУТ ГРАЖДАНСКОЙ АВИАЦИИ
ИМЕНИ ГЛАВНОГО МАРШАЛА АВИАЦИИ Б. П. БУГАЕВА»
АВИАЦИОННЫЙ АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК
УЧЕБНОЕ ПОСОБИЕ
Рекомендовано
редакционно-издательским советом института
Ульяновск 2018
УДК 811.111 (075.8)
ББК Ш143я21-9я7
А20
Авиационный английский язык : учеб. пособие / сост. А. А. Шлямова, Н. Ю. Азорки-
на, О. А. Федотова. – Ульяновск : УИ ГА, 2018. – 124 с.
ISBN 978-5-7514-0270-9
Содержит аутентичные тексты и упражнения для формирования коммуникативной

компетенции для овладения практическими навыками применения авиационного англий-
ского языка в профессиональной сфере общения.
Разработано в соответствии с Федеральным государственным образовательным стан-
дартом и рабочей программой учебной дисциплины «Авиационный английский язык».
Предназначено для проведения практических занятий с курсантами и студентами за-
очной формы обучения специальности «Эксплуатация воздушных судов и организация воз-
душного движения» специализации 25.05.05–01 – Организация летной работы и направле-
ния подготовки «Аэронавигация» профиля подготовки 1. Летная эксплуатация граждан-
ских воздушных судов, а также для самостоятельной работы студентов и авиаспециали-
стов в процессе дополнительного образования.
УДК 811.111 (075.8)
ББК Ш143я21-9я7
ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ
Part I. Airport. Aerodrome ................................................................................................. 3
Part II. Aerodynamics ...................................................................................................... 31
Part III. Aircraft ............................................................................................................... 41
Part IV. Aviation Meteorology .......................................................................................... 63
Part V. Air Navigation ..................................................................................................... 85
Part VI. Air Law .............................................................................................................105
Part VII. Flight Safety .....................................................................................................116
Recommended Books .....................................................................................................121
Bibliography ...................................................................................................................122
ISBN 978-5-7514-0270-9
© ФГБОУ ВО «Ульяновский институт гражданской авиации

имени Главного маршала авиации Б. П. Бугаева», 2018
2
PART I. AIRPORT. AERODROME
The airport is a tremendous asset to the community.

David Gaines
Ex. 1. Read the international words. Translate the words paying attention to the part of
speech.
Airline, airliner, airport, aerodrome, asphalt, baggage, commercial, computer,
configuration, continent, continental, control, electronic, geography, geographical, immigrate,
immigration, infrastructure, international, Internet, instruction, nation, national, passenger,
pilot, physical, radio communication, region, structure, television, terminal, transport,
transportation.
Ex. 2. Study the new words and word combinations.

access n, v доступ, допуск
accessible adj доступный
accommodate v размещать, давать пристанище
acknowledge v подтверждать
Air Traffic Control (ATC) управление воздушным движением (УВД)
airside area контролируемая зона (аэропорта)
apron n перрон
arrive v приезжать, прибывать
arrival n прибытие
arrivals n зд. зал прилета
board v садиться в самолет
comply (with) v выполнять требования
compliance n согласие
in compliance with в соответствии с
concourse n накопитель
depart v отправляться, вылетать
departure n отправление, вылет
departures n зд. зал вылета
expedite v ускорять
expeditious adj ускоренный, быстрый
facility n средство, оборудование
facilities объекты инфраструктуры аэропорта
fuel tank farm топливный парк
handle v управлять, регулировать
hub n транспортный пересадочный узел;
транзитный узел для пересадки пассажиров
landside area привокзальная площадь (аэропорта)
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load n, v 1) груз, нагрузка; 2) грузить, загружать
lounge n зал ожидания аэропорта
maintain v поддерживать, обеспечивать
maintenance n техническое обслуживание
parking lot парковка
ramp n перрон
safety n безопасность
tower n вышка
transfer n, v 1) передача (воздушной перевозки другой авиакомпании);
2) пересадка (на другое воздушное судно); перевозить;
пересаживать(ся); переходить
Ex. 3. A. Add the suffixes to the verbs to form nouns: -ance, -ation, -ence, -er, -ing, -ment,
-or, -sion, -tion, -ture.
To accommodate, to acknowledge, to build, to carry, to depart, to differ, to divide, to equip,
to govern, to handle, to immigrate, to instruct, to maintain, to move, to operate, to require, to
transport, to vary.
B. Form adverbs from the adjectives.

Normal, rapid, tight, typical, general, usual, relative, light, common, safe.
C. Add the suffixes to form adjectives: -able, -al, -ible, -ous and translate the word
combinations from Russian into English.
Access, to change, comfort, to commerce, continent, to control, to expedite, nation, type, to
vary.
Пассажиры коммерческих рейсов; самолеты, используемые обычно для международ-
ных и межконтинентальных перелетов; быстрый поток воздушных судов; зоны, доступ-
ные воздушным судам; управляемый полет; государственная авиакомпания; неустойчи-
вый ветер; комфортабельный салон.
D. Translate the word combinations from English into Russian paying attention to the
words with prefixes.
Airports for international flights; the terms are used interchangeably; underground tunnels;
to prevent overcrowding of the lounge facilities; towered or nontowered (uncontrolled) airports;
immigration facilities are incapable; non-direct flights.
Ex. 4. A. Work in pairs. Discuss the questions.

What are the differences between airports and aerodromes?
What are the similarities between airports and aerodromes?
B. Now read the information below and compare your answers using discourse markers:
Contrast – although, different from, however, in contrast, on the other hand, while.
Compare – as well as, both … and …, compared with, not only … but, similar to.
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Differences
1. Airport is a place where operations relating to flight arrival, departure, and service are carried
out.
Aerodrome is a place where aircraft flight operations take place.
2. Airport has many stringent guidelines issued by ICAO.
Aerodrome has only safety guidelines.
3. Airport is a generic word used throughout the world.
Aerodrome is a word generally used in the UK and Commonwealth Nations.
4. Airport offers many facilities to passengers including lounge, restaurants etc.
Aerodrome does not offer facilities to passengers.
Similarities
1. Both airport and aerodrome are used for flight operations.
2. Both deal with airplanes.
3. Both are generally owned by national government and are leased to operators.
4. Both ensure proper safety of passengers.
Ex. 5. Translate the word combinations into Russian.

To operate an aircraft; to provide safe and efficient movement; smaller or less-developed
airports; paved runways; dirt, grass, or gravel runways; landside and airside areas; depending
on; connected to multiple concourses via walkways, sky-bridges, or underground tunnels; to
park next to a terminal; a more conspicuous level of physical security; an operating control
tower; the safe, orderly, and expeditious flow of air traffic; to maintain two-way radio
communication; to acknowledge and comply with their instructions; within the same country; in
addition to; adjacent infrastructure; both large and small airports.
Ex. 6. A. Read the text.

AIRPORT
Each time a pilot operates an aircraft, the flight normally begins and ends at an airport.
Besides an airport is a facility where passengers depart from and arrive at. Therefore, the main
goal of an airport is to provide safe and efficient movement of passengers and their luggage and
to bring passengers’ comfort up to the desired standard.
Airport may be defined as any area of land or water used or intended for landing or takeoff
of aircraft. An airport includes an area used or intended for airport buildings and facilities. An
airport may be a small sod field or a large complex utilized by air carriers. Smaller or less-
developed airports often have only a single runway shorter than 1,000 m (3,300 ft). Larger
airports for international flights generally have paved runways 2,000 m (6,600 ft) or longer.
Many small airports have dirt, grass, or gravel runways, rather than asphalt or concrete.
Airports are divided into landside and airside areas. Landside areas include parking lots,
fuel tank farms, and access roads. Airside areas include all areas accessible to aircraft, including
runways, taxiways, and ramps. Access from landside areas to airside areas is tightly controlled
at most airports. Passengers on commercial flights access airside areas through terminals, where
they purchase tickets, transfer their luggage, go through security, and board aircraft.
5
The buildings that provide access to the airplanes (via gates) are typically called
concourses. However, the terms "terminal" and "concourse" are sometimes used
interchangeably, depending on the configuration of the airport.
Sample Infrastructure of a Typical Airport

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Airport_infrastructure.png)
Smaller airports have one terminal while larger airports have several terminals and / or
concourses. Some larger airports have one terminal that is connected to multiple concourses via
walkways, sky-bridges, or underground tunnels. Some larger airports have more than one
terminal, each with one or more concourses. Multiple lounges prevent overcrowding of the
lounge facilities. Lounges typically have seating, showers, quiet areas, televisions, computer,
Wi-Fi and Internet access, and power outlets that passengers may use for their electronic
equipment.
The area where aircraft park next to a terminal to load passengers and baggage is known as
a ramp. Parking areas for aircraft away from terminals are generally called aprons.
Customs facilities for international
flights define an international airport,
and often require a more conspicuous
level of physical security. International
areas usually have a duty-free shop
where travelers are not required to pay
the usual duty fees on items.
Both large and small airports can be
towered or nontowered (uncontrolled),
depending on air traffic density and Control Tower
(https://static.independent.co.uk/s3fs-
available funds. A towered airport has
public/thumbnails/image/2016/05/04/12/6742252.jpg)
an operating control tower. Air traffic
control (ATC) is responsible for providing the safe, orderly, and expeditious flow of air traffic
at airports where the type of operations and / or volume of traffic requires such a service. Pilots
operating from a towered airport are required to maintain two-way radio communication with
6
ATC and to acknowledge and comply with their instructions. A nontowered airport does not
have an operating control tower. Two-way radio communications are not required.
Airports can be regional, domestic, and international.
A regional airport is an airport serving traffic within a relatively small or lightly populated
geographical area. A regional airport usually does not have customs and immigration facilities
to provide traffic between countries.
A domestic airport is an airport which handles only domestic flights or flights within the
same country. Domestic airports do not have customs and immigration facilities and are
therefore incapable of handling flights to or from a foreign airport.
An international airport is an airport typically equipped with customs and immigration
facilities to handle international flights to and from other countries. Such airports are usually
larger, and often feature longer runways and facilities to accommodate the large aircraft
commonly used for international or intercontinental travel.
Many international airports also serve as "hubs", or places where non-direct flights may
land and passengers switch planes. International airports often have many airlines represented,
and many of these are often foreign.
In addition to people, airports are responsible for moving large volumes of cargo. Cargo
airlines often have their own on-site and adjacent infrastructure to rapidly transfer parcels
between ground and air modes of transportation.
Airports are vital national resources. They serve a key role in transportation of people and
goods and in regional, national, and international commerce.
B. Divide the text into logical parts and entitle them. Summarize the information of each
part in a sentence.
C. Look back at the Sample infrastructure of a typical airport in the text and decide which
airport items belong to the landside area and which ones to the airside area.
D. Work in pair. Answer the questions.

1. What do airports differ in?
2. What is an airport main purpose / role?
3. What are the two main airport areas?
4. What are terminals / concourses designated for?
5. What are pilots operating from a towered airport required to do?
6. What are identifying features of international airports?
Ex. 7. Match the words in column A with their synonyms in column B.

A B
1. be equipped with a. uncontrolled
2. nontowered b. be fitted (fit) with
3. to maintain c. to house
4. to accommodate d. to differ
5. to board e. to operate
6. to comply with f. to demand
7. to control g. to embark
8. to transfer h. to follow
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9. to require i. to deliver
10. to vary j. to use
11. to utilize k. to provide
Ex. 8. A. Read the text and complete gaps with the prepositions.
for of under up in to at into with by off from
AIRPORT HISTORY
The first use (1) ……… the term "airport" appeared in a New York Times article in 1902,
where Alberto Santos-Dumont stated that he expected New York to be the principal "airport" of
the world in less than a score of years.
The earliest aircraft takeoff and landing sites were grassy fields. The plane could approach
(2) ……… any angle that provided a favorable wind direction. A slight improvement was the
dirt-only field, which eliminated the drag (3) ……… grass. However, these only functioned
well (4) ……… dry conditions. Later, concrete surfaces would allow landings, rain or shine,
day or night.
The title of "world’s oldest airport" is disputed, but College Park Airport in Maryland, US,
established in 1909 (5) ……… Wilbur Wright, is generally agreed to be the world's oldest
continually operating airfield, although it serves only general aviation traffic.
In 1922, the first permanent airport and commercial terminal solely (6) ……… commercial
aviation was built at Königsberg, Germany. The airports of this era used a paved "apron",
which permitted night flying as well as heavier aircraft landing.
The first lighting used on an airport was during the later 1920s; in the 1930s approach
lighting came (7) ……… use. These indicated the proper direction and angle of descent. The
colours and flash intervals of these lights became standardized (8) ……… the International
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). In the 1940s, the slope-line approach system was
introduced.
An improvement in the landing field was the introduction of grooves in the concrete
surface. These run perpendicular (9) ……… the direction of the landing aircraft and serve to
draw (10) ……… excess water in rainy conditions that could build (11) ……… in front of the
plane's wheels.
Airport construction boomed during the 1960s (12) ……… the increase in jet aircraft
traffic.
B. Match the dates with the events.

Date Event
1902 The first permanent airport was built.
1909 The approach lighting came into use.
1922 The term "airport" appeared.
1920s The slope-line approach system was introduced.
1930s College Park Airport in MD, US, was established.
1940s The first lighting was used.
C. Work in pairs. Make up a dialogue with a journalist about the airport history.
8
Ex. 9. A. Read the text and think of the questions to ask the group. Comment on the
answers if they are not full.
TERMINAL CONFIGURATIONS
An airport terminal is a building at an airport where passengers transfer between ground
transportation and the facilities that allow them to board and disembark from aircraft.
Due to the rapid rise in popularity of passenger flight, many early terminals were built in
the 1930s–1940s. Early airport terminals opened directly onto the tarmac: passengers would
walk or take a bus to their aircraft. This design is still common among smaller airports.
A pier design uses a small, narrow building with aircraft parked on both sides. One end
connects to a ticketing and baggage claim area. Most large international airports have piers,
including Chicago’s O’Hare International Airport, Larnaca International Airport, Frankfurt
International Airport, London Heathrow Airport, Rome Fiumicino Airport, etc.
A satellite terminal is a building detached from other airport buildings, so that aircraft can
park around its entire circumference. The first airport to use a satellite terminal was London
Gatwick Airport. It used an underground pedestrian tunnel to connect the satellite to the main
terminal. Paris’s Charles de Gaulle Airport (Terminal 1), Geneva International Airport and
London Gatwick Airport (South Terminal) have circular satellite terminals, connected by
walkways.
Lisbon International Airport (Terminal 2) has a small rectangular satellite terminal,
connect by a free shuttle service (accessible by Terminal 1, every 10 minutes).
Orlando International Airport and Pittsburgh International Airport have multi-pier satellite
terminals.
Denver International Airport, Cincinnati / Northern Kentucky International Airport, and
Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport have linear satellite terminals connected by
central passages. The linear satellite terminals are connected by automatic people movers. In
the Atlanta and Cincinnati airports, underground moving walkways also connect the linear
satellite terminals.
Kuala Lumpur International Airport has a cross-shaped satellite terminal which is used for
international flights.
Terminal Configurations
(https://everipedia-storage.s3.amazonaws.com/NewlinkFiles/1205269/5033579.png)
9
Some airports use a semicircular terminal, with aircraft parked on one side and cars on the
other. This design results in long walks for connecting passengers, but greatly reduces travel
times between check-in and the aircraft. Airports designed around this model include Charles
de Gaulle Airport (terminal 2).
One rarer terminal design is the mobile lounge, where passengers are transported from the
gate to their aircraft in a large vehicle which docks directly to the terminal and the aircraft.
Hybrid layouts also exist. San Francisco International Airport and Melbourne Airport use a
hybrid pier-semicircular layout and a pier layout for the rest.
B. Search the Internet to find the information about different terminal configurations of
Russian airports and make a presentation.
Ex. 10. A. Read the text again and find the words or phrases to the definitions.
1. An area of tarmac, concrete, etc., outside a hangar for parking aircraft.
2. A temporary pass, issued at the check-in desk, which allows the holder to board the
aircraft.
3. The door through which passengers leave the terminal building to get on to an aircraft.
4. The time when passengers are due to board the aircraft.
5. A rotating platform from where arriving passengers can pick up their baggage.
6. Aircraft used to carry cargo or passengers for payment.
7. A room at an airport where passengers wait to board their aircraft.
8. The act of leaving the aircraft after landing.
9. An amount, usually expressed as weight, of baggage which exceeds the airline’s limit per
passenger.
10. A scheduled airline journey.
11. Anything other than people transported by a vessel or vehicle, especially by a
commercial carrier.
12. A major airport where international or long-distance flights take off and land.
13. A covered walkway from an airport departure gate that connects to the door of an
aircraft, used by passengers and crew getting on and off the aircraft.
B. Give definitions to the terms.

Aerodrome, airport, airside, arrivals, baggage, check-in, departures, domestic, embarkation,
hand luggage, landside, passport control, transit passenger.
Ex. 11. A. Match the airport signs with their Russian and English equivalents.
Russian term English term Sign
1. Регистрация A. Baggage Claim a.
Транзит
2. B. Nursery b.
Транзитная зона
3. Зона (зал) прилета C. Customs c.
10
4. Розыск багажа D. Information Desk (Info) d.
5. Эскалатор E. Arrivals (Arrivals Hall) e.
Transfer
6. Зона (зал) вылета F. (Connecting flights) f.
Transit Centre
7. Обмен валюты G. Check-in g.
8. Паспортный контроль H. Escalator h.
9. Информационная стойка I. Passport Control i.
10. Таможенный контроль J. Lost and Found j.
11. Кафе K. Drinking Water k.
12. Выдача багажа L. ATM (Cash Mashine) l.
Money Exchange
Комната матери и
13. M. (Currency Exchange, m.
ребенка
Foreign Exchange)
Departures
14. Банкомат N. n.
(Departures Hall)
15. Камера хранения O. Elevator / Lift o.
16. Лифт P. Café p.
17. Автобусная станция Q. Airoport Hotel q.
Bus Station (Coach

18. Питьевая вода R. r.
Station)
Taxi (Taxi Station / Taxi
19. Прокат машин S. s.
Meter)
Trains / Local Trains
20. Такси T. t.
(Suburbain Trains)
Left Luggage
21. Еда и напитки U. u.
(Left baggage)
22. Парковка V. Car Rent (Car Hire) v.
Car Park (Car Parking,

23. Гостиница при аэропорте W. w.
Parking Lot)
Поезда
24. X. Food and Beverage x.
Пригородные поезда
11
B. Match the terminal information signs in column A with their English equivalents in
column B.
A B
1. Ворота (ко всем воротам) a. Exit (Way Out)
2. Выход b. Gates (All Gates)
3. Авиабилеты c. First Aid
4. Стойки авиакомпаний d. Flight Info
5. Информационное табло e. Red Channel, Goods To Declare
6. Аварийный выход f. Railway / Railroad Station
7. Зеленый канал (таможня) g. Tourist Information
8. Красный канал (таможня) h. Airlines Desks / Airlines Representatives
9. Информация для туристов i. Metro / Subway
10. Первая медицинская помощь j. Green Channel, Nothing To Declare
11. Почта k. Transit Lounge
12. Зал ожидания l. Emergency Exit
13. Зал ожидания для пассажиров m. Tax-Free Refund / Tax Refund / Cash Refund
первого класса (бизнес-класса)
14. Возврат такс-фри n. First Class Lounge / Business Class Lounge
15. Железнодорожная станция o. Post Office
16. Метро p. Tickets / Ticketing
Ex. 12. A. Study the facilities essential for passengers at the airport. Decide which are
essential for departing and arriving passengers.
Check-in facilities, including a baggage drop-off; Security clearance gates; Passport control
(for some international flights); Gates; Waiting areas; Passport control (international arrivals
only); Baggage reclaim facilities, often in the form of a carousel; Customs (international
arrivals only); A landside meeting place.
B. Render the information about the airport passenger processing system into English.
1. В аэропорту пассажиры проходят реги-

страцию на рейс. Над стойкой регистра-
ции висит табло с логотипом авиакомпа-
нии, номером рейса и пунктом назначе-
ния. Регистрация начинается за 2 ч до вы-
лета и заканчивается за 30–40 мин до вы-
лета. При регистрации пассажир должен
Регистрация в аэропорту предъявить паспорт и авиабилет. Если у
обычным способом с очередью
(https://aviasovet.ru/blog/wp- пассажира электронный билет, он предъ-
content/uploads/2013/04/registracija-v-ajeroportu- являет только паспорт.
1024x557.jpg)
12
2. На информационном табло указываются
номер рейса, пункт назначения, время от-
правления и номер стойки регистрации на
рейс.
Табло вылетов в аэропорту Шереметьево

(https://aviasovet.ru/blog/wp-
content/uploads/2013/04/tablo-vyletov.jpg)
3. Багаж пассажиров взвешивается, на него

наклеивается специальная бирка с номером
рейса и пунктом назначения. Кроме того,
пассажиры предъявляют ручную кладь.
Обработка багажа
(https://aviasovet.ru/blog/wp-content/uploads/
2013/04/sumka-s-bagazhnoj-birkoj.jpg)
4. При регистрации пассажирам выдают

посадочный талон и багажные бирки, ко-
торые помогут найти багаж после прилета.
На посадочном талоне указываются номер
Посадочный талон
гейта для посадки на самолет и место в
(https://blog.kupibilet.ru/wp- салоне воздушного судна.
content/uploads/2012/03/BoardingPass.png)
5. В зоне предполетного досмотра пассажи-

ры проходят через рамку, где их досматри-
вают на наличие запрещенных к перевозу
вещей. Представители пограничной службы
проверяют паспорт и визу при необходимо-
сти.
Металлодетектор в аэропорту
(https://aviasovet.ru/blog/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/
metallodetektor-v-ajeroportu-1024x768.jpg)
6. На международных рейсах перед реги-

страцией все пассажиры должны пройти
таможенный контроль через два коридора:
«красный» или «зеленый». «Зеленый ко-
ридор» предназначен для пассажиров, ко-
торые не везут с собой товары, подлежа-
«Зеленый коридор» в аэропорту щие обязательному письменному декла-
(http://www.bashinform.ru/upload/img_res1280 рированию.
/d4f6e67302135947/yrov5167_jpg_ejw_1280.jpg)
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7. «Красный коридор» предназначен для
пассажиров, имеющих товары, подлежащие
обязательному письменному декларирова-
нию.
«Красный коридор» в аэропорту

(https://www.kzn.ru/upload/iblock/abc/
krasnyy-koridor-tekst.jpg)
8. В зале ожидания расположены кафе и

магазины беспошлинной торговли.
Зал ожидания вылета в аэропорту

(https://aviasovet.ru/blog/wp-content/
uploads/2013/04/zal-ozhidanija-v-ajeroportu.jpg)
9. После объявления посадки на рейс пасса-

жиры идут к гейту, предъявляют посадоч-
ный талон и паспорт представителю авиа-
компании.
Необходимо сохранять талон до получения
багажа в аэропорту прилета.
Выход на посадку
(https://blog.kupibilet.ru/wp-
content/uploads/2012/03/HPIM1314.jpg)
10. Перронный автобус доставляет

пассажиров к трапу самолета. В больших
аэропортах есть телескопические мосты,
по которым можно прямо из терминала
попасть на борт самолета.
Телескопический трап
(https://blog.kupibilet.ru/wp-content/uploads/
2012/03/03-Boeing-777-300-plane-at-the-gate.jpg)
14
11. После приземления пассажиры попадают в зал прилета аэропорта, проходят пас-
портный и таможенный контроль и забирают свой багаж.
Зона получения багажа Карусель

(https://sabai.tv/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/ (http://www.interfax.ru/ftproot/textphotos
sample_980_0_1403220240_bangkok4.jpg) /2013/08/05/bag.jpg)
Ex. 13. Work in pairs. Describe the picture.
Регистрация с помощью киоска самостоятельной онлайн-регистрации

(https://aviasovet.ru/blog/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/registracija-s-
pomoshhju-kioska-onlajn-registracii-1024x647.jpg)
Ex. 14. Work in pairs. Describe a recent problem you faced at the terminal and say how
you dealt with it.
Ex. 15. A. Search the Internet to make presentation on one of the topics.
1. The busiest world airports.
2. Dangerous airports of the world.
3. The largest International airports.
B. Guide your friend through the airport of your native city.

bearing n пеленг
compass bearing пеленг, взятый относительно магнитного севера
clearway n зона, свободная от препятствий (зона свободных
15
подходов)
climb v, n 1) набирать высоту; 2) набор высоты
concrete n, adj 1) бетон; 2) бетонный
convergence n схождение
drag n лобовое сопротивление
intersect v пересекаться
lift n подъемная сила
maintenance n техническое обслуживание
manoeuvring area зона маневрирования
movement area рабочая площадь аэродрома
reciprocal adj обратный (встречный)
rectangular adj прямоугольный
reject v прекращать, прерывать (взлет)
slow down замедлять, снижать скорость
threshold n торец (ВПП)
vacate v освобождать (ВПП)

AERODROME
The term aerodrome is more general than airport, and covers any location from which
aircraft flight operations take place. According to the International Civil Aviation Organization
an aerodrome is "A defined area on land or water (including any buildings, installations, and
equipment) intended to be used either wholly or in part for the arrival, departure, and surface
movement of aircraft".
Though aerodromes differ in size, category, and purpose, all of them include landside and
airside areas. Airside area is the part of an airport where the aircraft take off and land, load, or
unload while the landside area is the part of an airport farthest from the aircraft. Access to
airside areas is subject to security controls. The airside has two areas – movement and
manoeuvering. The manoeuvring area is the part of the aerodrome used for the take-off, landing
and taxiing of aircraft excluding aprons. That part of an aerodrome to be used for the take-off,
landing and taxiing of aircraft, consisting of the manoeuvring area and the apron(s) is called the
movement area. A defined area, on a land aerodrome, intended to accommodate aircraft for
purposes of loading or unloading passengers, mail or cargo, fuelling, parking or maintenance is
called apron or ramp.
Manoeuvring Area
A runway (RWY) is the most critical part of an airfield. A runway is a defined rectangular
area of a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and take-off of aircraft. It is characterized by
such parameters as runway orientation, length and width, surface type, sections, and strength.
Runways are numbered according the magnetic compass direction they are oriented to.
They consist of two numbers, one at each end of the runway, each being the reciprocal of the
other on the magnetic compass (180° opposite from each other).
One number is formed by rounding the compass bearing of one end of the runway up or
down to the nearest 10° and dropping the last digit; if this results in a single digit, zero is added
16
to the left of it. The other number is the reciprocal of the first number. For example, if a runway
is aligned north-south, then it is 18/36. The lower number is always listed first. Runways have
two ends. Each end is considered a different runway, even though it is the same actual runway
surface.
When an airport has multiple parallel runways, they will all be oriented the same direction.
When this happens, they assign a letter, either L = Left, C = Center, or R = Right to the runway
number.
Which direction the runways are built is determined as a part of airport design, where the
designers research the prevailing winds – the direction of wind – specific to the area. Aircraft
depart and land into the wind in order to maximize lift when taking off and drag while landing,
and to minimize ground roll. There are four main runway configurations – a single runway,
parallel runways, open-V or near parallel runways (their center lines have an angle of
convergence / divergence of 15 degrees or less; when viewed overhead the shape is a V), and
intersecting runways. The latter two types are relevant in locations where the direction of the
prevailing winds changes.
A runway can have different sections that can be used by aircraft for taxi, landing or take-
off operation. The normal used portion of the runway is from threshold to opposite threshold,
but does not include overrun. Blast pad, overrun areas or stopways are often constructed just
before the start of a runway where jet blast produced by large planes during the take-off roll
could otherwise erode the ground and eventually damage the runway. A stopway shall have the
same width as the runway with which it is associated. Overrun areas are also constructed at the
end of runways as emergency space to slowly stop planes that overrun the runway, or to slowly
stop a plane in case of a rejected take-off or a take-off gone wrong. Aircraft are not allowed to
taxi, take-off or land on blast pads, except in an emergency.
A clearway is a defined rectangular area on the ground or water under the control of the
appropriate authority, selected or prepared as a suitable area over which an aircraft may make a
portion of its initial climb to a specified height.
The choice of material used to construct a runway depends on the use and the local ground
conditions. Runways may be a man-made surface (often asphalt, concrete, or a mixture of both)
or a natural surface (grass, dirt, gravel, ice, snow, or salt). Water runways do not have a type
code as they do not have physical markings, and are thus not registered as specific runways.
The runway length is generally: 500 to 1000 m long and 25–45 m wide for small airfields;
2,000 to 4,200 m long and 45–60 m wide for the larger airfields. Ulyanovsk Vostochny Airport
(IATA: ULY, ICAO: UWLW) runway is the third longest public use runway in the world with
a length of 5,000 m (16,000 ft). The runway is also the widest, with a total width of about
105 m (344 ft). The airport also features a very long taxiway that connects to the local Aviastar
plant.
A taxiway (TWY) is a path for aircraft at an airport connecting runways with aprons,
hangars, terminals and other facilities. They mostly have a hard surface such as asphalt or
concrete, although smaller general aviation airports sometimes use gravel or grass. The surface
of a paved taxiway shall be so constructed as to provide good friction characteristics when the
taxiway is wet.
Busy airports typically construct high-speed or rapid-exit taxiways to allow aircraft to leave
the runway at higher speeds. This allows the aircraft to vacate the runway quicker, permitting
17
another to land or take off in a shorter interval of time. This is usually accomplished by making
the exiting taxiway longer, thus giving the aircraft more space in which to slow down.

