Клеточное дыхание

Терминология
• Органелла клетки:
• Митохондрии:
• Внешняя мембрана;
• межмембранное пространство;
• внутренняя мембрана;
• Кристы;
• Матрица.
• АТФ
• АДФ
• Неорганическая фосфатная группа
• Гидролиз
• Протонный градиент
 Метаболизм
• Все химические реакции в клетках ИЛИ все химические реакции в живых
организмах.
• Две основные категории:
• 1) катаболизм, расщепление органического вещества, например, расщепление
глюкозы до пирувата посредством клеточного дыхания с высвобождением
энергии
• 2) анаболизм, построение компонентов клеток, таких как белки и нуклеиновые
кислоты. потребляет энергию
• Три основные цели метаболизма:
• - преобразование пищи/топлива в энергию для запуска клеточных процессов
(дыхания)
• - преобразование пищи/топлива в строительные блоки - белки, липиды,
нуклеиновые кислоты и некоторые углеводы
• - удаление азотистых отходов.
The BIG picture
 The little BIG picture
Electrons Electrons carried
carried via NADH and
via NADH FADH2

Oxidative
Glycolysis Citric phosphorylation:
acid electron transport
Glucose Pyruvate cycle and
chemiosmosis

Mitochondrion
Cytosol

ATP ATP ATP

Substrate-level Substrate-level Oxidative

phosphorylation phosphorylation phosphorylation
 WS Task 1
Which of the following shows the correct sequence during cellular respiration?
A. Oxidative phosphorylation → glycolysis → Krebs cycle;
B. Glycolysis → Oxidative phosphorylation → Krebs cycle;
C. Krebs cycle → Oxidative phosphorylation → glycolysis;
D. Glycolysis → Krebs cycle → Oxidative phosphorylation.

Answer: D
 ATP

• https://youtu.be/NN5Y57NbnrU
STRUCTURE
KNOW

OF ATP ATP stores most energy in the third bond of the

molecule

The energy is released when that bond is broken to

release the third inorganic phosphate
 Scientific basics-ATP
The structure of ATP: adenine
• It a nucleotide,
• With three phosphate groups
• It has a nitrogenous base-adenine ribose
phosphates
• It has a pentose sugar-ribose
When ATP is hydrolysed to form ADP and inorganic phosphate, 30.5
kJ of energy are released.

+ → + + 30.5 kJ
inorganic
ATP H2O ADP phosphate
 Uses of ATP
• АТФ обеспечивает энергию, когда она гидролизуется. Энергия используется
для:
• Мышечное сокращение
• Активный транспорт/перемещение веществ через мембрану против
градиента их концентрации, экзоцитоз, эндоцитоз
• Передача импульсов по нейронам
• Трансляция в синтезе белка/синтезе ДНК/синтезе крахмала
• Деление клеток
• Поддержание температуры тела/терморегуляция
• Активация глюкозы в гликолизе.
Почему АТФ считается универсальным энергетическим источником?
• Встречается во всех организмах,
• Это небольшой пакет энергии, который является
непосредственным донором энергии.
• Он высвобождает энергию (30,5 кДж) при гидролизе и
удалении третьей фосфатной группы (АТФ=АДФ+Pi).
• Он небольшой и растворимый, поэтому его легко
транспортировать.
• Является посредником (звеном) между
энерговыделяющими и энергопотребляющими
реакциями.
 Structure of Mitochondria
Intermembrane space
Outer
membrane

Free ribosomes
in the
mitochondrial
matrix

Inner
membrane
Cristae

Matrix

0.1 µm
KNOW
 How the structure of a mitochondrion is related to its function
• It has two membranes with the inner membrane folded to form cristae.
• Which increases the surface area for large number of ATP synthase, Electron transport chain
proteins
• Required for maximum oxidative phosphorylation hence maximum amount of ATP is synthesised.
• The inner membrane is less permeable to small molecules such as protons (H +) which
accumulate in the intermembrane space and creates a proton gradient.
• Small intermembrane space between the outer and inner membrane allows accumulation of
protons for chemiosmosis
• The matrix has suitable enzymes required for the Krebs cycle and link reactions.
• The matrix has DNA that encodes for polypeptides/ proteins and ribosomes which are the sites
for protein synthesis. Such proteins include enzymes, ATP synthase and proteins in the electron
transport chain.
• Double membrane separates metabolic processes from the rest of the cytoplasm.
• The outer double membrane is permeable to CO 2, O2, pyruvate, NAD and reduced NAD
 WS Task 2
Match the letter in the diagram with the label:
(You can use them MORE THAN ONCE)
i. ______ matrix;
ii. ______ intermembrane space;
iii. ______ cytoplasm;
iv. ______ outer membrane;
v. ______ inner membrane (cristae);
vi. ______ place glycolysis happens.