International Air Transport Association; International Civil Aviation Organization; a
defined rectangular area; the magnetic compass direction; multiple parallel runways; to
minimize ground roll; open-V or near parallel runways; the normal used portion of the runway;
jet blast produced by large planes; under the control of the appropriate authority; the third
longest public use runway in the world; to provide good friction characteristics.
A B
1. asphalt a. vital
2. take-off roll b. to join
3. to reject c. ramp
4. to allow d. rapid-exit TWY
5. man-made e. to leave
6. to connect f. to succeed
7. critical g. ground roll
8. apron h. to abort
9. high speed TWY i. tarmac
10. to vacate j. to clear
11. to accomplish k. artificial
Ex. 20. Match the terms with their Russian equivalents.

1. blast pad a. глиссада
2. blast fence b. господствующие ветры
3. displaced threshold c. концевая полоса безопасности (КПБ)
4. glidepath d. начальный этап набора высоты
5. holding bay e. зона выкатывания
6. holding point f. концевая полоса торможения
7. hotspot g. газоотбойная решетка
8. initial climb h. смещенный порог ВПП
9. jet blast i. скоростная РД
10. overrun area j. предварительный старт
11. prevailing winds k. площадка ожидания, «карман»
12. rapid-exit taxiway l. площадка для опробования двигателя
13. run up area m. разбег
14. stop way n. реактивная струя
15. take-off roll o. место с наибольшим пересечением РД и ВПП
18
Ex. 21. A. Read the text again and find the words or phrases that correspond to the
definitions.
1. A cleared level area at the end of a runway, available in case a plane does not stop
quickly enough.
2. The part of the aerodrome used for the take-off, landing and taxiing of aircraft excluding
aprons.
3. A defined rectangular area of a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and take-off of
aircraft.
4. Any area of land or water designed for the taking off and landing of aircraft.
5. An area beyond the runway, free of obstructions and under the control of the airport
authorities.
6. A defined area on a land aerodrome intended to accommodate aircraft for purposes of
loading or unloading passengers, mail or cargo, fuelling, parking or maintenance.
7. The part of an aerodrome used for the take-off, landing and taxiing of aircraft, consisting
of the manoeuvring area and the apron(s).
8. A defined rectangular area on the ground at the end of take-off run available prepared as
a suitable area in which an aircraft can be stopped in the case of an abandoned take-off.
9. The beginning of the part of the runway, usable for landing.
B. Label the types of runway configuration.

parallel open-V or near-parallel intersecting
a single runway b c d
runways runways runways
1 2 3 4
Ex. 22. Work in pairs. Answer the questions.

1. What is an aerodrome?
2. What areas does and aerodrome include?
3. What is airside?
4. What is the difference between movement and manoeuvring areas?
5. What is runway?
6. How are runways numbered?
7. What are runways configurations?
8. What is stopway / clearway?
9. What is taxiway intended for?
10. Why do busy airports have rapid-exit taxiways?
Ex. 23. Translate the sentences into English.

1. Место стоянки – это выделенный участок на перроне, предназначенный для стоян-
ки воздушного судна.
2. Определенная площадь сухопутного аэродрома, предназначенная для размещения
воздушных судов в целях посадки или высадки пассажиров, погрузки или выгрузки по-
19
чты или грузов, заправки, стоянки или технического обслуживания, называется перро-
ном.
3. Площадкой ожидания называется определенная площадка для временной стоянки
воздушных судов или их объезда с целью упорядочения наземного движения воздушных
судов.
4. Место ожидания у ВПП – это определенное место, где рулящие воздушные суда и
транспортные средства останавливаются и ожидают, если нет иного указания от аэро-
дромного диспетчерского пункта.
5. Концевая полоса торможения – специально подготовленный прямоугольный уча-
сток в конце располагаемой дистанции разбега, предназначенный для остановки воздуш-
ного судна в случае прерванного взлета.
6. На девиационной площадке определяется и устраняется девиация магнитных, гид-
ромагнитных и радиокомпасов, а также отрабатываются антенные устройства воздушных
судов.
Ex. 24. A. Decode the abbreviations and decide on the description of each section of the
runway.
A. Take Off Distance a. The length of the stop way.
1. TORA
Available
b. The length of runway that is declared
available and suitable for the ground run of an
B. Landing Distance
2. RESA airplane landing. It never includes runway
Available
section before displaced threshold before
touchdown point.
c. An area beyond the paved runway, free of
obstructions and under the control of the airport
C. Accelerate-Stop
3. CWY authorities. Its length may be included in the
Distance Available
length of the take-off distance available
(TODA).
D. Emergency Distance d. The maximum length of runway available for
4. TODA
Available an emergency landing.
e. The length of the take-off run available plus
the length of the stop way, if stop way is
5. ASDA E. Clearway
provided. It is the maximum run distance for an
aircraft when performing a rejected take-off.
f. The length of the take-off run available plus
the length of the clearway and stop band, if
F. Runway End Safety
6. LDA clearway or stop band is provided. This distance
Area
is the take-off distance for an aircraft to reach
the minimum 50 ft.
g. The length of runway declared available and
G. Take Off Run suitable for the ground run of an airplane taking
7. EDA
Available off. This means the maximum run distance for
an aircraft during a take-off.
20
B. Now work in groups. Discuss your answers.
Ex. 25. A. Complete the text. Use these words and word combinations.
air traffic controllers incursion pilots familiarity avoid hotspots
hazardous intersection path of movement movement area
up-to-date diagram incidents collision
HOT SPOTS
Many aerodromes have (1) ……… locations on taxiways and / or runways where (2)
……… have occurred. Such positions are commonly referred to as "hot spots". ICAO defines a
hot spot as a location on an aerodrome (3) …….. with a history or potential risk of (4) ………
or runway (5) ……… , and where heightened attention by pilots and drivers is necessary.
A hot spot is a runway safety related problem typically at a complex or confusing taxiway /
taxiway or taxiway / runway (6) ……… .
ICAO recommends the local generation of Aeronautical Information Publications (AIPs)
charts to show runway (7) ……… , which, once issued, must be kept up to date and revised as
necessary. Be certain to use the most (8) ……… .
Hot Spots
(https://www.faa.gov/airports/runway_safety/hotspots/hotspots_list/
media/Hot-Spots-Web-Banner-July-2013-Small.jpg)
By identifying hot spots, it is easier for users of an airport to plan the safest possible
(9) ……… in and around that airport. Planning is a crucial safety activity for airport users –
both (10) ……… and (11) ……… alike. By making sure that aircraft surface movements are
planned and properly coordinated with air traffic control, pilots add another layer of safety to
their flight preparations. Proper planning helps (12) ……… confusion by eliminating last-
minute questions and building (13) ……… with known problem areas.
B. Work in pairs. Explain the meanings of the words. Agree / disagree with your partner’s
definitions.
Accident, chart, collision, confusion, incident, runway incursion, runway excursion.
C. Tell the group a story about any runway incursion / excursion.

Say: Describe:
– what happened; – result(s);
– when and where. – cause(s).

approach n, v 1) подход, заход на посадку;
2) заходить на посадку, приближаться
available adj располагаемый, пригодный
21
beacon n маяк, приводная радиостанция
centerline n осевая линия
edge n край, кромка
hold v ожидать
identify v обозначать
Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) правила полетов по приборам (ППП)
mandatory adj обязательный
obstruction n препятствие
reduce v сокращать, уменьшать
reduction n сокращение
visible adj видимый
Visual Flight Rules (VFR) правила визуальных полетов (ПВП)

AIRPORT MARKINGS, SIGNS, AND LIGHTING
It is important that all pilots be thoroughly familiar with the meanings of the signs,
markings, and lights that are used on airports as surface navigational aids. They provide
directions and assist pilots in airport operations. All airport markings are painted on the surface,
whereas some signs are vertical and some are painted on the surface.
Runway markings vary depending on the type of operations conducted at the airport.
Runways are marked with white colours. A basic VFR (Visual Flight Rules) runway may only
have centerline markings and runway numbers. The centerline should also be clearly visible as
well as the runway exits leading to taxiways.
Runway Markings
(https://www.goldsealgroundschool.com/goldmethod/images/quiz/overview/runway-markings.jpg)
Another feature of some runways is a displaced threshold. A threshold may be displaced

because of an obstruction near the end of the runway. A displaced threshold is a threshold
located at a point on the runway other than the designated beginning of the runway.
Displacement of a threshold reduces the length of runway available for landings. Although this
portion of the runway is not to be used for landing, it may be available for taxiing, takeoffs or a
landing. The portion of runway behind a displaced threshold is available for takeoffs in either
direction, or landings from the opposite direction.
22
Aircraft use taxiways to transition from parking areas to the runway. Taxiway direction
signs have a yellow background and black characters, which identifies the designation or
intersecting taxiways. Arrows indicate the direction of turn that would place the aircraft on the
designated taxiway. Direction signs are normally located on the left side of the taxiway and
prior to the intersection. These signs and markings (with a yellow background and black
characters) indicate the direction toward a different taxiway, leading off a runway, or out of an
intersection. Taxiways are identified by a continuous yellow centerline stripe and may include
edge markings to define the edge of the taxiway. This is usually done when the taxiway edge
does not correspond with the edge of the pavement. If an edge marking is a continuous line, the
paved shoulder is not intended to be used by an aircraft. If it is a dashed marking, an aircraft
may use that portion of the pavement. Where a taxiway approaches a runway, there may be a
holding position marker. These consist of four yellow lines (two solid and two dashed). The
solid lines are where the aircraft is to hold.
There are various lights that identify parts of the runway complex. These assist a pilot in
safely making a takeoff or landing during night operations. According to agreed international
standards runway lighting is as follows:
– green threshold lights mark the beginning of a runway;
– red lights mark the end of a runway;
– white or yellow lights mark the edges of a runway;
– white and red lights (Runway Center Line Lighting System) show a RWY centerline;
– white lights on either side of the center line (Touchdown Zone lights) indicate the
touchdown zone;
– blue lights indicate taxiways.
There are rotating beacons which indicate the type of airport by the combination of light
colors:
– flashing white and green for civilian land airports;
– flashing white and yellow for a water airport;
– flashing white, yellow, and green for a heliport;
– two quick white flashes alternating with a green flash identifying a military airport.
B. Divide the text into logical parts and entitle them.
C. Ask questions on each logical part.
D. Summarize the text using the questions as a plan.
E. Search the Internet to find information and present a report about other aerodrome
lighting aids.

Flashing lights; touchdown zone lights; runway center line lighting system; a holding
position marker; a dashed marking; taxiway edge markings; a continuous yellow centerline
stripe; taxiway direction signs; intersecting taxiways; Visual Flight Rules; surface navigational
aids.
Ex. 29. Match the words in column A with their antonyms in column B.
A B
1. familiar a. to displace
23
2. vertical b. ahead
3. Visual Flight Rules c. to increase
4. to place d. unfamiliar
5. to reduce e. same
6. behind f. horizontal
7. opposite g. dashed
8. continuous h. Instrument Flight Rules
Ex. 30. Label runway markings using these terms.

Fixed Distance Markers RWY Designator Touchdown Zone Centerline
Threshold Blast Pad / Stopway Displaced Threshold
Runway Markings [3]
Ex. 31. A. Study the signs. Describe what you see. Translate the appropriate pilot actions
from English into Russian.
Airport Signs [5]
B. There are six basic types of airport signs – mandatory, location, direction, destination,
information, and runway distance remaining. Work in pairs. Match the information in
columns A, B, and C.
A B C
a. They are used to identify a taxiway or
A. Yellow background
1. Mandatory runway location, to identify the boundary
with black inscription
instruction signs of the runway, or identify an instrument
and also contain arrows.
landing system (ILS) critical area.
2. Location signs B. Black with yellow b. These signs denote an entrance to a
24
inscription and a yellow runway, critical area, or prohibited area.
border, no arrows.
c. These signs are used to provide the pilot
with information on such things as areas
that cannot be seen from the control tower,
C. Yellow background
3. Direction signs applicable radio frequencies, and noise
with black inscription.
abatement procedures. The airport operator
determines the need, size, and location of
these signs.
D. Red background with d. The numbers indicate the distance of the
4. Destination signs
white inscription. remaining runway in thousands of feet.
e. The inscription identifies the designation
E. Yellow background
5. Information signs of the intersecting taxiway(s) leading out of
with black inscription.
an intersection.
f. These signs provide information on
6. Runway Distance F. Black background
locating things, such as runways, terminals,
Remaining Signs with white numbers.
cargo areas, and civil aviation areas.
C. Look at the table (Ex. 31 A) and define the type of each sign.
Ex. 32. Match the layouts in column A with the signs in column B and their descriptions in
column C.
A B C
1 A. Taxiway a. Hold here. In this example, the
direction threshold for runway 15 is to a pilot’s
left and the threshold for runway 33 is
to a pilot’s right. This sign is located
next to the yellow holding position
marking painted on taxiways. The "A"
sign is the Taxiway location sign. It
indicates the taxiway an aircraft is on.
2 B. Runway b. Hold at this sign on the taxiway,
approach area where the ILS is in use and the
holding position weather is less than 800 feet and 2
sign miles. Aircraft taxiing beyond this
point may interfere with the ILS signal
to approaching aircraft.
3 C. ILS critical c. Taxiing past this sign may interfere

area holding with operations on the runway. In this
position sign case, aircraft arriving to runway 15 or
departing from runway 33. It is
located next to the yellow Holding
position markings painted on the
taxiway pavement. The aircraft has to
25
stop on the solid lines side of the
marking. The dashed lines show the
direction towards the runway. Planes
must stop at this line until cleared.
4 D. Runway d. The yellow signs usually seen next

holding position to a taxiway location sign, indicate the
sign direction of intersecting taxiways. In
this example taxiway Charlie is to the
left and right, and Alpha takes a turn
to the right ahead.
Ex. 33. Work in groups. Discuss the questions.
(https://standupwrite.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/GSE1.jpg)
1. What makes an airport an extremely busy and dangerous place?

2. What vehicles besides aircraft move around the airport?
3. What are the most common vehicles that you see?
4. What vehicles do you rely on for your flights?
Ex. 34. Scan the abstract and find the names of airport vehicles to complete the definitions
below.
AIRPORT VEHICLES
Airport vehicles and ground support equipment (GSE) are used to transport passengers as
well as baggage and freight, to support maintenance and repair functions, and to provide power
to various service functions. Vehicles and equipment at airports fall into two broad categories.
Landside vehicles and equipment are used on the passenger/entry side of the airport. Airside
vehicles are used principally (at least half of the time) on the tarmac. The airport GSE category
is restricted to air-side equipment and includes aircraft pushback tugs, baggage and cargo tugs,
carts, forklifts and lifts, ground power units, air conditioning units, belt loaders, and other
equipment. It also includes vehicles such as light duty trucks that are used for airplane
26
maintenance and fueling on the airside of airport operations. Ground Support Equipment is used
the moment an aircraft lands and until it takes off. GSE is used for towing, powering, and
servicing.
1. ……… transport luggage or cargo between aircraft and terminals.
2. ……… is a self-propelled conveyer belt that moves baggage and cargo between the
ground and the airport.
3. ……… include equipment for lifting and loading cargo.
4. ……… provides electricity to parked aircraft.
Ex. 35. Match the names of airport ground support vehicles and their functions. Test each
other in pairs.
1 2
3 4
5 6
7 8
27
9 10
11 12
13 14
15 16
17 18
28
19 20
21 22
a. Garbage Trucks collect garbage for aircraft.

b. Pallets and Containers Loaders load and unload containers and pallet cargoes into and
out of aircraft.
c. Aircraft Tractors are used for push-back, repositioning and maintenance towing of a
variety of aircraft.
d. Ground Power Unit Vehicles provide AC or DC power supply system to a variety of
aircraft.
e. Taxibot is a semi-robotic towbarless aircraft tractor developed to tow an aircraft from the
terminal gate to the take-off point (taxi-out phase) and return it to the gate after landing (taxi-in
phase).
f. Airport Snow Sweepers Vehicles remove snow on airport runways, taxiways and ramp in
severe winter conditions.
g. Air Start Unit Vehicle is a vehicle with a built-in gas turbine engine which gives the
necessary quantity of high-pressure air to start the aircraft engine.
h. Potable Water Trucks provide clean water to a variety of aircraft.
i. Airport Catering Vehicles load fresh food and drinks onto aircraft for passengers and
crew.
j. Apron Shuttle Buses transfer passengers from the terminal departure gate to the aircraft.
k. Aircraft Belt Loaders load and unload baggage and cargo.
l. Airport Runway Sweepers are intended for sweeping and cleaning the airport runways.
m. Disabled Passenger Lift Vehicles assist disabled passengers boarding onto aircraft when
terminal access is unavailable.
n. Runway Friction Coefficient Test Vehicles test the friction and resistance of the runway.
o. Lavatory Service Vehicles refill clean water in aircraft lavatory, remove and empty
waste.
p. Aircraft Refueller is used for refueling aircraft.
q. Aircraft De-icing Vehicles protect fluid freezing up on aircraft by spraying a special
mixture that melts ice and prevents building up.
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r. Mobile Air-Conditioning Unit Vehicles provide refrigerated air to control the aircraft
cabin climate during pre-flight or during maintenance operation.
s. Passenger Boarding Stairs Vehicles provide a mobile means to traverse between the
aircraft doors and the ground.
t. Baggage Tractors tow bag carts to load and unload baggage onto/from the aircraft.
u. Bird Control Vehicles use high-power searchlight or distressing signal to disperse birds
near airport runways to ensure aircraft safety.
Ex. 36. Translate the sentences into English.

1. Обработка ВС противообледенительной жидкостью была завершена более 10 мин
назад.
2. Самоходная подъемная платформа для доставки на борт инвалидов уже уехала.
3. На стоянке 47 машина с багажом только что повредила самолет.
4. На перекрестке снегоочиститель, похоже, уже завершил очистку ВПП и уезжает.
5. Наземный источник питания блокирует стоянку 62 уже 10 мин.
6. Машина для очистки аэродромных покрытий от мусора все еще чистит ВПП 05.
Это займет не более 5–6 мин.
7. Топливозаправщик и буксировщик следуют к стоянке 19.
8. А-320 буксируют с ВПП 24 из-за отказа двигателя.
9. После посадки вы должны следовать за машиной сопровождения.
10. Когда будет отправлен транспортно-подвижной накопитель?
11. Поломавшийся буксировщик загородил перрон.
12. Зачем пожарные машины нанесли пенное покрытие на ВПП?
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PART II. AERODYNAMICS
Ex. 1. Read international words. Translate the words paying attention to the part of
speech.
Aerodynamics, atmosphere, balance, characteristics, control, critical, dynamics, engine,
engineering, fuselage, gravity, inertia, magnitude, maneuver, mathematically, mechanical,
object, parameters, phenomenon, physics, position, proportional, stability, reaction, tendency,
vertical.

airflow n воздушный поток; обтекание воздушным потоком
airfoil n аэродинамическая поверхность, профиль крыла
constriction n ограничение; сужение; суживающаяся часть
engine n двигатель
interact v взаимодействовать; находиться во взаимодействии
precision n точность; определенность
thrust n тяга; сила тяги
be (un-) familiar with быть (не-) знакомым с
cambered surface зд. кривизна поверхности
external force внешняя сила
solid object твердое тело; твердый объект
wind direction направление ветра

In order to understand the characteristics of the aircraft and develop precision flying
techniques, the pilot must be familiar with the principles of aerodynamics. Aerodynamics is the
branch of physics that deals with the dynamics of air as it interacts with solid objects, such as
airplane wings. Anything that flies, i.e. airplanes, helicopters, and birds utilize the principles of
aerodynamics to move through the air. The curveball thrown by baseball pitchers gets its curve
from aerodynamics.
By flapping wings birds and other flying animals create both lift and thrust. If the wings of
an airplane could flap they would also propel the airplane through the air and maintain lift, and
an engine wouldn’t be needed. But it would be an extreme engineering challenge that is why
airplanes are designed to keep the source of lift (by the wings) and thrust (by the engine)
separate.
It still seems miraculous that an aircraft weighing several hundred tonnes can overcome the
forces of gravity, rise gracefully from an airport runway and climb to altitude 30,000 feet or
more to carry hundreds of passengers for thousands of kilometers. There are certain physical
laws which describe the behavior of airflow and define the various aerodynamic forces and
moments acting on an aircraft.
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Newton’s first law is normally referred to as the law of inertia or the tendency of a body to
remain in its condition of rest or motion. It simply means that a body at rest does not move
unless force is applied to it. When an aircraft is on the ground with its engines off, inertia keeps
the aircraft at rest. When an aircraft is flying at uniform speed in a straight line, inertia tends to
keep the aircraft moving. Some external force is required to change the aircraft from its path of
flight.
Newton’s second law states that if a body moving with uniform speed is acted upon by an
external force, the change of motion is proportional to the amount of the force, and motion
takes place in the direction in which the force acts. This law may be stated mathematically as
follows:
Force = Mass × Acceleration (F = ma)
If an aircraft is flying against a headwind, it is slowed down. If the wind is coming from
either side of the aircraft heading, the aircraft is pushed off course unless the pilot takes
corrective action against the wind direction.
Newton’s third law is the law of action and reaction. This law states that for every action
(Force) there is an equal and opposite reaction (Force). This law can be illustrated by the thrust
produced in a jet engine. The hot gases exhausted rearward produce a thrust force acting
forward.
Bernoulli’s principle states that when a fluid (air) flowing through a tube reaches a
constriction, or narrowing, of the tube, the speed of the fluid flowing through that constriction is
increased and its pressure is decreased. For aircraft aerodynamics it means that the cambered
(curved) surface of an airfoil (wing) affects the airflow exactly as a constriction in tube affects
airflow. As the air flows over the upper surface of an airfoil, its velocity increases and its
pressure reduces; an area of low pressure is formed. There is an area of greater pressure on the
lower surface of the airfoil, and this greater pressure tends to move the wing upward. The
difference in pressure between the upper and lower surfaces of the wing is called lift. Three-
fourths of the total lift of an airfoil is the result of the decrease in pressure over the upper
surface. The impact of air on the under surface of an airfoil produces the other one-fourth of the
total lift.
B. Answer the questions.

1. Why must pilots be familiar with the aerodynamics principles?
2. What is aerodynamics?
3. What physical laws describe the behavior of airflow and aerodynamic forces?
4. How can Newton’s three laws be applied in aerodynamics?
5. What does Bernoulli’s principle mean for aerodynamics?
Ex. 4. Look back at the text and complete gaps in the columns translating the phrases into
either Russian or English.
A B
1. flying technique a.
2. b. чрезвычайно сложная задача инженерии
3. solid object c.
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4. d. в состоянии покоя
5. forces of gravity e.
6. f. внешняя сила
7. at uniform speed g.
8. h. закон действия и противодействия
9. the lower surface of the airfoil i.
10. j. область высокого давления

A B
1. slow down a. narrowing
2. constriction b. keep
3. cambered c. know
4. decrease d. accuracy
5. be familiar with e. decelerate
6. precision f. effect
7. maintain g. curved
8. impact h. reduce
Ex. 6. Think of all possible word clusters with the following words in column A and
column B.
A B
1. create a. moments acting on an aircraft
2. define b. lift and thrust
3. describe c. corrective action
4. develop d. the forces of gravity
5. keep e. the principles of aerodynamics
6. overcome f. the aircraft at rest
7. take g. the behavior of airflow
8. utilize h. flying techniques

aft n задняя, хвостовая часть
altitude loss потеря высоты
angle of attack угол атаки
apparent adj явный; очевидный; заметный
attitude n пространственное положение
bank n крен
buffet n аэродинамическая тряска (предсрывная)
center of gravity центр тяжести
chordline n линия хорды
climb n, v 1) набор высоты; 2) набирать высоту
counteract v оказывать противодействие; уравновешивать
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cruising speed крейсерская скорость
deep stall глубокое сваливание
density n плотность
descend v снижаться
descent n снижение
elevator n руль высоты
envelope n диапазон; границы
fuel consumption расход топлива
high-lift devices механизация крыла
impose v возлагать; облагать; нагружать
landing run пробег ВС (при посадке)
lateral axis поперечная ось
longitudinal axis продольная ось
maximum gross weight максимальный взлетный вес
overcome v преодолеть; пересилить; компенсировать
overloading n перегрузка
pitch n, v 1) тангаж; 2) совершать движение тангажа
powerplant n силовая установка
rate of climb вертикальная скорость набора высоты
relative wind относительный поток воздуха; набегающий поток
revolutions per minute обороты двигателя в минуту
(RPM)
roll n, v 1) крен; 2) создавать крен; совершать движение крена
rudder n руль направления
service (operating) ceiling практический потолок ВС
spin n, v 1) штопор; 2) входить в штопор; выполнять штопор
stall n, v 1) сваливание; 2) попасть в режим сваливания
stall recovery выход из сваливания
stick pusher толкатель штурвальной колонки
stick shaker автомат тряски штурвала; вибросигнализатор штурвала
straight-and-level flight горизонтальный полет
takeoff roll разбег ВС (при взлете)
velocity n векторная скорость; скорость
vertical axis вертикальная ось
yaw n, v 1) рыскание; 2) создавать рыскание

Aerodynamically, an aircraft can be defined as an object traveling through space that is
affected by the changes in atmospheric conditions. To state it another way, aerodynamics
covers the relationships between the aircraft, relative wind, and atmosphere. Air has no force or
power, except pressure, but when it is moving, its force becomes apparent. Relative wind is the
airflow the airplane experiences as it moves through the air. It is equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction to the flight path. Angle of attack (AOA) is the angle between the relative
wind and the chordline of an airfoil. The AOA changes as the aircraft attitude changes.
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An aircraft in flight is the center of a continuous battle of forces. Actually, this conflict is
not as violent as it sounds, but it is the key to all maneuvers performed in the air.
An aircraft in flight is acted upon by four forces:
– Gravity or weight – the force that pulls the aircraft toward the earth. Weight is the force
of gravity acting downward upon everything that goes into the aircraft, such as the aircraft
itself, crew, fuel, and cargo. Weight acts on an aircraft through its center of gravity (CG) and is
straight down.
– Lift – the force that pushes the aircraft upward. Lift acts vertically and counteracts the
effects of weight.
– Thrust – the force that moves the aircraft forward. Thrust is the forward force produced
by the powerplant that overcomes the force of drag.
– Drag – the force that exerts a braking action to hold the aircraft back. Drag is a backward
deterrent force and is caused by the disruption of the airflow by the wings, fuselage, and
protruding objects.
These four forces are in perfect balance only when the aircraft is in straight-and-level
unaccelerated flight. Increasing the lift means that the aircraft climbs, whereas decreasing the
lift so that it is less than the weight causes the aircraft to descend. A similar rule applies to the
two forces of thrust and drag. If the revolutions per minute (RPM) of the engine are reduced,
the thrust is lessened, and the aircraft slows down. As long as the thrust is less than the drag, the
aircraft travels more and more slowly until its speed is insufficient to support it in the air.
Within limits, lift can be increased by increasing the angle of attack, wing area, velocity,
density of the air, or by changing the shape of the airfoil. High-lift wings and high-lift devices
for wings have been developed by shaping the airfoils to produce the desired amount of lift.
Aircraft are carefully designed to minimize drag, but because they are so large and fly at such
high speeds, drag is still a major factor.
The aircraft is maneuvered around three axes of rotation: vertical, lateral, and longitudinal.
Yaw is movement around the vertical axis, which can be represented by an imaginary straight
line drawn vertically through the CG. Moving the rudder left or right causes the aircraft to yaw
the nose to the left or right. Moving the ailerons to bank (roll) moves the aircraft around the
longitudinal axis. This axis would appear if a line were drawn through the center of the fuselage
from nose to tail. Pulling the sidestick back or pushing it forward, raising or lowering the
elevator, the pilot controls the pitch of the aircraft or its movement around the lateral axis. The
lateral axis could be seen if a line were drawn from one side of the fuselage to the other through
the CG.

1. How can aircraft be defined in terms of aerodynamics?
2. What is angle of attack?
3. What forces act on the aircraft during the flight?
4. How do forces being imbalanced act on the airplane in flight?
5. How can lift be increased?
6. What axes of rotation is the aircraft maneuvered around?
7. What are the movements of aircraft around its three axes?
8. What is yaw? What surface controls it?
35
9. What is pitch? What surface controls it?
10. What is roll? What surface controls it?

A B
1. pull a. backward
2. downward b. decrease / reduce
3. forward c. descend
4. increase d. maximize / intensify
5. climb e. push
6. minimize f. minor
7. major g. lower
8. raise h. upward
Ex. 10. Match the terms in column A with their definitions in column B.
A B
1. angle of attack a. the airflow the airplane experiences as it moves through the air
2. gravity / weight b. the force that pushes the aircraft upwards, counteracting the effects
of weight
3. relative wind c. the force produced by powerplant, that moves the aircraft forward
4. lift d. the backward deterrent force caused by disruption of the airflow by
the wings, fuselage, protruding objects
5. thrust e. the angle between the relative wind and the chordline of an airfoil
6. drag f. the force that pulls the aircraft toward the earth
Ex. 11. Define the words and word combinations.

Aerodynamics; airfoil; bank; chordline; lateral axis; pitch; longitudinal axis; vertical axis.
Ex. 12. Complete gaps with the correct form of the word in brackets.
1. Certain ……… (physics) laws describe the behavior of airflow.
2. ……… (Vary) aerodynamic forces act on an aircraft in flight.
3. Wind drifts the aircraft off its course until the pilot takes ……… (correct) actions.
4. The speed of the fluid flowing through the ……… (constrict) of the tube is increased and
its pressure is reduced.
5. The aircraft in flight is affected by the changes in ……… (atmosphere) conditions.
6. Lift pushes the aircraft upward and ……… (act) the effects of weight.
7. Four forces acting on a plane are in perfect balance when the aircraft is in straight-and-
level ……… (accelerate) flight.
8. The aircraft is maneuvered around three axes of ……… (rotate): vertical, lateral,
longitudinal.
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Ex. 13. A. Study the picture and write down the forces acting on the aircraft, maneuvers
that the aircraft performs rotating around its axes.
Forces Acting on the Plane [19]
B. Produce a short report using the information from the picture.
Ex. 14. Every student pilot is taught how to work a weight and stability problem and that
it is important to make sure every flight is loaded "within the envelope" (no more than
maximum gross weight) for both takeoff and landing. Complete the following statements
describing the problems which overloading may create.
1. The aircraft needs a higher takeoff speed, which results in ……… .
2. Both the rate and angle of climb are ……… .
3. The service ceiling is ………. .
4. The cruising speed is ……… .
5. The cruising range is ……… .
6. Maneuverability is ……… .
7. A longer landing run is required because ……….. .
8. Excessive loads are imposed on the structure, especially ……… .
Ex. 15. A. Read the information on the occurrences concerning the problems with
controllability of the aircraft. Complete gaps with words from the table below.
position go-around stage manual ineffective stall
recognized routine nose-up inadvertent mode recover
1. On 23 September 2007, a Boeing 737-300 operated by Thomson fly, on (1) ……… ILS
approach at night to Bournemouth Airport, experienced a stall during early (2) ……… of the
approach. The auto-throttle disengaged with the thrust levers in the idle thrust (3)………. The
disengagement was neither commanded nor (4) ……… by the crew and the thrust levers
37
remained at idle throughout the approach. As result of the (5) ………, the commander took
control and initiated a (6) ………. The aircraft pitched up excessively; flight crew attempts to
reduce the aircraft’s pitch were largely (7) ………. The aircraft reached a maximum pitch of
44° (8) ……… and the indicated airspeed reduced to 82 kt. The flight crew, however, were able
to (9) ……… control of the aircraft and complete a subsequent approach and landing at without
further incident. Aircraft management and Flying Skills were detected as the main reasons for
this incident.
2. On 26 April 1994, a China Airlines Airbus A300 flying an ILS approach to Runway 34
at Nagoya Airport, Japan, under (10) ……… control, stalled and crashed after mishandling by
the pilots caused by (11) ……… selection of GO AROUND (12) ………, failure to recognize
the developing abnormal out of trim situation, and a lack of understanding of the Flight Director
and Autopilot. Insufficient understanding of automation as it affects flight envelope protection
systems is considered the main factor of this accident.
B. How do you think these events could have been prevented? Share your ideas with the
group.
Ex. 16. A. Read the text. Translate the passage in bold.

Many loss of control accidents occur just after takeoff or when going around from an
approach to land. These phases of flight are particularly critical. If the aircraft climbs too
steeply to avoid an obstacle, there might not be enough power to maintain speed and to
climb. This is particularly true when the airplane is heavily loaded or in hot weather. The
angle of attack will increase and can reach the stall value. A stall at full power is often
more violent than at idle, due to engine torque inducing roll and yaw, often causing the
incipient stage of a spin. Spinning an airplane can result in considerable altitude loss –
during the spin itself and even more during the recovery.
Stall warning devices, linked to the angle of attack, are fitted to many (but not all)
airplanes. Stall warning is provided by an electronic or mechanical device that sounds an
audible warning as the stall speed is approached. A stick shaker is a mechanical device that
shakes the control column to warn of the onset of stall. A stick pusher may be installed in
association with a stick shaker system in aircraft which are susceptible to the deep stall
phenomenon. In all cases, the stick shaker will activate before the stick pusher.
Pilots must be able to recognize the stall warnings and to react, reducing the angle of attack
by moving the control column forward. Several stall consequences will occur and be noticeable
simultaneously or separately:
1. Buffet – sometimes strong, depending on the aircraft aerodynamic characteristics.
2. The airplane does not respond as expected to inputs in pitch and / or roll.
3. The nose of the airplane can drop and unusual lateral motions can appear.
4. The vertical speed increases drastically, sometimes even with a nose up attitude.
5. The pilot cannot raise the nose with the pitch control.
The only option to recover from a stall is to make the airflow re-adhere to the aerofoil by
decreasing the angle of attack below the critical value. This can best be achieved by moving the
stick or wheel centrally forward.
38
B. Divide the text into logical parts and name them.
C. Think up about the key question to each part of the text.
D. Ask for some detailed information on each part of the text.
E. Make up a summary of the text using your plan.
Ex. 17. A. Read the information on the Daedalus project human-powered aircraft.
Propelled by the churning legs of the pilot and a light tailwind, the Daedalus 88, weighing
72 pounds despite a wingspan of 112 feet, crossed the Elysian sea from Crete to Santorini in
just under 4 hours (April 23, 1988). Daedalus claimed two world records: the longest human-
powered flight, and the longest duration of a human-powered flight – records that still stand
today.
The Daedalus Project “Light Eagle”

(https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/ec87-0014-8.jpg)
B. List the advantages and disadvantages of the Daedalus over a typical, engine-powered
small aircraft. Use the table below.
Forces on airplane Advantages Disadvantages
Lift
Weight
Drag
Thrust
Other advantages and
disadvantages
C. Do you agree that the flight of the Daedalus was "a triumph for science, for man and
for history"? Share your ideas with the group.
39
Ex. 18. Search the Internet and prepare a short report on:
1. Dutch roll: reasons, ways to prevent, recovery techniques.
2. Stability of the aircraft.
3. Center of gravity and its position within and beyond the limits.
4. Aircraft stalls and spins.
5. Human-powered aircraft today.
40
PART III. AIRCRAFT
speech.
Accessories, autopilot, category, characteristics, classification, component, construction,
data, display, distance, fuselage, generator, gyroscope, horizontal, instruments, integrate,
machine, mass, maximum, multifunction, parameters, patrol, personnel, photography, position,
principle, propeller, status, structure, technique, turbulence, vertical.

fixed-wing aircraft ВС с фиксированным крылом
general aviation авиация общего назначения
interaction n взаимодействие
landing gear n шасси
long-haul adj (ВС) большой дальности
medium-haul adj (ВС) средней дальности
narrow-body adj узкофюзеляжный
performance n летно-технические характеристики (ВС)
piston engine поршневой двигатель
rotorcraft n винтокрылый летательный аппарат
short-haul adj (ВС) малой дальности
structural peculiarities структурныe особенности
turbofan engine турбовентиляторный двигатель
turbojet engine турбореактивный двигатель
turboprop engine турбовинтовой двигатель
wake turbulence спутный след; турбулентность в спутном следе
wide-body adj широкофюзеляжный
Ex. 3. A. Work in groups. Discuss the answers to the questions.

1. Why, in your opinion, is it necessary for a pilot to possess deep knowledge about aircraft
and its structure?
2. What other knowledge about aircraft should a pilot have to provide flight safety?
3. Speak on aircraft classifications you have studied.
B. Read the text.

AIRCRAFT CLASSIFICATION
A pilot should have a good idea what makes his airplane get airborne and keep flying, so
studying the aircraft itself as well as its behavior is an essential part of pilot training. Thus, it’s
important to possess deep understanding of aircraft systems, emergency procedures, cockpit
automation, aircraft flight characteristics and operating limits. It starts with memorizing basic
41
aircraft performance data for the most common aircraft types and understanding how these
performance parameters may vary depending on the flight conditions. To provide flight safety
pilot must be aware of main principles of flight, or forces acting on an aircraft in flight and their
interaction; aircraft types classifications, aircraft structural components, aircraft systems and
instruments; factors affecting aircraft performance.
All aircraft are classified according to their purpose, structural peculiarities, distance they
can fly without refueling, weight and category of wake turbulence, etc. In accordance with their
purpose the types of aircraft include military, experimental, and civil aviation aircraft. The latter
are subdivided into:
– passenger aircraft intended to transport passengers;
– transport or cargo aircraft used to transport cargo;
– sporting and training airplanes designed for aerobatics or to train flying personnel;
– general aviation airplanes used for specialized services such as agriculture, construction,
photography, surveying, observation and patrol, search and rescue, aerial development.
Based on the weight the aircraft may fall into different types according to wake turbulence
categories:
– light aircraft types of 7,000 kg or less.
– medium aircraft types of more than 7,000 kg and less than 136,000 kg.
– heavy aircraft types of 136,000 kg or more.
– super heavy category is now used for Airbus A380-800 with a maximum take-off mass in
the order of 560,000 kg.
Passenger transport aircraft are classified as short-haul, medium-haul and long-haul
depending on the maximum distances they can fly nonstop. According to the passenger capacity
or ability of the fuselage to accommodate one or two passenger aisles the aircraft can be narrow-
body and wide-body. The highest seating capacity of a narrow-body aircraft is 295 passengers in
the Boeing 757-300, while wide-body aircraft can accommodate between 250 and 600
passengers.
In accordance with the number and position of main planes there is the monoplane which
has only one wing. In some monoplanes the wing is set at the top, at the bottom or in the
intermediate position. They are referred to respectively as high-wing, low-wing and mid-wing
machines. Then there is the biplane which has two pairs of wings, one set above the other.
There are also machines which have more than two supporting surfaces – the triplane and the
quadruplane.
According to the number of engines the aircraft may be divided into single-engined, twin-
engined and multiengined. Taking into account the type of engine they use, the aircraft may be
of jet, turboprop, turbojet, turbofan, piston with propeller type.
Depending on the landing gear construction aircraft may be divided into the landplane, the
hydroplane and the amphibian aircraft.
Aircraft class is largely determined by how the aircraft generates lift. This factor divides the
aircraft into three main classes: fixed wings (airplanes), rotating blades (rotorcraft), or lighter
than air (balloons).
C. Answer the questions.

1. Why are aircraft and its behavior considered to be an important part of pilot training?
2. What is usually taken into account in aircraft classifications?
42
3. How can aircraft be classified according to their purpose?
4. What is the subdivision of civil aviation aircraft?
5. What are general aviation airplanes used for?
6. Classify aircraft in accordance with their weight and wake turbulence categories.
7. How can passenger transport aircraft be classified according to the maximum distances
they fly and seating capacity?
8. Classify the aircraft in accordance with the number and position of main planes.
9. How can they be classified depending on the number of engines?
10. How can aircraft be classified according to the landing gear construction?
11. Classify the aircraft according to the way they generate lift.
Ex. 4. Look back at the text and complete gaps in the columns translating the phrases into
A B
1. operating limits a.
2. b. параметры летно-технических
характеристик
3. forces acting on an aircraft in flight c.
4. d. категория спутного следа
5. maximum takeoff mass e.
6. f. безопасный и быстрый поток ВС
7. aircraft structural components g.
8. two-passenger aisles h.
9. i. самолет-амфибия
10. j. структурные особенности
11. k. системы и приборы ВС
12. multi-engined aircraft l.
13. m. в зависимости от строения шасси
14. narrow-body aircraft n.
15. o. судно легче воздуха
Ex. 5. Think of all possible word clusters with the following words in column A and
column B.
A B
1. provide a. different types
2. fly b. lift
3. fall into c. flight safety
4. be aware of d. depending on the flight conditions
5. generate e. without refueling
6. vary f. main principles of flight
7. classify g. flying personnel
8. train h. according to structural peculiarities
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Ex. 6. Refer to the text and name the purposes of the aircraft.
Aircraft Purpose
All-weather aircraft They are used for / to …
Cargo aircraft They are intended for / to …
Civil aircraft Their purpose is to ...
Long-haul aircraft They are designed for / to ...
Military aircraft
Passenger aircraft
Search and rescue aircraft
Short-haul aircraft
Sporting and training aircraft
Wide-body aircraft
Ex. 7. Study the classification of aircraft and produce a short report about the types of
aircraft.
Classification of Aircraft
(https://www.jianshu.com/p/82807eaf5b0a)
Ex. 8. Classify the aircraft depending on their structural peculiarities.

the number of engines
Depending on
the position of planes the aircraft are
According to
the type of landing gear divided into ...
In accordance with
the construction of
monoplane / biplane / triplane / quadruplane
single-engined / twin-engined / multi-engined
high-wing / low-wing / mid-wing aircraft
land plane / hydroplane / amphibian
jet / turboprop / turbojet / turbofan / piston with propeller type
44
Ex. 9. A. Match the pictures of aircraft with their names.
amphibian ornithopter glider gyroplane biplane low wing monoplane
[24] [25]
1 2
[27]
[26]
3 4
[28] [29]
5 6
B. Describe the structural peculiarities of these aircraft.
air brakes / speed brakes n воздушные тормоза

APU (auxiliary power unit) вспомогательная силовая установка (ВСУ)
сowling n капот двигателя
drag n лобовое сопротивление
duct v направлять
elevator n руль высоты
45
empennage n хвостовое оперение
extend v выпустить
fin n киль
firewall n теплозащитный кожух двигателя / перегородка
противопожарная
flaps n закрылки
gauge n датчик, прибор измерения
glass cockpit «стеклянная кабина»
hinge v прикреплять на петлях
landing run пробег (после посадки)
lift n подъемная сила
mount v устанавливать
nacelle n гондола
partition / frame / station n шпангоут, разделительная перегородка
retract v убрать
retractable landing gear шасси убирающегося типа
rudder n руль направления
slats n предкрылки
spoilers n спойлеры
takeoff roll разбег (при взлете)
undercarriage n шасси
when airborne после отрыва, после взлета

CONVENTIONAL AIRCRAFT
The airplane is a heavier-than-air craft used to transport people or cargo by air. The
conventional airplane consists of five main parts:
– the wing;
– the fuselage;
– the tail unit or empennage;
– the landing gear or undercarriage;
– the power plant.
Conventional Aircraft Layout [19]
46
The wing is a metal structure which extends out on the both sides of the fuselage and
provides the necessary lift for supporting the weight of an aircraft in flight. There are numerous
wing designs, sizes, and shapes used by the various manufacturers. Each fulfills a certain need
with respect to the expected performance for the particular airplane. In most modern airplanes,
the fuel tanks are either an integral part of the wing structure or consist of flexible containers
mounted inside of the wing. The wing carries ailerons that control roll, flaps and slats that
improve aircraft take-off and landing characteristics, spoilers that are used for descent in flight
and during landing run, air brakes that are used only during landing run.
The fuselage is a body of an aircraft. It includes the cabin and / or cockpit, which contains
seats for the occupants and the controls for the airplane. In addition, the fuselage may also
provide room for cargo and attachment points for the other major airplane components. It is an
all-metal composite construction. The fuselage does not contribute to the lift of an aircraft, but
it is properly shaped, reducing drag. The cockpit is located in the front part of the fuselage.
While a traditional cockpit relies on numerous mechanical gauges to display information, a
glass cockpit uses several displays driven by flight management systems that can be adjusted to
display flight information as needed.
The main section of the fuselage also includes wing attachment points and a firewall. On
single-engine airplanes, the engine is usually attached to the front of the fuselage. There is a
fireproof partition between the rear of the engine and the cockpit or cabin to protect the pilot
and passengers from accidental engine fires. This
partition is called a firewall and is usually made of
heat-resistant material such as stainless steel.
The empennage includes the entire tail unit and
consists of fixed surfaces, such as the vertical
stabilizer and the horizontal stabilizer. The
movable surfaces include the rudder, the elevator,
and one or more trim tabs. The elevators are hinged
to the horizontal stabilizer and control pitch. The
rudder is hinged to the vertical stabilizer or fin and Tail Unit [19]
controls the yaw.
Trim tabs are small, movable portions of the trailing edge of the control surface. Movable
trim tabs are controlled from the flight deck and are used to relieve the pilot of the need to
maintain constant pressure on the flight controls. They
may be installed on the ailerons, the rudder, and / or
the elevator.
The landing gear is the take-off and landing
structure which supports the aircraft taxiing on the
ground as well as take-off roll and landing run. The
gear is retracted in the air when airborne in order to
reduce drag and is extended again before landing. The
landing gear consists of three wheels – two main
wheels and a third wheel positioned either at the front
Engine Compartment [19] or rear of the airplane. Landing gear employing a
47
rearmounted wheel is called conventional landing gear. Airplanes with conventional landing
gear are sometimes referred to as tailwheel or taildragger airplanes. When the third wheel is
located on the nose, it is called a nosewheel, and the design is referred to as a tricycle gear. A
steerable nosewheel or tailwheel permits the airplane to be controlled throughout all operations
while on the ground. Also landing gear can be fixed and retractable.
The power plant is a source of thrust, which consists of aircraft engines, auxiliary power
unit (APU) and necessary accessories. The primary function of the engine is to provide the
power to turn the propeller. It also generates electrical power, provides a vacuum source for
some flight instruments, and in most single-engine airplanes, provides a source of heat for the
pilot and passengers. The engine is covered by a cowling, or in the case of some airplanes,
surrounded by a nacelle. The purpose of the cowling or nacelle is to streamline the flow of air
around the engine and to help cool the engine by ducting air around the cylinders. The propeller
is a rotating airfoil, mounted on the front of the engine, translating the rotating force of the
engine into thrust, a forward acting force that helps move the airplane through the air.

1. What is an airplane?
2. Name main parts of the conventional aircraft.
3. What is wing? Name its control surfaces and their functions.
4. Define fuselage and its purpose. How does it reduce drag?
5. What is the difference between traditional and glass cockpit?
6. What is firewall? What is its purpose?
7. What does the tail unit consist of?
8. Define landing gear and its purpose.
9. What is the difference between conventional and tricycle landing gear?
10. What is a power plant and what does it consist of?
11. Where can aircraft engines be mounted?
12. What is the primary function of the engine?
13. What is the purpose of the cowling or nacelle?
14. Name the function of the propeller.
A B
1. aircraft a. built-in
2. integral b. fix
3. extend c. empennage
4. mount d. controllable
5. reduce e. airplane
6. steerable f. direct
7. tail unit g. lower
8. duct h. decrease
48
A B
1. lighter-than-air a. climb
2. take off b. primary
3. reduce c. trailing edge
4. descent d. extend
5. auxiliary e. increase
6. traditional f. cutting-edge
7. retract g. land
8. leading edge h. heavier-than-air
Ex. 14. Read the definitions and try to guess which aircraft components they are.
1. One of the large parts that extends out from the sides of an aircraft and helps to keep it in
the air.
2. The imaginary line that extends through the fuselage from nose to tail.
3. The imaginary line that passes vertically through the centre of gravity.
4. An aircraft movement about its longitudinal axis.
5. A body on an aircraft which is intended for housing engines.
6. A part of the wing of a plane that can be raised or lowered to alter its height or speed.
7. The control surface operated by forward-and-back movement of the pilot's control
column, governing an aircraft movement in pitch.
Ex. 15. Define the aircraft components.

Trim tabs; slats; display; rudder firewall; APU; cockpit; gauge.

auto-throttle n автомат тяги
back-up adj запасной, резервный
cluttered adj загроможденный, громоздкий
differential pressure перепад давлений
facilitate v упрощать, способствовать
simultaneous adj одновременный, синхронный
gyroscope properties гироскопические свойства
Multifunction flight display (MFD) многофункциональный дисплей
Primary flight display (PFD) основной пилотажный дисплей
pitot-static system система полного и статического давления
компоненты, чувствительные к изменению
pressure-sensitive components
давления
prone to adj подверженный чему-либо
стандартный индикатор с круглым
conventional round-dial instruments
циферблатом
49
Ex. 17. А. Read the text.
CONVENTIONAL INSTRUMENTS AND GLASS COCKPIT DISPLAYS
In order to safely fly any aircraft, a pilot must understand how to interpret and operate the
flight instruments. The pilot also needs to be able to recognize associated errors and
malfunctions of these instruments, as when he/she understands how each instrument works and
recognizes when an instrument is malfunctioning, he / she can safely utilize the instruments to
their fullest potential.
In a span of only a few years, the cockpits of aircraft have undergone a transition from
conventional flight instruments to integrated, computerized displays commonly referred to as
glass cockpits. Changing from conventional instruments to glass cockpit displays has created
new challenges for interface and display design for pilots to monitor information in the cockpit.
However, the differences between conventional and glass cockpit displays extend beyond
appearance. Conventional round-dial instruments utilize pressure-sensitive components of pitot-
static system or gyroscope properties to generate and display specific aircraft performance and
control parameters.
In contrast, glass cockpit displays rely on computerized systems that integrate multiple data
inputs and controls and present more information than conventional instrument panels. The
typical light aircraft glass cockpit consists of at least two displays: a primary flight display
(PFD), and a multifunction flight display (MFD). A PFD replaces individual flight instruments
to display the airspeed, altitude, attitude, heading, and rate information that pilots use for
aircraft control. More sophisticated PFDs provide both lateral and vertical guidance along the
planned flight path, while simultaneously presenting a three-dimensional picture of the
surrounding terrain, plus autopilot and auto-throttle engagement status, flight director modes
and approach status. As the name "multifunction" suggests, a wide range of supplementary and
status information can be selected for display on an MFD. Typical MFD supplements or
replaces discrete navigation, communication, and aircraft systems status information, such as
engine and fuel gauges. Usually the MFD is used for route selection, traffic, weather, and
terrain avoidance; also it displays navigational charts, airport diagrams, and electronic
checklists. The MFD can be used as a backup PFD.
Glass cockpit has numerous advantages over conventional instruments. In addition to the
improvement in system reliability, which increases overall safety, glass cockpit has decreased
the overall cost of equipping aircraft with state-of-the-art instrumentation. Primary electronic
instrumentation packages are less prone to failure than their analogue counterparts. No longer is
it necessary for aircraft designers to create cluttered panel layouts in order to accommodate all
necessary flight instruments. Instead, multi-panel digital flight displays combine all flight
instruments onto a single screen (a primary flight display). The traditional "six pack" of
instruments is now displayed on one liquid crystal display (LCD) screen.
But nevertheless it has some disadvantages. Glass cockpit displays can present more
information in the space required for conventional instrument panels, but the increase in
information places greater demands on pilot attention and creates a risk of overloading pilots
with more information than they can effectively monitor and process. The complexity of the
integrated computerized systems that drive glass cockpit displays may also limit pilots’
understanding of the functionality of the underlying systems.
50
1. What is the difference between conventional instruments and glass cockpit displays?
2. What instruments are operated by the pitot-static system?
3. State the main functions of the ASI, altimeter, VSI.
4. What instruments use the gyroscope properties for their operation?
5. State the main functions of the attitude indicator, turn coordinator, heading indicator.
6. What does the light aircraft typical glass cockpit consist of?
7. What is PFD? What information can it provide?
8. What is MFD? What information can it display?
9. What are the main advantages and disadvantages of glass cockpit?
Ex. 18. Think of all possible word clusters with the words in column A and column B.
A B
1. monitor a. pressure-sensitive components
2. extend b. as a back-up source
3. utilize c. information in the cockpit
4. display d. the height of an aircraft
5. measure e. multiple data inputs
6. serve f. beyond appearance
7. integrate g. a three-dimensional picture
8. present h. aircraft performance parameters
Ex. 19. Fill in gaps with the correct forms of the words in brackets.
1. Flight instruments provide the pilot with ……… (inform) about the flight ………
(situate) of that aircraft, such as altitude, airspeed and direction.
2. Aircraft conventional instruments display specific aircraft ……… (perform) and control
parameters.
3. The aircraft turn ……… (direct) and quality is displayed on the turn ………
(coordinate).
4. Glass cockpit displays rely on ……… (computer) systems integrating multiple data
inputs and controls.
5. Primary functional displays provide both lateral and vertical …….. (guide) along the
aircraft flight path.
6. Multifunctional display has a wide range of ……… (supplement) information.
7. ……… (Type) MFD is utilized for route ……… (select) also for weather, traffic and
terrain ……… (avoid).
8. PFD includes ……… (navigation) marker information, ILS glideslope indicators, course
……… (deviate) indicator, QNH settings, and much more.
51
Ex. 20. Airspeed is the speed of an aircraft relative to the air. There are the following
airspeed types: Indicated Airspeed = IAS; Calibrated Airspeed = CAS or Rectified
Airspeed = RAS; True Airspeed = TAS; Ground Speed = GS. Match types of airspeed in
column A with their definitions in column B.
A B
1. Indicated Airspeed (IAS) a. It is the speed of the aircraft relative to the ground.
2. Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) or b. It is the speed of the aircraft relative to the atmosphere.
Rectified airspeed (RAS) It is listed on the flight plan, also used in flight planning,
before considering the effects of wind.
3. Ground Speed (GS) c. It is the speed of an aircraft as shown on its pitot static
airspeed indicator, uncorrected for airspeed system errors.
This type of airspeed is the starting point for all other
calculations.
4. True Airspeed (TAS or KTAS) d. It is indicated airspeed corrected for instrument errors,
position errors (due to incorrect pressure at the static
port) and installation errors.
Ex. 21. A. Read the information about V-speeds and do the exercises.
V-speeds are standard terms used to define airspeeds important or useful to the operation of
all aircraft. These speeds are derived from data obtained by aircraft designers and
manufacturers during flight testing and verified in most countries by government flight
inspectors during aircraft type-certification testing. The speeds are specific to a particular model
of aircraft, and are expressed in terms of the aircraft's indicated airspeed, so that pilots may use
them directly, without having to apply correction factors.
B. Match V-speeds with their definitions.

V4 VLOF VLE VFTO VA
VFE V1 VR V3 V2
1. Flap retraction speed.