Answer: i. D
ii. B
iii. E
iv. A
v. C
vi. E
 Assessment criteria
Assessment criteria:
1. Describe the structure of ATP
2. Explain how ATP release energy and why it is a universal energy
currency.
3. Explain how the structure of a mitochondrion is related to its
function.
1.1.4.3: Describe the stages of energy exchange – glycolysis.
11.1.4.5:Describe the Krebs cycle

Assessment criteria
• Explain that ATP is synthesized in substrate-level
phosphorylation reactions in glycolysis and in the Krebs cycle;
• Outline the roles of the coenzymes NAD, FAD and coenzyme A
in respiration;
 Terminologies
•Cellular respiration steps: • Reactions:
•Glycolysis: • Oxidation/reduction; Redox;
•Glucose; • Lysis;
•Pyruvic acid/pyruvate; • Oxidative Decarboxylation;
•Ethyl alcohol; • Phosphorylation.
•Lactic acid.
• Coenzymes:
•Link/transition reaction; pyruvate oxidation:
•Pyruvic acid/pyruvate; • AMP ADP ATP
•Acetyl CoA. • Acetyl CoA (coenzyme A).
•Krebs cycle; citric/tricarbonic acid cycle: • Electron carriers:
•Acetyl CoA; • NAD+ NADH (nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide);
•Oxaloacetate;
• FAD FADH2 (flavine adenine
•Citrate;
dinucleotide);
•CO2/ carbon dioxide.
 The little BIG picture
Electrons Electrons carried
carried via NADH and
via NADH FADH2

Oxidative
Glycolysis Citric phosphorylation:
acid electron transport
Glucose Pyruvate cycle and
chemiosmosis

Mitochondrion
Cytosol

ATP ATP ATP

Substrate-level Substrate-level Oxidative

phosphorylation phosphorylation phosphorylation
 Scientific basics. Oxidative decarboxylation
Oxidative decarboxylation reactions are oxidation reactions in which a
carboxylate group is removed, forming carbon dioxide.
• They often occur in biological systems: there are many examples in the link
reaction (pyruvate oxidation) and the Krebs (citric acid) cycle.
• This type of reaction probably started early at the origin of life.
 Scientific basics. Coenzymes. NAD+ and FAD
Coenzymes are molecules that bind with a specific enzyme or
substrate, helping to catalyze a reaction.
NADH and FADH2 transfer the electrons into the electron from
glycolysis, link reaction and Krebs cycle electron transport
chain. What leads to the synthesis of ATP. substrate
Three major coenzymes are used in respiration:
• NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) coenzyme enzyme
• CoA (coenzyme A) NAD and FAD are coenzymes of
• FAD (flavine adenine dinucleotide) dehydrogenase enzyme

FAD + 2H+ + 2e- FADH2

 Glycolysis
Glycolysis takes place in the cytosol of a cell, and it can be broken down into
two main phases: the energy-requiring phase, above the dotted line in the
image, and the energy-releasing phase, below the dotted line.
ENERGY-REQUIRING PHASE.
• The starting molecule of glucose gets rearranged, and two phosphate
groups are attached to it.
• The phosphate groups make the modified sugar – fructose-1,6-
bisphosphate (unstable), allowing it to split in half and form two
phosphate-bearing three-carbon sugars.
• Because the phosphates used in these steps come from ATP, two ATP
molecules get used up.
ENERGY-RELEASING PHASE.
• Each three-carbon sugar is converted into another three-carbon molecule,
pyruvate, through a series of reactions.
• In these reactions, two ATP molecules and one NADH molecule are made.
• Because this phase takes place twice, once for each of the two three-
carbon sugars, it makes four ATP and two NADH overall.
When ATP donates a P, glucose is said to become phosphorylated.
 Answers
(i) cytoplasm/ cytosol
(ii) 1 and 3
5
substrate –level (linked) phosphorylation
6(b) Explain why glucose needs to
phosphorylated.