2. Final take-off speed.
3. Engine failure recognition speed or decision speed. It is the maximum speed in the take-
off at which the pilot must take the first action (e.g., apply brakes, reduce thrust) to stop the
airplane within the accelerate-stop distance.
4. Take-off safety speed. It is the minimum speed that needs to be maintained up to
acceleration altitude, in the event of an engine failure after V1.
5. Steady initial climb speed.
6. Maximum landing gear extended speed.
7. Rotation speed. The speed at which the aircraft's nose wheel leaves the ground during
take-off.
8. Maximum flap extended speed.
9. Lift-off speed.
52
10. Design maneuvering speed. This is the speed above which it is unwise to make full
application of any single flight control (or "pull to the stops") as it may generate a force greater
than the aircraft's structural limitations.
C. Prepare a short report on different types of V-speeds and say why it is vital for a pilot
to know all of them.
Ex. 22. A. Read the information about the three types of aircraft elevation and complete
gaps with the correct form of the words from the box.
value elevation to maintain setting obstacles
separation reference to read instead of invisible
transition
to influence surrounding to indicate runway threshold
altitude
There are several ways (1) ……… the vertical position of aircraft and / or (2) ………; each
has another meaning and is used in a particular situation: height; altitude; flight level. In
general, vertical positions are expressed in feet. The Russian Federation use meters below (3)
……….
The height is the vertical distance of an aircraft above surface (buildings, mountains, a lake,
etc.). It is simply the distance between the plane and the ground underneath directly (4) ………
by the rise of terrains. Height is expressed in feet above ground level.
QFE is the atmospheric pressure at a specified datum such as an airfield (5) ………. When
set, the altimeter reads the height above the specified datum. By setting the QFE (6) ……… f
an airport, the altimeter will show, all the time, the height above that airfield. On the ground at
the airfield, the altimeter will show zero ft. The higher the airport (7) ……… is, the lower is the
QFE. Because an airfield is often located lower or higher than the (8)……… airfields, the QFE
for each airfield will be quite different, even if they are a few miles apart. Each time a pilot flies
over another airfield, he has to change his altimeter setting to the QFE of that airfield.
Altitude is the vertical distance of an aircraft above the mean sea level. For objects and
obstacles on the surface of the earth, the word elevation is used (9) ……… altitude. QNH is the
atmospheric pressure at mean sea level. When set on the altimeter it (10) ……… altitude. When
an airfield QNH value is set on the aircraft's pressure altimeter, this altimeter shows altitude.
Commonly, the QNH altimeter setting is used worldwide at or below the transition altitude or
below 3,000 ft AGL.
A Flight Level is the vertical distance of an aircraft above the isobaric surface of
1,013.25 hPa. An isobaric surface is the (11) ……… landscape that connects all points with the
same atmospheric pressure. In aviation, 1,013.25 hPa is referred to as the standard altimeter
(12) ………. Commonly, the standard altimeter setting is used worldwide at or above the
transition level (which depends on the local QNH but is typically 4,000 feet above sea level).
When (13) ……… a flight level, all aircraft have the same (14) ……… in order to maintain
(15) ……… between them with that same reference.
53
1. What are the main ways to indicate vertical position of the aircraft?
2. Define height. What is it expressed in?
3. Why does the pilot need to change altimeter setting to the QFE of the particular airfield?
4. What is altitude? What is it expressed in?
5. What is flight level?
C. Prepare a short report on different types of altitude (true, indicated, pressure, absolute,
density altitudes, transition altitude / level).

(FBW) Fly-By-Wire электродистанционное управление
alternator n генератор переменного тока
bus bar шина
circuit breaker автомат защиты сетей (АЗС)
contamination загрязнение
engine intake воздухозаборник двигателя
flight control system система управления полетом
fuel leak (age) течь топлива
fuel line топливопровод
fuel pump топливный насос
fuse n плавкий предохранитель
generator n генератор
gravity feed подача топлива самотеком
high-lift device средство механизации крыла, устройство
повышения подъемной силы
hydraulic system гидравлическая система
incapacitation n недееспособность, нарушение работоспособности
inflatable deicing boot противообледенительный профиль
master switch основной выключатель
nose wheel steering управление передней стойкой (шасси)
premature adj преждевременный
pressurization system система наддува / герметизации
propulsion system система тяги (двигательная установка)
pulley n шкив, ролик
receptacle n розетка
relief valve предохранительный клапан
selector valve селекторный клапан, клапан переключения
strainer n фильтр
sump n отстойный резервуар
thrust reverser реверс тяги
wheelbrakes n колесные тормоза
wiring n электропроводка
54
Ex. 24. А. Read the text.
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
The conventional aircraft is equipped with hydraulic system, electrical system, fuel system,
ice protection system, fire-extinguishing system, pressurization system, flight control system.
Depending on the aircraft concerned, a single hydraulic system, or two or more hydraulic
systems working together, might be used to operate any or all of the following components:
wheel brakes, nose wheel steering, landing gear retraction / extension, flaps and slats, thrust
reversers, spoilers / speed brakes, flight control surfaces, cargo doors / loading ramps,
windshield wipers.
A basic hydraulic system consists of a reservoir, pump (either hand, electric, or engine-
driven), a filter to keep the fluid clean, a selector valve to control the direction of flow, a relief
valve to relieve excess pressure, and an actuator.
Hydraulic system overheat, loss of pressure or hydraulic fluid contamination can all result
in the loss of the hydraulic system and the loss of function of those components that it powers.
Fluid contamination can also result in loss of hydraulic system efficiency, fluid leaks, excessive
component wear, and premature component failure.
An aircraft electrical system is a self-contained network of components that generate,
supply, distribute, utilize, and store electrical energy. A basic aircraft electrical system consists
of the following components: alternator / generator, battery, master/battery switch, alternator /
generator switch, bus bar, fuses, and circuit breakers, voltage regulator, ammeter / loadmeter,
associated electrical wiring. Some aircraft have receptacles to which an external ground power
unit (GPU) may be connected to provide electrical energy for starting.
Depending upon the aircraft, generators or alternators are used to produce electricity. These
are generally engine driven but may also be powered by an auxiliary power unit (APU).
The electrical system is turned on or off with a master switch. Turning the master switch to
the ON position provides electrical energy to all the electrical equipment circuits except the
ignition system. Equipment that commonly uses the electrical system for its source of energy
includes: position lights, anti-collision lights, landing lights, taxi lights, interior cabin lights,
instrument lights, radio equipment, fuel gauges, electric fuel pump, stall warning system, etc.
A bus bar is used to connect the main electrical system to the equipment using electricity as
a source of power. This simplifies the wiring system and provides a common point from which
voltage can be distributed throughout the system. Fuses or circuit breakers are used in the
electrical system to protect the circuits and equipment from electrical overload. The ammeter
shows if the alternator / generator is producing an adequate supply of electrical power. A
voltage regulator controls the rate of charge to the battery.
Depending on the severity of the electrical failure(s) the consequences could be various,
ranging from isolated system malfunctions and navigational problems to failures having
adverse effects on the aircraft handling and performance. An electrical problem may be the first
indication of a fire.
The fuel system is designed to provide an uninterrupted flow of clean fuel from the fuel
tanks to the engine. The fuel must be available to the engine under all conditions of engine
power, altitude, attitude, and during all approved flight maneuvers.
55
Two common classifications apply to fuel systems in small aircraft: gravity-feed and fuel-
pump systems. The gravity-feed system utilizes the force of gravity to transfer the fuel from the
tanks to the engine. This is the simplest of fuel systems commonly found in high wing aircraft
with a fuel tank in each wing. For low and mid wing aircraft where the fuel tank cannot be
located above the engine, a pump feed fuel system is necessary, utilizing one or more pumps to
deliver fuel from the tank to the engine. Usually, this type of aircraft fuel system has two pumps
arranged in parallel – an electric and an engine driven pump – to provide a backup pump should
one fail.
Fuel systems differ greatly from aircraft to aircraft due to the relative size and complexity
of the aircraft in which they are installed. In the most basic form a fuel system will consist of a
single, gravity feed fuel tank with the associated fuel line connecting it to the aircraft engine. In
a modern, multi-engine passenger or cargo aircraft, the fuel system is likely to consist of
multiple fuel tanks which may be located in the wing or the fuselage (or both) and, in some
cases, in the empennage. The fuel selector valve allows selection of fuel from various tanks.
The fuel system may contain a sump, a fuel strainer, and fuel tank drains. After leaving the fuel
tank and before it enters the carburetor, the fuel passes through a strainer that removes any
moisture and other sediments in the system. Since these contaminants are heavier than aviation
fuel, they settle in a sump at the bottom of the strainer assembly.
There are several fuel system related threats, such as fuel leak due to fuel tank or fuel line
rupture; fuel imbalance as a result of improper refueling techniques, poor fuel management
(causing fuel exhaustion), engine failure; mechanical failure of a fuel pump; fuel freezing;
electrical failure leading to limits of fuel pumps and fuel system indications, fuel contamination
(resulting in fuel starvation).
Aircraft and engine ice protection systems are generally of two designs: either they remove
ice after it has formed, or they prevent it from forming. The first type of system is referred to as
a de-icing system and the latter as an anti-icing system. Inflatable deicing boots consist of a
rubber sheet bonded to the leading edge of the airfoil. When ice builds up on the leading edge,
an engine-driven pneumatic pump inflates the rubber boots. Upon inflation, the ice is cracked
and falls off the leading edge of the wing. The aircraft ice protection is provided by heating of
critical areas (engine air intakes, slats, windshields, pitot tubes, static ports, etc.) using hot air or
electrical power.
Four types of fire extinguishing installations are found on commercial transport aircraft
such as portable extinguishers installed at specified locations in both the main cabin and the
flight deck; hold fire extinguishing systems (with automatic detection); engine fire bottle
extinguishing systems (with automatic detection); lavatory waste bin bottle extinguishing
systems.
Pressurization system ensures the comfort and safety of crew and passengers by controlling
the cabin pressure and the exchange of air from the inside of the aircraft to the outside. A cabin
altimeter, differential pressure gauge (indicates the difference between inside and outside
pressure), and cabin rate of climb gauge help the crew to monitor the aircraft pressurization. At
the cruising levels commonly flown by commercial air transport aircraft, loss of pressurization
can quickly lead to occupants’ incapacitation.
56
Aircraft flight control systems consist of primary and secondary systems. The ailerons,
elevator and rudder constitute the primary control system and are required to control an aircraft
safely during flight.
The ailerons are attached to the trailing edge of each wing and move in the opposite
direction from each other. Ailerons are connected by cables, bellcranks, pulleys, and / or push-
pull tubes to a control wheel or control stick. The elevator is connected to the control column in
the flight deck by mechanical linkages. The rudder is a movable surface hinged to the vertical
stabilizer or fin. The rudder is controlled by the left and right rudder pedals.
Wing flaps, leading edge devices, spoilers, and trim systems constitute the secondary
control system and improve the performance characteristics of the airplane. Flaps are the most
common high-lift devices used on aircraft. These surfaces, which are attached to the trailing
edge of the wing, increase both lift and induced drag. High-lift devices also can be applied to
the leading edge of the airfoil. The most common types are movable slats and leading edge
flaps. Found on some fixed-wing aircraft, high drag devices called spoilers are deployed from
the wings to spoil the smooth airflow, reducing lift and increasing drag. Deploying spoilers on
both wings at the same time allows the aircraft to descend without gaining speed. Spoilers are
also deployed to help reduce ground roll after landing.

1. Name the conventional aircraft systems.
2. What problems can be expected in case of hydraulic system failure?
3. What components does the hydraulic system operate?
4. What does a basic hydraulic system consist of?
5. What is an aircraft electrical system?
6. What are the main components of an aircraft electrical system?
7. What threats can be expected in case of electrical system failure?
8. What is the function of an aircraft fuel system?
9. What two common classifications apply to fuel systems in small aircraft?
10. What does a basic fuel system consist of?
11. What are the fuel system related hazards?
12. How is the aircraft ice protection provided?
13. What four types of fire extinguishing installations can be found on the commercial
transport aircraft?
14. What is the function of the pressurization system?
15. What do primary and secondary flight control systems consist of?
C. Divide the text into parts and name them.

D. Make up a summary of the text using your plan.
Ex. 25. Look back at the text and find equivalents to the word combinations.
Посадочные фары; автономный / независимый; снижаться без увеличения скорости;
оседать в отстойном резервуаре; двигаться в противоположном направлении друг от дру-
га; давать электрический заряд для запуска двигателя; зарядка аккумулятора; улучшать
летно-технические характеристики; запасной насос; удалять отстой / осадок; топливное
57
голодание / недостаточная подача топлива; воздухозаборник двигателя; за исключением
системы зажигания; защищать сети от перегрузки; использовать силу тяжести для пере-
качки топлива; средства механизации крыла; полное израсходование топлива; система
управления передней стойкой шасси; повышенный / чрезмерный износ деталей; перегрев
системы.
A B
1. adverse a. danger
2. back up b. disability
3. consequence c. unfavourable
4. contamination d. untimely
5. incapacitation e. outcome
6. efficiency f. pollution
7. premature g. effectiveness
8. threat h. stand by
Ex. 27. Match words in column A with their definitions in column B.

A B
1. contamination a. Occurs when there is no fuel remaining in the tanks to supply the
engines (can result from insufficient fuel loaded for the planned
journey, the flight time extended for too long, faulty fuel gauges or
fuel leak from the tanks).
2. wear b. Occurs when there is fuel in the tank but there is a supply problem
which either fully or partially prevents the fuel from reaching the
engine (happen as a result of fuel pump malfunction, fuel
contamination, selection of the incorrect, empty fuel tank, or fuel
freezing).
3. fuel exhaustion c. The presence of an unwanted constituent or impurity in a material,
physical body, natural environment, fluid, etc. (can be biological,
chemical, physical or radiological).
4. short circuit d. Demand on equipment or system that exceeds its capacity (usually
results in breakdown of the equipment or collapse of the system,
sometimes beyond the possibility of repair).
5. fuel starvation e. The damaging, gradual removal or deformation of material at solid
surfaces (causes can be mechanical or chemical).
6. electromagnetic f. The state of being broken or burst.
interference
7. rupture g. A faulty or accidental connection between two points of different
potential in an electric circuit, bypassing the load and establishing a
path of low resistance through which an excessive current can flow.
8. system overload h. Disturbance that affects an electrical circuit due to electromagnetic
radiation emitted from an external source.
58
Ex. 28. A. Read the information about Fly-by-wire system.
Fly-by-Wire (FBW) is the generally accepted term for those flight control systems which
use computers to process the flight control inputs made by the pilot or autopilot, and send
corresponding electrical signals to the flight control surface actuators. This arrangement
replaces mechanical linkage and means that inputs are read by a computer that in turn
determines how to move the control surfaces.
B. Name the main advantages and disadvantages of Fly-by-wire system using the word
combinations from the box below. Share your own ideas with your groupmates using
discourse markers (Moreover; In addition; Further; Also; Besides; What is more; Although;
Despite the fact that; Regardless of the fact that; As a result; Thus; For this reason; Because
of this. On the contrary; As a matter of fact).
fewer short lesser electromagnetic lesser digital input /
movable circuit maintenance interference wear and output
components tear
to benefit system better to replace heavy greater to carry more
from greater overload interface with mechanical systems precision passengers
fuel other aircraft and cargo
efficiency systems
Ex. 29. Read the information about ACAS and open the brackets using Passive or Active
form of the verbs in the correct tense.
The Airborne Collision Avoidance System II (ACAS II) (1) ……… (to introduce) in order
to reduce the risk of mid-air collisions between aircraft. This system (2) ……… (to base on)
Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) transponder signals. ACAS II (3) ……… (to interrogate)
the Mode C and Mode S transponders of nearby aircraft ("intruders") and from the replies
tracks their altitude and range and (4) ……… (to issue) alerts to the pilots. ACAS II works
independently of the aircraft navigation, flight management systems, and Air Traffic Control
ground systems. While assessing threats it (5) ……… (not / to take) into account the ATC
clearance, pilot’s intentions or Flight Management System inputs. Currently, the only
commercially available implementations of ICAO standard for ACAS II is TCAS II version 7.1
(Traffic alert and Collision Avoidance System).
Two types of alert (6) ……… (can / to issue) by ACAS II – TA (Traffic Advisory) and RA
(Resolution Advisory). The former (7) ……… (to intend) to assist the pilot in the visual
acquisition of the conflicting aircraft and prepare the pilot for a potential RA.
If a risk of collision (8) ……… (to establish) by ACAS II, an RA (9) ……… (to generate).
Broadly speaking, RAs tell the pilot the range of vertical speed at which the aircraft
(10) ……… (should / to fly) to avoid the threat aircraft. The visual indication of these rates
(11) ……… (to show) on the flight instruments. It is accompanied by an audible message
indicating the intention of the RA. A "Clear of Conflict" message (12) ……… (to generate)
when the aircraft (13) ……… (to diverge) horizontally.
The maximum generation time for a TA is 48 seconds before the Closest Point of Approach
(CPA). For an RA the time is 35 seconds. The time scales are shorter at lower altitudes (where
59
aircraft typically fly slower). It is possible that an RA (14) ……… (to precede) by a TA if a
threat is imminent. Pilots (15) ……… (to require) to comply immediately with all RAs, even if
the RAs are contrary to ATC clearances or instructions.
Complying with the RA, however, will in many instances cause an aircraft to deviate from
its ATC clearance. In this case, the controller is no longer responsible for separation of the
aircraft involved in the RA.
Ex. 30. Read the information about Ground Proximity Warning System and complete
gaps with the words from the table below.
insufficient predicted elevations proximity
similar deviation to combat cautionary
distinctive interchangeable improvements database
A Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) automatically provides a (1) ………

warning to pilots when their aircraft is, based only on the radio altimeter reading and terrain
closure rates derived therefrom, in potentially hazardous (2) ……… to terrain. It was
introduced in the 1970s as a means (3) ……… the high incidence of CFIT accidents.
Subsequent (4) ……… added aircraft configuration (e.g. landing gear status) and ILS
glideslope (5) ………. However, it suffered from a significant limitation because it was
dependent on the radio altimeter as the means to measure proximity to terrain which meant that
there was (6) ……… time to avoid a sudden change in terrain.
From 1997, Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System (EGPWS) began to be fitted to
aircraft. It uses data from the GPS and other navaids, the FMS, and the air data sensors to
determine the aircraft position both longitudinally and vertically. Then it adds that information
to data from terrain / runway (7) ……… to form a display showing the terrain (8) ………
around the aircraft. The pilots receive an aural alert and visual warning from multicolor image.
Green color on the image indicates terrain safely below the aircraft. Yellow represents a
(9) ……… alert 60-seconds prior to the (10) ……… time of impact and is accompanied by a
"caution terrain" aural message. And red indicates terrain that the aircraft could impact within
30 seconds; it is accompanied by an aural "terrain, terrain, pull up".
Subsequently, other (11) ……… systems were produced and all have been generically
identified by ICAO as Terrain Awareness and Warning Systems (TAWS). The terms EGPWS
and TAWS have become (12) ……… .
Ex. 31. Study the information on DA 40NG and DA 42NG, compare these two aircraft
using the word combinations from the box. Add more information.
as compared to / similar / alike despite this / in While / whereas to be different
in comparison spite of this from
with
neither of ... although one of the (few) to have in both… and…
similarities / common
differences
between… and…
60
on the contrary unlike on the one hand / another in contrast to
on the other hand similarity
DA 40NG DA 42NG
(http://www.diamond-air.at/ru/odnomotornye- (http://www.rafiairsolutions.com/en/sales/plane-us_17.html)
samolety/da40-ng/)
A single – engine airplane A twin – engine airplane
Span: 11.63 m Span: 13.42 m
Length: 8.06 m Length: 8.56 m
Height: 1.97 m Height: 2.49 m
Wing area: 13.244 m² Wing Area: 16.29 m²
Track: 2.97 m Track: 2.95 m
Wheelbase: 1.68 m Wheelbase: 1.735 m
Maximum take-off mass: 1,280 kg Maximum take-off mass:1,900 kg
Maximum landing mass: 1,216 kg Maximum landing mass: 1,805 kg
Maximum zero fuel mass: 1,200 kg Maximum zero fuel mass: 1,765 kg
The maximum operating altitude: 16,400 ft The maximum operating altitude:
(5,000 m) 18,000 ft (5,486 m)
Maximum speed: 285 km/h Maximum speed: 326 km/h
Maximum range: 984 nm Maximum range: 1,273 nm
Maximum number of occupants: 4 Maximum number of occupants:
Daytime flights under VFR 4 Daytime flights under VFR
Flights into known or forecast icing –
conditions are prohibited
Flights into known thunderstorms are Flights into known or forecast thunderstorms are
prohibited prohibited
Ex. 32. Translate into English.

МС-21 – это новое поколение в семействе пассажирских самолетов. Семейство
МС-21 включает две модели: МС-21-200 рассчитан на перевозку от 132 до 165 пассажи-
ров, пассажировместимость МС-21-300 – от 163 до 211 пассажиров. В конструкции са-
молета – уникальные технологии: композитное крыло, увеличенный диаметр фюзеляжа,
новейший российский двигатель ПД-14, который позволяет снизить расходы топлива,
уровень шума и эмиссию вредных веществ, и системы последнего поколения, которые
способны снизить эксплуатационные расходы и повысить комфорт пассажиров.
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Новый лайнер отличают высокие аэродинамические качества. Это достигается за
счет крыла большего удлинения. Оно изготовлено из полимерных композиционных ма-
териалов. В целом уровень использования композитов в МС-21 – свыше 30 %, что уни-
кально для узкофюзеляжных самолетов. Именно композитное крыло делает самолет лег-
че конкурентов и снижает эксплуатационные расходы на 12–15 % по сравнению с анало-
гичными машинами. Эксперты утверждают, что различные испытания подтвердили, что
надежность композитных конструкций на 20–30 % превышает надежность конструкций,
созданных из традиционных материалов – металлических сплавов.
Если сравнивать МС-21 с зарубежными аналогами, то Boeing и Airbus летают чуть
дальше, но зато у МС-21 большая вместимость. Кроме того, МС-21 будет иметь больший
объем багажных полок, большую ширину кресел и наибольшую ширину прохода. МС-21
укомплектован крыльями из композитного волокна (ничего подобного ни у Boeing, ни у
Airbus нет – у них алюминиевое крыло с применением титановых сплавов) и системой
управления полетом, которую эти производители до сих пор не внедрили.
62
PART IV. AVIATION METEOROLOGY
speech.
Phenomena, constant, component, element, deposit, condition, actual, meteorological,
critical, realize, atmosphere, gravity, thermal, characteristics, chemical, composition,
troposphere, kilometer, centimeter, meter, equatorial, region, majority, temperature,
stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, circulation.

ceiling n высота нижней границы облаков (ВНГО)
crosswind n боковой ветер
destructive adj гибельный, разрушающий, пагубный
dew point точка росы
headwind n встречный ветер
high wind сильный ветер
humidity n влажность воздуха
moisture n влага, влажность
obscured adj скрытый, облачный
profound adj значительный
runway excursion выкатывание за пределы ВПП
saturate v насыщать
tailwind n попутный ветер
vapor n пар, испарение

1. What weather conditions are considered to be adverse?
2. How can unfavourable weather conditions affect the safety of flights?
3. Why must pilots have deep understanding of basic weather theories?
B. Read the text.

AVIATION WEATHER
Weather is an important factor that influences aircraft performance and flight safety. It is
the state of the atmosphere at a given time and place with respect to variables, such as
temperature (heat or cold), moisture (wetness or dryness), wind velocity (calm, gusts or storm),
visibility (sky clear or obscured), and barometric pressure (high or low). The term "weather"
can also apply to adverse or destructive atmospheric conditions, such as high winds.
Understanding basic weather theories helps a pilot make sound decisions during flight planning
63
after receiving weather briefings. Decisions based on weather can dramatically affect the safety
of the flight. Knowledge of the atmosphere and the forces acting within it to create weather is
essential to understand how weather affects a flight.
Life on Earth is supported by the atmosphere, solar energy, and the planet’s magnetic
fields. The atmosphere is a blanket of air made up of a mixture of gases that surrounds the Earth
and reaches almost 350 miles from the surface of the Earth. This mixture is in constant motion.
The atmosphere is divided vertically into four regions: the Troposphere, the Stratosphere, the
Mesosphere, and the Thermosphere.
Most light aircraft and turboprop aircraft fly within the troposphere. It is the first layer of
atmosphere extending from 6 to 20 kilometers over the northern and southern poles and up to
14.5 km over the equatorial regions. The vast majority of weather, clouds, storms, and
temperature changes occur within this first layer of the atmosphere. Temperature falls with
height in the troposphere at a rate of about 2°Celsius every 1,000 feet of altitude gain but is
generally constant at about -57°C in the stratosphere. Little weather exists in stratosphere and
the air remains stable there. Above the stratosphere are the mesosphere and thermosphere,
which have little influence over weather.
Wind and Currents
Air flows from areas of high pressure into areas of low pressure. The combination of
atmospheric pressure differences, friction and temperature differences of the air near the earth
cause two kinds of atmospheric motion: convective currents (updrafts and downdrafts) and
wind (horizontal motion). Currents and winds are important as they affect takeoff, landing, and
cruise flight operations and cause weather changes.
Wind is the term used to describe the large-scale flow of atmospheric air. It is one of the
main elements that affect an aircraft’s flight. Headwind is wind blowing towards the aircraft
nose. Pilots prefer to land and take off in headwind because it increases the lift. In headwind, a
lower ground speed and a shorter run is needed for the plane to become airborne. Landing into
the wind has the same advantages: it uses less runway, and ground speed is lower at touchdown.
Tailwind is a wind that blows in the direction of travel of an aircraft and it makes travel faster
and saves fuel, while headwind has the opposite effect.
Strong crosswinds may pose a hazard on landing (e.g. crosswind or crab landings are a
major cause for runway excursions when poorly executed) and take off (e.g. crosswinds can
create a significant challenge to the maintenance of directional control during takeoff),
especially in gusty conditions; most aircraft types have a crosswind component limit listed in
their Operations Manual.
Moisture and Temperature
The atmosphere contains moisture in the form of water vapor. The amount of moisture
present in the atmosphere depends on the temperature of the air. Water is present in the
atmosphere in three states: liquid, solid, and gaseous. All three forms can change to another,
and all are present within the temperature ranges of the atmosphere.
Relative Humidity
Humidity refers to the amount of water vapor present in the atmosphere at a given time.
Relative humidity is the actual amount of moisture in the air compared to the total amount of
moisture the air could hold at that temperature.
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Temperature / Dew Point Relationship
The relationship between dew point and temperature defines the concept of relative
humidity. The dew point, given in degrees, is the temperature to which the air can be cooled to
become saturated. When the temperature of the air is reduced to the dew point, moisture begins
to condense out of the air in the form of fog, dew, frost, clouds, rain, or snow.
Dew and Frost
On cool, clear, calm nights, the temperature of the ground and objects on the surface can cause
temperatures of the surrounding air to drop below the dew point. When this occurs, the moisture in
the air condenses and deposits itself on the ground, buildings, and other objects. This moisture is
known as dew and sometimes can be seen on grass and other objects in the morning. If the
temperature is below freezing, the moisture is deposited in the form of frost or rime.
Fog
Fog is a cloud that is on the surface. It typically occurs when the temperature of air near the
ground is cooled to the dew point. At this point, water vapor in the air condenses and becomes
visible in the form of fog. Fog is classified according to the manner in which it forms and is
dependent upon the current temperature and the amount of water vapor in the air.
Ceiling
For aviation purposes, a ceiling is the lowest layer of clouds. It is estimated in terms of how
many eighths of the sky are covered in cloud, ranging from 0 oktas (completely clear sky) to 8
oktas (completely overcast). It can be reported as few (1 to 2 oktas), scattered (3 to 4 oktas),
broken (5 to 7 oktas), overcast (8 oktas), NSC (nil significant cloud) and CAVOK (ceiling and
visibility okay, which means that visibility is at least 10 kilometres, there are no clouds below
5000 feet and there is no current or forecast significant weather such as precipitation.). In
addition there is an extra cloud cover indicator '9' indicating that the sky is totally obscured due
to dense fog or heavy snow.
Visibility
Closely related to cloud cover and reported ceilings is visibility information. Visibility
refers to the greatest horizontal distance at which prominent objects can be viewed with the
naked eye.
Precipitation
Precipitation refers to any type of water particles that form in the atmosphere and fall to the
ground. It has a profound impact on flight safety. Depending on the form of precipitation, it can
reduce visibility, create icing situations, and affect landing and takeoff performance of an
aircraft.

1. What is weather?
2. Define the atmosphere.
3. What regions is the atmosphere divided into?
4. What is the troposphere?
5. What two kinds of atmospheric motion do the combination of atmospheric pressure
differences, friction and temperature differences of the air near the earth cause?
6. Define wind.
7. What kind of wind is more favourable for landing and takeoff? Why?
8. What kind of wind helps pilots save fuel? Why?
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9. Why do strong crosswinds pose a hazard during landing and takeoff?
10. Define relative humidity.
11. What is dew point?
12. What is fog? When does it typically occur?
13. Define ceiling. How is it estimated?
14. Decode CAVOK. What does it mean?
15. What is visibility?
16. Define precipitation. In what way can it affect flight safety?
Принимать правильное решение; простираться до; взлетать; влиять на летно-
технические характеристики самолета; частицы воды; увидеть невооруженным глазом;
представлять опасность во время посадки; полностью затянутый облаками; уменьшаться
примерно на 2 °C каждые 1000 футов прироста высоты; измеряться; погода хорошая.
Ex. 5. Match the words in column A with their synonym in column B.

A B
1. humidity a. disastrous
2. destructive b. cloud base
3. ceiling c. moisture
4. profound d. soak
5. stable e. choppy
6. gusty f. tremendous
7. saturate g. unvarying
Ex. 6. A. Match the word combinations in column A with the Russian equivalents in
column B.
A B
1. shallow / radiation fog a. поземный туман
2. thick fog b. адвективный туман
3. thin fog c. густой туман
4. dense fog d. моросящий туман
5. drizzling fog e. плотный туман
6. advection fog f. туман клочьями
7. fog in patches g. редкий туман
8. freezing fog h. переохлажденный туман
B. Match the types of fog in column A with their descriptions in column B.

A B
1. radiation fog a. It occurs when moist, stable air is forced up a mountain range.
This type of fog also requires wind for formation and continued
existence. It may not burn off with the morning sun but instead can
persist for days.
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2. advection fog b. It forms in low-lying areas like mountain valleys. As the sun rises
and the temperature increases, this type of fog lifts and eventually
burns off. Any increase in wind also speeds its dissipation. If it is
less than 20 feet thick, it is known as ground fog.
3. upslope fog c. Unlike radiation fog, wind is required to form this type of fog. It
is common in coastal areas where sea breezes can blow the air over
cooler landmasses.
4. steam fog d. It occurs in cold weather when the temperature is much below
freezing and water vapor forms directly into ice crystals.
5. ice fog e. It forms when cold, dry air moves over warm water. As the water
evaporates, it rises and resembles smoke. This type of fog is
common over bodies of water during the coldest times of the year.
Ex. 7. A. Read the information on clouds and do the exercises below.

Clouds are visible indicators of future weather. For clouds to form, there must be adequate
water vapor as well as a method by which the air can be cooled. When the air cools and reaches
its saturation point, the invisible water vapor changes into a visible state. Cloud type is
determined by its height, shape, and characteristics. They are classified according to the height
of their bases as low (form near the Earth’s surface and extend up to about 6,500 feet AGL),
middle (form around 6,500 feet AGL and extend up to 20,000 feet AGL), or high clouds (form
above 20,000 feet AGL and usually form only in stable air), as well as clouds with vertical
development.
B. Match each cloud family, the types of clouds included into it and the characteristic of
each type of clouds.
stratus cirrus
altostratus towering
stratocumulus cirrostratus
altocumulus cumulus cumulonimbus
nimbostratus cirrocumulus
67
1. Fog is also classified as a type of this cloud formation. Clouds in this family create low
ceilings, hamper visibility, and can change rapidly.
2. These types of clouds may be encountered on cross-country flights at higher altitudes.
They can produce turbulence and may contain moderate icing.
3. These clouds contain no significant icing or turbulence. The greatest problem flying in
cirriform clouds is restriction to visibility.
4. The bases of these clouds form in the low to middle cloud base region but can extend
into high altitude cloud levels. The air around and inside towering them is turbulent. These
types of clouds often develop into thunderstorms. They contain large amounts of moisture and
unstable air and usually produce hazardous weather phenomena, such as lightning, hail,
tornadoes, gusty winds, and wind shear. These extensive vertical clouds can be obscured by
other cloud formations and are not always visible from the ground or while in flight. When this
happens, these clouds are said to be embedded.
C. Match the name of the cloud and the picture.
altostratus cirrus altocumulus cirrostratus

cumulus nimbostratus cumulonimbus stratus
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8
(http://bruce.brianwilliams.co/sky-watcher-chart/)
Ex. 8. A. Match the word combinations in column A with the Russian equivalents in column B.
A B
1. heavy rain a. сильный дождь
2. light rain b. переохлажденный дождь
3. moderate rain c. непрерывный дождь
4. intermittent rain d. слабый дождь
5. continuous rain e. кратковременный дождь
6. freezing rain f. умеренный дождь
7. shower rain g. ливневый дождь
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8. freezing / supercooled drizzle h. фронтальная гроза
9. ice crystals i. переохлажденная морось
10. ice pellets j. ледяные кристаллы / иглы
11. line squall k. ледяной дождь
12. soft hail l. мокрый снег
13. blizzard m. ледяная и снежная крупа
14. drifting snow n. снежный поземок
15. sleet o. метель
B. Match the types of precipitation in column A with their descriptions in column B.

A B
1. drizzle a. Rain that falls through the atmosphere but evaporates prior to striking
the ground.
2. snow b. These are small clear balls of ice, which are rain drops that have frozen
before they hit the ground.
3. ice pellets c. It is precipitation in the form of ice crystals that falls at a steady rate or
in showers that change in intensity and end rapidly.
4. virga d. It is classified as very small water droplets, smaller than 0.02 inches in
diameter and usually accompanies fog or low stratus clouds.
5. hail e. It consists of balls or irregular lumps of ice usually between
5 millimetres (0.2 in) and 15 centimetres (6 in) in diameter.

1. Туман образуется в результате конденсации водяного пара в непосредственной
близости от земной поверхности. По своей физической природе туман подобен облаку.
Часто одно явление переходит в другое. Например, когда туман приподнимается, то он
преобразуется в низкие разорванно-слоистые облака.
2. Поземка – это перенос сухого снега ветром непосредственно над поверхностью снеж-
ного покрова. Поземка возникает при скорости ветра 4–6 м/с, при этом снег поднимается до
высоты в несколько десятков сантиметров.
3. Низовая метель – это явление, схожее с поземкой, с той разницей, что она бывает
при более сильном ветре. При низовой метели снег поднимается до высоты в несколько
метров.
4. Град является наиболее опасным видом осадков, который может привести к серь-
езным механическим повреждениям как ВС, так и объектов обеспечения полетов. По
многолетним наблюдениям град отмечается в теплый период года, с апреля по август.
5. В зависимости от высоты нижней границы облаков можно разделить облачность
на три яруса. К нижнему ярусу относятся слоистая (могут выпадать осадки в виде моро-
си), слоисто-дождевая (обложные осадки), слоисто-кучевая облачность. Средний ярус –
это высокослоистая и высококучевая облачность. Верхний ярус – это перистая, перисто-
кучевая, перисто-слоистая облачность.
6. Наиболее благоприятным для взлета и посадки является встречный ветер, т. к. он
уменьшает скорость отрыва и посадочную скорость, а следовательно, уменьшает длину
разбега при взлете и длину пробега при посадке самолета.
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7. Точка росы – температура, при которой воздух достигает состояния насыщения
при данном содержании водяного пара и неизменном давлении. При относительной
влажности меньше 100 % точка всегда ниже фактической температуры воздуха. Для эки-
пажа ВС главное значение точки росы – это возможность оценить вероятность обледене-
ния в конкретной метеорологической обстановке.
Ex. 10. Search the Internet and prepare a short report on Air Masses and Fronts (cold,
warm, stationary and occluded). Say why different fronts form; what weather
characteristics of different fronts are; how the passage of each front can influence flying
conditions.

anvil-like shape в форме наковальни
circumnavigate v обходить, облетать
dissipate v рассеивать, разгонять
downdraft n нисходящий поток
encounter v столкнуться, встретиться
flameout n срыв пламени, заглохание
freezing level уровень нулевой изотермы
microburst n микропорыв, микровзрыв
sustain v поддерживать существование, подкреплять
wind shear сдвиг ветра

WEATHER-RELATED HAZARDS
Part 1. Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms are one of the most hazardous conditions a pilot can encounter. All
thunderstorms can produce severe turbulence, low level wind shear, low ceilings and
visibilities, hail and lightning. Each of these hazards can be difficult to cope with; if all these
conditions arrive at once, it can be disastrous. Understanding basic thunderstorm formation and
structure can help make safe decisions.
A thunderstorm makes its way through three distinct stages before dissipating. It
begins with the cumulus stage, in which lifting action of the air begins. If sufficient
moisture and instability are present, the clouds continue to increase in vertical height.
Strong updrafts prohibit moisture from falling. Within approximately 15 minutes, the
thunderstorm reaches the mature stage, which is the most violent time period of the
thunderstorm life cycle. At this point, drops of moisture are too heavy for the cloud to
support and begin falling in the form of rain or hail. This creates a downward motion of
the air. Once the vertical motion near the top of the cloud slows down, the top of the cloud
spreads out and takes on an anvil-like shape and the storm enters the dissipating stage.
This is when the downdrafts spread out and replace the updrafts needed to sustain the
storm.
It is impossible to fly over thunderstorms in light aircraft. Flying under thunderstorms can
subject aircraft to rain, hail, damaging lightning, and violent turbulence. A good rule is to
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circumnavigate thunderstorms. If flying around a thunderstorm is not an option, a pilot should
stay on the ground until it passes.
All thunderstorms contain lightning. It can strike more than 10 miles from a thunderstorm.
The intensity of a thunderstorm is dependent on the number of lightning flashes per minute.
There are three categories: slight – rate of 1 flash per minute, moderate – rate of 2 to 3 flashes
per minute and heavy – rate of 4 or more flashes per minute. A lightning strike can puncture the
skin of an aircraft and damage communications and electronic navigational equipment.
Although it has been thought that lightning can ignite fuel vapors and cause an explosion,
serious accidents due to lightning strikes are rare. Nearby lightning can blind the pilot, making
him or her unable to navigate either by instrument or by visual reference. Lightning discharges
can disrupt radio communications on low and medium frequencies.
Turbulence exceeding the performance capability of most aircraft can be found in and
around thunderstorms. Thunderstorm can cause wind shears which can lead to handling
problems, flight path deviations and loss of airspeed. Hail competes with turbulence as the
greatest thunderstorm hazard to aircraft. It may be encountered in clear air several miles from
thunderstorm clouds. Hailstones can be as large as a golf ball and can cause considerable
damage to aircraft whether on the ground or in the air. Microbursts are possible with many
thunderstorms, as is heavy rain. Severe thunderstorms may contain areas of high water
concentration, which could result in flameout and / or structural failure of one or more engines.
Pilots can expect to find airframe icing in all thunderstorms. Although all forms of icing are
possible, clear icing, caused by larger drops of supercooled water, is the most common. Clear
icing can occur at any altitude above the freezing level, but at high levels, icing from smaller
droplets may be rime or mixed rime and clear ice. Thunderstorm icing can be extremely
hazardous as ice accumulation in thunderstorms above the freezing level can be so rapid that an
aircraft may be incapable of maintaining level flight.
Generally, visibility is near zero within a thunderstorm cloud. Ceiling and visibility also
may be restricted in precipitation and dust between the cloud base and the ground. The
restrictions create the same problem as all ceiling and visibility restrictions; but the hazards are
multiplied when associated with the other thunderstorm hazards of turbulence, hail, and
lightning.
Pressure usually falls rapidly with the approach of a thunderstorm, rises sharply with
arrival of the cold downdraft and heavy rain showers, and then falls back to normal as the storm
moves on. This cycle of pressure change may occur in 15 minutes. If the pilot does not receive
a corrected altimeter setting, the altimeter may be more than 100 feet in error.
B. Divide the text into parts and name them.
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A B
1. hazardous adj a. updraft
2. circumnavigate v b. safe
3. sustain v c. fly into
4. downdraft n d. assemble
5. dissipate v e. let go
Ex. 14. Fill in gaps with the correct form of the word in brackets.
1. Thunderstorms are one of the most ……… (hazard) weather phenomena which a pilot
can encounter during the flight.
2. ……… (Understand) basic thunderstorm ……… (form) and structure can help make
sound decisions.
3. A thunderstorm makes its way through three distinct stages before ……… (dissipate).
4. The intensity of a thunderstorm is ……… (depend) on the number of lightning flashes
per minute.
5. Severe thunderstorms may contain areas of high water ……… (concentrate), which
could result in flameout and/or structural ……… (fail) of one or more engines.
6. Thunderstorm icing can be extremely hazardous as ice ……… (accumulate) in
thunderstorms above the freezing level can be so rapid that an aircraft may be incapable of
……… (maintain) level flight.
7. Pressure usually falls rapidly with the approach of a thunderstorm, rises sharply with
……… (arrive) of the cold downdraft and heavy rain showers, and then falls back to normal as
the storm moves on.
Ex. 15. Describe the TS stages using the information below. Match the name of the TS
phase, its description and the picture.
Developing stage Dissipating stage Mature stage
72
1 2 3
(http://ialert.com/blog/basic-meteorology/the-life-cycle-of-thunderstorms/)
1. Hurricane Hunters (aircrews that fly into tropical cyclones).
2. Technology that exists nowadays or is being developed to help pilots predict and avoid
thunderstorms.

adhere v налипать, приклеиваться
brittle adj хрупкий
deploy v развертывать, выпускать, задействовать
estimated surface friction расчетное сцепление
glaze ice наледь, гладкий лед
holdover time время защитного действия противообледенительной
жидкости
impair v ухудшать
rime n иней
runback ice барьерный лед
trace adj остаточный, слабый

Part 2. Icing
Aircraft icing is one of the major weather hazards to aviation. It reduces aircraft efficiency
by increasing weight and drag and reducing lift and thrust. Each effect tends to either slow the
aircraft or force it downward. The actual weight of ice on an airplane is insignificant when
compared to the airflow disruption it causes. As power is added to compensate for the
additional drag and the nose is lifted to maintain altitude, the angle of attack is increased,
allowing the underside of the wings and fuselage to accumulate additional ice.
73
Ice accumulates on every exposed frontal surface of the airplane – not just on the wings,
propeller, and windshield, but also on the antennas, vents, intakes, and cowlings. It can cause
antennas to vibrate so severely that they break. It builds in flight where no heat or boots can
reach it. In moderate to severe conditions, a light aircraft can become so iced up that continued
flight is impossible. The airplane may roll or pitch uncontrollably, and recovery might be
impossible. Icing also seriously impairs aircraft engine performance. It can cause engine failure
by either icing up the carburetor or, in the case of a fuel-injected engine, blocking the engine air
source. Other icing effects include false indications on flight instruments, loss of radio
communications, and loss of operation of brakes, and landing gear.
Certified aircraft are commonly equipped with devices that either serve to prevent ice from
adhering to the airframe or remove it once it has adhered. Such anti-icing or de-icing equipment
may be deployed manually or through an automatic system. Equipment includes pneumatic
"boots", heat and liquid. All three can be applied to the leading edges of the wings and tail, and
occasionally to propellers.
Icing is currently classified into four severity categories: trace, light, moderate, and severe,
depending on the state of the icing environment, the aircraft response and the pilot’s assessment
of the response.
There are two main physical types of icing: glaze (sometimes referred to as clear) and rime.
Mixed icing is a combination of the two. Glaze icing can be more serious to the aircraft than
rime since it tends to run back along the airframe (referred to as runback ice), covering more
surface area than rime icing and adhering to unprotected areas. It can be hard to see from inside
the aircraft, so that the pilot may be unaware of ice buildup. Rime ice is lighter in weight than
clear ice and its weight is of little significance. However, its irregular shape and rough surface
make it very effective in decreasing aerodynamic efficiency of airfoils. Rime ice is brittle and
more easily removed than clear ice.
Frost, ice pellets, frozen rain, or snow may accumulate on parked aircraft. Water blown by
propellers or splashed by wheels of an airplane as it taxis or runs through pools of water or mud
may result in serious aircraft icing. Ice may form in wheel wells, brake mechanisms, flap
hinges, etc., and prevent proper operation of these parts. Ice on runways and taxiways reduces
estimated surface friction and causes braking problems. All these factors make de-icing/anti-
icing treatment prior to take-off a vital part of flight preparation. First of all, the aircraft must be
inspected for signs of contaminant already adhering to surfaces and it must be removed using a
suitable ground de-icing fluid. Secondly, the prevailing weather conditions must be assessed. If
further adherence of contaminant to the airframe surfaces is anticipated prior to take off, then a
suitable ground anti-icing fluid should be applied.
The flight crew must monitor holdover time, that is the estimated time for which an anti-
icing fluid will prevent the formation of frost or ice and the accumulation of snow on the
protected surfaces of an airplane, under specified weather conditions. It can be affected by:
outside temperature – the colder it is, the faster a fluid will fail; precipitation type and intensity;
fluid type and strength. If holdover time is exceeded flight crew must in any case request a
secondary treatment.

1. Why is aircraft icing considered to be one of the major hazards in aviation?
2. What can ice accumulation lead to?
74
3. What parts of aircraft are more vulnerable to icing?
4. What is the difference between de-icing and anti-icing aircraft equipment? What can it
include?
5. What severity categories is icing currently classified into? What does each category
depend on?
6. Name two main physical types of icing.
7. Why is glaze icing more serious to the aircraft than rime icing?
8. What dangers can icing pose on the ground?
9. Define holdover time. What can it be affected by?
Ex. 19. Think of all possible word clusters with the words in columns A and B.
A B
1. reduce a. altitude
2. compensate b. aircraft engine performance
3. accumulate c. aircraft efficiency
4. maintain d. additional ice
5. cause e. for the additional drag
6. impair f. antennas to vibrate
7. prevent g. for signs of contaminant
8. be inspected h. accumulation of snow on the protected surfaces of an airplane
Ex. 20. Define the word combinations.

Inflatable rubber boots; runback ice; rime ice; de-icing treatment; holdover time; clear ice;
glaze ice; anti-icing treatment
Ex. 21. Complete the table with the icing characteristics given below.
Intensity Characteristic Accumulation
Trace
Light
Moderate
Severe
1. The rate of accumulation may create a hazard if flight is prolonged in this environment
(over 1 hour). Occasional use of de-icing / anti-icing equipment removes / prevents
accumulation. It does not present a hazard if the de-icing/anti-icing equipment is used.
2. The rate of accumulation is such that even short encounters become potentially
hazardous and the use of de-icing / anti-icing equipment or flight diversion is necessary.
3. The rate of accumulation is such that de-icing / anti-icing equipment fails to reduce or
control the hazard. Immediate flight diversion is necessary.
4. Rate of accumulation is slightly greater than sublimation. Ice becomes perceptible. Even
if de-icing / anti-icing equipment is not used, non-hazardous unless encountered for more than
one hour.
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Ex. 22. Read the information about An-148 accident and open the brackets using Passive
or Active form of the verbs in the correct tense.
Russian experts investigating the plane crash outside Moscow that (1) ……… (to kill) 71
people said that the accident may (2) ……… (to cause) by ice on speed-measuring instruments
which (3) ……… (to lead to) faulty information on the craft's airspeed.
"A factor in the development of a special situation in the flight could be the wrong data
about flight speed on pilots' indicators which was likely due to iced pitot tubes while their
heating systems (4) ……… (to shut off)", said the Russian Interstate Aviation Committee (IAC)
which (5) ……… (to investigate) aircraft incidents.
The Antonov An-148 plane took off from Moscow’s Domodedovo airport on Sunday to the
Russian city of Orsk and went down in a field around 70 kilometres southeast of Moscow
shortly after. All 65 passengers and six crew members on board (6) ……… (to die).
The IAC said the flight began having problems two and a half minutes after takeoff at an
altitude of about 1300 metres, at which point instruments began to display vastly different
speeds. The plane's autopilot (7) ……… (to turn off) and it began to sharply lose speed until
impact with the ground.
The flight (8) ……… (to operate) the domestic Saratov Airlines, which announced that it
(9) ……… (to suspend) usage of the An-148.

bumpy adj турбулентный
bumpiness n болтанка
clear air turbulence турбулентность ясного неба
devoid of свободный от
drop in v проседать (о ВС)
eddy n завихрение
jet stream струйное течение
leeward side подветренная сторона
to overshoot v перелетать (при посадке на ВПП)
to undershoot v недолетать до торца ВПП
wind shear сдвиг ветра
windward side надветренная сторона

Part 3. Turbulence
Turbulence is one of the most unpredictable of all weather phenomena that are of
significance to pilots. It is an irregular motion of the air resulting from eddies and vertical
currents. Turbulence is usually associated with fronts, wind shear, thunderstorms, etc. It is
reported in varying degrees of intensity: light, moderate, severe, and extreme.
76
There are four fundamental causes of turbulence: thermal; mechanical; shear; aerodynamic
(wake turbulence). Thermal: certain surfaces, such as rocky and sandy areas, are heated more
rapidly than grass covered fields and
much more rapidly than water. Isolated
convective currents are set in motion
with warm air rising and cooler air
descending, causing bumpy conditions
as an airplane flies in and out of them at
lower altitudes during warmer weather.
Convective currents close to the ground
Effect of Convective Currents
can affect a pilot’s ability to control the
(https://www.weather.gov/source/zhu/ZHU_Training_Page/turbul
ence_stuff/turbulence/turbulence.htm) aircraft. For example, on final approach,
the rising air from terrain devoid of
vegetation sometimes produces a ballooning effect that can cause a pilot to overshoot the
intended landing spot.
Mechanical: friction between the air and the ground, especially irregular terrain and man-
made obstructions, causes eddies and turbulence in the lower layers. The intensity of the
turbulence associated with ground obstructions depends on the size of the obstacle and the
primary velocity of the wind. This can affect the
takeoff and landing performance of any aircraft
and can present a very serious hazard. During the
landing phase of flight, an aircraft may "drop in"
due to the turbulent air and be too low to clear
obstacles during the approach.
This same condition is even more noticeable
when flying in mountainous regions. While the
wind flows smoothly up the windward side of
the mountain and the upward currents help to
carry an aircraft over the peak of the mountain, Windward and Leeward Sides
the wind on the leeward side does not act in a (https://www.weather.gov/source/zhu/ZHU_Training_
Page/turbulence_stuff/turbulence/turbulence.htm)
similar manner. As the air flows down the
leeward side of the mountain, the air follows the
contour of the terrain and is increasingly turbulent. This tends to push an aircraft into the side of
a mountain. The stronger the wind, the greater the downward pressure and turbulence become.
Shear: wind shear is the change in wind direction and / or wind speed over a specific
horizontal or vertical distance. Wind shear can subject an aircraft to violent updrafts and
downdrafts, as well as abrupt changes to the horizontal movement of the aircraft. While wind
shear can occur at any altitude, low-level wind shear is especially hazardous due to the
proximity of an aircraft to the ground. It can rapidly change the performance of the aircraft and
disrupt the normal flight attitude. For example, a tailwind quickly changing to a headwind
causes an increase in airspeed and performance. Conversely, a headwind changing to a tailwind
causes a decrease in airspeed and performance.
The most severe type of low-level wind shear, a microburst, is associated with convective
precipitation into dry air at cloud base. Microburst activity may be indicated by an intense rain
77
shaft at the surface but virga at cloud base and a ring of blowing dust is often the only visible
clue. The lifespan of a microburst is about 5–15 minutes during which it can produce
downdrafts of up to 6,000 feet per minute (fpm) and headwind losses of 30–90 knots, seriously
degrading performance. It can also produce strong turbulence and hazardous wind direction
changes. During takeoff into a microburst, the plane may first experience a performance-
increasing headwind, followed by performance-decreasing downdrafts, followed by a rapidly
increasing tailwind. This can result in terrain impact or flight dangerously close to the ground.
An encounter during approach involves the same sequence of wind changes and could force the
plane to the ground short of the runway.
Clear air turbulence is caused by strong wind shears in the jet stream at high altitudes
(above 15000 feet AGL).
Aerodynamic: wake turbulence results when a smaller aircraft encounters vortices from a
larger aircraft. A vortex is formed at an aircraft wingtip as air circulates outward, upward, and
around the wingtip. The size of the vortex varies with the size and weight of the aircraft.

1. Define turbulence.
2. What are four fundamental causes of turbulence?
3. What dangers can pilots face due to convective currents?
4. On what side is it more favourable to approach a mountain? Why?
5. Define wind shear. What can it subject aircraft to?
6. Why is low-level wind shear especially hazardous?
7. What can happen to aircraft during takeoff into a microburst?
8. Define wake turbulence.
Ex. 25. Complete the table below with the turbulence descriptors given.
Classification Description Reaction Inside Aircraft

Light
Moderate
Severe
Extreme
Description
1. Similar to light turbulence but of greater intensity. The aircraft remains in positive
control at all times. Usually causes variations in indicated speed.
2. Causes large abrupt changes in altitude and/or attitude. Aircraft may be momentarily out
of control.
3. Causes aircraft to be violently tossed about. Aircraft may be practically out of control.
Can cause structural damage.
4. Momentarily causes slight erratic changes in altitude and/or attitude (pitch, roll, or yaw).
78
Reaction Inside Aircraft
a. Occupants may feel a slight strain against seat belts or shoulder straps. Unsecured objects
may be displaced slightly.
b. Occupants feel definite strains against seat belts or shoulder straps. Unsecured objects are
dislodged.
c. Occupants are forced violently against seat belts or shoulder straps. Unsecured objects
are tossed about.
Ex. 26. A. Complete the gaps with the correct prepositions.

on (2) over into for within in
until to (2) through of (2) toward at
(1) ……… Saturday, July 2, 1994, the plane, a McDonnell Douglas DC-9 departed
Columbia Metropolitan Airport (2) ……… 18:15 (3) ……… the 35-minute flight (4) ………
Charlotte / Douglas International Airport with 5 crew members and 52 passengers on board.
The flight was uneventful (5) ……… the approach to Charlotte, where several heavy
thunderstorms were (6) ……… the vicinity (7) ……… the airport. When Flight 1016 was
(8) ......... final approach, the captain attempted to abort the landing. The plane struggled to
climb due to the severe weather conditions, veered (9) ……… the right and rapidly descended.
The flight crew desperately tried to control the airplane as it plummeted (10) … the ground.
The DC-9 touched down in a field (11) ……… the airport boundary, about 0.5 miles from
the threshold of runway 18R. It then crashed (12) ……… the airport fence and impacted several
trees. The plane broke (13) ……… four sections.
37 (14) …….. the 52 passengers on board died. No one on the ground was injured. After a
lengthy investigation it was concluded that a microburst had been generated by the
thunderstorm that was (15) ……… the airport at the time of the crash.
B. How do you think this accident could have been avoided?
C. Prepare a short report on the dangers associated with microburst, say what microburst
is and how it is formed, how pilots deal with it nowadays and what technology exists or is
being developed to alert about microburst.
Ex. 27. A. Define the following aviation terms.

Convective currents; clear air turbulence; jet stream; wake turbulence.
B. What dangers do these phenomena pose to aviation?
Ex. 28. Read the information on new technology designed to detect CAT and wind shear.
Complete the gaps with the missing words in the correct form.
to flight-test to measure fracture integration dislocated warning
to avoid ceiling to encounter undetectable to involve to fasten to emit
In 2018 Boeing and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) will test laser
technology which could give airline pilots up to a minute’s (1) ……… of otherwise (2) ……..
clear air turbulence or wind shear. The laser technology, known as light detection and ranging
79
(LIDAR), is designed (3) …...… winds up to 17.5 kilometres ahead. Boeing and JAXA have
been collaborating on the (4) …...… of LIDAR technology into a commercial aircraft since
2010. Boeing says that it will work with FedEx Express (5) ……... LIDAR aboard a new 777
freighter.
LIDAR works by (6) ……... pulses of laser light, which scatter off dust and other
particulates. By measuring the light reflected back, the system can measure wind speed at
various distances along the direction of the laser. The technology has the potential to reduce
injuries to crew and passengers by giving pilots enough time either (7) ……... the turbulence or
warn passengers and cabin crew (8) …...… their seatbelts.
Clear air turbulence can be caused by jet streams, mountain waves, wake turbulence or
microbursts, and is the main cause of in-flight injuries to passengers and crew. For example, six
cabin crew and 24 passengers – most not in seatbelts – were injured on a flight from Cairns to
Tokyo when the aircraft (9) …...… severe undetected turbulence. Trolleys, cabin crew and
passengers hit the (10) …...…, resulting in injuries including bone (11) …...…, a (12) …...…
shoulder and broken teeth.
In 2015, the Australian Transport Safety Bureau received 438 reports of weather-related
incidents in air transport operations, of which 85 % (13) …...… wind shear or turbulence – a
fivefold increase from six years earlier. The bureau remarked, "the increase in wind shear or
turbulence events has significantly outpaced the increase in air transport activity over the
decade".