1. In order to activate glucose/ provide activation

energy;
2. So that it can split;
3. glucose is energy rich and there it doesn’t react
easily;
4. In order to maintain the concentration gradient
of glucose between inside of the cell and out of
the cell.
 LINK REACTION
• Pyruvate (2) is actively transported into the mitochondria
matrix and undergoes a series of enzyme-controlled
reactions.
• A CO2 molecule is removed form each. (decarboxylation).
• 2 Hydrogens removed from each (dehydrogenation). They are
picked up by NAD+ to form NADH sometimes is written as
NADH2
• The molecule that remains is now called an acetyl group (2
carbons). It combines with coenzyme A to produce a
compound called acetyl coenzyme A (2).
Link reaction (Pyruvate oxidation/ Transition reaction)
Pyruvate is produced by glycolysis in the cytoplasm, but pyruvate
oxidation takes place in the mitochondrial matrix (in eukaryotes).
So, before the chemical reactions can begin, pyruvate must enter
the mitochondrion, crossing its inner membrane and arriving at
the matrix.
In the matrix, pyruvate is modified in a series of steps:
• Step 1. A carboxyl group is snipped off of pyruvate and released
as a molecule of carbon dioxide, leaving behind a two-carbon
molecule.
• Step 2. The two-carbon molecule from step 1 is oxidized, and
the electrons lost in the oxidation are picked up by NAD+
(reeduction) to form NADH.
• Step 3. The oxidized two-carbon molecule — an acetyl group,
(highlighted in green) is attached to Coenzyme A, an organic
molecule derived from vitamin B5, to form acetyl CoA. Acetyl
CoA is sometimes called a carrier molecule, and its job here is
to carry the acetyl group to the citric acid (Krebs) cycle.
The Link reaction, Krebs cycle and the electron-transport chain –occur in
the mitochondria
• If O2 is present, following
glycolysis, pyruvate enters the
mitochondria.
• Energy transport molecules
like NADH, FADH are
produced.
• 2 ATP molecules are produced
by substrate phosphorylation.
• The pyruvic acid made in glycolysis (stage 1) still contains a lot of energy
• It can only be broken down to release the rest of the energy in the presence of
oxygen.
• The link reaction, Krebs cycle and Oxidative phosphorylation will NOT take place
in the absence of oxygen.
 3) KREBS CYCLE
• ACETYL COENZYME A (C2)combines with a 4-carbon compound
(oxaloacetate) to form citrate (C6)
• COENZYME A is released to combine with another acetyl group.
• In a series of steps citrate is converted back to oxaloacetate.
• 2 x CO2 released.(decarboxylation)
• 3 NAD and 1 FAD is reduced during this cycle which happens twice for
every one glucose.
• NADH and FADH are very important for oxidative phosphorylation as
they supply energised H and electrons.
Krebs cycle (citric/tricarbonic acid cycle)
• In eukaryotes, the citric acid cycle
takes place in the matrix of the
mitochondria, just like the
conversion of pyruvate to acetyl
CoA.
• In prokaryotes, these steps both
take place in the cytoplasm.
• The citric acid cycle is a closed
loop; the last part of the pathway
reforms the molecule used in the
first step.
• The cycle includes eight major
steps.
KREBS
CYCLE
Describe the role of NAD in cellular respiration
• It is a coenzyme of dehydrogenases;
• It is a carrier of electrons/hydrogen/ proton/ hydrogen ions from
glycolysis, link reaction and Krebs cycle to the Electron transport
chain;
• Oxidises triosphosphate to pyruvate in glycolysis.
Assessment criteria
• Explain that ATP is synthesized in substrate-level
phosphorylation reactions in glycolysis and in the
Krebs cycle;
• Outline the roles of the coenzymes NAD, FAD and
coenzyme A in respiration;