1. 19 марта 2016 года пассажирский Boeing 737-800, летевший из Дубая, потерпел
крушение в Ростове-на-Дону. Самолет упал левее взлетно-посадочной полосы при по-
садке в условиях плохой видимости. На борту находились 55 пассажиров и 7 членов эки-
пажа. Все они погибли.
2. Крупная авиационная катастрофа произошла 22 августа 2006 года в 35 км севернее
Донецка. Воздушное судно Ту-154М российской авиакомпании «Пулково» выполняло
регулярный пассажирский рейс из Анапы в Санкт-Петербург, но над Донецкой областью
попало в область сильного грозового фронта. Экипаж запросил у диспетчера разрешение
на более высокий эшелон полета, но затем самолет начал быстро терять высоту, а через
3 мин столкнулся с землей. В катастрофе погибли все находившиеся на борту 160 пасса-
жиров и 10 членов экипажа.
3. 21 ноября 2009 года в Тюменской области из-за обледенения двигателей упал
частный самолет-амфибия СВС «Корвет». В результате падения погиб пассажир – владе-
лец самолета, пилот попал в реанимацию.

advisory n консультация, рекомендация
amend v исправлять, корректировать, изменять, вносить поправки
descriptor n описание, описатель
minor adj незначительный, несущественный
mishap n нештатная ситуация, происшествие
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sustained adj устойчивый, длительный, постоянный
utilize v использовать, применять
valid adj действующий, имеющий силу, верный

1. Why is it important for pilots and controllers have frequently updated weather
information?
2. What different sources of weather information do pilots have?
3. How accurate are weather predictions nowadays?
B. Read the text.

WEATHER SERVICES
Aviation weather reports are designed to give accurate depictions of current weather
conditions. Each report provides current information that is updated at different times. Some
typical reports are METARs and PIREPs.
METARs are issued on a regularly scheduled basis unless significant weather changes have
occurred. A special METAR (SPECI) can be issued at any time between routine METAR
reports. This is a special report that can be given at any time to update the METAR for rapidly
changing weather conditions, aircraft mishaps, or other critical information.
PIREPs provide valuable information regarding the conditions which cannot be gathered
from any other source. Pilots can confirm the height of bases and tops of clouds, locations of
wind shear and turbulence, and the location of inflight icing. When unexpected weather
conditions are encountered, pilots are encouraged to make a report to ATC. When a pilot
weather report is filed, the ATC facility adds it to the distribution system to brief other pilots
and provide inflight advisories.
Observed weather condition reports are often used in the creation of forecasts for the same
area. A variety of different forecasts are produced and designed to be used in the preflight
planning stage. The printed forecasts that pilots need to be familiar with are the terminal
aerodrome forecast (TAF), aviation area forecast (FA), inflight weather advisories (SIGMET,
AIRMET), and the winds and temperatures aloft forecast (FB).
A TAF is a forecast established for the five statute mile radius around an airport. TAFs are
usually given for larger airports. Each TAF is valid for a 24 or 30-hour time period and is
updated four times a day. The TAF utilizes the same descriptors and abbreviations as used in
the METAR report. Each TAF replaces the previous TAF and is amended as needed.
The FA gives a picture of clouds, general weather conditions, and visual meteorological
conditions (VMC) expected over a large area. Area forecasts are issued three times a day and
are valid for 18 hours. This type of forecast gives information vital to en route operations. FAs
start with a synopsis that describes the movements of significant fronts, pressure systems, and
circulation patterns.
Inflight weather advisories, which are provided to en route aircraft, are forecasts that detail
potentially hazardous weather. These advisories are also available to pilots prior to departure
for flight planning purposes. An inflight weather advisory is issued in the form of either an
AIRMET, SIGMET or convective SIGMET.
81
AIRMETs (WAs) are examples of inflight weather advisories that are issued every 6 hours
with intermediate updates issued as needed for a particular area forecast region. The
information contained in an AIRMET is of operational interest to all aircraft, but the weather
section concerns phenomena considered potentially hazardous to light aircraft and aircraft with
limited operational capabilities. It includes forecast of moderate icing, moderate turbulence,
sustained surface winds of 30 knots or greater, widespread areas of ceilings less than 1,000 feet
and/or visibilities less than three miles.
SIGMETs (WSs) are inflight advisories concerning non-convective weather that is
potentially hazardous to all aircraft. They report weather forecasts that include severe icing not
associated with thunderstorms, severe or extreme turbulence or clear air turbulence (CAT) not
associated with thunderstorms, dust storms or sandstorms that lower surface or inflight
visibilities to below three miles, and volcanic ash. SIGMETs are unscheduled forecasts that are
valid for 4 hours unless the SIGMET relates to a hurricane, in which case it is valid for 6 hours.
A Convective SIGMET (WST) is an inflight weather advisory issued for hazardous
convective weather that affects the safety of every flight. Convective SIGMETs are issued for
severe thunderstorms with surface winds greater than 50 knots, hail at the surface greater than
or equal to ¾ inch in diameter, or tornadoes. They are also issued to advise pilots of embedded
thunderstorms, lines of thunderstorms, or thunderstorms with heavy precipitation.

1. What types of weather information can you specify?
2. What is the difference between reports and forecasts?
3. Give examples of weather reports and weather forecast available in aviation.
4. Give definitions to the following terms: TAF, METAR, SIGMET, FA, AIRMET, SPECI,
PIREP. What information do they include?
Обновлять данные; выдаваться на постоянной основе; заменять; давать точное
описание; инструктировать других пилотов; быть доступным перед вылетом; сообщать
пилотам о чем-либо; использовать те же описания и аббревиатуры; эксплуатационные
возможности.
Ex. 33. Use the dictionary to complete the table with the other parts of speech.
Verb Noun Adjective
… … operational
expect … …
amend … …
… … valid
provide … …
… depiction …
consider … …
occur … …
… variety …
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Ex. 34. Read the information about ATIS and open the brackets using Passive or Active
form of the verbs in the correct tense.
Automatic Terminal Information Service, or ATIS, is a continuous broadcast of recorded
aeronautical information in busier airports. Pilots (1) ……… (to listen) to ATIS broadcast
information before contacting the local air traffic controller, in order to reduce the controllers’
workload and to prepare for their flight. ATIS broadcasts (2) ……… (to contain) essential
information, such as weather information, active runways, available approaches, NOTAM, and
any other information required by the pilots. The ATIS recording (3) ……… (to update) at
fixed intervals or when there is a significant change in the information.
The ATIS message containing both arrival and departure information shall contain the
following elements of information:
– location (the airport that (4) ……… (to broadcast) the ATIS);
– identifier (each ATIS (5) ……… (to give) a letter to identify it. This letter (6) ……… (to
speak) as all letters are in aviation, using the phonetic alphabet);
– time of issue (the time when the recording (7) ……… (to make), given in Zulu or local
time);
– winds (current wind information. If winds are 6 knots or less and varying in direction,
they (8) ……… (to consider) Variable (VRB). If the winds are less than 3 knots the winds (9)
……… (to list) as Calm. A variation of 10 knots or more is considered a Gust;
– visibility (the current visibility at the airport. Less than 3 miles is IFR. Three miles or
greater is VFR);
– weather phenomena (rain, mist, snow, thunderstorm, etc.);
– sky condition (the altitude of the base of the clouds relative to ground level as well as the
amount of cloud cover);
– temperature / dewpoint;
– altimeter (the current barometric pressure of the airport, given in inches of mercury in the
US and Canada, and millibars (or hectopascals) in other countries);
– approaches and runways in use;
– NOTAMs (Notice to airmen - other information such as bird activity, inoperative airport
lighting or systems, RWY surface conditions / RWY report etc. (10) ……… (to mention) in this
section);
– closing remark (each ATIS (11) ……… (to close) with "Advise controller on initial
contact, you have (current ATIS letter: Alpha / Bravo / Charlie/etc.)". The first call to any ATC
at the airport should (12) ……… (to include) the ATIS identifier. This tells ATC that the pilot
(13) ……… (to listen) to and understands the current ATIS information).
Ex. 35. A. Read and translate the SIGMET information into Russian.
1. RPHI SIGMET A03 VALID 050450/050850 RPLL-
RPHI MANILA FIR EMBD TS OBS WI N1031 E12942 - N0912 E12738 - N1241 E12332
- N1532 E12642 - N1031 E 12942
TOP FL530 MOV W 10 KT NC =
2. LOWW SIGMET 3 VALID 150900/151300 LOWW-
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LOWW WIEN FIR LOC MOD/SEV CAT FCST E OF LINE FRE-RASTAVIW BTN FL
240/390 MOV E WKN=
3. NFFF SIGMET 04 VALID 050445/051025 NFFF -
NFFF NADI FIR VA ERUPTION MT YASUR PSN S1932 E16927 VA CLD OBS AT
0359 WI S1915 E16930 - S1915 E16900 - S1945 E16930 FL050 MOV NW 6 KT =
4. YMMM SIGMET I02 VALID 050744/051144 YMMC-
YMMM MELBOURNE FIR SEV ICE FCST WI S2950 E11920 - S3420 E12410 - S3600
E12120 - S3440 E11950 FL110/200 MOV E 30KT NC =
5. UHPP SIGMET 1 VALID 211100/211700 UHPP-
UHPP PETROPAVLOVSK-KAMCHATSKY FIR VA ERUPTION MT
KLUCHEVSKOY LOC N5603 E16039 VA CLD OBS AT 1100Z FL220/230 APRX 240KM
BY 35KM N5750 E16200-N5700 E16200=
B. Read and translate the TAF information into Russian.

1. LTBA 050440Z 0506/0612 VRB02KT 9999 SCT035 BKN090 PROB30 0511/0515
4000 -TSRA SCT020CB BKN025 BECMG 0515/0518 BKN030
2. UUEE 050500Z 0506/0606 28007MPS 9999 BKN020 TX15/0512Z TN07/0601Z
TEMPO 0506/0516 33011G16MPS -SHRA BKN011 SCT020CB TEMPO 0601/0606 -SHRA
BKN006 SCT020CB
3. UWUU 050459Z 0506/0606 20009G14MPS 9999 BKN020CB TEMPO 0506/0606
VRB20MPS 3100 -TSRAGR VV007
4. LFPG 050557Z 0506/0612 01010KT 1000 BR BKN002 BKN004 TEMPO 0506/0508
0500 FG VV/// PROB30 TEMPO 0506/0507 -SHRA BKN008 SCT060CB BECMG 0508/0509
3000 BR BKN005 BECMG 0509/0511 9999 NSW SCT016 TEMPO 0511/0520 4000 -SHRA
SCT020 BKN040TCU PROB40 TEMPO 0514/0516 02010G20KT 2000 TSRAGR SCT015
BKN030CB PROB40 TEMPO 0600/0606 3000 -SHRA BKN006 SCT050CB PROB30
TEMPO 0602/0604 2000 -TSRAGR TX24/0514Z TN14/0605Z
5. EHAM 050434Z 0506/0612 01008KT 9999 BKN015 BECMG 0507/0510 SCT020
BECMG 0510/0513 33012KT CAVOK BECMG 0517/0520 01006KT PROB30 0600/0605
5000 BR BECMG 0602/0605 04006KT
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PART V. AIR NAVIGATION
speech.
Azimuth, calculation, course, compass, deviation, distance, geographical, horizon,
indication, locator, marker, mathematical, magnetic, method, navigation, pilotage, position,
process, radial, radio, rating, standard, technology, variation, visual.

back-up adj резервный, запасной, дублирующий
commence v начинать
deviate v отклоняться (от курса)
deviation n отклонение, девиация
compute v делать вычисления, вычислять
computation n вычисление, расчет
consume v потреблять, расходовать
consumption n расход, потребление
dead reckoning навигационное счисление пути
distort v исказить, деформировать
distortion n искажение, кривизна
landmark n наземный ориентир
receive v получить
receiver n приемник
reflect v отражать
reflection n отражение
transmit v передавать, транслировать
transmitter n передатчик
transponder n ответчик
waypoint n пункт (точка) маршрута
Automatic Direction Finder needle (ADF) стрелка автоматического радиокомпаса
(АРК)
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) дальномерное оборудование (ДМЕ)
flight log бортовой журнал
Glideslope (GS) глиссадный радиомаяк
Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Глобальная навигационная спутниковая
система (ГНСС)
Horizontal Situation Indicator (HIS) плановый навигационный прибор (ПНП)
Instrument Landing System (ILS) курсо-глиссадная система (КГС)
inner marker ближний привод
Localizer Beacon (LOC) курсовой радиомаяк
middle marker средний привод
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Non-Directional Beacon (NDB) ненаправленный радиомаяк
Omni-Bearing Indicator (ОBI) индикатор всенаправленного радиомаяка
outer marker дальний привод
precision approach точный заход на посадку
Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) радиомагнитный индикатор (РМИ)
Area Navigation (RNAV) зональная навигация RNAV
slant range наклонная дальность
slide rule навигационная линейка
Very High Frequency Omni-Directional Range всенаправленный азимутальный
(VOR) радиомаяк (ВРМ)

CONVENTIONAL NAVIGATION
Air navigation can be defined as the process of determining the geographical position and
maintaining the desired direction of the aircraft along the desired route towards the intended
destination. In the early days of aviation, navigation was mostly an art. Today, navigation is a
science with sophisticated equipment being standard on most aircraft. The choice of navigation
method depends on where the pilot is going, how long the flight will take, when the flight is to
take off, the type of aircraft being flown, the on-board navigation equipment, the ratings and
currency of the pilot and especially the expected weather.
To navigate a pilot needs to know the aerodromes of departure and destination; direction of
travel; distance of the flight; aircraft speed; aircraft fuel capacity; aircraft weight and balance
information. With this information flight planning can commence and the proper method of
navigation can be chosen.
Early aviation remained a dangerous business since the only navigation devices available to
most pilots were magnetic compasses. Pilots were forced to use visual landmarks to control
their aircraft attitude, relying on the natural horizon as a reference. Navigation from airport to
airport was performed using either pilotage or dead reckoning. Pilotage required the use of the
surrounding area map. The pilot drew a line on the map, extending from the departure to the
destination airport, and noted any prominent landmarks that would be passed in flight. Flying at
low altitudes, pilots used rivers, lakes, forests, "great iron compass" i.e. railroad tracks and
other visual references. This method had some obvious disadvantages. Poor visibility caused by
adverse weather conditions could prevent a pilot from seeing the needed landmarks and cause
the pilot to become disoriented and deviate from his course. A lack of landmarks when flying
over the more remote areas could also cause a pilot to get lost.
Dead Reckoning (or "Ded" for Deductive Reckoning) was another basic navigational
method used by low speed, small airplane pilots. It was based on mathematical calculations to
plot a course using the altitude, airspeed, heading, fuel burn rate, compass deviation, and
combine them with factors related to the environment; wind speed and direction, air
temperature, magnetic variation. From these computations the pilot was able to calculate how
long it would take to reach each waypoint flying a course corrected for the predicted winds aloft
and the local magnetic deviation. During this process pilots used the simplest navigation tools
such as a flight computer, or a slide rule, clock, compass, maps or aeronautical charts,
navigation flight log. Manual or electronic flight computers calculate time-speed-distance
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measurements, fuel consumption, density altitude and many other en route data necessary for
navigation. Nowadays when flying using VFR rules most pilots still use dead reckoning in
combination with pilotage, to navigate to their destination.
Navigation by radio aids includes navigation mainly by reference to indications of bearing
and distance indicated on VOR, DME and ADF equipment located on the aircraft. This
information is derived from ground radio beacons (Very High Frequency Omnidirectional
Range (VOR), Distance Measuring Equipment (DME), and Non-directional Beacons (NDBs).
The simplest form of radio navigation involves flying a direct track between a succession of
VOR or NDB beacons which lie on or close to the desired track. The VOR, the primary
navigational aid (NAVAID) used by civil aviation in the National Airspace System, is oriented
to magnetic north and transmits azimuth information to the aircraft, providing 360 courses
(radials) TO or FROM the VOR station. Distance (and elapsed time) to the next beacon is read
from DME or calculated by dead reckoning. When DME is installed with the VOR, it is
referred to as a VOR/DME and provides both azimuth and distance information. Nowadays
space-based GNSS navigational systems are increasingly replacing VOR and other ground-
based systems.

1. What is air navigation?
2. How does modern navigation differ from the navigation in the early days of aviation?
3. What should a pilot know to navigate safely?
4. What is pilotage? Speak on its advantages and disadvantages.
5. What is dead reckoning? Speak on the pros and cons of dead reckoning.
6. Are pilotage and dead reckoning used in modern aviation? Compare these two methods
of navigation.
7. What is radio navigation? Speak on its advantages over pilotage and dead reckoning.
8. What is the simplest form of radio navigation?
9. What are the common radio NAVAIDS?
10. What systems are replacing conventional navigation?
Ex. 4. A. Study the table below and speak on the ground navigational aids.
NAVAID
Description Function Advantages Disadvantages
/ symbol
NDB A radio transmitter 1. The ADF NDB signals follow NDB signals are
at a known needle points the curvature of the also affected more
location, used as TO the NDB Earth, so they can by atmospheric
an aviation or station, regard- be received at much conditions,
marine less of aircraft greater distances at mountainous
navigational aid. In heading or lower altitudes, a terrain, coastal
the aeronautical position. major advantage refraction and
navigation service 2. Useful if over VOR electrical storms,
there are 4 types of other particularly at long
NDBs: NAVAIDs, range
– en route NDBs, have failed.
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used to mark 3. Used as
airways; markers in ILS
– approach NDBs; approaches
– localizer
beacons;
– locator beacons
VOR A highly reliable 1. As V-Airway: 1. Static-free. 1. Short range.
primary means of assigns highways 2. Greater accuracy 2. Does not
navigation for en- in the sky. and reliability than provide the aircraft
route flight and 2. Enables the NDB. heading, it only
non-precision airborne receiver 3. The data is points to the
approaches. to determine the displayed visually ground station.
direction of the on easily read 3. Significant cost
aircraft from indicators: OBI in operating
any position to (Omni-Bearing current airway
or from a VOR indicator); HIS systems.
beacon, and, if (Horizontal 4. Signals are
necessary, track Situation Indicator); either reflected or
to or from the RMI(Radio blocked or
beacon on a Magnetic distorted by
selected bearing Indicator);RNAV terrain.
system. 5. Is considered to
4. Can serve as a be accurate only to
back up the order of ± 5°
navigational aid
system in case of
satellite link failure.
DME A transponder – Combined with 1. Provides 1. Slant range is
based VOR provides a continuous and slightly more than
radionavigation highly reliable accurate indication the actual
technology primary navi- of slant range horizontal distance
measuring slant gation means distance. because of the
VOR / range distance by for en-route 2. Provides difference in
DME timing the flight and non- coverage up to 200 elevation between
propagation delay precision NM. the aircraft and the
of VHF or UHF approaches. 3. Is rarely affected station.
radio signals. by precipitation 2. The distance
static and displayed by the
thunderstorms DME will be more
accurate when
flying at low
altitude and far
from the station
B. Compare the NAVAIDS. How do they differ and what do they have in common?
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C. At what stages of flight can these NAVAIDS be used?
Ex. 5. A. Read the information on ILS description and do the exercises below.
An Instrument Landing System is a precision runway approach aid employing two radio
beams to provide pilots with vertical and horizontal guidance during the landing approach. The
localizer (LOC) provides azimuth guidance, while the glideslope (GS) defines the correct
vertical descent profile. Marker beacons and high intensity runways lights may also be provided
as aids to the use of an ILS, although the former are more likely nowadays to have been
replaced by a DME integral to the ILS or one otherwise located on the aerodrome, for example
with a VOR.
The ILS LOC aerials are normally located at the end of the runway; they transmit two
narrow intersecting beams. Airborne equipment provides information to the pilot showing the
aircraft’s displacement from the runway centerline. The ILS GS aerials are normally located on
the aerodrome; they transmit two narrow intersecting beams, one slightly below the required
vertical profile and the other slightly above it. Aircraft equipment indicates the displacement of
the aircraft above or below the GS. The GS aerials are usually located so that the glide-slope
provides a runway threshold crossing height of about 50 ft. The usual GS angle is 3 degrees but
exceptions may occur, usually to meet particular approach constraints such as terrain or noise
abatement.
If marker beacons are provided, they will be located on the ILS approach track at notified
distances from touch-down. Typically, the first marker beacon (the outer marker) is located 3,5-
6 NM from touch-down. It roughly marks the point at which an aircraft enters the glide slope
under normal circumstances, and represents the beginning of the final part of the landing
approach. The middle marker is located 0,5-0,8 NM from touch-down. It is used to mark the
point of transition from an approach by instruments to a visual one. The inner marker is located
60 meters in front of the runway threshold.
B. Think of the questions to the text and ask your groupmates. Comment on the answers if
they are not full.
C. Search the Internet to find the information about ILS categories.
D. Search the Internet and prepare short reports on precision and non-precision
approaches. What NAVAIDS are used there?
Ex. 6. Look back at the text and complete gaps in the table translating the phrases into
1. backup navigational aid a.
2. b. наклонная дальность
3. c. отраженные сигналы
4. ground based system d.
5. time-speed-distance measurement e.
6. f. стрелка АРК
7. g. отсутствие наземных ориентиров
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8. become disoriented h.
9. i. оборудование высокой сложности
10. currency of a pilot j.
11. highly reliable primary navigational means k.
12. l. береговое преломление
13. noise abatement procedure m.
14. o. дальний привод
15. two narrow intersecting beams p.
A B
1. commence a. the proper method of navigation
2. follow b. the geographical position
3. provide c. the desired direction
4. maintain d. the curvature of the Earth
5. note e. slant range distance
6. transmit f. prominent landmark
7. display g. flight planning
8. remain h. continuous and accurate indication
9. chose i. azimuth and distance information
10. determine j. a dangerous business

A B
1. heading a. The angular measurement in a horizontal plane and in a clockwise
direction.
2. track b. The intended direction of flight in the horizontal plane measured in
degrees from North.
3. azimuth c. The direction in which the longitudinal axis of an aircraft is pointed,
usually expressed in degrees from North (true, magnetic, compass or grid).
4. bearing d. A magnetic bearing extending from a VOR.
5. course e. The angular measurement of direction from an airplane in flight and a
known point.
6. radial f. The projection on the earth’s surface of the path of an aircraft, the
direction of which path at any point is usually expressed in degrees from
North (true, magnetic or grid).
Ex. 9. Define the words and word combinations.

Pilotage; dead reckoning; horizon; landmark; slide rule.
Ex. 10. Decode the abbreviations.

VOR; NDB; OBI; RMI; GS; LOC; DME; ADF; UHF; GNSS; ILS; NM; HIS; NAVAID;
RNAV.
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Ex. 11. A. Read the text about the geographical system of coordinates. Complete gaps with
the correct prepositions.
under into by through for
in on to of until
A position (1) ……… the surface of the earth is expressed (2) ……… terms of latitude and
longitude. (3) ……… the longitude and latitude system, the Earth is divided (4) ……… a grid
of horizontal and vertical lines. The horizontal lines are called latitude lines; because they run
parallel (5) ……… the equator, they are also called parallels of latitude. The starting point (6)
……… latitude lines is the equator, which is at 0 degrees latitude. Each line of latitude both
north and south of the equator increases (7) ……… one degree, (8) ……… you hit the North
and South Poles, which sit 90 degrees north and south (9) ……… the equator respectively. The
vertical lines of longitude are also known as meridians. The starting point for lines of longitude
is called the prime meridian. It passes (10) ……… Greenwich, England, a spot chosen during
an 1884 conference to determine the latitude and longitude system. West of the prime meridian
is the Western Hemisphere, and east of that line is the Eastern Hemisphere. When speaking
Latitude and Longitude coordinates for 39° 36,06’N by 76° 51,42’W we have to say: "Three
nine degrees, three six decimal zero six minutes North by zero seven six degrees, five one
decimal four two minutes West". The words, "degrees", "minutes", and "decimal" must be
spoken, though in radio telephony they can be omitted.
B. Read the coordinates and find the cities they correspond to on the map below.
1. 45°24′40″ N 075°41′53″ W 4. 43°42′00″ N 079°24′58″ W
2. 46°48′44″ N 071°12′52″ W 5. 42°18′00″ N 083°00′59″ W
3. 49°14′58″ N 123°07′09″ W 6. 49°53′03″ N 097°08′49″ W
91
(https://i.pinimg.com/originals/b3/8a/dd/b38addde0e4ef4df99ee40c80158a7d6.jpg)
Ex. 12. A. Read the information on time zones and do the exercises below.
The world’s timing centers have agreed to keep their time scales closely synchronized – or
coordinated – therefore the name Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). Coordinated Universal
Time is based on International Atomic Time (TAI) with leap seconds added from time to time
as needed to compensate for the Earth's slowing rotation.
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is often confused with UTC. But GMT is a time zone and
UTC is a time standard. GMT is a time zone officially used in some European and African
countries. The time can be displayed using both the 24-hour format (0–24) or the 12-hour
format (1–12 am/pm). UTC is not a time zone, but a time standard that is the basis for civil time
and time zones worldwide. This means that no country or territory officially uses UTC as a
local time.
Local Mean Time (LMT) is time on a meridian of longitude. To easily calculate the time on
a given meridian of longitude remember that the Earth rotates 360º in 24 hours, 15º per hour, 1º
in 4 minutes, 15` in one minute and 1` in 4 seconds. If you cross the international date line
(180º east or west) going on westerly heading you will enter the next day, and by going east you
come back a day.
Zulu Time Zone (Z) has no offset from UTC. Zulu Time Zone is often used in aviation and
the military as another name for UTC + 0. The letter "z" refers to the Greenwich time zone,
which is zero hours (UTC + 0). Since the NATO phonetic alphabet word for "Z" is "Zulu", we
also call it "Zulu Time".
SARPS require that aircraft and air traffic control units achieve a local time reference
accuracy of within 30 seconds of UTC. Wherever data link communications are utilized by an
air traffic services unit, clocks and other time-recording devices shall be checked as necessary
to ensure correct time to within 1 second of UTC. The correct time shall be obtained from a
standard time station. Aerodrome control towers shall, prior to an aircraft taxiing for take-off,
provide the pilot with the correct time, unless arrangements have been made for the pilot to
92
obtain it from other sources. Air traffic services units shall, in addition, provide aircraft with the
correct time on request.
B. Why in your opinion do SARPs require such high local time reference accuracy from
pilots and controllers?
C. What is the purpose of time checks in flight?
D. Translate the tasks for the geographical quiz from Russian into English.
1. На сколько часов и в каком направлении следует перевести стрелки часов
пассажирам, если они прилетели:
а) из Москвы в Нью-Йорк;
б) из Лондона в Пекин;
в) из Токио в Рим?
2. Какого числа жителю Аляски надо вылететь на Чукотку, чтобы оказаться там 8
июня?
3. Во сколько самолет приземлится в Москве по местному времени, если время
вылета из Красноярска – 11 утра, а время в полете – 5 часов?
4. Пассажирский самолет вылетел по расписанию из Владивостока в Москву в 7 утра
по местному времени и приземлился в 8 утра по Москве. Сколько длился полет?
5. Во сколько часов по местному времени родные из Лос-Анджелеса должны
позвонить родственникам в Москве, чтобы поздравить с Новым годом в момент его
наступления?
E. Think of possible answers to the quiz. If necessary, consult the map below. Share your
ideas with group.
World Time Zones Map

(http://builtinlondon.co/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/map-of-us-states-time-zones-us-map-eastern-time-zone-
timezones-new-world-atlas-us-time-zone-map-new-world-timezone-map-map-outline-of-map-of-us-states-time-
zones-us-map-eastern-time-zone-timezones.jpeg)
93
Ex. 13. A. Read the information on aeronautical charts and do the exercises below.
An aeronautical chart is a representation of a portion of the Earth, its culture and relief,
specifically designated to meet the requirements of air navigation. Annex 4 to the Convention
on civil aviation "Aeronautical charts" states that each aeronautical chart shall provide
information appropriate to the phase of flight, to ensure safe and expeditious operation of
aircraft. The Annex distinguishes the following phases of flight:
– taxi from aircraft stand to takeoff point;
– take-off and climb to en-route ATS route structure;
– en-route ATS structure;
– descent to approach;
– approach to land and missed approach;
– landing and taxi to aircraft stand.
Because of their great importance, the pilot or navigator must be thoroughly familiar with
the wide variety of aeronautical charts and understand their many uses. Since the demand for
variety in charts is so great and the properties of the projections vary greatly, there is no one
projection satisfying all navigation needs. Properly used, a chart is a vital adjunct to navigation;
improperly used, it may become a hazard. Without it, modern navigation would never have
reached its present state of development.
Jeppesen charts have long been the gold standard in Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)
procedure publications for airline operators the world over. They’ve always presented the
detailed textual information and complex graphic depictions inherent to such procedures in
well-organized formats that pilots appreciate. However, times are changing and traditional
paper charts have now been mostly supplanted by Electronic Flight Bags (EFBs), various tablet
apps, and even on-board Multi-Function Displays (MFDs). The full gamut of charting needs
can now be neatly stored in such portable and / or installed computer devices. Jeppesen’s press
releases point out that the new format was generated through an Operational Risk Assessment
(ORA), pilot research, customer feedback and human factors testing to "improve situation
awareness, reduce heads down time and increase safety".
B. Why in your opinion are there so many types of aeronautical charts?
C. Match the types of aeronautical charts in column A with their definitions in column B.
A B
1. Aerodrome Chart a. The supplementary chart produced for those aerodromes where,
detailed information is necessary for the ground movement of
aircraft along the taxiways to and from the aircraft stands.
2. VFR Aeronautical Chart b. The chart is designated to expedite ATC arrival procedures and
to facilitate transition between en route and instrument approach
operations. It depicts preplanned IFR ATC arrival procedures in
graphic and textual form.
3. Aerodrome Ground c. The chart contains detailed information of obstacles in the take-
Movement Chart off flight path areas of aerodromes. In the plan it is shown from
above and a profile view.
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4. Instrument Approach d. The aeronautical data include all aerodromes, prohibited,
Procedure (IAP) Chart restricted and danger areas and details of the air traffic services
system en route. The chart provides flight crews with information
facilitating navigation along ATS routes, in compliance with air
traffic services procedures.
5. Aerodrome Obstacle e. This chart provides flight crews with information facilitating
Chart the following phases of instrument flight:
– the transition from the en-route phase to approach to an
aerodrome;
– the transition from take-off / missed approach to en-route phase
of flight; and
– flights through areas of complex ATS routes or airspace
structure.
6. En-route Chart f. This chart is designated to expedite clearance delivery and to
facilitate transition between takeoff and en route operations. It
furnishes pilots departure routing clearance information in graphic
and textual form.
7. The Area Chart g. The chart contains detailed data to provide flight crews with
information to facilitate ground movement of aircraft:
from the aircraft stand to the runway; and
from the runway to the aircraft stand. It also provides essential
operational information on the aerodrome.
8. Standard Instrument h. This series of charts is constructed on Lambert Conformal
Departure (SID) Conic Projection. The chart includes a selection of aerodromes,
significant obstacles, elements of ATS system, special activities
areas, radio navigation aids and etc. The chart provides the
information to satisfy visual air navigation and is also used as a
pre-flight planning chart.
9. Standard terminal i. The chart portrays the aeronautical data that is required to
arrival route (STAR) execute instrument approaches to airports. Each chart depicts the
IAP, all related navigation data, communications information, and
an airport sketch. Each procedure is designated for use with a
specific electronic navigational aid, such as ILS, VOR, NDB,
RNAV, etc.
D. Search the Internet to compare new Jeppesen chart format with the old one. Speak on
the main changes and advantages of the new format of the aeronautical chart.
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Ex. 14. A. Study the Standard Instrument Departure and match its elements on the chart
with their textual descriptions below.
0. The SID depicted is named and the runway available is written (on some
charts, runway is found only on the document head)
1. ___
2. ___
3. ___
4. ___
5.___
6. ___
7. ___
8 ___
9 ___
10) ___
Standard Instrument Departure Chart
(https://www.ivao.aero/training/documentation/books/SPP_ADC_SID_charts.pdf)
a. SID identification depicted on the route.

b. MSA minimum sector altitude.
c. Flight constraints during climb.
d. Minimum climbing performance needed.
e. Final point of the SID.
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f. Navigation aid not part of the route but used for navigation.
g. Bearing indication.
h. Intermediate fix on route.
i. Departure constraints using altitude and distance condition.
j. Altitude constraints that pilots have to respect when performing a turn, or reaching point
or NAVAID.
B. Describe the procedure you will follow if you are cleared via ROUSY 4 F departure
route.
C. What noise abatement procedures should be followed in accordance with the given SID?
D. Prepare the textual description of the SID / STAR you are familiar with.
Ex. 15. A. Read the information on Inertial Navigation System (INS). Complete gaps with
words from the table below.
guidance velocity triplicate dead-reckoning transmits
self-contained reference reliability displays azimuth
The purpose of an aircraft inertial navigation system (INS) is to provide accurate worldwide
navigation information independent of external aids; the system neither (1) ……… nor receives
any signals. After being supplied with latitude and longitude of the ramp position prior to
departure, INS is capable of continuously updating extremely accurate (2) ……… of: position,
ground speed, attitude and heading. In addition, it may provide (3) ……… or steering
information for the autopilot and flight instruments. INS is completely independent of ground
transmissions and passive in operation. It is (4) ……… and portable. INS provides accurate (5)
……… information instantaneously for all maneuvers, as well as an accurate attitude and
heading (6) ………. The four basic components of an INS unit are:
– a stable platform oriented to maintain the accelerometers horizontal to the Earth and to
provide (7) ……… orientation;
– the accelerometers arranged on the stable platform to supply specific components of
acceleration;
– the integrators to receive the output from the accelerometers and to furnish velocity and
distance;
a computer to receive the signals from the integrators and to change to distance travelled
into latitude and longitude.
An additional component, not directly part of the INS system but complimentary to it and
necessary for all aircraft, is the navigation computer and display unit. Most aircraft now fly
using (8) ……… components for safety and reliability. A common aircraft fit would include 3
INS systems, 3 INS control units, and a navigation computer and display.
Advanced navigation systems are commonly designed with INS as an essential component.
INS (9) ……… is exceptional and INS accuracies are second only to GPS. An INS backup
cannot be jammed or intercepted and provides acceptable accuracy in all weather. Combination
INS / GPS units provide unmatched navigation accuracy.
Regardless of the technology used and the configuration of individual components, an
Inertial Navigation System (INS) refers to the Inertial Platform, Inertial Reference System and
Unit, and associated Inertial Outputs. Its purpose is to provide a continuous (10) ………
position, altitude and speeds to the flight control and guidance systems.
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B. What are the function and advantages of the INS in modern navigation?

apply v применять
application n применение, приложение
approach n подход, заход на посадку
augment v увеличивать, прибавлять, дополнять
augmentation n дополнение
constellation n группа, комплекс
continuity n непрерывность
cover v охватывать, покрывать
coverage n охват, покрытие
encompass v заключать, содержать, охватывать
grid n координатная сетка
grid north условное направление северного меридиана,
условный север
integrity n целостность
interrogator n запросчик
launch v запускать
self-contained adj автономный
triangulate v использовать триангуляцию
waypoint n точка (пункт) на маршруте
Automatic Dependence Surveillance автоматическое зависимое наблюдение в
Broadcast (ADS-B) режиме радиовещания
Ground-Based Augmentation System наземная система функционального дополнения
(GBAS)
Long Range Navigation (LORAN) радионавигационная система наземного
базирования
Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) навигация, основанная на характеристиках
Receiver Autonomous Integrity автономный контроль целостности в приемнике
Monitoring (RAIM)
Required Navigation Performance (RNP) требуемые навигационные характеристики
Space-Based Augmentation System спутниковая система функционального
(SBAS) дополнения

SATELLITE NAVIGATION
The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is a constellation of satellites providing a
high-frequency signal containing time and distance that is picked up by a receiver which is able
to triangulate its position from these satellites. The GNSS benefits aviation by enabling aircraft
to fly direct from departure to destination using the most fuel-efficient routes and to navigate
complicated terrain at low altitude. Satellite navigation provides the flexibility to design new
procedures that enable aircraft to fly closer together to increase the arrival and departure rates
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and fly continuous climb and descent operations to minimize fuel consumption, noise, and
carbon emissions. Three GNSSs exist today: the GPS, a United States system; the Russian
GNSS (GLONASS); and Galileo, a European system. China is expanding their regional system,
BeiDou, to include global coverage. Japan and India have also launched satellites for regional
systems.
The civil aviation community has augmented GPS with systems that detect and remove
errors due to these human made faults and space weather. The Ground-Based Augmentation
System (GBAS) provides integrity by comparing GNSS measurements to the known locations
of three or four reference receivers located on the airport property. The Space-Based
Augmentation System (SBAS) compares GNSS measurements to the known locations of dozens
of reference receivers spread over continental areas. In contrast to SBAS and GBAS, Receiver
Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) is self-contained and compares the GNSS
measurement from each individual satellite to the consensus of the other satellites in view.
RAIM does not need a ground reference network or a real-time broadcast from the ground
network to the aircraft.
Using the language of the aviation community, GNSS enables Performance-Based
Navigation (PBN). PBN includes the definition of navigation specifications in terms of the
accuracy, integrity, continuity and functionality required for various types of operations. PBN is
absolute navigation – the aircraft determines its current latitude and longitude, and where it is in
relation to the intended flight path. As long as the aircraft has a means of determining its current
position, it can operate anywhere within coverage of the relevant GNSS system.PBN
encompasses two types of navigation specifications: RNAV (area navigation), and RNP
(required navigation performance). The difference between the two specifications is that on-
board performance monitoring and alerting is required for RNP but not for RNAV. RNAV
requires independent performance monitoring of an aircraft position. RNP has parallel lateral
performance requirements and can be supported by a variety of technologies.
Area navigation (RNAV) equipment includes VOR/DME, LORAN, GPS, and INS. RNAV
equipment is capable of computing the aircraft position, actual track, groundspeed, and then
presenting meaningful information to the pilot. The RNAV system defines the required
flightpath by linking the waypoints together. In Europe, Basic Area Navigation (B-RNAV) has
been in use since 1998 and is mandatory for aircraft using higher level airspace. It requires a
minimum navigational accuracy of +/- 5nm (RNP=5) for 95 % of the flight time and is not
approved for use below MSA. European standards for Precision Area Navigation (P-RNAV)
are now also defined – a navigational accuracy of +/- 1nm (RNP=1) for 95 % of the flight time.
ICAO defines RNP as "a statement of the navigation performance accuracy necessary for
operation within a defined airspace". RNP offers safety benefits by means of its precision and
accuracy and it reduces the cost of operational inefficiencies such as multiple step-down non-
precision and circling approaches. The PBN Manual identifies seven navigation specifications
under the RNP family: RNP4, RNP2, RNP1, Advanced RNP, RNP APCH, RNP AR APCH and
RNP 0.3. An RNP of 0.3 means the aircraft navigation system must be able to calculate its
position to within a circle with a radius of 3 tenths of a nautical mile for 95% of the flight
time. RNP 4 is for oceanic and remote continental navigation applications. RNP 2 is for en-
route oceanic remote and en-route continental navigation applications. RNP 1 is for arrival and
initial, intermediate and missed approach as well as departure navigation applications.
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Advanced RNP is for navigation in all phases of flight. RNP APCH and RNP AR (authorization
required) APCH are for navigation applications during the approach phase of flight.

1. What is GNSS?
2. What are the GNSS advantages for aviation?
3. What GNSSs exist today?
4. What countries are developing their own satellite systems for regional use?
5. What is the difference between GBAS and SBAS?
6. What is RAIM needed for?
7. What is PBN? Why is it an absolute navigation?
8. What terms are used to define navigation by PBN?
9. What types of specifications does PBN encompass?
10. What is the difference between B-RNAV and P-RNAV?
11. What can you say about navigation specifications under RNP family?
1. BeiDou; the Indian or Japanese satellite systems.
2. LORAN.
3. The evolution of navigational aids and strategies.
4. The future of air navigation.
A B
1. accuracy a. minimize
2. advanced b. permit
3. approve c. connecting
4. linking d. distant
5. mandatory e. sophisticated
6. missed approach f. obligatory
7. reduce g. go around
8. remote h. precision
A B
1. continuous a. final
2. expand b. regional
3. global c. exclude
4. include d. reduce
5. increase e. transmitter
6. initial f. ground-based
7. receiver g. intermittent
8. space-based h. diminish
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Ex. 21. A. Read the tips for pilots to navigate safely. Complete gaps with the correct form
of the word in brackets.
As GPS navigation, flight (1) ………. (manage) systems (FMS), computer flight maps, and
computer flight (2) ………(plan) system available today make it all too easy to forget that
paper en-route, departure, arrival and approach charts are still required and necessary for flight.
Avionics systems, computer mapping systems, and (3) ……… (associate) databases do not
provide all of the navigation information needed to conduct a legal and safe flight. They are not
a substitute for current aeronautical charts. When flying with GPS, FMS, or planning a flight
with a computer, it is important to understand the (4) ……… (limit) of the system you are
using. GPS, FMSs, computer mapping and computer flight (5) ……… (plan) systems are key
elements in the future of navigation. It is important to understand that they are still “works in
progress.” GPS navigation systems (6) ……… (general) do not have all of the (7) ………
(capable) of the more (8) ……… (sophisticate) FMSs on larger aircraft, and even those
systems have (9) ……… (restrict). It is (10) ……… (reason) to assume that many of the (11)
………(limit) of both systems will be overcome in the years ahead. Until then, we must
understand and operate within the (12) ……… (capable) and (13) ……… (limit) of today’s
systems. In summary, please remember:
• Always fly IFR flight procedures as (14) ……… (chart). DO NOT follow the database
point-to-point without (15) ……… (refer) to the chart.
• Be aware that your database may not contain every SID (DP), STAR and approach
procedure.
• Be aware that your database may not contain every leg or segment of the procedure you
are flying.
• Not everything you need is in your database.
• Always confirm that the waypoint or NAVAID you retrieve from the database is at the
(16) ……… (locate) you intended.
• GPS, FMS, and electronic map displays with associated databases are not a substitute for
current aeronautical charts.
Every navigation system operates differently. Please refer to the Pilot’s (17) ………
(Operate) Handbook and your avionics (18) ……… (manufacture) for specific information on
the features of your avionics system.
B. Do you agree with all points? What tips would you add? Share your ideas with your
group.
C. Speak on the possible scenarios of difficulties in flight due to pilot’s overdependence on

modern avionics.
Ex. 22. Decode the abbreviations.

SID; GLONASS; FMS; RNP; MSA; STAR; GPS; S-BAS; PBN; P-RNAV; RAIM; INS; G-
BAS; AR; B-RNAV
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Ex. 23. A. Study the linking words used to compare items.
Comparison (not) as … as, than, nothing like, half as … as, twice as … as,
less … than
Similarity similarly, in the same way, equally, likewise
Contrast but, while, whereas, although, despite, in contrast, on the other hand,
however, yet, at the same time
B. Compare the items using the linking words from Ex. 23A.
1. GLONASS / GPS.
2. GBAS / SBAS.
3. RNAV / RNP.
4. RNP4 / RNP 0,3.
5. B-RNAV / P-RNAV.
Ex. 24. Study the picture below and prepare a short report on the evolution from
conventional navigation to RNP.
Transition from Convential Navigation to RNP

(https://www.casa.gov.au/sites/g/files/net351/f/conventional_navigation_nrp.png)
Ex. 25. A. Translate the information on ADS-B.

Новая технология в сердце всей программы NextGen – это автоматическое зависимое
наблюдение в режиме радиовещания (ADS-B). По своей сути это технологическое реше-
ние, определяющее координаты самолета при помощи системы GPS и затем транслирую-
щее их и другие данные (высота, скорость, рейс и пр.) о полете как в наземные центры
диспетчерам, так и другим самолетам. ADS-B позволяет пилотам и диспетчерам видеть
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одну и ту же картину воздушного пространства, повышая тем самым безопасность и гиб-
кость управления воздушным движением.
Преимущества ADS-B:
1. Низкая стоимость, высокая точность и большая скорость обновления данных. Си-
стема ADS-B состоит из сети относительно простых радиостанций, которые дешевы,
просты в установке и использованию по сравнению с радарами. ADS-B точнее определя-
ет координаты самолета и его идентификатор. ADS-B-система выдает информацию от
самолета примерно каждую секунду. В отличие от ADS-B радарная система обновляет
информацию за 12 с, что определяется скоростью поворота антенны радара.
2. Полное покрытие территории – еще одно преимущество системы. ADS-B-
оборудование можно устанавливать в районах, где использование радарного оборудова-
ния не представляется возможным.
3. Повышение безопасности в кабине пилотов. ADS-B позволяет отображать в кабине
пилотов на дисплее другие самолеты, оборудованные ADS-B. Пилот может получать ин-
формацию о самолетах, не оборудованных системой ADS-B через TIS-B (Traffic
Information Services Broadcasts) от наземных станций, оборудованных радарами. Также
имеется возможность получать графическую информацию о погодных условиях в зоне
пролета через FIS-B (Flight Information Service – Broadcast).
B. Search the Internet to find some more information on the advantages of ADS-B over
radars.
C. Search the Internet and prepare short reports on:

1. The ADS-C / TIS-B / FIS-B.
2. Primary and secondary radars.

In recent years, the number of reports filed by pilots to NASA’s aviation safety reporting
system regarding incidents of GPS signal loss or disruption for private and commercial aircraft
have increased. But how big of a problem is GPS signal disruption for commercial and general
aviation aircraft flying in the U.S. National Airspace System and around the world, and what is
the industry doing to address this problem?
Between 2013 and mid-2016, there were nearly 80 incidents of aircraft GPS signal
interference or malfunctions, according to those filed on NASA’s Aviation Safety
Reporting System (ASRS). Pilots flying aircraft ranging from Cessna 172s to Airbus
A300s have been reporting these incidents – and the incidents are not limited to the U.S.
Other more high-profile incidents around the globe also highlight the problem. The vast
majority of incidents involve GPS-based navigation systems either experiencing a total
loss of signal or – more alarmingly – misreporting the aircraft’s position. In around –50
cases, no immediate explanation is given for the malfunction. Many of the reports have
involved military jamming, but other incidents are either deliberate or unexplained.
The Flight Service Bureau (FSB) report also refers to other incidents in Cairo, Turkey and
North Korea. In May 2016, Egyptian civil aviation authorities sent an internal alert warning
pilots about malicious attempts at GPS signal jamming near Cairo airport.
103
The experts say that in some countries the legislation is not strict enough. In the U.K., for
example, whilst it is illegal to operate a GPS jammer, it is legal to own one. So some people can
buy such devices on the Internet and use for their malicious business.
Like with many airborne risks and safety threats, the aviation industry is well aware of the
vulnerabilities of GPS, and actions are being taken to address them proactively. The FAA’s Air
Traffic Organization (ATO), for example, notes on its website that the agency is actively
working with the U.S. Department of Defense to mitigate vulnerabilities and to make sure
augmentation systems can detect and mitigate concerns. Also there has been developed a test
framework that can simulate an aircraft landing on a runway with a jammer situated in the
parking lot. This type of test can assess what impact that might have on the receiver in the
aircraft and at ground level.
B. Think about the key questions to each part of the text.
C. Ask for some detailed information on each part of the text.
D. Make up an annotation of the text using your plan.
104
PART VI. AIR LAW
speech.
Abbreviations and codes, aspect, circular, configuration, constitution, convention,
exclusive, international, nation, organization, pamphlet, principle, public, publication,
recommendation, series, service, sovereignty, specification, standards and recommended
practices, territory, visual and instrument procedures.

benefit n преимущество, льгота, выгода
circular n циркуляр
consent n согласие, разрешение
endeavor v прилагать усилия, предпринимать, стараться
incorporate v включить, объединить
legislation n законодательство
sovereignty n суверенитет
supplement n дополнение, приложение
treaty n пакт, договор, соглашение
unequivocally adv безоговорочно, безапелляционно, недвусмысленно
Aeronautical Information Сборник аэронавигационной информации
Publication (AIP)
Procedures for Air Navigation правила аэронавигационного обслуживания
Services (PANS)
scheduled flight регулярный рейс
uniform application единообразное применение

International Air Law is a series of rules governing the use of airspace and its benefits for
aviation, the general public and the nations of the world. A basic principle of complete and
exclusive States sovereignty was unequivocally affirmed in the Paris Convention on the
Regulation of Aerial Navigation (1919) and subsequently by various other multilateral treaties.
Since then aviation has been subjected to international legislation and agreements.
The fount of modern aviation legislation is the 1944 Convention of International Civil
Aviation (the 1944 Chicago Convention). The Chicago Convention is both an organic
constitution of an international organization of civil aviation (ICAO) and the source of major
principles of Air Law. This document comprises 96 articles outlining general principles for
regulating and standardizing the world aviation and providing authority for international
aviation structures.
105
The Convention accepts the fact that every State has complete and exclusive sovereignty
over the airspace above its territory and provides that no scheduled international air service may
operate over or into the territory of a Contracting State without its previous consent.
The Convention is supported by 19 annexes which detail Standards and Recommended
Practices (SARPs) covering all aspects of aviation.
A Standard is defined by ICAO as "any specification for physical characteristics,
configuration, material, performance, personnel or procedure, the uniform application of which
is recognized as necessary for the safety or regularity of international air navigation and to
which Contracting States will conform in accordance with the Convention". It means all ICAO
member states are expected to incorporate Standards into their national aviation law.
ICAO defines a Recommended Practice as "any specification for physical characteristics,
configuration, material, performance, personnel or procedure, the uniform application of which
is recognized as desirable in the interest of safety, regularity or efficiency of international air
navigation and to which Contracting States will endeavor to conform in accordance with the
Convention".
Deviations from SARPs must be notified to ICAO to be published in a supplement to the
relevant annex. These deviations are often notified in the form of an Aeronautical Information
Publication (AIP).
ICAO produces more detailed guidance known as the Procedures for Air Navigation
Services (PANS). Procedures for Air Navigation Services are divided into three sections:
– PANS-ABC – ICAO abbreviations and codes;
– PANS-OPS – Aircraft Operations (Vol 1 Flight Procedures / Vol 2 Construction of Visual
and Instrument Procedures);
– PANS-ATM – Rules of the Air and procedures for establishing Air Traffic Services.
PANS have a lower status than SARPs so member states do not have to notify ICAO if they
do not accept the recommendation.
ICAO publishes a variety of other publications in the form of circulars, pamphlets, manuals
to cover technical, economic and legal subjects of civil aviation.

1. What is International Air Law?
2. When did civil aviation start being subject to international legislation?
3. What is the font of modern aviation legislation?
4. What do the Convention articles outline?
5. How does ICAO distinguish standards from recommended practices?
6. Where are the deviations from SARPs published? What for?
7. What sections are SARPS divided into?
8. What has a lower status, PANS or SARPS? What does it mean?
9. What other documents does ICAO publish to cover all subjects of civil aviation?
C. What are ICAO structure and goals?
D. What important world aviation organizations do you know?
106
Ex. 4. Look back at the text and complete gaps in the table translating the phrases into
1. multilateral treaties a.
2. b. международное законодательство
3. Convention of International Civil c.
Aviation
4. d. регулирование и стандартизация
5. regularity of international air navigation e.
6. f. ввести стандарты в национальное
воздушное законодательство
7. supplement to the relevant annex g.
8. h. отклонения от международных стандартов
9. Procedures for Air Navigation Services i.
10. j. охватить технический вопрос гражданской
авиации

A B
1. benefit a. manual
2. incorporate b. variation
3. endeavor c. appendix
4. conform d. admit
5. deviation e. profit
6. supplement f. adjust
7. guidance g. include
8. accept h. attempt
A B
1. cover a. general principles for regulating the world aviation
2. produce b. Standards into the aviation law
3. govern c. all aspects of civil aviation
4. providing d. more detailed guidance
5. outline e. a supplement to the relevant annex
6. incorporate f. the ICAO recommendation
7. publish g. the use of airspace
8. accept h. authority for international aviation structures

advisory service консультативное обслуживание
advisory route консультативный маршрут
airspace infringement нарушение границ воздушного пространства
airway n воздушная трасса
107
assume v принимать, допускать
confluence n пересечение
Control Area (CTA) диспетчерский район
Control Zone (CTR) диспетчерская зона
controlled airspace контролируемое воздушное пространство
danger area опасная зона
dimension n размер, величина
Flight Information Region (FIR) район полетной информации
interception n перехват
intruder n нарушитель
Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) уведомление летному составу, НОТАМ
permanent adj постоянный
prohibited area запретная зона
regulatory adj регулируемый (нормативными требованиями)
restricted area зона с ограничением режима полетов
separate v создавать интервал, разделять
separation n эшелонирование
Temporary Reserved Area (TRA) временно зарезервированные районы
Temporary Segregated Area (TSA) временно выделенные районы
Terminal Control Area (TCA) узловой диспетчерский район
unmanned aerial system беспилотная авиационная система
Upper Information Region (UIR) верхний район полетной информации
violate v нарушать

AIRSPACE STRUCTURE
Airspace, in international Air Law, is the portion of the atmosphere controlled by a country
above its territory, including its territorial waters or, more generally, any specific three-
dimensional portion of the atmosphere. The two categories of airspace are: regulatory and non-
regulatory. Within these two categories, there are four types: controlled, uncontrolled, special
use, and other airspace. The categories and types of airspace are dictated by the complexity or
density of aircraft movements, nature of the operations conducted within the airspace, the level
of safety required and national and public interest.
The world airspace is divided into flight information regions (FIRs) which, above a certain
flight level varying between states, become upper information regions (UIRs). Their boundaries
normally follow geographical state borders, but over international waters and parts of the world
having good relations with their neighbors they may assume straight lines in conformity with
ICAO recommendations.
ICAO Annex 11 "Air Traffic Services" designates 7 classes of airspace within the FIR/UIRs
from A to G depending on the level of service an aircraft receives from air traffic control,
whether it is operating under visual flight rules (VFR) or instrument flight rules (IFR), whether
the speed restrictions are applied, if there are entry requirements, obligatory equipment, etc.
Each national aviation authority determines how it uses the ICAO classifications in its airspace
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design. For example, Russia has 3 classes A, C, G, whereas the USA has all classes but F,
Australia has 5 classes A, C, D, E, G.
Controlled airspace is airspace of defined dimensions within which air traffic control
(ATC) services are provided to IFR flights and to VFR flights in accordance with the airspace
classification. Controlled airspace includes Control Areas, Terminal Control Areas, Airways and
Control Zones. Controlled airspace comprises 5 classes from A to E.
Uncontrolled airspace is airspace where Air Traffic Control (ATC) service is not considered
necessary or cannot be provided for practical reasons. ATC does not have any executive
authority in uncontrolled airspace, but may provide basic information services to aircraft in
radio contact. Flight in uncontrolled airspace will typically be under VFR. Aircraft operating
under IFR should not expect separation from other traffic: however, in certain uncontrolled
airspace, this might be provided on an advisory basis. Classes F and G refer to the uncontrolled
airspace.
Special use airspace includes danger, restricted and prohibited areas.
A danger area is airspace of defined dimensions within which activities dangerous to the
flight of aircraft may exist at specified times. They are established around areas where
hazardous operations are likely to take place. These include, for example, military exercises
involving live firing, parachute dropping, violent and unpredictable aircraft maneuvers, or the
use of unmanned aerial systems. Most danger areas are operated by military authorities. Their
vertical and lateral dimensions are published in national AIPs together with the hours of
operation where applicable.
A restricted area is airspace of defined dimensions, above the land areas or territorial
waters of a State, within which the flight of aircraft is restricted in accordance with certain
specified conditions. Such areas are typically effective for a few days or weeks. Examples
include airspace around military installations, high-density flying operations at an air show or
other large public event. Restricted airspace may also be imposed by police for safety or
security reasons near bushfires or major crime scenes.
A prohibited area is airspace of defined dimensions, above the land areas or territorial
waters of a State, within which the flight of aircraft is prohibited. Such areas are depicted on
aeronautical charts and are permanent until cancelled. Some prohibited airspace may be added
or expanded via NOTAMs. Prohibited areas can be established over large cities, strategic
objects for national security, nuclear power stations, military warehouses, etc. Violating
prohibited airspace established for national security purposes may result in military interception
or the possibility of an attack upon the intruder.
In addition, because of some aerial activities by specific airspace users require the
reservation of portions of the airspace for their exclusive use for specific periods of time.
Temporary Reserved Area (TRA) is a defined volume of airspace normally under the
jurisdiction of one aviation authority and temporarily reserved, by common agreement, for the
specific use by another aviation authority and through which other traffic may be allowed to
transit, under ATC clearance. Temporary Segregated Area (TSA) is airspace of defined
dimensions within which activities require the reservation of airspace for the exclusive use of
specific users during a determined period of time. TSAs are established by Government decree
and published in AIP.
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1. What is airspace in terms of international Air Law?
2. What types of airspace are there?
3. What do FIRs boundaries assume?
4. What classes of airspace does ICAO distinguish?
5. Do all countries have the same number of airspace classes? Why, not?
6. What is controlled airspace? What does it consist of?
7. What is uncontrolled airspace? Speak on its characteristics.
8. What does special use airspace consist of?
9. What is Danger Area? Give the examples where it can be established.
10. What is Restricted Area? Give the examples where it can be established.
11. What is Prohibited Area? Give the examples where it can be established.
12. What is the difference between Temporary Reserved Area and Temporary Segregated
Area?

A B
1. A Control Area a. Control Area normally established at the confluence of controlled
routes in the vicinity of one or more major aerodromes.
2. A Control Zone b. service assisting aircraft in difficulties and by initiating Search and
Rescue.
3. A Terminal c. Control Area or portion thereof established in the form of a corridor
Control Area equipped with radio navigation aids.
4. Advisory Route d. controlled airspace extending upwards from a specified limit above
the earth.
5. Advisory Service e. designated route along which air traffic advisory service is available.
6. Alerting Service f. service giving useful information and advice for the safe and efficient
conduct of flight such as the status of navigation aids, bad weather,
closed airfields, etc.
7. An airway g. controlled airspace extending upwards from the surface of the earth to
a specified upper limit.
8. Flight Information h. service provided within advisory (uncontrolled) airspace to ensure
Service (FIS) separation, in so far as practical, between aircraft which are operating on
IFR flight plans.
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Ex. 10. A. Study the picture below and speak on the structure of airspace.
(https://www.faasafety.gov/files/gslac/FTB/Airspace/Airspace%20Chart.jpg)
B. Search the Internet and prepare short reports on each class of airspace.
Ex. 11. A. Read the information on Air Traffic Control service.

The primary purpose of the Air Traffic Control (ATC) system is to prevent a collision
between aircraft operating in the given area of responsibility and to provide a safe, orderly and
expeditious flow of traffic, and to deliver support for National Security and Homeland Defense.
Air Traffic Control (ATC) Services prevent collisions and organize traffic sequence efficiently:
– on taxiways, runways and in Control Zone (CTR), known as Aerodrome Control Service;
– between arriving and departing aircraft in a Terminal Control Area (TMA) to and from
one or more aerodromes, called Approach Control Service;
– between aircraft en-route in Control Areas (CTA) and along Airways (AWY), this is Area
Control Service.
B. Search the Internet and prepare short reports on each Control Service. State the types
of controllers working there, types of procedures provided.
Ex. 12. A. Read the information on Airspace Infringement. Complete gaps with words
from the table below.
consequences consuming mandatory unintentional intruder
disruption penetration distraction awareness increase
Since 2007 a steady (1) ……… of Airspace Infringements has been observed throughout
Europe. To avoid this incident pilots must be ready to know answers to the following questions.
What is an airspace infringement? An airspace infringement is an unauthorized (2) ………
of a notified type of the airspace, without prior request and obtaining approval from the
controlling authority of that airspace.
Why is it important to avoid airspace infringements? There are many possible (3) ………,
with increasing seriousness:
1. Increasing workload for the air traffic controller, responsible for the infringed airspace.
While diverting all other traffic away from the (4) ………, the controller may lose oversight of
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the traffic in the airspace. Other traffic may come dangerously close and as a result cause
additional problems.
2. (5) ……… of military exercises. Such exercises usually require extensive planning and
coordination and need execution in limited time frames.
3. Go-around, evasive maneuvers, holdings or delayed departures, by commercial air traffic
which are time and fuel (6) ………. Costs of delays and extra fuel burn can be charged to the
pilot committing an infringement, if the airline files a complaint.
4. "Loss of Separation" between aircraft, which is considered a serious incident. Finally, in
the worst case, airspace infringements may lead to a "Mid-air collision", which may result in a
catastrophic accident, with great loss of life.
Who causes most airspace infringements? More than 50% of the airspace infringements are
caused by General Aviation VFR traffic flying in class G airspace, where navigation is
uncontrolled and radio communication is not (7) ………, thus there is a higher risk of
(8) ……… entry into notified airspaces.
What are the reasons for airspace infringements? It’s hard to identify a single reason for
airspace infringements: navigation errors, poor ATC radio communication skills, reduced
navigation skills, not being aware of changes in airspace and lack of flight preparation. Slight
(9) ………, loss of situational (10) ………., crosswind, reduced visibility, may easily lead to an
infringement.
B. What are the available means for a pilot to avoid airspace infringements?
C. Search the Internet and prepare a short report on the examples of intentional airspace
infringements. What consequences can there be in such cases?

cyber-attack кибератака, компьютерная атака
hijacking n угон воздушного судна, захват
hijacker n террорист, захвативший самолет
hostage n заложник
intrude v вторгаться, проникать
intrusion n вторжение, незаконное проникновение
intruder n зд. воздушное судно-нарушитель
inventory n список, перечень, реестр
jeopardize v подвергать опасности
malicious adj умышленный, преднамеренный
offender n правонарушитель
omission n бездействие, отсутствие
property n собственность, имущество
sabotage n зд. акт авиационного саботажа
seizure n захват, овладение
settlement n зд. решение, разрешение (спора, конфликта)
wanton n безответственный, необоснованный
turn aircraft into guided обратить воздушное судно в управляемый снаряд
missiles
act of unlawful interference акт незаконного вмешательства
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AERIAL TERRORISM
Aerial terrorism remains a security threat to international air travel. No geographic region
has escaped the problem. Aerial terrorism may include hijacking aircraft, airplanes sabotage,
bombings, or attempted bombings, shootings on board civil aviation aircraft, damage of airport
lounges, passenger hostage and turning aircraft into guided missiles. Also cyber-attacks are
becoming one of the most significant threats to passenger aircraft.
Sabotage is defined as an act or omission, intended to cause malicious or wanton
destruction of property, endangering or resulting in unlawful interference with international
civil aviation and its facilities.
Acts of unlawful interference are acts or attempted acts jeopardizing the safety of civil
aviation and air transport, which include:
– unlawful seizure of aircraft in flight, or on the ground;
– hostage-taking on board aircraft or on aerodromes;
– forcible intrusion on board an aircraft, at an airport or on the premises of an aeronautical
facility;
– introduction on board an aircraft or at an airport of a weapon or hazardous device or
material intended for criminal purposes;
– communication of false information such as to jeopardize the safety of an aircraft in flight
or on the ground, of passengers, crew, ground personnel or the general public, at an airport or
on the premises of a civil aviation facility.
At some point, negotiations between the hijackers and the authorities can be expected to
begin, followed by a settlement – under which the hijackers' demands may or may not be met –
or the storming of the aircraft by Special Forces.
For a long time, the failure of states to extend their criminal laws to their aircraft while they
were outside national territory posed a serious problem. This, together with the realization that
with the constant increase in air traffic the incidence of offenses on board aircraft was bound to
rise, led to the conclusion in 1963 at Tokyo of the Convention on "Offences and Certain Other
Acts Committed on Board Aircraft", obliging the contracting states to extend their criminal law
and jurisdiction to aircraft of their registry when they are outside national territory. The
convention furthermore has given the aircraft commander power to ensure law and order on
board his / her aircraft and to disembark any offender in any contracting state in which the
aircraft lands. The 1963 Tokyo Convention also obliges contracting states to take all
appropriate measures to restore control of an aircraft hijacked in flight to its lawful commander,
and obliges the state in which the aircraft lands to allow the passengers and crew to continue
their journey, and to return the aircraft and its cargo to those lawfully entitled to possession.

1. Why is aerial terrorism considered to be a global security problem?
2. What does aerial terrorism include?
3. What is sabotage?
4. Define acts of unlawful interference. What do they include?
5. How do the authorities usually react to hijackers’ demands?
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6. What problem did the states have before the 1963 Tokyo Convention?
7. What has changed in civil aviation legislation when the 1963 Tokyo Convention was
adopted?
8. What power does the aircraft commander have nowadays?
C. What do you think the reasons for terrorism are?
Ex. 15. Work in groups. Discuss the answers to the questions.

1. Do hijacks frequently happen nowadays? How has aerial terrorism changed in the last 30
years?
2. What are hijackers’ demands in most cases and what are their aims?
3. Do you think pilots should carry handguns in the cockpit in order to be able to fight back
hijackers? What can using weapon on board lead to?
4. Do you believe it is possible to start negotiating with hijackers? Prove your ideas.
5. What is the best way to protect an aircraft and its occupants?
6. Why are cyber-attacks becoming one of the most significant threats to passenger aircraft?
7. Can Air Rage be considered equal to hijacking? Prove your ideas.
8. Do you agree that airplane provides a capsule container of ready-made hostages? Prove
your ideas.
9. What should a captain do if there is a bomb threat on board?
10. What are the possible pros and cons of the locked cockpit door? Prove your ideas.
Ex. 16. A. Translate into English.

1. Первый случай попытки вооруженного захвата и угона самолета был зарегистри-
рован в 1931 году в Южной Америке (Перу). В дальнейшем, вплоть до 1967 года, этот
вид незаконного вмешательства не пользовался особой популярностью у преступников.
С 1930 по 1967 годы было отмечено всего 65 случаев захвата и угона ВС.
2. 1 мая 1978 года во время полета самолета Ил-18 из Ашхабада в Минеральные Во-
ды экипаж получил записку с требованием изменить курс и посадить самолет в Тегеране.
Преступник угрожал пистолетом и гранатой. Террорист был застрелен вторым пилотом,
и самолет произвел посадку в аэропорту Ашхабад. У преступника оказались самодель-
ный пистолет и учебная граната.
3. 20 марта 1980 года на борту самолета Ту-134, совершавшего рейс Баку – Ереван,
безработный житель Баку, угрожая бортпроводнице ножом, потребовал изменить курс и
следовать в Турцию. Преступник был обезоружен и связан экипажем. Самолет призем-
лился в аэропорту Ереван.
B. Search the Internet and prepare a short report on:

1. Hijacking events in the USSR and abroad.
2. Accidents where pilots appeared to be hijackers.

The threats of a bombing or sabotage to an aircraft or facility have become a fact of life
throughout the aviation industry and are punishable by federal law.
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Experience has shown the great majority of threats is hoaxes and does not result in an
actual bomb being found. However, airlines are responsible for the safety and comfort of all
people on board an aircraft, making it necessary to evaluate all threats and respond accordingly.
The preferred weapon of insurgents and terrorists has become an improvised
explosive device, or IED. It is also called a homemade bomb or a booby trap. An IED is
relatively simple to make, easily hidden and very destructive. IEDs can be produced in
varying sizes, functioning methods, containers, and delivery methods. IEDs can utilize
commercial or military explosives, homemade explosives, or military ordnance and
ordnance components. They are unique in nature because the IED builder has had to
improvise with the materials at hand. Moreover, in some instances it may consist of metal
objects like nails. IEDs fall into three categories:
– Package Type IED;
– Vehicle-Borne IEDs (VBIEDs);
– Suicide Bomb IED.
IED are initiated by different means such as through remote controls, cell phones, magnets
and wires. A serious threat is posed to the airline when there is possibility of an explosive on
board, whether on the ground or in flight.
If a bomb is found on board the aircraft in flight, the cabin crew must notify the Captain
immediately. The Captain is in complete and full command. His / her judgement and decisions
are absolute and final. The Captain will:
– evaluate all information received;
– return to the point of departure, or divert to a suitable alternate airport;
– coordinate a plan of action with Ground Operations;
– inform the Flight Attendant of the situation and the method for deplaning the passengers,
and coordinate any appropriate announcements.
Upon landing the aircraft will proceed to the designated dispersal area directed by the
tower, and follow bomb threat-aircraft maneuvering on the ground procedures.
B. Divide the text into logical parts and name them.
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PART VII. FLIGHT SAFETY
Ex. 1. Read the international words. Translate the words paying attention to the part of
speech.
Alternative, analysis, analyze, aviators, characterize, concept, coordinate, course, effect,
electrical, emotional, factor, fundamental, incident, individual, industry, information, integral,
minimum, model, personnel, phase, practice, principle, program, process, professional,
resource, role, stress, systematic, technology.

Aeronautical Decision-Making (ADM) принятие решения
accomplish v выполнять, завершать
enhance v увеличивать, повышать
estimate v определять, рассчитывать
evaluate v оценивать
impact v, n 1) ударять, воздействовать;
2) влияние, воздействие
mitigate v снижать, уменьшать (риск)
observe v наблюдать
perceive v осознать
stick-and-rudder skill навык работы органами управления

FLIGHT SAFETY
While progress is continually being made in the advancement of pilot training methods,
aircraft equipment and systems, and services for pilots, accidents still occur. Despite all the
changes in technology to improve flight safety, one factor remains the same: the human factor
which leads to errors. It is estimated that approximately 80 percent of all aviation accidents are
related to human factors. Even "small" decisions made in the cockpit can have a large impact on
flight safety.
To fly an airplane safely, a pilot needs three sets of separate, but related, skills.
A pilot needs basic stick-and-rudder skills called Physical Airplane to safely control the
airplane itself. A pilot needs to thoroughly understand and correctly operate the various aircraft
systems, which some experts characterize as the Mental Airplane component. These include
avionics, hydraulics, fuel, electrical, and other systems that help a pilot aviate, navigate, and
communicate.
The third skill essential for pilots is Aeronautical Decision-Making. Many pilots get in
trouble not because of deficient "physical airplane" or "mental airplane" skills, but because of
faulty ADM and risk management skills. Why should that be so? One reason is that ADM,
unlike physical airplane and mental airplane skills, is an invisible process. ADM is a process
116
that takes place inside the pilot’s brain. Because ADM is harder to observe and evaluate than
basic aircraft control and systems skills, it sometimes gets less emphasis than it deserves.
ADM is a systematic approach to risk assessment and stress management. To understand
ADM is to also understand how personal attitudes can influence decision-making and how
those attitudes can be modified to enhance safety in the flight deck. It is important to
understand the factors that cause humans to make decisions and how the decision-making
process not only works, but can be improved.
To help pilots put the concept of ADM into practice, the FAA Aviation Safety Program
developed a new framework for aeronautical decision-making and risk management: Perceive –
Process – Perform. The 3-P Model for ADM offers a simple, practical, and systematic approach
to accomplishing each task during all phases of flight. To use it, a pilot:
1. Perceives the "given set of circumstances" for his flight – thinks through circumstances
related to the: Pilot, Aircraft, environment, and external pressures. The fundamental question to
ask is, what could hurt me, my passengers, or my aircraft?
2. Processes by evaluating their impact on flight safety – thinks through the consequences
of each hazard, alternatives available, reality of the situation, and external pressures that might
influence pilot’s analysis.
3. Performs by implementing the best course of action – determines the best course of
action. Pilot’s goal is to mitigate or eliminate the adverse impact, and then evaluate to ensure
that his course of action is having the desired effect.
B. Work in pairs. Answer the questions.

1. What factor greatly influences flight safety nowadays?
2. What is the Physical Airplane skill?
3. What is characterized as the Mental Airplane component?
4. What is understood by Aeronautical Decision-Making?
5. What should a pilot do according to the 3-P Model for ADM?
Ex. 4. Render the text into English.

В 1981 году United Airlines стала первой авиакомпанией, внедрившей CRM для обу-
чения своих летных экипажей. Через 8 лет это дало свои плоды. 19 июля 1989 года про-
изошла катастрофа DC-10 в Су-Сити. Авиалайнер выполнял рейс 232, когда произошло
разрушение ротора среднего двигателя, обломки которого пробили горизонтальное опе-
рение и повредили все три гидросистемы. Пилоты не могли управлять самолетом с по-
мощью штурвала. Никаких инструкций для данной ситуации тогда не существовало. В
салоне в это время летел пилот-инструктор, который предложил свою помощь, на что
экипаж согласился. По счастливому совпадению пилот-инструктор как раз незадолго до
этого участвовал в исследованиях, посвященных изучению управления самолетов с по-
мощью одних только двигателей. Вместе они сумели выровнять самолет и посадить его в
Су-Сити. И хотя при посадке самолет разбился и погибли 111 человек, 185 остались жи-
вы (включая всех находящихся в кабине), т. е. почти 2/3 находившихся на борту.
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Ex. 5. A. Study the new words and word combinations.
awareness n осведомленность
Cockpit Resource Management (CRM) оптимизация ресурсов управления в кабине
экипажа
cope (with) v справиться (с)
Crew Resource Management (CRM) управление возможностями (ресурсами)
экипажа
lack of недостаток, нехватка
promotion n обеспечение
syllabus n программа (обучения)
B. Work in groups. Discuss what Crew Resource Management means in your own words.

AVIATION CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
The concept of Crew Resource Management (CRM) was introduced to the aviation industry
after it was revealed through investigations of a number of air accidents that many such
incidents happen not because of a technical fault of the aircraft, but take place due to human
errors. These human errors were not due to any lack of piloting abilities by the crew, rather
some sort of wrong cockpit environment was found to be the cause of most human related
accidents. CRM is also sometimes called Cockpit Resource Management.
With the help of data recovered through the Cockpit Resource Management, the
investigators were able to figure out the atmosphere inside the cockpit before the accidents.
Lack of communication, and sometimes lack of co-operation, at other times a failure of the
crew to act as a team, and their inability to analyze the emergency properly due to loss of
situational awareness are the causes that have been blamed for the majority of such accidents.
This led to the development of cockpit training for the crew. CRM training is now an
integral part of aircrew syllabus and testing. Proper training in CRM ensures that human factor
accidents are reduced to the minimum possible levels.
Communication skills, properly identifying the roles and responsibilities of the aircrew,
emotional training to handle stressful situations, and ensuring a coordinated team effort on part
of the aviators especially while taking difficult decisions and handling abnormal situations, are
integral parts of CRM training. The bottom line here is that by professionally training the pilots
and other crew related to aviation many accidents can be prevented, and thus safe flight
operations can be ensured. Emotional intelligence and training to improve inter-personnel skills
definitely help improve the communication and information sharing process in the cockpit,
whereas the cognitive skill training help build on an individual’s decision making capabilities
and enhance his situational awareness. Pilots are better able to cope with stressful incidents
with the help of CRM training through a co-operative team effort. Promotion of "Crew
Resource Management Principles" is in reality promotion of flight safety.
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B. Work in pairs. Answer the questions.
1. What is Crew Resource Management?
2. Why was CRM introduced?
3. What is an incident / accident?
4. What do integral parts of CRM training include?
5. What does CRM training lead to?
6. What are the advantages of co-operative team effort?
C. Translate word combinations into Russian.

Cockpit Resource Management; Crew Resource Management Principles; CRM training;
cognitive skill training; lack of piloting abilities; situational awareness; wrong cockpit
environment; most human related accidents; minimum possible levels; safe flight operations; a
co-operative team effort; an individual’s decision making; flight safety; communication and
information sharing process; aircrew syllabus and testing; human factor accidents; safe flight
operations.

A B
1. individual a. information
2. investigation b. to control
3. fault c. to manage
4. error d. to guarantee
5. due to e. research
6. to ensure f. ability
7. capability g. mistake
8. to cope h. personal
9. to handle i. because of
10. data j. malfunction
Ex. 8. Why are human conditions, such as fatigue, complacency and stress, so important
in aviation? Search the Internet and make presentations about physical, physiological,
psychological and psychosocial factors associated with pilots.

accept v принимать, соглашаться, признавать, допускать
implement v внедрять, воплощать в жизнь
inherent risk неотъемлемый риск, неминуемый риск
outweigh v превысить, быть важнее чего-либо
proactively adj без промедления
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Ex. 10. A. Read the text and complete gaps with a suitable word.
outweigh level identify unavoidable mitigate preflight unnecessary
visibility unfamiliar risk management decision-making
RISK MANAGEMENT
The goal of risk management is to proactively (1) ……… safety-related hazards and
(2) ……… the associated risks. Risk management is an important component of ADM. When a
pilot follows good (3) ……… practices, the inherent risk in a flight is reduced or even
eliminated. It is important to remember the four fundamental principles of (4) ……… .
Accept no (5) ……… risk. Flying is not possible without risk, but unnecessary risk comes
without a corresponding return. If a pilot is flying a new airplane for the first time, he might
determine that the risk of making that flight in low (6) ……… conditions is unnecessary.
2. Make risk decisions at the appropriate (7) ……… . Risk decisions should be made by the
person who can develop and implement risk controls. It is pilot-in-command who makes risk
decisions.
3. Accept risk when benefits (8) ……… dangers (costs). In any flying activity, it is
necessary to accept some degree of risk. A day with good weather, for example, is a much
better time to fly an (9) ……… airplane for the first time than a day with low IFR conditions.
4. Integrate risk management into planning at all levels. Because risk is an (10) ……… part
of every flight, safety requires the use of appropriate and effective risk management not just in
the (11) ……… planning stage, but in all stages of the flight.
B. Have you heard about unnecessary risk incidents in aviation? Share your story with
your group.
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RECOMMENDED BOOKS
1. Emery, H. Check Your Aviation English. For ICAO Compliance : Student’s Book /
H. Emery, A. Roberts. – Oxford : Macmilan Publishers Ltd, 2010. – 128 p.
2. Instrument Flying Handbook : FAA-H-8083-15B / U.S. Department of Transportation
Federal Aviation Administration Flight Standards Service, 2012. – 370 p.
3. Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge : FAA-H-8083-25 / U.S. Department of
Transportation Federal Aviation Administration Flight Standards Service, 2016. – 524 p.
4. Shawcross, P. Flightpath / P. Shawcross. – Cambridge University Press, 2011. – 192 p.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Aerodrome Lighting System. – Режим доступа: https://www.ivao.aero/training/

documentation/books/PP_ADC_Aerodrome_Lighting_System.pdf. – Загл. с экрана.
2. Aircraft Weight and Balance Handbook. –FAA-H-8083-1B. – U.S. Department of
Transportation Federal Aviation Administration Flight Standards Service. – 2016. – 114 p.
3. Airport Markings And Signs. – Режим доступа: https://www.cfinotebook.net/
notebook/aircraft-operations/terminal/airport-markings-and-signs. – Загл. с экрана.
4. Airport Signs. – Режим доступа: https://airlineworld.wordpress.com/2009/02/08/airport-
signs/. – Загл. с экрана.
5. Airport Signs. – Режим доступа: http://www.goldsealgroundschool.com/goldmethod/
images/quiz/overview/airport-signs.jpg. – Загл. с экрана.
6. Airport Vehicles. – Режим доступа: https://www.arb.ca.gov/msprog/moyer/historic/
gsecrit2.pdf. – Загл. с экрана.
7. Airports. – Режим доступа: http://engblog.ru/air-travel. – Загл. с экрана.
8. Airports. – Режим доступа: http://www.english-online.at/travel/airports/airports-
text.pdf. – Загл. с экрана.
9. Airports. – Режим доступа: http://www.iata.org/iata/RERR-toolkit/assets/Content/
Airports-CAAs/ICAO_Aerodrome_Best_practice_Portrait_format.pdf. – Загл. с экрана.
10. Altitude, Flight Level and Height. – Режим доступа:
https://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Altitude,_Flight_Level_and_Height. – Загл. с экрана.
11. Aviation Glossary. – Режим доступа: http://aviationglossary.blogspot.com. – Загл. с
экрана.
12. Bristow, Gary V. Ace The Technical Pilot Interview / Gary V. Bristow. – McGraw-Hill.
– 2002. – 347 p.
13. Difference between airport and aerodrome. – Режим доступа:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8RItK07US_4. – Загл. с экрана.
14. Flight Navigator Handbook : FAA-H-8083-18 / U.S. Department of Transportation
15. Instrument Flying Handbook : FAA-H-8083-15B / U.S. Department of Transportation
16. Introducing Performance Based Navigation (PBN) and Advanced RNP (A-RNP). –
Режим доступа: http://www.eurocontrol.int/publications/introducing-performance-based-
navigation-pbn-and-advanced-rnp-rnp. – Загл. с экрана.
17. Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners / ed. by M. Rundell, G. Fox. –
2nd ed. – Macmillan Education, 2007. – 174 p.
18. Navigation by Radio Aids. – Режим доступа: https://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/
Navigation_by_Radio_Aids. – Загл. с экрана.
19. Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge : FAA-H-8083-25 / U.S. Department of
Transportation Federal Aviation Administration Flight Standards Service, 2016. – 524 p.
122
20. Principles of Aerodynamics. – Режим доступа: http://www.pilotfriend.com/
training/flight_training/aero/principa.htm. – Загл. с экрана.
21. Rules of the Air : Annex 2 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation //
Convention on International Civil Aviation. – 10th ed. – Montreal : ICAO, 2005.
22. Shawcross, P. Flightpath / P. Shawcross. – Cambridge University Press, 2011. — 192 p.
23. Three Types of Aircraft Elevation. – Режим доступа: https://www.aviationcv.com/
aviation-blog/2016/three-types-of-aircraft-elevation. – Загл. с экрана.
24. Why can gliders fly for so long? – Режим доступа: https://i.stack.imgur.com/
2z82c.jpg. – Загл. с экрана.
25. AVWest to soon take delivery of Viking Air DHC-6 Twin Otter Series 400 (VH-ZZH). –
Режим доступа: http://www.aviationwa.org.au/2011/11/25/avwest-to-soon-take-delivery-of-
viking-air-dhc-6-twin-otter-series-400-vh-zzh/. – Загл. с экрана.
26. an2-02.jpg. – Режим доступа: http://www.vg-photo.com/utils/an2/an2-02.jpg. – Загл. с
экрана.
27. Low Wing Single Aircraft. – Режим доступа: https://i.pinimg.com/originals/22/52/31/
225231b8914cd49058ae2ec2e29736ed.jpg. – Загл. с экрана.
28. Sportcopter. Feel the freedom. – Режим доступа: http://sportcopter.com/Gyroplanes/
SportcopterII/tabid/133/Default.aspx. – Загл. с экрана/
29. 99run-full.jpg. – Режим доступа: http://www.ornithopter.net/images/99run-full.jpg. –
Загл. с экрана
123
УЧЕБНОЕ ПОСОБИЕ
АВИАЦИОННЫЙ АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК
Составители: ШЛЯМОВА
АНАСТАСИЯ АНАТОЛЬЕВНА
АЗОРКИНА
НАТАЛЬЯ ЮРЬЕВНА
ФЕДОТОВА
ОЛЬГА АЛЕКСАНДРОВНА
ISBN 978-5-7514-0270-9
Редактор Т. В. Никитина
Компьютерная верстка Н. П. Красильникова
Подписано в печать 04.09.2018. Формат 60×90/8. Бумага офсетная.

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124

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© ФГБОУ ВО «Ульяновский институт гражданской авиации

The airport is a tremendous asset to the community.

Ex. 2. Study the new words and word combinations.

B. Form adverbs from the adjectives.

Ex. 4. A. Work in pairs. Discuss the questions.

Ex. 5. Translate the word combinations into Russian.

Ex. 6. A. Read the text.

Sample Infrastructure of a Typical Airport

D. Work in pair. Answer the questions.

Ex. 7. Match the words in column A with their synonyms in column B.

B. Match the dates with the events.

B. Give definitions to the terms.

5. Эскалатор E. Arrivals (Arrivals Hall) e.

7. Обмен валюты G. Check-in g.

8. Паспортный контроль H. Escalator h.

9. Информационная стойка I. Passport Control i.

10. Таможенный контроль J. Lost and Found j.

11. Кафе K. Drinking Water k.

12. Выдача багажа L. ATM (Cash Mashine) l.

15. Камера хранения O. Elevator / Lift o.

16. Лифт P. Café p.

17. Автобусная станция Q. Airoport Hotel q.

Bus Station (Coach

22. Парковка V. Car Rent (Car Hire) v.

Car Park (Car Parking,

1. В аэропорту пассажиры проходят реги-

Табло вылетов в аэропорту Шереметьево

3. Багаж пассажиров взвешивается, на него

4. При регистрации пассажирам выдают

5. В зоне предполетного досмотра пассажи-

6. На международных рейсах перед реги-

«Красный коридор» в аэропорту

8. В зале ожидания расположены кафе и

Зал ожидания вылета в аэропорту

9. После объявления посадки на рейс пасса-

10. Перронный автобус доставляет

Зона получения багажа Карусель

Ex. 13. Work in pairs. Describe the picture.

Регистрация с помощью киоска самостоятельной онлайн-регистрации

B. Guide your friend through the airport of your native city.

Ex. 16. Study the new words and word combinations.

Ex. 17. A. Read the text.

Ex. 18. Translate the word combinations into Russian.

Ex. 20. Match the terms with their Russian equivalents.

B. Label the types of runway configuration.

Ex. 22. Work in pairs. Answer the questions.

Ex. 23. Translate the sentences into English.

C. Tell the group a story about any runway incursion / excursion.

Ex. 26. Study the new words and word combinations.

Ex. 27. A. Read the text.

Another feature of some runways is a displaced threshold. A threshold may be displaced

B. Divide the text into logical parts and entitle them.

C. Ask questions on each logical part.

D. Summarize the text using the questions as a plan.

Ex. 28. Translate the word combinations into Russian.

Ex. 30. Label runway markings using these terms.

Runway Markings [3]

Airport Signs [5]

3 C. ILS critical c. Taxiing past this sign may interfere